p o w e r s y s t e m s

F. Kiessling • P. N e f z g e r
J. F. Nolasco • U . K a i n t z y k

P o w e r Lines
Planning
Design
Construction

Springe
 F. K i e s s l i n g • P. N e f z g e r • J . F . N o l a s c o • U . K a i n t z y k

Overhead Power Lines

Planning, Design, Construction

With 4 0 2 Figures and 193 Tables

ONLINE LIBRARY
E n g i n e e r i n g

http://www.springer.de/engine/

S p r i n g e r
 Dr.-Ing. Friedrich Kiessling F o r e w o r d
D i p l . - I n g . Peter Nefzger
RosenstraBe 18 Koenigsberger W e g 2
91083 Baiersdorf 30966 H e m m i n g e n
Germany Germany
E-mail: jr. kiessling @ easy net. de peter, nefzge r@t-online. de
I t i s a great h o n o u r t o b easked b y t h e a u t h o r s t o p r e p a r e a f o r e w o r d t o t h i s b o o k o n
D i p l . - I n g . Joao F e l i x Nolasco overhead lines.
Dipl.-Ing. U l f Kaintzyk
Electricity has been used as a m a j o r energy source since t h e late 1 9 t h century. I n 1891,
R u a Rodrigues C a l d a s 726/s905 Siemens A G three-phase alternatingcurrent transmission started, w h e n a 175 k m long line was com-
3 0 1 9 0 - 1 2 0 B e l o Horizonte missioned t o supply electricity t o a ninternational electrical engineering e x h i b i t i o n held
P o w e r T r a n s m i s s i o n and Distribution
MG
Paul-Gossen-StraBe 1 in F r a n k f u r t a m M a i n ( G e r m a n y ) . Since electric energy cannot b estored, generation
Brasil
91052 Erlangen/Germany in power plants a n d consumption need t ob ep e r m a n e n t l y balanced requiring powerful
E-mail: jfnolasc@bis. com. br transmission systems. Such systems were installed i nm a n y parts o fthe w o r l d i n the
E-mail: ulf.kaintzyk@siemens.com
2 0 t h century utilising step b ystep rising voltages. T h e1 1 0 k V voltage w a s used i n
G e r m a n y i n1912; lines a d o p t i n g 2 2 0k V w e r e o p e n e d t h e r e i n 1929; i n1952, 4 0 0 k V
t r a n s m i s s i o n s t a r t e d i n S w e d e n ; t h e first 7 5 0 k V l i n e w a s i n s t a l l e d i n C a n a d a i n 1 9 6 5
a n d a 1200 k Vl i n e i n t h e f o r m e r S o v i e t U n i o n i n 1985.
E v e n i n developing countries such a sS o u t h Africa, electric streetlights were used i n
K i m b e r l y a l r e a d y i n 1882, a t i m e w h e n L o n d o n still r e l i e d o n gas. A s i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
world, industrial development such asm i n i n g activities, resulted i n m a n y independent
power producers being formed t o supply small networks i nS o u t h Africa. Transmission
voltages o f u p t o4 4 k Vw e r e used i nt h e 1930's. A sd e v e l o p m e n t g r e w , i t b e c a m e
apparent t h a t i t w a sm o r e cost effective t o t r a n s m i t energy over long distances i n t h e
f o r m o felectricity t h a n t o t r a n s p o r t coal o r gas a n d generate a tt h e load. T h i s l e d t o
developments o f higher a n d higher voltages generally 2 7 5k Vi nthe 1950's, 4 0 0k V i n
I S B N 3 - 5 4 0 - 0 0 2 9 7 - 9 S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g B e r l i n H e i d e l b e r g N e w York t h e 1960's a n d 7 6 5k Vi nt h e 1980's.
Transmission lines f o r m t h e backbones i n power networks, being t h e installations w h i c h
transmit power over long distances. T h e y are t h e most valuable constituents o fthe net-
Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for w o r k often costing asm u c h aso rm o r e t h a n a nentire substation. I n addition, lines are
Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. uniquely designed for every application. O t h e r devices such asbreakers a n d t r a n s f o r m -
Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication i n the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; ers c a n b es t a n d a r d i z e d t o a large e x t e n t . E a c h l i n e h a sa d i f f e r e n t n u m b e r o f t o w e r s ,
detailed brbliographic data is available i n the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de> foundation types a n d unique problems that need t ob esolved. Lines a r e installations
This work is subject to copyright. A l l rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is t h a t c a nb e tailor m a d e t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l n e t w o r k . T h u s , specific
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, conductor, tower a n d foundation combinations can b eused t oprovide for the o p t i m u m
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or i n other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of impedance a n d power transfer characteristics o f t h e line. T h e lines d e t e r m i n e t h e power
this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright L a w
flow a n d i n f l u e n c e t h e a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e n e t w o r k u n d e r n o r m a l a n d e m e r g e n c y c o n -
of September 9,1965, i n its current version, a n d permission for use must always be obtained from
ditions. T h u s , designing a n d installing incorrect lines c a nh a v e serious i m p a c t s o n t h e
Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution act under German Copyright Law.
viability o ft h e n e t w o r k . I nthe deregulated e n v i r o n m e n t , this iseven m o r e i m p o r t a n t
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e designs c a naffect t r a d i n g a b i l i t y as w e l l as e c o n o m i c p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f
a member of BertelsmannSpringer Science+Business Media G m b H
asset o w n e r s a n d t r a d e r s .
http://www.springer.de It could b e argued t h a t overhear! t r a n s m i s s i o n lines a r eb u to n e s o l u t i o n t ot r a n s m i t
6 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 power over long distances, t h e o t h e r being u n d e r g r o u n d cables. However, overhead lines
Printed i n Germany have distinct advantages over cables. T h e costs o f cables v a r y between t h r e e a n d t e n
times t h e costs o f overhear! lines, t h e higher ratios being f o u n d a thigher voltages.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not
O v e r h e a d lines are a l o tm o r e f o r g i v i n g w h e n i t comes t o overloading t h a n cables. I n
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations a n d therefore free for general use.
m o s t cases, t h e i n t e g r i t y o f a l i n e is n o t a t a l l affected w i t h s h o r t - t e r m o v e r l o a d s a n d
Typesetting: Camera ready by authors catastrophic failures a r e e x t r e m e l y rare. L i n e damage c a n b e m o r e easily discovered
Cover-design: deblik, Berlin a n d r e p a i r e d r a p i d l y , e. g. w i t h e m e r g e n c y s t r u c t u r e s b e i n g p u t i n place. T r a n s m i s s i o n
Printed on acid-free paper 62 / 3020 h u - 5 4 3 2 1 o - lines c a n b e a l t e r e d i n s i t u t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e change i n r e q u i r e m e n t s o ft h e n e t w o r k
being especially i m p o r t a n t i nt h e light o ft h e deregulation o ft h e i n d u s t r y a n d power
trading. O nt h eother hand, a noverhead line could b e a fragile system constituent
VI Foreword
w h e r e o n e failed j o i n t o r such a component w o u l d render ineffective the entire line,
stretching over m a n y kilometres. T h i s is w h y line operation a n d maintenance practices
are so i m p o r t a n t t o the integrity o f systems a n dgain g r o w i n g significance i n ageing
networks.
A line is thus the result o f solving a complex combination o f mechanical, electrical and
civil design, c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e issues. A s such, t h e r e are v e r y few
persons w h o are knowledgeable i nthe entire a m b i t o f line design and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
T h i s n e w b o o k covers all aspects o f overhead line p l a n n i n g , design, construction, oper-
a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e a n d allows engineers t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o m p l e x i t y as w e l l as
the interdependence b e t w e e n its components. A n e x a m p l e is t h a t i norder t o i m p r o v e
the p o w e r transfer a b i l i t y o f a l i n e , phases m a yneed t o b e b r o u g h t closer together.
T h i s impacts the tower and foundation loading as well as t h e corona inception voltage
etc. E x a c t l y h o w a n d t o w h a t e x t e n t t h e one o p t i o n affects t h e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s takes
long periods o f s t u d y t o determine. T h e b o o k h a sbeen w r i t t e n p u r s u i n g a three step
procedure, w i t h the theory been dealt w i t h initially and followed t h e n b y the m a i n com-
ponents. T h e t h i r d area covers the p l a n n i n g , construction, o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e
o f specific lines.
T h e s t u d y o f a l l aspects o f t r a n s m i s s i o n lines h a s been t h esubject o fI n t e r n a t i o n a l
C o u n c i l o n Large Electric S y s t e m s (Cigre) f o r m a n y years. I n t h e 1960's, t h e S t u d y
C o m m i t t e e SC22 was f o r m e d devoted entirely t o the study o f all aspects o f transmis-
s i o n lines. O v e r t h e years, S C 2 2 h a spresented papers i n t h e o p e n sessions, d e v e l o p e d
a n d p u b l i s h e d r e p o r t s i n E l e c t r a as w e l l as n u m e r o u s brochures. T h e s e f o r m e d t h e basis
for p r e p a r i n g t h e b o o k t o g e t h e r w i t h s t a n d a r d s f r o m I E C a n d C E N E L E C . T h e a u t h o r s
have participated a n dcontributed actively i n Cigre f o r m a n y years. T h e y have been
r e c o g n i s e d a s e x p e r t s i n t h e i r fields b y b e i n g a p p o i n t e d i n s o m e c a s e s a s S p e c i a l R e -
p o r t e r s o n m o r e t h a n o n eoccasion. T h e b o o k can, therefore, b e considered a r e s u l t o f
SC22's activities as well.
T o m y knowledge, there is n o b o o k o n t h e m a r k e t t h a t so comprehensively covers a l l
aspects r e l a t i n g t o overhead lines. I nt h i s regard, t h i s b o o k is a m u s t f o r a l l design,
m a i n t e n a n c e a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n engineers t h a t axei na n y w a y l i n k e d t o overhead lines.
W i t h m o r e t h a n t w o b i l l i o n p e o p l e still n o t h a v i n g access t o e l e c t r i c i t y i n t h e w o r l d , t h e
need f o r o p t i m u m line design, construction a n d maintenance practices w i l l continue i f
not increase. T h e need for s h a r i n g t h e expert knowledge, as is t o b e f o u n d i n t h i s b o o k ,
is t h u s c r i t i c a l f o r s u s t a i n a b l e d e v e l o p m e n t i n t h e f u t u r e .
Therefore, I w o u l d like t o t h a n k t h e authors f o r their efforts t o gather all t h e details
a n d prepare the t e x t f o rp r i n t i n g . I hope a n d w i s h t h a t the b o o k will b e well received
by the overhead power line community.
Johannesburg, ' Robert Stephen
September 2002 Chairman o f Cigre Study Committee "Transmission Lines"
P r e f a c e
O v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n lines are the highways t o t r a n s p o r t electric energy w i t h i n power
supply systems, w h i c h have extended across n a t i o n a l borders already f o r a long w h i l e .
W i t h the expansion o f economic regions beyond national borders, the conditions were
established for long distance t r a n s p o r t o felectric energy a n d , therefore, for liberalization
of t h e electric energy m a r k e t . O v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n lines are v e r y l o n g l a s t i n g assets
that require long-term investment o f a large a m o u n t o f money. Electric power supply
systems have reached a n o u t s t a n d i n g technical status i n t h eindustrialized countries
g u a r a n t e e i n g s u p p l y o f electric e n e r g y w i t h v e r y h i g h reliability. T h i s is n o t t h e case i n
all p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . I n s o m e c o u n t r i e s , m a n y i n h a b i t a n t s d o n o t h a v e a n y access t o
reliable electric energy. T h e r e , electric supply networks w i l l b e installed o r i m p r o v e d i n
the near f u t u r e a n d new overhead lines constructed as well. Raising the supply quality
requires t h e reliabilityo f overhead power lines t o b e increased further.
T h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m smaller regional t o larger n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a le c o n o m i c e n -
tities is described b y t h et e r m o f globalization. T h i s t r e n d also h a s l e d t o n e w a n d
bigger organisational u n i t s w i t h i n the electric power i n d u s t r y as well as t o modified
targets a n d , as a consequence, also t o t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l technical stip-
u l a t i o n s a n do f s t a n d a r d s r e s u l t i n g thereof. T h e s e n e w s t i p u l a t i o n s c o m p l y also w i t h
the requirement o n e l i m i n a t i o no f trading restrictions w i t h i n the enlarged economic re-
gion. E u r o p e a n and international standards have been introduced. Nationally oriented
engineering practices w i l l b e replaced b y m o r e a n dm o r e internationally adopted e n -
gineering solutions. T h e consumers, especially those f r o m producing industries, expect
f r o m m o r e l i b e r a l i z a t i o n a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n o f t h e electric energy m a r k e t i na d d i t i o n t o
economic advantages a n enhanced r e l i a b i l i t yo f supply, a n expectation w h i c h requires
to increase f u r t h e r t h e reliability o f overhead power lines.
Politics have become increasing influence t h r o u g h approval o f rights-of-way a n db y
e s t a b l i s h i n g m a n y s t i p u l a t i o n s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s , e. g. c o n c e r n i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o -
tection.
T h e basic elements o foverhead power lines technology have been k n o w n for m a n y years
a n d can b e considered t o a h i g h extent as m a t u r e . Technological progress, therefore, is
achieved i n s m a l l steps. O v e r h e a d power lines technology has been c o n t i n u o u s l y devel-
o p i n g , e. g. t o a d j u s t t h e l i n e d e s i g n t o r e s t r i c t e d l y a v a i l a b l e r i g h t s - o f - w a y a n d t o t h e
l i m i t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l resources, t o t a k e efficiently care o f t h e interdependence w i t h en-
v i r o n m e n t a n d landscape a n d t o t r a n s p o r t t h e electric energy a tlower costs. E c o n o m i c a l
s o l u t i o n s are o f p a r a m o u n t interest f o r f u r t h e r development, since t h e costs f o r energy
t r a n s p o r t are a considerable share o f t h e t o t a l expenditures f o renergy. M a n y e x i s t i n g
overhead line installations have reached a nage o f 50 years and m o r e and, therefore, are
a p p r o a c h i n g t h e i r e c o n o m i c a n dtechnical l i f e t i m e . M a n y overhead l i n e operators a r e
developing strategies for maintenance w i t h t h e target t o e x t e n d the operational life o f a
line depending o n its condition. I n v e s t m e n t s w i l l b e necessary for replacement, w h e n a n
increased t r a n s m i s s i o n capability is s t i p u l a t e d . M a n y lines designed a n d constructed i n
the past become m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t a n d require a n increased reliability now. These
requirements should be met w i t h o u t the need o f additional rights-of-way.
S t a n d a r d E N 5 0341-1 sets general r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d E N 5 0341-3 contains s u p p l e m e n -
tal N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s for m a n y E u r o p e a n countries, w h i c h take care o f a n y
climatic conditions w i t h i n these countries. T h r o u g h t h e introduction o f the new stan-
dards, t h ebasis o f design a n dv e r i f i c a t i o n f o r a l l aspects a n dsteps i n overhead l i n e
p l a n n i n g a n d construction have changed t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e . F o rm a n y years, s t a n -
dards for overhead l i n e c o m p o n e n t s have b e e n based o n i n t e r n a t i o n a lrules prepared b y
 r reluct: i a

Dipl.-Ing. D .Lutter, N e u m a r k t , Dr.-Ing. L . Mocks, Schwabach, Dipl.-Ing. H . S c h r a m m ,

t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l E l e c t r o t e c h n i c a l C o m m i s s i o n ( I E C ) , e. g . f o r i n s u l a t o r s . T h i s s i t u a t i o n
Erlangen, D r . - I n g . J .Seifert, W u n s i e d e l a n d H .Veith, E r l a n g e n . T h e a u t h o r s a n d t h e
has applied increasingly t o all other components o f overhead lines such as conductors,
publisher'would like t o t h a n k t h e m a tthis o p p o r t u n i t y for their valuable contributions.
fittings, vibration dampers and supports. Design and construction procedures require
H . Stover a n d M . Schwarz prepared the desktop draft for p r i n t i n g a n d were responsible
t h e responsibility o f line owners and contractors concerning stipulations for i n d i v i d u a l
l i n e s , e. g. r e g a r d i n g t h e c l i m a t i c l o a d s . A w i d e r b a c k g r o u n d k n o w l e d g e i s , t h e r e f o r e , for the figures. T h e authors w o u l d like t o acknowledge their remarkable efforts. T h e
necessary for t h e application o f t h e n e w standards. publisher came t o meet w i t h the authors concerning the volume and the arrangement
of the book generously.
T h e n e wi n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s a n d technological i n n o v a t i o n s i n t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e
T h e a u t h o r s w o u l d like t o ask all the readers t o advise t h e m o n mistakes w h i c h they
subject are the result o f a long period o f developments w i t h i n international technical
committees such asthe International Council o nLarge Electric Systems (Cigre) and the w i l l s u r e l y find i n t h e b o o k a n d t o s t i m u l a t e f u r t h e r a d d i t i o n s a n d updates.
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Some important innovations should
be m e n t i o n e d , such as:T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f F l e x i b l e A l t e r n a t i n g C u r r e n t T r a n s m i s s i o n
Systems ( F A C T S ) , the replacement o fconventional earth wires b yoptical ground wires,
an increasing utilization o f existing conductors b y innovative real-time m o n i t o r i n g o f
c l i m a t i c d a t a , t h e m o r e precise design o f s u p p o r t s b y m e a n s o f computer-based pro- Erlangen, Hannover, Belo Horizonte Friedrich Kiefiling
cedures a n d t h e s u r v e y o f overhead lines using global p o s i t i o n i n g systems a n d laser
October 2002 P e t e r N r f z S e r
scanning a n d t h e u s eo f m o d e r n diagnostic tools f o rm a i n t e n a n c e . M o r e capable m a - Joao F . Nolasco
chinery for the installation o ffoundations a n d for stringing o fconductors is increasingly Ulf Kaintzyk
adopted for overhead line construction. Scientific research has expanded the knowledge
o n c l i m a t i c processes a n d effects w h i c h n o w a d a y s are p r e d o m i n a n t l y described b y p r o b -
abilistic methods.
T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n " O v e r h e a d P o w e r L i n e s " i sbased o nt h e 5 t h a n d completely revised
G e r m a n edition w i t h the title " F r e i l e i t u n g e n " published b ythe authors F. Kiefiling, P.
Nefzger and U . K a i n t z y k i n the a u t u m n 2001. T h e latter describes the further developed
technical rules a n d c u r r e n t legal basis f o roverhead l i n e p l a n n i n g b y using e x a m p l e s
from Central Europe i nparticular. Current developments from South America a n d
applications t o t h e 500 k Vvoltage level n o t used i nE u r o p e s o far w e r e a d d e d b yJ .
F . Nolasco acting as additional co-author. Therefore, the English edition o f the book
considers t h e changing economic a n d technical e n v i r o n m e n t o ft h e overhead power line
b u s i n e s s from a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e r s p e c t i v e .
T h e b o o k is designed as a reference a n d a d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f the current engineering
state o f the a r t o f overhead power lines. I talso presents t h e basic ideas f o r technical
stipulations a n d designs. I tintends t o i n t r o d u c e students a n d beginners employed b y
o v e r h e a d l i n e operators, contractors a n dc o n s u l t i n g c o m p a n i e s i n t o t h esubject a n d
s h o u l d assist those active i nt h e business t o c a r r y o u t t h e i r d a i l y tasks. T h e b o o k i s
f u r t h e r addressed t o a l l people involved i nt h e electric energy s u p p l y i n d u s t r y w h o are
n o t d a i l y confronted w i t h overhead line issues.
T h e overhead line business comprises m a n y engineering subjects and detailed questions
w h i c h are discussed i n m a n y publications. T h e v o l u m e o f t h e b o o k d i dn o t a l l o w a l l
details t o b e tackled v e r y deeply. C o n c e r n i n g special aspects, t h e reader is referred t o
t h e q u o t e d references. T h e selected examples reflect i n p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r n a t i o n a l develop-
ments and their publication within Cigre i n addition t o the well documented overhead
line engineering i n C e n t r a l Europe.
T h e draft o f a such a n extensive reference b o o k cannot b e prepared w i t h o u t finan-
cial sponsoring b y entities interested i nthe subject. Therefore, t h e a u t h o r s w o u l d like
t o t h a n k Siemens A G , P o w e r T r a n s m i s s i o n a n dD i s t r i b u t i o n G r o u p , a n dR W E N e t
A G f o r t h e i r generous f u n d i n g s . I na d d i t i o n , t h e c o m p a n i e s R i c h a r d B e r g n e r G m b H ,
Schwabach, Germany, and Pfleiderer Verkehrstechnik, N e u m a r k t , Germany, supported
t h e p r e p a r a t i o n a n d l a y o u t o f t h e b o o k . M a n y e x p e r t s active i nt h e overhead l i n e sub-
ject prepared c o n t r i b u t i o n s f o r detailed clauses a n dchecked the completeness o f t h e
draft. I n a n a l p h a b e t i c series, t h e r e s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d R . P . G u i m a x a e s , B e l o H o r i -
zonte, E n g . H i l d e b r a n d o , Belo Horizonte, W .P .J o h n s o n , P .E n g . , Vancouver, D i p l . - I n g .
C. Jiirdens, D o r t m u n d , D i p l . - I n g . R . K l i e g e l , E r l a n g e n , D i p l . - I n g . H . L o r e n z , E r l a n g e n ,
C o n t e n t s

1 Overall planning 1
1.0 Symbols 1
1.1 D e v e l o p m e n t stages o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n project 1
1.2 Transmission planning 2
1.2.1 Objective 2
1.2.2 P l a n n i n g stages 2
1.2.3 P l a n n i n g aspects regarding transmission lines 3
1.3 Planning methods 3
1.3.1 D a t a acquisition and preparation 3
1.3.2 F o r m u l a t i o n and preselection o f alternatives 4
1.3.3 Electrical studies 4
1.3.4 E c o n o m i c studies and final evaluation 4
1.4 Planning criteria 4
1.4.1 General 4
1.4.2 Criteria for steady-state conditions 5
1.4.3 C r i t e r i a for t e m p o r a r y a n d transient conditions 5
1.5 E v o l u t i o n a n d selection o f voltage levels 5
1.5.1 E v o l u t i o n o f transmission voltages 5
1.5.2 I n t r o d u c t i o n o f transmission voltages 6
1.6 Conductor selection 8
1.7 Selection o f line configuration 9
1.8 Direct current transmission 12
1.8.1 Aspects o fD Ctransmission components 12
1.8.2 E c o n o m i c comparison o f D C and A C lines 12
1.8.3 Technical comparison o f A C and D Ctransmission 13
1.8.4 P r a c t i c a l use o f D C t r a n s m i s s i o n 13
1.9 T r a n s m i s s i o n w i t h higher order phase lines 14
1.9.1 Options 14
1.9.2 Properties o f multiple-phase systems 15
1.9.3 Present experience 15
1.10 Investments •. 16
1.11 Licences and p e r m i t procedures 17
1.12 Underground transmission versus overhead lines 18
1.12.1 Application and planning aspects 18
1.12.2 Environmental constraints 19
1.12.3 Technical limitations 19
1.12.4 Comparative investments 19
1.12.5 Perspectives 20
1.13 Results o f overall planning 21
1.14 References 22

2 E l e c t r i c requirements a n d design 25
2.0 Symbols 25
2.1 Overhead lines as c o m p o n e n t s o f electric systems 28
2.1.1 Surge impedance and surge impedance load (natural power) 28
2.1.2 Stability 29
2.1.3 V o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n a n d m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e losses 30
 2.1.4 Capability o f a line 30 2.5.2.5 M i d s p a n clearances 6 5

2.1.5 Reliabilityand availability 30 2.5.2.6 M i n i m u m clearances within a span o r a ta tower 67

2.1.6 Reactive power compensation 31 2.5.2.7 Clearances t o ground and obstacles 67
2.1.7 Power t r a n s m i t t e d versus right-of-way w i d t h 32 2.5.2.8 Examples 67
2.2 Current-related phenomena 32 2.5.2.8.1 Electrical clearances for a 110 k Voverhead line . . . : 67
2.2.1 N o r m a l and emergency conditions 32 2.5.2.8.2 Electrical clearances for a 380 k Voverhead l i n e 69
2.2.2 O h m i c losses 32 2.5.2.8.3 Electrical clearances for a 500 k Voverhead line 70
2.2.3 Short circuit condition 33 2.5.2.8.4 Clearances t o obstacles for line design, empirical approach ... 71
2.3 Voltage and current-related phenomena 33 2.5.2.8.5 T i m e distributiono f s w i n g angles 72
2.3.1 Introduction 33 2.5.2.8.6 T o w e r t o pgeometry according t o statistic considerations . . . . 73
2.3.2 Electrical and magnetic fields 33 2.5.2.8.7 Tower top geometry according t o E u r o p e a n standards 74
2.3.2.1 Effects o n h u m a n s and animals 33 2.5.2.8.8 Tower top geometry according t o B r a z i l i a n practice 74
2.3.2.2 Effects o n electronic devices 36 2.6 References 75
2.3.3 C o r o n a p h e n o m e n a a n d r e l a t e d effects 36
2.3.3.1 General 36 3 Electric parameters 79
2.3.3.2 Calculation o fvoltage gradients o n individual conductors 36 3.0 Symbols 7 9

2.3.3.3 Calculation o f voltage gradient b y approximate formulae 37 3.1 Introduction 8 0

2.3.3.4 R a d i o noise o r radio interference ( R I ) 39 3.2 Resistance '• • • 8 1

2.3.4 A u d i b l e noise ( A N ) 40 3.3 Positive-sequence impedance 61

2.3.5 Impact o f line design o nvoltage- and current-depending phenomena . . 42 3.3.1 Introduction 8 1

2.4 Line performance and insulation requirements 43 3.3.2 Inductance and inductive Reactance • 8 2

2.4.1 Introduction 43 3.4 Zero-sequence impedance 8 9

2.4.2 Power frequency voltages and t e m p o r a r y overvoltages 43 3.4.1 Introduction 8 5

2.4.3 Slow-front overvoltages 46 3.4.2 Simplified approach for the determination o f zero-sequence impedances 85
2.4.4 Fast-front overvoltages 46 3.5 Capacitance and capacitive reactance 88
2.4.5 Principles o finsulation coordination 46 3.5.1 General considerations 8 8

2.4.5.1 General principles 46 3.5.2 Single-circuit lines 8 9

2.4.5.2 I n s u l a t i o n design for p e r m a n e n t power frequency voltages 47 3.5.3 Double-circuit lines 9 9

2.4.5.3 I n s u l a t i o n design for slow-front overvoltages 47 3.6 Admittance 91

2.4.5.4 I n s u l a t i o n design for fast-front overvoltage 50 3.7 Electric representation o f lines 92
2.4.6 Live-line maintenance 51 3.7.1 Goals and basic conditions 9 2

2.5 Clearances 51 3.7.2 S h o r t - and m e d i u m - l e n g t h lines 9 2

2.5.1 Clearance requirements 51 3.7.3 Long-length transmission lines • 9 8

2.5.1.1 T y p e s o f electrical clearances 51 3.7.3.1 Representation b y exponential functions 9 3

2.5.1.2 C a l c u l a t i o n o f electrical clearances 52 3.7.3.2 Representation b y hyperbolic functions 9 4
2.5.1.2.1 Required w i t h s t a n d voltages o f air gaps 52 3.7.3.3 T h e equivalent II-circuit o f a long line : 9 5
2.5.1.2.2 Voltages t o b e considered 54 3.8 References 9 7

2.5.1.2.3 S u m m a r y o f f o r m u l a e for electrical clearances 56

2.5.1.3 E m p i r i c a l d a t a for clearances 57 4 Lightning protection 9 9

2.5.2 I n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l clearances . 58 4.0 Symbols 9 9

2.5.2.1 Introduction 58 4.1 Significance o f lightning 9 9

2.5.2.2 Design principles 58 4.2 F o r m a t i o n o f lightning strokes 1 0 9

2.5.2.3 L o a d cases f o rt h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f clearances 59 4.2.1 M e c h a n i s m o f l i g h t n i n g discharge 1 "

2.5.2.3.1 M a x i m u m conductor temperature a t no-wind condition 59 4.2.2 I m p u l s e behaviour o f l i g h t n i n g discharges 100
2.5.2.3.2 Iceload w i t h o u t w i n d 59 4.2.3 Electric characteristics o f the discharges 101
2.5.2.3.3 W i n d load assumptions 60 4.3 Frequency and intensity o f lightning strokes 102
2.5.2.4 Insulator and conductor position under w i n d action 61 4.3.1 K e r a u n i c l e v e l s a n d e a r t h flash d e n s i t y 102
2.5.2.4.1 Definitiono fw i n d action 61 4.3.2 Magnitude o f lightning stroke currents 104
2.5.2.4.2 Calculation o f swing angle 63 4.3.3 Direct and indirect lightning strokes 105
2.5.2.4.3 T i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f swing angles 64 4.4 A r r a n g e m e n t a n d efficiency o f e a r t h w i r e s 106
2.5.2.4.4 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s w i n g angles b y m e a s u r e m e n t s 65 4.4.1 Theoretical background 106
2.5.2.4.5 Conductor and insulator position according t o standards . . . . 65 4.4.2 Effective shielding b y earth wires 107
XIV Contents Contents X V

4.4.3 Surge arresters 110 6.2 Strengths o f line components and elements 156
4.4.4 Assessment o f lightningperformance o f overhead lines 110 6.2.1 Strength limits 1 5 8

4.5 E a r t h i n g i nv i e w o f l i g h t n i n g p r o t e c t i o n 110 6.2.2 Rating o f individualcomponents and elements 157

4.5.1 Significance o f earthing for lightning protection 110 6.2.3 Damage and failure limits 158
4.5.2 Surge impedance o fearthing systems I l l 6.3 W i n d loads - I 5 8

4.6 References 112 6.3.1 W i n d measurements 158

6.3.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f meteorological reference w i n d velocities 159
5 Earthing 115 6.3.2.1 Evaluationof wind measurements 159
5.0 Symbols 115 6.3.2.2 Effect o f t h e terrain roughness I 6 2

5.1 Purpose o fearthing 116 6.3.2.3 V a r i a t i o n o f reference w i n d velocity w i t h height 163

5.2 Definitions and basic principles 117 6.3.3 W i n d action o n line components and elements 163
5.3 Requirements 118 6.4 I c eloads I 6 5

5.3.1 Standards 118 6.4.1 Atmospheric icing 155

5.3.2 Safety o f persons 118 6.4.2 I c eobservations a n d measurements 167
5.3.3 T h e r m a l short-circuit strength 119 6.4.3 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f reference iceloads 168
5.3.4 Mechanical strength a n d corrosion resistance 119 6.4.3.1 Basic relations 168
5.3.5 C u r r e n t s t o b e considered 120 6.4.3.2 E v a l u a t i o n o f iceload i n f o r m a t i o n 168
5.4 E a r t h i n g f o r personal safety purposes 121 6.4.3.3 Reference iceload 168
5.5 Operational earthing 124 6.4.3.4 L o a d i n g o f s u p p o r t s a n d l o a d cases 169
5.6 Lightningprotection earthing 124 6.5 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d iceloads 169
5.7 R a t i n g for s h o r t - t e r m currents 125 6.5.1 Probability o f occurrence and combination o f parameters 169
5.8 Soil resistivityand conductivity 125 6.5.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o no f design parameters 170
5.9 C a l c u l a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g resistance 126 6.5.2.1 Iceload 170
5.9.1 Spherical electrode 126 6.5.2.2 W i n d load • 170
5.9.2 E a r t h i n g rods 127 6.5.2.3 Effective drag factors a n d ice densities • 171
5.9.3 Horizontally arranged electrode wires (counterpoises) 129 6.5.3 W i n d action o n the icecovered conductor 171
5.10 Measurements o f soil resistivity 130 6.6 C l i m a t i c loads according t o relevant standards 172
5.10.1 Basic principles 130 6.6.1 Standards for overhead power lines 172
5.10.2 M e a s u r i n g m e t h o d s 131 6.6.2 W i n d loads 1 7 2

5.11 M e a s u r e m e n t o f e a r t h i n g resistance 132 6.6.2.1 W i n d load m o d e l according t o I E C 60 826 172

5.12 E a r t h i n g resistance i nn o n - h o m o g e n e o u s soils 135 6.6.2.2 W i n d m o d e l according t o the E u r o p e a n standard E N 50 341-1 . . . 174
5.12.1 Soil resistivity i n a two-layer soil s t r u c t u r e 135 6.6.2.3 W i n d models according t o E N 50 341-3 176
5.12.2 C o m p u t a t i o n o f earthing resistance i n a two-layer soil structure . . . . 136 6.6.2.4 C o m p a r i s o n o f w i n d load models w i t h measurements 179
5.12.3 C o m p u t a t i o n o f earthing resistance b y means o f the apparent resistivity 138 6.6.3 I c eloads 1 8 1

5.12.4 C o m p u t a t i o n o f earthing resistance o f three-dimensional structures . . 138 6.6.3.1 I c eload m o d e l according t o I E C 60 826 181
5.12.5 E x a m p l e for c o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g resistance 139 6.6.3.2 I c eload m o d e l according t o E N 50 341-1 182
5.13 Practical rules for installation o f e a r t h i n g systems 139 6.6.3.3 I c eload m o d e l according t o E N 50 341-3 183
5.13.1 R a d i a l a n d r i n g - t y p e e a r t h i n g counterpoises 139 6.6.4 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice action 183
5.13.2 V e r t i c a l l y o r obliquely d r i v e n e a r t h i n g rods 140 6.6.4.1 M o d e l according t o I E C 60826 : 183
5.13.3 B o n d i n g b e t w e e n e a r t h i n g electrodes 140 6.6.4.2 M o d e l according t o E N 50341-1 184
5.13.4 Earthing connections 140 6.6.4.3 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d iceaction according t o E N 50 341-3 184
5.14 References 140 6.7 Loads a t construction, operation and maintenance 185
6.7.1 Introduction 185
6 R e q u i r e m e n t s on l o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h 143 6.7.2 R e q u i r e m e n t s according t o I E C 60 826 186
6.0 Symbols 143 6.7.3 R e q u i r e m e n t s according t o E N 50 341-1 a n d E N 50 341-3 186
6.1 Mechanical design o f t h e overhead line system 145 6.8 Failure c o n t a i n m e n t a n d other special loads 187
6.1.1 Components and elements o f an overhead line 145 6.8.1 Introduction 187
6.1.2 Reliability 145 6.8.2 Provisions according t o I E C 60 826 187
6.1.3 Calculation o freliability 146 6.8.3 Provisions according t o E N 50341-1 187
6.1.4 S t r e n g t h coordination and selection o f reliability 150 6.9 Statisticaldistributions 188
6.1.5 Effect o f m a x i m u m load intensity o n a high n u m b e r o f components . . 152 6.9.1 Introduction I ... 188
6.1.6 U s e f a c t o r a n d i t s effect o n t h e design 154 6.9.2 Normal distribution (Gaussian distribution) 188
 6.9.3 Log-normal distribution 190 J 7.1.10.8 L o w noise conductors 222
6.9.4 Gumbel distribution 190 i 7.1.10.9 C o n d u c t o r s w i t h treated surfaces 223
6.10 References 192 1 7.2 Design w i t h regard t o current loading 223
j 7.2.1 Introduction and requirements 223
7 S e l e c t i o n of c o n d u c t o r s 195 f 7.2.2 Principles for determination o f conductor temperature . . . .• 224
7.0 Symbols 195 1 7.2.3 Design w i t h regard t o current carrying capacity 225
7.1 Conductor types and design 196 1 7.2.4 Design w i t h regard t o short-circuit current 228
7.1.1 Introduction 196 1 7.2.5 Design based o n economic considerations 228
7.1.2 Conductor designation 198 I 7.2.6 Line capacity as a function o f the weather conditions 231
7.1.3 Progress i n technical development 198 J 7.3 D e s i g n w i t h r e g a r d t o stresses c a u s e d b y voltages 232
7.1.4 Materials 200 I 7.3.1 Introduction and requirements 232
7.1.4.1 Aluminium 200 | 7.3.2 Design w i t h respect t o the electric parameters 232
7.1.4.2 A l u m i n i u m - m a g n e s i u m - s i l i c o n alloys 201 ! 7.3.3 D e s i g n w i t h respect t o c o n d u c t o r surface g r a d i e n t s a r i d c o r o n a effects . 234
7.1.4.3 Steel wires 202 I 7 . 3 . 4 C o r o n a losses 234
7.1.4.4 A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel wires 202 7.4 Mechanical design o f conductors 234
7.1.4.5 C o p p e r and copper alloys 202 7.4.1 Introduction and requirements 234
7.1.4.6 T h e r m a l resistant a l u m i n i u m alloys 202 7.4.2 Stresses u n d e r e x t r e m e load conditions 235
7.1.5 W i r e testing 203 7.4.3 Stresses under everyday conditions 236
7.1.5.1 Introduction 203 7.4.4 Impact o f the conductor tensile load o n line investment 237
7.1.5.2 D i m e n s i o n s a n d surfaces 203 7.4.5 Conductor creep 238
7.1.5.3 Testing the tensile strength 203 I 7.4.6 Recommendations for selection o f c o n d u c t o r tensile stresses 238
7.1.5.4 W r a p p i n g and t w i s t i n g test 204 f 7.5 References 238
7.1.5.5 Testing zinc mass, cladding thickness and u n i f o r m i t y 204 1
7.1.5.6 Testing resistivity 204 j 8 E a r t h wire selection 243
7.1.6 Conductors made o fwires w i t h the same material 204 I 8.0 Symbols 243
7.1.6.1 A l l a l u m i n i u m conductors 204 8.1 Types of earth wires 243
7.1.6.2 A l l a l u m i n i u m alloy conductors 205 8.2 Electric and t h e r m a l design 244
7.1.6.3 A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel conductors 206 8.2.1 Requirements 244
7.1.6.4 C o p p e r , copper alloy a n d steel conductors 206 8.2.2 E a r t h wire design under short-circuit conditions 244
7.1.7 Composite conductors 206 8.2.3 T e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s o f e a r t h w i r e s i n case o f s h o r t circuits 247
7.1.7.1 Configuration a n d design 206 8.2.4 F a u l t clearing and reclosing operations 247
7.1.7.2 Characteristic data 208 8.2.5 E x a m p l e s o f e a r t h w i r e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacity i n case o f s h o r t circuits248
7.1.7.3 Production 211 8.3 Mechanical design 250
7.1.7.4 Joints 212 8.3.1 Loss o f mechanical strength during heating process 250
7.1.7.5 Shipment 213 8.3.2 E s t a b l i s h i n g tensile stresses a n d forces 251
7.1.8 Conductor testing 213 8.4 Steps for selection o f conventional e a r t h wires 251
7.1.8.1 Classification o f tests 213 8.5 E a r t h wires comprising optical fibres (OPGW) 252
7.1.8.2 E x t e n t o f sample tests 213 8.5.1 Generalities a n d design 252
7.1.8.3 Surface condition, dimensions, inertness and mass 214 8.5.2 Installation conditions 254
7.1.8.4 Stress-strain diagram 214 8.5.3 Accessories 254
7.1.8.5 Tensile breaking strength 215 8.5.4 Tests 255
7.1.8.6 Test o f creep behaviour 216 8.6 References 255
7.1.8.7 Testing the tension stringing ability o f conductors 216
7.1.9 Bundle conductors 217 9 Insulators 257
7.1.10 Special conductor designs 218 9.0 Symbols 257
7.1.10.1 Non-standardized conductors made o f round wires 218 9.1 Introduction 257
7.1.10.2 Conductors for increased operation t e m p e r a t u r e 219 9.2 Ceramic insulators 258
7.1.10.3 Conductors w i t h enlarged diameters 220 9.2.1 Insulator types and their application 258
7.1.10.4 Conductors w i t h s m o o t h surfaces 221 9.2.2 R a w materials 262
7.1.10.5 Compacted conductors 221 9.2.3 Production . 263
7.1.10.6 Self-damping conductors 221 9.3 Glass insulators 265
7.1.10.7 V i b r a t i o n resistant conductors 222 9.3.1 R a w materials and production 265
XVIII Contents Contents X I X

9.3.2 Insulator types and application 266 10.2.4 Connectors 3 0 9

9.4 Composite insulators 267 10.2.5 Spacers f o r bundle conductors 310

9.4.1 R a w materials, design and production 267 10.2.6 V i b r a t i o n d a m p e r s for single conductors 311
9.4.2 Types o f composite insulators and their application 268 10.2.7 Spacer dampers for bundle conductors 312
9.5 Comparison o f insulator types 269 10.3 F i t t i n g s f o r i n s u l a t o r sets 313
9.6 Tests o n insulator units 271 10.4 R a t i n g a n d tests • •3 1 3
9.6.1 Basic information 271 10.4.1 General 313
9.6.2 T e s t s o n c e r a m i c a n d glass i n s u l a t o r s 271 10.4.2 Electric requirements 313
9.6.2.1 T y p e tests 271 10.4.3 Mechanical requirements 314
9.6.2.2 S a m p l e tests 273 10.4.4 Corrosion protection 315
9.6.2.3 R o u t i n e tests 275 10.4.5 Selection o f m a t e r i a l 316
9.6.3 Tests o n composite insulators 276 10.4.6 Tests 316
9.6.3.1 Basic i n f o r m a t i o n 276 10.5 References 317
9.6.3.2 Test o f the structural design and type test 276
9.6.3.3 S a m p l e a n d r o u t i n e tests 277 1 1 Conductor vibrations 3 2 1
9.7 D e s i g n o f i n s u l a t o r sets 278 11.0 Symbols 321
9.7.1 S u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets 278 11.1 Overview and types o f vibration 322
9.7.2 T e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets 281 11.2 Aeolian vibrations 323
9.8 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o ri n s u l a t o r sets 281 11.2.1 Basic physical aspects, m a t h e m a t i c - m e c h a n i c m o d e l o f a line 323
9.8.1 Electric requirements for A C lines 281 11.2.2 Conductor free-span a m p l i t u d e 325
9.8.2 Particularities f o r D C lines 284 11.2.3 C o n d u c t o r s t r a i n s a n d stresses 327
9.8.3 A u d i b l e noise ( A N ) performance 286 11.2.4 B e n d i n g stiffness o f a conductor 327
9.8.4 Mechanical design 287 112 5 Origin ofvibrations * 328
9.9 Operational performance o f insulator strings 287 11.2.6 Consequences o f vibrations 329
9.9.1 Introduction 287 11.2.7 Consequences for line design 332
9.9.2 V o l t a g e stresses 288 11.2.8 V e r i f i c a t i o no f v i b r a t i o n intensity a n d effectiveness o f d a m p i n g measures 336
9.9.3 Behaviour o f individual insulator types 290 11.2.9 Evaluation o fvibrationmeasurements 338
9.9.4 B e h a v i o u r under p o l l u t i o n layers 292 11.3 Subspan oscillations 340
9.9.4.1 F o r m a t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n layers 292 11.3.1 Origin and consequences 340
9.9.4.2 S i m u l a t i o n o f p o l l u t i o n layers 292 11.3.2 R e m e d y measures 341
9.9.4.3 P o l l u t i o n levels 293 11.4 Galloping 341
9.9.4.4 Assessment o f p o l l u t i o n levels b y m e a n s o f local m e a s u r e m e n t s . . . 2 9 3 11.4.1 Origin a n d consequences 341
9.9.4.5 Measures t o maintain insulation capacity 294 11.4.2 R e m e d y measures 343
9.10 T e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r sets 295 11.5 Short-circuit oscillations 344
9.10.1 Basic informationand assumptions 295 11.5.1 Origin and consequences 344
9.10.2 Standard atmospheric conditions 295 11.5.2 Remedy measures 344
9.10.3 Artificial rain 295 11.6 References 345
9.10.4 Testing arrangements 295
9.10.5 Power frequency voltage test • . 296 1 2 Supports 3 4 9

9.10.6 Fast-front and slow-front overvoltage tests 296 12.0 Symbols 349
9.10.7 Power arc behaviour 296 12.1 Support types and their applications 354
9.10.8 R a d i o interference s t r e n g t h test 296 12.1.1 D e f i n i t i o n s 354
9.10.9 C o r o n a onset o r e x t i n c t i o n voltage test 297 12.1.2 T a s k s o f s u p p o r t s i na n overhead line 354
9.11 E x a m p l e for insulator selection 297 12.1.2.1 Suspension supports 354
9.12 References 300 12.1.2.2 A n g l e suspension s u p p o r t s 355
12.1.2.3 Angle supports 355
10 O v e r h e a d l i n e fittings 305 12.1.2.4 Strain and angle-strain supports 355
10.1 Definitions 305 12.1.2.5 D e a d - e n d s u p p o r t s 356
10.2 Fittings for conductors 305 12.1.2.6 Special s u p p o r t s 356
10.2.1 C o n d u c t o r a t t a c h m e n t a t s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets 305 12.1.3 Support design and application 356
10.2.2 Conductor attachments a tdead-end terminations 308 12.1.3.1 Selection o f support design 356
10.2.3 T u r n buckles 309 12.1.3.2 S e l f - s u p p o r t i n g lattice steel towers 357
 12.1.3.3 S e l f - s u p p o r t i n g steel poles 358 12.5.7 General f o r m a t of verification of m e m b e r s and connections 398
12.1.3.4 Steel-reinforced concrete poles 359 12.5.8 D e s i g n o f compression m e m b e r s 399
12.1.3.5 W o o d poles 360 12.5.8.1 Effective cross section properties for compression m e m b e r s 399
12.1.3.6 G u y e d supports 360 12.5.8.2 Flexural buckling of axially compressed members 399
12.1.3.7 Crossarmless supports 360 12.5.8.3 Flexural torsional buckling of centrally compressed members .... 406
12.2 Tower top geometry 361 12.5.8.4 B e n d i n g a n d a x i a l compression forces 408
12.2.1 R e q u i r e m e n t s 361 12.5.9 D e s i g n o f c o m p o u n d m e m b e r s 408
12.2.2 E l e c t r i c a l clearances according t o relevant s t a n d a r d s 361 12.5.9.1 M e m b e r connected by b a t t e n plates 408
12.2.3 Clearance between conductors 361 12.5.9.2 Laced b o x - t y p e m e m b e r s 410
12.2.3.1 E q u a l cross sections, a l i k e m a t e r i a l s a n d e q u a l sags o f c o n d u c t o r s . 361 12.5.10 D e s i g n of tensile-loaded m e m b e r s 413
12.2.3.2 C o n d u c t o r s w i t h different cross sections, m a t e r i a l s or sags 364 12.5.10.1 M e m b e r s axially loaded i n tension 413
12.2.4 Clearances at supports 365 12.5.10.2 A x i a l tensile force a n d b e n d i n g 415
12.3 Basic design requirements 367 12.5.11 Design of connections 415
12.3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 367 12.5.12 D e s i g n for b e n d i n g due t o transverse loads 417
12.3.2 S t a t i c design 367 12.5.13 D e s i g n of r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s 417
12.3.3 Design values and verification methods 368 12.5.14 Deformation 418
12.4 L o a d cases a n d p a r t i a l factors 369 12.5.15 Calculation of f o u n d a t i o n loads 420
12.4.1 C o m b i n a t i o n of loads 369 12.5.16 A p p l i c a t i o n of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for calculation of lattice steel towers 4 2 1
12.4.2 E x t r e m e w i n d load 370 12.5.17 Upgrading the support strength 423
12.4.3 W i n d load at m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e 371 12.5.18 E x a m p l e : S t a t i c calculation of a 110 k V suspension support 425
12.4.4 U n i f o r m a n d u n b a l a n c e d ice l o a d s w i t h o u t w i n d 371 12.5.19 E x a m p l e : C a l c u l a t i o n guy wire a n d m a s t loads i n a g u y e d - V tower . . 440
12.4.5 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice l o a d 372 12.6 Steel poles 443

12.4.6 C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads 372 12.6.1 Structural design 442

12.4.7 S e c u r i t y loads 373 12.6.2 A n a l y s i s of loads 443
12.4.8 P a r t i a l factors for actions o n s u p p o r t s 373 12.6.3 R a t i n g 444

12.4.9 P a r t i a l factors for m a t e r i a l s 374 12.6.4 E x a m p l e for design of a conical s o l i d - w a l l steel pole 447
12.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 374 12.7 Steel-reinforced concrete poles 449
12.5.1 S t r u c t u r a l design 374 12.7.1 Selection of cross sections 449
12.5.1.1 Structural design of members 374 12.7.2 S p u n concrete poles 449
12.5.1.2 Connections 376 12.7.3 V i b r a t e d concrete poles 451
12.5.1.3 Walkways 377 12.7.4 Structural design 451
12.5.1.4 Production 378 12.7.5 Production 451

12.5.1.5 C o r r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n 378 12.7.6 R a t i n g 452

12.5.2 M a t e r i a l s 379 12.7.7 E x a m p l e for design of a s p u n concrete pole 455
12.5.2.1 M a t e r i a l s for angle sections a n d plates 379 12.7.7.1 Basic d a t a 455
12.5.2.2 M a t e r i a l for bolts 379 12.7.7.2 C a l c u l a t i o n o f loads 455
12.5.3 A n a l y s i s of m e m b e r forces 380 12.7.7.3 V e r i f i c a t i o no f cross sections 457
12.5.4 C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e m e m b e r forces at a plane s y s t e m 381 12.8 W o o d poles 439

12.5.4.1 Basic procedure 381 12.8.1 A p p l i c a t i o n a n d design 459

12.5.4.2 Forces i n t h e leg m e m b e r s 381 12.8.2 R a t i n g 469

12.5.4.3 Forces i n bracings, loaded by h o r i z o n t a l forces 382 12.8.3 T r e a t m e n t of w o o d poles 461

12.5.4.4 Forces i n bracings, loaded by a s y m m e t r i c a l v e r t i c a l forces 383 12.9 L o a d i n g and failing tests 461
12.5.4.5 Forces i n bracings, loaded by t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t s 383 12.9.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 461
12.5.4.6 T o t a l forces i n bracings 384 12.9.2 F o u n d a t i o n s for s u p p o r t u n d e r test 462
12.5.4.7 Forces i n h o r i z o n t a l m e m b e r s at t o w e r w a i s t 384 12.9.3 M a t e r i a l for t h e t o w e r u n d e r test 462
12.5.4.8 Forces i n h o r i z o n t a l bracings w i t h i n t h e t o w e r b o d y 385 12.9.4 F a b r i c a t i o n of t h e p r o t o t y p e t o w e r u n d e r test 463
12.5.4.9 Forces i n leg e x t e n s i o n s 385 12.9.5 Strain measurements 463
12.5.4.10 Forces i n crossarm m e m b e r s 386 12.9.6 Assembly and erection 463
12.5.5 A n a l y s i s of m e m b e r forces at a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m 387 12.9.7 Test loads 463
1 2 . 5 . 5 . 1 B a s i c a p p r o a c h o f t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d 387 12.9.8 Load application 464
12.5.5.2 A p p l i c a t i o n t o t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l truss s t r u c t u r e systems 395 12.9.9 Load procedure 464
12.5.6 C o m p a r i s o n of computations at plane a n d three-dimensional systems . 396 12.9.10 Load measurement 464
XXII Contents Contents XXIII

12.9.11 Deflections 464 13.4.4.6 Steel reinforced pad and chimney foundation 519
12.9.12 Acceptance and failures 465 13.4.4.7 Foundations i n rock 521
12.9.13 Destruction test 465 13.4.5 A n c h o r i n g o f leg m e m b e r stubs 523
12.9.14 Disposition o f test tower 465 13.4.6 F o u n d a t i o n for guyed towers 524
12.9.15 Test report 465 13.4.6.1 A c t i n g loads 524
12.10 References 466 13.4.6.2 Central footings 524
13.4.6.3 Foundations for guy wires 525
13 F o u n d a t i o n s 471 13.4.6.4 F i e l d tests • 526
13.0 Symbols 471 13.5 Testing o f foundations 527
13.1 Requirements and preconditions 472 13.5.1 Definitions and object 527
13.2 T y p e s o f subsoils 4 7 3 13.5.2 Categories o f tests 527
13.2.1 Classification o f soil 4 7 3 13.5.3 Foundation installation 528
13.2.2 U n d i s t u r b e d natural soil 4 7 4 13.5.4 Testing equipment 528
13.2.3 Rock 4 7 5 13.5.5 Testing procedure . . .• 529
13.2.4 Filled-up soil 4 7 5 13.5.6 Test evaluation and acceptance criteria 531
13.3 Subsoil investigation 4 7 5 13.5.7 Uplift load tests o n construction a n d test piles 532
13.3.1 Purpose o f subsoil investigation 4 7 5 13.6 References 534
13.3.2 M e t h o d s for obtaining soil samples 476
13.3.2.1 T y p e o f samples 476 14 S a g a n d t e n s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s 539
13.3.2.2 Trial pits 476 14.0 Symbols 539
13.3.2.3 Exploratory borings 4 7 7 14.1 Basis 5 4 0

13.3.2.4 Soil investigation b y drilling probes 478 14.2 Sags described b y the catenary curve 540
13.3.3 Probes 4 7 8 I^O t1 1 rti- . - n i . : . . ^ Mir.ra ao Q r\!) t-<J Krai ,1 544
13.3.3.1 Types o f probes 478 L*±.0 VUUUULWJl o a g g l i i g a i u »a Jx> ax ^mu.^u»oi
13.3.3.2 Driven probes 478 14.4 S p a n w i t h d i f f e r i n g a t t a c h m e n t levels 546
13.3.3.3 S t a n d a r d penetration test 480 14.5 Conductor state change equation 546
13.3.3.4 Van-type probes 480 14.6 Span w i t h concentrated loads 549

13.3.3.5 Compression probes 480 14.7 S p a n w i t h t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a t b o t h e n d s 551

13.3.4 E v a l u a t i o n o f soil investigation 481 14.8 Conductor forces a n d sags i n a t e n s i o n i n g section 553
14.8.1 Introduction 553
13.3.4.1 Classification and description o f soil types 481
14.8.2 Conductor state i n spans w i t h end points movable in line direction . . 554
13.3.4.2 Classification o f rock 483
14.8.3 Conductor stresses a n d sags i n case o f i n v e r t e d V - i n s u l a t o r sets . . . . 556
13.3.4.3 Concrete-aggressive w a t e r a n d soils 485
14.8.4 Conductor s t a t e c h a n g e e q u a t i o n f o ra t e n s i o n i n g section 557
13.3.4.4 Borehole log 485
14.8.5 C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m for conductor state change i n a tensioning section . 562
13.3.4.5 Graphical representation 487
14.8.6 A p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a e o f sags a t i c e l o a d i n o n e s p a n o n l y 562
13.4 Design and calculation o f foundations 488
14.9 Clearances t o ground and t o objects 563
13.4.1 T y p e o f foundation and load 488
14.9.1 Requirements 563
13.4.2 Soil characteristics 489
14.9.2 Calculation o f clearance t o ground 564
13.4.3 Compact foundations 490
14.9.3 Calculation o f the clearance t o a crossed road 565
13.4.3.1 Definition 490
14.9.4 Calculation o f clearance t o a crossed line 567
13.4.3.2 Monoblock foundations 491
14.10 References 570
13.4.3.3 Monoblock foundations w i t h o u t base enlargement 492
13.4.3.4 Monoblock foundation w i t h base enlargement 494 15 R o u t e s e l e c t i o n a n d d e t a i l e d l i n e d e s i g n 573
13.4.3.5 Slab foundations 495 15.0 Symbols 573
13.4.3.6 Single grillage foundation 499 15.1 Introduction 573
13.4.3.7 Single pile foundations 499 15.1.1 Basic i n f o r m a t i o n 573
13.4.3.8 F o u n d a t i o n o f self-supporting timber poles 502 15.1.2 P r e l i m i n a r y activities 574
13.4.4 Separate foundations 502 15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 575
13.4.4.1 Definition 502 15.2.1 Introduction 575
13.4.4.2 Stepped block foundations 503 15.2.1.1 General aspects a n d guidelines 575
13.4.4.3 Auger-bored and excavated foundations 507 15.2.1.2 A l t e r n a t i v e line designs 577
13.4.4.4 Separate grillage foundations 511 15.2.1.3 Conversion o f existing lines 577
13.4.4.5 Pile foundations 512 15.2.1.4 Underground transmission 577
 15.2.2 Regulatory controls a n d p e r m i t procedures 578 15.5.2 Establishing the longitudinal profile 611
15.2.2.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 578 15.5.3 Establishing the plan layout 614
15.2.2.2 Permits 578 15.5.4 Graphical Information System with integrated data bank 616
15.2.2.3 Regulations, approvals and procedures 578 15.5.5 A d m i n i s t r a t i o no f plans, lists and documents 617
15.2.2.4 Compensations 579 15.6 References 617
15.2.3 E n v i r o n m e n t a l impact assessment 580
15.2.3.1 O u t l i n e o f t h e process 580 1 6 Construction 6 2 4

15.2.3.2 E n v i r o m e n t a l impact studies 581 16.0 Symbols 621

15.2.3.3 E x i s t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h o u t t h e l i n e project 581 16.1 Construction planning 622
15.2.3.4 Reference a l t e r n a t i v e 583 16.1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n . 622
15.2.3.5 Environmental impacts o fa new line 583 16.1.2 C o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e schedule 622
15.2.4 R o u t e selection a n d l i n e design i nv i e w o f v i s u a l i m p a c t 583 16.1.3 Mobilisation and stockyard 623
15.2.4.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 583 16.2 Transportation 624
15.2.4.2 Conceptual approaches 584 16.2.1 M e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t 624
15.2.4.3 Assessment through qualitative methods 584 16.2.2 Access roads 625
15.2.4.4 Assessment through quantitative methods 584 16.2.3 Fences, gates a n d cattle-guards 625
15.2.4.5 R o u t i n g for m i n i m u m visual impact 585 16.3 Construction o ffoundations 625
15.2.4.6 V i s u a l i z a t i o n o f n e w lines 587 16.3.1 Introduction 625
15.2.4.7 D e s i g n o f c o m p o n e n t s t o reduce v i s u a l i m p a c t 588 16.3.2 Concrete foundations black a n d slab foundations 625
15.2.5 R o u t e selection i n v i e w o f people 591 16.3.3 Augerbored foundations 626
15.2.6 R o u t e selection a n d l i n e design i nv i e w o f ecological s y s t e m s 591 16.3.4 D r i v e n pile foundations 627
15.2.6.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 591 16.3.4.1 C o m m o n rules 627
15.2.6.2 Impacts o n avifauna 591 16.3.4.2 Steel piles 628
15.2.6.3 Impacts on wild animals 592 16.3.4.3 Steel piles grouted b y m o r t a r 628
15.2.6.4 Impacts o n vegetation 593 16.3.4.4 Testing 629
15.2.6.5 Conservation and wilderness areas 593 16.3.5 Grillage foundations 629
15.2.7 R o u t e selection i n v i e w o f l a n d use 593 16.3.6 Anchor foundations 630
15.2.7.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 593 16.3.7 Concrete forfoundations 631
15.2.7.2 A g r i c u l t u r a lareas 593 16.3.7.1 R e a d y - m i x e d a n d site-mixed concrete 631
15.2.7.3 Forestry 594 16.3.7.2 Constituent materials 631
15.2.7.4 I n d u s t r i a l areas a n d infrastructure developments 594 16.3.7.3 Requirements o n concrete a n d concrete properties 633
15.2.7.5 U r b a n areas 595 16.3.7.4 R e a d y - m i x e d concrete 636
15.3 Survey o n site 595 16.3.7.5 Site-mixed concrete 636
15.3.1 Steps o f survey 595 16.3.7.6 H a n d l i n g a n d placing the concrete 638
15.3.2 Survey procedures a n d instruments adopted 596 16.3.7.7 C u r i n g the concrete 638
15.3.2.1 D i r e c t survey i nt h e terrain 596 16.3.7.8 M e t h o d s for verification o f concrete properties 639
15.3.2.2 Indirect line survey 598 16.3.7.9 Quality supervision and quality management 639
15.3.2.3 Terrain data banks 600 16.4 Installation o f earthing 640
15.3.3 Survey o f angle points a n d line alignment 600 16.5 S e t t i n g o f tower stubs o r bases 641
15.3.4 Survey o f terrain profile 601 16.5.1 Methods and tools 641
15.3.5 Location o f supports 601 16.5.2 Inclination o f angle and dead-end towers 642
15.3.6 Survey o f existing lines 601 16.6 Erection o f supports 645
15.4 Line design and establishing o fplans 603 16.6.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 645
15.4.1 Clearances 603 16.6.2 Assembly and erection b y elevation 645
15.4.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f support locations, tower types a n d heights 605 16.6.3 Tower erection using a crane 645
15.4.2.1 E v a l u a t i o n o f the profile survey 605 16.6.4 Tower erection b y means o f a gin pole 646
15.4.2.2 Basis and relevant parameters 605 16.6.4.1 Procedures 646
15.4.2.3 M a n u a l t o w e r s p o t t i n g 606 16.6.4.2 Erection w i t h a gin pole outside the tower 646
15.4.2.4 T o w e r s p o t t i n g a n d o p t i m i z a t i o n b y m e a n s o f d a t a processing . . . 607 16.6.4.3 Erection w i t h gin pole i nthe tower centre 647
15.4.3 D o c u m e n t a t i o n o f lines 610 16.6.4.4 E r e c t i o n w i t h a g i n pole i nt h e t o w e r a t a l e gm e m b e r 648
15.5 D a t a processing f o r line design a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n 611 16.6.5 Erection o f guyed towers 648
15.5.1 D a t a processing systems f o r p l a n n i n g o f overhead lines 611 16.6.5.1 H o i s t i n g o f a crossarm using a g i n pole 648
 Contents X X V I I
X X V I Contents

16.6.6 T o w e r erection u s i n g helicopters 649 17.2 Operation 6 8 6

16.6.6.1 M a n u a l m e t h o d 650 17.2.1 R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g o f conductor a m p a c i t y 686

16.6.6.2 Use o f a n auxiliary m a s t 650 17.2.1.1 Targets and benefits 6 8 6

16.6.6.3 E r e c t i o n b y cranes 651 17.2.1.2 Direct methods 6 8 7

16.6.7 B o l t s a n d torques 652 17.2.1.3 I n d i r e c t m e t h o d s • 6 8 8

16.7 I n s t a l l a t i o n o f i n s u l a t o r sets a n d h a r d w a r e 653 17.2.1.4 E x a m p l e s a n d experience 9 8 8

16.7.1 I n s u l a t o r sets 653 17.2.2 T h u n d e r s t o r m m o n i t o r i n g a n d forecast 8 8 9

16.7.2 J o i n t s 653 17.2.3 I c eobservations 6 9 0

16.8 Conductor stringing 653 17.2.4 G a l l o p i n g alerting s y s t e m 8 9 i

16.8.1 G e n e r a l requirements 653 17.2.5 I n s u l a t o r c o n t a m i n a t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e . . . 691

16.8.2 Stringingmethods 654 17.3 Asset management 8 9 3

16.8.3 Conductor stringing equipment 655 17.3.1 Definitions - 6 9 3

16.8.3.1 Requirements 655 17.3.2 I n t r o d u c t i o n a n d targets 6 9 4

16.8.3.2 Pulling ropes 655 17.3.3 R i s k m a n a g e m e n t o f line assets 6 9 4

16.8.3.3 R o p e connections 656 17.3.4 N e t present value o f a n n u a l expenditures 695

16.8.3.4 S t r i n g i n gblocks 657 17.3.5 P l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s 6 9 5

16.8.3.5 P u l l e r for c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g 657 17.3.6 R i s k o f failure 6 9 6

16.8.3.6 Tensioner 659 17.3.7 Consequences o f a failure 8 9 8

16.8.3.7 R e e l stands 660 17.3.8 O v e r h e a d line asset m a n a g e m e n t process 697

16.8.4 C o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g 660 17.3.9 D a t a b a s e 8 9 8

16.8.4.1 Preparations 660 17.3.10 M a n a g e m e n t options 8 9 9

17.3.11 E x a m p l e o n m a n a g e m e n t o f risk o f failure 700

16.8.4.2 Stringingprocedure 661
1 - 7 0 1 1 1 TO-.™,. T l n f o 700
16.8.4.3 Sagging the conductors 662 ll.J.ll.l lit,. Ill- Utllu

16.8.4.4 Terminating the conductors 663 17.3.11.2 C a l c u l a t i o n o f p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s a n d risks 700

16.8.4.5 Clipping-in o f conductors 663 17.3.11.3 M a n a g e m e n t o p t i o n s a n d assessment 701
16.8.4.6 Installation o fj u m p e r loops 664 17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 702
16.8.4.7 Installation o f dampers a n d bundle spacers 664 17.4.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 702
16.8.4.8 Conductor replacement 664 17.4.2 I n s p e c t i o n 703
16.8.4.9 Stringingconductors with optical fibres 665 17.4.2.1 Reasons a n d procedures for inspections 703
16.8.4.10 Installation o f conductors adjacent t o o r crossing energized lines . . 6 6 5 17.4.2.2 I n s p e c t i o n classification a n d frequency 704
16.8.5 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n i t i a l sags 666 17.4.2.3 F o u n d a t i o n s a n d stubs 706
16.8.5.1 R e q u i r e m e n t s 666 17.4.2.4 S u p p o r t s i n c l u d i n g corrosion p r o t e c t i o n 707
16.8.5.2 Position o f the conductor o n stringingblocks and i n clamps . . . . 666 17.4.2.5 C o n d u c t o r s 708
16.8.5.3 I m p a c t o f conductor creep 670 17.4.2.6 J o i n t s a n d fittings 711
16.8.5.4 E x a m p l e : Sagging d a t a for a noverhead line i n a m o u n t a i n o u s area . 6 7 2 17.4.2.7 I n s u l a t o r s 712
16.9 References 673 17.4.2.8 Clearances 713
17.4.3 Corrective maintenance 714
17 C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d line m a n a g e m e n t 677 17.4.3.1 Strategy 714
17.0 Symbols 677 17.4.3.2 R e f u r b i s h m e n t a n d u p g r a d i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s 714
17.1 Commissioning 677 17.4.3.3 R e n e w a l o f c o a t i n g , r e p l a c e m e n t o f t o w e r c o m p o n e n t s 714
17.1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 677 17.4.3.4 R e p a i r o f c o n d u c t o r s 715
17.1.2 S u p e r v i s i o n o f a p p r o v a l , design a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g stage 678 1 7 . 4 . 3 . 5 R e p l a c e m e n t o f i n s u l a t o r s , fittings, d a m p e r s a n d s p a c e r s 715
17.1.3 Supervision and acceptance o f construction 679 17.4.3.5.1 Tasks a n d priorities 715
17.1.4 Final inspection and acceptance 681 17.4.3.5.2 D e a d - l i n e w o r k 716
17.1.5 Quality assurance 682 17.4.3.5.3 L i v e - l i n e w o r k 716
17.1.6 Performance tests 682 17.4.3.6 C l e a r i n g o f r i g h t - o f - w a y , t r i m m i n g o f trees 717
17.1.6.1 M e a s u r e m e n t s o f tower e a r t h i n g resistance 682 17.4.3.7 Access roads 719
17.1.6.2 P o w e r losses a n d electrical resistance o f c o n d u c t o r s 682 17.4.3.8 E a r t h i n g 719
17.1.6.3 L i n e energization test 684 17.4.4 I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f line failures 719
1 7 . 1 . 6 . 4 E l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields ( E M F ) 685 17.4.4.1 General 719
17.1.6.5 V i b r a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s 685 17.4.4.2 Causes o f failure 719
17.1.7 E n e r g i z a t i o n a n d c o m m e n c e o f o p e r a t i o n 686 17.4.4.3 I n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s 720
A A V H i contents

17.4.4.4 E x p e r i e n c e o n line failures 721 1 O v e r a l l p l a n n i n g

17.5 Reliabilityand availability 723
17.5.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n a n d definitions 723
17.5.2 Energy availability, general description and guidelines 725
17.5.2.1 A v a i l a b i l i t y 725
17.5.2.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f energy availability, e x a m p l e 726
1.0 Symbols
17.6 Line refurbishment, upgrading and uprating 727
Symbols Signification
17.6.1 Definitions 727
A A l u m i n i u m cross section o f t h e conductor
17.6.2 Uprating 728
-^AC t ^ D C Current o f A C o r D C line
17.6.2.1 C u r r e n t u p r a t i n g 728
K2C Investment o f a double circuit overhead line
17.6.2.2 U p r a t i n g b y reconductoring o r voltage increase 728 Investment o f a single circuit overhead line
K1C
17.6.2.3 R e p l a c e m e n t o f e a r t h w i r e b y optical cables ( O P G W ) 729 KIC Investment o fa four-circuit overhead line
17.6.3 • U p g r a d i n g 729 n2 N u m b e r o f subconductors per bundle
17.6.3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 729 UN Rated voltage
17.6.3.2 Upgrading o f a 380/220 k V river crossing i n G e r m a n y 729 UAC, UDG Voltage o f an A Co rD C line
17.6.3.3 U p g r a d i n g o f a 3 8 0 / 1 1 0 k Vline i n v i e w o f increased ice loads . . . 730 PAC Power o fa three-phase A C line
PDC Power o f a D C bipolar line
17.7 References 731
6 Power angle
Index 735

1.1 Development stages of a transmission project

O v e r h e a d transmission o felectric power has been along the years a n d w i l l still continue
o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s o f t o d a y ' s e l e c t r i c p o w e r s y s t e m s . Power transmis-
sion f r o m g e n e r a t i n g s t a t i o n s t o i n d u s t r i a l s i t e s a n d t o s u b s t a t i o n s i s t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
object o f the transmission systems. T h i s function is accomplished b y overhead trans-
mission lines that connect the power plants i n t o the transmission network, interconnect
v a r i o u s areas o f t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k s , i n t e r c o n n e c t o n eelectric u t i l i t y w i t h a n o t h e r ,
o r d e l i v e r t h e e l e c t r i c p o w e r from v a r i o u s a r e a s w i t h i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k t o t h e
distribution substations, f r o m which the distribution systems supply residential a n d
commercial consumers.
T h e planning studies t a k e a l e a d i n g r o l e i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a n e l e c t r i c s y s t e m o r i n i t s
expansion. D u e t o the several variables involved i n the process, t h e p l a n n i n g activities
have t o start several years before a n e w installation o r a nexpansion o f a n existing one
is p l a n n e d t o b e i m p l e m e n t e d .
So, a transmission line project m a y b e considered asbeing initiated w i t h some planning
activities long before its execution can b e started. Several stages are usually necessary
i n s i d e a p o w e r u t i l i t y b e f o r e a n e w t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m from i t s c o n c e p t i o n u n t i l i t s
completion is energized. T h e conception o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n line a n d o f the associated
s u b s t a t i o n s s t a r t s i n t h e long-term planning w i t h i n i t i a l s y s t e m e v a l u a t i o n s a n d c o n t i n -
u e s w i t h f u r t h e r s t e p s o f medium-term planning a n d finally w i t h t h e d e t a i l e d d e f i n i t i o n
o f t h e line a n d t h e n t h e g r a n t i n g o f o p e r a t i o n licence a n d approval.
For completing the preliminary studies o f a new line, some complementary studies o f
p e r f o r m a n c e a s s e s s m e n t a r e c a r r i e d o u t s u c h a s ( s e e [ 1 . 1 , 1 . 2 , 1.3]):
— Reactive compensation needs,
— Load flows a n d stability,
— Transposition needs,
— Switching surge overvoltages and
— Reliability e v a l u a t i o n .
Finally, t h e line owner proceeds t o t h e line basic design a n d t h e n the detailed design,
w i t h a l l associated a c t i v i t i e s . T h e last stages consist i ne s t a b l i s h i n g t h e r i g h t s - o f - w a y ,
p e r f o r m i n g a n d a p p r o v i n g environmental impact studies a n d p r o v i d i n g i n d e m n i f i c a t i o n
to t h e l a n d o w n e r s affected b y t h e n e w line i norder t o o b t a i n their agreement. O n l y
2 1 Overall planning 1.3 P l a n n i n g m e t h o d s 3

T a b l e 1.1: Classification o f transmission planning lines a n d substations. A reference e x p a n s i o n p r o g r a m i s established, depending u p o n

I .fin ff.tprm Medium-term
c o m p l e m e n t a r y studies f o rs o m e areas o r specified links.
Operation (short-term)
l-J\Jll g I.L-i 111
r^lanniriCT planning planning A s i nt h e preceding case, such p l a n n i n g s h o u l d b e c o n t i n u o u s l y revised d e p e n d i n g o n
1 Ll LI L. 1 1 1 L.
Horizon (years) 15 10 3 the variations that can occur i nthe economic environment, the energy market, energy
Problems to be required power, required power, required power, i n d u s t r y o r i nt h e generation p r o g r a m .
considered overloads, overloads, overloads,
stability. stability, stability,
voltage levels,
Operation o r short-term planning
voltage levels.
short circuit. short circuit. Operation o r short-term planning i s a c o n t i n u o u s o p e r a t i o n a l t o o l t h a t a u t i l i t y o r a n y
Parameters to capacity (ratings), capacity (ratings), list of operational system o w n e r should manage i norder t o keep t h e quality o f t h e energy supply inside
be defined voltage levels, losses, constrains, the requir ements o f the consumers o r according t o the contracts o f public o r private
terminal areas, operative voltages, needs to uprate or service. T h e r e f o r e , t h e h o r i z o n t o b e analysed is u s u a l l y below t h r e e years a n d urgent
approximate years. terminal substations, upgrade lines,
requirements o f the system are established, such as anticipation o f operation dates o f
years of operation. anticipating of
programmed facilities. n e w f a c i l i t i e s , n e e d s t o u p r a t e o r u p g r a d e e x i s t i n g lines etc.
Model size area or supply interconnected utility system.
region. system.
1.2.3 P l a n n i n g aspects regarding transmission lines

Answers should b e obtained f r o m planning studies t o the following questions:

then survey and construction c a nlegally b e started and carried out until completion. - W h e n a n e w t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e o r t h e uprating o r upgrading o f e x i s t i n g l i n e s w i l l
T h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g o f the line and start-up o f operation ends the process.
be required?
- W h e r e i s i t r e q u i r e d a n d w h a t quality of supply o r reliability is required?
1.2 Transmission planning - W h a t n o r m a l and emergency ratings are required?
- W h a t t y p e o ft r a n s m i s s i o n should b e used? O v e r h e a d lines o r u n d e r g r o u n d cables,
1.2.1 Objective D C o r A C lines?
- W h a t voltage a n d how m a n y circuits will b e needed?
T h e transmission planning i s p u r p o s e d t o d e f i n e a t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m o r i t s e x p a n s i o n s
so a s t o c o m p l y w i t h t h e electric e n e r g y d e m a n d a t specified q u a l i t y a n d r e l i a b i l i t y c r i t e -
r i a a t a m i n i m u m c o s t . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e planning process s h o u l d b e c o n t i n u o u s 1.3 P l a n n i n g methods
as e v e r y p l a n r e p r e s e n t s a s e t o f e x i s t i n g perspectives a t t h e m o m e n t a s f a r as f u t u r e
evolution isconcerned. Beside that the process has a ninteractive structure because the 1.3.1 D a t a acquisition and preparation
m e d i u m - t e r m needs o f a system have t o b e fulfilled so as t o m a k e a noptimized f u t u r e
evolution possible. Market forecast
T h e p e r i o d o f t i m e required t oo b t a i n sites for constructing n e w power plants as w e l l as
n e w substations and overhead lines varies f r o m three t o t e n o r m o r e years. These long
1.2.2 P l a n n i n g stages
l e a d t i m e s r e q u i r e t h a t d e c i s i o n s n e e d t o b e m a d e b a s e d o n l o n g - t e r m load forecasts.
Table 1.1 shows a s u m m a r y o f the different kinds o f p l a n n i n g and the m a i n variables W e l f a r e a n d progress o f a m o d e r n society d e p e n d so heavily o n t h e availability o f
that are defined i n each o ft h e m . I t should b e emphasized t h a t the definition o f planning electric energy t h a t a utility h a st o ascertain t h a t sufficient generating capacity w i l l
stages is somehow a r b i t r a r y a n d c a n v a r y according t o reality o f each system, utility b e a v a i l a b l e a t t h e r e q u i r e d s i t e s w h e n t h e c l i e n t s n e e d i t . S o a g o o d market forecast
or transmission operator. should establish:
- T o t a l energy market and load distribution a t busbars,
Long-term planning
Long-term planning i s a n i m p o r t a n t t o o l i n s i d e a p o w e r u t i l i t y a s i t d e f i n e s t h e b a s i c - R e a c t i v e p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s (not r e q u i r e d i nl o n g - t e r m studies) (see [1.1]).
f u t u r e s t r u c t u r e o f a n electric system, including transmission links. I t comprises a long-
t e r m h o r i z o n f o rt h e s y s t e m p l a n n i n g i n t h e range o f 15 t o 3 0 years. Generation
T h e long-term planning allows identifying the m a i n variables o f system development,
Regarding the generating capacity o f a utility, long- and m e d i u m - t e r m studies should
the expected composition o f the generating plants and the needs o f introducing n e w
establish.:
transmission backbones and o f developing n e w technologies. T h i s p l a n n i n g should b e
d y n a m i c a n ds h o u l d b e subjected t o revisions w h e n significant changes occur i n t h e - List o f power plants considered inside the study horizon,
strategic o r macroeconomic variables. D e r e g u l a t i o n a n dr e s t r u c t u r i n g o f the electric - N u m b e r o f generating units, their ratings and operational Limits,
energy i n d u s t r y m a k e l o n g - t e r m p l a n n i n g m o r e difficult (see [1.4]). - Active power t o b e supplied b y every machine,
- R o t a t i n g reserves a n d u n i t s a t m a i n t e n a n c e o r a t s t a n d - s t i l l a n d
- P o w e r interchange a m o n g companies o r regions.
M e d i u m - t e r m planning
Existing n e t w o r k and preferential characteristics
Medium-term planning c o m p r i s i n g a target horizon i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 0 t o 1 5 y e a r s Other d a t a t o b e gathered include:
usually defines basic characteristics o f a s y s t e m such as voltages, m a i n t r a n s m i s s i o n - Configuration and general characteristics o f the existing system,
 — Preferential line routes, considering availability,investments and environmental or i n a n o t h e r n e i g h b o u r i n g interconnected s y s t e m . I t s h o u l d b e differentiated b e t w e e n
impacts and steady-state and transient conditions o fa system, w h e n designing i t .
— Preferential characteristics: Voltages, frequencies, type o f transmission, parame-
ters. 1.4.2 C r i t e r i a for s t e a d y - s t a t e c o n d i t i o n s '

T h e system should b e tested for heavy-load a n d light-load conditions a n d should sup-

1.3.2 F o r m u l a t i o n a n d preselection of a l t e r n a t i v e s port the non-simultaneous outage o f any one o f its components w h a t is k n o w n as the
Alternatives f o rexpansion o f a transmission s y s t e m inside the horizon o f the study (n— 1 ) criterion.
u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n a r e b r o u g h t a b o u t as f a r a s b o o s t i n g o rr e i n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e e x i s t i n g T h e first a n d m o r e i m p o r t a n t s t u d y t o b e c a r r i e d o u t i s t h e e x e c u t i o n o f load flow r u n s
s y s t e m is concerned. A simplified technical a n d economical e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e alternatives t h a t are p e r f o r m e d t oevaluate voltages o nt h e bus bars, loads i n t r a n s m i s s i o n lines a n d
for the horizon covered b y the investigation is carried out t o reduce t h e number o f t r a n s f o r m e r s a n d losses. T h e u s u a l ranges o f t h e r e l e v a n t p a r a m e t e r s a r e :
alternatives t o b e detailed a n d t opreselect m o s t p r o m i s i n g alternatives. — voltage range: b e t w e e n 0 , 9 5 a n d 1 , 0 5 p . u . ,
— transformer loads:
- N o r m a l conditions: n o overload,
1.3.3 Electrical studies
- Loss o fa transmission line o r generator unit: 2 0 % overload,
T h e b a s i c e l e c t r i c d e s i g n o f a n A C s y s t e m i n v o l v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g electrical studies or - Loss o fa transformer: 4 0 % overload.
definitions:
— P o w e r flow r e q u i r e m e n t s , 1.4.3 C r i t e r i a for t e m p o r a r y a n d t r a n s i e n t c o n d i t i o n s
— System stability a n d dynamic performance,
— S e l e c t i o n o f voltage level a n d o p t i m i z a t i o n s t u d i e s , , Stability
— V o l t a g e a n d reactive power flow control, System stability i s r e q u i r e d u n d e r a n y l o a d c o n d i t i o n i n c a s e o f p h a s e t o g r o u n d s h o r t
— Conductor selection, circuit w i t h o u t reclosing, considering t h e loss o f one o f t h e s y s t e m c o m p o n e n t s .
— Losses,
— Corona performance (audible, radio and television noise), Overvoltages
— Electromagnetic field effects, T e m p o r a r y overvoltages should not cause damage t oany system equipment. T h e follow-
— Reliabilityevaluation, i n g c a s e s a r e a n a l y s e d : load rejection, unbalanced fault, closing operations, line dropping
— I n s u l a t i o na n d overvoltage design, and load switching.
— Switching arrangements, T h e m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e temporary overvoltages are i n t h e ranges of:
— Circuit breaker duties and - 140 % i n p o i n t s w i t h s a t u r a b l e e q u i p m e n t and
— S h o r t c i r c u i t a n d protective relaying. - 150 % i n other points.

1.3.4 E c o n o m i c s t u d i e s a n d final e v a l u a t i o n Short circuit

Short circuit p o w e r s a n d c u r r e n t s h a v e t o b e a s s e s s e d a s a c c u r a t e l y a s p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r
T h e preselected alternatives that satisfied t h e basic electric criteria are evaluated i n to prevent exceeding the equipment capacity o f the system and installations.
c o s t a n d t h e present worth of investment a n d annual losses i s d e t e r m i n e d i n o r d e r t o
obtain the most economical alternatives.
A final s t u d y o f e c o n o m i c f e a s i b i l i t y a n d a sensitivity analysis a r e c a r r i e d o u t o n t h e
1.5 Evolution and selection of voltage levels
preselected alternatives, t a k i n g into account a cost-benefit evaluation comprising:
1.5.1 E v o l u t i o n of transmission voltages
— Investment,
— Maintenance, I n 1 8 9 1 , O s k a r v o n M i l l e r b u i l t t h e first t h r e e - p h a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e b e t w e e n L a u f f e n
— A v a i l a b i l i t y o f energy, and Frankfurt i n G e r m a n y o n the occasion o f inauguration o f an electrotechnical e x -
— L o a d m a r k e t and revenues and h i b i t i o n . A power o f a b o u t 200 k Wwas t r a n s m i t t e d b y a 175 k m long 15 k Vline a t
— Losses a n d reliability benefits. 4 0 H z [1.6, 1.7].
Finally, the o p t i m u m a l t e r n a t i v e is selected based n o t o n l y o n technical a n d economic F i g u r e 1 . 1 s h o w s t h e evolution of voltage levels. S o m e i m p o r t a n t m i l e s t o n e s c a n b e
analysis b u t often considering also subjective points such as experience o f t h e utility, mentioned:
l o c a l s t a n d a r d s , a v a i l a b i l i t yo f s p a r e p a r t s etc. (see a l s o [1.5]). - 1 8 9 1 : first t h r e e - p h a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n b e t w e e n L a u f f e n a n d F r a n k f u r t , i n G e r m a n y ;
- 1911: 110 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n line between L a u c h h a m m e r a n d Riesa, i n G e r m a n y ;
- 1929: 220 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n between B r a u w e i l e r a n d Hoheneck, i n G e r m a n y ;
1.4 Planning criteria - 1932: 287 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n between B o u l d e r d a m a n d L o s Angeles, i n U S A ;
- 1952: 380 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n between H a r s p r a n g e t a n d Halsberg, i n Sweden;
1.4.1 General
- 1965: 725 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n between M a n i c o u a g a n a n d M o n t r e a l , i n C a n a d a ;
O n e o f the basic criteria t h a t should b e established i na s y s t e m p l a n n i n g is t h a t n o - 1985: 1200 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n b e t w e e n E k i b a s t u z a n d K o k c h e t a v , i n t h e f o r m e r
load can b e lost under occurrence o f a simple contingency i n t h e s y s t e m being studied Soviet U n i o n .
6 1Overall planning 1.5 E v o l u t i o n a n d s e l e c t i o n o f v o l t a g e l e v e l s 7

Table 1 . 2 : N o m i n a l voltages
and corresponding highest system
v o l t a g e s a c c o r d i n g to I E C 6 0 0 3 8
Nominal Highest system
voltage voltage
(kV) (kV)
3 3,6
6 7,2
10 12
15 17,5
20 2 4
30 36
45 5 2
50 72,5
60 72,5
F i g u r e 1 . 1 : Development of 63 72,5
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 transmission voltages o f three- 66 7 2 , 5
Year of inauguration phase A C networks 70 82,5
90 100
110 1 2 3
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 6 0 0 7 1 [ 1 . 8 ] a n d g e n e r a l u s e , t h e f o l l o w i n g voltage classification is 132 1 4 5
considered: 150 1 7 0 Length —
220 2 4 5
- B e l o w 1 k V : Low Voltage ( L V ) , F i g u r e 1 . 2 : Voltage selection for transmission
225 245
- B e t w e e n 1 k V a n d 4 5 k V : Medium Voltage ( M V ) , 275 300 of electric energy
- B e t w e e n 4 5 k V a n d 3 0 0 k V : High Voltage ( H V ) , 380 4 2 0
- B e t w e e n 3 0 0 k V a n d 7 5 0 k V : Extra-High Voltage ( E H V ) , 400 420
480 525
- A b o v e 8 0 0 k V : Ultra-High Voltage ( U H V ) .
700 765
W h i l e i n C e n t r a l a n d W e s t E u r o p e t h e h i g h e s t o p e r a t i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e is 4 0 0 k V ,
as s h o w n a b o v e , 5 0 0 k V a n d 8 0 0k V h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f
the w o r l d , as i n Canada, C h i n a , U S A , Brazil, Russia, S o u t h Africa a n d India.T h e T a b l e 1 . 3 : Electric characteristics o f A C lines
t r a n s m i s s i o n voltage 1200 k Vhas been used i n the f o r m e r Soviet U n i o n a n d today i n Rated voltage k V 20 110 220 380 500 750
Kasachstan, w h i l e i n Japan transmission lines w i t h t h a t voltage are under construction Highest operation voltage in kV 24 123 245 420 525 765
[1.9]. T h e r e a r e p r e s e n t l y n o p l a n s for A C t r a n s m i s s i o n s w i t h v o l t a g e s a b o v e 1200 k V . Rated aluminum area in m m 2 50 230 435 Bundle Bundle Bundle
2 x 572 3 x 483 4 x 658
Conductor diameter in mm 9,6 21,5 28,8 2 x 32,9 3 x 29,6 4 x 35,2
1.5.2 I n t r o d u c t i o n of transmission voltages Steady state current (at 80° C
conductor temperature) in A 210 630 900 2100 2850 4380
T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n lines are t h e connecting links between t h e generating s t a t i o n a n d the
Thermal limit power in MVA 7 120 340 1380 2470 5690
d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s , as w e l l a s l i n k s b e t w e e n t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
Surge impedance in Q 400 375 365 284 276 259
s y s t e m s s u p p l y i n d i v i d u a l c o n s u m e r s o r localities. T h e voltage levels o f t r a n s m i s s i o n
Surge impedance load in MW 32 135 500 910 2170
lines, either overhead o r cables, are selected according t o t h e power t o b e t r a n s m i t t e d
to a certain area o r supplied t o a consumer.
T h e advantage o f higher levels o f t r a n s m i s s i o n line voltage clearly appears w h e n con- use for t r a n s m i t t i n g h i g h blocks o f power, r a n g i n g f r o m 500 u n t i l 4000 M V A per circuit,
sideration i s given t o t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g capability o f a line, w h i c h increases w i t h t h e as w e l l a s f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g g r i d s . B e s i d e s t h ev o l t a g e s s t a n d a r d i z e d b y I E C , t h e
square o f the voltage. n o m i n a l voltage 500 k V , h a v i n g t h e highest s y s t e m voltage 5 5 0k V has a widespread
T a b l e 1.2 s h o w s t h e v o l t a g e levels a c c o r d i n g t o [1.10]. T h e v o l t a g e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 2 use i n several countries.
to 3 0 k V are p r e d o m i n a n t l y used for supply o f d i s t r i b u t i o n loads until a r o u n d 10 M V A S t a n d a r d s I E C 6 0 0 3 8 [1.10] a n d I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 [1.8] e s t a b l i s h t w o r a n g e s o f s t a n d a r d
f o r o n e c i r c u i t . T h e r a n g e b e t w e e n 6 0 t o 1 4 5 k V i s e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r regional voltages (see T a b l e 1.2), n a m e l y
transmission o r f o rt h e supply o f large i n d i v i d u a l consumers, as well as f o r carrying - Range I : highest o p e r a t i n g voltage b e t w e e n 1 a n d 245 k V ;
p o w e r f r o m m e d i u m - s i z e power plants. T h e u p p e r power capacity o f such voltage levels - R a n g e I I : highest o p e r a t i n g voltages b e t w e e n 300 a n d 765 k V (see also [1.11]).
is a r o u n d 100 t o 150 M V A p e r c i r c u i t . T h e u l t r a - h i g h voltages ( U H V ) as e s t a b l i s h e d a n d p r e l i m i n a r i l y s t u d i e d i n [1.12] a r e
T h e v o l t a g e l e v e l s f r o m 1 4 5 t o 3 0 0 k V a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s intermediate transmission links in t h e range o f 800 t o 1500 k V . F o r s u p p l y o f t h e great m e t r o p o l i s o f T o k y o i n J a p a n
a n d are extensively used f o rinterconnecting regional systems i nareas w i t h high-load a 1100 k Vgrid is being constructed a n d will start operation between 2003 a n d 2005
concentration. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y a r e also used f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g medium-size powers [1.13], w h i l e i nR u s s i a a 1200 k V 2500 k m o v e r h e a d l i n e is already i n o p e r a t i o n f o r
(range o f 150 t o a b o u t 400 M V A ) f o r r e l a t i v e l y l o n g distances, especially i n large-size t r a n s m i t t i n g a large p o w e r b l o c k f r o m N o r t h K a s a c h s t a n t o U r a l [1.14]. F i g u r e 1.2 a n d
countries, like i n U S A , Canada, Russia and large countries i n S o u t h A m e r i c a and Asia. T a b l e 1.3 d e p i c t m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f A C t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s f o r t h e specified v o l t a g e
V o l t a g e s o f 3 8 0 , 5 0 0 a n d 7 6 5 k V a r e extra-high voltage ( E H V ) w i t h a n a l r e a d y e x t e n s i v e levels.
o J. c / v c i a n piCXlAIXAllg
W h e n selecting t h e voltage for a line, especially i n the E H V level, a t t e n t i o n should b e
given t o the aspects related t o interconnection o f systems, reliabilitya n d availability.
I n t e r c o n n e c t i o n i n c r e a s e s t h e a m o u n t o f c u r r e n t flowing w h e n a s h o r t c i r c u i t o c c u r s
a n d requires a n accurate a n d selective design o f relays, circuit breakers a n d control t o
avoid major disturbances.
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e u s eo f special schemes, such a s series capacitors, static c o m p e n s a -
t i o n , flexible alternating current transmission systems ( F A C T S ) , a s w e l l a s high-surge
impedance load l i n e s c a n p l a y a r o l e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e v o l t a g e
for a line.
I t s h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e l e c t i n g high-voltage direct current
( H V D C ) transmission for b o t h c a r r y i n g large power blocks over long distances o r for
interconnecting systems w i t h different frequencies. D Cvoltages have h a d a n increasing
use i n t h e last decades a n d lines w i t h voltages i n t h e r a n g e o f ± 200 t o ± 600 k V are
a l r e a d y i n o p e r a t i o n (see [1.12]). T h e t w o ± 6 0 0 k V l i n e s b i p o l a r o fI t a i p u a r e e x a m p l e s
able t o c a r r y a p o w e r o f 3 0 0 0 M V A p e r b i p o l e (see [1.15]).
1.6 Conductor selection
T h e selection of the conductors, t h e i r c r o s s s e c t i o n a n d a r r a n g e m e n t s i s a k e y p o i n t f o r
a transmission line, because the conductors represent between 3 0 t o 35 % o f the total
line investments. T h e choice o f the o p t i m u m conductor i s a compromise between its
m e c h a n i c a l a n d electric p r o p e r t i e s , as w e l l a s t h e i n v e s t m e n t a n d t h e cost o f t h e losses
along the life t i m e o fthe line.
Copper conductors w e r e t h e first o n e s t o b e e m p l o y e d i n o v e r h e a d l i n e s , b u t s o o n t h e y
proved t o b e technically difficult t o b e used for long spans due t o their high weight
t o s t r e n g t h ratio. Besides, t h e costs o f copper conductors were h i g h . T h e aluminium
conductors t h a t have lower conductivity t h a n copper conductors (about 6 2 % ) were
i n t r o d u c e d a r o u n d 1900 for reasons o f lower costs. H o w e v e r , t h e y were also inappro-
p r i a t e f o r u s i n g i n l o n g s p a n s b e c a u s e o f l o w s t r e n g t h . T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f aluminium
conductor steel reinforced ( A C S R ) c o m b i n e d t h e r e l a t i v e l y g o o d e l e c t r i c p r o p e r t i e s o f
a l u m i n i u m w i t h t h e h i g h s t r e n g t h o f t h e steel, a t reasonable investments.
Other conductor types have been developed along the years such as the aluminium
alloy conductors t h a t have a similar behaviour as the A C S R conductors and have n o
p r o b l e m s o fcorrosion asi t happens sometimes w i t h t h e core o fA C S R conductors w h e n
i n s t a l l e d i n aggressive e n v i r o n m e n t s (see [1.16]).
Corona performance isanother point t h a t has t o b e considered for t h e selection o f the
conductors for overhead lines. I t isa f u n c t i o n o f t h e voltage level a n d depends also o n
the line and conductor configuration.
T h e c o n d u c t o r s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d s o a s t o r e d u c e impacts of electric origin o n t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t . S u c h i m p a c t s a s e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields, r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d
audible noise have been o f g r o w i n g concern d u r i n g t h e last years. A t t e n t i o n should,
t h e r e f o r e , b e g i v e n t o t h e r e d u c t i o n o f such effects t o t o l e r a b l e l i m i t s .
U n d e r t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a l l t h e effects a n d v a r i a b l e s described a b o v e a n d t a k i n g i n t o
account t h e required p e r i o d o f life for t h e line, a n o p t i m i z a t i o n s t u d y can b e carried
o u t f o r s e l e c t i n g t h e b e s t t e c h n i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c c o n d u c t o r (see [1.5]).
S u c h a s t u d y t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e initial investments a n d a l s o t h e cost of losses a l o n g
t h e l i f e p e r i o d o f t h e l i n e , r e d u c i n g s u c h c o s t s t o t h e present value, i n o r d e r t o h a v e t h e
same base t o compare n u m b e r s for different alternatives.
It should b e emphasised t h a t other variables o f subjective n a t u r e are sometimes also
i m p o r t a n t such as s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n , difficulties o f o b t a i n i n g right-of-ways for n e w lines
i n t h e f u t u r e , p o l i t i c a l reasons etc.
1.1 s e l e c t i o n o t l i n e c o n n g u r a u o n y
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F i g u r e 1 . 3 : Towers for medium-voltage lines
1.7 Selection of line configuration
T h e selection of t h e b a s i c tower configuration f o r a n o v e r h e a d l i n e d e p e n d s o n v a r i o u s
parameters starting w i t h the voltage, the n u m b e r o f circuits per tower, including the
t y p e o f conductors o r b u n d l e s t o b e used. I f required, t h e use a n d p o s i t i o n i n g o f w i r e s
to shield t h e conductors against direct l i g h t n i n g strokes w i l l increase the line reliability.
For selecting t o w e r configuration for high-voltage lines w i t h reduced e n v i r o n m e n t a l cri-
teria, consideration should b e given to the m a x i m u m acceptable electrical and magnetic
fields, r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e a n d a u d i b l e n o i s e , a s w e l l a s t o a e s t h e t i c s a n d visual perception
of t h e line a n d its i n s e r t i o n i n t o t h e landscape. T h e need o f c o m p a c t i o n for o b t a i n i n g
h i g h s u r g e i m p e d a n c e l o a d a n d r e d u c i n g right-of-way w i d t h i s a l s o a d e t e r m i n a n t f a c t o r .
I n case o f m e d i u m voltages, t h e selection o f t h e towers o r s u p p o r t s is dependent o n
the number o f circuits per tower, as the acquisition o f new rights-of-way is becoming
increasingly difficult.
I n m e d i u m - v o l t a g e lines consideration isusually given t o lattice towers, concrete poles,
steel poles a n d even w o o d poles. T h e i n v e s t m e n t a n d reliability r e q u i r e m e n t s as w e l l as
t h e assessed life t i m e f o r m t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r s i n t h i s case.
W h e n dealing w i t h lines i ndensely p o p u l a t e d areas such as u r b a n a n d s u b u r b a n re-
g i o n s w h e r e c a b l e s a r e n o t a m u s t , compact structures, g e n e r a l l y w i t h d o u b l e c i r c u i t
v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n , h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y a d o p t e d . Steel polygonal poles o r
concrete poles axe i n g e n e r a l a g o o d o p t i o n i n s u c h c a s e s . F i g u r e 1 . 3 s h o w s s i l h o u e t t e s
for m e d i u m - v o l t a g e l i n e s (see [1.17]).
F o r h i g h a n d e x t r a - h i g h v o l t a g e lines a w i d e v a r i e t y o f l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n is i n use w o r l d -
wide. D e p e n d i n g o n the r e q u i r e m e n t s for availabilitya n d necessary r i g h t - o f - w a y single
circuit, double circuit o r m u l t i - c i r c u i tlines are erected. I n densely p o p u l a t e d areas like
Central E u r o p e and J a p a n b u n d l i n g o f circuits is required resulting i n lines compris-
ing four a n d m o r e circuits also w i t h different voltages a n d different owners a l t h o u g h
multi-circuit lines r e s u l t i n c o n s i d e r a b l e o p e r a t i o n a l a n d e c o n o m i c d i s a d v a n t a g e s [ 1 . 1 8 ,
1.19]. M u l t i - c i r c u i tl i n e s a r e m o r e e x t e n s i v e a n d h i g h i n v e s t m e n t s h a v e t o b e m a d e f o r
f u l f i l l i n g p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t s (see c l a u s e 1.10).
S o m e l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s u s e d i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e a r e s h o w n F i g u r e 1.4. M o s t l i n e c o n -
figurations s h o w n have been also used i n o t h e r regions w i t h t w o shield wires t o i m p r o v e
protection against direct l i g h t n i n g strokes. M a i n l y I-strings are used a t suspension
s t r u c t u r e s . W h e n single-circuit lines axe e r e c t e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n 1 . 4 a i s p r e f e r r e d d u e t o
n a r r o w e r r i g h t - o f - w a y r e q u i r e m e n t s w h i l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n 1.4 b i s v e r y o f t e n a d o p t e d i n
other regions. T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t results i n relatively low f o u n d a t i o n loads. For double-
c i r c u i t 1 1 0 , 2 2 0 a n d 3 8 0 k V l i n e s i n E u r o p e t h e D a n u b e t y p e ( F i g u r e 1.4 d ) o r v e r t i c a l
 1.7 S e l e c t i o n o f l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n 11
10 1 Overall planning

F i g u r e 1.7: T o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r 5 0 0 k V ( a a n d b ) a n d 7 5 0 k V l i n e s ( c a n d d )

F i g u r e 1.5:Suspension tower o f a
d o u b l e c i r c u i t 380 k V l i n e i n G e r -
many
F i g u r e 1.6: S t r a i n t o w e r o f a 3 8 0 /
220/110 k V six-circuit line i n Ger-
many
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s (1.4e) a r e p r e f e r r e d n o w a d a y s . F i g u r e 1.5 s h o w s a s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r o f a
d o u b l e c i r c u i t 3 8 0 k V l i n e . T h e Danube, configuration p r o v i d e s a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n
w i d t h o f right-of-way, tower height a n d investments w i t h sufficient protection against
d i r e c t l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s . T h e v e r t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1.4 e r e s u l t s i n
a n a r r o w r i g h t - o f - w a y b u t increases the tower height a n d the visibility o ft h e line. T h e
effect o f t h e t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o n i n v e s t m e n t s d e p e n d s o n t h e specific c o n d i t i o n s o f
the line route.
For m u l t i - c i r c u i t lines a m a n i f o l d o f configurations is used. I n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h 220
or 380 k V circuits t h e 110 k V circuits are a r r a n g e d h o r i z o n t a l l y below t h e circuits o f
h i g h e r v o l t a g e s (see F i g u r e 1.4 f ) . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i s a d v a n t a g e o u s i n v i e w o f r e d u c i n g
e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields u n d e r t h e l i n e [ 1 . 2 0 ] . F o u r c i r c u i t s h a v i n g t h e s a m e v o l t a g e
level can b e a r r a n g e d like i nF i g u r e 1.4g. T h e t h r e e phases placed v e r t i c a l l y o r t w o
phases o f the upper crossarm and one phase o f t h e m i d d l e crossarm are f o r m i n g one
c i r c u i t . S i x c i r c u i t s a r e a r r a n g e d as i n F i g u r e 1 . 4 h , b e i n g t w o c i r c u i t s o f 3 8 0 k V , t w o
o f 2 2 0 k V a n d t w o o f 1 1 0 k V , s e e a l s o [1.21] a n d [1.19].
A 380/220/110 k V six-circuit line, w h i c h was erected i n G e r m a n y due to lack of separate
rights-of-way is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.6.
F o r t h e r a n g e o f 5 0 0 k V a n d a b o v e , a n d e s p e c i a l l y f o r l o n g l i n e s t h e u s e o f guyed
structures h a s b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e c o m m o n . E i t h e r t h e g u y e d V , Y o r p o r t a l t y p e s
h a v e b e e n u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y ( F i g u r e 1.7), see [1.12].
It s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e use o f crossarmless towers w i t h different tower t o p
g e o m e t r i e s (Chainette o r crossrope towers, F i g u r e 1 . 7 d ) h a s a l s o b e e n c o n s i d e r e d i n
several countries. S u c h towers present g o o d technical a n d e c o n o m i c performance, espe-
cially i f t h e r e a r e n o m a j o r c o n s t r a i n t s r e g a r d i n g r i g h t - o f - w a y a c q u i s i t i o n (see [1.22]).
A g u y e d V - t o w e r o f a 5 0 0 k V l i n e i n B r a z i l i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.8.
12 1 Overall planning

I f c o s <p i s t a k e n e q u a l t o 0 , 9 4 5 , i t r e s u l t s

^ = 1 - ( 1 5 )
P A C

T h u s a D C bipolar line h a v i n g t h e s a m e v o l t a g e a s t h e p e a k p h a s e - t o - g r o u n d v o l t a g e
of a n A C three-phase line can t r a n s p o r t w i t h the same c u r r e n t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same
p o w e r . H o w e v e r , t h e D C l i n e r e q u i r e s o n l y t w opole c o n d u c t o r s o f t h e s a m e size a s
the three-phase conductors required b ythe equivalent A C line. F u r t h e r m o r e , a D C line
presents a r e d u c t i o n b e t w e e n 2 5 a n d3 5 % i n t h e o h m i c losses f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f
the same power a t the same distance ascompared w i t h a n equivalent A C line as s h o w n
in the example.
So, t h r o u g h a s i m p l e c o m p a r i s o n i t can b e seen t h a t t h e D C line w i l l require a b o u t t w o
third o fconductor investments and, therefore, lighter towers a n d foundations, besides
lower c o n s t r u c t i o n costs. However, d u e t o t h eelectrostatic a t t r a c t i o n , p o l l u t i o n i s a
great p r o b l e m for D C i n s u l a t i o n s o t h a t m u c h h i g h e r specific creepage distances t h a n
F i g u r e 1.8: S u s p e n s i o n t o w e r o f a for A C l i n e s are r e q u i r e d . I n case o ft h e m e n t i o n e d e x a m p l e t h e t o t a l creepage p a t h o f
500 k V line i n Brazil the D Ci n s u l a t i o n w o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 % longer t h a n that f o r the equivalent
A C l i n e (see also [1.23, 1.24]).
I n general, the practice shows that a D C line needs around 7 0% o fthe investment o f
1.8 Direct current transmission
the equivalent A C line for t h e same power capacity.
1.8.1 Aspects of D C t r a n s m i s s i o n c o m p o n e n t s
1.8.3 T e c h n i c a l c o m p a r i s o n of A C a n d D C t r a n s m i s s i o n
A t t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p DC transmission have been initiated i nthe end o f 19th century.
Since t h e beginning, t h e m a i n technical challenge posed t o t h e electrical i n d u s t r yh a s The m a i n advantages o f the D C lines towards A C lines w h e n operating isolated o r w h e n
been t h e design o freliable a n d economic installationst h a t t r a n s f o r m A C current into inserted i na n electric s y s t e m are:
D C a n d vice-versa. D C p o w e r i sr e a l l y n o t v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r large scale u s ea s m o s t — D Clines p r e s e n t l o w e r p o w e r losses;
industrial.and domestic applications require A C power. T h u s , D C transmission w o u l d — D C lines present lower s w i t c h i n g overvoltages a n d , therefore, require lower clear-
only b e considered as a valid alternative t o A C i fi t offered technical a n d economic ances t o towers;
advantages for t h e electric s y s t e m asa whole. — D C lines i n t r o d u c e n op r o b l e m o fs t a b i l i t y a s t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d systems d o n o t
o p e r a t e i ns y n c h r o n i s m (see [1.25]);
1.8.2 E c o n o m i c comparison of D C a n d A C lines — D Clines have the great ability t o interconnect systems o f different frequencies
through back-to-back c o n v e r t e r s t a t i o n s [1.26];
A s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , a s i m p l e economic comparison between a DC and an AC line c a n
— D Clines present r e d u c e d levels o fs h o r t - c i r c u i t p o w e r s a n d d o n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o
be carried o u t under t h e following premises:
increase short-circuit levels o fn e i g h b o u r i n g systems.
- I tisassumed that t h e same power will b e t r a n s m i t t e d b ya three-phase A C line
Disadvantages o f D C against A C t r a n s m i s s i o n a r ed u e t o t h elack o f simple voltage
(three-phase conductors) and a D C line (two pole conductors).
transformation into D C voltages and vice-versa:
- T h e D C v o l t a g e (UDC), e q u a l s t h e A C p e a k v o l t a g e t o g r o u n d (UAC), b e . UDC =
— D Clines cannot directly s u p p l y loads. T h e y require converter stations - a rec-
y/2UAC. tifying station a tt h e sending end a n d a n inverting station a tthe receiving end.
- D Ccurrent i nevery pole conductor equals effective ( R M S ) A Ccurrent i n each Such converter stations are usually very expensive;
t h r e e - p h a s e c o n d u c t o r , i . e . / p c = IAC- — D C lines cannot economically b e tapped w i t h intermediate substations t o supply
For the three-phase A C system the power will be, therefore: consumers;
•PAC = 3 •UAC • IAC • c o s <p . (1.1) — T h e converter stations need a h i g h reactive power for supplying the c o m m u t a t i o n
e q u i p m e n t reaching u n t i l 6 0% o fthe active power.
Similarly for a bipolar D C line the total power is

PDC = 2• U v c • IDC • (1-2) 1.8.4 P r a c t i c a l use of D C t r a n s m i s s i o n

The r a t i o b e t w e e n PDC a n d P A C w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , r e s u l t i n D C lines o n l y provide a m o r e economic a l t e r n a t i v e t h a n A Clines i f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n

distance i sl o n g e n o u g h t ooffset t h e i n v e s t m e n t f o rt h e converter s t a t i o n s . T h e r e is n o
PDC 2 • C/DC - Pac
(1.3) universal break-even distance beyond w h i c h the D C transmission can b econsidered as
P A C 3 • UAc • IAC • c o s <p
a d v a n t a g e o u s . L o c a l c o n d i t i o n s a n d s y s t e m r e q u i r e m e n t s c a np l a y a m a j o r role i n t h e
S i n c e C / D C = \ / 2 • UAc a n d IDC = IAC, t h e r e f o r e , decision t oadopt a D C transmission. A s a r o u g h indication a transmission distance o f
m o r e t h a n 800 k m c o u l d b econsidered as a t h r e s h o l d b e y o n d w h i c h t h e D Ct r a n s m i s s i o n
PDC = 2y/2 • C/AC •I A C = 2y/2
(1.4) alternative can b etaken into account. T h e decrease i n investments o fconverter stations,
P\c 3 • UAC • IAC • c o s y> 3 c o s ip
14 1 Overall planning 1.9 T r a n s m i s s i o n w i t h h i g h e r o r d e r p h a s e l i n e s 15

Table 1.5: C o m p a r i s o n of technical d a t a of a twelve-phase 138 k V w i t h

a 345 k V three-phase t r a n s m i s s i o n . C o n d u c t o r at 138 k V : 4 3 4 - A L 1 / 6 3 -
S T 1 A , conductor a t345 k V : 2 x 8 0 6 - A L 1 / 1 0 2 - S T 1 A
Parameter Dodecaphase Three-phase line
(12-phase) line horizontal configuration
(7,3 m)
Surge impedance (SI) 502 274
Surge impedance load ( M W ) 455 434
Thermal limit (MW) 1648 1625
Electric field ( k V / m ) 3,6 6
Magnetic field friT/kA) 10 50

systems, phase-to-ground voltages are t a k e n as reference.

F i g u r e 1 . 9 : T o w e r configurations for D C — W h e r e a s i n three-phase systems phase-to-phase voltages are always equal, phase-
± 600 k V line (Itaipu, Brazil)
to-phase voltages i n m u l t i p l e - p h a s e systems d e p e n d o n t h e selected conductor
combination.
T a b l e 1.4: Phase-to-phase voltages, as compared w i t h phase-
t o - g r o u n d v o l t a g e s for m u l t i p l e p h a s e s y s t e m s i n k V
1.9.2 P r o p e r t i e s of multiple-phase s y s t e m s
Phase-to-grouiid Phase-to-phase voltage
voltage C o m p a r i n g w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l t h r e e - p h a s e s y s t e m , t h e characteristics of multiple-phase
N 3 6 12 24 36 systems c a n b e r e p o r t e d a s :
80 138 80 41 21 14 — L o w e r voltages for the same power t r a n s m i t t e d ,resulting i n lower phase-to-phase
133 230 133 69 35 23
a n d phase-to-ground clearances and, therefore, i n shorter towers a n d n a r r o w e r
199 345 199 103 52 35
289 500 289 149 75 50 rights-of-way.
433 750 433 224 113 75 — L o w e r p h a s e - t o - p h a s e s p a c i n g ; t h e y r e q u i r e , t h e r e f o r e , i n s e v e r a l c a s e s phase-to-
phase spacers, i n o r d e r t o u t i l i z e t h e s a m e t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n i n l o n g s p a n s a s
well.
if achieved, m a y change the mentioned threshold t o lower distance i nthe future. D C — L o w e r voltage gradients, allowing smaller conductors t o b e used, as f a r other
t r a n s m i s s i o n i s f r e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d f o r u n d e r w a t e r crossings, s u c h a s [1.27, 1.28]. S o f a r electric l i m i t s ( R I , A N etc.) are a t t a i n e d . T h i s is, h o w e v e r , c o n n e c t e d w i t h h i g h e r
D C transmission as a whole has been competitive w i t h equivalent A C systems only i n e l e c t r i c a l fields a t g r o u n d l e v e l . I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h a d e q u a t e t h r e e - p h a s e s y s t e m s ,
specific cases d u e t o t h e h i g h i n v e s t m e n t s o f c o n v e r t e r s t a t i o n s . s u c h e l e c t r i c a l fields c a n r e s u l t i n l o w e r v a l u e s a s s h o w n b y t h e e x a m p l e p r e s e n t e d
T h e t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r a D C ± 600 k V l i n e a c c o r d i n g t o [1.15] is s h o w n i n F i g u r e i n clause 1.9.3.
1.9. F o r t h i s c a s e i t i s u s u a l l y p r e f e r r e d t o e m p l o y g u y e d t o w e r s a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e — S i n c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f flashovers b e t w e e n p h a s e s i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g n u m -
1.9 a , a s t h e y r e s u l t i n l o w e r i n v e s t m e n t s . ber o fphases, special a t t e n t i o n should b e p a i d t o t h e design o f i n s u l a t i o n between
the phases.
— T r a n s m i s s i o n w i t h m o r e t h a n three phases, for instance six phases, requires cor-
1.9 Transmission with higher order phase lines
responding transformers a n dcircuit breakers, switchgear a n d b u s bars f o r s i x
poles as well, w h a t is m o r e expensive a n d results i n difficult protection (relaying),
1.9.1 Options
w h e n interconnected w i t h three-phase lines. T h e r e f o r e , t h e use o f m u l t i p l e - p h a s e
Difficulties i n s i t i n g n e w t r a n s m i s s i o n lines a n dt h e need f o r increased t r a n s m i s s i o n transmission is presently restricted t o some few lines.
capacity have forced power utilities a n d line owners t o m a x i m i z e power density i n
existing transmission corridors. O n eo f t h e ways t o achieve this increased capacity
1.9.3 Present experience
is t h e u s e o f m o r e t h a n t h r e e p h a s e s , p r e s e n t l y i n t h e s t a g e o f r e s e a r c h a n d t e s t i n g .
Theoretical a n d experimental studies have considered u p t o 36-phase systems. T h e six- E x p e r i m e n t a l hexaphase (six-phase) a n d dodecaphase (twelve-phase) lines have h a d
phase a n d twelve-phase systems have been the presumably m o r e attractive alternatives a r e l a t i v e success i n t h e U S A , w h e r e t h e m a i n technical p r o b l e m s have already been
t o s u b s t i t u t e f o r t h e t h r e e - p h a s e s y s t e m s [1.29, 1.30]. o v e r c o m e [1.30]. M u l t i p l e - p h a s e lines a r e , t h e r e f o r e , considered t o b e t e c h n i c a l l y a n d
P h a s e - t o - p h a s e v o l t a g e s ( U p P ) f o r multiple-phase systems u p t o 3 6 p h a s e s a r e s h o w n i n economically attractive alternatives f o r u p r a t i n g existing three-phase lines as well as
T a b l e 1.4 as c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e corresponding phase-to-ground voltages. for c o n s t r u c t i o n o f n e w lines.
T h e k e y p o i n t s o f multiple-phase lines c a n b e o b s e r v e d a s : A s a p r a c t i c a l application of the multiple-phase concept, a 1 3 8 k V ( p h a s e - t o - g r o u n d )
— I n hexaphase (six-phase) systems, phase-to-phase voltages are equal t o phase-to- dodecaphase (twelve-phase) line w a sconstructed a n d tested t h r o u g h 1987 a t P o w e r
ground voltages. Technologies, Inc's, Saratoga, N Y , test site. T h i s line was designed t o have equivalent
— For phase orders higher t h a n six, phase-to-phase voltages between adjacent phases t h e r m a l a n d s u r g e i m p e d a n c e l o a d t o a 3 4 5 k V t h r e e - p h a s e line. T a b l e 1.5 s h o w s t h e
are lower t h a n phase-to-ground voltages. T h a t is the reason w h y i n multiple-phase comparison o f electric characteristics o f b o t h lines.
ID 1 \JveiitLl planning

It can b e noted t h a t w i t h the twelve-phase transmission the electrical field a t ground

T a b l e 1.6: E c o n o m i c d a t a f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s : 1 1 0 k V t o 3 8 0 k V d o u b l e c i r c u i t l i n e s ,
l e v e l i s r e d u c e d from 6 , 0 k V / m t o 3 , 6 k V / m . 500 k V a n d 750 k V single circuit lines w i t h self-supporting t o w e r s
T h e m a g n e t i c field i s r e d u c e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 % w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h the values o f Rated voltage i n k V 110 220 380 500 750
c o n v e n t i o n a l t h r e e - p h a s e t r a n s m i s s i o n . I n [1.31] i t i s r e p o r t e d a b o u t t h e conversion o f Thermal limit 1 ' ( M V A ) 100 to 350 300 to 1000 1400 to 2700 1800 to 3000 3000 to 5000
a 115 k V three-phase line i n t o a six-phase line a i m i n g a t increasing t h e transmission Economic power ( M V A ) 20 to 100 120 to 350 500 to 1200 700 to 1500 2000 to 3000
capacity. K e e p i n g t h e s a m e s i xc o n d u c t o r s a n increase o f 4 0 % i n t h e transmission Right-of-way (m) 40 to 50 55 to 60 60 to 70 60 to 70 80 to 120
Tower weight ( t / k m ) 15 to 25 25 to 35 45 to 65 16 to 25 28 to 50
capacity has been obtained. T h e right-of-way could b e kept the same but the uprating
Concrete volume ( m 3 / k m ) 100 to 200 120 to 250 150 to 300 120 to 250 3 ' 150 to 250
of the switching equipment required significant investments.
investment 2 ' ( k E U R / k m ) 125 to 200 150 to 400 650 to 1200 250 to 400 350 to 4500
for one circuit 2^ without indemnities 3) 20 m 3 / k m for guyed towers
1.10 Investments
T a b l e 1.7: Separation of investment in %
T h e investment t o c o n s t r u c t a n overhead transmission line d e p e n d s o n s e v e r a l f a c t o r s .
Rated voltage in k V 110 220 380 500 750
L i n e voltage, n u m b e r o f circuits a n d conductor cross section are the m o s t i m p o r t a n t
Circuits 35 to 45 40 to 50 45 to 55 45 to 60 45 to 60
items. However, other factors contribute significantly t o increase o r decrease t h e re-
Towers 35 to 45 35 to 45 35 to 45 30 to 45 30 to 45
quired investments such as tower heights, characteristics o fthe line route a n d resulting Foundations 15 to 25 10 to 20 7 to 15 7 to 15 7 to 15
relation b e t w e e n suspension towers t ostrain towers a n d t h e e x t e r n a l loads, for instance Engineering 5 4 3 3 3
w i n d a n d / o r ice loads. T h e d e g r e e o f r e l i a b i l i t y a n d s e c u r i t y r e q u i r e d c a n p l a y a s i g n i f i -
cant role i n the total investments. I n addition, the indemnities t o b e paid t o landowners
h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s i n g s h a r p l y d u r i n g recent y e a r s r e a c h i n g i n s o m e cases a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1.11 Licences and permit procedures
the investments for t h e line itself.
S t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t i n s i d e C i g r e [1-34] s h o w t h a t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l c o u n t r i e s r e q u i r e en-
E q u a t i o n s f o r r o u g h estimation of investments f o rt r a n s m i s s i o n lines h a d b e e n estab-
vironmental impact studies f o rc o n s t r u c t i n g a n e w o v e r h e a d line. Regulatory controls
l i s h e d i n [1.32] d e p e n d i n g o nr a t e d voltage, cross-sections o f a l u m i n i u m a n d n u m b e r o f
subconductors per phase as parameters. Based o nthese equations t h e factors were up- vary from country t ocountry b u t they generally present c o m m o n features and similar-
dated t oadjust the relations t o the investment level i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e nowadays. For ities regarding t h e o b t a i n m e n t o f approvals a n d licences. T h e efficient m a n a g e m e n t o f
double circuit lines a n estimate for the investment w i t h o u t indemnities c a n b e obtained t h e permit process is v i t a l . F o r i n s t a n c e i t is i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s u l t p u b l i c a n d i n d i v i d u a l s
involved in the process i n adequate time.
K 2 C ~ 6 0 + 0 , 4 I / N + 0 , 4 ^ - A A I (kEUR/km) , (1.6) Regarding t h e preparation o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t studies, specialists should b e i n -
w h e r e Us i s t h e r a t e d v o l t a g e i n k V , r i 2 t h e n u m b e r o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s a n d AA\ t h e volved i n advance for s t u d y i n g all k i n d s o f impacts a n d present reports i n due t i m e for
total a l u m i n i u m o r a l u m i n i u m alloy cross section i nm m 2 . The investment necessary approval b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n charge. T h e v a r i o u s concerns a n d issues t h a t b e l o n g t o
for single circuit lines m a y b e obtained from the process comprise among others
— Project justification,
K 1 C RiO,45 toO,5K 2 C • (1-7)
— EMF effects,
T h e i n v e s t m e n t f o r a single circuit l i n e i s less t h a n h a l f o f d o u b l e circuit line, as i t — Visual impact o f t h e l i n e ,
has been experienced. Therefore, single circuit lines are the favoured s o l u t i o n i n m a n y — Interests o fcommunities and
countries. — Effect on land use a n d o n p r o p e r t y value.
T h e investments for a double circuit line w i t h one circuit initially installed are estimated I n s o m e cases, c o m m u n i c a t i o n p r o g r a m m e s o r centres e x p l a i n i n g t h e use o f electricity
as a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l effects o f t h e o v e r h e a d line h e l p t o ease a p p r o v a l .
7L,D(i)-0,75 toO,8K 2 C , (1-8) R e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e l a n d o w n e r s , e a r l y c o m m u n i c a t i o n is v i t a l . T h e y n e e d t o
be informed o n all aspects o fthe project, including the financial compensation criteria,
a n d t h a t for a line c o m p r i s i n g four circuits axe
a n d c r i t e r i a f o r route selection and location o f towers.
KIC - 2 , 1 t o 2,2 K 2 C • (1-9) Standards should b e established for the c o m m u n i c a t i o n process including personal con-
Economic data f o r 1 1 0 k V t o 3 8 0 k V d o u b l e c i r c u i t l i n e s a s w e l l a s f o x 5 0 0 k V a n d tacts. Landowners should b e adequately i n f o r m e d o n access roads r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n -
7 5 0 k V s i n g l e c i r c u i t l i n e s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 1.6, w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t s t r u c t i o n w o r k s , m a i n t e n a n c e a n d possible changes i n l a n d use.
parameters. A n o t h e r a s p e c t t o b e c o v e r e d r e f e r s t o t h e visual impact, especially f o rthe r o u t i n g
Investments f o ra n i n d i v i d u a l line m a y b e considerably higher t h a n these given, d e - guidelines. Q u a l i t a t i v e systems o f assessment o fvisual impacts are preferable t o quan-
p e n d i n g o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d special conditions. U s e f u l d a t a o f cost c o m p o n e n t o f titative systems. W h e n dealing w i t h the general public quantitative systems should b e
o v e r h e a d lines a r e g i v e n i n [1.33]. used only for expert assessment.
T h e separation o f i n v e s t m e n t s f o r t h e m a i n l i n e c o m p o n e n t s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 1.7. S i n c e Visualization methods should be understandable b y the audience t o which they are
for a line w i t h f o u r circuits t h e i n v e s t m e n t f o rt h e c i r c u i t s w i l l b e d o u b l e a n d t h o s e d i r e c t e d . Photomontages are usually the most suitable m e t h o d for visual presentation
for towers will b e m o r e t h a n twice, t h e t o t a l i n v e s t m e n t s f o rlines w i t h f o u r circuits t o t h e p u b l i c , a l s o t o i l l u s t r a t e camouflage techniques and different designs.
will b e more th a n twice. T h i s relation isconfirmed b yexecuted projects. A n economic Consideration should also b e given t oi m p a c t o fconstruction a n d maintenance. Exam-
advantage m a y result, however, since indemnities will n o t double. ples are:
18 1 Overall planning
- Sensitive areas should b e avoided and r e m o v a l o fvegetation m i t i g a t e d s o far as
possible.
- Access road should follow n a t u r a l contours a n d avoid erosion o rimpact o n wa-
tercourses.
I f a n environmental management plan i s p r e p a r e d , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n t o s p e c i f i c
q u a l i t y p l a n s i na d v a n c e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . G u i d e l i n e s o f[1.34] h a v e b e e n d r a f t e d o n t h e
basis o f t h e best practices w h i c h appear t o b ei n use i n m a n y countries i n q u i t e a b r o a d
range o f utilities. W h i c h procedures o r practices t o adopt, however, w i l l d e p e n d o n
prevailing regulatory regimes i neach country o rregion a n d o n their unique cultural
a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l climates a n d i tm a y depend also o n the particular features o f each
project.
1.12 Underground transmission versus overhead lines
1.12.1 Application a n d planning aspects
Underground cable systems a r e u s u a l l y i n s t a l l e d i n u r b a n o r s u b u r b a n a r e a s w h e r e
overhead lines a r en o t approved, i n locations such a s airport approaches because o f
safety issues, o rw a t e r crossings w h e r e o v e r h e a d lines are n o t feasible. O t h e r applica-
tions include substation getaways, crossings under m a j o r overhead line conductors and
o t h e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s w h e r e t e c h n i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f a v o u r u n d e r g r o u n d c a b l e s . Subma-
rine cables o f f e r a l s o a v a l u a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n o r a r e e v e n t h e
only possible solution f o rt h e interconnection o felectric systems physically separated
b y o c e a n w a t e r s [1.35].
A n y w a y , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o fu n d e r g r o u n d cables i n a n electric t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m i s
p a r t o f the. p l a n n i n g a n d d e p e n d s o n t e c h n i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c v a r i a b l e s [1.24].
I n [1.36] a c o m p a r i s o n o f o v e r h e a d lines w i t h u n d e r g r o u n d cables has b e e n c a r r i e d o u t ,
based o n a questionnaire issued b y t h e Cigre S t u d y C o m m i t t e e 2 2 .
S y s t e m p l a n n i n g a n d operation has the objective o f developing a transmission network
of sufficient capacity a n d h i g h availability a n d reliability a t m i n i m u m cost. A require-
m e n t t ou n d e r g r o u n d p a r t l y o r completely a circuit causes significant s y s t e m p l a n n i n g
and operational implications.
Long-term overloads a r e m o r e c r i t i c a l f o r c a b l e s t h a n f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s . A l o n g - t e r m
overload c a n b e defined as a noverload current o f such m a g n i t u d e t h a t t h e circuit
protection does not operate, a n d o fsuch d u r a t i o n t h a t the conductor t e m p e r a t u r e o f
a n overhead line does n o t exceed t h e specified e m e r g e n c y o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . I fa
cable isoperated w i t h such a n overload, i t ages faster a n d m a y b e d a m a g e d . S i m i l a r
conditions are not so critical f o r a n overhead line. T h i s i sw h y system p l a n n i n g m u s t
be modified once cables a r eintroduced i n meshed t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k s consisting
p r i m a r i l y o f overhead lines.
System planning i s s u b j e c t e d t o d e s i g n c r i t e r i a . I n m a n y c a s e s , t h e (n — I ) criterion
is a p p l i e d w h i c h m e a n s t h a t a n y o n e c i r c u i t o r b u s b a r c a n b e d i s c o n n e c t e d d u e t o a
fault w i t h o u t customer interruptions a n d w i t h o u t any network component overload. I t
is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e p a i r t i m e i s s o s h o r t t h a t n o o t h e r f a u l t w i l l o c c u r i n t h e n e t w o r k
before t h e f a u l t y c o m p o n e n t i st a k e n i n t o o p e r a t i o n again. T h i s isgenerally t h e case
w i t h overhead lines b u t m a y not apply for cables w h i c h have significantly longer repair
times.
T h e i m p a c t o f cable faults o n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k c a n b e m i n i m i z e d
by:
- Installing a spare phase cable;
- Installing a double circuit cable;
- A p p l y i n g t h e ( h — 2 / design criterion.
1.12 U n d e r g r o u n d t r a n s m i s s i o n v e r s u s o v e r h e a d l i n e s 19
E a c h o ft h e a b o v e o p t i o n s has a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t i m p l i c a t i o n s .
T h e replacement o f a n existing overhead line b y a cable i n a meshed transmission
n e t w o r k h a st o b e analysed n o to n l y f r o m a cable b u talso f r o m a s y s t e m p l a n n i n g
viewpoint. T h e impact o f the insertion o f a cable o n the surrounding n e t w o r k m u s t b e
carefully assessed for b o t h n o r m a l a n d f a u l t u n d e r o p e r a t i o n .
If an existing overhead line isreplaced b y a cable, t h e fault current level i n the n e t w o r k
will increase due t o t h e lower impedance o f the cable. T h e resulting fault currents m u s t
be calculated a n d t h e fault current capacity f o reach component i n the network a n d
the protection settings checked.
1.12.2 Environmental constraints
Environmental constraints cover s t a t u t o r y requirements, utility policy w i t h regard t o
e n v i r o n m e n t a l m a t t e r s a n dalso public a n dprivate views a n dconcerns. These con-
s t r a i n t s are o fincreasing i m p o r t a n c e .
T h e p e r m a n e n t a n d t e m p o r a r y effects o f a n e w o v e r h e a d l i n e o r u n d e r g r o u n d cable c a n
usually b e quantified b u t public reaction t othe project m a y sometimes b e e m o t i o n a l .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e environmental impact o f s u c h p r o j e c t s i s f a i r l y c o m p l i -
c a t e d a n d involves m a n y aspects, m o s t o fw h i c h c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a n d a n a l y s e d o n l y
from a qualitative point o f view.
T h e m a j o r constraints likely t ob e encountered - i nt h e design a n d p l a n n i n g a u t h o r i -
s a t i o n phase a n d d u r i n g subsequent c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n - are m a g n e t i c fields
a n d t o a l e s s e x t e n t e l e c t r i c a l fields, w i t h r e l e v a n t e x p o s u r e l i m i t s ; l a n d o c c u p a t i o n
a n d d e p r e c i a t i o n , a n d l i m i t a t i o n s t o l a n d u s e . Visual impact i s i m p o r t a n t f o r o v e r h e a d
power lines a n ds o m e i m p a c t m a y also b e p r o d u c e d b y the exterior installations o f
a cable circuit, such asterminations and reactive power compensation equipment. I n
m a n y cases, r e m e d i a l a c t i o n s c a n b e t a k e n t o r e d u c e t h e effects o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .
1.12.3 Technical limitations
Technical l i m i t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r o u n d cable use have a ni m p o r t a n t influence o n t h e fea-
sibility o f alternatives. Technical limitations can make some alternatives impracticable.
High-voltage u n d e r g r o u n d cables, due t o t h e i r longer f a u l t repair times are o n average
o u t o fservice for periods significantly longer t h a n t h a t for overhead lines. T h e impact o n
security o f electricity supplies is relatively s m a l l because o f the l i m i t e d lengths o f high-
voltage underground cables o n the present day systems. T h i s situation could change i f
there were proportionally more underground systems and additional circuits would b e
required t o preserve t h e same reliability o f supply.
High-voltage cables a r e m o r e r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e i r a b i l i t y t o b e u p r a t e d . T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
capability o f a n overhead line can b e increased b y reconductoring. T h i s isnot s o simple
w i t h a cable w h e r e t h e r o u t e w o u l d have t o b ere-excavated a n d larger cables installed
arid/or the heat dissipation w o u l d have t ob e improved. T h u s the high-voltage cable
s e c t i o n v i r t u a l l y fixes t h e r a t i n g o f a c i r c u i t a n d f u t u r e r a t i n g i n c r e a s e c a n o n l y b e
achieved a t considerable expense.
1.12.4 Comparative investments
I n T a b l e 1 . 8 a s u m m a r y o f international investment data i s p r e s e n t e d , a c c o r d i n g t o a
s u r v e y m a d e b y a q u e s t i o n n a i r e p r e p a r e d b y C i g r e S C 2 2 J W G 2 1 / 2 2 - 0 1 [ 1 . 3 6 ] . Compar-
ative investments are v e r y i m p o r t a n t i nachieving economical electricity t r a n s m i s s i o n .
T h e i n v e s t m e n t r a t i o o f u n d e r g r o u n d cable t o overhead line c a nv a r y f r o m project t o
project because o fdiffering t e r r a i n a n d soil conditions a n d v a r y i n g investments for addi-
tional p l a n n i n g a n d design, a u t h o r i s a t i o n procedures, e n v i r o n m e n t a l impact assessment
 R e l a t i v e l y h i g h i n v e s t m e n t is t h e m a j o r i m p e d i m e n t t o t h e use o f high-voltage under-
T a b l e 1.8: S u m m a r y o finternational investment data o foverhead lines and
u n d e r g r o u n d cables g r o u n d cables. However, due t o the application o f m o d e r n cable l a y i n g techniques such
Voltage range k V 110 to 219 220 to 362 363 to 764
as d i r e c t i o n a l d r i l l i n g , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f less e x p e n s i v e c a b l e s a r i d p r e f a b r i c a t e d
Mean power MVA/circuit 220
accessories, these i n v e s t m e n t s w i l l decrease. T h e i n v e s t m e n t r a t i o u n d e r g r o u n d cable
600 1800
Mean overhead line investments v e r s u s o v e r h e a d l i n e is e x p e c t e d t o d e c r e a s e a l t h o u g h t h e r e d u c t i o n w i l l n o t b e s u f f i c i e n t
E U R / ( k m - MVA) 820 390 185 to bridge the significant difference, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t the highest voltages.
Mean underground cable investments To s u m m a r i z e , i tcould b e said t h a t overhead lines will r e m a i n t h e m o s t economic and
E U R / ( k m - MVA) 6100 4900 3700 reliable m e a n s o f h i g h - v o l t a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n . I n m o s t cases, t h e y c a nb e h a r m o n i o u s l y
Mean ratio 7 13 20 integrated i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . I t can b e f u r t h e r affirmed t h a t i n f u t u r e , for b o t h n e w
Spread 3.4 to 16 5,1 to 21,1 14,6 to 33,3 a n d replacement circuits, greater consideration will b e given t o t h e use o f u n d e r g r o u n d
cables, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t h e lower t r a n s m i s s i o n voltages.

a n d r e m e d i a l w o r k s . T h e capitalized costs o f losses are also p r o j e c t specific a n d s h o u l d

be i n c l u d e d t o refine the comparisons. T r a n s m i s s i o n o f electricity a t h i g h voltage b y 1.13 Results of overall planning
u n d e r g r o u n d cables issignificantly m o r e costly t h a n b y overhead lines. T h e disparity i n
investments increases w i t h the voltage a n d i n t h e high-voltage range, it iso naverage 2 0 R e g a r d i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e planning stages u s u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d i n s i d e
times more expensive t ogo underground rather t h a n overhead. T h i s ratio is decreased the power utilities o r line operators, either public o r independent entities, s h o u l d define
s o m e w h a t o n c e t h e cost o f losses i s i n c l u d e d , w h i c h a r e less i n u n d e r g r o u n d cables d u e the f o l l o w i n g characteristics f o r a n e w t r a n s m i s s i o n line o r f o r a n existing line t o b e
to t h e larger conductive cross sections. refurbished, uprated o r upgraded.
I t e m s t o b e defined are:
It is inevitable, therefore, t h a t utilities w i l l seek t o p l a n n e w t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n k s u s -
ing overhead lines a n d t o reserve u n d e r g r o u n d i n g t o those s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e i t is either - R e q u i r e d data for commissioning;
impracticable t o deploy overhead lines o r w h e r e a m e n i t y considerations are so over- - T e r m i n a l s u b s t a t i o n s a n d line length;
w h e l m i n g t h a t serious consideration needs t o b e given t o undergrounding. I n b o t h - Power to be transmitted i n n o r m a l and emergency conditions;
cases, experience indicates t h a t u n d e r g r o u n d i n g i s confined t o r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t l e n g t h s - Type of transmission; A C versus D C ;
because o f economic viability. - Conductors, voltage, necessity o f shield wires ;
- number of circuits;
- Tower type, phase configuration;
1.12.5 Perspectives - Use o f e a r t h wires such as optical ground wires for communication purpose;
- Maximum a l l o w a b l e losses;
T h e present perspectives are t h a t the following items will assume even greater impor- - R e q u i r e d availability a n d reliability;
tance for transmission projects i n f u t u r e years - M a x i m u m acceptable values o f electrical and magnetic fields, as well as o f other
- L a n d use a n d availability o f right-of-way; electric impacts o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ;
- A v a i l a b i l i t y o f licences a n d legal obstructions; - Work schedule.
- E n v i r o n m e n t a l factors: Based o n these items, special studies a n d complementary evaluations are performed
- N e w technologies; concerning:
- F i n a n c i a l aspects. - Overvoltages f o r d e f i n i n g i n s u l a t i o n a n d c l e a r a n c e s a n d t o w e r d i m e n s i o n s ;
The expectation is that the a m o u n t o f land available f o rtransmission projects will - Short-circuit levels, d e f i n i t i o n o f s h i e l d w i r e s a n d e a r t h i n g s c h e m e s ;
decrease d u et o b o t h increasing p o p u l a t i o n density a n d increasing l a n d prices. Since - T r a n s p o s i t i o n needs;
overhead lines need m u c h larger areas t h a n equivalent cables, t h e f u t u r e tendency w i l l - Reactive compensation needs;
g i v e g r e a t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n t o b u i l d i n g compact overhead lines a n d t o u n d e r g r o u n d i n g - Eventual future intermediate switching stations;
n e w a n d i ns o m e cases e x i s t i n g m e d i u m - v o l t a g e connections. - F u t u r e lines i n the same corridor;
Objections t o the construction o f overhead lines w i l l increase. I n m a n y countries, i t is - R e q u i r e d electric performance;
increasingly difficult t o b u i l d a no v e r h e a d l i n e b e l o w 220 k V . E n v i r o n m e n t a l issues w i l l - E v a l u a t i o n o f impacts o felectric origin o n the e n v i r o n m e n t ;
continue t ob e a significant factor i n t h e comparison o foverhead lines a n d u n d e r g r o u n d - S t a t i c a n d d y n a m i c s t a b i l i t y s e e also [1.37] a n d [1.12]).
cables. Based o nthe results o fthe overall planning, detailed survey and planning have t o follow
N e w t e c h n o l o g i e s s h o u l d l e a d t o b o t h less c o m p l i c a t e d a n d , f r o m t h e financial point regarding the different components o f i n d i v i d u a l lines. Plans have t o b e carried out t o
of view, m o r e attractive cable types. Solid dielectric insulated cables are n o w available determine the tower locations a n d types, t h e design o ffoundations a n d for establishing
for 4 0 0 k V a n d a b o v e . U s i n g t h i s cable t y p e , t h e m a i n t e n a n c e costs are g e n e r a l l y l o w e r a b i l l o f q u a n t i t y for m a t e r i a l s t o b e p u r c h a s e d . D e t a i l s axe dealt w i t h i n c h a p t e r 1 5 .
a n d technical disadvantages such as electric capacitance are m i n i m i z e d . Use o f special
s t a b i l i z e d thermal backfills r e s u l t s i n i n c r e a s e d p o w e r t r a n s f e r c a p a b i l i t y a n d l o w e r l i f e
cycle cost. H i g h e r power transfer capabilities are already available using S F 6 insulated
a n d forced cooled cable systems, a n d there are s o m e perspectives for super-conductive
cables.
22 1 Overall planning 1.14 R e f e r e n c e s 23

1.14 References 1.22 L e c o n t e , D . ; M e y e r e , P . : E v o l u t i o n o f t h e d e s i g n f o r t h e 7 3 5 k V T r a n s m i s s i o n L i n e s of

Hydro-Quebec. Cigre Report 22-08, 1990
1 . 1 H i i t t e E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , B a n d 3 : N e t z e . ( P o w e r e n g i n e e r i n g , V o l u m e 3: E l e c t r i c n e t w o r k s ) .
Berlin, Heidelberg, N e w Y o r k : Springer Verlag 1987 1.23 B o w l e s , J . P . e t a l . : A C - D C E c o n o m i c s a n d a l t e r n a t i v e s - 1 9 8 7 P a n e l s e s s i o n r e p o r t . I E E E
T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r D e l i v e r y , V o l . 5, N o . 4, p p . 1 9 5 6 t o 1 9 7 6
1.2 S t e v e n s o n , H . F . : E l e m e n t s o f p o w e r s y s t e m a n a l y s i s . N e w Y o r k , M c G r a w H i l l , 2 n d e d i t i o n
1.24 F i n k , D . G . ; B e a t ] ' , H . W . : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k f o r e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r s . N e w Y o r k , M c
1987
G r a w - H i l l , 1 2 t h edition, 1987
1.3 C l a r k , E . : C i r c u i t a n a l y s i s o f A C p o w e r s y s t e m s . C i g r e . N e w Y o r k , J o h n W i l e y & S o n s ,
1.25 B r u m s h a g e n , H . et al.: E a s t - W e s t E u r o p e a n h i g h hower transmission system. Cigre R e p o r t
1943
37-304, 1996
1.4 D r a p p e r , E . L . : 2 1 t h C e n t u r y p o w e r s y s t e m s - P e r s p e c t i v e s f r o m t h e t h r e s h o l d . C i g r e
1.26 d a Silva, J . B . et al.: First interconnection B r a z i l - A r g e n t i n a - Design of the A C 500/525 k V ,
Session 2000 O p e n i n g - A u g u s t 2000 5 0 H z / 6 0 H z line, R i n i o n - G a r a b i - I t a . I X S o u t h A m e r i c a n C i g r e r e g i o n a l m e e t i n g , F o z do
Iguazu, M a y 2001
1.5 N o l a s c o , J . F . : C o n d u c t o r o p t i m i z a t i o n f o r 2 2 0 k V l i n e . U n i v e r s i t y o f L i m a , 1 9 9 6 .
1.27 N y m a n n , A . et al.: T h e Baltic Cable H V D E Project. Cigre R e p o r t 14-105, 1996
1.6 K a h n t , R . : D e v e l o p m e n t o f h i g h - v o l t a g e t e c h n o l o g y - 1 0 0 y e a r s o f A C t r a n s m i s s i o n . E l e k -
trizitatswirtschaft 90 (1991), pp. 558 to 576 1.28 P o u l s e n , S . H . e t a l . : 4 0 0 k V flat-type o i l - f i l l e d c a b l e s f o r K o n t e k , H V D C i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n
D e n m a r k / G e r m a n y . Cigre R e p o r t 21-204, 1994
1.7 B a u e r , K . - H . ; P a s c h e n , R . ; S c h l a y e r , G . : 1 0 0 J a h r e D r e h s t r o m - F e r n i i b e r t r a g u n g ( 1 0 0 y e a r s
of A C transmission). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 90 (1991), pp. 1119 t o 1126 1.29 B a r t h o l d , L . O . ; B a r n e s , H . C.: H i g h - p h a s e o r d e r p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o n . E l e c t r a 2 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ,
pp. 139 t o 153
1.8 I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 : I n s u l a t i o n C o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t I : D e f i n i t i o n s , P r i n c i p l e s a n d R u l e s . G e n e v a
1993 1.30 G r a n t , J . et al.: Higher-phase order transmission line research. Cigre S y m p o s i u m SC22-81
Report 220-02, 1981
1.9 N a n i t a , J . ; Y a m a g a t a , Y . ; T a n a b e , T . : U H V t r a n s m i s s i o n p r o j e c t i n T o k y o E l e c t r i c P o w e r
C o m p a n y . 1 1 t h C E P S I . K u a l a L u m p u r , 1996 1.31 B r o w n , R . et a l . : Six-phase successfully applied to utility transmission systems. Cigre
R e p o r t 2 2 / 3 3 / 3 6 - 0 1 , 1998
1.10 I E C 6 0 0 3 8 : I E C s t a n d a r d v o l t a g e s . G e n e v a , I E C , 1 9 8 3
1.32 T e c h n i s c h e u n d w i r t s c h a f t l i c h e K e n n d a t e n v o n F r e i l e i t u n g e n b e i D H U u n d H G U ( T e c h n i -
1.11 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1 : G e n e r a l R e q u i r e m e n t s cal a n d economic characteristics of H V A C and H V D C transmissions w i t h overhead lines).
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001 e t z - A 98 (1977), pp. 7 1 1 t o 715

1.12 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r e f e r e n c e b o o k : 3 4 5 k V a n d a b o v e . P a l o A l t o , E l e c t r i c P o w e r 1.33 Cigre SC22, W G 0 9 : I n t e r n a t i o n a lsurvey of component costs of overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n

Research Institute, 2 n d edition 1982 lines. E l e c t r a N o . 137 (1991), pp. 60 t o 79

1.13 P l a n a n d g e n e r a l d e s i g n f o r 1 0 0 0 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n i n J a p a n . T o k i o E l e c t r i c P o w e r C o m p a n y , 1.34 C i g r e S C 22 W G 14: E n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns, procedures, i m p a c t s a n d m i t i g a t i o n s . P a r i s ,

1983 Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 147, 2000

1.14 D j a k o w , A . F . e t a h : U S S R 1 2 0 0 k V l i n e c o n n e c t s t h r e e p o w e r s y s t e m s . T & D I n t e r n a t i o n a l , 1.35 G a z z a n a - P r i a r o g g i a , P . e t a l . : L o n g I s l a n d S o u n d s u b m a r i n e c a b l e i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n . I E E E

M a r c h 1991 T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, J u l y / A u g . 1 9 7 1 , V o l . 90, pp.

1.15 F a d i n i , H . A . M . ; M o t t a , S. S. G . : S i s t e m a de t r a n s m i s s a s d e I t a i p u - A e x p e r i e n c i a de 1.36 C i g r e S C 2 1 / 2 2 : C o m p a r i s o n o f h i g h - v o l t a g e l i n e s a n d u n d e r g r o u n d cables. R e p o r t a n d

F U R N A S ( T r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s of I t a i p u - t h e experience of F U R N A S ) . R i o de J a n e i r o , guidelines. Paris, Cigre Brochure 110, 1997
F U R N A S , 1995
1.37 H a p p o l d t , H . , O e d i n g , D . : E l e k t r i s c h e K r a f t w e r k e u n d N e t z e ( E l e c t r i c p o w e r s t a t i o n s a n d
1.16 O v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r m a n u a l . S o u t h w i r e : 1 9 9 4 networks). Berlin, Springer Verlag, 5 t h edition, 1978
Nich mehr i m Text erwahnt:
1.17 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e reference b o o k : 1 1 5 / 1 3 8 k V c o m p a c t l i n e design. P a l o A l t o , E l e c -
tric P o w e r Research Institute, 1978 1.38 B u s c h , H . G . : A s p e c t s o f t h e f u t u r e o f A C - E H V t r a n s m i s s i o n i n G e r m a n y , m o d e l a n a l y s i s .
Cigre R e p o r t 31-13, 1978
1.18 B a r b a r i t o , M . e t a l . : C o m p a c t versus c o n v e n t i o n a l E H V l i n e s : T e c h n i c a l a n d economical
comparison. Cigre R e p o r t 22-13,

1.19 B o o s , K . V . e t a l . : E x p e r i e n c e s g a i n e d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e c i r c u i t h i g h - v o l t a g e
overhead lines of compact design. Cigre R e p o r t 22-12, 1986

1.20 K i e B l i n g , F . ; H u s s e l s , D . ; J i i r d e n s , C ; R u h n a u , J . : U p g r a d i n g h i g h - v o l t a g e lines t o increase

their capacity a n d m i t i g a t e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts. Cigre R e p o r t 22-208, 1998

1.21 K i e B l i n g , F . ; M e i e r , P.: T h e 380 k V p o w e r lines o f B a y e r n w e r k A G e x e m p l i f y t h e develop-

m e n t of overhead line construction i n G e r m a n y . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 76 (1977), pp. 637
to 642
2 E l e c t r i c r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d d e s i g n

2.0 Symbols
Symbols Signification
a Span length
og Weight span
Ojon, M i n i m u m straight line distance between live and earthed parts
aw W i n d span
B M a g n e t i c flux d e n s i t y
Cmin M i n i m u m clearance between conductors a n d earthed parts
C Capacitance
C Capacitance per unit length
Cc D r a g factor for conductors
d A i r gap distance, clearance distance
djns Flashover distance o f an insulator string
D Conductor diameter
D A B , D A C , DBC Phase-to-phase distance
Dadd A d d i t i o n a l clearance component
Dei M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptivedischarge b e -
tween conductors a n d objects a t earth potential during fast-front o r
slow-front overvoltages
Deijf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween conductors and objects a tearth potential during fast-front over-
voltages
Deijf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween conductors a n d objects a tearth potential during slow-front over-
voltages
Di,i Distance between source o f interference a n d m e a s u r i n g p o i n t
D M M e a n geometric distance
Dpf_pe M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween live conductors a n d objects at earth potential at power frequency
voltage
D p f _pp M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors a t power frequency voltage
D p p M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors during fast-front o r slow-front overvoltages
Dppjf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors during fast-front overvoltages
Dpp_sf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors during slow-front overvoltages
E V o l t a g e gradient, electrical field strength
E M e a n voltage gradient of a circuit
Eay V o l t a g e gradient along conductor surface
Ei R a d i o o r audible noise interference intensity
Ei M a x i m u m voltage gradient a tconductor i
Ee E n e r g y s t o r e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field o f an o v e r h e a d l i n e
Em E n e r g y stored i n t h e m a g n e t i c field o f a n overhead line
E$ V o l t a g e g r a d i e n t a n g l e i?
/ Frequency
fc C o n d u c t o r sag
Fy/i W i n d load o ninsulator string
g Gravitational acceleration
GL Span factor
hai A l t i t u d e above sea level
26 2 Electric requirements a n d design 2.0 S y m b o l s 27

Symbols Signification Symbols Signification

M e a n conductor height above ground T Absolute air temperature
H Magnetic field strength U Electric voltage
I Current; r m s current U\oo% 100% w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e air g a p
fei, fc2 Factors t o calculate voltage gradients U2% Overvoltage having a 2 % probability o f being exceeded
fee Factor t o determine m i n i m u m conductor clearances U2%_st Slow-front overvoltage having a 2 % probability o f being exceeded
^•hrn H u m i d i t y voltage correction factor ¥50% 8 0 % w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e air gap
few Factor f o rconductor s w i n g Uso%rp 50 % w i t h s t a n d voltage o f a rod-plane gap
ifa Altitude factor tl50%rp_sf 5 0 % w i t h s t a n d voltage o f a r o d - p l a n e g a p f o rslow-front overvoltages
Pes Statistical coordination factor tlso%rpjT 5 0 % w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e o f a r o d - p l a n e g a p for f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s
Gap factor Uo%rp_pf 50 % w i t h s t a n d voltage o f a rod-plane gapfor power frequency overvolt-
* g
K g j r
Lightning impulse gap factor ages
Lightning impulse gap factor o f t h e insulator strings C/5 0 %real Critical discharge voltage i n t h e line
Eg_ff J n s
Power frequency gap factor Ugo% 9 9 % w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e air g a p
•Kg_pf
KgJif Switching impulse airg a p factor [/go%ff j n s 90 % Lightning withstand voltage o f t h e installed insulator strings
K 2 Deviation factor UA Voltage a t t h e line sending end
K 2 j F
D e v i a t i o n factor o f t h e a i r g a p w i t h s t a n d voltage d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r fast- Ucvi Coordination withstand voltage
front overvoltages UDC Highest voltage o f a D C line
A^z-pf Deviation factor o f t h e a i r g a pw i t h s t a n d voltage distributionfor power Ue Voltage at t h e line receiving e n d
frequency voltages Ue2%_sf 2 % slow-front phase-to-earth overvoltage
Kz_sf Deviation factor o f t h e a i r g a p w i t h s t a n d voltage d i s t r i b u t i o nf o r slow- Umax M a x i m u m overvoltage
front overvoltages Up2%_sf 2 % slow-front phase-to-phase overvoltage
Length of insulator set TT Xr^ll-^^.^ V.ni-^.nnr, TiUlooO
Ik
Inductance LZpp VUiLOLgc u c u n o t u RIII*OV*.J
L
Conductor mass p e runit length UTp Representative overvoltage
m c
Exponent C/rw Required w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e air gap
n
Us Highest system voltage ( k V r m s )
n 2 Number o f subconductors
USAC Highest system voltage o f a nA C line
Nx N u m b e r o f standard deviations
Uw Insulationw i t h s t a n d voltage
AT Interference level
Ux TYuncated voltage
NPA A u d i b l e noise level
u u Coefficient o f variation o f a voltage
NPI Radio interference
V W i n d velocity
NPi perm Permissible radio interference level
V M e a n w i n d velocity
Discharge probability function
P(ife) V2A, W i n d velocity having a t w o year return period
Probability o f occurrence
p VR Reference w i n d velocity
P o w e r limit o f electric stability
E G Vz W i n d velocity a t height z above ground
O h m i c loss
p j VN W i n d velocity parameter
Surge impedance load, natural power
•Pnat VT W i n d velocity having a return period r
Effective w i n d pressure o n conductor
9C W c Effective conductor weight
W i n d pressure depending o n height above ground
9z Wins Weight o f insulator set
Electric charge
0 Xc Capacitive reactance
W i n d force o n c o n d u c t o r
<3wc XL Inductive reactance
W i n d force o n insulator
Qwins z Height above ground
Radius o fbundle circle
H) ZR Reference height above ground
Equivalent radius
YE ZQ Surge impedance
Bundle conductor equivalent radius
YB a Terrain roughness parameter
r Subconductor radius
(3 Exponent
T Ohmic resistance 5 Power angle
Relative insulationstrength so Dielectric constant
RIS
Subconductor distance w i t h i n a bundle 9 Angle around conductor periphery
s
Period of time po Magnetic constant
t
T i m e t o half value pr Relative permeability
t2
to Front time Q1 A i r density
28 2 Electric requirements a n a aesign £i,± v/vci I K I V J u n c o aa

Symbols Signification
TYible 2 . 1 : Surge impedance load ( S I L ) o ftypical overhead
p' R,6lative a i r density lines ( M W )
6 S w i n g angle Number of Zc Operating voltage
S w i n g angle o f i n s u l a t o r sets conductors per Q kV
Swing angle o f conductors phase bundle 69 138 230 400 500 765
r t
rj Standard deviation o fa voltage 1 400 12 48 132
2 320 60 165 557 781
fT\T Standard deviation o fa w i n d velocity
3 280 602 893
<P Standard deviation o fa swing angle 4 240 627 1042 2230
r Return period
Variable angle a tsubconductor surface
Angular frequency m a y b e n e e d e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e voltage drop a l o n g t h e l i n e , t o i m p r o v e t h e power
factor a n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i n e c a p a c i t y . F o r o p e r a t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e l o w PNM, shunt
reactors m a y b e n e e d e d . E f f o r t s h a v e b e e n m a d e b y e l e c t r i c i n d u s t r y n o w a d a y s t o w a r d s
2.1 Overhead lines as components of electric systems increasing t h esurge i m p e d a n c e l o a d o fo v e r h e a d lines, especially c o n s i d e r i n g t h e g r o w -
ing difficulties t o acquire rights-of-way for n e w lines. T h esurge impedance load o fa n
2.1.1 Surge impedance and surge impedance load (natural power)
overhead line c a n b e increased by:
T h e e n e r g y s t o r e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e c a n b e e q u a t e d a s - Voltage increase;
- R e d u c t i o n o f s u r g e i m p e d a n c e Zc t h r o u g h :
Ee = 1 / 2 • C • U2 , (2.1)
— R e d u c i n g p h a s e s p a c i n g (compact overhead lines);
w h e r e C i s t h e capacitance a n d U t h evoltage. I n a similar way, t h e energy stored i n — Increasing n u m b e r o fconductors p e r phase bundle;
the magnetic field is — Increasing conductor diameter;
— Increasing bundle radius;
Em = l/2L-I2 , (2.2) — I n t r o d u c i n g bundle expansion along t h e span.
w h e r e L i s t h e inductance a n dI t h e current. I n T a b l e 2 . 1 , t h e surge impedance load o f t y p i c a l o v e r h e a d l i n e s i s s h o w n . I t i l l u s t r a t e s
loading limits a n disuseful asa n estimating tool. L o n g E H V lines according t o range I I
A t t h e t h r e s h o l d c o n d i t i o n w h e r e t h es a m e energy isstored i n b o t h fields, t h a t i s i f Ee
of Table I E C60 071 t e n d t o b e voltage-drop a n d stability-limited. T h i s corresponds
= Em, i t results f r o m (2.1)a n d (2.2)
t o a lower l o a d i n g l i m i t i n case o f s h o r t lines, w h i c h t e n d t o b e l i m i t e d b y conductor
U/I = jL/C = ZC . (2.3) ampacity.

The ratio above has dimensions o fa n impedance a n d i s c a l l e d surge impedance o f the

2.1.2 Stability
line. I t c a n further b e deduced
A power system made u p o f interconnected dynamic elements m a y b e said t o have
ZC = 4LJC = V X L • XC , (2.4) stability i fi twill regain stable operation after a system disturbance.
w h e r e X\, = 2ir • f • L i s t h e inductive reactance a n d Xc = 1 / ( 2 • n • f • C) t h e capacitive - Steady-state stability i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s m a l l p e r t u r b a t i o n s s u c h a s s l o w v a r i a t i o n
reactance. T h e s u r g e i m p e d a n c e Zc o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i s a l s o c a l l e d t h e characteristic o n loads o r generation a n d line dropouts. I t depends f u n d a m e n t a l l y o nt h e state
impedance w i t h t h e o h m i c r e s i s t a n c e s e t e q u a l t o z e r o , i . e . t h e o h m i c r e s i s t a n c e R i s o f t h e s y s t e m , i . e. t h eo p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a t t h ei n s t a n t o f t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n .
assumed t ob e s m a l l asc o m p a r e d w i t h t h einductive reactance. T h epower w h i c h flows - Transient stability i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h g r e a t p e r t u r b a t i o n s ( p e r i o d i c disturbances),
i n a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e w i t h o u t r e a c t i v e p o w e r l o s s e s i s d e n o t e d a s t h e surge impedance such a sl i n e f a u l t s , loss o f a g e n e r a t i n g u n i t , s u d d e n a p p l i c a t i o n o fa b i g l o a d , f a u l t
load " S I L " o r natural power o f t h e l i n e . U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s e n d i n g e n d v o l t a g e in equipment. I tstrongly depends o nt h em a g n i t u d e a n dsite o ft h e p e r t u r b a t i o n
UA a n d t h e r e c e i v i n g e n d v o l t a g e UE d i f f e r b y a n a n g l e S c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t r a v e l a n d less o n t h e i n i t i a l s t a t e o f t h e s y s t e m .
t i m e o n t h e l i n e . F o r a t h r e e - p h a s e l i n e , t h e surge impedance load P n a t i s
T h e stability limit is defined as:

P n a t = U2p/Zc , (2.5) PG = (UA-Ue)/XLsmS , (2.7)

w h e r e C / p p i s t h e p h a s e - t o - p h a s e v o l t a g e o f t h e l i n e . S i n c e Zc h a s n o r e a c t i v e c o m p o -
n e n t , t h e r e i s n o reactive p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t i nt h e line. T h i s indicates t h a t f o r P N A T
t h e r e a c t i v e l o s s e s d u e t o t h e l i n e i n d u c t a n c e Eire e x a c t l y o f f s e t b y t h e r e a c t i v e p o w e r
s u p p l i e d b y t h e shunt capacitance, o r
I2u>L = U2-uC . (2.6)
T h e surge impedance load isa useful q u a n t i t y t omeasure transmission line capability
even for practical lines w i t h resistance, as i t indicates a loading w h e n t h e line reactive
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s m a l l . F o r p o w e r t r a n s f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y a b o v e T n a t , shunt capacitors
w h e r e PG i s t h e p o w e r l i m i t i n M W , UA a n d Ue axe t h e v o l t a g e s a t s e n d i n g e n d a n d
r e c e i v i n g e n d t e r m i n a l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , X^ i s t h e inductive reactance a n d 8 t h e power
angle o f s t a b i l i t y .
A s far a sd y n a m i c s t a b i l i t y is concerned, t h e p o w e r angle 8 isl i m i t e d t o t h e range below
45°. A v a l u e n e a r 90° i s r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y a f t e r p o w e r o s c i l l a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g
from perturbations. T h e transient stabilitycriterionusually requires lower limits for t h e
p o w e r a n g l e t h a n t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e s t a b i l i t y . T h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s r e a c t a n c e X^
is, t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i d e r e d b y p l a n n i n g e n g i n e e r s a s a c o n v e n i e n t a l t e r n a t i v e t o increase
t h e power t r a n s m i s s i o n capacity o fa line.
30 2 Electric requirements a n d design 2.1 Overhead lines as components o f electric systems 3 1

2.1.3 V o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n a n d m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e losses
Voltage regulation
T h e t r a n s m i s s i o ncapacity o f radial lines, especially m e d i u m a n dl o n g lines u pt o 1 5 0 k V
i s o f t e n l i m i t e d b y voltage drop o r voltage regulation. T h e h i g h e s t l i m i t p r a c t i c a l l y
r e c o m m e n d e d f o r l i n e r e g u l a t i o n i s i n t h e r a n g e o f 5 t o 1 0 %, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e l i n e
v o l t a g e a n d o n t h e reactive p o w e r c o m p e n s a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . T a b l e 1.2 c o n t a i n s t h e highest
system operation voltages. F o r extra-high voltage lines, voltage regulation i s usually
not t h e governing limit asthese lines either belong t ointerconnected systems o r a r e
c o n t r o l l e d b y o t h e r c r i t e r i a (see clause 2.1.4).
L i n e losses
R e g a r d i n g line losses, l i n e o w n e r s o r p o w e r u t i l i t i e s g e n e r a l l y e s t a b l i s h m a x i m u m a c -
ceptable limits, considering t h e economic aspects associated w i t h long-term operation
of the line a n d t h ea m o u n t o f power a n denergy that c a n b e wasted w i t h i n this period.
T h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f losses have t o b e considered w h e n d e s i g n i n g o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s -
sion lines:
- L o s s e s b y "Joule heat" (ohmic losses) i n t h e c o n d u c t o r s : T h o s e a r e t h e m a i n
losses t h a t o c c u r i nt h e o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s a n d correct c o n d u c t o r selection i s
decisive f o r o b t a i n i n g a n e c o n o m i c a l line. T h elosses axe like energy t h r o w n i n t h e
basket as they represent consumption o fp r i m a r y energy w i t h o u t t h e correspond-
ing generation o f useful work. T h epower R • I 2 dissipated i nt h econductors a n d
joints reduces t h e efficiency o f t h e electric s y s t e m a n d i t sability t o s u p p l y n e w
l n i 4 o TVio Dnormr Z? . 7% . A / l o .U r , 1 * J . . ,, 1 „ z
0
- Mechanical unavailability o fthe weakest component, mostly t h esupports, equal
to t h e inverse o f twice t h ereturn period o f t h e design w i n d velocity o rclimatic
loads, a sp e r [2.1]. T h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o fa l l o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s t o g e t h e r u s u a l l y
doesn't exceed 2 5 % o f that o n e for t h e supports.
- Electric unavailability r e l a t e d t ofailure o felectric origin. T h r e e m a i n causes o f
electric failures exist, n a m e l y :
- Failures d u e t o unsuccessful reclosing operation, w h e n a lightning flashover
occurred, a m o u n t i n g t oabout 3 0t o3 5% o fall reclosing operations. E a c h o f
those p e r m a n e n t failures lasts i naverage t w ot ofour h o u r s a n drepresents a n
appreciable p a r t o ft h e line u n a v a i l a b i l i t y i n regions o fh i g h k e r a u n i c activity.
- Failures d u et oswitching surge overvoltages, m a i n l y caused b yline ener-
g i z a t i o n o r r e c l o s i n g . T h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f flashover ( P F O ) i s u s u a l l y v e r y l o w
( a r o u n d 1 0 ~ 3 t o1 0 ~ 4 )a n d contributes little t o t h e line unavailability.
- F a i l u r e s c a u s e d b y p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e s , w h e n adverse weather condi-
tions o r o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , s u c h a s fire u n d e r a l i n e o r t o u c h i n g o f c o n -
ductors b y tree branches, occur, c a n a d da b o u t 0,3 outages p e ryear w i t h
a n average d u r a t i o n below 1 0hours i ngeneral according t o international
statistics.
D o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g indices is u s u a l for a nelectric s y s t e m as well a s for a n
o v e r h e a d l i n e [2.2]:
- Forced Energy Unavailability (FEU) i s a n i n d e x t h a t m e a s u r e s t h e p e r c e n t r a t i o
between t h e u n p l a n n e d out-of-service hours o f a line d u r i n g o n e year divided b y
the total n u m b e r o f hours o f o n e year (8760).

ivxtxix... x. xxv. v . x x x . x & j xi X ilea,.

^ n , xo U i X X i p ^ u CH>

- Dielectric losses a n d corona losses: F o r a c a r e f u l d e s i g n o f c o n d u c t o r s a n d a c c e s - - Scheduled Energy Unavailability (SEU) i s a n i n d e x t h a t m e a s u r e s t h e p e r c e n t

sories, m a x i m u m c o n d u c t o r gradients have t ob e l i m i t e d s oa st o generate neg- ratio between p l a n n e d out-of-service hours o fa line d u r i n g o n e year divided b y
ligible c o r o n a losses u n d e r fair a n d f o u l w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s . O nt h e o t h e r h a n d , the total n u m b e r o f hours o f o n e year (8760).
a careful design o f accessories a n d i n s u l a t o r s c a n reduce t h e a m o u n t o f leakage - Forced Outage Rate (FOR) i s t h e r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e m e a n t i m e t o r e p a i r t h e l i n e
c u r r e n t s a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g losses t o negligible values. after a u t o m a t i c o r emergency t a k i n g out-of-service o f a line a n dt h e t o t a l n u m b e r
of hours o f one year (8760).
- M e a n Time Between Failures (MTBF) isa n index that measures t h e average t i m e
2.1.4 C a p a b i l i t y of a line
elapsed between t w oconsecutive failure events.
T h e capability of a line i s t h e d e g r e e o f p o w e r t h a t c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d b y a l i n e , c o n - - Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) is a n index that measures t h eaverage t i m e f o r
s i d e r i n g t h e l i m i t a t i o n s i m p o s e d b yv o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n a n d c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e , a s repairing non-scheduled failures.
well a sl i m i t a t i o n s i n h e r e n t t os y s t e m c o n s t r a i n t s such a sstability, m a x i m u m capaci-
ties o f s u b s t a t i o n t e r m i n a l e q u i p m e n t , circuit breakers, c u r r e n t t r a n s f o r m e r s etc. T h e
2.1.6 Reactive power compensation
c a p a b i l i t y o f l i n e s o f r a n g e I I (Us > 2 4 5 k V , s e e T a b l e 2 . 1 2 ) , i s u s u a l l y g o v e r n e d b y
thermal limit f o r l e n g t h s u p t o 8 0 k m , b y voltage regulation i n t h e 8 0 t o 3 2 0 k m r a n g e T h e r e a r e t w o basic types o f c o m p e n s a t i o n required b y a n electric s y s t e m as a conse-
a n d b y stability f o r l i n e s l o n g e r t h a n 3 2 0 k m . T h e n u m b e r s a b o v e a r e g e n e r a l l y v a l i d f o r q u e n c e o f t h e reactive power requirements, namely:
r a d i a l lines o r lines i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g a g e n e r a t i n g t e r m i n a l w i t h a w e a k s y s t e m . I n case
- Series compensation, m a d e u p o f capacitor b a n k s c o n n e c t e d i n series w i t h t h e
o f lines interconnecting strong systems, other limits such as reactive power available o r
line, off-setting p a x t o ft h e i n d u c t i v e reactance a n d t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e electrical
t e r m i n a l e q u i p m e n t l i m i t a t i o n s m a yprevail.
line length. Its m a i n advantages are
— I m p r o v i n g t h esteady-state a n d transient stability;
2.1.5 Reliability a n d availability - Allowing for a more economic power loading;
— Reducing reactive power requirements o fthe system;
C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e t w o i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f continuity of supply a n d quality of supply, - Reducing t h evoltage drop;
together w i t h o t h e r relevant elements i nt h e p l a n n i n g , design, control, o p e r a t i o n a n d — Distributing t h eload better between circuits.
m a i n t e n a n c e o f a n e l e c t r i c p o w e r s y s t e m n e t w o r k , i s u s u a l l y d e s i g n a t e d a s reliability W h e n u s i n g series c o m p e n s a t i o n , especial a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e given t o o t h e r fac-
assessment. G e n e r a l l y , t h e p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e o f a s y s t e m i s c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o s o m e tors affecting technically a n d economically t h esystem, such as capacitor protec-
p e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c e s , s u c h a s t h e Average Customer Interruption Frequency Index a n d tion, line protection a n d sub-synchronous resonance.
t h e Customer Average Interruption Duration Index. T h e unavailability o f t r a n s m i s s i o n - Shunt compensation. T h em a i n s h u n t c o m p e n s a t i o n schemes used i n electric sys-
lines is measured i nt e r m s o fh o u r s p e r year o r percent o ft i m e w h i l e the lines have been tems are:
o u t o f o p e r a t i o n . T w om a i n reasons c a n b ed i s t i n g u i s h e d : - Reactors, f o r c o m p e n s a t i n g c a p a c i t i v e p o w e r s o f l o n g E H V l i n e s i n p e r i o d s
32 2 Electric requirements and design z.o v o n a g t : a n u £ix±ieill-lt;ici.i,t:ii piiciiLiiiiciia J J

o f l i g h t l o a d (Ferranti Effect); Table 2 . 2 : T y p i c a l values of efficiency ratios of

— Capacitors for voltage control a n d power factor correction during periods o f rights-of-way
high load demand; Voltage ( k V ) 230 500 765
— S y n c h r o n o u s condensers, t h a t c a np e r f o r m t h e f u n c t i o n s o f reactors as well Power ( M V A ) 165 1000 2500
as o f c a p a c i t o r s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s y s t e m n e e d s ; R O W width (m) 45 65 95
Efficiency ratio ( M V A / m ) 3,7 15,4 26,3
— Static compensators, performing t h e function o f synchronous condensers
without moving parts.
— Flexible alternating current transmission system (FACTS) facilities. w h e r e RAC i s t h e A C p h a s e c o n d u c t o r r e s i s t a n c e a t t h e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a n d I
t h e r m s current flowing o n t h e line, as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p o w e r b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d (see
2.1.7 P o w e r transmitted versus right-of-way width subclause 7.2.3).

T h e need t otransmit t h e highest possible power i n a line corridor makes i t i m p o r t a n t t o

2.2.3 Short circuit condition
i n c r e a s e t h e p o w e r c a r r i e d b y t h e l i n e s i n s i d e . T h i s o r i g i n a t e s t h e c o n c e p t o f efficiency
ratio [ 2 . 3 ] o f a l i n e c o r r i d o r e x p r e s s e d a s p o w e r t r a n s m i t t e d r e l a t e d t o t h e w i d t h o f Overhead lines and their components should b e designed so as t o r e m a i n sound after
right-of-way ( R O W ) : t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f short circuits, e i t h e r t h r e e - p h a s e , p h a s e - t o - p h a s e o r p h a s e - t o - e a r t h .
T h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e short-circuitcurrents depends o n t h e s y s t e m design, especially o n
. . Power transmitted .„ „ ,
Efficiency ratio = —__.„,—r-r-, • (2.8) the protective schemes a n d o nt h e respective break time. T y p i c a l values o f short-circuit
J R O W width 4 /
d u r a t i o n for designing conductors, shield w i r e s a n d accessories are:
T h e power transmitted is proportional t o t h e square o f the voltage, while the R O W — O p e r a t i o n o f first z o n e o r s e c o n d z o n e r e l a y s : 0 , 1 t o 0 , 2 s ;
w i d t h is n e a r l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e v o l t a g e . T a b l e 2.2 s h o w s t y p i c a l v a l u e s . T h e efficiency — O p e r a t i o n o f back-up p r o t e c t i o n a n de v e n t u a l reclosing o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g a r e -
ratio is m e a s u r e d i n M V A / m . T h e r e are several w a y s t o increase t h e efficiency ratio m a i n i n g short-circuit:0,5 t o 1 s a t voltages u p t o 3 0 0k V (range I according t o
basically b y increasing t h e power transmitted i n a given corridor, such as: I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 ) a n d0,2 t o 0,5 s a t voltages a b o v e 3 0 0k V (range I I according t o
- Use o f higher voltage compatible w i t h t h e required loads; I E C 60071-1).
- U s e o f double- o r multiple-circuit lines, where acceptable b y reliability o r envi-
ronmental considerations;
- Line compaction; 2.3 Voltage and current-related phenomena
- U p r a t i n g o f lines (series c o m p e n s a t i o n , u s e o f F A C T S , r e c o n d u c t o r i n g , voltage
2.3.1 Introduction
increase);
- Use o fD C transmission. T h e electric effects o n t h e environment p r o d u c e d b y a n o v e r h e a d l i n e t u r n e d o u t t o b e
a m a t t e r o f concern i n t h e last decades. S e v e r a l s t u d i e s w e r e c a r r i e d o u to n possible
h a r m f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields p r o d u c e d b y o v e r h e a d l i n e s
2.2 Current-related phenomena
could cause o n h u m a n s , a n i m a l s a n d plants. Interference o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems
2.2.1 Normal and emergency conditions have been since long t i m e a n o t h e r m a t t e r o fpre-occupation. I n v i e w o fthat, t h e electric
industry as well as international o r national regulations used t o establish m a x i m u m
A n overhead line c a n b e designed for c a r r y i n g a m a x i m u m le\el o f power u n d e r n o r m a l acceptable l i m i t s for such effects, w h i c h s h o u l d b e c o m p l i e d w i t h w h e n a n e w o v e r h e a d
or emergency conditions. A s a function o f that, the conductor design temperature will t r a n s m i s s i o n line is designed a n d c o n s t r u c t e d .
depend o n the resulting current for the above conditions a n d o n meteorological p a r a m -
eters, such as a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e ,w i n d v e l o c i t y etc. T h e line design itself s h o u l d t a k e
2.3.2 Electrical and magnetic fields
i n t o a c c o u n t t h e sags r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r design c o n d i t i o n s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
applicable safety clearances. 2.3.2.1 Effects on h u m a n s a n d a n i m a l s
Normal condition i s h e r e i n c o n s i d e r e d a s a s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e c o n d u c t o r w i l l n o t l o s e
G r o u n d l e v e l electric and magnetic field e f f e c t s o f o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s b e c a m e o f
its m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a l o n g t h e line life (30 t o 4 0 years a sa m i n i m u m ) . Emergency
increasing c o n c e r n as t r a n s m i s s i o n voltages h a v e b e e n increased. T h e effects o f s u c h
condition c a nb e considered, a c c o r d i n g t o [2.4], a s a c o n d i t i o n i nw h i c h t h e c o n d u c t o r
fields are especially i m p o r t a n t because their influence o n h u m a n beings a n d a n i m a l s
w i l l n o t lose m o r e t h a n 1 0 % o f i t s m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h a l o n g t h e line life.
h a v e b e e n u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t h e l a s t decades [2.5, 2 . 6 ,2.7] a n d [2.8]. T h e l a t t e r
For a l u m i n i u m a n dA C S R conductors, normal operation temperatures will b e until contains a n e x t e n d e d list o f references. Suspicions still exist t h a t exposure t o electrical
80°C w h i l e e m e r g e n c y t e m p e r a t u r e s w o u l d b e i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 0 0 t o 120°C a s s p e c i f i e d a n d m a g n e t i c fields c o u l d b e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d v e r s e h e a l t h e f f e c t s o r w i t h i n c r e a s e d
in national standards, project specifications o r utility experience. risks. B u t t h e s t u d i e s p e r f o r m e d s o f a r i n t h i s sense f a i l e d t o p r o v e s u c h risks i n case
o f fields o c c u r r i n g c l o s e t o o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n o t a p p r o p r i a t e t o
2.2.2 Ohmic losses c o n s i d e r u n l i k e l y c o n d i t i o n s w h e n s e t t i n g a n d a p p l y i n g e l e c t r i c a l field s a f e t y c r i t e r i a
because o f possible consequences.
T h e ohmic o r Joule losses o f a t h r e e - p h a s e l i n e c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n
T h e m a g n i t u d e o f electrical a n d m a g n e t i c fields i n p r o x i m i t y t o a t r a n s m i s s i o n line
Pj = 3 R A c / 2 , (2.9) r e s u l t s f r o m t h e s u p e r p o s i t i o n o f t h e fields d u e t o t h e t h r e e - p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s . U s u a l l y ,
34 2 Electric requirements a n d design 2.3 V o l t a g e a n d c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a 35

T a b l e 2 . 3 : E f f e c t s o f l o w - f r e q u e n c y e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields o n t h e h u m a n b o d y T a b l e 2 . 5 : P r e c a u t i o n values for low-frequency magnetic induction i n p T ( r m s )

Current Consequences in Body Field gradients corresponding Source Occupational exposure General public exposure
density case of exceeding current to the thresholds at / = 50/60 Hz permanently few hours per day permanently few hours per day
thresholds the thresholds E B I C N I R P [2.8] 500 500 100 100
mA/m2 mA kV/m mT I R P A / W H O [2.10] 500 5 000; 25 0 0 0 " 100 1000
1 no biological effects 0,07 4 to 5 0,025 to 0,070 Europe [2.11] 100 100
10 stimulation (eye flickering) 0,7 40 to 50 0,25 to 0,70
Germany [2.12] 100 200
100 stimulation of muscles and 7 400 to 500 2,5 to 70
United Kingdom [2.13] 2 000 2 000
nerves (hazards possible)
1000 damage (heart fibrillation) 70 4000 to 5000 250 to 700 U S A [2.14] 1000 202)
" For limbs only
2' Edge of right-of-way
T a b l e 2 . 4 : P r e c a u t i o n v a l u e s f o r l o w - f r e q u e n c y e l e c t r i c a l fields i n k V / m ( r m s )
Source Occupational exposure General public exposure
permanently few hours per day permanently few hours per day T a b l e 2 . 6 : R a n g e of m a x i m u m e l e c t r i c a l
I C N I R P [2.8] 10 10 5 5 a n d m a g n e t i c fields b e l o w o v e r h e a d l i n e s
I R P A / W H O [2.10] 10 30 5 10 Voltage Electrical field Magnetic
at ground level induction at
Europe [2.11] (50 Hz) 5
ft under a line ground level 1 '
Germany [2.12] 5 10
(kV) (kV/m) (pT)
United Kingdom [2.13] 12.3 12,3
765 8 to 13 28 to 32
U S A [2.14] 8 to 11,8" 7 to 112) 1 to 33)
ft25 5 to 9 25 to 30
Belgium [2.14] 10" 7») 5 22 to 28
420 4 to 8
" Overhead power lines in general 245 2 to 3,5 20 to 25
2' 123 1 to 2 12 to 15 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 m 50"
Road crossings
70 1 to 1,5 2 to 2,5 Distance from centre line —
3' Edge of right-of-way
15 for 1000 A current per circuit F i g u r e 2.1: Electrical ( E ) a n d magnetic
fields (B) below a 3 8 0 k V double-circuit
l i m i t a t i o n s , originated f r o m t h e practice o r researches, axei m p o s e d t o t h e m a x i m u m i)ki \0 v , b overhead line. C u r r e n t 1 0 0 0A p e r circuit
e l e c t r i c a l field a t t h e e d g e o f o r w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y .
T h e electrical field strength E, m e a s u r e d i n k V / m , i s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e e l e c t r i c a l
field. T h e magnetic induction o r magnetic flux density B i s o f t e n u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e m a y c a u s e eye flickering a n d u p t o 1 0 0 m A / m 2 s t i m u l a t i o n o f n e r v e s a n d m u s c l e s . T h e
t h e m a g n e t i c field i n s t e a d o f t h e magnetic field strength H, b e c a u s e i t c a n b e m e a s u r e d threshold of hazards i s 1 0 0 m A / m 2 . H a r m s m u s t b e e x p e c t e d f r o m 1 0 0 0 m A / m 2 a n d
m o r e easily. T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h quantities i s a b o v e , e. g. v e n t r i c u l a r fibrillation. T h e average cross section o f t h e h u m a n b o d y i s
between 0,06 a n d 0,07 m 2 . I nT a b l e 2.3 these values a r e related t o t h e corresponding
B = Hm>th , (2.10) field strengths.
w h e r e H i s m e a s u r e d i n A / m , p o i s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e v a c u u m p o = 4 • zr • A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e o f h a r m f u l e f f e c t s o f t h e m a g n e t i c fields o n h u m a n s o r
1 0 - 7 V - s / ( A - m )and p r the relative permeability being equal 1 i n air. Since the magnetic a n i m a l s , t h e r e are c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n si m p o s e d b y practice a n d g o o d sense. I n t e r n a t i o n a l
field s t r e n g t h i s m e a s u r e d i n A / m , t h e m a g n e t i c flux d e n s i t y i s g i v e n i n V - s / m 2 o r T e s l a organisations like Cigre a n d I C N I R P ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n o nN o n - I o n i z i n g R a -
( T ) , w h e r e 1 T = 1 V - s / m 2 . P r o m (2.10) i ti so b t a i n e d i n air d i a t i o n P r o t e c t i o n ) have u n d e r t a k e n extensive investigations o n t h a t issue, as i t c a n
be seen i n [2.6, 2.8]a n d [2.15]. I n T a b l e 2.4, p r e c a u t i o n values a r e s h o w n f o r electrical
l A / m = 4-7r-10"7T or l A / m = l , 2 5 6 p T a n d l p T = 0,7962A/m (2.11) fields a n d i n T a b l e 2 . 5 f o r m a g n e t i c fields. T h e u s u a l r a n g e o f m a x i m u m i n t e n s i t i e s o f
e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields b e l o w o v e r h e a d l i n e s i s s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 . 6 .
for t h ehomogenous magnetic field.
I n F i g u r e 2 . 1 , a t y p i c a l g r a p h w i t h t h e e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c field p r o f i l e s a c r o s s a
T h e e l e c t r i c a l field i n f l u e n c e s e l e c t r i c c h a x g e s o n t h e b o d y s u r f a c e a f f e c t i n g t h e c u r r e n t
r i g h t - o f - w a y i s p r e s e n t e d . T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields a c r o s s
flow w i t h i n t h e b o d y . P r o m n u m e r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s i t i s k n o w n t h a t a n e l e c t r i c a l field
the right-of-way o f a n overhead transmission line can nowadays b e made with high
o f 1 k V / m causes a c u r r e n t o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,015 m A w i t h i n t h e h u m a n b o d y [2.9],
accuracy, s o t h a t t h eestablished limits c a n b e well checked.
t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y b e i n g b e t w e e n 0 , 2 a n d 0 , 3 m A / m 2 . T h e body currents c a u s e d b y
t h e e l e c t r i c a l field d o n o t d e p e n d o n t h e b o d y c o n d u c t i v i t y n o r o n t h e b o d y s i z e [ 2 . 9 ] . A l t h o u g h medical examinations o f linemen, performed i nvarious countries, have so f a r
H o w e v e r , t h e m a g n e t i c field i n d u c e s c u r r e n t s i n t h e h u m a n b o d y w h i c h d e p e n d o n failed t o scientifically prove health problems ascribable t o electrical a n dmagnetic fields
the dimensions, as well as o n t h econductivity o f t h e different parts o f t h e h u m a n produced b y overhead lines, precaution values have been established for exposures, f r o m
b o d y . A c c o r d i n g t o [2.9], a c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 1 S / m i s a s s u m e d f o r t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l w h i c h t h en u m b e r s presented i nT a b l e 2.4give a nindication o fthe order o f m a g n i t u d e
s e r u m a n d 0 , 1 S / m f o rother parts. Therefore, a n i n d u c t i o n o f 1 p Tleads t o current o f e l e c t r i c a l fields a c c e p t e d b y d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d s . A s c a n b e s e e n , t h e m o r e r e c e n t
densities between 0,0016 m A / m 2 a n d 0,016 m A 2 i nt h e head a s well a s 0,004 m A / m 2 r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o [2.8]a n d [2.11] d o n ol o n g e r d i s t i n g u i s h p e r m a n e n t a n d
to 0,04m A / m 2 i nt h e thorax. t e m p o r a r y exposure since there is a n i n d i c a t i o n f o r a difference between p e r m a n e n t
It is further well-proved knowledge that w i t h current densities u p t o 1 m A / m 2 n o a n d t e m p o r a r y e x p o s u r e . T h ep r e c a u t i o n v a l u e o f 5 k V / m s t i p u l a t e d i n [2.8, 2 . 1 1 ] a n d
biological effects c a n b e detected w i t h i n t h e b o d y . C u r r e n t densities a b o v e 1 0 m A / m 2 [2.12] c o r r e s p o n d s u n d e r w o r s t case c o n d i t i o n s t o a n i n d u c e d c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o f a b o u t
ou x. mxcctiic icquiiciiiciita ciiiu ucsign

2 m A / m 2 . T h e recommendation for occupational exposure o f 10 k V / m is equivalent, A charge matrix [Q] a n d a potential coefficient matrix [P] a r e c o r r e l a t e d a n d t h e f o l -
therefore, t o a c u r r e n t density o f 4 m A / m 2 . B o t h l i m i t s are w e l l w i t h i n t h e safe range lowing matrix equation results:
w h e r e n o biological effects occur.
I n T a b l e 2 . 5 p r e c a u t i o n v a l u e s a r e l i s t e d f o r m a g n e t i c f i e l d s . R e g a r d i n g t h e acceptable [Q] = [ P ] - 1 [ V ] , (2.12)
limits for the magnetic fields, t h e r e i s s o m e c o n t r o v e r s y s t i l l e x i s t e n t w o r l d - w i d e , e s -
p e c i a l l y a b o u t t h e i r r e a l effects o n t h e h e a l t h o f h u m a n beings a n d a n i m a l s . W h i l e i n w h e r e [V] i s t h e m a t r i x o f charge voltages. T h e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s e q u a t i o n i s m a d e t h r o u g h
some countries the regulations are more permissible, i n others very stringent rules have computer programs. T h e gradient i nany point o f t h e space outside the conductors
been established u n d e r a subjective basis. A s i n case o f electrical fields, t h e p r e c a u t i o n (subconductors) ist h e n computable.
values for t h e m a g n e t i c field are n o longer s t i p u l a t e d differently for p e r m a n e n t a n d t e m - W h e n dealing w i t h three-phase conductors separated b y relatively large distances, a n
p o r a r y e x p o s u r e . T h e flux d e n s i t y l i m i t o f 1 0 0 p T ( 0 , 1 m T ) f o r g e n e r a l p u b l i c e x p o s u r e a p p r o x i m a t i o n can b e made, considering that t h e charge is concentrated i n t h e centre
c o r r e s p o n d s a g a i n t o a c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m A / m 2 . I n [2.8] a n d [2.10], o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . F o r t h i s c a s e , t h e maximum voltage gradient E i a t t h e c o n d u c t o r
l i m i t s for o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p o s u r e a r e set t o 5 0 0 p T (0,5 m T ) a i m i n g a t r e s t r i c t i n g t h e surface will b e
current density t o 10 m A / m 2 .
E i = Qi/(2we0-TB) , (2.13)
A s c a n b e c o n c l u d e d from a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e d a t a g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . 6 f o r e l e c t r i c a l
a n d m a g n e t i c f i e l d s b e l o w o v e r h e a d l i n e s , t h e l i m i t s f o r m a g n e t i c field w i l l n o t a f f e c t
w h e r e rB i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r r a d i u s a c c o r d i n g t o (2.19) a n d £o t h e
the design o foverhead lines w h i l e t h e s t i p u l a t i o n s for electrical fields could b e relevant
dielectric constant. T h e c h a r g e Q c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y
for 420 k V a n d above.

Qi = CiUs/V3 , (2.14)
2.3.2.2 Effects on electronic devices
w h e r e C\ i s t h e c a p a c i t a n c e a n d Us t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e . T h e v a r i a t i o n a r o u n d
M a g n e t i c fields u n d e r o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s c a n d i s t u r b s e n s i t i v e e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s s u c h the subconductor periphery may b e obtained b y
as screen t u b e s o fm o n i t o r s a n d t e l e v i s i o n sets, a s m e a s u r e m e n t s close t or a i l w a y i n s t a l -
l a t i o n s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d [2.16]. L i m i t s for p r o t e c t i o n o f electrical devices h a v e b e e n T e = E i [ l + (2r/s)-(n2-l)-sin(7r/n2)-cos6»] , (2.15)
s t i l l u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , i n t e r f e r e n c e c a n o c c u r a t flux d e n s i t i e s a b o v e 1 p m .
w h e r e r i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e b u n d l e circle, s t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r distance, n 2 the number
of subconductors and 9 t h e angle a tthe subconductor surface.
2.3.3 C o r o n a p h e n o m e n a a n d r e l a t e d effects
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , Eg c a n b e e x p r e s s e d through
2.3.3.1 General
E9 = E[l + (r/r0)-(n2-l)-cos9] , (2.16)
Corona effects o n c o n d u c t o r s a r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f a i r d i e l e c t r i c s a r o u n d
t h e c o n d u c t o r , w h e n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field r e a c h e s t h e critical surface gradient. T h e c r i t i c a l w h e r e r o is the bundle conductor perimeter radius. T h e m a x i m u m voltage E ; was re-
gradient for s m o o t h r o u n d cylinders w i t h 10 m m radius is about 2 7 k V r m s / c m , falling placed b y the m e a n E o fm a x i m u m voltage gradients o fthe three conductors. E q u a t i o n
to 21 k V r m s / c m for s t r a n d e d conductors. ( 2 . 2 2 ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e v a l u e E.
A s t h e corona discharges a r e n o t p e r m a n e n t b u t o c c u r i n f o r m o f s p a r k s a r o u n d t h e T h e m a x i m u m voltage gradient around the subconductor periphery is obtained by
conductor, electromagnetic radiation are e m i t t e d f r o m the conductor, causing different s e t t i n g 9 = 0. C a l c u l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r v o l t a g e g r a d i e n t s b y t h i s m e t h o d r e q u i r e s t h e
t y p e s o f u n d e s i r a b l e effects. use o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for t a k i n g i n t o account a l l necessary m a t r i x operations.
T h e m a i n n u i s a n c e s o f a t o o h i g h c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t a r e t h e e m i s s i o n o f radio
interference ( R I V ) a t t h e A M b a u d a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f audible noise ( A N ) i n t h e
2.3.3.3 C a l c u l a t i o n of voltage gradient b y a p p r o x i m a t e formulae
v i c i n i t y o f t h e l i n e , b e s i d e s t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f corona losses. I n v i e w o f t h a t , t h e m a x i m u m
conductor surface gradient has t o b e kept below certain limits i n order t oavoid undue T h e m a x i m u m voltage gradient o f a phase conductor i can b e obtained according t o
impacts o f electric origin. I n practice, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e conductor surface [2.17] from
gradient o foverhead conductors should b e limited t oaround 17 k V r m s / c m .

Ei = ^ [ 1 + 2 • r/s ( n a - 1 ) • s i n ( 7 r / n 2 ) ] ^ = (2.17)
2.3.3.2 Calculation of voltage gradients on individual conductors 2 7r£o • n2 • r i/3

S e v e r a l m e t h o d s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g conductor surface gradients and with

i n g e n e r a l t h e y present a r e a s o n a b l e degree o f a c c u r a c y [2.17]. T h e m e t h o d o fm u l t i p l e CI p o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e c a p a c i t a n c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i;
i m a g e s i s c o n s i d e r e d b y [2.18] a s p r o v i d i n g t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e c a l c u l a t i o n s o f c o n d u c - £o d i e l e c t r i c c o n s t a n t = 8 , 8 5 4 • 1 0 ~ 1 2 F / m ;
tor surface gradients. According t o this m e t h o d , every conductor o r subconductor is n2 number o f subconductors;
considered as a cylinder a n d t h e influence o f its charge is taken i n t o account o n other r subconductor radius;
conductors o rsubconductors t h r o u g h its images a n d vice-versa. I n application t o prac- s subconductor distance;
tical bundle configuration, consideration o f images u n t i l t h e second order is sufficient. U rated voltage.
38 2 Electric requirements and design 2.3 V o l t a g e a n dc u r r e n t - r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a 39

T a b l e 2 . 7 : Coefficients to determine the voltage gra-

T a b l e 2.9: Reception quality of radio signals
dients
Reception Signal to Reception quality
Number of sub- 1 2 3 4 5 6 8
_ "KU »-j class noise ratio (dB)
conductors n2
A 32 Entirely satisfactory
12 |i. 3 fcl 1 1 1,12 1,27 1,43 1,76
> p;

B 27 to 32 Very good, background noise unobtrusive

B C'-' fcs = 2 • ( n 2 - 1) 2 3,48 4,24 4,70 5,00 6,07
C 22 to 27 Fairly satisfactory, background noise plainly evident
• sin(rr/n2) D 16 to 22 Background noise very evident, speech easily understood
'3/ , Ct
1 2
|
E 6 to 16 Speech understandable only with severe concentration
Table 2.8: Voltage gradients for some conductor ar¬
F 7 Speech unintelligible
rangements. 17, = 420 k V
1 Vc
562- A L 1 / 389-AL1/ 264-AL1/
Conductor
49-ST1A 34-ST1A 34-ST1A
x °ac . | Example: F o r a 400 kV line w i t h t h e phase a r r a n g e m e n t according t o F i g u r e 2.2 t h e m e a n
Number of voltage gradient should be determined.
subconductors 2 3 4 3 4 The d a t a are: D A B = D E C = 7,5 m ; D A c= 15 m ; A - 15,0 m .
Subconductor C o n d u c t o r s : T w i n b u n d l e 5 6 2 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A (see T a b l e 2.7). B u n d l e spacing 400 m m .
diameter in mm 32,2 32,2 32,2 26,7 22,4
r = 32,2/2 = 16,1 m m = 1,61 c m ;
Total cross
1260 1191 rB = 16,1 • ( 1•400/16,1)1<'2 = 80,25 m m = 0,08025 m (see (2.19));
F i g u r e 2.2: Geometric d a t a for section in mm 1222 1836 2445
D M = (7,5 • 7,5 • 1 5 . 0 ) 1 / 3 = 9,45 m (see (2.20));
conductor arrangement to deter- Voltage gradient
in k V / c m 17,2 13,7 11,5 15,9 15,4 AM = h = 15,00 m
mine the voltage gradient
-= 1 + 2(16,1/400) 420
hi = —
T h e capacitances p e r unit l e n g t h have t o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h egeometric d a t a o f 2-1,61-4/5 In [9,45/ (0,08025^/1 + (9,45/(2 • 15,0))2)]
c o n d u c t o r s a n de a r t h w i r e s a n d t h e i r a r r a n g e m e n t o n t h e s u p p o r t s . T h e p r o c e d u r e i s 1,0805-420
g i v e n i n [2.17] a n d c a n b e c a r r i e d o u tb y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s . A c c e p t i n g s o m e a p p r o x - = 17,2 k V / c m .
5,577-4,72
imations, m e a n capacitances p e r u n i t l e n g t h c a n b e evaluated. I t applies t o t h e line
presented i nF i g u r e 2.2 h a v i n g o n e circuit w i t h o u t e a r t h w i r e s (see clause 3.5): T a b l e 2.8 depicts voltage gradients f o rcircuits equipped w i t h t y p i c a l 4 2 0 k V conductor
alternatives.
C ^ c o / l n ' f M (2-18)
r B N / l + ( D M / 2 HM) 2.3.3.4 R a d i o n o i s e or r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e (R.I)
where r B is the equivalent bundle conductor radius according t o
General considerations
r B = (n 2 •r •r ^ 1 ) 1 ^ = r (h • s/r)^'1^ , (2.19) Radio noise or radio interference ( R I ) is a disturbance b y undesired electric waves
within the radio frequency b a n d i n any t r a n s m i s s i o n channel o r device. T h e p h e n o m e n o n
(for ki s e e T a b l e 2 . 7 ) becomes even m o r e evident i nthe frequency b a n d o f 500 t o 1500 k H z ( A M band). T h e
D M is t h e m e a n conductor distance (see F i g u r e 2.2) frequency o f 1000 k H z ( 1 M H z ) is usually t a k e n as reference f o rR I calculation.
D M = ( D A B •D •D ) 1 / 3 , (2- 2 0 ) R a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e ( R I ) d e c r e a s e s w i t h l a t e r a l d i s t a n c e from t h e l i n e a x i s . I t i s n o r m a l l y
A C B C
q u o t e d i n d B a b o v e 1 p V / m a n dits m a x i m u m v a l u e i s u s u a l l y established f o r t h e edge
hu i s t h e m e a n c o n d u c t o r h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d ( s e e F i g u r e 2 . 2 ) of t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y . I t s significance, however, w i l l depend u p o n t h e p o p u l a t i o n density
and t h esignal strengths o f t h e various radio stations i n a particular area. Usually,
hM = (hA-hB-hc)^ . (2.21)
p e o p l e l i v i n g n e a r t o o v e r h e a d lines a r e q u i t e a w a r e o f t h e i r r i g h t s a n dr e q u i r e a strict
The value r 0 i n (2.19) represents t h e r a d i u s o f t h e b u n d l e conductor circle a n d c a n b e o b s e r v a t i o n o f s t a n d a r d i z e d R I l e v e l s from t h e l i n e o w n e r . I n t h e v i c i n i t y o f u r b a n a r e a s ,
obtained from r 0 = s / s i n ( 7 r / n 2 ) b e i n g s t h es u b c o n d u c t o r distance. F o rother phase the h i g h i n t e n s i t y o f r a d i o s i g n a l s t r e n g t h i s g e n e r a l l y e n o u g h t o offset t h e r a d i o noise
conductor a n d e a r t h wire arrangements, the positive-sequence capacitances can be com- produced b y overhead lines.
p u t e d according t o clause 3.5.W i t h these d a t a , t h e m e a n voltage g r a d i e n t o f a single- The noise level alone is n o t sufficient t o d e t e r m i n e t h e severity o f interference, b u t w h e n
circuit line results f r o m (see also [2.19]) c o m b i n e d w i t h s i g n a l s t r e n g t h t o i n d i c a t e t h e signal-to-noise ratio, i t h a s m u c h m o r e
significance. A c c o r d i n g t o signal-to-noise r a t i o , a reception q u a l i t y scale is prescribed, as
_ = 1 + k2 • r/s 1 . E. (2.22)
the so-called I E E E scale, w h i c h s h o w s t h e r e s u l t s o f subjective l i s t e n i n g tests c o r r e l a t i n g
"2-r I n [DM/ (rB •j l + (DM/2hM)2)] the q u a l i t y o f r e c e p t i o n t o t h e s i g n a l - t o - n o i s e r a t i o . T h e I E E E scale a c c o r d i n g t o [2.18]
is s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 . 9 .
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t s ki a n d k2 a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . 7 . I n ( 2 . 2 2 ) ( D m / 2 A M ) 2 can be
The right-of-way m a y b e sometimes defined b y R I criteria, provided a m i n i m u m signal
neglected a g a i n s t 1 i n m a n y cases. F o r d o u b l e - c i r c u i t l i n e s D M / Y B is t o b e replaced b y
to b e p r o t e c t e d is specified. I n g e n e r a l , signals i n A M f r e q u e n c y i n t h e r a n g e o f 6 5
( D M • D M 2 / Y B • Dm) (see (3.30) a n d (3.35)).
to 75 d B should b e protected, according t o different n a t i o n a l regulations. S o if, f o r
D u e t o r B = r i tis obtained for a single conductor
e x a m p l e , a r e c e p t i o n class C is r e q u i r e d a n dt h er a d i o s i g n a l t o b e p r o t e c t e d is 6 6 d B ,
the m a x i m u m R I acceptable t o b e generated b y the line a t t h e edge o f the right-of-way
E= - — (2.23)
rln(D M /r)v/3 w i l l b e Nfi = 6 6 - 2 2 = 4 4 d B .
40 2 Electric requirements and design 2.3 V o l t a g e a n d c u r r e n t - r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a 4 1

C a l c u l a t i o n o f R I levels lines s h o w i n g h i g h voltage gradients under adverse w e a t h e r conditions. I f a n overhead

Several utilities have so far adopted f o r t h e i r E H V l i n e s r o u g h e s t i m a t e s o f R I levels line does n o t cause concerns i n adverse w e a t h e r n o problems w i l l b e realized i n d r y
t h r o u g h t h e use o fd e s i g n curves t h a t p r o v i d e p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e adders t oa base-case weather. T h e r e i s a close correlation between t h e audible noise, measured i n d B ( A ) ,
design. Q u i c k i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e effects i nv a r i a t i o n o f phase spacing, conductor size, a n d t h e r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e a t 1 M H z (see [ 2 . 1 8 ] ) .
conductor h e i g h t , etc. can b e o b t a i n e d a n d are a d d e d t o R I o f a base case [2.18].
A n e m p i r i c a l m e t h o d f o r calculating the R I level at f a i r w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s i s a s f o l l o w s : Calculation
The R I level [2.20, 2.21], m e a s u r e d i n d Ba b o v e 1 p V / m , can b e d e t e r m i n e d b y
A c c o r d i n g t o [2.23], i n order t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a u d i b l e noise ( A N ) o f a n o v e r h e a d line,
t h e noise potential o fevery conductor s h o u l d b e first c a l c u l a t e d a s f o l l o w s
I V f i i = 3,5 E i + 1 2 n - 3 3 l o g ( D L i / 2 0 ) - 3 0 i n d B • < 2 2 4 )
NPAi = - 1 6 4 , 6 + 1 2 0 l o g Ei + 5 5 l o g r e > i , (2.27)
where E j is the voltage gradient o f the conductor i i n k V / c m , rz t h e r a d i u s o f t h e
conductor o r subconductor i nc m and Du the distance f r o m the conductor t o the where E i isthe voltage gradient i n k V / c m and r e the equivalent radius according t o
measuring point inm . re = r f o r n2 < 2
I n a three-phase A C s y s t e m , w h e r e t h e R I level o fone o f the three phases is a t least 3
and
d B higher t h a n t h e R I levels o f t h e o t h e r t w o phases, t h e lower t w o can b e neglected
t h e n [2.20]. O t h e r w i s e , t h e r e s u l t i n g R I level a t t h e m e a s u r i n g p o i n t is r e = 0,58 •n " ' 4 8 •r for n 2 > 3 , (2.28)

where n 2ist h e n u m b e r o fsubconductors a n d r t h e subconductor radius i n m m . Equa-

NI\ t o t a l = (mi+NFh)/2 + 1,5 i n d B , (2.25)
t i o n ( 2 . 2 7 ) w a s o b t a i n e d from e v a l u a t i o n o f t e s t s .
w h e r e NPi a n d NP2 represent the t w o higher values o f t h e three phases. For m u l t i p l e - The a u d i b l e noise ( A N ) a t a n y p o i n t close t o a l i n e can b e d e t e r m i n e d b y

j
c i r c u i t l i n e s , a l l R I l e v e l s NPi a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y ( 2 . 2 4 ) . T h e n , t h e R I l e v e l s o f t h e c o r r e -
s p o n d i n g phases are added squarely. T h e r e s u l t i n g o r total R I i sd e t e r m i n e d b y (2.25). NP. " A = 1 0 l o g jf>xp[0,23 (NPAi - 11,4 l o g D L i - 5,8)] , (2.29)
The relationship between R I level i n d Ba n d the field i n t e n s i t y E\ i n p V / m i s
w h e r e n i s t h e n u m b e r o f p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a n d DLi the distance (in m ) between
AT^ = 201ogEi a n d E i = 10^F'/20) (2.26) conductor i a n d t h e reference p o i n t (measuring p o i n t ) .

E x a m p l e : R e f e r r i n g t o T a b l e 2.8 a n d e q u a t i o n s (2.24) a n d ( 2 . 2 9 ) , t h e R I a n d A N levels a t

Field measurements
a p o i n t 4 0 m f a r from a 4 2 0 k V c i r c u i t w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d a s a n e x a m p l e a s f o l l o w s :
Background R Inoises are relevant a s t h e y a r e present even before the line is con- R I level o f a t w i n bundle is obtained f r o m (2.24)
s t r u c t e d . I n t h i s case, t h e i n s e r t i o n o f a w e l l designed l i n e m a y n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y affect
NPii = 3 , 5 • 1 7 , 2 + 1 2 • 1 , 6 1 - 3 3 1 o g 2 - 3 0 = 3 9 , 6 d B ,
t h e o v e r a l l r a d i o n o i s e l e v e l . Field measurements o fb a c k g r o u n d ( a m b i e n t ) noise, a s w e l l
as o f A M signal intensities, s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d a l o n g t h e r o u t e s o f E H V lines, before and t h e R I level o f a q u a d r u p l e bundle
their construction. T h e results o fthe measurements generally show, that i n m a n y non- NPn = 3,5 • 11,5 + 12 • 1,61 - 3 3 1 o g 2 - 3 0 = 19,6 d B .
p o p u l a t e d a n d r e m o t e areas, n o A M stations can b e t u n e d d u r i n g t h e day, w h i l e ,i n
Considering t h a t t h e higher R I levels are assumed t o b e t h e same for t h r e e phases i t results
o t h e r cases, signal-to-noise r a t i o e v e n w i t h o u t a n y l i n e is a l r e a d y v e r y low. from ( 2 . 2 0 ) f o r :
T w i n b u n d l e : NPtotal = 3 9 , 6 + 1,5 = 4 1 , 1 d B c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o E i = 1 0 ( « . » / » ) = 1 1 3 , 5 ^ y / m
2.3.4 A u d i b l e noise ( A N )
Q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e : E P t o t a l = 19,6 + 1,5 = 2 1 , 1 d B c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o £1 = l o ! 2 1 ' 1 / 2 0 ) =
11,4/iV/m.
General conditions
S i m i l a r l y , the A N levels can b e d e t e r m i n e d a s follows:
Audible noise ( A N ) produced b y c o r o n a o f t r a n s m i s s i o n fine c o n d u c t o r s has emerged
For the t w i n bundle
as a m a t t e r o f concern having t o b e considered duly. I n dry conditions, the conduc-
t o r s u s u a l l y o p e r a t e b e l o w t h e corona inception level a n d o n l y f e w c o r o n a s o u r c e s a r e NPAi = - 1 6 4 , 6 + 120 log 17,2 + 5 5 log 32,2 = 66)6 d B ,
present. A u d i b l e noise f r o m t r a n s m i s s i o n lines occurs p r i m a r i l y i n foul weather. H o w - and for t h e quadruple b u n d l e
ever, i n general i t can b e said t h a t t r a n s m i s s i o n systems contribute little as compared
NPAi = - 1 6 4 , 6 + 120 log 1 1 , 5 + 55 log 3 6 , 3 = 48,5 d B .
w i t h t h e a u d i b l e noise p r o d u c e d b yo t h e r sources. I n case o fr u r a l lines, t h e i m p o r t a n c e
F r o m equation (2.29) i t results:
of t h e audible noise ( A N ) m a y b e still lower, a s t h e p o p u l a t i o n density beside t h e line
T w i n bundle
is l o w .
I t is c o m p l e x t o define h o w m u c h a u d i b l e noise c a n b e t o l e r a t e d f r o m a t r a n s m i s s i o n line. NPA = 1 0 1 o g { 3 •exp[0,23 (66,6 - 11,4 log 40 - 5,8)]} = 4 7 , 3 d B ( A ) ,
H o w e v e r , as voltage levels increase, a u d i b l e noise b e c o m e s one o f t h e l i m i t i n g factors Quadruple bundle
in t h e design o ft r a n s m i s s i o n lines. T odefine t h e acceptable noise levels, t h e best guide
NPA = 1 0 1 o g { 3 •exp[0,23 (48,5 - 11,4 l o g 4 0 - 5,8)]} = 29,2 d B ( A ) .
is t h e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h E H V t r a n s m i s s i o n fines.
It isdifficult i n general t o p e r m a n e n t l y comply w i t h 4 5 d B ( A ) required for residential T h e a u d i b l e noise level is reduced b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 18 d B ( A ) w h e n u s i n g a q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e
i n s t e a d o f a t w i n b u n d l e . O t h e r references, e. g. [2.20] a n d [2.24], w e i g h t h e v o l t a g e g r a d i e n t t o a
areas according t o [2.22]. I n g e n e r a l , c o m p l a i n t s o na u d i b l e noise w i l l b e a v o i d e d i f t h e
lower extent. T h u s , t h e audible noise level w o u l d drop t oa smaller extent only. E q u a t i o n (2.27)
noise level does n o t exceed 50 d B ( A ) . H o w e v e r , complaints have t ob e expected, i f noise
i s c o n f i r m e d a l s o t h r o u g h m e a s u r e m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e field a n d b y e x p e r i e n c e w i t h e x i s t i n g
with more than 55dB(A) will b e produced b y a line. T h i s can occur close t o 420 k V fines ( s e e [ 2 . 2 5 ] ) .
42 2 Electric requirements and design 2.4 L i n e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d i n s u l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s 43

T Y i b l e 2.10: I m p a c t o f l i n e d e s i g n a n d c o n d u c t o r configuration o n fields,

radio interference a n d audible noise
Electrical Magnetic Radio Audible
Parameter field field interference noise
Increase of phase I
t T 1
conductor distance
Increase of clearance
i I 1 I
to ground
Increase of subconductor
t 1 I
number of bundles -»
Increase of conductor I
->
1
cross section ->
Increase of subconductor
t F i g u r e 2.3: C o n f i g u r a t i o n o f p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h respect t o l o w e l e c t r i c a l a n d magnetic
distance in bundles -* ->
fields, a ) v e r t i c a l conductor c o n f i g u r a t i o n , b ) D a n u b e c o n f i g u r a t i o n
Inverse sequence of phases to
achieve a low impedance 1" -> ->•
of double-circuit lines t w o c i r c u i t s ( F i g u r e 2 . 3 ) c o n t r i b u t e s t o r e d u c e s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e field s t r e n g t h s outside
Comments: t means increasing the effect the right-of-way.
1 means reducing the effect
—• has no substantial impact
1) substantial reduction outside the right-of-way
2.4 Line performance and insulation requirements
2.3.5 I m p a c t of l i n e d e s i g n o n v o l t a g e - and current-depending phe- 2.4.1 Introduction
nomena
T h e performance o f a transmission line is a n i m p o r t a n t factor t o assure the reliability
T h e d e s c r i b e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d t h e voltage- and current- a n d security o f a n e l e c t r i c s y s t e m . B e s i d e s t h e mechanical behaviour o f i t s c o m p o n e n t s ,
depending phenomena a n d t h e effects o n t h ee n v i r o n m e n t r e s u l t i n g t h e r e o f p l a y a a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n t o t h e electric performance t h a t p l a y s a m a i n r o l e e i t h e r i n t h e
steadily increasing role i n the design a n d configuration o foverhead power lines. W h i l e design and investment o f transmission components o r i n t h e outage rates (permanent
e l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h i s p e r c e i v e d b y p e r s o n s , e . g . b y s t r a i g h t e n i n g u p t h e h a i r o r or t r a n s i e n t ) o f t h e specific t r a n s m i s s i o n line. F o r a t t a i n i n g such objectives, o p t i m u m
b y c a u s i n g w e a k e l e c t r o s t a t i c s h o c k s , m a g n e t i c fields c a n n o t b e p e r c e i v e d d i r e c t l y b y i n s u l a t i o n clearances o f t h e t o w e r s s h o u l d b e selected; i no t h e r words, t h e i n s u l a t i o n
persons; h o w e v e r , b o t h are q u o t e d t o affect h e a l t h a n d wellness o f h u m a n beings a n d levels, d e p e n d i n g o n different voltage stresses t h a t reach t h e air gaps, s h o u l d b e chosen
animals. R a d i o interference a n d audible noise are perceived and m a y not exceed stip- as t o r e s u l t i n a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n a s a t i s f a c t o r y electric p e r f o r m a n c e a n d r e a s o n a b l e
u l a t e d l i m i t s . T h e design a n d configuration of lines s h o u l d , s o f a r a s p o s s i b l e , k e e p a l l investments.
t h e m e n t i o n e d p h e n o m e n a o n a low level. T h i s cannot b e achieved completely since t h e R e g a r d i n g i n s u l a t i o n , i t is i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e b a s i c difference b e t w e e n stresses
v a r i a t i o n o f s o m e design p a r a m e t e r s affect t h e emissions i nopposite directions. T h e c a u s e d b y system power frequency voltage a n d s t r e s s e s c a u s e d b y overvoltages. Over-
effective essential p a r a m e t e r s are: voltages a r erare a n do f l i m i t e d d u r a t i o n , b u tt h e s y s t e m p o w e r frequency voltage,
- Distance a n d arrangement o f phase conductors; e v e n t h o u g h r e l a t i v e l y l o w i n a m p l i t u d e , p e r m a n e n t l y stresses t h e i n s u l a t i o n w h i l e t h e
- Height o f phase conductors above ground; system is i n operation.
- N u m b e r o f subconductors i n bundles; T o define t h e t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y , t h e f o l l o w i n g voltage stresses are considered: P o w e r
- Subconductor spacing i n bundles a n d frequency voltage; fast-front and slow-front overvoltages. Additionally, towers are p o -
- C o n d u c t o r cross section. tentially designed t o p e r m i t live-line m a i n t e n a n c e , so t h a t clearances for such a w o r k
T a b l e 2.10 a c c o r d i n g t o [2.26] d e p i c t s t h e r e s u l t s d u e t o p a r a m e t e r v a r i a t i o n . S i n c e t h e should b e considered as well.
effects o f several s i m u l t a n e o u s p a r a m e t e r v a r i a t i o n s m a y t e n d i no p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s ,
it is i m p o r t a n t t o design each i n d i v i d u a l line such t h a t those design targets h a v i n g
2.4.2 P o w e r frequency voltages a n d t e m p o r a r y overvoltages
priority will b e achieved.
Increasing the subconductor spacing reduces radio interference a n d audible noise b u t System voltage i s t h e r m s , p h a s e - t o - p h a s e p o w e r frequency voltage o fa n electric system.
r i s e s e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields. I n c r e a s i n g t h e c l e a r a n c e t o g r o u n d r e d u c e s a l l t h e T h e s y s t e m i s u s u a l l y d e s i g n e d b y a nominal system voltage t o w h i c h c e r t a i n o p e r a t i n g
considered phenomena, however, involves substantially higher investments. A higher characteristics o f the system are related. For instance, n o m i n a l system voltage is used
number of subconductors w i t h i n a b u n d l e r e s u l t s i n l o w e r radio interference a n d audible a s a b a s e f o r l o a d flow a n d s o m e o t h e r s y s t e m s t u d i e s . G e n e r a l l y , m o s t s y s t e m s a r e
noise, e v e n a t t h e s a m e o v e r - a l l c r o s s s e c t i o n s b u t a l s o i n h i g h e r e l e c t r i c a l f i e l d s t r e n g t h specified f o ro p e r a t i n g near t h e n o m i n a l s y s t e m voltage. S o m e systems, however, a r e
at the g r o u n d level. A bigger conductor cross section decreases r a d i o interference a n d required t o operate near o ra t the m a x i m u m system voltage, which isusually 5 t o 10 %
a u d i b l e n o i s e s b u t h a s l o w e f f e c t o n electrical a n d magnetic field i n t e n s i t i e s . T h e s u b - h i g h e r t h a n t h e n o m i n a l . Highest system voltage i s t h e h i g h e s t r m s phase-to-phase
conductor spacing w i t h i n a bundle iso f m i n o r influence only b y increasing the audible system voltage that occurs under n o r m a l operating conditions a t any t i m e and a t any
noise level. A n a s y m m e t r i c a l arrangement o f phase conductors o f lines equipped w i t h point in the system.
 XJ.~I JL_-Ji«l_. p i . . l IUL U i a i l k l . . CiJ-lVJ. l U O U i a i l d l l 1CV(U110U1CUVU -ic
44 2Electric requirements and design

T a b l e 2 . 1 2 : S t a n d a r d i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l s f o r r a n g e I I (Us > 2 4 5 k V ) a c c o r d i n g t o
T a b l e 2.11: S t a n d a r d i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l s f o r r a n g e I (1 k V
IEC 60071-1
< U , < 245 k V ) according t o I E C 60071-1
Highest Standard switching impulse withstand voltage Standard
Highest voltage Standard short-duration Standard
voltage for Longitudinal Phase-to-earth Phase-to-phase lightning impulse
for equipment power frequency lightning impulse
equipment insulation 2 ' (ratio to the phase- withstand"
withstand voltage withstand voltage
Its 1 1 to-earth peak value) voltage
kV (rms value) k V (rms value) kV (peak value)
kV kV kV kV
3,6 10 20 (fms value) (peak value) (peak value) (peak value)
40 300 750 750 1,50 850
7,2 20 40 950
60 750 850 1,50 950
12 28 60 1050
75 362 850 850 1,50 950
95 1050
850 950 1,50 1050
17,5 38 75
1175
95
420 850 850 1,60 1050
24 50 95
1175
125
950 950 1,50 1175
145
1300
36 70 145 950 1050 1,50 1300
170
5253) 950 950 1,70 1175
52 95 250 1300
72,5 140 325 950 1050 1,60 1300
1425
123 (185)2) (450)
950 1175 1,50 1425
230 550
1550
145 (185) (450)
765 3 ) 1175 1300 1,70 1675
230 550
1800
275 650
1175 1425 1,70 1800
170 (230) loou; 1950
275 oou 1175 1550 1,60 1950
325 750 2100
245 (275) (650) " T h e highest voltage for equipment is designated by Um in [2.29].
(325) (750) 2 ' Value of the impulse component of the relevant combined test.
360 850 s) T h e introduction of U, = 550 k V (instead of 525 k V ) , 800 k V (instead of 765 k V ) and
395 950
of a value between 765 k V and 1200 k V , and of the associated standard withstand
460 1050
voltages is under consideration.
The highest voltage for equipment is desigated by U m in
[2.29].
If values in parenthesis are considered insufficient to prove n e n t l y , t h e r e i s m o r e r i s k o f a flashover i f a c o n d u c t o r i s b l o w n close t o t h e s t r u c t u r e
that the required phase-to-phase withstand voltages are than if the insulators were loaded b y a n overvoltage.
met, additional phase-to-phase withstand tests are needed.
I n s u l a t i o n s t r e n g t h m a y a l s o c h a n g e o v e r l o n g e r p e r i o d s , e . g . d u e t o contamination
built up, o r w i t h i n m i n u t e s as the insulators are alternately w e t t e d b y f o go r rain a n d
dried b y surface leakage. I n e i t h e r case, o n l y t h e c o n t i n u o u s s y s t e m voltage lasts l o n g
Temporary overvoltages a r e o f o s c i l l a t o r y n a t u r e a t a g i v e n l o c a t i o n , n o r m a l l y o f r e l a - e n o u g h f o r changes i ns t r e n g t h t o b e c o m e e v i d e n t . Effects o fc o n t a m i n a t i o n m a y b e
tively long d u r a t i o n and w h i c h are u n d a m p e d o r weakly damped. T h e y usually origi- e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g (see clause 9.9.4).
n a t e from s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n , s u c h a s l o a d r e j e c t i o n o r r e s o n a n t c o n d i t i o n s . I n d i r e c t l y Usually, power frequency voltages as described govern the design o fthe insulator strings
e a r t h e d n e u t r a l s y s t e m s w i t h e a r t h f a u l t f a c t o r s o f 1,3 o r b e l o w , t e m p o r a r y o v e r v o l t a g e s as f a r a s t h e p o l l u t i o n levels a l o n g t h e l i n e r o u t e a r e concerned. T h e t o t a l i n s u l a t i n g
are usually n o t considered for d e t e r m i n i n g electrical clearances for a line. l e n g t h a l o n g t h e surface o ft h e i n s u l a t o r s is t h e basic p a r a m e t e r t h a t isspecified t o define
I n t h i s c a s e , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n o n l y t o t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e Us t h a t the n u m b e r o f insulators required f o ra line. A s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l creepage
characterizes t h e electric s y s t e m s a si n [2.27]. T w o v o l t a g e ranges a r eestablished a s distances o feach i n s u l a t o r t y p e , i t i s possible t o d e t e r m i n e t h et y p e a n d n u m b e r o f
r a n g e I a n d range I I , as i t c a n b e seen i n T a b l e s 2.11 a n d 2.12 , respectively. insulators required f o r the region crossed b y the line. I nTable 9.8,the classification
I n c a s e o f power frequency overvoltages, t h e c o n t i n u o u s stress d u e t o voltage i s also o f t h e p o l l u t i o n level i s s h o w n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d specific creepage distances
of concern i f t h e i n s u l a t i o n itself changes w i t h t i m e . Flashover m a y occur i f insula- according t oI E C r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s [2.28]. I t ispossible, t h e r e f o r e , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t y p e
tion strength isreduced sufficiently. W e a t h e r conditions m a y lead t osuch reductions i n a n d u m b e r o finsulators required for acertain line provided t h a t aprevious investigation
strength. A s a ne x a m p l e , t h e w i n d m i g h t b l o w a conductor t o one side, hence reducing is c a r r i e d o u t t o assess t h e p o l l u t i o n levels a l o n g t h e l i n e r o u t e .
t h e a i r g a pb e t w e e n i ta n d t h e s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r e . B e c a u s e a i r gaps a r e stressed p e r m a -
46 2 Electric requirements and design
2.4.3 Slow-front overvoltages
T h e slow-front overvoltages can b e produced b y switching overvoltages o r distant di-
rect l i g h t n i n g strokes a n d depend basically o nsystem parameters, system configuration
a n d s y s t e m c o n d i t i o n , e. g. l o a d release. H o w e v e r , s w i t c h i n g o v e r v o l t a g e s m a y a t t a i n
different values even for the same system and the same switching operation. T h e over-
voltages o f this type i na n overhead line are m a i n l y produced b y energization o r b y
reclosing operations o f the line.
T h e v o l t a g e stress is c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t h i s case b y a s t a n d a r d w a v e s h a p e o f 2 5 0 / 2 5 0 0 p s ,
as i t c a n u e s e e n i n F i g u r e 2.4. T h e v a l u e s o f t h e o v e r v o l t a g e s d e p e n d o n t h e r e l a t i v e
t i m i n g o f t h e s w i t c h i n g event w i t h respect t o t h e power frequency system voltage sine
wave. Generally, the closing t i m e o f the breaker is not synchronized w i t h t h e power
frequency voltage wave shape. I t isr a n d o m , a n d each switching operation w i l l result i n
a different overvoltage.
B y finding t h e w o r s t - c a s e c o m b i n a t i o n o f b r e a k e r c l o s i n g t i m e s t h r o u g h t r i a l a n d e r r o r
o n a transient network analyser ( T N A ) i n g e n e r a l o r w i t h a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m , i t
is p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e m a x i m u m o v e r v o l t a g e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a g i v e n s w i t c h i n g
o p e r a t i o n i n a c e r t a i n s y s t e m . A r a n d o m e v a l u a t i o n o f different cases c a n b e used
to determine a statistical distribution t h a t will represent the probability function o f
occurrence o f slow-front overvoltages.
2.4.4 Fast-front overvoltages
Fast-front overvoltages a ta given location in a system are m a i n l y caused b y a lightning
d i s c h a r g e t h a t h i t d i r e c t l y o n t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s o r b y back-flashovers, the shape
o f w h i c h c a n b e r e g a r d e d , for i n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n p u r p o s e s , a s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f
the s t a n d a r d impulse used f o rl i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e tests. Such overvoltages are usually
u n i d i r e c t i o n a l a n d o f v e r y s h o r t d u r a t i o n . T h e standard lightning impulse h a s a f r o n t
t i m e o f 1,2 p s a n d a t i m e - t o - h a l f - v a l u e o f 5 0 p s , a s i t c a n seen i n F i g u r e 2.5. F o r a
simplified analysis, l i g h t n i n g m a y b e considered as a current source, so t h a t t h e over-
voltage developed b y lightning is the product o f lightning current and the impedance
through which it flows.
2.4.5 P r i n c i p l e s of i n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n
2.4.5.1 General principles
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 2 9 ] , t h e insulation coordination c o m p r i s e s t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e d i e l e c t r i c
s t r e n g t h o fa n e q u i p m e n t o ra n y o t h e r i n s u l a t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t , such asline i n s u l a t i o n , t o
t h e v o l t a g e s t h a t c a n a p p e a r i n t h e s y s t e m , for w h i c h t h e e q u i p m e n t h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d .
2.4 L i n e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d i n s u l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s 47
T h i s procedure takes i n t o account t h e characteristics o f the protective devices, a i m i n g
at reducing t o a n economically a n d operationally acceptable level the probability t h a t
r e s u l t i n g voltage stresses w o u l d cause d a m a g e o r h i n d e r t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f service o f t h e
equipment o r o f the overhead line. T h e determination o f insulation requirements o f a
t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i s g i v e n b y steady-state conditions, a s w e l l a s b y transient conditions
t h a t c a n o c c u r i nt h e s y s t e m . T h e line design s h o u l d b e adequate, inside t h e s y s t e m
reality, t ogenerate a satisfactory performance. T h e w a y for protecting a system against
overvoltages isf u n d a m e n t a l l y a n e c o n o m i c issue. I t w o u l d b e unfeasible t o i n s u l a t e t h e
w h o l e s y s t e m , so as t o w i t h s t a n d a n y k i n d o f electric stress. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t
w o u l d b e nonsense t o insulate the system for w i t h s t a n d i n g only the n o r m a l operating
v o l t a g e a c c e p t i n g f a i l u r e s for a l l t r a n s i e n t electric stresses.
T h e b a s i c p u r p o s e o f insulation coordination consists i n adequately t r e a t i n g several
i n f o r m a t i o n such as t h e electric stresses a p p l i e d t o t h e e q u i p m e n t , t h e i n s u l a t i o n w i t h -
stand capability, t h e applicable protection devices, the m i n i m u m acceptable perfor-
mance a n d t h e global investments involved i n t h e process.
2.4.5.2 I n s u l a t i o n d e s i g n for p e r m a n e n t p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e s
T h e power frequency performance o f t r a n s m i s s i o n lines consists basically o f t w o con-
siderations:
T h e first o n e i s t h e electric strength of insulator strings u n d e r c o n t a m i n a t e d c o n d i t i o n s
a n d t h e s e c o n d o n e i s t h e clearance to tower u n d e r e x t r e m e s w i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f c o n -
d u c t o r s a n d i n s u l a t o r s . I n b o t h cases, o n l y p o w e r f r e q u e n c y voltages are considered; i n
fact, w h e n considering t h e air gap r e q u i r e m e n t s under conditions o fe x t r e m e swing, t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y o fo c c u r r e n c e o fa s w i t c h i n g o r l i g h t n i n g surge is s o s m a l l a st ob e negligible.
According t o the present experience, insulators, t h a t are contaminated and t h e power
f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e i s v e r y c l o s e t o flashover v o l t a g e c a n s u s t a i n s i g n i f i c a n t s w i t c h i n g o r
lightning surges w i t h o u t increasing t h e probability o f flashovers.
T h e first s t e p i s , t h e r e f o r e , t o s e l e c t t h e i n s u l a t o r t y p e a n d s t r i n g l e n g t h a n d t h e n u m b e r
of insulators as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p o l l u t i o n levels o f t h e area t o b e crossed b y t h e line.
T a b l e 9.8 reproduces t h e I E C d e f i n i t i o n s o f p o l l u t i o n levels a n dcreepage distances
required f o reach p o l l u t i o n level. Clause 9.9 deals w i t h i n s u l a t i o n design i n v i e w o f
pollution.
F o r u n r e s t r a i n e d l y s w i n g i n g i n s u l a t o r s e t o n l y t h e a i r g a p s t r e n g t h for p o w e r f r e q u e n c y
voltages should b e considered under conditions o f extreme swinging.
T h e swing angle should b e calculated as a f u n c t i o n o fthe w i n d speed, o f weight span
t o w i n d s p a n r a t i o a n d o f d i a m e t e r a n d w e i g h t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e r e q u i r e d power
frequency clearance c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e m a x i m u m p o w e r f r e q u e n c y s t r e s s . T h e
r e t u r n p e r i o d a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m a x i m u m s w i n g a n g l e c a n a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s mean re-
currence interval ( M R I ) o f a flashover a t p o w e r frequency voltage, e. g. o n c e i n 50 years.
2.4.5.3 I n s u l a t i o n d e s i g n for s l o w - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s
T h e r e are t w o basic m e t h o d s for s t u d y i n g t h e i n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n o f a n overhead
l i n e c o n s i d e r i n g slow-front overvoltages.
T h e first o n e , d e s i g n a t e d a s d e t e r m i n i s t i c o r c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d o f i n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i -
n a t i o n , a s s u m e s t h a t t h e r e i s a k n o w n , d e f i n i t e maximum overvoltage, U m a x , t h a t m a y
s t r e s s t h e i n s u l a t i o n . I t i s a l s o a s s u m e d t h a t t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e minimum insulation
withstand voltage, U w . T h e i n s u l a t i o n i s d e s i g n e d s o t h a t U „ i s l a r g e r t h a n U m a x b y
a safety m a r g i n , as s h o w n i nF i g u r e 2.6. T h e w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e i s called i n t h i s case
basic surge insulation level ( B S I L ) a s i t r e f e r s t o s l o w - f r o n t o r s w i t c h i n g o v e r v o l t a g e s .
I n T a b l e s 2 . 1 1 a n d 2 . 1 2 , t h e m o s t c o m m o n i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l s a r e s h o w n a s a d o p t e d for
each voltage level. T h i s approach has been used i n t r a d i t i o n a l i n s u l a t i o n coordination
48 2 Klectric requirements ana aesign

\ 2"

anventior fll R^ll

Ol DOIL
mir iimum wi hstanc
ximum /eryoltt

<r-VOl' age
Voltage U
—! | I—— Voltage——
Satty margin Length of air gap — Absolute humidity

F i g u r e 2.6: Conventional insulation coordi- F i g u r e 2.7: Statistical approach f o r insula- F i g u r e 2 . 8 :Exponent n fortemperature- F i g u r e 2.9: N o m o g r a m t odetermine the h u -
nation tion coordination. altitude- and humidity-depending correction midity voltage correction factor
f(u) density distribution o f overvoltages; o f c r i t i c a l flashover v o l t a g e a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a -
F(t/u,) p r o b a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n o f w i t h s t a n d v o l t - tion (2.30)
age; R r i s k o f f l a s h o v e r
a)
1
procedure; t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o v e r v o l t a g e i s c a l l e d conventional maximum switching
overvoltage.
T h e conventional m e t h o d is usually m o r e conservative, a st h e m a x i m u m overvoltages
occur s e l d o m a n d , likewise, the insulation s t r e n g t h r a r e l y decreases t oits lowest values.
Moreover, the likelihood o fb o t h events occurring simultaneously is limited. F i g u r e 2 . 1 0 : Simplified
N o w a d a y s , i t i sa c o m m o n a n d m o r e a d e q u a t e p r a c t i c e t o use s t a t i s t i c a l m e t h o d s f o r statistical approach:
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e probability of flashover o f a c e r t a i n i n s u l a t i o n o r s p e c i f i c a l l y o f a l i n e . a) probability density
T h e statistical m e t h o d s d o n o t predict t h e specific overvoltages p r o d u c e d b ya n y partic- function o f overvoltages;
ular s w i t c h i n g operation, b u t t h e y give t h e p r o b a b i l i t y w i t h w h i c h a certain overvoltage b) c u m u l a t i v e distribu-
m a y b e expected or, m o r e practically, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o fexceeding a certain overvoltage tion function o f impulse
Overvoltage U — withstand voltage
value. T h e overvoltage w o u l d b e fully described i fits probability density f u n c t i o no r
cumulative distribution function were given.
I n contrast w i t h the solid insulation, that isnot allowed t o flashover, the air insulation t h e a l t i t u d e h^ i n m a b o v e s e a l e v e l . A c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 0 ]
o f s t r u c t u r e s is s o selected a s t op e r m i t a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f flashovers, corresponding t o
QT = er/Qis = ( 2 8 8 / T ) • e x p ( - 0 , 0 0 0 1 2 h*) • (2.31)
t h e desired p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f stresses (overvoltages) a n d t h e s t r e n g t h s
(clearances) t oo b t a i n t h e desired p e r f o r m a n c e isb y nature a statistical procedure, F o r T = 2 8 8 K (+15°) a n d = 0 , g'T w i l l b e l , o !
a s b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d s t r e s s e s h a v e n o fixed v a l u e s b u t v a r y w i t h i n r a n g e s , that T h e q u a n t i t y fehm i s a humidity voltage correction factor depending on the absolute air
constitute p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n so f stresses a n d s t r e n g t h s , w h o s e i n t e g r a t e d p r o b a - h u m i d i t y according t o F i g u r e 2.9; n is a ne x p o n e n t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a i r g a p distance
b i l i t y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o r probability of flashover ( P F O ) o r risk of failure a s i n F i g u r e 2 . 8 [ 2 . 1 8 ] . T h e t e r m ( p [ / f e h m ) " i s n a m e d relative insulation strength (RIS).
(Figure 2.7).
For d e t e r m i n i n g t h e w i t h s t a n d s t r e n g t h o f t h e different structural gaps, their shapes Example: T h e relative insulation strength ( R I S ) should be evaluated for h a i = 1000 m ; T =
should b e t a k e n into account a n d t h e r o d t o plane g a pi su s u a l l y t a k e n a s reference. 293 K ; l e n g t h o f r o d - p l a n e a i r gap 4,0 m a n d a h u m i d i t y o f 15 g / m 3 . F Y o m (2.31), i t is o b t a i n e d
T h e critical flashover voltage U 5 0 % i scalculated u s i n g e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e . E q u a t i o n p ] ( 2 8 8 / 2 9 3 ) e x p ( - 0 , 1 2 ) = 0 , 9 8 3 - 0 , 8 8 7 = 0 , 8 7 . fchm = 0 , 9 5 r e s u l t s f r o m F i g u r e 2 . 9 a n d n = 0 , 6 4
f r o m F i g u r e 2.8. T h e n R I S = ( 0 , 8 7 / 0 , 9 5 ) 0 - 6 4 = 0,95.
(2.42) applies f o r slow-front overvoltages, e q u a t i o n (2.43) f o rfast-front overvoltages.
However, the statistical procedure, a s presented here, i si npractice o n l y applied t o If the actual distribution o f overvoltages and w i t h s t a n d strengths are no t k n o w n , a n
slow-front overvoltages. a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e r i s k m a y b e o b t a i n e d b y a s i m p l i f i e d s t a t i s t i c a la p p r o a c h ( F i g u r e
2.10). T h i s approach is based o n t h e premise t h a t t h e actual shape o f t h e low-voltage
T h e critical voltage i scalculated f o rs t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r i c conditions a n d i t i s also
end o ft h e overvoltage distribution isn o t t o o i m p o r t a n t because those low overvoltages
necessary t ot a k e i n t o account t h e influence o ft h e real a t m o s p h e r i c conditions. T h e
will not cause failures. Likewise, there i slittle need t okeep accurate track o f h o w
c r i t i c a l v o l t a g e U5o%reii i nt h e real a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s i sc a l c u l a t e d a sa f u n c t i o n
likely i t i sthat t h e insulation s t r e n g t h isgreater t h a n n o r m a l . T h e r e f o r e , t h e actual
o f f/50% i n s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s b y :
d i s t r i b u t i o n s are replaced b ys i m p l e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , g e n e r a l l y G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h a t
U50%real=U50%-(e;/fehm)n = U 5 0 % - R I S . (2.30) can b echaracterized b ythe standard deviation a n d b y one defined point.. T h i s point
b e l o n g s t o t h e o v e r v o l t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h e statistical overvoltage,
T h e r e , g'T i s t h e r e l a t i v e a i r d e n s i t y , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a b s o l u t e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e T a n d U2%, t h i s b e i n g t h e o v e r v o l t a g e a t t h e 2 % p o i n t .
50 2 Electric requirements and design
T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w i t h s t a n d voltages is described b y U9o%, the statistical w i t h s t a n d
voltage, measured a t the 9 0 % w i t h s t a n d or 10 % breakdown point. These points a r e
i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 2.10. T h e t a s k w o u l d b e , t h e r e f o r e , t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e t w o d i s t r i -
b u t i o n s o f s l o w - f r o n t o r s w i t c h i n g surge overvoltages a t o n eside w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f w i t h s t a n d voltages a t t h e o t h e r side. T h i s c a nb e reached b y adequate selection o f
the air g a p a n d t h e corresponding cumulative d i s t r i b u t i o n adjusting t h e right curve i n
F i g u r e 2.10.
T h e maximum switching overvoltage m e n t i o n e d a b o v e s h o u l d b e c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e
m i n i m u m w i t h s t a n d voltage o f narrowest gaps for one t o w e r i norder t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
risk o ff a i l u r e for one t y p i c a l tower. U s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e statistical f o r m u l a e it is t h e n
possible t o d e t e r m i n e t h e risk o f failure, also called p r o b a b i l i t y o f flashover, f o r t h e
n u m b e r o f towers t h a t are supposed t o b e reached b y the overvoltages.
Considering, therefore, t h e statisticalm e t h o d o fi n s u l a t i o n coordination for d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e i n s u l a t i o n o f a c e r t a i n l i n e , t h e p r a c t i c e c o n s i s t s i n s p e c i f y i n g a maximum risk of
failure o r probability of flashover ( P F O ) t h a t a l i n e c a n a c c e p t . T h e figures specified
for t h e P F O u s u a l l y a r e i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 C T 2 t o 1 C T 4 , m e a n i n g t h a t o n e l i n e o u t a g e w i l l
b e a c c e p t e d i n t h e r a n g e o f 100 t o 10 0 0 0 s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s .
2.4.5.4 I n s u l a t i o n d e s i g n for fast-front overvoltage
Fast-front overvoltages a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e lightning performance o f a n overhead
transmission line. Fast-front overvoltages or lightningovervoltages produce overvoltages
o n t r a n s m i s s i o n lines t h r o u g h t w o m a i n mechanisms, n a m e l y :
- Overvoltages d u et o l i g h t n i n g strokes t h a t bypass t h e overhead shield wires a n d
t e r m i n a t e d i r e c t l y u p o n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s . T h e s e o v e r v o l t a g e s a r e c a l l e d shielding
failures.
- Back-flashovers, w h e n the lightning strokes reach t h e shield wire or a tower and
the stroke current flows t h r o u g h a transmission line tower, elevating its potential
above t h a t o f the m o r e r e m o t e earth. A voltage difference develops between t h e
t o w e r a n d p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a n d a flashover f r o m t o w e r t o c o n d u c t o r m a y o c c u r .
I f t h e l i g h t n i n g o v e r v o l t a g e i s h i g h e n o u g h t o c a u s e a flashover a l o n g a n i n s u l a t o r
s e t , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t a power arc w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d n e e d i n g t o b e e x t i n g u i s h e d b y
switching off the line.
It has t ob e considered t h a t the circuit breakers o f the line terminals are often provided
w i t h automatic reclosing operations, so that i ngeneral 60 t o 70 % o f the flashovers
caused b y l i g h t n i n g a r e usually o f t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e a n dt h eline is reclosed w i t h o u t
suffering a p e r m a n e n t outage. A m o n g several factors affecting line performance, i t c a n
be mentioned:
- L i g h t n i n g g r o u n d flash d e n s i t y o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e f r e q u e n c y o r
keraunic levels t h a t m e a s u r e t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f t h u n d e r s t o r m d a y s p e r y e a r
a l o n g t h e l i n e r o u t e (see C h a p t e r 4 ) ;
- Stroke m a g n i t u d e and wave shapes (see C h a p t e r 4);
- Tower type, height and geometry;
- S h i e l d i n g angles o f e a r t h wires (seeC h a p t e r 4 ) ;
- S y s t e m voltage;
- E a r t h i n g resistance a n d soil characteristics (seeC h a p t e r 5 ) ;
- T y p e o f terrain a n d natural shielding t h r o u g h trees o r m o u n t a i n s and
- I n s t a l l a t i o n o f s u r g e a r r e s t e r s i np a r a l l e l t o t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a l o n g t h e l i n e .
T h e b a s i c p a r a m e t e r u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e lightning performance isthe number o f out-
ages per 100 k m per year. T h e l i g h t n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e is dealt w i t h i nC h a p t e r 4 .
The w i t h s t a n d voltage t o b e used should b e taken as higher t h a n or equal t o t h e
o v e r v o l t a g e w h i c h c a n p r o p a g a t e b e y o n d a f e w t o w e r s from t h e p o i n t o f t h e l i g h t n i n g
2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 51
stroke. I f n o more accurate means o f calculation is available, t h e phase-to-earth fast-
f r o n t overvoltage c a n b e t a k e n as t h e w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set, t h a t is
t h e 9 0 % lightning withstand voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s Ugc,%gj^. T h e w i t h s t a n d
v o l t a g e i n t h i s c a s e i s c a l l e d basic insulation level ( B I L ) a s i t r e f e r s t o f a s t - f r o n t o r
lightning overvoltages.
2.4.6 Live-line maintenance
T h e overhead transmission lines a r e frequently required t o b e designed f o r accepting
live-line maintenance, either w i t h the bare-hand m e t h o d o r w i t h the hot-stick m e t h o d .
I n v i e w o f t h a t , i ti s necessary t o establish clearances i n t h e t o w e r s big e n o u g h s o ast o
offer t o t a l safety for t h e l i n e m e n t h a t w i l l w o r k i n t h e energized line. S u c h clearances c a n
i n s o m e cases g o v e r n s o m e p a r t s o f t h e i n s u l a t i o n o f t h e t o w e r s a n d s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e ,
be taken into account w h e n designing the towers.
2.5 Clearances
2.5.1 Clearance requirements
2.5.1.1 T y p e s of e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 2 7 ] , five t y p e s o f r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e min-
imum electrical clearance d i s t a n c e s , n a m e l y :
— P r e v e n t i o n o fdisruptive discharges between phase conductors a n d objects a t e a r t h
potential w h e n fast-front o rslow-front overvoltages occur. T h e required clearance
d i s t a n c e s a r e d e s i g n a t e d a s Dei a n d c a n b e e i t h e r i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e s between
conductors a n d earthed t o w e r components, o r e x t e r n a l clearances between a con-
ductor a n d a n obstacle.
— P r e v e n t i o n o f disruptive discharges between phase conductors w h e n fast-front o r
slow-front overvoltages occur. T h e m i n i m u m required clearance distances are o f
internal nature and are designated as D p p .
— P r e v e n t i o n o f disruptive discharges between a live conductor a n d a nobject w i t h
earth potential a t power frequency voltage. T h e m i n i m u m required clearance
distances are o f internal n a t u r e a n d are designated as Dpf_pe.
— P r e v e n t i o n o f disruptive discharges between live conductors a t power frequency
voltage. T h e required clearance distances are o finternal n a t u r e a n d are designated
as D p f _ p P .
— S e t t i n g o f minimum air clearance d i s t a n c e s t o obstacles o r c r o s s e d o b j e c t s , i n
order t o achieve t h a t p o t e n t i a l d i s r u p t i v e discharges occur inside t h e overhead
line and n o t t o obstacles. I n v i e w o f t h a t , t h e m i n i m u m air clearance distances
s h o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n t h e l o w e s t v a l u e Os0m, a m o n g t h e s h o r t e s t s t r a i g h t l i n e s
between live a n d earthed parts o f the overhead line.
T h e v a l u e s De\, Dpp, D p f _ p e a n d - D p f _ p p a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e e l e c t r i c s t r e s s e s c o n s i d -
ering the respective electric a n d geometric parameters. Indicative values according t o
[2.27] a r e d e s c r i b e d i n c l a u s e 2.5.1.2. T h e r e s u l t i n g c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e s s h o w n i n c l a u s e
2 . 5 . 2 a s s u r e a c o m p l e t e personal safety. T h e c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e a s o m i s a r e s u l t o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . T h e m i n i m u m v a l u e s £>ei a n d D p p c a n b e a l t e r n a t i v e l y
d e t e r m i n e d from l o n g - t e r m s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n o f l i n e s ; t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s s u f f i -
cient for internal clearance distances (seeT a b l e 2.20). I f t h e y are intended t o b e used
for e x t e r n a l clearances, clause 2.5.2.6 s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
52 2 Electric requirements ana design id - <.' viuuiu

T a b l e 2.13: U s u a l c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n t i u a n d d e v i a t i o n fac¬ T h b l e 2 . 1 4 : G a p factors for clearances in air

t o r s Kz f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e s Type of gap Slow-front Fast-front Power frequency
Overvoltage Coefficient of Standard Deviation overvoltage overvoltage voltage
type variation vu deviation <ru factor K x Ag_sf = KZ K8_ff kg.pf
Lightning impulse 0,03 0,03 U 5 0 % KZ_R
= 0,961 Rod-to-plane 1,00 1,00 1,00
Switching surge 0,06 0,06 U 5 0 % K"._sf = 0,922 Conductor-to-obstacle 1,30 1,08 1,16
Power frequency 0,03 0,03 U s o % KZ_PT = 0,910 Conductor-to-plane 1,15 1,04 1.09
Conductor-to-tower window 1,25 1,07 1,14
Conductor-to-tower 1,45 1,12 1,22
Conductor-to-guys 1,40 1,10 1,2
2.5.1.2 C a l c u l a t i o n of e l e c t r i c a l clearances
Conductor-to-conductor 1,60 1,16 1,26
2.5.1.2.1 R e q u i r e d w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e s of a i r gaps Note: Tlie gap factors for fast-front and power frequency voltages are derived
T h e p r o c e d u r e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e required withstand voltage d e s c r i b e d h e r e a r e b a s e d from the factors for slow-front overvoltages.

o n t h ed a t a o f E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , A n n e x E [2.27], a n d refer t o [2.1, 2.29, 2 . 3 1 , 2.30]. T h e

capability o f a n a i rg a p t o w i t h s t a n d p o w e r frequency o r i m p u l s e voltages o f a given — Slow-front overvoltages
shape c a nb e described w i t h statisticalconcepts; f o ra given i n s u l a t i o na n d f o r impulse K g j t = Kt ; (2.37)
voltages o f a given shape a n d a given altitude o f t h e line, a certain probability o f — Fast-front voltages
flashover can b e associated t o each value o f t h e voltage; such probability is described K S _ B = 0 , 7 4 + 0 , 2 6 KG ; (2.38)
t h r o u g h t h e p a r a m e t e r s U 5 0 % , a u a n d Nx. R e f e r e n c e [ 2 . 3 1 ] r e c o m m e n d s t h e u s e o f a — Power frequency voltages
m o d i f i e d Weibull distribution. T h i s distribution is determined such that its parameters Ag_pf = 1 , 3 5 K g — 0 , 3 5 A 2 . (2.39)
correspond t o the values o f a Gaussian d i s t r i b u t i o na t probabilities o f 5 0 % a n d 16 % T h e required design w i t h s t a n d voltage results from (2.30) a n d(2.35) as:
o f b e i n g e x c e e d e d a n d i s t r u n c a t e d a t U^0% — 3 ou.
Urw = KzKgU50%lp . (2.40)
T h e required withstand voltage o f a n a i r g a p i s d e t e r m i n e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g a n x %
probability o f being exceeded t a k i n g t h e critical voltage U 5 0 % into account, so that: T h e values o f air gap factors, applicable t o slow-front overvoltages, depend o n the air
gap a r r a n g e m e n t . F o u r t y p e s o f a r r a n g e m e n t s a r e c o n s i d e r e d according t o [2.27]:
U™ = Ux = U 5 0 %- N x t r u , (2.32) — Conductor-to-obstacle (external clearances);
— Conductor-to-conductor i ntower w i n d o w , t h a t is a n I-string o r V - s t r i n g i n t h e
w h e r e C/50% i s t h e 5 0 % withstand voltage of the air gap, ou the standard deviationa n d
tower window (internal clearance);
Nx t h en u m b e r o f standard deviations, w h i c h correspond t o t h einterval between t h e
— Conductor-to-tower, from freely swinging insulator string or from V-string to a
p r o b a b i l i t i e s 5 0 % a n d x %, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
crossarm or tower body (internal clearance);
F o r t r a n s i e n t stresses (fast-front a n d slow-front overvoltages), t h e required withstand
— Conductor-to-conductor (internal clearance).
voltage s h o u l d b e t h e 9 0 % w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e a i rg a p . I t is d e t e r m i n e d as a
I n T a b l e 2 . 1 4 , e x a m p l e s o f air gap factors axe s h o w n a c c o r d i n g t o [2.27], [2.29] a n d
function o f the 5 0 % w i t h s t a n d voltage b y the following relation:
[2.31]. O t h e r values o b t a i n e d b y experience o r tests c a n b e used. O t h e r t y p i c a l v a l u e s
U r w = U 9 0 % = U 5 o % - 1,3CTu . (2.33) for air g a p factors c a nb e obtained from [2.18].
S t a n d a r d [2.31] c o n t a i n s f o r m u l a e w h i c h d e s c r i b e t h e r e a c t i o n o f r o d - t o - p l a n e a i r g a p s
A s far as the power frequency voltage is concerned, the required w i t h s t a n d voltage a g a i n s t o v e r v o l t a g e s ; t h e 50 % withstand voltage U 5 o % r p o f r o d - t o - p l a n e a i r g a p s i s u s e d
is c o n s i d e r e d a s a d e t e r m i n i s t i c p a r a m e t e r : a s r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e clearance distance d. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e w i t h s t a n d
voltage o f a n air gap a n d t h e clearance distance d c a nb e expressed as:
Urw = U 1 0 0 % = U 5 0 % - 3 ou . (2.34)
U r w = Kz • Kg • f (d) . (2.41)
T h e required design w i t h s t a n d voltage c a nb e determined b y employing the deviation
T h e w i t h s t a n dvoltage o f any self-restoring insulationregarding slow-front overvoltages
factor Kz a n dt h e coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n u u through:
w i t h front t i m e 2 5 0 p s a n d t i m e t o h a l f v a l u e 2 5 0 0 p s i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r t h a n t h e
U™ = ( 1 - u • N) U50% = KZU50% , (2.35) corresponding voltage f o r fast-front overvoltages o f the s a m e p o l a r i t y . Practically,t h e
u
withstand voltage o f a rod-to-plane air gap u p t o 25 m distance, forpositive polarity
w h e r e vu d e s i g n a t e s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n . T h e r e s u l t i n g d e v i a t i o n f a c t o r s Kz a r e and the standardized slow-front wave shape, c a n b e determined by:
given i nT a b l e 2.13.
U 5 0 % r p _ s f = 1 0 8 0 I n ( 0 , 4 6 d + 1) , (2.42)
I n g e n e r a l , t h e t y p e o f a i r g a p a f f e c t s i t s dielectric withstand strength. The 50 % with-
stand voltage U 5 0 % o f a n air g a p o f a n y a r r a n g e m e n t c a n b e equated as a f u n c t i o n o f w h e r e d is t h eclearance distance i n m a n dU 5 o % r p _ s f represents t h e p e a k v a l u e o f t h e
the voltage o f the rod-to-plane (U5o%rp) air g a p through: impulse overvoltage i n k V .
F o r s t a n d a r d lightning impulses with a front t i m e o f 1,2 p s a n d t i m e t o h a l f v a l u e o f
^50% = Kg •U 5 0 % r p , (2.36) 5 0 p s , a n d f o rr o d - t o - p l a n e air gaps u p t o 1 0 m distance, t h e critical voltage o f positive
polarity is d e t e r m i n e d b y :
w h e r e Kg d e s i g n a t e s t h e gap factor. F o r every t y p e o f voltage stress, t h e respective g a p
f a c t o r c a n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e gap factor for switching overvoltage as follows: U50%rpJ F - 530 d , (2.43)
54 2 Electric requirements a n d design 2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 55

T a b l e 2 . 1 5: A l t i t u d e factor A a as a function o f t h e w i t h s t a n dvoltage for T a b l e 2 . 1 6 : R e p r e s e n t a t i v e v o l t a g e s UTp (external in-

i n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n a c c o r d i n g - t n \0 971 sulation)
Altitude Type of stress Phase- to-earth Phase-to-phase
Altitude factor Ka
(ml up to from 201 k V f r o m 401 k V f r o m 701 k V above Lightning 1,2 • U90%ft-is
V111/ 200 k V t o 400 k V t o 700 k V t o 1100 k V 1100 k V Switching 1,4 • A C E • U2%_si

Si
k
n
0 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Power frequency y/2-U.
100 0,994 0,995 0,997 0,998 0,999 D C voltage l , 0 b y / 3 / 2 • UDC 2 • 1,054/3/2- t/bc
300 0,982 0,985 0,990 0,993 0,996
500 0,970 0,975 0,982 0,987 0,992
1000 0,938 0,946 0,959 0,970 0,978
Slow-front overvoltages
1500 0,904 0,915 0,934 0,948 0,960
2000 0,870 0,883 0,906 0,923 0,938 For insulation c o o r d i n a t i o n o f overhead lines regarding slow-front overvoltages, a sim-
2500 0,834 0,849 0,875 0,896 0,913 plified statistical m e t h o d c a n b e used. I t i sa s s u m e d i nt h i s case, t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
3000 0,798 0,815 0,844 0,867 0,885 of b o t h t h e overvoltages a n d t h e i n s u l a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltages c a n b e defined b y o n e
point o fthe respective statistical distributions.
The o v e r v o l t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s t a t i s t i c a l o v e r v o l t a g e U2%_s(, w h i c h
w h e r e d i s t h e c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e i n m a n d Ui0%Tpjf represents t h e peak value o f t h e
impulse overvoltage i n k V . corresponds t o 2 % probability o fbeing exceeded. T h einsulation w i t h s t a n dvoltage is
represented b yt h e statistical w i t h s t a n dvoltage, w h i c h corresponds t o9 0 % probability
The 5 0 % w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e U^y^ o f a r o d - t o - p l a n e air g a p f o rp o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e
of w i t h s t a n d i n g . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e overvoltage f / r p isdetermined through t h e multi-
is d e t e r m i n e d b y :
p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l o v e r v o l t a g e b y a statistical coordination factor K^. I tresults
U 5 o % r p _ P f = 7 5 0 ^ 2 I n ( 1 + 0 , 5 5 d1'2) , (2.44) therefrom:
— Phase conductor t o earth:
w h e r e d is t h e clearance distance i nm a n d U50%rp_pf means t h e peak value o ft h e U r p = Kcs • U2%Js{ a n d (2.47)
voltage i n k V . T h e critical disruptive voltage depends o nthe air densit}' and, therefore, — Phase-to-phase:
on t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e area above t h e s e alevel, as e x p l a i n e d i nclause 2.4.5.3. Such Ulp = Kcs-Up2%jS = l,A-Kcs-U2%M . (2.48)
dependence isconsidered t h r o u g h t h ealtitude factor J f a according t o e q u a t i o n (2.45) The s t a t i s t i c a l c o o r d i n a t i o n f a c t o r Kcs is related t o t h erisk o f failure. T o determine
and T a b l e 2.15: the e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e s , Kcs c a n b e s e t a s e q u a l t o 1 , 0 5 , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a
flashover risk o fa r o u n d 0,001.
Urw = KK-K.-Ks-U5mrp . (2.45)

Power frequency voltages

2.5.1.2.2 Voltages t obe considered For t h epurpose o f insulation design a n d coordination, t h e representative permanent
Fast-front overvoltages caused b y lightning should b e t a k e n into account for t h e cal- voltages should b e considered as constant, being t a k e n as equal t o t h e peak value o f
c u l a t i o n o f clearance distances i n electric s y s t e m s o f ranges I a n d I I ; i . e. a c c o r d i n g t o t h e highest power frequency voltage.
[2.31] f o r a l l n o m i n a l voltages. - Phase-to-earth:
Slow-front overvoltages caused b y switching operations should b e considered fort h e U r p = (4/2/4/3)U s a n d (2.49)
c a l c u l a t i o n o f clearance distances i n electric s y s t e m s o f r a n g e I I , i . e. f o rn o m i n a l voltages - Phase-to-phase:
equal o rhigher t h a n 3 0 0 k V . T h erepresentative overvoltages t ob e t a k e n into account U r p = / 2 - U s , (2.50)
are g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . 1 6 according t o clause 2.4.5. w h e r e Us m e a n s t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e .
T a b l e 2.16 s u m m a r i z e s t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e v o l t a g e stresses t o b e considered.
Fast-front overvoltages
F o r t h e determination of the air gap distance regarding fast-front overvoltages, consid-
DC voltages
eration should b e given t o t h erepresentative voltage that hits a certain point o f t h e
The insulation in direct current (DC) lines, generally n a m e d as high voltage direct
transmission line a n d spreads over a f e w supports. F o r d e t e r m i n i n g phase-to-ground
current ( H V D C ) systems, i s stressed b y lightning overvoltages, overvoltages induced
clearance distance, a voltage e q u a l t o9 0% o ft h e l i g h t n i n g w i t h s t a n dvoltage Ugf)%gjns
by faults a n dt h e operating voltage. Slow-front overvoltages reach only m o d e r a t e mag-
of t h e i n s u l a t o r set s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o account. T h i s voltage d e p e n d s o n t h e flashover
n i t u d e s o f n o t m o r e t h a n 1,7p . u . a s a consequence o f t h e a t t e n u a t i o n i n t h e converter
distance d ; n s o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s sets a n do n t h e t y p e o f air g a p .
stations, a n dare, therefore, n o tsignificant forline design. Fast-front overvoltages, as a
For p h a s e - t o - p h a s e clearances, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o v e r v o l t a g e 1,20 U9o%ff_jns s h o u l d b e
consequence o f l i g h t n i n g strokes, a t t a i n t h es a m e values a s i n A C systems.
considered. A c c o r d i n g t o [2.27], i t applies:
R e g a r d i n g t h estresses a t o p e r a t i n g voltages, a D C line p e r f o r m s like a nA C line w i t h
t h e p e a k v a l u e o f t h e p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e . T h e r e f o r e , i t a p p l i e s U S A C = 4 / 3 / 2 • UDC
UrP = U 9 0 % f f J n s = Kzj[ •J f g j j J n s •5 3 0 • d i n s , (2-4f>)
where U S A C is t h e highest phase-to-phase power frequency voltage o f t h e comparable
w h e r e Kz_s i s t h e d e v i a t i o n f a c t o r (Kzjg = 0 , 9 6 1 ) , Kg_gjns t h elightning impulse a i r AC line a n d U D C is t h eh i g h e s t o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e o f t h e D Cline. F o rdesign, a v o l t a g e
gap factor o f the insulator set a n dd i n s t h e flashover distance o f the insulator set. increased b y 5 % compared w i t h t h en o m i n a l voltage should b e adopted.
bb 2 Electric requirements a n a aesign 'J I

T a b l e 2.17: Clearances D e i a n d Table 2.18: Clearances D e i T a b l e 2.19: M i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e s T a b l e 2.20: E m p i r i c a l d a t a

D p p corresponding t o fast-front and D p p corresponding t o slow- in a i r dependent o nthe highest for m i n i m u m clearance dis-
withstand voltages, o f conductor- front overvoltages, o f conductor- voltage o f equipment tances D e i a n d D p p
to-obstacle a n d conductor-to- to-obstacle a n d conductor-to- Highest voltage Dpf_pe DPf_PP Highest voltage Dei D,
conductor air gaps i n altitudes u p conductor air gaps, i n altitudes u p of equipment U s of equipment U s
to 1000 m above sea-level to 1000 m a b o v e sea-level (kV) (m) (m) (kV) (m) (m)
L i g h t n i n g surge n i IT D c-
ATpp-n Switching surge Z^el-af 52 0,11 0,17 52 0,60 0.70
w i t h s t a n d voltage withstand voltage 72,5 0,15 0,23 72,5 0.70 0,80
ptv; t m ! l m ! (kV) (m) (m) 82,5 0,16 0,26 82,5 0,75 0,85
400 0,77 0,85 400 0,88 1,02 100 0,19 0,30 100 0,90 1,05
600 1,14 1,26 600 1,44 1,67 123 0,23 0,37 123 L00 1,15
800 1,50 1,68 800 2,07 2,45 145 0,27 0,42 145 1,20 1,40
1000 1,88 2,08 1000 2,84 3,41 170 0,31 0,49 170 1,30 1,50
1200 2,23 2,50 1200 3,71 4,57 245 0,43 0,69 245 1,70 2,00
1400 2,61 2,92 1400 4,77 5,97 300 0,51 0,83 300 2,10 2,40
1600 2,98 3,33 1600 6,02 7,66 420 0,70 1,17 420 2,80 3,20
1800 3,35 3,75 1800 7,50 9,70 525 0,86 1,47 525 3,50 4,00
2000 3,72 4,17 765 1,28 2,30 765 4,90 5,60
2050 3,82 4,27
2100 3,91 4,38
2150 4,00 4,48
Power frequency voltages

2.5.1.2.3 S u m m a r y o ff o r m u l a e f o r e l e c t r i c a l clearances
0,833
For each k i n d o fvoltage stress, t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltage o ft h e air gap shall b e D pf-pe 1,64
Us
: exp (2.55)
equal o r higher t h a n the representative overvoltage. A s a result, the following relation- 7 5 0 s/Z Kg- Kz_p{ • K%jp(
ships c a nb e deduced f r o m e q u a t i o n (2.45), considering equations (2.42) t o(2.44) a n d
T a b l e 2 . 1 6 , f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e required electrical clearances under the three mentioned and
conditions.
0,833
U S
D pf-pp : 1,64 e x p 7 5 0 • Kg • K _ ; (2.56)
z p • Kg p(
Fast-front overvoltages

In T a b l e 2 . 1 9 , t h e v a l u e s f o r- D p f _ p e a n d D p f p p axe supplied being applicable t o

Dei_ff = U 9 0 % F F j n s / ( 5 3 0 • Kg. • Kz_s • ifgjf) (2.51)
conductor-to-tower and conductor-to-conductor air gaps. T h e y refer t o insulation coor-
dination considerations. O t h e r requirements, such as for live-line w o r k , m a y necessitate
and longer clearances.

• D p p j f = l I 2 C / 9 0 % f f J n s / ( 5 3 0 - Kg • Kz_s • Kg_g) (2.52)

I n T a b l e 2 . 1 7 , t h e v a l u e s f o r D e i j i a n d Dpp_g
tative overvoltages for conductor-to-obstacle
altitudes u p t o 1000 m above sealevel.
axe p r o v i d e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r e p r e s e n -
a n dc o n d u c t o r - t o - c o n d u c t o r air gaps, i n
Direct voltages
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 2 ] , t h e r e q u i r e d clearances in HVDC lines c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a -
t i o n (2.51) a n d (2.52), w h e r e t h e f a s t - f r o n t overvoltage has t o b econsidered. T h e clear-
ances required w i t h respect t o t h eoperating voltage result f r o m (2.55) a n d (2.56),
whereby U S h a st ob e r e p l a c e d b y 1,22 U D C -

Slow-front overvoltages
2.5.1.3 E m p i r i c a l d a t a for c l e a r a n c e s
csU2%_j5f
Del-sf = 2 - 1 7 exp (2.53) Overhead transmissionlines have been operated i n all regions o f t h e w o r l d , f r o m w h i c h
1 0 8 0 • Kg • Kz^t •K g J 5 f
empirical data for the clearances De\ a n d Dpp c a n b e o b t a i n e d . I n T a b l e 2 . 2 0 , s u c h
values a r eg i v e n a s s t a n d a r d i z e d i nE N 5 03 4 1 - 1 [2.27]. I ft h e clearances D e l o f T a b l e
and 2.20 a r eu s e d t od e t e r m i n e clearances necessary b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s a n dobstacles i n
crossings, t h e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s h o u l d b ec o m p l i e d w i t h : T h e m i n i m u m
lAKcsU2%_s(
D p p _ s f = 2,17 exp - 1 (2.54) clearance s h o u l d b ehigher t h a n 1,1t i m e s the longest air g a p a s o m along the insulator
1 0 8 0 • Kg • Kz_sf • Kg_g(
sets. U n d e r t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , i tw i l l b e g u a r a n t e e d t h a t d i s r u p t i v e discharges, i f any,
I n T a b l e 2 . 1 8 , t h e v a l u e s f o r De^ and Dpp_af are provided depending o n the represen- o c c u r a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r sets o r w i t h i n t h e line a n d n e v e r t ocrossed obstacles o r persons
tative overvoltages, f o rconductor-to-obstacle and conductor-to-conductor air gaps, i n under a n overhead line. I npractical t e r m s , i tis n o tk n o w n s o faxt h a t a n y flashover
altitudes u p t o1000 m above sea level. ever o c c u r r e d t oobstacles o rpersons w h e n these r e q u i r e m e n t s h a d b e e n fulfilled.
58 2 Electric requirements and design 2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 59

2.5.2 Internal and external clearances

2.5.2.1 Introduction

I n case o f overhead lines, i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l clearances are considered. T h e internal

clearances r e f e r e i t h e r t o c o n d u c t o r - t o - c o n d u c t o r o r c o n d u c t o r - t o - t o w e r a i r g a p s i n t h e
l i n e . T h e external clearances a r e u s e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g s a f e t y c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n l i v e
conductors a n dobjects u n d e r o r i n t h ev i c i n i t y o f t h e overhead line. T h e internal
clearances are specified solely for t h e p u r p o s e o f designing for a n acceptable a b i l i t y t o
F i g u r e 2.11: Components
w i t h s t a n d overvoltages. o f clearances t o crossed ob-
A c c o r d i n g t o s t a n d a r d s [2.29] a n d [2.31], t h e o v e r v o l t a g e s , i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h a l i m i t e d stacles
number of flashovers, t h r o u g h the critical clearances, for instance conductor-to-tower,
can lead t o a neconomic design o f a power network.
- T h e internal clearances t o e a r t h e d o b j e c t s c a n b e l e s s t h a n t h e l o w e s t v a l u e s o f De\
T h e purpose o f t h e e x t e r n a l clearances i s t o avoid a n yhazard o f flashovers to the
a n d Dpp d u r i n g infrequent events, such as those caused b y t h e m a x i m u m s w i n g
general public, t o persons carrying out activities i n the vicinity o f the overhead power
o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s d u e t o w i n d l o a d i n g . I n t h i s case, t h e r e i s a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y o f
lines a n d t o persons m a i n t a i n i n g the power n e t w o r k . T h e e x t e r n a l clearances are set
a coincidental t r a n s i e n t voltage a n d such a coincidence w o u l d i n a n y case result
so t h a t flashovers have very high probability o f occurring inside the overhead line. For
only i na supply i n t e r r u p t i o n , presenting n o danger t o persons. I t is, therefore,
live-line work, s p e c i a l r u l e s a r e a p p l i e d , w h i c h t a k e c a r e o f s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s a p p l y i n g
r e c o m m e n d e d i n [2.33] t h a t clearances l o w e r t h a n t h o s e r e q u i r e d w i t h respect
in this situation.
to overvoltages c a nb e accepted i n 1 % o f t i m e d u r a t i o n o f one year. Similarly,
T h e clearances relate t o overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines w h i c h use bare conductors. L i n e s
phase-to-phase clearances D p p can b e lower t h a n the ones, required according t o
w h i c h u s ea solid i n s u l a t i n g layer a r o u n d the phase conductors c a nb e designed w i t h
Tables 2.17, 2.18 a n d 2.20 u n d e r t h e occurrence o f low p r o b a b i l i t y events.
clearances lower t h a n t h e ones established i n clause 2.5.1.
— T h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f flashover t h r o u g h t h e lowest internal clearance asom should be
I t i s a l s o a c c e p t e d t h a t for p r o d u c i n g e c o n o m i c d e s i g n s o f a p o w e r n e t w o r k , t h e d e s i g n e r
always higher t h a n t h a t t oany external object o rperson. Also w i t h long insulator
has t o consider a foreseeable range o f climatic conditions, such as w i n d velocities a n d
s e t s , t h e r i s k o f flashover s h o u l d a l w a y s b e t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r n a l d i s t a n c e o s o m a n d
i c e l o a d . I f exceptional meteorological events o c c u r , i t i s a c c e p t a b l e t h a t t h e c l e a r a n c e s
not t o a n y e x t e r n a l object o r person. I n case o f l o n g i n s u l a t o r strings, a n increase
established i n clause 2.5.1 w i l l not b e complied w i t h . A n event can b e considered as a n
o f t h e distances D e | t o values m o r e t h a n 1,1 • asom c a nb e expedient, according t o
exception i fit is expected t o occur once i n m o r e t h a n 5 0 years. I n these exceptional
[2.27].
conditions, t h e safety o f persons is p a r a m o u n t a n d should b e t h e governing rule.
T h e m i n i m u m distances required f o r live-line w o r k c a n b e determined according t o
Vertical a n d h o r i z o n t a l clearances can b e distinguished i n order t o d e t e r m i n e t h e short-
[2.34].
est d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n l i v e p a r t s a n d t h e o b j e c t u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . I f n o t specified a s
vertical o r h o r i z o n t a l , t h e clearances s h o u l d b e t a k e n as t h e shortest ones b e t w e e n live
parts and the object under consideration. 2.5.2.3 L o a d c a s e s for t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f c l e a r a n c e s

2.5.2.3.1 M a x i m u m conductor t e m p e r a t u r e at n o - w i n d condition

2.5.2.2 Design principles
Disregarding live-line w o r k , the following rules are applied for d e t e r m i n i n g b o t h internal
a n d e x t e r n a l clearances:
— T h e r e i s a basic electrical clearance Dei, w h i c h , i f o b e y e d a s a n e x t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e ,
prevents flashovers between live parts and e x t e r n a l objects a te a r t h p o t e n t i a l u n -
der n o r m a l system operation. N o r m a l o p e r a t i o n comprises s w i t c h i n g operations,
lightning surges a n d overvoltages r e s u l t i n g f r o m e a r t h faults. F o r i n t e r n a l clear-
a n c e s , i t i s p e r m i t t e d t o u s e l o w e r v a l u e s t h a n De\, b e c a u s e flashovers affect o n l y
t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e n e t w o r k . F o r e x t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e s , a c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 2 7 ] , Ds\
s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d i n a n y case.
— A b a s i c c l e a r a n c e Dpp s h o u l d b e u s e d i n o r d e r t o a v o i d p h a s e - t o - p h a s e flashovers
d u r i n g l i g h t n i n g o r s w i t c h i n g o v e r v o l t a g e s . C l e a r a n c e s l o w e r t h a n Dpp canbe
accepted a t adverse w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , a s flashovers i n t h i s case w o u l d affect
only the n e t w o r k reliabilitya n d not the safety o f persons.
— A n additional clearance component D a < j d i s n e c e s s a r y t o g r o u n d o r c r o s s e d o b j e c t s ,
being intended t o ensure that n operson o r conductive object violates t h e electric
distance even w h e n they a r eundertaking w o r k or leisure activities w h i c h c a n
be foreseen as reasonably probable. I nF i g u r e 2.11, the relationships are s h o w n
between electrical a n d additional clearance.
V e r t i c a l c l e a r a n c e s s h o u l d b e b a s e d o n t h e maximum design temperature o f the con-
ductors a n d o n t h e i r r e s u l t i n g position along t h e span a n d t h e y should b e designed
sufficiently large. T h e m a x i m u m conductor t e m p e r a t u r e isa result o fthe line operation
o r c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e h i g h e s t p e r m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e for t h e c o n d u c t o r . I n T a b l e
2.21, t h e d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 [2.35] a r e l i s t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o
i n t e r n a t i o n a l practice, m a x i m u m p e r m a n e n t c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 75
t o 90° C a r e u s e d . N o r m a l c l e a r a n c e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d for m a x i m u m p e r m a n e n t c o n d u c t o r
temperature. I f higher currents and temperatures are additionally t a k e n into account
for e m e r g e n c y c o n d i t i o n s , clearances l o w e r t h a n D e i a n d D p p c a n b e accepted.
2.5.2.3.2 I c e load w i t h o u t w i n d
T h e characteristic ice load t o b e a p p l i e d a n d t h e r e l e v a n t t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d b e s p e c -
ified based o nt h e experience gained i n each region o r a t i n d i v i d u a l lines. Guidelines o n
ice l o a d s t o b e a p p l i e d a r e p r o v i d e d i n c l a u s e 6.6.3.
A s u m m a r y o f ice l o a d c o n d i t i o n s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r c l e a r a n c e s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l E u -
r o p e a n countries isgiven i n T a b l e 2.21. H i g h ice loads are t a k e n i n t o account, specially
in N o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n countries like N o r w a y , Sweden and F i n l a n d . N o ice load con-
ditions are specified i nS o u t h e r n E u r o p e a n countries; s o m e standards refer t o project
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g i c i n g p e r i o d s a r e b e t w e e n - 1 0 a n d 0°C.
 uu z xviecinc lequiiuiiieiiis a m i uesign z.u vueaicmuea VI

T a b l e 2.21: C o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d iceloads t o d e t e r m i n e clearances i n s o m e E u r o ¬ T h e conductor temperature depends o nelectric load, w i n d velocity, w i n d direction a n d
pean countries constituting C E N E L E C according t o E N 50341-31' a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e m o r e t h e w i n d velocity increases, t h elower t h e increase
Country Temperature °C Ice load N / m Source E N of the conductor temperature will be compared w i t h the ambient temperature. Such
Austria 40 4 + 0,2 - D 2 ) 50341-3-1 circumstances can b e considered i n the design o f a n overhead line, w h e n the actual con-
Belgium 75 no ice load 50341-3-2 d u c t o r p o s i t i o n i s calculated. A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], c o n d u c t o r s w i n g i s a l w a y s calculated
Switzerland 40 20 50341-3-3 a t +40° C t e m p e r a t u r e .
Germany Design temperature 5 + 0,1 • D 2 ) ; 10 + 0,2 - £>2>; 20 + 0,4 • D2); 50341-3-4
A t m e d i u m w i n d l o a d , i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e s m a y b e r e d u c e d c o m p a r e d w i t h De\ a n d D p p ,
depending on line location
Denmark Design temperature no ice load 50 341-3-5 because under these circumstances there is only a low probability t h a t a n overvoltage
Spain > 50 0 to 500 m no ice load 50 341-3-6 occurs a n d results i n a disruptive discharge t o persons o r t h i r d p a r t y properties. T h e
500 to 1000 m l , 8 v / D extent t o w h i c h t h e clearances could b e reduced is established i n correspondence w i t h
above 1000 m 3,6 \J~D t h e r e l i a b i l i t y level r e q u i r e d for t h e line. A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], t h e values o f D e i a n d D p p
Finland 70 0 to 50 m 10 50343-3-7
o f T a b l e s 2.17, 2.18 a n d 2.20 m a y b e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e factor 0,75.
50 to 100 m 25
100 to 200 m 50 U n d e r e x t r e m e w i n d condition t h e internal clearances s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h e highest
above 200 m 75 phase-to-earth power frequency voltage i nsystems w i t h directly-earthed-neutral and
FYance Design temperature 0 to 600 m - 20 mm r a d i a l 3 ' 50341-3-8 e a r t h f a u l t factors o f 1,3 o r below. Clearances a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 2.19 a p p l y u n d e r
above 600 m - project specification this assumption. For higher e a r t h fault factors, especially i n systems w i t h isolated and
Great Britain Design temperature project specification 50341-3-9
Greece
r e s o n a n t - e a r t h e d - n e u t r a l , c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t e m p o r a r y overvoltage m a y b e necessary.
50 no ice load 50341-3-10
Ireland Design temperature 15 to 50 mm - r a d i a l 3 ' 50341-3-11
T h e practice a m o n g several utilities i nregions n o tsubjected t o ice loads, regarding
depending on type of line a s s o c i a t i o n o f w i n d v e l o c i t y f o r swing angle calculation, t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d clearances
Italy up to 800 m 55 no ice load 50 341-3-13 for t o w e r design o r t o w e r a p p l i c a t i o n is:
above 800 m 40
Netherlands 70/80 ice load with 50 years return period 50341-3-15
- C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a n o - w i n d c o n d i t i o n a t everyday stress ( E D S ) t e m p e r a t u r e and
Norway Design temperature 30 to 50 m, depending on height 50341-3-16 o f c l e a r a n c e s f o r fast-front o r l i g h t n i n g overvoltages;
above sea-level and location - Use o f a moderate w i n d velocity equal t o 5 0t o 6 0 % o f the h i g h - w i n d velocity for
Portugal up to 100 k V 65 up to 700 m no ice load 50341-3-17 50 year r e t u r n p e r i o d f o r t h e s w i n g angle calculation a n d its c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
above 100 k V 75 above 700 m 11/40 - (10 + D ) 2 )
Sweden 50
t h e c l e a r a n c e f o r t h e m a x i m u m slow-front o r s w i t c h i n g overvoltages;
9,2 + 0,51 £> 2 ' 50341-3-18
- Use o f the h i g h - w i n d 50-year velocity f o rcalculation o f m a x i m u m swing angle
" not available for Luxembourg
2'
a n d i t s c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e c l e a r a n c e f o r power frequency voltages.
D conductor diameter in mm
3' thickness of radial ice accretion, measured in mm, not in N / m
2.5.2.4 Insulator and conductor position under w i n d action

Besides a u n i f o r m ice load along the line section, some standards require t o comply 2.5.2.4.1 D e f i n i t i o n of w i n d a c t i o n
w i t h m i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e w h e n a local ice load a c t s j u s t i n o n e s p a n , e . g . f o r c r o s s i n g s T h e available clearances b e t w e e n phase conductors o r b e t w e e n phase conductors a n d
o f traffic r o u t e s etc. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [2.36], a s a ne x a m p l e , specifies 5 0 % o f t h e u n i f o r m e a r t h e d t o w e r e l e m e n t s d e p e n d o n t h e conductor and insulator positions w h i c h v a r y u n -
ice a c c r e t i o n i n t h i s case. S u c h a n u n b a l a n c e d i c e l o a d r e s u l t s i nu n e q u a l l o n g i t u d i n a l der the action o f w i n d . T h e w i n d load causes s w i n g i n g o ft h e conductors a n d insulators,
c o n d u c t o r tensile forces, causing l o n g i t u d i n a l s w i n g s o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a n d , therefore, t h u s reducing t h e still air clearances. T h e w i n d action varies w i t h t i m e a n d location
h i g h e r sags m a y b e created a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e conductor m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e a n d c a n b e described as r a n d o m l y d i s t r i b u t e d u s i n g statistical approaches (see clause
condition. 6 . 3 . 2 a n d [ 2 . 1 ] ) . T h e time-dependent conductor position w i l l b e r a n d o m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
as w e l l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s w i n g a n g l e s d e p e n d o n l i n e p a r a m e t e r s , s u c h a s r a t i o o f w i n d
2.5.2.3.3 W i n d load assumptions to w e i g h t s p a n , c o n d u c t o r t y p e etc.
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e distribution of conductor position d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w i n d , i t i s n e c e s -
R e g a r d i n g clearances at wind l o a d , t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o account:
sary t o consider t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the w i n d velocity along the span a n d its v a r i a t i o n
- Moderate wind load h a v i n g a n a v e r a g e frequency o f occurrence. According t o
w i t h h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d level. T o assess t h e t i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r p o -
[2.27], a w i n d l o a d f o ra t h r e e y e a r s r e t u r n p e r i o d i s suggested. R e f e r e n c e [2.33]
r e c o m m e n d s a w i n d speed w h i c h isn o t exceeded d u r i n g a t least 9 9 % o f t h e t i m e . sition, a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w i n d velocity i s necessary. O n l y t h e
T h e first a s s u m p t i o n c o u l d l e a d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e t h e s w i n g a n g l e t h a n t h e component o ft h e w i n d acting perpendicularly t o the conductor causes swinging o f con-
p r o p o s a l according t o [2.33]. I n clause 2.5.2.4 f u r t h e r details w i l l b e given. ductor and insulators. W i n d statistics often comprise only w i n d values independently
A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], t h e d y n a m i c w i n d pressure t o b e a d o p t e d reaches 8 0 % o f o f t h e w i n d d i r e c t i o n . T o assess t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f s w i n g angles, i t i s necessary t o t a k e
the value w h i c h w o u l d b e considered for a 5 0 year r e t u r n period. appropriate note o fthe w i n d direction.
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 0 8 2 6 [2.1] t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f y e a r l y e x t r e m e v a l u e s o f w i n d v e l o c i t y
- Extreme wind load a c c o r d i n g t o a d e s i g n w i n d s p e e d o f e . g . 5 0 y e a r s . T h i s w i n d
load leads t o t h e l i m i t values o f t h e conductor s w i n g . m a y b e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e Gumbel distribution (see c l a u s e 6.9.4). A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y VT c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a g i v e n r e t u r n p e r i o d T ( m e a s u r e d i n
- Wind action on ice covered conductors m a y d e t e r m i n e t h e electrical clearances
under particular conditions. T h e n , the relevant conductor position can b e calcu- years) can b e d e t e r m i n e d from
l a t e d u s i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n s described i n [2.33]. VT = V - ov[0,45 + i n( - ln(l - 1 / r ) ) • 1/6/TT] (2.57)
62 2Electric requirements and design 2.5 Clearances 6 3

2.5.2.4.2 Calculation o fswing angle

If the w i n d acted steadily along the line a n d constantly over a longer period o f t i m e ,
t h e calculation of swing angle w o u l d j u s t b e a s i m p l e m a t t e r . H o w e v e r , i n r e a l i t y t h e
fluctuation o f w i n d affects t h e s w i n g angle considerably. T h e p e a k w i n d velocities w i l l
not cause s w i n g angles statically equivalent t ot h a t calculated f r o m t h e locally observed
peak w i n d velocities.
C o n d u c t o r s p o s s e s s a c e r t a i n m a s s w h i c h h a s t o b e a c c e l e r a t e d first a n d m o v e d i n t o a
s w u n g p o s i t i o n before t h e w i n d forces w i l l b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e support. Therefore,
p e a k w i n d velocities o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n w i l l n o t affect n e i t h e r t h e s w i n g angles n o r t h e
forces acting o nt h e towers. O n l y m e a n values o f w i n d velocities averaged over a suffi-
200 300 400 500 m 600 0 5 . 10 15 20 25 30 m/s35 c i e n t l y l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e affect t h e s w i n g angle. T h i s fact c a n b e d i r e c t l y observed o n
Wind span a w — Wind velocity V —
overhead power lines. I n heavy storms w i t h distinctly discernible gusts, the conductors
F i g u r e 2 . 1 2 : Span factor G L according t o a n d insulators resist i na stable s w u n g p o s i t i o n w i t h o u t clearly reacting t o t h e gusts.
F i g u r e 2.13: Calculated and measured swing
I E C 6 0 8 2 6 (a), E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 (b) a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 ¬ angles as a f u n c t i o n o fi n s t a n t a n e o u s w i n d ve- Accordingly, various investigations o f s w i n g angles indicate t h a t t h e measured swing
3-4 (c) locities angles are smaller t h a n those theoretically expected f r o m t h e recorded instantaneous
peak w i n d velocities a d o p t i n g the basic relations between w i n d velocities, w i n d forces
a n d s w i n g angles. F i g u r e 2 . 1 3shows records f r o m [2.37] i n comparison w i t h calculated
E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 5 7 ) c a n b e used t oestablish t h e w i n d velocity h a v i n g a h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f
d a t a . T h i s figure c o n f i r m s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n w i n d v e l o c i t y a n d s w i n g a n g l e
occurrence d u r i n g one year, e. g.the w i n d velocity w i t h a r e t u r n period o f t w o years,
requires extensive considerations t o become consistent. For bare stranded conductors
a n d t o derive the yearly t i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e w i n d velocities based o n this value.
a d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t Cc = 1 , 0 i s a d e q u a t e [ 2 . 1 ] . T o a c h i e v e s u f f i c i e n t a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n
It m a y b e assumed t h a t the yearly t i m e distribution o f the w i n d velocities follows t h e
calculations and measurements, the climatic data such as air density have t o b e duly
Weibull distribution
considered.

I 1 • « p [ - W ] } ' The swing angle o f a n i n s u l a t o r s e t m a y b e r e l a t e d t o t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y b y :

E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 5 8 ) d e t e r m i n e s t h epercentage o ft i m e d u r i n g w h i c h t h e w i n d velocity
(g/2) •C c • Vj • G L •D •q w + Qwins/2] F 2 6 3 )
V w i l l b e b e l o w t h e v a l u e VT. T h e W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n ( 2 . 5 8 ) i s d e s c r i b e d b y t h e t w o •/"ins = t a n

p a r a m e t e r s / 3 a n d Vn. D a t a f o r t h e v a l u e (3 c a n b e f o u n d i n l i t e r a t u r e , r a n g i n g f r o m 1 , 8 t o
2 , 2 . T o a s s e s s t h e p a r a m e t e r Vv f r o m e x t r e m e v a l u e s t a t i s t i c s , j3 = 2 , 0 i s r e c o m m e n d e d . WC + Wins/2 j
T h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a v e l o c i t y V e x c e e d s VT i s t h e n In this f o r m u l a t h e f o l l o w i n g s y m b o l s Eire u s e d :
Q air density depending o n t e m p e r a t u r e , h u m i d i t y a n d altitude above sea level,
P(V>VT)=exP[-{VTIV1f\-\W . (2.59) CQ drag factor equal t o 1,0 for stranded conductors,
VR reference w i n d velocity,
W i t h s t a n d a r d practice f o r w i n d m e a s u r e m e n t s i n m i n d , i tc a nb e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e
GL s p a n f a c t o r t a k i n g i n t o account t h e effect o f s p a n l e n g t h ,
w i n d velocity h a v i n g a t w o years' r e t u r n period will have a yearly t i m e probability o f
D conductor diameter,
occurrence o f P = 3 , 4 2 • 1 ( T 4 (see [2.33]). Hence, V , c a nb edetermined f r o m ( 2 . 5 0 )
aw w i n d span,
w i t h /3 = 2 , 0 :
Q w i n s w i n d l o a d o n i n s u l a t o r set,
V„ = V 2 A / 2 , 8 2 5 . (2.60) Wc effective conductor weight t a k i n g i n t o account t h e differences i n t h e level o f
conductor attachment points,
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b o u n d a r y air layer close t o t h e g r o u n d surface, t h e Wins d e a d w e i g h t o f i n s u l a t o r set.
w i n d velocities increase w i t h t h e height above ground. T od e t e r m i n e t h e w i n d velocity
Vz at a h e i g h t z a b o v e g r o u n d , t h e p o w e r l a w
The effective conductor dead weight results f r o m the weight span w i t h o u t considering
Vz = V R ( Z / Z R ) ° (2.61) the increase i nt e n s i o n due t ow i n d action.
The swing angle for a conductor alone follows accordingly from
is o f t e n a c c e p t e d , w h e r e V R i s t h e r e f e r e n c e w i n d v e l o c i t y f o r t h e h e i g h t Z R a n d a t h e
roughness p a r a m e t e r d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t e r r a i n category. F o r t h e coefficients a see [ 2 . 1 ] (g/2) • Cc • Vl • G L • D• a
4>C = t a n (2.64)
or Table 6.13.
meg • a
I E C 6 0 8 2 6 [ 2 . 1 ] contains figures d e s c r i b i n g t h eeffect o f s p a n l e n g t h s a b o v e 2 0 0 m
t h r o u g h the span factor G L . T h e w i n d load o nconductors isgiven b y where a ist h e span length a n d m c t h e conductor mass p e runit length.
E v a l u a t i o n s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e five- o r t e n - m i n u t e m e a n
Qwc = G L• C c • e/2 • Vl • D - a w • (2.62)
value should b e used for the w i n d velocity V R . F o r m u l a e (2.63) a n d (2.64) can t h e n b e
I n Figure 2 . 1 2 , the span factor G L iss h o w n depending o n the w i n d span according t o u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e m e a n v a l u e o f t h e s w i n g a n g l e <f> f o r e v e r y g i v e n w i n d v e l o c i t y .
I E C 6 0 826, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 and E N 5 0 341-3-4. T h e drag factor C ccan b e assumed t o b e Using the five-minute m e a n w i n d velocity is a conservative assumption, as confirmed
1,0 for s t a n d a r d conductors. by observations [2.33]. I t can b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e actual s w i n g angles for agiven m e a n
 64 2 Electric requirements and design

2.5.2.4.4 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s w i n g angles b y m e a s u r e m e n t s
Several experiments have been carried out f o rstudying the relationship between t h e
kw— 3 5 / s w i n g angle o f the insulator set a n d the observed w i n d velocities. A w o r l d - w i d e often
used m e t h o d f o rd e t e r m i n i n g s w i n g angle, a s described i n [2.18], i sbased o n m e a s u r e -
50 / 1 2 / m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t a tH o r n i s g r i n d e o n B l a c k F o r e s t , G e r m a n y , s e e [2.38] a n d [2.37]. I n
F i g u r e 2.13, t h e results o fs w i n g angle m e a s u r e m e n t s are s h o w n . F Y o m such m e a s u r e -
' 3 0 / ments, diagrams were prepared s h o w i n g t h e relationship o f t h e s w i n g angles o f the
»40
i n s u l a t o r sets w i t h t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y a n d t h e f a c t o r

2 5 /
fcw = ( D / m c ) / ( a g /aw) , (2.66)

I 30 w h e r e D i st h e conductor diameter i nm m , m c the conductor m a s s p e ru n i t l e n g t h i n

/ A\ / / 2 0
kg/m and a g / a w t h e w e i g h t span t ow i n d s p a n r a t i o . I nF i g u r e 2.14 t h e s w i n g angles
are s h o w n a s a f u n c t i o n o ft h e w i n d speed, f o rv a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s kw.
15/ D i a g r a m s o fF i g u r e 2.14 a s s u m e t h a t w i n d velocities a c ta l w a y s p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e
S 20 line direction. T h e measurements were performed i n 300 m spans. I n longer spans, the

A*
Figure 2 . 1 4 : Swing an-
gle o f i n s u l a t o r sets a sa s w i n g angles t e n d t o b e lower, w h i l e i n shorter spans, the s w i n g angles w o u l d b e higher
function o fw i n d velocity, t h a n t h e i n d i c a t e d values. H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o [2.18], t h e i m p a c t o n t h e s w i n g angles
///l according t o [2.18] is o n l y l o w . T h e w i n d c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e t i m e a n d s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e m e a s u r i n g
A obtained from mea- location were supposed t ob e similar t othose regarding t i m e and spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n
surements a thorizontal of real lines . M e a s u r e m e n t s o nH o r n i s g r i n d e provided lower swing angles f o r b u n d l e
twin and quadruple bun-
conductors t h a n for single conductors w i t h s i m i l a r cross section. T h i s difference cannot
dles a c c o r d i n g t o [2.37];
be recognized i nF i g u r e 2.14. S o , f o rs w i n g angles o fb u n d l e conductors, the approach
20 40 60 80 100 120 140km/h160 ky, a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n
Wind velocity (one-minirte average) — (2.66) seems conservative. T h e w i n d velocities refer t ot h e o n e - m i n u t e average. A n example
i n clause 2.5.2.8 e x p l a i n s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o fF i g u r e 2.14.

w i n d velocity follow a N o r m a l distribution function w i t h a m e a n value o f 0 resulting

2.5.2.4.5 Conductor and insulator position according to standards
f r o m f o r m u l a e (2.63) o r (2.64), w h e r e a s t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i sg i v e n b y
According t o [2.27] a n d [2.36], c o n d u c t o r s w i n g angles are based o n the w i n d action
04, = 2 , 2 5 [ l - e x p ( - V ^ / 2 3 0 ) ] (in degrees). (2.65) h a v i n g m e d i u m frequency o foccurrence corresponding t o a t h r e e years' r e t u r n period.
I n t h i s case, t h e e q u a t i o n s (2.63) a n d (2.64) c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i n s u l a t o r a n d
For l o ww i n d velocities, the standard deviation i s 0° a n d f o r l a r g e v a l u e s a$ w i l l conductor s w i n g angles, respectively.
b e 2,25°.
M o s t w i n d statistics refer only t o t h e occurrence o f absolute values w i t h o u t relating
2.5.2.5 Midspan clearances
these w i n d velocities t o w i n d directions. However, o n l y w i n d s acting perpendicularly
to t h e line direction w i l l cause m a x i m u m s w i n g angles. Therefore, statistics o n w i n d The midspan clearances should b e designed t oavoid flashovers under overvoltage con-
directions w o u l d b e necessary as well, i norder t oestablish realistic t i m e probabilities ditions, assuming medium-frequent w i n d actions, as well as under power frequency
for s w i n g a n g l e s . A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , i t i s p r o p o s e d i n [2.33] t h a t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f voltage combined w i t h e x t r e m e w i n d a c t i o n . I fa l l t h e c o n d u c t o r s were deflected with
the swing angle should b e assumed ashalf o fthat o fthe corresponding w i n d velocity. equal angles, t h e n the same clearances a s a tt h e t o w e r w o u l d result close t o m i d s p a n
T h i s m i g h t b e a f a i r l y g o o d a s s u m p t i o n f o r s w i n g a n g l e s o f m o r e t h a n 2° [ 2 . 3 3 ] . p o s i t i o n . A s a result o f [2.33], t h em o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e c o n d u c t o r positions assuming
s w i n g angles can b ecalculated from
2.5.2.4.3 T i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s w i n g angles
It isassumed that a W e i b u l l function according t o(2.59) represents t h e t i m e d i s t r i b u - fc = ? c ± 2 ^ . (2-67)

t i o n o ft h e s w i n g angles. T h e p a r a m e t e r s are derived f r o m t h e w i n d velocities h a v i n g

where 0 C i so b t a i n e d from (2.64) a n d from (2.65). T h e positions o ft h e conductors
a r e t u r n period o ft w o years. T h e m e a n w i n d velocities under a given w i n d action c a n
should b e separately examined f o rthe two aforementioned conditions. T h e most un-
be r e l i a b l y c a l c u l a t e d w i t h e q u a t i o n (2.63) f o ri n s u l a t o r sets a n d (2.64) for conductors
favourable conductor relative positions occur w h e n the swing angle foro n e conductor
u s i n g a m e a n w i n d s p e e d a v e r a g e d o v e r five t o t e n m i n u t e s , w h e r e five m i n u t e s c a n
i s s e t a s 0 c = <Pc + 2 a+ or <j>c = 4>c ~ 2 £fy-
be considered asa conservative value. T h i s approach yields conservative values for the
I n practice, several empirical procedures axeused t o calculate t h e necessary midspan
m e a n values o f t h e s w i n g angle. F o r m u l a (2.65) gives a nestimate f o r t h e s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n o f s w i n g angles. O n l y w i n d directions perpendicular t o t h eline cause t h e clearances w h i c h proved t h e i r v a l i d i t y d u r i n g l o n g - t e r m successful operation o f lines
m a x i m u m s w i n g angles. designed based o n these empirical procedures.
I n case o fequal cross sections, m a t e r i a l s a n d conductor sags w i t h i n aspan, t h e f o l l o w i n g
a p p r o a c h f o r e v a l u a t i n g m i n i m u m clearances in midspan c a n b e u s e d a c c o r d i n g t o [2.36].
The s w i n g angle 0 ci sd e t e r m i n e d b y (2.64).
66 2 Electric requirements and design 2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 67

T a b l e 2 . 2 2 : V a l u e s o f t h e f a c t o r kc a s a f u n c t i o n o f s w i n g
T a b l e 2 . 2 3 : M i n i m u m clearances w i t h i n a span or at a tower
angle
Load case Mid- span At tower
Range of Relative position between conductors 2 and 1
phase-to- phase-to- phase-to- phase-to-
swing angle range 2 phase earth wire phase earth
degree <pc conductor 2
Maximum conductor D ei Del

b
b
Grad Range 1 Range 2 Range 3

V
V
temperature
0° < 0 < 30° 30° < V < 80° 80° < i/> < 90°
Ice load Dpp L>el Dpp De]
> 65,1 0,95 0,75 0,70 Wind load with. fci • Dpp ki - .Del fcl • D e i

b
V
55,1 to 65,0 0,85 0,70 0.65 medium frequency
40,1 to 55,0 0.75 0,65 0,62 horizontal line
conductor t of occurrence
< 40,0 0,70 0,62 0,60 Local ice load fcl • -Del fcl • Del

b
b
Figure 2.15: D e t e r m i n a t i o n

V
Extreme wind load Dpi_pP Dpf_ p e

b
o f f a c t o r kc d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
relative position o f conductor
2 t o conductor 1 I n case o f crossings, t h e clearances s h o u l d b echecked f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l l o a d i n g case,
w h i c h is defined b y local ice load o n o n e conductor i nt h e relevant span, w h i l e t h e o t h e r
c o n d u c t o r s a r e u n l o a d e d . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e c l e a r a n c e s s h o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n k\ - D p p o r
The m i n i m u m clearance c m ; n o f t h e conductors a t m i d s p a n i n still air s h o u l d b e a t least
fci • D d . T h e l o c a l i c e l o a d i s a s s u m e d t o b e 5 0 % o f t h e d e s i g n i c e l o a d a c c o r d i n g t o
k c \ Z f c + k + 0,75 - D p p in : (2.68) [2.36]. O t h e r s t a n d a r d s specify d i f f e r e n t l i m i t i n g c r i t e r i a i n t h i s case.

h o w e v e r , n o t l e s s t h a n kc i n m i n c a s e o f p h a s e - t o - p h a s e clearance. B e t w e e n conductors
2.5.2.6 M i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e s w i t h i n a s p a n or a t a t o w e r
a n d e a r t h wires, i t applies:
T h e minimum clearances a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 2 . 2 7 ] a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d c o n d i t i o n s
= fcr (2.69) c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d , a s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2.23. V a l u e s b e t w e e n 0 , 7 a n d 1,0 s e e m a c -
c e p t a b l e f o r t h e f a c t o r k\. A s a n e x a m p l e , a v a l u e fci = 0 , 7 5 h a s p r o v e d t o b e a d e q u a t e
where:
for G e r m a n y . T h e e x i s t i n g clearances c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d a sr e c o m m e n d e d i n clauses
fc s a g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 40°C, i n m ;
2 . 5 . 2 . 4 a n d 2 . 5 . 2 . 5 . T h e v a l u e s f o r Deh D p p a n d D p f a r e f o u n d i n T a b l e s 2 . 1 7 t o 2 . 2 0 .
I,, l e n g t h o ft h a t p a r t o ft h e insulator set s w i n g i n g o r t h o g o n a l l y t ot h e line
direction, i nm ;
kc coefficient according t o T a b l e 2.22; t h e relative p o s i t i o n o f t h e conductors i s 2.5.2.7 Clearances to ground a n d obstacles
e x p l a i n e d i nF i g u r e 2.15;
D u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r y a n d s a f e t y p r i n c i p l e s , clearances to ground, t o buildings,
Dpp m i n i m u m clearance (phase-to-phase), i n m , w h i c h depends o n t h e voltage
traffic routes e t c . d i f f e r i n a r e l a t i v e l y w i d e r a n g e from c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y o r e v e n a m o n g
according t o T a b l e s 2.16, 2 . 1 7 o r 2.19;
u t i l i t i e s . W h e n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [2.27] a c o m m o n basis
Dei m i n i m u m clearance (phase-to-earth), i n m , w h i c h depends o nt h e voltage
w a s f o u n d for s t i p u l a t i o no f clearances. T a b l e 2.24 s u m m a r i z e s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d a t a .
according t o T a b l e s 2.16, 2.17 o r 2.19.
F o r d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s t a n d a r d [2.27] a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g
If circuits w i t h different operating voltages r u n i n parallel a t the same structure, t h e n
N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s [2.35] s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d .
the m o s t unfavourable value f o r D p po rD e i should b e used.
T h e a i m o fthese clearances ist oavoid t h a t persons will approach t ot h e conductors
R e l a t i o n s h i p s s i m i l a r t o equations (2.68) a n d (2.69) are used i n m a n y countries: A u s t r i a ,
closer t h a n t h e distance D e i also w h e n c a r r y i n g a n y objects (see also F i g u r e 2.11). T h e
Belgium, F i n l a n d , Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden a n d Switzer-
f o l l o w i n g cases a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
l a n d . T h e r e , t h e f a c t o r kc v a r i e s b e t w e e n 0 , 4 5 a n d 0 , 9 5 , s a g s a t 10°C t o m a x i m u m
— Clearances to residential and other buildings, w h e n t h e l i n e i s a b o v e o r a d j a c e n t
c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a r e i n s e r t e d f o r fc a n d i n s t e a d o f 0 , 7 5 D p p v a l u e s u p t o D p p
to the buildings o r near antennas o rsimilar structures;
apply.
— Clearances to l i n e s c r o s s i n g roads, railways a n d navigable waterways;
I n case o fconductors w i t h different cross sections, m a t e r i a l s o rsags, t h eh i g h e r factor
— Clearances t o l i n e s c r o s s i n g o r p a r a l l e l t o other power lines o r overhead telecom-
kc f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 2 s h o u l d b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c l e a r a n c e s ; s i m i l a r l y , t h e b i g g e s t
munication lines;
sag o fb o t h conductors, i f t h e y are different, s h o u l d b e used. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e clearance
— Clearances to recreational areas w i t h a p o w e r l i n e a b o v e o r i n c l o s e v i c i n i t y .
f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r s i n s t i l l a i r , t h e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n swung conductors s h o u l d a l s o b e
V o l t a g e - d e p e n d e n t v a l u e s D e i s h a l l b e a d d e d t ot h e values D ^ j o f T a b l e 2.24. S e v e r a l
i n v e s t i g a t e d i nt h i s case. T h e n , t h e w i n d load s h o u l d b ea s s u m e d according t o r e l e v a n t
s t a n d a r d s specify special r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e l i n e design i n case o fcrossings, e.g . t h e
l o a d i n g a s s u m p t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], i ts h o u l d b ed e m o n s t r a t e d , t h a t w h i l s t w i n d
use o f m u l t i p l e - s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r sets. D e t a i l s f o r E u r o p e a n countries axe g i v e n i n E N
p r e s s u r e s d i f f e r i n g b y 4 0 % a r e a c t i n g o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t o r s , a c l e a r a n c e n o t less
5 0 3 4 1 - 3 ( N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects) [2.35].
t h a n 0,75 D p p o r0,75 D e i , a n d D p f _ p p o rD p f _ p e , respectively, s h o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d ,
w h e r e D p pa n dD e i a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m Thbles 2.17, 2.18o r 2.20, a n d D p f _ p p a n d D p f _ p e

from T a b l e 2.19. 2.5.2.8 Examples

T h e described d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fm i d s p a n clearances applies t o c o n d i t i o n s f o r s t a n d a r d 2.5.2.8.1 E l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s for a 110 k V o v e r h e a d line
line heights lower t h a n 6 0 m .F o r taller towers, as applied i n crossings, a n e x t r a clearance T h e example shows t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o felectrical clearances f o r a 110 k Vline equipped w i t h
o f 1 % o f t h e s p a n s h o u l d b e a i m e d a t , a s e x p e r i e n c e from N o r w a y h a s s h o w n [ 2 . 3 9 ] . one long r o d i n s u l a t o r t y p e L 1 0 0 C325 o r L 2 1 0 C 5 5 0 (according t o I E C 6 0 4 3 3 , see T a b l e 9.4).
 T. L J l l , l , l l U l l . J 1111 U i l l C U l l OUU Licoigi:

T h b l e 2 . 2 4 : D i s t a n c e s D a d d t o o b s t a c l e s a c c o r d i n g t o [2.27] i n a d d i t i o n t o D e i T a b l e 2 . 2 5 : Electrical clearances a t a 1 1 0k V overhead line, i n m

Crossed obstacles Maximum conductor Local Phase-to Phase-to Phase-to Phase-to Phase-to
temperature; ice load; ice load phase earth wires tower window tower obstacles
average wind load
Fast-front overvoltage
Ground in open country side r~) c*; r> . — n an
Insulators Li luu oo^o -Cpp = 0 , 0 / ri -t-'el — U,OU D e i — 0,58
- Normal ground profile, used by agriculture 5,0 (a) Insulators L210 C 5 5 0 D p p = 1,14 D e i = 0,95 D e i = 1,03 Dei = 0,98 Del = 1,02
- Steep slopes 2,0 (a)
Power frequency voltage
Trees
Both insulators types _Dpf = 0,36 D p f = 0,23 Dpf = 0,24 D p f = 0,22 D p , = 0,24
- Impossible to climb 0,0 (a)
- Possible to climb 1,5 (a)
Buildings with fire resistant roofs
123 11
- Slope greater than 15°
- Slope less than 15°
2,0"
4,02)
2,0"
4,0 2 )
= l , 6 4 ^ e x p — f= n A ? r . „ , n
' 750%/3 • 0,970 • 0 , 9 1 0 • 1,22
~ = °>22 rn
Non-fire resistant roofs 10,0 10,0
Antennas, street lamps, flag poles and similar structures 2,0 2,0 between conductor a n d tower b o d y (or crossarm). T h ephase-to-phase distance follows from
Roads 6,0 6,0 (2.56)
Electric overhead contact lines 2,0 2,0
Ropeways 2,0 2,0 164fex Ps A 0 , 8 3 3 _
Towers of ropeways 4,0 4,0
Gauge of navigable waterways 2,0 2,0
pf-PP ' V 7 5 0 - Kg • Kz_pf • Kg_p{ J
Power lines and telecommunication lines Dpp3' Dpp3' I 123 \ 0,833
Recreational areas = 1 M { e X P 7 5 0 -0,970- 0,910-1,26 " \ ) = °'36 B L

- General 7,0 7,0 W h e n a n insulator L 2 1 0 C550 is installed, t h e w i t h s t a n d voltage D 9 o % i r j n 8 is 550 k V a n d

- Swimming pools 8,0 8,0
Kg = 0 , 9 8 2 a p p l i e s a l s o f o r f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s . T h e r e f o r e , i t r e s u l t s from ( 2 . 5 1 ) a n d ( 2 . 5 2 ) ,
- Permanently installed facilities 3,0 3,0 respectively:
(a) Verification of clearances is not required for local ice loads .
" Required minimum clearance distance 3 m D d = 5 5 0 / ( 5 3 0 • 0,982 • 0,961 • 1,12) = 0,98 m
2' Required minimum clearance distance 5 m
and
3' Required minimum clearance distance 1 m
D p p = 1,2 • 5 7 0 / ( 5 3 0 • 0 , 9 8 2 • 0 , 9 6 1 • 1 , 1 6 ) = 1 , 1 8 m .

T h e values for t h e clearances a t power frequency voltage will be t h e same as for insulators L 1 0 0
T h e line is located 5 0 0m above sea level. C325.
- Highest operating (power frequency) voltage: 123 k V .
- F o r voltages o f range I , according t o [2.29], i ti s n o t necessary t o consider s w i t c h i n g
2.5.2.8.2 E l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s for a 380 k V o v e r h e a d line
overvoltages.
The line is located a ta n altitude o f 500 m above sea level a n d will b e equipped w i t h three
- T h e 9 0% w i t h s t a n d voltage f o r fast-front overvoltages Ugoaif j P S i s 3 2 5 k V phase-to-
l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s L 2 1 0 C 5 5 0 . T h e h i g h e s t p o w e r frequency v o l t a g e i s 4 2 0 k V . T h e l i g h t n i n g
ground f o rinsulator L 1 0 0C325 a n d550k V f o rinsulator L 2 1 0 C550.
w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e U 9 0 % u j n s i s 1 7 8 0 k V . T h e s t a t i s t i c a l s w i t c h i n g o v e r v o l t a g e U2%_si i s 1 0 5 0 k V .
- T h e a l t i t u d e f a c t o r , a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 2 . 1 5 , i s Kg = 0 , 9 7 5 p h a s e - t o - e a r t h a n d Kg = 0 , 9 8 2
The slow-front overvoltage t o b e considered i s , according t o (2.47) a n d (2.48), t a k i n g K ^ =
p h a s e - t o - p h a s e f o r f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a n d 0 , 9 7 0 for p o w e r frequency voltages.
1,05 i n t o a c c o u n t :
- T h e d e v i a t i o n f a c t o r s K x a r e : K z _ g = 0 , 9 6 1 for f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a n d K z _ p t = 0 , 9 1 0
- P h a s e - t o - e a r t h U,p = 1 , 0 5 • 1 0 5 0 = 1 1 0 3 k V ;
for p o w e r f r e q u e n c y voltages (see T a b l e 2.13).
- P h a s e - t o - p h a s e a t v o l t a g e s a b o v e 1 1 0 0 k V U,p = 1 , 4 • 1 , 0 5 • 1 0 5 0 = 1 5 4 4 k V .
- T h e four different air gap types result i n t h e gap factors K gshown i nTable 2.14.
T h e a l t i t u d e f a c t o r Kg i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m T a b l e 2 . 1 5 for v o l t a g e s h i g h e r t h a n 1 1 0 0 V , a s
E l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s f o r f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from e q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 5 1 ) a n d ( 2 . 5 2 ) : Kg = 0 , 9 9 2 for o v e r v o l t a g e s ; i n c a s e o f p o w e r frequency v o l t a g e s Kg = 0 , 9 7 5 f o r p h a s e - t o - e a r t h
a n d isfa = 0,982 f o r p h a s e - t o - p h a s e applies.
Dei = U90%ff_i„5/(530 • Kg • K z J f •K s _ s ) = T h e d e v i a t i o n f a c t o r s a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 2 . 1 3 Eire:
= 3 2 5 / ( 5 3 0 -0,975 • 0,961 -1,12) = 0,58 m K z _ g = 0,961 forfast-front overvoltages,
K Z J i f = 0,922 forslow-front overvoltages,
between conductors a n d tower (crossarm o r tower body) a n d •K^pf = 0 , 9 1 0 f o r p o w e r frequency voltages.
T h e r e s u l t i n g c l e a r a n c e s f o r f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from ( 2 . 5 1 ) a n d ( 2 . 5 2 ) a s :
Dpp = 1 , 2 - £ / 9 o % f f _ i M / ( 5 3 0 - Kg • KZ_R • K g j j ) = Phase-to-tower:
= 1 , 2 -3 2 5 / ( 5 3 0 • 0,982 •0,961 •1,16) = 0,69 m
D e | = 1 7 8 0 / ( 5 3 0 • 0,992 •0,961 • 1,12) = 3,15m
between phase conductors.
The values D e i a n dD p p f o rother a i r gap types a r eprovided i n Table 2.25. Phase-to-phase:
F o r p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e s , t h e e l e c t r i c d i s t a n c e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from ( 2 . 5 5 ) :
D p p = 1,2 • 1 7 8 0 / ( 5 3 0 • 0 , 9 9 2 • 0 , 9 6 1 • 1,16) = 3 , 6 4 m .
Dpf_pe = 1,64 ( e x p = 1
For s l o w - f r o n t overvoltages, i t results f r o m (2.53) a n d (2.54):
P P V 750V3 -Aa-iCP_pf-Ag.pf
70 2 E l e c t r i c requirements a n d design 2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 71

Table 2 . 2 6 : E l e c t r i c a l clearances in m for a 380 k V overhead line equipped with long rod T a b l e 2.28: Technical d a t a of a 380 k V overhead line
insulators Conductor: 2 x 564-AL1072-ST1A; diameter: 32,85 mm, mass; 2,11 k g / m
Overvoltage type Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to-tower Phase-to- Average conductor height, above ground 20 m
phase earth wires tower window body or crossarm obstacles Maximum span length 400 ni
Fast-front overvoltage D p p - 3,64 D e i = 3,04 D e i = 3,29 D e l = 3,15 D e , = 3,26 Wind span 500 m
Slow-front overvoltage D P p = 3,60 D„ = 2,19 D . i = 3,13 D . i = 2,52 D , i = 2,95 Ratio wind span to weight span 1,3
Power frequency voltage D p f = 1,14 D p t = 0,60 D p f = 0,66 D p i = 0,61 D p f = 0,61 Average of yearly maximum wind speeds 20 m/s
Coefficient of variation 0,14
Terrain category B
T a b l e 2.27: E l e c t r i c a l clearances in m for a 500 k V overhead line equipped w i t h c a p - a n d - p i n Weight of the insulator set 300 kg
insulators Wind exposed area of insulator set 1,5 m2
Aerodynamic drag coefficient 1,2
Overvoltage type Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to-tower Phase-to-
Switching surge overvoltage 1050 kV
phase earth wires tower window body or crossarm obstacles
Fast-front overvoltage D p p = 3,53 D e i = 2,94 D e l = 3,19 D . i = 3,05 D e l = 3,16
Slow-front overvoltage D p p = 4,30 D e i = 2,57 D e i = 3,73 D e i = 2,97 D.1 = 3,50
D p f = 1,53 D p f = 0,86 D p f = 0,95 D p i = 0,89 D p i = 0,93 Phase-to-tower:
Power frequency voltage

De, = 2,l7(exp i o g o 0S)™lg22, — - l ) = 2,97 m and

Phase-to-tower:

Be, = 2,17 ( e x p 3210Q3 . ^ - l) = 2,52 m and Phase-to-phase:

1 Q 8 ( ) 0 9 9 2 2

/ 1727 \
Phase-to-phase: Dpp = 2,17^xp l 0 8 0 0 9 9 2 0 i 9 2 2 l ) 6 - l j = 4,30 m .
/ 1544 \
r> =2171 exn 1 = 3,60 m .
V 1080 • 0,992 • 0,922 • 1,6 / For power frequency vol tages it is obtained from (2.55) and (2.56).
Phase-to-tower
For power frequency operating voltages, (2.55) yields:

/ 420 \0f33 / 55Q \t>k33

Dd = 1,64 exp——7= !) = 0,61 m Dpf _p e = 1,64 exp = 1| = 0,89 m
V 7 5 0 1 / 3 - 0,975 0,910 -1,22 /
P ^ V 750 v / 3 - 0 , 9 7 5 - 0 , 9 1 0 - 1 , 2 2 J
between phase conductors and tower structure. Phase-to-phase
The other electrical clearances shown in T a b l e 2.26 have been determined similarly. I t c a n be
seen from the example t h a t fast-front overvoltages prevail in the calculation of clearances, a Of 33
consequence of the high value of the lightning w i t h s t a n d voltage U 9 o%fF_ms- D p f _ p P = 1,64^exp 7 5 0 , 0 9 8 2 5 5 ° 9 1 0 , 1 2 6 - 1J = 1,53 m

2.5.2.8.3 E l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s for a 500 k V o v e r h e a d l i n e

The other electrical c l e a r a n c e s shown i n T a b l e 2.27 were determined similarly. S w i t c h i n g impulse
The line is located at a n altitude of 500 m above sea level and will be equipped with 22 cap and
determines the p h a s e - t o - p h a s e , phase-to-tower window and phase-to-obstacle clearances, while
pin insulators U 1 6 0 B L . T h e highest power frequency voltage is 550 k V . T h e lightning w i t h s t a n d
lightning impulse p r e v a i l s on phase-to-earth wire a n d phase-to-tower body clearances. T h e
voltage D 9 0 % f f _ i n s is 1725 k V . T h e statistical switching voltage D 2 % 8 f i s I 1 7 5 k v - T h e slow-front
clearances for fast-front overvoltages as for the 380 k V example are nearly the same. Therefore,
overvoltages to be considered follow from (2.47) a n d (2.48) taking K c s = 1,05 into account:
switching surges gain in fluence on the clearances.
- P h a s e - t o - e a r t h (/„, = i f c s • D 2 %sf = 1>05 • 1175 = 1234 k V ;
- P h a s e - t o - p h a s e at voltages above 1100 k V = 1,4 • 1,05 • 1175 = 1727 k V .
The altitude factor K g is determined from T a h l e 2.15 for voltages above 1100 k V , to be K g = 2.5.2.8.4 C l e a r a n c e s t o o b s t a c l e s for line d e s i g n , e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h
0,992 for overvoltages; in case of power frequency voltages K g = 0,975 for phase-to-ground and It is required to d e t e r m i n e the m i n i m u m electrical clearances according to T a b l e 2.24 for a
Kg = 0,982 for phase-to-phase apply. 380 k V line, w h i c h c r o s s e s a fire resistant roof with a slope angle above 15°. T h e m a x i m u m air
The deviation factors according to Table 2.12 are: gap a s o m in the crossing; section of the line is assumed to be 4,50 m . w i t h the d a t a according to
Kzjf = 0,961 for fast-front overvoltages, Tables 2.20 and 2.24, t h e following clearance results:
•Kz_sf = 0,922 for slow-front overvoltages,
KZ_P! = 0,910 for power frequency voltages. Cmi„ = Dei + D = 2,0 + 2,80 = 4,80 m.
a d l i
The resulting clearances for fast-front overvoltages are determined from (2.51) and (2.52) as:
Phase-to-tower:
However, as this c l e a r a n c e m u s t be higher t h a n 1,1 • O s 0 m , a clearance of 1,1 • 4 , 5 0 = 4 , 9 5 m
Del = 1 7 2 5 / ( 5 3 0 - 0,992 • 0,961 • 1,12) = 3,05 m should be obeyed.

Phase-to-phase: For a 110 k V line with . a s o m = 2,0 m it would result from Tables 2.20 and 2.24:

Dpp = 1,2 • 1 7 2 5 / ( 5 3 0 • 0,992 • 0,961 • 1,16) = 3,53 m . Cm-rn = 2,0 + 1,00 = 3,00 m

For slow-front overvoltages, it results from (2.53) and (2.54), respectively:

with the constraint c m i r , > 1,1 a a o m = 2,20 m . I n this case, the value c m i n = 3,00 m prevails.
 z.o c l e a r a n c e s i o

T a b l e 2.29: R e t u r n period o f w i n d velocities

Average of m a x i m u m yearly wind velocities: 20 m / s
Return period (a) 2 5 10 20 50 150 500
VT/V according to (2.57) 0,977 1,101 11,183 1,324 1,363 1,547 1,615
Velocity VT ( m / s ) 19,5 22,0 :23,7 26,5 27,3 30,9 32,3

T a b l e 2 . 3 0 : D i s t r i b u t i o n o f s w i n g angles (example)
Return W i n d velocity Time Swing angle Standard Return period or
period percentage 1 ' (20 m height, deviation time percentage '
Height 5 min-average)
1 fl
m 20 in Span Span
iu m 200 m
400 m
% DegTee DegTee Degree
50 a Z*>*17 ,o1 10 n 47 6 48,3 2,25 100 a
25 a 25,7 JZ
30,1
,U 44 1 44,8 2,20 50 a
<fi,i
10 a 23,7 27,8 39,6 40,3 2,15 20 a
5a 22,0 25,8 35,5 36,1 2,12 5a
3,5 a 21,1 24,8 33,3 34,0 2,10 7a F i g u r e 2 . 1 6 : M i d s p a n clearances F i g u r e 2 . 1 7 : P h a s e - t o - t o w e r clearances
2,0 a 19,5 22,9 29,3 29,9 2,00 4 a for a s t a t i s t i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s w i n g a n -
250 d 18,2 21,4 99,9 26,1 26,7 1,90 0,05 % gles
100 d 16,9 19,8 99,75 22,8 23,3 1,80 0,125 %
50 d 15,9 18,7 99,5 20,5 21,0 1,70 0,25 % 5,90m 4,85m
25 d 14,8 17,4 99,0 17,9 18,4 1,60 0,5 %
5d 13,7 16,1 98,0 15,5 15,9 1,50 1,0 % earthed tower structure
/////////////
2,5 d 12,9 15,1 95,0 13,7 14,0 1,35 2,5 %
30 h 10,5 12,3 90,0 9,2 9,4 1,05 5,0 %
12 h 8,8 10,3 80,0 6,5 6,6 0,80 10,0 %
0 0,2 0,25 0,1 ~0 ~0 0 100,0 %
' ' D u r i n g this time period of time the corresponding wind velocity is not exceeded
During this time period of time the corresponding can be exceeded.

2.5.2.8.5 T i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s w i n g angles
T h e time distribution of swing angles a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d
for a 3 8 0 k V s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r w i t h t h e d a t a s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 2 . 2 8 .
E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 5 7 ) yields t h e w i n d velocities corresponding t o r e t u r n periods f r o m 2 t o 5 0 0 years
( T a b l e 2 . 2 9 ) . T h e p a r a m e t e r Vn o f t h e W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m ( 2 . 6 0 ) b a s e d
on the w i n d velocity having a return period o f 2 years being 1 9 , 5 m / s .
V„ = 1 9 , 5 / 2 , 8 2 5 = 6 , 9 2 m / s .
T h e w i n d velocities w h i c h w i l l b e exceeded w i t h a given probability P per year can b e deter-
m i n e d from ( 2 . 5 9 ) w i t h / 3 = 2 , 0 :
V = VP- ff-\n(l-P) . (2.70)
Table 2 . 3 0 contains the results.
The five-minute w i n d 2 0 m above ground i s calculated from (2.61) and Figure 6.6
p5miii,20m = V j o m i n . l O m " ( z / Z R ) ° ' Y s n v i n / V l O m i n = FlOmin.lOm • 1 , 1 2 - 1 , 0 5 (2-71)
T h e m e a n s w i n g a n g l e s f o r i n s u l a t o r s a n d c o n d u c t o r s a r e o b t a i n e d from e q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 6 3 ) a n d
( 2 . 6 4 ) , respectively. T h e f a c t o r G L is t a k e n f r o m F i g u r e 2 . 1 2 as 0 , 9 4 for 4 0 0 m a n d 1 , 0 for 2 0 0 m
span. T h e air density g is t a k e n t o b e 1 , 2 2 5 k g / m 3 . F o r t h e 5 0 year r e t u r n period, s w i n g angles
o f 4 7 , 6 ° f o r i n s u l a t o r s a n d 4 1 , 8 ° f o r c o n d u c t o r s r e s u l t from ( 2 . 6 3 ) a n d ( 2 . 6 4 ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t a
span o f4 0 0 m .
S o f a r t h e p r o c e d u r e d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e angle of wind attack. W h e n a s s u m i n g t h a t
the probability o f occurrence o fswing angles above approximately 2 ° is only half o f that o f the
corresponding w i n d velocity, swing angles o f 2,8° (insulators) and 2,3° (conductors) and above
w o u l d t h e n occur d u r i n g 2 5 % o f t h e year, w h i l e swing angles above 1 5 , 5 ° a n d 1 2 , 8 ° w o u l d
occur only during 1% o f t h e year. D u r i n g 7 5 % o fthe year, t h e swing angle will b e below 2,3°
(see Table 2.30).
F i g u r e 2 . 1 8 :Phase-to-tower clear-
ances w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g s w i n g a n -
gle a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4
2.5.2.8.6 Tower top geometry according t o statistic considerations
For design o f t h e t o w e r top geometry, s w i n g angles h a v i n g a p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence o f 1 %
or m o r e d u r i n g a year should b e combined w i t h t h e clearance distance necessary t o w i t h s t a n d
switching o r l i g h t n i n g surges. T h e s w i n g angle u n d e r w i n d load according t o the design r e t u r n
period should b e correlated w i t h t h e clearance necessary t o w i t h s t a n d power frequency voltages.
T o t a k e care o f t h e scattering o f swing angles under a given w i n d velocity, equation (2.65) is
u s e d . F o r VR = 3 2 , 0 m / s a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 2,25° r e s u l t s . T h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s a r e
listed i n T a b l e 2.30. T odetermine a n unfavourable conductor position, e x t r e m e s w i n g angles o f
0 ± 2 c r 0 a r e a s s u m e d , w h i c h a r e 4 7 , 6 + 4 , 5 = 52,1° f o r i n s u l a t o r s a n d 41,8±4,5 = 46,3°/37,3° f o r
c o n d u c t o r s . A s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o$ o f 1,5° r e s u l t s f o r t h e s w i n g a n g l e s t o b e e x p e c t e d d u r i n g
1 % o f t h e y e a r (15,5° a n d 12,8°, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . T h e n t h e s w i n g a n g l e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r
t h i s c o n d i t i o n a r e 1 5 , 5 + 3 , 0 = 18,5° ( i n s u l a t o r s ) a n d 1 2 , 8 ± 3 , 0 = 9,8°/15,8° ( c o n d u c t o r s ) .
A c c o r d i n g t oT a b l e 2.26, a phase-to-phase spacing o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3,60 m i s o b t a i n e d for fast-
front and slow-front overvoltages, w h i l e for power frequency voltage a phase-to-phase spacing
of a b o u t 1,14 m w o u l d result. T h e investigated conditions a r es h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.16 f o r a n
i n s u l a t o r s e t 5 m l o n g a n d a c o n d u c t o r s a g o f 2 0 m . I t i s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e case o f fast-
f r o n t o r s l o w - f r o n t overvoltages is p r e d o m i n a n t , t h e case o f t h e e x t r e m e s w i n g angle combined
w i t h t h e clearances for power frequency voltage does n o t prevail.
T h e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s a n d e a r t h e d t o w e r e l e m e n t s Eire s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2 . 1 7 . T h e
m i n i m u m r e q u i r e d p h a s e c o n d u c t o r - t o - e a r t h o r phase c o n d u c t o r - t o - t o w e r clearances a r e 3,15 m
f o r o v e r v o l t a g e s a n d 0 , 6 1 f o r p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e s , a s g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . 2 6 . F o r p o w e r fre-
74 2 Electric requirements and design 2.6 R e f e r e n c e s 75

24,80 Studies carried out b y Brazilian utilities have shown that asynchronous swinging o f conductors
d o e s n o t e x c e e d a r o u n d 8° b e i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 2 . 4 0 ] . A s s u m i n g a s w i n g a n g l e o f 40° f o r
t h e m i d d l e p h a s e a n d 32° f o r o n e o f t h e o u t e r p h a s e s , a c l e a r a n c e a t m i d s p a n o f

c = 5 , 5 0 - 0 , 4 6 - ( 4 , 8 + 17,14)(sin40° - sin32°) = 2 , 5 6 m

results being m o r e t h a n t h e r e q u i r e d 1,53 m . T h e required m i d s p a n clearance u s i n g e q u a t i o n

(2.68) a n d D p p = 4,00 m according t o T a b l e 2.20 w o u l d b e

C„i n = 0 , 6 ^ 1 7 , 1 4 + 4 , 8 0 + 0 , 7 5 • 4 , 0 0 + 0 , 4 6 = 6 , 2 7 m .

T h e m a i n difference t o B r a z i l i a n practice is t h e consideration o f overvoltage clearances instead

of power frequency clearances. T h e B r a z i l i a n practice has been developed for 500 k V compact
lines, a i m e d a t h a v i n g a h i g h surge impedance load. I t s basic characteristic is t h e consideration
of power frequency clearances together w i t h m a x i m u m s t r i n g angles. O p e r a t i o n a l performance
of the 550 k V compact line is reported t o b every satisfying.

2.6 References
F i g u r e 2.19: T o w e r top dimensions o f a 500 k V compact crossarmless guyed tower (Brazil) 2.1 I E C 60 826: L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h o f overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Geneva, I E C , 1991

2.2 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 3 : M a n a g e m e n t o f e x i s t i n g o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . P a r i s , C i g r e
quency voltage, a clearance o f 4,76 m results b e t w e e n t o w e r b o d y a n d conductor attachment B r o c h u r e N o . 175, 2001
p o i n t , a n d for f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s 4,95 m . T h e l a s t d a t a p r e v a i l s here.
2.3 B o o s , K . - V . e t a l . : E x p e r i e n c e s g a i n e d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e c i r c u i t h i g h - v o l t a g e
2.5.2.8.7 Tower top geometry according to E u r o p e a n standards overhead lines o f compact design. Cigre R e p o r t 22-12, 1986
F o r c o m p a r i s o n , t h e tows? top geometry a c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 6 ] w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s w e l l . I n
m i d s p a n t h e required clearance is determined f r o m (2.68): 2.4 A l u m i n i u m e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t o r h a n d b o o k . W a s h i n g t o n . T h e A l u m i n i u m A s s o c i a t i o n , 1982

cmin = fec%//c + I k + 0 , 4 0 + 0 , 7 5 D„ . 2.5 C i g r e : E l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c fields and health. Paris, Proceedings o f the 1992 Session,
1992
T h e f a c t o r kc d e p e n d s o n conductor swing angle. A c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 6 ] , i t a p p l i e s :
2.6 C i g r e S C 3 6 W G 3 6 . 0 6 : M a n a g e m e n t o f t h e E M F issue. E l e c t r a 1 6 8 / 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 130 t o 1 3 7
gc - G L • D • a'
00 : : tan 2.7 D a b , W . e t a l . : M a g n e t i c fields a n d cancer: R e c e n t s t u d i e s o n a d u l t s . C i g r e P a n e l 1-03,
mc • g-a
1994
w h e r e G L = 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 4 0 0 = 0 , 6 0 a c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 6 ] f o r a = 4 0 0 m a n d qc = 0 , 5 8 q z =
0 , 5 8 • 8 6 0 = 4 9 9 N / m 2 . H e n c e <f>c = 25,4°. T h e r e f o r e , i t r e s u l t s f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 2 : kc = 0 , 6 0 . 2.8 I n t e r n a t i o n a ] c o m m i s s i o n o n n o n - i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n ( I C N I R P ) : G u i d e l i n e s f o r
T h e v a l u e Dpp s h o u l d b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 0 : Dpp = 3 , 2 0 m . I t r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e l i m i t i n g e x p o s u r e t o t i m e - v a r y i n g e l e c t r i c , m a g n e t i c a n d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c fields. H e a l t h
p h a s e - t o - p h a s e c l e a r a n c e a v a l u e o f 5,8 m i n s t e a d o f 6 , 5 m i n case o f s t a t i s t i c a l a p p r o a c h . T h e Physics 7 4 (1998), pp. 1 t o 3 2
m a x i m u m clearance D p p is here prevalent.
T h e s w i n g angle o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set f o l l o w s f r o m f o r m u l a (2.63) as: 2 . 9 P i r o t t e , P . : S o m e f a c t s a b o u t E a n d B fields a t t h e p o w e r f r e q u e n c i e s . C i g r e p r o c e e d i n g s
o f t h e 1992 session, P a n e l 2 - 0 1 , 1992
0,58 • 8 6 0 • 0,6 • 0 , 0 3 2 8 5 • 4 0 0 • 2 + 1,2 • 1,5 • 0,58 • 8 6 0 / 2 '
tan 2.10 I n t e r n a t i o n a l R a d i a t i o n P r o t e c t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n ( I R P A ) : I n t e r i m guidelines o n l i m i t s o f
2 •400/1,3 •2,11 - 9,81 + 300 • 9,81/2
e x p o s u r e t o 5 0 / 6 0 H z e l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c fields. H e a l t h P h y s i c s 5 8 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 1 1 3 t o
= t a n " 1 ( 8 3 1 4 / 1 4 2 0 9 ) = 30,3°
122
W i t h such d a t a , clearances o f F i g u r e 2.18 are o b t a i n e d a n d t h e y are s o m e w h a t lower t h a n t h e
ones calculated w i t h t h e statistical approach. 2.11 Directive 1 9 9 9 / 5 1 9 / E C : Council recommendation o nthe limitation o f exposure o f the
g e n e r a l p u b l i c t o e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c fields ( 0 H z t o 3 0 0 G H z ) . B r u s s e l s , E C , 1 9 9 9
2.5.2.8.8 Tower top geometry according to Brazilian practice
2.12 2 6 . V e r o r d n u n g z u r D u r c h f i i h r u n g d e s Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetzes (BImSchV),
T h e t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y w i l l b ed e t e r m i n e d for a 500 k V c o m p a c t line as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.19 V e r o r d n u n g fiber e l e k t r o m a g n e t i s c h e F e l d e r ( 2 6 t h d i r e c t i v e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f i m m i s s i o n
according t o B r a z i l i a n practice for such k i n d o f lines: Phase conductors quadruple bundle 483- protection l a w ( B I m S c h G ) , directive o n electromagnetic fields). E d i t i o n 1996
A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A , diameter o f subconductors 29,6 m m ; weight 15,72 N / m ; rated tensile s t r e n g t h
1 1 6 , 1 k N ; e v e r y d a y s t r e s s 2 0 %; s u b s p a n s p a c i n g 0 , 4 7 m ; l e n g t h o f i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g 4 , 8 0 m ; s p a n 2.13 N R P B G S 1 1 : G u i d a n c e a s t o r e s t r i c i t o n s o n e x p o s u r e t o t i m e - v a r y i n g e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
length 450 m . fields a n d t h e 1 9 8 8 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N o n - I o n i z i n g R a d i a t i o n C o m -
F o l l o w i n g B r a z i l i a n practice, t h e t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y is verified for p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e a n d m i t t e e , 1989
m a x i m u m s w i n g a n g l e s . A s w i n g a n g l e o f 40° i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e 1 - m i n w i n d v e l o c i t y h a v i n g
a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f 5 0 years u s i n g t h e approach described i n clause 2.5.2.4.4. T h e r e q u i r e d 2.14 M a d d o c k , B . J . : G u i d e l i n e s a n d s t a n d a r d s t o electric a n d m a g n e t i c fields a tpower fre-
clearances c a n b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 2.27, t h e r e l e v a n t d a t a being D p i _ p p = 1,53m phase-to- quencies. Cigre proceedings o n t h e 1992 session, P a n e l 2-05, 1992
phase a n d D p f _ p e = 0,95 m p h a s e - t o - t o w e r w i n d o w . T h e sag a t e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n i s
2.15 C I G R E S C 2 2 W G 2 2 . 1 4 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns, procedures, i m p a c t s a n d m i t i g a t i o n s .
/ = (4502 - 1 5 , 7 2 ) / ( 8 - 0 , 2 - 1 1 6 1 0 0 ) = 17,14 m . Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 147, 1999
76 2 Electric requirements a n d design x_». \j i IA. r<_,i v., A i v.. t. o • •

2.16 K i e B l i n g , F . ; P u s c h m a n n , R . ; S c h m i e d e r , A . : C o n t a c t lines for electric r a i l w a y s . E r l a n g e n . 2.36 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e

Publicis M D Verlag, 2001 Aspects for Germany. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001

2.17 H a p p o l d t , H . ; O e d i n g , D . : E l e k t r i s c h e K r a f t w e r k e u n d N e t z e ( E l e c t r i c p o w e r s t a t i o n s a n d 2.37 L e i b f r i e d , W . ; M o r s , H . : T h e mechanical b e h a v i o u r of b u n d l e d a n d single c o n d u c t o r s -

networks). B e r l i n , Heidelberg, N e w Y o r k . Springer-Verlag, 5 t h e d i t i o n 1978 N e w measurements at the Hornisgrinde testing station. Paris, Cigre R e p o r t N o . 209, 1960

2.18 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n line reference b o o k 345 k V a n d above. P a l o A l t o , E l e c t r i c P o w e r 2.38 M o r s , H . : W i n d pressure o n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e c o n d u c t o r s - H o r n i s g r i n d e t e s t i n g

Research Institute, 2 n d edition 1987 station. Paris, Cigre R e p o r t N o . 220, 1956

2.19 V o l c k e r , O.: E l e k t r i s c h e R a n d f e l d s t a r k e n i n H o c h s p a n n u n g s f r e i l e i t u n g e n ( E l e c t r i c v o l t a g e 2 . 3 9 E r v i k , N . ; H o r n , T . ; J o h n s o n , R . : E r e c t i o n o f a n d v i b r a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n o f l o n g fiord c r o s s i n g

gradients of high-voltage lines). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 64 (1965), pp. 59 t o 62 in N o r w a y . Paris, Cigre R e p o r t N o . 23-03, 1968

2.20 K o r o n a s t o r u n g e n elektrischer N e t z e ( C o r o n a d i s t u r b a n c e s i n electric n e t w o r k s ) . ^ 5 } ) E H V a n d U H V transmission lines: Electrical, s t r u c t u r a l and e n v i r o n m e n t a l concepts and

M a n n h e i m , Forschungsgemeinschaft fur Hochspannungs-Hochstromtechnik. Technical Re- ~y evaluations. W a s h i n g t o n D.C., U S D e p a r t m e n t of Energy, N o . D O E / E T / 2 9 2 3 6 - 2 , 1982
p o r t N o . 2-31, 1976

2.21 F i n k , D . G.; Beaty, H . W : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k for electrical engineers. N e w Y o r k , M c

G r a w - H i l l , 1 2 t h edition 1987

2 . 2 2 A l l g e m e i n e V e r w a i t u n g s v o r s c h r i f t e n fiber g e n e h m i g u n g s b e d f i r f t i g e A n l a g e n n a c h §16 d e r
Gewerbeordnung - G e w O : Technische A n l e i t u n g z u m Schutz gegen L a r m ( A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
d i r e c t i v e s o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s s u b j e c t t o a p p r o v a l s a c c o r d i n g t o §16 o f i n d u s t r y d i r e c t i v e :
Technical guidelines for noise protection). 1968

2.23 C h a r t i e r , V . L . ; Stearns, R . D . : F o r m u l a e f o r predicting a u d i b l e noise f r o m overhead h i g h -

voltage A C a n d D C lines. I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d S y s t e m s , V o l . 100
(1981), 121 t o 130

2.24 S f o r z i n i , N . ; C o r t i n a , R . ; Sacerdate, G.; P i a z z a , R.: A c u s t i c noise caused by A C c o r o n a

o n conductors: Results of a n experimental investigation i n the anechoic chamber: I E E E
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, V o l . 94 (1974), 591 to 601

2.25 I E E E T a s k Force R e p o r t : M e a s u r e m e n t o f a u d i b l e noise f r o m t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. I E E E

T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d S y s t e m s , V o l . 1 0 0 (1981) N o . 3, p p . 1442

2.26 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 . 0 6 : Influence of line configurations o n impacts of electrical origin. P a r i s ,

Cigre B r o c h u r e , w i l l be published i n 2002

2.27 E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l requirements

- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001

2.28 I E C 60 815: G u i d e for t h e selection o f i n s u l a t o r s i n respect o f p o l l u t e d c o n d i t i o n s . G e n e v a ,

I E C 1986

2.29 E N 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 : I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 1 : D e f i n i t i o n s , principles a n d rules ( I E C 6 0 0 7 1 ¬

1). Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1995

2.30 C i g r e S C 3 3 : Guidelines for t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e dielectric s t r e n g t h of e x t e r n a l i n s u l a t i o n .

Paris, Cigre Brochure N o . 72, 1992

2 . 3 1 E N 60 071-2: I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 2: A p p l i c a t i o n g u i d e ( I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 ) . Brussels,
C E N E L E C , 1997

2.32 E P R I : H V D C T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e reference b o o k . P a l o A l t o , E l e c t r i c P o w e r R e s e a r c h I n s t i -
tute, 1993

2.33 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 2 2 . 0 6 : T o w e r t o p geometry. P a r i s , Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 48, 1995

2.34 I E C 6 1 4 7 2 : L i v e w o r k i n g - M i n i m u m a p p r o a c h distances - M e t h o d of calculation. Geneva,

I E C , 1998

2.35 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l Unes e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects ( N N A ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
3 E l e c t r i c p a r a m e t e r s

3.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Line or conductor length
A
C o n d u c t o r cross section
A
r> Susceptance
c-o Zero-sequence capacitance
U-OS) °0D / o r / v c f i m I £JTI / * A porxAAit^xnpo c m crl A — /ir* H P X I i Til A P i r p i i i t l m A u r i t n/"n i t A A T*t n
Z J G I Lr-StJLJLlCI.l'-G L.cLJ/aL.1 L a l l L . G , o l l l g l c ^ U l L J I I U U I G L.11L.U1L 1II1G, WILllXJLlL rial LI1

wire
UoSE) U o D E Zero-sequence capacitance, single- o r double-circuit line, w i t h e a r t h w i r e
n Positive-sequence capacitance
t+lS> U l D Positive-sequence capacitance o f a single- o r double-circuit line
u Conductor diameter
U A B I ^ A C > - ^ B C Phase~tp-phase distances
-DE1E2 Distance between earth wires
Geometric m e a n distance
IAa ILiI YA I111 T Mj/ m
I I Aell I l ol cAa T. I il HLI iISd LAaTi IICC C I oCaL.ll
A D Z~XT a r n C11L.L11L
riimill nKJL f n a.H PCCL1U1C
X I i rxl A P iC1ICU11.
T P i n t l iI.IJ1L.
no
-U'ME IMV Pl C Aa lv\l LH ii lcto LAaT"Il l/~*A n A t u r A A n L.U11L1L1CLC10
C C UCLWCCI1 p n p n n p l o r c ocLllvl
n n ACAa i~l Lh lril WairIi1r CA
7 LH riPcnqi iu cp ini pc vj
/? f^pm H 11/*t a n r o
/T£ I\AV IACAanl l ACA ar tl LI1
h tiriW11C
r p h IA lI C<ri ghltl L A aK UP XCI TVA CI T gT lPCI I UT I l Hl L l
/ix/ M e a n conductor height above ground
LI l^i Ui Aa lnltLiltLvVr tLU
n nL1CLC1111111C
p l p r m i n p t L11C n A VnU mL111C1C H1 A pCC11L1UCLCI n n H11 p*t Pir oCqUlVcLlCllL
n n u r a l p T i t r1 atHJIUo
nmc
r, Positive-sequence inductance
-Ui N u m b e r o f subconductors per bundle
p Surge impedance load
-*nat AptivA nAwPi*
P.
T.inA IPICCAC
-* loss
7*0 R A H I H C PIT h i i n HI A PIPPIA

f*B ITRn
J_> Un Hl LlO
L uU11U1C 1 A CACC11CLICLCI
PI iCn LI11C1C
H n p t p i rL.11
APil 1 txialpnl r A H i Ti e
C L L.1C
J U 1 vcLlCIl L I t l U l U o

UTFr aa lr fLnl l nW1IC

t i r p rI Ad UHil 1Uicb
i n P A n H u r t PIP r a n i n a
it R eLlsULUI1LJ
LJ i s t a n c UL e , LCI
p e r1 qu Hn iJ tHDv a l u e s a r e d e s i g n a t e d b y 7?
-"-AC A C resistance
D C resistance
xz?_
tE ' Resistance o f earth wire
n c n n n npt n r Hi at a n P A w i t h i n a n n n H l A
J CUULU11UULLU1
X e m p e r a t u r e UluLOlll-C VVILIllll <X U LI11C1C
[/ V o l t a P"P
bpp PVhCaI s e - t o - p h a s e v o l t a g e
Rpsptan PA
X, PJ ICGL
o s i t iLOIICC
ve-sequence reactance
X 0 Zero-sequence reactance
X C Capacitive reactance
Yo Zero-sequence admittance
Yi Positive-sequence admittance
Z Impedance
ZoS> ZoD Zero-sequence impedance o f a single- o r double-circuit line w i t h o u t earth
wires
^OSlE) ^ODIE Zero-sequence impedance o f a single- o rdouble-circuit line w i t h o n eearth
wire
£oS2E> Z o D 2 E Zero-sequence impedance o fa single- o rdouble-circuit line w i t h t w o earth
wires
OU O JJ/1GGL11G pcLlcLlllGLGltJ

Symbol Signification of t h e lines, other technologies, s u c h a s flexible alternating circuits transmission sys-
Z0 Zero-sequence impedance tems ( F A C T S ) , Eire d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l s e r i e s i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e s o r s h u n t capacitive
Zx Positive-sequence impedance reactances, s oas t o reach stable conditions under different loading requirements (see
Zc Surge impedance c h a p t e r 1 ) . I n a l l cases, t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l i n e p a r a m e t e r s i s o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r -
ZcE M u t u a l impedance between phase conductors a n de a r t h wires tance.
ZEIEI M u t u a l impedance between t w oe a r t h wires
ZEE Self-impedance o fearth wire
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o fresistance, a t t e n u a t i o n constant 3.2 Resistance
P Phase constant
7 Propagation constant T h e electrical resistance o f a n overhead line is o n e o f t h e m o s t influencing factors i n
8 Return depth ofearth current d e s i g n i n g a n o p t i m i s e d l i n e ; t h e p o w e r a n d e n e r g y l o s s e s Eire a d i r e c t f u n c t i o n o f t h e
AU Magnitude o fthe voltage drop phase-conductor resistance, s o t h a t t h e i r e x a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t . R e s i s t a n c e
EO Dielectric constant: 8,854 • 1 0 - 1 2 F / m
is t h ep r o p e r t y o fa n e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t o r a n y b o d y t h a t m a y b e u s e d a s pEirt o f a n e l e c t r i c
9 Phase angle
circuit, w h i c h determines t h e average rate a t w h i c h electric energy is converted into
\ Wave length
C o n s t a n t o f m a g n e t i c field: 4 - i r • 1 0 - 7 H / m heat a s a f u n c t i o n o ft h e electric current.
ho
hE Permeability o fearth wires A u n i f o r m cylindrical conductor o f diameter d h a s a total resistance p e r unit length, i n
hT Permeability o f phase conductors m , t o direct current expressed b y
s Resistivity
&E E a r t h resistivity R!DC = e/A = Q-4/(-Kd2) , (3.1)
V Phase angle
where R B c ' r e s i s t a n c e i n H / m , g t h e r e s i s t i v i t y i n fl- m m
s 2 / m , A t h e conductor
w Angular frequency
cross section i nm m 2 a n dd conductor d i a m e t e r i n m m .
W h e n u s e d f o r c o n d u c t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s , t h e e f f e c t i v e AC resistance m a y be
3.1 Introduction h i g h e r t h a n t h e D C resistance d e f i n e d a b o v e d u e t o s k i n a n d s p i r a l effects (see e q u a -
tion (7.16)).
T h e e l e c t r i c p e r f o r m a n c e o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e c i r c u i t i s d e t e r m i n e d b y i t s electrical re- T h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f s t a n d a r d a n n e a l e d c o p p e r a t 2 0 ° C i s 0 , 0 1 7 2 4 fl - m m 2 / m a n d i t s c o n -
sistance, inductance a n d capacitance. S u c h p a r a m e t e r s d e p e n d a t first o n t h e conductor d u c t i v i t y o f 5 8 m / f i m m 2 i s d e s i g n a t e d a s 1 0 0 % IACS (International Annealed Copper
properties. However, w h e n conductors w i t h a certain physical configuration a r e strung Standard) [3.2] a n d i s u s e d a s a reference. H a r d - d r a w n c o p p e r , w i t h a tensile s t r e n g t h
i n a n overhead line, a tvariable phase-to-ground a n dphase-to-phase spacing along t h e a b o u t 5 0% greater t h a n t h a t o ft h e annealed copper, h a sa c o n d u c t i v i t y o f5 6 m / f l m m 2
line, t h ewhole context o f conductor internal properties a n dphysical dimensions com- c o r r e s p o n d i n g t oa b o u t 9 7 % I A C S . A v e r a g e h s i r d - d r a w n a l u m i n i u mh a s a c o n d u c t i v i t y
p r i s e s t h e r e s u l t i n g line parameters. W h e n considered i nelectric system studies, these o f 35,38 m / n - m m 2 ( 6 1 % I A C S ) o ra resistivity o f 0,02826 Q - m m 2 / m . K n o w i n g t h e
parameters a r e usually treated i n f o r m o f t h eso-called symmetrical components that r e s i s t a n c e o f a c o n d u c t o r a t 20°C, o n e o b t a i n s t h e r e s i s t a n c e a t a n y t e m p e r a t u r e T, b y
a r e d e s c r i b e d a s positive-, negative- a n d zero-sequence impedances.
I n deriving t h eequations for inductance a n d capacitance o f transposed transmission i^DC = ^0DC-[l + «(^-20)] , (3.2)
lines, balanced three-phase c u r r e n t s a r ea s s u m e d . W h e n only zero-sequence current w h e r e a i st h et e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance. T a b l e 7.4s h o w s d a t a f o r t h e m o s t
flows in a t r a n s m i s s i o n line, f o rinstance, t h e c u r r e n t i neach phase i s identical, i fa usual conductor m a t e r i a l s . A d d i t i o n a l d a t a Eire g i v e n i n i n [ 3 . 2 ] .
phase-to-ground short-circuit occurs. T h ecurrent r e t u r n s t h r o u g h t h e g r o u n d , t h r o u g h I n t h e c a s e o f b u n d l e s w i t h n2 s u b c o n d u c t o r s , t h e equivalent resistance issimply t h e
earth wires o rt h r o u g h both. O t h e r secondary parameters, originated f r o m the physical resistance o fo n e subconductor R'DC d i v i d e d b y n2: R[ot = R'DC/n2, as t h einfluence o f
presence o fa n energized l i n e a n daffecting t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a r e also o fi m p o r t a n c e , a s i t the sepsiration between subconductors is neglected.
is t h e case o fe l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields, inductive a n dcapacitive coupling a n d their When dealing w i t h overhead line conductors, t h e resistance shall b e considered a t
effect o n p e r s o n s o r a n i m a l s . T h e s e effects a r e t r e a t e d i n c h a p t e r 2 . T h et r a n s m i s s i o n a p p r o p r i a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s . U s u a l l y c o n d u c t o r s o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s Eire d e s i g n e d f o r 6 0 t o
line representation i n a nelectric s y s t e m i s t r e a t e d as well, because o f its frequent u s e 80°C a s m a x i m u m c o n d u c t o r temperatures.
in electrical studies. Temperature measurement o foverhead conductors C E i r r i e d o u t i n t h e field h a s s h o w n
I n general, o n l y t h e basic formulae for calculating t h e m a i n line parameters will b e that t h ereal conductor t e m p e r a t u r e is generally lower t h a n t h e values obtained the-
p r e s e n t e d . T h o s e h a v i n g i n t e r e s t i n k n o w i n g m o r e d e t a i l s c a n refer especially t o[3.1] o r e t i c a l l y . I n v i e w o f t h a t , f o r c a l c u l a t i n g J o u l e losses, i t i s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o tsike
or t o [3.2]. into account a lower conductor t e m p e r a t u r e , s a y 4 0 t o 50°, i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t a n
T h e line parameters a n d equivalent impedance circuits are broadly used i nmost o f o v e r - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t h e r m a l losses i n a n y e c o n o m i c a l consideration.
electric s y s t e m calculations. Positive a n d zero-sequence impedances o f overhead lines
a r e p a r t o f load flows, l o s s e s , s h o r t - c i r c u i t a n d s t a b i l i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h e y a r e a l s o
r e q u i r e d f o r s e t t i n g line protection impedance a n d distance relays. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
3.3 Positive-sequence impedance
o f series o r s h u n t c o m p e n s a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s is closely d e p e n d e n t o nline parameters,
3.3.1 Introduction
especially o n series i n d u c t a n c e s a n d s h u n t capacitances.
W h i l e some n e w technologies aimed a t i m p r o v i n g line transmitting capabilities, such T h e positive-sequence impedance is the mostly used line parameter forn o r m a l operating
a s s o c a l l e d h i g h surge impedance load lines, t r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e s u r g e i m p e d a n c e load conditions a n d calculations o f A C circuits, such as voltage a n d current relationships,
82 3 Electric parameters 3.3 P o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e impedance 83

c
T a b l e 3.1: Conductor bundle equivalent radius
Number of Radius Conductor k\ Example T B
conductors of bundle
bundle equivalent = 16 mm
ri2 circle ro radius r s s = 400 mm
1 r 1 16
2 ,/2 \/rs 1 80
3 S/N/3 3/ 2 1 137
V rs 2f
4 S/N/2 1,12 195 F i g u r e 3.2: P h a s e c o n d u c -
5 0, 851s 1/2, 618 r s 4 1,272 255 Figure 3.1: Determina- t o r a r r a n g e m e n t f o r single-
6 •^6 r s 5 1,43 315 tion o t bundle conductor
: ;•• S X ^ t e S f e ^ S ^ ^ F ^ F F ^ F circuit lines
8 1,307 s (/52,12 r s 7 1,76 438
equivalent radius

p o w e r a n d energy losses, p o w e r flow etc. I t i s a vector q u a n t i t y , t h a t can b e represented

A y
i
as a c o m p l e x n u m b e r either i nrectangular format w i t h real and imaginary compo- a A Figure 3.3: P h a s e con-
nents as
ductor arrangement for
double-circuit lines: a V e r t i -
Zx = RX +jXx (3.3)
cal a r r a n g e m e n t (symmet-
b c B C
rical arrangement o f phase
or in polar format
conductors); b Danube
arrangement (asymmetri-
ZX = \ZX\10 , (3.4)
cal a r r a n g e m e n t o f phase
«r h pf*p'
conductors)

Ri resistance as i n (3.2),
X,x 1 positive-sequence reactance, r subconductor radius,
\ZX\ = xjR\ + Xl m o d u l e o f Zx and s subconductor distance w i t h i n the bundle and
9 = tan~1(Xx/Rx) phase angle. ro radius o f b u n d l e circle r o = s/[2 sin (7r/n2)].

3.3.2 Inductance and inductive Reactance T a b l e 3 . 1 c o n t a i n s v a l u e s f o r r o a n d fci. F i g u r e 3 . 1 s h o w s t h e r e l e v a n t g e o m e t r i c quan-

t i t i e s . I n c a s e o f a s i n g l e - c i r c u i t l i n e ( F i g u r e 3 . 2 ) , t h e geometric mean distance i s :
T h e inductance relationships used i n predicting t h e performance o foverhead transmis-
s i o n lines o f t e n i n v o l v e t h e effects o f single a n d b u n d l e d c o n d u c t o r s o p e r a t i n g i n series (3.7)
-DM = V D A B •D A G •D B C •
or i n parallel. Configurations o f groups o f current-carrying elements o f one circuit co-
o r d i n a t e d w i t h s i m i l a r circuits c o n s t i t u t i n g o t h e r phases i n three-phase systems are also For double-circuit lines ( F i g u r e 3.3) e q u a t i o n (3.5) i st r a n s f o r m e d t o
t r e a t e d i n s e v e r a l c a s e s . T h e positive-sequence inductive reactance o fa fully transposed
equivalent three-phase transmission line isgiven by: X i = wLx = —— I n + -— (3.8)
27T V Y B £> M I 4 n 2 /
Xx = wLx = {u,n0a/2 TT) f i n + -~M , (3.5) where D M follows from (3.7). I fa s y m m e t r i c a l phase a r r a n g e m e n t o f the individual
V Y B 4 n 2 /
circuits isassumed, D M I and D M 2 are obtained from
h e n c e L \ = (p,qa/2-n) ( l n D M / r B - l/4n2),
where D M I = v DAS. •D B B • £>cc (3.9)
IO angular frequency = 2n • f,
and
L\ positive-sequence inductance i n H / m ,
a conductor length inm , D M 2 = v 7 D A b • DAC • DBC • (3.10)
.DM geometric m e a n distance, •
po constant o fmagnetic field = 47r • 1 0 ~ 7 H / m , I n case o f a n a s y m m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t D M 2 isgiven b y
r B bundle conductor equivalent radius
D M 2 = V D A b •D A C • D B c •D B » •D c a • D c b . (3.11)

= V n a - r - T ? ' " 1 = r ^ ( k •s / r ) " 2 " 1 . (3.6) F o r o n e k i l o m e t e r o fl i n e a n d / = 5 0H z a n d single c o n d u c t o r s i t applies for t h e reactance

rn x
per unit length

fci s e e T a b l e 3 . 1 , fci = n2/{n2 l)/[2 sin(7r/n2)],

X[ = 0,0628 (in ~ + Ej ft/kn (3.12)
n2 number o f subconductors,
 if JUICG-LAJAJ pao. a.rrj.GLei. a L»• T : Z J C I i.r . . > r _ , v £ U L . I J V J L n n p c u c i i i L L

10 1n
T k b l e 3 . 2 :Electric parameters o ftypical overbeadlines for50H z IU

r 50-AL1/
Rated phase-to- o 30-ST1A E2
phase voltage k V 20 2 ) 110 220 380 500 750
48-AL1/ 184- A L 1 / 562-AL1/ 494-AL1/ 653-AL1/
o
8-ST1A 30-ST1A 56-ST1A 49-ST1A 34-ST1A 45-ST1A
. — — — —ii— — — —
Number of
:: j
subconductors 1 1 1 2 3 4
'» A 11 B C <
Subconductor
32,2 29,9 34,4 12,5 12,5
diameter m m 9,6 19,0 28,8
Resistance R'i S7/km 2 ^ 0,666 0,176 0,075 0,029 0,022 0,012
494-AL1/
Posit ive-scquencc
34-ST1A Figure 3 . 4 :Tower top dimensions,
roa.taTWH V'. _ G IVm 0,42 0,41 0 40 0,33 0,30 0.29 14.7 m 500 k V , e x a m p l e
rudcudiiw
Operating J V J a t 2 niiiP

capacitance C / x F / k m 8,6 8,9 9,0 11,1 12,0 12,5

Capacitive As bundle conductors a r e concerned,, inductance a n d i n d u c t i v e reactance a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y
reactance X c i MO-km 0,37 0,36 0,35 0,29 0,26 0,25 (3.5) a n d ( 3 . 1 2 ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a s :
Surge impedance Z c tl 395 385 375 310 280 270
L( = i-n • 1 0 _ 7 / ( 2 T ) • ( I n 15,75/0,134 + 1/12) / 1 0 0 0 = 9,70 • 1 0 - 4 H/km
Zero-sequence
resistance R!Q t l / k m 3 ' 0,81 0,42 0,30 0,24 0,23 0,22 and
Zero- sequence
reactance X 9 H / k u i ' 1,60 1,00 0,98 0 84 0 80 0.78 X[ = 0 , 0 6 2 8 l n ( 1 5 , 7 5 / 0 , 1 3 4 + 1 / 1 2 ) = 0 , 3 0 4 6 f l / k m .
Zero-sequence F o r 6 0 H z , X[ i s 0 , 3 6 5 5 f l / k m .
capacitance n F / k m 4,95 6,10 6,40 8,65 9,12 9,36
The positive-sequence impedance follows f r o m (3.3)
Zero-sequence capacitive
reactance X c o MSl-km 0,64 0,52 0,50 0,37 0,35 0,34 Z ] = 0 , 0 2 1 8 + j 0 , 3 0 4 6 = 0,3054/85,9° f l / k m .
Ratio X ' 0 j X ' L 1 3,81 2,44 2,45 2,55 2,67 2,69
1) at 50°C; 2) without earth wire; 3) one circuit with two earth wires
3.4 Zero-sequence impedance

and i ncase o fb u n d l e conductors 3.4.1 Introduction

Z e r o - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s a r e i d e n t i c a l i n e a c h p h a s e c o n d u c t o r a n d n o t d i s p l a c e d b y 120°
X[ =0,0628 f i n — + f t / k m . (3.13)
\ r B 4 n 2 / as p o s i t i v e - a n d n e g a t i v e - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s . T h e m a g n e t i c field d u e t o zero-sequence
currents isvery different f r o m that caused b y either positive- o r negative-sequence
I n case o f 6 0 H z t h e factor 0,0628 w i l l b e replaced b y0,0754. F o r double-circuit linesD M
currents. T h e difference i nmagnetic field results i na zero-sequence reactance o f a
w i l l b e m o d i f i e d t o ( D M•D M 2 / D M I ) . T a b l e 3.2 shows t h epositive-sequence reactance
t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e b e i n g i n t h e r a n g e o f 1,5 t o 4 t i m e s t h e p o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e r e a c t a n c e .
for typical line configurations. Fully transposed lines a r e considered, so that phase
T h e z e r o - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s flow o n l y i f a r e t u r n p a t h e x i s t s t h r o u g h w h i c h a c o m p l e t e d
sequences A B C , B C A a n d C A B c o m p r i s e each o n e a t h i r d o ft h e t o t a l l i n e l e n g t h [3.3].
circuit i s provided. T h e i m p e d a n c e o ft h e g r o u n d a n d g r o u n d w i r e s i sincluded i n
t h e z e r o - s e q u e n c e i m p e d a n c e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e . T h e m o s t c o m m o n u s e o f zero-
Example: F o r a 5 0 0 k V l i n e , h a v i n g s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g t o w e r s w i t h fiat c o n d u c t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n
as i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 b , t r i p l e b u n d l e o f A C S R c o n d u c t o r s 4 9 4 m m 2 / 3 4 m m 2 ( 4 9 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A ) , sequence impedance isi n the calculationo fphase-to-ground short-circuit currents. Such
subconductor spacing s = 400 m mt h e inductance a n d positive-sequence impedance is required. current calculations arerequired forsetting ground fault protection relays.
Frequency / = 5 0 H z , conductor diameter = 29,9 m m , conductor resistance R = 0,0584 f l / k m
a t 20°C, t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s i s t a n c e a = 0 , 0 0 4 0 3 1 / K . P h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t s e e F i g - 3.4.2 S i m p l i f i e d a p p r o a c h for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f z e r o - s e q u e n c e i m -
ure 3.4.
pedances
According t o (3.2) t h e resistance a t 5 0 C C is
The zero-sequence impedance o foverhead line conductors involves t h e self-impedances
Rso = 0 , 0 5 8 4 • [ 1 + 0 , 0 0 4 0 3 ( 5 0 - 2 0 ) ] / 3 = 0 , 0 2 1 8 f l / k m .
and t h e mutual impedances o fthe ground return circuits.
Geometric m e a n distance according t o (3.7) is C o m p l e x equations a r er e q u i r e d f o r a precise calculation o fzero-sequence impedances,
as t h e y i n v o l v e r e t u r n c i r c u i t s t o g r o u n d , a s t r e a t e d i n [3.2] a n d [3.4]. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f
D M = ^ 1 2 , 5 • 12,5 • 2 5 = 15,75 m . zero-sequence impedances c a n b ecarried o u t w i t h simplified approaches t h a t provide
a sufficient degree o fa c c u r a c y f o r m o s t p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . O n e o fthese approaches
The radius o f t h e b u n d l e circle is g i v e n b y :
is p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c l a u s e .
r 0 = s / ( 2 s i n r r / n 2 ) = 0 , 4 0 0 / [2 s i n ( 7 r / 3 ) ] = 0 , 2 3 1 m . The basic equations fort h e calculationo f zero-sequence impedance were d e t e r m i n e d b y
Pollaczek [3.5]a n d C a r s o n [3.6]. C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t b o t h t h eresistance a n d i n d u c t a n c e
The bundle conductor equivalent radius results f r o m (3.6):
of conductors, e a r t h w i r e s a n d g r o u n d r e t u r n circuits a r e dependent o nt h e frequency,
r B = j / 3 -0,014805 • (0,231)2 = 0,134 m . simplified formulae have been developed for application i n50/60 H z circuits.
86 3 Electric parameters 3.4 Z e r o - s e q u e n c e i m p e d a n c e 87

The d e d u c t i o n o fsuch f o r m u l a e a r e b e y o n d t h escope o ft h i s b o o k a n d c a nb e s t u d i e d S i n g l e - c i r c u i t l i n e w i t h t w o e a r t h w i r e s ( F i g u r e 3.2 b )

i n [3.1] a n d [3.3]. T h e s i m p l i f i e d a p p r o a c h presented here after is applicable t o single-
circuit a n d d o u b l e - c i r c u i t s y m m e t r i c a l lines, p r o v i d e d w i t h n o ,o n e o rt w o e a r t h w i r e s . For a n y a r r a n g e m e n t o ft h e e a r t h w i r e s i t follows

Single-circuit line w i t h o u t earth wires Xos2E = ^'os ~~ ' ( ^ C E ) 2 / Z E I E 2 • (3.20)

The zero-sequence impedance is The mutual impedance Z'CE i s g i v e n b y ( 3 . 1 7 ) , w h e r e DME can b etaken from (3.18) i n
case o ft h e s y m m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f e a r t h w i r e s . I ncase o f a s y m m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e -
m e n t i t applies
^os = -Ro+j-X"o = — + |""/A«o+j/A«o ( 3 - l n — = £ = — + 7 ^ I , (3-14)
"2 4 \ 4 n 2
D M E = D M 2 E = v D A E I •D B E 1 •D C E 1 •D A E 2 •D B E 2 • D C E 2 • (3.21)
where
R[ conductor resistance p e ru n i t l e n g t h a t t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e i n fi/km, ac- The mutual impedance Z E 1 E 2 isgiven b y
cording t o(3.1)o r (3.2),
n 2 n u m b e r o fsubconductors per bundle. Z E 1 E 2 = -RE/ 2 + / / W 4 + j f p 0 [ i n [sfx/i^D^j + pE/8] , (3.22)
/ frequency i n Hz,
p0 constant o fmagnetic field 47r•1 0 ~ 4 H/km, w h e r e D E I E 2 i st h e distance b e t w e e n t h ee a r t h w i r e s i n m .
r B bundle conductor equivalent radius according t o (3.6); f o r single conductors Table 3.2 contains t h e zero-sequence impedances o ftypical lines w i t h o n e circuit a n d
YB = r, two earth wires.
D M geometric m e a n distance according t o (3.7),
px permeability o f phase conductor, px = 1 , 0 f o r u s u a l l y a d o p t e d phase conduc-
Double-circuit line w i t h o u t earth wires
tors,
8 r e t u r n d e p t h o fe a r t h c u r r e n t ( m ) , +>, The zero-sequence impedance fort w ocircuits is

8= 1,85/^2 T T / ^ / P E _ " (3.15) Z'ou = Zg S + 3Z ' C 1 C 2 , (3.23)

w i t h P E being t h e average e a r t h resistivity i n f l m .

w h e r e ZQS i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 1 4 ) a n d

L i n e w i t h o n e e a r t h w i r e ( F i g u r e 3.2 a a n d 3.2 c )
Z'C1C2 = / w r / 4 + j flM> I n ( S / % / D M 1 D M 2 ) , (3.24)
The impedance is determined from t h eimpedance o f a line w i t h o u t e a r t h w i r e (see
(3.14)) a n d t h e self- a n d m u t u a l impedances o f t h e e a r t h w i r e w i t h D M I o r £>M2 d e t e r m i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 9 ) a n d ( 3 . 1 0 ) , respectively.

^OSIE = ^ o s — 3 (Z'CE)2/Z'EE . (3.16)

Double-circuit l i n e w i t h o n e e a r t h w i r e ( F i g u r e 3.3 a o r 3.3 b )
The m u t u a l impedance o ft h e conductors t ot h e e a r t h w i r e i s
For t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i t applies:
Z'CE = / P O T / 4 + j/po-ln(«/DME) , (3.17)

where Z o m E = Zox) ~ $ {Z'CE)2/ZEE - (3.25)

D M E = \ / D A E •D B E •D C E (3-18) C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s y m m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t s Z'0D canbe taken from ( 3 . 2 3 ) , Z'CE from

( 3 . 1 7 ) a n d Z'EE from (3.19).
is t h e m e a n d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s andearth wire.
The self-impedance o ft h e e a r t h w i r e i s
Double-circuit l i n e w i t h t w o e a r t h w i r e s ( F i g u r e 3.3 a o r 3.3 b )
Z^E = R!E + f p 0 - n / 4 + i f p 0 ( ] n S / r E + pE/4) , (3.19)
For this arrangement i t applies:
where
R^ e a r t h w i r e resistance i n f l / k m ; • Z o D 2 E = ZQB ~ 6 ( ^ C E l E 2 ) 2 / ( - ^ E l E 2 ) • (3.26)
p E i st h e r e l a t i v e m a g n e t i c p e r m e a b i l i t y o ft h e e a r t h w i r e .
For copper a n da l u m i n i u m conductors o rearth wires a n dA C S R conductors B e c a u s e o f t h e s y m m e t r y Z'm c a nb e taken from ( 3 . 2 3 ) , Z'0E from ( 3 . 1 7 ) , Z'ElE2 from
w i t h a r a t i o o fa l u m i n i u m t osteel section equal o r higher t h a n 6 t h e relative (3.22) a n dZ ' C E l E 2 isaccording t o
m a g n e t i c p e r m e a b i l i t y c a n b e t a k e n a s px = dE — 1 - F o r A C S R conductors
o r e a r t h w i r e s w i t h o n e a l u m i n i u m l a y e r , px o r A * E i s t a k e n b e t w e e n 5 a n d 10. ^CEiE2 = / f o r / 4 + j f p 0 ln(5/D M 2 E ) , (3.27)
For s t e e l e a r t h w i r e s px o r p E c a n b e t a k e n a s a n a v e r a g e v a l u e o f ss 2 5 .
r E earth wire radius i n m . where D M 2 E i so b t a i n e d from (3.21).
8b A JBiectnc p a r a m e t e r s O.-J V^cqicn.iijci.ixi.c a m i.cqicl.l.iijivG i c a a t a i a . c (13

E x a m p l e of calculation of zero-sequence i m p e d a n c e : T h e s a m e l i n e o f e x a m p l e i n
section 3.3.2 w i l l b e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e zero-sequence p a r a m e t e r s . F u r t h e r d a t a are: average
earth resistivity: 300 f ! m . T w o earth wires 5 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A : diameter: 11,7 m m , electrical
r e s i s t a n c e a t 20° C : 0 , 5 6 4 4 f l / k m .
F r o m (3.15) the r e t u r n d e p t h o f earth current will b e

8 = 1 , 8 5 / V 2 X - 5 0 - 4 X . 1 0 - 7 / 3 0 0 = 1613 m .

E q u a t i o n (3.14) yields

Z'os = 0,0218 + 3 7 r / 4 - 5 0 - 4 7 r - U P 4 + j 5 0 - 4 7 T - 1 0 " 4

• [31 n ( l 6 1 3 / S/0,134-15,752) + 1/(4 3)] =

F i g u r e 3.5: C a p a c i t a n c e i n p o s i t i v e - a n d zero-sequence s y s t e m , a ) d e l t a c o n n e c t i o n ; b ) t r a n s -
= 0 , 0 2 1 8 + 0,1480 + j 1,177 = 0,170 + j 1,177 f l / k m . f o r m a t i o n t ostar connection; c) schematic equivalent connection

As t h e earth wires are symmetrical toward the phase conductors, the equivalent distance D M E
c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d e a s i l y b y : D M E = y/W,3 • 1 4 , 1 4 • 2 4 , 6 = 1 5 , 3 1 m . Considering, therefore, C A B = C B C = C A C = C as t h e capacitances between phase
E q u a t i o n (3.17) yields: conductors a n d C A O = C B O= Ceo = C o ast h e capacitances t og r o u n d o r zero-sequence
Z'CE = 7 r / 4 - 5 0 - 4 - 7 r . l 0 - 4 + j 5 0 • 4TT • 1 0 " 4 •ln(1613/15,31) = capacitance, i t w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f F i g u r e 3.5.
The c o n v e r s i o n o f t r i a n g l e t o s t a r c o n n e c t i o n p e r m i t s g o i n g f r o m F i g u r e 3.5 a ) t o F i g u r e
= 0,0493 + j 0,2926 f l / k m .
3.5 b ) a n d a n o t h e r c o n v e r s i o n l e a d s t o F i g u r e 3.5 c ) , f r o m w h i c h i t c a n b e d e d u c e d :
E q u a t i o n (3.22) yields
C A = C B = C q = C\ = Co + 3 C (3.29)
Z E1E2 = 0,5644/2+x/4-50-4-ir-10- 4 +j 50-47T-HP 4 •
The t o t a l c a p a c i t a n c e p e r p h a s e i s t h e s o - c a l l e d p o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e c a p a c i t a n c e C\, w h i l e
• [in (1613/1/0,00585 -20) + 10/8] =
the capacitance t o g r o u n d is t h e zero-sequence capacitance Co and the capacitance
= 0,2822 + 0,0493 + j 0,610 = 0,332 + j 0,610 f l / k m . b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s i s C . M a t h e m a t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e d e d u c e d for c a l c u l a t i n g C\, Co
Finally t h e zero-sequence impedance isobtained f r o m (3.20): and C , so t h a t e q u a t i o n (3.29) above allows t o check the accuracy o f t h e calculations.

ZZ '0 2 E
-- 00 1, 17 07 0 M+ j l 1 ,117777 3 ( 0 (>0 0: 43 933 2 ++ i °j '0 2i 96 2160) )2 3.5.2 Single-circuit lines

= 0,170 + j 1,177 + 0 , 0 6 2 1 - j 0,3754 = 0,232 + j 0,802 f l / k m S i n g l e - c i r c u i t line w i t h o u t e a r t h wire-

or i n p o l a r f o r m a t Z 9 2 E = 0 , 8 3 5 Z73,9° f l / k m . The zero-sequence capacitance per unit length i s a c c o r d i n g t o [ 3 . 3 ]

/
x/(2hM)2 + D2M 2 hyi
3.5
3.5.1
Capacitance and capacitive reactance
General considerations
Cos = 3 ' b In
3 '
- -neo I I n (3.30)

where
Capacitance is that p r o p e r t y o f a s y s t e m o f conductors a n d dielectrics w h i c h p e r m i t s £0 dielectric constant 8,854 • 1 0 ~ 1 2 F / m ,
the storage o f electrically separated charges w h e n potential differences exist between h\t m e a n conductor height above ground
the conductors. T h e capacitance ismeasured i n Farads, w h e r e 1 F = 1 A s / V . B u t due
to t h e huge value o f one Farad, t h e u n i t M i c r o f a r a d , w h e r e 1 p F = 1 0 ~ 6 F , is m o r e /iM = \Zh A •h B • he , (3.31)
u s u a l . T h e capacitive reactance i s a ni n v e r s e f u n c t i o n o f c a p a c i t a n c e a n d frequency, o r
rB bundle conductor equivalent radius according t o (3.6),
X c = l / ( 2 7 r / C ) . (3.28) DM m e a n geometric phase-to-phase distance. Since (£>M/2/IM) •C 1 t h e a p p r o x i -
m a t i o n as i n e q u a t i o n (3.30) can b e made.
X c ismeasured i n f l or M f l (10 6 f l ) . T h e inverse o f t h e capacitive reactance is called
The capacitances between t h e conductors are
capacitive susceptance Be — 2-nf • C, m e a s u r e d i n S o r p S ( 1 0 - 6 S).
The c a p a c i t a n c e o ft h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s i sa n i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r , a s i t i sr e s p o n s i b l e for
Cs — C A B— C A C — CBC — (C( — C'os)/3 —
accumulating a n d generating reactive power for system requirements. T h e conductors o f
an overhead line a s s u m e p o t e n t i a l si n relation t oeach o t h e r a n d t o t h e earth. T h e e a r t h = 2 7 r £ 0 - [ l n ( 2 h M / D M ) ] /3 ln(£>M/rB) • I n ( 2 h u / ^ D 2 ^ (3.32)
is c o n s i d e r e d i n a l l c a s e s a s h a v i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e p o t e n t i a l e q u a l t o z e r o . E l e c t r i c a l fields
and capacitances are f o r m e d a m o n g conductors a n d earth (including t h e earth wires). and t h e positive-sequence mpacitarice_
The capacitances are distributed o n the w h o l e conductors along the line. F o r transposed

/"(
lines t h e average t o t a l capacitances p e rphase are e q u a l , s o t h a t u s u a l l y t h e average DU
C ] S = 27T£0 : 2 7T£0/ln(£lM/rB) (3.33)
conductor-to-ground height ist a k e n into account for their calculation. W i + ( D M / 2 h M y 2
90 3 Electric parameters 3.6 A d m i t t a n c e 9 1

S i n g l e - c i r c u i t line w i t h o n e o r t w o e a r t h w i r e s ( F i g u r e 3.2) T h e positive-sequence capacitance is received f r o m ( 3 . 3 3 )

E a r t h w i r e s a f f e c t o n l y t h e zero-sequence capacitance w h i l e t h e p o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e c a - CI. = 2 ?r • 8 , 8 5 4 - 1 0 ~ 1 2 •1 0 3 / In , 1 5 , 7 5 = 12,0- 1 0 " 3 pF/km.

pacitance c a n b e t a k e n f r o m ( 3 . 3 3 ) . W i t h t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n used i n( 3 . 3 0 ) t h e zero- ' 0 , 1 3 4 ^ 1 + (15,75/2 • 14,7)2
sequence capacitance f o ra line w i t h o n eearth wire is
T h e z e r o - s e q u e n c e c a p a c i t a n c e Cg i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 3 4 ) :

CisE = ^V{ 1 K 2W ^^)-[ ln ^?] 2 / ln ¥?} ' I 3 ' 3 4 ) DOSE = | rr • 8 , 8 5 4 • 1 0 " 1 2 • l O 3 /

where In _±hL= - f i nU > ] ; * 4 ' 7 ) 2 / in ( 2 • 2 4 , 7 / 0 , 3 4 2 )

hu m e a n conductor height above ground according t o (3.31) i n m , ^0,134-15,75 2 V 1 5 , 3 1 / /

hE m e a n earth wire height above ground i nm , - = 18,544 •1 0 ~ 9 / [2,213 - 0,8935/4,973] = 9,12 •1 ( T 3 pF/km .
D M E m e a n geometric distance between conductors a n d earth wire(s) arranged s y m -
T a b l e 3 . 2 shows line p a r a m e t e r s o ftypical lines d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a e o f clauses
metrically according t o (3.18) i n m ,
3.2 t o 3.5.
r E e a r t h w i r e r a d i u s i n m . I n case o ft w o e a r t h w i r e s a t t h es a m e h e i g h t a n d
symmetrically arranged r E will b e replaced b y y V E •D E I E 2 , where D E i E 2 i s
the distance between earth wires. 3.6 Admittance

3.5.3 Double-circuit lines W h e n carrying o u t electric circuit calculations o f transmission lines, i tis generally
p r e f e r a b l e t o u s e t h e shunt admittance t oground instead o ft h e impedance t o ground.
D o u b l e - c i r c u i t line w i t h o u t e a r t h w i r e s Using t h e vector representation, t h e positive- a n d t h e zero-sequence unit shunt a d m i t -
t a n c e , Y{ a n d F 0 ' , c a n b e e q u a t e d a s
T h e zero-sequence capacitance perunit length isaccording t o[ 3 . 3 ]
Y{ = G'1+jB'1 (3.38)

C i D = \ . s o / i n( • , (3.35)
3 1 \f^k <jDux-D2M2 ) Y( = G;o+jB'0 . (3.39)

w h e r e D Mi s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 7 ) , D M 2 f r o m ( 3 . 1 0 ) o r ( 3 . 1 1 ) , D M I from ( 3 . 9 ) , hu from I n t h e f o r m u l a e a b o v e , G[ a n d G'0 a r e t h e r e a l p a r t s o f t h e a d m i t t a n c e , u s u a l l y n a m e d

(3.31) a n dr s from (3.6). a s conductances, w h i l e B( a n d B'0 a r e t h e i m a g i n a r y p a r t s o f t h e a d m i t t a n c e , n a m e d
T h e positive-sequence capacitance i s a s susceptance. F o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s , t h e r e a l t e r m s G'a a n d G'x a r e v e r y s m a l l a n d c a n b e
n e g l e c t e d , m e a n i n g , t h e r e f o r e , G\ = Go = 0 . T h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e
D M D M2 relations c a nb e equated
(3.36)
' \YBDMIV1 + (D /2h )2/ r B D : Ml
M M
Y( = 1/X'C1 i n S / k m (3.40)
w i t h t h e quantities asdescribed above.
and

D o u b l e - c i r c u i t line w i t h o n e o r t w o e a r t h w i r e s ( F i g u r e 3.3 a or 3.3 b ) y 0 ' = l/X'co i nS / k m . (3.41)

T h e zero-sequence capacitance f o ro n eo r t w o e a r t h w i r e s c a nb e o b t a i n e d from I f X'C1 a n d X'co a r e g i v e n i n t h e u n i t v a l u e o f f l k m , t h e n Y( a n d F 0 ' , a s r e s p e c t i v e

inverses, will b e given i n S / k m .
2 , 1 4 / ^ v?l + (D M 2 /2h u ) 2 21n](/i M +/iE)/PME] „ 9T, T h e capacitive susceptances, calculated ast h e inverse o f (3.28), are respectively deter-
C 0 D E = 3 j l n ^^ M 1 D 2 2 i ^ W ^ ) "(3-37) mined as
positive-sequence susceptance
T h e q u a n t i t i e s used i n ( 3 . 3 7 ) have a l r e a d y b e e n d e s c r i b e d above. I ncase o f t w o e a r t h
B[ = 2nfC[ a n d (3.42)
wires arranged symmetrically a tt h e same height i nequation (3.37) r E i sreplaced b y
V V E D E I E 2 - T h e positive-sequence c a p a c i t a n c e C'1DE c a nb et a k e n f r o m (3.36). zero-sequence susceptance

E x a m p l e o f calculation o f positive- a n d zero-sequence capacitances: F o r t h e B'o = 2irfC'o . (3.43)

same line as used i n examples 3 . 3 . 2 a n d 3.4.2, t h e capacitances and capacitive reactances will b e
d e t e r m i n e d . A s i t deals w i t h a single-circuit line w i t h t w o e a r t h wires, f o r m u l a e ( 3 . 3 3 ) a n d ( 3 . 3 4 ) T h e admittance, aswell asits components conductance a n d susceptance, are measured
will b e applied. T h e average conductor height is determined f r o m t h e conductor coordinates t o a s a n i n v e r s e u n i t o f CI, c a l l e d S i e m e n s ( S ) , b u t t h e s u b m u l t i p l e p S ( 1 0 - 6 S ) i s m o r e
be h = 1 4 , 7 m . T h e e a r t h w i r e radius r E is replaced b y V E • D E I E 2 = \ / 0 , 0 0 5 8 5 •2 0 = 0 , 3 4 2 m . usual.
D u e t ot h e s y m m e t r i c a l arrangement o f conductors a n d e a r t h wires O M E is obtained f r o m ( 3 . 1 8 )

D M E = ^10,3 •14,14 • 24,6= 15,31 m

 P tt i j XJlCaXXIX ^1111 0.11111X111 3

i s u s u a l l y n a m e d a s nominal CI-circuit o f a l i n e . T h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t , s h o w n i n F i g u r e
3.6, i s o f t e n u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t m e d i u m - l e n g t h l i n e s .
-A\ F i g u r e 3 . 6 :Representation of a line by a n o m i n a l I n t h e c i r c u i t o f F i g u r e 3.6, t h e t o t a l s h u n t a d m i t t a n c e i s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o e q u a l p a r t s
Il-circuit. placed a t t h e s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g e n d s o f t h e line. T h e t o t a l series resistance a n d
-LIL Us s e n d i n g e n d v o l t a g e , UR r e c e i v i n g e n d v o l t a g e ,
2 2 reactance a r ep u t i n t h e m i d d l e . T h e r e s u l t i n g p a r a m e t e r s a r ec a l c u l a t e d s i m p l y b y
Is sending e n d c u r r e n t , I R receiving end current,
m u l t i p l y i n g t h e u n i t p a r a m e t e r s b y t h e l i n e l e n g t h , i . e . R = R[ • a, XE = X[ • a,
K/2 half o fthe admittance
Z' = Z[ • a a n d Y = Y' - a a n d Y/2 = Y' • a/2.
The voltage a n d current relationships used i n electric calculations f o r m e d i u m - l e n g t h
Example: F o r t h e e x a m p l e o fsection 3.5.3 i t is o b t a i n e d , neglecting t h e r e a l p a r t i n e q u a t i o n lines u n d e r t h i s a p p r o a c h are
(3.38) and (3.39), for t h e positive-sequence u n i t admittance:
( 7 S = (Z • Y/2 + 1 ) U R + Z • J R . or U s = ( U R • Y/2 + I R ) •Z + U R (3.44)
Y[ = B( = 2 T T • 5 0 • 1 2 , 0 • 1 0 - 9 = 3,77 p S / k m
I s = Y(l + Z-Y/A)UR+(Z-Y/2 + l)IR . (3.45)
and for t h e zero-sequence system:
Neglecting the capacitance for short lines, t h e above equations become t h e w e l l - k n o w n
y 0 ' = B'0 = 2 a- • 5 0 - 9 , 1 2 • 1 0 " 9 = 2 , 8 7 p S / k m .
simple relations

Us = U R + Z • I R (3.46)
3.7 Electric representation of lines
and
3.7.1 Goals and basic conditions
IS = 7R . (3-47)
I n t h i s c l a u s e f o r m u l a e f o r electric representation o f lines will b e presented. These for-
mulae c a nb e used t o calculate voltage, current a n d power factor a t any point o f a The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e voltage drop o r v o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n ( i n % ) i s :
t r a n s m i s s i o n line, p r o v i d e d t h e values o f these v a r i a b l e s a r ek n o w n a t a n o t h e r p o i n t A U % = (|US|/|U R | -1 ) - 1 0 0 . (3.48)
of the line. U s u a l l y those variables are k n o w n i n o n e o f t h e line ends a n d i tis desired
to calculate t h e values a t t h e o t h e r line end. L o a d s are u s u a l l y specified b y their v o l t -
3.7.3 L o n g - l e n g t h t r a n s m i s s i o n lines
a g e , p o w e r a n d power factor, f r o m w h i c h t h e c u r r e n t c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r u s e i n t h e
e q u a t i o n s . O t h e r p a r a m e t e r s , s u c h a s surge impedance load o r natural power, v o l t a g e 3.7.3.1 Representation by exponential functions
r e g u l a t i o n a n d p o w e r losses can b e i n d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d .
W h e n d e a l i n g w i t h long lines, f o r i n s t a n c e l i n e s l o n g e r t h a n 1 0 0 k m , t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
N o r m a l l y t r a n s m i s s i o n fines a r e o p e r a t e d w i t h b a l a n c e d t h r e e - p h a s e l o a d s . E v e n i f
of t h e d i s t r i b u t e d p a r a m e t e r s is necessary, i fa higher degree o f accuracy i s required.
the conductors are n o t spaced equilaterally a n d m a y n o t b e transposed, the resulting
A c c o r d i n g t o [3.7]a n d [3.3], t h eexact m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l f o r a l o n g l i n e c a n b e
d i s y m m e t r y iss l i g h t , a n d t h e phases a r e considered t ob e l o a d e d e q u a l l y b y t h e c u r r e n t s .
represented either as a nexponential f u n c t i o n o r as a hyperbolic function. A s u m m a r y
of t h e m e t h o d a n d its practical use will b e presented i n t h e following paragraphs.
3.7.2 Short- and medium-length lines Generally, i n most practical applications, k n o w i n g voltage and current a t the receiving
end o f t h e line (consumer side), i t is required t o calculate t h e voltage a n d current a t
For c a r r y i n g o u t electric calculations i n v o l v i n g overhead lines, some simplification can
t h e s e n d i n g e n d o f t h e l i n e . I n t h i s c a s e , U t u r n s o u t i n t o U s , I i n t o I s a n d x i n t o a.
be used depending o n t h e line voltage a n d length. T h e m a i n simplification consists i n
A c c o r d i n g t o [3.3] t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s c a n b e d e d u c e d
n e g l e c t i n g t h e c a p a c i t a n c e o f t h e l i n e f o r l o w a n d m e d i u m v o l t a g e s a n d s h o r t lines. I n
this case, t h e c a p a c i t a n c e s a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g a d m i t t a n c e t o g r o u n d w o u l d represent a U = [(U R + Zc • IR) e 7 * + ( U R - Zc -7 R )e ^ 1 ] / 2 (3.49)
relatively small contribution t o the reactive power o f the line a n d the relevant system.
T h e e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t o f a s h o r t l i n e i s represented b y a series resistance a n d a series and
reactance only, w h i c h are concentrated o rl u m p e d parameters not u n i f o r m l ydistributed
7 = [(UR/Zc + 7R)e 7 I + ( U R / 2 c - 7 R ) e - 7 I ] / 2 , (3.50)
along the line. A s the shunt a d m i t t a n c e is neglected f o rshort lines, i t makes n o dif-
ference, as f a r as m e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e ends o f t h e line a r econcerned, w h e t h e r t h e where
parameters are l u m p e d o r u n i f o r m l y distributed.
(3.51)
The shunt admittance, generally a pure susceptance, is included i n the calculations for zc = x / W = cJxi • x'c
a line of medium length. I n s u c h a c a s e , t h e l i n e p a r a m e t e r s r e s i s t a n c e R, i n d u c t a n c e
i s t h e surge impedance o f t h e l i n e ( s e e [3.7]) a n d 6
L a n d capacitance C need n o t t o b e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d along t h e line, b u t c a nb e
considered as concentrated o r l u m p e d parameters. T h e resulting errors are negligible,
1=x/iyW = xJxl/X'c = a+}f3 (3.52)
due t o the relatively s m a l l value o f t h e capacitance.
For t h i s case, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l u m p e d p a r a m e t e r s i s d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e G r e e k i s c a l l e d t h e propagation constant.
l e t t e r I I . T h e v a l u e s o f t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e (CI), i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e (CI) a n d s h u n t B o t h , Zc a n d 7 a r e c o m p l e x q u a n t i t i e s . T h e r e a l p a r t o f t h e p r o p a g a t i o n c o n s t a n t 7 i s
a d m i t t a n c e ( ^ i S ) a r e s i m p l y o b t a i n e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e u n i t v a l u e s i n f l / k m o r pS/km, c a l l e d t h e attenuation constant a a n d i s m e a s u r e d i n N e p e r s p e r u n i t l e n g t h , w h i l e t h e
respectively, b y the line length. Because o fthis simplified approach, such representation i m a g i n a r y p a r t i s c a l l e d phase constant /3 a n d i s m e a s u r e d i n R a d i a n s p e r u n i t l e n g t h .
94 3 Electric parameters 3.7 E l e c t r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l i n e s 95

T h e wave length A i s t h e d i s t a n c e a l o n g a l i n e b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s o f a w a v e w h i c h E x a m p l e : F o r t h e 5 0 0 k V l i n e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x a m p l e presented i n clause 3.3.2 a l i n e

d i f f e r s i n p h a s e b y 360° o r 2 n. I f j3 i s t h e p h a s e s h i f t i n r a d i a n s p e r k m , t h e w a v e l e n g t h length o f 300 k m a n d a load o f 1000 M W are assumed. T h e line parameters are
i n k m is R( = 0,0218 f l / k m ; L\ = 9,70 • 1 ( T 4 H/km; C [ = 12,0 • 1 C T 3 p F / k m .

\ = 2n//3 . (3.53) W i t h Z1 = 0,3054/85,9° f l / k m a n d Y' = 3,77/90° p S / k m i t i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 5 0 ) 7 =

s/Z' • Y> = 1 , 0 7 3 - 1 0 " 3 /87,95° 1 / k m o r a = 3 , 8 4 • F T 5 1 / k m a n d / ? = 1 , 0 4 2 • 1 ( T 3 1 / k m .
A t t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f 5 0 H z , t h e w a v e l e n g t h s is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 8 7 0 k m a n d 4 8 9 5 k m , For t h e total line i t applies
r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e velocity of wave propagation i n k m / s i s t h e p r o d u c t o f t h e w a v e l e n g t h
in k m and the frequency i n Hz, v = f •A i n k m / s . 7 • a = 1,073 • 1 0 - 3 • 3 0 0 Z87,95° = 0 , 3 2 2 Z87,95° = 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 .
In calculating the voltage U and the current I a tany point o fthe line asa function The surge impedance follows f r o m (3.51):
of t h e voltage a n d c u r r e n t a t the receiving end, t h e equations (3.49) a n d (3.50) are
applicable asa function o fthe distance i to t h e receiving end. ZC = \ / 0 , 3 0 5 4 Z85,9°/(3,77 • 1 0 " 6 ) Z90° = 2 8 4 , 6 Z-2,05° = 2 8 4 , 4 - j 1 0 , 2 f l .
W i t h these q u a n t i t i e s t h e equations (3.49) a n d (3.50) for voltage a n d c u r r e n t t u r n o u t The line to earth voltage at the line end is
into
t/ R = 5 0 0 / \ / 3 = 2 8 8 , 7 Z0° k V •
U = [(UR + ZclR)eax^x + (UR - Zd^e-^e'^] / 2 (3.54)
and t h e corresponding current
and
I n = 1 0 6 / ( 5 0 0 • s/3) = 1 1 5 4 , 7 Z0° A .

I = [(VR/ZC + IR) e Q I e ^ + (UR/ZC - IR) e~axe-^] / 2 . (3.55) F r o m ( 3 . 5 4 ) i t i s o b t a i n e d w i t h x = 0 f o r t h e i n c i d e n t v o l t a g e a s U£

A d e e p a n a l y s i s , b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h e s e h i g h l i g h t s , w i l l p r o v e t h a t t h e first t e r m s U + = [ U R + ZC IR]/2= [288,7/0° + 1 , 1 5 4 7 Z0° • 2 8 4 , 6 Z-2,05°] • 1 0 3 / 2

of t h e above equations are t h e incident voltage o rc u r r e n t w h i l e t h e second t e r m s are = ( 1 4 4 , 3 5 + 1 6 4 , 2 - j 5,9) • 1 0 3 = ( 3 0 8 , 6 - j 5,9) • 1 0 3 = 3 0 8 , 7 Z-l,09° k V
the reflected voltage o rcurrent. F r o m (3.54) a n d (3.55) i t can b econcluded t h a t a line
a n d f o r t h e r e f l e c t e d c o m p o n e n t o f t h e v o l t a g e as U ^
t e r m i n a t e d i n i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i m p e d a n c e ZQ h a s UR = I R • ZQ a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e
is n o r e f l e c t e d w a v e , a s t h e s e c o n d t e r m s a r e e q u a l t o z e r o . f// = [UR - Z c - 7 R ] / 2 = [ 2 8 8 , 7 / 0 ° - 1 , 1 5 4 7 Z0° • 2 8 4 , 6 Z-2,05°] • 1 0 3 / 2
S u c h a l i n e i s c a l l e d flat l i n e o r infinite line, t h e l a t t e r d e s i g n a t i o n a r i s i n g f r o m t h e f a c t = ( 1 4 4 , 3 5 - 1 6 4 , 2 + j 5 , 9 ) • 1 0 3 = ( - 1 9 , 9 + j 5 , 9 ) • 1 0 3 = 20,7/163,5° k V .
that a line o finfinite l e n g t h cannot have a reflected wave. U s u a l l y power lines are n o t
A t t h e sending end of t h e line i t results w i t h x = 300 k m
t e r m i n a t e d w i t h their characteristic impedance, b u t c o m m u n i c a t i o n lines are frequently
s o t e r m i n a t e d i n o r d e r t o e l i m i n a t e t h e r e f l e c t e d w a v e . T y p i c a l v a l u e s o f Zc a r e g i v e n i n U+ = [U R + Z C -In] ^e"' 3 0 0 ^" 3 0 0 = 308,7 Z-l,09°-e°'ol2eiO322 =
T a b l e 3 . 2 f o r s i n g l e - c i r c u i t l i n e s . T h e p h a s e a n g l e o f ZQ i s u s u a l l y b e t w e e n 0 a n d —15°. = 3 0 8 , 7 Z - l , 0 9 ° • 1 , 0 1 2 217,83° = 3 1 2 , 4 Z 1 6 . 7 k V
ZQ i s a l s o c a l l e d surge impedance i n p o w e r l i n e s . Surge impedance load ( S I L ) o f a l i n e
is t h e p o w e r d e l i v e r e d b y a l i n e t o a p u r e l y r e s i s t i v e l o a d e q u a l t o i t s s u r g e i m p e d a n c e and

Us" = [ U R - Z c - 7 R ] / 2 e a 3 0 0 e - - i " 3 0 0 = 20,7/196,6°-e-0,)12ei0322 =

Fnat = U p 2 p / | Z c | m M W , (3.56)
= 20,7/163,50° - 0 , 9 8 8 Z-17,83° = 2 0 , 4 5 Z 1 4 5 . 7 k V .
where U p p ist h e phase-to-phase v o l t a g e i n k V a n d Zc i s g i v e n i n f l .
T h e v o l t a g e U s = U g " + U<T a t t h e s e n d i n g e n d t o e a r t h w i l l b e

3.7.3.2 R e p r e s e n t a t i o n by h y p e r b o l i c functions U s = 3 1 2 , 4 / 1 6 , 7 ° + 20,45/145,7° =

H y p e r b o l i c f u n c t i o n s are m a t h e m a t i c a l l y easier t o h a n d l e , s o t h a t its i n t r o d u c t i o n per-
m i t s relatively simple calculations. T h e incident a n d reflected waves o f voltage and
current o fequations (3.54) a n d (3.55) can b e rearranged a n d equated i n t e r m s o f hy-
perbolic functions as
= 2 9 9 , 2 + j 8 9 , 8 - 1 6 , 9 + j 1 1 , 5 = 2 8 2 , 3 + j 1 0 1 , 3 = 2 9 9 , 9 Z 19,7° kV.
T h e l i n e v o l t a g e a t t h e s e n d i n g l i n e e n d i s t h e r e f o r e U s = 2 9 9 , 9 • V3 = 5 1 9 , 5 k V .
T h e w a v e length isobtained f r o m (3.53) b y A = 2 r / 8 = 2TT/1,042 •1 0 " 3 = 5861 k m a n d the
p r o p a g a t i o n speed w i l l b e 50 • 5 8 6 1 = 2 9 3 0 6 0 k m / s .

Us = U R c o s h ( 7 a ) + IR • Zc s i n h ( 7 a ) , (3.57) 3.7.3.3 T h e e q u i v a l e n t n - c i r c u i t of a l o n g line

7S = / R C O s h ( 7 a ) - f | U R / Z c j s i n h ( 7 a ) , (3.58) T h e nominal Il-circuit o fF i g u r e 3.6 d o e s n ' t r e p r e s e n t a l o n g t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e e x a c t l y

b e c a u s e i t does n o t a c c o u n t for t h e p a r a m e t e r s o ft h e l i n e b e i n g u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d .
w h e r e a ist h e line length. T h e equations can b e solved i n v i e w o fU R a n d 7R H o w e v e r , t h e f o r m a t o ft h e n - c i r c u i t s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3.6 is v e r y c o n v e n i e n t for electric
calculations of voltages, currents a n d other related variables. I n this aspect, it has been
UR = U s cosh(7a) - 7 S • Zc s i n h ( 7 a ) , (3.59) s t u d i e d h o w a s i m i l a r n-circuit could b e also defined for long lines, t h a t is, t a k i n g into
account the distributed line parameters.
7 R = 7 S cosh(7a) -(Us/Zc)sinh(7a) . (3.60) The discrepancy between the n o m i n a l n-representation and the real line behaviour
b e c o m e s l a r g e r a s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e l i n e i n c r e a s e s . I t i s p o s s i b l e , h o w e v e r , t o find t h e
equivalent U-circuit o f a l o n g t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e c o m p o s e d o f l u m p e d p a r a m e t e r s s o t h a t
yo 1} n i i e c c r i c p a r a m e t e r s

T a b l e 3 . 3 : Comparison between n o m i n a l und equivalent Il-circuits;

500 k V line, 300 k m long, conductors 3 x 4 9 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A
Resistance Inductive reactance Impedance Admittance
Us 4, rti
D ir)\
(it) X . fO\ 7, ( 0 \ Y 1 2 +191
vVi (it)
nominal
F i g u r e 3.7: E q u i v a l e n t I l - c i r c u i t o f a l o n g l i n e
Il-circuit 6,54 91,4 91,6 565
equivalent
Il-circuit 6,45 89,9 90,1 571
v o l t a g e a n d c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s a tb o t h ends are accurate. T h i s m e a n s , i n order t o d e d u c e
an equivalent n-circuit, the voltage a n d current i n b o t h , the sending a n d the receiving
end, are calculated b y the exact hyperbolic functions. T h e n , corrections are determined T h e p o w e r factor a t t h e sending end is given b y cosip = cos(20,45 - 16,6) = 0,998; power
into the l u m p e d parameters such t o provide the same voltages and currents asi n the required a tthe sending end will be
exact m e t h o d . A n e q u i v a l e n t Il-circuit is, therefore, d e t e r m i n e d for t h e l o n g line, w i t h
t h e f o l l o w i n g c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r s a n d r e s u l t i n g p a r a m e t e r s , a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3.7. P w s = V3 • 5 2 0 , 5 • 1 1 4 3 • 0 , 9 9 8 = 1 0 2 8 M W .
T h e e l e m e n t s o ft h e e q u i v a l e n t n-circuit are T h e r e f o r e , t h e losses i n t h e l i n e a r e

/ Z = Zc s i n h ( 7 a ) = (z'/(ya)j- s i n h ( 7 a ) , (3.61) floss = A v s - F W = 28M W .

\ F / 2 = ( l / Z c ) t a n h ( 7 a / 2 ) = Y'/(ya) •t a n h ( 7 a / 2 ) . (3.62) I n the following paragraphs the calculations w i t h n o m i n a l and equivalent Il-circuits will b e
c o m p a r e d ; c o n s i d e r i n g s i n h ( 7 < r ) = 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° t h e e q u i v a l e n t i m p e d a n c e i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 6 1 )
T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n UR a n d IR a s ~ w e i r ~ a s ~ b e t w e e n U s a n d Is a r e g i v e n b y t h e Z = 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° - 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° = 9 0 , 1 5 285,9° = 6 , 4 5 + j 8 9 , 9 SI .
e q u a t i o n s ( 3 . 4 4 ) a n d ( 3 . 4 5 ) . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f U a n d I at e v e r y p o i n t o f t h e l i n e
can b e p e r f o r m e d b yequations (3.49) a n d (3.50). T h e hyperbolic functions according E q u a t i o n (3.62) yields
to (3.61) a n d (3.62) d e t e r m i n e t h e equivalent I l - c i r c u i t elements. —, 1 , ya 1 cosh(7a) - 1
T h e u s e o f t h e equivalent Tl-circuit p e r m i t s t o c a l c u l a t e v o l t a g e U s a n d c u r r e n t Is i n t h e y/2 = — tanh-+- = - . V ,' . =
' Z c 2 Z c smhfya)
s e n d i n g e n d , b u t n oi n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t i sconsidered. T h e line i st h e n represented b y a n 1 0,949+j 0,0038- 1 0 , 0 5 1 1 2175,8°
e q u i v a l e n t series i m p e d a n c e i n t h e m i d d l e a n d t w o legs w i t h h a l f o fc o r r e c t e d a d m i t t a n c e 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° • 0,317287,9°
or capacitance. I fa n y r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n voltage a n d c u r r e n t i n a n i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t
= 0 , 5 7 1 • 1 C T 3 289,9° S o r |F/2| = 5 7 1 pS .
is d e s i r e d , a n o t h e r e q u i v a l e n t I l - c i r c u i t s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h i s p o i n t u n t i l t h e
receiving end. Powers a n d power factors are accordingly taken into account a tboth, the T h e series i m p e d a n c e o f t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t i s o b t a i n e d b y j u s t m u l t i p l y i n g t h e u n i t series
sending a n d the receiving end b ythe formulae relating these parameters w i t h voltage impedance Z ' ( f l / k m ) b ythe line length
and current i n three-phase circuits. Z = Z ' - a = ( 0 , 0 2 1 8 + j 0 , 3 0 4 6 ) - 3 0 0 = 6 , 5 4 + j 9 1 , 3 9 0 = 9 1 , 6 285,9° f l .

E x a m p l e for a n e q u i v a l e n t I l - c i r c u i t o f a l o n g l i n e : V o l t a g e , c u r r e n t a n d p o w e r
of t h e line calculated i n t h e e x a m p l e carried o u t i n clause 3.7.3.2 w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g a n
equivalent Il-circuit for t h e line a n d c o m p a r i n g w i t h t h e n o m i n a l Il-circuit.
F r o m p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s a r e k n o w n : Z c = 2 8 4 , 6 2—2,05° SI; ya =
0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ; v o l t a g e a t t h e r e c e i v i n g e n d U R . = 2 8 9 20° k V ; c u r r e n t IR = 1 1 5 5 20° A .
E q u a t i o n (3.59) yields
U = 2 8 8 , 7 20° - c o s h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ) + 1 , 1 5 4 7 • 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° • s i n h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 )
s
Since cosh(a+jjS) = c o s h a - c o s / S + j sinha-sinyS a n d s i n h ( a + j / ? ) = s i n h a - c o s / J + j c o s h a s i n ; ?
i t i s o b t a i n e d c d s h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ) = 0 , 9 4 9 + j 0 , 0 0 3 8 = 0 , 9 4 9 20,23° a n d s i n h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ) =
0 , 0 1 1 + j 0 , 3 1 6 = 0 , 3 1 7 287,9°. T h e r e f o r e ,
-- U s = 2 8 8 , 7 20°-0,949 20,23°+ 1 , 1 5 4 7 - 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05°-0,317 2 8 7 , 9 =
= 2 7 4 20,23° + 1 0 4 , 2 285,9° = 2 7 4 + j 1 , 1 + 7 , 5 + j 1 0 3 , 9 =
= 2 8 1 , 5 + j 1 0 5 , 0 = 3 0 0 , 4 220,45° k V .
F r o m (3.58) i t is calculated
Is = 1 1 5 4 , 7 20° - 0 , 9 4 9 20,23°+ ( 2 8 8 , 7 • 10 3 20°)/(284,6 2-2,05°) 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° =
= 1 0 9 6 20,23°+ 3 2 2 , 1 290,0° = 1 0 9 6 + j 4 , 4 + 0 , 0 + j 3 2 2 , 1 =
= 1 0 9 6 + j 3 2 6 , 5 = 1 1 4 3 216,6° A .
Line voltage a tthe sending end is
Upp = 3 0 0 , 4 • i / 3 = 5 2 0 , 3 k V .
T h e s a m e is v a l i d for t h e s h u n t a d m i t t a n c e , s o t h a t t h e t o t a l a d m i t t a n c e o f t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t
is
Y = Y' - o = 3 , 7 7 • 3 0 0 = 1 1 3 1 pS .
Each a r m o f t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , b e F / 2 = 5 6 5 pS.
T a b l e 3.3 p r o v i d e s a s u m m a r y o f t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t a n d t h e e q u i -
. valent Il-circuit o ft h e line.
T h e equivalent Il-circuit will provide the exact solution f o rt h e line, while the n o m i n a l I l -
circuit w i l l yield a n a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n . I t can b e observed t h a t t h e difference is n o t s o large;
i n m o s t cases t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t is e n o u g h for s o l v i n g m o s t c i r c u i t s i n v o l v i n g lines, i f a h i g h
d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y is n o t r e q u i r e d . H o w e v e r , a s t h e l i n e l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s , t h e a p p r o a c h u s i n g t h e
n o m i n a l n-circuit will i n t r o d u c e bigger a n d bigger differences c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e exact s o l u t i o n .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e use o f t h e exact s o l u t i o n w i t h t h e equivalent n-circuit is r e c o m m e n d e d .
3.8 References
3.1 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n line reference book: 345 k V a n d above. P a l o A l t o , Electric P o w e r
Research Institute, 2 n dedition 1987
3.2 F i n k , D . G . ; B e a t y , H . W . : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k f o r e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r s . N e w Y o r k , M c G r a w -
Hill, 1 2 t h edition 1987
3.3 H a p p o l d t , H . ; O e d i n g , D . : E l e k t r i s c h e K r a f t w e r k e u n d N e t z e ( E l e c t r i c p o w e r s t a t i o n s a n d
networks). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 5 t h edition 1978.3
98 3 Electric parameters

3.4 C l a r k e , E . : C i r c u i t a n a l y s i s o f A C p o w e r s y s t e m s . N e w Y o r k , J o h n W i l e y & S o n s 1 9 4 3
4 Lightning protection
3.5 P o l l a c z e k , F . : U b e r das F e l d einer u n e n d l i c h l a n g e n , w e c h s e l s t r o m d u r c h f l o s s e n e n E i n f a c h -
l e i t u n g ( O n t h e field o f a n i n f i n i t e l y l o n g s i n g l e l i n e c a r r y i n g A C c u r r e n t s ) . E l e k t r . N a c h r . -
Technik 3 (1926), pp.339 t o 359

3.6 C a r s o n , J . R.: W a v e p r o p a g a t i o n i n overhead g r o u n d wires w i t h g r o u n d r e t u r n . Bell S y s t e m 4.0 Symbols

T e c h n . J o u r n a l 1926, pp. 5 3 9
Symbol Signification
3.7 S t e v e n s o n , W . : E l e m e n t s o f p o w e r s y s t e m a n a l y s i s . N e w Y o r k , M c G r a w - H i l l , 2 n d edition c E a r t h wire factor
1987 D Lightning strike distance
h E Earth wire height
he Phase conductor height
I Lightning impulse current
k Reduction factor
L Inductance
LM Tower inductance
Tlf Number of flashovers
Xg N u m b e r o f flashes p e r k m 2 a n d y e a r
N k Keraunic level
Si Slope o f lightning impulse current
Uc Lightning overvoltage
U M Overvoltage a t tower
Upf Power frequency voltage
Zc Line surge impedance
ZM Tower surge impedance
0s Shielding factor
9 Protection angle
(?E E a r t h resistivity

4.1 Significance of lightning

Lightning discharges constitute t h em a i n cause o f m o s t n o n - p r o g r a m m e d outages o f
e l e c t r i c s y s t e m s . I n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t i s t i c s s h o w t h a t a b o u t 6 5 % o f line outages o r i g i n a t e
f r o m l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s t h a t h i t t h e o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s [4.1]. I t i s c e r t a i n l y
possible t oreduce t h e n u m b e r o fline outages t o a n acceptable level t h r o u g h a convenient
protection scheme, w i t h a n adequate installation o f earth wires a n da n appropriate
earthing o f the towers. T h e growing amount o f power t o be carried b y transmission
lines forces t h e electric systems t o operate m o r e a n d m o r e a t their limits, so t h a t n o n -
p r o g r a m m e d l i n e o u t a g e s i n c r e a s e t h e risk of instability. A t t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e i n c r e a s e
of short-circuit currents c o n t r i b u t e t o increase such risks.
E v e r y f a u l t t u r n s o u t i n t o a n overvoltage surge, t h a t m a y l a s t f r o m a fraction o f a s e c o n d
u p t o o n e second. S u c h surges, despite n o tfelt b y m o s t o f i n d u s t r i a l e q u i p m e n t a n d
facilities, are e x t r e m e l y h a r m f u l t o weaker installations a n d devices, specially computers
a n d other electronic apparatus. O n t h e other h a n d , some industrial facilities, such as
a l u m i n i u m and steel mills as well as o i l factories are often very sensitive t o line outages,
even i fo f short d u r a t i o n a n d subject t o quick reclosing. T h e c o m m u n i t i e s a n d users
are, as a m a t t e r o f fact, m o r e a n dm o r e sensible t o electricity breakdowns, r e q u i r i n g
from t h e utilities a continuous improvement o f quality o f supply. T h ereduction o f
insulation flashovers d u e t o l i g h t n i n g strokes is, therefore, a n i m p o r t a n t goal o f the
overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e design, especially those s i t u a t e d i nregions o f h i g h k e r a u n i c
levels [4.2].
LUU a mgiininig protection
70 ps 60 (is 1 ms 60 (is
F i g u r e 4.1: Mechanism
of a l i g h t n i n g discharge t o
Time — earth
4.2 Formation of lightning strokes
4.2.1 M e c h a n i s m of lightning discharge
T h e lightning discharge is i n i t i a t e d b y a s t r e a m e r f r o m t h e c l o u d w h i c h p r o g r e s s e s
t o w a r d e a r t h i n a s e r i e s o f s t e p s s o m e t e n s o f m e t e r s l o n g . I t i s k n o w n a s stepped
leader. T h e r e i s a t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e s t e p s a t t h e o r d e r o f 4 0 t o 1 0 0 ps. A s t h i s
leader progresses, i tsplits i n branches a n d t h e l u m i n o s i t y o f t h e ionised w a y increases
(see F i g u r e 4.1). W h e n t h e l e a d e r i s u p o n r e a c h i n g t h e e a r t h , u p w a r d p r e d i s c h a r g e s
a r e d e v e l o p e d u s u a l l y f r o m salient p o i n t s : trees, s t r u c t u r e s , b u i l d i n g s , etc., t o w a r d t h e
l e a d e r d i r e c t i o n (see F i g u r e s 4 . 1 a n d 4.2).
A t the m o m e n t i n w h i c h o n e o f these u p w a r d predischarges a n d t h e leader meet o n e
another, a short circuit is established between t h e cloud and t h e ground, giving rise t o
a l a r g e c u r r e n t flow. T h i s c u r r e n t i s m a d e u p o f c h a r g e s a t t h e s o i l s u r f a c e t h a t g o u p
t o t h e ionised c h a n n e l f o r m e d b y t h e leader, n e u t r a l i s i n g i t s charges. A h i g h l y l u m i n o u s
flash c a n b e o b s e r v e d p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m t h e e a r t h t o t h e c l o u d , t h e return stroke, a t a
speed o f about o n et h i r d o f light speed.
A l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e i s u s u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d o f s e v e r a l s t r o k e s flowing a t t h e s a m e i o n i s e d
channel b y t h e f o l l o w i n g process: w h e n t h e c u r r e n t o f t h e first r e t u r n stroke ends u p ,
there is a n interval o f about 4 0 m suntil a second stroke appears, the cloud being still
able t o contain a certain a m o u n t o fcharge; t h i s second stroke begins w i t h a leader t h a t ,
u n l i k e t h e s t e p p e d l e a d e r , p r o g r e s s e s c o n t i n u o u s l y , b e i n g n a m e d dart leader a n d h a v i n g
a propagation speed about 1 0 0times lower t h a n t h e r e t u r n stroke. Several successive
strokes m a y occur according t o the same mechanism; i n general, a complete discharge
lasts f r o m 0,2t o 1 second a n d i s m a d e u p o f 3 t o 4 p a r t i a l discharges, i n average.
4.2.2 I m p u l s e b e h a v i o u r of l i g h t n i n g discharges
T h e stepped leader i s a n i o n i s e d c h a n n e l c o n t a i n i n g a n e x c e s s o f n e g a t i v e c h a r g e s w h e n i t
begins at t h e negative p a r t o ft h e cloud, a n d a n excess o fpositive charges w h e n i t begins
at t h e positive p a r t o f t h e cloud. I t isconsidered t h a t there exists a h i g h concentration
of charges o f the same p o l a r i t y a t its edge. W h e n t h e leader approaches t h e e a r t h , the
e l e c t r i c a l field j u s t b e l o w t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c h a r g e s i n c r e a s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
W h e n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field a t g r o u n d l e v e l r e a c h e s t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e , s e v e r a l p o s i t i v e
u p w a r d strokes a r e developed t o w a r d the leader. O n e o f t h e strokes, t h e nearest o n e
or t h e o n e w h i c h progressed m o r e quickly, gets i n t o u c h w i t h t h e leader: a n ionised
channel ist h e n established between the earth a n d the cloud, and a stroke occurs. I f t w o
or m o r e u p w a r d strokes converge i n t o t h e leader, a branched stroke occurs; the same
happens w h e n t w o branches o f the leader give rise t o a n u p w a r d stroke.
T h e electrical field at g r o u n d l e v e l i s a s i m u l t a n e o u s f u n c t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f c h a r g e s
4.2 F o r m a t i o n o t l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s 101
F i g u r e 4.2: Segments o f a lightning stroke path t o a n earthed structure
in the leader a n d o f its separation towards the ground. S o the distance t o t h e ground
after w h i c h t h ecritical p o i n t is reached d e p e n d s o n t h e charge o f t h e leader. T h e
p r e s e n t m o d e l s s u p p o s e t h a t t h e first s t r o k e n e u t r a l i z e s t h e l e a d e r c h a r g e s , a c o n -
stant r e l a t i o n existing between these charges a n d t h e discharge current. T h i s r e l a t i o nis
about 15k A / C o u l o m b , according t omeasurements carried out a tM o n t e S a n Salvatore,
S w i t z e r l a n d [4.3]. A n u m e r i c a l r e l a t i o n i s t h e n e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m
t h e l e a d e r e d g e t o t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e stroke current m a g n i t u d e o f t h e d i s c h a r g e w h e n
t h e c r i t i c a l e l e c t r i c a l field i s r e a c h e d .
T h e following empirical f o r m u l a has been proposed for calculation o f the strike distance
D = 6,7-/°'8 , (4.1)
w h e r e D i s t h e s t r i k e distance i nm a n d I t h e stroke c u r r e n t i n k A . I tcan, therefore,
b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e a r e a o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a lightning arrester w i l l b e g r e a t e r a n d
greater as t h e c u r r e n t m a g n i t u d e increases, w h a t is a f a v o u r a b l e p o i n t . If, o n t h e other
hand, t h e current islow, t h e i m p a c t m a y occur even a t the l i g h t n i n g arrester base. T h e
l i g h t n i n g p r o t e c t i o n is t h e n ineffective.
4.2.3 E l e c t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the discharges
T h e lightning discharges c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o [4.4, 4 . 5 , 4 . 6 ] a n d [4.7] i n c o n -
formity with their polarityas:
— negative discharges (discharges f r o m a negatively charged cloud);
— positive discharges (discharges f r o m a positively charged cloud).
I n regions w i t h t e m p e r a t e c l i m a t e 8 0 t o 9 0 % o f t h e discharges are negative. According
to t h e direction o f progress o f t h e leader, the f o l l o w i n g classification is used:
— downward discharges w h e r e t h e l e a d e r d e v e l o p s f r o m t h e c l o u d ;
— upward discharges w h e r e t h e l e a d e r d e v e l o p s f r o m t h e e a r t h ( s e e F i g u r e 4 . 4 ) .
I n flat r e g i o n s m o s t d i s c h a r g e s a r e d o w n w a r d s [ 4 . 4 ] , w h i l e u p w a r d d i s c h a r g e s h i t m o r e
frequently sharp and elevated objects, such as telecommunication towers and transmis-
sion line towers situated o n hilly tops. According t o present knowledge, t h e discharge
direction does n o td e p e n d o n t h e p o l a r i t y o f t h e cloud b u t o n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f b o t h
electrodes: the cloud a n d t h e subject o n e a r t h p o t e n t i a l .
T h e negative discharges a r e m a d e u p o f a m a i n s t r o k e a n d s e v e r a l s u b s e q u e n t s t r o k e s ,
e a c h o n e h a v i n g s e v e r a l a m p l i t u d e s a n d d u r a t i o n . T h e f r o n t t i m e o f t h e first p a r t i a l
s t r o k e i s a b o u t 1 0 ps. T h e f r o n t t i m e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s t r o k e s i s m u c h l o w e r , u s u a l l y
a b o u t 1 ps, b u t t h e i r w a v e t a i l i s m u c h m o r e r e g u l a r t h a n t h a t o f t h e first s t r o k e . T h e
102 4 Lightning protection 4.3 F r e q u e n c y a n d i n t e n s i t y o f l i g h t n i n g strokes 103

10 20 30 (is 40

F i g u r e 4.3: O s c i l l o g r a m o f c u r r e n t o f a m u l - F i g u r e 4.4: T y p i c a l c u r r e n t w a v e s h a p e s o f ( a )
t i p l e l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e a c c o r d i n g [4.8] positive and ( b ) negative l i g h t n i n g discharges

peak values o f the subsequent strokes are generally lower t h a n t h a t o f the m a i n stroke
(see F i g u r e 4.3).
T h e positive discharge i s m a d e u p o f o n l y o n e s t r o k e , l a s t i n g f r o m 0 , 1 t o 0 , 2 s e c o n d s .
T h e t i m e o f wave front i s f a i r l y l o n g , v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 5 0 ps, b u t t h e c u r r e n t
a m p l i t u d e m a y r e a c h m u c h l a r g e r v a l u e s , e v e n h i g h e r t h a n 1 0 0 k A (see F i g u r e 4 . 4 ) .

4.3 Frequency and intensity of lightning strokes

4.3.1 K e r a u n i c l e v e l s a n d e a r t h flash d e n s i t y

T h e n u m b e r o f line outages i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e n u m b e r o f s t r o k e s h i t t i n g
t h e line. O fcourse, t h e higher t h e occurrence o f t h u n d e r s t o r m s i na region t h e higher
t h e probability o f l i g h t n i n g stroke incidence o n a line crossing t h i s region.
The frequency o f incidence o f l i g h t n i n g strokes a t a c e r t a i n l o c a l i t y h a sb e e n a l o n g
t h e y e a r s m e a s u r e d b y t h e keraunic level, i . e . t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f t h u n d e r s t o r m
days p e ryear i nt h a t locality as recorded b y hearing o f a t h u n d e r . F i g u r e 4.5 shows
k e r a u n i c levels o n a w o r l d w i d e m a p . T h i s p a r a m e t e r , despite s i m p l e a n d d e p e n d i n g o n
the hearing ability o f weather observers, has proved valuable i n the investigation a n d
assessment o f l i g h t n i n g performance o foverhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines.
R e g a r d i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e k e r a u n i c levels, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o have a l o n g p e r i o d
of observations because they are essentially statistical data so t h a t a longer period o f
observations is significant i norder t o have a m o r e reliable forecast f o ru s ei n f u t u r e
projects.
A l t h o u g h keraunic levels give a g o o d idea o f t h e l i g h t n i n g a c t i v i t y a t a certain region,
however, because o f t h e i r subjective a n d inaccurate n a t u r e , i ti s m o r e advisable, u n d e r
a n e n g i n e e r i n g s t a n d p o i n t , t o k n o w t h e flash density d e f i n e d a s t h e n u m b e r o f flashes
per k m 2 and year along the line route.
T h e search o f this parameter is u n f o r t u n a t e l y still rare i nmost countries, but some
m e a s u r i n g systems have been developed for t h i s purpose. O n e o fthe m e a s u r i n g devices,
d e v e l o p e d b y C i g r e , i s k n o w n a s "counter of earth discharges'" a n d i s b a s e d o n t h e F i g u r e 4.5: K e r a u n i c levels o n a w o r l d w i d e basis
v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l o c a l e l e c t r i c a l field p r o d u c e d b y a l i g h t n i n g flash [ 4 . 9 ] .
Using t h e results o f such counters, several researchers have a t t e m p t e d t o develop e m -
p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e f o r c o r r e l a t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f flashes t o g r o u n d Ng t o t h e k e r a u n i c
104 4 Lightning protection L A frequency a n aintensity o l n g n t m n g strokes 1 U 5

6 5 4 2 3 71
T a b l e 4 . 1 : Statistical measured data o f lightning strokes
Curve Source Average Coefficient Number of Measuring Measuring
value of variation measurements device place
kA %
CEMIG magnetic
1 46 21 150 tower top
Brazil charts
ERIKSSON oszillo- measuring
2 41 22 11
South Afrika graph mast
BERGER oszillo- measuring
3 30 42 101
Swiss graph mast
POPOLANSKY oszillo- measuring
4 28 — 618
Czech Republic graph mast
LEWIS magnetic
5 28 50 110 tower top
USA charts
SZPOR magnetic
6 30 40 104 Tower top
Poland charts
ANDERSON magnetic
7 40 19 140
Rhodesia charts

level N y . Several e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e have been developed f o r r e l a t i n g flash densities

w i t h k e r a u n i c levels. A l l provide s i m i l a r results. Based o n m e a s u r e m e n t s h e l d i n S o u t h
A f r i c a , A . . L E r i k s s o n [4.4] r e c o m m e n d s t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a , t h a t i s c o n s i d e r e d a m o n g
electric utilities t o b e w e l l acceptable:

N g = 0,04•N y ' 2 5 flashes/(km2 year), (4.2)

w h e r e N y i s n u m b e r o f t h u n d e r s t o r m days p e ryear. A c c o r d i n g t o [4.10], t h e f o l l o w i n g 30 40 50 200 300

Lightning current / - kA
approach is valid: Slope S| kA/ps

N g ~ 0,2- N y flashes/(km2 year). (4.3)

For a keraunic level o f f o rinstance, N y = 2 0 t o 4 0 ,f o r m u l a (4.3) provides a ground
density a p p r o x i m a t e l y twice as m u c h as f o r m u l a (4.2).
T h e flash density to ground i s o n l y a n a v e r a g e i n d i c a t i o n v a l i d f o r a r e g i o n w i t h a
given keraunic level. T h e r e a r e other local factors favouring t h eincidence o f l i g h t n i n g
strokes, such a s relief type, i o n i s a t i o n state o f t h e atmosphere,- etc. H o w e v e r , t h e mech-
a n i s m d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p o i n t o f incidence o f t h e stroke points o fthe l i g h t n i n g discharge
seems t o decide a b o u t t h i s p o i n t o n l y a b o u t a h u n d r e d m e t e r s above g r o u n d (see also
4.2.2). L o c a l conditions are, therefore, supposed t o have a n i m p o r t a n t influence o n t h e
discharge a t this m o m e n t .
T h e lightning embracing exposure o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e d e p e n d s o n i t s h e i g h t . F o r t o w e r
heights a r o u n d 4 0 m , typical f o r 1 1 0k V lines, t h e embracing exposure reaches a b o u t
150 m ; f o r t o w e r h e i g h t s o f 6 0 m a r o u n d 2 5 0 m a n d f o rt o w e r heights o f 8 0 m a r o u n d
350 m . T h elatter comprise tower heights f o rlines i n the range o f 362 t o 785 k V .
F i g u r e 4 . 6 : D i s t r i b u t i o n frequencies o f l i g h t n i n g stroke currents a n dslopes (clarification i n
Table 4.1)
regions is n o t y e t available a t enough quantity. However, t h eaverage l i g h t n i n g current
magnitude c a n vary from region t o region a n dm a ydepend o n t h ealtitude above sea-
level a s well. Figure 4.6 shows cumulative frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n o f lightning stroke
currents o b t a i n e d i n s o m e countries. T a b l e 4 . 1 clarifies o r i g i n a n d statistical d a t a o f
t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 4 . 6 . T h e c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n c o n t a i n e d i n [4.10]
corresponds t o line 4.
F i g u r e 4 . 6 s h o w s c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f lightning stroke slopes f o r n e g a t i v e s i n g l e
a n d m u l t i p l e d i s c h a r g e s . F o r a l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t o f 5 0 k A , t h e s t a n d a r d front time o f
1,2 ps c o r r e s p o n d s t o a s l o p e o f a b o u t 4 0 kA/ps, w h i c h i s e x c e e d e d b y 1 0 % o f a l l
lightning strokes.

4.3.2 Magnitude of lightning stroke currents

4.3.3 Direct and indirect lightning strokes
U n d e r t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e current
magnitudes a n d s l o p e o f t h e n e g a t i v e u p w a r d d i s c h a r g e s s h o u l d b e k n o w n : W G - 3 3 . 1 L i g h t n i n g overvoltages occurring i na t r a n s m i s s i o n line a r e related t o t h epoint o f inci-
( L i g h t n i n g ) o f C i g r e [4.3] p r o p o s e d t h a t consideration s h o u l d b e g i v e n o n l y t o d a t a dence o f t h e l i g h t n i n g strokes a n d c a n ,therefore, b e classified as:
obtained f r o m structures n o thigher t h a n 1 0 0m . A s f o rstructures u p t o this height, - Induced overvoltages that occur w h e n the lightning strokes reach the ground near
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r i n g n e g a t i v e u p w a r d d i s c h a r g e s d o e s n ' t e x c e e d 1 0 %; t h i s d i s - the line;
tribution is considered as t h emost representative for engineering studies, specially f o r - O v e r v o l t a g e s d u e t o shielding failures t h a t o c c u r w h e n t h e l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e r e a c h e s
lightning performance evaluation o f transmission lines. the phase conductors;
U n d e r these premises, t h eaverage c u r r e n t o f 3 5 k A is r e c o m m e n d e d as t h e m e a n value - O v e r v o l t a g e s c a u s e d b y back-flashovers t h a t occur w h e n t h elightning stroke
of lightning strokes; support o f additional i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m tropical a n d subtropical reaches t h eshield w i r e o r t h e tower.
106 4 Lightning protection 4.4 A r r a n g e m e n t a n d efficiency o fe a r t h w i r e s 107

Induced overvoltages r a r e l y e x c e e d 6 0 0 k V , b e i n g , t h e r e f o r e , n e g l i g i b l e f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n
lines above 9 0k V , whose insulation level isusually higher t h a n 600 k V .
I n case o f a direct stroke reaching t h e conductor, t h e current I splits i n t w o portions
flowing t o w a r d b o t h d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e l i n e . T h e p e a k v a l u e o f t h e o v e r v o l t a g e Uc i s
given by:

UC = 1J2I-ZC , (4-4)

w h e r e ZQ i s t h e surge impedance o f t h e c i r c u i t ( s e e c l a u s e 2 . 1 . 2 ) . T h e o v e r v o l t a g e
wave issimilar t othe stroke current, although it can b e subsequently modified b y the
p r o p a g a t i o n , b y c o r o n a effects a n d b y reflections a tt h e t e r m i n a l s .
A flashover a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r strings a t t h e t o w e r o r t o a nadjacent c o n d u c t o r m a y
o c c u r o r n o t , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e insulation level o f t h e l i n e . I t i s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y s a i d t h a t
a flashover occurs if

Uc + U P F > U 5 0 % (4-5)
777777777777777777777777777777777777777?
w h e r e U C i s t h e lightning overvoltage, U p f t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s v a l u e o f p o w e r f r e q u e n c y F i g u r e 4.7: Electromagnetic model for shield- F i g u r e 4.8: Electromagnetic model for shield-
v o l t a g e a n d U 5 o % i s t h e c r i t i c a l flashover voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g w i t h t h e s a m e ing failures: incomplete shielding i n g faiiures: effective shielding, n o u n p r o t e c t e d
polarity asthe impulse wave. area
A convenient l a y o u t o f e a r t h w i r e s w i l l cause t h e l i g h t n i n g strokes t oh i t o n l y t h e e a r t h
wires, the towers o r the neighbouring ground, seldom the conductors.
F i g u r e 4 . 7 s h o w s a n e x a m p l e o f a n i n c o m p l e t e s h i e l d i n g , b e c a u s e flashes A a n d C m a k e
T h e back-flashovers a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s t h a t r e a c h e d t h e e a r t h w i r e .
t h e i r final j u m p s t o e a r t h w i r e a n d e a r t h , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b u t f l a s h B m a y j u m p o n l y t o
W h e n the stroke current isdrained t o the ground t h r o u g h the tower, a n overvoltage
the phase conductor. I n F i g u r e 4.8 n o uncovered a r e a exists a n d a n effective shielding
is o r i g i n a t e d a t t h e l a t t e r a s a d i r e c t f u n c t i o n o f i t s e a r t h s u r g e i m p e d a n c e a n d a n
is r e a c h e d .
indirect f u n c t i o n o f the earthing resistance. I fthis overvoltage, combined w i t h t h e
T h e s t r i k e d i s t a n c e D i s m u l t i p l i e d b y a r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r /3s w h e n i t r e f e r s t o g r o u n d .
instantaneous power frequency voltage o fthe phase conductors, exceeds the i n s u l a t i o n
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t / 3 s a l l o w s f o r t h e s t r o n g l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e final s t r i k e d i s t a n c e t o t h e
l e v e l o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s , a tower-to-conductor flashover occurs. T h e tower earthing
h o r i z o n t a l g r o u n d p l a n e , w i t h i t s w i d e s p r e a d a t t r a c t i v e effects, w i l l b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
resistance o r t h e surge i m p e d a n c e is, therefore, a p a r a m e t e r o fp a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e
different f r o m t h e strike distance t oa w i r e suspended above t h e e a r t h plane. T h e value
in the c o m p u t a t i o n o fthe tower overvoltage, asexpressed b y the f o r m u l a
o f /3s r e c o m m e n d e d b y E P R I [ 4 . 5 ] i s 0 , 8 f o r l i n e s o f r a n g e I a n d 0 , 6 7 f o r l i n e s o f r a n g e
UM = (l-k)(ZM-I + LMdI/dt) , (4.6) II, according t oI E C 6 0 0 7 1 .

w h e r e U M i s t h e t o w e r o v e r v o l t a g e ( k V ) , Zyx t h e e a r t h s u r g e i m p e d a n c e o f t h e t o w e r a s a
f u n c t i o n o f t h e t o w e r e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e (SI), L M t h e tower self-inductance, I t h e s t r o k e
c u r r e n t ( k A ) a n d fc t h e coupling factor b e t w e e n e a r t h w i r e s a n d c o n d u c t o r s ( s e e [ 4 . 5 ] ) .
4.4 Arrangement and efficiency of earth wires
4.4.1 Theoretical background
W h i t e h e a d [4.11] a n d o t h e r s h a v e p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s o n t h e e l e c t r o m a g -
netic t h e o r y for t o t a l l y shielding t h e conductors o fa n overhead line, b o t h analytically
a n d p r a c t i c a l l y (see a l s o [4.5]).
A n effective shielding requires a strategic p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e e a r t h w i r e s o t h a t t h e
leaders o f incident l i g h t n i n g strokes, whose currents exceed t h e critical current, reach
a l w a y s t h e e a r t h w i r e s o r t h e g r o u n d , b u t n o t t h e c o n d u c t o r s . I n o r d e r t o p r o v e earth
wire efficiency, a c i r c l e o f d i a m e t e r D, o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a t i o n ( 4 . 1 ) , i s d r a w n a r o u n d
earth w i r e and conductor points. Besides, a parallel straight line is d r a w n a ta distance
/3s • D t o g r o u n d s u r f a c e ( s e e F i g u r e s 4 . 7 a n d 4 . 8 ) . T h e m o s t f a v o u r a b l e p o s i t i o n o f
the e a r t h w i r e i s o b t a i n e d w h e n t h e circles a r o u n d phase conductors a n d e a r t h w i r e s
meet i n t h e same point w i t h the parallel straight line w i t h the g r o u n d surface. (Figure
4 . 8 ) . T h e n a c o m p l e t e shielding protection o f t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s i s o b t a i n e d b e c a u s e
lightning strokes reach either the earth wires o r the earth.
4.4.2 Effective shielding by earth wires
I n regions w i t h m e d i u m o r h i g h k e r a u n i c levels i tis s t a n d a r d practice t o equip t r a n s -
m i s s i o n l i n e s w i t h earth wires t o s h i e l d t h e m a g a i n s t l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e s . I n r e g i o n s o f
low k e r a u n i c levels t h e use o fe a r t h w i r e s can b e precluded.
W h e n d e s i g n i n g a n effective s h i e l d i n g o f lines, effects c a u s e d b y back-flashovers have
to b e considered a s well. T h e r e f o r e , a n a p p r o p r i a t e e a r t h i n g o f t h e t o w e r s is essen-
tial i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f e a r t h wires. E a r t h i n g w i t h respect t o l i g h t n i n g
protection does n o t directly correspond t oe a r t h i n g for power frequency voltages.
F o r e f f e c t i v e s h i e l d i n g b o t h t h e s t r o k e s h i t t i n g d i r e c t l y t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d back-flash-
overs from t o w e r s t o c o n d u c t o r s h a v e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e l a t t e r o c c u r a s a c o n s e -
q u e n c e o f s t r o k e s i n t o t h e e a r t h w i r e s o r e a r t h e d t o w e r s c a u s i n g t h e tower potential
to b e increased. T h i s increase depends o nt h e stroke current, surge e a r t h resistance o f
the tower a n d eventual coupling between the e a r t h wires a n d t h e phase conductors. I n
b o t h c a s e s a l i g h t n i n g flashover o c c u r s w h e n t h e l i g h t n i n g o v e r v o l t a g e e x c e e d s t h e l i n e
insulation level.
T h e e a r t h w i r e s Eire i n s t a l l e d w i t h shielding angles t h a t u s u a l l y v a r y b e t w e e n 10 and
35°, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e l i n e [ 4 . 1 2 ] .
T h e first a p p r o a c h e s d e v e l o p e d f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a g a i n s t d i r e c t l i g h t -
n i n g s t r o k e s c o n s i d e r e d a m a x i m u m p r o t e c t i o n a n g l e o f 30° b e t w e e n t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t
of the shield w i r e attachment at t h e tower a n d the horizontally most external conductor
1U8 4 mgntmng protection
0 10 20 30 [°] 40
Angle 0
F i g u r e 4.9: Protection area through F i g u r e 4 . 1 0 : Highest current of lightning
an earth wire i n a Danube Tower striking directly into phase conductor
(see F i g u r e 4 . 9 ) . R e a l l y t h e p r o t e c t i o n effect o f t h e e a r t h w i r e s d e p e n d s a l s o o n t h e i r
h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d a n d o n t h e l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t . F i g u r e 4.10 a c c o r d i n g t o [4.10] r e p -
resents current peak values o f lightning h i t t i n g phase conductors directly as a function
o f a n g l e 8. A s t h e lightning current i n c r e a s e s , t h e p r o t e c t i o n e f f e c t w i l l i m p r o v e a s w e l l .
Higher towers require lower shielding angles for a t t a i n i n g t h e same protection level.
For 5 5 m height above ground, only lightning currents lower t h a n 3 0 k A , representing
a b o u t 3 0 % o f a l l c u r r e n t s , c a nh i t d i r e c t l y t h e conductors. I f a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 5 0 %
for t h e l i g h t n i n g strokes is considered, t h e n 7,5 t o 1 5 discharges p e ryear h i t phase
conductors i naverage. A b o u t h a l f f r o m those discharges, t h a t means 4 t o 8, cause
flashovers t h r o u g h t h e i n s u l a t i o n . T h e impulse voltage peak i s d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h t h e
surge impedance, considering also t h e c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n a t its p o i n t o f incidence:
Uc = 1/2 Z C I . (4.7)
F i g u r e 4 . 1 1 a c c o r d i n g t o [ 4 . 1 0 ] r e p r e s e n t s t h e shielding failure rate m e a s u r e d b y t h e
n u m b e r o f flashovers p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r , f o r 2 5 a n d 5 5 m s h i e l d w i r e h e i g h t s a n d 3 , 6
flashes per k m 2 a n d year. T h e following c o m m e n t s are based o n such values.
A d d i t i o n a l l y t o t h e direct strokes i n phase conductors, also t h e strokes t otowers or e a r t h
w i r e s c a n c a u s e i n s u l a t i o n f a i l u r e s d u e t o back-flashovers, w h e n the impulse overvoltage
r e a c h e s a v a l u e a b o v e t h e lightning withstand impulse o f t h e i n s u l a t i o n .
K e r a u n i c levels b e t w e e n 15 a n d 3 0 t h u n d e r s t o r m days per year are typical i nC e n t r a l
E u r o p e , w h i l e a m a x i m u m o f 200 occurs i n the equatorial region o f S o u t h America, as
it c a n b e seen i n F i g u r e 4.5. F o r t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d k e r a u n i c levels o fC e n t r a l E u r o p e ,
a r e s u l t i n g flash d e n s i t y o f 2 t o 4 e a r t h flashes p e r k m 2 o c c u r s f o r 6 0 m h i g h t o w e r s
of 380 k V overhead lines; t h e corresponding e m b r a c i n g e x p o s u r e reaches a b o u t 250 m ,
w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f flashes p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r i s b e t w e e n 5 0 a n d 1 0 0 .
F o r 5 0 0 k V o v e r h e a d l i n e s i n N o r t h o r S o u t h A m e r i c a w i t h Zc = 3 0 0 SI a n d l i g h t -
ning current o f 3 0 k A , a voltage o f4500 k V isreached, w h a t w o u l d result i n insulator
flashover. E H V l i n e s o f r a n g e I I u s u a l l y h a v e s h i e l d i n g a n g l e s l o w e r t h a n 30°, m o s t l y
a r o u n d 10°. F o r t h e l a t t e r p r o t e c t i o n a n g l e o n l y flashes b e l o w 1 5 k A c a n r e a c h t h e c o n -
d u c t o r s ; s u c h flashes h a v e a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 1 5 % t o o c c u r , r e s u l t i n g i n 5 0 % p r o b a b i l i t y
o f s h i e l d i n g f a i l u r e s o r i n 4 t o 8 flashes p e r y e a r . O n l y f l a s h e s b e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 1 5 k A , o r
1/3 o f t h e total, can produce overvoltages t h a t lead t o i n s u l a t i o n failures. T h e n u m b e r
o f flashovers reaches, therefore, 1,5 t o 2,5 p e r 100 k m p e r year.
For 110 k V lines w i t h 4 0 m h i g h towers t h e embracing exposure reduces t o 150 m a n d
the n u m b e r o fflashes reaches 3 0 t o 6 0per 100 k m a n d year. F o r 4 0 m h i g h towers a n d
30° s h i e l d i n g a n g l e , o n l y flashes b e l o w 2 0 k A c a n h i t p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s , o r o n l y 2 0 %
o f a l l flashes. C o n s i d e r i n g a g a i n a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 5 0 %, i t r e s u l t s i n 3 t o 6 flashes p e r
y e a r . A l l flashes l e a d t o insulation flashovers d u e t o t h e l o w i m p u l s e w i t h s t a n d o f t h e
insulator string. Consideration should be given t o 3 t o 6 flashovers p e r 100 k m and
year. Because o f t h e increase o f the i n s u l a t i o n level w i t h t h e n o m i n a l voltage o f t h e
line, the r i s k o fback-flashovers usually decreases w i t h t h e voltage.
Statistics show t h a t the number o f flashovers f r o m conductors t o towers is about the
same for a l l voltage levels. T h i s a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y tendency isoccasioned b y t h e
higher towers used i n higher voltages, asfor steeper l i g h t n i n g impulse events the higher
surge impedance o f t h e towers w i l l b e effective.
F o r a 1 1 0 k V l i n e w i t h a n i m p u l s e w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e o f 5 5 0 k V , 1 0 SI e a r t h s u r g e
impedance a n d 15 % coupling factor o f the phase conductors w i t h the e a r t h w i r e the
c r i t i c a l l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t a t t a i n s I ~ 5 5 0 / ( 1 0 • 0 , 8 5 ) ~ 6 5 k A . I f a stroke h i t d i r e c t l y t h e
t o w e r t h e n t h e l i g h t n i n g surge voltage s t r a i n s t h e i n s u l a t i o n . F o r 15 % o fa l l strokes the
current will be equal o r higher t h a n 65 k A . I f a stroke h i t the earth wire a t midspan
a n d a 50 % t o5 0 % d i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e c u r r e n t o nt h e n e i g h b o u r i n g towers i s considered
t h e n o n l y l i g h t n i n g w i t h currents above 130 k A w o u l d cause back-flashovers. O n l y 1 %
of all strokes will reach o r exceed this current. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e a current o f 6 5 k A
is a c h i e v e d o r e x c e e d e d b y 4 , 5 t o 9 l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s p e r 1 0 0 k m l i n e a n d y e a r , w h i l e
0,6 t o 1,2 s t r o k e s p e r 100 k m a n d y e a r w i l l r e a c h 1 3 0 k A . B a c k - f l a s h o v e r s h a v e t o b e
expected w h e n these lightning currents are reached o r exceeded.
F o r 2 2 0 o r 3 8 0 k V o v e r h e a d l i n e s w i t h basic insulation levels o f 1 0 5 0 o r 1 4 2 5 k V ,
respectively, having higher towers a n d lower surge impedances, i t results i n critical
c u r r e n t i n t e n s i t i e s o f 100 o r 110 k Afor flashes r e a c h i n g t h e t o w e r s . F o r e q u a l l i g h t n i n g
currents, a lower n u m b e r o fback-flashovers can b e expected, therefore.
Statistics show that i n Europe the number o f lightning failures ispractically indepen-
dent o n the voltage level for lines i n t h e range o f 110 t o 380 k V , reaching between 1,1
t o 1 , 6 flashovers p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e s t i m a t e s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e l e a d
to conservative values. Statistics available i n S o u t h A m e r i c a show t h e following ranges
for outages d u e t o l i g h t n i n g strokes:
- 4 0 t o 7 0k V lines: u p t o 1 0 l i n e outages p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r ;
- 110 t o 245 k V lines: 2 t o 5 l i n e outages per 100 k m a n d year;
- 300 t o 500 k V lines: 1 t o 2 line outages per 100 k m a n d year;
- 750 k V lines: 0 , 2t o 0,5 line outages per 100 k m and year.
A n interesting a n d valuable survey o n t h e performance o f E H V lines was carried out
b y C i g r e S t u d y C o m m i t t e e 3 3 [4.13]. T h i s s u r v e y h a s b e e n u s e f u l w h e n d e s i g n i n g n e w
lines i n the relevant regions.
110 4 Lightning protection 4.5 E a r t h i n g i n v i e w o f l i g h t n i n g p r o t e c t i o n 1 1 1

4.4.3 Surge arresters

T a b l e 4 . 2 : Guidelines f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l i g h t n i n g perfor¬
A n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e use o f e a r t h w i r e s for p r o t e c t i n g t h e conductors against t h e direct m a n c e of overhead lines a n d relevant t o w e r e a r t h i n g resistances
Highest Lightning Number of Tower Number of
i n c i d e n c e o f l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s t h a t h a s g a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f l a t e c o n s i s t s o f u s i n g surge
operating withstand outages per earthing earth wires
arresters i nparallel t o insulator strings. T h e need o f using e a r t h wires is, therefore,
voltage voltage 100 km resistance
precluded a n d m o r e economical towers can b e designed. T h e technical advantages a n d kV kV and year n
e c o n o m i c s o f such s o l u t i o n s h o u l d n a t u r a l l y b e e x a m i n e d b u t i n several cases surge 123 550 5 15 1
a r r e s t e r s c a nb e r e c o m m e n d e d i ffor o t h e r reasons l o w e r t o w e r s a r e used [4.14]. S u r g e 245 950 3 20 1 or 2
arresters have been already used i n lines u p t o 145 k V for p r o v i d i n g f u r t h e r p r o t e c t i o n 420 1300 1.5 20 2
525 1550 1,0 25 2
against l i g h t n i n g strokes i n especial regions. F o rE H V lines t h e i r u s e is still under
765 2100 0,5 25 2
consideration m o s t l y for economical reasons.

4.4.4 A s s e s s m e n t of lightning performance of overhead lines

L i g h t n i n g overvoltages usually govern the e x t e r n a l i n s u l a t i o n o f overhead lines o f the

range I ( u pt o 3 0 0k V ) . T h e y m a y govern even t h e i n s u l a t i o n o f lines w i t h voltages
of range I I , f o r instance u n t i l 5 2 5k V , i fthe k e r a u n i c levels a n d / o r e a r t h resistivities
are h i g h a n d t h e switching surges are l i m i t e d b y convenient means, such as the u s e o f
pre-insertion resistors o r surge arresters.
Several analytical a n d s i m u l a t i o n methods have been developed f o rthe evaluation o f
o v e r h e a d line performance under lightning o v e r v o l t a g e s . T h e M o n t e C a r l o ' s t e c h n i q u e s
consider t h a t the process o f lightning strokes reaching a n overhead line comprises a
series o f e v e n t s o f a p r o b a b i l i s t i c n a t u r e [4.15]. O t h e r m e t h o d s e m p l o y a n a l y t i c a l e q u a -
tions a n d calculate the critical voltages t h a t are applied t othe insulation.Therefore, the
resulting back-flashover probabilities are determined. O n e o f the most k n o w n software
developed b y I E E E , the F L A S H program, has been o n eo f m o r e accurate approaches
used o flate [4.16]. T h i s m e t h o d takes i n t o account t h e f o l l o w i n g sequence o f c a l c u l a t i o n :
— C o n v e r s i o n o f t h e keraunic levels o f t h e region crossed b y t h e line into
d e n s i t i e s o r d i r e c t u s e o f flash d e n s i t i e s , i f a v a i l a b l e ;
- D e t e r m i n a t i o n of probability density of e a r t h i n g surge impedances asafunction o f
t h e assessed o r m e a s u r e d p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e t o w e r e a r t h i n g resistance
of the line;
- C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the geometry o f t h e basic o r m o r e frequently used tower config-
uration o f the line, as well as the typical wave shape o f t h e lightning stroke;
— C a l c u l a t i o n o fthe t w ocomponents o f the l i g h t n i n g performance, n a m e l y t h e
shielding failure rate a n d t h e back-flashover failure r a t e .
T h e s t a n d a r d line performance index i s m e a s u r e d i n n u m b e r o f l i n e o u t a g e s p e r 1 0 0 k m
a n d year. B a s i c d i r e c t i v e s a n d t h e respective t o w e r e a r t h i n g resistance axe g i v e n i n T a b l e
4.2. T h e d a t a axe v a l i d for k e r a u n i c levels o f 30. T h e r e a l n u m b e r o f l i n e o u t a g e s v a r i e s
approximately p r o p o r t i o n a l t o the keraunic level, so that, having the keraunic level for
a certain line, its performance c a nb e roughly obtained f r o m a simple proportion i n
r e l a t i o n t o t h e d a t a g i v e n i n T a b l e 4.2. R e g a r d i n g t h e l i g h t n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e o f d o u b l e -
c i r c u i t t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , special p h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t s a t t h e t o w e r s , e. g . d i s p o s i n g
phases o fone circuit at the inverse order i n relation t othe second circuit, m a y contribute
t o reduce t h e n u m b e r o f l i n e outages [4.17].
4.5 Earthing in view of lightning protection
4.5.1 S i g n i f i c a n c e o f e a r t h i n g for l i g h t n i n g p r o t e c t i o n
T h e tower earthing resistance a n d t h e r e l e v a n t surge impedance o f t h e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m
of line structures isa n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r i n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fl i g h t n i n g
F i g u r e 4.12: Relationship between earth
surge impedance a n dpower frequency resis-
tance for determining lightning performance
0 50 100 150 n 200
Power frequency earthing resistance a c c o r d i n g t o [4.4]
flashover r a t e s d u e t o b a c k - f l a s h o v e r s . T h e towei eat thing tesistance i s a v a r y i n g s t a t i s -
tical variable, t h e magnitude o f w h i c h isgoverned not only b y geography and geology o f
t h e soil b u t also b y n o n linear conduction physics i n t h e e a r t h . I t m a y s w i n g over a t w o
to o n eorders o f m a g n i t u d e o r m o r e o w i n g t o change i nstroke c u r r e n t , a n d even w i t h
constant current i t will change w i t h time. A convenient tower earthing is, therefore,
flash
n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a g o o d p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t l i g h t n i n g (see a l s o c l a u s e 5 . 3 ) .
4.5.2 Surge impedance of earthing systems
T h e v o l t a g e i n c r e a s e o f a t o w e r f o l l o w i n g a lightning stroke i s a n i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b a c k - f l a s h o v e r r a t e . B o t h t h e t o w e r surge impedance ( o r i t s i n d u c t a n c e )
a n d earthing systems are involved i nthe calculation procedure. T h e surge impedance
of the tower depends o nits geometry a n d considers three basic geometry types, n a m e l y
class 1 : conical, class 2 : c y l i n d r i c a l a n d class 3: t o w e r s w i t h w a i s t [4.5]. M e a s u r e m e n t s
c a r r i e d o u t h a v e s h o w n v a l u e s o f t h e t o w e r surge impedances f o r t h e t h r e e c l a s s e s
b e t w e e n 1 0 t o 3 0 ft.
E a r t h i n g system m e a s u r e m e n t s f o rpower frequency voltages c a n b e used as a basis
for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l i g h t n i n g surge impedances as w e l l as f o rt h e calculation o f t h e
lightning protection o fthe overhead lines. T h e conversion o fpower frequency resistance
a s m e a s u r e d b y n o r m a l i n s t r u m e n t s , t o surge impedance i s p e r f o r m e d f o r v a r i o u s t y p e s
of electrodes according t o values obtained b y experience.
I n a n y case, p r a c t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t s h o w t h a t , a t t h e m o s t p e s s i m i s t i c case,
the e a r t h i n g surge impedance w o u l d reach the value o f the power frequency resistance.
Investigations carried o u t b y E P R I show t h a t e a r t h surge impedance can v a r y between
0,25 a n d 1,0 t i m e t h e p o w e r f r e q u e n c y r e s i s t a n c e [4.18].
E a r t h i n g resistance decreases w i t h increasing c u r r e n t , a t least u n t i l t h e c u r r e n t dries
o u t t h e soil. T h e p r o p o r t i o n a l r e d u c t i o n i s less f o r soils h a v i n g l o w resistance t h a n i t i s
for soils o f h i g h resistance.
T h e relationship between e a r t h surge impedance a n d power frequency resistance i s
s h o w n i n F i g u r e 4.12 a c c o r d i n g t o [4.4]. O t h e r d a t a c a nb e f o u n d i n [4.5]. R e g a r d i n g
 i n -± j j i g m i i n i g p i u t e c u i u i i

t h e b e h a v i o u r o f horizontal earthing wires (counterpoise) under strokes, i t has been
s h o w n theoretically a n d b y tests that the counterpoise has a n initial transient surge
i m p e d a n c e a t t h e o r d e r o f 1 5 0 ft, w h i c h d e c a y s t o i t s final v a l u e o f r e s i s t a n c e , t h e
t r a n s i t i o n t i m e b e i n g t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e first r e f l e c t i o n t o r e t u r n , t r a v e l l i n g w i t h
o n e t h i r d o f t h e s p e e d o f t h e l i g h t ( 1 0 0 m/ps). F o r a g i v e n l e n g t h o f b u r i e d w i r e , t h e
transient resistance will reduce t othe steady-state resistance faster if the counterpoise
is a r r a n g e d a s several, s h o r t e r r a d i a l s t r i p s t h a n i f i t w e r e l a i d a s o n e l o n g s t r i p .
F o r l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t s , t h e e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r o d e l e n g t h r e a c h e s a r o u n d 0 , 2 - s/I • QR f o r
deep electrodes o r 0 , 3 • \/I • P E f o r shallow electrodes, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2 4 o r 3 6 m i n
c a s e o f p e a k l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t s o f 1 5 0 k A a n d a r e s i s t i v i t y o f 1 0 0 Sim [ 4 . 1 9 ] . A s a
c o n s e q u e n c e deep e l e c t r o d e s axe a b o u t 1,5 t i m e s m o r e effective i nn o r m a l soils t h a n
shallow electrodes o f t h e s a m e l e n g t h , a s f a r a s t h e m a x i m u m e l e c t r o d e l e n g t h i s n o t
e x c e e d e d . Deep electrodes are e s p e c i a l l y r e c o m m e n d e d w h e n t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s o i l
near the surface i sbad a n d improves a t deeper soil layers. T h i s point has often been
confirmed b y measurements o f soil resistivity w i t h t h e W e n n e r M e t h o d , as s h o w n i n
clause 5.8.
4.14 S t e n s t r p m , L . e t al.: A c o m p a c t 420 k V line utilising line surge arresters for areas w i t h
l o w isokeraunic levels. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 / 3 3 / 3 6 - 0 8 , 1 9 9 8
4.15 A n d e r s o n , J . G . : M o n t e C a r l o c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n o ft r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e l i g h t n i n g p e r f o r -
mance. I E E E Transactions o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 8 0 (1961), pp. 414 t o
419
4.16 A n d e r s o n , R . B . et al.: A simplified m e t h o d for e s t i m a t i n g l i g h t n i n g performance o f t r a n s -
mission lines. I E E E Transactions o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 104 (1983), pp.
919 t o 932
4.17 S a r g e n t , M . A . ; D a r v e n i z i a , M . : L i g h t n i n gp e r f o r m a n c e of double-circuit t r a n s m i s s i o n lines.
I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 8 9 (1979), pp. 913 t o 925
4.18 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e g r o u n d i n g . P r o j e c t 1 4 9 1 - 1 . P a l o A l t o . E l e c t r i c P o w e r Research
I n s t i t u t e 1982
4.19 B S - C P 1013: C o d e o f practice: E a r t h i n g . L o n d o n , B S I 1965

4.6 References
4.1 Lewis, W . W . : T h e protection of transmission systems against lightning. N e w Y o r k , Dover
Publications 1965

4.2 E l e c t r i c a l T r a n s m i s s i o n a n d D i s t r i b u t i o n R e f e r e n c e Book. Pennsylvania, Westinghouse,

4 t h edition 1964

4.3 W e e k , K . - H . ; H i i e m a n , R . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f l i g h t n i n g p a r a m e t e r s - l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t shape
and amplitude o fm u l t i p l e strokes. Cigre R e p o r t 33-78, 1978

4.4 A n d e r s o n , R . B . ; E r i k s s o n , A . J . e t a l . : L i g h t n i n g a n d t h u n d e r s t o r m p a r a m e t e r s . I n t e r n a -
tional conference on lightning and power systems. I E E 1984

4.5 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r e f e r e n c e b o o k : 3 4 5 k V a n d a b o v e . P a l o A l t o . E l e c t r i c P o w e r
Research Institute, 2 n d e d i t i o n 1987

4.6 B e w l e y , L . V . : T r a v e l l i n g w a v e s o n t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s . N e w Y o r k . D o v e r P u b l i c a t i o n ,
2 n d edition 1963

4.7 Z i n k , D . G . ;B e a t y , H . W : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k for electrical engineers. N e w Y o r k , M c

G r a w - H i l l , 1 2 t h edition 1987

4.8 E r i k s s o n , A . J . : A m o d i f i e d e l e c t r o g e o m e t r i c m o d e l f o r s h i e l d i n g a n a l y s i s . S A I E E S y m p o -
sium on Lightning Performance o fLines. Pretoria, 1982

4.9 P r e n t i c e , S. A . : F r e q u e n c y o f l i g h t n i n g discharges. L i g h t n i n g V o l . 1 , edited b y R . H . G o l d e .

N e w Y o r k . Academic Press (1972), pp. 465 t o 496

4 . 1 0 H i i t t e E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , B a n d 3 : N e t z e ( P o w e r e n g i n e e r i n g , V o l u m e 3,: E l e c t r i c n e t w o r k s ) .
Berlin, Heidelberg, N e w Y o r k . Springer Verlag 1987

4.11 W h i t e h e a d E .R.: Protection o f transmission lines: L i g h t n i n g - V o l . 2, edited b y R . H .

Golde. N e w Y o r k , Academic Press 1977

4.12 Dorsch, H . : U b e r s p a n n u n g e n u n d Isolationsbemessung bei D r e h s t r o m - H o c h s p a n n u n g s a n -

lagen (Overvoltages a n d i n s u l a t i o n design for three-phase high-voltage installations). E r -
langen, Siemens Z V W 5 - V e r l a g 1981

4.13 W h i t e h e a d E . R.: Cigre survey o f t h e l i g h t n i n g performance o f extra-high-voltage t r a n s -

mission lines. E l e c t r a 33 (1974), pp. 6 3t o 7 0
5 Earthing

5.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Distance of probes
d Diameter
di,2 Thickness of soil layer
e, / Distance
D Diameter of a ring-type electrode
E E l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h
EK Penetration factor
h Depth of probe
i C u r r e n t density i n soil
I Short-term current, total current
Io Zero-sequence current
IA C u r r e n t t h r o u g h e a r t h resistance
Ic Capacitive earth fault current
IE Earth current
IES Earth wire current
IF Earth fault current
lini P e a k value of l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e c u r r e n t
Initial symmetrical short-circuit current
T" Double earth fault current
J k£E Measured current
I M

IRES E a r t h fault residual current

k Reflection coefficient
EE Material-dependent value
I Distance of probes
L Length of an earthing electrode
M0 Factor to determine the inflection point
N N u m b e r of p o t e n t i a l p o i n t s
r Radius of a hemispherical electrode
re R a d i u s of equivalent r o d
YE Reduction factor of earth wires/of a line
R. A d d i t i o n a l resistance
RE E a r t h i n g resistance
Rx E a r t h i n g resistance of a tower
s Distance of earthing rods
t D e p t h of earthing strip installation
tF Duration of fault current
T, Initial temperature of a conductor
Tt P e r m i s s i b l e final t e m p e r a t u r e
Uen, Measured voltage
Lightning impulse w i t h s t a n d voltage of the insulation
uD Permissible t o u c h voltage w i t h additional resistance
U E Earthing voltage
Us Step voltage
[%> Permissible touch voltage w i t h o u t additional resistance
X Distance
zx Iterative network impedance of a line
Z'ua Impulse earthing impedance of a tower
ZB B o d y resistance
ZCE M u t u a l impedance of conductors and earth wires
ZE Impedance to earth
1JLU i_» LJO.L U l L l i i ^

Sc y m„ bxo„l i Description (l-R)3i0A (1-rE)3'oa

FEE E a r t h wire self-impedance

F i g u r e 5 . 2 : E a r t h fault currents, voltages and
F S E a r t h wire impedance o fa span resistance i n case o f a n e a r t h f a u l t a t a tower.
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance IF = 3• I D A + 3• FOB; F E = 1 / ( 1 / R T + 2 / F r o ) ;
0 Reciprocal o f t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient F E = r E • IF
AUE E a r t h p o t e n t i a l rise 3 • IOA i s t h e t o t a l z e r o - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t f r o m
QE E a r t h resistivity system part A ; 3• FOB the total zero-sequence
0E M e a n earth resistivity current f r o m system part B ; 7p e a r t h fault
Surface potential current; / E earth current ( n o t measurable);
X Distance t o probe/sphere FA current flowing t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h resis-
tance o f the tower having a nearth fault; r E
r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r o f t h e l i n e ; RM t o w e r r e s i s -
5.1 Purpose of earthing
tance; F o oimpedance o f the line; F E earthing
impedance; U E earthing voltage
The standard E N 50341-1 [ 5 . 1 ] l i s t s five r e q u i r e m e n t s for e a r t h i n g systems:
— Guaranteeing safety o fpersons w h e n electric voltages occur d u r i n g short circuits;
overhead line
— Avoiding damage t othird-party property a n d t oother installations; earth wire
— Ensuring a n acceptable
— Complying
and
performance;
design w i t h the m a x i m u m short circuit earth current t o b e expected r T T T l
— A sufficient mechanical strength a n dcorrosion resistance.
The first requirement is t o b e paid priority a n dincludes a n i m a l s , e.g . g r a z i n g cattle.
Supports made o f conductive material areearthed i nprinciple through their founda-
tions; however, i n addition cost-effective earthing installations are sometimes necessary
t o achieve t h erequired p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e e a r t h i n g system, e. g . f o r s u p p o r t s a t sites F i g u r e 5 . 3 : Iterative network impedance o f a
w i t h low earth resistivity. line
a) a r r a n g e m e n t o f e a r t h wires a n d t o w e r s
W i t h respect t o the m a i n purpose three types o fearthing c a n b e distinguished:
reference earth b) e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t d i a g r a m
— Operational earthing,
— Protection earthing a n d
— Lightning protection earthing. 5.2 Definitions and basic principles
I n case o fs y s t e m s a b o v e A C 1 k V t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o n e a r t h i n g d e p e n d o n t h e system
characteristics such as: F i g u r e 5.1 c a nb e u s e d t oe x p l a i n - t e r m s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o fe a r t h i n g p r o b -
lems. T h e figure depicts t h e voltage p o t e n t i a l o nt h e g r o u n d surface i nclose p r o x i m i t y
— T y p e o fneutral point design: insulated, resonant earthing o rlow resistant neutral,
of a short circuited installation w i t h o r w i t h o u t potential control having a n earthing
— T y p e o fsupports: supports w i t h o rwithout built-in disconnectors o r transformer
rod, through which a n earth fault current flows. I na d d i t i o n t o t h e t o t a l e a r t h i n g v o l t -
stations
age t h etouch a n d step voltages c a n b e recognised as p a r t i a l potential differences. I n
— Material used forsupports: steel, reinforced concrete o r wood,
p r a c t i c e t h e s e v a l u e s m a y r e a c h 5 0 % a n d 3 0 %, r e s p e c t i v e l y , o fthe earthing voltage.
— Support sites: n o r m a l o r p a r t i c u l a r l y e x p o s e d sites i n s w i m m i n g areas, camping
P o t e n t i a l c o n t r o l m e a s u r e s c a n r e d u c e t h e m t o v a l u e s o f l e s s t h a n 1 0 %. A n e x a m p l e
sites o r play grounds.
for t h ecurrent d i s t r i b u t i o n is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5.2 w i t h consideration o f voltages a n d
resistance i n case o f a n e a r t h f a u l t a t a tower. T h ed i a g r a m o f t h e equivalent circuit
shows t h eimpedance t o earth Z E a st h er e s u l t f r o m p a r a l l e l i n g t h ee a r t h resistance
R x o f the tower a n dt h e iterative n e t w o r k i m p e d a n c e F o o o f t h e line. F r o m t h e figure
the d i s t r i b u t i o n o fthe fault current Fp o ne a r t h a n d e a r t h w i r e c a n b e seen. T h e latter
current i saffected b y t h e e a r t h w i r e reduction factor r E resulting i na considerably
lower earth potential w h e n high-conductivity earth wires a r e adopted.
Figure 5.3 represents t h e recurrent network impedance o fa line. T h e value o f the
recurrent n e t w o r k i m p e d a n c e i s depicted i nF i g u r e 5.4 d e p e n d i n g o n t h em e a n earth
F i g u r e 5 . 1 : E x a m p l e o f ground surface p o - resistance R x o f the towers f o rv a r y i n g t y p e s o fe a r t h wires a n d span lengths from
t e n t i a l a n d t h e v o l t a g e s i n case o f a c u r r e n t -
200 t o 4 0 0 m . T h egraphs demonstrate that t h eiterative network impedance usually
c o n d u c t i n g e a r t h e l e c t r o d e [5.2],
reaches a f e wo h m s only.
UE e a r t h i n g v o l t a g e ; UB t o u c h voltage;
U s s t e p v o l t a g e ; ip s u r f a c e p o t e n t i a l ; E e a r t h
electrode; S I , S 2 , S 3 earth potential control
electrodes (ring electrodes) connected t o t h e
(sufficiently
far away} e a r t h electrode; x distance t o t h ee a r t h elec-
without potential control with potential control trode E
118 5E a r t h i n g 5.3 R e q u i r e m e n t s 1 1 9

8,0
n Table 5.1: Fault duration, permissible body
1 earth wire 49-ST1A
6,0 current and touch voltage
>d
5,0 Fault Body H u m a n body Touch
duration current impedance voltage
4,0
^ d* s mA fl V
1 earth wire 97-AL1/56-ST1A
^ d* 0,05 900 1090 735
CD 0,10 750 1125 633
O »»» ^ y
span length *— —y- 2 earth wires 97-AL1/56-ST1A 0,20 600 1175 528
I01 2,0 400 m —j^*"^~~ff* 0,50 200 1360 204
Q. 300 m d 1,00 80 1780 107
E
D£ 200 m 2,00 60 2000 90
3
5,00 51 2130 81
Ql
— 10,00 50 2130 80
0 1.0 400 m
.> yS
inn m
1 0,8
400 m
200 m d^ resistance, w h i c h reduce t h e b o d y currents. T h e relationship between the acceptable
0,6
200 m i n t e n s i t y o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t a n d i t s d u r a t i o n i s s h o w n i n I E C 6 0 4 7 9 - 1 [5.8]. F i g u r e
0,5
5.5, t h e r e f o r e , s h o w s g r a p h s for p e r m i s s i b l e v o l t a g e differences w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l resis-
2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 £1 30 tance a n d graphs for higher site resistance and foot wear. T h e d a t a assume the correct
Mean earth resistance Ry of tower
earthing in case of isolated earth wire
f u n c t i o n i n g o f protection devices w h i c h ensure t h a t t o u c h voltage acts d u r i n g a short
duration only.
F i g u r e 5 . 4 : I t e r a t i v e n e t w o r k i m p e d a n c e o f l i n e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e a n e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e fix T h e p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e s f o r step voltages w o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e f o r t h e t o u c h
of towers for v a r y i n g span lengths and e a r t h wires voltages. Therefore, i tcan b e assumed that, w h e n c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e requirements o n
touch voltages, any hazards due t o step voltages w i l l b e excluded.
W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g the permissible touch voltages, i tis assumed t h a t
F i g u r e 5 . 5 : P e r m i s s i b l e touch voltage d e -
pending o n t h e insulation conditions a t t h e — t h e c u r r e n t s flow b e t w e e n o n e h a n d a n d b o t h f e e t ,
l o c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [5.1]. — t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e a s s u m e d h u m a n b o d y i m p e d a n c e i s 5 0 %,
1 w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l resistance such as play — the probability o f occurrence o f ventricular fibrilation islower t h a n 5 % and
grounds, s w i m m i n g pools, recreational areas — n o additional impedances are considered.
w h e r e people m a y gather w i t h bare feet; These assumptions lead t o a n o p t i m u m h u m a n safety d u e t o t h el o wprobability o f
2 w i t h 1750 f l resistance: p a r k i n g places, p u b - simultaneous earth faults and touching o f a conductive component. Furthermore, they
lic r o a d s ; w h e r e people wear shoes; 3 w i t h
result i n t h e values f o r t h e permissible t o u c h voltages a n dt h e h u m a n b o d y currents
4000 f l resistance: locations w i t h high soil re-
sistivity; 4 w i t h 7000 f l resistance: locations l i s t e d i n T a b l e 5 . 1 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d u r a t i o n o f c u r r e n t flow ( a c c o r d i n g t o [ 5 . 1 ] , a n n e x
w i t h very high soil resistivity; 5 permissible G.4). W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h epermissible touch voltages, only 7 5 % o f the voltage-
0,1 1
Duration of fault current - t o u c h v o l t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o [5.2] dependant b o d y impedance were t a k e n into account.

5.3 Requirements 5.3.3 T h e r m a l short-circuit strength

T h e dimensions o f e a r t h electrodes a n d e a r t h i n g conductors shall b e rated such t h a t

5.3.1 Standards
F o r t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i n E u r o p e , E N 5 03 4 1 - 1 [5.1] e s t a b l i s h e s t h e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s
together w i t h the corresponding N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects ( N N A ) applicable t o the
a s s o c i a t e d c o u n t r i e s , e . g . [ 5 . 3 ] f o r G e r m a n y , [ 5 . 4 ] f o r A u s t r i a a n d [5.5] f o r S w i t z e r -
land. Outside Europe, among other relevant standards, t h a t establish rules and limits
regarding earthing and earthing potentials, the following c a n b e mentioned:
— G u i d e for safety i na l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s u b s t a t i o n d e s i g n [5.6];
- R e c o m m e n d e d guide for m e a s u r i n g g r o u n d resistance a n d p o t e n t i a l gradients i n
t h e E a r t h [5.7].
5.3.2 Safety of persons
If a n e a r t h f a u l t occurs, p a r t s o f a line i n s t a l l a t i o nare subjected t o avoltage a n d a cur-
r e n t m a y flow t h r o u g h t h e h u m a n b o d y o r t h r o u g h a n i m a l s i n c a s e o f t o u c h i n g , w h i c h
can b e hazardous. However, i t is p e r m i t t e d t o take into consideration site-depending
t h e p e r m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 300° C f o r c o p p e r a n d s t e e l o r o f 200° C f o r a l u m i n i u m
will not b e exceeded. T h e short-circuit loading o f individual components o f earthing
systems c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d according t o the electric system, t a k i n g i n t o account t h e
subdivision o f the current i n the electrode system. For current d u r a t i o n lower t h a n 5 s
a n a d i a b a t i c temperature rise c a n b e a s s u m e d w i t h o u t h e a t t r a n s f e r t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g .
5.3.4 Mechanical strength and corrosion resistance
M e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h a n d corrosion resistance d e t e r m i n e t h e m i n i m u m d i m e n s i o n s o f
electrodes a n d e a r t h i n g o r b o n d i n g c o n d u c t o r s . A c c o r d i n g t o [5.1], t h e m i n i m u m cross
section for earthing conductors is 16 m m 2 f o r copper, 3 5 m m 2 f o r a l u m i n i u m a n d
50 m m 2 for steel. F o r h o r i z o n t a l e a r t h i n g wires (counterpoises) i ti s a c o m m o n practice
in N o r t h a n d S o u t h A m e r i c a t o adopt copper clad wires w i t h a m i n i m u m diameter o f
5,2 m m a n d m i n i m u m c r o s s s e c t i o n o f 2 1 , 2 m m 2 . E l e c t r o d e s h a v i n g d i r e c t c o n t a c t t o
e a r t h s h a l l w i t h s t a n d m e c h a n i c a l o r biological attacks, o x i d a t i o n , f o r m a t i o n o f a n elec-
120 5Earthing U.I ivai tiling lui pci&UHcLi oaicty p u i p u o c o 111

" f a b l e 5.2: M i n i m u m d i m e n s i o n s o f e a r t h electrode m a t e r i a l s according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 fable 5.3: C u r r e n t s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a c c o r d i n g t o [5.3]

Minimum size T y p e of the neutraJ point Thermal design of Verification of
Core Coating/sheath earth earthing touch voltages
Material Type of Dia- Cross Thick- Single Average electrode connections
earth electrode meter section ness value values System with isolated neutral point r" ( 2 ) TB I c
(1) -
(pm) -* IcEE
(mm2) (mm) (/im) Resonant earthed systems r" ( 2 )
(1) JkEE TB • / R E S
Steel: Strip 90 3 63 70 Systems with low-resistant T" r"
-*kl
RI r e • -*ki
Profile (incl. plates) 90 o 70 neutral earthing

hot-dip Pipe 25 2 47 55 Resonant earthed systems and (i) T" TE • /RES

systems with temporarily low -*kEE
galvanized Round bar for 63 70
16 resistant neutral points
earth rod
Round bar for (1) T h e minimum cross sections according to T&ble 5.2 are sufficient
10 50
surface earth electrode (2) I f the duration of a failure is lower than 1 s, the currents I c or / R E S ,
respectively, may be used
with lead Round wire for 1000
8 Legend: I c Calculated or measured capacitive earth fault current.
sheath" surface earth electrode
/RES E a r t h fault residual current. If the precise value is not known,
with extruded Round bar for 2000
15" a value of 0,1 times I c may be used for calculation.
copper sheath earth rod
/kEE Double earth fault current which may be assumed as 85 % of
with electrolytic Round bar for 90 100 the three-phase initial short-circuit alternate current,
20
copper sheath earth rod /ki Initial symmetrical short-circuit current in case of single-phase
earth fault
copper clad 5,2 21,2 156/200 3 '

Copper: Strip 50 2
T a b l e 5 . 4 : R e d u c t i o n factors r& for e a r t h wires a t 50 a n d 60 H z
Round wire for 25")
surface earth electrode Type of earth wire AL1/ST1A" BZII21 ST1A3'
bare
cross section ( m m 2 ) 304/49 264/34 184/30 97/56 44/32 50 70 50 70
Stranded cable 1,8 6 ' 25
243/39
Pipe 20 2
AC
tinned Stranded cable 1,8 5 ' 25 1 5
resistance ( D / k m ) 0,10 0,12 0,17 0,35 0,75 0,52 0,37 4,13 2,50
galvanized Strip 50 2 20 40
Reduction
with lead Stranded cable 1,8 5 ' 25 1000 factor r 0,61 0,62 0,62 0,70 0,77 0,75 0,69 ~1,00 0,97
sheath" Round wire 25 1000 E a r t h wire type according to E N 50 182
" Not suitable for direct embedding in concrete E a r t h wire made of copper alloy according to D I N 48 201 Part 2 or comparable standard
21 Strip, rolled or cut with rounded edges E a r t h wire made of galvanized steel according to D I N 48 201 Part 3 or comparable standard
3) According to American practice A S T M B227, 30 and 40 % I A C S , respectively
4) I n conditions where experience shows that the risk of corrosion and mechanical damage is
extremely low 16 m m 2 may be used 3 Jo s u m o f zero-sequence currents;
" Diameter of single wire ZQE m u t u a l impedance o fconductors a n d e a r t h wires;
ZEE self-impedance o fearth wires.

trolytic couple a n d electrolysis. Thereof, t h e m i n i m u m requirements listed i n Table 5.2

T h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o fe a r t h w i r e s a n d t h e distance b e t w e e n e a r t h w i r e s a n d conductors
apply.
h a v e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t effect o n t h e r e d u c t i o n factor, w h i c h v a r i e s b e t w e e n 0 , 2 a n d
1,0; T a b l e 5 . 4 g i v e s v a l u e s f o r o f t e n u s e d e a r t h w i r e s a c c o r d i n g t o [5.9].
5.3.5 Currents to be considered

T h e c u r r e n t s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r earthing system rating a n d f o r touch voltage d e p e n d

o n t h eearthing design criteria o fthe n e u t r a l point i n t h esystem a n d are given i n Table
5.4 E a r t h i n g for personal safety purposes
5.3 a c c o r d i n g t o [5.3]. T h e m i n i m u m d i m e n s i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 5 . 2 s h a l l b e u s e d .
E a r t h i n g o f conductive components which are n o tpart o f the operation circuit t o protect
I n case o ft o u c h voltages, t h e r e l e v a n t c u r r e n t m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d t a k i n g i n t o account
p e o p l e a n d a n i m a l s a g a i n s t e x c e s s i v e touch voltages i s c a l l e d earthing for personal safety.
t h e e a r t h w i r e reduction factor. T h i s f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t s t h e r a t i o o f t h e r e t u r n c u r r e n t
A c c o r d i n g t o [5.1], s u p p o r t s m a d e o fc o n d u c t i v e m a t e r i a l s u c h as steel o r r e i n f o r c e d con-
through earth t ot h e s u m o ft h e zero-sequence currents o f t h e A C circuit. I tc a n b e
crete are considered as earthed b y their foundations. S u p p o r t s m a d e o f non-conductive
c a l c u l a t e d f o r a b a l a n c e d c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n f r o m t h e self- a n d m u t u a l i m p e d a n c e o f
m a t e r i a l , e. g. w o o d o r p l a s t i c m a t e r i a l , d o n o t n e e d e a r t h i n g i f t h e r e i s n o m e t a l l i c
conductors a n d earth wires.
connection between insulator supporting crossarms a n d earth.
A s faras t h erequirements for earthing are concerned, t h e systems are distinguished b y
rE = J E / 3 / 0 = ( 1 - / E S / 3 Jo) = 1 - ZCE/ZEE (5-1)
t h e t y p e o f neutral point connection. I n c a s e o f s y s t e m s w i t h i s o l a t e d n e u t r a l p o i n t o r
where resonant earthed n e u t r a l , u s u a l l y adopted o n l y i nsystems u p t o 110 k V , e a r t h faults
IES isearth wire current; c o u l d l a s t f o r l o n g e r p e r i o d s ( m o r e t h a n s e v e r a l h o u r s ) . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e touch voltage
122 5 Earthing 5.4 E a r t h i n g f o r p e r s o n a l s a f e t y p u r p o s e s 123

m a y not exceed 6 5 V . These requirements are complied w i t h i f t h e resulting e a r t h i n g

i m p e d a n c e F E f r o m p a r a l l e l i n g t h e s u p p o r t earthing resistance Rx t o t h e a d j a c e n t
supports via the earth wires complies w i t h

ZE < 130// E r m s , (5.2)

w h e r e Iprms = R E • IF-
T h e e a r t h f a u l t c u r r e n t Ip h a s t o b e t a k e n a s
— t h e capacitive e a r t h f a u l t c u r r e n t I c i n case o fsystems w i t h isolated n e u t r a l p o i n t ,
— t h e r e s i d u a l e a r t h f a u l t c u r r e n t , w h i c h i s b e t w e e n 5 a n d 1 5 % o f I c i n case o f
r e s o n a n t e a r t h e d systems (at m a x i m u m 1 0 % o f I c i n case o f m i s s i n g d a t a ) .
T h e reduction factor r E depends o n the type o f earth wires, their number, m a t e r i a l
a n d cross section. T a b l e 5.4 shows t y p i c a l values b e t w e e n 0 , 6 a n d 0,99 f o r r e d u c t i o n
factors; w h e r e b y values above 0,9 apply t o steel e a r t h wires a n d t h e lower values t o
h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v e A C S R conductors. I n case o f several e a r t h w i r e s , values r E close t o
zero can b e achieved.
I n case o f a 110 k V r e s o n a n t e a r t h e d s y s t e m a n d 130 A r e s i d u a l c u r r e n t a s t h e m a x i m u m
l i m i t for c o m p l y i n g w i t h the extinction limit, a nearthing impedance o f

ZE < 130/(1,00 •130) = 1,00ft

r e s u l t s f o ra 5 0 m m 2 steel e a r t h w i r e a n d less c o n d u c t i v e cross sections. I ncase o f a

line w i t h o n e e a r t h w i r e 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A h a v i n g a reduction factor r E = 0,62, t h e
i m p e d a n c e m a y r i s e t o 1 , 5 5 SI.
I n systems with low-resistant neutral point and supports made o f conductive material
such as steel o r reinforced concrete, a n e a r t h w i r e o r g r o u n d conductor should b e
installed w h i c h is connected t o the s u b s t a t i o n e a r t h i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n .
T h e earthing current 7 E c a n b e determined f r o m t h e single-phase fault current 7 E
b e i n g m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e r e d u c t i o n factor r E o f t h e line. I ncase o f lines w i t h voltages
o f 110 k Va n d above, a n a d d i t i o n a l e x p e c t a t i o n factor 0 , 7 can b e considered because
of the low probability o f coincidence o f all unfavourable conditions. I fa n a u t o m a t i c
fault i n t e r r u p t i o n w i t h i n 0,5 s i s guaranteed, as u s u a l i n case o f low-resistant n e u t r a l
earthing, the supports d o n o tneed t o comply w i t h particular limits f o r touch a n d
earthing voltages. O n l y where n o a u t o m a t i c disconnection w i t h i n 0,5s is carried out,
t h e l i m i t s for t h e permissible touch voltages presented i n F i g u r e 5.5 apply. T h e y drop
f r o m 2 0 0 V a t 0 , 5 s f a u l t d u r a t i o n t o 8 5 V f o r a d u r a t i o n o f 3 s. F o r s u p p o r t s n e a r ( 2 ) T h e c r i t e r i a f o r s a f e t y s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l l y r e v i e w e d a t t o w e r s i t e s freely a c c e s s i b l e
s w i m m i n g p o o l s , p l a y g r o u n d s , s p o r t s fields o r c a m p i n g s i t e s i t s h o u l d b e e n s u r e d , a s t o p e o p l e i n t h e f o l l o w i n g cases:
a function o f neutral point type, t h a t the touch voltage a tthe support and the voltage - I fpeople are expected t o b e a t such sites f o ra relatively long t i m e (some
b e t w e e n t w o a r b i t r a r y p o i n t s w i t h a d i s t a n c e o f 1,5 m i n t h e s u p p o r t s u r r o u n d i n g d o hours per day) during some weeks;
not exceed t h e permissible limits according t o F i g u r e 5.5 i f a n e a r t h i n g current flows. - I f people m a y stay there for a short t i m e b u t very frequently ( m a n y times a
T h i s can b e achieved t h r o u g h day) for e x a m p l e close t o r e s i d e n t i a l areas o r p l a y g r o u n d s ;
- I f locations w h i c h are only occasionally occupied such a sforests, open coun-
— a barrier m a d e o f non-conductive fences o r p l a n t i n g bushes;
t r y sites etc. are n o t concerned.
— a p p l i c a t i o n o f a l o w - c o n d u c t i n g s u r f a c e , e. g . b y m e a n s o f g r a v e l o r a s p h a l t ;
( 3 ) F o r t o w e r s a t l o c a t i o n s t h a t a r e n o t freely a c c e s s i b l e o r w h e r e a c c e s s b y p e o p l e
— p o t e n t i a l control, e. g. b y means o f grading e a r t h electrodes.
w i l l b e r a r e , t h e t o u c h voltages n e e d n o t b e considered i n those cases w h e r e t h e
I n case o f s u p p o r t s w i t h disconnectors o r t r a n s f o r m e r s , i t s h o u l d b e guaranteed t h a t
line isprovided w i t h automatic disconnection for protection.
w h e n a nearth fault occurs the touch voltage iskept below 6 5 V .T h i s requirement is
I f i t c a nb e a s s u m e d t h a t access b y p e o p l e w i l l b e r a r e , t h e n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
complied w i t h w h e n the earthing voltage i slower t h a n 250 V and a ring e a r t h electrode
this access a n d t h e incidence o f a s i m u l t a n e o u s a u t o m a t i c a l l y cleared f a u l t can b e
is a r r a n g e d a r o u n d t h e s u p p o r t a t a d i s t a n c e o f a b o u t 1 m a t a d e p t h s h a l l o w e r t h a n
considered negligible and thus the earthing design can b e accepted as satisfactory.
0,5 m .
(4) T h e e a r t h p o t e n t i a l rise A { 7 E is given b y
I n F i g u r e 5 . 6 a c c o r d i n g t o [5.1] t h e s t e p s a r e s c h e m a t i c a l l y s h o w n t o b e t a k e n w i t h
respect t o safety earthing: A U E = ZB - r E • 3 • 70 , (5.3)
(1) F o r w o o d o r other non-conductive poles o r towers w i t h o u t a n y c o n d u c t i n g parts where
t o e a r t h , e a r t h faults are not possible i n practice a n d there are n o requirements 37o i s t h e z e r o - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t d u r i n g e a r t h f a u l t ;
for earthing. ZE i s t h e i m p e d a n c e t o e a r t h . I t c a n b e t a k e n from measurements o r calculated
iza o C/artnmg o. ( r e a r i n g i o r s n o r t - t e r m c u r r e n t s I Z O
•i
.1-
T a b l e 5.5: Probability o f short-circuit currents i noverhead power
•i lines
;<
Short-circuit current up to 20 kA 30 kA 40 kA 50 k A 60 k A
i
Probability 80 % 90 % 95 % 98 % 99 %

F i g u r e 5.7: Equivalent circuit t odetermine the permissible

touch voltage U D T a b l e 5 . 6 : Characteristic data t o determine t h e short-
c i r c u i t c a p a c i t y a c c o r d i n g t o [5.1]
Material Copper Aluminium Steel
from Temperature coefficient 0,0039 0,0040 0,0045
Z E = 0, 25( z s + yJzs (AR T + Zs)^ , (5.4) of resistance a ( 1 / K )
Value /3 (reciprocal of 234,5 228,0 202,0
where coefficient a 1 ' } in K

Zs is t h e e a r t h w i r e impedance o fa span; Constant K E (As1/2mm~2) 226 148 78

f?T is t h e e a r t h i n g resistance o fa tower. " according to [5.1], not exactly the reciprocal to a. T h e effect
on the calculated results is low.
(5) I f e a r t h p o t e n t i a l rise is lower t h a n 2 U D r e l a t e d t o a p p r o p r i a t e circumstances 1 ,
2, 3 o r 4 , a s d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 5.5, t h e n t h e d e s i g n c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a c c e p t a b l e .
T h e touch voltage under most o f these circumstances i s o n l y a fraction o f e a r t h where
potential rise. Ujm is the l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e w i t h s t a n d voltage o fthe i n s u l a t i o n ;
(6) T h e permissible touch voltage U p depends o n t h e resistance i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e Jim isthe peak value o fthe lightning impulse current;
b o d y impedance. Figure 5.7shows the equivalent circuit w i t h pick u p voltage U D Z;m i st h e i m p u l s e e a r t h i n g impedance, dealt w i t h i n clause 4.5.2.
as t h e source v o l t a g e . U p p i s t h ep e r m i s s i b l e t o u c h v o l t a g e w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l
r e s i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 5.5, g r a p h 1 , o r T a b l e 5 . 1 . T a b l e 5 . 5shows probabilities o f occurrence f o r short-circuit peak values i n C e n t r a l
E u r o p e . I tc a n b e seen t h a t f o r9 5% o ft h e short circuits t h e c u r r e n t does not exceed
Regarding t h e touch voltage along t h e b o d y i t applies
40 k A .
U D = UTP + R a - / B = U T p ( l + f i a / F B ) (5.5)
a n d vice versa
UXP = UD I { l + R J Z B ) . •• (5.6) 5.7 R a t i n g for short-term currents
T h e additional resistance R a consists o f the foot wear resistance a n d t h e resistance
F o r short-term currents l a s t i n g l e s s t h a n 5 s , t h e r e q u i r e d c r o s s s e c t i o n A c a n b e o b -
of the location against earth. E x a m p l e s for R a a r e e x p l a i n e d i n F i g u r e 5.5.
t a i n e d , a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 07 2 4 [5.10] o r [5.1]:
(7) A c c o r d i n g t o Figure 5.6, i th a s t o b e checked w h e t h e r t h etouch voltage U p p
o b t a i n e d f r o m (5.6) i s less t h a n t h e p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e a c c o r d i n g t o Figure 5.5.
(8) I f n o n e o f t h e conditions g i v e n a b o v e i s satisfied, t h e n m e a s u r e s t oreduce t h e
touch voltage shall b e taken, until the requirements will b e met. Such measures
could b einsulation o f the location o rimprovement o fearthing conditions. where
/ i sthe s h o r t - t e r m current i n A ;
5.5 Operational earthing KE i s a v a l u e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l , s e e T a b l e 5 . 6 ;
a i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance i n 1 / K , see T a b l e 5.6;
Operational earthing i s n e c e s s a r y a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c i r c u i t t o g u a r a n - f3 i s t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t i n K , s e e T a b l e 5 . 6 ;
tee t h e correct o p e r a t i o n o fe a r t h t e r m i n a l o f single-phase devices o r n e u t r a l e a r t h i n g , f F i s t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e f a u l t c u r r e n t i n s;
e. g . v o l t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r s o r t h e n e u t r a l o f Y - c o n n e c t e d t r a n s f o r m e r s . I n c a s e o f t r a n s - J] i s t h e i n i t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e w h e n t h e c u r r e n t s t a r t s t o flow i n ° C ;
mission lines, operational e a r t h i n g m a y play a role o n l y a tpoles w i t h t r a n s f o r m e r s o r Tf i s t h e p e r m i s s i b l e final t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i n ° C .
disconnectors. T h e cross section o f the e a r t h i n g conductors has t ob edesigned according
to t h e t h e r m a l l o a d i n g (seeclause 5.7). For materials frequently used as electrodes a n d e a r t h i n g conductors, diagrams are given
i n A n n e x G t o [5.1] w i t h t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e f a u l t c u r r e n t d u r a t i o n
f E . These diagrams depict t h epermissible l o n g - t e r m c u r r e n t f o r e a r t h i n g strips a n d
5.6 Lightning protection earthing conductors w i t h circular cross section.

T h e e a r t h i n g resistance affects t h e back-flashover r a t e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e line reliability.

T h e r e l i a b i l i t y i s a subject r e l a t e d t ol i n e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d i sdealt w i t h i nclause 4 . 4 . 5.8 Soil resistivity and conductivity
I n [5.3], i ti s r e q u i r e d i n v i e w o f a v o i d i n g b a c k - f l a s h o v e r s t h a t t h e i m p u l s e e a r t h i n g
i m p e d a n c e Z l m o fa t o w e r suffices t h e e q u a t i o n T h e soil, like metallic conductors, presents a resistance a n d conductivity t o the circula-
tion o f currents, depending o n its physical a n d chemical properties. W h e n a voltage is
Zirn ¥ U i m / / j m , (5.7)
applied t o a metallic conductor w i t h u n i f o r m cross section a n d homogeneous m a t e r i a l ,
126 5Earthing 5.9 C a l c u l a t i o n o fe a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e 127

T h e v o l t a g e , a s t h e l i n e i n t e g r a l o f t h e field s t r e n g t h f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e hemisphere
*1 t o a n y d i s t a n c e x, is
X
/ | W? x x
T a b l e 5.7: Soil resistivities a t5 0and 6 0 H z
Type of soil Earth resistivity (in O-m) *aRa 1 JV-~Ac H
Sea water 1
Marshy soil 5 to 40
or
Loam, clay, humus 50 to 350
Sand 200 to 2500
Gravel 2000 to 3000 27T \ R X/
Lime stone 350
Weathered rock
w h e r e r i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e s p h e r i c a l electrode, see F i g u r e 5.8.
up to 1000
Sand stone 2000 to 3000 T h e t o t a l voltage b e t w e e n t h eh e m i s p h e r i c a l electrode a n d a f a rd i s t a n t p o i n t with
Granite ~ 3000 to 50 000 F i g u r e 5.8: Hemispherical e a r t h i n g electrode, X -> oowill then be
Moraine up to 30000
radius o f sphere r Uoc = J ^ / ( 2 7rr) . . (5.12)
E

T h e r e o f , t h e t o t a l earthing resistance becomes

the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fits resistivity a n d resistance isa simple task. However, w h e n deal-
ing w i t h conduction o fcurrents t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h , t h e analysis o f t h e p r o b l e m becomes
very complex, d u et o the huge dimensions o f the e a r t h as compared t o the metallic
conductors a n d due t ot h e great v a r i e t y o fits characteristics.
For e x a m p l e , e x p e r i m e n t a l tests m a d e w i t h red clay soil indicated t h a t w i t h o n l y 1 0 %
m o i s t u r e content, t h e resistivity w a sover 3 0 times t h a t o f t h e same soil h a v i n g a
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f a b o u t 2 0 %. F o r v a l u e s a b o v e 2 0 % , t h e r e s i s t i v i t y i s n o t a f f e c t e d
t o o m u c h , b u t below 2 0 % i t increases r a p i d l y w i t h a decrease i n m o i s t u r e content.
M a n y s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n p u b l i s h e d o n earth conductivity depending o n soil structure
and dimensions, most o ft h e m seem too theoretical and require complicated m a t h e m a t -
ical developments. A m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l o fh i g h complexity i snot w o r t h - w i l e , i f its
a p p l i c a t i o n i s d e p e n d e n t o n p a r a m e t e r s o fd u b i o u s o r i g i n , s u c h a sa p p a r e n t r e s i s t i v i t y ,
thickness o flayers, etc.
T o d a y t h e r e i s a t r e n d t o a p r a c t i c a l s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o fe a r t h i n g studies, a sa result o f t h e
high degree o funcertainties involved i nthe determination o fthe relevant parameters
and verification tests.
R e s i s t i v i t y o ft y p i c a l soils are i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 5.7.
5.9 Calculation of earthing resistance
5.9.1 Spherical electrode
RE = U/I = gE/(2TT-r) , (5.13)
where t h e resistivity has been considered a s constant i n t h e whole considered p a r t o f
subsoil.
As a nexample, a hemisphere w i t h a radius o fr = 1 m embedded i nsoil having the
r e s i s t i v i t y gE = 1 0 0 0 SI • m w i l l h a v e a n e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e o f
R E = 1 0 0 0 / ( 2 7T • 1 ) « 1 6 0 ft
F r o m e q u a t i o n (5.11) i tcan b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t m o s t o f t h e resistance isencountered i n
the close v i c i n i t y a r o u n d t h e electrode. T h u s 5 0% o f t h e t o t a l resistance is contained
w i t h i n o n e m e t e r f r o m t h e e l e c t r o d e (x = 2 r ) a n d 9 0 % i s c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n n i n e m e t e r s
b e y o n d t h e e l e c t r o d e (x = 1 0 r ) .
5.9.2 Earthing rods
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e o f s i m p l e earthing rods b u r i e d i n h o m o g e n e o u s
soil, despite n o t practically encountered, can b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h o u t complex m a t h e -
m a t i c a l developments. T a b l e 5.8 shows f o r m u l a e for calculation o fe a r t h resistance for
s o m e types o fe a r t h electrodes.
F i g u r e 5.9shows t h e e a r t h i n g resistance o f one g r o u n d r o d o fl e n g t h L a n d d i a m e t e r d
for v a r i o u s e a r t h r e s i s t i v i t y i n h o m o g e n e o u s soils.
T h e e a r t h i n g resistance o frods can b e o b t a i n e d f r o m

A spherical electrode e i t h e r b u r i e d c o m p l e t e l y i nthe ground o r only w i t h its lower RE = QE/(2TrL)-ln(4L/d) . (5.14)

hemisphere i s t h e least difficult t ob e analysed ( F i g u r e 5.8). I n t h e l a t t e r case, a s s u m -
i n g u n i f o r m soil resistivity, a c u r r e n t I flowing from the hemisphere into the ground I f t h e rods are m o d e r a t e l y close t oeach o t h e r , t h e overall resistance w i l l b ehigher t h a n
produces a current density i i n the surrounding soil being if the same n u m b e r o frods were spaced apart. T h e increase i n resistance depends o n
the n u m b e r o frods involved.
i = / E / ( 2 7rx2) ; ( 5 . 9 ) T h r e e rods w i t h 19m mdiameter and 3 m length i nparallel and spaced 3 m apart
w i l l have a na p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 % higher resistance t h a n w h e n b e i n g a r r a n g e d w i t h a
where i is the current density, I E the total current ( A )and x the distance f r o m the w i d e distance apart. F o u r rods a r r a n g e d i n a square w i t h 3 m long sides w o u l d have a
centre o ft h e sphere. r e s i s t a n c e h i g h e r b y 2 5 % (see F i g u r e 5 . 1 0 ) .
According t o Ohm's L a w , such a current produces i n t h e soil a n electrical field T w o rods reach approximately 6 0 % o fthe resistance o fone rod, three rods 4 0 % and
strength o f f o u r r o d s a b o u t 3 3 %.
F i g u r e 5.11 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n o fresistance w i t h r o d length for various diameters. T h e
E(x)=i-m = lE-QEl(2-nXl) , (5.10) c u r v e s h a v e b e e n d r a w n f o r a g r o u n d r e s i s t i v i t y o f 1 0 0 SI • m .
I f t h e s p a c i n g b e t w e e n parallel earthing rods i s w i d e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
w h e r e gE i s t h e s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y ( f t - m ) . individual rods, the resistance will b e reduced i nproportion t o the n u m b e r o f rods.
 T a b l e 5 . 8 : F o r m u l a e t ocalculate the earthing resistance
1 rod: 100%
Type of Schematic Earthing resistance 2 rods: 60%
earth electrode representation 3 rods: 40%
4 rods: 33%
Hemisphere RE = P E / ( T T • d)
diameter d

3,0 m 3,0 m 3,0 m

^ > ^ >
One earthing rod R E = gE/(27vL)-\R(4L/d)

Several
earthing rods

m
RE = 6 E / ( 2 TT£) • ln(2 L / r . )
(r. see (5.16) and (5.17))
Figure
rods
3 4 6 8 1012 15 20
Length of earthing rod

5.9: E a r t h i n g resistance
30 m 50

o f earthing
T
F i g u r e 5.10: E a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e
r o d s i n r e l a t i o n t o a single r o d
o f parallel

6 8 1012 15 20 m30

Horizontally burried ^ ^
x
S% ^ 3 5 S > ^ S R E ~ S E / ( 2 T T L ) • ln(2 £ / d )
electrodes, /circular
rtlxkrfi+w0-1*4 qr/mllp * ' ' ' AX A X AX AX AX

cross section, inde-

pendent of depth t

Horizontally hurried
electrodes, RE = S E / ( 2 WL) • (in ^ + In ^ + 2,9l)
crosswise 2L
arranged,
depth t

Ring electrode, RE = e E /(rr 2 £>) • ln(2rr£)/<f)

ring diameter £>,
independent of depth t

1 10 6 8 1012 15 20 30 40 60 m 100
Length ol earthing rod L Length of earthing rod L

F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 : E a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e R E o f a n F i g u r e 5 . 1 2 : E a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e RE o f e l e c -
earthing r o d depending o n diameter a n d trodes arranged linearly o ras horizontal r i n g in
l e n g t h , s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y QE = 1 0 0 fi-m a homogeneous soil.
L length, D diameter of ring
I f t h e rods a r eclose together, each r o dwill b e i nt h e intensive electrical field of its
neighbour. I f t h e r o d s a r e v e r y close together, t h e n t h e overall resistance becomes
and w i t h four rods
R E = p E /(27rL)-ln(2L/re) , (5.15)
re=$/V2-d/2-S3 , (5.i8)
where r e represents t h eradius o f a n equivalent r o d .
For two, three o rfour g r o u n d driven rods i nparallel a n d s y m m e t r i c a l configuration, w h e r e re i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t radius ( m ) ,d t h e i n d i v i d u a l r o d diameter ( m )a n d s t h e
the equivalent radii would be w i t h t w o rods separation between adjacent rods ( m ) .

re = yJd/2-s , (5.16)
5.9.3 Horizontally arranged electrode wires (counterpoises)
with three rods
Counterpoise wires arranged r a d i a l o ra srings a n d rigidly connected w i t h t h e tower
are c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r e a r t h i n g o f s u p p o r t s . I n [5.1], a n n e x H , f o r m u l a e aire g i v e n f o r
130 5 Earthing 5.10 M e a s u r e m e n t s o f soil r e s i s t i v i t y 131

Qm

mmi.

CI'

F i g u r e 5.14: P r i n c i p l e d i a g r a m o f a n e a r t h i n g F i g u r e 5.15: C u r r e n t i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e s o i l
F i g u r e 5.13: E x a m p l e s f o r t h e q u a l i t a t i v e tester
Depth variation o f soil resistivity w i t h depth

iQQQQj
f r e q u e n t l y u s e d c o u n t e r p o i s e s . F o r radial arranged electrodes i t applies - ^ T O T T — ( a >

R E = Q E K K L ) • l n ( 2 L/d) , (5.19)

f o r ring electrodes

H E = f?E/(?r 2 £>)-ln(2 7 r L > / d ) (5.20)

and for earthing meshes

F i g u r e 5.16: E v a l u a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g m e a s u r e - F i g u r e 5.17: T h r e e - p o i n t m e t h o d t o m e a s u r e
R E = t?E/2£>A , (5.21) ments b y means o freflection t h e r e s i s t i v i t y QE

w h e r e L is the length o f the counterpoise, D t h e diameter o f the ring electrode, d the

d i a m e t e r o f t h e electrode i n case o frods o r s t r a n d e d conductors o r h a l f o f t h e w i d t h i n
case o f stripes a n d 12A t h e d i a m e t e r o f a circle w i t h t h e s a m e area as t h e area o f t h e
earthing mesh.
M a t e r i a l a n d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c o u n t e r p o i s e s a r e less i m p o r t a n t a c -
cording t o (5.19) t o (5.21). Experience confirms as well, t h a t a mechanically sufficient
counterpoise complies w i t h a l l the electric requirements. Therefore, copper-clad steel
wires are frequently adopted today instead o f copper wires, galvanized steel wires o r
stripes.
5.10 Measurements of soil resistivity
5.10.2 Measuring methods
T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d m e t h o d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e soil resistivity depending o n the
d e p t h i s t h e four-point method, a l s o c a l l e d Wenner Method [ 5 . 1 1 ] , w h e r e a n earth megger
[5.12] i s u s e d (see F i g u r e s 5.14 t o 5 . 1 6 ) . T h e f o u r r o d s a r e a r r a n g e d w i t h t h e s a m e
s p a c i n g a; five m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h t h e s p a c i n g a = 2 m , 4 , 8 , 1 6 a n d 3 2 m a r e c a r r i e d
out. For each m e a s u r e m e n t a current I is injected between t h e probes C i a n d C 2 a n d
t h e v o l t a g e b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s P i a n d P 2 i s m e a s u r e d . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g s p a c i n g a, t h e
m e a s u r e d s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y a p p l i e s f o r g r e a t e r d e p t h s s i n c e t h e c u r r e n t flows t h r o u g h s o i l
s t r a t a i ngreater d e p t h . T h e p r o b e s C i a n d C 2 h a v e t o b e c y l i n d r i c a l a n d s h o r t such
that their resistance is low i n relation t o that o f t h e soil. T h e voltage U occurring i n a
d i s t a n c e x from t h e h e m i s p h e r i c a l e l e c t r o d e i s

5.10.1 Basic principles

U = QEIEK^X) • (5.23)
K n o w l e d g e o f soil resistivity i s a n i m p e r a t i v e c o n d i t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e a r t h i n g r e s i s -
Since the subsoil p e r f o r m s like a hemisphere w i t h respect t o current expansion t h e
t a n c e correctly, t h e latter b e i n g p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e resistivity. A c c o r d i n g t o [5.1], m e a -
m i r r o r reflections according t o F i g u r e 5.16 can b e applied w i t h reflections o f t h e probes
s u r e m e n t s s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g a four-point method, e . g . t h e W e n n e r M e t h o d ,
A a n d D , w h i c h correspond t o C i a n d C 2 o f F i g u r e 5.14, respectively, i n t h e h e i g h t h
to evaluate the soil resistivity for various depths.
a b o v e t h e surface. T h e t o t a l voltages a t t h e p o i n t s B a n d C a r ed u et o t h e c u r r e n t s
I f t h e soil resistivity w e r e c o n s t a n t , i t w o u l d s u f f i c e t o m e a s u r e t h e e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e o f
flowing t h r o u g h the rods A a n d D and their mirror images
an earthing rod and the resistivity w o u l d b e obtained f r o m
esi n , 1 1 1 j _ eEi ( i i n . .
pE = 27r • R E • jL/[ln(4L/d)] . (5.22) U B

I f pE w e r e c o n s t a n t , a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l e n g t h L o r t h e d i a m e t e r d w o u l d a c c o r d i n g l y and
c h a n g e t h e resistance R E . I n m o s t p r a c t i c a l cases, t h e soil resistivity p E changes depend-
TT *?E1 / 1 1 1 M BEI ( 1 1 , 1
i n g o n t h e stratification o f the soil, however. T h e values P E obtained b y this procedure
- S ( - n - W ) •
d e p e n d o n g e o m e t r i c d a t a o f t h e electrode a n d m a y n o tb e t r a n s f e r r e d t o o t h e r elec-
t r o d e s . T h e s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e d o n a v e r a g e i s a l s o c a l l e d apparent soil resistivity. T h e voltage difference between B a n d C is
F i g u r e 5.13 s h o w s t y p i c a l v a r i a t i o n s o f soil resistivity w i t h d e p t h . W h e n m e a s u r i n g soil
resistivity, these facts have t o b e adequately considered. UBC = UB-UG = f (l + * * ) = f * f 1 + *±L*f) . (5.26)
An \a e f J 4 7ra\ e / '
 o.n ivieaiiuremeiiL 01 e a n n m g r e s i s t a n c e lUJ

Therefore, i t applies to t h e e a r t h i n g system, should n o t b e disconnected for t h emeasurement. T h e modulus

o f t h e impedance to earth Z E i s g i v e n b y :
R E = P E / ( 4 z r a ) ( 1 + 2 a/e - 2 a/f) (5.27)
ZE = Uem/Im-r , (5.31)
and
w h e r e UEM is t h e m e a s u r e d v o l t a g e b e t w e e n t h e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m a n d a p r o b e i n t h e
PE = 4 7 r - a R E / ( l + 2 a / e - 2 a / / ) . (5.28) area o ft h e reference e a r t h , t h eremote earth i n V ; I m ist h emeasured test current i n A ;
r is t h e r e d u c t i o n factor o fe a r t h wires, w h i c h m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d b ycalculation (see
U s i n g e = y/Ah2 + a2 a n d / = \/Ah2 + 4 a 2 , i t results
clause 5.3.5) o r m e a s u r e m e n t s . F o r overhead lines w i t h o u t e a r t h wires r = 1 applies.
P E = 4 i r - a RE j ( l+ 2 a / x / 4 f e 2 + a 2 - 2 a / v / 4 h 2 + 4 a 2 ) . (5.29) The distance between t h etested earthing system a n d t h eremote e a r t h electrode should
b e n o t less t h a n 5 k m , s o f a r a s possible. T h e t e s t c u r r e n t s h o u l d b e selected a t least s o
I n practice, i t i sh <K a . T h e r e f o r e , h 2m a y b e neglected compared with a 2 i n (5.29) high t h a t t h emeasured voltages a r e greater t h a n possible interference a n d disturbance
and i tis obtained voltages. T h i s is generally ensured f o r test currents above 5 0A . T h e internal resistance
of t h e v o l t m e t e r s h o u l d b ea t least 1 0 t i m e s t h e resistance t o e a r t h o f t h e probe. W i t h
PE = 2 7 r - a - R E . (5.30) currents below 5 0 A , suitable measurement results c a nonly b e achieved i n smaller
The soil resistivity results f r o m t h e probe distance a a n d t h e recorded resistance R . installations.
E
A n earth tester is u s e d a s m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f w h i c h i s e x p l a i n e d b y
Figure 5.17. T h e controllable measuring current i sinjected into t h e soil t h r o u g h t h e
5.11 Measurement of earthing resistance probes C i a n d C 2 . T h e voltage is taken between t h e probes C i a n d P 2 . T h i s m e t h o d
i s a l s o c a l l e d three-point method. I f t h e e l e c t r o d e C ] i s a s s u m e d a s a h e m i s p h e r i c a l
The earthing or footing resistance o fa tower c a n b e measured using differing methods.
electrode h a v i n g t h e r a d i u s r , t h e p o t e n t i a l U B B occurs a t its surface d u e t o t h ec u r r e n t /

Fall-of-potential m e t h o d w i t h a n e a r t h megger U B B = B E • 7 / 2 nr . (5.32)

The e a r t h megger issuited f o r measurements a te a r t h electrodes o re a r t h i n g systems o f The voltage between t h e probes a tpoints B a n d Cis
s m a l l o r m e d i u m extent such as single r o d e a r t h electrodes, s t r i p e a r t h electrodes, earth
electrodes o f t o w e r s w i t h a t t a c h e d o rl i f t e d o f fe a r t h w i r e s , h i g h - v o l t a g e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s UBC = QEII[2n(l-r)] , (5.33)
a n d s e p a r a t i o n o fl o w - v o l t a g e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s . T h e frequency o ft h e a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e w h e r e / ist h e distance b e t w e e n p o i n t s B a n d C (seeF i g u r e 5.17). T h e voltage o f t h e
used should n o t exceed 1 5 0 H z . T h e e a r t h electrode tested, t h e probe a n d a u x i l i a r y p r o b e a t p o i n t B a g a i n s t t h e r e m o t e e a r t h , t h e reference earth, w i l l t h e n b e
electrodes should liei na straight line as f a rapart aspossible. T h edistance o fthe probe
f r o m t h e e a r t h electrode tested should b e a t least 2,5 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m extension UBOO = U B B - U B C = ^ ( 1 - - T h ) = ^ - J — . (5.34)
of this electrode, b u t n o t less t h a n 2 0 m . T h e d i s t a n c e between t h e probe a n d t h e 2n \r l - r j 2n r(l — r)
a u x i l i a r y electrode should b ea t least 4 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m extension o f t h e electrode According t o Figure 5.17, t h e voltage between points A a n d Bis
t e s t e d , b u t n o t less t h a n 4 0 m ( s e e [5.13]).
U A B = QE • 7 / 2 na (5.35)
High-frequency earth tester and t h e voltage between points A a n d C will b e
The high-frequency earth tester facilitates t h e measurement o f t h e resistance t o e a r t h
UAC = -eE-I/[2n(l-a)} . (5.36)
of a single tower w i t h o u t lifting o f f t h e e a r t h wire. T h e frequency o fthe measuring
current should b e so high that t h e recurrent network impedance o fthe earth wire Thereof, t h e voltage o ft h e probe a tpoint A t ot h e remote earth results t o b e
a n d t h e neighbouring towers becomes high, representing a practically negligible shunt
circuit t ot h ee a r t h i n g s y s t e m o fa single o v e r h e a d l i n e t o w e r (see [5.14]). F r o m p r a c t i c a l UAOO = U A B + U A C = ^ (- - j Y - ) . (5.37)
2n \a l — aj '
a p p l i c a t i o n s i t c o u l d b e r e a l i z e d t h a t w i t h t h i s i n s t r u m e n t less r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s c a n b e
expected when compared with earth meggers. By c o m b i n i n g equations i t results, f o rt h e voltage b e t w e e n A a n d B , f r o m equations
(5.34) a n d (5.37)
Heavy-current injection method e E / / i i i i h ,
U = UBOO — UAOO • 5.38
T h e heavy-current injection method i s u s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e r e - 2— [ - - - , + i
7r \r I- r a I — a) '
s i s t a n c e t o e a r t h o f l a r g e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s b u t a l s o i f transferred potentials, i . e . t h r o u g h Due t oU = R E 7 t h e n i t applies
metallic pipes, a r e t o b e t a k e n i n t o account a n d , therefore, greater distances between
the e a r t h i n g s y s t e m o f t h e relevant t o w e r a n d t h e r e m o t e e a r t h electrode a r e necessary. R E = f * ( i - J - - 1 + J - ) . (5.39)
2n \r I—r a I — a) '
B y a p p l y i n g a na l t e r n a t i n g voltage w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s y s t e m frequency b e t w e e n
t h e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m a n d a r e m o t e e a r t h e l e c t r o d e , a t e s t c u r r e n t I m is i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e F i g u r e 5 . 1 8 d e p i c t s t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d e p e n d e n c y b e t w e e n earthing resistance R E a n d t h e
e a r t h i n g s y s t e m , leading t o a m e a s u r a b l e p o t e n t i a l rise o ft h e e a r t h i n g system. E a r t h d i s t a n c e a. I f t h e v o l t a g e p r o b e P 2 i s s i t u a t e d c l o s e t o t h e c u r r e n t p r o b e C 2 o r c l o s e
w i r e s a n d cable s h e a t h s w i t h e a r t h electrode effect w h i c h a r e o p e r a t i o n a l l y c o n n e c t e d to probe C i w h i c h represents t h e electrode o r e a r t h i n g s y s t e m t o b etested, n o useful
134 5 Earthing 5.12 E a r t h i n g resistance i n n o n - h o m o g e n e o u s soils 135

T a b l e 5.9: Measurement o f earthing resistance R E

Distance a Mean Maximum
30 m 40m 50 m value difference
Tower A 12,0 SI 13,0 fi 15,0 £2 13,3 £2 12,8 %
Tower B 7,5 n 10,5 £2 12,0 £2 10,1 £2 25,7 %

Figure 5.21: Replacing the measured soil resistivity by a two-layer soil structure w i t h one
layer having the depth dy and the resistivity p E i a n d the resistivity p E 2 in the underlying soil;
a) soil resistivity decreasing with depth, b) soil resistivity increasing with depth

5.12 E a r t h i n g resistance in non-homogeneous soils

5.12.1 Soil resistivity in a two-layer soil structure

T h e readings o f soil r e s i s t i v i t y Q m e a s u r e d b y v a r y i n g p r o b e distances a a n d I reflect

r e a l l y t h e resistivity o f t h e s o i l l a y e r s in non-homogeneous soils a s t h e d e p t h i n c r e a s e s
vertically. T h e resulting diagrams suggest the existence o f a n infinite n u m b e r o f deeper
F i g u r e 5.19: Location o fpotential probes Pi, F i g u r e 5.20: S o i l r e s i s t i v i t y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a n d deeper layers, a s p e r F i g u r e 5.20.
P 2 and current probes C i , C 2 t o measure the distance o f earthing rods H o w e v e r , t h e f o r m u l a e p r e s e n t e d f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e g r o u n d resistance ( T a b l e 5.8) u s e
earthing resistance o f overhead lines only one resistivityvalue as a homogeneous soil was considered. I n these formulae, the
m e a n resistivityo r the apparent e a r t h resistivityhas t o b e used.
r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d . F o r m e d i u m - r a n g e v a l u e s o f a, R E r e p r e s e n t s a p a r a l l e l l i n e t o t h e I n v i e w o f t h i s p r o b l e m , s e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t , t r y i n g t o find o u t
a b s c i s s a ; t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f U a n d J" a n d i s e q u a l t o R E o - T h e d i s t a n c e a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f earthing resistance in real soils, i . e . c o n s i d -
between C i a n d C 2 must b e long enough, so that n o interference exists between t h e ering more t h a n one layer o f soil resistivity. O n e o f the methods w i t h more widespread
probe C 2 a n dthe system t o b e tested. T h e most favourable value f o r a is given b y use consists i n s t r a t i f y i n g t h e s o i l i n t w o r e s i s t i v i t y l a y e r s , t h a t w o u l d r e p r e s e n t t h e e f -
0,62/. f e c t o f m u l t i p l e l a y e r s i n r e a l i t y . T h e first l a y e r r e a c h e s a d e p t h dy a n d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by a r e s i s t i v i t y p E i , w h i l e t h e second layer h a sa n infinite d e p t h a n d a r e s i s t i v i t y p E 2 .
T h e consideration presented here f o r a h e m i s p h e r i c a l electrode applies also t o other
For t h egreat m a j o r i t y o f lines, i t is possible t o d e t e r m i n e a two-layer soil s t r u c t u r e
shapes o fe a r t h i n g electrodes provided the m e a s u r e m e n t s are carried o u t w i t h adequate
t h a t c a n r e p r e s e n t t y p i c a l soils for e a r t h i n g p u r p o s e s . I n s o m e cases, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
distances a a n d / (Figure 5.17). F o r overhead lines, three measurements are carried out
r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s , i t m i g h t n o t b e p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e a two-layer soil structure
w i t h t h e a r r a n g e m e n t according t oF i g u r e 5.19, v a r y i n g a f r o m 3 0 t o 5 0 m i n 1 0m steps,
a n d h e n c e a three-layer soil model i s c o n s i d e r e d .
whereby / = 6 0 m iskept constant. Each o fthe three measurements should not deviate
by m o r e t h a n 2 0 % f r o m t h e m e a n value. I fthe differences a r ehigher, t h e distance A c c o r d i n g t o [5.15], t h e f o r m u l a for c o m p u t i n g t h e e a r t h r e s i s t i v i t ya s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
b e t w e e n p r o b e s C i a n d C 2 ( F i g u r e 5.17 o r 5.19) s h o u l d b e increased t o 8 0 m a n d a n depth is
a d d i t i o n a l series o f m e a s u r e m e n t s s h o u l d b e carried o u t .
°° / kn kn \
P E — P E I 4~ 4 P E I g + ( 2 n W - V 4 + ( 2 n W j , M O )
Example: T h e measurements carried o u t w i t h a distance o f / = 6 0m yield the results given
i n T a b l e 5 . 9 f o r t o w e r s A a n d B . T h e h i g h e s t d e v i a t i o n 1 0 0 - ( R E m a x - REmean)/REmean i s m o r e
w h e r e k = ( p E 2 — P E I ) / ( P E I + PE2) i s c a l l e d reflection coefficient. T h e r e , p E i i s t h e
t h a n 2 0 % a t t o w e r B . T h e r e f o r e , a n a d d i t i o n a l m e a s u r i n g series s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g
r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e first l a y e r a n d p E 2 i s t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e d e e p e r l a y e r o f t h e s o i l .
I = 80 m .
T h e r e f l e c t i o n coefficient k w i l l b e p o s i t i v e i f P E 2 > P E I a n d n e g a t i v e i f p E 2 < PEi- T h i s
identifies a n increasing o r decreasing c u r v e o f p E d e p t h , w h i c h isreflected b y t h e F i g u r e s
5.21 a a n d b . T h e values p E i a n d p E 2 represent t h e e a r t h r e s i s t i v i t yo f t h e u p p e r m o s t
a n d l o w e r m o s t s o i l s t r a t a . T h e d e p t h dy o f t h e first l a y e r c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i n f l e c t i o n
130 o Farming if.x*. x^axuiiillg I C S i S i a i n x : i u i i u i i - i i u i i i o g e n e o u s s o n s LA{

+ 40 -4,0
T a b l e 5 . 1 0 : F a c t o r Mg for calculating the average

SE2/PE1 Afo PE2/0E1 Mo PE2/0EI Afo

0,0010 0,6839 0,75 0,9480 15,50 1,418

0,0020 0,6864 0,80 0,9593 16,00 1,421
0,0025 0,6847 0,85 0,9701 16,50 1,423
0,0030 0,6850 0,90 0,9805 17,00 1,425
0,0040 0,6855 0,95 0,9904 17,50 1,427
0,0045 0,6858 1,00 1,0000 18,00 1,429
0,0050 0,6861 1,50 1,078 18,50 1,430
0,0060 0,6866 2,00 1,134 19,00 1,432
0,0070 0,6871 2,50 1,177 20,00 1,435
0,0080 0,6877 3,00 1,210 30,00 1,456
0,0090 0,6882 3,50 1,237 40,00 1,467 -0,01 ' ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0,010 0,6887 4,00 1,260 50,00 1,474 Ratio dy/L — Ratio dy/L —
0,015 0,6914 4,50 1,278 60,00 1,479
0,020 0,6940 5,00 1,294 70,00 1,482
F i g u r e 5 . 2 3 : C o r r e c t i o n of the earthing r e - Figure 5 . 2 4 : Correction of the earthing r e -
0,030 0,6993 5,50 1,308 80,00 1,484
sistance of a driven r o d computed by means sistance of a driven r o d computed by means
0,040 0,7044 6,00 1,320 90,00 1,486
of a one-layer soil s t r u c t u r e , reflection coeffi-of a one-layer soil structure, reflection coeffi-
0,050 0,7095 6,50 1,331 100,00 1,488
7,00 1,340 110,00 1,489 cient positive, length of the e a r t h i n g r o d 3 m . cient negative, length of the earthing r o d 3 m .
0,060 0,7145
0,7195 7,50 1,349 120,00 1,490 P E ! = 100 f l m (L < dy) 8 3 i = 1 0 0 flm (L>dx)
0,070
0,080 0,7243 8,00 1,356 130,00 1,491
0,090 0,7292 8,50 1,363 140,00 1,492
0,10 0,7339 9,00 1,369 150,00 1,493
0,15 0,7567 9,50 1,375 160,00 1,494
0,20 0,7781 10,00 1,380 180,00 1,495
0,25 0,7981 10,50 1,385 200,00 1,496
0,30 0,8170 11,00 1,390 240,00 1,497
0,35
0,40
0,45
0,8348
0,8517
0,8676
11,50
12,00
12,50
1,394
1,398
1,401
280,00
350,00
450,00
1,498
1,499
1,500
PE1 V
0,50 0,8827 13,00 1,404 640,00 1,501
0,8971 13,50 1,408 1000,00 1,501 PEI di
0,55
0,60 0,9107 14,00 1,410 F i g u r e 5 . 2 2 : Earthing rod in a
0,65 0,9237 14,50 1,413 two-layer soil s t r u c t u r e , where
0,70 0,9361 15,00 1,416
L < dy.

p o i n t o f t h e c u r v e ( s e e F i g u r e 5 . 2 1 ) a n d c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e mean resistivity pg V Ratio d y / L — —

w h i c h is o b t a i n e d from F i g u r e 5.25: Earthing rod in a F i g u r e 5 . 2 6 : Penetration factor FK for a n

two-layer soil, where L> dy. earthing r o d w i t h L > dy
PE = M 0 - P I E • (5- 4 1 )

From Table 5 . 1 0 , t h e factor M o a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e inflection point is d e t e r m i n e d

T h e first t e r m i n t h i s e x p r e s s i o n is t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f a r o d h a v i n g t h e l e n g t h L d r i v e n
depending on P E 2 / P E I - Having pg, the depth d i is determined from F i g u r e 3 2 2 1 .
into soil o f r e s i s t i v i t y p E 1 , a n d t h e second term represents the additional resistance due
An application example for a t w o - l a y e r m o d e l i s g i v e n i n c l a u s e 5 . 1 2 . 5 . Within the
to the second layer. F i g u r e s 5 . 2 3 a n d 5 . 2 4 show respectively t h e increase or t h e decrease
f o r m u l a e g i v e n i n T a b l e 5 . 8 , t h e mean resistivity pg according to ( 5 . 4 1 ) i s to b e used.
i n r e s i s t a n c e d u e t o l o w e r l a y e r s o f h i g h e r o r l o w e r r e s i s t i v i t y w i t h different reflection
coefficients k a n d t h e r a t i o s dy/L a s p a r a m e t e r s .
5.12.2 C o m p u t a t i o n of e a r t h i n g resistance i n a two-layer soil s t r u c t u r e If, a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5 . 2 5 , b o t h layers are p e n e t r a t e d b y t h e r o d , t h e n

T h e computation of the earthing resistance depends o n t h e type o f earth electrode a n d RE FK • (REI + REB.]
t h e d e p t h o f t h e first l a y e r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e l e n g t h o f t h e e a r t h i n g r o d . T h e f o r m u l a e
PEI 1+ k
g i v e n i n T a b l e 5 . 8 r e p r e s e n t a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e m e t h o d for c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h i n g
(5.43)
2nLl~k + 2kdy/L d £l (2n-2)dy/L + l
resistance. I f t h e r o d is driven only into the upper layer, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5 . 2 2 , the
r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e r o d is d e d u c e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g formula
w h e r e F K is c a l l e d penetration factor b e i n g e q u a l to

1 + jfc
F K = (5.44)
R e - 2nL \-k + 2k-dy/L
138 5 Earthing 5.13 P r a c t i c a l r u l e s for i n s t a l l a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s 139

F i g u r e 5.29: T o w e r w i t h e a r t h i n g s y s t e m F i g u r e 5.30: M e a s u r e d v a l u e s f o r s o i l r e s i s -
tivity
F i g u r e 5.27: C o r r e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h i n g r e - F i g u r e 5.28: C o r r e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h i n g r e -
sistance o f a d r i v e n rod computed b y means sistance o f a d r i v e n r o d c o m p u t e d b y means
of a o n e - l a y e r soil s t r u c t u r e , r e f l e c t i o n coeffi- o f a o n e - l a y e r soil s t r u c t u r e , r e f l e c t i o n coeffi- w h e r e N i s t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f p o i n t s w h e r e t h e p o t e n t i a l h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d , Uy a r e
cient positive, l e n g t h o f t h e e a r t h i n g rod 3 m . cient negative, length o f the e a r t h i n g r o d 3 m . t h e p o t e n t i a l s c o m p u t e d a n d I t h e c u r r e n t , for w h i c h t h e p o t e n t i a l s are c o m p u t e d [5.17].
P E i = 1 0 0 ftm (L < dy) P E I = 1 0 0 ftm (L> dy)

R_E1 i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e r o d d r i v e n i n u n i f o r m s o i l o f r e s i s t i v i t y p e i , f ? E a i s t h e
a d d i t i o n a l resistance d u e t o t h e second layer. F i g u r e 5.26 gives t h e p e n e t r a t i o n factor
FK a s a f u n c t i o n o f d y / L r a t i o w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t fc a s a p a r a m e t e r .
F i g u r e s 5.27 a n d 5.28 s h o w t h e increase o r decrease, respectively, o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e R E
f o r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e v a l u e s o f fc, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
5.12.3 C o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e b y m e a n s of t h e a p p a r e n t
resistivity
A n o t h e r m e t h o d o f t e n u s e d f o r c o m p u t i n g t h e earthing resistance consists i n using the
apparent resistivity [5.16]. T h i s r e s i s t i v i t y w o u l d represent t h e effect o f a l l soil layers.
Table 5.8 shows formulae f o r calculating the earthing resistance as a function o f the
apparent resistivity and o f other parameters.
These formulae, however, don't yield good results f o r d i s y m m e t r i c a l electrodes such as
steel grillage a n d counterpoise w i r e systems o f a tower.
5.12.5 E x a m p l e for c o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e
T h e m e a n soil resistivity a n d t h e e a r t h i n g resistance of a lattice tower, equipped w i t h f o u r r a d i a l
earthing strips ( c o u n t e r p o i s e w i r e s ) o f 2 5 m l e n g t h a n d 5 m m d i a m e t e r a r e t o b e c o m p u t e d .
F i g u r e 5.29 shows t h e a r r a n g e m e n t .
T h e soil r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e d b y m e a n s o f t h e W e n n e r M e t h o d are depicted i n F i g u r e 5.30,
c o n n e c t e d b y a c u r v e . T h e s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y PEI = 5 2 0 f l m o f t h e u p p e r m o s t l a y e r i s r e p r e s e n t e d
by the intersection o f the curve w i t h the ordinate. T h e soil resistivity o f the i m a g i n a r y second
l a y e r QEI c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a s y m t o t e o f t h e c u r v e , b e i n g 8 0 f l m . T h e d e p t h o f t h e first l a y e r
is o b t a i n e d a s f o l l o w s :
- T h e r a t i o PEZIQEI i s 8 0 / 5 2 0 = 0 , 1 5 ;
- F r o m T a b l e 5 . 1 0 i t i s o b t a i n e d f o r PEI/PEI = 0,15: M 0 = 0,757;
- T h e n , m e a n s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y , i s gE = 5 2 0 • 0 , 7 5 7 = 3 9 3 ft;
- F o r gE = 3 9 3 ft dy = 6 , 2 m i s o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 5 . 3 0 ;
- T h e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s c a l c u l a t e d a sfc= (gE2 - £ ? E i ) / ( g E i + £>E2) = 0 , 7 3 .
T o c o m p u t e t h e e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e , t h e f o r m u l a e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.8 f o r c r o s s w i s e - a r r a n g e d
e a r t h i n g strips are used. T h e effective l e n g t h L w i l l b e 2 5 + 1 0• %/2/2 = 3 2 m . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
earthing resistance follows f r o m T a b l e 5.8t o b e

„ gE /. 4 L 2 R ,„„,") 393 / 4-32 , 2-32 \

5.12.4 C o m p u t a t i o n of e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t r u c - R e = ^ r ^ + l n T - + 2 ' 9 1 J = ^ ( l n o ^ + l n - T -+ 2 ' 9 1 J =
tures = 8 , 4 1 ft .
I n [5.17], a c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m was d e v e l o p e d w h i c h calculates t h e p o t e n t i a l i ne a r t h , M e a s u r e m e n t s r e s u l t e d i n 1 1 , 4 SI f o r t h i s e x a m p l e . T h e a g r e e m e n t w i t h c o m p u t a t i o n
t h e r e s i s t a n c e a n d t h e f a v o u r a b l e p r o b e p o s i t i o n i n field r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s f o r u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a e from T a b l e 5 . 8 i s s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r t h i s r e l a t i v e l y c o m p l e x a r r a n g e -
a n y complex electrodes i n a t w o - l a y e r e a r t h s t r u c t u r e . T h e t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d y i s c a r r i e d ment.
out t o t h e following sequence:
- C o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h p o t e n t i a l d u e t o a point-type electrode.
- C o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h p o t e n t i a l f o r a n extended electrode ( p r a c t i c a l c a s e ) . 5.13 Practical rules for installation of earthing systems
- Finally, d e t e r m i n a t i o n o ft h e resistance o fextended electrodes based o nthe k n o w n
5.13.1 R a d i a l and ring-type earthing counterpoises
expressions f o rthe potential.
T h e earthing resistance o f t h e electrode is t h e n given b y Radial and ring-type earthing counterpoises are f r e q u e n t l y p l a c e d o n t h e b o t t o m o f a
t r e n c h o r w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n base i ndepths b e t w e e n 0,5 a n d 1,0 m , w h e r e a frost-
proof depth should b e duly aimed at. T h e backfill is compacted t o a low extent only,
w h e r e b y gravel a n dstones should n o tcontact t h e e a r t h i n g counterpoises because o f
140 5 Earthing rceiei e n c e s eti

their high resistance. I f the encountered soil could corrosively attack the metallic e a r t h
electrode, i ts h o u l d b e replaced b y m o r e suitable backfill. E a r t h i n g electrodes m a d e o f
rectangular strips should be installed end up.
5.13.2 V e r t i c a l l y or obliquely d r i v e n e a r t h i n g rods
T h e earthing electrodes d r i v e n i n b y m e c h a n i c f o r c e s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d a t d i s t a n c e s
wider t h a n the rod length. Damage should b e avoided w h e n driving.
5.13.3 B o n d i n g between earthing electrodes
T h e bonds for e s t a b l i s h i n g a n earth electrode n e t w o r k m u s t h a v e a t l e a s t t h e s a m e
electric conductivity, mechanical a n d t h e r m a l s t r e n g t h a s t h e electrode itself. T h e y
s h o u l d b e c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t a n d m a y n o t g i v e r i s e t o contact corrosion. T h e y m a y n o t
be damaged d u r i n g t h e d r i v i n g process. T h e j o i n t s , i f any, m u s t b e protected against
contact w i t h electrolytes i n their vicinity.
5.10 I E C 6 0 7 2 4 : S h o r t - c i r c u i t t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s o felectric cables w i t h r a t e d voltages o f 1 k V
( U m = 1 , 2 k V ) a n d 3 k V ({/„, = 3 , 6 k V ) . G e n e v a , I E C , 2 0 0 0
5.11 W e n n e r , F . : A m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g e a r t h resistivity. Scientific papers o f t h e B u r e a u o f
Standards 258 (1917), pp. 469 t o 478
5.12 D i g i t a l e a r t h tester M E G G E R D E T / 3 R & D E T 5 / 3 D - U s e r G u i d e , A V O - I n t e m a t i o n a l ,
Kent CT179EN, England
5.13 K i n y o n , A . L . : E a r t h r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s f o r g r o u n d i n g g r i d s . I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n
P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems. V o l . 8 0 (1961), pp. 795 t o 800
5.14 U f e r m a n n , J . ; J a h n , K . : H o c h f r e q u e n z - E r d u n g s m e s s g e r a t . (High-frequency earthing
tester). B B C - N a c h r i c h t e n 4 9 (1967), pp. 132 t o 135
5.15 T a g g , G . F . : E a r t h r e s i s t i v i t y . L o n d o n . G e o r g e N e w n e s L t d , 1964.
5.16 D a r v e n i z a , M . e t a l . : M o d e l l i n g for l i g h t n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s . I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s
o n Power A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 9 8 (1979), pp. 1900 t o 1908

5.17 D a l a w i b i , F . ; M u k h e d k a r , D . : O p t i m u m design o f s u b s t a t i o n g r o u n d i n g i n a t w o - l a y e r
5.13.4 E a r t h i n g connections
earth structure. I E E E Transactions o n Power A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 9 4 (1975), pp.
T h e earthing connections should b e as short aspossible a n d protected against mechan- 252 to 271
ical damage, especially w h e n buried i n t h e soil. A t the surface, t h e y should always
be accessible. E a r t h i n g connections m a y b e installed i n concrete, as well. Special care
s h o u l d b e t a k e n a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n s o f b a r e e a r t h i n g c o n d u c t o r f r o m a i r t osoil o r concrete,
because o f the increased corrosion hazard.
T h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n earthing conductors s h o u l d h a v e a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i b i l i t y t o
avoid i n a d m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s also i n case o ff a u l t s . T h e y s h o u l d b e protected against
corrosion, i n particular against contact corrosion i f different metals are connected. I n
t h i s case, p r o t e c t i o n against contact w i t h a n e l e c t r o l y t e i s necessary. T h e connections
m a y n o t get loose b y its o w n a n d m a y n o t b e disconnected w i t h o u t tools. T h e s e require-
m e n t s apply also for connections between e a r t h i n g conductors a n d e a r t h i n g electrodes.

5.14 References
5.1 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l requirements
- c o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C 2001

5.2 D I N V D E 0 1 4 1 : E a r t h i n g o f p o w e r i n s t a l l a t i o n a b o v e 1 k V . B e r l i n , D K E , 1 9 8 9

5.3 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: Set o f i n d e x o f

N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2 0 0 1 '

5.4 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 1 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 45 k V . P a r t 3 - 1 : N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for A u s t r i a . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001

5.5 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for Switzerland. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001

5.6 I E E E S t a n d a r d 8 0 - 1 9 8 6 : G u i d e f o r s a f e t y i n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s u b s t a t i o n d e s i g n . New
Y o r k , I E E E 1986

5.7 I E E E S t a n d a r d 8 1 - 1 9 8 3 : R e c o m m e n d e d guide f o r m e a s u r i n g g r o u n d resistance a n d p o t e n -

tial gradients i n t h e E a r t h . N e w Y o r k , I E E E , 1983

5.8 I E C / T R 2 6 0 4 7 9 - 1 : E f f e c t s o f c u r r e n t o n h u m a n beings a n d l i v e stock. P a r t 1 : G e n e r a l

aspects. Geneva, I E C , 1995

5.9 D I N V D E 0 2 2 8 , P a r t 2 : R e m e d i e s i n case o f i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n s u l a t i o n s
by power installations. Berlin, D K E , 1987
6 Requirements on loading and strength

6.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Span length
a M e a n span length
ag Weight span
aw W i n d span
A A r e a exposed to w i n d
Ains A r e a exposed t o w i n d at a n insulator
,AT Area exposed to wind at a tower
ATQ A r e a exposed to w i n d at a crossarm
Ci D r a g f a c t o r f o r ice c o v e r e d c o n d u c t o r
Cm High probability drag factor
CIL L o w probability drag factor
Cx D r a g factor, C c for conductors, C T for towers, C i n B for insulators
Ci, C2 Parameters of the Gumbel distribution
Di E q u i v a l e n t c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h ice a c c r e t i o n
d C o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h o u t ice
e Exclusion limit
/R Q P r o b a b i l i t y density f u n c t i o n of s t r e n g t h or loading
FN Normal distribution function
PR.,Q C u m u l a t i v e distribution function of strength or loading
g G r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration
pi Ice load per u n i t length
Pj Ice load per u n i t l e n g t h , m e a n value
pm H i g h p r o b a b i l i t y r e f e r e n c e ice l o a d
PIL L o w p r o b a b i l i t y r e f e r e n c e ice l o a d
pm. R e f e r e n c e ice l o a d
GQ Combined w i n d factor for conductors
GIK C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ice l o a d
G;NS C o m b i n e d w i n d factor for insulators
GL S p a n factor for conductors
GT Combined w i n d factor for towers
GQ G u s t w i n d response factor
GX S t r u c t u r a lresonance factor
H A l t i t u d e a b o v e sea level
fc Factor for w i n d loads
fcg . W i n d velocity gust factor
fcj Factor related t o the terrain category of the meteorological station
fcT T e r r a i n factor related to the area exposed to w i n d
Kg, A n , Kz , K„i F a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e reference ice l o a d p m
L G e n e r a l t e r m for variable loading or s t r e n g t h
m M e a n value of a statisticaldistribution
mo C o n d u c t o r mass per u n i t length
n N u m b e r of variables or of observations i n a statistical distribution
N N u m b e r of components subjected to m a x i m u m load intensity, number
of years
P i , P 2 , P3 Parameters of distribution functions
Ps Reliability,probability of survival
PSS Reliability,probability of survival of the system
Pf Unreliability, probability of failure
q D y n a m i c w i n d pressure
p0 Reference d y n a m i c w i n d pressure
144 o rtequiremenis o nloaomg ana strengtn

Symbol Signification Symbol Signification

9c,T D y n a m i c w i n d pressure o n conductors a n d towers Specific w e i g h t force o f ice

9z D y n a m i c w i n d pressure a tthe height z a Standard deviation
O T Load h a v i n g a r e t u r n period o f T r years, design load rr\ S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f i c e l o a d gi
Q L o a d effect au Standard deviation o f use factor
Qw W i n d load OQ
Standard deviation of load Q
W i n d load mean value S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f use factor
<3w (TV
W i n d load o ninsulators Standard deviation o f w i n d velocity V
Owins ay
W i n d load o n conductor S t r e n g t h coefficient
Owe 0N, 0i
Owi W i n d l o a d o n ice c o v e r e d c o n d u c t o r Angle between w i n d direction and crossarm axis
0
OwK Characteristic w i n d load Solidity ratio o fa tower panel
X
Owm Recorded w i n d load o n conductors C o m b i n a t i o n factor for ice a n d w i n d
*i,w
Owth Calculated w i n d load o n conductors
OwT W i n d load o n support
W i n d load o n crossarm
6.1 Mechanical design of the overhead line system
OwTQ
R Strength
6.1.1 C o m p o n e n t s and elements of a n overhead line
R M e a n value o f strength
Ac Characteristic strength R e c e n t m e t h o d s o f overhead line design c o n s i d e r a n o v e r h e a d l i n e a s a s y s t e m c o n s t i -
Re Strength w i t h an exclusion probability o fe t u t e d b y i n d i v i d u a lc o m p o n e n t s , [ 6 . 1 , 6.2, 6.3]. T h e s y s t e m design p e r m i t s t o c o o r d i n a t e
iw R a d i a l ice t h i c k n e s s
t h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h o f these c o m p o n e n t s t a k i n g caxe o f t h e fact t h a t a f a i l u r e o f
T Temperature, absolute temperature
a n y c o m p o n e n t m a y lead t o t h e loss o ft h e c o m p l e t e t r a n s m i s s i o n capacity. A s s h o w n i n
Tr Return period
u Variable o f acumulative distribution function F i g u r e 6 . 1 , t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s y s t e m i s d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r components: supports, founda-
U E , «T Variables o f n o r m a ldistribution tions, conductors a n d interfaces. T h e r e , t h e supports m a y b e suspension, angle, strain
U Use factor or dead-end towers.
u M e a n use factor E a c h c o m p o n e n t i s d i v i d e d i n t o e l e m e n t s . I n case o f s u p p o r t s , t h e s e e l e m e n t s axe steel,
ug,uw M e a n use factor for w e i g h t span, w i n d span wood o r concrete parts, bolts as well as guys and their fittings. F o u n d a t i o n s consist o f
v,vx Coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n concrete bodies, piles, steel grillages o r s t r u c t u r e s m a d e u p o f concrete a n d steel piles.
UR.Q Coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h o r load
C o n d u c t o r s axe n o t s u b d i v i d e d i n t o e l e m e n t s . T h e e l e m e n t s o f interfaces axe i n s u l a t o r s
Vy Coefficient o f v a r i a t i o no f w i n d velocity
and hardware.
V W i n d velocity
V W i n d velocity, m e a n value o f w i n d velocity
Vi W i n d velocity associated w i t h icing 6.1.2 Reliability
Vm H i g h probability reference w i n d velocity associated w i t h icing
L o w p r o b a b i l i t y reference w i n d velocity associated w i t h icing T h e reliability o f a s y s t e m e x p r e s s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h i s s y s t e m w i l l s u r v i v e a g i v e n
Vn W i n d velocity w i t h r e t u r n period T r associated w i t h ice load p e r i o d , e. g .o n e y e a r , w i t h o u t e x p e r i e n c i n g a f a i l u r e . T h e r e l i a b i l i t y P s i , t h e r e f o r e , i s
VR Reference w i n d velocity r e l a t e d t o t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y o r probability of failure Pf, a c c o r d i n g t o
Vr W i n d v e l o c i t y w i t h r e t u r n p e r i o d Tr
vx W i n d velocity a tterrain category x A s . = 1 - Pfi (6.1)
W i n d v e l o c i t y a t h e i g h t z, r e f e r e n c e w i n d v e l o c i t y
1"CI W i n d effect o n i c e c o v e r e d c o n d u c t o r s p e r u n i t l e n g t h I n case o fa s y s t e m m a d e u p o fseveral c o m p o n e n t s , t h e r e l i a b i l i t y is e q u a l t ot h e p r o d u c t
X General variable of t h e reliabilitieso f t h e components:
X Mean value o f a variable
X V a r i a b l e w i t h r e t u r n p e r i o d T,
X
T
Generalized function Ass =Asi -As2 ..Asn = n p S i (6.2)
z Variable, height above ground
z0 Roughness length
zc Average conductor height above ground System Components Elements
a Roughness exponent
" I F a c t o r u s e d f o r ice l o a d d e f i n i t i o n Steel material (angle,
Tr P a r t i a l f a c t o r for ice l o a d plate), wood and concrete
7M Material partial factor Supports Bolts
7U Use factor coefficient
Foundations Guys and their fitting
4i Ice density
d Angle between w i n d direction and the perpendicular t o conductor Transmission line Conductors and
9 Supplement t o t h e line tingle ground wires Connectors
General variable Interfaces Insulators
F i g u r e 6.1: Components
£
Air density and elements o f a n over-
Q
Hardware head line
go A i r d e n s i t y a t +15°C a n d s e a - l e v e l , a s s u m e d a s 1 , 2 8 5 k g / m 3 .
146 6 Requirements o nloading and strength 6.1 M e c h a n i c a l design o f t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s y s t e m 1 4 7

If the probability o f failure o f all components i sless t h a n 1 0 - 2 a n d t h e least reliable

component h a s a n u n r e l i a b i l i t ya p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e
of the other components, t h e reliability o f t h e s y s t e m Pgs can b e a p p r o x i m a t e d b y t h a t
of t h e least reliable component, because o f
n n

p s s = n (j - p a ) ~ 1 - n p a = 1 - m a x p u = m i n p si • (6-3)
t=l i=l
T h i s s i t u a t i o n occurs n a t u r a l l y i n m a n y transmission lines. For example, i n areas -with-
o u t ice, l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e e v e r y d a y c o n d u c t o r stress t o o b v i a t e v i b r a t i o n p r o b l e m s may
l i m i t t h e m a x i m u m t e n s i o n u n d e r w i n d . T h i s i nt u r n increases very substantially the
p r o b a b i l i t y o fs u r v i v a l o fconductors, ascompared t osupports. Also, the insulators and
hardware show a higher reliability them the supports. T h e reliability o f a transmission
line can b e estimated using the following procedure:
- F o r e a c h t y p e o f c l i m a t i c a l l y p r o d u c e d l o a d , a t first t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y func-
t i o n o f loads / Q is established. T h i s f u n c t i o n i s adjusted t o reflect the m a x i m u m
loading intensity t h a t m i g h t occur w i t h i n t h e area crossed b ythe line. A l l available
i n f o r m a t i o n o n loads t h e n w i l l b e considered b y this f u n c t i o n .
— T h e same procedure is applied t o establish a probability density function o f the c) Q, fl — d) o, ft

strength / R o fthe transmission line system. T h a t m a y b e complicated in general,

however, i tissimplified if an overhead line is designed such t h a t one component F i g u r e 6 . 2 : R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n l o a d effects a n d s t r e n g t h s
has a considerably l o w e r s t r e n g t h t h a n a l l t h e o t h e r s . I n t h i s case, t h e s t r e n g t h o f a) l o a d effect a n d s t r e n g t h c o n s t a n t
the overhead line can b e represented b y the strength o fthe weakest component. b) l o a d effect c o n s t a n t , s t r e n g t h s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d
TO- L ~ ~ . i . ~ i : ~ i , , . . j o l . i x.~xl. X L „ : ~! tx.— ~ L - . L : I : * . . . A :x.. r. c) l o a d e f f e c t s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d , s t r e n g t h c o n s t a n t
X L O l l U U l l X 10G 111G11L1G111GIX L11CXL 1 0 U L 1 1 , L U G l U C L C l e l l l C l O L I C l l g L l l J J 1 U U t L L X l l l L y G l C l l O l b y 1 U 1 1 C "
d) l o a d effect a n d s t r e n g t h s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d
tions, need t o refer t o t h e same critical action, e. g.the compression force o f the
highest strained member and its buckling strength.
For a b e t t e r p r a c t i c a l evidence, i t i sp r e f e r a b l e t o u s e t h e cumulative distribu- following relations, F Qand F R are defined as the cumulative distribution functions
tion function of strength F R i n s t e a d o f t h e probability density function / R . The ( C D F ) o f Q a n d R, w h i l e / Q a n d / R a r e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n s ( P D F ) o f t h e
cumulative distribution function o f strength F R isgiven b y same variables, e. g. t h e l o a d o f a leg m e m b e r and its strength. T h e yearly reliability
X
is o b t a i n e d from
FR(X) = I fR(Odt • (6.4)
oo
o
T h e probability density functions o f loads a n d strengths can b eused t o e s t i m a t e the P S = P S ( ( A- Q) > 0 ) = 1 - j / Q K ) F R ( £ ) de . (6.5)

overhead line reliability,as well as t o design a line for a given reliability. o

E q u a t i o n (6.5) c a n b e solved n u m e r i c a l l y i neach case b yc o m p u t e r programs, i f the
6.1.3 C a l c u l a t i o n of reliability functions / Q and P R are k n o w n . W h e n o n l y t h e average and standard deviation o fQ
a n d A variables are k n o w n , t h e reliabilityAs can b eobtained f r o m (6.5), nevertheless. I n
L o a d effects Q a n d s t r e n g t h s R o f t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s a r e r a n d o m v a r i a b l e s , e a c h being
described b yits specific d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n . T h r o u g h technical studies [6.1, 6.3], i t t h i s case, i t i sa s s u m e d t h a t t h e l o a d s f o l l o w t h e Gumbel distribution and the strengths
has been recognized t h a t ice and w i n d variables m a y b e represented b ya n extreme the Gaussian n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h e r e b y b o t h distributions are defined b yt h e i r m e a n
v a l u e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e t h e Gumbel distribution, the probability den- value and standard deviation. O t h e r procedures f o r estimating the reliability can b e
sity f u n c t i o n o fw h i c h i s given b y e q u a t i o n (6.105) and their cumulative distribution o b t a i n e d f r o m [6.2].
f u n c t i o n b y equation (6.106). T h e c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n (6.106) defines the T h e r e l i a b i l i t y d e p e n d s o n t h e load effect p a r a m e t e r s Q a n d t h e strength parameters
probability t h a t a given value x will not b e exceeded. A . F o u r cases c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6.2:
T h e s t r e n g t h s c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e G a u s s i a n normal distribution with the prob- Case 1
ability density function according t o (6.88) and the cumulative distribution function T h e l o a d effect Q a n d s t r e n g t h A are a s s u m e d t o b e c o n s t a n t v a l u e s . I f t h e s t r e n g t h A
according t o (6.89). I n m a n y cases, t h e s t r e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o n of c o m p o n e n t s is character- i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e l o a d e f f e c t Q, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y w i l l a l w a y s b e 1 o r 1 0 0 % ( F i g u r e 6 . 2 a ) .
i z e d b y a l o w e r t h r e s h o l d . I n s u c h c a s e s , t h e logarithmic normal distribution represents Case 2
the strength characteristics more adequately. I t s p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y f u n c t i o n I sd e - T h e l o a d effect Q i s a s s u m e d a s c o n s t a n t ( d e t e r m i n i s t i c ) a n d t h e s t r e n g t h A i s a s t a t i s -
scribed b y (6.98) a n d its c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n b y (6.99). I n clause 6.9, the t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d v a r i a b l e . I f t h e c o n s t a n t l o a d i s e q u a l t o t h e design strength A having
parameters o f the functions mentioned are explained. a n exclusion limit e, t h e n t h e y e a r l y r e l i a b i l i t y P s i s e q u a l t o 1 — F R ( e ) . I f e = 1 0 % ,
W h e n statistical parameters o f loads and strengths and their statistical distribution t h e n t h e r e l i a b i l i t y is 0,9. T h e r e l i a b i l i t ye x p r e s s e s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y , t h a t t h e l o a d effect Q
functions a r e k n o w n , i t i spossible t ocalculate o restimate the yearly reliability o r is less t h a n t h e s t r e n g t h A ( F i g u r e 6.2 b ) .
p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u r v i v a l Ps t h r o u g h a n a l y t i c m o d e l s o rapproximate methods. I n the
 \J - - . v . v..v_...(* , , " L . i - l l U L I i g l l 1*1 LiI1_ 1* * 1.1 111, CHJ ****G O J O l l G l l l 1 1 *

0 . 0 3 0 0

Tf= 50 years fable 6 . 1 : Yearly reliability for differing assumptions f o rloads a n d strengths
0 , 0 2 5 0 - J _ vQ = 0,50
^ 1 / ^ vQ = 0.30 Case Load Strength Reliability P s
0 , 0 2 0 0
Mean Coefficient Design Mean Coefficient Design
0 , 0 1 5 0
value of variation value value of variation strength
0,0100
1 Q 0 Q R 0 R>Q 1,0

M
0 , 0 0 5 0 (
Q
0,05 0,1 0 , 1 5 0,2 f
Coefficient of variation v n 2 Q 0 Q R UR R ( l - u,vR) 1- / /nd£ =
0.008 0

0,007
. - L v Q = D,50 7f= 150 years 1 - F a ( u e ) = 0,90
(for u e = 1,28)
0,006 .^te/ va = 0.30

| 0.005
>Os?K^ kQ = 0 , 2 0 3 Q VQ QT R 0 R
l - y"/Qd£
QT
1 0.0O4
1 -~M-M" •— = 1 — 1/T,
o

J /QFR
j? 0,003
0,05 0,1 0 , 1 5 0.2 4 Q VQ QT R UR R(l - U«UR)
fl
fl 0,002
1 - d£
Coefficient of variation v n

ss 1 - l / ( 2 T r )
0,002 7 , = 5 0 0 years

vQ =
0,003
0,20 *
o f coefficients of strength variation u p t o 0 , 1 t o t h e v a l u e 1 / ( 2 T r ) i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e
1

A VQ = 0 , 3 0 coefficients o fv a r i a t i o n o f loads. C o m p u t a t i o n s u s i n g o t h e r d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n s lead

0,002 vQ = 0,50 id
F i g u r e 6.3:Probabilities o f to practically e q u a l results. I nT a b l e 6 . 1 , t h ef o r m u l a e f o r t h e yearly reliability a p p l y i n g
failure f o r differing coeffi- for t h ef o u r c o n s i d e r e d cases a r e s u m m a r i z e d .
cients o f v a r i a t i o n . F o r t h e
1

27, C o n c e r n i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t oo v e r h e a d lines, e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 6 ) offers m o r e advantages.

0,001
l o a d e f f e c t s Q, t h e G u m b e l
distribution is assumed, arid
0,05 0,1 0 , 1 5 0,2 the Normal distribution f o r
Coefficient of variation v R t h e s t r e n g t h s R.
Case 3
T h e l o a d effect Q i sa s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t e d v a r i a b l e a n d t h e s t r e n g t h R i s c o n s t a n t
(deterministic). Since strength R isconstant a n d equal t o the design load QT, the year ly
r e l i a b i l i t y d e p e n d s o n l y o n t h e return period TT a n d n o t o n t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n
o f l o a d effects Q . T h ey e a r l y r e l i a b i l i t y i s 1 - 1 / T r ( F i g u r e 6 . 2 c).
Case 4
L o a d effect Q a n d s t r e n g t h R a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d variables ( F i g u r e 6.2 d). T h i s
is o b v i o u s l y t h e m o s t g e n e r a l case a n d t y p i c a l f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . T h el o a d effect Q
w i t h a r e t u r n p e r i o d T r m a t c h e s w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h R ( 1 - ue • VR). T h e y e a r l y r e l i a b i l i t y
depends o n t h ep a r a m e t e r s o f t h e loads a n d t h e strengths.
A c c o r d i n g t o [6.2], a m a j o r b r e a k - t h r o u g h i nt h e a p p l i c a t i o n o fp r o b a b i l i t y m e t h o d s f o r
the design o foverhead lines w a s achieved w h e n a r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n load, a n d s t r e n g t h
was established, leading t o a n a l m o s t constant probability o ffailure. T h i s relation is
Q T = (10 % ) Ro r Q T = Ae=io% • (6-6)
T h e l o a d effect w i t h a r e t u r n p e r i o d T r i s e q u a l t o t h es t r e n g t h , w h i c h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by a nexclusion limit o f 10 % o rm e t w i t h 9 0 % probability. Calculations o f failure
p r o b a b i l i t i e s c o v e r i n g t h e m o s t c o m m o n c o m b i n a t i o n s o f l o a d e f f e c t s Q and s t r e n g t h s
R f o r overhead lines a r e presented i n F i g u r e 6.3 f o r t h e r e t u r n periods o f load effects
o f 50, 1 5 0 a n d 5 0 0 years. T h e r e , t h e r a n g e o f coefficients o f v a r i a t i o n o f l o a d effects Q
scatters between 0,20 a n d 0,50 a n d t h a t o ft h e strengths R o fthe weakest c o m p o n e n t
between 0 a n d 0,2.
F r o m F i g u r e 6.3, i tc a n b e seen t h a t , f o r a constant s t r e n g t h , t h e y e a r l y p r o b a b i l i t y
of failure i s 1 / T r .T h i s probability o f failure i sreduced w i t h i n t h e interesting range
First, the loads a r e described b y the return period: a n approach very c o m m o n i n build-
i n g d e s i g n f o r weather-related loads. S e c o n d , t h e a n a l y s i s o f s t r e n g t h d a t a s h o w s t h a t
t h e characteristic strength i s a l w a y s a b o v e t h e 1 0 % e x c l u s i o n l i m i t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
reliability calculated using equation (6.6) c a nb e considered as a lower boundary o f
real values a n d leads t o designs o n t h e conservative side. T h i r d , w h e n u s i n g exclusion
l i m i t s l o w e r t h a n 1 0 % i n e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 6 ) , f o r e x a m p l e o f 2 %, t h e r e l i a b i l i t y P s w o u l d b e
o v e r e s t i m a t e d i n cases w h e r e t h e characteristic s t r e n g t h w o u l d h a v e a h i g h e r e x c l u s i o n
l i m i t t h a n 2 %, f o r e x a m p l e 1 0 %.
F o r t h e d e s i g n o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s , return periods o f t h e c l i m a t i c l o a d s b e t w e e n 5 0 a n d
1000 years a r e used i ngeneral. F r o m F i g u r e 6.3, i tc a n b e seen t h a t t h ey e a r l y failure
probability i sbetween 1 / T r a n d 1 / ( 2 T r ) i ft h e characteristic strength w i t h 1 0% e x -
clusion l i m i t ist h a t equal t ot h e load w i t h t h e specified r e t u r n period. T h e n , t h e yearly
reliability will b e
Psi = l - A f l . (6.7)
F r o m this basic consideration, t h e probability o f failure Pf^r a n d t h e probability o f
s u r v i v a l PSN f o r a life cycle o f a l i n e c o m p r i s i n g N y e a r s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y
P S R = Pil = [ l - P n f • (6.8)
T h e probability of failure Pfiy d u r i n g t h i s l i f e c y c l e p e r i o d r e s u l t s from
PfN = y-PsN • (6.9)
T a b l e 6.2gives values f o r t h eprobabilities o f s u r v i v a l a n do ff a i l u r e f o r r e t u r n periods
o f c l i m a t i c l o a d s i n 5 0 , 1 5 0 , 5 0 0 o r 1 0 0 0 y e a r s a n d life cycles o f a l i n e b e t w e e n 5 0 a n d
100 years. T h e design f o rloads w i t h 5 0 year r e t u r n p e r i o d a s l i m i t loads results i n
t h e o r e t i c a l f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t i e s b e t w e e n 3 9 a n d 8 7 %. E v e n f o r a d e s i g n f o r l o a d s w i t h a
r e t u r n p e r i o d o f 1 0 0 0 y e a r s , t h e failure probabilities r e a c h b e t w e e n 2 a n d 1 0 % r e l a t e d
t o t h e life cycle o f t h e line. A c c o r d i n g t or e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s , i na d d i t i o n t ot h e l i m i t
150 6 Requirements o nloading and strength 6.1 M e c h a n i c a l design o ft h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s y s t e m 1 5 1

T a b l e 6.2: Relations between probability o foccurrence o floads and reliabilitieso f overhead T a b l e 6 . 3 : P r o p o s a l for t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f strengths
lines Major Coordination within the major
Return period TR of component comp onents
design loads (years) 50 150 500 1000 Component with lowest strength Suspension support support, foundations, hardware
Lowest yearly Should not possess the lowest strength Angle support
reliability Psi 0,98 to 0,99 0,993 to 0,997 0,998 to 0,999 0,999 to 0,9995 with 90 % probability Section support support, foundations, hardware
Yearly probability Dead-end support
of failure Pa 0,02 to 0,01 0,0067 to 0,0033 0,002 to 0,001 0,001 to 0,0005 Conductors conductors, hardware
Reliability during
50 years Psso 0,36 to 0,61 0,71 to 0,86 0,90 to 0,95 0,95 to 0,98
100 years Rsioo 0,13 to 0,37 0,50 to 0,74 0,82 to 0,90 0,90 to 0,95 this criterion is given w h e n a component o relement is purposely designed t o a c t
Theoretical failure as a l o a d l i m i t i n g device. I n s u c h a case, t h e s t r e n g t h s h o u l d b e w e l l t u n e d w i t h
probability during the component i tis supposed t o protect.
50 years Pan 0,64 to 0,39 0,29 to 0,14 0,10 to 0,05 0,05 to 0,02
Using the criteria mentioned above, it can b econcluded for suspension supports, strain
100 years RflOO 0,87 to 0,63 0,50 to 0,26 0,18 to 0,10 0,10 to 0,05
supports, conductors, foundations and interfaces that:
- T h e conductors should not b e the weakest component because they d o not comply
l o a d s , p a r t i a l f a c t o r s o n t h e l o a d s i d e a n d partial factors o n t h e m a t e r i a l side have w i t h t h e first t h r e e c r i t e r i a .
to b e considered w h e n designing lines. U s i n g t h i s approach, t h e actual frequencies o f - T h e h a r d w a r e c a n n o t b e selected a s t h e weakest c o m p o n e n t because o f t h e last
failures are reduced b yo n et o t w o orders o fm a g n i t u d e , compared w i t h t h e d a t a given criterion.
i n T a b l e 6.2. W h e n d e s i g n i n g a c c o r d i n g t o c l i m a t i c l i m i t loads, t h e f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y - T h e s t r a i n s u p p o r t s a r e n o t s u i t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e first t w o c r i t e r i a .
w i l l b e lower t h a n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e o ft h e e x t r e m e loads, a st h e m a x i m u m - T h e foundations d o not meet the second and the third criterion and, therefore,
load does n o talways meet a support w i t h a l o wstrength because o f the statistical should not b e the component w i t h the lowest reliability.
distribution o f the support strength. T h e estimations presented i nTable 6.2 assume A s logical consequence o f t h e considerations above, t h esuspension s u p p o r t s s h o u l d
t h a t a l l o ft h e s u p p o r t s affected i na loading event are stressed u p t ot h e i r theoretical constitute t h ecomponent w i t h t h elowest strength. I f a line designed according t o
m a x i m u m l o a d . T h i s a g a i n i s a c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n . T h e reliability o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s this rule experienced climatic loads exceeding b y far t h e design loads, t h e suspension
can b e theoretically described only w i t h a wide band w i d t h because o ft h e explained s u p p o r t s w o u l d f a i l first. T h e d a m a g e w o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o o n e o r a f e w s u s p e n s i o n
conditions. For comparisons o f different loading assumptions o r different designs, t h e supports. N e w structures could b e erected o nintact foundations w i t h i n a relatively
presented considerations axe h e l p f u l , h o w e v e r . short period. A failure cascade w o u l d b e avoided b ya corresponding design o f t h e line.
I n Table 6.3a typical coordination o fstrengths i n a n overhead line isshown. According
to this table, t h e suspension supports f o r m the components w i t h the lowest strength.
6.1.4 Strength coordination a n d selection of reliability
T h e presented c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h can b e used f o rmost lines. W i t h i n each m a j o r
T r e a t i n g a n o v e r h e a d l i n e a s a s y s t e m r e q u i r e s t h e coordination of strengths o f all c o m p o n e n t , t h e e l e m e n t m e n t i o n e d first s h o u l d h a v e t h e l o w e s t s t r e n g t h w i t h 9 0 %
c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h set u p t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e . T h e s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f s t r e n g t h s o f confidence. P r o m r e v i e w o f e x i s t i n g lines i n practice, i tc a n b e concluded t h a t t h e i r
the i n d i v i d u a l line components differ; t h e c o m p o n e n t s react differently o n loadings. I n design corresponds t o this coordination w i t h few exceptions.
case o f c o m p o n e n t s a r r a n g e d i n series, a f a i l u r e w o u l d o c c u r i f t h e a c t i n g l o a d exceeded I n s o m e special s i t u a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e i ncase o f specific load conditions, a n o t h e r
the s t r e n g t h a t least i n one o ft h e components. sequence o f strengths m a y b e required. T h e suspension structures f o rcrossings over
A coordination o fstrength o f the line components c a n b eachieved using the following shipping lanes c o u l d b e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t t h e y w i t h s t a n d b r e a k i n g o f c o n d u c t o r s . I n
criteria: such a case, n of a i l u r e o ft h e s u p p o r t s w o u l d o c c u r e v e n i f t h e c o n d u c t o r b r o k e d u e t o
— T h e lowest reliability should b e assigned t o a component, the failure o f w h i c h e x t e r n a l effects, f o r e x a m p l e d u e t o vessels w i t h exceedingly h i g h s t r u c t u r e s . I n areas
w o u l d o n l y i n t r o d u c e t h e least s e c o n d a r y l o a d effects, s t a t i c a l l y as w e l l a s d y n a m - w h e r e avalanches occur, t h ee r e c t i o n o f t o w e r s i s difficult. A l s o i n t h i s case, t o w e r s
i c a l l y , o n o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s , i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a propagation could b e designed such t h a t t h e y w o u l d w i t h s t a n d one-sided conductor tensile forces
of failure o r of cascading. and w o u l d not fail i fthe conductors broke.
— T h e s t r e n g t h s o ft h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s s h o u l d b e selected a n d t u n e d t o t h e For the practical realization o f the strength coordination, t w o methods a r e possible
others, such t h a t t i m e a n d efforts f o rrepair after a failure w o u l d b e as l o w as a c c o r d i n g t o [6.4]:
possible. - T h e c o m p o n e n t w i t h t h elowest target r e l i a b i l i t y i s designed w i t h l i m i t loads,
- T h e component w i t h t h e lowest reliability should ideally show o n l y a s m a l l dif- c o n s i d e r i n g t h e necessary p a r t i a l f a c t o r s g i v e n i n [6.4]. T h e c o m p o n e n t h a v i n g
ference between d a m a g e a n d complete b r e a k d o w n , a sw e l l a s a scattering o f t h e t h e n e x t h i g h e r target reliability s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d w i t h t h e s a m e d e s i g n v a l u e s
strength a sl o w as possible. I ft h e s t r e n g t h o f a c o m p o n e n t w i t h t h e lowest reli- of actions, however, combined w i t h a nexclusion limit w i t h a percentage factor 5
ability scattered t oa wide extent, a deliberated coordination o fstrengths w o u l d to 10 lower t h a n t h a t o fthe weakest component.
only b e possible w i t h a low confidence a n d w i t h h i g h investments. - T h e partial factors f o r m a t e r i a l properties a r e established such t h a t the target
- A low-cost c o m p o n e n t i n series w i t h a high-cost c o m p o n e n t s h o u l d b e designed strength coordination between t w o components will b eachieved w i t h a h i g h level
at least a s s t r o n g a n d reliable a s t h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t , i f t h e consequences o f of confidence (approximately 8 0 t o 9 0 % ) .
failure were a s severe a s t h e f a i l u r e o ft h a t m a j o r c o m p o n e n t . A n exception o f D u e t o t h e r a n d o m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f strengths, i ti s theoretically n o tpossible t o guar-
152 6 Requirements o n loading ana strengtn
antee the target reliability and strength coordination w i t h 100% probability. Details
c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h s a r e g i v e n i n [6.2] a n d [6.3].
O v e r h e a d lines c a n b e d e s i g n e d f o r different r e l i a b i l i t y levels o r classes d e p e n d i n g o n
t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , e. g. concerning t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e l i n e i na n e x t e n d e d
system o r d u et o special requirements given i n standards. S t a n d a r d E N 50 341-1 [6.4]
d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h r e e l e v e l s o f r e l i a b i l i t y t o w h i c h r e t u r n p e r i o d s o f climatic loads o f 5 0 ,
150 o r 500 years are associated. F o r a l l lines, a t least t h e reliability level corresponding
to a r e t u r n period o f50 years should b e achieved. T h e reliability level can b e selected b y
comparison o f design loads w i t h those o f existing lines, w h i c h have s h o w n a satisfying
o p e r a t i o n a l r e c o r d d u r i n g a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , o r t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l a n d economic op-
timization [6.5]. I f s t a n d a r d s d o n o t c o n t a i n special s t i p u l a t i o n s for c e r t a i n a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
the following guidelines can b e used for selecting the reliability level:
- T h e reliability level 1 w i t h loads according t o 5 0 years r e t u r n period is selected
for lines i n d i s t r i b u t i o na n d t r a n s m i s s i o n systems w i t h voltages u p t o 150 k V .
- T h e reliability level 2 w i t h loads according t o 150 years r e t u r n period is used for
t r a n s m i s s i o n lines w i t h voltages o f 230 k Va n d above, i ft h e lines c o n s t i t u t e t h e
principal o r only source o f supply t o a particular electric load.
- T h e reliability level 3 w i t h loads according t o 500 years r e t u r n period should b e
selected f o rlines i n interconnecting grids, f o r connection o f power plants a n d f o r
s u p p l y o f large i m p o r t a n t consumers. A l s o close t o r e s i d e n t i a l areas, a t crossings
w i t h i m p o r t a n t traffic routes a n d i n the vicinityo flarge substations, the reliability
level 3 could b e used for design.
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f reliability levels m a y b e setdifferently i n i n d i v i d u a l standards o r b y
i n d i v i d u a l line owners, a l s o d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e g r i d a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
o f a l i n e f a i l u r e . I n t h i s case, also o t h e r t h a n c l i m a t i c l o a d i n g a s s u m p t i o n s h a v e t o b e
considered. A s a nexample, the loading assumptions for overhead lines i n G e r m a n y are
based o n climatic loads w i t h a r e t u r n period o f 5 0years. However, they are m u l t i p l i e d
by p a r t i a l factors o n t h e load a n d m a t e r i a l side r e s u l t i n g i n t o t a l l i m i t strengths w h i c h
comply w i t h the requirements f o r5 0 0years return period o f the considered climatic
event.
I n g e n e r a l , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e absolute reliability o f a line. T h e defined
reliability levels, therefore, s h o u l d b e assessed i n r e l a t i o n t o each other. T h e difference
between the reliability level 1 w i t h 5 0 years r e t u r n period a n d the reliability level 3
w i t h 5 0 0years r e t u r n p e r i o d results i nr e d u c t i o n o f t h e y e a r l y f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y b y
o n e order o f m a g n i t u d e . R e l a t e d t o t h e life cycle o f a l i n e w i t h 5 0 o r 100 years, however,
the difference between t h e failure frequency associated t o these t w o reliability levels is
less t h a n o n e o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e (see T a b l e 6.2).
6.1.5 E f f e c t of m a x i m u m l o a d i n t e n s i t y on a h i g h n u m b e r of compo-
nents
W h e n t h e maximum intensity o f a l o a d e v e n t Q T a f f e c t s a h i g h n u m b e r o f c o m p o n e n t s
o r e l e m e n t s , f a i l u r e w i l l b e t r i g g e r e d b y t h e w e a k e s t l i n k o r c o m p o n e n t . T h i s effect n e e d s
to be considered w h e n establishing the strength distribution o r the required strength o f
c o m p o n e n t s o r e l e m e n t s . I nt h i s case, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r a m e t e r s o f N c o m p o n e n t s
l o a d e d i n s e r i e s a p p l y t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t r e n g t h s . T h e exclusion limit ejg o f N
c o m p o n e n t s o r e l e m e n t s i n s e r i e s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d from t h e e x c l u s i o n l i m i t e i o f o n e
single c o m p o n e n t o r single e l e m e n t o f t h e series, as follows:
l - e w = [ l - e i f o r e N = l - [ l - e 1 ] N . (6.10)
W h e n a n exclusion limit ejv is envisaged f o r the combined components o r elements,
then the exclusion limit o f each individualcomponent o r each individual element c a n
o . l ivieciiaincai uesign oi m e u v e m e a u line s y s t e m loo
be d e t e r m i n e d from
e i = 1 - ( 1 - eN)l'N . (6.11)
F o r N = 1 0 a n d e w = 0 , 1 , e i = 0 , 0 1 0 5 i s o b t a i n e d from ( 6 . 1 1 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
m e a n value o fthe strengths R and the exclusion limit o fthe corresponding characteristic
strength Rc i s
Rc = R(l-uevR) (6.12)
w h e r e R i s t h e m e a n s t r e n g t h , VR t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d ue
t h e n u m b e r o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n ,associated t o t h e
e x c l u s i o n l i m i t . T h e v a r i a b l e ue i s o b t a i n e d f r o m
F R (ue) = e . (6.13)
W h e n determining the required strength, the number o f components subjected t o the
same load is considered b y the s t r e n g t h coefficient 0/v according t o
<t>N = (1-ueivR)/(l-ueNvR) . (6.14)
A s a n e x a m p l e , 0 w s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r N = 1 0 a n d VR = 0 , 2 0 . I f e w - 0 , 1 , t h e n
e i = 1 - ( 1- ffl)1/10 = 0,0105 is obtained f r o m (6.11). F r o m tables o f standardized
n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n [ 6 . 6 ] i t c a n b e o b t a i n e d uef/ = 1 , 2 8 f o r FR = 0 , 1 a n d u e i =
2 , 3 1 f o r F R = 0 , 0 1 0 5 . W i t h t h e s e d a t a t h e s t r e n g t h c o e f f i c i e n t 4>N c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
f r o m ( 6 . 1 4 ) t o b e </> N = ( 1 - 2 , 3 1 • 0 , 2 ) / ( l - 1 , 2 8 • 0 , 2 ) = 0 , 7 2 . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
this r e s u l t i s i m p o r t a n t . W h e n t h em a x i m u m load i n t e n s i t y o f a n event acts o n t e n
components, the strength o f w h i c h is represented b y a n o r m a l distribution function
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f VR = 0 , 2 , t h e r e l i a b i l i t y w i l l b e c o n s i d e r a b l y
lower t h a n i ncase o f l o a d a c t i o n o n l y o n o n e c o m p o n e n t . I n order t o o b t a i n t h e s a m e
r e l i a b i l i t y i nb o t h cases, a n o m i n a l s t r e n g t h h a s t o b e c h o s e n f o r t h e t e n c o m p o n e n t s
such t h a t , i f m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e s t r e n g t h factor 0 # = 0,72, i t w i l l b e able t ow i t h s t a n d the
c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e s i g n a c t i o n . F o r UR = 0 , 0 5 , a c o r r e s p o n d i n g f a c t o r o f 0 , 9 4 w o u l d r e s u l t .
T h e s e considerations a p p l y also t o i n s u l a t o r strings. I f t h e load acts s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
o n 8 0 i n s u l a t o r s , t h e s t r e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o no f w h i c h shows a coefficient o f v a r i a t i o no f
0,05, t h e n e i = 0,00131 i s o b t a i n e d f r o m (6.11) a n d u e i = 3 , 0 0 f r o m t h e G a u s s i a n
d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e n , a f a c t o r o f 0 w e q u a l 0 , 9 1 r e s u l t s from ( 6 . 1 4 ) , w h i l e t o t e n u n i t s a
v a l u e o f 0 , 9 4 w o u l d a p p l y . H o w e v e r , i f VR = 0 , 1 5 , t h e n 4>N w o u l d b e 0 , 6 8 f o r 8 0 u n i t s
a n d 4>N = 0 , 8 1 f o r t e n c o m p o n e n t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s e x a m p l e u n d e r l i n e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t
effect o f t h e n u m b e r N o f i n v o l v e d u n i t s , w h e n t h e s t r e n g t h d i s p e r s i o n is h i g h .
A l s o the t y p e o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n iso f significance. Therefore, the consideration
w i l l b e r e p e a t e d a s s u m i n g a l o g - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e strength factor 4>N i s d e f i n e d
by
4>N=Re\/ReN , (6.15)
where I Q i is the relative strength o f each i n d i v i d u a l component o f N components i n
s e r i e s a n d Re N t h e t a r g e t s t r e n g t h o f a l l c o m p o n e n t s i n s e r i e s , w h i c h a r e l o a d e d b y
t h e l i m i t l o a d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e , Rey i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x c l u s i o n
limit o f 0,0105 a n d A e w w i t h that o f the target exclusion limit o f 0,1. T o determine the
v a l u e s o f t h e logarithmic normal distribution, t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d Gaussian distribution
can b e used:
AR(u) = e , (6.16)
where u isobtained from
u = [\n(R-py] -Pi)/p2 (6.17)
154 6 R e q u i r e m e n t s o nl o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h 6.1 M e c h a n i c a l design o ft h e o v e r h e a d line s y s t e m 155

T a b l e 6 . 4 : S t r e n g t h f a c t o r 4>N f o r N c o m p o n e n t s i n s e r i e s o r i n p a r a l l e l s u b j e c t e d t o m a x i m u m T a b l e 6 . 5 : S t a t i s t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s U a n d ay f o r w i n d s p a n l e n g t h ( 1 )
l o a d effect b a s e d o n n o r m a l o r l o g - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ( v a l u e s i n p a r e n t h e s i s ) Terrain and constraints Al Bl, A2 B2, C I C2
Coefficient of variation of strength V CTU U U U <ru
A n nx
U,UO
U,U I 0 fl i n nix 0 20 0 25 0 30
Number of suspension
U, 1 u
i nn I nn nn il nn
1 1,00 ] ,00 1,00 1 ,UU I ,uu support types
1 ,UU
2 0,98 0,98 (0,97) 0,97(0,97) 0,94 (0,95) 0,91 (0,93) 0,87 (0,92) 0,84 (0,90) 1 0,95 0,05 0,85 0,10 0,75 0,15 0,55 0,20
5 0,96 0,94 (0,94) 0,92 (0,93) 0,85 (0,89) 0,80 (0,86) 0,72 (0,83) 0,64 (0,80) 2 ss 1,0 0,00 0,95 0,05 0,85 0,10 0,65 0,15
10 0,94(0,95) 0,92 (0,93) 0,89 (0,90) 0,81 (0,86) 0,72 (0,82) 0,62 (0,77) 0,51 (0,73) 3 a 1,0 0,00 ssl.O 0,00 0,95 0,05 0,75 0,10
20 0,93 (0,94) 0,90 (0,91) 0,85 (0,88) 0,77 (0,83) 0,66(0,77) 0,53 (0,73) 0,38 (0,68)
40 0,92 (0,93) 0,87 (0,89) 0,83 (0,86) 0,72 (0,80) 0,59(0,74) 0,44 (0,69) 0,26 (0,64)
60 0,91 (0,92) 0,86 (0,88) 0,81 (0,85) 0,70 (0,78) 0,56 (0,72) 0,40 (0,67) 0,20 (0,62)
l e n g t h a s s u m e d t o b e l i n e a r . T h e r a t i o a, t o amax represents a r a n d o m l y distributed
60 0,91 (0,92) 0,86 (0,88) 0,80 (0,84) 0,68(0,77) 0,53 (0,71) 0,36 (0,65) 0,16(0,60)
0,85 (0,87) 0,79 (0,83) 0,34 (0,62) 0,13(0,57)
v a r i a b l e a n d i s c a l l e d use factor U. T h e u s e f a c t o r U h a s a n u p p e r l i m i t o f 1 , 0 a n d a
160 0,90(0,91) 0,67(0,76) 0,52 (6,69)
l o w e r l i m i t o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,4. F r o m a n a l y s i s o f lines designed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l i m i t
l o a d a p p r o a c h , i t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t t h e u s e f a c t o r U c a n b e s i m u l a t e d b y a Beta
I n ( 6 . 1 7 ) , t h e t e r m p i c a n b e t a k e n a s z e r o a n d t h e p a r a m e t e r s P2 a n d p 3 r e s u l t f r o m distribution function. I n [ 6 . 3 ] a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B e t a f u n c t i o n c a n b e f o u n d . T h r e e
( 6 . 1 0 3 ) a n d ( 6 . 1 0 4 ) , w i t h p i = 0 a n d a/m = VR, t o b e p a r a m e t e r s affect t h e use factor t o a n essential e x t e n t :
— T h e number o f types and height alternatives o f suspension supports which are
p| = l n ( 4 + l ) (6.18)
used for a specific line,
and — T h e type o fterrain and
— T h e c o n s t r a i n t s f o r s e l e c t i o n o f t o w e r s i t e s , e. g . d u e t o a v a i l a b i l i t y o r n o n -
p 3 = I n A - 1 / 2 • \n{vl + 1 ) . (6.19) availability o f land.
If each support was designed exactly for the conditions applicable for each tower site,
T h e r e , R i s t h e m e a n s t r e n g t h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s o r e l e m e n t s a n d VR t h e i r t h e n t h e use factor w o u l d b e 1,0i n general. I f o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , one suspension t y p e
coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n . o n l y w a s used, t h e n a n average use f a c t o r b e t w e e n 0,6 a n d 0,75 w o u l d r e s u l t i n a h i l l y
F o r t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e w i t h VR = 0 , 2 , R = 1 a n d N = 1 0 , i t a p p l i e s p\ = l n ( 0 , 2 2 + 1 ) = t e r r a i n . T h e statistical characteristics o f t h e use factor, n a m e l y t h e m e a n v a l u e U a n d
0,0392; p 2 = 0,198 a n d p 3 = - 1 / 2 ln(0,22 + 1) = - 0 , 0 1 9 6 . F r o m t h e standardized s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o\j, c a n b e d e r i v e d w i t h r e l a t i v e l y g o o d a c c u r a c y f r o m t h e n u m b e r
G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n ueA/ = — 1 , 2 8 r e s u l t s f o r e i = 0 , 1 a n d uey = — 2 , 3 1 f o r e = 0 , 0 1 0 5 . of suspension tower types, the terrain and the constraints concerning the number o f
F r o m (6.17) t h e relations available t o w e r sites. T h e m e a n use factors can b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e m e a n s p a n
length o f a tensioning section a n d t h e design w i n d a n d weight span, since t h e m e a n
I n Rett = ueNp2 + p 3 (6-20)
s p a n l e n g t h a i s e q u a l t o t h e m e a n wind span length a n d a l s o t o t h e mean weight span
and length. T h e r e f o r e , i t a p p l i e s

In Aei = u e i p 2 + P3 (6.21) t7w = a/a w (6.22)

c a n b e o b t a i n e d w i t h pi = 0 . T h e r e f o r e , i t f o l l o w s : I n ReN = - 0 , 2 8 - 0,198 - 0,0196 = and

- 0 , 2 7 3 a n d ReN = 0 , 7 6 1 a s w e l l a s l n R e l = - 2 , 3 1 - 0 , 1 9 8 - 0 , 0 1 9 6 = - 0 , 4 7 7 a n d Rel =
e x p ( - 0 , 4 7 7 ) = 0 , 6 2 1 . T h e r e f o r e , f r o m ( 6 . 1 5 ) <j>N = 0 , 6 2 1 / 0 , 7 6 1 = 0 , 8 2 i s o b t a i n e d
instead o f0,72 f r o m t h e G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n .
T a b l e 6 . 4 d e p i c t s s t r e n g t h f a c t o r s 4>N, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r o f N c o m p o n e n t s o r
e l e m e n t s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e x p o s e d i n series o r i n p a r a l l e l t o a c r i t i c a l l o a d for b o t h as-
s u m p t i o n s o f a normal o r log-normal distribution. I n a similar way, strength factors
can b e d e t e r m i n e d for o t h e r d i s t r i b u t i o n s . E s p e c i a l l y i n case o f h i g h n u m b e r s o f c o m -
ponents o relements, the type o fd i s t r i b u t i o nplays a n i m p o r t a n t role. Since these con-
siderations refer t othe lower tail o fthe d i s t r i b u t i o n , the l o g - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n seems
m o r e adequate t h a n t h e n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ,because t h e r e i s a defined t h r e s h o l d for
the m i n i m u m strength o fcomponents o r elements.
U g = a/ag , (6.23)
w h e r e < z w i s t h e d e s i g n w i n d s p a n a n d ag t h e d e s i g n w e i g h t s p a n . I n T a b l e s 6 . 5 a n d
6 . 6 , t y p i c a l u s e f a c t o r m e a n v a l u e s U a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s ay f o r t h e
w i n d and weight span lengths, respectively, are presented. T h e constraints refer thereby
to deviations f r o m a tower site selection as economic as possible because the need o f
t a k i n g care o freal estate properties, roads, l a n d for buildings o rother overhead power
lines. T h e v a l u e s g i v e n i n T a b l e s 6.5 a n d 6.6 c o u l d b e u s e d f o r d e s i g n , i f n o specific d a t a
w e r e available. I f t h e use factors characterized b y t h e m e a n value a n d t h e s t a n d a r d
deviation were k n o w n already w h e n designing the supports, this could b e considered
b y t h e u s e f a c t o r c o e f f i c i e n t yy. A c c o r d i n g t o

6.1.6 U s e f a c t o r a n d i t s effect o n t h e d e s i g n Q r u = QT • 7 u (6.24)

A s s u m i n g Q is t h e l o a d r e s u l t i n g f r o m a c l i m a t i c a c t i o n a p p l i e d t ot h e m a x i m u m s p a n
length a m a x , t h e n the load o n a support w i t h the span length a ; can b e expressed
as Q • a j / a m a x , a l i n e a r s y s t e m p r o v i d e d . I n c a s e o f w i n d l o a d s a n d l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s
b e t w e e n ay a n d a m a x , a n o n - l i n e a r i t y c a n o c c u r d u e t o d i f f e r i n g g u s t r e s p o n s e e f f e c t s .
H o w e v e r , t h i s effect w i l l b e n e g l e c t e d h e r e a n d t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n l o a d a n d s p a n
t h e l o a d h a v i n g a r e t u r n p e r i o d T r w i l l b e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e f a c t o r 7 u , w h e r e yy i s
c a l l e d t h e use factor coefficient. F o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t , s e v e r a l m e t h o d s
a r e k n o w n , w h i c h a r e e x p l a i n e d i n [6.2] a n d [6.3]. I n t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , a m o n g o t h e r effects,
the n u m b e r o fs u p p o r t s plays a role w h i c h w i l l b e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y affected b ya c l i m a t i c
l o a d e v e n t . B a s e d o n t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t yy
 U.X k J . H l l g . l l O U l JJJ11, L V l i i p V U L U U L H l l V l U L l U U U a 1 '_> I

fable 6.8: D a t a for t h estatistical parameter u e de-

Terrain and constraints Al B l , A2 B2, C I C2 pending o n t h e exclusion limit
V <ru V <ru U U Exclusion limit e - 10 % 2 % to 5 % <2 %
<ru <ru
Number of suspension Tie 1,28 1,6 2,1
support types Frequency of rejects frequent sometimes rare
1 0,85 0,05 0,75 0,10 0,65 0,15 0,50 0,20
2 0,95 0,03 0,85 0,05 0,75 0,10 0,60 0,15
3 is 1,0 0,00 is 1,0 0,00 0,85 0,05 0,70 0,10 p o n e n t i s e x c e e d e d , t h e s y s t e m w i l l b e i n a failure state. A g r a p h i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
(1) In Tables 6.5 and 6.6 a letter expresses the terrain type: t h i s i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6 . 4 a c c o r d i n g t o [6.3]. I n case o f c o m p o n e n t s w i t h o u t a d e f i n i t e
A flat terrain elastic o r y i e l d l i m i t , such as f o u n d a t i o n s , a s u i t a b l y selected characteristic v a l u e c a n
B rolling, hilly terrain be chosen o n t h estress-strain o r load-displacement curve.
C mountaneous terrain
D a m a g e a n d f a i l u r e l i m i t s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e function of the transmission line: I . e . t o
and a figure characterizes constraints concerning the selection of tower sites:
1 no special constraint, its capacity t o t r a n s f e r power. I n a d a m a g e d state, t h e l i n e f u n c t i o n c o u l d b e i m p a i r e d
2 constraints for selection of tower sites. but w o u l d b e possible, a t least partially, w h i l e i n a failure state t h epower t r a n s m i s s i o n
capability w o u l d b e completely lost.
For some components, t h e deformation o f a n element reduces t h estrength o f another
T a b i c 6 . 7 : U s e f a c t o r c o e f f i c i e n t yy depending
element t o w h i c h t h e f o r m e r is c o n n e c t e d . I n such a case, t h e d a m a g e l i m i t h a s t o b e
o n u s e f a c t o r U a n d c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n vR o f
strength defined i nrelation t o t h e strength o f t h e second element. F o r example, m o v e m e n t o f
Coefficient of variation support foundation reduces t h e strength o f t h e supported tower. Therefore, damage
of strength U R a n d failure l i m i t s o f f o u n d a t i o n s a r e t o b e established i nr e l a t i o n t o t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
V N 0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 (1)
the tower.
0,95 0,05 1 0,97 0,96 0,96 0,96 The definitions o f the damage a n dfailure state presented above a r ei naccordance w i t h
10 0,97 0,97 0,96 0,97 0,95 I E C 6 08 2 6 . C o n t r a r y t o t h i s , E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [6.4] d e f i n e s t h e d a m a g e l i m i t a s serviceability
100 0,98 0,97 0,97 0,97 limit state b e y o n d w h i c h t h e s p e c i f i e d s e r v i c e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e o r a s t r u c t u r a l
0,85 0,10 1 0,92 0,90 0,88 0,87 e l e m e n t a r e n o l o n g e r m e t . T h e f a i l u r e l i m i t i s d e f i n e d a s ultimate limit state b e y o n d
10 0,94 0,92 0,89 0,88 0,90
0,94 intact damage failure which t h e breakdown o f t h e component occurs d u et o exceedingly h i g h deformation,
100 0,96 0,90 0,92
state state state b y loss o f s t a b i l i t y , b y o v e r t u r n i n g , b y b r e a k a g e o r b u c k l i n g . S i n c e t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s d o
0,80 0,15 1 0,92 0,89 0,86 0,84
10 0,94 0,91 0,88 0,87 0,88 not correspond t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f a noverhead line system, t h e y w i l l n o t b e used here.
damage failure
100 0,96 0,94 0,90 0,88
limit limit
0,75 0,20 1 0,830,79 0,81 0,78
F i g u r e 6 . 4 : F u n c t i o n a l states w i t h i n 6.2.2 R a t i n g of individual components and elements
10 0,870,80 0,83 0,78 0,83
100 0,880,81 0,84 0,78 the overhead line system a n d their T h e rating o f i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s o r e l e m e n t s i s b a s e d o n t h e characteristic strength
(1) recommended use factor coefficient for the design limits Rc, w h i c h i s d e f i n e d b y a g i v e n e x c l u s i o n l i m i t . T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t r e n g t h c a n b e
o b t a i n e d f r o m a m e a n v a l u e R a n d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n UR b y
given i n Table 6.7have been derived. I fsupports were t o b e used i n several lines w i t h
Rc = R(l-ue-vK) . (6.25)
v a r i a b l e u s e f a c t o r s , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t yy s h o u l d b e t a k e n a s 0 , 9 5 o r 1 , 0 0 f o r s u p p o r t d e s i g n .
T h e design w i l l t h e n b e o n t h e conservative side. T h e f a c t o r t i e d e p e n d s o n t h e selected e x c l u s i o n l i m i t . A c c o r d i n g t o [6.1], t h e s t r e n g t h
corresponding t o a n exclusion limit o f 10 % is correlated t o t h e load presenting t h e
s e l e c t e d r e t u r n p e r i o d . T h e s t r e n g t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e exclusion limit o f 1 0 % c a n
6.2 Strengths of line components and elements be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m

6.2.1 Strength limits ( l O % ) A = 0cAc , (6.26)

T h e components a n d elements o f overhead lines perform differently concerning their w h e r e Rc i s t h e s t r e n g t h w i t h a k n o w n e x c l u s i o n l i m i t e a n d <pc r e s u l t s f r o m

l i m i t s o f s t r e n g t h . I n c a s e o f brittle components and b u c k l i n g e v e n t s , t h e f a i l u r e o r
0 c = ( l - l , 2 8 u R ) / ( l - u e u R ) . (6.27)
loss o f s t r e n g t h i s s u d d e n a n d u s u a l l y corresponds t o instability, r u p t u r e o r c o m p l e t e
s e p a r a t i o n . I n o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s , t h e loss o f s t r e n g t h is a progressive m e c h a n i s m . F o r F o r t h e G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e v a l u e s ue can b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 6 . 8 . A c o n s e r v a t i v e
e x a m p l e , a grillage foundation subjected t o uplift does n o tfail suddenly: T h e uplift design o f a component is achieved w i t h 0 C = 1 .
increases steadily u n t i l t h ef o u n d a t i o n w i l l b e completely lifted finally. A c c o r d i n g t o D I N E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [6.4], t h edesign v a l u e o f a c o m p o n e n t is o b t a i n e d f r o m
T w o limits have been defined t o describe t h e strength behaviour o f components a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y Rc b y
e l e m e n t s : t h e d a m a g e a n d t h e f a i l u r e l i m i t . T h e damage limit o f a c o m p o n e n t c o r r e -
s p o n d s t o i t s e l a s t i c l i m i t w h i l e t h e failure limit c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c o m p l e t e c o l l a p s e o r R = Rchu , (6-28)
to r u p t u r e o f a c o m p o n e n t o r e l e m e n t . I ft h e d a m a g e l i m i t o f a c o m p o n e n t is exceeded, w h e r e T M r e p r e s e n t s t h e partial factor f o r t h e m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e
t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m w i l l b e i n a damaged state w h i l e , i f t h e f a i l u r e l i m i t o f a c o m - o f l o a d i n g a n d t h e m a t e r i a l . T a b l e 6 . 9 s h o w s p a r t i a l factors a c c o r d i n g t o [6.4]. T h e
158 6 Requirements o n loading and strength 6.3 W i n d l o a d s 159

T a b l e 6 . 9 : P a r t i a l f a c t o r s for m a t e r i a l s q M according t o E N 50341-1 T a b l e 6 . 1 0 : D a m a g e a n d f a i l u r e l i m i t s o f c o m p o n e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o [6-3]

Component Type of stress T y p e of loading 7M Component Loading Damage limit Failure limit
Conductors tension limit load 1,25 Members of tension, yield strength breaking strength
Insulators tension, bending limit load 2,00 lattice steel towers compression — buckling

Fittings all types of loading minimum 1.90 Poles made of

failing load - steel bending collapse by local
moments 1at %the
non-elastic
tower top deformation buckling or bending
Lattice towers
— concrete bending crack openings or 0,5 % collapse of
- members tension, compression limit load 1.10
moments non-elastic deformation the pole
buckling, bearing limit load 1,10
at the tower top
- bolted connections shearing, bearing limit load 1,25
- welded connections shearing limit load 1,25 Separate uplift 1° rotation of excessive uplift
foundations the support of 50 to 100 mm
Poles
compression reduction of 5 % excessive settlement
made of steel tension, compression, limit load 1,10
in support strength of 50 to 100 mm
bending, buckling
concrete compression limit load 1,50 Compact overturning 1° rotation of excessive rotation
reinforcement tension limit load 1,15 foundations moments the support of 5° and more
Guyed towers, anchors tension limit load 1,60 Conductors tension ultimate tensile
appr. 75 % of characteristic
strength or rated tensile strength
Foundations uplift loading limit load national
strength ( R T S )
requirements
Insulators tension rupture
appr. 70 % of rated strength
Interface fittings tension permanent deformation rupture
characteristic strength o f the individual components such as conductors, insulators,
interfaces, l a t t i c e steel t o w e r s etc. h a v e t o b e t a k e n f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n f o r m a t i o n o r
yearly m a x i m u m values o f w i n d velocities have b e e n available for a t least t w e n t y years
t o b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e physical material properties o r d e t e r m i n e d b y s t a n d a r d i z e d
and evaluated statistically.
o r n o n - s t a n d a r d i z e d m e t h o d s i n a n i n d i v i d u a l case. T h e r e l e v a n t chapters o f t h i s b o o k
I n m e t e o r o l o g y a n d i n g e n e r a l p u b l i c , s c a l i n g o f wind force according to Beaufort Scale is
contain the corresponding information.
o f t e n a d o p t e d w h e r e t h e w i n d effects are associated w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i n d velocities.
I n T a b l e 6.11 t h e B e a u f o r t scale is represented.
6.2.3 D a m a g e a n d failure limits

F r o m testing o f components o f transmission lines, statistical parameters have been
o b t a i n e d . I t i s expensive, t i m e c o n s u m i n g a n d n o t p r a c t i c a l i n m o s t cases t o e s t a b l i s h
the characteristic d a t a o fc o m p o n e n t s for each i n d i v i d u a l project. T h e r e f o r e , coefficients
o f v a r i a t i o n f o r i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s a r eg i v e n i n [6.3]. F o r o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s , t h e
characteristic material properties a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a n d a r d s w h i c h
can b e directly used f o r design calculations. T h e u l t i m a t e strength o f supports a n d
f o u n d a t i o n s has t o b e d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h calculation o r tests. G e n e r a l d a t a are given
i n [ 6 . 3 ] . T a b l e 6 . 1 0 s h o w s damage a n d failure limits f o r c o m p o n e n t s t o b e u s e d i n t h e
design process.
6.3 W i n d loads
6.3.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of meteorological reference w i n d velocities
6.3.2.1 E v a l u a t i o n of w i n d m e a s u r e m e n t s
T h e m a g n i t u d e a n d f r e q u e n c y o f wind velocities c a n b e d e s c r i b e d b y s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i -
b u t i o n s . T h e Gumbel distribution (6.106) c a n b e used f o rthe yearly m a x i m u m values
o f t h e w i n d v e l o c i t i e s . T h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y F(x) t h a t a
v a r i a b l e w i l l b e b e l o w t h e v a l u e x, a m e a n v a l u e x a n d t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a p r o -
v i d e d . A c c o r d i n g t o [6.1], t h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a p p l i e d t o t h e y e a r l y m a x i m u m
values o f the w i n d velocities. O t h e r civil engineering standards assume t h a t the w i n d
pressure a n d n o t t h e w i n d velocity follows t h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n .T h i s applies t o t h e
E u r o c o d e s [6.8] a n d i s b a s e d o n t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s , e. g . [6.9].
Using (6.112), the G u m b e l distribution will be

6.3.1 Wind measurements

F(z) = e x p { - e x p ( r - x + ^ a ) j (6.29)
Wind measurements a r e carried out a n d evaluated world-wide b y meteorological ob-
servation stations. Thereby, the guidelines o f the W o r l d Meteorological Organisation a n d if t h e n u m b e r o f observations n is large, t h e n
(WMO) [6.7] a r e u s e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n o r d e r t o c o m p a r e c o l l e c t e d d a t a w i t h l o n g - t i m e
s e r i e s o f s t a n d a r d i z e d m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e observation stations s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d i n F(r) = exp { - e x p [ - 1 , 2 8 ( r - 1 + 0,45(7)/CT]} . (6.30)
an o p e n t e r r a i n w h e r e t h e w i n d w i l l not b e affected b y obstacles o r buildings. S u c h a The probability that d u r i n g o n eyear a value will b e higher t h a n the value x is equal
t e r r a i n i s d e s i g n a t e d a s t e r r a i n B a c c o r d i n g t o [6.1] a n d [6.2] a n d a s t e r r a i n I I a c c o r d - 1 — F{x). A s a s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e t u r n p e r i o d TT o f t h e v a l u e x i s g i v e n b y
i n g t o [6.4]. T h e h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d i s s t a n d a r d i z e d w i t h 1 0 m . W h e n u s i n g o t h e r
measuring heights, the results have t o b e adjusted accordingly. F o r the evaluation, the Tr = l / ( 1 - F ( i ) ) . (6.31)
m e a n values over a t e n m i n u t e o r o n eh o u r period are used. Also t h e gusts w i t h three
t o five s e c o n d s d u r a t i o n a n d t h e w i n d d i r e c t i o n a r e r e c o r d e d . I n c a s e o f c o n t i n u o u s Therefore, i tresults f r o m (6.29) a n d (6.31):
measurements, i t is usual t o carry o u t a n e v a l u a t i o n over a t e n m i n u t e period every
x T = * - ^ - - ^ { l n [ - l n ( l - l / T r ) ] } . (6.32)
hour. For application o f w i n d data for designing overhead lines, i tis assumed that the
Oi D l
Table 6.11: B e a u f o r t w i n d velocity scale T a b l e 6 . 1 2 : R a t i o Xf/x for the G u m b e l distribution function, T r e t u r n period, n number
of years w i t h observation, vx coefficient of variation
Beaufort Term Indications Wind
Force Return period T (years)
velocity
Number on land 50 150 500
in m / s
calm smoke rise vertically sea like mirror 0 to 0,2
n 10 20 50 oo 10 20 50 oo 10 20 50 ' oo

light air smoke drifts slowly down- 0,05 1,18 1,16 1,14 1,13 1,24 1,21 1,19 1,17 1,30 1,27 1,24 1,22
ripples with appearance of 0,3 to 1,5
wind n
u, iiu
n 1 ,ou 1 32 1 29 1 26 1,48 1 , 42
1 4. 1,38 1.36 1 60 1,54 1,49 i1 , 444
i
scales: no foam crests
light 0,12 1,43 1,38 1,35 1,31 1,57 1,51 1,46 1,41 1,72 1,64 1,59 1,53
leaves rustle small wavelets; crests of 1,6 to 3,3
0,16 1,57 1,51 1,46 1,41 1,76 1,68 1,61 1,55 1,96 1,86 1,78 1,70
breeze glassy appearance, not
0,20 1,72 1,64 1,58 1,52 1,95 1,84 1,77 1,69 2,20 2,07 1,98 1,88
breaking
0,30 2,08 1,95 1,87 1,78 2,43 2,27 2,15 2,04 2,81 2,61 2,46 2,32
gentle leaves are in motion large wavelets; crests begin 3.4 to 5,4 0,40 2,43 2,27 2,16 2,04 2,90 2,69 2,54 2,36 3,41 3,14 2,95 2,76
breeze to break; scattered white-
0,50 2,79 2,59 2,44 2,30 3,38 3,11 2,92 2,73 4,01 3.68 3,44 3,20
caps 2,73 3,85 3,30 3,07 4,21 3,93 3,64
0,60 3,15 2,91 2,56 3,53 4,61
moderate small branches on trees small waves, becoming 5.5 to 7,9
breeze move longer; numerous whitecaps
fresh small trees sway moderate waves, taking 8,0 to 10,7 E q u a t i o n (6.32) gives t h ev a l u e x o f a v a r i a b l e , e. g. t h ew i n d velocity, w h i c h h a s a
breeze longer form; many white- r e t u r n p e r i o d Tt. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p a r a m e t e r s C i a n d C jt h ev a l u e x d e p e n d s o n
2
caps; some spray
t h e m e a n v a l u e x a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s e r i e s . F o r n —> o o , i t i s
strong large branches sway larger waves forming; white- 10.8 to 13,8
caps everywhere; more spray
obtained
breeze
near gale whole trees in motion sea heaps up; white foam 13.9 to 17,1 x = x - 0 , 4 5 < 7 - < 7 / T , 2 8 {ln[-ln(l - 1/Tr)]} . (6.33)
T
from breaking waves begins
to be blown in streaks Eventually, t h er a t i o o f t h e w a n t e d value i 7 t o t h em e a n value x c a n b e calculated
gale twigs and small branches moderately high waves of 17,2 to 20,7 from
break off trees greater length; edges of
crests begin to break into x T / r = l - u x / C 1 { C , 2 + l n [ - l n ( l - l / T r ) ] } , (6.34)
spindrift; foam is blown in
well-marked streaks
w h e r e vx = a/x i s t h e coefficient of variation. T a b l e 6.12represents t h e values X T / X
strong gale large branches break off high waves; sea begins to for r e t u r n periods o f 50, 150a n d 5 0 0years, depending o nt h e n u m b e r o f observations
20,8 to 24,4
trees; slight structural roll; dense streaks of foam; n a n d coefficients o f v a r i a t i o n vx. W h e n t h e v a r i a b l e x i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y
damage spray may reduce visibility V, t h e r e l a t i o n s f o r w i n d a c t i o n s a r e o b t a i n e d .
10 storm trees broken; minor struc- very high waves with over-
24,5 to 28,4 T h e w i n d load Q wisproportional t ot h e square o ft h e w i n d velocity V
tural damage hanging crests; sea takes
white appearance as foam is Q w = kV2 . (6.35)
blown in very dense streaks;
rolling is heavy and visibility T h i s r e l a t i o n applies t oeach value o f t h e w i n d velocity, f o rexample t o its m e a n value
is reduced V. T h e f a c t o r k d e p e n d s o n v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s l i k e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r , d r a g coeffi-
11 violent widespread damage exceptionally high waves; 28,5 to 32,6 cient, gust response factors etc. F r o m t h e statistical d i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e w i n d velocities,
storm sea covered with white foam equation (6.35) yields a d i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e w i n d loads w h i c h c a n b e used together with
patches; visibility further re-
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e support strengths f o r assessment o f t h e reliability, i n case o f
duced
12 hurricane
w i n d loading. According t o [6.3], t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f b o t h
violent movement of trees air filled with foam; sea com- 32,7 to 36,9
and much destruction pletely white with driving distributions is
spray; visibility greatly re-
< 7 Q / Q W ~ 2 O V / V (6.36)
duced
13 hurricane 36,9 to 41,1
14 hurricane 41,2 to 45,8
15 hurricane vQ = 2w , (6.37)
45,9 to 50,8
16 hurricane 50,9 to 55,6 w h e r e Q w i s t h e m e a n v a l u e o f t h e w i n d l o a d s , CTQ i t s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a n d VQ i t s
17 hurricane above 55,6 coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n . T oc o m p u t e t h ereliability o f lines i ncase o f w i n d loads, t h e
m e a n value o f t h e loads c a n b e assumed as p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h esquare o f t h e m e a n
value o ft h e w i n d velocities. F o r t h e coefficient o fv a r i a t i o n o f t h e loads, twice t h e value
of t h e coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e w i n d velocities s h o u l d b e used. I f a w i n d velocity
w i t h 5 0 years r e t u r n p e r i o d a n d a coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n u v = 0 , 2 0is assumed, t h e n
VQ = 0 , 4 0 a p p l i e s t o c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l o a d s a n d , a s s u m i n g DR = 0 , 0 5 , t h e
y e a r l y f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y i s o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 6 . 3 t o b e Pf = 0 , 0 1 5 . I f , i n s t e a d o f
VQ = 0 , 4 0 , t h e i n c o r r e c t a s s u m p t i o n VQ = vy = 0 , 2 0 h a d b e e n u s e d , t h e w r o n g r e s u l t
P{ = 0 , 0 1 0 w o u l d h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d .
162 6 Requirements o n loading and strength 6.3 W i n d l o a d s 1 6 3

T a b l e 6 . 1 3 : T e r r a i n categories according t o I E C 6 0 8 2 6 a n dE N 50 3 4 1 - 1 a n d associated p a -

rameters
Terrain category according to Characteristics of the terrain k T a
I E C 60 826 E N 50 341-1 (m)
A I Rough open sea, lakes with at least 5 km 0,92 0,17 0,01 0,12
fetch upwind and smooth flat country
without obstacles
B II Farmland with boundary hedges, occa- 1,00 0,19 0,05 0,16
sional small farm structures, houses or
trees
C III Suburban or industrial areas, perma- 1,77 0,22 0,30 0,22
nent forest
D IV Urban areas in which at least 15 % of 1,49 0,24 1,00 0,28
the surface is covered with buildings
F i g u r e 6 . 5 : Relationship between meteoro-
with mean heights above 15 m l o g i c a l w i n d v e l o c i t i e s Vxjt i n 1 0 m h e i g h t
a b o v e g r o u n d t o t h e 1 0 - m i n - a v e r a g e Vx
,10 min
depending o n the averaging period t a n d t h e
6.3.2.2 Effect of the t e r r a i n roughness Averaging period — terrain category x

The terrain roughness h a s a n effect o n t h e w i n d velocities f o r design a n do n t h e g u s t

response factors. T h e greater t h eroughness, t h em o r e t u r b u l e n t a n d slower t h e w i n d The p a r a m e t e r s a a n dzo used i n these equations c a n b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 6.13, de-
flow will be. p e n d i n g o n t h e terrain category.
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 6 . 1 ] a n d [ 6 . 4 ] , f o u r terrain categories are considered, as indicated i n T a b l e The w i n d velocity i n aterrain category x can b e calculated f r o m the logarithmic relation
6.13. F o rt h e p r a c t i c a l design o f o v e r h e a d lines, only t h eterrain categories A a n dB according t o
arc i m p o r t a n t . I n s u b u r b a n areas (terrain category C j o r u r b a n areas (terrain category
VxR = [ f c r l n ( 1 0 / z 0 ) ] • Vn • (6-43)
D), t h e reliability o f overhead lines should b e higher t h a n i n open terrain. Therefore, a
design according t o terrain category B is recommended forlines t o b e erected i n these The expression fcTln(10/z0) is t y p i c a l f o r each t y p e o f terrain. C o m p a r i n g equations
terrain categories as well. (6.40) a n d (6.43), i t could b e c o n c l u d e d 1/fcj = [fcT I n (10/zo)]- However, there are
U s u a l l y , meteorological stations, except those along t h ecoast o ri n u r b a n areas, a r e differences w h i c h a r ed u et o differing definitions o f t h e terrain categories.
placed i n areas o f terrain category B . T h e n , t h e meteorological wind velocity will b e
ffljOmin- Alternatively,the meteorological w i n d velocity m a y be recorded i na height
6.3.2.3 V a r i a t i o n of reference w i n d velocity w i t h height
of 10 m over a n averaging period o f T r differing f r o m 10 m i n . T h e n , according to IEC
60 826, the ten m i n u t e m e a n value c a nb e obtained from I n clause 6.3.2.2, t h e w i n d velocity d e p e n d i n g o n the t y p e o f t e r r a i n 10 m above g r o u n d
is d e t e r m i n e d . F o r o t h e r h e i g h t s z , t h e p o w e r law
1^,10 min = Vx,t/(Vxf/Vx,Wmm) , (6.38)
Vxz = VxK-(z/10)a (6.44)
w h e r e t h e r a t i o Vxj/Vx,\omin is d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 6.5. F o r m e a s u r e m e n t s i nt h e terrain
category x d i f f e r e n t f r o m B , t h e r e f e r e n c e w i n d v e l o c i t y V f l . i O m i n ' n t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y B or the logarithmic law
is g i v e n b y t h e r e l a t i o n
Vxz = kTVB\n(z/z0) (6.45)
UB,10min = U x j O m i n • fcj (6.39)
according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 c a n b e u s e d , w h e r e t h e p a r a m e t e r s a, £ T a n d z 0 follow from
a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , w h e r e k} c a n b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 6 . 1 3 . I f t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y T a b l e 6.13, depending o n t h e t e r r a i n category.
10 m a b o v e g r o u n d i n t h e t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y B i s k n o w n , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l
wind velocity fora terrain type x at the same height c a nbe calculated f r o m
6.3.3 W i n d action o n line c o m p o n e n t s a n d elements

VxR = VB/fcj , (6.40) The value o f t h e force Q w i d u e t o w i n d b l o w i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y a n dp e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o

any element o f a line is given b y
w h e r e t h e p a r a m e t e r fcj t a k e s c a r e o f t h e d i f f e r i n g t e r r a i n categories.
If t h e m e a s u r e m e n t height z differs f r o m 10 m , t h e v a r i a t i o n o f w i n d velocity w i t h t h e Qy/x = q I G q G x C x A , (6.46)
h e i g h t z c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e power law a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1
w h e r e qz i s t h e dynamic wind pressure a t t h e h e i g h t z , G q t h e gust response factor a n d
VxWm = Vxz/(z/10)a (6.41) Gx t h e structural resonance factor f o r t h e s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d , Cx t h e
drag factor d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s h a p e o f t h e e l e m e n t b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a n d A t h e a r e a
o r a c c o r d i n g t o t h e logarithmic law
of the element projected o n a plane perpendicular t o the w i n d direction. However, t h e
V x W m = Vxz-\n(10/z0)/\n(z/z0) . (6.42) p a r a m e t e r s o f e q u a t i o n (6.46) a r e defined differently i nrelevant standards.

Height above ground — Height above ground
F i g u r e 6 . 6 : Combined w i n d factor G o f o r F i g u r e 6.7: Combined w i n d factor f o r sup-
c o n d u c t o r s a c c o r d i n g t o [6.1] p o r t s G T a c c o r d i n g t o [6.1]
T h e d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e qz a t t h e h e i g h t z a b o v e g r o u n d i s d e t e r m i n e d b y
qz = l/2gVz2 , (6.47)
w h e r e g i s t h e a i r d e n s i t y a n d Vz t h e r e f e r e n c e w i n d v e l o c i t y i n m / s . T h e air density
depends o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e line above sea-level a n d c a n b e
obtained from
p = 0o(288/T)exp(-O,OOO12-Z7) , (6.48)
w h e r e go i s t h e d e n s i t y a t + 1 5 ° C o n s e a l e v e l , t a k i n g 1 , 2 2 5 k g / m as reference, T
3
t h e absolute t e m p e r a t u r e a n d H t h e a l t i t u d e above sea-level i n m . F o r t h ea l t i t u d e
o f 1000 m a n d +5°C ( T = 2 7 8 K ) , a d e n s i t y o f 1,126 k g / m 3 r e s u l t s thereof. A v a l u e
f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n s t a n d a r d s i s 1,25 k g / m 3 .
A c c o r d i n g t o [6.4], t h e g u s t response f a c t o r i s o b t a i n e d from
G q = k\ = ( 1 + 2 , 2 8 / l n ( z / z 0 ) ) 2 , (6.49)
where z isthe height above ground.
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 6 . 1 0 ] , t h e e x p r e s s i o n qz • G Q • G x i n e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 4 6 ) i s c o m b i n e d t oa total
d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e qz , w h i c h i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h t h e h e i g h t :
gz = g 0 + 3 0 - ( z / 1 0 ) , (6.50)
w h e r e qo i s t h e b a s i c w i n d p r e s s u r e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w i n d zone, w h e r e t h e line ist o
b e b u i l t (see c l a u s e 6.6.2.3).
A c c o r d i n g t o [6.1], t h e d y n a m i c w i n d pressure is c a l c u l a t e d b a s e d o n t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y
Fk,i0m a t a height o f 10 m above g r o u n d using e q u a t i o n (6.47). T h e v a r i a t i o n w i t h
height, t h e gust response factor a n d t h e s t r u c t u r a l resonance factor a r e considered
by the combined w i n d factors G q (conductors) a n d G T (supports). C o m b i n e d w i n d
factors G q a n d G T are different, w h i l e this does not apply t o t h e gust response factor
Gq, a c c o r d i n g t o ( 6 . 4 9 ) , f o l l o w i n g from [ 6 . 4 ] . F i g u r e s 6 . 6 a n d 6 . 7 r e p r e s e n t c o m b i n e d
w i n d f a c t o r s G q f o r c o n d u c t o r s a n d G T f o r t o w e r s a c c o r d i n g t o [6.1].
I n c a s e o f w i n d l o a d s o n c o n d u c t o r s , t h e resonance factor G x d e p e n d s o n s p a n l e n g t h
a n d i s c a l l e d span factor Gx- I n F i g u r e 6 . 8 , t h e s p a n f a c t o r s Gx, a c c o r d i n g t o I E C
60 826, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 a n d E N 50341-3-4 are represented. I tcan b e seen t h a t t h e r e are
c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n I E C 6 0 8 2 6 [6.1] a n d t h e o t h e r s o u r c e s m e n t i o n e d .
W i n d l o a d s o n i n s u l a t o r s Eire c o m p u t e d u s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 4 6 ) a s w e l l , w h e r e b y t h e s a m e
g u s t r e s p o n s e f a c t o r s axe u s e d a s i n case o fs u p p o r t s . T h e d r a g feictor G x c a n b e a s s u m e d
t o b e 1,2 f o rt h i s case. D r a g f a c t o r s for t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i n e e l e m e n t s are d e a l t w i t h i n
clause 6.6.2.
o.i i c e l o a a s 100
1,05
Span length — F i g u r e 6.8: S p a n factor G L for conductors
6.4 Ice loads
6.4.1 Atmospheric icing
Atmospheric icing i s a g e n e r a l t e r m f o r a n u m b e r o f p r o c e s s e s w h e r e w a t e r i n v a r i o u s
f o r m s f r e e z e s i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d s t i c k s t o o b j e c t s e x p o s e d t o t h e srir. I n c a s e o f
o v e r h e a d l i n e s , t h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f i c i n g , w h i c h Eire n a m e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m a i n
p r o c e s s e s a s precipitation icing a n d incloud icing.
A t h i r d p r o c e s s , w h e r e w a t e r v a p o u r i s t r a n s f o r m e d d i r e c t l y i n t o i c e a n d f o r m s hoar-
frost, d o e s n o t l e a d t o s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s a n d i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d f u r t h e r . I c e a c c r e t i o n
due t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n icing m a y occur i ndifferent f o r m s , n a m e l y glaze d u et o freezing
r a i n , wet snow accretion and dry snow accretion.
T h e r e g i o n a l a n d local t o p o g r a p h y affects t h e ice accretion. C o a s t a l m o u n t a i n s a l o n g
t h e w i n d w a r d side o ft h e c o n t i n e n t s act t oforce m o i s t air u p w a r d s , leading t o a cooling
of the air w i t h condensation o f water vapour and droplet g r o w t h w i t h the consequence
o f incloud icing. T h e m o s t s e v e r e i n c l o u d i c i n g o c c u r s a b o v e t h e c o n d e n s a t i o n l e v e l a n d
the freezing level o n openly exposed heights, w h e r e m o u n t s i i n valleys force t h e m o i s t
air t h r o u g h passes a n d t h u s b o t h lift t h e air a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e w i n d . O n t h e leewsird
side o f the m o u n t a i n s , however, t h e descent o f air m a s s results i ni n t e r n a l h e a t i n g o f
the air and evaporation o f droplets thus protecting overhead power lines routed there
against high ice accretion.
Precipitation icing m a y o c c u r a t a n y a l t i t u d e . H o w e v e r , i n g e n e r a l , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
precipitation icing is greater i n the b o t t o m o f valleys i n general t h a n i n the middle o f
v a l l e y s i d e s , b e c a u s e o f h i g h e r o c c u r r e n c e o f c o l d a i r . S i n c e t h e s i i r flow h a s a n i m p o r t a n t
e f f e c t , t h e i c e a c c r e t i o n o n o v e r h e a d l i n e s , w h i c h Eire r o u t e d t r a n s v e r s e l y t o a v a l l e y , i s
o f t e n h i g h e r t h a n o n o t h e r lines r u n n i n g a l o n g t h e valley. I n case o flines m e n t i o n e d first,
a n a d d i t i o n a l hazsird isgiven because o ft h e w i n d action h a v i n g a higher probability o f
o c c u r r e n c e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h ice accretion o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s .
G l a z e d u et o f r e e z i n g rain
W h e n rain droplets o r drizzle fall into a layer w i t h cold air a t a temperature below
freezing p o i n t , t h e d r o p s b e c o m e s u p e r c o o l e d . T h e y Eire s t i l l i n t h e l i q u i d ( w a t e r ) p h a s e
Eind d o n o t freeze b e f o r e t h e y h i t t h e g r o u n d o r a n o b j e c t . T h e r e s u l t i n g a c c r e t i o n i s
a c l e a r a n d s o l i d i c e , c a l l e d glaze, o f t e n w i t h i c i c l e s . T h i s E i c c r e t i o n i s h s i r d a n d s t r o n g
and, therefore, difficult t o remove. T h e density is 800 t o 900 k g / m 3 , depending o n t h e
c o n t e n t o f a i r b u b b l e s i n t h e ice. F r e e z i n g r a i n o c c u r s m o s t l y o n w i d e p l a n e s o r b a s i n s ,
where relatively thick layers o f cold a i r accumulate d u r i n g periods o f cold weather.
W h e n a l o w p r e s s u r e s y s t e m w i t h a w a r m front a n d r a i n p e n e t r a t e s t h e a i r , t h e c o l d
a n d heavier air m a y r e m a i n near t h e g r o u n d a n d t h u s favour t h e f o r m a t i o n o f glaze
during temperature inversion. Such a situation m a y persist until the upper w i n d m a y
manage t o m i x the cold surface layer o f the air w i t h t h e wsirmer air aloft. A similsir
166 6 Requirements on loading and strength 6.4 I c e l o a d s 1 6 7

T a b l e 6 . 1 4 : P h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f ice o n c o n d u c t o r s
hs
Type of Density Adhesion Colour Sha e Koiiesion
m ice kg/m3 ape
Glaze 700 to 900 strong transparent cylindrical icicles strong
Wet snow 400 to 700 medium white cylindrical medium to strong
Hard rime 700 to 900 strong opaque to eccentric pennants very strong
transparent into wind
Soft rime 200 to 600 medium white eccentric pennants low to medium
into wind

30
rrVs
25
glaze Table 6 . 1 5 : Statistical parameters of ice
20 -hard — A
loads
15 rime
soft rime Number of Mean Standard
10
observations value deviation
5
Only pi m ax 0,45 pi max 0,225 pi m a x
0. 10 to 20 0,5 p, < at < p t
F i g u r e 6.9: I c e accretion caused b y freezing F i g u r e 6.10: Iceaccretion caused b y incloud -20 -10 9i
rain icing Air temperature • > 20 9i <ri < 9i

F i g u r e 6.11: T y p i c a l formation of ice accre-

situation m a y occur i n t h e overlapping zones o f cold air a n dw a r m air systems. T h e
w a r m e r air combined often w i t h precipitation is lifted over t h e colder air, f o r m i n g a
frontal zone where precipitation is enhanced. Such a weather system w a sobserved i n
C a n a d a a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1 9 9 8 [ 6 . 1 1 , 6.12] a n d r e s u l t e d i n m a s s i v e a n d w i d e s p r e a d
d a m a g e t o overhead lines. O f t e n , there a r eo n l y m o d e r a t e w i n d s d u r i n g freezing r a i n
events. T h e n , t h ea m o u n t o f accumulated ice depends o n t h erate a n dd u r a t i o n o f
precipitation. Figure 6.9 depicts ice accretion d u e t o freezing rain.
Wet snow
I f s n o w flakes f a l l t l r o u g h w a r m e r l a y e r s i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e , t h e y s t a r t t o m e l t w h e n
p a s s i n g t h e z e r o d e g r e e z o n e . T h e wet snow flakes w i l l c o n t a i n a m i x t u r e o f i c e a n d w a t e r
u n t i l t h e y eventually m e l t totally i n t o rain drops i ft h e w a r m layer is t h i c k enough. A s
long as they are only p a r t l y melted, t h e y are sticky a n d m a y adhere t o objects i n t h e
a i r flow, e . g . t h e c e n d u c t o r s o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s . T h e d e n s i t y m a y v a r y w i d e l y b e t w e e n
100 a n d 800 k g / m 3 , b u t m o s t l y between 400 a n d 700 k g / m 3 . T h e density a n d i n t e n s i t y
of wet snow deposits depend o n precipitation rate, w i n d velocity a n d t e m p e r a t u r e . I f
t h e t e m p e r a t u r e drops below zero degree after t h e accretion, t h e ice w i l l freeze i n t o a
h a r d a n d d e n s e l a y e r w i t h s t r o n g a d h e s i o n t o t h e o b j e c t s . Wet snow e v e n t s r e s u l t e d i n
severe d a m a g e t o overhead lines i n t h e past [6.13].
Soft a n d h a r d r i m e d u e t o i n c l o u d i c i n g
Incloud icing i s a p r o c e s s w h e r e s u p e r c o o l e d d r o p l e t s i n a c l o u d o r f o g f r e e z e i m m e d i -
a t e l y o n o b j e c t s i n I h e a i r flow, f o r i n s t a n c e o n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i n m o u n t a i n s
a b o v e t h e c l o u d b a s e . T h e r e s u l t i n g i c e a c c r e t i o n i s c a l l e d soft rime a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
d e n s i t y w h i c h i s t y p i c a l l y 2 0 0 t o 6 0 0 k g / m 3 [ 6 . 3 ] . U n d e r s i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s , hard rime
i s f o r m e d w i t h a d e n s i t y b e t w e e n 7 0 0 a n d 9 0 0 k g / m 3 . A t t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w —10°C,
t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t o f t h e a i r b e c o m e s s m a l l e r a n d less i c i n g o c c u r s . U n d e r e x t r e m e c o n -
d i t i o n s , h i g h i c e loads h a v e also been observed a t h i g h w i n d s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s b e l o w
-20°C. I n F i g u r e 5.10 a c o n d u c t o r i s s h o w n w i t h i c e f o r m e d i n a n i n c l o u d i c i n g p r o -
c e s s . I n T a b l e 6 . 1 4 t h e properties of ice accretion a r e s u m m a r i z e d . I n F i g u r e 6 . 1 1 t y p i c a l
r a n g e s a r e e x p l a i n e d f o rt h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t y p e s o f ice, d e p e n d i n g o n a i r
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d w i n d velocity.
tion
6.4.2 Ice observations a n d measurements
Since ice loads are not measured i n general b y meteorological stations, i n f o r m a t i o n o n
ice a c c r e t i o n n e e d s t o b e r e c o r d e d d i r e c t l y o n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s o r a t c o r r e s p o n d -
ingly designed o b s e r v a t i o n devices. I fd a t a needed f o rl i n e design are n o t available, i t
i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o c a r r y o u t a p r o g r a m f o r c o l l e c t i n g field d a t a . F i e l d i c e d a t a c a n b e
o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g a c t i v i t i e s [6.14]:
— D i r e c t measurements of icing thickness o r weight of ice s a m p l e s , t a k e n f r o m o b -
servation installations o r line conductors. Ice samples fallen o n the ground f r o m
conductors can b e used, i f consideration is given t o the shape o f initial accretion
on conductors;
— M e a s u r e m e n t s b y d e v i c e s t h a t simulate ice accretion o n c o n d u c t o r s . S o m e d e -
vices c u r r e n t l y used i n a few countries consist o f simple t u b e o r cable assemblies
installed near g r o u n d level for ease o f observations.
— Estimation of icing u s i n g c o n d u c t o r t e n s i o n o r v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f w e i g h t a t
the insulator attachment point;
— E s t i m a t i o n o f icing b a s e d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i o n a n d sag.
Ice l o a d i n g d a t a are i m p o r t a n t n o t o n l y t o establish load c r i t e r i a for design o f s u p p o r t s
b u t can also b e u s e f u l i n t h e p l a n n i n g stages o f t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k s a n d r o u t e selec-
t i o n o f a specific line. S o far o t h e r ice l o a d i n f o r m a t i o n is n o t available, m e a s u r e m e n t s
l a s t i n g f o r a t l e a s t t e n y e a r s o f field o b s e r v a t i o n a r e n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h a r e l i a b l e d a t a
base. T h e o b s e r v a t i o n o fe x t r e m e i c e loads o n e x i s t i n g overhead lines provides i m p o r t a n t
i n f o r m a t i o n . I n [6.15], guidelines are g i v e n for e v a l u a t i o n o f s u c h ice observations.
Meteorological models c a n b e u s e d a s w e l l t o o b t a i n b a s i c i n f o r m a t i o n o n i c e l o a d i n g s t o
be expected. T h e bases for such meteorological m o d e l s are f o r m e d b y t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ,
h u m i d i t y , p r e c i p i t a t i o n r a t e a n d w i n d d i r e c t i o n t o b e e x p e c t e d . I n[6.14], icing m o d e l s
are described and guidelines for the selection o fobservation stations, measuring devices
and the evaluation o fmeasurements are given. I n some Central E u r o p e a n countries, ice
observation stations h a dbeen installed. However, because o f the rare frequency o f
substantial ice loads, useful results were n o t always obtained.
168 6 Requirements o nloading and strengtti u.o d u i i i u i u e u w i n u a n u ice l u a u s ilia

6.4.3 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of reference ice l o a d s

6.4.3.1 Basic relations

Ice load i s a r a n d o m v a r i a b l e , u s u a l l y expressed e i t h e r a s a l o a d gi p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f

c o n d u c t o r , i n N / m , o r a s a u n i f o r m r a d i a l t h i c k n e s s tm, i n m m , a r o u n d t h e conductors
and ground wires. T h e equation

gi = 9 , 8 1 • 1 ( T 3 • Si • 7 r t M (d+ W 1 0 0 0 ) (6.51)

e x p r e s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e ice weight per unit length gi a n d t h e radial ice

thickness tm, w h e r e gi i s t h e i c e w e i g h t p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n N / m , (5i t h e i c e d e n s i t y i n
k g / m 3 , t m t h e r a d i a l ice thickness i nm m a n d d t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r i nm . W i t h
t h e a s s u m p t i o n Si = 9 0 0 k g / m 3 a n d tm a n d d i n m m , i t i s o b t a i n e d

p i = 0 , 0 2 7 7 tm(d + tm) (N/m). (6.52) F i g u r e 6.12: Schematic presentation o f para- F i g u r e 6 . 1 3 : Conductor w i t h equiva-
m e t e r c o m b i n a t i o n s i n case o f s i m u l t a n e o u s a c - l e n t c y l i n d r i c a l i c e f o r m a t i o n . £>i r e s u l t i n g
Ice loads should ideally b e deduced f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n a t conductors and loca- tion o fwind and ice e q u i v a l e n t d i a m e t e r o f ice a c c r e t i o n , d c o n -
tions representative o f the line route. ductor diameter

6.4.3.2 E v a l u a t i o n of ice load information c a r e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r , t h e f a c t o r Kz o f t h e c o n d u c t o r h e i g h t a b o v e ground.

T h e e v a l u a t i o n o fice l o a d i n f o r m a t i o n d e p e n d s o n t h e a v a i l a b l e t y p e o fd a t a a n d n u m b e r A c c o r d i n g t o [6.3], t h e y c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a e :
of years w i t h observations: F o r incloud icing:
- I f records o f yearly m a x i m u m ice loads d u r i n g a period o f a t least t e n years axe
Kd ~ 0,15 d / 3 0 + 0,85 ; EC* = 1 , 0 , (6.54)
a v a i l a b l e , t h e m e a n v a l u e gl i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e r e c o r d s o f t h e yearly maximum ice
load. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n c r i i s c a l c u l a t e d o r e s t i m a t e d a c c o r d i n g F o r precipitation icing:
to t h e p r o c e d u r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 6.15. T h e r e , S i m e a n s t h e m e a n v a l u e o f t h e y e a r l y
Kd ~ 0,35d/30 + 0,65 ; Kz ~ D , 0 7 5 z c / 1 0 + 0,925 . (6.55)
e x t r e m e i c e l o a d s gn and o\ i s t h e c a l c u l a t e d o r e s t i m a t e d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n .
- I f o n l y t h e m a x i m u m value <7imax o f ice loads observed d u r i n g a c e r t a i n n u m b e r T h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o b e a s s u m e d i n i c i n g c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d b e —5°C f o r b o t h m a i n t y p e s
o f years is available a n d n o statisticad d a t a can b e e v a l u a t e d , 5 im a y b e a s s u m e d of icing. Lower temperatures can b e assumed for line design where climatic conditions
a s 0 , 4 5 • 51 m a x a n d t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n <7i b e i n g 0 , 5 p j . can v a r y r a p i d l y a n d w h e r e a severe drop i n t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g o r i m m e d i a t e l y after
- A meteorological analysis m o d e l i s u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e v a l u e s f o r y e a r l y m a x i m u m an ices t o r m can b e expected.
ice l o a d s d u r i n g a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f y e a r s . R e l i a b l e d a t a w i l l b e o b t a i n e d i f a
p e r i o d o f 20 years o r m o r e is studied. S o far a s possible, reference t o observations 6.4.3.4 L o a d i n g of s u p p o r t s a n d toad c a s e s
at lines s h o u l d b e m a d e .
- C o n c l u s i o n s o n i c e l o a d s c a n b e m a d e from o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e t e r r a i n a n d d a m a g e T h e loads t o b e w i t h s t o o d b y t h e supports are equal t o t h e loads t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e
to trees a n d vegetation i n areas w h e r e h i g h ice loads have t o b e expected. supports b y the conductors. T h e y are composed o ft h e vertical loads a n d the conductor
A s a r e s u l t o f t h e e v a l u a t i o n , t h e m e a n v a l u e gl o f t h e y e a r l y m a x i m u m i c e o b s e r v a t i o n s t e n s i l e forces i n c r e a s e d b y t h e effect o f ice a c c r e t i o n . I n g e n e r a l , t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s m a y
a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o\ a x e o b t a i n e d . b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d w h i c h cover m o s t o f possible l o a d cases:
— Uniform ice formation o n all conductors, m a x i m u m weight condition;
6.4.3.3 R e f e r e n c e ice load — N o n - u n i f o r m ice f o r m a t i o n resulting i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l a n dtransverse bending
condition w i t h respect t o the support;
The reference design ice load gm d e p e n d s o n t h e r e q u i r e d r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e l i n e a n d o n — Non-uniform ice formation resulting i n a torsional loading, because the individ-
the following parameters: u a l c o n d u c t o r s i nt h e a d j a c e n t spams a r e l o a d e d d i f f e r e n t l y .

5l m e a n value o f t h e yearly m a x i m u m ice loads; I t c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t n o n - u n i f o r m ic« f o r m a t i o n s o c c u r l e s s frequently than uniform

ice f o r m a t i o n s . T o t a k e a d e q u a t e c a r e o f t h e e x p e c t e d i c e a c c r e t i o n s , s t a n d a r d s p r o v i d e
o\ st a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e yearly m a x i m u m ice loads;
loading assumptions w h i c h s h o u l d result i ns u p p o r t s s t r o n g e n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d t h e
n n u m b e r o f years w i t h observations;
loads created b y ice accretion. I n clause 6.6.3 these aspects w i l l b e dealt w i t h .
<f conductor diameter;
ZQ average conductor height above ground.

The reference design iceload 5 I R can b e expressed b y

6.5 Combined wind and ice loads
giK = K a l K n K i K z g i . (6.53) 6.5.1 P r o b a b i l i t y of o c c u r r e n c e a n d c o m b i n a t i o n of p a r a m e t e r s

The d a t a Kai a n d Kn c a n b e c o m p u t e d f r o m t h e Gumbel distribution. T h e product The action of wind on ice covered conductors involves a t least three variables:
Ka\ • Kn c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e r a t i o x/x, a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6 . 1 2 . T h e f a c t o r Kd takes — T h e w i n d velocity that occurs i n presence o f icing;
170 6 Requirements o n loading and strength 6.5 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice loads 171

T a b l e 6 . 1 6 : C o m b i n a t i o n o f w i n d a n d ice loads
Load case Ice weight Wind velocity Effective drag coefficient Ice density

Condition 1 fa? Vm
Vn.
Cm
Cm
8u
Condition. 2 gm
Condition 3 gm Vm Cm ^12

" The index L indicates a low frequency of occurrence, i. e. high values; the iudex H
stands for a high frequency of occurrence, i. e. low values

T a b l e 6 . 1 7 : D r a g factor for conductors w i t h iceaccretion a n d ice densities

Wet snow Soft rime Hard rime Glaze ice
Drag factor C m 1,0 1,2 1,1 1,0
Density « n ( k g / m 3 ) I E C 60 826 600 600 900 900
E N 50341-1 500 300 700 900
Drag factor Cm 1,4 1,7 1,5 1,4
Density Sg ( k g / m 3 ) 400 400 700 900
F i g u r e 6 . 1 4 : W i n d ac-
tion o n conductors
- T h e iceweight and
- T h e shape o f ice f o r m a t i o n w i t h the corresponding drag factor. s u c h d a t a a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e , t h e reference wind velocity h a v i n g a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y o f
T h e s e c o m b i n e d effects r e s u l t d i r e c t l y i n b o t h , t r a n s v e r s a l a n d v e r t i c a l loads a n d i n d i - occurrence can b e related t o the w i n d velocity occurring w i t h o u t iceaccretion, accord-
rectly i nincrease o f l o n g i t u d i n a l loads. Since detailed s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a a n d o b s e r v a t i o n s ing t o
o n ice weight, ice shape a n d coincident w i n d action are n o t c o m m o n l y available, i tis
proposed t o combine these variables i n such a way, t h a t t h e resulting load c o m b i n a t i o n Vm = ( 0 , 6 0 t o 0 , 8 5 ) • Vr . (6.56)
w i l l h a v e t h e s a m e r e t u r n p e r i o d s TT as t h o s e a d o p t e d f o r e a c h r e l i a b i l i t y l e v e l . A s a
simplified approach, a low probability value, indicated b y the index L , o f one variable The w i n d velocity having a high probability o f occurrence is determined similarly b y
is c o m b i n e d w i t h h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y v a l u e s , i n d i c a t e d b y t h e i n d e x H , f o r t h e o t h e r t w o
v a r i a b l e s , a s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 6.16 [6.3] a n d F i g u r e 6 . 1 2 . P r a c t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e Vm = ( 0 , 4 0 t o 0 , 5 0 ) • Vso , (6.57)
m a x i m u m value o f o n e variable will b e combined w i t h average values o f the yearly
w h e r e V5o i s t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y h a v i n g a 5 0 y e a r s r e t u r n p e r i o d . I f n o o t h e r d a t a a r e
m a x i m u m observations o f the other variables t o define a loading condition. A low ice
given, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o u s et h e u p p e r l i m i t s i nt h e relations (6.56) a n d (6.57) t o
d e n s i t y is, t h e r e f o r e , c o m b i n e d w i t h a l o w v a l u e o f t h e d r a g factor, w h i c h h a sa h i g h
provide a conservative design.
probability o f occurrence.
Ice loads w i t h a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence s h o u l d , thereby, correspond t o t h e values
6.5.2.3 Effective drag factors a n d ice densities
d e t e r m i n e d i n clause 6.4.3. F o r w i n d loads, o n l y t h o s e d a t a n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d w h i c h
have t o b e expected d u r i n g icing periods, b u t not data w h i c h correspond t o the yearly I n T a b l e 6 . 1 7 , t h e e f f e c t i v e d r a g f a c t o r s a n d t h e r e l a t e d ice densities a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r
m a x i m u m w i n d velocities. A s indicated i n T a b l e 6.16, a l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n is defined for t h e t y p e s o f ice a c c r e t i o n d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s clause, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n g i v e n i n
each c o m b i n a t i o n . C o n d i t i o n 3 m e n t i o n e d t h e r e w i l l o n l y p r e v a i l i fh i g h values o f t h e [6.1] a n d [6.3]. T h e d r a g f a c t o r s , t h e r e b y , a p p l y t o a c y l i n d r i c a l i c e s h a p e w i t h a w e i g h t
e f f e c t i v e drag factor o c c u r . T h i s c o n d i t i o n n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d o n l y i n s p e c i a l c a s e s . equivalent t o t h a t assumed (seeF i g u r e 6.13).

6.5.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of design parameters 6.5.3 W i n d action on the ice covered conductor

6.5.2.1 Ice load T h e wind load on an ice covered conductor a c t i n g r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e s p a n a n d o n t h e

supports a t b o t h ends o f t h e span h a v i n g a s p a n l e n g t h a w , is obtained f r o m e q u a t i o n
W h e r e n o s t a t i s t i c s a r e a v a i l a b l e o n t h e simultaneous occurrence of wind and ice loads,
the iceload h a v i n g a low probability o f occurrence should b e t a k e n as t h e reference ice
Qwi = 1 / 4 g • V? C i •G q •G L •A •aw •cos2 0 (6.58)
load. A s a m e a n value o f t h e yearly m a x i m u m ice loads, 0,45 t i m e s t h e ice load w i t h a
50 years r e t u r n period isassumed (see T a b l e 6 . 1 5 ) a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g temperature (see F i g u r e 6.14). T h e r e , g i s t h e a i r d e n s i t y , V ) t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y d u r i n g ice a c c r e t i o n
w i l l b e -5°C. a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6 . 1 6 , C i t h e r e l e v a n t e f f e c t i v e drag factor a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6 . 1 6 ,
corresponding t o the condition considered, G q the gust response factor according t o
6.5.2.2 W i n d load ( 6 . 4 9 ) , G L t h e s p a n f a c t o r a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 6.8, A t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t
cylindrical ice formation, a w the span length and 0 the angle o f w i n d attack related t o
I n [6.3], t h e r e are d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s o n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w i n d loads o c c u r r i n g t h e p l u m b l i n e t o t h e c o n d u c t o r ( s e e F i g u r e 6 . 1 4 ) . T h e e q u i v a l e n t conductor diameter
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h i c e l o a d , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f ice. I f s t a t i s t i c s a r e with ice accretion i s c a l c u l a t e d from
available o n t h e w i n d velocities, w h i c h were observed d u r i n g t h e presence o f ice load,
these statistics cam b e e v a l u a t e d w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n s presented i nclause 6.3.2.1. W h e r e A = \/(P + 4 g i / ( 9 , 8 1 • 7r<5i) (6.59)
172 6 Requirements o nloading and strength o.D u n m a t i c l o a n s a c c o r d i n g t o relevant standards IIA

There, d is the conductor d i a m e t e r w i t h o u t i c e a c c r e t i o n , gi t h e i c e w e i g h t p e r u n i t fabelle 6.18: Reference w i n d pressure

l e n g t h a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6 . 1 6 a n d 8i t h e i c e d e n s i t y a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6.17. in N / m 2 according t o I E C 60 826
The w i n d a c t i o n o n c o n d u c t o r s w i t h ice a c c r e t i o n increases t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile force face of cross a r m Zone Terrain category
and results i n the m a x i m u m loading o fthe conductors. I f a tensioning section consists A B C D
1/kj 1,08 1,00 .0,85 0,67
of several spans supported b y suspension insulators, t h e equivalent s p a n l e n g t h can b e
1 422 362 261 162
used f o rt h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile stresses ( s e eclause 14.5). I ft h e l i n e
2 544 467 337 209
tensioning section is long, the m a x i m u m w i n d load will a c tnot simultaneously o n the 3 731 627 453 281
total tensioning section. T h e n , t h e w i n d load used t o calculate the conductor tensile
forces (6.58) c a n b e reduced b y m u l t i p l i c a t i o nw i t h t h e f a c t o r 0 , 6 .H o w e v e r , s u c h a
F i g u r e 6.15: W i n d action o n supports
reduction o f w i n d load fordesign o f supports should b e considered w i t h care, since
strain supports m a y also b e used for t e n s i o n i n g sections w i t h a few spans o n l y i n a c t u a l
line projects. to E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , serve as reference. T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f w i n d velocities recorded a t sites
w i t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i f f e r e n t from t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y B i s p r e s e n t e d i n c l a u s e 6 . 3 . 2 . 2 .
D a t a f o r wind velocities in Europe c a n b e f o u n d i n E N V 1 9 9 1 - 2 - 4 [ 6 . 8 ] . T h e reference
6.6 Climatic loads according to relevant standards wind pressure f o r t h e r e l e v a n t t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y r e s u l t s f r o m

6.6.1 S t a n d a r d s for o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s 90 = 0 , 6 1 2 5 ( V B / k j ) 2 , (6.60)

Standards for overhead power lines have existed i nm a n y industrialized countries f o r

w h e r e kj t a k e s c a r e o f t h e t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y , a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6 . 1 4a n dV"B is t h e
m a n y years. E x a m p l e s a r eD I N V D E 0210 [6.16] f o r G e r m a n y , O V E - L l l [617] f o r reference w i n d velocity for terrain category B .
A u s t r i a , L e V [6.18] f o r S w i t z e r l a n d a n d N B R 5 4 2 2 [6.19] f o r B r a z i l .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e I E C 6 0 8 2 6 w i n d l o a d m o d e l , t h e wind loads on conductors are deter-
The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Electrotechnical C o m m i s s i o n ( I E C ) deals w i t h overhead lines s t a n - m i n e d from ( s e e F i g u r e 6 . 1 4 ) :
d a r d s f o r w o r l d - w i d e a p p l i c a t i o n . I E C 6 0 8 2 6 [6.1] a p p l i e s t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f c l i m a t i c
loads a n d r a t i n g o f l i n e s t r e n g t h . T h i s p u b l i c a t i o n , still referred t oas a T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t , Qwc = 90 • Gc • GL • Cc •d • a w cos21? . (6.61)
was under revision i n2002. Since there is a noverlapping w i t h t h e regional s t a n d a r d -
ization i n E u r o p e , this n e w I E C s t a n d a r d will n o t b e m a n d a t o r y for E u r o p e . However, T h e drag factor Cc c a n b e a s s u m e d t o b e 1 , 0 . T h e c o m b i n e d w i n d f a c t o r Gc c o n s i d e r s
it serves as t h e basis for t h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n E u r o p e a n d for countries, w h i c h d o n o t the v a r i a t i o n o f w i n d load w i t h height and t h e gust w i n d velocity; t h e span factor G L
r u n standardization o foverhead power lines o ntheir o w n . I n t e r n a t i o n a l bids frequently takes care o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f effective w i n d pressure w i t h t h e w i n d span. I n F i g u r e s
refer t o i ti n project specifications. 6 . 6 a n d 6 . 8 , t h e p a r a m e t e r s Gc a n d G L , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e s h o w n . F o r a 4 0 0 m s p a n
I n E u r o p e , t h e s t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 6 . 4 ] w a s e s t a b l i s h e d a s a regional overhead elec- l e n g t h , a f a c t o r G L e q u a l 0 , 9 4 r e s u l t s from I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , b e i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n
trical line standard a n d published i n 2002. T h i s standard consists o f a m a i n b o d y with according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , w h e r e this factor i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,84. T h e angle 6 refers
general requirements a n d c o m m o n specifications, as well as o f N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s - to the angle between the w i n d direction a n d the perpendicular t o the conductor.
p e c t s for t h e i n d i v i d u a l C E N E L E C m e m b e r c o u n t r i e s [6.20], e. g . E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 1 [6.21] T h e wind load on supports i s c o m p u t e d f r o m e q u a t i o n
will b e applicable i nAustria, E N 50341-3-3 [6.22] i n S w i t z e r l a n d a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4
[6.10] i n G e r m a n y . P r o m T a b l e 6.20, t h e p a r t s o f E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 v a l i d f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l Q W T = 90 • G T ( 1 + O , 2 s i n 2 2 0 ) ( C T 1 *4Ti-cos20 + C T 2 •A T 2 •s i n 2 0 ) . (6.62)
c o u n t r i e s c a nb e t a k e n . S t i l l e x i s t i n g n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s h a v e t o b e w i t h d r a w n u n t i l
T h e c o m b i n e d w i n d factor G T i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6.7, 0 is t h e angle o f w i n d incidence
January 1 s t , 2004.
relative t o t h e c r o s s a r m axis, as e x p l a i n e d i n F i g u r e 6.15.
The standards I E C 60 826 a n d E N 50 341-1 describe procedures for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
* 4 T I a n d AT2 r e f e r t o t h e a r e a o f t r a n s v e r s e a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l t o w e r f a c e s filled w i t h
of c l i m a t i c l o a d s b a s e d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s , e. g . w i n d v e l o c i t i e s a n d i c e loads, b u t n o
profiles, a n d C T I a n d C T 2 designate the associated drag factors. Such drag factors are
fixed values f o rt h e line design. S u c h precise figures obtained from the evaluation o f
g i v e n i nF i g u r e 6.16 f o rt o w e r s m a d e o f angle sections o r o f t u b e s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
measurements i nt h e respective application area a n d f r o m o p e r a t i o n a l experience are
solidity ratio.
given i n t h e N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s for countries w h i c h are C E N E L E C m e m b e r s
The wind on insulators isobtained from
[6.10] o r i n p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . T a b l e s 6.20, 6.23 a n d 6 . 2 4 p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w o n
w i n d loads, ice loads a n d c o m b i n e d w i n d a n d iceloads applied i n E u r o p e a n countries. Q w i n s = 90 " C m s • A n s • * 4 ; n s , (6.63)
S t a n d a r d s o f countries outside E u r o p e are often based o n I E C 60 826.
where the drag factor C i n s is 1,2 a n d t h e c o m b i n e d w i n d factor G I N S isequal t o G T -

6.6.2 Wind loads

Example: I n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [6.10], t h r e e zones are defined for w i n d actions o n t r a n s m i s s i o n
6.6.2.1 W i n d load model according t o I E C 60 826 lines. T h e associated w i n d velocities 1 0 m above g r o u n d w i t h a r e t u r n period o f 5 0 years, for
terrain category B , averaged over ten m i n u t e s are:
T h e IEC 60826 wind load model i s b a s e d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s o f w i n d v e l o c i t i e s . T h e t e n Zone 1 : VB 1 0 m m = 2 4 , 3 m / s ;
m i n u t e m e a n w i n d v e l o c i t y r e c o r d e d 1 0 m a b o v e g r o u n d i na n o p e n t e r r a i n , w h i c h i s Zone 2: EBiomin = 27,6 m / s ;
designated ascategory B i n I E C 60 826 a n d corresponds t ot e r r a i n category I I according Zone 3: VB 1 0 m i „ = 3 2 , 0 m / s .
174 6 Requirements o nloading and strength 6.6 C l i m a t i c loads a c c o r d i n g t o r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s 1 7 5

F i g u r e 6.17: Comparison
of design w i n d pressures de-
pending o n height above
g r o u n d for
a) D I N V D E 0210/12.85;
F i g u r e 6 . 1 6 : D r a g factor C T for structures b) E N 50341-1;
m a d e o f angle sections o r tubes 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 N/m2 c) E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 ;
Dynamic wind pressure •- d) I E C 6 0 8 2 6

W i t h t h e s e w i n d v e l o c i t i e s t h e r e f e r e n c e w i n d p r e s s u r e s 90 r e s u l t f r o m e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 6 0 ) a s p r e -
sented i n T a b l e 6.18 for lines i n t e r r a i n categories A , B ,C o r D . where
T h e d e s i g n w i n d p r e s s u r e s qz a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m qz = q0 • GQ.T f o r c o n d u c t o r s a n d t o w e r s , w h e r e G Q i s t h e gust response factor determined by
G c a n d G T are t a k e n f r o m F i g u r e s (6.6) a n d (6.7), respectively. F o r 2 = 3 0 m and t e r r a i n
c a t e g o r y B t h e p a r a m e t e r s GC a n d G T a r e 2 , 2 5 a n d 2 , 3 0 r e s u l t i n g i n qzC = 2 , 2 5 - 3 6 2 = 8 1 5 N / m 2 G Q = [ l+ 2 , 2 8 / ( l n z / z 0 ) ] 2 , (6.67)
a n d qZT = 2 , 3 0 • 3 6 2 = 8 3 3 N / m 2 .
T h e r e s u l t i n g design w i n d pressures for conductors a n d towers are depicted i n F i g u r e 6.17 for G L isthe span factor, equal to:
w i n d zone 1 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d . F o r w i n d loads i n z o n e 2, t h e w i n d pressures
a r e h i g h e r b y t h e r a t i o ( 2 7 , 6 / 2 4 , 3 ) 2 , t h a t m e a n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,3 t i m e s h i g h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e s G L = 1,30-0,082 Ina w (6.68)
s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6.17. F o r w i n d z o n e 3 t h e r a t i o is ( 3 2 / 2 4 , 3 ) 2 = 1,73. T h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e t o w e r s
h a s t o b e v e r i f i e d f o r a w i n d a c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e a x i s a n d u n d e r a n a n g l e o f 45°. applicable t o t h e terrain category I I (Table 6.13).
T h e r a t i o of w i n d loads o n 1 m 2 effective t o w e r area t o 1 m 2 effective conductor area can b e used
G c i s t h e d r a g f a c t o r w h i c h c a n b e s e t 1,0 f o r c o n d u c t o r s , 6 i s t h e a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e a s
f o r a c o m p a r i s o n o f w i n d m o d e l s , i n v i e w o f t h e i r e f f e c t s o n towers a n d c o n d u c t o r s . F o r a d r a g
defined i n F i g u r e 6.14.
factor C T = 2,8, a s p a n l e n g t h o f 4 0 0 m a n d a corresponding span factor G L = 0,94, t h i s r a t i o
r e s u l t s t o b e Q W T / Q W C = 2 , 8 - 8 3 3 / ( 0 , 9 4 - 8 1 5 ) = 3,05 i n case o f t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y B , 3 0 m a b o v e The wind load on lattice towers isobtained from
g r o u n d . F o r t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y C , i t r e s u l t s Q W T / Q W C = 2,8 • 3 , 0 • 2 6 1 / ( 0 , 9 4 - 2 , 6 - 2 6 1 ) = 3,44
a n d Q W T / Q W C = 2,8 3 , 9 0 1 6 2 / ( 0 , 9 4 • 2 , 9 0 • 162) = 4 , 0 1 f o r t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y D . Q W T = Qz • G q • G x ( l + 0,2sin2 20 ) ( C T i A T 1 cos2 0 + C T 2A T 2 sin2 0), (6.69)

where G Q is the gust response factor according t o equation (6.67), G X a structural

6.6.2.2 W i n d m o d e l a c c o r d i n g t o t h e E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 r e s o n a n c e f a c t o r w h i c h i s a s s u m e d t o b e 1 , 0 5 f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s t r u c t u r e s . T o Gyi, C M T ,
F o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w i n d a c t i o n s , E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 6 . 4 ] s p e c i f i e s a General Approach and A T I , A T 2 a n d 0 , t h e same definitions apply as explained i nt h e context o f e q u a t i o n
a n Empirical Approach. I n case o ft h e G e n e r a l A p p r o a c h , t h e w i n d actions are d e d u c e d (6.62). F i g u r e 6.16 applies t o d r a g factors G T - T h e w i n d m o d e l according t oE N 5 0 3 4 1 ¬
f r o m recorded w i n d d a t a . T h i s a p p r o a c h i s d e t a i l e d h e r e a f t e r . I n case o f t h e E m p i r i c a l 1 uses t h e same gust response factors for w i n d o nc o n d u c t o r s as for w i n d o n supports,
A p p r o a c h , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f w i n d a n d ice loads a n d their c o m b i n a t i o n s i s specified m e a n i n g t h a t also for w i n d load o n conductors a peak gust w i t h o n l y 2 s d u r a t i o n is
in the N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects and assumed as well validated b y experience and used. T h i s a s s u m p t i o n contradicts a l l k n o w n observations a n d experience.
long-term operation o foverhead lines.
C l a u s e 4.2 o f E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [6.4] d e s c r i b e s a w i n d l o a d m o d e l w h i c h e n a b l e s e s t a b l i s h i n g Example: S t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 does n o t contain d a t a for w i n d velocities b u t refers t o
w i n d loads for overhead line components and elements based o n w i n d velocities. A s N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 . A sa n e x a m p l e , t h e s a m e d a t a are e v a l u a t e d as
i n clause 6.6.2.1, however, l i m i t e d t o w i n d zones 1 a n d 2 a n d t e r r a i n categories I I , I I I a n d
i n case o f I E C 60 826, t h e t e n m i n u t e m e a n w i n d velocity i n o p e n t e r r a i n 1 0 m a b o v e
I V , w h i c h correspond t o categories B , C and D o f I E C 60 826. T h e reference w i n d velocity
g r o u n d f o r m s t h e basis for this m o d e l . T h e v a r i a t i o n w i t h height isgiven b y :
r e s u l t s f r o m ( 6 . 6 4 ) w i t h fcT = 0 , 1 9 , 0 , 2 2 a n d 0 , 2 4 f o r t h e c a t e g o r i e s I I , I I I a n d I V , r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
a n d z 0 = 0 , 0 5 , 0 , 3 0 a n d 1 , 0 m . F o r c a t e g o r y I I V 1 0 m = 0 , 1 9 • 2 4 , 3 1 n ( 1 0 / 0 , 0 5 ) as 2 4 , 3 a n d
Vz = k T • V R • l n ( z / z 0 ) , (6- 6 4 ) V50111 = 0 , 1 9 • 2 4 , 3 I n ( 5 0 / 0 , 0 5 ) = 3 1 , 9 m a r e o b t a i n e d . T h e g u s t r e s p o n s e f a c t o r r e s u l t s f r o m
( 6 . 6 7 ) t o b e G„ = [ 1 + 2 , 2 8 / ( l n 1 0 / 0 , 0 5 ) ] 2 = 2 , 0 5 f o r 1 0 m a b o v e g r o u n d a n d G q = [ 1 +
w h e r e ICT i sa p a r a m e t e r d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f t e r r a i n (see T a b l e 6 . 1 3 ) , z t h e h e i g h t
2 , 2 8 / ( l n 5 0 / 0 , 0 5 ) ] 2 = 1,77 f o r 5 0 m a b o v e g r o u n d . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i n d p r e s s u r e s o n s u p p o r t s
above ground, z 0 the roughness length according t o T a b l e 6.13 a n d T R t h e reference a r e 9 1 0 m = l , 2 2 5 / 2 - l , 0 5 - 2 , 0 5 - ( 2 4 , 3 ) 2 = 7 7 9 N / m 2 10 m a b o v e g r o u n d a n d 9 5 0 m = 1,225/2-1,05¬
w i n d velocity for terrain category I I , 10 m above g r o u n d , expressed as the ten m i n u t e 1 , 7 7 - ( 3 1 , 9 ) 2 = 1 1 5 8 N / m 2 5 0 m a b o v e g r o u n d . T h e w i n d p r e s s u r e s o n c o n d u c t o r s are o b t a i n e d
m e a n value. s i m i l a r l y , w i t h o u t t h e f a c t o r 1 , 0 5 . T h e r e f o r e , qwc = 7 4 2 N / m 2 a n d 9 5 0 c = 1 1 0 3 N / m 2 .
The w i n d pressure i n a height z above ground follows f r o m F i g u r e 6.17 depicts t h e design w i n d pressures for s u p p o r t s a n d c o n d u c t o r s h a v i n g a r e t u r n
period o f 5 0 years. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e reliability level according t o a 5 0 years r e t u r n period,
q.= l/2gV? (6-65) E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 m e n t i o n s t w o o t h e r reliability levels for wind load design. F o r l e v e l 2 , r e f e r r i n g t o
a r e t u r n period o f 150 years, t h e w i n d loads resulting f r o m level 1have t ob e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e
w i t h g= 1 , 2 2 5 kg/m3. f a c t o r 1 , 2 , a n d f o r l e v e l 3 , r e l a t e d t o a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f l o a d s o f 5 0 0 y e a r s , b y t h e f a c t o r 1,4.
I n T a b l e 6.19, t h e w i n d loads for t h e t e r r a i n categories I I t o I V a n d t h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e cor-
The wind load on conductors can be computed f r o m (see F i g u r e 6.14)
responding a e r o d y n a m i c w i n d pressures for assumptions according t o t e r r a i n category I I , are
(6.66) presented. F o r terrain category I I I , t h e r e l a t i o n varies f r o m 0,79 t o 0,87 depending o n t h e height
Q w c = 9z • G Q • G L -C c •d • a w • cos21?
 17b b Requirements o nloading a n d strength u . u o u m a u c l o a a s a c c o r d i n g 10 r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s 111

T a b l e 6 . 1 9 : W i n d loads f o r t h e t e r r a i n categories I I t oI V according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 + a w 2 - cos [ 0 - — ] cos — (6.71)

Terrain Height Reference wind Gust Wind pressure W i n d pressure Relation to
velocity factor on supports on conductors terrain and
Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 1 Zone 2 category I I

Kl>
qz • Cc • Gx • d 111 v i \ . 0\
z VZ2 Gq 9T1 9C2 9i/9ii Qwcu = 7,
m M IT m/s W /m2 W /m2 W /m2 Mi v / m
ym2 a w i - cos [ 0 + — ) s i n —
m/s iN/m iN/m IN/m
II 10 24,3 27,6 2,05 779 1 005 742 957 1,00 2 /, 62\ . 02
(6.72)
50 31,8 36,2 1,77 1158 1489 1103 1423 1, 00 -a W 2 • cos { + - 2 ) s m T
III 10 18,7 21,3 2,72 612 794 583 756 0, 79
50 27,4 31,1 2,09 1009 1300 961 1238 0,87 T h e definitions o f t h e angles 0 a n d 0 c a n b e t a k e n from Figure 6.14. T oa suspension
IV 10 13,4 15,2 3,96 457 588 436 560 0, 59 t o w e r i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , i t a p p l i e s 6\ = 92 = 0 a n d ( a w i + a w 2 )/2 = a w .
50 22,8 25,9 2,51 839 1083 799 1031 0,72 T h e span factor is defined b y G L= 0,45 + 6 0 / a w a n d considers a component o f0,75,
w h i c h takes care o ft h e lower effective gust w i n d velocity o nconductors c o m p a r e d with
w i n d a c t i o n o n t o w e r s (see c l a u s e 6.6.2.4).
above g r o u n d , for terrain category I V between 0,59 a n d 0,72.W i t h respect t o t h e increased r e -
T h e r e f o r e , i tiso b t a i n e d for t h e case o f a suspension t o w e r i n s t r a i g h t line:
liability r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t h e t e r r a i n categories I I I a n d I V , a design o f t h e supports for w i n d
loads lower t h a n those adopted i n a n open t e r r a i n , does n o t seem t o b e justified.
Q w c v = Qz-Cc -d-a w cos 2 0 - (0,45+ 6 0 / a w ) . (6.73)
T o compare the w i n d action o n supports a n d conductors, the w i n d load o n 1m 2 area of supports
a n d c o n d u c t o r s e x p o s e d t o w i n d i s c a l c u l a t e d : Q W T = G T • 1 , 0 5 • qz a n d < 2 w c = G o • G L • g z - T h e w i n d loads o nt o w e r s a r e p r e s e n t e d u s i n g t h e s a m e f o r m a t ; t h e q u a n t i t i e s h a v e t h e
A s s u m i n g G T = 2,8, C c = 1,0a n d G L = 1,30 - 0,082 I n 400 = 0 , 8 1 f o r 4 0 0 m w i n d span, i t i s
same significance a s i n e q u a t i o n (6.62) a n d have been explained i n F i g u r e 6.15.
o b t a i n e d < ? W T / Q W C = 2 , 8 • 1 , 0 5 g z / ( l , 0 • 0 , 8 1 • qz) = 3 , 6 3 .
Parallel t ocrossarm axis:

6.6.2.3 W i n d models according t oE N 5 0341-3 QWTV = 9 z ( l+ 0,2 sin2 2 0 ) ( A T i -C T i - cos2 0 + A T 2 •C T 2 s i n 2 0 ) •cos 0 ; (6.74)

T h e National Normative Aspects o f E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d o noverhead lines E N 50 341-3 Perpendicular t ocrossarm axis:

[ 6 . 2 0 ] s p e c i f y wind models a n d data v a l i d f o r C E N E L E C m e m b e r c o u n t r i e s . T a b l e 6 . 2 0
gives a n o v e r v i e w o n these specifications. F o r details, t h e m e n t i o n e d p a r t s o fE N 5 0 341¬ Q w T u = 9 z ( l+ 0 , 2 s i n 2 2 0 ) ( A T i •C T i -cos20 + A T 2 -C T 2 sin20) -sin0. (6.75)
3 should b e studied. T h e given data assume a drag factor o f C T= 2,8for structures
a n d Cc = 1,0 f o rc o n d u c t o r s t o p r o v i d e a basis f o rc o m p a r i s o n . I n m a n y c o u n t r i e s , P r o m t h e general equations (6.74) a n d (6.75), i tresults for w i n d action i n direction o f
several different geographically defined w i n d zones exist. T h e r e isn oc o u n t r y w h e r e t h e t h e c r o s s a r m a x i s , i . e . 0 = 0°:
General Approach o f E N 50 341-1 is applied without modifications. T h e majority o f
< 2 w T t > = Qz • ATI • C T I ; Qv/Tu = 0 (6.76)
specifications uses t h e E m p i r i c a l A p p r o a c h .
The G e r m a n National N o r m a t i v e Aspects E N50 341-3-4 [6.10] a x ea n e x a m p l e f o r a n d f o r w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°, i . e . 0 = 45°,
the Empirical Approach. T h e w i n d model isbased o nt h e w i n d data for G e r m a n y as
specified i n t h e E u r o c o d e 1 [6.8] f o r w i n d loads a n d d e t a i l e d i n o t h e r G e r m a n s t a n d a r d s QWTV = Qz • 0 , 4 2 4 ( A T i C T I + A-nOn) 1 , „,
d e a l i n g w i t h w i n d l o a d a s s u m p t i o n s , e . g . D I N 4 1 3 1 : Antenna structures m a d e o f steel Q W T U = Qz • 0 , 4 2 4 ( A T iC T I + A T 2 C T 2 ) J ' ( '
[6.23]. T h e g e o g r a p h i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f w i n d zones a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a s s o c i a t e d wind
velocities were t a k e n f r o m standard D I N 4131. T h e provisions made i n E N 50 341-3-4 A l s o f o r w i n d o n crossaxms, E N 5 0 341-3-4 c o n t a i n s specific s t i p u l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e :
are detailed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g as a n e x a m p l e for t h e E m p i r i c a l A p p r o a c h .
Q w T Q v = 0 , 4 • qz • A T Q •C T Q • c o s 2 0 1
T h e basic wind pressure increases linearly w i t h t h e height z according t o
Q W T Q U = Qz • A T Q • C T Q • s i n 2 0 J
- Z o n e 1 : qz = 800+ 30 (z/10) N / m ;
- Z o n e 2 : qz = 1 0 5 0 + 3 0 ( z / 1 0 ) N / m ; (6.70) Thereof, f o r w i n d action i n direction o f t h e crossarm axis, i t is obtained:
- Z o n e 3 : qz = 1 3 0 0 + 3 0 ( z / 1 0 ) N / m .
Q W T Q V = 0 , 4 - qz • A T Q •C T Q ; Q W T U = 0 (6.79)
Hereafter, t h ew i n d l o a d for zone 1 i sdealt w i t h because o f its significance f o r o v e r h e a d
a n d f o r w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 0 = 45°,
power lines. F i g u r e 6.17 depicts t h e variation w i t h height o f w i n d loads for supports
a n d conductors i n w i n d zone 1 . T oenable c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e design values according
Q W T Q V = 0 , 4 • qz • A T Q •C T Q • 0,50
to I E C60 826 a n d E N 50 341-1, t h ew i n d data have been multiplied b y a partial factor (6.80)
Q W T U = Qz • A T Q • C T Q - 0 , 5 0
o f 1 , 3 5 a s s t i p u l a t e d i n [6.10].
T h e s t a n d a r d specifies t h e r e l e v a n t c o m p o n e n t s o f w i n d loads o n c o n d u c t o r s i n d i r e c t i o n T h e r a t i o o f w i n d o ns u p p o r t s t o w i n d o nc o n d u c t o r s r e l a t e d t o a n a r e a o f 1 m 2 can be
of t h e crossarm axis a n d perpendicularly t o that axis. T h e general equations are (see computed as a characteristic value: Q W T V / Q W L V = Qz ' 2 , 8 • A / ( g 2 • Cc • d • a w ( 0 , 4 5 +
Figure 6.14): 60/aw)). With A = d• a w = 1 m 2 , C c = 1and a w = 400 m a value o f4,67 results.
W i n d velocities a n d w i n d pressures according t o E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d E N 5 0 341-3 are
gz • Cc • Gx • d |" 2 / , 0 i \ 0 i
Qwcv = ^ owi-cos ( 0+ y ) c o s y listed i n Table 6.20.
178 6 Requirements on loading a n d strength 6.6 C l i m a t i c l o a d s a c c o r d i n g t o r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s 1 7 9

T a b l e 6.20: continued
Table 6 . 2 0 : W i n d pressures i n N / m 2 or w i n d velocity i n m / s according to E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 Portugal Two regional wind zones EN 50 341-3-17
( N a t i o n a l Normative Aspects) 10 550 330
Country Height Structures Conductors Source 40 960 576
(m) N/m2 N/m2 Zone B 10 660 396
Austria, — 700 520 EN 50 341-3-1 40 1150 690

Belgium Span length > 100 m Sweden below 10 800 400 EN 50 341-3-18
up to 25 750 375 above 10 800 + 6(z - 10) 400 + 3(z - 10)
25 to 50 800 400
50 to 75 850 • 425
75 to 100 900 450 T a b l e 6 . 2 1 : C o m p a r i s o n o f w i n d load models b y means o f the bending m o m e n t s a tbase o f
Switzerland 0 to 30 640 1 ' 500
a 400 k V double-circuit suspension tower
"in tn RO fi'aO I E C 60 826 E N 50 341-1 E N 50 341-3-4
,v>U
h n u6Uo OU
aDove Rn
ou 11U
iruou
mnU UUU
Q<m
oou Level 1 Level 1 Zone 1
J ior drag tactor G T = A , 8 Reference wind pressure N / m 2 690 780 830

Germany
kNm % kNm % kNm %
EN 50 341-3-4
Three wind zones, defined geographically, g = go + 30 ( z / 1 0 ) Wind perpendicular to the line (a) 7557" 100 8867 100 8597" 100
ione i i1Un oon
OoU con
DzU
- Conductor 5510 73 5804 66 5467 64
go — 8uu i \ / m An non cnn
- Other elements 2047 27 3062 34 3129 36
Zone 2 4u
10 yzu
1080 oyu
810 W i n d under 45° (b) 6928 100 9439" 100 8133 100
fir, — IflSfl N/m 2 40
^u i1170
tiu RRO
oou - Conductor 2756 40 2977 32 2771 34
Zone 3 10 1330 1000 - Other elements 4172 60 6462 68 5362 66
g 0 = 1300 N / m 2 40 1410 1060 Ratio (a) to (b) 1,09 0,94 1,06
" z = height above ground Ratio of prevalent loading to that for E N 50 341-3-4 88 f * 110 9i 100 %
Denmark Two wind zones defined by reference wind velocities EN 50 341-3-5 prevalent loading condition
(50 years return period)
Zone 1: 24,0 m / s
Zone 2: 27,1 m / s 6.6.2.4 C o m p a r i s o n of w i n d load models w i t h measurements
Spain ~ 700" ~ 5002) EN 50 341-3-6
" for drag factor C T = 2,8 T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e wind load models s t u d i e d w i l l b e d e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h a n e x a m p l e
" conductor diameter more than 16 m m of a 400 k V double-circuit suspension tower. Its conductors are
Finland Two wind zones defined by reference wind speeds EN 50 341-3-7
- earth wire 1 x 264-AL1/34-ST1A d = 22,4 m m ,
(50 years return period)
Zone 1 (inland): 21,0 m / s - phase conductors 6 x 4 x 264-AL1/34-ST1A d = 22,4 m m .
Zone 2 (shore): 25,0 m / s T h e w i n d s p a n i s400 m . F i g u r e 6.17 depicts t h e w i n d pressures o nconductors a n d
France inland 715" 480 EN 50 341-3-8 towers. T h e w i n d load models are compared b ymeans o fthe m o m e n t s acting a t the
sea side, 950" 640
t o w e r base a n d p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 6 . 2 1 , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e l o a d cases " w i n d a c t i o n
northern part
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e " a n d " w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°".
" for drag factor C T = 2,8
Great Britain Reference wind velocities according to map:
I n case o f w i n d a c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e , t w o t h i r d s o f t h e t o t a l m o m e n t r e s u l t
EN 50 341-3-9
20 m / s to 31 m / s , application of General Approach from w i n d action o n conductors i n the given example, w i t h the exception o fthe model
according to E N 50 341-1 according t oI E C 60 826, where a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 5 % o fthe total w i n d action result f r o m
Greece 765 460 EN 50 341-3-10 w i n d loads o n conductors a n d o n l y 2 5 % f r o m w i n d o n tower structures. According t o
Ireland Reference wind load: Terrain A : 732 N / m 2 ; B : 627 N / m 2 ; EN 50 341-3-11 the available experience, the w i n d load acting o n conductors resulting f r o m this m o d e l
C: 453 N / m 2 ; D : 282 N / m 2 ; Gust factors according is t o o h i g h a s c o m p a r e d w i t h w i n d l o a d o n t o w e r s .
to I E C 60 826
I n c a s e o f w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°, t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e w i n d l o a d o n c o n d u c t o r s v a r i e s
Italy Wind velocity 130 k m / h EN 50 341-3-13
to a greater extent. T h e highest proportion results f r o m assumptions according t o I E C
835" 706
" for drag factor C T = 2,8
6 0 8 2 6 a n d r e a c h e s 4 0 %, w h i l e a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 t h i s p r o p o r t i o n w o u l d b e 3 2 %
Netherlands
only. W i n d l o a d o n t o w e r s a n d t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t s varies b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 6 8 % i n case
Dynamic wind pressures including gust factors are EN 50 341-3-15
Zone 1 10 1060 o f w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°. W h e n t h e l o a d c a s e " w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°" p r e v a i l s , t h e
40 1540 w i n d load o n towers iso f great significance.
Zone 2 10 880
T h e effect o f t h e w i n d a c t i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w i n d a c t i o n
40 1350
Zone 3
u n d e r 45° c a n b e a s s e s s e d b y t h e r a t i o s o f t h e s u m o f m o m e n t s a c t i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y
10 730
40 1150 to t h e l i n e a n d i nline direction. W h i l e i ncase o f t h e E N 5 0 341-1 w i n d load m o d e l ,
Norway Reference wind speed to be chosen according to EN 50 341-3-16 t h e w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45° p r e d o m i n a t e s a s e x p r e s s e d b y a f a c t o r o f 0 , 9 4 , t h e w i n d
Norwegian wind standard m o d e l according t o I E C 60 826 leads t o considerably higher loading for w i n d action
p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r a t i o i s c a l c u l a t e d t o b e 1,09. T h e d a t a
refer t o the tower studied; f o r taller towers, t h e influence o fw i n d load o n tower will
 o.o u n m a t i c l o a d s a c c o r d i n g t or e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s 1 8 1

w i n d p r e s s u r e o n t o w e r s g x = 1 , 2 5 / 2 - V/,^ i s a s s u m e d a s a r e f e r e n c e , t h e n t h e w i n d
4,0
T a b l e 6 . 2 2 :W i n d load o n lat- pressure f o r w i n d a c t i o n o n c o n d u c t o r s c a n b eexpressed b ygc = k • g r -
kN Qw
k^Wth tice steel towers a n d conductors A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h e t e s t s t a t i o n H o r n i s g r i n d e , v a l u e s b e t w e e n
v.
Source Q W T / Q W C 0 , 3 5 a n d 0 , 4 4 a p p l y t o t h e f a c t o r k. I f o n t h e s a f e s i d e k = 0 , 5 a n d t h e s p a n f a c t o r G L
•-«. 0,5
I E C 60 826 is a s s u m e d t o b e ( 1 , 3 0 —0 , 0 8 2 • l n o w ) a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , t h e n t h e w i n d l o a d o n
» 2,0 / —

-
theoretical lerrain a 3,U0 conductors isobtained f r o m (6.61):
w i n u iti r c e • G 3,44
D 4,01 Q w c = 0,5 g 2 •d - C c - a w (1,30 - 0 , 0 8 2 - i n a w ) cos2 0 . (6.82)
rennn-Jftri
wind force Q ^ ,n EN 50341-1 3,63
0 5 10 15 20 25 m/s30 EN 50341-3-4 4,70 D u e t o 0 , 5 qz ~ [\/Kfr-Vz)2, t h e w i n d pressure 0,5gz corresponds t o 0,71 t i m e s t h e w i n d
Windvelocily — Hornisgrinde ~ 6,50 v e l o c i t y Vz o f a 2 s e c w i n d g u s t . I n c a s e o f o p e n t e r r a i n , t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e t e n
m i n u t e m e a n value o fthe w i n d velocity. Therefore, t h e observations a tt h e test s t a t i o n
F i g u r e 6.18: Theoretical a n d recorded values f o r Hornisgrinde [6.24] d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e w i n d l o a d s o n c o n d u c t o r s a r e g o v e r n e d from
w i n d forces acting o n a subconductor dependent o n
t h e t e n m i n u t e m e a n values o ft h e w i n d velocities. Studies carried o u t i n C a n a d a a n d b y
the instantaneous w i n d velocity (2-sec-gust) accord-
t h e C i g r e W o r k i n g G r o u p 0 6 c a m e t o t h e s a m e r e s u l t [6.25]. T h e r e f o r e , W o r k i n g G r o u p
i n g t o [6.24] a n d i t s r a t i o
06 o f C i g r e S t u d y C o m m i t t e e 2 2 proposed, t h a t w i n d loads o nconductors s h o u l d b e
calculated for t e n m i n u t e m e a n values or, conservatively, f o r5 m i n u t e s m e a n values.
i n c r e a s e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a l s o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l o a d c a s e " w i n d u n d e r 45°". P r o m These studies give reasons f o r t h e statement t h a t t h e w i n d m o d e l according t o E N
experience, i t c a n b ec o n c l u d e d t h a t i n t h e w i n d m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y E N 5 0 341-3-4, t h e 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s c o n s e r v a t i v e s o f a r t h e wind loads on conductors a r e
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n w i n d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e a n d w i n d a c t i n g u n d e r 45° s i m u l a t e s concerned. T h e assumptions according t oI E C 6 0826 a n dE N 50341-1 a r eoutside t h e
satisfactorily t h e reality. range o fexperience. I n case o f E N 5 03 4 1 - 1 , this c a n b e traced back t o t h efact t h a t
For comparing globally the three w i n d models, the loading resulting d u et oE N5 0341¬ the same gust response factors a r e considered f o r t h ed e t e r m i n a t i o n o fthe w i n d load
3 - 4 i s a s s u m e d a s 1 0 0 %. T h e n , E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 g i v e s a l o a d i n g o f 1 1 0 % a n d I E C 6 0 8 2 6 o n conductors asf o rt h e w i n d load o nt h e towers.
o f 8 8 %, a s i t c a n b e s e e n i n T a b l e 6 . 2 1 .
F i g u r e 6 . 1 7 depicts t h es t u d i e d w i n d m o d e l s w i t h respect t ow i n d pressures o n towers
6.6.3 I c e loads
a n d conductors. I n case o fw i n d load o ntowers, t h e s t i p u l a t i o n s a ta height o f 1 0ma r e
relatively close t o each other, b e i n g b e t w e e n 6 9 0 a n d 7 8 0 N / m 2 . H o w e v e r , f o r a height 6.6.3.1 I c eload m o d e l according t oI E C 6 0 8 2 6
o f 6 0 m , t h e b a n d w i d t h i s from 9 0 0 N / m 2 a c c o r d i n g t o D I N V D E 0 2 1 0 / 1 2 . 8 5 u p t o
I E C 6 0 8 2 6 d e s c r i b e s t h e y e a r l y m a x i m u m ice loads b y m e a n s o f t h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n
1 2 1 0 N / m 2 a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , s h o w i n g a d i f f e r e n c e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 %. T h e
(see c l a u s e 6 . 9 . 4 ) . T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n i c e l o a d s c a n b e c a r r i e d
a s s u m p t i o n s according t o E N 5 0 341-3-4, b e i n g 9 8 0 N / m 2 , c a n b e f o u n d close t o I E C
o u t a c c o r d i n g t o c l a u s e 6 . 4 . 3 . 2 a n d r e s u l t s i n t h e r e f e r e n c e i c e l o a d gm o b t a i n e d f r o m
60826 a n d D I N V D E 0210/12.85. Lines designed according t oD I N V D E 0 2 1 0 have
e q u a t i o n (6.53), f o r m i n g t h e basis f o r line design.
s h o w n a long-lasting positive o p e r a t i o n a l performance. T h e increase o ft h e w i n d loads
C o n c e r n i n g t h e l o a d i n g o fs u p p o r t s i n case o f ice a c c r e t i o n , f o u r c o n d i t i o n s a r e s t i p u -
w i t h height according t oE N 5 0341-3-4 i sc o n f i r m e d b yt h e a s s u m p t i o n s according t o
lated:
I E C 6 0826. T h e increase o f t h e w i n d load w i t h height according t o E N 5 0341-1 is
— U n i f o r m i c ef o r m a t i o n o n a l lc o n d u c t o r s : A l l conductors a n d earth wires
s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e o t h e r m o d e l s a n d y i e l d s 2 5 % h i g h e r w i n d l o a d s a s
a r e l o a d e d b y t h e r e f e r e n c e i c e l o a d gm, t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l v e r t i c a l l o a d i n g
compared w i t h E N5 0341-3-4 a t a height o f6 0 m .
p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f mc • g + g u t , w h e r e rac i s t h e c o n d u c t o r m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h
T h e ratio between w i n d pressures o ntowers a n d conductors differs t o a large extent and g the gravitational acceleration.
between t h ei n d i v i d u a l w i n d models. I n case o f E N 5 0341-1 a n dI E C 6 0826, there is
— N o n - u n i f o r m i c e f o r m a t i o n o no n ep h a s e c o n d u c t o r o r o n e e a r t h w i r e :
o n l y a difference o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 % c o n c e r n i n g t h i s r a t i o , w h e r e a s t h edifference i n
N o n - u n i f o r m ice accretion o na conductor i nadjacent spans results i na longitudi-
c a s e s o f D I N V D E 0 2 1 0 / 1 2 . 8 5 a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 i s 2 5 %. T h e r a t i o b e t w e e n l o a d s o n
n a l l o a d a t t h e s u p p o r t . S u c h l o a d i n g m a y b e c r e a t e d e i t h e r b y a non-uniform ice
conductors a n d s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e assessed b yt h eq u o t i e n t Q W T / Q W C r e l a t e d t o 1 m 2
accretion a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e l i n e e x p o s u r e o r d u e t o ice shedding. A c c o r d i n g
o f s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s a n d1 m 2 conductor surface a s g i v e n i n T a b l e 6.22. T h e r e , t h e
t o I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , i ti s a s s u m e d i n t h i s case t h a t a l l t h ec o n d u c t o r s a r e loaded b y
r e s u l t s from H o r n i s g r i n d e m e a s u r e m e n t s [ 6 . 2 4 ] a r e a l s o g i v e n . C o m p a r e d t o t h e s e d a t a ,
an iceload according t o 0,7•g m a n d o n ephase conductor o r e a r t h w i r e w i t h
I E C 6 0826 a n d E N 5 0341-1 result i n considerably lower ratios, indicating t h a t t h e w i n d
a reduced i c e l o a d o f 0 , 2 8•gm.. T h ec o n d u c t o r w i t h reduced i c e l o a d h a s t o b e
action o nconductors isoverestimated w h e n compared t o w i n d action o n towers.
selected such t h a t t h ei n d i v i d u a l l y m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e loading results. T h i s t y p e
F i g u r e 6 . 1 8 d e p i c t s t h e r e s u l t s o f wind load measurements on subconductors of bundles
of loading isconsidered asa torsional loading condition.
carried o u t a tt h e w i n d test s t a t i o n a tt h e H o r n i s g r i n d e i nG e r m a n y between 1955 a n d
— N o n - u n i f o r m i c e f o r m a t i o n o na l l c o n d u c t o r s i na d j a c e n t s p a n s : I n this
1960 [6.24]. T h e r e , t h e c a l c u l a t e d w i n d l o a d a c c o r d i n g t o
case, i t i sa s s u m e d t h a t a l l c o n d u c t o r s i n o n e s p a n o r i n o n e t e n s i o n i n g section
adjacent t ot h etower studied a r e loaded b y a nice load according t o 0,28 • g m ,
Q w t h = 1,25/2 d a (6.81)
w h i l e t h econductors i n t h es p a n a t t h eo t h e r side o f t h e s u p p o r t a r e loaded b y
and the measured w i n d load Q w m are presented. 0,7 • g m - T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d a s l o n g i t u d i n a l b e n d i n g .
T h e r a t i o Q w m / Q w t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 4 a t2 0 m / s a n d 0,35 a t3 0 m / s w i n d v e l o c i t y — N o n - u n i f o r m i c ef o r m a t i o n o no n e c i r c u i t o f a d o u b l e - o r m u l t i - c i r c u i t
(see F i g u r e 6 . 1 8 ) . T h i s r a t i o d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w i n d v e l o c i t i e s . I ft h e d y n a m i c l i n e : I n t h i s case, i tisa s s u m e d t h a t a l l c o n d u c t o r s o fone c i r c u i t are l o a d e d b y i c e
182 6 Requirements o nloading and strength 6.6 C l i m a t i c l o a d s a c c o r d i n g t orelevant standards 183

6.6.3.3 I c e l o a d m o d e l a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 3 4 1 - 3
T a b l e 6 . 2 3 : I c e load assumptions for some E u r o p e a n countries according to E N 50 341-3
Country Ice load Example Source S t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 s p e c i f i e s t h e ice loads f o r c o u n t r i e s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e C E N E L E C .
N/m
I n T a b l e 6 . 2 3 , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e s u m m a r i z e d . As i t c a n b e s e e n , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
d = 30 mm
A v a r y w i t h t h e r e g i o n a n d t h e a l t i t u d e a b o v e s e a - l e v e l . I n s o m e c o u n t r i e s , fixed d a t a
Nominal ice load 4 + 0,2 d 1 ^ N / m 10 EN 50 341-3-1
35 independent o f the conductor diameter are stipulated, w h i l e i n other countries the ice
R v i - P n l i n n a l i r p Inart < 110 I c V 9^ N/m

> 110 and < 220 k V 40 N / m 40 d a t a d e p e n d o n t h i s p a r a m e t e r . I n N o r t h e r n E u r o p e , h i g h e r ice loads a r e specified t h a n

> 220 and < 380 k V 50 N / m 50 in C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d S o u t h e r n Europe. W h e n comparing t h e data, different partial
Belgium Only for altitudes above 400 m, 19 EN 50 341-3-2 factors need t o b e considered. T a b l e 6.23 lists d a t a o b t a i n e d f o r a c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r
ice thickness 20 mm, density 600 k g / m 2
of 30 m m .
Switzerland At least 20 N / m 20 EN 50 341-3-3
As a n e x a m p l e , s o m e d e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g E N 50 341-3-4 [6.10] a r e g i v e n . T h e r e , t h r e e
Germany Ice load depends on line location: EN 50 341-3-4
Zone 1: 5 + 0, I d / N / m 8
zones are distinguished:
Zone 2: 10 + 0,2 d N / m or 16 Ice l o a d zone 1 gnt = 5 + 0,1 d N / m .
Zone 3: 20+ 0 , 4 d N/m 32 Ice l o a d z o n e 2 g m = 1 0+ 0,2 d N / m ,
Denmark 12 + 0,9(1 N / m 39 EN 50 341-3-5 Ice l o a d z o n e 3 g m = 2 0 + 0,4 d N / m ,
Spain Altitude 0 to 500 m no ice load FN ^ f l 1A'\ 1

Au-ii-m-ip ^nn i-n i nnn m 1 fii/Ti w / m Q 0

where d isthe conductor o r subconductor diameter in m m .
y ,y
-T.1L1L U U c J U U bU 1 uuu
Altitude 1000 to 1500 m 3 6\/d N / m
m l,oy u IN / m
19 7 I n ice load zone 1 , t h e r e a r e a r e a s , w h e r e d u e t o t h e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s , c o n f i r m e d
Altitude above 1500 m 5,4Vd N / m 29 6 by l o n g - t e r m experience o n l y low ice loads occur, w h i c h did not result i n damage o f
A lilt,, ^o n en in M
Finland 10 Tp"NT Cfl 9 1 1 1 rj
existing overhead lines.
Altitude u to oU m I U I N / m rJN O U 341-3-7
A i+;J-.. J „ e n i n n ncM/ 25
Altitude
\ i + i + , 15U n ntoI-*-*
1UUo n nm l ebn JN/m
M /*L,
I n zone 2 ,there are areas, w h e r e due t othe climatic conditions, confirmed b y l o n g - t e r m
50
Altitude I U U to zuu m ou J N / m
A l+ifin dp a h m r p Oflfl m 7^ N /rrr
A l l Lib 11 L L C d U L l V c Z U U 111 I d 11 / I I I 7^ experience, high iceloads have t o b eexpected w h i c h , a m o n g other things, resulted i n
I0
France Altitude u to oUU m, tnickness ZU mm, 19 EN oU 341-3-c damage o f existing overhead lines.
densitiv 600 k g / m 3 I n zone 3 ,there are areas, where, a s induced f r o m l o n g - t e r m experience very high ice
above 600 m: See project specifications loads have t o b eexpected, due to t h e climatic conditions a n d t h e geographical situation.
Great Britain Thickness t = ( 2 / 3 + 4 / d ) [ r 0 + ( i f • 200)/25] EN 50341-3-9 I n s u c h cases considerable d a m a g e o f e x i s t i n g o v e r h e a d lines has s of a r occurred.
ro basic thickness according to 40*
T h e classification o f t h e t e r r a i n o f a n o v e r h e a d line o r p a r t s t h e r e o f i n t o o n eo f t h e
location, i f altitude in m, 60
density 500 k g / m 3 , 50 < r 0 < 80 mm 64
three zones defined above, needs t o b edecided b y the operator o r erecting company o f
* at 200 m height t h e line. A n e v a l u a t i o n o f ice loads e x p e r i e n c e d o n lines i n G e r m a n y i s g i v e n i n [6.13],
Greece Thickness 6,35 or 12,7 mm, as specified by 6,5 EN 50 341-3-10 concluding t h a t , i ne x t e n d e d p a r t s o fS o u t h e r n G e r m a n y , i c e loads o f4 0 N / m a n d i n
project specification density 900 k g / m 3 15,3 N o r t h e r n G e r m a n y i c eloads o f 25 N / m can b e e x p e c t e d a s m a x i m u m values. T o g e t h e r
Ireland Ice thickness 40 mm, density 900 k g / m 3 79 EN 50341-11 w i t h t h e partial factors for loads a n d materials, t h e assumptions for iceloads i n zones
Italy Ice thickness 12 mm, density 920 k g / m 3 19 EN 50341-3-13 1 a n d 2 cover these m a x i m u m iceload observations.
Netherlands Region A : 5,0^d N / m 27,4 EN 50 341-3-15
Ice a c c r e t i o n has t o b e a s s u m e d for i n s u l a t o r s , r a d a r m a r k e r s a n d a i r traffic w a r n i n g
Region B : 1,8\/d N / m 9,9
spheres as well, however, not for structures.
Norway 20 to 50 N / m depending on altitude and region 20 to 50 EN 50 341-3-16
E N 50 341-3-4 defines t w o l o a d cases for i c eeffect w i t h o u t w i n d :
Portugal Altitude 0 to 700 m: No ice load, 11 EN 50 341-3-17
above 700 m: 11/40 (10+d) N / m — R e d u c t i o n o f t h e conductor tensile force o fone conductor. A c c o r d i n g t ot h e func-
Sweden 2 ^ v/(9,2 + 0,51 d + m e g ) 2 + w2GZ - mcg N/m 33 EN 50341-3-18 t i o n o ft h e s u p p o r t a n d t h e l e n g t h o ft h e i n s u l a t o r set, t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile force
d is the conductor or subconductor diameter i s r e d u c e d b y 2 5 t o 6 5 %. T h i s r e d u c t i o n c r e a t e s a torsional loading of the tower
U J C I is the wind load on ice-covered conductor in N / m
body a s t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t .
- All c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s o n o n e s i d e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e a r e r e d u c e d b e t w e e n 1 5
a n d 2 0 %. T h i s r e s u l t s i n a longitudinal bending of the support considered.
l o a d s a c c o r d i n g t o 0 , 2 8 • gm, w h i l e t h e c o n d u c t o r s o f a l l o t h e r c i r c u i t s a r e l o a d e d
T h e s e c a s e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s exceptional loading, w h e r e b y t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r l o a d s
b y 0,7 • P I R . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n i s considered a s t r a n s v e r s e b e n d i n g .
is a s s u m e d t o b e 1,0. T h e s e l o a d i n g s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e r e s u l t i n g f r o m
L o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s w i t h n o n - u n i f o r m ice a c c r e t i o n m a y o n l y p r e v a i l for t h e l i n e design
the iceload models according t o I E C 60 826 a n d E N 50 341-1. T h e y frequently govern
i n case o f h i g h ice loads. t h e r a t i n g o f t h e bracings o flattice steel towers.

6.6.3.2 I c e l o a d m o d e l a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 3 4 1 - 1
6.6.4 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice action
F o l l o w i n g E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i c e l o a d g i R o f l i n e s w i t h ice accretion i s a s -
6.6.4.1 M o d e l a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 60 826
s u m e d according to t h e local conditions. F o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fthese values, t h e s t a n d a r d
refers t o N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s ( E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 ) . F o u r l o a d cases are defined, w h i c h I n I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , combined wind and ice action i s c o n s i d e r e d o n l y r e g a r d i n g t o c o n d u c t o r s .
practically correspond t o those defined i n I E C 60 826 w i t h slightly different reduction T h e p r o c e d u r e t o d e t e r m i n e design loads corresponds t o t h e steps described i n clause
factors. Therefore, this loading m o d e l is not considered i n detail here. 6.5.1.
 o. i i j u d u s a t c u i i s u i u c i i o i i , u p c i a n u i i e m u i i i c n x i u t : u c i i i i . t : 100

T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f w i n d d r a g factors a n dicedensities h a v i n g a long r e t u r n p e r i o d

fable 6 . 2 4 : Specifications for combined w i n d and icel o a d according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3
w i t h ice a n dw i n d o f h i g h probability o foccurrence does n o tresult i n critical loads.
Couutry Ice load W i n d load Source
T h e r e f o r e , o n l y t w o l o a d cases are considered:
Austria No wind load on ice covered conductors E N 50 341-3-1
— Ice loads w i t h a r e t u r n period T r combined w i t h a n average value o fyearly m a x -
Belgium See T^ble 6.23 25 % of nominal wind pressure E N 50341-3-2
i m u m w i n d loads o n conductors a n d
S witzerl ELD. d No wind load on ice covered conductors E N 50341-3-3
— I c e loads according t ot h e average o fy e a r l y m a x i m u m values c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e E N 50 341-3-4
Germsiiy See Table 6.23 50 % of wind pressure without ice
wind load during icing periods w i t h a return period T r . 40 % of wind pressure without ice E N 50 341-3-5
Denmark See Table 6.23
T h e r e f e r e n c e i c e l o a d g m , as d e a l t w i t h i n c l a u s e 6 . 6 . 3 . 1 , i s a s s u m e d a s t h e o n e h a v i n g Spain No wind load on ice covered conductors E N 50 341-3-6
a r e t u r n period T r . O n l y those w i n d velocities need t o b e considered w h i c h m a y occur Finland oee lauie O . Z D 40 % of wind pressure without ice P W cfl IAD 1 7
during the icing period. France See Table 6.23 Wind pressure 180 N / m 2
Hiii 50 o
E N ou
c±±-ow'i
341-3-8
According t o these assumptions, t h e ice load w i t h l o wprobability o f occurrence is Great Britain Ice thickness 64 % of wind pressure without ice E N 50341-3-9
assumed t o b e g ma n dthat w i t h a h i g h probability o f occurrence is 0,4•gm- T h e CM
t>cc Tlauic f\ 9 R
n K l o u.zo

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e i s —5°C . Greece Ice thickness 6,35 Wind pressure 190 N / m 2 E N 50341-3-10

T h e w i n d loads w i t h l o w probability o foccurrence m a y b e assumed t ob e 0,6 t o 0,85 or 12,7 m m
Ireland Ice thickness 25 mm Wind pressure 490 N / m 2 E N 50 341-3-11
times t h e reference w i n d velocity V R , according t o clause 6.6.2.1. T h e w i n d velocity
Italy Ice thickness 12 mm Wind velocity 65 k m / h Y7VKT En ft At O 1O
w i t h a h i g h probability o foccurrence c a n b e t a k e n as 0,4 t o 0,5 times t h e reference E N 50 341-3-13
Netherlands See Table 6.23 30 to 45 % of wind pressure E N 50 341-3-15
w i n d velocity V R . T h e d r a g factors a n d ice densities f o l l o w f r o m T a b l e 6.17. T h e wind
without ice, depending on type of
action on ice covered conductors m a y t h e n b e c o m p u t e d a spresented i nclause 6.5.3. support and limit state
Norway a) Ice load according 40 % of wind pressure without ice EN 50341-3-16
6.6.4.2 M o d e l a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 to Table 6.23
b) 35 % of ice load ~70 % of wind pressure without ice
T h e basic assumptions for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f loads for combined w i n d a n d ice action acc. to Table 6.23
Eire t h e s a m e a s i n c a s e o f I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , w h e r e b y t h e p r o v i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e n u m e r i c a l Portugal See Table 6.23 40 % of wind pressure without ice E N 50341-3-17
d a t a Eire p r a c t i c a l l y t h e s a m e ( s e e [ 6 . 4 ] ) . R e g a r d i n g l o a d c a s e s , E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 r e f e r s t o Sweden 9,2 + 0 , 5 1 d N / m Height 0 to 25 m: 500 N / m 2 E N 50341-3-18
above 25 m: 500 + 6{h - 25) N / m 2
N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s . T h e d a t a f o r t h e i c e d e n s i t i e s d i f f e r from t h e a s s u m p t i o n s
according t o I E C 6 0826 a n d a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 6.17. T h ed y n a m i c w i n d pressures
can b e o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n s g i v e n i n clause 6.6.2.2, w h e r e b y t h e e q u i v a l e n t As a n example according t o E N 50341-3-4, t h e ice load iscombined w i t h 5 0 % o f the
d i a m e t e r £>i o f a c o n d u c t o r w i t h i c e a c c r e t i o n f o l l o w s from e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 5 9 ) . T h e a c t i o n s w i n d load, as defined for t h e i n d i v i d u a lw i n d l o a d zones. T h e r e d u c e d w i n d l o a d applies
o n s u p p o r t s r e s u l t from e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 5 8 ) . t o c o n d u c t o r s , t o w e r s a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t . T h e s p e c i f i c i c e w e i g h t Q\ i s a s s u m e d t o be
I n E N 5 03 4 1 - 1 [6.4], a s i m p l i f i e d m e t h o d i su s e d t od e t e r m i n e t h e loads f o r c o m b i n e d 7500 N / m 3 , t h ea e r o d y n a m i c drag factor b e i n g 1,0. T h eequivalent d i a m e t e r o f the
w i n d a n d ice action, t a k i n g into account t w o m a i n combinations: c o n d u c t o r w i t h i c e a c c r e t i o n D\, i n m , t h e n r e s u l t s from
— A n e x t r e m e i c e l o a d e q u a l t o t h e d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e i c e l o a d , 71 G I K i c o m b i n e d
w i t h a m o d e r a t e w i n d l o a d A>y/ • Q W K - T h e m o d e r a t e w i n d s p e e d a s s o c i a t e d £>i = ^ + 0 , 0 0 0 1 7 ^ . (6.84)
w i t h iceloads c a n b e t a k e n as 0,55 t o 0,65 times t h eextreme 5 0 year w i n d
speed depending o nthe type o f ice. Accordingly, a representative value o f the C o n c e r n i n g t h e l o a d cases, t h e w i n d actions h a v e t o b e considered i nd i r e c t i o n o f t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n f a c t o r f o r w i n d a c t i o n \Vvv e q u a l t o 0 , 4 i s s u g g e s t e d . c r o s s a r m E i x i s , i n t h e p e r p e n d i c u l s i r d i r e c t i o n t o t h e c r o s s a r m E i x i s a n d u n d e r 45° t o t h e s e
— A h i g h w i n d speed c o m b i n e d w i t h a m o d e r a t e ice l o a d \Vi • G I K - T h e h i g h w i n d axes. Since these a s s u m p t i o n s are considered as n o r m a l l o a d cases, h i g h e r loadings result
speed associated w i t h iceload c a nb e based o na w i n d speed corresponding t o i n each case t h a n i n t h e case o fa u n i f o r m ice accretion o n a l l conductors w i t h o u t w i n d
0,70 t o 0,85 t i m e s t h e e x t r e m e w i n d speed used for design, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e action.
o f ice. A c o m b i n a t i o n f a c t o r f o r i c e a c t i o n T i e q u a l t o 0,35 g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e s .
T a b l e 6 . 1 7gives indicative values f o r t h edensity o f various ice types f o r a range o f 6.7 Loads at construction, operation and maintenance
values o fthe drag factors.
6.7.1 Introduction
6.6.4.3 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d i c e a c t i o n a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 3 4 1 - 3
A f a i l u r e o f a t o w e r e l e m e n t d u r i n g construction o r maintenance could lead t oinjuries
I n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 [6.20], d e t a i l e d l o a d i n g a s s u m p t i o n s for c o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice actions of people. Such w o r k , therefore, h a s t o b eplanned and carried out such that a loading
a r e g i v e n , w h i c h a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 6 . 2 4 . T h e m a j o r i t y f o l l o w s t h e first o p t i o n is a v o i d e d w h i c h w o u l d n e c e s s i t a t e a n e x p e n s i v e s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e s u p p o r t s . W h e n
of E N 5 03 4 1 - 1 , c o m b i n i n g design i c el o a d w i t h a m o d e r a t e w i n d load, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n p r e p a r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e p r o c e d u r e s , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r labour safety
f a c t o r \V b e i n g 0 , 3 0 t o 0 , 6 4 . T h e s p e c i f i c i c e w e i g h t i s a s s u m e d b e t w e e n 6 0 0 0 a n d need t ob e d u l y obeyed. Therefore, already w h e n designing supports, likely loads d u e
9 2 0 0 N / m 3 . T h e e q u i v a l e n t d i a m e t e r o f a c y l i n d r i c a l i c e f o r m a t i o n D\ i s to such procedures should b e considered.

D1 = J c P + A g i / i n - m ) , (6.83)

w h e r e d i s t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r i n m , g\ t h e i c e l o a d E i n d QJ t h e i c e d e n s i t y i n N / m 3 .
186 6 Requirements o n loading and strength
6.7.2 R e q u i r e m e n t s a c c o r d i n g to I E C 60 826
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 60 826, t h e s u p p o r t s s h o u l d b e designed such t h a t t h e i r e l e m e n t s
w i t h s t a n d a t least twice t h e loads w h i c h can occur d u r i n g lifting o f c o m p o n e n t s using
fixing p o i n t s a t t h e s u p p o r t s . I n case o f a w e l l c o n t r o l l e d p r o c e d u r e , a d e s i g n f o r 1,5
t i m e s t h e e x p e c t e d loads suffices.
W i t h respect t ot h e forces occurring d u r i n g t h e s t r i n g i n g procedures, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d
t h a t t h e tensile forces for those conductors i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y n o t m o v i n g b e assumed w i t h
1,5 t i m e s t h e i r a c t u a l v a l u e s a n d w i t h t w i c e t h e v a l u e f o r m o v i n g c o n d u c t o r s . D u r i n g
t h e conductor stringing procedure, t h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s a t t h e s u p p o r t o r i g i n a t i n g
f r o m a t e m p o r a r y anchoring o fthe conductors t o the ground create additional loadings.
T h e s a m e applies t o loads w h i c h r e s u l t f r o m v a r i a t i o n s o f c o n d u c t o r tensile forces.
L o n g i t u d i n a l loads can occur a t the supports w h i c h are t e m p o r a r i l y used as end points
of the conductor stringing operation. These t e m p o r a r y dead-end supports should with-
s t a n d t h e longitudinal loads, a s d e f i n e d a b o v e .
I f s u p p o r t s are t e m p o r a r i l y secured b y slack o r pretensioned anchors, these increase t h e
v e r t i c a l l o a d a t t h e i r fixing p o i n t s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c h e c k t h e s u p p o r t s w i t h
respect t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l loads exerted b y t h e anchors.
D u r i n g stringing operations, additional l o n g i t u d i n a l loads m a y occur a t the suspension
support. A c c o r d i n g t oI E C 60 826, these l o n g i t u d i n a l loads can b e considered b y a s s u m -
ing a value w h i c h is produced b y t h e product o f t h e difference i n height o f t h e vertices
in t h e adjacent spans a n d the conductor weight p e runit length. However, this load is
r e l a t i v e l y l o w i n m o s t c a s e s a n d c a n b e n e g l e c t e d i f p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e line security have
b e e n m a d e (see c l a u s e 6.8).
M e m b e r s , w h e r e l i n e s m e n m a y s t a n d o n d u r i n g construction a n d maintenance should be
a b l e t o c a r r y a v e r t i c a l l o a d o f 1,5 k N a c t i n g i n t h e i r m i d d l e . T h e m e m b e r s s h o u l d b e a b l e
to carry this load i n addition t o the strain occurring during erection o r maintenance.
6.7.3 R e q u i r e m e n t s a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 341-1 a n d E N 50 341-3
O n l y detailed requirements for loads caused b y t h e construction o r maintenance people
c a n b e f o u n d i n E N 5 03 4 1 - 1 . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , a l o a d o f 1,0 k N h a s t o b e a s s u m e d
t o g e t h e r w i t h a p a r t i a l f a c t o r o f 1,5.
If w a l k w a y s o r w o r k i n g platforms are installed, these have t o b e designed for the m a x -
i m u m load t o b e expected. I n addition, all members having a n inclination lower than
60° a g a i n s t t h e h o r i z o n t a l a n d , t h e r e f o r e , b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a s m o u n t a b l e , h a v e t o b e d e -
s i g n e d f o r a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d o f 1,0 k N a c t i n g v e r t i c a l l y i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e m e m b e r .
O t h e r loads d o n o t need t o b e t a k e n i n t o account i n t h i s case. S t i r r u p s a n d stepbolts
need t o b e designed as w e l l f o r a characteristic load o f 1,0 k N a c t i n g a t t h e m o s t
unfavourable position.
D e t a i l e d p r o v i s i o n s f o r loads due to construction procedures a r e s p e c i f i e d i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 ¬
3-4. T h e y s u p p l e m e n t t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s g i v e n i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 .
S p e c i a l walkways f o r c l i m b i n g a n d a c c e s s t o w o r k i n g p o s i t i o n s a r e n e c e s s a r y a t t o w e r s .
S u c h w a l k w a y s s h o u l d b e arranged o n a t least t w o diagonally opposite l e g m e m b e r s
a n d m a y c o n s i s t o f a l a d d e r , a stepbolt o r a stirrup arrangement.
C r o s s a r m s s h o u l d b e e q u i p p e d w i t h a w a l k w a y a n d a handrail, u n l e s s t h e y a r e d e s i g n e d
such t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r a l members can b e used for climbing and s t r u c t u r a l members can
be held o n continuously.
Steel poles a n d reinforced concrete poles d o n o t r e q u i r e a n y w a l k w a y s f o r c l i m b i n g a n d
access t o w o r k i n g p o s i t i o n s i f c l i m b i n g devices s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e p o l e s are used, such
as l a d d e r s o r e l e v a t i n g p l a t f o r m s .
6.8 F a i l u r e c o n t a i n m e n t a n d o t h e r special l o a d s 187
6.8 Failure containment and other special loads
6.8.1 Introduction
T h e o b j e c t i v e o f security measures i s t o m i n i m i z e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f cascading failures
w h i c h m i g h t otherwise extend well beyond the failed line section, whatever the reason
a n d extent o f t h e initial failure m i g h t b e .T h e r e are several possibilities a n d options for
corresponding provisions.
6.8.2 P r o v i s i o n s a c c o r d i n g to I E C 60 826
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , a t e a c h attachment point o f a n e a r t h w i r e o r a p h a s e c o n d u c -
t o r , a residual static load s h o u l d b e a s s u m e d r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e r e l e a s e o f t h e t e n s i o n
of one phase conductor o r e a r t h w i r e i n t h e adjacent span. T h e residual static load cor-
responds t o t h e conductor tension a t the sagging t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h o u t any w i n d a n d
ice l o a d s . I n case o f s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s , a l l o w a n c e m a y b e m a d e f o r t h e r e l a x a t i o n o f
the l o a d r e s u l t i n g f r o m s w i n g o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets i n l i n e direction. T h e value o f t h i s
residual static load m a y b e reduced b y special devices, such asslipping clamps, i n w h i c h
case t h e m i n i m u m s e c u r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s c o u l d b e a d j u s t e d accordingly.
F u r t h e r m o r e , I E C 6 0 8 2 6 r e c o m m e n d s t o c o n s i d e r longitudinal loads a t e a c h c o n d u c -
tor a t t a c h m e n t point. T o determine these residual loads, a nadditional load according
to t h e conductor dead weight c a nb e assumed i nt h e adjacent spans. A s a n a l t e r n a -
tive, a difference o f t h e conductor tensile force according t o 5 0 % o f the forces u n d e r
sagging conditions, is proposed. W i t h respect t o line security, additional measures are
recommended, such as:
- I n c r e a s e o f t h e r e s i d u a l s t a t i c l o a d b y a f a c t o r o f 1,5 a t a n y p o i n t f o r l i n e s w h i c h
require a higher security.
- A s s u m p t i o n o f torsional loads simultaneously a t several conductor a t t a c h m e n t
p o i n t s o f a s u p p o r t , i n case o f double- o r m u l t i - c i r c u i t lines.
- C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e residual static load f o r c o n d i t i o n s , w h i c h c a u s e a h i g h e r l o a d
t h a n t h a t o c c u r r i n g u n d e r e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n , e. g. a s s u m i n g s o m e w i n d o r i c e
loads. T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is advisable f o r angle structures a n d lines subjected t o
severe c l i m a t i c conditions.
- I n s e r t i o n o f section supports within the line, f o r e x a m p l e a t e v e r y t e n t h t o w e r , i n
case o f i m p o r t a n t lines i n areas w i t h h i g h ice accretion. T o w e r s a d o p t e d for t h i s
p u r p o s e s h o u l d b e designed for t h e r e d u c t i o n o r e v e n loss o f a l l c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e
forces f r o m one side.
6.8.3 P r o v i s i o n s a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 341-1
I n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , t h e security loads a r e a s s u m e d a c c o r d i n g t o the following conditions:
- W i t h r e s p e c t t o torsional loading o f t h e s u p p o r t s a r e l e v a n t residual static load
should b e applied at any earth wire o rphase conductor attachment point resulting
f r o m t h e release o f t h e tensile force o fa phase conductor o r subconductor o r o f a n
earth wire i n a nadjacent span. I t can b e adequate t o assume this residual static
load simultaneously a tseveral conductor attachment points. Loads a n d conductor
tensile stresses m a y b e calculated a t t h e n o r m a l a m b i e n t reference t e m p e r a t u r e
w i t h o u t any w i n d o r ice load.
- W i t h r e s p e c t t o longitudinal loading, r e d u c e d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a r e a s s u m e d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a t all conductor a t t a c h m e n t points. T h e loads can b e d e t e r m i n e d
as a o n e - s i d e d r e d u c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces, a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , o r
as u n b a l a n c e d l o a d e x e r t e d b y t h e t e n s i l e f o r c e o f a c o n d u c t o r , w h e n a fictitious
 overload equal t o the dead weight o f conductors is assumed i nall spans i n the 1,0-
T a b l e 6.25: N u m b e r o fstandard deviations u
opposite line direction. correspoding t o return periods T , and exclu-

\
0,9 -
- Security loads r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c a s e s s t a t e d a b o v e f o r s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s m a y sion limits e
be determined, talcing i n t o account the relaxation o f t h e loading resulting f r o m Frequency Standard deviation UT 0.B-
I T
a n y s w i n g o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a n d t h e elastic deflection o r r o t a t i o n o f t h e sup- F N (WT*) (rem iR Q9l f r n m ( R QA~\
\ . log-normal
irom ^o.yz^ 0,7-
p o r t . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n m a y n o r m a l l y b e c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e equivalent span length 50 n oe 2,054 2,040 IT distribution

of the tensioning section. Alternatively, the security load can b e obtained b y m u l - 150 fl OQ59 9 A7R 9 AR1 0,6-
tiplying the conductor tensile force w i t h a reduction factor. However, there a r e 500 0,998 2,878 2,873
0.5-
\
n o n u m e r i c a l values for these reduction factors given i n E N 50341-1.
%
e FN(ue) «e
\
E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 e x p l a i n s i n g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e l o a d i n g s d u e t o short circuits,avalanches,
I 0,4/

V \
2 0,02 -2,054 -2,040
creeping snow a n d earthquakes. C o n c e r n i n g s p e c i f i c v a l u e s o r p r o c e d u r e s t o d e t e r m i n e
these loadings, reference is m a d e t o E N 50 341-3. S u c h loadings are essential o n l y i n
m 5 0,05 -1,645 -1,633 Gumbel distribution // '

W
10 0,10 -1,282 -1,276
f e w cases. T h e r e f o r e , n o d e t a i l s are g i v e n here. J0,2-
normal distribution f
0,1 - \ O N

6.9 Statistical distributions * —, 1 1 1 1 1 1 • 1

-4 -2 0 1 2 3 4
6.9.1 Introduction
F i g u r e 6.19: Probability density function o f
T h i s clause presents statisticalfunctions that are o f interest for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f load- Gumbel, normal und log-normal distribution
ings a n d r e l i a b i l i t i e s o f o v e r h e a d lines. I np r i n c i p l e , these f u n c t i o n s describe loads o f
m e t e o r o l o g i c a l o r i g i n , a sw e l l a s s t r e n g t h s o fc o m p o n e n t s [6.26]. W i t h i n these f u n c t i o n s , Probability density function:
the f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s are generally used:
M e a n v a l u e m o f o b s e r v a t i o n s x+. 1 u
exp (6.91)
/2TT ~2
1 ™
(6.85) Cumulative distribution function:
n — '

(6.92)
where n isthe n u m b e r o f the observed values Xj
S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o o f o b s e r v a t i o n s x+.
*M = ir I e x p 2

T h e r e is n o closed a n a l y t i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n for t h e c u m u l a t i v e distribution. Tables avail-

1 "
n\Mi ?S>' (6.86) able i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e , e. g .i n [6.6], o r a p p r o x i m a t i o n s c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
values. A c c o r d i n g t o [6.27], t h e f o l l o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n applies

C o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n v: E N ( u ) ~ 0,6931 exp [ - ( ( 9 u - 8 ) / 1 4 )2 ] (6.93)

v = o/m . (6.87) f o r —4 < u < 0 . T h e r e c i p r o c a l e q u a t i o n i s

1
8-14yin(0,6931/E N (")) (6.94)
6.9.2 N o r m a l distribution (Gaussian distribution)

General format: f o r Fw(u) l o w e r t h a n 0 , 5 . F o r 0 , 5 < FN(U) < 1 , 0 t h e r e l a t i o n E N ( " ) = 1 — E N ( " ) c a n b e

Probability density function: u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e u. U s i n g e q u a t i o n s ( 6 . 9 3 ) o r ( 6 . 9 4 ) i n v o l v e s a n e r r o r l o w e r t h a n 1 %.
T h e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e r e t u r n p e r i o d TT i n y e a r s a n d t h e e x c l u s i o n l i m i t e i n % a r e
1 1 ( x - m V
f(T): exp CT > 0 (6.88) E N (u T ) = 1- 1 / T r a n d E N K ) = e/100 (6.95)
0-V2 7T 2 V ^/ T a b l e 6 . 2 5 s h o w s r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n T r a n d e , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d u.
Cumulative distribution function: T h e relation o f the variables x ( T r ) o r x(e) having a return period T r o r a n exclusion
l i m i t e t o t h e m e a n v a l u e m a n d t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o nCTo r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n v
(6.89)

x(TT) = m + UT<J = rn(l + UTV) (6.96)

Standardized format: and
Variable change for standardized f o r m a t
x ( e ) = m + u e c r = m ( l + uev) . (6.97)

(6.90) F i g u r e 6.19 depicts t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d G a u s s i a n n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n .

190 6 Requirements o nloading a n d strength 6.9 S t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s 1 9 1

6.9.3 Log-normal distribution T a b l e 6 . 2 6 : P a r a m e t e r Cy a n d C2

General format: of t h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n
n G C2 C2/C1
T h e logarithmic normal distribution i sdefined asa distributionwhere t h e expression
10 0,94963 0,49521 0,52148
l n ( x — pi) f o l l o w s a n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n .
15 1,02057 0,51284 0,50250
Probability density function: 1,06282 0,52355 0,49260
20
21 25 1,09145 0,53086 0,48639
1 ln(x - pi)- p 3
0,53622 0,48250
f(x) (6.98) 30 1,11237
exp
P2(+ - P I ) V 2 T T P2 35 1,12847 0,54034 0,47882
40 1,14131 0,54362 0,47631
where x > p i ; p 2 > 0;p 3 > 0.T h e l o g - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o nis defined b y three p a r a m e - 45 1,15184 0,54630 0,47428
ters. T h e p a r a m e t e r p , represents t h e lower t h r e s h o l d o f t h ed i s t r i b u t i o n . 50 1,16066 0,54854 0,47261
Cumulative distribution function: 00 1,28255 0,57722 0,45005

1 1 /ln(£ - p i ) - p 3
F(x) (6.99) Standardized format:
P 2 V 2 , J £ P2
pi Variable change for standardized format
S t a n d a r d i z e d format:
u = (x-p 1 )/p 2 , (6.107)
Variable change for standardized format
Probability density function:
u = [ l n ( x- p i ) - p 3 ] / p 2 • (6.100)
f(u) = exp[-u - exp(-u)] , (6.108)
W i t h this variable change, t h e relations (6.91) a n d (6.92) c a n b e used for t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
density f u n c t i o n a n d t h e c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n function, respectively, o ft h e logarith- Cumulative distribution function:
mic n o r m a l distribution.W i t h respect t o t h e return period T r a n d t h e exclusion limit
F(u) = exp[-exp(-u)] . (6.109)
e , t h e s a m e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s f o r u ( T r ) a n d u(e) a s i n c a s e o f t h e n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
a r e v a l i d . T h e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s x ( T r ) a n d x(e) h a v i n g a g i v e n r e t u r n p e r i o d The relations w i t h t h e return period T r a n d t h e exclusion limit e are
T r o r a given exclusion limit e t o t h e m e a n value m a n d t h e standard deviation u are
x(Tr) = P l - p 2 l n [ - l n ( l - 1/Tr)] (6.110)
x(Tr) = p i + exp(p3 + u(Tr)p2) (6.101)
and
and
x(e) =pi-p2ln[-ln(e/100)] . (6.111)
= P i + exp(p3 + u(e)p2) . (6.102)
The parameters p i and p 2 follow f r o m
The parameters p 2 and p 3 are obtained f r o m
p 2 = o/Cy a n d p i = m — C 2 -p 2 = m — (C2/C\) o . (6.112)
p 2 = ^ln[l + o2/(m-Pl)2} (6.103) T h e p a r a m e t e r s C\ a n d C 2 d e p e n d o n t h e n u m b e r o f v a l u e s c o n s i d e r e d i n a m e a s u r e m e n t
series, e. g. t h e n u m b e r o fyears w i t h a n n u a l m a x i m u m values. F o r n observations, n
and
v a l u e s Zi c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
p3 = In ( m -pi)2/y'(m - p i ) 2 + CT: (6.104)
zj = I n[ - I n ( i / ( n + l ) ) ] , l < i < n . (6.113)

T h e p a r a m e t e r p 2 i st h e m e a n value o ft h e variable l n ( r —p 2 ) , t h e p a r a m e t e r p 3 i t s Thereof, i ti s o b t a i n e d

standard deviation. F i g u r e 6.19 depicts t h e standardized probability density function
of t h e l o g a r i t h m i c n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o nw i t h p , = 0. C2 = z = i f > (6.114)

6.9.4 G u m b e l distribution
and
Gumbel distribution i s n a m e d a l s o extreme value distribution - type I a n d i s d e a l t w i t h
i n d e t a i l i n [6.28]. C\ = oz =
General format:
Probability density function:
F o r a n i n f i n i t e n u m b e r o f o b s e r v a t i o n s (n —7 0 0 ) , i t c a n b e o b t a i n e d
f(x) = ( l / p 2 ) e x p {-(x - pi)/p 2 - exp ( - ( r - pi)/p2)] P2 > 0 (6.105)
d = W / V 6 = 1 , 2 8 2 5 5 a n d C2 = 0 , 5 7 7 2 1 ( E u l e r c o n s t a n t ) .
Cumulative distribution function:
T a b l e 6 . 2 6 g i v e s p a r a m e t e r s Cy, C2 a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n C2/Cy, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r
F(x) = e x p [ - e x p (-{x - pi)/p2)] . (6.106) n o f observations. F i g u r e 6.19 shows t h e standardized G u m b e l distribution.
6.10 References 6.23 D I N 4 1 3 1 : A n t e n n a s t r u c t u r e s m a d e o f steel. B e r l i n , D K E , 1991

6.1 I E C 60826: Technical Report: Loading and strength of overhead transmission lines. 6.24 L e i b f r i e d , W . ; M o r s , H . : T h e mechanical b e h a v i o u r o f b u n d l e d a n d single c o n d u c t o r s -
Geneva, I E C , 1991. N e w m e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e H o r n i s g r i n d e t e s t i n g s t a t i o n . P a r i s , Cigr£ R e p o r t N o . 2 0 9 , 1 9 6 0

6.2 C I G R E S C 2 2 W G 22-06: R e v i e w of I E C 6 0 8 2 6 " L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h o f o v e r h e a d power 6.25 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 6 : T o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y . P a r i s . C i g r e - B r o c h u r e N o . 4 8 , 1995

lines". P a r i s , Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 109, 1996
6.26 Siegel,' A ; M o r g a n , C. J . : S t a t i s t i c s a n d d a t a a n a l y s i s . N e w Y o r k , J o h n W i l e y & Sons. 2 n d
6.3 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 6 : P r o b a b i l i s t i c design o f t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . P a r i s , C i g r e B r o c h u r e edition, 1996
N o . 178, 2001
6.27 O r d a z , M . : A simple a p p r o x i m a t i o n of t h e G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n . S t r u c t u r a l Safety 9
6.4 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s (1991), pp. 315 t o 318
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2 0 0 1 6.28 G u m b e l , E . J . : S t a t i s t i c s o f e x t r e m e s . N e w Y o r k . C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958
6.5 G h a n n o u m , E . : A r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o f t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . I E E E T r a n s -
actions o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s Systems, V o l . 100 (1983), pp. 3057 to 3071

6.6 H i i t t e : D i e G r u n d l a g e n der I n g e n i e u r w i s s e n s c h a f t e n ( H a n d b o o k of E n g i n e e r i n g sciences).

Berlin. Springer Verlag, 2 9 t h edition 1989

6.7 W M O - M a n u a l o n t h e G O S ( G l o b a l o b s e r v a t i o n s y s t e m ) : W M O - N o . 544, 1 9 8 1

6.8 E u r o c o d e 1 : E N V 1991-2-4: A c t i o n s o n s t r u c t u r e s - W i n d loads. 1995

6.9 C o o k , N . J . : T o w a r d s b e t t e r e s t i m a t i o n o f e x t r e m e w i n d . J o u r n a l W i n d E n g i n e e r i n g , I n -
d u s t r y A e r o d y n a m i c s 9 (1982), pp. 295 t o 323

6 . 1 0 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2 0 0 1

6.11 G h a n n o u m , E . : Ice s t o r m i n Q u e b e c . E l e c t r a N o . 177 (1998), pp. 8 t o 9

6.12 B e l l , N . et a l . : I n c r e a s i n g t h e reliability o f t r a n s m i s s i o n lines r e b u i l t after t h e J a n u a r y 1998

ice s t o r m . C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 1 0 6 , 2 0 0 0

6.13 K i e B l i n g , F . ; R u h n a u , J . : Ice loads a n d t h e i r effects o n r e l i a b i l i t y a n d design of o v e r h e a d

lines. I W A I S 93, 6 t h i n t e r n a t i o n a l w o r k s h o p o n atmospheric icing o n structures, Budapest
1993

6.14 I E C 6 1 7 7 4 T R : M e t e o r o l o g i c a l d a t a for assessing c l i m a t i c loads, T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t . G e n e v a ,

I E C , 1998

6.15 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 6 : G u i d e l i n e s f o r o b s e r v a t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t o f ice l o a d i n g o n
overhead power line conductors. P a r i s , Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 179, 2001

6.16 D I N V D E 0210: P l a n n i n g a n d design o f o v e r h e a d p o w e r lines w i t h r a t e d voltages a b o v e

1 k V . B e r l i n , D K E , 1985

6.17 O V E - L 1 1 : C o n s t r u c t i o n of o v e r h e a d p o w e r lines o f m o r e t h a n 1 k V . E d i t i o n 7.1969

6.18 Swiss l a w o n p o w e r lines: O r d i n a n c e of M a r c h 30, 1994 o n electrical power lines. B e r n ,

Swiss G o v e r n m e n t 1994

6.19 N B R - 5 4 2 2 : P r o j e t o de l i n h a s aereas de t r a n s m i s s a o de e n e r g i a electrica. ( O v e r h e a d power

lines for t r a n s m i s s i o n of electric energy). B r a z i l i a n S t a n d a r d , 1985

6 . 2 0 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001

6.21 E N 50 341-3-1: Overhead electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 3-1: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e

Aspects for A u s t r i a . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001

6.22 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 3 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e

Aspects for S w i t z e r l a n d . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
7 Selection of conductors

7.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
A Cross-sectional area
A l u m i n i u m cross-sectional area
Steel cross-sectional area
.A t o t T o t a l conductor cross-sectional area
c Specific h e a t
CAl Specific h e a t of a l u m i n i u m
Specific h e a t o f steel
Ci Capacitance per unit length
Dt Conductor diameter
D] C o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h ice
M e a n conductor distance
M e a n conductor distance of double circuit lines
e Creep elongation
Creep elongation after one hour
D M o d u l u s of elasticity
DAI Modulus of elasticity of a l u m i n i u m
Dpe M o d u l u s of elasticity of steel
Dj}Q Specific erection i n v e s t m e n t s of a double circuit line
£P Specific i n v e s t m e n t s for energy g e n e r a t i o n
Factors used to determine installation investment
/ Frequency
Ac C o n d u c t o r tensile force
ffi Ice load per u n i t l e n g t h
/xai A l t i t u d e above sea-level
fi.M M e a n conductor height above ground
fis Solar angle
J Effective current
fca A b s o r p t i o n coefficient
fee Coefficient of emission of a black b o d y
fe* Stefan-Boltzmann constant
A L Specific costs o f e n e r g y losses
Aa Specific a n n u a l t r a n s m i s s i o n costs
•^"sc F i x e d specific a n n u a l costs o f one c i r c u i t
Specific costs o f p o w e r losses
^Tr Specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs
Conductor mass per unit length
Cross-sectional r a t i o o f c o n d u c t o r envelope t o core ( a l u m i n i u m t o steel)
n E x p o n e n t of t h e creep elongation
U2 N u m b e r of subconductors i n a bundle
N c E n e r g y loss b y c o n v e c t i o n
NJ Joule heat
N M M a g n e t i c losses
N s E n e r g y i n p u t by solar r a d i a t i o n
N R E n e r g y loss b y r a d i a t i o n
ArSh S t a n d a r d solar r a d i a t i o n
Nu Nufielt number
Pi F a c t o r for fixed a n n u a l costs
P2 Power d e m a n d factor
P3 Specific energy costs
PL P o w e r losses
 Symbol Signification
T a b l e 7 . 1 : Standards f o r overhead line conductors and individual wires
Umax M a x i m u m transmitted power
IEC European German ASTM
r Conductor radius standards standards standards standards
R20 D C r e s i s t a n c e a t 20° C
S t a n d a r d s for c o n d u c t o r s
Rf Resistance perunit length E N 50182
Aluminium IEC 61089 DIN 48 201 Part 5 ASTM-B231'
Pry fyQ A C resistance p e r unit length Aluminium alloy IEC 61089 E N 50182 DIN 48 201 Part 6 ASTM-B399
B*F D C D C resistance p e r unit length Copper _
DIN 48201 Part 1 ASTM-B8
Rx D C resistance a tt e m p e r a t u r e T Copper alloy - - DIN 48 201 Part 2 -
Re Reynolds number Steel - EN 50189 DIN 48201 Part 3 ASTM-A363
RTS C o n d u c t o r r a t e d tensile stress Aluminium-clad steel IEC 61089 EN 50182 DIN 48201 Part 8 ASTM-B416
s Subconductor spacing ACSR IEC 61089 EN 50182 DIN 48 204 ASTM-B232
t Time AACSR IEC 61089 EN 50 182 DIN 48 206 ASTM-B711
Annua] utilization period ACSR/AC EN 50 182 ASTM-B341
tm -
AACSR/AC - EN 50 182
th A n n u a ] u t i l i z a t i o n p e r i o d o f p o w e r losses
Formed wire conductors IEC 62 219 —
T Temperature, absolute temperature
S t a n d a r d s for w i r e s
Tan. A m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e (absolute)
Aluminium I E C 60 889 E N 60 889 DIN 48 200 Part 5 ASTM-B230
Th Temperature o f the external atmosphere (absolute)
Aluminium alloy I E C 60104 E N 50183 DIN 48 200 Part 6 ASTM-B398
U Transmission voltage
Copper DIN 48200 Part 1 ASTM-B1
UR N o m i n a l transmission voltage
Copper alloy DIN 48 200 Part 2 ASTM-B105
V W i n d velocity Aluminium-clad steel I E C 61232 E N 61 232 DIN 48 200 Part 8 ASTM-B415
w W i n d load perunit length Steel I E C 60888 E N 50189 DIN 48200 Part 3 ASTM-A475
Wj W i n d load p e r u n i t l e n g t h w i t h ice
X P a r a m e t e r f o r s k i n a n d s p i r a l effects
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance fable 7.2: R e c o m m e n d e d m i n i m u m conductor cross sections i n m m 2
"Al T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance o f a l u m i n i u m
Nominal voltage
rtFe T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance o f steel
Conductor made of above 1 k V up to 1 k V
7 Specific mass, density
A C S R according to E N 50 182 34-AL1/6-ST1A 24-AL1/4-ST1A
7A1 Specific mass o f a l u m i n i u m
Aluminium according to E N 50 182 48-AL1 24-AL1
TFe Specific mass o f steel
A A C S R according to E N 50182 34-AL3/6-ST1A 24-AL3/4-ST1A
s Angle forconsideration o f the geographic orientation Aluminium alloy according to E N 50182 34-AL3 24-AL3
et Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion Copper according to D I N 48 201 Part 1 25-E-Cu 10-E-Cu
et A i Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion o f a l u m i n i u m Copper alloy according to D I N 48 201 Part 2 25-Bz 10-BzI
£tFe Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion o f steel Aluminium-clad steel according to E N 50 182 24-A20SA 24-A20SA
V D y n a m i c viscosity o f air
K. Specific c o n d u c t i v i t y
A20 S p e c i f i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a t 20°C t o t a l investment for an overhead line. M a n y d i f f e r e n t types of conductors have been
A T h e r m a l conductivity o f air u s e d s i n c e o v e r h e a d l i n e s w e r e first i n s t a l l e d . I n m a n y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t h e r e a r e
do Permeability i n vacuum
standards for conductors, a n d also i n t e r n a t i o n a l ones f r o m I E C [7.1] a n dC E N E L E C
Relative permeability o f material
Q [7.2]. U S A m e r i c a n s t a n d a r d s l i k e [ 7 . 3 , 7 . 4 ] a n d [7.5] a r e o f w i d e s p r e a d u s e a s w e l l . T h e
Resistivity
&A1 Resistivity o f aluminium E N standards replaced t h en a t i o n a l standards valid u p t o n o w i nE u r o p e a n countries;
gTe R e s i s t i v i t y o f steel e. g . i n G e r m a n y t h e c o n d u c t o r s t a n d a r d s o f t h e D I N 4 8 2 0 0 s e r i e s ( T a b l e 7 . 1 ) . F r o m
a Tensile stress t h e s t a n d a r d s , t h eb e s t - s u i t e d c o n d u c t o r c a n b e selected f o r a specific a p p l i c a t i o n .
<*K\ Tensile stress o f a l u m i n i u m Besides that, special overhead conductors c a n also b e m a n u f a c t u r e d , whenever deemed
CTB Ultimate tensile strength necessary.
CTFe Tensile stress o f steel
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 7 . 6 ] , conductors a r e bare o r covered, i n s u l a t e d o r e a r t h e d cables s t r u n g
Tensile stress o f steel wires corresponding t o 1 % elongation
between t h e supports o f a n overhead line, irrespective o f w h e t h e r they a r ealive o r
f Latitude, power load angle
0 Angle o f line direction t o the n o r t h - s o u t h axis n o t . Bundle conductors a r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f t w o o r m o r e subconductors used instead
o f a single conductor a n d u s u a l l y k e p t a t a n . a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t s p a c i n g o n t h e i r
e n t i r e l e n g t h . A c c o r d i n g t o [7.7], c o n d u c t o r s a r e w i r e s o r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f w i r e s n o t i n -
7.1 Conductor types and design sulated a n d suitable forcarrying a nelectric current. Conductors c a nb e wires, stranded
conductors o r cables m a d e o f electrically conductive m a t e r i a l s , b u talso, i n accordance
7.1.1 Introduction
w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n [ 7 . 6 ] , n o n - m e t a l l i c optical fibre cables f o r t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
O v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s a r e a i m e d a t r e a s o n a b l e a n d r e l i a b l e transmission of electric purposes. W i r e s will n o tplay a n yrole for overhead lines i nt h efuture. R e c o m m e n d e d
energy b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s . T h e c o n d u c t o r s c a r r y t h e e l e c t r i c e n e r g y a n d a r e , t h e r e f o r e , conductor minimum cross sections a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 7 . 2 , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 7 . 8 ] .
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t components o f a n overhead power line. T h e expenditures necessary C o n d u c t o r s a r e m a d e e i t h e r o f o n e m a t e r i a l - single material conductors - or of two
to purchase a n d install t h e m correspond t o s o m e t h i n g between 3 0 a n d5 0 % o f t h e m a t e r i a l s - composite conductors. Single-material conductors c a nbe formed b y mono-
198 7 Selection o f conductors 7 .1 Conductor types and design 199

sion v i a overhead lines a r o u n d 1880. T h e y were designed considering the mechanical

T a b l e 7.3: Examples o fconductor designations
rather t h a n t h e conductive a n d electric b e h a v i o u r o f materials, t h u s t h e h i g h conduc-
Type of conductor E N 50 182 I E C 61 089 International
designation t i v i t y o f copper was n o t u t i l i z e d t o full extent. Tkierefore, t h e employed cross sections
Aluminium 93-AL1 93-A1-19 AAC were larger t h a n necessary i n v i e w o ft h e required conductivity. D u e t ot h e high weight
Aluminium alloy 93-AL3 93-A3-19 AAAC of copper, spans were short, w h i c h i n t u r n increased the total investment. A tt h e end
Steel 93-ST1A 93-S1A-19 of t h e 1 9 t h century, copper was replaced g r a d u a l l y b y a l u m i n i u mfor t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d
Aluminium-clad steel 93-A20SA ACS
d i s t r i b u t i o n l i n e s . T h e first o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s a d o p t i n g a l u m i n i u m w e r e b u i l t i n C a l -
Aluminium/steel 243-AL1/39-ST1A 243-A1/S1A-26/7 ACSR
243-AL3/39-ST1A 243-A3/S1A-26/7
i f o r n i a i n 1 8 9 5 a n d i n G e r m a n y i n 1 9 0 0 . T h e first o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e u s i n g a s e v e n
Aluminium alloy/steel AACSR
Aluminium/aluminium clad-steel 243-AL3/39-A20SA - ACSR/ACS strand a l u m i n i u m conductor was erected i n Conroecticut i n1899 a n d h a d been i n o p -
Aluminium/aluminium alloy 243-AL1/39-AL3 ACAR e r a t i o n f o rm o r e t h a n 5 0 years. A f t e r these e a r l y applications, t h e u s eo f a l u m i n i u m
conductors increased continuously, being the practically exclusive m a t e r i a l for overhead
conductors nowadays. A r o u n d t h e year 2000, a l u m i n i u m has been used for overhead
metallic o rmetal-clad steel wires. Composite conductors include combinations o f m o n o - l i n e s f o r m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 y e a r s . R e g a r d i n g conductivity, a l u m i n i u m is s e c o n d i n t h e r a n k
metallic a n d metal-clad steel wires. A l u m i n i u ma n d a l u m i n i u m alloys, copper a n d cop- of non-precious metals, behind copper. T h e ratio o fconductivity t o weight istwice as
p e r a l l o y s axe a p p l i e d a s base m a t e r i a l s , a s w e l l a s steel. T h e c o n d u c t o r s axe m a n u f a c - that applicable t o copper, a n d the ratio o f mechanical strength t o weight is approxi-
t u r e d w i t h a t l e a s t o n e o r m o r e s u c c e s s i v e l a y e r w i t h c h a n g i n g layer direction, a r r a n g e d mately 3 0 % higher.
helically a r o u n d a core w i r e . T h e direction o f layer i s designed as r i g h t - h a n d o r left-
Since t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a l u m i n i u m i n 1900, a h i g h e r r a t i o o f mechanical s t r e n g t h t o
h a n d . W i t h right-hand layer, t h e w i r e s c o n f o r m t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e
weight o f the conductors h a d been considered advantageous, as compared w i t h pure
l e t t e r Z w h e n t h e c o n d u c t o r i s h e l d v e r t i c a l l y . W i t h left-hand layer, t h e w i r e s c o n f o r m
a l u m i n i u m . T h e r e f o r e , a composite conductor m a - d e o f a l u m i n i u m a n d s t e e l w a s i n t r o -
to the central part o fthe letter S w h e n the conductor isheld vertically. T h e outermost
duced i n1907. T h i s conductor combined the l o w weight a n d higher current capacity
layer is preferably right-hand. T h e standards listed i n Table 7 . 1contain conductors
o f a l u m i n i u m w i t h t h e h i g h e r m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h o f a z i n c c o a t e d steel core. T h e a d -
often used for overhead power lines. Beside t h e compositions and conductor structures
v a n t a g e s a c h i e v e d b y t h e s o - c a l l e d aluminium conductor steel-reinforced ( A C S R ) were
m e n t i o n e d t h e r e , o t h e r designs can b e f o u n d i nn a t i o n a l standards. N o t - s t a n d a r d i z e d
soon acknowledged; t h e y have been used i n G e r m a n y since 1920 a n d c a p t u r e d t h e m a r -
s p e c i a l conductor types, i n p a r t i c u l a r t y p e s w i t h i n t e g r a t e d o p t i c a l fibres, a r e a d o p t e d
ket w i t h i n 10 years, b y 1930. T h e good c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e conductors, together w i t h
as w e l l .
their favourable r a t i o o f m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h t o w e i g h t , a n d t h e i r easy h a n d l i n g w e r e
the reasons w h y t h e y were almost exclusively applied i n overhead power line projects
7.1.2 Conductor designation d u r i n g t h e first h a l f o f t h e 2 0 t h t h c e n t u r y .

T h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f standardized wires and conductors c a n b e f o u n d i nt h e relevant A f t e r s o m e e x p e r i m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t i n S w i t z e r l a n d i n 1 9 2 1 , a n e w aluminium magnesium

s t a n d a r d s a s s h o w n i n T a b l e 7 . 1 . A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 1 8 2 [ 7 . 2 ] , hard-drawn aluminium
i s i n d i c a t e d a s A L 1 a n d aluminium alloys a r e i n d i c a t e d a s A L x , w h e r e x v a r i e s f r o m 2
t o 7 ( E N 5 0 1 8 3 [ 7 . 9 ] ) a n d r e f e r s t o s t a n d a r d i z e d a l l o y s u s u a l l y a p p l i e d . Steel wires a r e
identified as S T y z , the letter y representing the mechanical strength according t o the
s i x d i f f e r e n t c l a s s e s s t a n d a r d i z e d b y E N 5 0 1 8 9 [ 7 . 1 0 ] . T h e l e t t e r z s t a n d s f o r t h e type
of zinc coating, c l a s s e s A t o E b e i n g s t a n d a r d i z e d b y E N 5 0 1 8 9 .
Aluminium-clad steel wires a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s y z S A , w h e r e y d e s i g n a t e s t h e s t e e l s t r e n g t h
(y = A o r B ) a n d z t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y [ 7 . 1 1 ] . T h e figure s t a n d s f o r t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f
conductivity i n r e l a t i o n t o c o p p e r IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard
[ 7 . 2 1 ] , see a l s o clause 7.1.4.5). T h e r e are f o u r t y p e s o f c o n d u c t i v i t y b e i n g 2 0 S A , 2 7 S A ,
30 S A a n d 4 0 SA.
T h e conductors are identified b ya code n u m b e r w h i c h corresponds t o t h e cross-sectional
area i n square millimetres and a code f o r the material. For composite conductors,
t h e d a t a are separated f o rt h e envelope a n d t h e conductor core. T a b l e 7.3 presents
examples for conductor identifications according t o t h e E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d E N 50 182,
in comparison w i t h the previous Central E u r o p e a n identification and N o r t h A m e r i c a n
practice. I nN o r t h A m e r i c a , U K a n d France, t h e conductors have distinguished b y
n a m e s o f flowers, b i r d s o r a n i m a l s l i k e C r o c u s 2 2 8 f o r 1 8 5 - A L 1 / 4 3 - S T 6 6 , F i n c h f o r
5 6 5 - A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A a n d L y n x for 1 8 3 - A L 1 / 4 3 - S T 1 A .
7.1.3 Progress in technical development
T h e technical development of conductors f o r o v e r h e a d p o w e r lines i s described i n [7.9,
7.13] a n d [7.14]. C o p p e r c o n d u c t o r s w e r e u s e d i n t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f e n e r g y t r a n s m i s -
alloy, d e s i g n a t e d a s Aldrey i n G e r m a n y a n d Almelec i n F r a n c e , w a s i n t r o d u c e d d u r i n g
t h e 1930's. M o n o - m e t a l l i c conductors were d e v e l o p e d w i t h t h i s m a t e r i a l ,w h i c h achieved
t h e s a m e m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as: a l u m i n i u m - s t e e l c o n d u c t o r s , r e d u c e d
t h e w e i g h t a n d also i m p r o v e d t h e corrosion p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e s e a l l a l u m i n i u m alloy con-
ductors ( A A A C ) and the composite conductors ( A A C S R ) , w h i c h combine this m a t e r i a l
w i t h steel cores, represented a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e a l u m i n i u m - s t e e l conductors. H o w e v e r ,
the acceptance o f this conductor type, as i t sonuetimes happens t o any new product,
was not the same i n all industrialized countries. I n France, this type o f conductor has
already been used almost exclusively for m a n y years. I n other countries, its u s e was
restricted t o special applications, because o funexpected problems caused b y conductor
vibrations.
D u r i n g the past years, however, there has been a w o r l d w i d e t r e n d towards t h e selection
of A A A C conductors, preferably t o the a l u m i n i u m - s t e e l conductors, o r even towards
t h e use o f composite conductors m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m alloy a n d steel.
I n m o s t r e c e n t y e a r s , s o m e innovative conductor designs h a v e a p p e a r e d i n t h e m a r k e t
w h i c h c o m p l y w i t h t h e c h a n g i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o Lt h e e l e c t r i c i t y i n d u s t r y [7.15]. N e w
alloys have been developed, w h i c h show a better t h e r m a l stability a n d electric conduc-
tivity. I n n o v a t i v e designs i m p r o v e d t h e v i b r a t i o n endurance capability, besides other
special characteristics.
T h e selection o r d e v e l o p m e n t of conductors for transmission a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n lines h a s
become a demanding task f r o m both the technical and the economic point o f view.
Selection o f the best-suited conductor type a n d d i m e n s i o n for a certain line requires a
detailed knowledge o ft h e characteristics o f commercially available types o f conductors.
T h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s should b e t a k e n i n t o account for a no p t i m u m selection:
200 7 Selection o f conductors

T a b l e 7 . 4 :P hysical characteristics o f m a i n conductor materials T a b l e 7 . 5 :Mechanical strength characteristics o ft h e most i m p o r t a n t conductor m a -

Ma- Stand-axd Density Specific Specific Temperature C oefficient Resisti- Con- terials
terial conduc- heat coefficient of thermal vity ducti- Material Standard Modulus of Tensile stress at Tensile stress Elongation
tivity of resistance expansion vity elasticity E 1 % elongation before stranding
variation kN/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 %
7 c a2o £( Q20 IACS
AL1 EN 60 889 60 tan i n ton 1)
kg/dm3 m/flmm1 Ws/gK 1/K 10"6/K S2mm 2 /m % J.UU L O Z U U
AL2 EN 50 183 60 315 to 325 3,0
HIN OUJ ooy Z, IUO •30,00 0 897 0,00403 23,0 0,02826 61 AL3 EN 50 183 60
AL1 295 3,5
AL2 HlN OUJ loo Z, (Uo 30 45 0,909 0,0036 23,0 0,03284 53 AL4 EN 50 183 60 — 315 to 325 3,0
ATI F W EC en 1A A 2,703 30,74 0,909 0,0036 23,0 0,03253 53 AL5 EN 50 183 60 295
— 3,5
ALo H 1NI 1 O B J loo
2,703 30,40 0,909 0,0036 23,0 0,03289 52
AL4 E 5B183 AL6 EN 50 183 60 — 304 to 314 3,5
AL5 E N 50183 2,703 31,06 0,909 0,0036 23,0 0,03220 54 AL7 EN 50 183 60 — 255 to 300 3,0
AL6 E N 50 183 2,703 31,75 0,909 0,0036 23,0 0,03150 55 TAL 60 160 to 190
AL7 E N 50 183 2,703 32,79 0,909 0,0036 23,0 0,03050 57
ST1A EN 50 189 207 1100 to 1 170 1 300 to 1400 3,0 to 4,0
2,703 34,80 0,963 0,00403 23,0 0,02873 60
TAL ST2B EN 50 189 207 1000 to 1100 1 200 to 1300 40
CM !rU
Hli AO
Rifl 1loy 7 7ft 5 21 0,481 0,0045 11,5 0,1919 9 ST3D EN 50 189 207
ST1A 1100 to 1120 1400 to 1 500 4 0
O 1 Z D F N fl IRQ 7,78 5,21 0,481 0,0045 11,5 0,1919 9 ST4A EN 50 189 207 1 225 to 1 275 1620 to 1670 3,0 to 4,0
ST3D E N1 5
Hjl 0 O0189
tov 7,78 5,21 0,481 0,0045 11,5 0,1919 9 ST5E EN 50 189 207 1 370 to 1 420 1 620 to 1670 3,0 to 4,0
E N 5-0189 7,78 5,21 0,481 0,0045 11,5 0,1919 9 ST6C EN 50 189 207 1340 to 1 450 1 600 to 1 700 2,0 to 2,5
ST5E E N 5i0189 7,78 5,21 0,481 0,0045 11,5 0,1919 9 A20SA EN 61 232 162 1 000 to 1 200 1070 to 1340
ST6C E N 5»0189 7,78 5,21 0,481 0,0045 11,5 0,1919 9 B20SA EN 61 232 155 1100 1320
F N fill
Hli W 9 39
I zoz 6,59 11,80 0,518 0,0036 13,0 0,08475 20 27SA EN 61 232 140 800
iUDA 1080
27SA E N S I 232 5,91 15,66 0^544 0,0036 13,4 0,06385 27 30SA EN 61 232 132 650 880
OUJZL F N ftil 932 5,61 17,40 0,559 0,0038 13,8 0,05747 30 40SA EN 61 232 109 500 680
40SA E N S I 232 4,64 23,20 0,619 0,0040 15,5 0,04310 40
E-Cu DIN 48 200 130 I L L
i} 8,89 cc n 17 0 0,01724 100 Part 1
Cu 1J 56,0 0,394 0,0039 17,0 0,01786 97
E-Cu DIN 48 200 8,89 Bzl DIN 48 200 130 520
r art 1 Part 2
B/J DIN 48 200 8,89 48,00 0,377 0,0038 17,0 0,02083 83 BzII DIN 48 200 130 618
Part 2 Part 2
BzII DIN 48 200 8,89 36,00 0,377 0,0038 17,0 0,02773 62 BzIII DIN 48 200 130 706
Part 2 Part 2
BzIII DIN 48 200 8,89 18,00 0,377 0,0038 17,0 0,05556 31
not standardized
Part 2
11 Annealed copper
istic o fconductive a l u m i n i u m . I tranges f r o m 1 6 0t o 2 0 0N / m m 2 ; therefore, a l u m i n i u m
alloys o ra l u m i n i u m - s t e e lcomposite conductors a r epreferably chosen f o rtransmission
- Electric conductivity a n d thermal behaviour,
lines. A f t e r b e i n g s t r a n d e d , t h e characteristics s h o w n i n [7.16] a n d T a b l e 7.5 m a y b e
- Thermal load limits,
r e d u c e d b y 5 %• W i r e s p r o d u c e d i n t h e casting/rolling process, a l s o k n o w n a s Properzi
- Economy of transmission,
blanks, a r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y u s e d i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a l u m i n i u m w i r e s [ 7 . 1 7 ] .
- Mechanical strength of conductor,
- M e c h a n i c a l l o a d a n d stress-strain curves,
- Creep characteristics a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g sag increase aswell a s 7.1.4.2 A l u m i n i u m - m a g n e s i u m - s i l i c o n alloys
- Beha viour under vibrations a n d fatigue strength.
S i x t y p e s o f aluminium-magnesium-silicon alloys are g i v e n i n [ 7 . 9 ] , w h i c h c a n b e d i s -
t i n g u i s h e d b yt h e i r c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h . T h e y a r edesignated asA L 2
7.1.4 Materials to A L 7 . T h e i r conductivity isbetween 30,4 a n d 32,8 m / f t m m 2 , that isbetween 8 6 a n d
9 3 % o f t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a l u m i n i u m r e s u l t i n g i n 5 2 , 5 a n d 5 7 , 5 % IA CS. T h e me-
7.1.4.1 Aluminium
chanical strength i s b e t w e e n 2 5 5 a n d 3 2 5 N / m m 2 , w h i c h a m o u n t s t o a b o u t a s m u c h
Hard-draw n aluminium i s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d m a t e r i a l f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s . I t s h a l l a s 1 , 6 t i m e s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a l u m i n i u m v a l u e . T h e s e mechanical strengths s h o u l d b e
consist o f9 9 , 5 % A l . I t s 35,38 S c o n d u c t i v i t y a m o u n t s t o6 1 % o f copper c o n d u c t i v i t y , o b t a i n e d a l s o a f t e r stranding the conductors. T h e essential d a t a a r e given i nTables 7.4
a n d i s d e s c r i b e d a s 6 1 % IACS b y t h e r e s p e c t i v e s t a n d a r d I E C 6 0 8 8 9 [ 7 . 1 6 ] . a n d 7.5. A L x alloys a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d i nE N 1715-2 [7.18]. F o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a l u -
A l u m i n i u m a n d i t salloys belong t oa group o f non-precious m e t a l s t h a t shows l o w cor- m i n i u m a l l o y s t r a n d s , b l a n k m a t e r i a l r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e casting/rolling process [ 7 . 1 9 ] i s
r o s i o n resistance e v e n i n less aggressive a t m o s p h e r e s . H o w e v e r , a l u m i n i u m i n c o n t a c t u s e d a n d t h e n d r a w n t o t h e final d i a m e t e r . B l a n k m a t e r i a l p r e p a r e d b y t h e extruding
w i t h a i rb u i l d s u pa thick oxide layer that protects t h e m e t a l against corrosion a n d process i s e x p e n s i v e a n d s e l d o m u s e d f o r o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s t r a n d s .
presents effective protection even under m o r e aggressive e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions, f o r I n t h e U S A , t h ea l u m i n i u m alloy named 6201-T81 ismost c o m m o n l y used for overhead
i n s t a n c e , n e a r t h e s e a . I n T a b l e 7 . 4 , t h e physical characteristics o fconductor materials line conductors. I t sr a t e d s t r e n g t h i sa r o u n d 3 1 0 N / m m 2 , s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f A L 6 listed
are presented. Its relativelyl o w mechanical strength forms a disadvantageous character- in T a b l e 7.5.
202 7 Selection o f conductors 7.1 Conductor types a n d design 2 0 3

7.1.4.3 Steel wires

Zinc-coated steel wires a r e u s e d f o r a l u m i n i u m - s t e e l c o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s a n d a l s o f o r A\\

W W s _AL1/ST1A3
steel e a r t h w i r e s . I n [7.10], six types o fsteel w i r e s are m e n t i o n e d : S T 1 A , S T 2 B , S T 3 D , 80 AL1/ST1A4:1
S T 4 A , S T 5 E and S T 6 C . T h e numbers indicate the mechanical strength and the last AL1/ST1A6:1
c a p i t a l l e t t e r t h e t y p e o f zinc coating. T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f z i n c c o a t i n g d e p e n d o n t h e 0 70
A a
w i r e d i a m e t e r a n d are as follows: b e t w e e n 1 5 0 a n d 290 g / m 2 for classes A , C a n d E ; Copper
60
b e t w e e n 3 7 0a n d 5 8 0g / m 2 f o rclass B a n d b e t w e e n 3 6 5a n d 8 2 5 g / m 2 f o rclass D .
S t a n d a r d E N 1 0 2 4 4 - 2 [ 7 . 2 0 ] d e s c r i b e s t h e t e s t i n g o f z i n c coating. 0 50 S _AL1__
T h e tensile strength of steel wires i s b e t w e e n 1 2 0 0 a n d 1 8 0 0 N / m m 2 , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
40 - A s
s t e e l class a n d t h e w i r e d i a m e t e r , w h i c h i s s t a n d a r d i z e d b e t w e e n 1,25 a n d 4,75 m m .
fables 7.4 a n d 7 . 5 c o n t a i n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s t e e l w i r e s . I n case
00 200 300 400 °C 500
of testing o fw i r e samples t a k e n f r o m stranded conductors, their acceptable tensile 1 10 100 h 1000
Temperature — Period under high temperature -
s t r e n g t h m a y b e5 % l o w e r t h a n specified i n T a b l e 7.5.
F i g u r e 7.1: S t r e n g t h o f c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l s F i g u r e 7.2: S t r e n g t h o f a l u m i n i u m a n d T A L
depending o nthe temperature a t 200° C
7.1.4.4 A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel w i r e s
CTBI t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h b e f o r e t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e
Aluminium-clad steel wires a r e p r o d u c e d b y s i n t e r i n g a l u m i n i u m o n a s t e e l w i r e a n d , CB2 tensile s t r e n g t h after t e m p e r a t u r e rise
afterwards, drawing t h e m t o the final strand diameter. T h i s process results i n a com-
b i n a t i o n o fh i g h mechanical s t r e n g t h o fsteel a n d , increased conductivity and good
f u n c t i o n o f t h e h e a t i n g p e r i o d . A f t e r t h e first 1 0 0 h o u r s o n l y a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e o f
r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n o f a l u m i n i u m [ 7 . 2 1 ] . I n [ 7 . 1 1 ] , five t y p e s o f a l u m i n i u m - c l a d t h e mechanical s t r e n g t h i s observed for T A L . T h e electric c o n d u c t i v i t y o f T A L i s6 0 %
steel wires are standardized w i t h t h e codes A 2 0 S A , B20SA, 27SA, 30SA and 40SA. I A C S i n s t e a d o f 6 1 % f o r a l u m i n i u m ( s e e fable 7 . 4 ) . T h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h i s a s w i t h
T h e letter A o r B refers t o t h e steel s t r e n g t h . T h e n u m b e r s indicate t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y i n a l u m i n i u m . C o n d u c t o r s m a d e o f A l Z r alloys [7.22] can b e o p e r a t e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f
p e r c e n t IACS and correspond t o a n a l u m i n i u m p o r t i o n o f 2 5 , 3 7 , 4 2 a n d 6 2 %, r e s p e c - 150°C, w h e r e b y c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l a r g e s a g s c a n r e s u l t , h o w e v e r .
tively, o f t h e t o t a l cross section o f i n d i v i d u a l wires o r t o a m e a n thickness o fa l u m i n i u m
layers' w i t h 13,4, 20,5, 24,5 o r 38,4 % o f w i r e r a d i i . T h e m e c h a n i c a l strengths depend
7.1.5 W i r e testing
s u b s t a n t i a l l y o n t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e a l u m i n i u m l a y e r (see T a b l e 7.5). T h e s t r e n g t h d a t a
of A 2 0 S A wires correspond a p p r o x i m a t e l y t o those o f steel wires S T 1 A . 7.1.5.1 Introduction

E N 60888, E N 60 889, E N 50183, E N 50189 a n d E N 61 235 describe testing o f various

7.1.4.5 C o p p e r a n d copper alloys
C o n d u c t i v e copper ( E - C u ) a n d copper wrought alloys w i t h magnesium (bronze) a r e s e l -
d o m used for overhead lines, however, t h e y are still f o u n d i n old lines a n d i n r a i l w a y
electric power supply installations, w h e r e h i g h mechanical s t r e n g t h a n d h i g h conduc-
tivity are required. Nevertheless, the resistivity o f annealed copper is used as a c o m -
parative basis for t h e resistivity o fother m a t e r i a l s . T h e I n t e r n a t i o n a lA n n e a l e d C o p p e r
standard is expressed i n t e r m s o f mass resistivity as 0,5328 ft-g/m2, o r the resistance
o f a u n i f o r m r o u n d w i r e 1 m l o n g w e i g h i n g 1 g a t 20°C. A n e q u i v a l e n t e x p r e s s i o n i s
0,017241 ft-mm2/m. T h e e q u i v a l e n t c o n d u c t i v i t y is 58 S - m / m m 2 defined a s 1 0 0 % I A C S .
A d d i t i o n o f m a g n e s i u m significantly increases t h e mechanical s t r e n g t h o f copper wires,
b u t g r e a t l y r e d u c e s t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y , a s c a n b e seen i n T a b l e 7.4. S i n c e t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
of copper conductors islimited, n o i n t e r n a t i o n a l standard has been prepared so far.
7.1.4.6 T h e r m a l resistant a l u m i n i u m alloys
Hard-drawn aluminium r e c r y s t a l l i z e s a t t e m p e r a t u r e s a b o v e 100°C a n d l o o s e s i t s m e -
c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h ( F i g u r e 7.1). T h i s applies t o a l u m i n i u m - m a g n e s i u m - s i l i c o n alloys a s
w e l l . T h u s , t h e i r p e r m i s s i b l e p e r m a n e n t t e m p e r a t u r e i s l i m i t e d t o 80°C [ 7 . 6 ] . H i g h e r
t e m p e r a t u r e s are also l i n k e d w i t h higher p e r m a n e n t unelastic elongation, w h i c h leads
t o a n irreversible i n c r e m e n t o f sag. T o a l l o w o p e r a t i o n a t h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d t o
e n a b l e t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f h i g h e r c u r r e n t s , s o m e zirconium i s a d d e d t o t h e a l u m i n i u m .
T h i s c o m p o n e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e recrystallization temperature t o a v a l u e a r o u n d 200°C,
k e e p i n g t h e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e . I n F i g u r e 7.2, t h e r e s i d u a l
s t r e n g t h o f a l u m i n i u m a n d Thermal-resistant Aluminium ( T A L ) a t 200° C i s s h o w n a s a
t y p e s o f metallic wires u s e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s . Sample tests s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d
out a t every 1 0 % o f the w i r e lengths prepared for stranding. W h e n a sample does not
comply w i t h any o f the requirements, the client has a right t o reject the whole lot the
sample was t a k e n f r o m . T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r is t h e n allowed t o test every single reel o r
every single coil o fb l a n k m a t e r i a l a n d t opresent those wires for acceptance w h i c h have
accomplished t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , i n a n y case, t h e client w i l l take samples w i t h
strands f r o m already stranded conductor. A t these samples, the tensile strength m a y
be u p t o 5 % lower t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d for t h e w i r e s before s t r a n d i n g .
7.1.5.2 D i m e n s i o n s a n d surfaces
T h e wire diameters are given i nm i l l i m e t r e s a n d are accurate t o t w o decimal places.
F o r A L 1 t o A L 7 , p e r m i s s i b l e d e v i a t i o n s g i v e n b y t h e s t a n d a r d s a r e : ±0,03 m m f o r
d i a m e t e r s u p t o 3,00 m m a n d ±1 % for larger d i a m e t e r s .
T h e wire surface m u s t b e s m o o t h , f r e e f r o m fissures, c a v i t i e s , i n c l u s i o n s a s w e l l a s from
impurities like, for instance, copper particles. T h e same applies t o the surface o f zinc
coated steel wires.
7.1.5.3 Testing t h e tensile strength
E v e r y w i r e s a m p l e i s s u b m i t t e d t o a tensile strength test a c c o r d i n g t o E N 1 0 0 0 2 - 1 [ 7 . 2 3 ]
or [7.24]. T h e tensile s t r e n g t h m e a s u r e d m a y n o t fall b e l o w t h e r e q u i r e d values. W h e n
c a r r y i n g o u t t h e t e n s i l e t e s t , t h e breaking strain i s r e c o r d e d r e l a t e d t o a m e a s u r i n g
l e n g t h o f 2 5 0 m m . I n c a s e o f s t e e l a n d a l u m i n i u m - c l a d s t e e l s t r a n d s , t h e tensile load
204 7 Selection o f conductors i.J. vuiiuuuuui ujpvij mi LI J •

c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a 1 % elongation related t oa measuring length o f250 m m is recorded

T a b l e 7.6: T e c h n i c a l d a t a f o r c o n d u c t o r s m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m ( A L 1 o r A A C )
as well. Designation Cross- Number Diameter Rated DC Current
sectional of Strand Conductor breaking resistance carrying
7.1.5.4 W r a p p i n g a n d twisting test area strands strength capacity
(ampaci ty)
E v e r y s a m p l e i s s u b m i t t e d t o a wrapping test i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I S O 7 8 0 2 [ 7 . 2 5 ] . E i g h t mm2 mm mm kN fi/km A
wrappings o fthe a l u m i n i u m wire are w o u n d a r o u n d a m a n d r e l w i t h the same diameter 16-AL1 15,9 j 1 7fl 5,10 9 no 1,7986 110
7 9 in 11 , 11 7Q7
as t h e w i r e a n d , t h e n , six t u r n s are w o u n d off a n d w o u n d u pa g a i n a r o u n d t h e m a n d r e l . 24-AL1 24 2 Z,1U 6,30 4,00 /Of 145
34-AL1 34 4 7 z , oan
0 U 7,50 6,01 0,8317 180
T h e w i r e m a y n o t break. For A L x wires, s t a n d a r d E N 50 183 requires o n l y w i n d i n g u p
49-AL1 49 5 7 3 no 9,00 00, 4A1 1 0,5776 225
of the wires tested. 48-AL1 48,3 19 1 Qfl C fid
9,00 0,5944 225
9l , oiUn
F o r z i n c c o a t e d s t e e l , t h e mandrel diameter d e p e n d s o n t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l . 66-AL1 65 8 19 Z,1U 10,5 1111 , 0or 0 0,4367 270
H e r e , w i n d i n g u p o f o n l y e i g h t t u r n s i s e n o u g h . A twisting test i s a l s o r e q u i r e d f o r 93-AL1 93,3 19 9 Rn 19 t 11 0fl , 99
oZ n , ono
U o U o l1 340
117-A L I 117 0 19 Z , Don
9 U 11 4A, Un 1 O SO n 9 4 Rfi 390
steel a n d a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel wires w h e r e a w i r e a s long a s 100 times its diameter is
147-AL1 147 1 37 Z9, ZORD ire Of! AQ 0,1960 466
t w i s t e d a r o u n d itself a n d , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e steel class a n d o nt h e w i r e d i a m e t e r , s h o u l d 182-AL1 181,6 37 Z9, Rfl
DU 11 57, 0R 91 7fi nU , 11 5coc
51, (is o8 520
w i t h s t a n d w i t h o u t r u p t u r e 1 0 t o 1 8r o t a t i o n s i n case o fsteel w i r e s , o r 2 0 such r o t a t i o n s 243-AL1 242,5 61 Z . ZOR
9 D 1 7 , 59
971 4 9 flfl n i l o? 625
i n case o f a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel w i r e s . 299-AL1 299,4 61 2 5 0 22 5 0RO
Z , 4AUfl U , l 1»0
u,uyoo 710
400-AL1 400,1 61 2 3 9 26,0 68,02 0 0723 855
500-AL1 499,8 61 3,23 29,1 82,47 0,0579 990
7.1.5.5 Testing zinc mass, cladding thickness a n d uniformity 626-AL1 626,2 91 2,96 32,6 106,45 0,0464 1140
802-AL1 802,1 91 3,35 36,9 132,34 0,0362 1340
T h e zinc mass o f g a l v a n i z e d s t e e l w i r e s c a n b e t e s t e d u s i n g t h e v o l u m e o r t h e m a s s 1000-AL1 999,7 91 3,73 41,1 159,95 0,0291 1540
m e t h o d a c c o r d i n g t o E N 10 244-2 [7.20], w h e r e b y t h e zinc c o a t i n g i sd e t a c h e d b y a p p l i -
c a t i o n o f h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d . T h e u n i f o r m i t y i s t e s t e d b y a p p l y i n g t h e zinc dip test b y
dipping i n a copper sulphate solution. T h e required m i n i m u m number o fdips depends T a b l e 7.7: T e c h n i c a l d a t a f o r c o n d u c t o r s m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m a l l o y ( A L 3 o r A A A C )
o n t h e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e zinc c o a t i n g a n d i s specified i n [7.10]. Designation Cross- Number Diameter Rated DC Current
sectional of Strand Conductor breaking resistance carrying
T h e cladding thickness a n d cladding uniformity o fa l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel wires is de-
area strands strength capacity
t e r m i n e d e i t h e r a p p l y i n g t h e magnetic penetration o rb y direct measurement o n the
(ampacity)
photomicrograph o f a sample e m b e d d e d i n cast resin. mm2 mm mm kN fl/km A
16-AL3 15,9 7 1,70 5,10 4,69 2,0701 105
7.1.5.6 Testing resistivity 24-AL3 24,2 7 2,10 6,30 7,15 1,3566 135
34-AL3 34,4 7 2,50 7,50 10,14 0,9572 170
T h e resistivity i s m e a s u r e d a t t e m p e r a t u r e s b e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 30°C i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h 49-AL3 49,5 7 3,00 9,00 14,60 0,6647 210
I E C 6 0 4 6 8 [ 7 . 2 6 ] . T h e m e a s u r e d r e s i s t a n c e Rp i s a d j u s t e d t o t h e r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e 48-AL3 48,3 19 1,80 9,00 14,26 0,6841 210
66-AL3 65,8 19 2,10 10,5 19,41 0,5026 255
o f 20° C a s f o l l o w s :
93-AL3 93,3 19 2,50 12,5 27,51 0,3546 320
117-AL3 117,0 19 2,80 14,0 34,51 0,2827 365
R20 = » r / ( l + a ( T - 20)) , ( 7 . 1 ) 147-AL3 147,1 37 2,25 15,8 43,40 0,2256 425
182-AL3 181,6 37 2,50 17,5 53,58 0,1827 490
where 243- A L 3 242,5 61 2,25 20,3 71,55 0,1373 585
T temperature during measurement, 299-AL3 299,4 61 2,50 22,5 88,33 0,1112 670
R T , R20 r e s i s t a n c e a t t e m p e r a t u r e T a n d 20°C, r e s p e c t i v e l y , and 400-AL3 400,1 61 2,89 26,0 118,04 0,0832 810
a t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f r e s i s t a n c e (see T a b l e 7.4). 500-AL3 499,8 61 3,23 29,1 147,45 0,0666 930
626-AL3 626,2 91 2,96 32,6 184,73 0,0534 1075
The resistivitycan b eevaluated f r o m the measured diameter o f the wire a n d the mea- 802-AL3 802,1 91 3,35 36,9 236,62 0,0417 1255
suring length. 1000- AL3 999,7 91 3,73 41,1 294,91 0,0340 1450

7.1.6 C o n d u c t o r s made of wires w i t h the same material

7.1.6.1 A l l aluminium conductors
S t a n d a r d s i n c l u d e a l l a l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s (AAC)as i n [7.2], w h e r e i n f o r m a t i o n i s
g i v e n a b o u t m a n y t y p e s used i n E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . I n T a b l e 7.6, c o m p o s i t i o n a n d
m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h are given a s a n e x a m p l e for c o n d u c t o r s specified i n E N 50 182, t o -
g e t h e r w i t h t h e current carrying capacity ( a m p a c i t y ) , w h i c h r a n g e s f r o m 1 1 0 t o 1 5 4 0 A .
T h e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a p p l i e s t o 35°C a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d 0 , 6 m / s w i n d
velocity.
Due t othe relative small ratio o fmechanical strength t oweight aswell asthe high
susceptibility t ovibrations, A L 1 conductors are nowadays used m a i n l y i n distribution
n e t w o r k s a n d substations, w h e r e h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y i srequired a n d the span lengths are
relatively short. T h e i r h i g h resistance against corrosion qualifies these conductors also
for lines i n coastal regions. I n U S A , a l l a l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s ( A A C ) are s t a n d a r d i z e d
i n A S T M B 2 3 1 [7.3].
7.1.6.2 A l l a l u m i n i u m alloy conductors
All aluminium alloy conductors are s t a n d a r d i z e d i n [ 7 . 2 ] w i t h t h e d e s i g n a t i o n A L x . A s
a n e x a m p l e , A L 3 c o n d u c t o r s a s per E N 5 0182, T a b l e F . 1 8 , a r e p r o v i d e d i n T a b l e 7.7.
D e p e n d i n g o n the diameter o fthe i n d i v i d u a l strands, t h e rated b r e a k i n g s t r e n g t h for
206 7 Selection o f conductors 7.1 C o n d u c t o r types a n d design 2 0 7

T a b l e 7.8: T e c h n i c a l d a t a f o r c o n d u c t o r s m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m - c l a d s t e e l ( A 2 0 S A )
Designation Cross- Number Diameter Rated DC Current
sectional of Strand Con ductor breaking resistance 1 1 carrying
area strands strength capacity
(ampacity)
mm2 mm mm kN A
a/km
ci A A fine A 24,2 I 2,10 6,30 99 AQ 9 R9Rd R6
O A A OrtO A 34,4 2,50 7,50 A R f\A 2 4953 80 F i g u r e 7.3: Cross section o f a composite conductor 243-AL1/39-ST1A
34-A2UoA
49-AzubA 49,5 7 3,00 9,00 R 9(1
R00,DU 1 799ft 110 according t oE N 50182, previously A C S R 240/40
RR A 9119 A 65,8 19 2,10 10.5 88,18 1,3102 135
93-A20SA 93 ; 3 19 2,50 12,5 124,98 0,9245 170
117-A20SA 117,0 19 2,80 14,0 156,77 0,7370 195 a s ACSR ( a l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s t e e l r e i n f o r c e d ) o r AACSR. H o w e v e r , t h e r e are also
147-A20SA 147,1 37 2,25 15,8 197,13 0,5881 225
designs i n w h i c h steel a n d a l u m i n i u m w i r e s are m i x e d i n i n d i v i d u a l layers o ft h e con-
182-A20SA 181,6 37 2,50 17,5 243,38 0,4764 255
325,00 0,3579 310 d u c t o r s - F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e are also conductors w i t h a core m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m - c l a d
243-A20SA 242,5 61 2,25 20,3
299-A20SA 299,4 61 2,50 22,5 401,24 0,2899 355 steel w i r e s ( y z S A ) o r o f A L x ( A A A C ) wires w h i c h are k n o w n as A L l / y z S A , A L x / y z S A
or A L l / A L x , respectively. T h e y are also n a m e d a s A C S R / A C S o r A C A R , respectively.
1 Aluminium and steel cross sections considered
I n F i g u r e 7.3, t h e cross s e c t i o n i s s h o w n o f a 2 4 3 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A c o m p o s i t e conductor
p r e v i o u s l y designated a sA C S R 2 4 0 / 4 0 i n G e r m a n y , h a v i n g a seven-wire steel core a n d
the same conductor design is5 5t o8 4% higher t h a n t h a t o fA L 1 conductors, w h i l e the 26-wire a l u m i n i u m envelope.
steady-state current carrying capacity a m o u n t s t o 95 % o fthe A L 1 data.
C o m p o s i t e conductors provide some advantages which contribute t otheir widespread
T h e A L x conductors share a large a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a lm a r k e t d u e t o their
u s e . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l l o w s a h i g h conductivity b y a d e q u a t e selection o ft h e section
high mechanical strength and their high conductivity when compared with composite
of conductive envelope, combined w i t h h i g h mechanical s t r e n g t h o fa steel, a l u m i n i u m -
conductors o f t h e same diameter, f o re x a m p l e i n France, w h e r e t h i s alloy i s called
clad steel o rA L x core. T h e h i g h s t r e n g t h enables t o reduce t h e sags a n d achieve long
Almelec. I n [ 7 . 2 ] , t h i s m a t e r i a l i s r e f e r r e d t o a s A L 4 . T h e h i g h e r coefficient of thermal
span leingths. T h u s , A L x / S T y z ( A A C S R ) and A L x / y z S A ( A A C S R / A C S ) conductors
expansion i s d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s c o m p a r e d t o A L l / S T y z c o n d u c t o r s , a s i s t h e i r l o w w e i g h t
have p r o v e d t ob e a d e q u a t e for o v e r h e a d lines across w i d e r i v e r s o r valleys. T h e s t r e n g t h
w i t h respect t oaeolian vibrations. I n the U S A , a l u m i n i u m alloy conductors (AAAC)
m a y b e a d a p t e d t o every a p p l i c a t i o n b ym e a n s o fv a r i a t i o n s i n t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e
a r e m a i n l y m a n u f a c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g t o A S T M B 3 9 9 [7.4].
core o r i n its mechanical strength. A L x ( a l u m i n i u m alloy) used as conductive m a t e r i a l
increases the breaking strength i n comparison w i t h A L 1 , w i t h o u t causing a significant
7.1.6.3 A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel conductors d e c r e a s e o ft h e t o t a l c o n d u c t o r c o n d u c t i v i t y .

A s a n e x a m p l e , T a b l e 7 . 8 c o n t a i n s t e c h n i c a l d a t a f o r aluminium-clad steel conductors T h e imultiple-layer a l u m i n i u m envelope o f composite conductors protects t h e zinc-

( A 2 0 S A ) w h i c h are standardized according t oE N 50 182, T a b l e F 2 1 . T h e r a t e d b r e a k i n g
s t r e n g t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7,5 t i m e s higher t h a n o f A L 1 conductors h a v i n g t h e same
d i m e n s i o n . S u c h c o n d u c t o r s are specially a d e q u a t e a se a r t h w i r e s [7.27], a sw e l l as for
span lengths o f 2000 m and above, however using special designs w h i c h have larger
cross sections a n d a h i g h e r n u m b e r o f s t r a n d s [7.28]. I n t h e U S A , a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel
c o n d u c t o r s ( A C S ) a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o A S T M B 4 1 6 [7.29]
7.1.6.4 C o p p e r , copper alloy a n d steel conductors
Copper, copper alloy and steel conductors axe a p p l i e d t o d a y o n l y i n c a s e s w h e r e h i g h
r e s i s t a n c e t o c o r r o s i o n i s n e e d e d ( c o p p e r a n d bronze), f o r e a r t h w i r e s o r i n c a s e s w h e r e
u n u s u a l l y h i g h loads are expected i noverhead lines. H e r e , steel conductors m a y rep-
resent a na l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n . T h e r e are n oE u r o p e a n standards for such conductors.
G e r m a n s t a n d a r d D I N 48 2 0 1 , P a r t 1 deals w i t h copper, D I N 48 2 0 1 , P a r t 2 w i t h bronze
a n d D I N 48 2 0 1 , P a r t 3 w i t h zinc coated steel conductors. C o p p e r m a g n e s i u m alloys
are used for bronze conductors.
7.1.7 Composite conductors
7.1.7.1 Configuration a n d design 1
Composite conductors a r emade u po f wires produced f r o m different types o f met-
als. T h e y a r eu s u a l l y f o r m e d b y a steel core a n d a o n e - o r m u l t i p l e - l a y e r e n v e l o p e
of a l u m i n i u m ( A L 1 ) o ra l u m i n i u m alloy ( A L x ) . These conductors are also designated
coated steel w i r e s p e r m a n e n t l y against corrosion, w h e n t h e steel cores are greased. I n
C e n t r a l E u r o p e , t h e practice o fgreasing i sfollowed. H o w e v e r , especially i n regions o f
hot climate, the grease could m e l t and drop f r o m the conductor thus producing corona
d i s c h a r g e s . T h e r e f o r e , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d t o a s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h drop point o f t h e
g r e a s e ( a b o v e 80°C) a n d a h i g h viscosity. S t a n d a r d p r E N 5 0 3 2 6 [ 7 . 3 0 ] a p p l i e s t o grease.
C o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h a c o r e m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel w i r e s [7.21] c o m b i n e
a h i g h conductivity w i t h a n excellent resistance against corrosion and, therefore, n o
greasing is needed.
C o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s h a v e s h o w n a s u p e r i o r long-term performance u n d e r aeolian
vibration d u e t o w i n d e x c i t a t i o n . U n d e r p e r m a n e n t t e n s i l e l o a d , a l u m i n i u m i s c o n t i n -
u o u s l y e l o n g a t e d , a p h e n o m e n o n c a l l e d creep. I n c o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s , s t e e l c r e e p s t o
a m u c h lower e x t e n t t h a n a l u m i n i u m [7.31]. W i t h passing p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h e tensile
stress o f a l u m i n i u m w i r e s decreases w h i l e t h a t o fsteel w i r e s increases. T h i s results i n a
h i g h e r r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t alternating bending stresses c a u s e d b y a e o h a n v i b r a t i o n s . T h i s
load displacement cannot take place i n mono-metallic o r A L l / A L x conductors. T h a t is
the reaison w h y these c o n d u c t o r s are h i g h l y susceptible t o f a t i g u e p r o b l e m s [7.32].
E v e r y composition, especially every cross-sectional r a t i o o fconductive m a t e r i a l t o core
is c o n c e i v a b l e f o r c o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s ; h o w e v e r , w i t h p a s s i n g t i m e , c e r t a i n r a t i o s h a v e
b e c o m e p o p u l a r . I n t e r n a t i o n a l l y ,t h e r e i sa l o t o fs t a n d a r d i z e d d i m e n s i o n s , i n E u r o p e ,
the v a r i o u s n a t i o n a l standards for conductors were replaced b y E N 50 182. T a b l e 7.9
contains i n f o r m a t i o n o n A L 1 / S T 1 A conductors according t o E N 50 182, T a b l e F.19. T h e
standardized cross-sectional ratios o f a l u m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m a l l o y , r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o
steel a r e 1,4, 1,7, 4,3, 6,0, 7 , 7 ,11,3, 14,5 o r 2 3 , 1 . T o d a y , phase conductors are used
Table 7 . 9 : Characteristic data o f A C S R conductors - configuration A L 1 / S T 1 A as per E N T a b l e 7 . 1 0 :Mechanical a n d electrical values o f s t a n d a r d conductors
50182, Table F.19 Conductor Cross- Number Coefficient Temperature Specific Specific Specific
Designation Former Cross Number Con- Mass Rated DC Current material, sect- of of thermal coefficient conduc- resisti- heat
code section of duc- per strength resist- carrying Standard ional strands expansion of resistance tivity vity
strands tor unit ance capacity ratio Et a K Q c
ACSR total diam. length •10"6/K 1/K m/fimrn2 firamJ/m Ws/(kg-K)
mm2 Al St mm kg/km kN ft/km A AL1 (AAC)
7 to 91 23,0 0,00403 35,4 0,0283 . 897
15-AL1/3-ST1A 16/2,5 17,8 6 1 5,40 61,6 5,80 1,8769 105 E N 50 182
24-AL1/4-ST1A 25/4 27,8 6 1 6,75 96,3 8,95 1,2012 140 A T I
AJLO
34-AL1/6-ST1A 35/6 40,1 6 1 8,10 138,7 12,37 0,8342 170 7 to 91 23,0 0,00360 30,7 0,0326 909
44/32 14 11,2 (AAAC)
44-AL1/32-ST1A 75,6 7 369,3 44,24 0,6574 200
48-AL1/8-ST1A 50/8 56,3 1 E N 50 182
6 9,60 194,8 16,81 0,5939 210
Copper
51-AL1/30-ST1A 50/30 81,0 12 7 11,7 374,7 42,98 0,5644 230
DIN 48 201 7 to 61 17,0 0,00394 56,0 0,0179 394
70-AL1/U-ST1A 70/12 81,3 26 7 11,7 282,2 26,27 0,4132 290
Part 1
94-AL1/15-ST1A 95/15 109,7 26 7 13,6 380,6 35,93 0,3060 350
97-AL1/56-ST1A 95/55 152,8 12 7 16,0 706,8 77,85 0,2992 370 Bronze Bzl 48,0 0,0208
106-AL1/76-ST1A 105/75 181,2 14 19 17,5 885,3 105,82 0,2742 400 D I N 48 201 7 to 61 17,0 0,00377 B z I I 36,0 0,0278 377
122-AL1/20-ST1A 120/20 141,4 26 7 15,5 491,0 44,50 0,2376 410 Part 2 B z I I I 18,0 0,0556
122-AL1/71-ST1A 120/70 193,4 12 7 18,0 894,5 97,92 0,2364 415 Steel
128-AL1/30-ST1A 125/30 157,8 30 7 16,3 587,0 56,41 0,2260 425 D I N 48 201 7 to 19 11,5 0,00450 5,2 0,1916 481
149-AL1/24-ST1A 150/25 173,1 26 7 17,1 600,8 53,67 0,1940 470 Part 3
172-AL1/40-ST1A 170/40 211,8 30 7 18,9 788,2 74,89 0,1683 520 A20SA
184-AL1/30-ST1A 185/30 213,6 26 7 19,0 741,0 65,27 0,1571 535 7 to 61 13,0 0,00360 11,8 0,0848 518
E N 50 182
209-AL1/34-ST1A 210/35 243,2 26 7 20,3 844,1 73,36 0,1381 590
1,4 14/7 15,0 605
212-AL1/49-ST1A 210/50 261,5 30 7 21,0 973,1 92,46 0,1363 620
14/19 15,0 618
231-AL1/30-ST1A 230/30 260,8 24 7 21,0 870,9 72,13 0,1250 630
1,7 12/7 15,3 623
243-AL1/39-ST1A 240/40 282,5 26 7 21,8 980,1 85,12 0,1188 645 AL1/ST1A 0,00403 35,4 0.0283 1 '
4,3 30/7 17,8 717
264-AL1/34-ST1A 265/35 297,7 24 7 22,4 994,4 81,04 0,1095 680 (ACSR) (AL1) (AL1) (AL1)
6,0 6/1 19,2 750
304-AL1/49-ST1A 300/50 353,7 26 7 24,4 1227,3 105,09 0,0949 740 and
26/7 18,9
305-AL1/39-ST1A 305/40 344,1 54 7 24,1 1151,2 96,80 0,0949 740 AL3/ST1A 0,00360 30,7 0.0326 1 '
24/7 19,6
339-AL1/30-ST1A 340/30 369,1 48 7 25,0 1171,2 91,71 0,0852 790 (AACSR) (AL3) (AL3) (AL3)
7,7 54/7 19,3 772
382-AL1/49-ST1A 380/50 431,2 54 7 27,0 1442,5 121,30 0,0758 840 according to
54/19 19,4
389-AL1/34-ST1A 385/35 420,1 48 7 26,7 1333,6 102,56 0,0749 850 E N 50182
11,3 48/7 20,5 803
434-AL1/56-ST1A 435/55 490,6 54 7 28,8 1641,3 133,59 0,0666 900 45/7
14,5 20,9 820
449-AL1/39-ST1A 450/40 488,2 48 7 28,7 1549,1 119,05 0,0644 920 72/7
23,1 21,7 845
490-AL1/64-ST1A 490/65 553,8 54 7 30,6 1852,9 150,61 0,0590 960
494-AL1/34-ST1A 495/35 528,4 45 7 29,9 1632,6 117,96 0,0584 985 envelope only
511-AL1/45-ST1A 510/45 585,8 48 7 30,7 1765,3 133,31 0,0566 995
550-AL1/71-ST1A 550/70 620,9 54 7 32,4 2077,2 166,32 0,0526 1020
562-AL1/49-ST1A 560/50 611,2 48 7 32,2 1939,5 146,28 0,0515 1040 mal expansion coefficient c a nb e used i nt h e calculations. T h e m o d u l u s o felasticity is
571-AL1/39-ST1A 570/40 610,6 45 7 32,3 1887,1 136,40 0,0506 1050 approximately given b y
653-AL1/45-ST1A 650/45 698,8 45 7 34,4 2159,9 156,18 0,0442 1120
679-AL1/86-ST1A 680/85 764,5 54 19 36,0 2549,7 206,56 0,0426 1150 EA\ • m\ + EFe
E = (7.2)
1046-AL1/45-ST1A 1045/45 1090,9 72 7 43,0 3248,2 218,92 0,0277 1580 m i + 1

w h e r e m i i s t h e cross-sectional ratio o f c o n d u c t o r envelope t ocore ( a l u m i n i u m t o steel),

having cross-sectional ratios b e t w e e n 6 , 0 a n d 14,5 f o rt h e m a j o r i t y o f lines; lower ratios . E A I t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y o f a l u m i n i u m a n d EEe t h em o d u l u s o f elasticity o f steel.
are used f o r e a r t h w i r e s , larger r a t i o s i ns u b s t a t i o n s . T h erespective number o f wires The values given i n fable 7 . 1 1 , w h i c h a r e b a s e d o n [7.2] a n d [7.6], differ s l i g h t l y f r o m
varies b e t w e e n 6 a n d 7 2f o rt h eenvelope a n d between 1 a n d 1 9f o rt h ecore. F o r special the result obtained f r o m ( 7 . 2 ) , b e c a u s e t h e stranding effects were taken into account.
applications, conductors with more than 100wires a r eapplied. I nthese cases, t h e The coefficient of thermal expansion £t i s
stranding i sp e r f o r m e d i nseveral consecutive r u n s . T h en u m b e r o freels available a t t h e
stranding machines determines t h em a x i m u m n u m b e r o f wires o f t h eoutermost layer EtAl - EA\ ' 1 " ! + S t F e ' Bpe
(7.3)
a n d t h e n u m b e r o fr u n s t om a n u f a c t u r e t h econductor (see clause 7.1.7.3). I n t h e U S A , m i • EA\ + Epe

composite conductors arestandardized according t oA S T M B232 [7.33]

w h e r e £ t Al i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n o f a l u m i n i u m a n d etFe t h e c o e f f i c i e n t
of t h e r m a l expansion o f steel. Table 7.11 contains t h e s t a n d a r d values.
The specific mass y o r d e n s i t y c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d b y
7.1.7.2 Characteristic data

7A1 • " » 1 + TFe

In m a n y practical calculations, composite conductors canb e treated as mono-metallic 7 = (7.4)
m i + 1
conductors, t h e r e f o r e , a v i r t u a l modulus of elasticity, a v i r t u a l tensile stress, a specific
heat, a r e s u l t i n g resistance, a t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance a n d a r e s u l t i n g t h e r - w h e r e 7 A I i s t h e specific m a s s o f a l u m i n i u m a n d7 p e t h e specific m a s s o f steel.
210 7 Selection o f conductors 7.1 C o n d u c t o r types and design 2 1 1

w h e r e o = Fc/Atot is t h e tensile stress related t o t h e area o f t h e t o t a l c o n d u c t o r .

Table 7 . 1 1 : M o d u l u s o f elasticity, everyday a n d l o n g - t e r m stress a c c o r d i n g t o
For t h e steel core, t h e tensile stress i s given b y
Conductor Cross- Number Modulus of Everyday Long-term 1 + mi
material, sectional of elasticity stress stress (7.8)
btanaara ratio strands Ci
CTFe ~ " ' l + mi^Al/^Fe)
UM /mm2 XT / m m 2 M /-mm2
KIN /fin
mm IN /mm T h e results g i v e n b y (7.7) a n d (7.8) are theoretical values w h i c h a s s u m e a h o m o g e n e o u s
1,U i DU
AL1
57 30 1 on distribution o f the p r o p o r t i o n a l tensile load o n all wires o f the s a m e material. D u e t o
19, 37
E N 50 182 CI Q1 RR t h e differing s t r a n d i n g o f each layer, significant differences m a y occur between tensile
AL3 1,0 7 60 stresses in individual wires [ 7 . 3 4 ] .
(ACSR) 19, 37 57 44 240 Nevertheless, (7.7) a n d (7.8) give a n e s t i m a t e o f t h e stresses i neach i n d i v i d u a l w i r e .
T?M ten 1IGZ
till QU QO RI Q 1 RR D e p e n d i n g o n t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f b o t h materials - a l u m i n i u m a n d steel - i n c o m p o s i t e
D I , yi
Copper 1,0 7 113 c o n d u c t o r s o f d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n , t h e i r s t r e s s e s c a n d i f f e r , d e s p i t e t h e s a m e total tensile
DIN 48 201 19, 37 105 85 300
stress. C o r r e s p o n d i n g d a t a c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l s , i f a l u m i n i u m i s r e p l a c e d
Part 1 61 100
by t h e envelope m a t e r i a l a n d steel b y the m a t e r i a l o f the core, respectively.
Bronze 1,0 7 113 Bzl 100 400
D I N 48 201 19, 37 105 BzII 100 500 F o r a 3 0 4 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A c o n d u c t o r w i t h a cross-sectional r a t i o o f 6,0 a n d t h e o v e r a l l
Part 2 RI
Dl 1 nn "D„TTT inn 620 tensile stress o f 6 0 N / m m 2 , a tensile stress o f 45,8 N / m m 2 results f o rt h e a l u m i n i u m
DZlll 1 U U ton wires a n d 144,8 N / m m 2 f o rt h e steel wires. F o r a 5 6 2 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A c o n d u c t o r w i t h a
1,0 7 180 oil
Steel
ST I I 120 560 cross-sectional r a t i o o f 11,3 a n d a n overall tensile stress o f 6 0 N / m m 2 , a tensile stress
DIN 48 201
19 175 ST I I I 130 900 of 51,0 N / m m 2 results for the a l u m i n i u m wires a n d 161,1 N / m m 2 for t h e steel wires. I t
Part 3
ST I V 150 1100
can b e seen that, the larger the a l u m i n i u m proportion, the higher the a l u m i n i u m a n d
A20SA
1.0 7,37 159 137 steel stresses w i l l b e for t h e s a m e overall tensile stress.
E N 50182
AL1/ AL3/ AL1/ AL3/
T h e calculated d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the total force does n o ttake i n t o account the differ-
ST1A ST1A ST1A ST1A ent t e m p e r a t u r e behaviour. T o a decreasing t e m p e r a t u r e , the a l u m i n i u m reacts w i t h
1.4 14/7 110 90 104 401 464 a higher p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e t o t a l force, d u e t o the different coefficients o f t h e r m a l
14/19 110 e x p a n s i o n ; i f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e increases, t h e effect is t h e o p p o s i t e .
1-7 12/7 107 84 102 368 435 T h e rated tensile strength (RTS) o f c o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s i s d e t e r m i n e d i n a c c o r d a n c e
AL1/ST1A
4,3 30/7 82 57 69 240 328
(ACSR) w i t h E N 5 0 1 8 2 , s e c t i o n 5.9. F o r A L x / S T y z a n d A L x / y z S A c o n d u c t o r s , i t is e q u a l t o t h e
6,0 6/1 81 56 67 208 300
and m i n i m u m tensile strength o f a l u m i n i u m wires before the stranding process, m u l t i p l i e d
26/7 77
AL3/ST1A
24/7 74 by t h e i r r a t e d cross section plus t h e tensile stress o f steel o r a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel wires
(AACSR)
according to
7,7 54/7 70 52 63 189 284 corresponding t o 1 % e l o n g a t i o n i n a 250 m m gauge l e n g t h before s t r a n d i n g , m u l t i p l i e d
54/19 68 by t h e i r r a t e d cross section
E N 50182
11,3 48/7 62 44 53 165 265
14,5 45/7 61 40 50 152 255
23,1 72/7 60 35 130 R T S = CTB Al • + 1 + °l % F e • 4*Fe • (7-9)

T h e requirements o n R T S o f conductors are considered t o b e accomplished b y a test

T h e specific heat i s o b t a i n e d from w h e n failing o f individual wires occurs only after 95 % o f t h a t rated strength have been
reached.
CA17A1 • m i + CFeTFe
(7.5)
c = ; > 7.1.7.3 Production
7A! ' " l l + 7Pe
w h e r e C A I ist h e specific heat o f a l u m i n i u m a n d c E e the specific heat o f steel. T h e m a c h i n e s u s e d f o r stranding of conductors m u s t accomplish different requirements
T h e resistivity is given b y d e p e n d i n g o n the materials o f t h e wires t o b e stranded a n dt h econductors t o b e
0A.WFe(™i + 1) p r o d u c e d . T w i s t i n g o f steel, a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel o r a l u m i n i u m alloy wires should b e
(7.6)
Q = a v o i d e d . T h e r e f o r e , s t r a n d i n g m a c h i n e s p r o v i d e d w i t h untwisting equipment a r e u s e d .
£>A1 + PFe • my T h e reel supports t u r n i n the opposite direction t o t h a t o f the stranding process; they
w h e r e P A I i s t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f a l u m i n i u m a n d gFe t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f s t e e l . keep t h e relative position o f their axles i n the space, t h u s reducing t h e t w i s t i n g o f the
T h e tensile stress o, d e f i n e d a s t h e q u o t i e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e Fc b y t h e total individual wires. C o n t r a r y t o that, a l u m i n i u m wires c a nb e stranded using machines
cross-sectional area A t o t , is not a real physical q u a n t i t y o f composite conductors, since w i t h r e e l s fixedly a r r a n g e d i n t h e c a g e w h i c h c a u s e t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i r e s t o t w i s t a r o u n d
t h e a c t u a l stresses o c c u r r i n g i n a l u m i n i u m a n d steel wires differ f r o m t h a t q u o t i e n t . The themselves d u r i n g t h e s t r a n d i n g process.
stresses i n t h e a l u m i n i u m envelope, a s s u m i n g t h e s a m e elongation for a l l the a l u m i nium
D u r i n g a r u n , one t o three layers o f wires can b e stranded w i t h 6, 12 and 18 wires per
wires, can b e calculated as follows:
lay o r b y 1 2 ,18 a n d 2 4 wires, respectively, d e p e n d i n g o n the design and t h e capacity
my + 1 o f t h e s t r a n d i n g m a c h i n e s . T h e lay ratio o f a c o n d u c t o r i s t h e r a t i o o f t h e l a y l e n g t h t o
(7.7) the externa] diameter o f the corresponding lay o fwires i n the stranded conductor. T h e
mj + EFe/EAi
Z1Z i o e i e c n u u u i uoiiLiu+iuia
lay r a t i o s a r e i n b e t w e e n 1 4 a n d 2 0 i ncase o f steel w i r e s a n di nb e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 1 6 i n
case o f a l u m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m alloy w i r e s . T h el a yr a t i o s h o u l d decrease f r o m t h e
core t ot h e o u t e r m o s t layer o r a t least r e m a i n constant.
T h e c o n s e c u t i v e l a y e r s a r e s t r a n d e d i n o p p o s i t e lay directions, t h e e x t e r n a l l a y e r b e i n g
s t r a n d e d p r e f e r a b l y r i g h t - h a n d . F o r c o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s , t h e c o r e a n d t h e e n v e l o p e aire
stranded separately. A l l steel w i r e s should lie n a t u r a l l y i nt h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t h e s t r a n d e d
core, a n d w h e n t h e core i s c u t t h ew i r e ends s h o u l d r e m a i n i n p o s i t i o n o r b e readily
replaced b y h a n d a n d t h e n r e m a i n approximately i nposition. T o comply w i t h this
r e q u i r e m e n t s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l steel wires a x e preformed p r i o r t o t h e s t r a n d i n g p r o c e s s .
T o i m p r o v e t h e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n , z i n c c o a t e d s t e e l w i r e s aire u s u a l l y g r e a s e d .
T h e r e a x e soap-containing o r soap-free greases w h i c h a x e m a i n l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e i r
drop point; w h e n the t e m p e r a t u r e exceeds t h e d r o p p o i n t , t h e grease gets l i q u i d a n d lost.
T h e drop point of the grease h a s t o b e a d j u s t e d t o t h e m a x i m u m operating temperature
of the conductor. F o r s o a p - f r e e g r e a s e s , t h e d r o p p o i n t i s b e l o w 100°C. T h e s t a n d a r d
E N 5 0 326 [7.30] specifies d e t a i l s f o r c o n d u c t o r g r e a s i n g . I nE N 5 0 182 [7.2], A n n e x B ,
f o u r cases o fgrease a p p l i c a t i o n are specified:
— Case 1 : o n l y steel core i s greased.
— Case 2: a l l the conductor i sgreased, except t h e o u t e r layer.
— Case 3: a l l the conductor i sgreased, i n c l u d i n g t h e outer layer.
— Case 4: all the conductor i sgreased, except t h eouter surface o ft h e wires i n t h e
outer layer.
Case 1 should b e used f o rconductors w i t h galvanized steel wires i nt h e core as a
m i n i m u m r e q u i r e m e n t [7.2]. E x p e r i e n c e a n dt e s t s s h o w t h a t t h e z i n c c o a t i n g w i l l n o t
be c o r r o d e d even d u r i n g l o n g - t e r m e x p o s u r e t ocorrosive a t m o s p h e r e , especially i n case
o f several A L x layers. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , severe corrosion i s r e p o r t e d i n case o f n o n -
greased galvanized steel cores, even w h e n t h e exposure h a s been f o r a s h o r t p e r i o d o f
t i m e only. Greasing o f t h e o u t e r layer is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d , since corona could occur
a n d t h e performance o f clamps w o u l d b e affected.
7.1.7.4 Joints
Joints in aluminium a n d a l u m i n i u m a l l o y b l a n k s m a y b e m a d e p r i o r t o final d r a w i n g
w i t h o u t r e s t r i c t i o n s [ 7 . 9 , 7 . 1 6 ] . O n e j o i n t m a y a l s o b e m a d e i n t h e finished w i r e p r o v i d e d
— T h e mass o ft h e coil is a t least 5 0 0 k g ;
— T h e r e i s n o t m o r e t h a n o n ej o i n t i nsuch coil;
— N o t m o r e t h a n 1 0 % o f coiis i na l o tc o n t a i n a j o i n t a n d
— W h e n requested b y t h epurchaser, t h emanufacturer c a n provide evidence t h a t
the joints d o n o thave a tensile strength below 130 N / m m 2 .
Joints in steel wires are a l l o w e d i n t h e b a s e h o t r o l l e d r o d a n d s e m i - f i n i s h e d w i r e b y
e l e c t r i c b u t t o r flash w e l d i n g p r o c e s s , b e f o r e o r a f t e r h e a t t r e a t m e n t a n d p r i o r t o final
d r a w i n g (see [7.10]). T h e f o l l o w i n g s h o u l d b e considered:
— A f t e r d r a w i n g t o t h e final d i a m e t e r , j o i n t s s h o u l d h a v e a m i n i m u m t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h
n o t less t h a n 8 0 % o f a w i r e w i t h o u t j o i n t .
— T h e finished w i r e w i t h a j o i n t i s n o t r e q u i r e d t o p a s s t h e d u c t i l i t y w r a p p i n g t e s t .
— N o j o i n t s s h o u l d b e m a d e i n t h e c o a t e d s t e e l w i r e s a t final d i a m e t e r .
— N oj o i n t should b e m a d e after heat t r e a t m e n t i nwires destined t o b e used i n
conductors containing o n l y o n e steel w i r e .
Joints in aluminium-clad steel wires m a y o n l y b e m a d e i n t h e b l a n k s p r i o r t o d r a w i n g .
T h e finished w i r e w i t h a j o i n t s o u l d h a v e a s t r e n g t h o f 8 0 % o f t h e w i r e w i t h o u t a j o i n t .
Several tests m a y n o tb e passed b y welded wires.
I n [7.2], several a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e p r o v i d e d o n t h e u s e o f j o i n t e d w i r e s f o r
conductors:
— F o rconductors w i t h o n e steel w i r e only, t h e r e m a yb e n oj o i n t m a d e after h e a t
treatment.
— N o j o i n t s a t a l l m a y b e m a d e i n finished z i n c - c o a t e d o r a l u m i n i u m - c l a d s t e e l w i r e s .
— N o t m o r e t h a n o n ej o i n t e d a l u m i n i u m w i r e m a y b e used p e r l e n g t h o f conductor.
— D u r i n g s t r a n d i n g , a l u m i n i u mw i r e s m a y n o t b e w e l d e d for t h e p u r p o s e o f achieving
the required conductor length.
H o w e v e r , j o i n t s are p e r m i t t e d i n a l u m i n i u mw i r e s u n a v o i d a b l y b r o k e n d u r i n g s t r a n d i n g .
— T h e n u m b e r o f j o i n t s m a y n o t e x c e e d a c e r t a i n n u m b e r a s p e r [7.2].
— T h e i r m i n i m u m distance i s 1 5m between j o i n t s i nt h e same o r i nany other w i r e .
— T h e welding m e t h o d should b e approved b y the purchaser.
— T h e j o i n t s should b e dressed smoothly.
— T h e j o i n t s s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d a stress n o t less t h a n 7 5 N / m m 2 .
— S o m e purchasers d o n o tallow wires o ft h e outer layer t ob e welded.
— T h e identification o fjoints should b e agreed u p o n w h e n placing the contract.
— W i r e s o f c o n d u c t o r s c o n t a i n i n g o p t i c a l fibres s h o u l d n o t b e w e l d e d .
7.1.7.5 Shipment
F o r shipping the conductors, t h e y E i r e w o u n d o n r e e l s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 7 . 2 ] , w h e r e
e i t h e r fitted lengths a d j u s t e d t o t h e l e n g t h s o f t h e t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n s o r fixed l e n g t h s
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e capacity o f t h ereels a r e supplied. B o t h , t y p e o f s h i p m e n t a n d
size o f reels s h o u l d b e agreed u p o n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e order. T h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e reel
barrel should b e 3 0t i m e s t h e conductor diameter o r 6 0 t i m e s t h e steel core diameter,
whichever i s the larger.
O c c a s i o n a l l y , c o n d u c t o r s o n w o o d e n reels s h i p p e d i n c o n t a i n e r s [7.35] s h o w e d d a r k
discoloration, which w a s attributed t o condensation water w i t h i n t h e containers o r
could also b e traced b a c k t o d a m p w o o d e n reels. I nt h e m e n t i o n e d p u b l i c a t i o n , s o m e
recommendations t o prevent such discoloration axe provided. T h e discoloration does
n o t represent a n yd a m a g e o ft h e conductors. D u l y n o t i m p r e g n a t e d w o o d m a y b e used
for w o o d e n reels, because salts used f o r i m p r e g n a t i o n cause a chemical reaction w i t h
a l u m i n i u m , damaging their surface.
T h e u s e o f steel reels i s generally m u c h m o r e acceptable f o r E H V " lines, because t h e y
can b e reused a n d cause n o damage t othe conductors.
7.1.8 Conductor testing
7.1.8.1 Classification o f tests
T y p e a n d s a m p l e t e s t s E i r e s p e c i f i e d f o r o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s . Type tests are i n t e n d e d
t o verify t h e m a i n chEiracteristics o ft h e conductor w h i c h d e p e n d m a i n l y o nits design.
T h e s e t e s t s Eire n o r m a l l y p e r f o r m e d o n l y o n c e f o r a g i v e n c o n d u c t o r d e s i g n .
Sample tests a x e i n t e n d e d t o g u a x a n t e e t h e q u a l i t y o f c o n d u c t o r s a n d c o m p l i a n c e w i t h
the requirements o f relevant standards o r client's specifications. I nTable 7.12, a n
o v e r v i e w i s g i v e n o n t h e t e s t s a c c o r d i n g t o [7.2]. B e f o r e s t r a n d i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r , t h e
b l a n k m a t e r i a l a n d i n particular t h ewires s h o u l d b e s u b m i t t e d t o tests described i n
clause 7.1.5. S u c h tests a r eCEirried o u t a t t h e w i r e s o f strsinded c o n d u c t o r s t o c o m p l y
w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e r e l e v a n t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . S i n g l e w i r e t e s t s Eire n o t d i s c u s s e d
f u r t h e r w i t h i n t h i s clause.
7.1.8.2 Extent o fsample tests
I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h E N 5 0 1 8 2 , sample tests are f o r e s e e n f o r 1 0 % o f t h e t o t a l n u m b e r
of reels b e l o n g i n g t o a lot b e i n g s h i p p e d , w h e r e b y t h e e x t e n t o ft h e tests m a y b e agreed
u p o n between t h e purchaser a n dthe m a n u f a c t u r e r .
214 7 Selection o f conductors 7.1 C o n d u c t o r types a n d design 2 1 5

T a b l e 7 . 1 2 : T y p e a n d s a m p l e t e s t s f o r c o n d u c t o r s a c c o r d i n g t o [7.2]
Type Sample Type Sample*^
test test test test

A l u m i n i u m wires Conductor
,
- diEunetcr - surface condition
- tensile strength x x _ diameter X x
- elongation x x - inertness x x
- resistivity X x - lay ratio and direction of lay x X

_ trapping test x X - number and type of wires x x

_ welding x - mass per unit length X X

Zinc-coated steel wires - stress-strain curve (1)

Strain — Period of load application
_ diameter x x _ tensile breaking strength (I)
- tensile strength x x - stringing test (1)
c t r o c c £» +• 1 Wr. p l f i n cmfiI n n _ p r f l p r i focfi I7 1 F i g u r e 7.4: E v a l u a t i o nof a stress-strain curve F i g u r e 7 . 5 : Creep curve, conductor 483-
- o b i COO Ctli X /U C l U I X X a U l U l l
- elongation or torsion test rease A L 1 / 6 3 - S T 1 A (Cardinal)
- wrapping test x x _ Ttiass per unit length x x
_ mass of zinc x x - drop point x x
- zinc dip test x X The test loads s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d o n t h e c o n d u c t o r b y t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s :
- adhesion of zinc coating - I n i t i a l l o a d o f 5 % o f t h e rated tensile strength ( R T S ) t o s t r a i g h t e n t h e c o n d u c t o r
A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel w i r e s a n d sett h e s t r a i n gauges t o zero.
- diameter X X
- For non-continuous stress-strain data recordings, t h e strain readings should b e
- tensile strength X X

- stress at 1 % elongation X X
t a k e n a t i n t e r v a l s o f 2,5 % R T S , r o u n d e d t o t h e n e a r e s t k N d u r i n g b o t h l o a d i n g
- elongation X X and unloading procedure.
- torsion test X X - L o a d w i t h 3!0 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g t h e l o a d f o r 0 , 5 h . R e a d i n g s s h o u l d b e t a k e n
- cladding thickness X X
after 5, 1 0 , 15 a n d 3 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g period. T h e n t h e load is released
and uniformity
- resistivity X X
to the initial load.
- R e l o a d t o 5 0 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g for 1 h . Readings s h o u l d b e t a k e n after 5,1 0 ,
(1) according to agreement between manufacturer and purchaser
15, 30, 4 5 a n d 6 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g p e r i o d . T h e n t h e load is released t o t h e
(2) according to I E C 61 395
initial load.
- R e l o a d t o 7 0 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g f o r 1 h . Readings s h o u l d b e t a k e n after 5, 1 0 ,
7.1.8.3 Surface condition, dimensions, inertness and mass 15, 30, 4 5 a n d 6 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g p e r i o d . T h e n t h e l o a d is released t o t h e
initial load.
A s r e q u i r e d for w i r e s , t h e c o n d u c t o r surfaces s h o u l d b e free f r o m i m p e r f e c t i o n s observed
- R e l o a d t o 8.5 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g f o r 1 h . R e a d i n g s s h o u l d b e t a k e n a f t e r 5,1 0 ,
w i t h t h e u n a i d e d e y e as, f o r e x a m p l e , nicks, i n d e n t a t i o n s o r scores. T h e d i m e n s i o n s
15, 30, 4 5 a m d 6 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g period. T h e n t h e load is released t o t h e
should accomplish the standard indications o r the requirements o f the order for dia-
initial load.
m e t e r s , l a ylengths a n d n u m b e r o f w i r e s . T h e inertness o f t h e f o r m is r e l a t e d t o t h e
- After the f o u r t h application o f load, the conductor is loaded again b y increasing
steel core, w h e r e , after c u t t i n g , t h e wires s h o u l d r e m a i n i na cross section (see clause
the tensile force steadily until t h e actual breaking s t r e n g t h is reached. S i m u l t a -
7 . 1 . 7 . 3 ) . T h e conductor mass w i t h o u t g r e a s e s h o u l d n o t d e v i a t e m o r e t h a n 2 % f r o m
neous readings o f tensile force and elongation should b e t a k e n u p t o 8 5 % o f R T S
the rated value.
at least a t t h e same t i m e intervals as for t h e previous loading cycles.
The rate o f load application should b e u n i f o r m during testing. T h e time required t o
7.1.8.4 Stress-strain diagram r e a c h 3 0 % R T S s h o u l d n o t b e less t h a n 1 m i n o r m o r e t h a n 2 m i n . T h e s a m e r a t e o f
loading should tfiereafter b e m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e tests.
Stress-strain diagrams f o r c o n d u c t o r s i n f o r m o n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a c o n d u c t o r u n d e r
The initial stress-strain diagram is obtained b y drawing a smoothed line t h r o u g h the
l o a d . A n n e x C o f [7.2] g i v e s e x p l a n a t i o n s o n t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n t e s t m e t h o d . T h e t e s t
strain point after 0,5 h a t 3 0 % R T S a n d the strain points after 1 h a t 50,7 0 a n d
s a m p l e l e n g t h b e t w e e n t h e end t e r m i n a t i o n s s h o u l d b e a t least 400 t i m e s t h e c o n d u c t o r
85 % R T S . T h e c u r v e s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o pass t h r o u g h t h e zero p o i n t . T h e initial
d i a m e t e r b u t n o t less t h a n 1 0 m . A s h o r t e r l e n g t h m a y b e a g r e e d b e t w e e n p u r c h a s e r
s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e b r o k e n l i n e i n F i g u r e 7.4. T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
and manufacturer. T h e gauge length should b e a m i n i m u m o f 100 times t h e conductor
final s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e u n l o a d i n g p a r t ( f r o m 5 0 , 7 0 o r
d i a m e t e r . G r e a t care should b e t a k e n i nt h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e test samples. R e l a t i v e
85 % R T S ) o f t h e graph, as agreed u p o n between the m a n u f a c t u r e r and the client. I n
displacements as s m a l l as 1 m mbetween steel core a n d a l u m i n i u m layers o f t h e con-
F i g u r e 7.4, a ne x a m p l e i s s h o w n f o r a s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m .
ductor cause significant changes i n the recorded stress-strain d i a g r a m . Therefore, n o
relative displacement should occur between t h e steel core a n d t h e envelope d u r i n g the
t e s t p r o c e d u r e . A t b o t h e n d s o f t h e s a m p l e l e n g t h , e n d fittings s u c h a s c o m p r e s s i o n 7.1.8.5 Tensile breaking strength
clamps, epoxy-type or solder-type terminations approved b y the purchaser should be T h e tensile breaking strength i s d e t e r m i n e d a t a s a m p l e w i t h a m i n i m u m l e n g t h o f 4 0 0
u s e d f o r t h e t e s t . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e n d fitting s h o u l d n o t i n d u c e a n y s l a c k i n t h e t i m e s t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r , b u t a t least 1 0 m i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [7.2]. T h e b r e a k i n g
w i r e s w h i c h m i g h t affect t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . load is reached w h e n o n eo r m o r e wires are fractured. I f the fracture occurs w i t h i n a
 i - x vruuuuuiAii UY p u o unu ULOIJ

15m | -400 m
— ;

I woven wire grip _^ m . ,

- —T co I y — — j - — T co - — — —T co — — — —

pul ling rope

/ \
reel stand tensioner running block pulling winch
1 I
7 I 7

two three four six eight subconductors

F i g u r e 7.6: A r r a n g e m e n t f o r t e s t i n g t h e t e n s i o n s t r i n g i n g a b i l i t y o f c o n d u c t o r s
d i s t a n c e o f 5 0 m m f r o m t h e d e a d - e n d t e r m i n a t i o n , a n d b e f o r e 9 5 % o f t h e rated tensile
strength i s a c h i e v e d , i t c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e e n d t e r m i n a t i o n s a n d
the test m a y b e repeated. T h e test i s considered t ob e successful w h e n t h e fracture
occurs for a load equal t oo r above 9 5 % o ft h e rated tensile s t r e n g t h ( R T S ) .
7.1.8.6 Test of creep behaviour
Conductor creep i s d e s c r i b e d a c c o r d i n g t o [7.36] b yt h e e q u a t i o n
e = e l h •f " , (7.10)
where
t i st h e t i m e i n h o u r s and
en,," are parameters w h i c h depend o n conductor type and load condition.
T h e s e values are m e a s u r e d b y m e a n s o ft h e tests described i n [7.36], w h i c h is p e r f o r m e d
o n a s a m p l e w h i c h i s a t l e a s t a s l o n g a s 1.00 t i m e s t h e c o n d u c t o r diameter, clamped in
a test device, w h i c h keeps t h e load c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e test, w i t h a n accuracy o f ±1%
o r ± 1 2 0 N . T o m e a s u r e t h e creep elongation, some m a r k s are made o nthe conductor
and their displacement i srecorded d u r i n g the test i n relation t o a n unloaded structure
or bars arranged i n parallel t othe conductor. T h e m e a s u r i n g intervals are selected i n a
l o g a r i t h m i c scale. T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e tests a r e t h e n r e p r e s e n t e d i n a d o u b l e logarithmic
scale corresponding t othe equation
loge = log en, + n •logt . (7-11)
W i t h t h i s scale, t h e creep e l o n g a t i o n i n t h e i d e a l case f o r m s a s t r a i g h t line. So, e n , i s
the intersection w i t h the ordinate for t = 1 h a n d n t h e slope o f t h e straight line.
I n F i g u r e 7 . 5 , a creep diagram i s s h o w n , f o r m i n g a m e a n s t r a i g h t l i n e t h r o u g h t h e
m e a s u r i n g p o i n t s i n a d o u b l e l o g a r i t h m i c scale. T h e creep e l o n g a t i o n c a n t h e n b e e x -
t r a p o l a t e d u n t i l 100 000 h ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0a). I n d i c a t i v e d a t a for en, a n d n can b e
f o u n d i n [7.31] a n d clause 16.8.5.3.
7.1.8.7 Testing the tension stringing ability o f conductors
T h i s test is i n t e n d e d t os i m u l a t e t h e tensibe l o a d e x i s t i n g d u r i n g tension s t r i n g i n g a n d t o
v e r i f y , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a b s e n c e o f bird caging. T h e t e s t a r r a n g e m e n t a c c o r d i n g t o [ 7 . 2 ]
is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 7.6. T h e r e e l s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d o n a n u n w i n d i n g r e e l s t a n d e q u i p p e d
w i t h a n a d j u s t a b l e disk b r a k e w h i c h i sn o t u n d e r a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l f r o m t h e tensioner.
T h e tensioner i s a r r a n g e d i n a d i s t a n c e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 m from t h e r e e l s t a n d .
T h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e t e n s i o n e r s h o u l d b e as l o w a s j u s t p e r m i s s i b l e f o r s t r i n g i n g o f t h e
c o n d u c t o r t o b e t e s t e d , i . e. i t s h o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 t i m e s t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r
( s e e c l a u s e 1 6 . 8 . 3 . 6 ) . T h e c o n d u c t o r pulling winch s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
4 0 0 m a p a r t from t h e t e n s i o n e r , a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r s h o u l d b e p u l l e d b y m e a n s o f a
pulling rope. A r u n n i n g block should b einstalled a t mid-distance between t h e pulling
winch and the tensioner a ta nadequate Iheight so that the conductor does not touch
F i g u r e 7.7: C o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t w i n , t r i p l e , q u a d r u p l e , five, six and eight bundle conductors,
subconductor spacing 400 t o 600 m m
the ground during u n w i n d i n g . D u r i n g the test, t h e conductor isu n w o u n d b ymeans o f
the pulling w i n c h and braked b y the tensioner.
D u r i n g u n w i n d i n g , t h e sag b e t w e e n t h e reel s t a n d a n d t h e tensioner s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d
to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,5m . T h e tensile force a t t h e o u t p u t o f t h e tensioner s h o u l d b e
m a i n t a i n e d a t 2 0% o ft h e R T S o ft h e conductor tested a n d the u n w i n d i n g speed b e
approximately 1 m/s.
During the unwinding o f the conductor length, observation should b e made i f any
i n d i v i d u a l o u t e r layer w i r e i sraised a b o v e its n o r m a l p o s i t i o n b y m o r e t h a n o n e w i r e
diameter; if this occurred, the conductor should b edeemed unacceptable.
7.1.9 Bundle conductors
I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 7 . 7 ] , bundle conductors are a s e t o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t o r s c o n n e c t e d
in parallel and disposed i na u n i f o r m geometrical configuration, that constitute o n e
phase c o n d u c t o r o fa n A C l i n e o r one pole o f a D C line.
W i t h t h e i n a u g u r a t i o n o f t h e 2 2 0 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e i n 1 9 2 9 , corona phenom-
ena o c c u r r e d , w h i c h w e r e t h e n s o l v e d b y l a r g e r c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r s o b t a i n e d b y n o n -
c o n v e n t i o n a l d e s i g n s , a s , f o r e x a m p l e , hollow copper conductors ( F i g u r e 7.9). A s a n
alternative t o that, t h e use o f t w o o rm o r e subconductors instead o f a single one was
i n t r o d u c e d . I n 1930, M a r k t a n d M e n g e l e got a p a t e n t f o r t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e [7.37]. T h e y
first d e s c r i b e d i n d e t a i l t h e a d v a n t a g e s , s u c h a s l o w e r surface voltage gradient a n d i n -
c r e a s e o f t h e transmission capacity [ 7 . 3 8 ] . P o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o n a t 4 2 0 k V a n d a b o v e i s
not feasible w i t h o u t t h e use o f b u n d l e conductors.
B u n d l e conductors are very sporadically applied for 110 k V voltage t r a n s m i s s i o n w h e r e
h i g h current carrying capacity i s r e q u i r e d . F o r 2 2 0 k V , b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s a r e u s u a l l y
an alternative t osingle conductors w i t h larger diameters. F o r 400 k V , t w i n , triple o r
quadruple bundle conductors are applied. F o r 500 k V lines, b o t h triple and quadruple
bundle conductors have been extensively used worldwide. For 800 k V , quadruple and
six b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d [7.39]; for t r a n s m i s s i o n s w i t h h i g h e r voltage
levels, even m o r e subconductors are required. T h e n e w 1000 k V lines i n J a p a n a r e
p r o v i d e d w i t h b u n d l e s o f e i g h t s u b c o n d u c t o r s [7.40, 7.41],
Subconductors are installed i n E u r o p e w i t h a usual spacing o f400 m m a n d i n N o r t h
A m e r i c a w i t h 18 inches (457 m m ) a swell as w i d e r spacing. T h e y are protected against
c l a s h i n g d u e t o s h o r t - c i r c u i t o r w i n d b y m e a n s o f bundle spacers a r r a n g e d a t p r e d e t e r -
m i n e d d i s t a n c e s (see c l a u s e 1 0 . 2 . 5 ) . B u n d l e s p a c e r s w i t h i n t e g r a t e d d a m p i n g e l e m e n t s
a r e u s e d t o r e d u c e a m p l i t u d e s d u e t o aeolian vibrations a n d subspan oscillation. Larger
subconductor diameters require t h e use o f higher subconductor spacing, t o m o r e t h a n
18 t i m e s o f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e s u b s p a n oscillations [7.42].
Twin bundle conductors a r e a r r a n g e d e i t h e r h o r i z o n t a l l y o r v e r t i c a l l y ( F i g u r e 7 . 7 ) . A
horizontal arrangement facilitates the guiding o fthe conductors a tangle strain towers
a n d e n a b l e s a n e f f e c t i v e protection against aeolian vibrations b y m e a n s o f d a m p e r s a t

t h e s p a n e n d s . T h e v e r t i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t i s l e s s s e n s i t i v e a g a i n s t sagging errors a n d
d i f f e r i n g c r e e p o f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s ; t h e l o w e r s u b c o n d u c t o r i s t h e n a l i t t l e b i t less
s u b m i t t e d t o tension t h a n the upper one.
A t w i n bundle 2 4 3 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A has a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same cross-sectional area as
a single conductor 4 9 0 - A L 1 / 6 4 - S T 1 A . B o t h can b e operated a t 220 k V . T h e current
c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a m o u n t s t o 1 2 9 0 A f o r t h e b u n d l e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h T a b l e 7.9; f o r
t h e s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r t h e v a l u e i s 9 6 0 A , t h a t i s 7 5 % o f t h e f o r m e r o n e . T h e surge
impedance o f t h e b u n d l e r e a c h e s 3 0 0 ft; i n c a s e o f t h e s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r , i t a m o u n t s
t o 3 6 0 (I, i . e . i t s surge impedance load a m o u n t s t o o n l y 8 3 %. T h e surface gradient
o f t h e single conductor reaches 16,0 k V / c m for a t r i a n g u l a r circuit c o n f i g u r a t i o n ; f o r
t h e b u n d l e , t h a t v a l u e a m o u n t s t o 1 5 , 6 k V / c m ; t h e audible noise l e v e l f o r t h e s i n g l e
conductor i s a b o u t 5 0 d B ( A ) a n d for t h e b u n d l e i t i s a b o u t 4 0 d B ( A ) close t o g r o u n d
surface i nt h e right-of-way centre. T h i s comparison shows t h e advantages o f bundle
conductors, being even m o r e significant a t higher voltage levels.
T h e dimensions o fthe bundle subconductors influence t h e electric characteristics, spe-
cially t h e surge impedance, t h e surge impedance load, t h e conductor surface gradient,
a n d t h u s , t h e corona performance. T h e increase o f t h e surge impedance load implies
a n i n c r e a s e o f t h e transmission capacity o f l o n g l i n e s . I n [ 7 . 4 3 ] , a 5 0 0 k V l i n e i s c i t e d ,
whose subconductor spacing i n the bundle is variable and can a m o u n t u p t o a m a x i -
m u m o f 1,7 m . T h e r e b y , t h e surge i m p e d a n c e load increases u p t o 130 % o f t h e value
w i t h 450 m m subconductor spacing.
7.1.10 Special conductor designs
7.1.10.1 N o n - s t a n d a r d i z e d c o n d u c t o r s m a d e of r o u n d w i r e s
B e s i d e t h e u s u a l s t a n d a r d c o n d u c t o r d e s i g n s , m a n y o t h e r special conductors a r e a p p l i e d .
L o n g spans r e q u i r e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h h i g h e r r a t e d t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h [7.45]. F o r t h i s applica-
t i o n , conductors w i t h h i g h steel c o n t e n t a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y large cross section offer
an interesting alternative. I n t h e 220 k V line over the river Elbe, 3 1 0 - A L 3 / 1 1 0 - S T 1 A
7.1 C o n d u c t o r types a n d design 219
76,2
F i g u r e 7 . 1 1 : Cross section o f 2787-
A L 4 / 6 0 7 - S T 1 A conductor used as sin-
gle c o n d u c t o r for a 500 k V l i n e across
the Mission Ridge i n British Columbia,
Canada (BC Hydro, Vancouver)
conductors were used w i t h a cross-sectional r a t i o equal t o3:1 and a diameter o f29 m m .
I n order t oreach t h e required power transmission b y means o fone single conductor a n d
to keep t h e conductor surface gradient asl o w aspossible, the 400 k V overhead line over
the Bosphorus has been equipped w i t h a 1 8 0 5 - A L 4 / 2 2 8 - A 2 0 S A composite conductor
h a v i n g a n a l u m i n i u m - c l a d s t e e l c o r e [7.28] ( F i g u r e 7.8) a n d a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l r a t i o o f
7,9:1. A rated s t r e n g t h o f 850 k N was achieved b y using a n A L 4 alloy w i t h 320 N / m m 2
tensile strength.
A 6,80 k m l o n g section o f B C H y d r o ' s 500 k V P e a c e R i v e r l i n e w a s e q u i p p e d w i t h a
single conductor h a v i n g a 76,2 m m diameter instead o f a quadruple b u n d l e consisting
of 2 4 , 1 m m d i a m e t e r subconductors. T h i s section crosses t h e M i s s i o n R i d g e m o u n t a i n s
at elevations b e t w e e n 1200 m a n d 1900 m a n d isp r o n e t osevere icing. T h e longest s p a n
is 1 1 0 0 m . I n F i g u r e 7 . 1 1 , t h e c o n d u c t o r c r o s s s e c t i o n is s h o w n . I t i s m a d e u p o f 6 1 s t e e l
s t r a n d s h a v i n g each 3,56 m m d i a m e t e r a n d 180 a l u m i n i u ma l l o y s t r a n d s h a v i n g 4,4 m m
d i a m e t e r . T h e alloy cross section i s 2 787 m m 2 , t h a t o f steel 607 m m 2 . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
conductor could b e n a m e d 2 7 8 7 - A L 4 / 6 0 7 - S T 1 A . Its rated tensile strength is 1463 k N .
T h e c o n d u c t o r s w e r e n o t t e n s i o n - s t r i n g e d b u t t h e c o n d u c t o r reels w e r e p u l l e d a l o n g t h e
ground t oplace the conductors o nwood lagging.
7.1.10.2 C o n d u c t o r s for i n c r e a s e d o p e r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e
A n n e a l i n g o fh a r d - d r a w n a l u m i n i u mwires l i m i t s t h e permissible t e m p e r a t u r e of conven-
t i o n a l c o n d u c t o r s . T h u s , conductors for higher operational temperatures w e r e d e v e l o p e d
w i t h annealed l o w - t e n s i l e a l u m i n i u mw i r e s , w h i c h present a s l i g h t l y higher c o n d u c t i v i t y
o f 63 % I A C S i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h a t o f 6 1 % I A C S s h o w n b y h a r d - d r a w n a l u m i n i u m
i n c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n d u c t o r s . I n t h i s case, t h e a l u m i n i u m w i r e s d o n o t c a r r y a n y m e c h a n -
ical stress; t h e m e c h a n i c f u n c t i o n is g u a r a n t e e d b y t h e steel c o r e a l o n e . S u c h c o n d u c t o r s
c a n o p e r a t e a t t e m p e r a t u r e s u p t o 150° C a n d a r e s u i t e d t o r e i n f o r c e e x i s t i n g l i n e s i f
larger sags a n d h i g h J o u l e losses can b e accepted.
A s i m i l a r f u n c t i o n is p e r f o r m e d b y conductors w i t h a l u m i n i u m alloy wires o fh i g h ther-
m a l c a p a c i t y ( T A L ) , w h i c h c a n b e o p e r a t e d w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e s u p t o 150°C. C o m p a r e d
w i t h a c o n d u c t o r t h a t s h o w s t h e s a m e d e s i g n as 2 4 3 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A , t h e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g
zoj ( o e i e c t i o n 01 conductors • J. u u i j u u i i u i L y p c s ajuu Dicaigu L L L

Figure 7.13: Conductor F i g u r e 7.14: S e l f - d a m p i n g c o n d u c t o r s : a ) G e r m a n

F i g u r e 7.12: H o l l o w A L 1 / A 2 0 S A c o n d u c t o r u s e d a s
single conductor for a 4000 k V line i n A u s t r i a ( L u m p i
GmbH, Linz)
c a p a c i t y i n c r e a s e s f r o m 6 5 0 t o 1 0 1 5 A , t h a t i s b y a b o u t 6 0 %. T h e s a g s a l s o i n c r e a s e i n
correspondence w i t h the higher temperatures; therefore, together w i t h the replacement
of t h e existing conductors, a d j u s t m e n t o f tower heights m i g h t also b e necessary t o take
full advantage o f the higher t r a n s m i s s i o n capacity. Prices f o rsuch conductors exceed
t h o s e f o r A L 1 / S T 1 A c o n d u c t o r s b y a b o u t 5 0 %.
T o k e e p s a g s w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s , c o n d u c t o r s w i t h INVAR steel wires -were d e v e l o p e d ,
w h o s e coefficient o f t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n i s l o w . T h e sag can t h u s b e k e p t a l m o s t c o n s t a n t ,
even u n d e r elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e s e conductors, however, i m p l y v e r y large costs,
i n a d d i t i o n t o h i g h losses a t h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s . W h e n u s i n g s u c h c o n d u c t o r s , a t t e n t i o n
should b e paid t o the design o f clamps a n d joints, as they will b e s u b m i t t e d t o t h e
same high temperatures as the conductors and should withstand them. Construction
of a n e w line, w i t h o p t i m u m conductor cross sections, o nt h e same right-of-way, s h o u l d
be the most economic solution long-sighted.
7.1.10.3 Conductors w i t h enlarged diameters
Conductors with enlarged diameters w e r e d e v e l o p e d f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n a t 2 2 0 k V o r h i g h e r
voltage level, t o reduce the conductor surface gradient, w i t h o u t h a v i n g t o accept t h e
large conductor weights a n d unnecessary large cross sections o f conventional conductor
designs. T h e r e f o r e , t h e first 2 2 0 k V lines w e r e equipped w i t h one-layer h o l l o w cop-
per conductors, w h i c h consisted o f f o r m e d wires provided w i t h featherkey a n d k e y w a y
( F i g u r e 7.9).
T h e diameter o f a l u m i n i u m - s t e e l composite conductors can b e increased b y using wires
w i t h l a r g e d i a m e t e r s i n o n e o r m o r e i n t e r n a l l a y e r s , w h i c h r e s u l t i n a s m a l l fill ratio.
D u e t o t h e i r d i f f i c u l t a n d e x p e n s i v e p r o d u c t i o n a s w e l l a s t o p r o b l e m s w i t h fittings t o
t e r m i n a t e a n d s u s p e n d t h e s e c o n d u c t o r s , t h e y aire s e l d o m a p p l i e d t o d a y .
U p r a t i n g o f a nexisting 220 k Vdouble circuit line i n A u s t r i a t o 400 k V operation re-
quired n e w conductors t h a t l i m i t t h e audible noise e m i s s i o n t oacceptable levels because
the line r u n s close t o residential areas. T h e geometric clearances a n d t h e s t r u c t u r a l
s t r e n g t h did not p e r m i t t o u s et w i n b u n d l e 6 3 5 - A L 1 / 1 1 7 - A 2 0 S A conductors as u s u a l
for 4 0 0 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e r e f o r e , a h o l l o w single c o n d u c t o r 6 6 7 - A L 1 / 7 5 - A 2 0 S A w a s
d e v e l o p e d h a v i n g 5 4 m m i n d i a m e t e r . I n F i g u r e 7.12, t h e cross section o f t h a t c o n d u c t o r
i s s h o w n . T w o l a y e r s a r e s t r a n d e d a r o u n d a flexible c o r r u g a t e d a l u m i n i u m t u b e . T h e
i n n e r layer consists o f 3 2 A L 1 a n d 1 0 A 2 0 S A s t r a n d s h a v i n g 3,09 m md i a m e t e r each.
T h e o u t e r layer ism a d e u po f42 A L 1 s t r a n d s w i t h 3,60 m m d i a m e t e r . T h e r a t e d tensile
made o f trapezoidal a l u - design, b ) U S - A m e r i c a n design. 1 steel cores w i t h
m i n i u m wires a n d I N V A R long lay lengths; 2 a l u m i n i u m layer w i t h long l a y
steel core lengths; 3 v o i d space; 4 layer w i t h s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g
formed wires
s t r e n g t h i s 2 0 3k N , t h e w e i g h t 2,89 k g / m . T h e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacity a m o u n t s t o
1400 A .
7.1.10.4 C o n d u c t o r s w i t h smooth surfaces
T h e u s e o f formed wires i n s t e a d o f r o u n d w i r e s r e s u l t s i n c o m p a c t conductors with
smooth surfaces a n d l e s s v o i d s p a c e s , w h i c h m e a n s a h i g h fill r a t i o a n d a s m a l l e r d i -
ameter f o rthe same cross-sectional area. T h i s t y p e o f conductor is characterized b y
a l o w e r wind force a n d s u p p o s e d l y l o w e r t r e n d t o galloping. T h i s w a s t h e r e a s o n w h y
such conductors were used for t h e 3 8 0k Vline crossing over t h e river Schelde i n B e l -
g i u m [7.46]. I t c a n b e seen f r o m [7.15], t h a t f o r m e d w i r e s c a n b e p r o d u c e d w i t h v a r i o u s
s h a p e s , s u c h a s z-shaped cross sections ( F i g u r e 7 . 1 0 ) o r trapezoidal cross sections (Fig-
ure 7.13) a n d f r o m a l l m a t e r i a l s used f o rc o n v e n t i o n a l conductors a s well. W i t h such
wires, a l u m i n i u m - s t e e l conductors w i t h a n y cross-sectional ratio can b e designed. F i g -
ure 7.13 s h o w s a n e x a m p l e . T h e a e r o d y n a m i c d r a g factor i s b e t w e e n 0,46 a n d 0 , 8 f o r
conductor diameters between 20 and 4 0 m m .
Conductors made of formed wires a r e a p p l i e d w h e r e l o w w i n d f o r c e s t o g e t h e r w i t h
a cross-sectional area a s h i g h a s possible is r e q u i r e d [7.15]. F o rsuch conductors, a
s t a n d a r d i s u n d e r a p p r o v a l p r o c e d u r e a t I E C a n d C E N E L E C [7.44].
7.1.10.5 Compacted conductors
Compacted conductors are m a n u f a c t u r e d b y s t r a n d i n g a t first t h e c o n d u c t o r w i t h l a y e r s
o f r o u n d w i r e s a s a c o n v e n t i o n a l A L x / S T y z o r p u r e A L x c o n d u c t o r a n d finally c o m p a c t -
ing t h e m t h r o u g h rollers o r dies t o a cross section w i t h s m o o t h , circular surface. T h i s
procedure f o r m s t h e w i r e s o f t h e o u t e r layers t o trapezoidal cross sections a n d reduces
t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r b y 8 t o 1 1 %. T h e s u r f a c e b e c o m e s s m o o t h a n d r e d u c e s t h e
w i n d forces a n d t h e local peaks o f voltage gradients. A d d i t i o n a l layers o f r o u n d wires
or formed wires m a y b e stranded over a compacted core. T h e production o f compacted
conductors is restricted t o relatively s m a l l cross sections.
7.1.10.6 Self-damping conductors
Aeolian vibrations o f c o n d u c t o r s m a y c a u s e d a m a g e a t h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d l i n e s .
T h e r e f o r e , i n S w i t z e r l a n d a n d G e r m a n y , self-damping conductors were developed i n the
1 9 3 0 ' s , w h i c h c o n s i s t e d o f a n aluminium hollow conductor m a d e o f c i r c u l a r o r p r o f i l e
wires w i t h a n i n t e r n a l l y m o v a b l e steel core ( F i g u r e 7.14). I n the 1930's, conductors
222 7 Selection o f conductors 7.2 D e s i g n w i t h r e g a r d t o c u r r e n t l o a d i n g 2 2 3

Section A-A Section B-B

T a b l e 7.13: Permissible conductor temperatures under 38,4 mm
short-circuit condition
Type of Material EN EN Inter-
conductor 60 865-1, 50 341-3-4 national
Table 6 practice

Mono- E-Cu 200° C 170° C 300° C

metallic AL1 200° C 130°C 200° C
conductor ALx 200° C 160° C 200° C
A20SA 200° C 400° C
F i g u r e 7.15: V i b r a t i o nresistant oval conductors 200° C 400° C
STyz 300° C
Composite ALl/STyz 200° C 160° C 200° C
conductor ALx/STyz 200° C 160° C 200° C
w i t h s i m i l a r designs, b u t a p p l y i n g profile wires i nt h e o u t e r layers appeared i n t h e
U S A . T h e r e , these conductors have b e e n f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d [7.47]. C o n d i t i o n e d b y t h e F i g u r e 7 . 1 6 : Low-noise A L x /
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r , t h e self-damping should b e large enough asnot t o lead S T y z conductor for a 1000 k V line
to d a n g e r o u s c o n d u c t o r v i b r a t i o n e v e n i ncase o f h i g h t e n s i l e loads o f t h e c o n d u c t o r in Japan
in regions w h i c h favour vibrations. However, the conductor d a m p i n g characteristics
cannot prevent the occurrence o f galloping. F u r t h e r development o f such conductor
7.1.10.9 C o n d u c t o r s w i t h t r e a t e d surfaces
types was suspended i n E u r o p e due t otheir noise emission.
Conductors with treated surfaces s h o w f a v o u r a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n v i e w o f current
7.1.10.7 V i b r a t i o n resistant conductors carrying capacity w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l o n e s . B l a c k i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s
increases their ampacity. B y coating t h e o u t e r layers w i t h ablack p o l y u r e t h a n e p a i n t , a
B y occasion o f t h e above m e n t i o n e d studies m a d e i nG e r m a n y , w h i c h a i m e d a t devel-
w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g i n c r e a s e o f t h e emission coefficient t o t h e v a l u e o f 0 , 8 i s a c h i e v e d , a s
oping conductors asv i b r a t i o n - i n e r t a spossible, designs were investigated h a v i n g n o n -
w e l l a s a n i n c r e a s e d thermal radiation i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h Stefan-Boltzmann's radiation
c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n s . T h e p e c u l i a r p r o f i l e c r e a t e s a i r t u r b u l e n c e s o t h a t t h e laminar
law ( s e e e q u a t i o n ( 7 . 2 3 ) ) [ 7 . 5 2 ] . R e p l a c e m e n t o f t h e e x i s t i n g c o n d u c t o r s b y t h e b l a c k e d
flow of the wind a r o u n d t h e c o n d u c t o r i s a l t e r e d a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , a s i g n i f i c a n t r e -
ones results i n a n increase of t h e t h e r m a l t r a n s m i s s i o n capacity w i t h no need t o reinforce
d u c t i o n o f t h e vibration amplitude i s a c h i e v e d . P r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g fittings, however,
the towers.
p r o h i b i t e d p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u c h vibration-resistant conductors [7.48]. E f f o r t s
C l e a n m e t a l l i c c o n d u c t o r s m a y g i v e r i s e t o o b j e c t i o n s c o m i n g from l a n d s c a p e p r o t e c t o r ,
m a d e t o solve problems o fconductor v i b r a t i o n a n d conductor galloping led i n t h e U S A
w h o m a y c o m p l a i n a b o u t t h e v i s u a l i m p a c t caused b y n e w conductors. Therefore, some
to t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o fv i b r a t i o n resistant conductors. T h i s t y p e o fc o n d u c t o r i s f o r m e d
utilities have decided t oa p p l y a coloured coating o n t h e conductors. I n A u s t r i a , for ex-
b y l e f t - h a n d s t r a n d i n g o f t w o s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s (T2 conductors). T h e resulting cross
section has t h e f o r m o f a r o t a t i n g "eight". I n G e r m a n y , t h i s t y p e o fT 2 c o n d u c t o r w a s ample, t h e y have used a green camouflage for conductors o fa 380 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n line.
successfully used asa r e m e d y against a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y caused audible noise emissions T h u s , t h e c o n d u c t o r s b e c a m e n e a r l y i n v i s i b l e a g a i n s t t h e b a c k g r o u n d landscape [7.52].
o n c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n d u c t o r s . D u e t o t h e c o n d u c t o r s h a p e , n o u n i f o r m w i n d flow h a p - P r o m t h e o r n i t h o l o g i c a l p o i n t o fv i e w , however, t h i s camouflage isdisadvantageous b e -
pens, s i m i l a r l y t o M a a s s ' experience [7.48]. T h e u t i l i z a t i o n o ft h e c o n v e n t i o n a l fittings c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s e d d a n g e r w h i c h t h e less v i s i b l e c o n d u c t o r s c r e a t e f o r a p p r o a c h i n g
for t h e T 2c o n d u c t o r s p r i v i l e g e d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g o ft h e 1980's, t h a t birds.
t y p e o f c o n d u c t o r w a s used i n m a n y t h o u s a n d s k i l o m e t r e s o f lines [7.49], specially i n I n A u s t r a l i a , r e d u c t i o n o f t h e b r i g h t n e s s o f n e w c o n d u c t o r s w a s a c c o m p l i s h e d b y a dull
t h e U S A . Oval conductors are formed b y wires o f different diameters stranded w i t h finish. T h e o u t e r l a y e r o f t h e c o n d u c t o r w a s t r e a t e d b y b l a z i n g w i t h a s p e c i a l fine s a n d ,
e a c h o t h e r (see F i g u r e 7.15) [7.50]. s o t h a t a s u r f a c e r o u g h n e s s b e t w e e n 0 , 8 a n d 1 , 6 fim w a s o b t a i n e d .

7.1.10.8 L o w noise c o n d u c t o r s 7.2 Design with regard to current loading

I n densely populated Japanese areas, noise p o l l u t i o n caused b y t h e w i n d acting o n
conductors but not b ycorona, plays a ni m p o r t a n t role under certain topographic con-
ditions. T h e noise level could b e reduced b y m e a n s o fspecial conductor configurations.
T h e s e low noise conductors i n c l u d e s e v e r a l formed wires i n t h e i r o u t e r l a y e r ( F i g u r e
7 . 1 6 ) . H e r e , t h e b e n e f i t o f d i s t u r b i n g t h e l a m i n a r flow d e s c r i b e d b y M a a s s [ 7 . 4 8 ] a s a
conclusion o fhis experience has been u t i l i z e d again. I n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h a c o n v e n t i o n a l
conductor h a v i n g the same cross-sectional area, t h e noise level can b e reduced b y u p
t o 1 5 d B ( A ) [7.40, 7.51].
7.2.1 Introduction a n d requirements
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 [7.53], every overhead l i n e s h o u l d b e able t ow i t h s t a n d w i t h
a n a c c e p t a b l e r e l i a b i l i t y t h e e l e c t r i c l o a d d u e t o b o t h operating current a n d short-
circuit current. D u e t o c o n d u c t o r e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e , t h e o p e r a t i n g c u r r e n t a n d t h e
short-circuit current lead t o conductor heating, w h i c h w o u l d cause a reduction o f the
mechanical s t r e n g t h i f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e exceeded a limit value. F i g u r e 7.1 according t o
[7.19], s h o w s t h e tensile s t r e n g t h for c o n d u c t o r s m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m , a l u m i n i u m alloy,
copper a s w e l l a s A L 1 / S T 1 A a n dA L 3 / S T 1 A a sa f u n c t i o n o f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e . I n
c o n f o r m i t y w i t h [7.8], c o n d u c t o r m a t e r i a l s a n d cross sections s h o u l d b e chosen s o a s
not t oreach any inadmissible temperatures.
N e i t h e r [ 7 . 2 ] n o r [ 7 . 5 3 ] g i v e a n y i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e permissible steady-state and
 I OC1CV11U11 U l DUilUULI/UIS

s h o r t - t e r m temperatures. T h e y m e r e l y r e f e r t o n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s a n d p r o j e c t s p e c i f i - 7.2.3 D e s i g n w i t h r e g a r d to c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacity

cations. A c c o r d i n g t o [7.6], t h e p e r m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r A L 1 / S T 1 A , A L 3 / S T 1 A ,
T h e l i t e r a t u r e i n c l u d e s s o m e a p p r o a c h e s f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e current carrying
A L 1 a n d A L 3 conductors a n d f o r copper conductors, u n d e r steady-state load, a r e8 0
capacity, a l s o c a l l e d ampacity, g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n ( 7 . 1 4 ) , f o r a p r e d e t e r m i n e d c o n d u c t o r
a n d 70° C , r e s p e c t i v e l y . I n T a b l e 7 . 1 3 , t h e p e r m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s u n d e r s h o r t - c i r c u i t
temperature a n d given ambient conditions. Some approaches will b e mentioned here.
c o n d i t i o n a r e s h o w n a c c o r d i n g t o [7.6]. O t h e r s t a n d a r d s i n d i c a t e h i g h e r p e r m i s s i b l e
I n [7.55], a s u m m a r y o f used approaches i s g i v e n , w h i c h also served a s basis f o rt h e
t e m p e r a t u r e s (see clause 8.3.1).
e q u a t i o n s c o n t a i n e d i n [7.57]. D e t a i l e d s t u d i e s o f t h e s u b j e c t a r e described i n [7.58],
The s t a n d a r d s m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e d o n o t g i v e a n y i n d i c a t i o n a b o u t t h e ambient condi- w h i c h f o r m e d t h e basis f o rt h e current c a r r y i n g capacities indicated i nE N 5 0 182.
tions, w h i c h could b e used f o rt h e assessment o f s t a n d a r d current carrying capacity A n a c c o u n t o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s o n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s i s p r e s e n t e d i n [7.59],
v a l u e s . A m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 3 5 t o 40°C a n d wind velocities o f 0,6 t o 1,0 m / s a r e w h e r e b y t h e t o l e r a n c e s b e t w e e n c a l c u l a t e d a n d m e a s u r e d v a l u e s Eire q u o t e d b y ± 3 K .
often used as basis f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o ft h e current c a r r y i n g capacity. T h e components JVj a n d I V M , w h i c h sue a f u n c t i o n o ft h e current, c a n b e expressed as
A s given b y e q u a t i o n (2.9), t h eelectrical resistance results i n energy losses, w h i c h i n - follows
fluence significantly t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n costs. T h e conductor design ist okeep t h e m a x i -
mum permissible conductor temperatures below certain limits, a n drestrict t h e expected Nj + NM = rtrAC-I2 > (7-15)
transmission losses. Consequently, conductor design is carried o u t w i t h t h e target t o
w h e r e I i st h eeffective c u r r e n t i n t h e conductor, i n A m p e r e s a n d R x A c ^ D resis-
tkie
m i n i m i z e t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n costs. T h i s i s a n o p t i m i z a t i o n t a s k , s i n c e t h e l o s s e s a r e r e -
t a n c e a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e T i n ft/m.
duced a n d t h ei n v e s t m e n t rises as t h ecross-sectional a r e a increases [7.54].
T h e A C r e s i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s , i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e D C r e s i s t a n c e , a s a r e s u l t o f skin
The magnetic field depends o n t h e c u r r e n t as well, b u t differently f r o m t h e electrical
and spiral effects. S k i n e f f e c t o c c u r s d u e t o t h e h i g h e r i n d u c t a n c e o f t h e i n t e r n a l l a y e r s
field it h a s n o influence o n t h e selection o f t h econductors a n dwill, thus, n o t b e dealt
o f w i r e s , b e c a u s e t h e i n t e r n a l flux d e n s i t y i s l a r g e r . A s t h e v o l t a g e d r o p i n a l l w i r e s
w i t h here. I nclause 2.3.2, i n f o r m a t i o n i sg i v e n o nm a g n e t i c fields.
i s t h e s a m e , a l a r g e r p o r t i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t flows t h r o u g h t h e o u t e r c o n d u c t o r l a y e r s
causing a nincrease o f t h e effective resistance. T h e A C resistance R ^ A C 's calculated
from
7.2.2 P r i n c i p l e s for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e
# T A C ~ -RTDC • (1 + * 4 / 3 ) for x < 1 (7.16)
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e conductor temperature i s b a s e d o n t h e heat balance at the
conductor, w h i c h i s i n f l u e n c e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 7 . 5 5 ] , b y : and
- Joule heat J V j , d u e t o t h e c u r r e n t , •BrAC « B r •(0,25 + x + 3/64) for x > 1 (7.17)
D C
- Solar radiation JVg,
- Magnetic losses NM, w i t h x b e i n g a p c i r a m e t e r t a k i n g ceire o f s k i n a n d s p i r a l e f f e c t s :
- Energy loss by convection Nc a n d
x = 0 , 5 • r • ffn • / • « ; • pa • j u r , (7.18)
- Energy loss by radiation NR.
F r o m these values, t h eheat balance c a n b e established b y where r is t h e conductor radius i nm m , / t h e frequency i nH z , K t h e conductivity
in m / f t - m m 2 , p,o t h e v a c u u m p e r m e a b i l i t y ( 1 , 2 5 6 • 1 0 - 6 H / m ) a n d p.T t h e r e l a t i v e
mc-c-dT/dt = N: + NS+NM-NR-NC , (7.12) p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l ( e q u a l t o 1 f o r n o n - m a g n e t i c m a t e r i a l s ) . T h e s p i r a l effect
significantly influences composite conductors w i t h o d d n u m b e r s o flayers, i nparticular
w h e n t h e r e i s o n l y o n e a l u m i n i u mlayer. R e f e r e n c e i s m a d e t o [7.60]. D a t a f o r t y p i c a l
where m c ist h econductor m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h , c t h especific h e a t , T t h e c o n d u c t o r
values o f A C resistance a r e f o u n d i n [7.57].
t e m p e r a t u r e a n d dt t h e d e r i v a t i v e i n t e r m s o f t i m e .
The A C resistance B(p A c depends o nt h econductor t e m p e r a t u r e T according t o
Two cases a r e o f s u b s t a n t i a l p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t :
- T h e adiabatic process. B e c a u s e o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e t e r m N] c o m p a r e d with B ^ D C = i^ 0 [ l+ a ( T -20)] , (7.19)
the o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s i ne q u a t i o n (7.12), u n d e r short-circuit conditions t h e latter
w h e r e B 2 0 i s t h e D C r e s i s t a n c e a t 20° C i n ft/m a n d a t h e t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t o f
can b e disregarded. T h i s case i s essentially i m p o r t a n t f o r r a t i n g o f e a r t h w i r e s .
resistance i nK - 1 . V a l u e s f o r a a r e given i n T a b l e 7.4.
T h e r e f o r e , i t i s dealt w i t h i n C h a p t e r 8 . I nt h i s case, e q u a t i o n (7.12) can be
I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 7 . 5 8 ] , s o l a r radiation isgiven b y
expressed as
m c • c • dT/dt = Nj . (7.13) JVs = r > - f c a - A r S h - s i n * i nW / m , (7.20)
- T h e steady-state condition. T h e conductor t e m p e r a t u r e T is constant; so, i n (7.12)
dT/dt will b e zero r e s u l t i n gi n w h e r e fca i s t h e a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( s e e T a b l e 7 . 1 4 ) , S = a r c c o s ( c o s / i s cos(180° —tf>)].
N3+NS + NM=NR + NC . (7.14) The s o l a r a n g l e fis i s d e f i n e d b y
T h e energy d e l i v e r e d t o t h e c o n d u c t o r b y J o u l e h e a t , m a g n e t i c losses d u e t o A C c u r r e n t
hs = 113,5° - <p f o r <p > 23,5°, (7.21)
and solar r a d i a t i o n i sequal t ot h eenergy lost b y r a d i a t i o n a n d convection. T h i s condi-
tion determines t h esteady-state operating current and, thus, represents a n i m p o r t a n t w h e r e <p i s t h e l a t i t u d e a n d t/> t h e a n g l e o f l i n e d i r e c t i o n w i t h t h e n o r t h - s o u t h a x i s .
value for line operation. T h eevaluation o fconductor temperature i nt h emost general I n ( 7 . 2 0 ) , D i s t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r , fea t h e a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t a n d A ' s h t h e stan-
u n s t e a d y s t a t e i s d e a l t w i t h i n [7.56]. dard solar radiation, w h i c h a s s u m e s v a l u e s b e t w e e n 8 5 0 a n d 1 3 5 0 W / m 2 d e p e n d i n g o n
226 7 Selection o f conductors 7.2 D e s i g n w i t h r e g a r d t o c u r r e n t l o a d i n g 2 2 7

Ambient
Table 7 . 1 4 : T o t a l coefficient of emission k e T a b l e 7 . 1 5 : M a t e r i a l constants of a i r temperature
and absorption fca for overhead conductors a t Tempera- Specific Thermal con- Dynamic
low temperatures ture mass ductivity viscosity
Surface Material T 7 A V
condition Copper Aluminium, °C kg/m3 W/Km Ns/m2
aluminium 0 1,29 0,0243 0,175
alloy 10 1,25 0,0250 0,180
Half polished 0,15 0,08 20 1.20 0,0257 0,184
Dull bright 0.24 0,23 30 1,17 0,0265 0,189
Oxidized 0,5 0,35 40 1,13 0,0272 0,194
Oxidized and 50 1,09 0,0280 0,199
Slightly dirty 0,6 0,5 60 1,06 0,0287 0,203
Heavily oxidized 0,75 0,7 70 1,03 0,0294 0,208
Heavily oxidized 80 1,00 0,0301 0,213
and dirty 0,88 to 0,93 0,88 to 0,93 90 0,97 0,0309 0,217
100 0,95 0,0316 0,222

the s u n position a n d the air pollution. A typical value for C e n t r a l E u r o p e is 900 W / m 2 .

T h e v a l u e o f 0 , 5 c a n b e t a k e n f o r t h e a b s o r p t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t fca f o r m o s t p r a c t i c a l c o n -
ductor types. Wind velocity —- 1 cost s

I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [7.57], t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n i s v a l i d f o rt h e t o t a l solar r a d i a t i o n F i g u r e 7 . 1 7 : C u r r e n t carrying capacity o f F i g u r e 7 . 1 8 : T r a n s m i s s i o n costs a n d

a 564-AL1/72-ST1A conductor as function o f their components
J V S = D • fca • W s h . (7.22) w i n d velocity and ambient temperature; conduc-
t o r t e m p e r a t u r e 80°C
T h e energy loss by radiation is g i v e n b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [7.58]
NR = kskeD*[o,75- ( T 4- T ^ ) + 0 , 2 5 - (V4 - T h 4 ) ] i nW / m , (7.23)
The Reynolds number B e is given b y
where T is the absolute t e m p e r a t u r e o fthe conductor, T ^ the absolute a m b i e n t t e m -
Re = V-D-yh , (7.28)
p e r a t u r e , T h t h e a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e e x t e r n a l a t m o s p h e r e ( e q u a l t o 217° K ) ,
fcs t h e Stefan-Boltzmann constant e q u a l t o 5 , 6 7 • 1 0 - 8 W / ( m 2 K 4 ) a n d fce t h e e m i s s i o n w h e r e V i s t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y i n m / s , 7 t h e specific mass of air i n k g / m 3 , a n d 77 t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t ( s e e T a b l e 7 . 1 4 ) . A v a l u e o f 0 , 6 m a y u s u a l l y b e u s e d f o r ke.
dynamic viscosity i n N - s / m 2 . T h e s e v a l u e s a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d a i r p r e s -
I n [7.57] i t i s n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n a m b i e n t a i r c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e e x t e r n a l a t m o -
sure. A t sea-level t h ed a t a given i n T a b l e 7.15 apply. F o rpractical calculations t h e
sphere. T h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n is t a k e n f o rt h e r a d i a t i o n loss
characteristics o fair should b e evaluated f o rthe m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e ( T— T a m ) / 2 . T h e
i n f l u e n c e o ft h e a l t i t u d e o n t h e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacity c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d b y [7.55],
NK = fcs •fce• D - Tr ( T 4 - T^) . (7.24)
T h e dependency o f t h e specific air mass 7 o n a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e Tam a n d a l t i t u d e
Energy loss by convection c a nb ecalculated from flat i s g i v e n b y

Nc = Tr • A • Nu • ( T - T A M ) in W / m , (7.25) 7 = 70 • ( 2 8 8 / T a m ) e x p ( - 0 , 0 0 0 1 M , (7.29)

w h e r e A i s t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a i r i n W / ( K - m ) a n d Nu t h e N u f i e l t n u m b e r . w h e r e 70 i s 1 , 2 2 5 k g / m 3 a t 15° C a n d s e a l e v e l a n d T a m i s t h e a b s o l u t e a m b i e n t t e m -
T h e Nufielt number Nu d e p e n d s o n Reynolds number Re a n d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 7 . 5 8 ] , t w o perature.
regions are distinguished: According t o [ 7 . 5 7 ] , t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r Re c a n b e o b t a i n e d from

Nu = 0,32 + 0,43 •B e 0 ' 5 2 f o r 0 , 1< B e < 1 0 3 a n d R e = 1,644 • 1 0 9 - V r - I > - [ T a m + 0,5(T-T a m )]~1' 7 8 • (7-30)

M i = 0,24-Be0'6 f o r 103< B e < 5-104 . (7.26) The current carrying capacity i s calculated b y equation (7.15), solving this equation
w i t h respect t o the required current:
According t o [7.57], t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n applies
/= y/(NR + Nc-Ns)/R^AC . (7.31)
Nu = 0 , 6 5 Re0'2 + 0,23 B e 0 ' 6 1 . (7.27)

T h e differences between t h e Nufielt n u m b e r s r e s u l t i n g f r o m b o t h approaches a m o u n t t o F i g u r e 7.17 represents a n e x a m p l e o f a p p l i c a t i o n o f (7.31), s h o w i n g t h e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g

5 % for B e = 100, 6 % for B e = 1000 and 3 % for B e = 10000. T h u s , b o t h alternatives capacity as a function o f the ambient temperature a n dthe w i n d velocity for a 564-
result i nacceptable results f o rthe current carrying capacity. T h e equations a r e valid A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A conductor. T h e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacity is o f t e n quoted for a n a m b i e n t
f o r t h e c a s e o f f o r c e d c o n v e c t i o n d u e t o w i n d flow. F o r t h e e x c e p t i o n a l c a s e o f f r e e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 35°C, a c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e o f 80°C, a s o l a r r a d i a t i o n o f 9 0 0 W / m 2
c o n v e c t i o n w i t h o u t w i n d , see [7.58]. a n d a w i n d velocity equal t o 0,6 m / s . T h e corresponding current carrying capacities
 I UV1WU1UJI \Jl W U U U I . ( U L a I .u J-. l-Ol^ii Wl.U l\,g(MU M\J DUJ.J-^i*U l U O U l l l ^ U U O

a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e s 7 . 6 a n d 7.9. T h e s e d a t a c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s c o n s e r v a t i v e . A w i n d
velocity o f 1,0m / s could b e used as well w i t h a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y o f being fallen below.
I n [ 7 . 5 7 ] , v a l u e s a r e g i v e n f o r a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 20°C a n d a w i n d v e l o c i t y o f
1,0 m / s . A v a l u e o f 1 0 4 0 A r e s u l t s w i t h t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e c o n d u c -
tor 5 6 4 - A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A , w h e r e a s a value o f a b o u t 1460 A i s m e n t i o n e d i n[7.57], T a b l e
A . 6 . T h i s e x a m p l e e x p l a i n s c l e a r l y t h e effect o f a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d w i n d o n t h e
current carrying capacity. ( S e e a l s o [ 7 . 6 1 ] ) .
T h e described d e t e r m i n i s t i c approach u s u a l l y leads t o conservative values for t h e cur-
rent c a r r y i n g capacity, since conditions h a v i n g a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence are a s -
s u m e d as acting s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . M e a s u r e m e n t s o f conductor t e m p e r a t u r e s have sys-
tematically s h o w n lower temperatures t h a n t h e ones d e t e r m i n e d b y the deterministic
approach. Therefore, statistical approaches have been introduced for d e t e r m i n i n g con-
ductor temperatures i nthe steady-state condition. These approaches lead t o higher
current ratings for given design temperatures w i t h l o w a n d , therefore acceptable prob-
a b i l i t y o f b e i n g exceeded [7.62],

b e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 20°C, a s c o n d u c t o r a v e r a g e a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e p o w e r l o s s i n -
7.2.4 Design w i t h regard to short-circuit current
creases w i t h t h e square o f t h e c u r r e n t .
T h e design of conductors with regard to short-circuit currents i s m a i n l y i m p o r t a n t f o r Costs for p o w e r losses d e p e n d o n t h e i n v e s t m e n t s for t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f electric power.
e a r t h w i r e s due t o t h e significantly smaller cross sections. T h e r e f o r e , i t i sdealt w i t h A n n u a l fixed e x p e n d i t u r e s d u e t o d e p r e c i a t i o n , i n t e r e s t s , t a x e s a n d i n s u r a n c e a r e
in C h a p t e r 8. T h e e q u a t i o n s described t h e r e can also b e a p p l i e d t o phase conductors, taken into account b y the d e m a n d factor p 2 for power plant investments. Investments
w h e r e r e q u i r e d [7.63]. per k Wdepend o n the type o fpower generation; today, they are between 1000 and
3 0 0 0 E U R / k W . T h e a n n u a l specific costs o f p o w e r losses a r e g i v e n b y
7.2.5 Design based o n economic considerations
B P as P2 - EP • P L in E U R / ( k m • year), (7.34)
Conductor design based o n economic considerations w i t h regard t o m i n i m u m transmis-
w h e r e B p represents t h e specific i n v e s t m e n t s f o r energy g e n e r a t i o n i n E U R / k W a n d p 2
sion costs i s a n e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t f o r c o n d u c t o r s e l e c t i o n . T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n c o s t s , u s u a l l y
c a n also b e set t o 0,15 h a v i n g t h e u n i t 1/year.
expressed ast h e a m o u n t o fm o n e y needed t ot r a n s p o r t 1k W h over a distance o f 100 k m
The costs of annual energy losses are determined b ythe integral o fthe power loss
[7.27, 7.64] c o n s i s t o f c o s t s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e d p o w e r o r e n e r g y a n d c o s t s
d u r i n g the operation period w i t h i n one year. T r a n s m i s s i o n power flow depends o n the
d e p e n d e n t o n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d e n e r g y . Amortization, depreciation a n d maintenance are
type o f transmission. Power plant o u t c o m i n g lines carry a practically constant power
within the first category ( F i g u r e 7.18). T h e second category o fcosts i s d u e t o p o w e r
flow over the year, while the power t r a n s m i t t e d b ylines supplying consumers m a y
a n d e n e r g y l o s s e s . Power loss costs result f r o m the need t o provide the n e t w o r k w i t h
fluctuate heavily, depending o n the type o fconsumers, and o n the duration o f high
sufficient power t o compensate t h e s e losses; t h e y d on o t d e p e n d o n the line's annual
p o w e r p e a k s . T h e annual utilization period tm isdefined b y t h e q u o t i e n t o f t h e t o t a l
utilization period. Energy loss costs are determined b y t h e electric transmission oper-
e n e r g y t r a n s p o r t e d d u r i n g o n e y e a r a n d t h e maximum transmitted power P m a x - Cue to
ation and, therefore, depend both o n the power a sw e l l a so n t h e a n n u a l u t i l i z a t i o n
t h e q u a d r a t i c d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e c u r r e n t , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l losses are n o t p r o p o r t i o n a l
period o f t h e line ( F i g u r e 7.18).
to the product between the m a x i m u m power and the annual utilization period t m . A
Power-dependent t r a n s m i s s i o n cost c o m p o n e n t s result from the expenditures d u e t o
n u m b e r o f l o s s h o u r s tp h a s r a t h e r t o b e a s s i g n e d t o t h e a n n u a l u t i l i z a t i o n p e r i o d ( s e e
d e p r e c i a t i o n , i n t e r e s t rates, t a x e s a n dm a i n t e n a n c e f o r t h el i n e a n da r e a p p l i e d i n
F i g u r e 7.19 a c c o r d i n g t o [7.64]) a n d i s expressed i n h/year.
p r o p o r t i o n t ot h e i n v e s t m e n t for installation. F i x e d specific a n n u a l costs calculated per
T h e costs o f e n e r g y losses B L c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y
circuit o f a double circuit line a m o u n t t o
B L « p 3 -f t , •« L inEUR/(km-year), (7.35)
B s c ~ 0 , 5 • p i • EDC in E U R / ( k m • year), (7.32)
where p 3 i s t h e cost for t h e electric energy i n E U R / k W h .
w h e r e E D C m e a n s t h e i n v e s t m e n t o f a double circuit line i nE U R / k m a n d a n a c t u a l
The costs p 3 depend o n t h e type o f energy g e n e r a t i o n a n da r e b e t w e e n 0,02 a n d
v a l u e o f 0 , 1 5 1 / y e a r c a n b e t a k e n f o r t h e i n v e s t m e n t d e m a n d f a c t o r py. T h e power
0,12 E U R / k W h .
losses o f a t h r e e - p h a s e c i r c u i t r e s u l t f r o m ( 2 . 9 )
T h e specific transmission costs related t o t r a n s p o r t 1 k W h over a 1 0 0k mlong line
Fh = 3 - / 2 - B r A C - 1 0 - 3 i n k W / k m , (7.33) result f r o m

K ^ = 100-100. ( B S C+ B P + B L ) I N C E N T / ( K W H . 1 0 0 K M ) ; ( 7
w h e r e I is t h e c u r r e n t i nA a n d B r A C the A C resistance p e runit length o f a line, i n
ft/km, a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e T. V 3 • U • I • t m • cos <p
T h e resistance depends basically o nconductor m a t e r i a la n d t e m p e r a t u r e T and, there- w h e r e U i s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e a n d c o s <p t h e p o w e r factor.
fore, i n d i r e c t l y , o n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d c u r r e n t (see (3.2) a n d ( 7 . 1 6 ) ) . W i t h a d e q u a t e accu- A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs a r e s h o w n i n F i g u r e 7.20 f o ra 110 k V
racy, a resistance value c a nb ea p p l i e d w h i c h corresponds t o c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s line using 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 230/30) and 434-AL1/56-ST1A (ACSR 435/55)
230 7 Selection o f conductors 7.2 D e s i g n w i t h r e g a r d t o c u r r e n t l o a d i n g 2 3 1

3,0 r to be
Cent total costs
kWh•100km - — fixed c o s t s / ( p 2 - B P + p 3 - t L ) R
costs related to losses (7.41)
©\ 0 , 5 py - B 2
© 231-AL1/30-ST1A tm= 3000 0
(D 231-AL1/30-ST1A f m = 6000 h I n practice, t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o p t i m u m c o n d u c t o r cross-sectional area isdifficult,
® 434-AL1/56-ST1A t m =3000h
© 434-AL1/56-ST1A t m = 6000 h b e c a u s e t h e w h o l e s e t o f p a r a m e t e r s i s s e l d o m k n o w n . C u r r e n t 7, a s w e l l a s t h e f a c t o r s
Ep, P 3 , tE a n d t h e c a p i t a l c o s t f a c t o r s p i a n d p 2 c a n c h a n g e u n p r e d i c t a b l y i n t h e c o u r s e
of t h e l o n g - t e r m o p e r a t i o n o ftransmission line.

Example: A n apparent power o f50 M V A is t o b e t r a n s m i t t e dw i t h a utilization d u r a t i o n o f

6 0 0 0 h b ya 110 k V single-conductor circuit. T h e cost-related factors areB p = 2 0 0 0 E U R / k W ,
p 3 = 0,05 E U R / k W h a n dt L ~ 4 800 h asgiven i n Figure 7.20
Figure 7 . 2 0 : Specific T h e c u r r e n t i s e q u a l t o I = 5 0 • 1 0 6 / i / 3 • 1 1 0 • 1 0 3 = 2 6 2 A . F r o m (7.41), t h e o p t i m u m cross-
transmission costs f o r sectional area is obtained:
conductors 231-AL1/30-
ST1A a n d 434-AL1/56 (0,15-2000 + 0,05-4 800)0,0849
=2 6 2 V
2
S T 1 A depending o n t h e Aai 0,5-0,15-400 =3 2 4 m m •
transmitted power, trans-
50
Transmitted power • mission voltage 110 k V A c o n d u c t o r w i t h a 3 2 5 m m 2 a l u m i n i u m cross section, f o r e x a m p l e 3 3 9 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A ( A C S R
3 4 0 / 3 0 ) according t o E N 5 0 182, T a b l e F.19, w o u l d constitute t h eo p t i m u m for this application.

c o n d u c t o r s . T h e c o s t c o m p o n e n t d u e t o t h e fixed c o s t s d e c r e a s e s w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e d
p o w e r a n d t h e a n n u a l u t i l i z a t i o n p e r i o d , w h i l e t h e loss c o m p o n e n t increases also specif- 7.2.6 Line capacity as a function of the weather conditions
ically. T h e r e f o r e , t h e specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs e x h i b i t m i n i m u m values. A t 3 0 0 0 h P o w e r u t i l i t i e s c o m m o n l y u s e fixed v a l u e s o f o v e r h e a d l i n e current carrying capacity,
a n n u a l utilization period, t h e 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A conductor yields lower costs u pt o under consideration o f t h e m a x i m u m permissible conductor t e m p e r a t u r e a n d conser-
approximately 5 0 M W ; however, a t tm = 60 0 0 h ,costs decrease o n l y u p t o 4 0M W v a t i v e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s s u c h a s a n a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e o f 35°C a n d a w i n d s p e e d
transmitted power. These results are valid for a n energy price o f 0,05 E U R / k W h a n d of o n l y 1,0 m / s . A c c o r d i n g t o studies [7.65], such conservative a m b i e n t c o n d i t i o n s a r e
a power price o f 2 0 0 0 E U R / k W . T h e difference b e t w e e n specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs f o r v e r y r a r e ; e . g . i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , t e m p e r a t u r e s o f a b o u t 30° C u s u a l l y h a p p e n w i t h
b o t h conductors increases w h e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e dp o w e r rises. T h e r e f o r e , t h e larger cross w i n d speeds b e t w e e n 1,0a n d 2,0 m / s .W o r l d w i d e statistics show t h a t t h et i m e p r o b a -
section becomes m u c h m o r e economic w i t h higher power. b i l i t y o f w i n d v e l o c i t y t o e x c e e d 1 , 0 m / s i s a b o v e 9 8 % . A l s o , 35°C h a p p e n s t o o c c u r
Economic selection of conductors w i t h r e g a r d t o t r a n s m i s s i o n c o s t s b e c o m e s c o n t i n u - o n a f e w d a y s a y e a r . I n w i n t e r , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s d o n o t e x c e e d 20°C. O c c u r r e n c e
ously m o r e i m p o r t a n t w i t h b o t h increasing loads a n d energy prices. T h edesign engineer of m a x i m u m s u n i n t e n s i t y is also n o frequent, therefore, a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e allowable
should take this dependence into account. load conditions o n a seasonal basis i s possible, w i t h o u t increasing t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
I n accordance w i t h e q u a t i o n (1.6), clause 1.10,t h e installation i n v e s t m e n t f o r a n over- occurrence o f unsafe s i t u a t i o n s . T h e p e r m i s s i b l e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e o folder t r a n s -
head line w i t h t w o circuits depends linearly o nt h e conductor cross-sectional area m i s s i o n lines s h o u l d b e assessed i n d i v i d u a l l y ,since their clearances a r e s o m e t i m e s n o t
a d e q u a t e f o r c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s a s h i g h a s 6 0 o r 80°C. T h e c l e a r a n c e s t o g r o u n d
B D C = B o + Ey • UR + E2 • A A 1 i nk E U R / k m , (7.37) or t o crossed objects l i m i t t h ep e r m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h esags c o u l d
w i t h B 0 = 6 0 k E U R / k m , Ey = 0 , 4 k E U R / ( k V - k m ) , B 2 = 0 , 4 ffWf k E U R / ( m m 2 - k m ) . h a v e increased d u e t o c o n d u c t o r creep, t h u s l i m i t i n g t h e conductor p e r m i s s i b l e t e m -
T h e expenditures forindemnities depend o n t h econductor type t o alimited extent only, perature further, i fcreep compensation w a s n o t t a k e n i n t o account w h e n t h eline w a s
because o ft h ediffering s w i n g angles a n d , therefore, differing w i d t h s o ft h er i g h t - o f - w a y . constructed. C o n c e r n i n g t h et h e r m a l current c a r r y i n g capacity, overhead lines a r e n o t
However, itsinfluence o n t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n isn o t i m p o r t a n t a n dc a n b e neglected. T h e always fully utilized; this would b e completely uneconomic, mainly d u e t o t h e high
fixed costs f o ra line circuit r e s u l t f r o m (7.32), t h e p o w e r - d e p e n d e n t costs a n d t h e losses o c c u r r i n g u n d e r p e r m a n e n t o p e r a t i o n a t t h et h e r m a l l i m i t .
energy-dependent costs f r o m (7.34) a n d (7.35), respectively. However, some n e t w o r k o p e r a t i o n conditions m a y exist, f o rw h i c h t h e utilization o f
W h e n e q u a t i o n (7.33) i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e maximum p o s s i b l e overhead line capacity w o u l d b e d e s i r a b l e , w i t h o u t t h e r i s k o f
l i n e d i s c o n n e c t i o n d u e t o i t s t h e r m a l capacity b e i n g exceeded. I n [7.66], s o m e u s u a l l y
PL = R-I2/AM i n k W / k m (7.38)
a d o p t e d p r o c e d u r e s a r e g i v e n t o e n a b l e a b e t t e r utilization of the lines. U n d e r n o r m a l
w i t h R = 3 • 1 0 " • 2 8 , 3 6 k W / ( W • A ) - m m • V/(A-mm) = 0 , 0 8 4 9 m m - k W / ( A - k m ) f o r
3 2 2 2 operation o f t h e network, instantaneous measurements o f t h e conductor temperature
a l u m i n i u m , t h e specific annual transmission costs K& r e s u l t f r o m can help only t o t h eextent asthey enable a n a l a r m indication for t h e network control
o f c r i t i c a l l i n e s . T h e r e b y , a n o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e network loading balance i s u s u a l l y n o t
B a = 0 , 5 p ! ( B 0 + Ey • C / N + B 2 • AM) + (p2B P +p 3 • tL)RI2/AA1 . (7.39) possible.
Therefore, methods were developed, w h i c h p e r m i t prognostics o ft h e line current carry-
T h e optimum conductor cross-sectional area is obtained from t h e derivation
ing capacity asaf u n c t i o n o ft h ew e a t h e r conditions u p t o 2 4 hahead. W e a t h e r forecasts
8KJdAAL = 0 or
for 1 2 t o2 4 h o u r s enable t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n o fp o w e r p l a n t usage, g u a r a n t e e t h e s t a b i l i t y
0 , 5 P l •B 2 - ( p j •B p + p 3 •f L ) R • I2/A2M = 0 (7.40) a n d also enable t h e p l a n n i n g o f line i n t e r r u p t i o n f o r m a i n t e n a n c e services. Forecasts
for 1 t o 1 2 h o u r s c a nb e u s e f u l for t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n o f h i g h l y loaded n e t w o r k sections
a n d for a v o i d i n g t h e use o f expensive peak-load p o w e r p l a n t s . A tlast, forecasts for o n e
hour can be useful t o control a disturbed condition.
A n e x a m p l e o f l o a d forecast is described i n [7.67]. T h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e
load carrying capacity are continuously forecast d u r i n g periods o f 1 t o 2 4 hours; w i n d
v e l o c i t y a n d s o l a r r a d i a t i o n a r e t a k e n a s c o n s e r v a t i v e v a l u e s . I n f o r m a t i o n from t h e
n a t i o n a l weather services can b e used. T h e forecast t r a n s m i s s i o n capacities are used t o
enable
- Planning a n d o p t i m u m utilization of resources;
- Postponing of investments;
- P l a n n i n g o f maintenance and repair services;
- Probabilistic planning o f transmission lines and F i g u r e 7 . 2 1 : T y p i c a l dimensions o fa suspen-
- O p e r a t i o n u n d e r disturbed conditions. sion t o w e r o f a 400 k V line used as basis for
T h e line capacity i n c r e a s e s b y 2 5 t o 3 0 % w h e n a c t u a l w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e t a k e n i n t o s t u d y i n g t h e i m p a c t o f design p a r a m e t e r vari-
ations o n electric characteristics
account. R i s k s o f insufficient safety clearances a r every low. Clause 7.2.1 a n d Papers
[7.68, 7.69, 7.70, 7.71] g i v e f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f r e a l , i n s t a n -
taneous line load c a r r y i n g capacity for the operation o f t h e n e t w o r k . Such procedures, T a b l e 7 . 1 6 : E l e c t r i c parameters of a 4 0 0 k V double circuit line

however, c a n serve a s a r e m e d y o n l y i n e x c e p t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s : t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g losses Conductor Sub- Equivalent Inductive Resistance Positive Capaci- Surge Surge
data con- bundle reactance at 50° C sequence tive impe- impe-
would b e uneconomical and h a r m f u l t othe e n v i r o n m e n t , i f t h e lines had t ob e operated
ductor conductor capaci- reactance dance dance
continuously o n their capacity limits. Together w i t h the systems t o control load flows radius radius tance load 2 )
s u c h a s flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), t h e continuous forecast o f c a r r y i n g mm m Q/km Q/km pF/km MO-km n MW
capacities w i l l gain m o r e i m p o r t a n c e . S t a t i s t i c a l approaches have also been developed Ixl805-AL4/
c o m b i n i n g t h e r e l e v a n t p a r a m e t e r s i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t h i g h e r l i n e loads [7.62, 7.66]. 228-A20SA 29,5 0,030 0,384 0,0193 9,4 0,339 360 445
2x565-ALl/
72-ST1A 16,5 0,081 0,314 0,0280 11,3 0,282 300 535
7.3 Design with regard to stresses caused by voltages 3x434-ALl/
56-ST1A 14,4 0,132 0,280 0,0243 12,6 0,253 260 615
7.3.1 Introduction and requirements 4x264- A L 1 /
34-ST1A 11,2 0,178 0.260 0,0300 13,5 0,237 250 640
I n accordance w i t h E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [7.53], e v e r y o v e r h e a d l i n e s h o u l d b e c a p a b l e t o w i t h - 4x264-ALl/l)
s t a n d t h e s t r e s s e s c a u s e d b y e l e c t r i c v o l t a g e s w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e r e l i a b i l i t y . Design re- 34-ST1A 11,2 0,355 0,217 0,0300 16,2 0,197 210 765
garding voltage stresses, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e power frequency voltage, p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t *' Subconductor spacing within the bundle 1,0 m 2) at 400 k V
r o l e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s . T h e e l e c t r i c v o l t a g e p r o d u c e s a n electrical field
a r o u n d t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e . T h e h i g h e s t field strength o c c u r s o n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c o n -
the e x a m p l e given i nF i g u r e 7.21 f o r a 400 k V line, t h e impacts o f t h e use o f single
d u c t o r s a n d c a n l e a d t o corona phenomena, w h i c h a r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y corona noise
conductors, t w i n , triple o r quadruple bundle conductors c a n b e compared. T h e values
a n d corona losses, d u e t o t h e r e l a t e d e m i s s i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s . T h e e l e c t r i c a l
o b t a i n e d f o r DM, DMI, DM2 a n d hu ( s e e c l a u s e 3 . 3 . 2 ) a r e 1 0 , 0 , 2 4 , 0 , 2 2 , 8 a n d 1 9 , 9 m ,
field o n a n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o u l d a f f e c t h u m a n b e i n g s a n d a n i m a l s a n d , t h u s , m a y n o t
respectively. T h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s p a c i n g i n t h e b u n d l e w a s a s s u m e d a s 0,4 m . T h e r e s u l t s
exceed certain precaution values.
a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 7 . 1 6 . T h e inductive a n d t h e capacitive reactance a s w e l l a s
T h e e l e c t r i c a l field a t g r o u n d l e v e l d e p e n d s t o a l o w e x t e n t o n t h e c o n d u c t o r c o n f i g -
t h e surge impedance v a l u e d e c r e a s e w i t h h i g h e r n u m b e r o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s . T h e o h m i c
u r a t i o n . T h e s m a l l e r t h e c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t , t h e h i g h e r t h e field s t r e n g t h a t
r e s i s t a n c e d o e s n o t p l a y a r o l e h e r e . T h e surge impedance load i n c r e a s e s t o g e t h e r w i t h
ground level, w h e n t h e r e m a i n i n g parameters such as voltage, conductor configuration
t h e n u m b e r o fsubconductors a n d reaches the value o f 640 M W for a quadruple bundle.
a n d h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d a r e k e p t t h e s a m e . U s u a l l y , t h e e l e c t r i c a l field a t g r o u n d l e v e l
A n increase of the surge impedance load i s o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h e stability of long lines
is n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s , b u t c o u l d b e r e l e v a n t f o r
and, t h u s , viability w a s e x a m i n e d i n order t o accomplish such a n increase. Larger
p l a n n i n g o ft h e line installation. T h e electric p a r a m e t e r s : inductance, capacitance, surge
subconductor spacing w i t h i n t h e b u n d l e achieves t h a t objective, as s h o w n i n T a b l e
impedance and, t h u s , t h e surge impedance load d e p e n d o n t h e selected conductors (see
7.16 f o rt h e q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r w i t h 1,0 m s u b c o n d u c t o r spacing. T h e surge
clauses 3.3, 3.5 a n d 3.7.3). i m p e d a n c e l o a d i n c r e a s e s t o 7 6 5 M W , t h a t i s b y 2 0 %. P r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s e x i s t i n
S o u t h A m e r i c a [7.43]. T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h h i g h e r c o n d u c t o r
7.3.2 D e s i g n w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e e l e c t r i c p a r a m e t e r s surface g r a d i e n t s a n d c o r o n a effects; t h e r e f o r e , i tc a n n o t b e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r densely
populated regions.
T h e f o r m u l a e f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f electric parameters like inductive a n d capacitive
reactance, impedance, surge impedance a n d surge impedance load have already been
i n t r o d u c e d i nC h a p t e r 3. T h e reactances g a i n t h e largest influence o n t h e p a r a m e t e r s
which depend o n the geometric conductor data such as:subconductor radius, number
and spacing o f the subconductors, spacing between the conductors and t o ground. B y
234 7 Selection o f conductors 7.4 M e c h a n i c a l d e s i g n o f c o n d u c t o r s 235

7.3.3 D e s i g n w i t h r e s p e c t to c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t s a n d c o r o n a
T a b l e 7 . 1 7 : L i m i t s for e v e r y d a y a n d l o n g - t e r m stresses a c c o r d i n g t o E N 50341-3-4
effects
IJS
D i m e n s i o n s a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a f f e c t t h e conductor surface gradient Conductor Cross- Limits for Limits for Rated tensile
type sectional everyday long-term strength
a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g corona phenomena. C l a u s e 2.3.3 e x p l a i n s t h e u n d e r l y i n g principles.
ratio stress stress
T h e c o n d u c t o r s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d s u c h t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f radio interference N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
a n d audible noise e m i s s i o n a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d . A l i m i t e q u a l t o 1 7 k V r m s / c m c a n b e Standards AL1/ AL3/ AL1/ AL3/ AL1/ AL3/
m e n t i o n e d as a guideline for t h e conductor surface gradient. ST1A ST1A ST1A ST1A ST1A ST1A

E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 1 2 ) i s v a l i d f o r t h e mean surface gradient o f o n e c o n d u c t o r . T h e c a p a c i t a n c e AL1/ST1A 1,4 1 90 104 401 464 585 649
and 1,7 1 84 102 368 435 509 592
C- p e ru n i t l e n g t h is, i n general, different for every phase conductor o f a three-phase
AL3/ST1A 4,3 1 57 69 240 328 354 455
c i r c u i t . P u b l i c a t i o n [2.8] d e s c r i b e s m e t h o d s f o r t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e c a p a c i t a n c e ; according to 6,0 1 56 67 208 300 301 413
computer p r o g r a m m i n g is available, too. H o w e v e r , for t h e practical design o f a line i t E N 50 182 7,7 1 52 63 189 284 272 392
i s e n o u g h t o u s e t h e circuit mean capacitance, w h o s e e v a l u a t i o n w i l l b e e x p l a i n e d b y 11,3 1 44 53 165 265 239 364
some examples. 14,5 1 40 152 223
23,1 1 35 130 200
F o r t h e e x a m p l e g i v e n i n c l a u s e 7 . 3 . 2 , t h e positive sequence capacitance s h o w n i n T a b l e
A L 1 according to
7 . 1 6 i s d e t e r m i n e d , a s w e l l a s t h e m e a n surface gradients o b t a i n e d b y e q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 1 2 ) E N 50182 30 120 160
a n d (2.17), respectively. T h e single conductor as used over the Bosphorus i n T u r k e y AL2 according to
[7.28] s h o w s t h e m i n i m u m c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t . I f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r spacing E N 50182 44 240 295
were increased t o 1,0 m , t h i s w o u l d lead t o a conductor surface gradient o f m o r e t h a n Copper according to
17 k V r m s / c m for a q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A , being disadvanta- E N 48 201, Part 1 85 300 400
geous w i t h regard t o corona behaviour. Bronze I I according to
E N 48201, Part 2 100 500 580
Conductor voltage gradients c a l c u l a t e d b y c o m p u t e r a n d c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l
Bronze I I I according to
phases o f a q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r p r o d u c e d t h e f o l l o w i n g values: 12,6 k V r m 6 / c m E N 48 201, Part 3 130 900 1245
for phase c o n d u c t o r A , 15,4 k V r m s / c m for c o n d u c t o r B a n d 16,0 k V r m s / c m for conductor A20SA according to
C. A p p l y i n g equations (2.22) a n d (2.24) along w i t h the d a t a given b y F i g u r e 7.21 a n d E N 50182 137 1112 1340
the m e a n value o f t h e conductor surface gradients, a noise level o f about 3 7 d B ( A )
was obtained a t g r o u n d level i nthe m i d d l e o f t h e right-of-way; taking the different
phase conductor data into account, a value o f 41 d B ( A ) resulted. T h e basic principles sagging, so t h a t n o mechanical overloading occurs d u r i n g construction o r o p e r a t i o n o f
g i v e n i n C h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3 c a n b e u s e d f o r t h e r a t i n g o f t h e electric parameters o f t h e t h e lines. T h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h is t h e d e t e r m i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c for o v e r h e a d lines i n
conductors. case o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y s p a n l e n g t h s [7.28, 7.72] w h e r e h i g h t e n s i l e l o a d s a r e i n v o l v e d . T h e
conductor design a n d d i m e n s i o n s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e v a l u e s o f m e c h a n i c a l
stresses are kept w i t h i n p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t s . D i m e n s i o n s a n d tensile loads o f c o n d u c t o r s
7.3.4 C o r o n a losses
also influence t h e i n v e s t m e n t s for a line.
Corona discharges a r e l i n k e d w i t h l o s s o f e n e r g y ; t h i s , i n t u r n , i s h i g h l y d e p e n d a b l e o n A c c o r d i n g t o [7.1] a n d [7.53], a n n e x A , t h e m e c h a n i c a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s
t h e w e a t h e r . U n d e r f o u l w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s t h e l o s s e s i n c r e a s e s e v e r e l y . Corona losses should b e chosen i n relation t o the mechanical resistance o ft h e supports a n d founda-
are i m p o r t a n t , m a i n l y for transmission lines above 300 k V rated voltage. Publication t i o n s s u c h t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s achieve t h e h i g h e s t r e l i a b i l i t y . I n [7.6], d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a -
[7.39] c o n t a i n s m e t h o d s f o r t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n . U n d e r f a i r w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s t h e y a m o u n t tion is given about the requirements o f mechanical strength related t o the long-term
to 2 k W / k m ; under rainy conditions t h e y rise t o5 k W / k m a n d under frosty weather u p stress as a l i m i t i n g v a l u e . R e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s t i p u l a t e d i n [ 7 . 6 ] r e g a r d i n g s t r e s s e s u n d e r
t o 100 k W / k m . T h e t o t a l o f losses t o b e c o n s i d e r e d d e p e n d s o n t h e c l i m a t e c o n d i t i o n s e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n s , the everyday stress (EDS).
i n t h e region w h e r e t h e line w i l l b e constructed, t h a t is, o n t h e n u m b e r o f rainy o r
frosty days a year. C o r o n a losses are u s u a l l y n o t significant i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the
7.4.2 Stresses under extreme load conditions
t o t a l e n e r g y losses. T h e y d o n o t p l a y a n y role c o n c e r n i n g t h e selection o f conductors;
h o w e v e r , t h e y are considered w h e n p r e d i c t i n g line in-service losses, i n v i e w o ft h e guar- I c e a n d w i n d l o a d s c a u s e extreme conductor stresses a n d l e d a l s o t o conductor failures i n
a n t e e d p o w e r t o b e s u p p l i e d . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t m a x i m u m c o r o n a losses d o n o t t h e p a s t [ 7 . 7 3 ] . T h e c o n d u c t o r d e s i g n , t h e rated tensile strength a n d s a g g i n g c o n d i t i o n
occur s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h m a x i m u m J o u l e losses because foul w e a t h e r conditions are should guarantee sufficient reliability under the prospective highest load conditions.
associated w i t h i m p r o v e d cooling conditions for t h e conductors. T h e conductor tensile forces corresponding t o t h e u l t i m a t e loads m a y n o t surpass t h e
conductor rated tensile strength f o r a l l t y p e s o f c o n d u c t o r s [ 7 . 5 3 ] d i v i d e d b y t h e material
partial factor 1,25.
7.4 Mechanical design of conductors A c c o r d i n g t o [7.6], t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e stress o c c u r r i n g u n d e r m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e con-
ditions such as
7.4.1 Introduction and requirements
— T e m p e r a t u r e —20°C o r l e s s w i t h o u t i c e a n d w i n d f o r c e s ,
T h e mechanical design of conductors f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s i n v o l v e s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f c o n - — T e m p e r a t u r e — 5°C w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e i c e l o a d ,
ductors w i t h sufficient mechanical strength, a s well as t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f data f o r — T e m p e r a t u r e —5°C w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s a c t i o n o f i c e a n d w i n d l o a d s corresponding
 to the conditions assumed for the line area as well as
— T e m p e r a t u r e +5°C a n d m a x i m u m w i n d l o a d ,
m u l t i p l i e d b y a p a r t i a l f a c t o r o f 1,30, s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e l o n g - t e r m
t e n s i l e s t r e s s . T h e long-term stresses a r e g i v e n b y T a b l e 7 . 1 7 , r e a c h i n g v a l u e s f r o m 7 0
t o 7 5 % o f t h e r a t e d tensile s t r e n g t h s . T h e l o n g - t e r m stress i s defined a s t h a t stress
sustained b y the conductor over a period o f one year w i t h o u t any failure.

7.4.3 Stresses under everyday conditions

T o p r o t e c t c o n d u c t o r s a g a i n s t f a t i g u e f a i l u r e s c a u s e d b y alternating bending stresses due

t o a e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n a n d a l s o t o a s s u r e t h e i r f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e , t h e everyday stress (EDS)
c r i t e r i o n was i n t r o d u c e d a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g guideline values w e r e established ([11.35],
[ 7 . 7 4 ] ) . I n [ 7 . 6 ] , s u c h g u i d e l i n e v a l u e s Eire s t i p u l a t e d w h i c h s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p a s s e d t o
c a r e f o r conductor reliability u n d e r e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n s . W h e n s e l e c t i n g t h e e v e r y d a y
s t r e s s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e s t i p u l a t i o n s , t h e r e w i l l b e o n l y a m i n o r failure probability f o r
composite conductors m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m a n d steel. T h i s applies also t o homogeneous
conductors m a d e o fcopper, o fsteel, o fcopper-wrought alloys o ro fa l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel 30 40 50 60 70
Ice l o a d Everyday stress
assuming favourable e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions and a proper design o f suspension ar-
r a n g e m e n t s . I n case o f lines susceptible t o v i b r a t i o n , possible d a m a g e can b e effectively F i g u r e 7 . 2 2 : Tensile stress as a f u n c t i o n F i g u r e 7.23: Relative investments for instal-
c o u n t e r a c t e d b y p r o v i d i n g vibration protection fittings. of ice load a n d span length f o r 9 7 - A L 1 / 5 6 - lation o f river E l b e crossing as a f u n c t i o n o f
Conductors w i t h a s m a l l steel p o r t i o n , homogeneous conductors m a d e o f Eiluminium o r ST1A, 231-ALI/90-ST1A a n d 565-AL1/72- t h e e v e r y d a y s t r e s s [7.72]
a l u m i n i u m Eilloy a n d r e i n f o r c e d c o n d u c t o r s m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m a l l o y a n d s t e e l a r e m o r e S T 1 A conductors, a span length, 1 rated tensile
susceptible t o fatigue problems as are conductors w i t h diameters larger t h a n 25 m m as stress d i v i d e d b y p a r t i a l f a c t o r 1,25
well as conductors i n spans longer t h a n 500 m .
I f a n i n c r e a s e d vibration susceptibility is assumed o r has been observed, t h e design o f T a b l e 7.18: Mechanical conductor design (example), w i n d a n d ice
t h e s u s p e n s i o n s e t a n d o f t h e damping devices s h o u l d b e p r o p e r l y s e l e c t e d t o g u a r a n t e e load, 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A
an effective protection o f t h e conductors. Case Ice Wind Everyday Tensile Stress at Partial factor
stress stress support included
M o r e r e c e n t l y , t h e s u b j e c t o f safe tensile stresses w a s c o n s i d e r e d a g a i n . I n [ 1 1 . 3 9 ] , limits
N/m N/m N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
for conductor tensile stress w i t h o u t d a m p i n g a r e g i v e n ; i n [ 1 1 . 4 0 ] , l i m i t s f o r c o n d u c t o r s
1 7,1 16,80 52* 128,6 130,5 176
w i t h d a m p i n g devices are i n d i c a t e d . T h e s e proposals are discussed i nd e t a i l i n clause
2 14,2 22,07 48 159,3 162,2 219*
11.2.7. I ti s still o p e n w h e t h e r p r a c t i c a l consequences concerning line design w i l l arise
3 28,4 29,09 35 158,0 164,4 222*
therefrom.
* prevalent condition
T h e everyday stress o f t e n d e t e r m i n e s t h e s t r i n g i n g conditions, i n p a r t i c u l a r for voltages
of 110 k V a n d above. For the 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 230/30) conductor, w h i c h is
o f t e n applied t o 110 k Vlines i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , a neveryday stress o f 52,0 N / m m 2 is Specific w e i g h t force o f ice: 7 5 0 0 N / m 3 .
specified i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [7.6]. T h e u l t i m a t e resistance i s o b t a i n e d b y R T S / T M - W i t h D i a m e t e r w i t h i c e ( s e e e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 8 4 ) ) D M = y/<P + 0 , 0 0 0 1 7 g i = 0 , 0 4 0 6 m , D l a = 0 , 0 5 3 4 m ;
R T S i s 2 7 6 N / m m 2 a n d T M = 1 , 2 5a c c o r d i n g t o [7.5], t h e m a x i m u m stress s h o u l d b e D i , 3 = 0,0724 m ;
W i n d o n c o n d u c t o r w i t h ice t u u = 0 , 0 4 0 6 - 1 , 0 - ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 5 0 0 ) ( 1 3 0 0 + 3 • 5 0 ) / 2 = 16,78 N / m ;
less t h a n 2 2 1 N / m m 2 . F o r 5 0 0 m s p a n l e n g t h , t h e t e n s i l e stress o f 2 2 1 N / m m 2 w o u l d
t m , 2 = 2 2 , 0 7 N / m ; u+3 = 2 9 , 9 0 N / m .
be achieved f o r a n ice load o f about 35,0 N / m . For t h e 5 6 5 - A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A ( A C S R
T h e t e n s i l e stress is c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 1 4 . 3 7 ) f o r t h e t h r e s s cases c o n s i d e r e d ; t h e stress
564/72) conductor, t h e everyday stress is assumed t o b e 52,0 N / m m 2 , as well. T h i s
a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s u p p o r t s f o l l o w s f r o m (14.24). T h e r e s u l t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 7.18. A s
c o n d u c t o r w o u l d reach i t s l i m i t stress (seeF i g u r e 7.22) f o ra 500 m s p a n l e n g t h o n l y
c a n b e seen f r o m t h e t a b l e , t h e l i m i t f o r e v e r y d a y stress i s p r e v a l e n t i n case 1 , w h i l e t h e l i m i t
w h e n s u b m i t t e d t o 88,0 N / m ice load. F r o m these examples, t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f the
for m a x i m u m stress g o v e r n t h e cases 2 a n d 3 .
everyday tensile stress can b e realized for conductor sagging a n d for reliabilities under
extreme load conditions.
7.4.4 I m p a c t of the c o n d u c t o r tensile load o n line investment
E x a m p l e for mechanical conductor design: T h e sagging c o n d i t i o n s h o u l d b e selected T h e s a g decreases l i n e a r l y w i t h increasing tensile stress o f t h e conductor, r e s u l t i n g i n
for a 500 m l o n g span, equipped w i t h a 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 2 3 0 / 3 0 ) conductor. T h e l o a d
a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e tower heights, o f t h e m a t e r i a l s n e e d e d f o r t h e s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s a s
i s a s s u m e d a c c o r d i n g t o [7.6] f o r w i n d z o n e 3 a n d i c e z o n e 1 , 2 , a n d 3 . T h e c o n d u c t o r m a s s i s
w e l l a s o f t h e l o a d i n g o f t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , t h e decrease o f t h e sags causes a n
0 , 8 7 7 k g / m , t h e d i a m e t e r 2 1 , 0 m a n d t h e cross s e c t i o n 2 6 0 , 8 m m 2 (see T a b l e 7.9).
T h e e v e r y d a y stress i s l i m i t e d t o 52,0 N / m m 2 , t h e m a x i m u m stress i s 2 7 6 / 1 , 2 5 ~ 2 2 1 N / m m 2 increase o fthe loads o n angle, strain o rdead-end towers due t o higher tensile loads of t h e
a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n s o r d e a d e n d s . T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r o n c o n d u c t o r stress i s a s s u m e d a s 1,35. conductors, t h u s increasing t h e forces applied t o the t o w e r m e m b e r s a n d foundations.
I c e l o a d ( s e e c l a u s e 6 . 6 . 3 . 3 ) ghl = 5 , 0 + 0 , 1 - 2 1 = 7 , 1 N / m ; gl<2 = 1 4 , 2 N / m ; gy)3 = 2 8 , 2 N / m , T h e investment for an overhead line e s s e n t i a l l y d e p e n d s o n t o w e r d i m e n s i o n s a n d o n
W i n d l o a d (see e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 7 3 ) ) w = 0 , 0 2 1 - 1 , 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 5 0 0 ) ( 1 3 0 0 + 3 • 5 0 ) = 1 7 , 3 6 N / m , t h e l o a d t o w h i c h t h e t o w e r s are s u b m i t t e d . D u e t o v a r i o u s o p p o s i t e effects, i tis v i a b l e
238 7 Selection o f conductors 7.5 R e f e r e n c e s 239

t o s e a r c h f o r t h e optimum conductor tensile stress r e g a r d i n g t h e i n v e s t m e n t f o r a c e r t a i n 7.7 I E C 6 0 0 5 0 - 4 6 6 : I n t e r n a t i o n a l e l e c t r o t e c h n i c a l v o c a b u l a r y - C h a p t e r 4 6 6 : O v e r h e a d l i n e s .

line. T h i s o p t i m u m value depends on components such asthe ratio between suspension, Geneva, I E C , 1995
dead-end o r s t r a i n towers, asw e l l ast h e span lengths a n d the e x t e r n a l loads. T h e varia-
7.8 D I N V D E 0 2 1 0 : P l a n n i n g a n d d e s i g n o f o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s w i t h r a t e d v o l t a g e s above
t i o n o ft h e i n v e s t m e n t due t o v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e e v e r y d a y tensile stress w a s e x a m i n e d for
1 k V . B e r l i n , V D E - V e r l a g , 1985
a 220 k V line equipped w i t h 3 8 3 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 380/50) t w i n bundle, starting
w i t h a value o f 5 2 N / m m 2 everyday tensile stress. A nincrease o f t h e everyday tensile 7.9 E N 5 0 1 8 3 : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s - A l u m i n i u m - m a g n e s i u m - s i l i c o n a l l o y w i r e s .
s t r e s s b y 2 0 % y i e l d e d a 4 % i n v e s t m e n t d e c r e a s e , i f t h e portion of strain towers w a s Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2000
1 0 %; i f t h i s p o r t i o n w e r e 2 0 %, t h e i n v e s t m e n t s w o u l d r e m a i n p r a c t i c a l l y t h e s a m e . I f
7.10 E N 5 0 1 8 9 : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d lines - Z i n c - c o a t e d steel w i r e s . B r u s s e l s , C E N E L E C ,
a higher percentage o f strain towers were considered, the investments w o u l d probably
2000
increase. I n F i g u r e 7.23, t h e i n v e s t m e n t for t h e 3 8 0 k V l i n e a c r o s s t h e r i v e r E l b e [7.72]
i n G e r m a n y i s s h o w n as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e e v e r y d a y tensile stress. A n e v e r y d a y tensile 7.11 E N 61232: C o n d u c t o r s for overhead lines - A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel wires for electrical p u r -
stress a r o u n d 7 0 N / m m 2 proved t o b e a n o p t i m u m . poses. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1995

7.12 I n t e r n a t i o n a l A n n e a l e d C o p p e r S t a n d a r d s ((open))
7.4.5 C o n d u c t o r creep
7.13 N e f z g e r , J . : V o r s i c h t H o c h s p a n n u n g ( A t t e n t i o n : H i g h voltage!). Schwabach, Richard
D u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f conductor creep i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r s a g g i n g o r f o r t h e Bergner, 1973
determination o f the clearance between conductors. T h e clearance m a y not fall below
t h e r e q u i r e d values. I n s t a l l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s w i t h lower i n i t i a l sags t h a n t h e p l a n n e d 7.14 T h r a s h , F . R . : T r a n s m i s s i o n c o n d u c t o r s - A r e v i e w o f t h e design a n d selection c r i t e r i a .
final o n e s m e e t s t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t s (see c l a u s e s 7.1.8.6 a n d 1 6 . 7 . 4 . 3 ) . I n t h i s case, t h e C a r r o l t o n , S o u t h w i r e , Technical support resources, 1999
tensile stresses o f t h e conductors, used a s a basis for t h e design o f t h e t o w e r s , s h o u l d
7.15 G a u d r y , M . a t a l . : I n c r e a s i n g t h e a m p a c i t y o f o v e r h e a d lines u s i n g h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p a c t
not b e surpassed. conductors. Cigre R e p o r t 22-201, 1998

7.4.6 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for s e l e c t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s 7.16 E N 6 0 8 8 9 : H a r d - d r a w n a l u m i n i u m w i r e s f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s . Brussels, C E N -

E L E C , 1997
Selection of conductor tensile stresses i s a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p d u r i n g t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s o f
a n o v e r h e a d l i n e . E x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d f r o m l i n e s h a s s h o w n [7.32, 7.75] t h a t t h e e v e r y d a y 7.17 A l u m i n i u m electrical c o n d u c t o r h a n d b o o k . Waldorf, T h e A l u m i n i u m Association, 3 r d edi-
t i o n 1989
t e n s i l e stress o f l i n e s s i t u a t e d i n r e g i o n s w h i c h a r e less s u b j e c t t o a e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s
f o r m s a s o u n d b a s i s f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e conductor sagging conditions when 7.18 E N 1 7 1 5 - 2 : A l u m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m a l l o y s - D r a w i n g s t o c k - P a r t 2 : Specific require-
using a l u m i n i u m - s t e e l reinforced conductors w i t h cross-sectional ratios r a n g i n g f r o m m e n t s for electrical applications. Brussels, C E N , 1998
4,3:1 t o 11,3:1. For a l u m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m alloy m o n o - m e t a l l i c conductors t h e ex-
p e r i e n c e i s less p o s i t i v e . T h e r e f o r e , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e e v e r y d a y t e n s i l e stresses o r 7.19 B e h r e n s , W . ; N e f z g e r , J . ; P h i l i p p s , W . : A l u m i n i u m f r e i l e i t u n g ( O v e r h e a d p o w e r lines u s i n g
t h e safe t e n s i l e stress a s w e l l a s t h e l i m i t s i m p o s e d b y e x t r e m e l o a d s d u e t o ice o r w i n d , a l u m i n i u m conductors). Diisseldorf. A l u m i n i u m - V e r l a g , 8 t h edition 1965
it i s also advisable t o select t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e stress w i t h respect t o i n v e s t m e n t s 7.20 E N 1 0 2 4 4 - 2 : S t e e l w i r e a n d w i r e p r o d u c t s - N o n - f e r r i c m e t a l l i c c o a t i n g s o n steel w i r e s ,
as l o w a s p o s s i b l e . T h e n , t h e l i n e s h o u l d b e i n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a e o l i a n P a r t 2 : Zinc o r zinc alloy coatings. Brussels, C E N 1995
v i b r a t i o n s i tm a y suffer, u s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d m e t h o d s e x p l a i n e d i n C h a p t e r 11.
A s a result o f these studies, the suspension fittings can b e selected a n d , i f necessary, 7.21 F i n k , D . C ; B e a t y , H . W : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k for electrical engineers. N e w Y o r k , M c
d a m p i n g devices could b e used. G r a w - H i l l , 1 2 t h edition 1987

7.22 O o g i , I . ; e t a l . : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i n J a p a n . S e n d a i , C i g r e S C 2 2
C o l l o q u i u m , Sendai Meeting, 1997
7.5 References
7.23 E N 10 0 0 2 - 1 : M e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s - T e n s i l e t e s t i n g - P a r t 1 : M e t h o d o f t e s t i n g a t a m b i e n t
7.1 I E C 61 089: R o u n d w i r e concentric-lay electrical s t r a n d e d conductors. Geneva, I E C , 1991 temperature. Brussels, C E N , 2001
7.2 E N 5 0 1 8 2 : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s - R o u n d w i r e c o n c e n t r i c - l a y s t r a n d e d conductors.
7.24 A S T M E 8 M M : S t a n d a r d t e s t m e t h o d s f o r t e n s i o n t e s t i n g o f m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s . N e w Y o r k ,
Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
A S T M , 2000
7.3 A S T M B 2 3 1 M : C o n c e n t r i c - l a y - s t r a n d e d 1350 a l u m i n i u m conductors. New York, A S T M ,
7.25 I S O 7 8 0 2 : M e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s - W i r e - W r a p p i n g t e s t . G e n e v a , I S O , 1983
1995

7.4 A S T M B 3 9 9 : C o n c e n t r i c - l a y - s t r a n d e d 6 2 0 1 - T 8 1 a l u m i n i u m alloy conductors. New York, 7.26 I E C 6 0 468: M e t h o d o f m e a s u r e m e n t o f r e s i s t i v i t y o f m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s . G e n e v a , I E C , 1 9 7 4

A S T M , 1995
7.27 K o h l e r , W . : D i e W i r t s c h a f t l i c h k e i t v o n A l u m o w e l d b e i m E i n s a t z i n F r e i l e i t u n g e n (Eco-
7.5 A S T M B 5 2 4 : C o n c e n t r i c - l a y - s t r a n d e d a l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s , a l u m i n i u m a l l o y r e i n f o r c e d . nomics o fa l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel used for overhead lines). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 7 4 (1975),
N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1999 pp. 691 t o 695

7.6 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e 7.28 F e n z , J . e t a l . : 3 8 0 k V o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e over t h e B o s p h o r u s . Siemens Power

Aspects for Germany. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001 Engineering 6 (1984), pp. 208 t o 212. Siemens A19100-E433-A871-X-7600
 7.29 A S T M B 4 1 6 : C o n c e n t r i c - l a y - s t r a n d e d a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel c o n d u c t o r s . N e w Y o r k , A S T M ,
1998
7.30 E N 5 0 3 2 6 : C o n d u c t o r s for o v e r h e a d l i n e s - C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f greases. B r u s s e l s , C E N -
E L E C , 2001
7.31 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 4 : A practical m e t h o d of c o n d u c t o r creep d e t e r m i n a t i o n . E l e c t r a 24
(1974), pp. 105 t o 137
7.32 K i e f i l i n g , F . ; Nefzger, P.: Z u r W a h l der Z u g s p a n n u n g f u r die L e i t e r einer H o c h s p a n -
nungsfreileitung (Selection of tensile stress for overhead power line conductors). E l e k -
t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 80 (1981), pp. 648 t o 6 9 1
7.33 A S T M B 2 3 2 : A l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s , c o n c e n t r i c - l a y - s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s , c o a t e d steel r e -
inforced ( A C S R ) . N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1995
7.34 P a p a i l i o u , K . O.: D i e Seilbiegung m i t einer d u r c h die i n n e r e R e i b u n g , die Z u g k r a f t u n d die
Seilkriimiming veranderlichen Biegesteifigkeit (Conductor bending considering the variable
bending stiffness depending o n t h e i n t e r n a l friction, t h e tensile force a n d t h e conductor
curvature). Doctorate thesis, E T H Z u r i c h N o . 11057, 1995
7.35 W i n k l e r , D . : O b e r f l a c h e n v e r a n d e r u n g e n h e i m T r a n s p o r t v o n A l u m i n i u m s e i l e n i n C o n t a i n -
ern ( C h a n g i n g of surface quality at t r a n s p o r t of a l u m i n i u m conductors i n containers).
Elektrizitatswirtschaft 100 (2001)5, pp. 52 t o 55
7.36 E N 6 1 3 9 5 : O v e r h e a d electrical c o n d u c t o r s - C r e e p test p r o c e d u r e for s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s
( I E C 6 1 3 9 5 ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1998
7.37 M a r k t , C ; M e n g e l e , B . : E l e k t r i s c h e L e i t u n g m i t B u n d e l l e i t e r n ( O v e r h e a d electrical lines
w i t h bundle conductors). A u s t r i a n patent 121 704 (1930)
7.38 T i m a s c h e i f , A . : U r s p r u n g u n d E n t w i c k l u n g der B u n d e l l e i t e r ( O r i g i n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f
bundle conductors). E l e k t r o t e c h n i k u n d Maschinenbau 93 (1976), pp. 213 t o 218
7.39 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e reference b o o k : T r a n s m i s s i o n lines w i t h 3 4 5 k V a n d a b o v e . P a l o
A l t o , Electric P o w e r Research Institute, 1978
7.40 T E P C O : 1 0 O 0 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. T o k y o , T o k y o E l e c t r i c P o w e r C o m p a n y 1996
7 . 4 1 Y a m a g i s h i , H.; M u r o o k a , M . ; U r u s h i b a r a , H . : M e c h a n i c a l t e s t r e s u l t s o f f u l l s c a l e 1 0 0 0 k V
transmission towers. Cigre Report 22-301, 1990
7.42 R o w b o t t o m , M . D . ; A l d h a m - H u g e s , R . R . : S u b s p a n o s c i l l a t i o n s : A r e v i e w o f t h e e x i s t i n g
knowledge. C i g r e R e p o r t 22-09, 1972
7.43 R e g i s , O . et a l . : E x p a n d e d b u n d l e t e c h n i q u e : T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f H S I L c o n c e p t t o increase
the capacity of overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-207, 1998
7.44 I E C 6 2 219: F o r m e d w i r e c o n c e n t r i c - l a y o v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s . Geneva,
I E C , 2000
7 . 4 5 E r v i k , M . e t a l . : E r e c t i o n o f a n d v i b r a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n o n l o n g fiord c r o s s i n g s i n N o r w a y .
Cigre R e p o r t 23-03, 1968
7.46 R i e z , M . : C r o s s i n g o f t h e Schelde b y a n o v e r h e a d 3 8 0 k V line. B r u s s e l s , T Y a c t i o n e l , 1975
7.47 M c C u l l o c h , A . R . ; P u e - G i l c h r i s t , A . C ; K i r k p a t r i c k , L . A . : T e n y e a r s o f progress w i t h
self-damping conductors. I E E E Trans, on Power Apparatus and Systems Vol. PAS-99, No.
3 (1980), pp. 998 ff
7.48 M a a s s , H . : B e o b a c h t u n g e n i i b e r d a s A u f t r e t e n u n d V e r s u c h e z u r B e k a m p f u n g der m e c h -
anischen Freileitungsschwingungen (Observation o n occurrence and tests o n control of
m e c h a n i c a l v i b r a t i o n s o n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s ) . E l e k t r o t e c h n i k u n d M a s c h i n e n b a u 52
(1934)13
7.49 D o u g l a s s , D . A . ; R o c h e , J . B . : T 2 w i n d m o t i o n r e s i s t a n t c o n d u c t o r . I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n o n
P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d S y s t e m s , V o l . 103, N o . 10 (1985), pp. 2879
7.50 H e s t e r l e e , J . M . et a l . : B a r e o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n c o n d u c t o r s . C a r r o l t o n ,
Southwire, www.southwire.com, 2000
7.51 T s u j i m o t o , K . et a l . : D e v e l o p m e n t of a n A C S R c o n d u c t o r w i t h e x t r e m e l y suppressed
a e o l i a n n o i s e a n d a u d i b l e n o i s e l e v e l . H i t a c h i C a b l e R e v i e w ( 1 9 8 8 ) , p p . 3 3 ff
7.52 L u g s c h i t z , H . ; E g g e r , H . : E x p e r i e n c e w i t h a 3 8 0 k V c a m o u f l a g e line. Cigre Report
22/33/36-04, 1998
7.53 E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l lines e x c e e d i n g A C 45 k V . P a r t 1 : G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
7 . 5 4 N o l a s c o , J . F . : D e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n f e a t u r e s o f t h e first 5 0 0 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e w i t h
guyed towers in Brazil. Sienna, Cigre S C 22 S y m p o s i u m , 1979
7.55 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : T h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o u r o f o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s . S e c t i o n 1 a n d 2:
M a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for e v a l u a t i o n of conductor t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e steady state a n d t h e
application thereof. E l e c t r a 144 (1992), pp. 107 t o 125
7.56 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : T h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o u r o f o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s . S e c t i o n 3: M a t h e -
m a t i c a l m o d e l for e v a l u a t i o n of conductor t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e u n s t e a d y state. E l e c t r a 174
(1997), 59 t o 69
7.57 I E C 6 1 5 9 7 : O v e r h e a d l i n e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t o r s - C a l c u l a t i o n m e t h o d s for s t r a n d e d b a r e
conductors. Geneva, I E C , 1995
7.58 W e b s , A . : D a u e r s t r o m b e l a s t b a r k e i t v o n n a c h D I N 4 8 2 0 1 g e f e r t i g t e n P r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n
aus K u p f e r , A l u m i n i u m u n d A l d r e y ( C u r r e n t carrying capacity of overhead line conduc-
tors m a d e of copper, a l u m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m alloy according t o D I N 4 8 2 0 1 ) . E l e k -
trizitatswirtschaft 61 (1962), pp. 861 t o 872
7 . 5 9 P a l i c , M . ; P l e h n , M . : T e m p e r a t u r m e s s u n g e n an P r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n b e i w e c h s e l n d e r S t r o m -
belastung (Temperature measurements at overhead line conductors during varying current
load). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 89 (1990), pp. 493 t o 497
7.60 A l u m i n i u m e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t o r h a n d b o o k . W a s h i n g t o n . T h e A l u m i n i u m A s s o c i a t i o n , 1982
7.61 C u r r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e characteristics of a l u m i n i u m conductors. P i t t s b u r g h , A l c o a Conduc-
t o r P r o d u c t s C o m p a n y , 1965
7.62 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : P r o b a b i l i s t i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r c u r r e n t r a t i n g s . E l e c t r a
164 (1996), pp. 103 t o 117
7.63 O v e r l o a d a n d f a u l t c u r r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s o f b a r e a l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s . P i t t s b u r g h , A l c o a
Conductor Products C o m p a n y , 1965
7.64 Schneider; S c h n a u s : E l e k t r i s c h e E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t ( E l e c t r i c p o w e r e c o n o m i c s ) . Berlin,
Springer-Verlag, 1936
7.65 K i e f i l i n g , F . et a l . : C o n t a c t l i n e s f o r e l e c t r i c a l r a i l w a y s . M u n i c h a n d E r l a n g e n , P u b l i c i s
Cooperate Publishing, 2001
7.66 C i g r e S C 22 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g . E l e c t r a 197 ( 2 0 0 1 ) , pp. 35 t o 37
7.67 C e b o l k a , W . J . et a l . : P G a n d E ' s A T L A S ( A m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e l i n e a m p a c i t y s y s t e m ) .
Transmission line dynamic t h e r m a l rating system. Cigre R e p o r t 22-102, 1992
7.68 S e p p a , T . O . et a l . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f r e a l - t i m e t h e r m a l r a t i n g s f o r o p t i m i z i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n
line i n v e s t m e n t a n d o p e r a t i n g decisions. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 1 , 2000
7 . 6 9 D o u g l a s s , D . A . e t ad.: I E E E ' s a p p r o a c h f o r i n c r e a s i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r a t i n g s i n N o r t h
America. Cigre Report 22-302, 2000
242 7 Selection o f conductors

7.70 C I G R E S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : D e s c r i p t i o n o f s t a t e o f t h e a r t o f m e t h o d s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r m a l
r a t i n g o f l i n e s i n r e a l - t i m e a n d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n i n o p t i m i z i n g p o w e r flow. C i g r e R e p o r t
8 E a r t h wire selection
22-304, 2000

7.71 V o g n i l d , L . H . ; F i k k e , S. M . : Utilizing meteorological d a t a for peak load reference t e m p e r -

ature a n d a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e for conductor ratings i n system p l a n n i n g a n d operation.
Cigre Report 22-103, 1992
8.0 Symbols

7.72 A n n , W . ; K i e f i l i n g , F . ; S c h n a k e n b e r g , D . : D i e L e i t e r der 3 8 0 - k V - E l b e k r e u z u n g der N o r d - Symbol Signification

westdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G u n d ihre Verlegung ( T h e conductors of 380 k V river Elbe A C o n d u c t o r cross section
crossing o f Nordwestdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G a n d their stringing). Elektrizitatswirtschaft Ay Cross section o f well-conducting material
78 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , p p . 245 t o 2 5 6 Ai Cross section c o n t r i b u t i n g t o heat storage
c Specific heat
7.73 K i e B l i n g , R u h n a u , J . : Ice loads o n o v e r h e a d p o w e r lines i n G e r m a n y a n d t h e i r i m p a c t o n
CAl Specific h e a t o f a l u m i n i u m
reliability a n d design. Budapest, I W A I S Conference 1993
Ctot Specific h e a t o f t o t a l conductor
7.74 M o c k s , L . : E v e r y d a y stress u n d die m e c h a n i s c h e S i c h e r h e i t der P r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e ( E v e r y d a y / Frequency
stress a n d m e c h a n i c a l reliability o f o v e r h e a d line conductors). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 6 4 ff C o n d u c t o r tensile force
(1965), pp. 6 7t o 75 I Current
/th T h e r m a l equivalent current
7.75 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 4 : R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e l i f e t i m e o f o v e r h e a d l i n e I" Initial alternating short-circuit current
conductors. E l e c t r a 6 3 (1979), pp. 103 t o 145 m Direct current factor
m c Mass per unit length
m c •g W e i g h t per unit length
n Alternating current factor
J o u l e losses
R Electrical resistance
t Time
tK Short-circuit duration
T Temperature
Ty Initial temperature
T2 Final temperature
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance
«A1 T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance o f a l u m i n i u m
Otot T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance o f t o t a l conductor
7 Specific mass
7A1 Specific mass o f a l u m i n i u m
Ttot Specific mass o f t o t a l c o n d u c t o r
«s Impulse factor
e Resistivity
£>A1 Resistivity o f aluminium
4?tot Resistivity oftotal conductor

8.1 Types of earth wires

M o s t overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines h a v i n g voltages o f 110 k V a n d above are provided
w i t h earth wires ( o r g r o u n d w i r e s ) . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h e t e r m e a r t h w i r e i s u s e d f o r a l l
types o f conductors o n earth potential according t o E N 50 341-1, although all earth
wire designs consist o f a m u l t i t u d e o f i n d i v i d u a l strands. T h e m a i n purpose o f the
e a r t h w i r e s i s t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a g a i n s t t h e direct incidence of lightning
strokes, t h a t c a n c a u s e l i n e o u t a g e s ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 ) . H o w e v e r , l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s , e v e n
w h e n reaching the earth wires, m a y cause a voltage rise a t the towers h i g h enough t o
c a u s e a back-flashover f r o m t h e t o w e r t o t h e c o n d u c t o r a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r set. T h u s ,
i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f flashovers a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s , b e s i d e u s i n g
e a r t h wires, i t is necessary t o reduce the voltage increase o n the towers; this can b e
obtained t h r o u g h a n appropriate earthing o f the towers either b y counterpoise wires,
b y d e e p r o d s o r o t h e r m e a n s (see C h a p t e r 5 ) .
T h e e a r t h wires provide also a r e t u r n p a t h for phase-to-ground short-circuit currents.
T h e y should, therefore, b e appropriately specified so as t oconduct t h e predicted short- is r e a c h e d w i t h o u t h e a t d i s s i p a t i o n b y c o n v e c t i o n o r radiation. P r o m (7.13), i t results:
circuit currents o fthe system. T h e y reduce also t h e electrical interference o f the line o n
parallel lines. M o r e o v e r , t h eu s e o fe a r t h wires contributes t o alleviate t h e e a r t h i n g m a t A2 • c • 7 • dT/dt = Nj . (8.1)
o f s u b s t a t i o n s a s t h e p o r t i o n o f c u r r e n t t h a t c i r c u l a t e s i n t h e e a r t h w i r e , a t t h e first l i n e
s p a n s n e a r t h e s u b s t a t i o n , w i l l r e d u c e t h e c u r r e n t flowing t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h i n g m a t . T h r o u g h use o f (7.13) a n d (7.16), i t is obtained:
T h e size o f a n d i n v e s t m e n t s f o r t h i s m a tc a n b e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y reduced.
dT/dt = I 2 • [R(l + Q ( T - 2 0 ) ] / ( A 2 •T • c ) , (8.2)
I n t h e p a s t , earth wires having low conductivity, such as steel strands o r A L l / S T y z
( A C S R ) conductors w i t h l o w a l u m i n i u m content, were m o s t l y employed a n d a r e still
w h e r e I r e p r e s e n t s t h e c u r r e n t , R t h e e a r t h w i r e r e s i s t a n c e , A2 t h e e a r t h w i r e c r o s s
used i n several countries. However today, most utilities, especially i n Europe, have
section c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e h e a t storage, 7 t h e c o n d u c t o r u n i t m a s s a n d c t h e specific
changed t o t h e u s eo f larger A L l / S T y z ( A C S R ) conductors o r other high-conductive h e a t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . C o n s i d e r i n g f o r a u n i t l e n g t h o f c o n d u c t o r R' = g'/Ay, w h e r e
cables, because o f t h e h i g h level o f short-circuit currents presented b y electric systems. g i s t h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f t h e w e l l - c o n d u c t i n g c o n d u c t o r p a r t a n d Ay i t s c r o s s s e c t i o n , i t
A n o t h e r practice c o m m o n l y employed b y several utilities consists i ndesigning h i g h l y results f r o m (8.2):
conductive e a r t h wires near t h et e r m i n a l substations, a t t h efirst 5 t o 10 k m , changing
to steel strands i nt h e r e m a i n i n g parts o ft h e line, w h e n t h e short-circuit currents drop Tf
to lower values, compatible w i t h t h er a t i n g o f steel conductors.
dT J I2g
J l + a ( T - 2 0 ) J AyA2-yc (8 '3)
M o r e recently, t h e u s e o f e a r t h w i r e s h a s b e e n e x t e n d e d t o o t h e r purposes, such a sf o r 7j 0
t r a n s m i t t i n g s m a l l a m o u n t s o f e n e r g y a t l o w e r v o l t a g e s [8.1] o r f o r c a r r y i n g t e l e c o m m u -
n i c a t i o n s i g n a l s o n i n t e g r a t e d g l a s s fibres. S u c h e a r t h w i r e s a r e n a m e d optical ground and after integration:
wires ( O P G W ) . T h u s , t h e e a r t h w i r e s a r e l o s i n g t h e i r c o n d i t i o n o f d e a d o r i n a c t i v e
1 l + a ( r 2 - 2 0 ) _ Pg-tK
conductors t o b e c o m e m o r e useful a n defficient live components.
a l + o(T!-20) AyA2-yc ' (SA>

w h e r e tR i s t h e short-circuit duration a n d T ) a n d T 2 a r e t h e initial a n d final tempera-

8.2 Electric and thermal design tures. T h e final earth wire temperature f o r a thermally equivalent short-circuit current
is t h e n o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 8 . 4 ) :
8.2.1 Requirements

I n steady-state conditions t h ee a r t h wires o r optical g r o u n d wires, u s u a l l y earthed a t T2 = 2 0 + { [ 1 + a m - 20)] e x p ^ J ^ ' * - l }/ c . (8.5)

every tower, a r e o n l y s u b m i t t e d t o s m a l l circulating currents d u et o electromagnetic
induction o r electrostatic influence, c a u s i n g n e g l i g i b l e p o w e r a n d e n e r g y l o s s e s .
T h r o u g h a n inversion o f e q u a t i o n (8.5), t h e short-circuit current equivalent t o a final
Some utilities adopt t h e practice o f insulating t h e e a r t h wires t h r o u g h a low-voltage
temperature T 2isdetermined by:
i n s u l a t o r a n do n l y e a r t h i n g t h e m a t s o m e p o i n t s , i n o r d e r t o reduce t h e ' losses b y
i n t e r f e r e n c e . A n y w a y , t h e n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s d o n o t g o v e r n t h e earth wire
/7-c , 1 + a(T2 -20) Ay • A2
selection u n d e r t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f electric c u r r e n t s a s t h e y a r eo n l y l o w a n da n y
reasonable cross section w i l l have a c o n d u c t i v i t y h i g h e n o u g h t o s t a n d such currents.
T h e selection o f t h e e a r t h w i r e f o ra n overhead line is, therefore, d e t e r m i n e d b yt h e W h e n dealing w i t h A C S R conductors, there a r eseveral assumptions regarding t h e
p h a s e - t o - e a r t h short-circuit currents t h a t w i l l c i r c u l a t e i n s u c h c o n d u c t o r s i n t r a n s i e n t p a r a m e t e r s o f e q u a t i o n (8.6), according t o [8.2], n a m e l y :
conditions.
Under occurrence o f a phase t o earth short circuit, a significant p o r t i o n o f the current Assumption A
w i l l flow t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h w i r e , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e first s p a n s c l o s e t o t h e t e r m i n a l
The e a r t h wire is considered as a homogeneous a l u m i n i u m conductor a n d only t h e
substations where t h eshort-circuit currents areo fhigher intensity.
conducting c o m p o n e n t is t a k e n i n t o account neglecting the steel p o r t i o n . T h e following
Circulating t h r o u g h t h ee a r t h wire, t h e short-circuit current will heat i t ,until t h e data are applicable then:
protection relays trip t h e line o u t . T h e heating o f t h e earth wire during t h e short
c i r c u i t f o l l o w s a n adiabatic process a s , d u e t o i t s s h o r t d u r a t i o n , t h e r e w i l l b e n o heat Ay = A2 = AM; aAl; gAi; 7A1 and cM.
exchange w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . E a r t h w i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n s a r e s e l e c t e d s u c h t h a t n o
u n d e s i r a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s e i s r e a c h e d . T h e m a x i m u m permissible temperatures I n c a s e o f steel earth wires, t h e i n d e x A l f o r a l u m i n i u m c a n b e r e p l a c e d b y t h e index
d e p e n d b a s i c a l l y o n t h e earth wire material a n d p r o p e r t i e s . Fe f o r steel.

Assumption B
8.2.2 E a r t h wire design under short-circuit conditions
B y t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , t h e mass a n d t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o ft h e steel p o r t i o n is also considered.
T h e design o fe a r t h wires under short-circuit conditions c a n b e carried o u taccording t o It is t h e n applicable:
[8.2] a n d E N 6 0 8 6 5 - 1 [8.3]. T h e h e a t p r o d u c e d b y t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e
Joule law w i l l b e f u l l y e m p l o y e d i n i n c r e a s i n g c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e u n t i l a b a l a n c e Ai = A2 = A M + A p e ; O t o t i P t o t ; 7 t o t a n d C t o t .
246 8 Earth wire selection 8.2 E l e c t r i c a n dt h e r m a l design 247

the initial short-circuit current will be

T a b l e 8 . 1 : Permissible short-circuit current o fconductor 264-AL1/34-
ST1A, duration 1 s 25,2
: 24,7 a 25 k A .
Input data Assumption U0.0448 + 1
and results A B C
T h e results a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e 8 . 1 . T h e p e r m i s s i b l e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 k A .
Cross section J 4 I mm2 263,7 297,8 263,7 T h e e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e effect o f t h e D C c o m p o n e n t i s l o w a n d c a nb e neglected i n
Cross section A-i mm2 263,7 297,8 297,8 m o s t cases.
Specific heat c Ws/fke-K) 897 772 772
Specific mass *y kg/(m- mm2) 0,002703 0,00328 0,00328
TnTTlTV C^TPI f 11 TfZ C*Opfrl PlPTlf" 8.2.3 T e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s of ear-th wires i n case of s h o r t circuits
_LtJIlipClctLU.lL CUC111C1C11L
of resistance ct 1 IK 0,00403 0,00403 0,00403
Resistivity Q 0mm2/m 0,0283 0,0326 0,0283 T h e highest permissible temperature o f a conductor under short-circuit conditions is
Initial temperature T\ °C 40 40 40 established so that i tretains a l l itsconducting properties after t h e clearing o ft h e m a x -
Final temperature T 2 °C 160 160 160 i m u m expected short circuit load. I n clause 7.2.1, t h e r e c o m m e n d e d m a x i m u m temper-
Nominal frequency / Hz 50 50 50
atures a r ediscussed f o rconductors a n de a r t h wires d u r i n g a short circuit according t o
Factor KS 1,8 1,8 1,8
Factor m 0,0448 0,0448 0,0448 [8.3] a n d [8.4]. T h e y a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 7 . 1 3 . W h e n . e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e m a x i m u m t e m -
/th kA 23,4 25,2 25,4 p e r a t u r e s f o r specific cases, i t s h o u l d b e p r e v e n t e d t h a t clearances t op h a s e c o n d u c t o r s
i? kA 22,9 24,6 24,8 d e c r e a s e b e l o w a c c e p t a b l e l i m i t s . I n cas« o f O P G W , t h e s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s , a s
used for other e a r t h wires having t h e s a m e structure, are accepted b y t h erelevant stan-
dards. Suppliers o f O P G W usually specify short circuit performance limits indicated
Assumption C
i n I 2 • t, w h e r e I i s t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t i n k A a n d t i t s d u r a t i o n i n s . M a x i m u m
T h e conductivity of the steel i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d , h o w e v e r , i t s m a s s i s t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
permissible temperatures f o r O P G W a r e usually established b y manufacturers i n t h e
It ist h e n applicable:
r a n g e o f 180° t o 2 2 0 ° C .

Ai = A A p A 2 = A A i + A p e ; «Ai; QAV, 7 t o t a n d c t o t .
8.2.4 Fault clearing and reclosing operations
A c c o r d i n g t o [8.3], t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n exists b e t w e e n t h e t h e r m a l l y e q u i v a l e n t short¬
/*. I n h i g h v o l t a g e s y s t e m s , r e l a y protection systems o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s t a k e c a r e o f f a s t
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t 7 t h a n d t h e initial alternating short-circuit current I 'k'' -
recognizing short circuits so that t h efault currents are interrupted through opening
J t h = /£' • v + T + n . (8.7) the relevant circuit breakers.
N o r m a l l y , a s w i t c h i n g p e r i o d o f 0 , 1 s i s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e first p r o t e c t i o n z o n e , i n c l u d i n g
T h e factor m takes into account t h e direct current c o m p o n e n t w h i l e n considers t h e a l -
relay a n dcircuit breaker t i m e . I fa r e l a y o r circuit breaker fails, a t i m e o f 0,4 t o 0,5 s
t e r n a t i n g current c o m p o n e n t i nt h e heating process. I E C6 0 865-1 provides diagrams f o r
is u s u a l l y t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e b a c k - u p o r r e m o t e p r o t e c t i o n t o s w i t c h o f f t h e
d e t e r m i n i n g m a n d n. I n u s u a l c a s e s , n c a n b e s e t t o 1 . T h e f a c t o r m i s c a l c u l a t e d from:
relevant circuit breakers.
exp[4 - / - I K - l g p t s - ! ) ] - ! ,a R, T r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s a b o v e 1 1 0 k V a r e g e n e r a l l y p r o v i d e d w i t h automatic reclosing
m = 2./.f K .ln(« s -l) • (8 "8) equipment, w h i c h is designed t o p u tt h eline i noperation again instantaneously after
a fault h a do c c u r r e d , i n case o f l i g h t n i n g outages, t o o .
I n (8.8), t h e m e a n i n g o fparameters is: W h e n a u t o m a t i c reclosing scheme o f H i k e s i s u s e d , t h e first r e c l o s i n g o p e r a t i o n u s u a l l y
Kg f a c t o r w h i c h t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e i n i t i a l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t . U s u a l l y , reg is c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r t h e f a u l t c l e a r i n g a n d i s , t h e r e f o r e , s u c c e s s f u l i n m o s t cases. T h e
is e q u a l t o 1,8f o r o v e r h e a d line systems; l i n e r e t u r n s t o s e r v i c e a n d t h e f a u l t c u r r e n t t i m e r e m a i n s b e l o w 0 , 1 s. H o w e v e r , i f t h e
(K short-circuit duration; fault is n o t transient a n d remains, t h e protection scheme switches t h eline off again.
/ n o m i n a l frequency o falternating current component. T h e t o t a l f a u l t c u r r e n t t i m e r e a c h e s t h e m b e t w e e n 0 , 2 a n d 0 , 3 s. T h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d
reclosing operations, w h e n used, a r em a n u a l a n dusually start a t a r o u n d 6 0 a n d3 0 0 s
As shown i nt h efollowing example, t h e D C c o m p o n e n t h a s usually o n l y a slight i n - after t h eline failed, respectively.
fluence and, i nview o f t h euncertainties i nt h eother parameters, c a n b e neglected, T h e s e t i m e i n t e r v a l s a r e n o t l o n g e n o u g h f o r p r o v i d i n g s o m e cooling effect f o r t h e
therefore. T h e n , i tresults: J t h = ijjj. conductor temperature. Therefore, cooling cannot b e considered i nconductor heating
calculations. T h e process is i nitself v e r y complex a n dutilities prefer t o use simplified
Example: Determine t h epermissible short-circuit current o f t h e conductor 264-AL1/34- approaches.
S T 1 A f o r a d u r a t i o n o f 1 s. A s s u m p t i o n s A , B a n d C s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . T a b l e 8 . 1 c o n t a i n s
Instead o fseparately considering different heating a n d cooling periods d u r i n g reclosing
the input data. F o r assumption B i t is obtained
operation, i tc a n b e recommended i ne a r t h wire rating, f o r reasons o f simplification,
t o d e t e r m i n e a nequivalent t i m e f o r t h ed u r a t i o n o f short circuits a s a f u n c t i o n o ft h e
, 0,00328-772 , / 1+ 0,00403(160 - 20)\ /297,8 • 297,8 . . ,
Ith = \ L0 n, 0P3 P2 6a 0 n, 0 0n 4n0 x3 n o V
l n 1G r e l a y i n g p e r i o d s a d o p t e d f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t voltage levels.
+ •
0 , 0 0 4 0 3 ( 4 0 - 2 0^ )7/ + 1 V to/ 1 ,~0 =25,2 k A.
For voltages u p t o 3 0 0k V (Range I according t o [8.5]) a n e q u i v a l e n t p e r i o d o f 0 , 5
With to 1,0 s a n d f o r voltages above 3 0 0 k V( R a n g e I I a c c o r d i n g t o [8.5]) 0 , 2 t o 0 , 6 s a r e
exp[(4-50-l l n ( l , 8 - ! ) ) ] - ! _ recommended. Such periods consider operation intervals between fault clearing a n d
m = 2.50-l-ln(l,8-l) " 0 , 0 4 4 8 reclosing, s w i t c h i n g t i m e a n da p o t e n t i a l l y stuck circuit breaker.
zio o r j a x b n wire S G I C L L I U H

F i g u r e 8 . 1 : F i n a l t e m p e r a t u r e f o r steel con-
ductors 49-, 66-, 93-and 1 1 7 - S T 1 A ; initial t e m -
p e r a t u r e 40°C, s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n 0 , 5 s
F i g u r e 8.2: Permissible short-circuit current
as a f u n c t i o n o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n f o r steel
conductors 49-,65-, 70- a n d 1 1 7 - S T 1 A accord-
i n g t o [ 8 . 6 ] ; i n i t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e 40°C, final
t e m p e r a t u r e 200° C
F i g u r e 8.3: Final temperature for conductors
A L 1 / S T 1 A - 44/32, 97/56,122/71 a n d 264/34
a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 1 8 2 [8.7], T a b l e F 1 9 ; i n i t i a l
t e m p e r a t u r e 40° C , s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n 0 , 5 s
F i g u r e 8.4: Short-circuit current as a func-
tion o f short-circuit duration for conductors
A L 1 / S T 1 A - 44/32, 97/56, 122/71 and 264/34
according to EN 50182, Table F19, initial t e m -
p e r a t u r e 4 0 ° C , final t e m p e r a t u r e 160°C

T a b l e 8 . 2 : Technical d a t a a n d admissible short-circuit currents ( i n k A ) o f some e a r t h wires T a b l e 8 . 3 : T e c h n i c a l d a t a of some O P G W (see F i g u r e 8.7)

S T 1 A , a n d A 2 0 S A ( f i n a l t e m p e r a t u r e 200°C) a n d A L 1 / S T 1 A ( f i n a l t e m p e r a t u r e 160°C) OPGW
Shield wire type Cross- Specific Resistivity Specific Short-circuit 97-AL1/ 167-AL3/ 68-A20SA
sectional heat c mass 7 duration 48-A20SA 43-A20SA
P
area. A 2 Rated tensile strength (kN) 82 103 81
(mm2) (Ws/kgK) (9mm3/m) (kg/m m m 2 ) 0,2 s 0,5 s 1,0 s Modulus of elasticity ( k N / m m 2 ) 96 79 162
49-ST1A 49,5 481 0,192 0,00778 4,9 3,3 2,4 Expansion coefficient ( 1 0 _ 6 / K " ) 17,4 18,8 13,0
66-ST1A 65,8 481 0,192 0,00778 6,6 4,4 3,2 Conductor diameter (mm) 16,0 19,2 12,1
93-ST1A 93,3 481 0,192 0,00778 9,2 6,2 4,5 Tube diameter (mm) 3,2 3,0 5,5
117-ST1A 117,0 481 0,192 0,00778 11,6 7,8 5,6 Wire diameter (mm) 3,2 2,5/3,0 3,3

3,4 Everyday stress ( N / m m ) 85 78,0 137

49-A20SA 49,5 518 0,0848 0,0066 7,0 4,7
66-A20SA 65.8 518 0,0066 9,1 4,4 Long-term stress ( N / m m ) 400 340 1110
0,0848 6,1
93-A20SA 93,3 518 0,0848 0,0066 13,0 8,7 6,3 O P G W with stainless steel tube
117-A20SA 117,0 518 0,0848 0,0066 16,4 11,0 7,9 Number of fibres 16 36 36
44-AL1/32-ST1A 75,7 605 0,0450 0,00488 11,2 7,5 5,5 Mass (kg/km) 615 788 505
97-AL1/56-ST1A 152,8 623 0,0457 0,00463 23,3 15,6 11,3 Short-circuit capacity I 2 • t ( [ k A ] 2 • s) 112 425 38
122-AL1/71-ST1A 193,8 623 0,0457 0,00463 29,5 19,8 14,3 D C resistance (ft/km) 0,265 0,182 0,88
264-AU/34-ST1A 297,8 772 0,0326 0,00328 51,2 34,3 27,9

same relations are valid for A 2 0 S A conductors.

8.2.5 E x a m p l e s o f e a r t h w i r e current c a r r y i n g capacity i n case of short I n F i g u r e 8 . 3 , t h e final t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r A L 1 / S T 1 A c o n d u c t o r s 4 4 / 3 2 ,
circuits 9 7 / 5 6 , 1 2 2 / 7 1 a n d 2 6 4 / 3 4 a n d a s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n o f 0 , 5 s; F i g u r e 8 . 4 c o n t a i n s t h e
permissible short-circuit current a sa function o fshort-circuit duration for t h e referred
T h e short-circuit current carrying capacity o f e a r t h w i r e s i s g i v e n i n T a b l e 8 . 2 u s i n g c o n d u c t o r s , w h e n t h e final c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e r e a c h e s 160°C. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
a s s u m p t i o n B d e s c r i b e d i n clause 8.2.2. T h i s table supplies t h e m a i n technical d a t a a n d v a l u e s f o r 200°C a n d 300°C c a n b e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h m u l t i p l y i n g t h e v a l u e s e x t r a c t e d
p e r m i s s i b l e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s f o r d u r a t i o n o f 0 , 2 , 0 , 5 a n d 1 , 0 s . T h e temperature from F i g u r e 8 . 4 b y 1,12 a n d 1,35, respectively.
coefficient of resistance w a st a k e n a s a = 0,0045 f o r steel strands S T 1 A , 0,0036 f o r F o r c o n d u c t o r s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres ( O P G W ) , t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s s u p p l y t h e h i g h e s t
conductors A 2 0 S A a n d 0,00403 for A L 1 / S T 1 A ( A C S R ) conductors. T h e impulse factor t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c a p a c i t y w i t h t h e u n i t ( k A ) 2 • t (see T a b l e 8 . 3 ) .
K g w a s t a k e n a s 1 , 8 . I n F i g u r e 8 . 1 , t h e final t e m p e r a t u r e i s s h o w n a s a f u n c t i o n o f
t h e short-circuit c u r r e n t f o rconductors 4 9 - S T 1 A , 6 6 - S T 1 A , 9 3 - S T 1 A a n d U 7 - S T 1 A ,
w i t h a n effective d u r a t i o n o f 0 , 5 s. I nF i g u r e 8 . 2 , t h es h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t i s s h o w n
as a f u n c t i o n o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n f o r t h es a m e c o n d u c t o r s , c o n s i d e r i n g a final
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 200°C. T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v a l u e s f o r 300°C a n d 400°C c a n b e o b t a i n e d
by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e values o fT a b l e 8.2 b y t h e factors 1,20a n d1,33, respectively. T h e
250 8 E a r t h w i r e selection 8.4 S t e p s for selection o f c o n v e n t i o n a l e a r t h w i r e s 2 5 1

STyz, ALx/STyz
rise o fsags a s s u m e d b y t h e conductor after t h e h e a t i n g process.
- 400 m
A20SA I n F i g u r e 8.5, t h e v a r i a t i o n o f p e r m a n e n t a n d m a x i m u m i n s t a n t a n e o u s e l o n g a t i o n o f a
7
- 300 m conductor ispresented a s a function o ftemperature f o ra 400 m span and a n E D S o f
6 10 % o f r a t e d tensile s t r e n g t h .
/ / *~- 400 m — f t *
1J N / / ' Considering the variation o ftensile loads due t ot h e elongation, practical "experiments
CD - 300 m f y J '
C.
(// * /./' ' determined t h e relevant v a r i a t i o n s o n p e r m a n e n t a n d i n s t a n t a n e o u s sags f o r several
//'' ' '
ro 3
"o ('/ fl 1
spans, a sa f u n c t i o n o fm a x i m u m temperatures reached b yt h e conductors after t h e
g q -I / / 1 r short circuit, aspresented i n F i g u r e 8.6.
ro f
f
//> /
f S t e e l c o n d u c t o r s , f o r i n s t a n c e , w h e n r e a c h i n g 200° C a t a s p a n o f 4 0 0 m p r e s e n t a n
•s' ro

N
0 instantaneous sag i n c r e a s e o f 2 , 7 m , w h i c h c a n b e a c c e p t e d a s t h e c o n d u c t o r r e t u r n s
A/ J
S/
S/. • to the original condition after t h e cooling process.

YVVv
2

\\\
Si F o r a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 300°C, t h e r e i s a n i n s t a n t a n e o u s s a g i n c r e a s e o f 4 , 5 m a n d a p e r -
1 A* m a n e n t v a r i a t i o n o f 1 , 0 m . F o r a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 400° C , t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s a g v a r i a t i o n
i s a b o u t 7 , 5 m a n d t h e permanent sag i n c r e a s e i s a b o u t 2 , 2 m . W h i l e a t e m p e r a t u r e
100 200 300 400 500 °C 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 °C 600
o f 300°C i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a c c e p t a b l e b y s o m e u t i l i t i e s , a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 400°C i s o n l y
Temperature Temperature
a c c e p t e d i n e x c e p t i o n a l cases, e. g.for o l d lines designed for lower s h o r t - c i r c u i t r a t i n g s
F i g u r e 8 . 5 :Instantaneous a n d permanent F i g u r e 8 . 6 : Variation o f sago f STyz; in t h e past.
elongation o f S T y z o r A L x / S T y x conductors, A L x / S T y z a n dA 2 0 S A conductors, depend-
span l e n g t h 400 m , everyday stress 1 0 ing o nthe conductor temperature after oc-
8.3.2 E s t a b l i s h i n g tensile stresses a n d forces
currence o f a short-circuit
T h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s a n d s a g s o f e a r t h w i r e s o r a e r i a l c a b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres a n d t h e
8.3 Mechanical design relevant s t r i n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s need t ob eestablished so t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n e a r t h
w i r e s a n d conductors a tm i d s p a n isw i d e r t h a n t h e i r separation a t t h e towers. I t s h o u l d
8.3.1 Loss of mechanical strength during heating process be demonstrated t h a t l o n g - t e r m vibrations h a v i n g large a m p l i t u d e s d o not occur as t o
cause unacceptable r e d u c t i o n o fe a r t h w i r e o r O P G W life t i m e . T h u s , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d
T h e excessive heating o fthe e a r t h w i r e d u r i n g a short circuit c a ncause a p e r m a n e n t
be given t oproper v i b r a t i o n protection (see C h a p t e r 11). I ti s u s u a l t o set the e a r t h
e l o n g a t i o n , loss o fs t r e n g t h o rr u p t u r e .
wire o r O P G W saga s9 0t o 9 5% o ft h e conductor saga taverage yearly t e m p e r a t u r e
A p e r m a n e n t elongation o ft h e e a r t h w i r e will cause a reduction o ft h e separation
( e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n ) , f o r i n s t a n c e 10°C i n E u r o p e , a n d t h e n t o t a k e c a r e t h a t e a r t h w i r e
between t h e e a r t h wires a n d t h e phase conductors, t h r e a t e n i n g t h e security o ft h e line.
sag never exceeds t h e c o n d u c t o r sag. T h e r e s u l t i n g tensile stresses a r e t h e n a d o p t e d
C o n d u c t o r f a i l i n g o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , e i t h e r i m m e d i a t e o r r e s u l t i n g f r o m e a r t h w i r e loss
for i n d i v i d u a l spans o rtowers, keeping i nm i n d t h e m a x i m u m acceptable l o n g i t u d i n a l
of s t r e n g t h , c a ncause a p e r m a n e n t outage o ft h e line as w e l l as damage t otowers a n d
l o a d s (see c l a u s e 7 . 4 a n d [8.4]).
other line components.
Concerning galvanized steel e a r t h wires, the short-circuit currents can cause damage t o
the galvanization reducing, therefore, life t i m e o fthe e a r t h w i r e . T h e consequences o f 8.4 Steps for selection of conventional earth wires
such p h e n o m e n a d e p e n d o n specific c o n d i t i o n s . T h e n o m i n a l s t r e n g t h o f s t r a n d e d steel
c o n d u c t o r s d e c r e a s e s a b o v e 200° C a n d , t h e r e f o r e , s u c h c o n d u c t o r s a r e n o t r e c o m m e n d e d I n T a b l e 8.2 e x a m p l e s a r e s h o w n o fe a r t h w i r e s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d b y u t i l i t i e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h
t o b e d e s i g n e d f o r o p e r a t i o n a b o v e 200° C . the respective short circuit data. T h e selection o fe a r t h wires comprises the following
However, considering the low probability o fm a x i m u m fault currents and the only minor steps:
d e t e r i o r a t i o n t o t h e s t e e l c o n d u c t o r s a t 200°C, t h e l i m i t o f 200° C i s c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e — D e t e r m i n a t i o n o fs h o r t - c i r c u i t currents a t least f o ra p e r i o d o f 1 0 years ahead;
u t i l i t i e s a s t o o c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t i n g , t h e r e f o r e , i n o v e r - r a t e d e a r t h w i r e sizes. S u c h — C o m p u t a t i o n o f short-circuit current distribution among earth wires and earth
c o m p a n i e s a s s u m e a m a x i m u m a c c e p t a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 300° C , i n c l u d i n g c u m u l a t i v e w h e n the fault location isvaried along the line, considering t h e most pessimistic
h e a t i n g o f t h e conductor, w h e n t h e line is reclosed u n d e r short-circuit conditions. I t can conditions inside the considered t i m e horizon.
b e o b s e r v e d t h a t , a f t e r 300° C , t h e s t e e l c o n d u c t o r s m a y b e a l r e a d y s u b j e c t t o s l i g h t — S e l e c t i o n o f one o r t w o e a r t h w i r e sizes for t h e l i n e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f lines,
variations i n t h ezinc coatings, resulting i ncorrosion. S oi t i s n o t r e c o m m e n d e d t o single o rdouble circuit, o n t h e voltage level a n d o n t h e t o w e r configuration. T h e
accept higher temperatures t h a n 3 0 0 C C f o rsteel conductors. I t should f u r t h e r m o r e b e o p t i m u m p o s i t i o n o ft h e e a r t h wires for a g o o d shielding against direct l i g h t n i n g
emphasised t h a t the zinc coating o fthe steel conductors starts t o m e l t a t temperatures strokes should also b e t a k e n into account (seeC h a p t e r 4). T h e arrangement a n d
a b o v e 420°C. size o f t h e e a r t h w i r e s s h o u l d b e c o n v e n i e n t l y designed. A s t r a i n t o w e r i s t h e best
H o w e v e r , t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 7 . 1 3 o f [8.3] a r e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d l i m i t t h e s t e e l p o i n t t o c h a n g e e a r t h w i r e sizes.
c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e t o a m a x i m u m o f 200°C. — S e l e c t i o n o f t h e everyday stress f o r t h e e a r t h w i r e s f o r a n a d e q u a t e s a g m a t c h -
F o r c o n d u c t o r s A L x / S T y z ( A C S R c o n d u c t o r s ) , a m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e o f 200°C i s i n g w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d c o n s i d e r i n g e v e n t u a l vibration protection n e e d s ( s e e
s p e c i f i e d i n [ 8 . 4 ] . H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o [ 8 . 3 ] , o n l y 160°C a r e a c c e p t a b l e . [8.4]).
Some experiments were carried out t odetermine the influence o f temperatures above — D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f measures and devices f o rv i b r a t i o n protection, as described i n
200°C o n l o s s o f c o n d u c t o r s t r e n g t h a n d o n t h e r e s u l t a n t i n s t a n t a n e o u s o r p e r m a n e n t Chapter 11, considering the type o f conductors.
406 a Ejarm wire BCICULIUII

a) b) c) Single-mode-
fibre loosely
19,2 arranged in a tube
core made of
glass-fibre reinforced
resin
conductor core with
6 tubes earth or messenger wire
inner polymeric
sbeath lashing helix
non-metalic strength
member optical fibre cable
97-AL1/ 167-AL3/ 68-A20SA
outer polymeric
4B-A20SA 43-A20SA sheath

F i g u r e 8.7: Examples o f O P G W designs

F i g u r e 8.8: E x a m p l e o f a n A D S S cable type F i g u r e 8.9: O p t i c a l cables attached
a) S t r u c t u r e as conductor 9 7 - A L 1 / 5 6 - S T 1 - steel tubes arranged i n the second layer to the earth wire
b) D e s i g n t y p e w i t h t w o A L 3 layers
c) D e s i g n t y p e w i t h a c e n t r a l t u b e
H o w e v e r , w h e n m o r e s t e e l s t r a n d s axe r e p l a c e d b y s t a i n l e s s s t e e l t u b e s w i t h g l a s s
fibres, t h e resulting cross section r e d u c t i o n o f t h e steel core should b e specially
8.5 E a r t h wires comprising optical fibres ( O P G W ) taken into account.
If a l u m i n i u m strands i n t h e outer layer are replaced b y a l u m i n i u m alloy strands
8.5.1 Generalities and design to compensate the s t r e n g t h lost b y i n s e r t i o n o f tubes instead o f steel strands,
t h e n the more pronounced strength reduction b y melting o fsome o fthese strands
D u r i n g decades, t h e e a r t h wires o foverhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines were a i m e d o n l y a t pro-
t h r o u g h l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e effects s h o u l d b e considered.
tecting the line conductors against l i g h t n i n g strokes and, as a consequence, t o reduce
- A l l d i e l e c t r i c s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g c a b l e s ( A D S S ) . T h e dielectric self-supporting
the n u m b e r o f line outages. I n addition, t h e y reduced t h e interference o n neighbouring
cable c o n s i s t s o f m u l t i p l e - m o d e o r s i n g l e - m o d e fibres a r r a n g e d i n t u b e s , s t r a n d e d
installations. A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t function began, w h e n overhead lines were equipped
a r o u n d a d i e l e c t r i c c e n t r a l s t r a n d , r e i n f o r c e d b y g l a s s fibres. T h e c o r e i s p r o -
w i t h e a r t h w i r e s c o n s t i t u t i n g specific circuits for t r a n s m i t t i n g t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n sig-
tected b y a ninner sheath, b y a r a m i d yarns and a polyethylene jacket thata r e
n a l s . S u c h u t i l i z a t i o n h a s b e c o m e w i d e s p r e a d w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f fibre o p t i c c a b l e s
flame retardant and h u m i d i t y protected. A r o u n d the polyethylene jacket a layer
( O P G W ) , t h a t provide a means o f compact a n d interference-free signal transmission
o f tensile-proof a r a m i d fibres is arranged w h i c h are protected against mechanical
for use o nelectric power lines. So, t h e e a r t h wires assumed a d d i t i o n a l l y a n active func-
damage b y a polyethylene sheath. These cables reach sufficient tensile strength
tion i n the overhead transmission.
t o a l l o w f o r l a r g e u n s u p p o r t e d spans b e t w e e n a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s . T h e y axe p h y s i -
Power networks connect p o p u l a t i o n centres and, therefore, can provide alternative tele-
c a l l y s e p a r a t e d f r o m , a n d o p e r a t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e p o w e r l i n e . I n F i g u r e 8.8,
c o m m u n i c a t i o n routes, n o t o n l y for electric utilities b u t also for o t h e r companies a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e o f a d i e l e c t r i c c a b l e is s h o w n . P a p e r [8.13] c o n t a i n s d e t a i l s a b o u t t h e
cable T Vnetworks. A ne x t r a capacity could b e used for business ventures a n d other d e s i g n a n d use o f s u c h t y p e s o f o p t i c a l cables, w h i l e [8.14] d e s c r i b e s t h e fittings
c o m m e r c i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h e i m m u n i t y o f fibre o p t i c c a b l e s t o e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c i n t e r - and their testing.
f e r e n c e i s a m a j o r a d v a n t a g e f o r t h e i r u s e i n p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s . P a p e r [8.8]
A D S S cables are m o r e subjected t o vibrations t h a n conventional conductors; i n
c o n t a i n s t h e e s s e n t i a l basis for O P G W . T h e s t a n d a r d s [8.9, 8.10, 8.11] a n d [8.12] give
t h e case o f ice l o a d s , t h e i r sag is c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h a n d w i t h a d d i t i o n a l w i n d , t h e r e
b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r o p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s . A l o n g t h e t i m e , t h r e e b a s i c s y s t e m s o f a e r i a l
is a d a n g e r o f t o u c h i n g phase c o n d u c t o r s . A s t h e i r i n s t a l l a t i o n o n t o w e r u s u a l l y
cables w i t h optical elements have been developed:
causes problems, power utilities seldom e m p l o y such cables.
— S e l f - s u p p o r t i n g o p t i c a l g r o u n d w i r e s ( O P G W ) . A self-supporting optical
— O p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s a t t a c h e d t o e a r t h o r m e s s e n g e r w i r e s . Attached cables
ground wire i s a s t r a n d e d m e t a l l i c c o n d u c t o r i n c o r p o r a t i n g o p t i c a l fibres. I t i s
are all-dielectric optical cables attached t o t h e e a r t h w i r e o r phase conductors.
best suited t o b e installed o n n e w overhead power lines o r w h e n there is a need
Such cables rely o n t h e conductor o r e a r t h w i r e as their support a n d d o n o t
t o replace existing e a r t h wires. T h e basic characteristics o f O P G W m a n u f a c t u r e d
r e q u i r e , t h e r e f o r e , h i g h m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h s . I n F i g u r e 8.9, a no p t i c a l cable a t -
n o w a d a y s i n c l u d e d e s i g n s w i t h m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 fibres. I n F i g u r e 8 . 7 e x a m p l e s o f
tached t o a messenger w i r e is shown.
O P G W are shown having u p t o 3 6 fibres.
T h e attached cables a r e n o tprotected against t h e r m a l damages produced b y
T h e g l a s s fibres a r e u s u a l l y p r o t e c t e d b y t u b e s o f s t a i n l e s s s t e e l ; m a x i m u m fibre
lightning strokes. Failures c a no n l y b e repaired b y loosening a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
n u m b e r i s fit t o t h e t u b e d i a m e t e r . T h e g l a s s fibres m u s t b e d e c o u p l e d f r o m t h e
n e w i n t e r m e d i a t e cable sections r e q u i r i n g joints.
mechanical a n d electrical impact t h a t m a y appear o nthe e a r t h wire; so the fibres
I n [8.15] a ni n t e r e s t i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e U K i s d e s c r i b e d a b o u t m a i n t e n a n c e strategies
a r e i n s t a l l e d a n d p r o t e c t e d b y a t h i x o t r o p i c g e l filling b e f o r e l a s e r w e l d i n g o f
of optical cables installed i n high-voltage overhead lines.
t u b e s . I n case o f O P G W t y p e s , w h e r e t h e t u b e replaces a s t r a n d different f r o m
t h e c o r e s t r a n d , t h e g l a s s fibres c o n t a i n a n a d d i t i o n a l l o n g i t u d i n a l r e s e r v e t h r o u g h
the helix o f t h e tube. T h e steel t u b e is usually n o t considered i n t h e mechanical
design o f t h e O P G W . T h e loss i nm e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n d u c t o r c a n b e
t o l e r a t e d w h e n r e p l a c i n g o n l y o n e steel s t r a n d t h r o u g h a t u b e ( F i g u r e s 8.7 a, b).
254 8 E a r t h w i r e selection 8.6 R e f e r e n c e s 255

8.5.4 Tests
T a b l e 8.4: Tests a t conductors w i t h optical fibres ( O P G W ) a n d accessories
Type tests Sample tests O P G W a n d t h e i r accessories are tested according t o relevant standards a n d recommen-
C o n d u c t o r s w i t h optica] fibres dations o finternational organisations.
Tests of optical fibres and individual strands
- Ttests o n o p t i c a l c a b l e s . T h e o p t i c a l fibres o f O P G W a r e t e s t e d according
- Attenuation as a function of wave - Visual inspection
length, variation in case of bending - Optical attenuation t o I E C 6 0 7 9 3 - 1 - 4 [ 8 . 1 9 ] . T h e optical attenuation i s c h e c k e d a t t h e w a v e l e n g t h
and temperature change - Strand tests as with conventional conductors o f 1 5 5 0 ran i n a t e s t i n g l o o p , t h a t c o n s i s t s o f a t l e a s t o n e c o n t i n u o u s fibre p e r
- Chromatic dispersion tube. T h e n , the mechanical integrity o fthe metallic tubes and the density against
- Modal radius w a t e r a b s o r p t i o n a r e t e s t e d . Manufacturing ovalities s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o n a r r o w
- Band width measurement
tolerances previously provided b y the manufacturer a n d are not allowed t o expand
Test on complete conductors with optical fibres
- Stress-strain curve
to unacceptable values d u r i n g stringing operations.
- Behaviour under longitudinal load - Visual check on existence of flaws and ripples T h e c o m p l e t e conductors are tested according t o [8.20], a n d t h e m e t a l l i c s t r a n d s
(behaviour of optical fibres) - Measurement of dimensions assume t h e same testing m e t h o d o l o g y as strands for conventional conductors. I n
- Stringing conditions - D C resistance T a b l e 8.4 type a n d r o u t i n e tests applicable t ooptical cables are s u m m a r i z e d .
- Conductor galloping - Coil or drum conditions
- Aeolian vibrations - Packing
- T e s t s o n a c c e s s o r i e s of o p t i c a l c a b l e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g a c c e s s o r i e s s h o u l d b e
- Creep test - Shipment descriptions s u b m i t t e d t o tests: suspension and dead-end fittings, suspension clamps, vibra-
- Thermal cycle test tion dampers, galloping dampers, w a r n i n g spheres, connectors for j u m p e r loops,
- Water absorption test earthing connectors a n dbranch-off clamps. T h e y should fulfil all requirements
- Short circuit test
applicable t oconventional conductors and are not allowed t o i m p a i r their func-
- Impulse voltage withstand test
t i o n . R e g a r d i n g t e s t i n g , t h e r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s [8.20], [8.19] a n d [8.16], a s w e l l
Accessories
- Tensile load Visual surface check as p u b l i c a t i o n s [8.14], [8.18] a n d [8.21] a r e a p p l i e d . T a b l e 8 . 4 c o n t a i n s t y p e a n d
- Aeolian vibrations • Measurement of dimensions sample tests t ob e conducted w i t h accessories f o roptical cables.
- Conductor galloping - Zinc coating
- Short circuit test Mechanical strength
- Vertical load, bending angle • Tests at accessories according to 8.6 References
at suspension points I E C 61284 [8.16]
- Unbalanced loads 8.1 D ' A j u z , A .e t al.: E n e r g i z e d overhead g r o u n d w i r e s - O H G W : T h e pioneer B r a z i l i a n a p -
- Test at accessories according to
plication. I V t h S E P O D E , Foz d o Igua?u, 1994
I E C 61284 [8.16]
8.2 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : T h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o u r o f o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s . S e c t i o n 4 : M a t h -
ematical model f o rcalculation o f conductor temperature i nthe adiabatic state. Electra
8.5.2 Installation conditions 185, (1999), pp. 75 t o 8 7
C o n d u c t o r s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres ( O P G W ) a r e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s a m e r e q u i r e m e n t s r e - 8.3 E N 6 0 8 6 5 - 1 : S h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s - C a l c u l a t i o n o f effects. P a r t 1 : D e f i n i t i o n s a n d calcu-
g a r d i n g e v e r y d a y stress ( E D S ) a n d iceloads a s c o n v e n t i o n a l conductors. T h e c o n d i t i o n s lation methods ( I E C 60865-1). Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1994
o f average a n dm a x i m u m tensile forces, a n dt h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o n e v e r y d a y stress
( E D S ) t o b e adopted, a r especially i m p o r t a n t i n correspondence w i t h the conductor 8.4 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
t y p e , a s g i v e n i n [8.4], T a b l e 9 . 2 . 1 / D E 1 . 1 , a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e p a r a m e t e r
H/mcg according t oclause 11.2.7. T h e design o f s u i t a b l e p r o t e c t i o n against v i b r a t i o n s 8.5 E N 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 : I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 1 : D e f i n i t i o n s , p r i n c i p l e s a n d r u l e s ( I E C 6 0 0 7 1 ¬
is o f p r o m i n e n t i m p o r t a n c e . V i b r a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n d e v i c e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r m o s t O P G W 1). Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1995
a n d s h o u l d b e selected according t ot h e guidelines presented i nC h a p t e r 1 1 . P a r t i c u l a r
8.6 D I N 4 8 2 0 1 , P a r t 3 : S t e e l s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s . B e r l i n , D K E , 1 9 9 4
care i snecessary i n t h e s t r i n g i n g w o r k s o foptical cables (seeclause 16.8.4.9).
8.7 E N 5 0 1 8 2 : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d lines - R o u n d w i r e c o n c e n t r i c - l a y s t r a n d e d conductors.
8.5.3 Accessories Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2000

T h e special functions o fO P G W require also corresponding special accessories f o rt h e i r 8.8 M a h l k e , G . ; G o s s i n g , P . : A e r i a l cables w i t h o p t i c a l fibres. M u n i c h - Erlangen, Publicis
Corperate Publishing, 5 t h edition 1998
a t t a c h m e n t a t s u s p e n s i o n a n d s t r a i n s u p p o r t s . T h e fittings s h o u l d p r e v e n t d a m a g e o r
d e f o r m a t i o n , t h a t c a n h a r m t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e o p t i c a l fibres. D a m p i n g fittings, i n 8 . 9 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 : O p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 1 - 1 : G e n e r i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ; G e n e r a l . G e n e v a , I E C ,
p a r t i c u l a r , s h o u l d t a k e c a r e o f t h e o p t i c a l fibres. I n [ 8 . 1 4 ] , [ 8 . 1 7 ] a n d [ 8 . 1 8 ] , fittings 2001
for O P G W are extensively described. I nC h a p t e r 10, examples are s h o w n w i t h a r m o r
8 . 1 0 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 - 1 - 2 : O p t i c a ] fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 1 - 2 : G e n e r i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n - B a s i c o p t i c a l c a b l e
rods f o rsuspension supports a n d dead e n dsupports, a s w e l l a s examples o fv i b r a t i o n
test procedures. Genova, I E C , 1999
dampers.
8 . 1 1 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 - 2 : O p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 2 : P r o d u c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , G e n e v a , I E C , 1 9 8 9

8.12 I E C 60 794-3: O p t i c a l fibre cables. P a r t 3 : Sectional specifications o n outdoor cables.

Geneva, I E C 1998
8.13 A S T M E 8 : S t a n d a r d f o r A l l - D i e l e c t r i c S e l f - S u p p o r t i n g ( A D S S ) o p t i c cable f o r u s e o n
overhead utility lines. N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1997
9 Insulators
8 . 1 4 C i g r e S C 2 2 , W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o fittings f o r o p t i c a l c a b l e s o n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . P a r t 2 B :
T e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s , a l l - d i e l e c t r i c s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g c a b l e fittings a n d o p t i c a l a t t a c h e d c a b l e
fittings. Electra 191 (2000), pp. 6 3t o 75
9.0 Symbols
8.15 C i g r e S C 3 5 W G 3 5 - 0 4 : P r e v e n t i v e a n d c o r r e c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e for o p t i c a l cables o n over-
head power lines. Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e 133, 2000 Symbols Signification
a g Weight span
8.16 E N 6 1 284: O v e r h e a d lines - R e q u i r e m e n t s a n d tests foF fittings ( I E C 61284). Brussels,
Equivalent span
C E N E L E C , 1998
aw W i n d span
8 . 1 7 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o fittings f o r o p t i c a l c a b l e s o n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . P a r t 1 : Gc A e r o d y n a m i c drag factor
Selection a n d use. E l e c t r a 176 (1998), pp. 5 5 t o 6 5 di Diameter o f ball-and-socket connection
d M a x i m u m diameter o f insulator body
8 . 1 8 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o fittings f o r o p t i c a l c a b l e s o n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . P a r t 2 A : D Conductor diameter w i t h o u t ice
T e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s f o r o p t i c a l g r o u n d w i r e fittings a n d o p t i c a l p h a s e c o n d u c t o r fittings. Dx Conductor diameter w i t h ice accretion
Electra 188 (2000), pp. 4 3 t o 5 3 E Modulus o felasticity
E A Electric strength
8 . 1 9 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 - 1 - 4 : O p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 1 : G e n e r i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n s - S e c t i o n 4 : M e a s u r i n g Ey,E 2 N u m b e r o f samples t o be tested
methods for transmission a n d optical characteristics. Geneva, I E C , 1995 Acceleration o f gravity
9
9i W e i g h t o f ice a c c r e t i o n p e r u n i t l e n g t h
8 . 2 0 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 - 4 - 1 : O p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 4 - 1 : A e r i a l o p t i c a l c a b l e s f o r h i g h - v o l t a g e p o w e r
Sres Resulting conductor load per unit l e n g t h
lines. Geneva, I E C , 1999
K Correction factor for air h u m i d i t y a n d density
8.21 G h a n n o u m , E . e t al.: Design, testing and validation o foptical ground wires and hardware L Nominal length o fthe insulator
for use i n H y d r o - Q u e b e c ' s 5000 k m o f t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k . C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 1 , m c Conductor mass per unit length
1996 m-cS Conductor weight per unit length
n2 Number o f subconductors
N Total number o f units in a lot
P Nominal height o fa cap-and-pin insulator
Q W i n d pressure
9o Reference w i n d pressure
Qc C o n d u c t o r tensile force
QG W e i g h t force
Qis Load o finsulator
<3w W i n d load
<9WJ W i n d load o nconductor with ice accretion
Ty,T 2 Conductor temperature
f-Aiw Insulation coordination withstand voltage
uip Representative overvoltage
Gw Required w i t h s t a n d voltage
Us Highest voltage o f equipment
w W i n d force per u n i t l e n g t h
z Height above ground
7 M Material partial factor
<5lM Dissipation angle
£r Relative permitivity
Pa Density o f ceramic r a w material
0ft Flexural strength, unglazed
0fg F l e x u r a l s t r e n g t h , glazed
01, 02 C o n d u c t o r tensile stress

9.1 Introduction
T h e insulators a r eoverhead line c o m p o n e n t s i n s t a l l e d b e t w e e n live conductors a n d
e a r t h e d p a r t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s , b e i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s u b j e c t e d t o m e c h a n i c a l a n d elec-
t r i c s t r e s s e s . T h e insulation performance needs, therefore, t o b e designed for t h e m o s t
a d v e r s e operating conditions r e s u l t i n g f r o m c l i m a t i c i m p a c t s , s u c h a s a m b i e n t t e m p e r -
258 9Insulators 9.2 C e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s 2 5 9

T a b l e 9 . 1 : Cap-and-pin insulators according t oI E C 60 305 w i t h ball-and-socket connection

Designation E l e ct r o- m e ch an ic al Maximum nominal No roin.il Minimum Standardized
or mechanical diameter of the height nominal connection
failing load insulator body d p creepage acr tn TEC 1 9f>
path OLL. ID IDC LZJ\J

KIN mm mm mm Ul
a) Bell-type insulator b) Twin bell-type insulator c) two part delta d) HD insulator
1849 1858 bell-type insulator 1920 U 40 B 40 175 110 190 11
1905 U 40 B P 40 210 110 295 11
U 70 B S 70 255 127 295 16
U 70 B L 70 255 146 295 16
U 70 B L P 70 280 146 440 16
U 100 B S 100 255 127 295 16
U 100 B L 100 255 146 295 16
U 100 B L P 100 2 80 146 440 16
U 120 B 120 255 146 295 16
U 120 B P 120 280 146 440 16
U 160 B S 160 280 14 6 315 20
U 160 B S P 160 330 146 440 20
U 160 B L 160 280 170 340 20
U 160 B L P 160 330 170 525 20
e) Hewlett-insulator f) Cap-and-pin insulator g) Fog-type cap-and-pin insulator
(suspension insulator) igiO 1928 U 210 B 210 300 170 370 20
1907 U 210 B P 210 330 170 525 20
U 300 B 300 330 175 390 24
F i g u r e 9 . 1 : Line post and cap-and-pin insulators U 300 B P 300 400 175 590 24
U 400 B 400 380 275 525 28
U 530 B 530 380 240 600 32
a t u r e s , h u m i d i t y , d e w , f o g , r a i n , a s w e l l a s pollution b y d e p o s i t s o f d u s t s , s a l t s , firing
r e s i d u a l s a n d i n d u s t r i a l g a s e s . T h e mechanical resistance should be so high that ev-
e r y i n c i d e n t l o a d i s c a r r i e d w i t h e n o u g h o p e r a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . Disruptive strength a n d
electrical arc resistance s h o u l d b e l a r g e e n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d t h e resulting stresses. T h e bell-type i n s u l a t o r f r o m 1858 s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9.1 b was o r i g i n a l l y used f o r t h e
Definitions can b e f o u n d i n I E C 60050-471 [9.1] i n s u l a t i o n o f t e l e p h o n e l i n e s . T h a t shape w a s b a s i c a l l y k e p t , w h e n t h e l i n e p o s t i n s u -
T o a c c o m p l i s h s u c h t a s k s , s e v e r a l insulator shapes h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d s o m e h a v e l a t o r o f t h e H D t y p e (high-voltage delta insulator) f o roverhead lines was created and
disappeared f r o m t h e m a r k e t i n t h e last 100 years since t r a n s m i s s i o n o f electric energy f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e H W t y p e (high-voltage wide shed insulator). T h e existing
h a d s t a r t e d ; t h e c u r r e n t l y e x i s t i n g insulator designs r e s u l t t h e r e f r o m . t e c h n i q u e s a t t h a t t i m e r e q u i r e d cap-and-pin insulators ( F i g u r e 9.1 f ) for higher voltage
Porcelain as t h e first i n s u l a t o r material d e v e l o p e d h a s b e e n u s e d u n t i l t o d a y , t h o u g h levels t o b e produced i n separate p a r t s a n d c e m e n t e d together t h e n . T h e development
w i t h i m p r o v e d c o m p o s i t i o n d e s i g n . T o u g h e n e d glass a n d plastic o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s a n d o f pin-type insulators w i t h h i g h e r p u n c t u r e a n d flashover voltages came t o a n e n d i n
recipes appeared along t h e t i m e as i n s u l a t o r r a w m a t e r i a l s , too. I n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n - 1920 w h e n t h e H D types s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9.1 d w e r e achieved. T h e y have been still used
dards o f i n s u l a t o r s reflect t h e h i g h q u a l i t y available today, b u t d o n o t exclude n e w r a w u p t o 6 9 k V i nsome p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d .
m a t e r i a l s a n d f u r t h e r development t o n e w i n s u l a t o r types a n d designs. A n o t h e r insulatingprinciple h a d t o b e studied due t o t h e increasing transmission volt-
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 60 3 8 3 - 1 [9.2], o v e r h e a d l i n e i n s u l a t o r s are classified i n t w o t y p e s , t y p e a g e l e v e l s . S o , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y t h e suspension insulator appeared.
A and t y p e B , respectively. T y p e A insulators are characterized b y t h e fact, that t h e B y means o f similar u n i t s j o i n e d together like c h a i n elements, the i n s u l a t i o n level re-
l e n g t h o f t h e s h o r t e s t puncture path t h r o u g h t h e i n s u l a t i n g b o d y i s a t l e a s t h a l f o f t h e q u i r e d f o r t h e r e s p e c t i v e o p e r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d b e a c c o m p l i s h e d . T h e Hewlett
flashover path o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e . T h i s a p p l i e s t o l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s , f o r . i n s t a n c e . insulator s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9 . 1 e w a s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t t y p e s o f string insulators, whose
S u c h i n s u l a t o r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s puncture-proof. I n s u l a t o r s f o r w h i c h t h e l e n g t h o f t h e bodies were embraced b y cable loops a n d are, t h u s , loaded b y compression only. B o t h
s h o r t e s t p u n c t u r e p a t h t h r o u g h t h e b o d y i s less t h a n t h e h a l f o f t h e flashover path the low dielectric p u n c t u r e s t r e n g t h a n d t h e risk o f damage o f the cable loops d u e t o
are classified as t y p e B insulators, f o r instance cap-and-pin i n s u l a t o r s a n dline post v i b r a t i o n s a n d arcs were disadvantageous aspects. T h e H e w l e t t i n s u l a t o r s w e r e replaced
i n s u l a t o r s . T h e y axe considered a s n o t p u n c t u r e - p r o o f . A c c o r d i n g t o p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g y , b y t h e cap-and-pin insulators ( F i g u r e 9 . 1 f ) w h i c h h a v e b e e n u s e d w o r l d w i d e s i n c e t h e n .
p u n c t u r e - p r o o f solid-core insulators c a n n o t b e m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m g l a s s . In C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n countries, the cap-and-pin insulators were produced and used, a t
first, i n various designs t o c o m p l y w i t h different electric a n d mechanical load condi-
t i o n s . T h e m a n y e x i s t i n g d e s i g n s f o r t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e pin t o t h e p o r c e l a i n b o d y
9.2 C e r a m i c insulators i n d i c a t e t h e degree o f difficulties p r o d u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n w e r e faced w i t h , as i t u a t i o n
not different f r o m that i nother countries. W h i l e there i t was aimed a t further devel-
9.2.1 Insulator types a n dt h e i r application
o p m e n t o f c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s ( F i g u r e 9.2) t h r o u g h i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n
S i n c e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e first u n i t s o f p o r c e l a i n b e l l - t y p e i n s u l a t o r s b y W e r n e r v o n techniques, m o r e economic m a t e r i a l s as well as m o u l d i n g a n d cementing processes, i n
Siemens i n1849 (Figure 9.1 a), the ceramic insulators have been developed t o accom- Central E u r o p e n e w alternative i n s u l a t i o n systems were being researched.
plish a l l o p e r a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s t o b ec o m p l i e d w i t h b yh i g h - q u a l i t y c o m p o n e n t s . B y 1 9 1 9 , t h e Motor insulator a p p e a r e d i n S w i t z e r l a n d , a d o u b l e s h e d solid-core insula-
 a.z u e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s z o i

T a b l e 9 . 2 : C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s w i t h clevis a n d socket caps according t o

I E C 60433
Designation Standardized Power with- Specified Maximum nominal Minimum
lightning stand voltage minimum diameter d of the creepage
impulse with- wet failing insulator body path
stand voltage load
kV kV kN mm mm
L 40 B / C 170 170 70 40 160 576
L 60 B / C 170 170 70 60 160 576

F i g u r e 9.2:: C a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r according t o I E C 6 0 3 0 5 : F i g u r e 9.3: Doubleshed L 100 B/C 170 170 70 100 180 576
L 100 B/C 250 250 95 100 180 832
a) s t a n d a r d type, b ) a n t i - p o l l u t i o n t y p e ( P ) solid-core insulator
L 100 B/C 325 325 140 100 180 1160
L 100 B/C 450 450 185 100 180 1968
L 100 B/C 550 550 -230 100 180 1968
L 120 B/C 325 325 140 120 200 1160
L 120 B/C 450 450 185 120 200 1968
L 120 B/C 550 550 230 120 200 1968
L 120 B/C 650 650 275 120 200 2320
L 160 B/C 325 325 140 160 210 1160
L 160 B/C 450 450 185 160 210 1968
L 160 B/C 550 550 230 160 210 1968
L 160 B/C 650 650 275 160 210 2320
L 210 B/C 325 325 140 210 220 1160
L 210 B/C 450 450 185 210 220 1968
L 210 B/C 550 550 230 210 220 1968
L 210 B/C 650 650 275 210 220 2320
L 250 B / C 5 5 0 550 230 250 230 1968
L 250 B / C 650 650 275 250 230 2320
L 300 B / C 550 550 230 300 240 1968
L 300 B / C 650 650 275 300 240 2320
L 330 B / C 550 550 230 330 250 1968
L 330 B / C 650 650 275 330 250 2320
F i g u r e 9.4: L o n g r o d insulators: a ) w i t h socket F i g u r e 9.5: Typical application o fi n -
caps; b ) w i t h clevis caps sulating crossarms (delta configuration) L 360 B / C 550 550 230 360 250 1968
L 360 B / C 650 650 275 360 250 2320
L 400 B / C 550 550 230 400 260 1968
L 400 B / C 650 650 275 400 260 2320
tor ( F i g u r e 9 . 3 ) . A n o v e l t y w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p o r c e l a i n w a s l o a d e d b y t e n s i l e s t r e s s ,
L 530 B / C 550 550 230 530 270 1968
a l t h o u g h i t s tensile s t r e n g t h reached o n l y o n et e n t h o ft h e resistance t o compression.
L 530 B / C 650 650 275 530 270 2320
T h i s design sethigh tensile strengths a n d a reliable production as premises. D u e t o t h e
relation between the length o fthe flashover p a t h i nthe air and the puncture p a t h i n
the i n s u l a t i n g m e d i u m , t h i s t y p e o fi n s u l a t o r i s n o t susceptible t o p u n c t u r e . a l t e r n a t i v e t o c o n v e n t i o n a l l i n e designs. I n F i g u r e 9.5, a 1 1 0k V l i n e w i t h i n s u l a t i n g
T h e long rod insulator according t o F i g u r e 9 . 4represents a f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f c r o s s a r m s is s h o w n . F o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , l i n e post i n s u l a t o r s are used, t h e characteristics
the double shed solid-core insulator. I t s simple a n d clear s t r u c t u r e , t h e advantageous o f w h i c h c a n b e f o u n d i n I E C 60 7 2 0 [9.4].
electric characteristics under h i g h p o l l u t i o n a n d its high reliability have led the long r o d T h e use o finsulators i n cantilever applications combines s t r u c t u r a l w i t h electric char-
insulator t oa privileged r a n k i nseveral E u r o p e a n countries. D u e t ot h e possibility o f acteristics; such solutions, w i t h n o metallic elements between phases, need low phase
easy m o d i f i c a t i o n s , severed special versions w e r e designed t o a c c o m p l i s h different tasks. spacing thus resulting i n compact supports being a ni m p o r t a n t a n d desirable condition
So, t h e s a m e basic cross section o f t h e b o d y m a y encompass diverse shed diameters, i n n e w l i n e s w h e r e h i g h c a p a c i t i e s a r e r e q u i r e d . P a p e r s [9.5] a n d [9 6 ] d e s c r i b e s e v -
shed shapes a n d s h e d d i s t a n c e s . E N 6 0 4 3 3 [ 9 . 3 ] s t a n d a r d i z e s l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s w i t h eral c o m p a c t lines w i t h i n s u l a t o r s used a si n s u l a t e d crossarms. I n s u l a t e d crossarms are
ball-and-socket a n d clevis-and-tongue type caps. T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n s u l a t o r f a v o u r a b l e f o r u p r a t i n g l i n e s a s d e s c r i b e d i n [9.7] f o r c o n v e r s i o n o f a 6 6 k V l i n e i n t o
t y p e s a r e s h o w n i n F i g u r e s 9 . 2 a n d 9.4. T h e i r d a t a c a n b e seen i n T a b l e s 9.1 t o 9.3. 220 k Vi n Spain.
Advances i n technologies o f i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s enable t o replace support crossarms Cap-and-pin insulators are standardized regarding u l t i m a t e strength, diameter, spacing
b y i n s u l a t o r s . Insulating crossarms w i t h long r o d insulators can b em o u n t e d directly a t a n d creepage d i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o [9.8]. T h e i r c o u p l i n g s a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d b y I E C 6 0 120
the tower body. T h e conductor isattached t o the insulator head. T h e i r advantages c a n ( b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t c o u p l i n g s ) [9.9] a n d I E C 6 0 4 7 1 ( c l e v i s - a n d - t o n g u e c o u p l i n g s ) [9.10].
be m e n t i o n e d a sbeing a reduced overall d i m e n s i o n a n d height o f t h e supports. R i g h t s - L o c k i n g devices are specified i n I E C 6 0 3 7 2 [9.11].
of-way a n d crossed areas c a n b e noticeably reduced. E m e r g e n c y structures o r other
t e m p o r a r i l y used line designs a r e preferably equipped w i t h such t y p e o fs t r u c t u r a l
e l e m e n t s . I n s o m e c o u n t r i e s , t h e y a r e a p p l i e d t o v o l t a g e s u p t o Us = 1 4 5 k V a s a n
262 9 Insulators 9.2 C e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s 2 6 3

T a b l e 9.3: D i m e n s i o n s of connections of long r o d insulators w i t h clevis a n d socket according T a b l e 9.4: Characteristics o f ceramic materials according t o I E C 60672-3
t o I E C 60 433 C-100 C-200
Designation Connection B 1 ' Connection C 2 ' Type 110 120 130 220 221
•
Standardized dimension Arl a x i m u m Standardized dimension Characteristics Symbol Units
Aiaximum
nominal of connection (bolt nomin al of connection (bolt dia-
length. L diameter according length Ti meter according to Density of raw material *' g/cm3 2,2 2,3 2,5 2,6 2,7
Pa
nun to I E C 60 120) mm I E C 60 471) Flexural strength, unglazed "ft MPa 50 90 140 120 140
4dUfl LRJ j \/ P- i 7fi 380 H 400 13L
TLi 11 lU Flexural strength, glazed "fr MPa 60 no 160
T R H R / O
I1 7I fVl
11 13L Modulus of elasticity x'
E GPa n. d.2»
Li O U O / G 1UU 11 4 2 U
60 100 80 110
L 100 B / C 170 450 16 475 19L (16L) 31
Electric strength l ' kV/mm 20
20 20 15 20
L 100 B / C 250 580 16 605 19L (16L) 3)
Relative permitivity St 6 to 7 6 to 7 6 to 7,5 6 6
inn Tt IC one 87 C 16 nnn
yuu 1 QT (1 R J "\ 3 )
T
48 to 62 H z
TL inn
1UU TO
B // U
c oen
325 1 nor: 1 on 1 QT (-\ R I ^ 3^
L 1UU B / Q 43U 10R 11
Dissipation factor
1 1 2U ii yr»TL {1 R J \ 3) tan 5 L M - •HT3 12 12 15 3 1,2
L 100 B / C 550 1240 16 1270 (101-1)
at 20°C, 1 MHz
L 120 B/C 325 870 16 905 19L (16L) 3 )
Explanations: Type 110: siliceous porcelain, plastic-processed; Type 120: aluminous porcelain; Type
L 120 B/C 450 1085 16 1120 19L (16L) 31
130: aluminous porcelain, high-strength; Type 220: normal steatite; Type 221: low-loss steatite
L 120 B/C 550 1240 16 1275 19L (16L) 31
l ' minimum values, 2 * not defined
L 120 B/C 650 1430 16 1465 19L (16L) 3)

L 160 B/C 325 885 20 920 19L

L 160 B/C 450 1100 20 1135 19L
L 160 B/C 550 1255 20 1290 19L
Kaolin Feldspar
L 160 B/C 650 1445 20 1465 19L (floating
[clay component)
L 210 B / C 325 905 20 940 22L 70 component)
L 210 B / C 450 1120 20 1155 22L
1 OTA on 1 n n
L 21U 0 / 0 55U 12(5 2U DDT

T 9 1 ( 1 R / I " 1 fieri 1465 on 1500 22L

z.0
T ocn 13 r r n ioU5 0A i iifi DDT

L 250 r s / O 55U i Rnn

24
22L
Li Z U U D O U OA
2 4 1530
TL oUUonn rj /r+ ecri
o / O 55U 1i in OA
2 4 i is x D M

TLi ftflfl
i 3 U U LRJ f IC
\ - i OKD^ U
fi 1520 24 1DOU 25L
T
L
ion D13 / Or r
33U n
55U i ifin oc
2o i1 4 AU U nn DRT
2 0 Li
oou OR 1 ^Q^ 28L
L* o o V LJ j \-i D D U 1
20 30 40 50 60 70 90%100 F i g u r e 9 . 6 : Triangle o f condition for hard
L 360 B / C 550 1360 28 1410 28L Quartz (C-110, C-120) porcelain a n d steatite. 1 C-110 a n d C-120;
L 360 B / C 650 1550 28 1600 28L Soapstone (C-220) 2 C-220
L 400 B / C 550 1400 28 1460 28L
L 400 B / C 650 1600 28 1660 28L
L 530 B / C 550 1450 32 1520 32L H F - t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s . S o a p s t o n e i s u s e d i n s t e a d o f quartz i n c a s e o f s t e a t i t e s , t h u s
L 530 B / C 650 1650 32 1720 32L d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e final p r o d u c t ( F i g u r e 9 . 6 ) . B a s i c p r o p e r t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t
ri ball-and-socket connection 21 clevis-and-tongue connection, 31 sizenot preferred r a w m a t e r i a l s a r e established i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s I E C 60 672-3 [9.14].
T h e m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e r a w m a t e r i a l s hard porcelain a n d steatites c a n b e
r e m a r k a b l y a f f e c t e d b y b o t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f o x i d e s a n d t h e e m p l o y e d g l a z e s . Glaze a i m s
9.2.2 R a w materials a t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f dirt accumulation b y means o f s m o o t h i n g the insulator surface, and
increases simultaneously the strength o f the insulator b y prestressing.
T o d a y , i n s u l a t o r s m a d e o f ceramic raw materials a r e p r o d u c e d f r o m q u a r t z p o r c e l a i n I n d i v i d u a l technical data o felectric insulator r a w materials d e p e n d o nthe temperature
C - 1 1 0 , a l u m i n i u m o x i d e p o r c e l a i n C-120 o r C-130 a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 60 672-1 [9.12] o r a n d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e e l e c t r i c v o l t a g e . T h e fatigue strength o f c e r a m i c r a w m a t e r i a l s ,
steatite o f t h e C - 2 2 0 t y p e . A r e p o r t o n t h e l o n g - t e r m e x p e r i e n c e w i t h l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s u n l i k e m e t a l s , i s v e r y close t o t h e i r static s t r e n g t h . T h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i r specific
c a n b e f o u n d i n [9.13]. I n s u l a t o r s p r o d u c e d t o d a y consist m a i n l y o fC - 1 2 0 a n d C - 1 3 0 , s t r e n g t h as t h ecross section o f the i n s u l a t i n g b o d y increases i s a characteristic o f
the latter being high-strength a l u m i n i u m oxide porcelain. c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l s . I n f a c t , t h e r e a r e s t a n d a r d test specimens ( f o r i n s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o
Properties o fporcelain are controlled b y the p r o p o r t i o n o f different minerals i n the m i x - I E C 6 0672-2 [9.15]); however, t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h values o b t a i n e d c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d
t u r e ( F i g u r e 9.6). T h e q u a l i t y o f t h e product, especially t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f its properties, for larger cross sections directly. T h e s t r e n g t h o f porcelain as a f u n c t i o n o f the insulator
depends m a i n l y o n u n i f o r m and asfar as possible constant composition o f the m i x t u r e . d i a m e t e r i s s e t d o w n i n t h e g r a p h s o f F i g u r e 9.7. T h o s e d i a g r a m s c a n v a r y d e p e n d i n g
G r o u p C - 1 0 0 a r e siliceous and aluminous porcelains based o n alkaline a l u m i n i u m sil- o n the differing production procedures and knowledge o f individual manufacturers.
ica and p r o d u c e d f r o m kaolin, feldspar a n d quartz. A l l g r o u p C-100 porcelains have
t h e s a m e electric properties, especially a h i g h electric s t r e n g t h t op u n c t u r e , b u t dif-
9.2.3 Production
fer i n t h e i r mechanical s t r e n g t h (Table 9.4). T h e c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l s o f g r o u p C - 2 0 0
(steatites and forsterites) are based o n m a g n e s i u m silicate and characterized b y a h i g h L o n g r o d insulators
compression resistance a n d l o w d i e l e c t r i c l o s s e s ; t h e y a r e o f t e n u s e d f o r i n s u l a t i o n o f T h e highly simplified and schematic representation o fFigure 9.8 shows the different
zo^i y liisuiaburs a.o <jiass i n s u i a r o r s z o o

porcelain

\\\l///
composition

160
N/mm2
j120
zone under compression
P 80
filtration
to
a. 40 pressing
c pre-drying
TJ
• t i l partly
S o0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 mm 220
Diameter —•
shaping the
contour
drying
glazing

firing process

F i g u r e 9 . 9 : P r o d u c t i o n o f glass cap-and-pin insulators F i g u r e 9 . 1 0 : Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n

40 60 80 mm 120 final finishing for h a r d e n e d glass i n s u l a t o r s
Diameter • checking

F i g u r e 9.7: Bending and tensile strength o f cylindrical F i g u r e 9.8: Production Assemblies

rods depending o nthe diameter. stages o f porcelain i n s u -
1 rods w i t h o u t sheds; 2 rods w i t h sheds lators
stages of the production o f h a r d p o r c e l a i n s t a r t i n g from t h e s t o r a g e o f r a w m a t e r i a l s
u n t i l final i n s p e c t i o n . S e l e c t e d ingredients of high purity a n d h o m o g e n e o u s p r o p e r t i e s
are weighed, m i x e d t o f o r m u l a specifications a n d subjected t o a g r i n d i n g process. Vac-
u u m extrusion presses f o r m t h e p l a s t i c filter cake i n t o c y l i n d r i c a l b l a n k s a d j u s t e d w i t h
diameters t othe long rod type t ob e produced. A f t e r being cut t olength, they are sub-
j e c t e d t o a c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d drying process t o c o n d i t i o n t h e m f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g s h a p i n g
s t e p s . Vertical lathes a r e u s e d t o m a c h i n e t h e b l a n k t o t h e d e s i r e d c o n t o u r f o r t h e r a w
product. A f t e r another d r y i n g stage t h e u n f i n i s h e d i n s u l a t o r already possesses a h i g h
s t r e n g t h due t o t h e clay b o n d a n d is ready f o rt h e application o f t h e glazing b ya n
immersion process. T h e s u b s e q u e n t firing stage c r e a t e s n e w t y p e s o f c r y s t a l s o u t o f t h e
conglomerate o fvarious m i n e r a l s f o r m i n g the porcelain a n d t h e h a r d ceramic structure.
T h e c o n t r o l o f firing p r o c e s s g a i n s h i g h s i g n i f i c a n c e w h e n p r o d u c i n g p o r c e l a i n i n s u l a -
t o r s . T o o s t r o n g l y o r t o o l o w l y fired p o r c e l a i n i s c a p a b l e o f s u c k i n g a n d , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s
not c o m p l y w i t h the requirement o f a h i g h density. M o d e r n furnaces w i t h automatic
c o n t r o l o f t h e firing t e m p e r a t u r e a n d e n e r g y r e c u p e r a t i o n f r o m t h e e x h a u s t g a s e s e n -
a b l e a c o n s t a n t q u a l i t y o f firing a n d h a v e p r o v e d t o b e e c o n o m i c a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y
friendly.
C a p - a n d - p i n insulators
T h e m a t e r i a l o f porcelain cap-and-pin i n s u l a t o r s i s processed as i n case o f long r o d
insulators. T h e cakes are u n i f o r m l y kneaded, e x t r u d e d b y a p u g m i l l a n d cut i n t o pieces
of proper length. A f t e r preforming, t h e pieces are p u t into m o u l d s a n d f o r m e d i n t o the
s h a p e w a n t e d b y p r e s s i n g . T h e n , t h e y a r e finished a n d d r i e d . A f t e r d r y i n g , t h e g l a z e i s
a p p l i e d . T h e p r e p a r e d u n i t s a r e fired i n t u n n e l k i l n s a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 1 300° C . T h e
c o n t r o l o f t h e firing p r o c e s s g u a r a n t e e s a c o n s t a n t l y h i g h q u a l i t y .
A l l o v e r h e a d l i n e i n s u l a t o r s a r e e q u i p p e d w i t h fittings b e f o r e d e l i v e r y . F a s t e n i n g o f
metallic caps o n long r o d insulators is carried out today mostly through p o u r i n g o f
the space between fitting a n d c e r a m i c c o n e w i t h a lead antimony alloy o r Portland
cement; sulphur cement i s u s e d o n l y s e l d o m . I n r e g i o n s w h e r e t h e i n s u l a t o r c a p s c a n
r e a c h t e m p e r a t u r e s a b o v e 80°C, P o r t l a n d c e m e n t o r l e a d a n t i m o n y a l l o y w i t h a m e l t -
i n g t e m p e r a t u r e o f 4 0 0 t o 450°C s h o u l d b e u s e d . B e f o r e c o m p l e t i o n w i t h c l e v i s o r
s o c k e t c a p s , t h e a d d i t i o n a l i n s u l a t o r l e n g t h r e q u i r e d f o r t h e firing s t a g e i s s e p a r a t e d
f r o m t h e c e r a m i c b l a n k a n d i n t e r n a l quality checks axe c a r r i e d o u t , e . g . t h e ultrasonic
test. P o r t l a n d o r s u l p h u r c e m e n t i s e m p l o y e d f o r connecting the fittings o f c a p - a n d - p i n
insulators.
9.3 Glass insulators
9.3.1 R a w materials and production
C a p - a n d - p i n toughened glass i n s u l a t o r s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o p o r c e -
lain insulators for overhead lines. T h e i n s u l a t i n g b o d y i s m a d e o f m o l t e n silica oxide
a n d other m i n e r a l salts.
T h e glass dielectric p a r t i so b t a i n e d t h r o u g h m e l t i n g t h e r a w materials b y a continuous
process w h i c h guarantees homogeneity o f the chemical composition o f the insulating
unit. T h e production starts w i t h the m i x i n g and grinding o fraw materials followed b y
t h e a d d i t i o n o f a p o r t i o n o f recycled glass ( F i g u r e 9.9). T h e n e x t step is t h e m e l t i n g ;
i t s p u r i t y i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a u n i f o r m q u a l i t y o f t h e final p r o d u c t . I n a s e q u e n c e , t h e
fluid g l a s s m a s s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i n s u l a t o r t y p e i s t a k e n o u t o f t h e f u r n a c e s o t h a t
t h e i n s u l a t i n g b o d y can b e p r o d u c e d i n r o t a t i n g m o u l d s . Undesired i n t e r n a l stresses
are prevented t h r o u g h controlled cooling after shaping t h e insulator body. T h e blank
is s u b m i t t e d t o a n i n t e r m e d i a t e cooling f o l l o w e d b y h e a t i n g t o a t e m p e r a t u r e o f a b o u t
266 9 Insulators
600° C , w h i l e i t s s u r f a c e i s t e m p e r e d b y c o m p r e s s i o n a i r . W i t h o u t a n y s t r u c t u r a l c h a n g e s
- m e r e l y b y m e a n s o f diverse cooling speeds o f t h e glass zones o f t h e i n s u l a t o r b o d i e s
- compressive stresses close t o t h e surface a s w e l l a s tensile stresses i n t h e i n n e r p a r t s
a r e f o r m e d s o t h a t t h e g l a s s p a r t s a r e prestressed [9.16] ( F i g u r e 9.10). T h i s process
r e s u l t s i n a n essential increase o f t h e s t r e n g t h values. T h e differences i n stresses r e s u l t
i n t h e characteristic s p l i t t i n g b e h a v i o u r w h e n e v e r s u d d e n i m p a c t s reach t h e stressed
z o n e . A final temperature shock t h r o u g h i m m e r s i o n i n c o l d w a t e r t e s t s t h i s e f f e c t d u r i n g
p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e u n f i n i s h e d b o d i e s a n d selects f a u l t y ones. A f t e r t h e c o o l i n g process,
t h e glass bodies are s u b m i t t e d t o a d e t a i l e d v i s u a l test t o search f o rinclusions a n d ,
whenever desired, a second t e m p e r a t u r e shock t r e a t m e n t c a n b e applied i n order t o
minimize premature failures.
G l a s s c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s a x e t h e n finished a t a f u l l y a u t o m a t i c p r o d u c t i o n l i n e b y
means of c o m p l e t i o n cementing between t h e socket o rclevis caps a n d t h e pins or tongues
t o t h e g l a s s b o d i e s . T h e caps a r e m a d e o f g a l v a n i z e d malleable cast iron, t h e p i n s o r
tongues are m a d e o f galvanized heat treatable steel. T h e h i g h l y a u t o m a t e d production
o f t h e glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s has p r o v e d t o b e c o m m e r c i a l l y p r o f i t a b l e . W h e n it i s
deemed necessary for D Capplications o r i n p o l l u t e d areas, t h e p i n isprotected against
c o r r o s i o n b y p r e s s i n g a r o u n d w i t h a zinc alloy sleeve t o f o r m a sacrificial electrode.
After completion o f the production process including hardening o f the cementing and
a mechanical r o u t i n e test, t h e insulators are stored for some weeks, since t h e hetero-
g e n e o u s d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s e s w i t h i n t h e i n s u l a t o r b o d i e s l e a d s t o n o t i c e a b l e self
breaking d u r i n g t h e s u b s e q u e n t w e e k s . H o w e v e r , t h e f r a g m e n t s w i t h i n t h e c a p , d u e t o
their increased v o l u m e , keep t h e cemented p i n w i t h i n the. c a p w i t h a force o f a b o u t
90 % o f its original value, w h i c h w o u l d practically prevent separation o f the insulator
strings whenever damage occurred during operation.
9.3.2 Insulator types and application
C a p - a n d - p i n insulator m i n i m u mfailing loads, cross sections, r a t e d spacing a n d creepage
p a t h characteristics f o l l o w t h e s t a n d a r d s g i v e n i n [9.8]. T h e b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t o r clevis-
a n d - t o n g u e c o n n e c t i o n s a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d b y I E C 6 0 1 2 0 [9.9] a n d I E C 6 0 4 7 1 [9.10],
respectively.
Glass cap-and-pin insulators w i t h b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t c o n n e c t i o n a x e f o u n d t o b e u n d e r t h e
m o s t m a r k e t a b l e types b o t h i nn a r r o w a n d w i d e spacing. C a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s for
use i n heavily p o l l u t e d regions are m a n u f a c t u r e d w i t h larger creepage paths achieved
by m e a n s o f m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e skirts o n t h e b o t t o m side o f t h e insulator. I n s u l a t o r s
w i t h l a r g e r creepage p a t h s a r e also s t a n d a r d i z e d i n [9.8]. I E C 6 0 815 [9.17] refers t o t h e
selection o finsulators depending o n t h e degree o fp o l l u t i o n at t h e line construction site.
I n polluted areas, a s i m p l e adjustment of the creepage distance b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r
of insulators w i t h i n a string o r b y selecting shells w i t h increased creepage distance is
possible i n a n economic m a n n e r . C a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s p r o v e d t ob e advantageous for
use i n V - t y p e i n s u l a t o r sets w h i c h p e r m i t a s m a l l e r r i g h t - o f - w a y b e c a u s e o f t h e absence
of s w i n g i n g transversally t o t h e conductor direction. D u e t o t h e fact t h a t mechanical
i n t e g r i t y is u s u a l l y m a i n t a i n e d i n case o f cap- a n d - p i n - t y p e glass i n s u l a t o r strings e v e n
w h e n l o o s i n g i n d i v i d u a l s h e l l s , e . g . b y e f f e c t s o f a r c i n g o r vandalism, c o n d u c t o r b u s
b a r s o fs u b s t a t i o n s a r e f r e q u e n t l y e q u i p p e d w i t h single c a p - a n d - p i n glass i n s u l a t o r sets.
T h e h i g h e r w e i g h t o f c a p - a n d - p i n glass i n s u l a t o r sets c o m p a r e d w i t h l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r
sets i s a d i s a d v a n t a g e .
I n areas o f h i g h p o l l u t i o n levels, corrosion a t t h e pins occurs r e s u l t i n g i n r e d u c t i o n o f
t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n c a u s e d b y leakage currents.
A c c o r d i n g t o experience, t h e self-destroying o fi n s u l a t o r shells c o m e s t oa stop i n case o f
m o d e r n c a p - a n d - p i n g l a s s i n s u l a t o r s a f t e r t h e first y e a r b e i n g i n s e r v i c e . S t a t i s t i c l o n g -
9.4 C o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s 2 6 7
t e r m s t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n a n e t w o r k l e d t o a n a n n u a l failure rate o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
4 • 1 0 - 5 w i t h o u t recognizable e x t e r n a l actions.
9.4 Composite insulators
9.4.1 R a w materials, design and production
F o r m a n y y e a r s , plastic o r synthetic resins o f d i v e r s e c o m p o s i t i o n s h a v e b e e n u s e d ,
besides c e r a m i c a n d glass, for t h e i n s u l a t i o n o f electric installations. I n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s
s u c h a s a r o m a t i c a n d a l i p h a t i c e p o x i d r e a c t i v e r e s i n s , teflon ( P T F E - p o l y t e t r a f l u o r o -
ethylene) a swell assilicone r u b b e r s are used. Besides t h e u s u a l i n s u l a t i n g characteristics
n e c e s s a r y i n c a s e o f o v e r h e a d a p p l i c a t i o n s , h i g h resistance against ultraviolet radiation
is r e q u i r e d f o r t h e p l a s t i c o r s y n t h e t i c r e s i n s . A s l o n g a s t h e y d o n o t f u l f i l t h a t l a t t e r
requirement, a r o m a t i c epoxy resins are only applied indoors.
Insulators m a d e o fhomogeneous plastic or synthetic resins are applied a t voltages u p t o
Us = 3 6 k V . T h e s e i n s u l a t o r s a r e m a d e o f c y c l o a l y p h a t i c r e s i n s . T h e y a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d
b y a w i d e degree o f f r e e d o m w i t h respect t o t h e i r m o u l d i n g , a g o o d accuracy t o size
a n d t h e possibility o f j o i n t casting o f fastening elements. T h e y also have low weight.
H o w e v e r , their low leakage c u r r e n t s t r e n g t h i s disadvantageous. Research t o i m p r o v e
the composition o fr a w materials iscontinuously under way.
I n s u l a t i o n for higher voltages is also h i g h l y stressed f r o m t h e mechanical s t a n d p o i n t ,
t h u s r e q u i r i n g c o m p o s i t e i n s u L a t o r s w i t h glass fibre reinforced cores (GFC) o f c a s t r e s i n
t o b e used. I n order t o o b t a i n : t h e necessary creepage p a t h , sheds o f diverse m a t e r i a l s
such asresin-epoxy, polytetrafluoroethylene ( P T F E ) , ethylene-propylene rubber ( E P R )
o r silicone rubber a r e a r r a n g e d a r o u n d t h e c o r e s [ 9 . 1 8 , 9 . 1 9 ] ,
C o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s c a n b e f o r m e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s h e d s fixed o n a c o r e r o d w i t h o r
w i t h o u t a ni n t e r m e d i a t e layer o r a l t e r n a t i v e l yb y a cover o f sheds applied o n t h e core
r o d i n o n e o r several p r o d u c t i o n steps. T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f m a t e r i a l s used a n d t h e p r o -
d u c t i o n process v a r y f r o m m a n u f a c t u r e r t omanufacturer. F i g u r e 9.11 presents a section
o f a c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r . I t i s . p o s s i b l e t o m a n u f a c t u r e a c o n t i n u o u s G F C r o d o f glass
fibre material resistant to brittle failure (electric grade corrosion resistant glass, ECR)
a n d h y d r o l y s i s - r e s i s t a n t cast r e s i n w i t h p r a c t i c a l l y a n y d i a m e t e r . T h e l e n g t h r e q u i r e d
f o r a n y i n s u l a t o r t y p e c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y c u t t i n g . T h e final s t e p i s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
of compression a l u m i n i u m o r steel fittings, w h i c h is cost-effective f r o m t h e technical
s t a n d p o i n t , because o f t h e n & e d o f a stress d i s t r i b u t i o ni n t h e G F C r o d as u n i f o r m as
possible d u r i n g operation. C o n e - and wedge-type fittings are seldom used today due t o
t h e r i s k o f s l i p p i n g , t h u s j e o p a r d i z i n g t h e s e n s i t i v e s e a l i n g b e t w e e n t h e fittings a n d t h e
G F C r o d . T h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h e a t i n g t h e fittings c a u s e d b y p o w e r a r c s s h o u l d b e t a k e n
i n t o a c c o u n t w h e n e v e r c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n . A d e q u a t e l y d e s i g n e d arcing
protection fittings s h o u l d b e u s e d t o p r e v e n t e v e r y k i n d o f d a m a g e t o i n s u l a t o r fittings.
F o r p r o d u c t i o n o f a large n u m b e r o f u n i t s , e. g. o f 110 k V i n s u l a t o r s , t h e use o f m o r e
e x p e n s i v e cast moulds c a n b e j u s t i f i e d , i n w h i c h t h e G F C r o d i s i n t r o d u c e d , s i l i c o n e
is a p p l i e d u n d e r p r e s s u r e a n d o v e r h e a t i n g i s a p p l i e d t o h a r d e n i t . F o r p r o d u c t i o n o f
f e w u n i t s , t h i s m o u l d c a n a l s o b e a p p l i e d f o r e l e m e n t s a r r a n g e d i n a series f o r t h e
single sheds a n d a variable l e n g t h . T h e p r o d u c t i o n process enables t h e fabrication o f
c o m p o s i t e l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s u p t o 6 m long. W h e r e t h e u s eo f single-part m o u l d s
w o u l d b e t o o e x p e n s i v e , s e p a r a t e s h e d s m a d e o f high-temperature cross-linked silicone
a r e p r o d u c e d b y a high pressure injection moulding process. T h e s e s h e d s a r e t h e n s l i d
o n t h e GFC rod p r e v i o u s l y c o a t e d w i t h a s e a m l e s s s i l i c o n e l a y e r a n d v u l c a n i z e d . T h e
chemical connection b e t w e e n t h e G F C r o d , t h e silicone coating a n d t h e sheds e l i m i n a t e s
a n y physical interface. A t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b epaid t ot h e p e r m a n e n t sealing of t h e sensitive
interface area between the fittings, the G F C rod and its correlated coating in order t o
z,uo

170

GFC rod 130 Section Y

chemically bound
connection surface
- 3-HTV-
HTV silicone / silicone rubber (3mm)

F
rubber casing -1 -cast resin
p 22 with glass fibres

VI,
HTV silicone " -±
Detail Z
rubber sheds
y .... F i g u r e 9 . 1 3 : D e a d - e n d i n s u l a t o r set w i t h G F C c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s for a 5 0 0 k V l i n e
silicone rubber
(CeramTec AG)

fitting
i n g t h e m e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r uprating of lines, w i t h o u t t h e n e e d t o m o d i f y t o w e r
d i m e n s i o n s o r r i g h t s - o f - w a y w h e n e v e r h i g h e r s y s t e m voltages are a d o p t e d [9.24].
4H T h e advantage presented b y composite insulators w i t h respect t o their weight is preva-
lent a t t h e 5 0 0k V voltage level a n dhigher. F i g u r e 9 . 1 3shows a dead-end i n s u l a t o r
18 s e t for a 5 0 0 k V l i n e w i t h t w o c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s i n p a r a l l e l . W h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h
c o n v e n t i o n a l i n s u l a t o r s a t t h i s voltage level, c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r sets are preferable due
F i g u r e 9 . 1 1 : Section t h r o u g h a plastic F i g u r e 9.12: Composite insulator made o f to their lower needs o f material, installation a n dmaintenance. For adverse weather
composite insulator G F C a n d silicone rubber c o n d i t i o n s , for lines a l o n g t h e s e acoast a n d f o r D C t r a n s m i s s i o n lines [9.25], t h e g o o d
( R O D U R F L E X made by CeramTec A G ) ( R O D U R F L E X made b y CeramTec A G ) p e r f o r m a n c e o f c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s w i t h silicone r u b b e r sets i sd e t e r m i n a n t u n d e r
c r i t i c a l p o l l u t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . P a p e r [9.26] r e p o r t s o n w o r l d w i d e e x p e r i e n c e o n u s e o f
composite long rod insulators.
a v o i d t h e i n t r u s i o n o f humidity a n d t h e associated r i s k of brittle failure. Figure9.12
D u e t o its low weight a n d its high flexibility, t h e G F C i n s u l a t o r i s u s e d a s phase-to-
s h o w s a c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r . P a p e r [9.19] gives a d e t a i l e d b i b l i o g r a p h y o n t h e subject.
phase spacer at m e d i u m - v o l t a g e c o m p a c t a n d h i g h - v o l t a g e l i n e s t o p r o t e c t t h e m a g a i n s t
phase-to-phase flashovers during galloping.
9.4.2 Types of composite insulators and their application

A l t h o u g h composite i n s u l a t o r s h a v e been i n u s e since t h e m i d d l e o f t h e sixties, s t a n - 9.5 Comparison of insulator types

dardization and description o f characteristics exist j u s t f o rt h e m e d i u m - v o l t a g e range
[9.20]. M e c h a n i c a l loads e s t a b l i s h e d as w e l l a s c o n n e c t i o n t y p e s are f o u n d i n [9.21]. M a -
t e r i a l s a n d d e s i g n s for n o n - s t a n d a r d i z e d i n s u l a t o r s c a n b e s e l e c t e d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 9 . 2 2 ] ,
so t h a t t h e y c a n w i t h s t a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d a t m o s p h e r i c i m p a c t s . T h e i r p r o p e r t i e s
a n d a d e q u a c y t o p r a c t i c a l u s e s h o u l d b e p r o v e d . I n v i e w o f t h a t , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for
the technical and economic selection o fthe adequate type o f composite insulators f r o m
a range o f different models depends o n the line designer o r the purchaser i n charge o f
the relevant project.
C o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s p r e s e n t s e w e r a l a d v a n t a g e s , s u c h a s low weight, h i g h m e c h a n i c a l
s t r e n g t h , c o n s i d e r a b l e reduction of required creepage distance t h r o u g h a h y d r o p h o b i c
surface [9.23], d u r a b i l i t y e s p e c i a l l y u n d e r c r i t i c a l p o l l u t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , h i g h resistance
against vandalism and o p t i m u m ability t o comply w i t h project requirements b y means
of their m o d u l a r fabrication s y s t e m ; i n view o f such outstanding characteristics, com-
posite insulators have been m o r e a n d m o r e accepted b y users. D u e t o their i n s u l a t i n g
capacity, composite insulators h a v e been often used t o replace conventional insulators
i n critical areas. C o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s c a nb e m a n u f a c t u r e d as a u n i t piece t o replace
e x i s t i n g l o n g i n s u l a t o r sets, t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e t o t a l l e n g t h o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set a n d m a k -
I n t h e preceding clauses it has been s h o w n t h a t t h r e e basic a l t e r n a t i v e s o fr a w m a t e r i a l s
a n d t w o i n s u l a t o r d e s i g n p r i n c i p l e s a r e e m p l o y e d for h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d l i n e i n s u l a -
t o r s w o r l d w i d e a t present. Besides t h e classic p o r c e l a i n a n d glass i n s u l a t o r , c o m p o s i t e
insulators made o f plastics o r synthetic resins have been introduced i n the market.
C a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s a r e m a d e o f p o r c e l a i n a n d glass as t h e y used t o b e , whereas
long rod insulators are constituted either o f porcelain o r o f composite materials.
A c c o r d i n g t o e s t i m a t e s presented i n [9.27], t h e w o r l d w i d e i n s u l a t o r m a r k e t is shared t o
approximately 5 0 % b y overhead power line insulators. A b o u t 75 % out ofthat portion
are m a n u f a c t u r e d a s glass a n d p o r c e l a i n c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s . T h e r e m a i n i n g 2 5 %
are split into a larger p o r t i o n o f long r o d composite insulators a n d a smaller p o r t i o n o f
porcelain long rod insulators.
A s a n i m p o r t a n t t e c h n i c a l d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r , t h e insulating length o f
t h e c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r , e i t h e r o f p o r c e l a i n o r glass, i s s h o r t e r b e t w e e n t h e m e t a l l i c
cap a n dt h ep i n ; t h u s , t h ei n s u l a t i o n level o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g is t o b e o b t a i n e d
b y m e a n s o fa c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m b e r o fi n s u l a t i n g p a t h s i n series connection. T h e
electric stress expressed i n k V / c m i n t h e i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l is high, too. T h e large
270 9 Insulators 9.6 T e s t s o n i n s u l a t o r u n i t s 2 7 1

p o r t i o n c o n s t i t u t e d b y n o n - i n s u l a t i n g m e t a l l i c fittings a n d c e m e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e weight rience a n d reported basic data. F r o m the statistics, a comparison o f the performances
of the string a n d i s d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e a t h i g h e r v o l t a g e w a s p r e p a r e d a n d p r e s e n t e d i n [ 9 . 2 7 ] . A fictitious 4 0 0 k V o v e r h e a d l i n e w i t h 1 0 0 0 0 i n -
levels. C a p - a n d - p i n insulators are not conceived t o b e puncture-proof. F o r glass cap- s u l a t i n g s e t s w a s s t u d i e d . A f t e r t h a t , p r o s p e c t i v e m e a n times between failure ( M T B F )
a n d - p i n insulators, failure identification caused b y electric p u n c t u r e is possible d u e were evaluated for
t o a s i m p l e v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n o f broken sheds, w h i l e p o r c e l a i n c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s - porcelain cap-and-pin insulators 10 hours,
require periodical time-consuming measurements under live-line conditions t o identify glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s 6 days,
electrically failed caps t h a t are mechanically n o longer reliable. composite insulators 2,5 weeks,
Porcelain long r o d insulators differ f r o m composite insulators i n asm u c h as t h e y consist - porcelain long rod insulators 18 years.
o f t h e r m a l l y stable m a t e r i a l n o t affected b yt h e e n v i r o n m e n t . H i g h - q u a l i t y porcelain, as
presently p r o d u c e d , isresistant t otensile load; however, i tpresents a l i m i t e d capacity
to support d y n a m i c impact loads o r bending strains, w h i c h implies m o r e a t t e n t i o nt o
9.6 Tests on insulator units
m u l t i p l e - s t r i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a s fax as t h e p e r f o r m a n c e after a f a i l u r e o f one s t r i n g i s
9.6.1 Basic i n f o r m a t i o n
concerned.
The weakest point o f the long rod composite insulator is due t o the vulnerability o f W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v a r i o u s insulator testing procedures , o v e r h e a d i n s u l a t o r s a r e c l a s s i -
the silicone layer above t h e G F C rod, w h i c h should effectively protect against m o i s t u r e fied a s f o l l o w s :
p e n e t r a t i o n t o p r e v e n t r e d u c t i o n a n d e v e n t u a l l y loss o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e — Pin-type insulators,
insulator. — Line post insulators,
A comparison of insulator types ( p o r c e l a i n o r g l a s s ) c a n b e m a d e b y t h e i r advantages — S t r i n g i n s u l a t o r s , classified i n t o
and disadvantages: - Cap-and-pin insulators and
Cap-and-pin insulators: - Long rod insulators.
Advantages: B e c a u s e o f t h e i r f r e q u e n t a p p h c a t i o n i n h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d l i n e s , string insulators
- H i g h mechanical capability even w i t h shells damaged, w i l l b e treated w i t h special a t t e n t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g clauses.
- S i m p l e a n d m o s t favourable engineering design o feach unit, Insulators for high-voltage overhead lines are characterized b y mechanical a n d electric
- H i g h impact and bending capability o fthe insulator strings. data. T h e values presented i nTables 9.1 t o 9.3 c o n s t i t u t e t h e basis for t h e selection
Disadvantages: of a c e r t a i n t y p e o f i n s u l a t o r for a given a p p l i c a t i o n . D u r i n g t h e development o f n e w
- H i g h electric stressing o fthe insulating material, insulators, not all of t h e characteristics can b e theoretically determined. Therefore, they
- R i s k o felectric puncture (porcelain units), a r e m o r e u s u a l l y e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h e l e c t r i c o r m e c h a n i c a l tests.
- Susceptibility t o corrosion o fthe numerous fittings, T h e e x i s t i n g s t a n d a r d s u s u a l l y c l a s s i f y t h e t e s t s i n t o type tests, sample tests a n d routine
- H i g h e r w e i g h t o f i n s u l a t o r sets, h i g h e r m a i n t e n a n c e costs. tests d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p a r a m e t e r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d a l s o
Porcelain long rod insulators: w i t h t h e i n s t a n t a t w h i c h t h e tests are p e r f o r m e d . A n n e x P o f E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28] gives
Advantages: a n i n f o r m a t i v e o v e r v i e w o n a l l t h e stipulated a n d t h e optional tests .
- Puncture-proof, A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n s g i v e n b y E N 60 3 8 3 - 1 [9.2], w h i c h c a n b e s i m i l a r l y f o u n d
- H i g h electric and mechanical reliability, in a l l standard test o r acceptance procedures, type tests determine all the d a t a that
- V e r y low maintenance requirements, n oneed for live-line maintenance, a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o f b o t h t h e i n s u l a t o r a n d t h e fittings. A s a m p l e
- L o w e r w e i g h t t h a n c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r sets. test isperformed i n order t o check the insulator characteristics w h i c h m a y b e subject
Disadvantages: to alterations due t o m a n u f a c t u r i n g process a n d q u a l i t y o fthe materials. R o u t i n e tests
- Production ismore expensive, to b e applied t o each i n s u l a t o r s h o u l d detect a l l t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o d u c t i o n deficiencies
- Low mechanical impact strength, as well a s sort o u t t h e defective units.
- Design o f i n s u l a t o r sets regarding d y n a m i c load, A quality management system i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h s t a n d a r d i z e d r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e
- T e c h n o l o g y less f r e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d o u t s i d e E u r o p e a n d M i d d l e E a s t . agreed u p o n t oenable quality verification d u r i n g the production. E N I S O 9002 is sug-
Composite long rod insulators: gested as a guideline f o ra quality m a n a g e m e n t system f o rinsulators. T h e test o n
Advantages: i n s u l a t o r u n i t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 9.5.
- Low weight,
- H y d r o p h o b i c insulator surface,
-
Creepage p a t h , insulator length a n d load capacity can b e adapted easily t o the 9.6.2 Tests o n c e r a m i c a n d glass insulators
project requirements.
9.6.2.1 T y p e tests
Disadvantages:
- Mechanically sensitive silicone surface o ft h e G F C rod, T y p e tests are p e r f o r m e d o n a s m a l l n u m b e r o f insulators a n d o n l y once for a n e w
- H i g h technical production efforts, silicone materials are expensive, e n g i n e e r i n g design o r a n e w p r o d u c t i o n process; t h e y w i l l b e repeated o n l y i n case
- Higher sensitivity t o ageing. t h o s e characteristics o r a n y o t h e r r a t e d values a r e m o d i f i e d . I n d i v i d u a li n s u l a t o r s m a d e
Cigre gathered data o n t h e operating performance o f the various insulator types o f c e r a m i c c a n b e t e s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o E N 6 0 3 8 3 - 1 [ 9 . 2 ] . T h e number of units a n d t h e
throughout the past years. Users had been questioned about their practice a n d expe- acceptance criteria f o r t h e e l e c t r i c , m e c h a n i c a l a s w e l l a s a n y o t h e r r a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
 sidered as a characteristic value.
T a b l e 9.5: Tests o n overhead line insulators
String insulator units Line post
T h e f o l l o w i n g o p t i o n a l t y p e tests can b e agreed u p o n for i n d i v i d u a l cap-and-pin insu-
Long rod Cap-and-pin insulators lators:
S t a n d a r d t y p e tests - Radio interference voltage test;
Verification of dimensions X X X - Impulse voltage puncture test;
Wet power frequency withstand voltage test X X X - Test of residual strength;
Dry lightning impulse withstand voltage test X X X
- T e s t o f t h e zinc sleeves
Thermal mechanical performance test x x -
Mechanical or electro-mechanical failing load test X X X
a n d , f o r l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s b e s i d e s t h e r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t , b o t h a pollution test a n d
Optional type tests a power arcing test c a n b e i n c l u d e d . T h e s t a n d a r d i z e d g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e s e o p t i o n e d t y p e
Impulse withstand puncture test X tests c a nb e t a k e n f r o m [9.28]. R e s i d u a l s t r e n g t h o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s i s t e s t e d i n
Zinc sleeve test X a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f o r m e r I E C 60 797 [9.32], p u n c t u r e tests a r e c a r r i e d o u t a s specified
Residual strength test X
by I E C 6 1 2 1 1 [9.33].
Sample tests
A l l results s h o u l d b e recorded t h r o u g h certificates issued b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r o r b y
Verification of dimensions X X X
a n o t h e r q u a l i f i e d e n t i t y . T h e i r v a l i d i t y is u n l i m i t e d f o r t h e case o f electric tests a n d
Verification of locking system and displacements x x -
Temperature cycle test X X X
a m o u n t s t o t e n years i n case o f m e c h a n i c a l tests. T h e y a r ec o n s i d e r e d v a l i d w i t h i n
Mechanical or electro-mechanical failing load test X X X their respective limits as long as the subsequent sample tests d o n o t yield any essential
Thermal shock test (toughened glass insulators only) - X X differences t o t h e results obtained b y the type tests.
Puncture voltage withstand test - X -

Porosity test (porcelain insulators only) X X X

Galvanizing test X X X 9.6.2.2 Sample tests
O p t i o n a l s a m p l e tests
R I V test Sample tests a r e b y f a r t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g f o r t h e u s e r s t o c h e c k t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e
X

Impulse voltage puncture test X -

finished b a t c h e s . T h e t e s t s a s s p e c i f i e d i n [9.2] a r e p e r f o r m e d w i t h s a m p l e s s e l e c t e d
Zince sleeve test - x - r a n d o m l y f r o m each lot t ob e supplied and should b e i n accordance w i t h the respective
R o u t i n e tests s t a n d a r d s . T h e number of samples d e p e n d s o n t h e n u m b e r o f u n i t s t o b e a c c e p t e d a n d
Visual inspection X X X is d i v i d e d i n t o t w o p o r t i o n s , c a l l e d E l a n d E 2 , f o r t h e v a r i o u s t e s t s . I n case o f o n l y
Mechanical test X X X one i n d i v i d u a l sample not passing d u r i n g t h e tests, the process is t o b e repeated w i t h
Electric test
t w i c e t h e o r i g i n a l q u a n t i t y . I n case t w o o r m o r e samples failed d u r i n g t h e s a m p l e tests
O p t i o n a l r o u t i n e tests
or i n case o n l y o n esingle s a m p l e failed d u r i n g t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e process, t h e t o t a l
Ultrasonic examination X

1)
n u m b e r o f u n i t s i n a lot has t o b e rejected.
Applicable only to insulators of ceramic materials (see E N 60 383-1)
T h e scope o f sample tests is as follows:
- Verification o f dimensions;
c a n b e f o u n d i nt h a t s t a n d a r d reference, i ncase t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n agreed u p o n i n a - Check o f dimensional deviations (axial, radial o r angular deviations);
different w a y between purchaser and manufacturer. - V e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e locking system ( o n l y f o r b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t connections);
T y p e tests refer to: - T e m p e r a t u r e cycle test (only for ceramic m a t e r i a l s ) ;
- Verification o f the dimensions; - Test o f mechanical failing load;
- Wet power frequency withstand voltage test, 5 0 o r 6 0 H z ; - Thermal shock test ( o n l y f o r c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s m a d e o f t o u g h e n e d g l a s s ) ;
- Dry fast-front withstand voltage test, 1 , 2 / 5 0 ps; - P u n c t u r e voltage w i t h s t a n d test (only for type B insulators);
- Thermal mechanical performance test (heat cycle test) (not f o rline post insula- - Porosity test ( o n l y f o r c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l s ) ;
tors); - Test of the galvanization o f t h e steel elements.
- Test of mechanical failing. O t h e r o p t i o n a l sample tests are k n o w n only for cap-and-pin insulators, t h a t is the radio
T h e k n o w l e d g e o n t h e w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r u n i t s i s a nessential c o n d i t i o n interference test a n d t h e test o f t h e sacrificial zinc sleeves.
for t h e design o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g a c c o r d i n g t ot h e necessary i n s u l a t i o nlevel specified T y p e B ( f o r t y p e A a n d B i n s u l a t o r s see c l a u s e 9.1) c e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s a r e s u b m i t t e d t o
b y insulation coordination [9.29, 9.30] (see c l a u s e 2.4.5). a combined electric a n d mechanical load test instead o fthe pure mechanical failing load
E l e c t r i c t e s t s i n c l u d e t h e s t u d y o f 5 0 o r 6 0 H z w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e s a s w e l l a s fast-front test, w h e n t h e electric p u n c t u r e is used t o indicate a mechanical failure i nthe body.
overvoltages ( f r o n t t i m e 1 , 2 / i s , t i m e t o h a l f c r e s t v a l u e 5 0 ps). S o m e n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s T h e puncture voltage d e p e n d s o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ( F i g u r e 9 . 1 4 ) b o t h f o r c e r a m i c s a s
r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l interference voltage tests a t s o m e h u n d r e d k i l o h e r t z . w e l l a s f o r glass.
Clean, d r y insulators are used t o measure t h e flashover a n d the w i t h s t a n d voltages for
l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e s . T h e p o w e r frequency w i t h s t a n d voltage test i sp e r f o r m e d w i t h a w e t T e s t o f m e c h a n i c a l failing l o a d
insulator. T h e standards give t h e requirements o n q u a n t i t y o f water, its conductivity, F r o m t h e p r e v i o u s list, it can b e seen t h a t m o s t o ft h e s a m p l e tests, except for t h e punc-
angle o f r a i n fall a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ( I E C 6 0 060-1) [9.31]. ture voltage w i t h s t a n d test connected w i t h t h e insulator design, are m a i n l y mechanical
I n order t o o b t a i n comparable data, t h erespective m e a s u r e d values a r erelated t o tests. T h e s e tests d o not refer a n y m o r e t o r o u t i n e test load a n d m i n i m u m failing load,
standardized atmospheric conditions [9.2, 9.31]. T h e o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e i t s e l f is n o t c o n - b u t t o t h e mechanical failing load, d u e t o t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e t e s t s t a n d a r d s f o r s t a -
274 9 Insulators 9.6 T e s t s o n i n s u l a t o r u n i t s 2 7 5

30 T a b e l l e 9 . 6 : Quantities for sample tests ac- ics, i n t r u s i o n o f a c o l o u r i n g c o m p o n e n t into t h eceramic fragments c a n very rarely b e
cording t o E N 60383-1 detected.
Quantity to be accepted Extent of samples
(N) E1 E2
N < 300 acc. to agreement Galvanization test
300 < N < 2000 4 3 Fittings shall b e tested w i t h respect t o u n i f o r m i t y a n d density o f galvanization. T h e
1 0 - 2000 < N < 5000 8 4
£
magnetic testing i s s t a n d a r d i z e d a s a n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e a n d f a s t p r o c e d u r e d e l i v e r i n g
o 5000 < N < 10000 12 6
sufficiently precise results under observation o fboundary conditions determined b y I S O
2 1 7 8 . A s a m i n i m u m v a l u e f o r c a s t i n g a n d f o r g i n g p a r t s , a n a v e r a g e weight per unit
0 20 40 60 80 100 °C 120 area o f 6 0 0 g / m 2 ( t h i c k n e s s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 5 / c m ) f o r a l l u n i t s a n d a v a l u e o f 5 0 0 g / m 2
Temperature ——
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 / i m ) f o r each single s p e c i m e n [9.2] applies. I n case o n l y o n e s a m p l e
w o u l d n o tpass, a repeated t e s t i n g m a y b e c a r r i e d o u t . I ncase t h eaverage v a l u e o f each
F i g u r e 9.14: Influence o ftemperature o n t h e
p u n c t u r e field s t r e n g t h o f porcelain insulators single s p e c i m e n i s satisfactory, b u t n o t t h eaverage v a l u e o f a l l t h e s p e c i m e n s together,
a d e c i s i v e t e s t n e e d s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t b y m e a n s o f a gravimetric method ( E N I S O 1 4 0 0 ) .
I n c r i t i c a l cases, t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e zinc c o a t i n g m a y b everified b y i m m e r s i o n i n
t i s t i c a l l y v e r i f i e d acceptance criteria. T e s t s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t a s s p e c i f i e d i n I E C 6 0 5 7 5 a copper sulphate solution a n d b r u s h i n g o f f i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h E N 6 0 6 7 2 - 2 [ 9 . 1 5 ] ;
[9.34]. A l l s p e c i m e n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e q u a n t i t y E l m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e a r e t h e n loaded however, a n agreement between customer a n dm a n u f a c t u r e r h a st ob e m a d e w h e n
up t o their failing limit i n order t oobtain t h eaverage value a n d t h e dispersion o f t h e p l a c i n g t h e o r d e r . T h e r e p a i r o f e v e n t u a l failures at the zinc coatingis a l l o w e d t o s o m e
failing loads. A sample i s said t o have passed i f t h e average value o f t h e failing loads extent, b u tisn o t recommended. I tshould b e performed only a tuninstalled fittings.
is g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d f a i l i n g l o a d p l u s a n a d d i t i o n a l T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s a m p l e t e s t s s h o u l d b e certified b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r f o r e a c h l o t s u p -
i n c r e m e n t a l v a l u e . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l load is defined i n [9.2] a s t h e p r o d u c t o f s t a n d a r d plied. I ncase o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n a r easked for, t h e y s h o u l d b e i n d i c a t e d
d e v i a t i o n a n da coefficient f o r t h es t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h each test t y p e i n t h e p u r c h a s e r ' s project specification.
a n d t e s t i n g level. I ncase t h e sample test i s n o t successful, a r e p e t i t i o n test m a y b e
p e r f o r m e d , w h i c h should also b estatistically s u p p o r t e d . T o avoid m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
it i s s u g g e s t e d t o s t u d y t h e detailed e x a m p l e presented i nA n n e x B o f s t a n d a r d I E C 9.6.2.3 Routine tests
6 0 3 8 3 - 1 [9.2].
T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f routine tests a x e s t i p u l a t e d i n [ 9 . 2 ] a s w e l l . T h e y a x e p e r f o r m e d
b y t h em a n u f a c t u r e r a teach single u n i t o f t h e l o t t o b e s u p p l i e d a n dc o m p r i s e f o r l o n g
T e m p e r a t u r e cycle test r o d a n d cap-and-pin glass insulators t h e following:
T h e temperature cycle test f o r l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s i s d e f i n e d a s t h r e e 1 5 m i n h e a t i n g a n d - V i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n f o r glaze defects a t ceramic insulators o r superficial defects a t
cooling cycles, each o n e followed b y a tensile load a m o u n t i n g t o 8 0 % o f t h e specified glass i n s u l a t o r s ,
f a i l i n g l o a d . T h i s t e s t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s d i s p e n s e d f o r m o d e r n d e n s e l y fired i n s u l a t o r s . - Mechanical test w i t h 80 % o f failing load applied f o r 1 m i n u t e a t long r o d insu-
F a i l u r e s w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d o n l y i n case o f l o n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s o r i n s u l a t o r s w i t h larger lators o r 5 0 % o f failing load f o r 3 seconds a t glass cap-and-pin insulators,
cross sections; i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h es t a n d a r d s , less s t r i n g e n t p r o c e d u r e s c a n a c t u a l l y — Ultrasonic testing o f l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s ( o p t i o n a l ) .
be agreed u p o n f o r such insulators. — F o r ceramic type B insulators, a p u n c t u r e voltage w i t h s t a n d test according to
[9.2] h a s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t .
T h e r m a l shock test I n case o f r e q u i r e m e n t s f o rf u r t h e r r o u t i n e tests d u e t ot h e o p e r a t i o n a l conditions, t h e i r
details should b e settled i n t h e design specifications o r b e agreed u p o n together w i t h
I n c a s e o f t o u g h e n e d g l a s s i n s u l a t o r s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r thermal shock testing a r e d i f -
the order.
ferent f r o m t h eprocedure m e n t i o n e d before. Microscopic inclusions o f the fluid mass,
not visually detectable, m a yplay a ni m p o r t a n t role especially w h e n t h ecoating o f t h e T h e u l t r a s o n i c test i sapplied t o check t h e serviceability o fsecond h a n d insulators.
f u r n a c e is j u s t n e w o r p r e s e n t s a n a d v a n c e d a g e i n g p r o c e s s . I ns u c h cases, a s t a t i s t i c a l l y I n c l u s i o n s , c a v i t i e s , d e n s i t y o f firing a n d fissures i n t h e p o r c e l a i n o f l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s
r e l e v a n t i n c r e a s e o f t h e insulator failures m a y b e e x p e c t e d . c a n b e d e t e c t e d b y u l t r a s o n i c t e s t i n g w i t h impulse reflection analysis. U l t r a s o u n d a t a
frequency o f 1 t o 5 M H z , that i s t o say, a t porcelain w i t h 1 , 1t o 5,3m m wave l e n g t h ,
is i r r a d i a t e d i n t o t h e s p e c i m e n . T h e r e , t h e a b s o r p t i o n i s m e a s u r e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n o f
Puncture voltage w i t h s t a n d test t h e d e c a y i n g multiple echoes o r t h e velocity of the sound wave, t h a t i s t h e t r a v e l t i m e
T h e puncture voltage withstand test i s f o r e s e e n e x c l u s i v e l y f o r p u n c t u r e - s u s c e p t i b l e b e t w e e n t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g i m p u l s e a n d t h e e c h o e s from t h e r e a r s u r f a c e . E f f i c i e n t d e n s e l y
c e r a m i c t y p e B i n s u l a t o r s ( f o r d e f i n i t i o n s see clause 9 . 1 a n d f o rglass c a p - a n d - p i n i n - fired porcelain c a n b e recognized b y t h epower o f t h e echoes o r b y t h e sound velocity.
s u l a t o r s . T h e s i n g l e i n s u l a t o r u n i t i s i m m e r s e d i n a n i n s u l a t i n g fluid h a v i n g d e f i n e d S e p a r a t i o n o fm a t e r i a l , f o rexample, cavities, porosity, cracks a n d similaritiesare clearly
characteristics [9.2] a n d w i l l b e subjected t o voltage a p p l i c a t i o n . However, p u n c t u r e s d e t e c t a b l e w h e n a t l e a s t o n e e c h o from t h e r e a r s u r f a c e c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a n d a l s o w h e n
have never been observed throughout t h eauthor's long-term practice. the defects reach o n esquaie m i l l i m e t r e measured perpendicularly t o t h e direction o f
the radiation into t h eporcelain. L o n g r o d insulators can b e tested both transversally
Porosity test a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y t o t h e i n s u l a t o r l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . T h e angular ultrasonic test head
T h e porosity test w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e p a s t w h e n c e r a m i c p r o d u c t s c o u l d n o t a l w a y s allows oblique radiation so t h a t tests c a n b e performed t o verify occurrence o f cracks
be fired t o a completely dense t e x t u r e . N o w a d a y s , w i t h t h e a l u m i n i u m oxide c e r a m - o r disc-type fractures i n s i d e t h e i n s u l a t o r c a p a t i n s u l a t o r s p r o v i d e d w i t h f i t t i n g s . B y
 T e s t o f t h e s h e d s h e a t h w i t h r e s p e c t to leakage c u r r e n t t r a c e s a n d e r o s i o n
u n d e r s a l t fog
F i g u r e 9.15: Testing of T h e test lasts 1000 h o u r s w i t h a voltage o f 1 k V per 34,6 m m creepage p a t h u n d e r salt
disc-type cracks i n t h e fog c o n d i t i o n w i t h a concentration o f 1 0 k gN a C l per m 3 .
cone w i t h i n t h e c a p w i t h
an ultrasonic angular test Test of the r o d m a t e r i a l
head
a) cone w i t h o u t defects — Test o f porosity b y colouring agents;
b) cone w i t h crack — Water diffusion test;
— Testing o fbending strength and toughness.
B e n d i n g s t r e n g t h a n d t o u g h n e s s t o i m p a c t l o a d o f plastic materials a r e e s t a b l i s h e d a t
ultrasonic testing o f insulators after t h e mechanical r o u t i n e tests, i t c a nb e assured
the specimens w i t h a size o f 1 0 x 1 5 x 120 m m . A class o f c e r t a i n composite i n s u l a t o r
t h a t n o d a m a g e h a s b e e n c a u s e d a t t h e fitting c o n e o f t h e i n s u l a t o r d u e t o t e s t i n g
types can o n l y b e qualified after a l l t h e test specimens have been successfully p e r f o r m e d
( F i g u r e 9.15).
w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a ldesign test.
L i n e post insulators are relatively seldom applied a t overhead power lines. T h e y a r e
t e s t e d i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h I E C 60 168 [9.35, 9.36] a n dw i l l n o t b e f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d
Test of pollution performance
hereafter.
S t a n d a r d i z e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r t e s t i n g c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s u n d e r influence of pollution
A l l t h e tests p r e s e n t e d i n clause 9.6.2 f o r c e r a m i c c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s a p p l y also
layers d o n o t e x i s t a t p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r h y d r o p h o b i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
for c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s o f t o u g h e n e d glass according t o [9.28]. A t h e r m a l s h o c k test
silicone surfaces.
is a d d e d h e r e a s a s a m p l e t e s t , w h e r e a s t h e e l e c t r i c t e s t p r e s c r i b e d f o r t h e p o r c e l a i n
cap-and-pin insulator is not applied.
T y p e test
T h e type tests s e r v e t o p r o v e t h e r a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h d e p e n d o n t h e s h a p e
9.6.3 Tests on composite insulators a n d dimensions o f t h e composite insulator. T h e corresponding electric t y p e tests a r e
performed including the arcing protection fittings, if they are part o fthe insulator type.
9.6.3.1 Basic information
T h e t y p e test consists of:
Since it isnot dealt w i t h standardised designs, t h e characteristics a n d the suitability for — Fhst-front overvoltage w i t h s t a n d test, dry;
the relevant application o fcomposite insulators s h o u l d b e specifically proved i n accor- — A C voltage test, wet;
d a n c e w i t h [9.22]. C o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s a r e t y p e A i n s u l a t o r s . T h e i r t e s t i n g is p e r f o r m e d — Slow-front overvoltage w i t h s t a n d test, wet;
w i t h single i n s u l a t o r u n i t s i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f I E C 6 1 109 [9.37]. — Mechanical load-time test.
D u r i n g the latter test, the specimen bodies are s u b m i t t e d t o a tensile load o f 7 0 % o f
the specified mechanical failing load for 9 6 hours, followed b y a n o t h e r load a m o u n t i n g
9.6.3.2 T e s t of the s t r u c t u r a l design a n d t y p e test
to 100 % a n d lasting one m i n u t e . N e i t h e r b r e a k i n g o frods, nor pulling-off or b r e a k i n g
D i f f e r e n t l y f r o m c e r a m i c o r g l a s s i n s u l a t o r s , a n e x t e n s i v e design test i s r e q u i r e d b y I E C o f t h e fittings m a y o c c u r a t t h e t e s t s p e c i m e n s .
6 1 1 0 9 [9.37] p r i o r t o t y p e t e s t i n g . T h e d e s i g n t e s t i s p e r f o r m e d j u s t o n c e a n d serves
to verify the adequacy o f design, materials a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g process. I tis valid for 9.6.3.3 S a m p l e a n d routine tests
a whole group o f composite insulators, whose characteristics coincide within certain
Sample tests sue p e r f o r m e d w i t h c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s i n t h e s a m e w a y a s w i t h o t h e r
limits. T o assure a satisfying life t i m e u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g loads t h e influence o f
insulator types, using test quantities divided i n t o t w o portions. A f t e r checking t h e
t i m e u p o n b o t h electric a n d mechanical characteristics as well as u p o n t h e insulators
d i m e n s i o n s o f e v e r y u n i t a p o r t i o n s e r v e s f o r t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e specified mechanical
as a w h o l e i s c o n s i d e r e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s i s f o r e s e e n t o t e s t t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n :
load (SML) a n d a n o t h e r p o r t i o n o f u n i t s s e r v e s t o t e s t t h e z i n c c o a t i n g a n d t h e f u n c t i o n
of fittings. Failure o fone insulator o ro fa metallic component implies the repetitiono f
T e s t of t h e b o n d i n g s u r f a c e s a n d o f l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n b y t h e f i t t i n g s t h e test series w i t h a nincreased n u m b e r o f u n i t s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.37].
— A Cvoltage test, dry; D u r i n g t h e routine tests e v e r y i n s u l a t o r o f a c e r t a i n l o t i s t e s t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o :
— D y n a m i c impact tensile load release test; — Identification: T y p e , m a n u f a c t u r i n g year, specified mechanical load;
— Thermo-mechanical test; — V i s u a l test: Defects o n the surface, colour, c o n f o r m i t y w i t h drawings;
— Immersion test; — M e c h a n i c a l r o u t i n e tests: Tensile load w i t h r o u t i n e test load ( a t least 5 0 % o f
— Impulse voltage withstand test; S M L ) for a t least t e n seconds.
— Second A Cvoltage test, dry.

Test of the load-time c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the r o d

- D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the m e a n failing load o f the r o d equipped w i t h fittings;

- D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the slope o fthe load-time characteristic o fthe insulator.
278 9 Insulators 9.7 D e s i g n o f i n s u l a t o r sets 279

600

F i g u r e 9.17: Single i n -
s u l a t o r set for a 550 k V
line i n Brazil

o f t h e l i n e . I n s u l a t o r s o f d o u b l e sets m o u n t e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y a r e less e n d a n g e r e d b y
electric arcs t h a n i n s u l a t o r s o f m u l t i p l e sets t h a t are t r a n s v e r s a l l y a r r a n g e d , since t h e
magnetic field c a u s e d b y t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t c i r c u l a t i n g i n t h e c r o s s a r m a n d t h e
t o w e r b o d y pushes t h e a r c o u t w a r d s f r o m t h e t o w e r b o d y [9.38]. Besides t h a t , w h e n
t h e s t r i n g swings d u e t o t h e w i n d force, i t i s n o t d i s t o r t e d t o a parallelogram, so t h a t
t h e c o m p o n e n t s c a n n o i t c l a s h . T h e i n s u l a t o r sets a r e less v i s i b l e w h e n a r r a n g e d i n l i n e
d i r e c t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r side, t r a n s v e r s a l l y a r r a n g e d d o u b l e i n s u l a t o r sets r e s u l t i n l o w e r
Figure 9.16: d y n a m i c stresses t o t h e r e m a i n i n g s o u n d s t r i n g i n case o f f a i l u r e o f t h e o t h e r one. D u e
420 k V double sus- t o t h e a c c o m p l i s h e d a d v a n t a g e s , d o u b l e i n s u l a t o r sets are p r e f e r a b l y a r r a n g e d i n l i n e
pension insulator direction particularly w h e n frequently loaded b y high wind.
set f o r q u a d r u p l e
T h e individual insulator strings should b e attached directly t o the crossarms. T h e U -
bundle ( R W E N e t
b o l t s , shackles o r h i n g e s used t o a t t a c h t h e s t r i n g s r e s u l t i n a u n i v e r s a l m o b i l i t y . I n case
AG, Germany)
of long r o d insulators w i t h clevis-type caps, the connection pins should b e installedi n
line d i r e c t i o n , b e c a u s e i n t h i s case t h e r i s k o f a defective s t r i n g t o t o u c h t h e i n t a c t o n e
9.7 Design of insulator sets is l o w [9.39].
T o protect t h e i n s u l a t o r s f r o m p o w e r arcs w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g u pt o 12 000 K , t h e
9.7.1 S u s p e n s i o n insulator sets i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s c a n b e e q u i p p e d a t b o t h e n d s w i t h protective arcing fittings, s t a r t i n g
s o m e t i m e s a t voltages: o f 3 6 k V [9.38]. L o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s c o m p o s e d o f several
Suspension insulator sets c a n c o n s i s t o f o n e o r m o r e insulator strings c o m p o s e d o f s u s - u n i t s n e e d a d d i t i o n a l intermediate arcing protection fittings.
p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s . Multiple insulator sets a r e a p p l i e d w h e r e r e q u i r e d b y t h e o p e r a t i o n a l T h e a r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n fittings s h o u l d f o r m a r i n g a r o u n d t h e i n s u l a t o r , t o a t t r a c t t h e
l o a d s a s w e l l a s i n o t h e r c a s e s w h e n a h i g h e r s e c u r i t y i s d e s i r e d , e . g . a t c r o s s i n g s . Dou- power arc base a s f a s t a s p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o g u i d e i t t o a d e f i n e d final burning position,
ble insulator sets a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s . T h e i r as w e l l a s t o feed t h e p o w e r a r c base f r o m o n l y o n e side a n d t o a l l o w f o r sufficient
assembly as a double suspension s e t c o m p o s e d o f long r o di n s u l a t o r s is s h o w n f o r a m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h . T h e final b u r n i n g p o s i t i o n h a s t o b e f o r m e d a n d a r r a n g e d s u c h
4 2 0 k V h i g h e s t o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e i nF i g u r e 9.16. I n F i g u r e 9.17 a single i n s u l a t o r s e t that t h e irradiated h e a t does not damage the insulators. T h e arcing protection horns
m a d e o f glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s is p r e s e n t e d as used for 550 k Vlines i n B r a z i l . s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d a t s u s p e n s i o n s e t s s u c h t h a t t h e final b u r n i n g p o s i t i o n s a r e d i r e c t e d
D o u b l e s u s p e n s i o n sets can b e a r r a n g e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y o r t r a n s v e r s a l l y t o t h e d i r e c t i o n outwards from the tower.
 length of insulator set 6710
total discharge distance 3105
F i g u r e 9 . 1 8 : 420 k V double t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r set for q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e ( R W E N e t A G , G e r -
many)
Cigre S t u d y C o m m i t t e e 2 2carried o u t a m i n v e s t i g a t i o n o nt h e use o f p r o t e c t i v e devices
for i n s u l a t o r sets [9.40]. A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a m a j o r i t y o f A C , H V a n d E H V
lines i s equipped w i t h h o r n s , rackets o r r i n g s . S o m e utilities i n E u r o p e a n d J a p a n use
protective devices s y s t e m a t i c a l l y , especially for i n s u l a t o r sets c o m p o s e d o f l o n g r o d o r
composite insulators. T h e m a i n purpose ist o protect insulators and conductors f r o m
p o w e r arcs. I n t h i s case, p r o t e c t i v e d e v i c e s a r ea d o p t e d irrespective o f t h e voltage.
O t h e r utilities use protective devices d e p e n d i n g o n t h e voltage level, t h e m a i n target
being m i n i m i z i n g radio interference and i m p r o v i n g the voltage distribution.
Utilities w h i c h d o not equip their lines d o so, because the keraunic level is low, the
p o l l u t i o n i s n o t severe a n d t h e d u r a t i o n o f s h o r t circuits i st o o short o r t h e power n o t
h i g h e n o u g h t o c a u s e f a i l u r e s . M o r e o v e r , " t h e y a l l e g e t h a t p r o t e c t i v e fittings w i l l r e d u c e
t h e effective clearances t o structures, t h u s increasing t h e flashover probabilities.
T h e design of protective devices is based o nt h e p o w e r arc r a t i n g s a n d r a d i o interference
criteria r e s u l t i n g i n large differences b e t w e e n t h e various designs. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e are
not generally applicable design criteria.
A t t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e s h i g h e r t h a n 2 2 0 k V , t h e a r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n fittings s h o u l d a l s o
t a k e c a r e o f electrical field control at t h e l i v e e n d o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t t o a v o i d u n d u e
corona effects. E f f i c i e n t a r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n fittings s h o u l d , therefore, b eselected w i t h
r a t h e r l a r g e s u r f a c e r a d i i t o s u i t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e l e v e l s . C-shaped rings f u l f i l
t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t [ 9 . 4 1 ] . Bundle rings w i t h t w o p a r t i a l e l e c t r o d e s r e d u c e t h e v o l t a g e
g r a d i e n t s . B e s i d e s t h a t , t h e p o w e r a r c b a ^ e c a n m o v e f a s t e r t o t h e final b u r n i n g p o s i -
t i o n [9.38]. R a i s i n g t h e u p p e r s u b c o n d u c t o r level b y a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y designed y o k e
a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o t h e l o w e r m o s t i n s u l a t o r s k i r t e q u a l i z e d t h e e l e c t r i c a l field a n d
reduces t h e voltage gradient, t h u s p r e c l u d i n g t h e use o f protective fittings.
9.7.2 T e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets
T o attach the conductors t oangle, strain, section o r dead-end supports, m u l t i p l e insu-
l a t o r sets are used, w h o s e i n s u l a t o r strings s h o u l d b e d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d t ot h e crossarm
b y m e a n s o f hinges o r shackles. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f a double insulator set f o r 4 2 0 k V
r a t e d voltage is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9.18. F i g u r e 9.19 presents a q u a d r u p l e t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r
set for 5 5 0 k V i n B r a z i l .
T h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s e t s c o n c e r n i n g load
transfer a f t e r f a i l u r e o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s t r i n g a p p l i e s a s w e l l f o r t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s e t s . I f
long r o d insulators w i t h clevis-type caps are used t h e y will b e coupled b y a universal
joint (Figure 9.18). T h e d i m e n s i o n o f the yoke plate i n direction o f the insulatorset
axis should b e so large as t o reduce impact loads after failing o f a n i n d i v i d u a l string.
I n case o f t r i a n g u l a r yoke plates, t h e height s h o u l d b e larger t h a n t h e w i d t h .
A c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r b u n d l e a n d i n s u l a t o r s e t b y one pivot o n l y i s a d v i s a b l e
for b u n d l e conductors since t h e failure of one i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g w i l l not alter t h e g e o m e t r y
o f t h e b u n d l e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a trapezoidal yoke plate l e a d s t o s h o r t e r d e s i g n l e n g t h s
o f i n s u l a t o r sets a n d m i g h t b ea d v a n t a g e o u s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e l o a d t r a n s f e r . I f t h e
design and configuration o f the yoke plates alone is not enough t o limit the dynamic
s t r e s s e s o n t h e l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s , a d d i t i o n a l w e i g h t s o r deformation elements c a n b e
u s e d [ 9 . 3 9 , 9 . 4 1 ] . P r o t e c t i o n fittings s h o u l d b e a t t a c h e d t o t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s s o t h a t
t h e a r c i n g b u r n i n g p o s i t i o n s a r e a r r a n g e d u p w a r d s , since t h e r m a l effects p u s h t h e p o w e r
arc into t h a t direction.
9.8 Requirements for insulator sets
9.8.1 E l e c t r i c r e q u i r e m e n t s for A C lines
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n , i n s u l a t o r sets need t o b e designed t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n
t h e i r electric a n d mechanical strength requirements. T h e insulators and the insulator
282 9Insulators 9.8 R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r i n s u l a t o r sets 2 8 3

T a b l e 9 . 7 : E l e c t r i c r e q u i r e m e n t s o n i n s u l a t o r s e t s a c c o r d i n g to E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1
Stipulated Highest system voltage 45 to 245 kV Highest system voltage > 245 k V
requirements Cap-and-pin Long rod and Cap-and-pin Long rod and
insulators composite insulators insulators composite insulators
rOW6r LTBCJUBIYCy —
X X —
withstand
voltage, wet
Fast-front with- X
X
X X
stand voltage, dry
Slow-front with- X X
stand voltage, wet
RJV test 11 X X X X

Pollution 1 1 X
X
X X
performance test
Power arc test 11 X X X X

Optional tests to be agreed upon

length ot insulator set -6200

- Temporary overvoltages d u e t o e a r t h f a u l t s , s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s , l o a d r e j e c t i o n
or non-linearitieso frelatively long d u r a t i o n ( 1m i n u t e ) ;
- Slow-front overvoltages d u e t o e a r t h f a u l t s , s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s o r f a r d i s t a n t
l i g h t n i n g strokes. T h e o v e r v o l t a g e stresses a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d
2 5 0 / 2 5 0 0 ps switching shape impulse a n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a m p l i t u d e :
- Fast-front overvoltages t h r o u g h d i r e c t l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s o n t h e c o n d u c t o r o r b a c k
flashovers. T h e v o l t a g e s t r e s s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d h e r e b y t h e s t a n d a r d 1 , 2 / 5 0 ps
lightning impulse shape a n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a m p l i t u d e .
I n I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 , clause 2 a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28], A n n e x E , r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o rt h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e overvoltages a r e presented (see clause 2.4.5).

F i g u r e 9 . 1 9 : Q u a d r u p l e t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s e t for a 5 5 0 k V l i n e i n B r a z i l
s t r i n g s s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28] s u c h t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d
w i t h s t a n d voltages are achieved. I n Table 9.7. these requirements a r e s u m m a r i z e d de-
pending o n t h evoltage range a n dt h einsulator type.
T h e r e q u i r e d w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e l e v e l s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y a n insulation coordination
study f o r t h e o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m i f s u c h v a l u e s c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d f r o m e x -
isting installations. T h i s process consists o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o ft h e required w i t h s t a n d
v o l t a g e C/rw w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l . B a s i c r u l e s a n d g u i d e l i n e s a r e
g i v e n a n d e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l s b y I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 [9.29] a n d I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 [9.30], r e s p e c -
tively. T h eprocedure involves three steps as follows:
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of representative overvoltages
P o w e r frequency voltages a n d insulationstressing overvoltages aredetermined t h r o u g h
network analysis t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i r a m p l i t u d e , w a v e f o r m a n d d u r a t i o n . T h e
required t o t a l creepage distance is d e t e r m i n e d also b y t h e p o l l u t i o n level encountered
a l o n g t h e line. T h u s t h e r e q u i r e d l e n g t h o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a s w e l l a s t h e necessary
profile a n d t y p e o f i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s need t o b e selected w i t h respect t o t h e p o l l u t i o n
l e v e l . W h e r e i n s u l a t o r s e t s s w i n g u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n , t h e air gaps s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d
under moderate a n dextreme w i n d conditions as well.
Representative overvoltages Ulp i n c l u d e :
- S t e a d y - s t a t e operating power frequency voltages identical t o t h e highest system
voltages under n o r m a l conditions;
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e i n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltage
T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e insulation coordination withstand voltage U c w i s b a s e d o n t h e
determination o f the lowest insulating w i t h s t a n d voltage value. Recommendations a r e
g i v e n i n I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 , clause 3 [9.30]. T h e effects o f p o w e r frequency voltages a n do f
overvoltages stressing t h e insulation aretaken into consideration as well.
T h e r a t e d phase-to-earth voltage defines t h erequired m i n i m u m l e n g t h f o r a n i n s u l a t o r
set i n case o f s y s t e m s w i t h l o w r e s i s t a n t n e u t r a l e a r t h i n g o r e a r t h f a u l t f a c t o r s < 1,3.
T e m p o r a r y overvoltages need t o b e considered w h e n t h ee a r t h fault factors a r e higher
o r i n case o f i s o l a t e d - n e u t r a l o r r e s o n a n t - c o m p e n s a t e d s y s t e m s . I n case o fp o l l u t i o n , t h e
i n s u l a t o r profile s h o u l d b e accordingly selected so t h a t t h e p o l l u t e d i n s u l a t o r s c a n w i t h -
stand t h e highest operating power frequency v o l t a g e w i t h a r e a s o n a b l y l o w flashover
probability.
S l o w - f r o n t overvoltage i s o n eo f t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a t affect t h e i n s u l a t i n g distances i n
s y s t e m s a b o v e 2 4 5 k V . T h e i n s u l a t o r fittings m a y b e c o m e c r u c i a l i n s o m e c a s e s w h e n d e -
t e r m i n i n g t h e a i r g a p s o f i n s u l a t o r s e t s ( s e e c l a u s e 2 . 5 . 1 . 2 ) . T h e coordination withstand
voltage o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b a s i c s u r g e i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l ( B S I L ) c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
e i t h e r deterministically o r statistically i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.30].
I n case o ff a s t - f r o n t overvoltages, t h ec o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltage o r i n s u l a t i o n level
B S I L c a n b e a s s u m e d as b e i n g a t least e q u a l t o t h e overvoltage v a l u e t h a t m a y occur
due t o a l i g h t n i n g stroke a t t h esite a n d m i g r a t i n g over a f e w adjacent supports only.
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the r e q u i r e d w i t h s t a n d voltage
T h e required withstand voltage Um i s e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n
w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e f / c w o r i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l B S I L b y a n altitude factor w h i c h d e p e n d s
again o n the magnitude o f the coordination w i t h s t a n d voltage. T h i s altitude factor is
fable 9 . 8 : P o l l u t i o n levels a n d r e c o m m e n d e d m i n i m u m n o m i n a l specific creepage distance
given b y E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28], A n n e x E.2.1.4, T a b l e E . 4 .
a c c o r d i n g to I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 a n d I E C 6 0 8 1 5
T a k i n g into consideration that standards for insulators establish the dimensions o f the Polution Examples of typical environments Minimum nominal
insulator units w i t h o u t reference t o t h e highest voltage for e q u i p m e n t o r the m a x i m u m leve] specific creepage
system voltage, the insulation coordination process foroverhead insulators m a y stop distance mm/kV
h e r e . S e l e c t i o n o f a design voltage i s n o t r e q u i r e d . AC" DC2)
- Areas without industries and with low density of houses
equipped with heating plants
R a d i o interference strength ( R I V ) - Areas with low density of industries or houses but
Radio interference voltage (RIV) a n d t h e c o r o n a e x t i n c t i o n v o l t a g e a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l I subjected to frequent winds and/or rainfall 16,0 30,0

f o r r a t i n g t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s . T h e radio interference levels g e n e r a t e d b y a n y t y p e o f Light - Agricultural areas 3 1

- Mountainous areas
overhead line insulators under test conditions should b e i n conformity w i t h the total
All these areas shall be situated at least 10 to 20 km
r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e l e v e l s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i n s t a l l a t i o n ; t h e v i s i b l e corona from the sea and shall not be exposed to winds directly
extinction voltage s h o u l d b e s t i p u l a t e d b e f o r e c a r r y i n g o u t t e s t s . R a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e from the sea 4 1
can b e generated w i t h i n a large frequency b a n d a n d originates f r o m discharges o r f r o m - Areas with industries not producing particularly
flashovers a t h e a v i l y l o a d e d i n s u l a t o r c o m p o n e n t s o r from d e f e c t i v e c o n t a c t p o i n t s , polluting smoke and/or with average density
II of houses equipped with heating plants 20,0 40,0
for example, a t ball-and-socket connections o f cap-and-pin i n s u l a t o r strings u n d e r l o w
Medium - Areas with high density of houses and/or industries
t e n s i l e l o a d . S t r i n g s o f long rod insulators show a better performance w i t h respect
but subjected to frequent winds and/or rainfall
t o radio interference w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s . C I S P R 18-2 [9.42] - Areas exposed to wind from the sea but not too close
e x p l a i n s h o w t h e limit values can b e o b t a i n e d t o e n s u r e g o o d r a d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n to the coast (at least several kilometres distant 4 1 )
r e c e p t i o n . P a p e r s [9.43] a n d [9.44] c o n t a i n d e t a i l s o n R T V levels a n d t e s t i n g . - Areas with high density of industries and suburbs of
large cities with high density of heating plants
III producing pollution 25,0 50,0
Pollution Heavy - Areas close to the sea or in any case exposed to
Insulator strings should also satisfy certain r e q u i r e m e n t s o f performance under p o l l u - relatively strong winds from the sea 4 1
t i o n . F o u r levels of pollution a r e q u a l i t a t i v e l y d e f i n e d i n T a b l e 9 . 8 o b t a i n e d from [ 9 . 3 0 ] - Areas generally of moderate extent, subjected to
including a description o f corresponding e n v i r o n m e n t s , f r o m w h i c h a n assessment o f conductive dusts and to industrial smoke producing
particularly thick conductive deposits
t h e e x i s t i n g p o l l u t i o n effects t o b e e x p e c t e d o n a n i n d i v i d u a l line c a nb e p e r f o r m e d .
IV - Areas generally of moderate extent, very close to the coast
I f e x p e r i e n c e from e x i s t i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , I E C 6 0 8 1 5 p r o v i d e s Very heavy exposed to sea-spray or to very strong polluting 31,0 70,0
i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a q u a n t i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f local p o l l u t i o n levels t h r o u g h m e a s u r i n g winds from the sea
p r o c e d u r e s . I E C 60 815 [9.17] gives g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e design a n d t h e selection o f i n - - Desert areas, characterized by no rain for long periods,
exposed to strong winds carrying sand and salt,
s u l a t o r s t o b e a p p l i e d i n p o l l u t e d areas; I E C 6 0507 [9.45] i n d i c a t e s t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
and subjected to regular condensation
test procedures. Experience a b o u t i n s u l a t o r performance under p o l l u t i o n can b e f o u n d
Note 1: This table may only be used for glass and porcelain insulators. I t does not consider special
i n [9.46].
environmental conditions like snow and ice with high pollution, heavy rainfall, desert areas etc.
Note 2: I n very lightly polluted areas, specific nominal distances lower than 16 m m / k V can be
9.8.2 P a r t i c u l a r i t i e s for D C l i n e s used depending on service experience. 12 m m / k V seems to be a lower limit. For Central European
conditions such a specific creepage distance cannot be recommended.
Insulation in DC lines - g e n e r a l l y n a m e d a s HVDC systems ( H i g h V o l t a g e D i r e c t C u r - Note 3: I n the case of exceptional pollution severity, a specific nominal creepage distance of
rent) - is stressed b y lightning overvoltages, fault-induced overvoltages a n d o p e r a t i n g 31 m m / k V may not be adequate. Depending on service and/or on laboratory test results, a higher
value of specific creepage distance can be used, but in some instances the practicability of washing
voltages. T h e first t w o types o f v o l t a g e stresses a r ea p p l i e d p r i m a r i l y t o design t h e
or greasing may have to be considered.
insulator string length a n d arcing distance, w h i l e t h e l a t t e r a f f e c t s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e " Ratio of the leakage distance measured between phase and earth over the rms phase-to-phase
creepage distance, consideration being given t o p o l l u t i o n conditions o f the line route. value of the highest voltage for the equipment.
Fault induced overvoltages i n D Csystems are usually appreciably lower t h a n switching 2' Ratio of the leakage distance between pole and earth over the voltage between pole and earth,
surges i nA C lines, as a consequence o f t h e a t t e n u a t i o ni n t h e converter s t a t i o n . value according to international practice, not standardized in I E C 60 071-2 or I E C 60 815.
31 Use of fertilizers by spraying, or the burning of crop residues can lead to a higher pollution
T e m p o r a r y overvoltages o r slow-front overvoltages are usually n o t significant i n H V D C
level due to dispersal by wind.
systems. Such overvoltages, o f a transient nature, a r ealmost exclusively caused b y 4> Distances from sea coast depend on the topography of the coastal area and on the extreme
surges induced o n a h e a l t h y pole b y a n e a r t h fault o n t h e o t h e r pole o f a bipolar line. wind conditions.
T h i s t y p e o f surge reaches u s u a l l y a m o d e r a t e m a g n i t u d e o f n o t m o r e t h a n 1,7 p . u . ,
w h a t i s a p p r e c i a b l y less t h a n a t y p i c a l A C s w i t c h i n g s u r g e .
M o s t o f fast-front overvoltages, a r e c a u s e d b y lightning. D C l i n e b e h a v i o u r i s s i m i l a r t o
that o f A C lines, b u t the insulator string l e n g t h t h a t is adequate for operating voltage
n o r m a l l y ensures a sufficient lightning p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e line.
Therefore, asa consequence o flower insulation r e q u i r e m e n t s o nt h e string l e n g t h due t o
fast-front and slow-front overvoltages, the insulator capability t o w i t h s t a n d operating
286 9 Insulators
voltages w i l l b e t h e governing factor for t h e design u n d e r a l l p o l l u t i o n levels. T h e r a t e
o f contaminant deposition o n H V D C l i n e s i s s e v e r a l t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o c c u r r i n g
on A C lines [9.47, 9.48]. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o l l u t i o n level, w h i c h is reached after cycles o f
contaminant deposition a n d o fwashing b y rain, is significantly larger for D C insulators
t h a n for A C i n s u l a t o r s (even 1 0 t o 100 t i m e s larger). Consequently, i tis advantageous
to u s e insulators w i t h long creepage distances, t o keep insulator strings as short as
possible. I n T a b l e 9.8, r e c o m m e n d e d specific creepage distances are s h o w n for D C lines
d i f f e r e n t pollution levels.
Regarding insulator types, d u e t o the h i g h degree o f p o l l u t i o n protection required,
anti-fog cap-and-pin insulators h a v i n g a r a t i o b e t w e e n c r e e p a g e d i s t a n c e a n d s p a c i n g
( h e i g h t ) i n t h e r a n g e o f 2,8 t o 3 , 2 h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o b e w e l l s u i t e d i n H V D C lines a s
w e l l a s composite insulators w i t h w a t e r - r e p e l l e n t f e a t u r e s . Self-cleaning properties o f t h e
i n s u l a t o r s are i m p o r t a n t i n case o fD C lines. T h e leakage c u r r e n t d e n s i t y w i l l b e h i g h e s t
near t h e p i n o f a cap-and-pin insulator a n d causes effective d r y i n g . T h e surface voltage
gradient m a y become very high there, although the N a C l deposit is high. T o avoid
i n s u l a t o r f a i l i n g , a zinc sleeve c a n b e p l a c e d a r o u n d t h e p i n a s a s a c r i f i c i a l e l e c t r o d e .
D e f i n i t i o n s , test m e t h o d s a n d acceptance c r i t e r i a are specified i n E N 6 1 325 [9.49].
T h e n o n - l i n e a r deposit distribution along t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g is caused b y t h e forces
acting o n t h e particles i n t h e air s u r r o u n d i n g t h e string. T h e r e are forces due t o w i n d ,
g r a v i t a t i o n a n d electric forces o n charged o r u n c h a r g e d particles i n a n o n - u n i f o r m elec-
t r i c a l field. T h e r e f o r e , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a n u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l e l e c t r i c a l field, b o t h
charged and uncharged particles i nthe air surrounding a D C string are set i n t o m o -
tion and attracted specially a t t h e energized and earthed end o f the string where the
e l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h i s h i g h e s t . T h e r a n d o m d e p o s i t d i s t r i b u t i o n c a u s e s a n o n - l i n e a r
voltage distribution along the string, w h i c h , t o a certain extent, reduces t h e discharge
voltage.
To reduce t h e insulator p o l l u t i o n a n d t o i m p r o v e deposit d i s t r i b u t i o nalong t h e s t r i n g ,
potential grading rings c a n b e m o u n t e d a t t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m e n d o f t h e i n s u l a t o r
s t r i n g . T h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c field a r o u n d t h e i n s u l a t o r s w i l l t h e n c h a n g e s u c h t h a t t h e
gradient voltage w i l l b e highest o n t h e surface o f t h e r i n g itself. Consequently, t h e
particles will move t o that ring instead o f the insulator.
T h e r e d u c t i o n i n i n s u l a t o r p o l l u t i o n b y u s e o f collector rings i s g r e a t e r a t p o s i t i v e
t h a n a t negative polarity. Also, the influence o f potential grading rings is stronger o n
pollution a t the undersurface o f t h e i n s u l a t i n g elements t h a n a t their upper surface.
A p p l i c a t i o n o f c o a t i n g s , s u c h a s silicone grease, o n t h e i n s u l a t o r i s a n o t h e r m e a n s f o r
r e d u c i n g t h e e f f e c t o f p o l l u t a n t a c c u m u l a t i o n o n t h e flashover v o l t a g e . G r e a s e c o a t i n g s
0 , 5 t o 2 , 0 m m t h i c k h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d w i t h g o o d r e s u l t s . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f GFC insu-
lators w i t h s h e d s m a d e o f s i l i c o n e r u b b e r ( s e e c l a u s e 9 . 4 ) h a s p r o v e d t o b e a d v a n t a g e o u s
i n p o l l u t i o n - p r o n e sections o f H V D C lines.
T h e DC nominal voltage r e f e r s t o p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e p o l e v o l t a g e , t h a t i s c o m p a r a b l e
to peak value o f A Cphase-to-earth voltage, a n d the leakage distance requirements are
s i m i l a r i nb o t h cases, a s i t c a nb e seen i n I E C 60 815 [9.17]. H o w e v e r i t s h o u l d b e
recognized that D C lines are m o r e prone t o accumulate p o l l u t a n t s t h a n A C lines. A s a
g u i d e l i n e i n l i g h t p o l l u t e d r e g i o n s , a figure o f 3 0 m m / k V c a n i n p r i n c i p l e b e a d o p t e d
for t h e p r e l i m i n a r y i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g design o f a D C line. A m a x i m u m pole v o l t a g e 5 %
higher t h a n the rated D C voltage should b e considered i n the i n s u l a t i o n design.
9.8.3 A u d i b l e noise ( A N ) performance
Design specifications m a y require the i n s u l a t o r strings t o accomplish performance w i t h
respect t o audible noise ( A N ) a l t h o u g h i t is k n o w n t h a t o n l y f r o m a 400 k V voltage
level u p w a r d s c o r o n a noise is i m p o r t a n t a n d t h a t c o r o n a effects a r e c r u c i a l o n l y u n d e r
9.9 O p e r a t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s 287
foul weather conditions. Aeolian noise c a u s e d b y l a m i n a r w i n d s t h r o u g h t h e i n s u l a t o r
s k i r t s c a no n l y s e l d o m b e observed a t glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s . T h i s special f o r m
of noise cannot b e p r e d e t e r m i n e d b y tests a n d is n o t specifically addressed here.
9.8.4 Mechanical design
I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e r a t e d m e c h a n i c a l failing l o a d o f t h e i n s u l a t o r selected needs t ob e h i g h e r
t h a n the value obtained b y m u l t i p l y i n g the m a x i m u m occurring mechanical load b y a
p a r t i a l f a c t o r . T h e m e c h a n i c a l l o a d o f m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r sets is o b t a i n e d b y d i s t r i b u t i n g
the load o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l insulator strings.
For t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets, t h e m a x i m u m load s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e conductor
tensile load occurring under one o f the following conditions:
- Temperature - 2 0 D C w i t h o u t iceload o r
- T e m p e r a t u r e —5°C w i t h i c e l o a d o r
- T e m p e r a t u r e — 5°C w i t h i c e a n d w i n d l o a d o r
- T e m p e r a t u r e +5°C w i t h w i n d l o a d .
For s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a n d l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s , t h e m a x i m u m load has t o b e con-
sidered, w h i c h results f r o m t h e m o s t unfavourable c o m b i n a t i o n o f conductor weight, ice
load, w i n d action a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l conductor tensile forces as stipulated i n standards
or project specifications. L i n e post insulators s h o u l d not b e used f o rangle, strain o r
dead-end supports.
T h e design load of a n i n s u l a t o r s e t i s t h e t o t a l l o a d r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
o f each o f t h e p e r m a n e n t a n d variable loads a n dconductor tensile forces b y p a r t i a l
f a c t o r s o n t h e l o a d side o r f r o m t h e u l t i m a t e l o a d . T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r i s 1,35 a c c o r d i n g
t o [ 9 . 2 2 ] a s a n e x a m p l e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a partial factor for material h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d
for t h e m e c h a n i c a l design o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set. I n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , this factor i s specified as
2,0 i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e i n s u l a t o r t y p e . D e v i a t i n g h i g h e r f a c t o r s c a n b e s t i p u l a t e d i n
national standards o r project specifications.
F o r multiple insulator sets c o n s i s t i n g o f n s t r i n g s , t h e m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e l o a d m a y
at m a x i m u m b e n - t i m e s as m u c h as t h e p e r m i s s i b l e load o f a single i n s u l a t o r set. A
distribution of the total load s t r e s s i n g a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r s e t a s u n i f o r m a s p o s s i b l e o n
the i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s s h o u l d b e a i m e d a t i n t h i s case.
T h e d e s i g n o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s h o u l d e n s u r e t h a t i n c a s e o f failure of one insulator
string
- A nas far as possible u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o no f t h e t o t a l load along t h e r e m a i n i n g
sound insulator strings is assured;
- T h e partial factors for m a t e r i a l corresponding t othe insulators under tensile load
m a y b e reduced appreciably;
- T h e d y n a m i c forces a n d m o m e n t s s h o u l d b e counteracted i n order t o avoid t h e
failing o f the remaining strings b y the occurring load transfer. Otherwise,t h e
a i m o f a d o p t i n g m u l t i p l e s t r i n g s w o u l d n o t b e achieved, t h a t is, t o s u p p o r t t h e
conductors even after the failure o f a n insulator or o f a nindividualstring. T h i s
can, f o rinstance, b e guaranteed b y a n adequate design o f the yoke plates. T h e
m e c h a n i c a l design o f t h e associated fittings i s t r e a t e d i n clause 10.4.3.
9.9 Operational performance of insulator strings
9.9.1 Introduction
O v e r h e a d line insulators are stressed b y b o t h t h e applied electric voltage a n d t h e m e -
c h a n i c a l l o a d s . T h e insulating capacity o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s i s s p e c i a l l y i n f l u e n c e d b y p o l -
l u t i o n w h i c h , together w i t h h u m i d i t y , c a n lead t o conducting superficial layers.T h e
i n - s e r v i c e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s d e p e n d s a l s o o n t h e i r arrangement e i t h e r i n
 F i g u r e 9 . 2 0 : V o l t a g e stress o f a 123 k V l o n g
rod insulator.
1 p o w e r f r e q u e n c y flashover v o l t a g e , d r y ;
2 p o w e r f r e q u e n c y flashover v o l t a g e , w e t ;
3 power frequency w i t h s t a n d voltage wet, ac-
cording t oI E C 60071-1;
4 p h a s e - t o - e a r t h v o l t a g e f o r 17 s = 1 2 3 k V

s u s p e n s i o n o r i n d e a d - e n d p o s i t i o n a n d o n t h e self-cleaning processes c a u s e d b y r a i n o r
w i n d . O p e r a t i o n a l reliability a n d security are d e t e r m i n e d m a i n l y b y the electric stress
on polluted insulators.

9.9.2 Voltage stresses

O v e r h e a d l i n e i n s u l a t o r s experience different electric stresses. T h e p h a s e - t o - e a r t h v o l t -

age i s p e r m a n e n t l y a p p l i e d b e t w e e n t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d t h e e a r t h , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
( l / \ / 3 ) times the phase-to-phase rated power frequency voltage. L i g h t n i n g strokes cause
a) cap-and-pin insulator set consisting o ( 8 U100 BL b) long rod insulator L160B
overvoltages for some microseconds. S w i t c h i n g operations cause overvoltages i n t h e t i m e
r a n g e o f milliseconds. I n case o f a n e a r t h f a u l t i n r e s o n a n t e a r t h e d systems, t h e phase- F i g u r e 9 . 2 1 : V o l t a g e d r o p a l o n g a c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r set a n d a l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r
to-phase voltage can a c tbetween t h e conductor a n d t h e e a r t h along t h e insulator for
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10 seconds.
I n F i g u r e 9.20, t h e p o w e r frequency flashover voltage, dry, the power frequency flashover
voltage, wet, the power frequency w i t h s t a n d voltage, wet, and the phase-to-earth volt-
age o f a 110 k V i n s u l a t i o n are c o m p a r e d .
I n c a s e o f pollution layers s h o w i n g h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y , i n s u l a t o r s c a n b e s u b j e c t t o
flashover already a t operational phase-to-earth voltage. T h u s , the actual power fre-
quency flashover voltage w i l l o n l y b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 % o ft h e p o w e r frequency
flashover v o l t a g e o f t h e c l e a n , d r y i n s u l a t o r . T h e r e f o r e , b o t h t h e w e t a n d t h e d r y power
frequency flashover voltages o f t h e c l e a n i n s u l a t o r d o n o t h a v e m u c h i m p o r t a n c e i n
practice. T h e influence o fthe p o l l u t i o n layer should always b e t a k e n i n t o account w h e n
t h e stresses d u e t o o p e r a t i o n a l voltages a r e assessed.
E v e r y i n s u l a t o r p r e s e n t s t w o m e t a l l i c fittings w h i c h , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n s u l a t o r b o d y a s
t h e dielectric, p o s s e s s a c a p a c i t a n c e . T h e partial capacitance o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r
units a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l shells as w e l l as t h e capacitances t o earthed parts a n d t o
c o n d u c t o r s i n f l u e n c e t h e voltage distribution along the insulator.
In Figure 9.21, the voltage distribution is s h o w n along a cap-and-pin insulator string
a n d along a long rod insulator. These distributions are similar. A l o n g one t h i r d o f t h e
i n s u l a t i o n o n t h e l i v e e n d , t h e d e c r e a s e i n v o l t a g e i s a b o u t 5 5 %, w h i l e t h e r e m a i n i n g
voltage is distributed along the other t w o thirds. T h e voltage drop a tthe live end is
i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e c o n d u c t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n , potential control rings a n d t h e
a r r a n g e m e n t o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s help t o reduce t h e voltage stresses o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g
to such a n extent t h a t a smooth voltage drop is obtained.
T h e leakage c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e insulator capacitances is low. U n d e r practical opera-
t i o n , p o l l u t i o n c a u s e s a conducting pollution layer r e s u l t i n g i n a surface current m u c h
20 40 60 80 % 100 20 40 60 80 % 100
h i g h e r t h a n t h e capacitive current. D u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , t h e v o l t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g Relative portion of vollage
Relative portion of voltage
t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g i s p r a c t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e ohmic surface resistance. I n F i g -
ure 9.22, t h e voltage d i s t r i b u t i o n i s presented a l o n g a t e n - u n i t i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g , u n d e r F i g u r e 9.22: Voltage drop along a n insulator string for differing air h u m i d i t y
b o t h l o w a n d h i g h h u m i d i t y levels. I t c a n b e seen t h a t t h e voltage decreases u n i f o r m l y
290 9 Insulators
F i g u r e 9.23: Non-puncture-proof line F i g u r e 9.24: P u n c t u r e - p r o o f line post insulator
post insulator according t oD I N 48 004
due t o l o w c o n d u c t i v i t y u n d e r l o w h u m i d i t y conditions. O n t h e right side o f t h e figure,
larger differences o f t h e conductivities cause t h e voltage t o decrease o n l y over some
insulator units. D u e t othe h i g h conductivity o f the p o l l u t i o nlayer, the r e m a i n i n g insu-
lators d o n o t contribute t ot h e insulating capacity o f t h e string. T h i s isalso t h e reason
for t h e sharp decrease o f t h e flashover voltage u n d e r p o l l u t i o n .
A s a consequence o ft h e decrease i n voltage a l o n g i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r caps d u e t op o l l u -
tion, t h e affected u n i t s can experience p u n c t u r e a n d , therefore, d a m a g e o f t h e relevant
units. T o a lower extent, long r o d insulators c a n also present a n o n - u n i f o r m voltage
d i s t r i b u t i o n u n d e r p o l l u t i o n . S i n c e t h e y a r e p u n c t u r e - p r o o f , t h e y a r e less e n d a n g e r e d
under such conditions.
T h e n o n - u n i f o r m v o l t a g e d r o p c a n r e s u l t i n compensating discharges t h a t a r e a c c o m p a -
n i e d b y high-frequency interference a n d u n d e s i r e d Rl-noise levels. I f t h e s u r f a c e c u r r e n t
is n o t l i m i t e d b y t h e resistance o ft h e r e m a i n i n g i n s u l a t i n g p a t h , t h o s e p a r t i a l discharges
c a n d e v e l o p i n t o a complete flashover w i t h a p o w e r a r c .
9.9.3 B e h a v i o u r of i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r t y p e s
N o n - p u n c t u r e - p r o o f types ( F i g u r e 9.23) as w e l l as p u n c t u r e - p r o o f types o fline post i n -
sulators ( F i g u r e 9.24) are used. F l a s h o v e r s d u e t ol i g h t n i n g strokes o n m e d i u m - v o l t a g e
networks can cause damage t onon-puncture-proof insulators w h i c h isnot directly visi-
ble, b u t m a y lead t ofailures later on. T h u s , puncture-proof insulators should b e r a t h e r
used f o r operational reasons. T h e rigid fastening o f t h e conductors t o the line post
insulators does not allow t h e compensation o f the unbalanced loads that occur as a
consequence o f differing iceaccretion o n t h e conductors. These loads lead t o relatively
h i g h l o a d s o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s . T h e bending resistance o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s a n d t h e i r s u p p o r t s
is u s u a l l y l i m i t e d ; t h u s , t h e use o f l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s i s r e s t r i c t e d t o l o w l o a d s .
L a r g e birds m a y a l i g h t o n t h e crossarms o f m e d i u m - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d lines, i na d a n -
gerous p r o x i m i t y t o t h e live line i n case o f p i n - t y p e i n s u l a t o r s . A s a r e s u l t ,
c o u l d b e caused w i t h l e t h a l consequences f o r b i r d s a s r e p o r t e d i n s o m e cases. S u s -
pension insulators prevent such occurrences. E v e n the relative short insulator length
corresponding t othe low operating voltage allows the compensation o f the unbalanced
loads, t h u s decreasing the loads o nt h e supports. L a r g e birds are t h e n better protected.
Suspension insulators require longer poles t h a n line post insulators a n d are deflected
9.9 O p e r a t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s 2 9 1
under wind, so that the right-of-way m i g h t be wider.
N e t w o r k s o p e r a t i n g a t 9 0 k Vo r higher voltages use exclusively suspension i n s u l a t o r s
for t h e straight line sections. I nC e n t r a l E u r o p e , the l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r is preferred,
w h i l e e i t h e r t h e p o r c e l a i n o r t h e glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s are f a v o u r e d o u t s i d e t h a t
region. T h e assessment o f t h e various aspects o f performance o f those insulator types
is n o t u n a n i m o u s . T h i s i s caused b y d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e n e t w o r k s ,
so t h a t also i n areas h a v i n g t h e s a m e c l i m a t e d i f f e r i n g e x p e r i e n c e i s g a i n e d . M e a n i n g f u l
comparisons can only b e obtained w h e n b o t h types o finsulatorsare installed i n parallel
o n a n o v e r h e a d line s e c t i o n . B u t t h i s i s a r a r e case.
P r o m a n o p e r a t i o n a l p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e performance of the insulators under pollution
is t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e . P o l l u t i o n leads t o a n o n - u n i f o r m v o l t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n
a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r s a s e x p l a i n e d i n c l a u s e 9 . 9 . 2 . T h i s c a n r e s u l t i n flashovers o r d a m -
age t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s . T h e c o m p l e t e i n s u l a t o r p a t h is a l w a y s
effective i ncase o f p u n c t u r e - p r o o f l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s ; t h e r e f o r e , shed d a m a g e d u e t o
p o l l u t i o n c a n n o t occur. P o w e r arcs o r i g i n a t e d , for instance, f r o m a t m o s p h e r i c overvolt-
ages c a n cause t h e c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s t o p u n c t u r e . T o u g h e n e d glass c a p - a n d - p i n
insulators a l w a y s possess i n t e r n a l stresses o r microscopic i m p u r i t i e s f r o m t h e m e l t i n g
p r o c e s s , w h i c h m a y l e a d t o a s u d d e n l o s s o f t h e s h e d d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . T h e creepage
currents f l o w i n g o n t h e s u r f a c e e r o d e i t , t h u s b u i l d i n g u p a p o t e n t i a l r e a s o n f o r t h e
d e s t r u c t i o n o f sheds [9.50]. A s a consequence, m u c h m o r e c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s t h a n
l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s fail [9.51]. T h a t i s t h e r e a s o n w h y i nregions w h e r e t h e c a p - a n d -
p i n i n s u l a t o r s are used i nr a d i a l n e t w o r k s , w h i c h d o n o t a l l o w t h e disconnection o f a
line, m e t h o d s were developed f o rthe cap-and-pin insulators t o b e s u b s t i t u t e d u n d e r
live-line c o n d i t i o n s [9.52]. T h i s expensive m a i n t e n a n c e i s n o t necessary w h e n l o n g r o d
i n s u l a t o r s a r e a p p l i e d . I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , t h e labour safety legislation d o e s n o t p e r m i t
this maintenance technology.
T h e surface currents o n p o l l u t e d i n s u l a t o r s r e p r e s e n t o n l y a n a c t i v e p o w e r l o s s o f a b o u t
1 t h o u s a n d t h o f t h e t o t a l loss, w h i c h i s m a i n l y f o r m e d b y o h m i c losses. T h e losses d u e
to surface currents can t h u s b e neglected.
L o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e s a r e less s t r u c t u r e d a n d c a n t h u s b e c l e a n e d b y b o t h r a i n o r
w i n d . I n m a n y c a s e s w h e r e t h i s cleaning effect i s d e f i n i t e l y n e e d e d , l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s
are preferably applied. T h e y c a n also b e cleaned b y w a t e r jet as well as b y other
methods.
Regarding p o l l u t i o n ,insulatorshave a different performance depending o n t h e arrange-
ment in suspension o r i n dead-end position. Insulators i n dead-end positions are more
effectively cleaned. T h e r e f o r e , according t o practice o f some utilities, t h e required creep-
age p a t h c a n b e r e d u c e d b y 1 0 % c o m p a r e d w i t h i n s u l a t o r s i n s u s p e n s i o n p o s i t i o n .
C o r o n a discharges o nt h e insulator surfaces a n d s p a r k i n g discharges a t low-conductive
interconnections o f the insulators cause high-frequency interference. Since t h e m a g -
nitude o f these interference depends o n t h e n u m b e r o f the interconnections between
the i n s u l a t o r s , t h e larger t h e n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s , t h e m o r e ex-
tended t h e interference w i l l be. L o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s have few i n d i v i d u a l elements,
t h u s l i m i t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f cascade arcing.
E v e n after t h e failure o f a t o u g h e n e d glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r body, its m e c h a n i c a l
strength i s m a i n t a i n e d , a l t h o u g h t o some reduced extent. T h i s decreases t h e risk o f
f a i l u r e o f t h e t o t a l i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g c a u s e d b y flashovers o r v a n d a l i s m t o b e f e a r e d i n
flashovers s o m e areas. I n a n y case, l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s a r e m u c h m o r e difficult t o d a m a g e t h a n
t h e shells o f cap-and-pin insulators.A n y c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g i sn o t u n l i m i t e d l y
failure-proof at all. According t ostatistics, approximately the same relative quantity o f
l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r strings i scompletely destroyed b y a l l k i n d s o freasons as c a p - a n d - p i n
insulator strings b y power arcs.
 9.9.4 B e h a v i o u r under pollution layers
fable 9 . 9 : W i t h s t a n d levels o f p o l l u t i o n layers corresponding t o t h e four
9.9.4.1 F o r m a t i o n of pollution layers p o l l u t i o n levels according t o I E C 6 0 8 1 5
Pollution Solid pollution layer TL J iIrUx111 J U L I U LMJU l1 on~u(*T
i i i Lr Il Jr\fwlnkiiDYi Vvl

level Withstand layer Withstand salt Withstand salinity

T h e a i ri n all regions o f t h e w o r l d contains solid o r dissolved substances t h a t c a n pre-
con due ti vi ty deposite
c i p i t a t e o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s . C o a s t a l saline pollution, d i v e r s e k i n d s o f dust i n i n d u s t r i a l in /xS in m g / c m 2 (NaCl) in kg/m* 3
areas as, for example f r o m cement mills, steel m i l l s o r f r o m power plants, desert sand, 15 to 20 0,03 to 0,06 5 to 14
I Light
all o f t h e m c a n have c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h a r e h i g h l y conductive w h e n moistened. I n agri- II Medium 24 to 35 0,10 to 0,20 14 to 40
c u l t u r a l areas, fertilizers c a n b e carried b y t h e w i n d a n d precipitate o n t h e insulators. III Heavy 36 0,30 to 0,60 40 to 112
A l l t h e s e s o l i d o r fluid p r e c i p i t a t i o n c a n b u i l d u p pollution layers o n t h e i n s u l a t o r w h i c h IV Very heavy > 160

become conductive under moist conditions, thus reducing t h einsulating capability. I n -

s u l a t o r b e h a v i o u r i n t h e presence o f such p o l l u t i o n layers h a sa decisive significance
f r o m t h e standpoint o f reliable operation. F o r this reason, t h e evaluation o f t h e ex-
p e c t e d p o l l u t i o n stresses is i m p o r t a n t f o r every t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e , j u s t a s t h e selection
o f a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n s u l a t i o n . A n e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e e x i s t s o n t h e s u b j e c t o f pollution
performance. P a p e r [9.53] s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e .
Diverse factors influence t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p o l l u t i o n layers a n d t h e flashovers
give rise t o . T h e y a r e as follows:
- T y p e a n d q u a n t i t y o f solid, liquid o r gaseous materials i n t h e air, together
forces w h i c h affect t h e m o v e m e n t o f such m a t e r i a l s o r particles,
- Insulator shapes a n d conditions t h a t determine t h eadhesion o f t h ematerials o r
p a r t i c l e s o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e s a s w e l l a s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f self-cleaning by
wind o r rain,
- M o i s t e n i n g o f the p o l l u t i o n layers t h r o u g h light rain o rdew.
P o l l u t i o n layers o n i n s u l a t o r s h a v e n o d a m a g i n g effect a s l o n g a s t h e y r e m a i n d r y a n d
thus practically non-conductive. L i g h t r a i n o r h u m i d i t y , w h i c h causes t h e layer t o b e
conductive a n d does n o t wash t h e particles out, strongly reduces t h e insulating capa-
bility, a n d causes a steady a n d heavy increase o f t h e surface current o n t h e insulator.
A t t h espots w i t h t h elargest current densities, t h ewater ispartially vaporized. Partial
arcs, are f o r m e d a t t h e d r y i n g s p o t s a n d e x t i n g u i s h a g a i n i n g e n e r a l . W i t h t h e d e c r e a s e
of t h e resistance o f t h e r e m a i n i n g h u m i d p o l l u t i o n layer, t h e c u r r e n t increases again.
Flashover occurs o n some i n d i v i d u a l insulators, later developing t o a flashover o f t h e
complete insulator set.
9.9.4.2 Simulation of pollution layers
G r o w i n g problems i n v o l v i n g t h e b e h a v i o u r o f insulators u n d e r p o l l u t i o n gave rise t o
studies w h i c h began i n t h e 1930's, concerned w i t h l a b o r a t o r y analysis o f t h e b e h a v i o u r
o f insulators affected b y p o l l u t i o n . T h e s e studies resulted i n test procedures i n t h e
1950's, w i t h standardized artificial p o l l u t i o n layers f o rt h e assessment o f t h e i n s u l a -
tor behaviour. A certain test procedure w a s developed i nG e r m a n y , w h i c h consists o f
a p p l y i n g kieselgur o r brine t o f o r m a solid pollution layer. T h e surface conductivity
of a completely moist square part o f t h a t layer w a s applied as a q u a n t i t y character-
izing t h e degree o f p o l l u t i o n f o r w h i c h diverse types o f insulators were comparatively
tested. I ta i m s a t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e conductivity f o r w h i c h , a t operation voltage, a
selected i n s u l a t o r experiences flashover, or determination o ft h econductivity which a
given insulation can withstand.
International investigations used other m e t h o d s as, for example, salty water spraying
o n i n s u l a t o r s w h i c h f o r m e d a liquid pollution layer. T h e salt concentration f o r w h i c h t h e
insulator still supports a c e r t a i n voltage ( w i t h s t a n d voltage) o rh a sa 5 0% p r o b a b i l i t y o f
flashover (critical voltage), ist h echaracteristic value for t h e evaluation o fthe insulator
resistance t op o l l u t i o n layers. T h e salt concentration under w h i c h the insulator supports
a g i v e n v o l t a g e i s c a l l e d withstand salinity.
B o t h test procedures w i t h solid o r liquid p o l l u t i o n layers a r e used today t o evaluate
the w i t h s t a n d voltage characteristics o f overhead line insulators made o f ceramics o r
glass i na c c o r d a n c e w i t h I E C6 0 5 0 7 [9.45]. U p t o n o w , c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s have n o
standardized test procedures f o r p o l l u t i o n performance because o f t h e hydrophobic
b e h a v i o u r o f t h e i r surfaces.
they
9.9.4.3 P o l l u t i o n levels
with
B a s e d o n findings f r o m l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s o n t h e i n s u l a t o r b e h a v i o u r u n d e r p o l l u t i o n
a n d b y m e a n s o f c o m p a r i s o n o f r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m l i n e s , f o u r pollution levels w e r e d e -
fined, r a n g i n g f r o m l i g h t t o v e r y h e a v y p o l l u t i o n ; s u g g e s t i o n s f o r t h e minimum creepage
distances w e r e a l s o g i v e n , r e f e r r e d t o p h a s e - t o - p h a s e v o l t a g e s i n c a s e o f A C a p p l i c a t i o n s
( T a b l e 9 . 8 ) . T h e s e s p e c i f i c pollution levels w e r e a s s o c i a t e d t o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s t a k e n
f r o m t h el a b o r a t o r y studies a s c o n d u c t i v i t y o ft h e layer i n case o fsolid p o l l u t i o n layers
and as w i t h s t a n d salinity for t h eliquid p o l l u t i o n layers. I n Table 9.9this correlation is
shown.
I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 9 . 1 7 ] ( T a b l e 9 . 8 ) , a r e a s w i t h light pollution l e v e l a r e t h o s e w i t h o u t
industries a n d w i t h o u t houses. T h e y a r e m a i n l y a g r i c u l t u r a l areas, w h i c h a r e regularly
subject t o r a i n f a l l a n d w i n d . T h e y s h o u l d n o t b e d i r e c t l y a t t h e seaside.
Medium pollution i s g i v e n i n a r e a s d e s c r i b e d a s t h o s e w i t h i n d u s t r i e s n o t p r o d u c i n g
p a r t i c u l a r l y p o l l u t i n g s m o k e o r those areas w i t h a n average density o fhouses. F r e q u e n t
rainfall a n dw i n d are assumed as occurring.
Heavy pollution a p p e a r s i n a r e a s w i t h h i g h i n d u s t r i a l d e n s i t y , i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s o f
large cities a n d close t o t h esea coast.
Very heavy pollution c a n e x i s t i n t h e i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f t h e s e a , w h e r e i n s u -
lators c a n b e subject t o seawater-spray a n d i ndesert areas characterized b y n o rain for
long periods, exposing insulators t o strong winds carrying salt a n d sand, a n d subject
to regular moistening b ydew.
I n s o m e a r e a s n e a r l y n o o r very light pollution o c c u r s . A r e a s i n m o u n t a i n s a n d f o r e s t s
r e m o t e f r o m i n d u s t r i e s w i t h e n o u g h r a i n a x e w i t h i n t h i s category. T h e r e , a specific
c r e e p a g e d i s t a n c e less t h a n t h a t f o r l e v e l I c a n b e a p p l i e d i f v a l i d a t e d b y e x p e r i e n c e
(see T a b l e 9 . 8 ) .
I n T a b l e 9 . 9 , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f a s p e c i f i e d pollution level i s s h o w n w i t h w i t h s t a n d l e v e l
obtained f r o m insulator tests using artificial p o l l u t i o n layers.
9.9.4.4 A s s e s s m e n t of p o l l u t i o n levels by m e a n s of local m e a s u r e m e n t s
Local pollution o f i n s u l a t o r s c a n b e a s s e s s e d b y i n - s i t u m e a s u r e m e n t s . I E C 6 0 8 1 5 [ 9 . 1 7 ]
m e n t i o n s five p r o c e d u r e s . T h e y r e q u i r e , o n o n e s i d e , l o n g - t e r m o b s e r v a t i o n a n d , i n s o m e
cases, also e x p e n s i v e m e a s u r i n g devices, a n d , o n t h e o t h e r side, still s o m e difficulties
exist t o correlate t h e results w i t h t h e e x p e c t e d stresses caused b y t h e p o l l u t i o n layer.
Often, measurement results a r e n o t available for regions w h e r e overhead lines are t ob e
294 9 Insulators 9.10 T e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r sets 295

c o n s t r u c t e d o r there is n o sufficient period o f t i m e t o p e r f o r m t h e m . F o r t h i s reason, that w a r m s u p the insulator surface, dries out t h e p o l l u t i o n layer a n d t h u s eliminates
t h e suggested procedures have not reached practical significance, w h e n t h e correlation its conductivity. T h a t semi-conductive glaze also s m o o t h e n s t h e voltage d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f a c e r t a i n p o l l u t i o n level t oa d e t e r m i n e d f u t u r e overhead l i n e r o u t e isneeded. T h e r e - over t h e insulator s t r i n g so t h a t i n d i v i d u a l insulators are not stressed m o r e heavily a n d
fore, they are j u s t mentioned here, w i t h o u t any details about the procedures and the cannot flashover prematurely.
e v a l u a t i o n processes:
— Measurement of the volume conductivity for t h e p o l l u t a n t , collected b y m e a n s o f
collecting gauges:
9.10 Testing of insulator sets
— D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f equivalent salt deposit density o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e ( E S D D
9.10.1 Basic information and assumptions
method);
— Measurement o f t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of flashovers o n i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s o f v a r i o u s T e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r sets c o n c e r n s t h e electric characteristics. T h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e m e n t s
lengths; o n the performance under power frequency voltage as well as lightning and switching
— Measurement of the surface conductance o f t e s t i n s u l a t o r s ; surge voltages are v e r i f i e d b y t e s t i n g . I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n as discussed i n clause 9.8.1
— Measurement of the leakage current o f i n s u l a t o r s s u b j e c t t o s e r v i c e v o l t a g e . results i n these r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e s t a n d a r d levels can b e t a k e n f r o m [9.29, 9.30]. T h e
design o f i n s u l a t i o n has t o guarantee t h e required d a t a corresponding t o t h e selected
i n s u l a t i o n level. Tests o n c o m p l e t e i n s u l a t o r sets c a n b e carried o u t t o v e r i f y these
9.9.4.5 Measures t omaintain insulation capacity characteristics. However, such tests are o p t i o n a l and not m a n d a t o r y , as m e n t i o n e d i n
I E C 6 0 3 8 3 - 2 [9.58], applicable for t e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r sets m a d e o f c e r a m i c o r glass
A l i t h o u g h the possibility o fp o l l u t i o n layers affecting the i n s u l a t i o n behaviour i s usually
insulators. T h e verification o fthe rated electric characteristics o f composite insulators
t a k e n into account d u r i n g design and selection o f the insulators, i tm a y happen t h a t
follows I E C 6 1 109 [9.37], w h i c h i s applicable o n l y t o i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r u n i t s (see
t h e i n s u l a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d u n l e s s insulation maintenance measures
clause 9.6.3).
are taken t o prevent occurrence o f flashovers. Because o f that, several methods have
b e e n developed, especially for switch-gear i n s t a l l a t i o n s , w h i c h care for t h e increase o f T h e insulators should b e clean a n d d r y before high-voltage tests. T h e y should b e stored
t h e resistance against p o l l u t i o n layers o r for the restoring t h e i n s u l a t i n g capability. at test laboratory ambient t e m p e r a t u r e for a sufficiently long period so t h a t temper-
T h e s e measures can b e carried out either regularly o r after deposition o fcritical pollu- ature equalizing isreached before s t a r t i n g the tests, thus preventing condensation o n
t i a m l a y e r s . T h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d i n [9.54] h a s p r o v e d t o b e efficient f o r t h e i n d i c a t i o n t h e insulator surfaces. I fn o t o t h e r w i s e agreed u p o n , t h e relative h u m i d i t y m a y n o t
exceed 8 5 % d u r i n g t h e tests. T h e t i m e i n t e r v a l between consecutive tests should b e
of such critical levels.
sufficiently long t oreduce t h e influence o f previous flashover o rw i t h s t a n d voltage tests
I f i ti s k n o w n t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l p o l l u t i o n c o n d i t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d t o a d e t e r m i n e d p e r i o d
to a minimum.
ov«r t h e d a y , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g d u e t o d e w , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e o p -
e r a t i o n a l voltage b y 2 0 % o f its r a t e d v a l u e proves t o b e efficient [9.54]. T h i s m e t h o d
h a s been occasionally applied for installations close t o t h e sea coast. Loose o r l i g h t l y 9.10.2 Standard atmospheric conditions
a d l h e s i v e p o l l u t i o n l a y e r s c a n b e r e m o v e d b y spraying the insulators u n d e r l i v e - l i n e c o n -
W h e n t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t e s t i n g d e v i a t e from t h e standard reference
d i t i o n . W a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y s h o u l d b e l o w h e r e . S p e c i a l nozzles s h o u l d b e u s e d [9.54] a n d
atmosphere i n d i c a t e d b y I E C 6 0 0 6 0 - 1 [ 9 . 3 1 ] , t h e t e s t r e s u l t s s h o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d . T h e
m i n i m u m distances m u s t b e observed. I f applied u n d e r live conditions, t h e r e ist h e r i s k
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r c a l l e d relative insulation strength ( R I S ) , c a n b e o b t a i n e d from a i r
of flashovers because o f possible increase o fw a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y caused b y salt deposits
density a n d h u m i d i t y , as described i n clause 2.4.5.3. I n case o f tests u n d e r r a i n , o n l y
o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s , w h i c h c o u l d e x p o s e t h e p e r s o n n e l t o d a n g e r . T h e insulator washing
the factor for air density correction should b e applied. T h e following is t h e n v a l i d for
s k o u l d t h e n b e repeated i n determined t i m e intervals, obtained f r o m the experience
the power frequency w i t h s t a n d a n d surge w i t h s t a n d voltage values:
w i t h t h i s m e t h o d [9.55] a n d [9.56]. P r e f e r a b l y , t h e w a s h i n g s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d w h e n t h e
l i n e is s w i t c h e d off, s o t h a t t h e m a x i m u m efficiency o f w a s h i n g i sa c h i e v e d . I n t h i s case,
Applied test voltage = specified w i t h s t a n d voltage • R I S
thie w a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y i s n o t a p r o b l e m .
H,and cleaning c a n n o t b e a v o i d e d w h e n t h e p o l l u t i o n l a y e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y h a r d a n d and for flashover voltages
s t r o n g l y adhering t o t h e insulators. Special scrubbing devices o r steel w o o l is used t o
recorded flashover voltage = measured flashover voltage/RIS .
r e m o v e t h e s o l i d l y a d h e s i v e l a y e r s . A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i n l a y e r s o f silicone-based grease
p r e v e n t s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a c o n t i n u o u s w a t e r film o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e . T h i s i m -
proves the insulator behaviour. T h e silicone layer isa b o u t 1 m m thick and applied b y 9.10.3 Artificial rain
airless-spraying devices. I t enables protection for a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o years i n areas w i t h
T h e s t a n d a r d t e s t p r o c e d u r e u n d e r artificial rain i s s t a n d a r d i z e d i n [ 9 . 3 1 ] , w h i c h a l s o
h e a v y p o l l u t i o n conditions. A f t e r t h a t period, the layer should b emechanically removed
gives t h e characteristic values o f t h e artificial r a i n . R a i n d i r e c t i o n s h o u l d b e agreed
a n d reapplied. T h e effectiveness consists, i n a s i m p l i f i e d e x p l a n a t i o n , o fenclosing w i t h
u p o n before testing the insulators i n horizontal o r inclined position.
silicone oil the solid pollutant particles existing o n the silicone layer. I t isthus avoided
t h a t a continuous conductive pollution layer is formed.
9.10.4 Testing arrangements
F l a s h o v e r across a p o l l u t i o n layer develops f r o m initial local arcs, w h e n t h e i n s u l a t i n g
c a p a b i l i t y o ft h e r e m a i n i n g p a t h is n om o r e sufficient. T h i s occurs w h e n m o i s t u r e leads D i f f e r i n g t e s t r e s u l t s c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o r flashover a n d w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e s o f i n s u l a t o r s
t o a c o n d u c t i n g p o l l u t i o n l a y e r . O u t s i d e E u r o p e , insulators a r e c o a t e d i n s o m e c a s e s from t h e electric t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e i n s u l a t o r sets u n d e r g o
w i t h a semi-conductive glaze [ 9 . 5 7 ] . T h i s e n a b l e s t h e flow o f a c e r t a i n c u r r e n t v a l u e tests i n accordance w i t h s t a n d a r d specifications o r i n a certain assembly a r r a n g e m e n t
w h i c h simulates m o s t closely t h e real o p e r a t i n g conditions. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e specimen
to b e tested m a y b e m o u n t e d a t a metallic structure that simulates t h e in-service
arrangement o n a tower. Assembly details should b e agreed between t h e purchaser and
the manufacturer, together w i t h the purchase order.
If previously agreed u p o n , non-standardized tests can b e p e r f o r m e d w i t h arrangements
s i m u l a t i n g r e a l o p e r a t i n g conditions. I n such cases, t h e r e s u l t i n g characteristic values
can a d m i t t e d l y deviate f r o m the standard values obtained under standard test condi-
tions.
F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t standard assembly arrangements f o relectric tests, de-
pending o n w h e t h e r switching surge tests are necessary o r not. A detailed description
is f o u n d i n [ 9 . 5 8 ] , C h a p t e r 1 2 ; i t s r e p e t i t i o n w o u l d b e s u p e r f l u o u s h e r e .
9.10.5 P o w e r frequency voltage test
T h e power frequency voltage test i s m a d e u n d e r r a i n c o n d i t i o n s a n d i s f o r e s e e n o n l y
for i n s u l a t o r sets u p t o 2 4 5 k V i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.21]. T h e t e s t c i r c u i t a n d t h e
test p r o c e d u r e a r e g i v e n i n [9.31]. T h e p o w e r frequency w i t h s t a n d voltage applied is
t h e specified value after its correction due t o t h e existing a i r density a t t h e m o m e n t
o f t h e t e s t s . I t i s a p p l i e d f o r 1 m i n u t e a n d n o flashover o r p u n c t u r e m a y o c c u r . T h e
flashover voltage can b e d e t e r m i n e d , o n l y asa d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o no reven a st h e result
of previous agreement, b y means o fincreasing the applied 75 % value o fthe withstand
v o l t a g e b y s t e p s o f 2 % p e r s e c o n d u p t o t h e p o i n t w h e n flashover o c c u r s . T h e flashover
voltage i s d e t e r m i n e d t h e n a s t h e a r i t h m e t i c m e a n o f t h e l a s t f i v e c o n s e c u t i v e r e a d i n g s .
9.10.6 Fast-front and slow-front overvoltage tests
T h e fast-front withstand voltage test d r y , s i m u l a t i n g l i g h t n i n g s u r g e s , i s r e q u i r e d f o r
e v e r y v o l t a g e l e v e l , w h i l e t h e slow-front withstand voltage test, w e t , s i m u l a t i n g s w i t c h i n g
surges, is a s t a n d a r d i z e d r e q u i r e m e n t f o r i n s u l a t o r sets o n l y f o r highest voltages o f
e q u i p m e n t a b o v e 245 k V [9.28]. T h e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h s t a n d voltages
consists o f calculating t h e 5 0 % flashover v o l t a g e v a l u e w h i c h i s o b t a i n e d from t h e up
and down procedures i n d i c a t e d b y [ 9 . 3 1 ] . E i t h e r a s t a n d a r d 1 , 2 / 5 0 ps l i g h t n i n g s u r g e o r
a 2 5 0 / 2 5 0 0 ps s w i t c h i n g s u r g e i s a p p l i e d , w i t h b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e p o l a r i t i e s . N o
damage m a y occur t ot h e insulators, a l t h o u g h slight traces o nt h e surfaces o r c r u m b l i n g
o f c e m e n t i n g m a t e r i a l m a y b e a l l o w e d . I n s o m e cases, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f 1 5 surges o r
impulses i sd e e m e d necessary for t h e w i t h s t a n d voltage test.
9.10.7 Power arc behaviour
Testing of power arc behaviour c a n b e p e r f o r m e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I E C 6 1 4 6 7 [ 9 . 5 9 ] ,
w h e r e t h e purchaser a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r have agreed u p o n t o carry o u t such tests.
9.10.8 R a d i o interference s t r e n g t h test
Generally, radio interference levels caused b y corona a t h i g h voltage overhead lines
a r e i m p o r t a n t o n l y a t voltages o f 2 4 5 k V a n d a b o v e . I nfact, o n l y t h e c o r o n a effects
caused b y the conductors are considered t o b e prevalent, w h i l e corona caused b y the
i n s u l a t o r sets a r e o n l y t a k e n i n t o account i n c e r t a i n special cases. B e c a u s e o f t h a t , t h e
radio interference strength test a c c o r d i n g t o [ 9 . 2 8 ] i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o p t i o n a l t e s t , t o b e
agreed u p o n b e t w e e n p u r c h a s e r a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f a r a s t y p e tests o f i n s u l a t o r sets
are concerned. I f i t is t h e case, t h e test s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o I E C R e p o r t
6 0 4 3 7 [9.60].
C I S P R 1 8 - 2 [ 9 . 4 2 ] g i v e s t h e m e t h o d s b y w h i c h limit values *>f radio interference can b e
assessed t o ensure g o o d r a d i o a n d television reception; t h e d e s i g n o fo v e r h e a d lines a n d
corresponding fittings t h a t take care o f the r e s t r i c t i o n o f tthe different k i n d s o f radio
interference t o acceptable levels a r e described i n C I S P R 18 -3 [9.61].
9.10.9 C o r o n a onset or extinction voltage test
S i n c e corona o n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i s c a u s e d m a i n l y b y c o n d u c t o r s , t h e c o r o n a
c o m p o n e n t p r o d u c e d b y i n s u l a t o r sets i s n o t d o m i n a n t . I n f o r m a t i o na b o u t t h i s m a t t e r
can b e f o u n d i n[9.28], clause 5.5.2.
W h e n p u r c h a s e r a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r d e c i d e d t o v e r i f y t h e m i n i m u m p e r c e p t i b l e corona
onset a s w e l l a s extinction voltage b y a t y p e t e s t o n a n i n s u l a t o r s e t , t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e
should b e indicated b y the purchaser. A s a guideline, the e x t i n c t i o n voltage should b e
a t l e a s t 1 , 0 5 UB/i/Z. T h e t e s t s s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I E C 6 0 4 3 7 .
T y p e tests are usually performed o n a complete insulator set.
9.11 E x a m p l e for insulator selection
L o n g r o d a n d glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s f o r s u s p e n s i o n a n d dead-end i n s u l a t o r
s e t s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d f o r a n o v e r h e a d l i n e w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s : Us =
420 k V , quadruple bundle conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 265/35), diameter
d = 2 2 , 4 m m , c r o s s s e c t i o n 2 9 7 , 8 m m 2 , w e i g h t s p a n 60CH m a n d w i n d s p a n 4 5 0 m .
Different i n s u l a t o r sets s h o u l d b e designed f o reach a l t e r n a t i v e , o n e f o rl i g h t a n d a n -
o t h e r f o r h e a v y p o l l u t i o n , i naccordance w i t h I E C 6 0 8 1 5 . T h e c o n d u c t o r s are s t r u n g
w i t h 5 0 N / m m 2 t e n s i l e s t r e s s a t +10°C. W i n d l o a d z o n e : 1 a n d i c e l o a d z o n e 1 , i n
accordance w i t h [9.22], a r e considered for t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n site. C o n d u c t o r h e i g h t z i s
30 m above g r o u n d .
M e c h a n i c a l design
T h e m e c h a n i c a l design o f i n s u l a t o r sets i s c a r r i e d o u t f o l l o w i n g E N 5 0 341-3-4 [9.22].
T h e p r o c e d u r e i s s i m i l a r f o r o t h e r s t a n d a r d s j u s t w i t h d i f f e r i n g figures. I n r e g i o n s w h e r e
ice a c c r e t i o n o c c u r s , t h e h i g h e s t l o a d o n s u s p e n s i o n s t r i n g s i s o f t e n g i v e n u n d e r s i m u l -
t a n e o u s a c t i o n o f w i n d a n d i c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g for e x a m p l e t.o l o a d case D , a c c o r d i n g t o
E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [9.22] s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 1 0 / D E . 1 . 2 , o r f o r u n b a l a n c e d c o n d u c t o r forces a c c o r d -
i n g t o l o a d c a s e J . T h e l o a d i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t c o n d l i t i o n from t h e w e i g h t f o r c e
QQ a c t i n g v e r t i c a l l y a n d t h e w i n d l o a d Q w a c t i n g h o r i z o n f t a l l y
Qis = fQl + Qh •
T h e w e i g h t f o r c e QG i s g i v e n b y c o n d u c t o r a n d i c e w e i g h t
QG = n2 • as • (mc • g + gi) ,
w h e r e m c = 0 , 9 9 4 k g / m , gi = 5 + 0 , 1 • D = 5 + 0 , 1 • 2 2 , 4 = 7 , 2 4 N / m a c c o r d i n g t o
[ 9 . 2 2 ] , s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 / D E . l , n2 = 4 a n d a g = 6 0 0 m , r e s u l t i n g t o
Q G = 4 • 600 •(0,994 •9,81 + 7,24) = 40,8 k N .
T h e w i n d load Q w i o nthe conductor covered w i t h iceisgi ven b y
Q w i = 0,5 - C c -q -a w -A • (0,45 + 6 0 / a w ) •n 2 ,
w h e r e t h e d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e q = qo + 3 z = 8 0 0 + 3 - 3 0 = 8 9 0 N / m 2 a t 3 0 m
h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 9 . 2 2 ] , s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 / D E . l ; Cc = 1 , 0 ; a w = 4 5 0 m
a n d Di = -JD2 + 0 , 0 0 0 1 7 • gi = 0 , 0 4 1 6 m a c c o r d i n g t o [ 9 . 2 2 ] , s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 / D E . l
Q w i = 0,5 • 1,0•890 •4 5 0 • 0,0416(0,45 + 6 0 / 4 5 0 ) • 4 = 19,5 k N .
298 9 Insulators 9.11 E x a m p l e for insulator selection 2 9 9

T h e r e s u l t i n g l o a d o ft h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n gi s
T a b l e 9.10: E x a m p l e o finsulator selection
Pollution level light heavy light heavy
Q i s = ^ 4 0 , 8 2 + 19,52 = 45,2 k N .
Rated voltage kV 420 420 420 420
Specific creepage m m / k V 16 25 16 21
F o r l o a d case D , a p a r t i a l f a c t o r e q u a l t o 1,35 a p p l i e s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.22], s e c t i o n distance
4 . 3 . 1 1 / D E . 2 . T h e design l o a d i st h u s e q u a l t o 1,35 •4 5 , 2 = 6 1 , 0 k N . Required creepage mm 6720 10 500 6720 10 500
F o r l o a d c a s e J , t h e l o a d s o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e w e i g h t f o r c e QQ distance
a n d a l o n g i t u d i n a l load c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2 5 % o ft h e c o n d u c t o r h o r i z o n t a l tensile force Single suspension set Double dead- end set
Q c a f —5°C w i t h t h e i c e l o a d Long rod insulators
Type L 160 C 650 L G 75/32S/1465 L 210 C 650 L G 85/32S/1515
mm 2320 2320
Q i s = sjQl + ( 0 , 2 5 • Q c ) 2 • Creepage distance/ ooou OOOV

insulator
T h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e Q c r e s u l t s f r o m t h e a c t i o n o f i c e o n t h e c o n d u c t o r a t -5°C. Length/insulator mm 1465 1465 1500 1515
Required number 3 3 3 3
T h e l o a d p e r u n i t l e n g t h i s m e g + gi = 9 , 7 5 + 7 , 2 4 = 1 6 , 9 9 N / m . F r o m e q u a t i o n 2 2 2 2
Intermediate
(14.41), t h e tensile stress o 2 = 8 4 , 6 0 N / m m 2 i s o b t a i n e d . T h e h o r i z o n t a l force o f t h e fitting length mm 130 130 130 130
q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e i s Q = 4 • 8 4 , 6 • 297, 8 = 100, 8 k N i nt h i s case. T h e i n s u l a t o r l o a d Total length 1 1 mm 4655 4655 4760 4805
results t o Existing creepage mm 6960 11550 6960 11550
distance
QiB = ^40, 8 2 + (0,25-100,8)2 = 48,0 k N . Cap-and-pin insulators
Type U 160 B S U 160 B S U 160 B S P U 210 B U 210 B U 210 B P
T h e p a r t i a l factor t ob e considered here i s e q u a l t o 1,0, r e s u l t i n g i n a design load o f Creepage distance/ mm 315 315 440 370 370 525
48,0 k N f o rt h e suspension set u n d e r this c o n d i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e suspension set h a s insulator
Length / insulator mm 146 146 140 170 170 170
t o b e designed for a l i m i t l o a d o f61,0 k N .
Required number 22 34 24 19 29 20
T h e p a r t i a l factor 7 M f o r m a t e r i a l i s e q u a l t o 2,3, according t o E N 50341-3-4, T a b l e Total length 1 1 mm 3212 4964 3500 3230 4930 3400
1 0 . 7 / D E . l , s ot h a t a r a t e d n o m i n a l load e q u a l t o6 1 , 0 - 2 , 3 = 140,3 k N i sneeded. L1 6 0 Existing creepage mm 6930 10 710 10 560 7030 10 730 10 500
long r o dinsulators o r U 160cap-and-pin insulators a r erequired i naccordance w i t h distance

I E C 6 0 433 a n d I E C 6 0 3 0 5 , r e s p e c t i v e l y . F o r s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s , a s i n g l e i n s u l a t o r set ' Without fittings at the conductor side

is s u f f i c i e n t , f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o fe x t e r n a l l o a d .
T h e m a x i m u m load for the dead-end i n s u l a t o r sets occurs u n d e r t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s action
o f w i n d a n d ice. T h e r e , t h e r e s u l t i n g l o a d p e ru n i t l e n g t h i sg i v e n b y
9 r e s = \[{™C9 + 9l)2 + ui2 ,
w i t h m c - g — 9 , 7 5 N / m a n d g\ = 7 , 2 4 N / m a s e x p l a i n e d a b o v e a n d w ~ Q w / ( 4 - a w ) =
10,83 N / m i ti so b t a i n e d gies = ^ ( 9 , 7 5 + 7,24)2 + 10,832 = 20,15 N / m .
T h e c o n d u c t o r s t a t e c h a n g e e q u a t i o n ( 1 4 . 4 1 ) y i e l d s 02 = 9 7 , 5 N / m m 2 w i t h c o n s i d -
e r a t i o n o f a e q = 4 0 0 m , 07 = 5 0 N / m m 2 , myg = 9 , 7 5 N / m , m 2 g ' 2 0 , 1 5 N / m ,
T j = 10°C a n d T 2 = - 5 ° C a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r d a t a o f 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A . T h e c o n d u c -
t o r h o r i z o n t a l force o ft h e q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e i st h e n Q c = 4 • 97,5 • 297,8 = 116,1 k N .
I n s u l a t o r sets i n dead-end p o s i t i o n are designed for t h e m a x i m u m conductor h o r i z o n t a l
force r e s u l t i n g f r o m o n e o f t h e specified l o a d cases t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . A l s o here, l o a d case
D a sp e r [9.22], section 4 . 3 . 1 0 / D E . 1 . 2 i sp r e v a l e n t , w i t h a c o n d u c t o r h o r i z o n t a l force o f
116,1 k N for the quadruple bundle ascalculated above, a n d t h e partial factor required
as 1,35. T h e u l t i m a t e l o a d o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t w i l l t h e n b e 1,35 - 1 1 6 , 1 ~ 157 k N . T h e
p a r t i a l f a c t o r for t h e i n s u l a t o r s a m o u n t s t o2,3, r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l r a t e d l o a d o f 3 6 1 k N .
R e q u i r e m e n t s i ns t a n d a r d s f o rcrossings, a s p e r [9.22], section 5 . 4 . 5 / D E . 1 . 2 , s t i p u l a t e
t h a t d o u b l e strings are installed. E i t h e r L 2 1 0l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s , i naccordance w i t h
I E C 6 0 4 3 3 , o rU 210 glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I E C 6 0 3 0 5 m e e t
this requirement.
E l e c t r i c design
T h e electric data governing the selection o finsulators are given b y I E C 60071-1. T h e
value o f950 k V isrequired for t h e s w i t c h i n g w i t h s t a n d voltage a n d 1425 k V is required
for t h e l i g h t n i n g w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 9.8, 1 6m m / k V i s
t h e r e c o m m e n d e d value t o b e achieved f o rt h e m i n i m u m creepage distance referred t o
t h e phase-to-phase voltage for l i g h t p o l l u t i o n level, asw e l l a s2 5m m / k V for h e a v y p o l -
l u t i o n level. S o , u n d e r l i g h t p o l l u t i o n c o n d i t i o n s , a t o t a l creepage distance o f6720 m m
r e s u l t s f o r a n o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e o f 4 2 0 k V , w h i l e a v a l u e o f 10 500 m mr e s u l t s u n d e r
heavy p o l l u t i o n (Table 9.10).
A suspension s t r i n g c o m p o s e d o ft h r e e L 160 C 650 long r o d i n s u l a t o r s achieves a creep-
age p a t h o f3 x 2 3 2 0 = 6 9 6 0 m m , a n d a c c o m p l i s h e s t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s for l i g h t p o l l u t i o n .
F o r suspension sets u n d e r h e a v y p o l l u t i o n , t h r e e n o n - s t a n d a r d i z e d L G 7 5 / 3 2 S / 1 4 6 5
long r o d insulators are r e c o m m e n d e d , w h i c h have a creepage distance o f3850 m m each
a n d a 11 550 m m total creepage distance c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e requirements.
F o r s u s p e n s i o n sets c o m p o s e d o fglass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s , U 1 6 0B Su n i t s c a n b e
used w i t h 315 m mcreepage distance each, t h u s resulting i n2 2cap-and-pin u n i t sf o r
light p o l l u t i o n conditions (see T a b l e 9.10). H e a v y p o l l u t i o n w o u l d require 3 4 units,
which is the reason w h y a nalternative insulator set formed b y 2 4cap-and-pin units
t y p e U 1 6 0 B S P w i t h 440 m mcreepage distance each isr e c o m m e n d e d instead.
F o r l i g h t p o l l u t i o n , dead-end i n s u l a t o r sets c a n b ec o m p o s e d o fL 2 1 0 C 650 l o n g r o d i n -
sulators w i t h three u n i t s i n a s t r i n g leading t o 6960 m m creepage distance (Table 9.10).
For heavy pollution, non-standardized L G 85/32S/1515 insulators are recommended,
r e s u l t i n g i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e l e n g t h o f t h e c o m p l e t e set a su n d e r l i g h t p o l l u t i o n .
D e a d - e n d i n s u l a t o r sets f o rl i g h t p o l l u t i o n c a nb e c o m p o s e d o f 1 9 U 2 1 0B glass i n s u -
lators w i t h 370 m m creepage distance each. A t o t a l o f2 9 such u n i t s isrequired under
h e a v y p o l l u t i o n . A l t e r n a t i v e l y ,2 0 u n i t s o fU 2 1 0B P i n s u l a t o r s w i t h 525 m m creepage
distance per unit provide the required creepage path. B y utilizing U 210 B P insulators,
t h e s e treaches t h e same l e n g t h u n d e r h e a v y p o l l u t i o n , a sw i t h U 210 B i n s u l a t o r s u n -
der light p o l l u t i o n conditions (Table 9.10). T h i s i sadvantageous w i t h regard t o tower
tiuu a insulators
dimensions.
T h e l i g h t n i n g w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e o f t h e l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r set is e q u a l t o 3 x 6 5 0 =
1950 k V ; the one of t h e cap-and-pin insulator strings a m o u n t s t o at least 1620 k V
(dead-end i n s u l a t o r set w i t h 19 U 210 B u n i t s ) , a c c o r d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e
manufacturer. Thereby, the lightning w i t h s t a n d voltage requirements are met. T h e
required creepage distance governs t h e n u m b e r of insulators t o be used. I f U 210 B P
i n s u l a t o r s w e r e a p p l i e d for light p o l l u t i o n , 13 u n i t s w o u l d be sufficient t o k e e p t h e
required creepage distance, b u t t h e lightning w i t h s t a n dvoltage w o u l d be o n l y 1260 k V ,
not a c h i e v i n g t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e . S u c h a n i n s u l a t o r set w o u l d n o t be s u i t a b l e .
9.12 References
9.1 I E C - 6 0 050-471: International electrotechnical vocabulary. P a r t 471: Chapter 4 7 1 : Insula-
tors. Geneva, I E C , 1984
9.2 E N 60 3 8 3 - 1 : I n s u l a t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s w i t h n o m i n a l v o l t a g e a b o v e 1 k V . P a r t 1 : C e -
r a m i c or glass i n s u l a t o r s u n i t s for A C systems - D e f i n i t i o n s , test m e t h o d s a n d acceptance
criteria. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1993
9.3 E N 6 0 4 3 3 : I n s u l a t o r s for o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a n o m i n a l v o l t a g e a b o v e 1 k V . C e r a m i c
insulators for A C systems - Characteristics of insulator units of t h e long r o d type. Brussels,
C E N E L E C , 1998
9.4 I E C 60 720: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f line post i n s u l a t o r s . G e n e v a , I E C , 1981
9.5 P a r i s , L . et a l . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d lines. C i g r e S y m p o s i u m
Leningrad, Report 400-04, 1991
9 . 6 E x p e r i e n c e from H V a n d E H V c o m p a c t l i n e s . C i g r e S y m p o s i u m L e n i n g r a d , R e p o r t 2 0 0 - 0 7 ,
1991
9.7 C o t t e r e a u , D . et a l . : U t i l i t y r e t r o f i t s t o w e r s t o increase s y s t e m voltage. T r a n s m i s s i o n &
Distribution, M a r c h 2002, pp. 28 t o 34
9.8 I E C 60 305: I n s u l a t o r s for o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a n o m i n a l v o l t a g e a b o v e 1 k V . C e r a m i c o r
glass i n s u l a t o r u n i t s for A C s y s t e m s - C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n s u l a t o r u n i t s of t h e c a p - a n d - p i n
type. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1996
9.9 I E C 6 0 1 2 0 : D i m e n s i o n s o f b a l l a n d s o c k e t c o u p l i n g s o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s . G e n e v a , I E C ,
1987
9.10 I E C 6 0 4 7 1 : D i m e n s i o n s o f clevis a n d t o n g u e couplings o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s . Geneva,
I E C , 1987
9.11 I E C 6 0 3 7 2 : L o c k i n g devices for ball-and-socket couplings of string insulatorunits. Geneva,
I E C , 1984
9.12 I E C 6 0 6 7 2 - 1 : C e r a m i c a n d glass i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s .P a r t 1: D e f i n i t i o n s a n d classification.
Geneva, I E C , 1995
9.13 Frese, H . - J . ; P o h l m a n n , H . : B e t r i e b s e r f a h r u n g e n u n d U n t e r s u c h u n g e n a n L a n g s t a b i s o l a t o -
ren (Experience a n d investigations o n long rod insulators). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 98
(1999), pp. 38 t o 43
9 . 1 4 I E C 6 0 6 7 2 - 3 : C e r a m i c a n d glass i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s . P a r t 3: S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r i n d i v i d u a l
materials. Geneva, I E C , 1997
9.15 I E C 6 0 6 7 2 - 2 : C e r a m i c a n d glass i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s . P a r t 2: M e t h o d s o f t e s t . G e n e v a ,
I E C , 1999
9.16 T o u g h e n e d glass s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s . P a r i s : E d i t e d by C e r a v e r 1982
9.17 I E C / T R 60 815: G u i d e for t h e selection o f i n s u l a t o r s i n respect of p o l l u t e d conditions.
Geneva, I E C , 1986
9.18 Kunststoff-Langstabisolatoren, S y s t e m R o d u r f l e x . Selb: E d i t e d by Hoechst C e r a m Tec A G
1986
9.19 D i e t z , H . et al.: L a t e s t developments a n d experience w i t h c o m p o s i t e l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s .
Cigre R e p o r t 15-09, 1986
9.20 E N 6 1 4 6 6 - 2 : C o m p o s i t e s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s for overhead electrical lines w i t h a n o m i n a l
v o l t a g e greater t h a n 1 k V . P a r t 2: D i m e n s i o n s a n d electric d a t a . Brussels, C E N E L E C ,
1998
9.21 E N 6 1 4 6 6 - 1 : Composite string insulator units for overhead electrical lines w i t h a n o m i n a l
v o l t a g e g r e a t e r t h a n 1 k V . P a r t 1 : S t a n d a r d i z e d s t r e n g t h c l a s s e s a n d e n d fittings. B r u s s e l s ,
C E N E L E C , 1997
9.22 E N 50 341-3-4: O v e r h e a d electrical lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
9.23 K i n d e r s b e r g e r , J . ; K u h l , M . : Effect o f h y d r o p h o b i c i t y o n i n s u l a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e . 6 t h I S H ,
Paper 12.01, N e w Orleans, A u g u s t 1989
9.24 Sailer, H . ; R u h n a u , J . : E n t w i c k l u n g u n d E i n s a t z einer 3 8 0 - k V - I s o l a t i o n s h a n g e k e t t e i n
a s y m m e t r i s c h e r V - A n o r d n u n g ( D e v e l o p m e n t a n d use of a 380 k V a s s y m m e t r i c V -
suspension i n s u l a t o r set). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t , 94 (1995), pp. 1344 t o 1350
9.25 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 3 : Service p e r f o r m a n c e of c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r so n H V D C lines. E l e c t r a
161 (1995), pp. 53 t o 57
9.26 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 3 : W o r l d - w i d e service experience w i t h H V composite i n s u l a t o r s . Elec-
t r a 191 (2000), pp. 27 t o 43
9.27 J o h a n s s o n , T . et a l . : A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y for t r a n s m i s s i o n i n s u l a t o r s . I n s u l a t o r n e w s &
m a r k e t report; Vol.5; (1997) No.2, I S S N 1198-7332
9.28 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
- c o m m o n rules. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
9.29 I E C 60 0 7 1 - 1 : I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 1 : D e f i n i t i o n s , principles a n d rules. G e n e v a ,
I E C , 1993
9 . 3 0 I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 : I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 2: G u i d e l i n e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n . G e n e v a , I E C ,
1996
9.31 I E C 6 0 0 6 0 - 1 : High-voltage testing technique. P a r t 1: G e n e r a l requirements a n d testing
conditions. Geneva, I E C , 1989 + C o r r i g e n d u m 1990
9.32 I E C 60 797: R e s i d u a l s t r e n g t h of string i n s u l a t o r u n i t s of glass or ceramic m a t e r i a l for
overhead lines after mechanical d a m a g e of t h e dielectric. Geneva, I E C , 1984 ( w i t h d r a w n )
9.33 I E C / T R 6 1 2 1 1 : I n s u l a t o r s o f ceramic m a t e r i a l o r glass for overhead lines w i t h a n o m i n a l
voltage greater t h a n 1 0 0 0 V . P u n c t u r e testing. Geneva, I E C , 1994
9.34 I E C / T R 60 575: T h e r m a l - m e c h a n i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e test a n d mechanical p e r f o r m a n c e test
on string insulator units. Geneva, I E C , 1977
9.35 I E C 6 0 1 6 8 : T e s t s o n i n d o o r a n d o u t d o o r p o s t i n s u l a t o r s o f c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l o r glass for
systems w i t h n o m i n a l voltages greater t h a n 1 0 0 0 V . Geneva, I E C , 1994
9.36 I E C 6 0 1 6 8 A 1 : T e s t s o n i n d o o r a n d o u t d o o r post i n s u l a t o r s o f ceramic m a t e r i a l or glass
for s y s t e m s w i t h n o m i n a l voltages g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 0 0 V . A m e n d m e n t 1 . G e n e v a , I E C , 1997
9.37 I E C 6 1 1 0 9 : C o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s for A C o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a n o m i n a l voltage above
1000 V - Definitions, test m e t h o d s a n d acceptance criteria. Geneva, I E C , 1992
302 9 Insulators 9.12 References 303

9.38 M o c k s , L . : L i c h t b o g e n s c h u t z a r m a t u r e n f u r Isolierstrecken i n F r e i l e i t u n g e n u n d S c h a l t a n l a - 9.57 L a m b e t h , P . J . : T h e use o f s e m i - c o n d u c t i n g glaze i n s u l a t o r s . E l e c t r a 86 (1983), pp. 89 t o

g e n ( A r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n fittings f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s a n d s u b s t a t i o n s ) . E T Z - R e p o r t 1 6 . B e r l i n : 103
V D E - V e r l a g 1982
9.58 I E C 60383-2:: I n s u l a t o r s for o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a n o m i n a l voltage a b o v e 1 000 V . P a r t 2:
9.39 B a u e r , E . e t a l . : D y n a m i c process d u r i n g l o a d t r a n s p o s i t i o n i n m u l t i p l e sets w i t h l o n g r o d I n s u l a t o r striings a n d i n s u l a t o r sets for A C s y s t e m s . D e f i n i t i o n s , t e s t m e t h o d s a n d accep-
type insulators. Cigrd Report 22-03, 1982 tance c r i t e r i a . Geneva, I E C , 1993

9.40 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 . 0 3 : P r o t e c t i v e devices for i n s u l a t o r sets ( H V a n d E H V t r a n s m i s s i o n 9.59 I E C 61 467: I n s u l a t o r s for overhead lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltages above 1 000 V . A C power
overhead lines). E l e c t r a 136(1991), pp. 22 t o 29 arc tests o n i n s u l a t o r sets. G e n e v a , I E C , 1997

9.41 A n n , W . et a l . : I s o l a t o r e n u n d A r m a t u r e n f u r die neue 3 8 0 - k V - E l b e k r e u z u n g der N o r d - 9.60 E N 6 0 4 3 7 : R a d i o interference test o n h i g h - v o l t a g e i n s u l a t o r s ( I E C 6 0 4 3 7 ) . Brussels, C E N -

w e s t d e u t s c h e K r a f t w e r k e A G ( I n s u l a t o r s a n d fittings f o r t h e n e w 3 8 0 k V c r o s s i n g o v e r t h e E L E C , 1997
river Elbe of Nordwestdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G ). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 77 (1978), pp.
653 to 660 9.61 C I S P R 18-3: R a d i o interference characteristics of overhead power lines a n d high-voltage
e q u i p m e n t . P a r t 3: C o d e o f p r a c t i c e f o r m i n i m i z i n g t h e p e n e t r a t i o n o f r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e .
9.42 C I S P R 18-2: R a d i o interference characteristics o f o v e r h e a d p o w e r lines a n d h i g h - v o l t a g e 1986
e q u i p m e n t . P a r t 2: M e t h o d s o f m e a s u r e m e n t a n d p r o c e d u r e f o r d e t e r m i n i n g l i m i t s . 1 9 8 6

9.43 E N 6 1 2 8 4 : O v e r h e a d lines - R e q u i r e m e n t s a n d tests for fittings ( I E C 61284). Brussels,

C E N E L E C , 1997

9.44 B S 137: S p e c i 6 c a t i o n of i n s u l a t o r s of c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l or glass f o r o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a

n o m i n a l v o l t a g e g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 0 0 V . P a r t 2: R e q u i r e m e n t s . L o n d o n , B S I , 1 9 7 3

9.45 I E C 60 507: Artificial p o l l u t i o n test o n h i g h - v o l t a g e i n s u l a t o r s t o be used o n A C systems.

Geneva, I E C , 1991

9.46 C i g r e S C 3 3 W G 3 3 - 1 3 : P o l l u t e d i n s u l a t o r s : A r e v i e w of c u r r e n t k n o w l e d g e . P a r i s , C i g r e
Brochure 158, 2000

9.47 F i n k , D . C ; B e a t y , H . W . : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k for electrical engineers. N e w Y o r k . M c G r a w

Hill, 1 2 t h edition 1987

9.48 E P R I : H V D C T r a n s m i s s i o n line reference b o o k . P a l o A l t o . Electric P o w e r Research I n s t i -

t u t e , 1993

9.49 E N 6 1 3 2 5 : I n s u l a t o r s for o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a n o m i n a l v o l t a g e a b o v e 1 0 0 0 V - C e r a m i c

o r glass i n s u l a t o r u n i t s for D C systems - D e f i n i t i o n s , test m e t h o d s a n d acceptance c r i t e r i a
( I E C 61 325). Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1995

9.50 M a c e y , R . E . : T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of h i g h - v o l t a g e o u t d o o r i n s u l a t i o n i n c o n t a m i n a t e d en-
v i r o n m e n t . Transaction S o u t h A f r i c a n Institute of Electrical Engineers (1981), pp. 80 to
92

9.51 Cigre SC22 W G 2 2 - 0 3 : S t u d y a n d conclusions f r o m t h e results of the i n q u i r y o n insulators:

I n f o r m a t i o n o n d a m a g e . E l e c t r a 78 ( 1 9 8 3 ) , pp. 13 t o 33

9.52 Ciskos, B . : Service c o n t i n u i t y of 750 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n lines ensured b y suitable s t r u c t u r e

a n d w o r k i n g under voltage. Cigre R e p o r t 22-10, 1984

9.53 V e r m a , M . P . : I s o l i e r v e r h a l t e n v o n H o c h s p a n n u n g s - L a n g s t a b i s o l a t o r e n verschiedener B a u -
f o r m u n t e r natiirlichen Fremdschichtbedingungen ( I n s u l a t i n gperformance of high-voltage
long r o d insulators w i t h differing design u n d e r n a t u r a l p o l l u t i o n conditions.) E T Z - A 92
(1971), pp. 407 to 413

9.54 A u x e l , H . : E r f a s s u n g k r i t i s c h e r F r e m d s c h i c h t b e d i n g u n g e n i n H o c h s p a n n u n g s a n l a g e n ( D e -
tection of critical p o l l u t i o n conditions i n high-voltage installations). Elektrizitatswirtschaft
84 (1985), pp. 84 to 90

9.55 E N 5 0 1 8 6 - 1 : L i v e - l i n e w a s h i n g s y s t e m s f o r p o w e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s w i t h n o m i n a l v o l t a g e s a b o v e
1 k V - C o m m o n requirements. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1999

9.56 E N 50 186-2: L i v e - l i n ew a s h i n g s y s t e m s for p o w e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s w i t h n o m i n a l voltages above

1 k V - N a t i o n a l Annexes. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1999
10 O v e r h e a d line fittings

10.1 Definitions
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 0 . 1 , 1 0 . 2 ] , overhead line fittings s e r v e f o r t h e m e c h a n i c a l a t t a c h m e n t ,
for t h e electric connection a n d for t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f conductors a n d insulators. I n rel-
e v a n t s t a n d a r d s , fittings a r e f r e q u e n t l y d e s i g n a t e d a s a c c e s s o r i e s w h i c h m a y c o n s i s t o f
elements o r assemblies.
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 0 . 3 ] , fittings for conductors serve t o terminate, suspend o r j o i n t h e
c o n d u c t o r s a n d a r e d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c o n d u c t o r s . Suspension a n d dead-end
clamps, connectors, branch-off clamps, vibration protection fittings a s w e l l a s bundle
spacers a r e w i t h i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n , t h e y m a y f o r m a n a s s e m b l y
c o n s i s t i n g o f s e v e r a l e l e m e n t s , e. g. s u s p e n s i o n a n d d e a d - e n d c l a m p s i n c l u d i n g t h e
required connecting links.
Fittings for insulator sets a n d o t h e r a t t a c h m e n t s s e r v e t o c o n n e c t t h e t e n s i o n o r s u s -
p e n s i o n c o m p o n e n t s w i t h t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a t t h e s u p p o r t s . I n case o f insulator
sets, c o m p o n e n t s t o c o n n e c t i n s u l a t o r s a r ealso w i t h i n this category; t h e insulators,
however, are excluded. These fittings comprise all components arranged between the
a s s e m b l y o f t h e d e a d - e n d o r s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s a n d t h e first d e t a c h a b l e e l e m e n t a t
t h e s u p p o r t , e . g . t h e j o i n t i n g p i n o r t h e U - b o l t . Yoke p i a t e s , i n d e x y o k e p l a t e corona
protection fittings a n d grading rings a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d .

10.2 Fittings for conductors

10.2.1 C o n d u c t o r a t t a c h m e n t at s u s p e n s i o n insulator sets

T o a t t a c h c o n d u c t o r s t o suspension insulator sets, d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f fittings a r e a d o p t e d .

W i t h i n t h e suspension c l a m p a n d i n its vicinity, t h e conductor i ssubjected t o mechan-
i c a l s t r e s s e s h i g h e r t h a n i n t h e free s p a n [ 1 0 . 4 ] , A s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 , s t a t i c t e n s i l e
stress crt d u et o c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces a n d d e a d w e i g h t a r e s u p e r i m p o s e d b y s t a t i c
b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s £7 b d u e t o t h e c o n d u c t o r c u r v a t u r e , s t a t i c c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s e s o p r e -
s u l t i n g from c o n d u c t o r c l a m p i n g a n d alternating b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s < 7 b w d u e t o c o n d u c t o r
vibration.
T o keep t h e d y n a m i c strain o fthe conductor low i n the range o ft h e suspension clamps,
the b o d y o ft h e clamps should b e light-weighteda n d pivoted t ob e able t ofollow a s y m -
metrical modes o f conductor vibrations as far as possible unhindered. T h e articulated
suspension clamp a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 0 . 2 i s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t y p e o f s u s -
pension clamp. A clamp body suspended articulately a t a pair o f straps supports the
c o n d u c t o r , w h i c h i s fixed b y m e a n s o f t h e c l a m p c o v e r [ 1 0 . 5 ] . R a d i u s a n d l e n g t h o f
t h e groove have t o b e designed such t h a t also i ncase o f large c o n d u c t o r d o w n s t r a i n

F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 : Mechanical
stress w i t h i n a conductor.
3 bW
crt s t a t i c t e n s i l e s t r e s s ;
FF CTbW <r b s t a t i c b e n d i n g s t r e s s ;
t = "b op static compression
stress; O b w alternating
b e n d i n g stress; 1 suspen-
sion clamp; 2 dead-end
clamp
306 1 0 Overhead line fittings
F i g u r e 10.2: Articulated suspension clamp. F i g u r e 10.3: A r m o r r o d suspension ( A R S )
1 c l a m p cover; 2 c l a m p b o d y ; 3 suspension ( R i c h a r d B e r g n e r G m b H ) . 1 c l a m p cover;
straps 2 clamp body; 3 suspension straps; 4 a r m o r
rods
F i g u r e 10.4: A r m o r grip suspension ( A G S )
(Richard Bergner G m b H ) . 1 a r m o r rods;
2 clamp body; 3 suspension straps; 4 rubber-
elastic lining
angles t h ec o n d u c t o r w i l l n o tb e b e n t s h a r p l y a t t h ee n d o f t h e b o d y . T h e p i v o t o f t h e
articulation should b e arranged approximately a tt h e same level as the conductor axis
to keep t h e a l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g s t r a i n l o ww h e n t h ec l a m p i s s w i v e l l i n g . I n [10.5], t h e
mechanical design o f suspension clamps isstudied i n detail.
T h e armor rod suspension (ARS) ( F i g u r e 1 0 . 3 ) a n d t h e armor grip suspension (AGS)
( F i g u r e 10.4) a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s e t o f h e l i c a l l y f o r m e d c i r c u l a r r o d s [10.5] w o u n d
a r o u n d t h e conductor. T h e s e rods d i s t r i b u t e t h eforces e x e r t e d f r o m t h ec l a m p s o n a
longer conductor section o f u p t o 2,5 m d e p e n d i n g o n t h e conductor cross section. T h e
b e n d i n g stiffness o ft h e a r m o r rods is a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t ot h a t o f t h e s u s p e n d e d con-
d u c t o r a n d achieves a sufficiently large c u r v a t u r e r a d i u s keeping l o w t h e static b e n d i n g
strains. T h e short a n d light-weight c l a m p bodies possess a s m a l l m o m e n t o finertia a n d ,
therefore, c a n f o l l o w t h e conductor m o v e m e n t s i n case o fa s y m m e t r i c a l v i b r a t i o n modes.
T h e r e b y , t h ea l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g stresses a t t h e c o n d u c t o r r e m a i n low. A d d i t i o n a l l y ,
the a r m o r grip suspension h a s g o ta rubber-elastic lining, w h i c h is enclosed b y heli-
cally f o r m e d rods like a basket. A r o u n d this basket, t h e a r t i c u l a t e dsuspension c l a m p is
a r r a n g e d a n d fixes t h e c o n d u c t o r i n l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n . T h e r u b b e r - e l a s t i c l i n i n g r e -
duces t h e radial compression o n t h e conductor. T h i s design results i na comfortable a n d
v i b r a t i o n - r e s i s t a n t b u t m o r e e x p e n s i v e s u s p e n s i o n fitting, w h i c h i s i n p a r t i c u l a r a d o p t e d
w h e r e m o r e r e a s o n a b l e fittings d o n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o t e c t t h e c o n d u c t o r s . T h e a r m o r
g r i p s u s p e n s i o n i s u s e d w o r l d w i d e , e s p e c i a l l y t o s u s p e n d O P G W a n d d i e l e c t r i c aerial
cables. T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n c a p a b i l i t y o f o p t i c a l f i b r e s w o u l d b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i s t u r b e d b y
locally concentrated compression forces a s e x e r t e d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l suspension clamps;
therefore, t h e a r m o r g r i p s u s p e n s i o n is i n p a r t i c u l a rs u i t e d t oa l l t y p e s o fo p t i c a l cables.
T h e l e n g t h o f t h e a r m o r rods should b e selected such t h a t t h erequired d a m p e r s c a n
b e a r r a n g e d o n t h e a r m o r r o d s . T h e r e p o r t [ 1 0 . 6 ] o u t l i n e s s e l e c t i o n a n d u s e o f fittings
for optical cables.
O p e r a t i o n a l experience h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t e a r t h wires a n d aerial cables could b e
p r o n e t o oscillating movements i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s . T h e s e m o v e m e n t s c a n n o t
be d a m p e d o r suppressed b y conventional remedies; t h e y cause a nincreased abrasion
w i t h i n t h euniversal joint o f the a r m o r grip suspension. A stests have shown, t h e lon-
g i t u d i n a l c o n d u c t o r m o v e m e n t s w i l l b e l i m i t e d i ft h e u n i v e r s a l j o i n t i s replaced b y a
simple hinge.
10.2 F i t t i n g s f o r conductors 307
F i g u r e 10.5: Suspended dead-end arrangement F i g u r e 10.6: Suspension insulator set of
for 2 4 5 k V t w i n b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s . 1 d e a d - e n d t h e 400 k V B o s p h o r u s crossing ( T u r k e y ) us-
clamp; 2 t u r n buckle; 3 triangular yoke plate i n ga saddle-type clamp. 1 clamp body; 2
clamp cover; 3 a r m o r rods
I n c a s e o f l o n g s p a n s s u c h a s i n river crossings, t h e s t r a i n s t o t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h e
suspension attachments a r e additionallyincreased d u e t o t h elarge d o w n s t r a i n angle.
B y u s i n g a suspended dead-end arrangement (Figure 10.5)attaching t h e conductors
by means o f dead-end clamps, n o static bending stress will occur a t t h e conductor
s u s p e n s i o n [ 1 0 . 4 ] . I f wedge-type clamps c a n n o t b e u s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r m a k e -
u p a n d t h ec o n d u c t o r s h o u l d pass u n c u t f r o m s t r a i n t o w e r t o s t r a i n t o w e r across t h e
suspension towers, e x t r e m e l y l o n g suspension c l a m p s w i l l b e necessary. T h e s e designs
a r e a l s o c a l l e d saddle-type clamps [ 1 0 . 7 ] . D u e t o t h e h i g h c o n d u c t o r d o w n s t r a i n a n g l e s
occurring a t l o n g spans, u pt ot w o m e t e r s long s u s p e n s i o n bodies c a n b e r e q u i r e d . S u c h
clamps a r e c u s t o m - m a d e designs tailored t o t h e individual application. Shape o f t h e
body and radius o fgroove have t ob e thorougly adjusted t othe conductor dead weight
such t h a t t h eshear force i n t h ec o n d u c t o r does n o t exceed p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t s a n d t h e
conductor s t r u c t u r e w i l l n o t g e t loose. I t i s as w e l l u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e c l a m p s m u s t
comply w i t h all t h e other project requirements (Figure 10.6).
Release suspension clamps a r e a d o p t e d o c c a s i o n a l l y t o p r o t e c t n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y t o r s i o n -
proof suspension t o w e r s . T h e c l a m p s release t h ec o n d u c t o r a t a ninsulator i n c l i n a t i o n
o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 45° w h i c h m i g h t b e c a u s e d b y u n b a l a n c e d c o n d u c t o r f o r c e s i n t h e a d -
j a c e n t s p a n s c a u s e d f o r i n s t a n c e b y d i f f e r i n g i c e l o a d s . Sliding suspension clamps [ 1 0 . 8 ]
enable t h e conductor t o slide t h r o u g h t h ec l a m p a b o v e a s t i p u l a t e d difference i n con-
d u c t o r tensile forces b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t spans. I n m a n y E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , release a n d
sliding clamps aren o ta n y m o r e used d u e t o their n o tsufficientlyreliablefunctioning.
T o avoid line cascading caused b ye x t r a o r d i n a r y h i g h l o n g i t u d i n a l tensile forces, specific
d e s i g n s f o r fittings h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d b e i n g s u m m a r i z e d u n d e r t h e t e r m load control
devices (LCD). P a p e r [ 1 0 . 8 ] r e p o r t s i n d e t a i l o n d e s i g n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e d e v i c e s .
«3U8 i u u v e r n e a a line l i n i n g s
F i g u r e 10.7: Wedge-type dead-end clamp. Figure 1 0 . 8 :Compression-type dead-end
1 c l a m p b o d y ; 2 c l a m p wedge; 3 t e r m i n a l s t r a p c l a m p . 1 c l a m p b o d y w i t h sleeve for steel core;
2 o u t e r sleeve; 3 l u g for j u m p e r l o o p
10.2.2 C o n d u c t o r attachments at dead-end terminations
C o n d u c t o r s c a n b e t e r m i n a t e d b y dead-end clamps o r b y preformed dead-ends. A t t a c h -
m e n t s o f conductors a t t e n s i o n insulator sets m u s t b e able t o c a r r y t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile
force o c c u r r i n g a t t h ei n d i v i d u a l line o r s u p p o r t . T h er e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e m e c h a n i c a l
performance depend o nt h e t y p e o fclamp, o nt h e relevant standards o r o nt h e project
specification.
T h e application o f preformed dead-ends is limited t o conductor types w i t h small d i -
m e n s i o n s . T h e y a r e p r e f e r a b l y u s e d f o r metal-reinforced aerial cables w i t h i n t e g r a t e d
o p t i c a l fibres. C o m p r e s s i o n - t y p e o r w e d g e - t y p e c l a m p s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y a d o p t e d f o r
p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s o f h i g h - a n d m e d i u m - v o l t a g e l i n e s . Wedge-type clamps d o n o t r e q u i r e
s p e c i a l t o o l s f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d a r e r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l y t o b e fitted. A c o r r e c t i o n o f c o n -
ductor sag c a nb e achieved b y shifting the clamp. Wedge-type clamps arei n particular
suited t o single-material conductors a n dt oc o m p o u n d conductors w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e
a l u m i n i u m o r a l u m i n i u m alloy layer a n d , therefore, l o w steel content. T h e y consist o f
a w e d g e s y s t e m t a i l o r e d a n d fixed t o t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d o f a o n e - o r t w o - p i e c e c l a m p
body w i t h pins t o which t h eterminal straps o f the insulator set areattached (Figure
10.7). A c c o r d i n g t o t h e design principle o f t h e wedge-type c l a m p , t h e wedge s y s t e m
slides w i t h i n t h ewedge b o d y w h e n t h ec o n d u c t o r tensile force increases. A s a conse-
quence, there is a progressive rise o f t h e transverse force o nt h e conductor. T h i s rise is
needed t o increase t h e t e r m i n a t i n g force accordingly. I n case o f c o m p o u n d c o n d u c t o r s ,
the steel core participates adequately a n d sufficiently a t t h e total t e r m i n a t i n g force d u e
to frictional interlocking w i t h t h ea l u m i n i u m layers a r r a n g e d above. T h egreasing o f
t h e steel core m a yi m p a i r t h e e x t e n t o f i n t e r l o c k i n g [10.9].
Compression dead-end clamps a r e s u i t e d t o t e r m i n a t e a l l s t a n d a r d t y p e s o f c o n d u c t o r s
available i nt h e m a r k e t . T h e y a r edesigned t oachieve u l t i m a t e t e r m i n a t i n g forces u p t o
the rated tensile strength ( R T S ) o ft h e conductors. Shifting o ft h e clamp after installa-
t i o n i sn o t a n y m o r e possible. S p e c i a l t o o l s , n a m e l y a h y d r a u l i cpress a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g
dies, a r e required f o r installation o f compression dead-end clamps. T h e y a r e designed
w i t h o n e m e t a l sleeve f o rsingle m a t e r i a l c o n d u c t o r s a n d w i t h t w o sleeves f o r c o m p o s i t e
conductors ( F i g u r e 10.8).
I n c a s e o f c o m p o u n d c o n d u c t o r s , a t first t h e s t e e l s l e e v e i s c r i m p e d o n t o t h e s t e e l c o r e o n
a corresponding length after cutting back t h e a l u m i n i u m strands. Afterwards, the outer
sleeve m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m a l l o y i s c r i m p e d o no n e e n dw i t h steel t e r m i n a l o f t h e c l a m p
a n d o n t h e o t h e r e n dw i t h t h e entire c o n d u c t o r c o n s i s t i n g o f a l u m i n i u m a n d steel layers.
T h e manufacturer's instructions should b efollowed w h e n installing compression clamps.
T h e length, thickness a n d m a t e r i a l o f t h e sleeve, as well as t h e p o s i t i o n a n d n u m b e r
of c r i m p s , affect t h e u l t i m a t e t e r m i n a t i n g force t o a great e x t e n t . A s a n e x a m p l e ,
the conductors o fthe 4 0 0k V Bosphorus crossing, 1 8 0 5 - A L 3 / 2 2 8 - A 2 0 S A (Figure 10.6),
F i g u r e 1 0 . 9 : T e r m i n a t i o n o fan optical aerial
cable ( O P G W ) b y m e a n s o f preformed dead-
end rods
formerly addressed as A A C S R / A C 1805/228, were terminated b ycompression dead-end
c l a m p s [10.7]. T h e i r u l t i m a t e t e r m i n a t i n g force w a s 8 5 0k N .
Preformed dead-end rods d i s t r i b u t e t h e r a d i a l c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e fric-
tion locking o n a longer section t h a n dead-end clamps a n d , therefore, a r ei n particular
s u i t a b l e f o r t e r m i n a t i n g m e t a l - r e i n f o r c e d c a b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres ( O P G W ) a n d d i -
e l e c t r i c c a b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres a n d o t h e r a e r i a l c a b l e s .
P r e f o r m e d d e a d - e n d r o d s c o m p l y w i t h a l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o nc o n d u c t o r t e r m i n a t i o n s .
T h e y c a n b e s i m p l y installed bare h a n d w i t h o u t tools a n da r e w i d e l y used w o r l d w i d e .
T h e y consist o f several helically-formed circular metal rods, t h einner diameter being
somewhat smaller than t h eouter diameter o f the conductor t o be terminated. T h e
tensile forces are transferred o n t o t h e c o n d u c t o r t h r o u g h t h e helices b ym e a n s o f friction
generated b y radial pressure. Length a n dshape o f the preformed dead-end rods keep
the radial pressures a t a low level a n dthus avoid a n yd a m a g e o ft h e conductor ( F i g u r e
10.9). T h e inner surface o f t h e p r e f o r m e d dead-end rods issand-covered t o increase t h e
u l t i m a t e t e r m i n a t i n g forces.
10.2.3 T u r n buckles
Turn buckles a x e a r r a n g e d i n d e a d - e n d i n s u l a t o r s e t s t o c o m p e n s a t e t o l e r a n c e s i n l e n g t h s
o f e l e m e n t s i n p a r a l l e l o r o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s i nb u n d l e s . I nD I N 4 8 3 3 4 [10.10] t h e y h a v e
b e e n s t a n d a r d i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c forces. D u et o t h e n o t c h s e n s i t i v i t y
of t h e threaded spindle, special requirements apply for the partial factors according t o
[10.2]. T u r n b u c k l e s m a y n o t b e l o a d e d b y b e n d i n g .
10.2.4 Connectors
Connectors a x e fittings j o i n t i n g o n eo r m o r e phase c o n d u c t o r s o r e a x t h w i r e s t o each
o t h e r o r p r o d u c i n g a c o n d u c t o r b r a n c h - o f f . Tension-proof a n d non-tension-proof con-
nectors c a n b e d i s c e r n e d .
R e g a r d i n g t h e r m a l r a t i n g , t h e s a m e principles a p p l y a s i ncase o fo t h e r line accessories.
For m i d - s p a n joints, t h e voltage d r o p a n dt h e electrical resistance a l o n g t h e connector
m a y n o t exceed that o fa n equivalent conductor length. T h e features o f the connectors
are verified a c c o r d i n g t o [10.3].
T h e same requirements apply f o r tension-loaded conductor joints as f o r dead-end
clamps. W h e n constructing n e w overhead power lines, compression-type connectors
are p r e d o m i n a n t l y a d o p t e d t o d a y , t h e design, f u n c t i o n a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f w h i c haxe
equal t othose o fcompression dead-end clamps.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , f o r m e d i u m - v o l t a g e l i n e s preformed splices a r e u s e d m a d e o f p r e f o r m e d
rods h a v i n g t h e same f u n c t i o n as p r e f o r m e d dead-end rods. F o r c o n d u c t o r cross sections
used i n m e d i u m - v o l t a g e lines, t h e m i n i m u m failing l o a d o fp r e f o r m e d splices a t t a i n s t h e
same values as obtained w i t h compression joints.
Protective patch rods o r repair patch rods axe f r e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d t o r e s t o r e t h e e l e c t r i c
a n d mechanical function after a damage o r strand failures a tconductors, eaxthwires o r
aerial cables . T h e s e p a t c h r o d s c a nb e i n s t a l l e d w i t h o u t special t o o l s . T h e y are s u p p l i e d
w i t h adapted lengths, w h e r e b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' sinstructions declare t o w h a t extent
of damage they m a yb e suited as remedy f o r repair. A s a rule, repair patch rods are
used w h e r e the p r o p o r t i o no f failed strands i nthe outer conductor layer does n o t exceed
310 10 O v e r h e a d line fittings
section A - A
F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 0 : S u b c o n d u c t o r spacers w i t h o u t d a m p i n g : alow-noise design; b design w i t h s w i v -
elling clamp (Richard Bergner G m b H )
2 5 %. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a t e n s i o n - p r o o f c o n n e c t o r p a t c h r o d w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y i n c a s e
of a m o r e severe damage.
C o n n e c t o r s a p p l i e d i n jumper loops o r c o n d u c t o r b r a n c h - o f f s a r e n o t l o a d e d b y t e n s i l e
forces a n d h a v e o n l y t o c o m p l y w i t h t h e electric r e q u i r e m e n t s . S u c h connectors m a y
be used t o joint conductors h a v i n g different diameters o r materials. I n j u m p e r loops,
the conductors overlap o n i length o fseveral meters and are connected electrically and
m e c h a n i c a l l y b yt h r e e o r four p a r a l l e l groove c l a m p s . I n case o f b u n d l e conductors, rigid
s p a c e r s w i t h d i r e c t l y fixed c u r r e n t r e s i s t a n t c l a m p s a r e a d o p t e d . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i s
advantageous because sufficient reserve o fconductor l e n g t h isavailable for resetting o f
d e a d - e n d c l a m p s w h e r e necessary.
Contacting o f metals having different electro-chemical potentials m a y n o t result i n
galvanic contact corrosion i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f h u m i d i t y . C o m b i n a t i o n s o f a l u m i n i u m
a n d c o p p e r a r e i n p a r t i c u l a r e n d a n g e r e d . I n t h i s c a s e , a s h e e t o f Al/Cu bimetal m u s t
b e fitted t o t h e c o n t a c t a r e a . A n A l / C u c l a m p i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y m o r e r e l i a b l e s i n c e t h e
contact areas h a v e been d u r a b l y sealed against h u m i d i t y d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n .
10.2.5 S p a c e r s for bundle c o n d u c t o r s
Bundle conductors, c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o , t h r e e , f o u r o r m o r e s u b c o n d u c t o r s , a r e a d o p t e d
for t r a n s m i s s i o n lines w i t h r a t e d voltages o f 220 k V a n d above. Occasionally, also 110
or 150 k V lines designed for a h i g h b u l k p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o nare e q u i p p e d w i t h b u n d l e
c o n d u c t o r s . T h e spacers k e e p t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i n a s p a n a n d i n j u m p e r l o o p s a t
designed spacing t oavoid damage caused b y clashing, t w i s t i n g o r e n t w i n i n g . T h e n u m -
ber o fspacers a n d their spacing s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t ot h e span l e n g t h a n d t h e d a m p i n g
r e q u i r e m e n t s , i f a n y . T w i s t i n g o r e n t w i n i n g o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s w i l l b e less p r o b a b l e a n d
the retaining m o m e n t w i l l be enhanced i f the subspan length starting w i t h for example
15 m a t t h e s u p p o r t s increases i n steps o f 5 m u p t o 7 0 m i n m i d s p a n .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n , i t i s d i s c e r n e d b e t w e e n rigid spacers, k e e p i n g t h e s u b c o n -
d u c t o r s a t a c o n s t a n t d i s t a n c e a t t h e l o c a t i o n o f i n s t a l l a t i o n , flexible spacers, p e r m i t t i n g
small relative displacements o f the subconductors a t the location o f installation, and
spacer dampers, w h i c h r e d u c e t h e v i b r a t i o n l e v e l b y e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n i n r u b b e r - e l a s t i c
elements, thus avoiding fatigue damage o f conductors.
Spacers should ensure the designed subconductor spacing at the location o f installation
i n a l l o p e r a t i o n a l conditions, also d u r i n g w i n d o r icea c t i o n . I n case o f a s h o r t circuit,
they have t o w i t h s t a n d high d y n a m i c loads a n d t o limit t h e damage o f subconduc-
tors without being themselves p e r m a n e n t l y deformed. Hinges and insulating elements
10.2 F i t t i n g s for c o n d u c t o r s 311
F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 1 : Spacer d a m p e r for triple b u n -
dles ( R i c h a r d B e r g n e r G m b H )
clamping arrangement suspension bracket suspension bracket clamping arrangement
F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 2 : P h a s e spacer for q u a d r u p l e bundles ( R i c h a r d B e r g n e r G m b H )
cannot conduct currents between subconductors i n normal operation. T h e distancing
e l e m e n t o f a s p a c e r , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s n o t s u i t a s a fixing p o i n t f o r e a r t h i n g d e v i c e s i n
case o f m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e s i g n s h o u l d e n s u r e t h a t n o i n a d m i s s i b l e dis-
charges o r radio interference occur a n d audible noise is avoided.
S i n c e s p a c e r s a r e m o s t l y i n s t a l l e d f r o m bundle conductor line cars, a d e s i g n w i t h e l e -
ments w h i c h cannot b e lost d u r i n g installation is expedient. Installation gauges pro-
vide t h e l i n e m e n w i t h t h e precise subconductor spacing a n d take care o f a rectangular
arrangement. T h e r e f o r e , t h e use o f such gauges i s advantageous. F i g u r e 10.10 shows
spacers w i t h o u t d a m p i n g features as used today. R e q u i r e m e n t s as well as test a n d
acceptance criteria are s t i p u l a t e d i n [10.11].
Phase spacers a r e a d o p t e d i n s p a n s o f l i n e s w h e r e conductor galloping o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y
due t otopographical o r climatic peculiarities.T h e conductor m o v e m e n t d u r i n g gallop-
ing, having a low frequency a n d being accompanied b y considerably large amplitudes,
c a n r e s u l t i n flashovers o r c l a s h i n g b e t w e e n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s o r t o e a r t h w i r e s . T h i s
can give rise t o massive mechanical o r t h e r m a l conductor damage as well as t o inter-
r u p t i o n s o f t h e p o w e r supply. T h e selective a r r a n g e m e n t o fseveral phase spacers w i t h i n
a span cannot avoid conductor galloping a tall but reduces t h e probability o f flashovers
or clashing considerably. F i g u r e 10.12 shows a phase spacer. S t a n d a r d s o n design a n d
testing o f phase spacers d o n o t exist.
10.2.6 V i b r a t i o n d a m p e r s for s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s
Chapter 1 1deals w i t h vibrations occurring a t overhead line conductors. These vibra-
tions result i n a l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g stresses, w h i c h a r e added t o t h e e x i s t i n g static
stresses ( F i g u r e 10.1). T h e s e f a t i g u e stresses h a v e m a x i m a a t s u s p e n s i o n a n d dead-end
attachments as well as a t mass discontinuities a n d m a y lead t o failures o f individual
strands and eventually t o failure o f all a l u m i n i u m layers o fa composite conductor.
Vibration dampers o f f e r e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t v o r t e x - i n d u c e d v i b r a t i o n s . W i t h
3iz i u uverneaa line nxtinga
clamper mass
Figure 10.13: Stockbridge-type vibration F i g u r e 10.14: Damper f o r aerial ca-
damper (Richard Bergner G m b H ) b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres ( R i c h a r d B e r g n e r
GmbH)
respect t o their mechanical features, t h e y need t o b e t h o r o u g h l y t u n e d t o linea n d
conductor p a r a m e t e r s ; their l o c a t i o n has t ob e selected such t h a t n e i t h e r t h e conductor
nor t h e messenger cable o ft h e d a m p e r w i l l b e overstressed. I n particular, t h e relatively
l o w i n v e s t m e n t s n e c e s s a r y f o r d a m p e r s a r e a l w a y s j u s t i f i e d i n c a s e o f c o s t - e f f e c t i v e aerial
cables with optical fibres. M o s t u t i l i t i e s u s e dampers o f t h e Stockbridge-type
10.13), [10.12] a s a s t a n d a r d f o r c o n t r o l l i n g v i b r a t i o n i n case o f single c o n d u c t o r s .
Stockbridge-type dampers function according t o the principle o fa damped spring/mass
oscillator a n d dissipate a m a i n p o r t i o n o f t h e w i n d i n p u t energy into the conductor.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n d u c t o r stresses r e m a i n o n a safe level. D u e t o t h e w i d e r a n g e o f
frequencies i n w h i c h t h e c o n d u c t o r s aie a b l e t o v i b r a t e , i t i s r e q u i r e d t h a t d a m p e r s
function over a broad frequency b a n d w i d t h (see clause 11.2.7). T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t c a n
be m e t b y a nappropriate design o f the damper masses a n d a nadjusted length o f the
messenger cable. A theoretical o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e s y s t e m consisting o f conductor a n d
d a m p e r b e c a m e a c h i e v a b l e b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e energy balance principle ( E B P ) [ 1 0 . 1 3 ] ,
w h i c h is based o n t h e balance o f energies i m p a r t e d b y w i n d action a n d dissipated b y
conductors and dampers. I n f o r m a t i o n o nthe conductor self-damping isneeded t o apply
the energy balance principle. Requirements o nand testing o fStockbridge-type dampers
are s t i p u l a t e d b y t h e s t a n d a r d E N 6 1 897 [10.14].
10.2.7 S p a c e r d a m p e r s for b u n d l e conductors
Spacers for bundle conductors can b e designed such that, i n addition t ocomply w i t h the
characteristics required i n clause 10.2.5, t h e y suppress vortex-induced conductor v i b r a -
tions. F i g u r e 10.11 shows such a spacer d a m p e r for a triple bundle. Usually, t h e spacer
c o n s i s t s o f a r i g i d frame, a t t h e c o r n e r s o f w h i c h t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r s
is p r o v i d e d b y m e a n s o f h i n g e s w i t h c l a m p s . T h e h i n g e s a r e l i n e d w i t h r u b b e r - e l a s t i c
cushions made o f silicon o r ethylene-propylene rubber ( E P D M ) , thus providing a re-
m a r k a b l e d a m p i n g capacity. T h e y enable the clamp t ofollow t h e conductor m o v e m e n t s
a n d dissipate energy t o a na m p l i t u d e - d e p e n d i n g e x t e n t . T h e a m o u n t o f d a m p i n g p o w e r
of one hinge c a ncorrespond roughly t o that o f 100m o f conductor. T h e oscillating
m o v e m e n t o f t h e subconductors is reduced b y t h e dissipation o f energy. N u m b e r and
l o c a t i o n o f spacer dampers s h o u l d b e o p t i m i z e d a n d v e r i f i e d b y a s t u d y f o r e a c h i n d i -
vidual application. T h e o p t i m u m d i s t r i b u t i o no f spacer d a m p e r s along t h e span varies
depending o n span length, w i n d velocity regime a n d local topography. Spacers should
m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f E N 6 1 854 [10.11].
10.3 Fittings for insulator sets
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n ! ] 1 0 . 2 ] , fittings for insulator sets c o m p r i s e
— Fittings to attach the insulator s e t ( s ) t o t h e s u p p o r t , e . g . U - b o l t s o r b o l t s o f
hinges;
— Fittings to join the insulators o f o n e s t r i n g , e . g . ball and socket o r clevis and
tongue connections, yoke plates f o r m u l t i - s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r s e t s ;
— Fittings for grading o f e l e c t r i c a l fields a n d arcing protection, e. g. coordinating
spark gaps, arcing horns a n d rings, a s w e l l a s grading fittings .
B a l l a n d socket connections are used for connecting long r o d a n d cap-and-pin insulators,
clevis a n d tongue connections for long r o d a n d composite insulators. T h e dimensions
o f b a l l a n d socket connections are s t a n d a r d i z e d b y I E C 6 0 1 2 0 [10.15], f o r clevis a n d
t o n g u e c o n n e c t i o n s b y I E C 6 0 4 7 1 [10.16]. C o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n balls a n d sockets a r e
secured against u n i n t e n t i o n a l loosening b yelastic V - o rW - t y p e split pins. S t a n d a r d i z e d
d i m e n s i o n s c a n b e f o u n d i n [10.17].
Arcing protection fittings s h o u l d s a f e - g u a r d i n s u l a t o r s s e n s i t i v e t o a b r u p t t e m p e r a t u r e
c h a n g e s w h i c h m i g h t o c c u r d u e t o p o w e r a r c s . T h e m a g n e t i c field p r o d u c e d b y t h e
arc is u t i l i z e d t o stabilize a n d guide t h e arc. I ncase o f m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r strings, t h e
m e r g i n g o f p a r t i a l arcs t o a nintegral arc is a i m e d at, s o t h a t t h e arc b u r n s a p a r t f r o m
(Figure
the insulators until being extinguished.
T h e technical system parameters such as n o m i n a l voltage a n dshort-circuit current
together w i t h its interruption period decide o n the selection o f arcing protection de-
vices a s well as o n t h e arrangement o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r strings i nparallel o r
p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e c o n d u c t o r s i n case o f m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r sets.
G r a d i n g fittings p r i m a r i l y h o m o g e n i z e t h e e l e c t r i c a l field a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g i n
p a r t i c u l a r a t c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r sets. M o s t o f t h e a r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n devices t a k e
c a r e o f p o t e n t i a l g r a d i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . S e p a r a t e grading rings, t h e r e f o r e , a r e o n l y
necessary i n case o f a r r a n g e m e n t and design o f i n s u l a t o r sets f o rspecial applications,
w h i c h n e e d s h i e l d i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s t o k e e p t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t t o t a l l y free o f
p a r t i a l d i s c h a r g e s . S u c h g r a d i n g fittings d o n o t f u n c t i o n a s a r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n fittings.
10.4 R a t i n g and tests
10.4.1 General
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 0 . 1 ] , fittings for overhead power lines h a v e t o b e d e s i g n e d ,
m a n u f a c t u r e d a n d i n s t a l l e d s u c h t h a t t h e y c o m p l y w i t h a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s r e s u l t i n g from
operation, m a i n t e n a n c e a n d impacts o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . W i t h respect t o their m e -
c h a n i c a l a n d electric characteristics, t h e y h a v e t o b e designed according t o [10.1, 10.3].
T h u s , the design parameters o fthe line based o n stipulations i n standards w i l l b e met.
T h e i r s t r u c t u r a l design should ensure that damage o f t h e conductors will b e avoided
and i t will b e guaranteed that n o i n d i v i d u a l elements g e t loose d u r i n g operation. A
design life t i m e m a y b e agreed u p o n b e t w e e n p u r c h a s e r a n d supplier.
10.4.2 Electric requirements
A l l fittings s h o u l d c o m p l y w i t h t h e g e n e r a l electric requirements s t i p u l a t e d for a specific
l i n e . A l l c u r r e n t - c o n n e c t i n g fittings s u c h a s c l a m p s a n d c o n d u c t o r c o n n e c t o r s , m a y n o t
reach a higher t e m p e r a t u r e t h a n the conductor itself u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o ft h e m a x i m u m
p e r m i s s i b l e d e s i g n c u r r e n t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e fittings m a y n o t p o s s e s s a h i g h e r r e s i s t a n c e
a n d a smaller heat energy dissipating surface t h a n a piece o f conductor h a v i n g t h e
s a m e l e n g t h . T h e voltage drop a l o n g c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g fittings m a y n o t e x c e e d t h a t o f
a n e q u i v a l e n t c o n d u c t o r s e c t i o n . W h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e e x p e c t e d short-circuit loading,
314 10 Overhead line fittings 10.4 R a t i n g a n d tests 315

has b e e n achieved d u et o l o n g - l a s t i n g a n d successful d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i g h -

T a b l e 1 0 . 1 : C o r o n a t e s t v o l t a g e s a n d r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e n o i s e l i m i t s (ac¬
c o r d i n g t o [10.18] ) voltage lines.
Highest system Stringent requirements
T e n s i l e - l o a d e d c o n d u c t o r a n d e a r t h w i r e fittings h a v e t o b e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t t h e m e -
Standard requirements
voltage Us Test voltage Noise limit " Test voltage Noise limit " c h a n i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c o m p l i e d w i t h . Dead-end clamps a n d t e n s i o n - p r o o f c o n d u c t o r
kV kV dB kV dB joints s h o u l d s u s t a i n t h e conductor w i t h at least 8 5% o fits r a t e d tensile s t r e n g t h ( R T S ) .
123 95 30 75 34 Suspension clamps s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a c t i n g w i n d a n d / o r i c e
145 110 30 88 34 loads w i t h sufficient reliability. A c c o r d i n g t o [10.2], t h e y h a v e t o b e designed b a s e d
245 185 35 150 40 o n 1,35 t i m e s t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force. A l s o i n case o f differences i n t h e c o n d u c t o r
420 320 40 260 46 tensile forces o f adjacent spans, t h esuspension clamps have t o s u s t a i n r e l i a b l yt h e
" dB above 1 pV across 300 CI at 1 MHz conductor load, so far t h e y should not deliberately p e r m i t slipping o f conductor d u e
to t h e corresponding design. T h e s u s t a i n i n g force s h o u l d b e specified d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
climatic conditions, the type o fconductor and the type o fclamps. A m i n i m u m slipping
c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g fittings m a y n o t a t t a i n a t e m p e r a t u r e w h i c h w o u l d l e a d t o a n n e a l i n g
resistance i n the range o f 2 0 t o 25 % o f conductor R T S has been used worldwide.
or damage o f g a l v a n i z a t i o n o f steel a n d cast i r o n elements. A r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n fittings
Protective fittings w o u l d o n l y b e l o a d e d m e c h a n i c a l l y i f l i n e m e n u s e d t h e m a s a p l a c e
s h o u l d c o n d u c t t h e specified fault c u r r e n t d u r i n g t h e associated failure p e r i o d w i t h o u t
to s t a n d o n . T h e n t h e y s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d a c o n c e n t r a t e d force o f 1,5 k N w i t h o u t b e i n g
adverse effects o n safety o f persons d u r i n g m a i n t e n a n c e a c t i v i t i e s . A c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o f
deformed plastically.
70 A / m m 2 c a nb e t o l e r a t e d for t e n s i o n - l o a d e d fittings and a density o f 80 A / m m 2 i n
Fittings for conductors should w i t h s t a n d the short-wave and long-wave conductor os-
case o f n o n - t e n s i o n - l o a d e d ones.
cillations d u r i n g t h e p r o j e c t e d service life. F i t t i n g s p r o n e t o a b r a s i o n o r a r t i c u l a t i o n
T o v e r i f y t h e e l e c t r i c l o n g - t e r m p e r f o r m a n c e o f c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g c o n n e c t i o n s , heat cycle
h a v e t o b e d e s i g n e d a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d s u c h t h a t a h i g h resistance to abrasion w i l l b e
tests h a v e b e e n s t i p u l a t e d a n d d e s c r i b e d a s a t y p e t e s t a c c o r d i n g t o c l a u s e 1 3 o f [ 1 0 . 3 ] ,
guaranteed.
W h e n t e s t e d , t h e radio interference level o f l i n e a c c e s s o r i e s - s p a c e r s a n d c l a m p s i n -
M a t e r i a l s a n d s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o f fittings for insulator sets h a v e b e e n s p e c i f i e d i n
cluded - s h o u l d c o m p l y w i t h t h e t o t a l interference level specified f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l
r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s , e. g. [10.2, 10.3]. T h e y w i l l b e l o a d e d e l e c t r i c a l l y o n l y i ncase o f
i n s t a l l a t i o n . T o r e d u c e t h e e l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h a t l i v e e n d s o f i n s u l a t o r s e t s , grad-
short circuits and m a y not attain a temperature which would result in a n inadmissible
ing rings, i f a n y , o r s i m i l a r d e v i c e s c a n b e u t i l i z e d . A corona extinction voltage j u s t
r e d u c t i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h . T h e y h a v e t o c a r r y t h e a c t i n g e x t e r n a l forces w i t h a
perceivable b y t h e non-equipped eye s h o u l d b e s t i p u l a t e d b y t h e project specification,
sufficient safety m a r g i n .
if any.
S o m e a d d i t i o n a l s t i p u l a t i o n s n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d w h e n d e s i g n i n g multiple insulator
I n f o r m a t i o n o n corona effects, r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e i n c l u d e d , i s p r o v i d e d b y c l a u s e 1 4 o f
sets. T h e l o a d s s h o u l d b e d i s t r i b u t e d a s e q u a l l y a s p o s s i b l e a m o n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t r i n g s
[10.3]. T o a v o i d c o r o n a effects a n d t h e c o r r e l a t e d electric a n d acoustic i n t e r f e r e n c e , t h e
[10.1, 10.2]. T h e fittings need t o b e designed accordingly. A f t e r failure o f a n insulator
s u r f a c e r a d i i o f fittings h a v e t o b e d e s i g n e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e e f f e c t i v e h i g h e s t v o l t a g e .
string, t h eloads s h o u l d b e carried o u tb y t h e r e s i d u a l strings t o a n equal extent.
R e q u i r e d corona e x t i n c t i o n voltages a n d acceptable radio interference levels are pro-
The m a t e r i a l partial factors m a y b e reduced compared w i t h the requirements o n the
v i d e d b y project specifications. I n [10.18], r e c o m m e n d e d values are given c o r r e s p o n d i n g
s o u n d set [10.2]. T h e f a i l i n g o f a n i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g causes d y n a m i c i m p a c t loads o n t h e
t o a t e s t v o l t a g e o f ( / t e s t = 1 , 0 5 U s / \ / 3 , w h e r e Us i s t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e . A t e s t
insulators and fittings w h i c h c o u l d r e s u l t i n s e c o n d a r y f a i l u r e s . A n a d e q u a t e d e s i g n o f
voltage o f 260 k V results for U s = 420 k V .
i n s u l a t o r sets a n d f i t t i n g s c a n a v o i d such consequences [10.19, 10.20].
R e g a r d i n g l i m i t s for r a d i o noise, t w o levels are d i s t i n g u i s h e d : v e r y s t r i n g e n t a n d s t a n - The mechanical requirements a n d partial factors are stipulated i n relevant standards,
d a r d r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n T a b l e 10.1, t h e d a t a for frequency used voltages are listed. e. g . E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 0 . 1 ] , c l a u s e 1 1 . 6 a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [ 1 0 . 2 ] , o r i n p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
D e s i g n a n d m a t e r i a l s e l e c t i o n f o r fittings d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r s s h o u l d A p a r t i a l factor o fa t least 7 M = 1,6has t ob e a p p l i e d t o t h e m i n i m u m m e c h a n i c a l failing
m i n i m i z e m a g n e t i c losses, c a u s e d b y e d d y c u r r e n t s a n d m a g n e t i c reversals, t h u s n o t loads specified i n [10.3] f o ra l l t y p e s o f fittings.
l e a d i n g t o a n i n a d m i s s i b l e h e a t i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . T o r e d u c e eddy currents a n d t h e
heating resulting thereof, clamps should b e manufactured f r o m diamagnetic o r para-
10.4.4 Corrosion protection
magnetic materials.
T e s t p r o c e d u r e s a n d a c c e p t a n c e c r i t e r i a f o r m a g n e t i c losses s h o u l d c o m p l y w i t h [10.3] So far the individualelements o fline fittings are not resistant t oatmospheric corrosion
or t h e i n d i v i d u a l specifications for t h e supply batch. T h e complete suspension o r dead- by its o w n , they have t o b e protected against corrosion as c a n b e experienced d u r i n g
e n d i n s u l a t o r sets are e v e n t u a l l y s u b m i t t e d t o t y p e tests, a s per subclause 9.10. T h e n , t r a n s p o r t , s t o r i n g a n d o p e r a t i o n . Hot-dip galvanizing a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 0 . 2 1 , 1 0 . 2 2 ] i s m o s t
i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s o f such sets s h o u l d also r e m a i n i n t a c t after t h e test w a s p a s s e d suitable t o all iron-based materials, stainless a n d acid-resistant alloys excepted. T h e
successfully. purchaser, however, m a y stipulate other equivalent m e t h o d s i n his project specification.
A l l male threads have t ob e rolled before galvanizing, female threads m a y b e cut before
or after t h e g a l v a n i z i n g p r o c e d u r e ; i n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e y h a v e t o b e o i l e d o r greased.
10.4.3 Mechanical requirements
Contact corrosion a t connections between fittings o r conductors made o f different m a -
The permissible mechanical load o fa component isdetermined using a m a t e r i a l partial t e r i a l s s h o u l d b e p r e v e n t e d b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e s e l e c t i o n o f fittings a n d / o r m a t e r i a l s .
factor w h i c h depends o nt h e p u r p o s e o f use a n d t h e r e l e v a n t standards. A s a n e x a m p l e ,
the N o r m a t i v e N a t i o n a l A s p e c t s for G e r m a n y [10.2] s t i p u l a t e a n e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h t o
specify n u m e r i c a l d a t a f o ractions a n d p a r t i a l factors i n s t e a d o f a s t a t i s t i c a l l y based
a p p r o a c h also p e r m i s s i b l e a c c o r d i n g t o [10.1]. A r a t i o n a l c a l i b r a t i o n o f d e s i g n c r i t e r i a
 (J.+ J. J.J11+. 11L L I l l ^ J
IU.O rieieienoes on

10.4.5 S e l e c t i o n of m a t e r i a l
T a b l e 1 0 . 2 : T e s t s o n fittings a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 0 . 5 ]
T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r o f o v e r h e a d l i n e fittings e n s u r e s t h e s t i p u l a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d 73
r e q u i r e m e n t s o n p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e fittings b y s e l e c t i n g s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s . T h e e f f e c t s
of l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s have t o b e t a k e n i n t o consideration, i fany. I t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o
Ia
use I S O s t a n d a r d s for m a t e r i a l s s o far a s available. •a
s
T h e a d o p t e d m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s m a y n o t b e s e n s i t i v e t o grain boundary o r stress cracking 3
corrosion. M a t e r i a l s f o rc o m p r e s s i o n fittings should w i t h s t a n d t o cold forming; com-
p r e s s e d s t e e l e l e m e n t s s h o u l d p o s s e s s a s u f f i c i e n t notched impact strength e v e n a f t e r >
i—i
compression. a
A l u m i n i u m alloys for clamps a n d a r m o r rods, h o t - d i p galvanized steel o r malleable cast -3

i r o n f o r connectors a n d spacers, stainless steel f o rb o l t s a n d a n n e a l e d steel f o r balls rt ci hO

» "3 M °? 3 o
represent frequently used materials.
£ . 1 1 i g I . e - J g s J S S
Non-metallic material s h o u l d s h o w a g o o d r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t a g e i n g , o z o n e , u l t r a - v i o l e t H > g X z. P 5 U E S £ S K O
radiation and air p o l l u t i o n over t h e complete range o f o p e r a t i n g temperatures. T h e y Insulator and T x x x 3> x 3) x - - - x - - x 3)'6)

m a y n o t c a u s e c o r r o s i o n a t o t h e r m a t e r i a l s i n c o n t a c t w i t h t h e m . Polyethylene is f r e - earth wire S x 2 ) x x x 3 ) x - - - x 3 )

q u e n t l y u s e d , a s w e l l a s silicone-rubber o r ethylene-propylene rubiier(EPDM), predom- fittings R x 3 ' x 3 ' - x 3 ' x3''4' - - - - - - -

inantly for d a m p i n g purposes. Suspension T x x x 3 ) x 3 ) x x x - - x 3 ) - x 3)'6)

clamps S x 2 ) x x x 3 ) x x x 2) - -
R x3> x 3 ' - x 3 ' x3'-4' - - - - - - -
10.4.6 Tests Tension-proof T x x x 3) x 31 x - x x x x 3 ) x 5 ) x 3 )

joints and S x 2) x x x 31 x 3) - x 2) x x 3>

F o r testing o f fitting q u a l i t y d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n , a q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e m a n a g e m e n t p r o -
clamps R x3> x3> - x 3> - - - - x 3 >' 4 > - - -
g r a m m a y b e agreed u p o n b e t w e e n purchaser a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r t a k i n g care o f t h e
~P^m T ~ + x x 3 ' x 3 ' - = = ~ = x 6 ' x 3 '
requirements stipulated in relevant standards. Detailed information o nthe application
tension-proof S x 2 ' x x x 3 1 - - - - . -
o f quality assurance c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e I S O s t a n d a r d s o f t h e 9 0 0 0 s e r i e s [ 1 0 . 2 3 , 1 0 . 2 4 , fittings R x 3 ) x 3 ) - - - - - - -
10.25]. R e p a i r sleeves T x x x 3 ) - - - x - - - x 3 )

W h e t h e r a n d t o w h a t e x t e n t t e s t i n g o f fittings n e e d s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t d e p e n d s o n t h e S x 2 ) x - - - - - x - - - -
t y p e o f fitting a n d t h e s t a n d a r d s t o b e a p p l i e d . A n o v e r v i e w o n t e s t i n g s t i p u l a t e d o r R, x « X 3
> - _ _ _ _ _ _

to b e agreed u p o n b e t w e e n purchaser a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r i s listed i n T a b l e 10.2. T h e Insulator T~¥ x x» x 3 > x 3» - - = =

relevant standards distinguish between protective S x 2 ) x x x 3 ) x 3 ) - - - -
— T y p e tests, fittings R x 3 ' x 3 ' - x 3 ' x 3 ' - - - - - - -
— Sample tests a n d T type tests; S sample tests; R r o u t i n e tests
2' Inspection b y attributes only
— R o u t i n e tests.
3' B y agreement between purchaser a n d supplier
T\)pe tests a r e p r o v i d e d f o r v e r i f y i n g t h e d e s i g n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d w i l l u s u a l l y b e
4' O n l y as regards damage load test
c a r r i e d o u t o n c e a n d r e p e a t e d o n l y i f s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o r m a t e r i a l o f a fitting h a s
5' O n l y for current-carrying j o i n t s
changed. T h e extent o fr e q u i r e d tests can b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 10.2. B e y o n d t h i s extent,
6 ) O n l y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h c o m p l e t e i n s u l a t o r set
a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s c a n b e a g r e e d u p o n , e. g. c o r r o s i o n , a g e i n g , s h o r t - c i r c u i t o r p o w e r a r c
tests, t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f w h i c h have t o b e defined before c o m m i s s i o n i n g a contract.
Fatigue tests a r emost i m p o r t a n t as t h e y enable t o verify the quality o f elastomer T h a t i s w h y non-destructive test methods axe p r e f e r r e d . A l l fittings not complying with
regarding life t i m e . T h e results o ft y p e tests s h o u l d b e recorded t o give evidence o f t h e the requirements m u s t b e rejected.
compliance w i t h the requirements o n t h e s t r u c t u r a l design.
Sample tests a r e p r o v i d e d f o r c h e c k i n g t h e m a t e r i a l a n d p r o d u c t i o n q u a l i t y . T h e p u r -
chaser i s e n t i t l e d , thereby, t o select r a n d o m l y a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f specimens, w h e r e b y 10.5 References
the p l a n o f t a k i n g s p e c i m e n s f o l l o w s I S O 2 8 5 9 - 1 [10.26] a n d - 2 [10.27] ( t e s t i n g b y a t -
10.1 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : Overhead electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: General Requirements
t r i b u t e s ) o r I S O 3 9 5 1 ( t e s t i n g b y variables) [10.28]. T h e t y p e o f t e s t i n g a n d detailed
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
procedures have t ob e agreed u p o n between purchaser a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r i n advance. I f
specimens pass the sample test, the batch concerned is considered as accepted. 10.2 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a -
Routine tests a r e p r o v i d e d f o r v e r i f y i n g s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d f o r s u p e r v i s i o n o f tive Aspects for Germany. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f fittings w i t h a n i n c r e a s e d p r o b a b i l i t y o f d e f e c t s . M a i n l y , t h e s e p a r t s
are tensile-loaded i noperation. T h e extent o f these tests i s presented i nTable 10.2 10.3 E N 6 1 284: O v e r h e a d lines - R e q u i r e m e n t s a n d tests for f i t t i n g s ( I E C 61284). Brussels,
C E N E L E C , 1997
a n d n e e d s i n each case a n a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n p u r c h a s e r a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r . F o r t e s t i n g
p r o c e d u r e s o f fittings f o r o p t i c a l c a b l e s s e e [ 1 0 . 2 9 ] a n d [ 1 0 . 3 0 ] . R o u t i n e t e s t s a r e c a r r i e d 1 0 . 4 A n n , W . e t a l . : I n s u l a t o r s a n d fittings o f t h e n e w 3 8 0 k V r i v e r E l b e c r o s s i n g o f N o r d -
o u t a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l fitting a n d , t h e r e f o r e , m a y n o t r e s u l t i n d a m a g e o f t h e f i t t i n g . westdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G . Schwabach, J H W - R I B E I n f o r m a t i o n N o . 15e, 1978
 10.5 References 319
318 10 O v e r h e a d line fittings

10.5 B i e d e n b a c h , G . e t a l . : D i e T r a g k l e m m e der H o c h s p a n n u n g s - P r e i l e i t u n g ( S u s p e n s i o n 10.26 I S O 2859-1: S a m p l i n g procedures for inspection by a t t r i b u t e s - P a r t 1: S a m p l i n g schemes

clamps for high-voltage overhead lines). e t z - R e p o r t 3 1 , Berlin-Offenbach, V D E - V e r l a g
G m b H , 1998
10.6 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o fittings for o p t i c a l cables o n t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. P a r t 1:
S e l e c t i o n a n d use. E l e c t r a 176 ( 1 9 9 8 ) , pp. 55 t o 66
1 0 . 7 G i r a y , M . ; K i e f i l i n g , F . : S e l e c t i o n a n d r a t i n g o f c o n d u c t o r s , i n s u l a t o r s a n d fittings f o r a
380 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n line across t h e B o s p h o r u s . T r a n s l a t i o n f r o m E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t
83 (1984), pp. 893to 903, Siemens E n e r g y A 1 9 1 0 0 - C 4 3 3 - A 8 7 1 - X - 7 6 0 0
10.8 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 6 : L o a d c o n t r o l devices o n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. P a r i s , Cigre
Brochure 174, 2000
10.9 M o c k s , L . : D a s V e r h a l t e n des L e i t e r s e i l e s u n t e r d e m E i n f l u s s der A r m a t u r e n ( B e h a v i o u r
o f c o n d u c t o r s u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f fittings). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 6 8 ( 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . 3 3 6 t o
341
indexed by acceptance, quality limit ( A Q L ) for lot-by-lot inspection. Geneva, I S O , 1991
1 0 . 2 7 I S O 2 8 5 9 - 2 : S a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s f o r i n s p e c t i o n b y a t t r i b u t e s - P a r t 2: S a m p l i n g p l a n s
indexed by limiting quality ( L Q ) for isolated lot inspection. Geneva, I S O , 1985
10.28 I S O 3 9 5 1 : S a m p l i n g procedures a n d charts for inspection by variables for percent n o n -
conforming. Geneva, I S O , 1989
10.29 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o fittings for optical cables o n t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. P a r t 2 A :
T e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . O p t i c a l g r o u n d w i r e fittings a n d o p t i c a l p h a s e c o n d u c t o r fittings.
E l e c t r a 188 (2000), pp. 42 t o 53
10.30 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o fittings for o p t i c a l cables o n t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. P a r t 2 B :
T e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . A l l - d i e l e c t r i c s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g c a b l e fittings a n d o p t i c a l a t t a c h e d c a b l e
fittings. E l e c t r a 191 (2000), pp. 62 t o 75

10.10 D I N 48 334: T u r n b u c k l e s for overhead power lines. B e r l i n , D I N , 1977

10.11 E N 6 1 8 5 4 : Overhead lines - R e q u i r e m e n t s a n d tests for spacers ( I E C 6 1 8 5 4 ) . Brussels,

C E N E L E C , 1998

10.12 M o c k s , L . : D a m p i n g o f h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r v i b r a t i o n s . e t z - R e p o r t 15,
Berlin-Offenbach, V D E - V e r l a g G m b H 1981

10.13 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 1 : R e p o r t o n aeolian v i b r a t i o n . E l e c t r a 124 (1989), pp. 4 1 t o 77

10.14 E N 6 1 8 9 7 ( V D E 0212 T e i l 3): O v e r h e a d lines - R e q u i r e m e n t s a n d tests for Stockbridge-

type aeolian v i b r a t i o n dampers ( I E C 61897). Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1998

10.15 I E C 6 0 1 2 0 : D i m e n s i o n s o f ball-and-socket c o u p l i n g o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s . Geneva,

I E C , 1987

10.16 I E C 6 0 4 7 1 : D i m e n s i o n s o f clevis a n d t o n g u e couplings o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s . Geneva,

I E C , 1987

10.17 I E C 6 0 3 7 2 - 1 : L o c k i n g devices for ball a n d socket couplings of s t r i n g

10.18 B S 137: Specification for i n s u l a t o r s o f c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l o r glass for o v e r h e a d lines w i t h

a n o m i n a l v o l t a g e g r e a t e r t h a n 1 0 0 0 V . P a r t 2: R e q u i r e m e n t s . L o n d o n , B S I , 1 9 7 3

10.19 B a u e r , E . et al.: D y n a m i c process d u r i n g l o a d t r a n s p o s i t i o n i n m u l t i p l e sets w i t h long-

rod-type insulators. Cigre R e p o r t 22-03, 1982

10.20 H a g e d o r n , P.; Idelberger, H . ; M o c k s , L . : D y n a m i s c h e V o r g a n g e bei L a s t u m l a g e r u n g e n

in Abspannketten von Ffeileitungen (Dynamic phenomena occurring during load trans-
p o s i t i o n i n d e a d - e n d i n s u l a t o r sets o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s ) , e t z a r c h i v e V o l u m e 2, R e p o r t 4.
Berlin-Offenbach, V D E - V e r l a g G m b H , 1980

10.21 E N I S O 1 4 6 1 : H o t - d i p galvanized coatings o n i r o n a n d steel articles. Specifications a n d

test methods ( I S O 1461). Brussels, C E N , 1999

10.22 E N I S O 14 713: P r o t e c t i o n against corrosion i n i r o n a n d steel. Z i n c a n d a l u m i n i u m coat-

ings - Guidelines ( I S O 14713). Brussels, C E N , 1999

10.23 E N I S O 9 0 0 1 : Q u a l i t y systems. M o d e l for q u a l i t y assurance a n d design, development,

production, installation and servicing ( I S O 9001). Brussels, C E N , 1994

10.24 E N I S O 9002: Q u a l i t y systems. M o d e l for q u a l i t y assurance a n d p r o d u c t i o n , installation

and servicing (ISO 9002). Brussels, C E N , 1994

10.25 E N I S O 9003: Q u a l i t y systems. M o d e l for q u a l i t y assurance a n d final i n s p e c t i o n a n d tests

( I S O 9003). Brussels, C E N , 1994
11 Conductor vibrations

11.0 Symbols

Symbol Signification
a Span length
Ad Cross section of a strand
A, Conductor free-span v i b r a t i o n a m p l i t u d e
c Travelling wave velocity
TYavelling w a v e velocity of conductor w i t h b e n d i n g stiffness
C Parameter of conductor self-damping
C\ j Ci. Ci, C4 Constants
d Strand diameter
D Conductor diameter
e D i s t a n c e o f a s t r a n d b e t w e e n n e u t r a l rods rind surface
E M o d u l u s of elasticity
El C o n d u c t o r b e n d i n g stiffness
f Frequency
h F r e q u e n c y of conductor w i t h b e n d i n g stiffness
/w W i n d excitation frequency
g Acceleration due to gravity
H H o r i z o n t a l conductor tensile force
HB Conductor m i n i m u m failing load
I M o m e n t of inertia
Ipdt Polar m o m e n t of inertia of a strand i n t h e layer i
j N u m b e r o f stress classes
K Solution function
k N u m b e r o f v i b r a t i o n modes, h a r m o n i c coefficient
mc Conductor mass per unit length
n N u m b e r of strands
7li N u m b e r o f v i b r a t i o n cycles recorded i n one year
N N u m b e r of layers, n u m b e r of cycles t o failure
Ni N u m b e r o f cycles t o f a i l u r e a t stress level i
P>9>r Exponents of conductor self-damping
Pb D a m p e r p o w e r , p o w e r loss o f a d a m p e r
Ps C o n d u c t o r d a m p i n g power, p o w e r loss o f v i b r a t i n g c o n d u c t o r
Pw Conductor energy i m p a r t e d by w i n d
q Function of time
to Conductor damping function
qw W i n d power input function
QA U p l i f t a n d d o w n w a r d w i n d force
QL A e r o d y n a m i c d r a g force
r R o o t of characteristic equation
Ri Radius of helix of the layer i
s, Strouhal number
t Variable of time
ti Life period of a conductor
OK Velocity of damper clamps
Uw W i n d velocity transverse to conductor
w Conductor transverse displacement
wb B e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e a t d i s t a n c e Xb f r o m t h e c l a m p
X Variable of coordinate
Xb Distance between clamp and position of amplitude measurement
z Exponent
Z D a m p e r impedance (complex)
322 11Conductor vibrations 11.2 A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s 323

Symbol Signification
a Reed n a t u r a l v a l u e o f characteristic e q u a t i o n
Ol Factor equal ffH/EI
0 I m a g i n a r y natural value o f characteristic equation
e Strain o f strand, bending strain F i g u r e 11.1:Schematic representation F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 : S t r i n g r i g i d l y fixed a t b o t h e n d s
A Wave length
of a line w i t h four spans
As W a v e l e n g t h o f conductor w i t h b e n d i n g stiffness
P Dimensionless parameter
o Stress o f strand in direction o f t h e oscillation m o t i o n a n d excites t h e oscillating conductor f u r t h e r . I n
CbF D y n a m i c l i m i t stress case o f b u n d l e conductors, t h e t r a n s v e r s a l oscillation is s u p e r i m p o s e d b y a t o r s i o n a l
V Phase shifting angle, conductor swing angle o s c i l l a t i o n , w h i c h l e a d s t o t h e a n g l e o f w i n d flow a t t a c k n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e n e r g y i n p u t .
0 Free-span v i b r a t i o n angle
T h e exciting w i n d velocities are between 6 a n d 2 5 m / s a n d , as a r u l e , result i n t h e first
A n g u l a r frequency
oscillation mode, where a span is oscillating as half wave, o r t o higher natural modes,
w h e r e a t least o n eoscillation m o d e is present i n a span. T h e oscillation frequency is
11.1 Overview and types of vibration l o w , b e i n g l e s s t h a n 1 H z . C o n d u c t o r g a l l o p i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a flow-induced vibration
w i t h m o t i o n - i n d u c e d e x c i t a t i o n ; i t i s classified a s l o w - f r e q u e n c y [11.5].
A s a n unprotected structure, each power t r a n s m i s s i o n line is exposed t o the n a t u r a l
w i n d w h i c h p r o d u c e s a series o f m e c h a n i c - d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n a w i t h i n t h e p o w e r line.
Wind-induced vibrations o c c u r w i t h d i f f e r e n t f e a t u r e s a n d a t t a i n p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e . 11.2 Aeolian vibrations
T h e w i n d flow induces a e r o d y n a m i c forces o n a conductor causing hazardous v i b r a t i o n s
t h a t i m p a i r t h e r e l i a b i l i t y a n d lifetime o f a p o w e r l i n e . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e 11.2.1 B a s i c p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s , m a t h e m a t i c - m e c h a n i c m o d e l of a l i n e
p a i d t o a l l t y p e s o f conductor vibrations w h e n d e s i g n i n g a p o w e r l i n e t o k e e p a d v e r s e
F o r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , aeolian vibrations(Kdrmdn-vibrations) have b e e n t h e s u b j e c t
drawbacks a ta m i n i m u m . T h r e e m a i n groups m a y b e distinguished, so far as v i b r a t i o n
o f i n t e n s i v e s t u d i e s a n d n u m e r o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s [11.6] t o [11.8]. O n l y s o m e basic a s p e c t s
e x c i t a t i o n , v i b r a t i o n m o d e s a n d frequencies a r e c o n c e r n e d [11.1].
c a n b e t r e a t e d h e r e . F o r d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n , reference s h o u l d be. m a d e t o t h e q u o t e d
publications.
Aeolian vibrations T h e m e c h a n i c m o d e l [11-6] i s r e l a t e d t o a s p a n w i t h t h e l e n g t h a . T h e r e b y , t h e c o u p l i n g
T h e w i n d forces acting transversely o n t h e conductor cause a l t e r n a t i n g excitations i n of adjacent spans b y t h e i n s u l a t o r sets ( F i g u r e 11.1) is neglected a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r sag
t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n aeolian vibrations, a l s o c a l l e d Kdrmdn vibrations. is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e l o w c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e s p a n l e n g t h [11.9]. T h e n , t h e c o n d u c t o r i s
T h e y axe characterized b y r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t w a v e l e n g t h s a n d frequencies b e t w e e n 5 a n d strung between t w o attachment points m a t h e m a t i c a l l y replaced b y a string w i t h small
100 Hz. T b e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes m a y reach t h e m a g n i t u d e o f the conductor diameter bending stiffness ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 ) . T h i s m o d e l c a n b e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l
a t t h e a n t i n o d e . K a r m a n v i b r a t i o n s b e l o n g t o t h e vortex-induced vibrations a n d a r e e q u a t i o n [11.8] a n d [11.10].
classified a s h i g h - f r e q u e n c y [11.2, 11.3]. A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s o c c u r a t w i n d s h a v i n g a
l a m i n a r s t r u c t u r e , generally w i t h w i n d velocities u p t o 5 m / si n r o u g h t e r r a i n a n d u p „rd*w Trd2w d2w . . , . . M l .,
E I - ^ - H-^+ mc-^2 = qvf(x,t)+qo(w,w,t) . (11.1)
t o 1 0 m / s i n flat t e r r a i n .

T h e t e r m qyj(x,t) r e p r e s e n t s t h e f o r c e d u e t o w i n d flow a n d t h e t e r m qv(w,w,t) the

S u b s p a n oscillations d a m p i n g f o r c e d u e t o conductor self-damping. F o r f u r t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , i tsuffices t o
Subspan oscillations o c c u r o n l y a t b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h s u b c o n d u c t o r s a r r a n g e d o n e consider t h e free oscillations only. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r i g h t side i n (11.1) c a n b e set t o zero.
after the other i nw i n d direction. T h e leeward conductor is aerodynamically excited T h e remaining differential equation can b e separated b y the expression
b y t h e i n h o m o g e n e o u s w i n d field b e h i n d t h e w i n d w a r d c o n d u c t o r ; t h i s i s a d d r e s s e d
as a n i n s t a b i l i t y d u et o a e r o d y n a m i c coupling. T h e frequency o f subspan oscillation w(x, t) = w(x) • sm(io • t) , (11-2)
is b e t w e e n 1 a n d 5 H z , t h e w a v e l e n g t h being equal o r t w i c e t h e s u b s p a n l e n g t h . T h e
w h e r e sm(w • t) i s a s o l u t i o n o f t h e t i m e e q u a t i o n
w i n d velocities causing subspan oscillations are between 4 a n d 18m / s a n d m a y result i n
differing oscillation modes. T h e oscillation amplitude depends o n the oscillation m o d e
q(t)+w2q(t) = 0 . ( H . 3 )
and m a y reach half o f the subconductor spacing causing conductor clashing, therefore.
S u b s p a n o s c i l l a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s flow-induced vibrations a n d a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s l o w - I n s e r t i n g (11.2) i n t o (11.3) t h e s p a t i a l e q u a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d :
f r e q u e n c y [11-4].
EI-(w")"(x)-H-w"(x)~w2-w(x) = Q . . (11.4)

C o n d u c t o r galloping T h e r e , u> i s t h e a n g u l a r f r e q u e n c y o f t h e c o n s i d e r e d v i b r a t i o n m o d e .
Galloping oscillations occur a t single conductors a n d , particularly, a t bundle conduc- For t h e f u r t h e r considerations, t h e t i m e - r e l a t e d c o m p o n e n t o f t h e complete s o l u t i o n is
tors. T h e a m p l i t u d e s m a y reach t h e conductor sag, p o t e n t i a l l y leading t o clashing o f w i t h o u t significance; therefore, o n l y t h e s p a t i a l e q u a t i o n (11.4) needs t o b e studied. B y
c o n d u c t o r s o r t o flashovers. S o m e s p e c i a l c a s e s e x c l u d e d , c o n d u c t o r g a l l o p i n g i s a l w a y s u s i n g t h e set o f s o l u t i o n s
c o m b i n e d w i t h ice a c c r e t i o n o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s , c a u s i n g a d i s y m m e t r i c a l a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,
a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y u n s t a b l e profile. A n o n - s t a t i o n a r y a e r o d y n a m i c t r a n s v e r s e force acts w(x) = K • erx (11.5)
 ii.z iieunau viurauuns ozo

inserted into (11.4), t h echaracteristic equation w i t h fc b e i n g n a t u r a l n u m b e r s fc = 1 , 2 , 3 . . . . E q u a t i o n s ( 1 1 . 1 8 ) a n d ( 1 1 . 1 1 ) deliver

t h e natural frequencies, t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e bending stiffness:
ri-(H/EI)r2-mcw2/EI = 0 (11.6)

is o b t a i n e d , t h e s o l u t i o n s o f w h i c h a r e fc H (kna)2 •E I ,

o r , w h e n t h e s t i f f n e s s EX i s n e g l e c t e d ,

1
71,2,3,4
2 •EI V E I
/ = ( f c / 2 a ) • yjn/mc - (11.20)

l ± U l + A E I m c " 2 E q u a t i o n ( 1 1 . 2 0 ) c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e w e l l - k n o w n e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e natural frequencies

± l / 2-£7' U ' # 2
o f a s t r i n g r i g i d l y fixed a t b o t f i e n d s a r i d , i n p r a c t i c e , i s a d o p t e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e
S i n c e ( 1 + 4 EX • mc • uP/H2) > 1 ,t w o r e a l r o o t s exist: conductors a s well. T h e expression under t h e square r o o t i n(11.20) represents t h e
travelling wave velocity c w h e n n e g l e c t i n g t h e b e n d i n g s t i f f n e s s
n,2 = ±a ( U . 8 )
c = yjH[mc • (U-21)
a n d t w oi m a g i n a r y ones:
W h e n t a k i n g i n t o account t h eb e n d i n g stiffness, t h et r a v e l l i n gwave velocity is o b t a i n e d
r3 ,4 = ±j/3 (11.9) from

w i t h t h enatural values , „ , (k,a)2EX

a = ^/H/2EX \J-/l + p + l a n d (11.10)

T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e o r d e r n u m b e r fc, a l s o c a l l e d harmonic coefficient, t h e span
length a a n d t h e w a v e l e n g t h A i s
P = fH/2M\ffTTjTYi . (11.11)
fc/2a = l / A . (11.23)
There, t h edimensionless parameter
T h e wave length o f a conductor w i t h bending stiffness is obtained from (11.23) a n d
p = 4EImcu2/H2 . ( U 1 2 ) (11.19):

has been used. T h e corresponding integration constants c a nbe obtained from the
boundary conditions, finally finding t h e location-dependent displacement w(x).
A = = \ o 72 + V U n) + A i r 2 \ n) ' ( 1 L 2 4 )
^ 2 m c / s 2 V V 2 m c / S 2 / V m c / S 2 /
w(x) = C\ c o s h ax + C ^ s i n h a x + C 3 c o s fix + d sin/3i . (11.13)
a n d w i t h o u t b e n d i n g stiffness
A n u m e r i c a l study, t a k i n g i n t o account t h econductors u s u a l l y used f o r overhead power
lines together w i t h t h e corresponding tensile forces a n d v i b r a t i o n frequencies, demon- A = ( 1 / / ) sjH/mc . (11.25)
strated that p i ss m a l l compared with 1. Therefore, t h e approximations
11.2.2 Conductor free-span amplitude
a = yjH/EI a n d (1114)
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n d u c t o r s t r e s s , t h e free-span vibration amplitude i s n e e d e d . T o f i n d
this q u a n t i t y , e q u a t i o n (11.1) could b e used. However, i t ss o l u t i o n provides s o m e diffi-
P = wyjmcjH (11.15) c u l t i e s , s i n c e t h e e q u a t i o n c o n t a i n s t e r m s for w i n d i n p u t e n e r g y a n d c o n d u c t o r d a m p i n g ,
w h i c h cannot b e equated m a t h e m a t i c a l l y i na s i m p l e m a n n e r . Therefore, v i b r a t i o n a m -
c a n b e a c c e p t e d . T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t p < 1 a n d a > /3, i t i so b t a i n e d f r o m (11.13) a n d p l i t u d e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e energy balance principle ( E B P ) [ 1 1 . 3 ,
(11.2) 1 1 . 9 , 1 1 . 1 1 ] . U s i n g t h i s a p p r o a c h , a s t a t i o n a r y v i b r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n i s a s s u m e d for t h e
c o n d u c t o r t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e free-span amplitude Ay. T h e v i b r a t i o n m o d e s a r e a s s u m e d
w(x) = At sinffix) (11.16)
as s t a n d i n g h a r m o n i c w a v e s , w h e r e t h e e x c i t i n g frequency complies w i t h t h eS t r o u h a l
as a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r t h e l o c a t i o n - d e p e n d e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t , w h e r e A f i st h e free-span r e l a t i o n [11.12]
amplitude. A s s u m i n g , t h a t t h e conductor bending stiffness isnegligible, t h e approximate
/ w = SrUw/£> , (11.26)
solution o fthe frequency equation is,independently o fthe boundary conditions,
w h e r e / w i s t h e wind excitation frequency, ST t h e Strouhal number (between 0,18 a n d
sin/3a = 0 . (11-17)
0,22), V w t h ew i n d velocity a n d D t h econductor diameter.
E q u a t i o n (11.17) issolved b y I n a stationary v i b r a t i o ncondition, the m e a n power P w fed into t h e system b ythe w i n d
b a l a n c e s t h e m e a n d a m p i n g p o w e r Ps d u e t o t h e s e l f - d a m p i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d t h e
f3 = kn/a , (11.18) m e a n p o w e r l o s s Pp> o f d a m p e r s [ 1 1 . 1 3 ] . T h e s e p o w e r c o m p o n e n t s d e p e n d n o n - l i n e a r l y
326 11Conductor vibrations 11.2 A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s 3 2 7

F i g u r e 1 1 . 5 :Geometric F i g u r e 1 1 . 6 : K a i m a n v o r t e x p a t t e r n [11.22, 11.23]

data to determine the bend-
ing stiffness o f a conductor
o n t h e f r e e - s p a n a m p l i t u d e Af a n d t h e e x c i t a t i o n o r v i b r a t i o n f r e q u e n c y / . I n t h i s c a s e ,
the energy balance is equated as
11.2.3 C o n d u c t o r strains a n d stresses

Pw(At,f) =PD(Auf) + Ps(Auf) . (11.27) T h e vibration intensity o f a c o n d u c t o r i s d e f i n e d b y t h e free-span vibration angle tp

w h i c h results f r o m t h e free-span amplitude, the vibrationfrequency a n d the wave length
To d e t e r m i n e t h e f r e e - s p a n a m p l i t u d e , t e r m s f o r t h e q u a n t i t i e s F \ v , PD a n d P s a r e (Figure 11.3). U s i n g the a p p r o x i m a t i o n (11.15), i t applies
required. T h e expression
ip = 2,A(/X . (11.32)
Pw = fyfDia • g(At/D) (11.28)
T h e bending strain o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s t r a n d s c a n b e t a k e n a s a b e n c h m a r k f o r t h e i r
h a s p r o v e d t o b e a d e q u a t e for r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e wind input power r e l a t e d t o a s p a n stressing. T h e r e l a t i o n between the bending strain o f a strand z i n t h e outer layer and
w i t h t h e l e n g t h a [11.3]. T h e f u n c t i o n i s u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d b y m e a s u r e m e n t s i n w i n d t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i s a c c o r d i n g t o [11.20]
t u n n e l s [11.14, 11.15]. T h e p o l y n o m
e{x) = e • w"(x) , (11.33)

w h e r e e ist h e distance between neutral axis and surface o f a strand.

g(AdD) = 2 , 6 (Y(j + 8 1 , 2 ^ _ 7 6 , 5 (^j (n.29)
F o r a r i g i d l y c l a m p e d c o n d u c t o r , t h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n i s o b t a i n e d u s i n g u> = 2 7 r / w f o r
the resonance condition a t the clamping position
c a n b e u s e d a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r g(Af/D). F o r t h e effective power o f a Stockbridge-
type damper, t h e r e l a t i o n e ( 0 ) = eAfOjy/mc/EI = eipyjH/EI . (11.34)

T h e c o n d u c t o r b e n d i n g s t r a i n c a n a l t e r n a t i v e l y b e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e bending amplitude
P D = l/2 4Re[Z] (11.30)
t u b [11.21]. F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e displacement o f t h e conductor i s calculated a t a dis-
tance x b f r o m t h e c l a m p i n g position (Figure 11.4). T h e corresponding bending strain
applies according t o [11.16], w h e r e O K i s t h e v e l o c i t y a m p l i t u d e o f t h e d a m p e r c l a m p s
at t h e c l a m p i n g p o s i t i o n results f r o m
and Re[Z] t h ereal part o f the complex, frequency-dependent impedance Z o f t h e
d a m p e r . T h e d a m p e r i m p e d a n c e characterizes each t y p e o f d a m p e r a n dc a n n o t b e /r>\ {d-wb- ai) /4
expressed i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l format. I t isdetermined b y measurements for each type o f E O = n ; v w — ' (11.35)
Xb - [1 - e x p ( - a i x b ) j / a i
v i b r a t i o n d a m p e r t y p e [11.17]. F i g u r e 11.14 depicts t h e m o d u l e o f t h e i m p e d a n c e |Z|
a n d t h e p h a s e s h i f t ip. T h e r e a l c o m p o n e n t R e [ Z ] w i l l b e | Z | • c o s i p i n t h i s c a s e . w h e r e cf i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e s t r a n d i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r a n d < * i = ffH/EI with H
T h e dissipated p o w e r o f a v i b r a t i n g c o n d u c t o r is m e a s u r e d i na l a b o r a t o r y o r c a n b e conductor tensile force a n d E I t h e b e n d i n g stiffness according t o e q u a t i o n (11.37) o r
obtained f r o m [113] (11.38).
T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t r a i n a n d t h e s t r e s s i n a strand i s a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 1 8 ]
Ps = Cf%/A>HBa/HT , (11.31)
o = zEM , (11.36)
w h e r e Af i s t h e f r e e - s p a n v i b r a t i o n a m p l i t u d e , H t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e a n d HB
w h e r e EAi i s t h e modulus of elasticity.
the conductor m i n i m u m failing load. T h e quantities o f the d a m p i n g constant C a n d
t h e e x p o n e n t s p, q, r a r e u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s a t a v i b r a t i n g c o n -
11.2.4 B e n d i n g stiffness of a c o n d u c t o r
d u c t o r [11.18, 1 1 . 1 9 ] . T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f n u m e r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t [11.3] r e s u l t s l e d t o t h e
following quantities for the damping parameter C and the exponents p, q and r : D u e t o the conditions between the individual wires a n d the layers o f a stranded con-
d u c t o r , t h e bending stiffness c a n o n l y b e d e t e r m i n e d b e t w e e n i t s u p p e r a n d l o w e r l i m i t .
C = 6,5 • 1 0 " 1 1 t o 1,5 • 1 0 " 5 , p = 3,8 t o 6 , 0 , q = 1,9 t o 2 , 6 , r = 2 , 0 t o 2 , 8 . T h e m i n i m u m value results w i t h the assumption that the strands c a nmove w i t h o u t
J+O 1 1 OU11UUUIU1 V 1 U 1+ U1UUO 1 1 + .T.CU11CL11 y i u i a i i u u a . J L J

any friction r e l a t i v e t o e a c h o t h e r . F o r t h i s c a s e , t h e minimum bending stiffness o f a

composite conductor is

( S r ) m i n = (nFeEFe,d2Fe + rtAi-EAiTdAi) / 64 , (11.37)

w h e r e nFe i s t h e n u m b e r o f s t e e l s t r a n d s , n A i t h e n u m b e r o f a l u m i n i u m s t r a n d s , EFe
a n d Epa t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y o f s t e e l a n d a l u m i n i u m s t r a n d s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , dFe
a n d d A i t h e diameter o f steel a n d a l u m i n i u m strands, respectively. T h e a s s u m p t i o n o f
c o m p l e t e l y n o n - d i s p l a c e a b l e s t r a n d s y i e l d s t h e maximal bending stiffness o f a c o m p o s i t e
conductor
-i=N
(ETUBX = 7;T,(Ip4i + RiAdi)niEi , (11.38) F i g u r e 1 1 . 7 : B e a t p a t t e r n o f aeolian vibrations o f conductor i n a 275 m long span observed
1 i=i at i t s ends [11.23]

where N is the n u m b e r o flayers c o u n t i n g t h e core w i r e ast h e 1 s t layer, t h e average

radius o f t h e h e l i x o ft h e layer i a n d I p d i t h e polar m o m e n t o fi n e r t i a o f a s t r a n d i n t h e
l a y e r i:

Ipdi = dj • T T / 3 2 ,

( s e e F i g u r e 1 1 . 5 ) , An t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a s t r a n d i n t h e l a y e r i, n, t h e n u m b e r o f
s t r a n d s o f t h e l a y e r i a n d E i t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y o f t h e l a y e r i.
If t h e tensile-loaded conductor isbent, t h e layers w i l l m o v e relatively t oeach other, d e -
p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d u c t o r c u r v a t u r e a n d t h e friction b e t w e e n t h e l a y e r s . T h e conductor
structure i s p a r t l y d e s t r o y e d a n d t h e effective bending stiffness w i l l b e i n b e t w e e n b o t h
Frequency! — [11.26]
l i m i t s [11.24].

11.2.5 Origin of vibrations process. T h i s e x p l a i n s a s w e l l w h y t h e r e s o n a n c e c o n d i t i o n i s n o t b a s i c a l l y a f f e c t e d b y

A l r e a d y at t h e beginning o felectric power t r a n s m i s s i o n b y overhead lines, w i n d excited
conductor vibrations w e r e o b s e r v e d , e . g . t h e s i n g i n g o f a n o v e r h e a d t e l e p h o n e w i r e .
T h e o r i g i n s f o r t h e s e v i b r a t i o n s formed t h e s u b j e c t o f m a n y s t u d i e s a n d w e r e d e s c r i b e d
i n d e t a i l a n d extensively i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e [11.25]. A i r pressure v a r i a t i o n s are caused b y
v o r t e x s h e d d i n g b e h i n d t h e c o n d u c t o r i n t h e a i r flow, i n d u c i n g a p e r i o d i c force t o t h e
c o n d u c t o r r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e a i r flow d i r e c t i o n . I f t h e frequency of vortex shedding
coincides w i t h a n a t u r a l frequency o f conductor j u s t t o a n a p p r o x i m a t e e x t e n t , a reso-
n a n c e c o n d i t i o n w i l l b e g i v e n . T h i s p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n o n is t h e s a m e a s t h e b e h a v i o u r o f
r i g i d s u b j e c t s i n flowing fluids a s s t u d i e d b y K a r m a n [ 1 1 . 2 2 ] , w h e r e a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 2 3 ]
t h e Karman vortex street c a n b e o b s e r v e d ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 6 ) . P r i o r t o K a r m a n , S t r o u h a l
c o n c l u d e d t h e r e l a t i o n ( 1 1 . 2 6 ) a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 1 2 ] b e t w e e n a i r flow v e l o c i t y , t h e d i a -
meter o f the cylindric b o d y i n the air flow a n d the shedding frequency o f the vortices
w h e n studying the behaviour o f m o v i n g wires i n still air. I n principle, the dimension-
l e s s Strouhal number d e p e n d s o n t h e Reynolds number ( s e e c l a u s e 7 . 2 . 3 ) . I t i s o n l y
for R e y n o l d s n u m b e r s b e t w e e n 5 0 0 a n d 2 0 0 0 0 , t h a t w e l l s t r u c t u r e d v o r t e x s h e d d i n g
occurs a t conductors a n d excites vibrations. F o r this range, t h e S t r o u h a l n u m b e r can
be assumed t ob e constant a n d equal t o 0,185. F r o m (11.26) i t results t h a t v i b r a t i o n s
with frequencies b e t w e e n 3 , 1 a n d 6 1 , 7 H z w i l l o c c u r for a 3 0 m m c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r
at w i n d velocities b e t w e e n 0 , 5t o 1 0 m / s .
T h e process o f e x c i t a t i o n i s m o r e c o m p l e x i n case o fa v i b r a t i n g conductor t h a n t h e
shedding o f K a r m a n vortices a t a cylinder n o t i n m o t i o n . T h e r e i sa feed back between
t h e e l a s t i c s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e a i r flow. I f t h e e x c i t a t i o n frequency isclose t ot h e n a t u r a l
frequency of the vibrating conductor, the m o t i o n will be amplified. W h e n approaching
a range o f resonance, t h e frequency o f v o r t e x s h e d d i n g w i l l b es y n c h r o n i z e d w i t h t h e
conductor frequency a n d t h e v i b r a t i o n frequency w i l l n o t c h a n g e e v e n i f t h e v e l o c i t y o f
a i r flow v a r i e s . A s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e v o r t e x s h e d d i n g w i l l b e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e vibrating
varying w i n d velocities.
Being a slender structure i n longitudinal direction, the conductor shows a very dense
s p e c t r u m of n a t u r a l frequencies, such t h a t the exciting frequency of v o r t e x shedding will
always meet a matching conductor natural frequency. Therefore, resonance is possible
in a relatively wide range o f frequencies w i t h the result that conductors will vibrate
a l w a y s w h e n f a v o u r a b l e a i r flow c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t .
M e a s u r e m e n t s a t conductors confirmed their p e r m a n e n t a n d continuous readiness for
v i b r a t i o n s a n d d e m o n s t r a t e d a c l o s e c o i n c i d e n c e b e t w e e n v i b r a t i o n frequency a n d vor-
tex shedding frequency d e t e r m i n e d from ( 1 1 . 2 6 ) . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t
o n l y t h e c o m p o n e n t o ft h e velocity is considered, w h i c h acts p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e con-
ductor. I n addition, measurements have shown that w i t h i n the frequency spectrum only
s o m e specific frequencies w i l l b e excited t obigger a m p l i t u d e s , w h e r e b y several frequen-
c i e s o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a n d r e s u l t i n beat patterns ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 7 ) . T h i s p h e n o m e n o n
is g i v e n r e a s o n b y v a r y i n g w i n d v e l o c i t i e s a l o n g a s p a n [ 1 1 . 2 3 ] .
11.2.6 Consequences of vibrations
For assessing t h e a l t e r n a t i n gb e n d i n g stress a n d possible d a m a g e r e s u l t i n g thereof, n o t
o n l y t h e a m p l i t u d e b u t a l s o t h e frequency of occurrence i s s i g n i f i c a n t . F i g u r e 1 1 . 8 d e -
p i c t s t h e e f f e c t o f v i b r a t i o n frequency a n d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e s t r e s s , d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e
energy balance principle. W i t h i n c r e a s i n g t e n s i l e s t r e s s , t h e v i b r a t i o n i n t e n s i t y g r o w s
and simultaneously the band w i d t h o ffrequencies i sbroadened where hazardous alter-
n a t i n g b e n d i n g stresses m a y occur. I n t e n s i v e c o n d u c t o r v i b r a t i o n s occur p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n c a s e o f q u a s i - l a m i n a r a i r flow c o n d i t i o n s . T u r b u l e n t a i r f l o w s , a s o c c u r r i n g i n r o l l i n g
terrain a n d terrain w i t h abundant vegetation, d onot cause a controlled vortex shed-
d i n g . T h e l e s s d i s t u r b e d a l a m i n a r a i r flow a f f e c t s t h e c o n d u c t o r , t h e m o r e i n t e n s i v e t h e
v i b r a t i o n w i l l b e . T h i s c o n d i t i o n a p p l i e s i n p a r t i c u l a r for c o n d u c t o r s a t g r e a t h e i g h t s
330 1 1Conductor vibrations 11.2 A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s 3 3 1

50 - 500
N/mm2N/mm2
i 40 - j 400

Aluminium stress -
- 300

o
Steel stress
o

8
ro
F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 0 : Tensile stress a t alu-
m i n i u m a n d steel o f conductor 5 6 5 -

)
20 - 10° 10* A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 564/72) depending
Time after installation on t h e t i m e after installation

10 -
c o n d u c t o r s u s p e n s i o n first [ 1 1 . 2 7 , 1 1 . 2 8 ] . R e m e d i e s a n d p r o t e c t i o n m e t h o d s h a v e t o
start a tt h e suspension points, w i t h t h e target t o keep t h e stress a sl o w a s possible
10= 10" 10' 10° there. Even, w h e n during a period o f approximately one hour only per day, intensive
Number of cycles N -
vibrations occur, 1 0 7 t o 1 0 8 v i b r a t i o n cycles w i l l b e reached d u r i n g o n e year.
F i g u r e 1 1 . 9 : R e s u l t s from f a t i g u e t e s t s a t A L l / S T x y ( A S C R ) c o n d u c t o r s T h e r e l i a b i l i t y a g a i n s t vibration failure i s a p r o b l e m o f e n d u r a n c e . F r o m t e s t i n g m a t e -
w i t h d i f f e r e n t s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s [11.23] ( e n d u r a n c e c a p a b i l i t y d i a g r a m ) rials, i t is k n o w n t h a t m e t a l s s h o w fatigue. T h e y fail i n case o f a l t e r n a t i n g stresses f a r
A C S R 54 x 3,08 / 7 x 3,08 Condor according to A S T M B232-78; b e l o w t h estatic s t r e n g t h o r t h ey i e l d stress.
A C S R 45 x 3,38 / 7 x 2,25 Tern according to A S T M B232-78;
T h e endurance capability diagram ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 9 ) s h o w s t h e a m p l i t u d e s o f t h e a l t e r n a t i n g
A C S R 45 x 3,70 / 7 x 2,47 Rail according to A S T M B232-78;
A C S R 26 x 3,14 / 7 x 2,44 Ibis according to A S T M B232-78; b e n d i n g s t r e n g t h against t h e n u m b e r o f cycles f o r various conductors. A h i g h n u m b e r
A C S R 30 x 2,92 / 7 x 2,92 Lark according to A S T M B232-78; of tests is necessary t o establish such a d i a g r a m .
A C S R 30 x 2,92 / 7 x 2,92 Lark according to A S T M B232-78:
Conductors used f o rt r a n s m i s s i o n lines represent relatively complex structures w i t h
no wire failure;
respect t o t h e i r e n d u r a n c e s t r e n g t h b e h a v i o u r . A l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g stresses i n t h e i n -
1 upper limit in the fatigue diagram; 2 line of endurance capability
d i v i d u a l s t r a n d s a r e s u p e r i m p o s e d t ot h e i n i t i a l tensile a n d b e n d i n g stresses d u e t o
the static curvature o fthe conductor a tt h esuspension points. W i t h i n t h e conductors,
above ground. T h e occurrence o f vibrations depends o n n u m e r o u s parameters, besides t h e i n d i v i d u a l strands cross each o t h e r a n d a v a r i a t i o n i nt h e c u r v a t u r e results i n a
the topography, o n locally given w i n d conditions a n d t h e w i n d distribution along a displacement o fthe strands, causing friction a n d friction corrosion, s o - c a l l e d fretting.
span. Therefore, n o t a l l lines w i l l b e affected b y v i b r a t i o n s t o a h a r m f u l extent. The fretting m a r k s f o r m r e g u l a r l y t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t s o f f a t i g u e failures [11.29]. A t
Flat terrain favours vibrations, while rolling terrain, mountainous a n d aipine terrain t h e clamps, a complex stress c o n d i t i o n i s f o r m e d d u e t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l t r a n s m i s s i o n
c o n d i t i o n s i m p a i r t h e l a m i n a r a i r flow t o a n i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t . T h e surface roughness o f o f t r a n s v e r s a l forces. F a t i g u e tests a t c o n d u c t o r s w i t h o u t t a k i n g care o f t h e fittings
t h e t e r r a i n affects t h e v i b r a t i o n s t ot h es a m e e x t e n t a s t h et e r r a i n category. I na r o l l i n g yield, therefore, only a nindication o f the fatigue strength. T h e y d o n o t p e r m i t a reli-
t e r r a i n , a h i g h l y l a m i n a r a i r flow m a y e x i s t , t o o , i f t h e s u r f a c e i s s m o o t h , e . g . d u e t o able conclusion o nt h eperformance o ft h e combination between conductor a n d clamp.
i c e o r s n o w . W a t e r s u r f a c e s , s a n d y s o i l i n d e s e r t a r e a s a n d flat g r a s s a r e a s p r o v e d t o b e T h e effect o fcorrosive m e d i a c a n n o t b e neglected u n d e r u n f a v o u r a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
vibration-favourable as well. O nt h e other h a n d , stretches o f boulders, rocks, trees o r conditions.
u r b a n b u i l d i n g s r e d u c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f l a m i n a r a i r flows t o a n i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t . E x - R e s u l t s from e x t e n s i v e f a t i g u e t e s t s a t A L 1 / S T 1 A c o n d u c t o r s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n [ 1 1 . 2 3 ] .
perience c o n f i r m s t h a t v i b r a t i o n f a i l u r e s o c c u r a l w a y s i ncases w h e r e t e r r a i n a n d g r o u n d There a value o f approximately 2 2 N / m m 2 ismentioned as fatigue strength for 5• 1 0 s
s u r f a c e f a v o u r l a m i n a r a i r flows. T h e w o r l d w i d e i n t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e p e r m i t t e d c y c l e s . I n F i g u r e 1 1 . 9 , s o m e r e s u l t s from t h e s e t e s t s a r e s h o w n . T h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s o f
to identify t h ediffering influencing parameters. However, t h evibration intensity t o b e 2 2 N / m m 2 c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n alternating bending strain o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 0 pm/m
expected o n a certain line cannot b e forecast definitively w i t h q u a n t i t a t i v e figures. for t y p i c a l conductors a s s u m i n g E I m m according t o (11.37) f o r t h e b e n d i n g stress. T o
T h e t y p e o f c o n d u c t o r c o n s i d e r a b l y a f f e c t s t h e vibration intensity, a s w e l l a s d u r a t i o n
b e o n t h e s a f e s i d e , i t i s c o m m o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e t o p e r m i t a l i m i t o f 1 5 0 pm/m
of vibration. Conductors with alow weight, compared w i t h their diameter, reach much
for t h e bending strain w h e n r a t i n g a n d deciding o n v i b r a t i o n d a m p i n g systems. T h i s
faster a stationary vibration condition them heavy conductors. T h i s is t h ereason w h y
value corresponds t o h a l f o f t h e fatigue s t r e n g t h [11.11, 11.30, 11.31].
in particular single m a t e r i a l conductors m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m ( A L 1 ) o r a l u m i n i u m alloy
D u r i n g operation, the conductors elongate permanently under the action o f the mechan-
( A L x ) have t o b eclassified a s being endangered b y v i b r a t i o n s t o a n increased extent.
ical stress, t h e y creep. I n case o fc o m p o s i t e conductors, tensile force c o m p o n e n t s a r e
B e s i d e s t h e v i b r a t i o n i n t e n s i t y , t h e endurance capability o f t h e m a t e r i a l a f f e c t s t h e
t r a n s p o s e d from t h e a l u m i n i u m t o t h e s t e e l ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 0 ) , [ 1 1 . 2 6 , 1 1 . 3 2 , 1 1 . 3 3 , 1 1 . 3 4 ] .
occurrence a n d extent o f v i b r a t i o n failures, together w i t h t h e design o f t h e conductor
T h i s load transfer r e p r e s e n t s a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f composite conductors which add
suspension. T h e t o t a l o fstresses o n t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d , therefore, o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l
to t h e i r favourable fatigue performance, because t h e range o facceptable a l t e r n a t i n g
s t r a n d s i s r e m a r k a b l y h i g h e r i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e suspension clamps t h a n i n t h e free
b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s r i s e s w i t h d e c r e a s i n g s t r e s s i n t h e a l u m i n i u m . I n c a s e o f single mate-
s p a n o r c l o s e t o t h e tension clamps ( s e e c l a u s e 1 0 . 2 . 1 ) . T y p e a n d d e s i g n o f s u s p e n s i o n
rial conductors, s u c h a t r a n s f e r c a n n o t o c c u r . S u c h c o n d u c t o r s w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , s h o w a
arrangements, therefore, will govern o n the endurance capability o f aconductor together
m o r e u n f a v o u r a b l e fatigue b e h a v i o u r , t h es a m e i n i t i a l tensile stresses i n t h e a l u m i n i u m
w i t h some other parameters. According t o experience, v i b r a t i o n failures occur a t t h e
wires assumed.
6SZ 11 C j o n a u c i o r v r a r a u u n s

T a b l e 11.1: R e c o m m e n d e d e v e r y d a y s t r e s s a s p e r c e n t a g e o f T a b l e 1 1 . 2 : L i m i t s f o r t h e p a r a m e t e r H/mcg f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t v i b r a t i o n d a m a g e
t h e r a t e d tensile stress ( R T S ) t o protect conductors w i t h o u t Terrain Terrain characteristics H/mcg
dampers against aeolian vibrations category m
Conductor type Cigre 1960 E N 50 341-3-4 Cigre 2000 A Open, flat, no trees, no obstructions, with snow cover or near/across large 1 000
[11.38] [11.39] bodies of water; flat desert
AL1/ST1A (ACSR) Terrain C B Open, flat, no trees, no obstructions, no snow; e. g. farmland without any 1125
4,3:1 18 18,5 13 obstructions
6,0:1 18 18,5 14 ri
L> Open, flat, or undulating with very few obstacles, e. g. open grass or farmland
7,7:1 18 19,0 15 . with few trees, hedgerows and other barriers; prairie, tundra
11 Q.I i ft i s + fi
11D
11,5.1 15 15,1 D Built-up with some trees and buildings; e. g. residential suburbs; small towns; 1425
Aluminium A A C 17 18,8 20,8 woodlands and shrubs; small fields with bushes, trees and hedges
AlMgSi A A A C 18 15,0 11,3
Steel
- rigid clamps 11
- flexible clamps 13

F o r t h edesign o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n a t t a c h m e n t s , t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n d u c t o r is
i m p o r t a n t . S u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s w i t h o u t a n y d a m p i n g effects h a v e p r o v e d t h e i r qualifi-
c a t i o n f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i n less v i b r a t i o n - p r o n e areas. H o w e v e r , f o r v i b r a t i o n - p r o n e
lines, i m p r o v e d designs a r e necessary. T h e use o f protective rods, clamps w i t h long
s u p p o r t i n g sections, a r m o r r o d suspensions o r o t h e r special designs (see section 10.2.1)
i m p r o v e t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n p o i n t s i n t h e m e n t i o n e d sequence ([11.35] t o
[11.37]). T h e s e fittings reduce t h e stresses w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t o r , b u t t h e y d o n o t a c t as
dampers.

11.2.7 C o n s e q u e n c e s for l i n e d e s i g n

W i t h respect t o aeolian v i b r a t i o n s , relativelyheavy composite conductors are preferred.

Light-weight single conductors m a d e o f a l u m i n i u mor a l u m i n i u malloy are m o r e inten-
sively prone t o long-lasting vibrations under the same conditions. T h e same applies t o
A L l / A L x ( A C A R ) conductors. T h e i r u s e i nv i b r a t i o n - p r o n e areas requires, therefore, F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 1 : R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e selection o f t h e e v e r y d a y stress w i t h a n d w i t h o u t
a particularlyt h o r o u g h selection o f d a m p i n g arrangements. Especially the higher ten- damping according t o [11.40]
sile s t r e n g t h o f a l u m i n i u m a l l o y c a n n o t b e u t i l i z e d i na l l cases c o m p a r e d t oa l u m i n i u m
w i t h o u t r u n n i n g into increased v i b r a t i o n hazards.
F o r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e conductor stress h a s b e e n g i v e n h i g h p r i - c o n s i d e r a t i o n s l e d t o t w o p a r a m e t e r s : H/mcg, k n o w n a s catenary parameter in the sag
ority w i t h respect t o t h e aeolian vibrations. A corresponding selection o f t h e conductor c a l c u l a t i o n ( s e e c l a u s e 1 4 . 2 ) , a n d a-D/mc, w h e r e a is the span length, D t h e conductor
t e n s i l e s t r e s s u n d e r everyday conditions (everyday stress) with approximately 20 % of diameter, H the conductor t e n s i l e f o r c e a n d mc t h econductor mass p e runit length.
the conductor tensile strength should exclude v i b r a t i o n hazards from conductors. T h e p a r a m e t e r H/mcg has g o t t h e u n i t m , t h e p a r a m e t e r a • D/mc the unit m 3 / k g .
I n [11.38], r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for t h e selection o f c o n d u c t o r stresses i n v i e w o f p r o t e c t i o n V i b r a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n f o rlines w i t h o u t d a m p e r s w i l l b e assessed o n l y b y t h e p a r a m e t e r
a g a i n s t f a i l u r e s r e s u l t i n g from a e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s a r e g i v e n a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e s o - c a l l e d H/mcg, for w h i c h l i m i t s h a v e b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d u s i n g t h e energy balance principle (see
EDF-Panel of the Study Committee "Overhead Lines" a t Cigre before 1960. These c l a u s e 1 1 . 2 . 2 a n d [ 1 1 . 1 1 ] ) , w h i c h t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e l e v e l o f vibration intensity de-
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s establish a neveryday stress as percentage o ft h e r a t e d tensile s t r e n g t h p e n d i n g o n t e r r a i n categories. T h e limits a r ealso based o n experience from overhead
( R T S ) . I nT a b l e 1 1 . 1 , these r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e s h o w n . H o w e v e r , t h e y d i dn o t p r o v e line practice. T h e results a r e given i n T a b l e 11.2; t h e y a p p l y f o r conductors made of
their qualification,especially i n case o f a l u m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m alloy conductors and a l u m i n i u m A L 1 ( A A C ) a n d a l u m i n i u malloy A L x ( A A A C ) , b i - m e t a l l i c a l u m i n i u m con-
resulted i n s t r a n d failures. T h i s i s also t r u e f o r u n p r o t e c t e d composite conductors with ductors A L 1/ A L x ( A C A R ) , as well as a l u m i n i u m conductors steel reinforced A L x / S T y x
a cross-sectional r a t i o h i g h e r t h a n 7,7:1 a n d i n r a r e cases also f o r A C S R conductors ( A C S R ) . T h el i m i t according t o Table 11.2f o r terrain category C corresponds toa n
w i t h d a m p i n g devices [11.40]. everyday stress o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 2 N / m m 2 i n case o f A L x / S T y z conductors with
A h i g h tensile stress reduces t h econductor self-damping a n dincreases t h e v i b r a t i o n the cross-sectional ratio o f 6:1 a n dt o 4 0 N / m m 2 i n case o f a cross-sectional ratio of
intensity (see F i g u r e 11.8). V i c e versa, a l o w conductor stress results also i n a lower 7 , 7 : 1 , t h a t a r e 1 4 % a n d 1 5 %, r e s p e c t i v e l y , o f t h e r a t e d t e n s i l e s t r e s s . I n c a s e o f a l u -
v i b r a t i o n i n t e n s i t y , b u tc o n s e q u e n t l y i n larger sags, taller t o w e r s a n di nh i g h e r invest- m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u ma l l o y c o n d u c t o r s , t h e s a m e d a t a f o r p e r m i s s i b l e safe conductor
m e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , i n [11.39] a n d [ 1 1 . 4 0 ] , t h e q u e s t i o n o n a vibration-safe conductor stresses r e s u l t , because o f t h e s a m e mass p e r u n i t l e n g t h . T h e s e consequences a x e n o t
stress f o r u n d a m p e d a n d d a m p e d c o n d u c t o r s h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a g a i n . A safe design plausible. W h i l e i n case o f a l u m i n i u m a n increase o f t h e safe l i m i t c o m p a r e d t oE N
tension ( S D T ) is a i m e d at, below w h i c h n o v i b r a t i o n fatigue is t o b e expected. T h e 50 341-3-4 results ( 3 3 N / m m 2 instead o f 30 N / m m 2 ) , for a l u m i n i u m a l l o y a r e d u c t i o n
334 1 1Conductor vibrations 11.2 A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s3 3 5

F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 4 : Effec-
tive power, mode o f the
impedance a n d phase
shift o f a damper, type
S t o c k b r i d g e [11.16]
F i g u r e 11.12: Vibration damper - type F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 3 : First and second v i b r a -
Stockbridge: 1damper clamp; 2 conductor; 3 tion m o d e o fa damper, type Stockbridge
messenger cable; 4 d a m p e r weight (Richard [11.16] : 400 m
Bergner G m b H )

1,5 m
f r o m 4 4N / m m 2 t o3 3 N / m m 2 isgiven. T h e values for A L x / S T y z a n d A L x conductors
conductor: 562-AL1/49-ST1A

\
are considerably below the data used for example i n G e r m a n y w i t h positive experience tensile force: 28300 N
for lines w i t h o u t d a m p i n g s y s t e m s i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g m a n y years. O r i e n t a t i o na t t h e s, without damper
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f T a b l e 11.2, last c o l u m n , w o u l d r e s u l t , therefore, i n u n e c o n o m i c j '' i

lines a n d will n o t b e very relevant i n practice, therefore.

T h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 4 0 ] f o r a safe design tension o f s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s
w i t h d a m p i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s d o n o t d e p e n d o n l y o n t h e p a r a m e t e r H/mcg but a l s o o n
t h e p a r a m e t e r aD/mc- F o r t h e t e r r a i n c a t e g o r i e s d e f i n e d i n fable 1 1 . 2 , t h e r e c o m m e n -
d a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o [11.40] a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 1 . T h e l i m i t s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d
b a s e d o n t h e energy balance principle a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 4 0 ] , c o n f i r m e d b y p r a c t i c a l
experience, so fax i n f o r m a t i o nhas b e e n available. W i t h i n t h e range for special a p p l i -
cations, v i b r a t i o n studies a n d special d a m p i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s are necessary. C o n t r a r y t o
t h e E D S m e t h o d [11.38] w h i c h w a s b a s e d o n s t a t i s t i c a le v a l u a t i o n s , t h e S D T p r o c e d u r e
is s c i e n t i f i c a l l y b a c k e d .
T h e conductor tensile stresses s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s r e s u l t i n g
f r o m t h e safe d e s i g n t e n s i o n a n d t h e r e l i a b i l i t y a s p e c t s c o n c e r n i n g e x t r e m e ice a n d w i n d
l o a d s [11.26, 11.41]. I n case o f lines w i t h l o n g spans, s u c h as crossings over r i v e r s , e. g. t h e
r i v e r E l b e c r o s s i n g [11.41], t h e effect o ft h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e stresses o nt h e i n v e s t m e n t
is c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h . T h i s a s p e c t r e q u i r e s a s e p a r a t e s t u d y , b e c a u s e t h e o p t i m u m t e n s i l e
stress depends t o a large extent o nt h e given conditions, such as m a x i m u m loads, ratio
b e t w e e n n u m b e r o f suspension a n d s t r a i n t o w e r s etc. [11.26]. A s a t i s f a c t o r y reliability
o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a g a i n s t fatigue c a n t h e n b e a c h i e v e d b y s u i t a b l e s e l e c t i o n o f c l a m p s
and fittings tuned t othe type o f conductor.
I n v i b r a t i o n - p r o n e a x e a s , h o w e v e r , a s u f f i c i e n t fatigue strength o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s c a n n o t
b e a c h i e v e d b y s e l e c t i o n o f s t a n d a r d fittings o n l y a s e x p e r i e n c e h a s p r o v e d . A d d i t i o n a l
d e v i c e s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r d i s s i p a t i n g e n e r g y from t h e v i b r a t i n g c o n d u c t o r . T h e i n d i v i d -
ual damping units have been considerably improved d u r i n g the last years and combined
t o e f f e c t i v e d a m p i n g s y s t e m s [ 1 1 . 1 6 ] . N o w , p r o v e d c o m p o n e n t s a n d d e s i g n s sire a v a i l -
a b l e , s u c h a s dampers of the Stockbridge-type jestoon-type dampers o r spacer dampers
for b u n d l e conductors. T h e y enable t o counteract reliably v i b r a t i o n problems a t lines,
as m e a s u r e m e n t s i n l a b o r a t o r i e s a n d e x p e r i e n c e i n practice h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d [11.23].
For m a n y utilities, therefore, dampers are standard components o fa transmission line.
T h e practically approved possibility t o control successfully conductor v i b r a t i o n s b y
d a m p e r s explains as well w h y nowadays n o tm u c h effort is spent t o investigate the
fatigue behaviour o f conductors w i t h clamps i n arrangements as used i n practice. T h e
a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t s f o r h i g h - q u a l i t y fittings a n d s u i t a b l e d a m p i n g s y s t e m s d o n o t
E . with damper
F i g u r e 11.15: Alternat-
ing bending strain a t a
conductor w i t h or w i t h o u t
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 Hz 50
Frequency t - d a m p e r [11.16]
weigh m u c h compared w i t h the other investments for line installation.
T h e Stockbridge-type d a m p e r ( F i g u r e 11.12) consists o f a c l a m p b o d y s u p p o r t i n g a n
e l a s t i c s t e e l m e s s e n g e r c a b l e a n d t w o m a s s e s fixed a t t h e e n d s o f t h e m e s s e n g e r c a b l e
and forming thus a vibration damping system. This system c a nb esimulated as a
damped spring/mass oscillator w i t h sinus-type foot excitation as a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n
[11.16]. T h i s d a m p e r h a s g o t t w o degrees o ff r e e d o m a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t w o v i b r a t i o n
m o d e s (see F i g u r e 11.13) a n d t w o r e s o n a n c e f r e q u e n c i e s i n case o f s y m m e t r i c d e s i g n .
A d i s y m m e t r i c design o f damper weights a n d messenger cable length can double the
n u m b e r o f d e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m s u p p o r t e d b y u t i l i z a t i o n o f t h e torsional vibration mode.
T h e dynamic characteristic o f a d a m p e r can b e completely described b y its complex
i m p e d a n c e . T h e mechanical impedance Z i s t h e v i b r a t i o n f o r c e d i v i d e d b y t h e v i b r a t i o n
v e l o c i t y [ 1 1 . 1 1 , 1 1 . 1 6 ] . T h e impedance Z a n d t h e effective power Pp> d e p e n d o n t h e
frequency a n d c a nb emeasured directly a n d reproducibly b y m e a n s o fa n exciter.
F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 4 s h o w s t h e effective power a n d t h e m o d u l e o f t h e i m p e d a n c e o f a s t a n d a r d
damper depending o n the v i b r a t i o n frequency.
R e g a r d i n g S t o c k b r i d g e d a m p e r s , d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s f o r t h e damper weights h a v e b e e n
developed. T h e mechanical f u n c t i o n o fthe weight is only d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e position o f
its g r a v i t a t i o ncentre a n d its m o m e n t o f inertia. T h e f o r m o f t h e weight is d e t e r m i n e d
by t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r w i t h respect t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g process.
T h e characteristics o fthe dampers, their n u m b e r per span a n d the locations have t o b e
s e l e c t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l a p p l i c a t i o n . Vibration studies s e r v e t h i s p u r p o s e .
C o n d u c t o r d a m p i n g a i m s a t r e d u c i n g t h e bending strain w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t o r t o a n
extent that critical values d o not occur either i n the p r o x i m i t yo fthe suspension clamps
o r c l o s e t o t h e d a m p e r c l a m p s . F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 5 s h o w s t h e g r a p h o f t h e bending strain at
t h e c o n d u c t o r s u p p o r t , d e p e n d i n g o nt h e v i b r a t i o n frequency w i t h o rw i t h o u t d a m p e r ,

F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 6 : Spacer damper f o r Figure 11.17: Vibration
quadruple bundle (Richard Bergner r i g i d l y fixed a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p
GmbH) (Richard Bergner G m b H )
as a r e s u l t o fa v i b r a t i o ns t u d y . S u b j e c t o ft h e v i b r a t i o n s t u d y is also t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f t h e o p t i m u m damper location, w h e r e t h e p e r m i s s i b l e b e n d i n g s t r a i n i n t h e c o n d u c t o r
w i l l n o t b e exceeded. A l o c a t i o n i n a d i s t a n c e o f 0,5 t o 2,0 m i n f r o n t o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n
clamp can be taken asa guideline. W h e n determining the most favourable location, the
d y n a m i c characteristic o f the used d a m p e r is o f decisive significance. I f d a m p e r s w i t h
other characteristics were used t h a n those considered i n the study, t h e location w o u l d
have t o b e checked again.
B a s e d o n d e v e l o p m e n t s i n N o r w a y a n d F r a n c e , festoon dampers a n d b r i d l e c a b l e s , c a l l e d
" B r e t e l l e s " i n F r a n c e , a r e a d o p t e d a s p r o t e c t i v e r e m e d i e s . I n t h i s case, a c o n d u c t o r sec-
t i o n o f t h e s a m e t y p e a s t h e c o n d u c t o r t o b e p r o t e c t e d i s fixed o n b o t h s i d e s o f t h e
suspension c l a m p [11.23]. T h e f u n c t i o n o f these devices has b e e n s t u d i e d e x p e r i m e n -
tally a n d theoretically t oa lower extent. T h e i r effectiveness r e m a i n s a n o p e n question.
Stockbridge-type dampers should b e preferred t o this damping arrangement.
Spacers c a n b e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e q u i r e d s p a c i n g o f t h e s u b c o n -
ductors, t h e y also provide effective d a m p i n g against aeolian v i b r a t i o n . I n F i g u r e 11.16,
s u c h a spacer damper i s s h o w n f o r a quadruple bundle. T h e s p a c e r c o u p l e s t h e m o v e m e n t
of the subconductors and presents a p o i n t o f disturbance w h i c h detunes the v i b r a t i o n
system. T h e r u b b e r s p r i n g elements a r r a n g e d i n t h e p i v o t s o ft h e spacing f r a m e possess
a d a m p i n g capability w h i c h is i n t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s e l f - d a m p i n g o f 100 m conduc-
tor length. W i t h this feature, the f o r m a t i o n o f vibrations isdisturbed and the system
dissipates energy. T h e degree o f elasticity a n d t h e d a m p i n g o f t h e spring elements, as
well as t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e spacers w i t h i n t h e span, are decisive f o r t h e effectiveness
of spacer d a m p e r s [11.42] t o [11.45]. I n case o f lines e q u i p p e d w i t h c o n d u c t o r b u n d l e s ,
a complete s t u d y o f the d a m p i n g s y s t e m a s a w h o l e , c o m p r i s i n g conductors, spacer
dampers a n d v i b r a t i o n dampers, isrecommended. T h e performance o f spacer dampers
is d i s c u s s e d i n [11.46] a n d [11.47].
11.2.8 V e r i f i c a t i o n of v i b r a t i o n i n t e n s i t y a n d effectiveness of d a m p i n g
measures
Vibration intensity a n d effectiveness of damping measures c a n b e v e r i f i e d b y m e a s u r e -
ments or calculation. For measurement, t w o methods are available a n d b o t h have proved
their qualification i npractice. First, there is the possibility o f a contactless measure-
m e n t o f t h e v i b r a t i o n i n t e n s i t y a t a l i v e l i n e . A m o b i l e vibration test stand c o n s i s t s
of three m a i n components: M o b i l e v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r i n g device, a n e m o m e t e r a n d corn-
F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 8 : FYee-span v i b r a t i o n angle o f F i g u r e 11.19: C l a m p velocity w i t h damper,
a conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A , span length d a t a as i n F i g u r e 11.18. 1 c l a m p velocity;
300 m , tensile force 13,3 k N . 1 free-span v i - 2 limit
bration angle w i t h o u t damper; 2 free-span v i -
bration angle w i t h damper; 3 limit
recorder
p u t e r t o store a n d analyse t h e data. T h e v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r i n g device is installed i n a
distance b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 1 5 0m t o t h e c o n d u c t o r section t o b e analysed. N o p r e p a -
rations are necessary a t t h e conductor. A n e m o m e t e r a n d computer are installed i na
m i n i b u s , e n s u r i n g a swift change o f t h e m e a s u r i n g locations a n d also apt for analysis
o f a line section b y s a m p l e t e s t i n g i na r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e . I n a d d i t i o n t o
the v i b r a t i o n intensity, the installation records the basic frequency o f t h e span, t h e
frequencies o ft h e natural v i b r a t i o nmodes a n d t h e frequencies o fthe subconductors i n
case o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s . T h e e q u i p m e n t is designed for s h o r t - p e r i o d m e a s u r e m e n t s .
I n c a s e o f d o u b t s o n t h e o p e r a t i o n a l r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e l i n e , long-term measurements
s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t w h i c h a r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e a f t e r . H e r e , a vibration recorder i s fixed
rigidly at t h e suspension c l a m p ( F i g u r e 11.17). T h e recorder i sequipped w i t h a sensor
which measures the conductor displacement relatively t o the clamp i na distance o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 9m m i n front o f t h e last contact point between conductor a n d clamp.
T h i s d i s p l a c e m e n t , a l s o c a l l e d bending amplitude, r e p r e s e n t s t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e d y -
n a m i c stress o f t h e conductor. T h e recorder u s u a l l y measures t h e v i b r a t i o n m o v e m e n t
e v e r y 1 5 m i n u t e s d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f 1 0 s, e v a l u a t e s t h e v i b r a t i o n p a t t e r n a c c o r d i n g t o
frequency a n d a m p l i t u d e a n d stores t h e values i na 1 6 b y 1 6 m a t r i x . A f t e r a n opera-
tional period o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y four m o n t h s , t h e recorder is d i s m a n t l e d f r o m t h e line,
t h e m a t r i x i s read o u t a n d t h e result i se v a l u a t e d according t ot h e aspect o f l i f e t i m e o f
c o n d u c t o r s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e p e r m i t s t o assess t h e f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e c o n d u c t o r .
B o t h measuring methods are suited t o determine the v i b r a t i o nintensity o f a line and
consequently t o review t h e d a m p i n g measures. W h e n using t h e recorder, n o d a m p e r
m a y b e installed i n front o f the recorder t o t h e m i d d l e o f the span. Measurements
carried out according t o b o t h methods should b e accompanied b y experts, i n view o f
the operation o f t h e devices, as well as i n v i e w o f t h e evaluation o ft h e results.
T h e calculation of the vibration intensity a n d t h e r e v i e w o f d a m p i n g m e a s u r e s i s b a s e d
o n t h e m o d e l o f a s p a n w i t h r i g i d c l a m p i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t b o t h e n d s . T h e energy
balance principle i s u s e d a s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n m o d e l , w h e r e b y a l l n e c e s s a r y i n p u t d a t a
are based o n measurements. T h e result is presented as t h e free-span v i b r a t i o n angle
dependent o n t h e frequency, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 11.8.
T h i s procedure isexplained b ymeans o fa n example. A conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A is
installed i n a span w i t h 300 m l e n g t h a n d w i t h a tensile force o f 3 270 N ; a Stockbridge-
t y p e d a m p e r i si n s t a l l e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y one m e t e r i n front o f t h e p i v o t o ft h e suspension
c l a m p . I n F i g u r e 11.18, t h e result o ft h e s t u d y i spresented graphically. G r a p h 1 shows
the free-span v i b r a t i o nangle w i t h o u t d a m p e r a n d graph 2 the free-span v i b r a t i o n angle
w i t h damper. T h e broken line m a r k s the m a x i m u m permissible free-span v i b r a t i o n angle
w i t h respect t o t h e endurance capability o ft h e conductor. C o m p a r i s o n o fgraphs 1 a n d
338 1 1Conductor vibrations 11.2 A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s3 3 9

T a b l e 1 1 . 3 : V i b r a t i o n measurements presented i n a n amplitude-frequency-matrix

Frequency Amplitude (pm) Total
(Hz) 00/125 125/251 251/376 376/502 502/627 627/753 above 753 cycles
2 113 7 0 o u 0 0 120
5 634 31 2 o Q 0 0 667
10 1889 735 209 44 5 0 0 2 882
15 3 085 2211 871 184 20 0 0 6 371
20 3 381 2 308 1 029 294 45 3 0 7 060
25 2 698 1076 189 14 0 0 0 3 977
30 8 28 183 9 o 0 0 0 1020
34 140 8 0 0 o 0 0 148
40 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 8
45 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
50 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
59 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
83 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
143 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
200 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total cycles 12 777 6 559 2 309 536 70 3 0 22 254

2 w i t h 3 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t i n t h e g i v e n case o n e d a m p e r w i t h i n t h e s p a n i s sufficient
t o protect t h e c o n d u c t o r against v i b r a t i o n failures. I nF i g u r e 11.19, g r a p h 1 c a n b e
recognized a s t h e velocity o f t h e c l a m p a sa f u n c t i o n o ft h e frequency, w h i l e g r a p h
2 shows t h e m a x i m u m permissible velocity o f the clamp. T h e velocity o f the damper
c l a m p i sequivalent t ot h e stress o ft h e messenger w i r e . T h e m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e
velocity o fthe d a m p i n g clamp i sobtained f r o m fatigue tests a t dampers.
11.2.9 Evaluation of vibration measurements
L i n e owners require sometimes a s part o f guarantee t o carry o u tmeasurements o f
v i b r a t i o n s a n d o ft h e efficiency o ft h e d a m p i n g s y s t e m at t h e line d u r i n g c o m m i s s i o n i n g .
Such tests m a y last f o r a period o fthree m o n t h s t oabout o n e year after t h e line
c o n s t r u c t i o n has b e e n c o m p l e t e d . S u c h m e a s u r e m e n t s c a nb ee v a l u a t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e
procedure described hereafter.
P a p e r [ 1 1 . 4 8 ] p r e p a r e d b y C i g r e S C 2 2 W o r k i n g G r o u p 1 1 d e a l s w i t h vibration field
measurements a n d t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n . V a r i o u s k i n d s o f i n s t r u m e n t s a r e i n use, e. g . d i g -
ital a n d analogic devices. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e objective o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t , a different
i n s t r u m e n t could b echosen. F o r instance, for t h e v a l i d a t i o n o fv i b r a t i o n theories, i t
m a y b e desirable t oo b t a i n t h e signal o f t h e v i b r a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n w h i c h case a n analogic
device i s preferable. F o r e n d u r a n c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o r assessment o f m a x i m u m stresses,
digital devices w h i c h p e r f o r m d a t a r e d u c t i o n are desirable.
T h e i n s t r u m e n t installed at a conductor and the attachment bracket should b e as light
a n d c o m p a c t a s possible t o l i m i t t h e effect o n t h e c o n d u c t o r b e h a v i o u r . A n a m p l i t u d e
range o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m m peak t opeak issufficient. T h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s h o u l d b e
able t o measure frequencies u p t o 200 Hz. I n s t r u m e n t s using digital sampling techniques
s h o u l d b e capable o f accurately t a k i n g a tleast 1 0 samples per v i b r a t i o n cycle, e. g. a t
a v i b r a t i o n frequency o f 200 H zt h e s a m p l i n g frequency s h o u l d b e a tleast 2000 H z .
O n e full m e a s u r i n g sequence consists o f a m e a s u r i n g p e r i o d a n d a paused period. T h e
measuring period should b epreferably 10 seconds f o ra m i n i m u m o ffour times p e r
h o u r , 2 4 h o u r s a day, f o r a m i n i m u m o f t h r e e m o n t h s . T o c o n f i r m t h e c o n t i n u o u s
o p e r a t i o n o ft h e i n s t r u m e n t ,i t s h o u l d have t h e c a p a b i l i t y o frecording t h e t o t a l n u m b e r
of measurements taken d u r i n g the total measurement d u r a t i o n . T h e storage o f data
s h o u l d b e d o n e i n a n amplitude-frequency-matrix, a c c o r d i n g t o [11.49], c o n t a i n i n g a t
l e a s t 1 0 b y 1 0 e l e m e n t s . D u e t o s t a n d a r d i z e d h a r d w a r e , a 1 6 b y 1 6 m a t r i x is o f t e n u s e d .
I n T a b l e 11.3, a t y p i c a l a m p l i t u d e - f r e q u e n c y - m a t r i x is s h o w n .
A s f a t i g u e l i m i t s a r e n o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f s t r e s s o r s t r a i n , t h e first s t e p o f
t h e e v a l u a t i o n i s t o c o n v e r t t h e m e a s u r e d b e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e wb t o b e n d i n g s t r e s s ob.
T h e c o n v e r s i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g t h e Poffenberger-Swart formula ( 1 1 . 3 5 ) ( s e e
also [11.21]) a n d r e l a t i o n (11.36) t o o b t a i n t h e b e n d i n g stress.
T h e P o f f e n b e r g e r - S w a r t f o r m u l a , a l t h o u g h based o ns i m p l e a s s u m p t i o n s , gives i n m o s t
cases g o o d a g r e e m e n t w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l results. M o r e details can b e f o u n d i n reference
[11.23]. I n t h e case o f s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s , i n c o r p o r a t i n g a n e l a s t o m e r i c i n s e r t , i t i s
r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e conversion f o r m u l a b e d e t e r m i n e d b y v i b r a t i o n tests i n t h e
laboratory. However, for practical reasons, is it sufficient t o use e q u a t i o n (11.35). W h e r e
a r m o r rods are used f o r m i n g a cage a r o u n d t h e clamp, t h e sensor s h o u l d b e located
outside t h e cage area for easier installation. T h e d i m e n s i o n x b ism e a s u r e d f r o m t h e
centre line o fthe suspension t o the point o f measurement.
T h e fatigue limits a r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n S-N-curves w h i c h describe t h e fatigue stress S
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r N o f cycles u p t ofailure. T h e f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n b e i n g t h e
breakage o f t h r e e strands. Tests show a w i d e scatter o f cycles for different c o n d u c t o r
a n d clamp combinations a n d also between i n d i v i d u a l tests carried out a tthe same
c o m b i n a t i o n . I n [11.50], fatigue tests are discussed.
T h e C i g r e safe border line i s a S - J V - c u r v e d e r i v e d f r o m v a r i o u s l a b o r a t o r y f a t i g u e
measurements. I t represents the conservative lower limit o f the permissible n u m b e r o f
cycles at v a r i o u s stress levels. I t is applicable for c o m m o n l y used a l u m i n i u m , a l u m i n i u m -
alloy a n d m u l t i - l a y e rA C S R conductors a n d a l l types o f clamps (Figure 11.20).
T h e safe b o r d e r l i n e i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :
obF = C-Nz , (11.39)
w h e r e abF i s t h e d y n a m i c l i m i t s t r e s s i n N / m m 2 , N t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s u n t i l f a i l u r e ,
C = 450 a n d z = - 0 , 2 for N < 2 • 107 a n d C = 263 a n d z = - 0 , 1 7 for IV > 2 • 107.
 r
J±'V_
/ J. J. V7U11UULiiui viuiuuiuuq

fable 11.4: Conductor data 525/A11/68-ST1A (ACSR T a b l e 1 1 . 5 : A c c u m u l a t e d cycles per year a n d cycles t o failure
525/68, Curlew) Class Amplitude Stress (7b Number of cycles Cycles rij n-,/N; %
Cross-sectional area mm2 573 1/100 m m N/mm2 to failure N-t per year
Minimum bending stiffness N-mm2 36,5 • 10ft 1 125 2,1 2 174 546-10 6 3,33M06 0,0000 0,0
Stress at 20" C N/mm2 60 2 251 5,9 4813106 1,710-106 0,0004 3,9
Stress amplitude factor at Xb — 89 m m N/mm2 31,6 3 376 9,9 237-10" 0.602 10 6 0,0025 27,6
4 502 13,9 33-10 6 0,140-10 6 0,0043 46,6
5 627 17,8 10-10 6 0,01810 6 0,0018 19,6
T h e safe b o r d e r line i s s h o w n i nF i g u r e 11.20). F o r f u r t h e r test results, reference i s 21,8 4106 0,0002
6 753 O.OOMO6 2,3
m a d e t o [11.51].
E n d u r a n c e l i m i t s are defined as t h e b e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e o r b e n d i n g stress w h i c h , for a
given clamp-conductor combination, can b e endured indefinitely.Reference [11.23] i s a oscillations occur a t the subconductors a t w i n d velocities between 4 and 18 m / s w i t h
valuable reference w i t h regard t o acceptable limits for A C S R conductors. T h e endurance frequencies between 1 a n d 5 H z (basic frequency a n d first harmonic). T h e susceptibility
limit f o r s i n g l e - l a y e r A C S R c o n d u c t o r s ise s t i m a t e d t ob e 22,5 N / m m 2 . Corresponding to oscillations is increased b y at w i s t i n g o f t h e b u n d l e along t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis b y 5
ranges o fvalues o f peak t o peak b e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e , 0 , 5t o 1,0m m are also given. t o 15° d u e t o i n e x a c t a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s o r due t o differing conductor
W h e n a conductor issubjected t o d y n a m i c m e c h a n i c a l stress, i tm a y s h o w d a m a g e o r creep. T h e a m p l i t u d e s o f t h e oscillations m a y b e c o m e s o large t h a t t h e subconductors
even fail after a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f stress cycles. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n i scalled fatigue. touch each other. Vertical subspan oscillation o f the subconductors w i t h ice accretion
Some rules have been developed t oestimate how long a structure m a y survive w h e n i t were observed a t400 k V quadruple bundle lines, lasting for several hours. Oscillations
is s u b m i t t e d t o c o m p l e x s t r e s s - a m p l i t u d e spectra [11.52]. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f Minor's of t h a t t y p e stress conductors a n d spacers e x t r e m e l y . T h e h i g h b e n d i n g stress o f the
rule t o c o n d u c t o r s [ 1 1 . 3 1 ] p e r m i t s t o a s s e s s t h e minimum lifetime during which n o conductors i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e spacers c a n lead t o f a t i g u e p r o b l e m s also i n case o f a
d a m a g e s h o u l d occur t o t h e conductor. I t i scalculated a n d expressed i n years a n d i s a n relatively l o w n u m b e r o f cycles.
i n d i c a t i o n o ft h e life expectancy o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are based o n a safe
border line a n d m e a s u r e d o r s i m u l a t e d as stress cycles expected d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m eo f
11.3.2 R e m e d y measures
the conductor. Since conservative assumptions are made, the calculated lifetime is o n
t h e safe side i n m o s t cases. D u e t o the fact that subspan oscillation occurs p r e d o m i n a n t l y a t subconductors a r -
A n o t h e r commonly used m e t h o d ist ocompare t h e m a x i m u m stress o r s t r a i n o b t a i n e d ranged horizontallyi n the w i n d flow one behind the other, a bundle arrangement which
b y t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o r s i m u l a t i o n w i t h t h e endurance limits e x p l a i n e d a b o v e . T h e r i s k a v o i d s t h i s p r e - c o n d i t i o n , e. g. a v e r t i c a l t w i n b u n d l e , s h o u l d b e p r e f e r r e d w i t h respect
of damage is considered t o b e negligible, if these endurance limits are not exceeded. to subspan oscillation. I n addition, the spacing o fthe subconductors in relation t o the
A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n a n d subspan oscillation m e a s u r e m e n t s were carried o u t a tt h e 500 k V subconductor diameter gains i m p o r t a n t influence o n the aerodynamic coupling. Tests i n
R i n c b n - G a r a b e line i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g B r a z i l a n d A r g e n t i n a [11.53]. w i n d t u n n e l s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t values for t h i s r a t i o o f m o r e t h a n 1 8 i n case o f t w i n o r
t r i p l e b u n d l e s a n d m o r e t h a n 2 0 i n case o f q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e s reduce t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y
Example: A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e recorded d a t a as s h o w n i n T a b l e 11.3 w i l l b e e v a l u a t e d . T h e to oscillation o fthe subconductors essentially [11.45]. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s r e c o m m e n d e d
c o n d u c t o r d a t a a r e s h o w n i n fable 1 1 . 4 . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t f o r 1 0 s e v e r y as a r e m e d y t o a r r a n g e t h e spacers i n d i s t a n c e s o fn o t m o r e t h a n 4 0m a n d w i t h u n e q u a l
15 m i n . T h e r e f o r e , f o u r m e a s u r e m e n t s p e r h o u r l a s t i n g 4 0s a r e a v a i l a b l e . S i n c e t h e m e a s u r i n g subspan lengths. Spacer d a m p e r s d o n o t completely suppress the subspan oscillations.
lasted i n total 3024 h , the total measuring period is 3 0 2 4 - 4 0 = 120960 s = 33,6 h . F o r
T h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f ice a c c r e t i o n , s i n c e t h e e x c i t i n g e n e r g y i s e x t r a o r d i -
e x t r a p o l a t i n g t o a w h o l e year, t h e d a t a given i n T a b l e 11.3 are m u l t i p l i e d b y 8 7 6 0 / 3 3 , 6 ~ 2 6 1 .
n a r y h i g h i n t h i s case.
T h e conversion o f the measured bending a m p l i t u d e iscarried o u t using the d a t a given i n Table
11.4. T h e results are presented i n T a b l e 11.5. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e M i n o r ' s rule, t h e e s t i m a t e d
m i n i m u m l i f e p e r i o d t\ i s 11.4 Galloping
11.4.1 Origin and consequences
f| = l / £ ( n , / M ) , (11.40)
i=l Conductor galloping occurs a tsingle conductors as well as a tb u n d l e conductors mostly
w h e n t h e y are icecovered. Galloping has its origin i n a modified aerodynamic charac-
w h e r e n\ i s t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s r e c o r d e d d u r i n g o n e y e a r , N, t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e a n d
j t h e n u m b e r o f s t r e s s c l a s s e s . F o r t h e e x a m p l e , t h e s u m J J n-JNi i s 0 , 0 0 9 2 a n d t h e c a l c u l a t e d teristic o ft h e conductor, ascompared w i t h its originallya p p r o x i m a t e l y cylindric shape.
l i f e t i m e tt = 1 / 0 , 0 0 9 2 = 1 1 0 y e a r s . ^ T h e conductor experiences a considerable uplift d u et o t h e d i s y m m e t r i c shape which
varies, r h y t h m i c a l l y c o m b i n e d w i t h a n axial t w i s t i n g a n d , therefore, causes a periodical
oscillation (Figure 11.21). For detailed explanations o f t h e galloping phenomenon, i t
11.3 Subspan oscillations is r e f e r r e d t o t h e r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e , e. g. [ 1 1 . 2 3 , 1 1 . 5 4 ] . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s i s
devoted t othe occurrence and consequences o fgalloping. Since galloping isa relatively
11.3.1 Origin and consequences
rare event, m e a s u r e m e n t s t u r n o u t t ob e difficult a n d are successful o n l y i f a l o n g obser-
Subspan oscillations can occur only i n bundle conductors a n d are observed frequently v a t i o n p e r i o d is used [11 5, 11.23, 11.56]. F r o m observations, w h i c h s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d
at t w i n bundles w i t h h o r i z o n t a l l y arranged subconductors. Due t oaerodynamic coup- i n a s t a n d a r d f o r m a t [11.57], i tc a n b e concluded that the conductors move o n ellipti-
ling o f the subconductors situated o n e behind the other i nthe air flow, antiphase cal curves, t h e long axis o f w h i c h can b e inclined against t h e v e r t i c a l ( F i g u r e 11.22 b )
342 11Conductor vibrations 11.4 G a l l o p i n g 3 4 3

Figure 11.23: Phase

spacer o f a 3 8 0 k V line
(Richard Bergner G m b H )

Figure 11.21: Forces a c t i n g a t t h e c o n d u c t o r u n d e r w i n d [11.23]: a ) w i t h o u t i c e accretion,

b ) w i t h d i f f e r i n g i c e f o r m a t i o n ; V w w i n d f o r c e ; Q A u p l i f t o r d o w n w a r d f o r c e ; Qh a e r o d y n a m i c
[11.55]. T h e r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e l e n g t h s o f l o n g a n d s h o r t axis is b e t w e e n 6:1 a n d 2 : 1 . I n
case o f g a l l o p i n g , flashovers o r even touching between the phase conductors can occur,
d r a g force
l e a d i n g t o s h o r t c i r c u i t s . Short circuits c o m b i n e d w i t h h i g h a r c i n g c u r r e n t s , a s a r u l e ,
lead t o local conductor damage b u t could also result i nm e l t i n g o f the complete con-
ductor. I n case o f l o n g - l a s t i n g galloping, m e c h a n i c a l over loadings o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f
circuit 1 circuit 2 circuit 1 circuit 2
i n s u l a t o r s e t s a n d t o w e r s m a y o c c u r ; d a m a g e o f fittings a n d t o w e r s d u e t o g a l l o p i n g
was f r e q u e n t l y observed. T h u s , galloping leads t o damage o f t h e overhead line, causes
severe o p e r a t i o n a l disturbances a n d m a y lead t o i m p a i r t h e p u b l i c safety because o f
v i o l a t i n g t h e r e q u i r e d m i n i m u m clearances t o g r o u n d o r obstacles [11.54] t o [11.59].

11.4.2 Remedy measures

Remedies against galloping have been discussed for m a n y years a n d also tested. H o w -
ever, a n overall a n d totally satisfying s o l u t i o n has n o t yet been f o u n d . T h e remedies can
be classified as measures t o avoid galloping a n d measures t o m i t i g a t e its consequences.
Regarding t h e remedies t o suppress t h e galloping excitation, a distinction between sin-
g l e a n d b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s i s t o b e m a d e . F o r s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s , pendulums t o s h i f t
the torsional natural frequency o f the conductors and dampers designed as spring mass
s y s t e m s a r e used. T h e s e r e m e d i e s w e r e successful i n s o m e cases; t h e y w e r e n o t able t o
suppress galloping a t all; however, they lead t o a remarkable reduction o f the a m p l i -
tudes [11.60, 11.61]. I n case o f b u n d l e conductors, p e n d u l u m s a n d s p r i n g mass systems
a r r a n g e d b e t w e e n t h e spacers w e r e adopted as w e l l [11.61, 11.62]. A r r a n g e m e n t s o f this
type have the disadvantage that a n additional mass is added t o the system, result-
i n g i n a n increase o f t h e conductor tensile force. A t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e t o decrease t h e
susceptibility t o galloping o f bundles b y means o f spacers w h i c h enable t h e i n d i v i d u a l
subconductors t o r o t a t e freely [11.63]. I f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r can r o t a t e freely w i t h i n t h e
spacer c l a m p d u r i n g a n ice accretion process, t h e ice accretion along t h e conductor
circumference will b e m o r e u n i f o r m and cause a n aerodynamically m o r e stable pro-
file. T e s t s w e r e carried o u t also t o w a i v e spacers a t a l l . T h e frequency o f occurrence
of galloping w a s reduced i nthis case [11.63, 11.64]. H o w e v e r , t h e subconductors m a y
clash very heavily under w i n d action, resulting i nd e f o r m a t i o n o f the conductor outer
layer a n dcausing electric discharges. D u r i n g short circuits, t h e subconductors may
clash, and m o v i n g back into their standard position is n o t always guaranteed d u e t o
the operational current (kissing conductors).

F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 2 : E l l i p t i c c u r v e s o f g a l l o p i n g c o n d u c t o r s , e x a m p l e a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 5 5 ] , ip c o n d u c -
tor swing angle; a) long axis vertical, ratio long a x i s / s h o r t axis 6:1; b ) long axis inclined b y
0 , 5 • ip d e g r e e s a g a i n s t t h e v e r t i c a l , r a t i o l o n g a x i s / s h o r t a x i s 2 : 1
F o r b u n d l e s , a s w e l l a s f o r s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s , phase spacers b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l
phases o fa circuit w e r e developed a n d a d o p t e d [11.65]. A c c o r d i n g t ot h e present k n o w l -
edge, phase spacers represent a successful r e m e d y t o l i m i t t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e con-
ductors. T o keep their weight low, t h e i n s u l a t i n g p a r t o f t h e phase spacers is f o r m e d
b y c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s t o d a y , w h i c h r e a c t flexibly t o c o m p r e s s i o n i f t h e y a r e l o n g . I n
case o f a phase distance o f m o r e t h a n 5 m , t h e c o n d u c t o r s w i l l g e t closer i n case o f
344 1 1 Conductor viDrations
galloping. T h e o s c i l l a t i o n m o t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s r e m a r k a b l y a f f e c t e d w h e n t h e c o n d u c t o r s
a r e s w i n g i n g b a c k , s i n c e t h e phase spacers b e h a v e r i g i d l y i n c a s e o f a t e n s i o n l o a d . T h e
n u m b e r o f phase spacers i n one span, their location a n d the protection o f t h e conduc-
tors a t the spacer a t t a c h m e n t points have t o b e selected carefully, i norder t o avoid
v i b r a t i o n damage a t the conductors due t o t h e increased conductor tensile forces under
n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n conditions. According t o t h e experience gained u p t o n o w , a t least
three phase spacers should b e installed i n one span. Tests demonstrated, that t h e prob-
a b i l i t y o f flashovers o r t o u c h i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s d e c r e a s e s w i t h a n i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r
o f spacers. F i g u r e 11.23 shows a phase spacer o f a 380 k V line.
T h e consequences o f galloping can b e m i n i m i z e d b y a n adjusted design o f t h e towers.
A h o r i z o n t a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e conductors is preferable w i t h respect t o galloping, as
compared with a vertical or triangular arrangement. T h e m a x i m u m amplitudes d u e
to galloping depend m a i n l y o n the conductor s a gw i t h i n the span. A m p l i t u d e s u pt o
12 m were observed. I n principle, i t ispossible t o select t h e distances o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s
at the towers such that galloping will not lead t o flashovers. However, this means a
r e m a r k a b l e e n l a r g i n g o f t h e t o w e r t o pi n case o f o p e r a t i n g voltages b e l o w 4 0 0 k V a n d ,
therefore, w o u l d lead t o increased investments. I ncase o f double circuit lines, i t w a s
frequently observed that galloping had unfavourable consequences only for one circuit
d u e t o t h e m a i n w i n d d i r e c t i o n (see F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 2 b ) . I n t h i s case, i t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o
de-energize t h e particularlyendangered circuit, i f possible, t o avoid conductor damage
due t o flashovers [11.56].
Since 1985, a t a s k force, n o w p a r t o ft h e C i g r e S C 2 2 , takes care o ft h e v e r s a t i l e p r o b l e m s
o f c o n d u c t o r g a l l o p i n g . T h i s t a s k force p r e s e n t e d i n [11.5] e x t e n s i v e o b s e r v a t i o n s , s t u d i e s
a n d remedy measures a n d described the updated state o f the art.
11.5 Short-circuit oscillations
11.5.1 Origin and consequences
Short-circuit currents generate electro-magnetic forces w i t h i n t h e conductors excit-
i n g short-circuit oscillations. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e
short-circuit condition, the phases o f a n A C circuit are attracted o r pushed-off. Since
t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t p e r i o d s Eire s h o r t ( l e s s t h a n 1 s ) , t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t f o r c e s i n a n o v e r h e a d
line w i l l r e m a i n low because o f the large phase distances a n d o f t h e l o w n a t u r a l fre-
q u e n c y (less t h a n 0,3 H z ) o f t h e s a g g e d c o n d u c t o r s ; t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a r e e x c i t e d t o
free oscillations w i t h o n l y r e l a t i v e l y l o w a m p l i t u d e s . P r a c t i c a l l y , t h e stresses r e s u l t i n g
thereof can b e neglected.
T h e conditions change i n principle i f t h e phase conductors a r edesigned as bundle
c o n d u c t o r s . T h e short-circuit force w i t h i n t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s a c h i e v e s c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h
vEilues d u et o t h e s m a l l d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e a d j a c e n t s u b c o n d u c t o r s a n d , a s a r u l e ,
leeids t o c l a s h i n g o f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s . I n t h i s case, t h e s t r a n d s o f t h e o u t e r l a y e r
m a y b e p e r m a n e n t l y deformed. Therefore, they get loose o n the conductor core a n d
w i n d flow a s w e l l a s m a g n e t i c f o r c e s b e t w e e n t h e s t r a n d s r e s u l t i n v i b r a t i o n s w h i c h
c a u s e a n n o y i n g noises. I n case o f c l a s h i n g o f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s , Ein a l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g
stress o fh i g h a m p l i t u d e occurs w i t h i n t h e conductor, t h u s considerably accelerating its
fatigue.
11.5.2 Remedy measures
A s h o r t - c i r c u i t - r e s i s t a n t d e s i g n s h o u l d b e a d o p t e d f o r t h e spacers, i . e. t h e y m a y n o t b e
d e f o r m e d p e r m a n e n t l y u n d e r short-circuit forces o r destroyed a t a l l . I n psirticular, t h e
subconductor spacing m a y n o t b e decreased p e r m a n e n t l y , since t h e electric character-
istics o f t h e line w o u l d b e u n f a v o u r a b l y affected. O n l y v e r y s h o r t subconductor lengths
i n t h e r a n g e b e t w e e n 5 a n d 1 0 m c o u l d a v o i d c l a s h i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s also i n case
of high currents. Such a solution can only b e applied i nsubstations b u t not i n lines
due t o technical a n d economical reasons. W h e t h e r t h e subconductors will clash i n a
short-circuit c o n d i t i o n does n o t o n l y depend o nt h e fault c u r r e n t b u t also o n t h e p e r i o d
o f t i m e d u r i n g such a c u r r e n t acts. S h o r t switching-off periods can avoid clashing o f t h e
conductors also i n case o f h i g h c u r r e n t s [11.66].
11.6 References
11.1 H a d u l l a , T . : W i r b e l e r r e g t e Schwingungen i n Freileitungsbundeln (Vortex-induced vibra-
tions i n overhead line bundle conductors). Doctorate thesis D17, University D a r m s t a d t
2000
11.2 M e i e r - W i n d h o r s t , A . : F l a t t e r s c h w i n g u n g e n v o n Z y l i n d e r n i m gleichmafiigen F l u s s i g k e i t s -
s t r o m ( F l u t t e r v i b r a t i o n s o f c y l i n d e r s i n a l a m i n a r h y d r a u l i c fluid flow). H y d r a u l i c I n s t i -
tute o f Technische Hochschule M i i n c h e n . O l d e n b o u r g V e r l a g 1939, pp. 3 t o 29
11.3 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : M o d e l l i n g o f aeolian v i b r a t i o n o fsingle conductors: Assessment o f
t h e technology. E l e c t r a 181 (1998), pp. 5 3 t o 6 9
11.4 R o w b o t t o m , M . D . ; A l d a n - H u g h e s , R . R.: S u b s p a n oscillation: A r e v i e w of existing k n o w -
ledge. C i g r e R e p o r t 22-04, 1972
11.5 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : R e v i e w o f g a l l o p i n g c o n t r o l m e t h o d s . E l e c t r a 1 9 1 ( 2 0 0 0 ) , pp. 4 5
t o 62
11.6 M o c k s , L . : D i e B e a n s p r u c h u n g u n d Lebensdauer v o n Leiterseilen u n t e r d e m Einfluss
w i n d e r r e g t e r S c h w i n g u n g e n ( L o a d i n g a n d service life o f t r a n s m i s s i o n cables subjected t o
wind-induced vibrations). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 8 6 (1987), pp. 920 t o 925
11.7 Nefzger, J . : S t o r u n g e n d u r c h mechanische L e i t e r s c h w i n g u n g e n u n d M i t t e l z u deren B e -
hebung (Disturbances b y mechanical conductor vibrations and remedies). Cigre Report
126, 1933
11.8 H a g e d o r n , P . : L e i t e r s e i l s c h w i n g u n g e n i n T h e o r i e u n d P r a x i s : E i n U b e r b l i c k ( C o n d u c -
tor vibrations i n t h e o r y and practice: A n overview). etz-Report 26, Berlin. V D E - V e r l a g
G m b H 1990
11.9 Schafer, B . : Z u r E n t s t e h u n g u n d U n t e r d r u c k u n g w i n d e r r e g t e r S c h w i n g u n g e n a n
Freileitungen ( O n t h e excitation and suppression o f wind-induced vibrations o n over-
head lines). D o c t o r a t e thesis D 1 7 , U n i v e r s i t yD a r m s t a d t , 1980
11.10 H a g e d o r n , P.: O n t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f d a m p e d w i n d - e x c i t e d v i b r a t i o n s o foverhead t r a n s -
mission lines. J o u r n a l o f S o u n d a n d V i b r a t i o n 83(1982), pp. 253 t o 271
11.11 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 1 : R e p o r t o n aeolian v i b r a t i o n . E l e c t r a 124 (1989), pp. 4 0 t o 7 7
11.12 S t r o u h a l , V . : U b e r eine besondere A r t d e r T o n e r r e g u n g ( O n a special t y p e o f s o u n d
excitation). A n n a l e n P h y s i k u n d Chemie, B a n d V , (1878), pp. 216 t o 251
11.13 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 1 1 : G u i d e o n conductor self-damping m e a s u r e m e n t s . E l e c t r a 6 2 (1979),
pp. 79 t o 90
11.14 D i a n a , G . ; Falco, M . : O n t h e forces t r a n s m i t t e d t o a v i b r a t i n g cylinder b y a b l o w i n g
fluid. M e c c a n i c a 6 , ( 1 9 7 1 ) , p p . 9 t o 2 2
11.15 R a w l i n s , C.B.: M o d e l o f power i m p a r t e d b y t u r b u l e n t w i n d t o v i b r a t i n g conductor.
Massena, N Y , A l c o a Laboratories. Technical R e p o r t N o . 93-83-3, 1983
11.16 M o c k s , L . : D a m p i n g o fh i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r v i b r a t i o n s . E T Z R e p o r t 15e,
Berlin. V D E - V e r l a g G m b H , 1984
346 11 Conductor vibrations
11.17 S c h m i d t , J . T . et a l . : L a b o r a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e power dissipation characteristics
o f a e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s d a m p e r s . I E E E , T r a n s a c t i o n o n P o w e r D e l i v e r y , V o l . 12 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , pp.
1614 t o 1621
11.18 K r i s p i n , H . - J . ; M o c k s , L.; S c h m i d t , J . : N e u e Ergebnisse z u r M e s s u n g der m e c h a n i -
s c h e n E i g e n d a m p f u n g v o n F r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n u n d L u f t k a b e l n ( N e w findings o n m e a s u r e -
m e n t s of mechanical self-damping of overhead line conductors a n d aerial cables). E l e k -
trizitatswirtschaft, 93 (1994), pp. 1414 t o 1418
11.19 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 1 T F - 1 : C o n d u c t o r self-damping. Cigre W G 1 1 22-94 ( W G 1 1 ) , 1994
11.20 H i i t t e , des I n g e n i e u r s T a s c h e n b u c h , B a n d I : T h e o r e t i s c h e G r u n d l a g e n ( H u t t e , t h e E n g i -
neer's H a n d b o o k . V o l . I : T h e o r e t i c a l basics).Berlin, V e r l a g W i l h e l m E r n s t & S o h n , 2 8 t h
edition 1955
11.21 Poffenberger, J . C ; S w a r t , R. L . : Differential displacement a n d d y n a m i c conductor strain.
I E E E Transactions on Power A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 84 (1965), pp. 281 t o 289
1 1 . 2 2 v o n K a r m a n , T . : U b e r d e n M e c h a n i s m u s des W i d e r s t a n d e s , d e n e i n K o r p e r i n e i n e r
Flussigkeit e r f a h r t ( O n the m e c h a n i s m of the resistance experienced by a b o d y i n a
fluid). R e p o r t s of R o y a l Scientific A c a d e m y i n G o t t i n g e n (1911), pp. 509 t o 517
11.23 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n line reference book: W i n d - i n d u c e d conductor m o t i o n . P a l o A l t o .
Electric Power Research Institute, 1979
11.24 P a p a i l i o u , K . 0.: O n t h e bending stiffness of t r a n s m i s s i o n line conductors. I E E E T r a n s -
a c t i o n o n P o w e r D e l i v e r y , V o l . 12 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , pp. 1 5 7 6 t o 1588
11.25 M a a s , H . : Z u r Beseitigung der mechanischen F r e i l e i t u n g s s c h w i n g u n g e n ( O n t h e suppres-
s i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l o v e r h e a d l i n e v i b r a t i o n s ) . F o r s c h u n g a u f d e m G e b i e t des I n g e n i e u r w e -
sens 1933, V o l . 5
11.26 K i e B l i n g , F . ; Nefzger, P.: Z u r W a h l der Z u g s p a n n u n g f u r die L e i t e r einer H o c h s p a n -
nungsleitung ( O n t h e selection of tensile stress for conductors of overhead lines). E l e k -
trizitatswirtschaft 80 (1981), pp. 684 t o 691
11.27 M o c k s , L . : D a s V e r h a l t e n des L e i t e r s e i l e s u n t e r d e m E i n f l u s s der A r m a t u r e n ( O n t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e of conductors affected by fittings). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 68 (1969), pp.
336 to 341
11.28 B i i c k n e r , W . et al.: Stresses i n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e c o n d u c t o r s near t h e suspension clamp.
Cigre R e p o r t 23-07, 1968
11.29 Mocks, L . : Schwingungsschaden i n Leiterseilen ( V i b r a t i o n d a m a g e o n conductors).
B u l l e t i n - S E V 61 (1970), pp. 223 t o 227
11.30 P h i l i p p s , W . et a l . : T h e e n d u r a n c e c a p a b i l i t y o f single a n d b u n d l e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e
conductors and its evaluation. Cigre R e p o r t 22-05, 1972
11.31 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 4 : R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e life t i m e of overhead
line conductors. Electra 63 (1979), pp. 103 to 145
11.32 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 5 : A p r a c t i c a l m e t h o d of c o n d u c t o r creep d e t e r m i n a t i o n . E l e c t r a 24
(1974), pp. 105 t o 137
11.33 B o h n e r , R . ; M o c k s , L . : D i e S p a n n u n g s v e r t e i l u n g i m V e r b u n d s e i l (Stress d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
c o m p o u n d conductors). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 64 (1965), pp. 230 t o 235
11.34 P a p a i l i o u , K . 0 . : D i e Seilbiegung m i t einer d u r c h die i n n e r e R e i b u n g , die Z u g k r a f t u n d die
Seilkriimmung veranderlichen Biegesteifigkeit(Conductor bending considering the vari-
able b e n d i n g stiffness d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n , t h e tensile force a n d t h e con-
ductor curvature). Doctorate thesis, E T H Zurich N o . 11057, 1995
11.6 References 347
11.35 G i r a y , M . ; K i e B l i n g , F . : 380 k V overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n line over t h e B o s p h o r u s . Siemens
A G , A 1 9 1 0 0 E433-A871-x-7600 (1984)
11.36 Mocks, L . : S p i r a l a r m a t u r e n fur Freileitungen ( A r m o r rods for overhead lines). R I B E
M i t t e i l u n g e n 5, S c h w a b a c h . R i c h a r d B e r g n e r 1 9 6 3
11.37 A n n , W . ; K i e B l i n g , F . ; M o c k s , L . : I s o l a t o r e n u n d A r m a t u r e n fur die neue 3 8 0 - k V -
E l b e k r e u z u n g der Nordwestdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G ( I n s u l a t o r s a n d fittings of the
new 380 k V river E l b e crossing of t h e Nordwestdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G , E l e k -
trizitatswirtschaft 77 (1978), pp. 653 to 660
11.38 Z e t t e r h o l m , O. D . : B a r e conductor a n d mechanical calculation of overhead conductors.
Cigre R e p o r t 223, 1960
11.39 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : Safe design t e n s i o n w i t h respect t o aeolian v i b r a t i o n s , P a r t 1:
Single u n p r o t e c t e d conductors. E l e c t r a 186 (1999), pp. 53 t o 67
1 1 . 4 0 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : S a f e d e s i g n t e n s i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o a e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s , P a r t 2:
Single damped conductors. Electra 198 (2001), pp. 28 to 43
11.41 A n n , W . ; K i e B l i n g , F . ; Schnakenberg, D . : D i e L e i t e r der 3 8 0 - k V - E l b e k r e u z u n g der N o r d -
westdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G u n d ihre Verlegung ( T h e conductors of t h e new 380 k V
r i v e r E l b e crossing of t h e N o r d w e s t d e u t s c h e K r a f t w e r k e A G ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 78
(1979), pp. 254 to 256
1 1 . 4 2 D i a n a , G . e t a l . : F i e l d m e a s u r e m e n t a n d field d a t a p r o c e s s i n g o n c o n d u c t o r v i b r a t i o n
(comparison between e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d analytical results). Cigre R e p o r t 22-11, 1982
11.43 H e a r n s h a w , D . : Spacer damper performance, a f u n c t i o n of in-span positioning. I E E E
Paper T 7 4 061-8, 1974
11.44 H e a r n s h a w , D . : O p t i m i z a t i o n of s y s t e m p e r f o r m a n c e for spacer dampers. I E E E Paper
A 7 5 496-0, 1975
11.45 Hearnshaw-, D . : A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n o n b u n d l e d conductors. I E E E P a p e r C a n a d i a n confer-
ence o n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d power. 1976
11.46 H a g e d o r n , P.; K r a u s , M . : O n t h e performance of spacer dampers i n bundled conductors.
E U R E L P u b l i c a t i o n E T E P V o l . 3 (1992), pp. 305 t o 3 1 1
11.47 R a n k e , K . ; K r i s p i n , H . - J . : Efficiency of spacer dampers. E v a l u a t i o n of m e a s u r e m e n t s of
the b e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e a t suspension a n d spacer clamps due t o aeolian v i b r a t i o n s . Cigre
SC22 W G 1 1 Report W G 1 1 ( 9 0 ) 5 3 , 1990
11.48 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s o n overhead lines. E l e c t r a 163
(1995), pp. 125 t o 137
11.49 I E E E C o m m i t t e e R e p o r t : S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of conductor v i b r a t i o n measurements. I E E E
T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d S y s t e m s , V o l . 85, N o . 1, 1966, pp. 10 t o 20
11.50 Cigre S C 22, W G 0 4 : G u i d e for endurance tests of conductors inside of clamps. E l e c t r a
100(1985), pp. 77 t o 86
11.51 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 4 : E n d u r a n c e capability of conductors. F i n a l R e p o r t . Paris, Cigre, 1988
11.52 M i n e r , M . A . : C u m u l a t i v e d a m a g e i n fatigue. P r o c . A S M E , J . A p p l . M e c h . , 1945, pp 159
11.53 d a Silva, J . B . G. F . et al.: First interconnection B r a z i l - A r g e n t i n a . Design of the
A C 500/525 k V 50/60 H z line Rincon-Garab-Ita. Foz do Iguacq, I X S o u t h A m e r i c a n
Cigre Regional Meeting, 2001
11.54 Hagedorn, P., M e i e r - D o r n b e r g , K . - E . : Tanzschwingungen i n Freileitungen u n d ihre U n -
t e r d r i i c k u n g : Beschreibung eines laufenden Versuchs ( G a l l o p i n g o f overhead lines a n d
their suppression. Description of a r u n n i n g test). E T Z - R e p o r t 2 1 . Berlin. V D E - V e r l a g
1986
 11.55 Leppers, P. H . : G a l o p p e r e n v a n geleiders i n hoogspajiningslijnen e n de d o o r de N V
P L E M toegepaste maatregelen o m storingen te voorkomen. N V Provinciale Limburgse 12 S u p p o r t s
Elektriciteits-Maatschapij ( N V P L E M )

11.56 J i i r d e n s , C.; M o c k s , L . ; M u l l e r , K . - H . : S e i l m e s s s t a t i o n , e i n B e i t r a g z u r L o s u n g des Seil-

tanzproblems (Conductor testing station, a c o n t r i b u t i o n to solving t h e conductor gallop-
ing problem). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 82 (1983), pp. 706 t o 711 12.0 Symbols
11.57 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 1 1 : F i e l d observations o f overhead line galloping: G a l l o p i n g reporting Symbols Signification
forms. E l e c t r a 162 (1995), pp. 97 t o 113 System length of lattice truss
f r v m n l p m p n t i i r v miJin lpnst.h
11.58 B r a n d , R . et al.: N e t w o r k disturbances a n d d a m a g e s of conductors c a u s e d by galloping.
r>„ Weight span
Cigre Report 112-06, 1981
ow ^ T n d span
A f""
VJ11rDCC-GPCtlOTl
UOO 0CL11U1104 31 CLL
3 T*P3
7ZCL
11.59 R i c h a r d s o n , A . S.: S o m e effects o f c o n d u c t o r t w i s t i n g o n g a l l o p i n g . I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s T±
on Power A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 99 (1980), pp. 8 1 1 t o 822
A Cross-sectional area of concrete
-^d Cross-sectional area of bracings
11.60 A k i y a m a , T . et a l . : D e v e l o p m e n t o f galloping c o n t r o l devices a n d i t s o p e r a t i o n records --"-eft Effective cross-sectional area
in Japan. Cigre Report 22-07, 1986 Ars Cross-sectional area of a single chord
A • N e t cross-sectional area
11.61 H a v a r d , D . G.; P o h l m a n , J . C : C o n t r o l of galloping conductors by d e t u n i n g . Cigre Report A Tensile cross section of a bolt
22-05, 1980 A* M i n i m u m net area f r o m t h e centre of borehole t o t h e edge of angle under axial

11.62 H a v a r d , D . G . et a l . : T h e e c o n o m i c benefits o f controls for c o n d u c t o r galloping. Cigre

A"j) A r e a enclosed by t h e centre line of t h e cross-sectional contour
R e p o r t 22-02, 1982
A S h e a r i n g cross section, cross-sectional area of a s t r u t , m i n i m u m n e t area i n shear
11.63 B r a n d , R . et a l . : Suppression of galloping for m e d i u m - s i z e b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s by spacer along a l i n e of t r a n s m i t t e d force
removal or similar means. Cigre R e p o r t 22-09, 1978 (, Leg w i d t h , side w i d t h , w i d t h of t o w e r b o d y
bi T o t a l w i d t h of t o w e r a t t h e base of shortest leg e x t e n s i o n
11.64 Leppers, P. H . et al.: G a l l o p i n g suppression tests o n overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-03, bt bri Leg w i d t h of a n angle
1986 W i d t h o f faces A o r B o f a l a t t i c e t o w e r
LIT Effective leg w i d t h of a n angle
11.65 L a n g m a c k e r , D . et a l . : Separators i n h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d lines t o p r e v e n t disturbances W i d t h of faces t h e base of leg e x t e n s i o n i , s y s t e m w i d t h
of electric p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o n . Cigre R e p o r t 22-08, 1986 h W i d t h of faces a t t h e base of longest leg e x t e n s i o n
6*111 System w i d t h of lowest panel n
11.66 M o c k s , L . : B e r e c h n u n g der elektromagnetischen K u r z s c h l u s s s t r o m k r a f t e a n den Feldab-
6*0 W i d t h of lattice tower at top of panel
standhaltern i m Bundelleiter einer Hochspannungs-Fteileitung ( C a l c u l a t i o n of electro-
h Distance between jumper loop and tower
m a g n e t i c s h o r t - c i r c u i t forces at t h e spacers o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s of a h i g h - v o l t a g e line).
bsv* Displacement of the end points of the j u m p e r loop under w i n d
V D I Series 2 1 , N o . 2 1 , Offenbach, V D I - V e r l a g 2 0 0 1
fri Distance between the attachment points at suspension tower
K W i d t h of l a t t i c e t o w e r a t base of p a n e l
bv D i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e n o n - s y m m e t r i c a l l y a c t i n g v e r t i c a l f o r c e Py a n d t h e a x i s o f
"V tower body
6*w Distance between the conductor attachments at angle tower
C Coefficient for calculation of w a r p i n g resistance
c - Clearance of conductor at midspan
•--min M i n i m u m clearance between phase conductor and e a r t h wire
C-min pe
C-min pp M i n i m u m clearance between phase conductors at midspan
c Limit of proportionality
GC D r a g factor for conductor
c D r a g factor for towers
Gx L e n g t h o f b r a c i n g s , c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h o u t ice, b o l t d i a m e t e r
"0 Hole diameter
Bolt shank diameter
^Di Distance between t h e compression force of a bracing m e m b e r a n d t h e reference
p o i n t of m o m e n t
di C o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h ice
dzi Distance b e t w e e n t h e tension force o f a bracing m e m b e r a n d t h e reference p o i n t
of m o m e n t
D B r a c i n g m e m b e r force of a lattice f r a m e w o r k
B r a c i n g m e m b e r force of t h e shortest leg e x t e n s i o n
D A , D B Force of bracings i n face A or B
350 12 Supports 12.0 S y m b o l s 351

Symbols Signification Symbols Signification

DDi C o m p r e s s i o n force of bracings i n panel i i N u m b e r of panels, elements, etc., radius o f g y r a t i o n
Del M i n i m u m phase-to-earth clearance dependent o n voltage jM Polar radius of gyration around the centre of gravity
DH H o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t of t h e bracing m e m b e r force D ip Polar radius of gyration around the shearing centre
A B r a c i n g m e m b e r force of leg e x t e n s i o n i iuu R a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e p r i n c i p a l a x i s ( i n case o f e q u a l angle
Dm B r a c i n g m e m b e r force of t h e longest leg e x t e n s i o n section related to axis of s y m m e t r y )
D0 B r a c i n g m e m b e r force i n case of e q u a l leg e x t e n s i o n £„„ Radius of gyration related to the weak principal axis
Dpp M i n i m u m phase-to-phase clearance dependent o n voltage im R a d i u s of g y r a t i o n related t o axis r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e longer angle leg
D v V e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e bracing m e m b e r force D itc R a d i u s of g y r a t i o n related t o axis parallel t o t h e longer angle leg
Dz, Tensile force o f bracings i n p a n e l i /, / „ , J„ M o m e n t of inertia
e D i s t a n c e between t h e centroidal axes Ief! Effective m o m e n t of i n e r t i a of a laced m e m b e r
eo B o w imperfection 7T Torsional m o m e n t of inertia
ei E n d distance f r o m centre of hole t o adjacent end /u M o m e n t o f i n e r t i a a r o u n d t h e p r i n c i p a l axis ( i n case of e q u a l a n g l e s e c t i o n
e2 Edge distance f r o m centre of hole t o adjacent edge related t o axis of s y m m e t r y )
es S u b s t i t u t e i m p e r f e c t i o n for slip Iu W a r p i n g constant around the shearing centre
C i , Cj, Coordinates of the centre of gravity j N u m b e r of elements
D M o d u l u s of elasticity, Young's m o d u l u s ky R e d u c t i o n factor for electrical clearances
Dd T o t a l design v a l u e o f t h e effects o f a c t i o n s kc Factor dependent o n the swing angle of conductor
/o Vertical position of the points connecting the ends of the j u m p e r loop kf E l e m e n t stiffness m a t r i x o f e l e m e n t i i n local c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m
/c S a g o f c o n d u c t o r a t +40°C i n m , s a g i n t h e l o n g e s t s p a n ky Factor for the calculation of the m o m e n t of inertia of regular polygons
/cd Design value of concrete compression s t r e n g t h fcT Factor for the calculation of the torsional m o m e n t of inertia of regular
/ck Characteristic strength of concrete under compression polygons
/cc C r i t i c a l stress kv , kz C o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m o m e n t f a c t o r 0M
/d Deflection K F a c t o r for t h e calculation o f t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l force i n r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r
/. Sag of the complementary span K T o t a l stiffness m a t r i x
fi Vector of axial forces of element i i n local c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m
/ill /i2 L o n g i t u d i n a l forces of element i i n local c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m Kaa, Kab, Kbb S u b m a t r i c e s of t h e t o t a l stiffness m a t r i x
/s Sag of j u m p e r loop Ki E l e m e n t stiffness m a t r i x of t h e e l e m e n t i i n global c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m
/tot T o t a l deflection of a t o w e r or a pole Kx, Ks T r a n s v e r s a l forces d u e t o b e n d i n g o f leg m e m b e r
/u U l t i m a t e tensile strength K„ B u c k l i n g coefficient of plates
/ub U l t i m a t e tensile s t r e n g t h for bolts 1 D i s t a n c e between t h e b r a c i n g m e m b e r force a n d t h e reference p o i n t of
/> Yield strength m o m e n t , m e m b e r l e n g t h , l e n g t h o f a laced m e m b e r
/yd Design value of yield strength ly B u c k l i n g length of a single chord
F N o d e forces vector o f t h e t o t a l s y s t e m i n global c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m IBJDJB, Dimension of a guyed tower
F V e r t i c a l force il,'H,'g
F A V e c t o r of k n o w n n o d e forces Jd L e n g t h of bracings
F B V e c t o r of u n k n o w n n o d e forces lk L e n g t h o f t h e s w i n g i n g p a r t of a n i n s u l a t o r set
Pb.Rd Bearing resistance L System length, member length
Dd Design value of an action Ly, L 2 Buckling length, length of span
F , V e c t o r of forces of element i i n global c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m LM Height of tower, pole length
DK Characteristic value of an action Lv P e r m i s s i b l e m e m b e r l e n g t h i n case o f b e n d i n g a r o u n d t h e axis v
F T Action having a return period of T years Ly P e r m i s s i b l e m e m b e r l e n g t h i n case o f b e n d i n g a r o u n d t h e axis y
DvRd Shear resistance m C o n s t a n t , for single bracings 2, for cross bracings 4; n u m b e r o f profiles o f
9 Gravity constant compound members
9o Peak factor mc Conductor mass per u n i t length
Gq Gust factor meg Conductor dead weight per unit length
Gx Structural response factor A? Vertical moment
Gxc G u s t and span length reaction factor of conductors M 1 M o m e n t i n first o r d e r t h e o r y
GK Dead weight of conductor, insulator and supports Mn M o m e n t i n second order t h e o r y
h Distance between p o i n t of application of t h e load a n d t h e reference p o i n t of Mc M o m e n t due t o concrete stress
moment M d Design value of bending m o m e n t
ho Distance between the centre of gravity of the corner members Mp M o m e n t due t o steel stress
hi H e i g h t of s h o r t e s t leg e x t e n s i o n Ms B e n d i n g m o m e n t of a laced m e m b e r
h, Distance between t h e panel i a n d t h e p o i n t of application, height of leg e x t e n s i o n Mp Torsional moment
i, d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e j o i n t i a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t , l e v e r a r m Mxd Design value of torsional m o m e n t
hm Height of longest leg e x t e n s i o n MyA, MzA D e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e m o m e n t a r o u n d a x i s y, z
ha Distance between top of panel and t h e reference point of m o m e n t Mx, My, Mz M o m e n t s a r o u n d t h e a x i s x, y, z
feu Distance between base of panel and the reference point of m o m e n t M(x) Bending m o m e n t due t o external load
ooz i z oupporis

Symbols Signification Symbols Signification

M(x) Bending m o m e n t due to virtual load Ub Vector of k n o w n node displacements
n N u m b e r of subconductors Ui L o w e r chord force of a crossarm i m panel i
N A x i a l force Uj Node displacement vector of elemont i i n global coordinate system
Ncr I d e a l elastic b u c k l i n g force, axial force a t smallest b i f u r c a t i o n load Uax, Ui2x, Node displacements of element t i n global coordinate system
NA Design value o f a x i a l force Uiiy, Ui2y UA, UB H o r i z o n t a l f o r c e i n f a c e A o r B o f a l a t t i c e t o w e r
No B r a c i n g m e m b e r force o f a laced m e m b e r J/M Distance between centre of g r a v i t y a n d shear centre
NQ Force o fa single chord of a c o m p o u n d m e m b e r Us Highest system voltage of a line
Ayp H y p o t h e t i c a l force i n r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r v Distance between t h e spire of c r o s s a r m a n d reference p o i n t of m o m e n t
NRB Design value o f a x i a l force resistance Vj Edge distance f r o m centre of g r a w i t y
N(x) A x i a l force due t o e x t e r n a l load Vs T r a v e r s e force o f a b a t t e n p l a t e
N(x) A x i a l force due t o v i r t u a l load w W i d t h o f angle leg, w i n d l o a d o n c o n d u c t o r per u n i t l e n g t h
Oi Force i n upper chord of panel i Wc Conductor weight
Pi Distance between t h e centre of holes Weff Effective cross section m o d u l u s
P External concentrated load We\ E l a s t i c cross section m o d u l u s
• P A , PB H o r i z o n t a l acting forces i n face A o r B Wi„s D e a d w e i g h t o f i n s u l a t o r set
FV E x t e r n a l v e r t i c a l force W T T o r s i o n a l cross section m o d u l u s
Px, Py, P z C o m p o n e n t s of concentrated loads P i n x-, y - , z-direction Wy, W z C r o s s s e c t i o n m o d u l u s r e l a t e d t o .axes y , z
g D y n a m i c w i n d pressure y D i s t a n c e o f t h e e d g e from t h e c e n i t r o i d a l a x i s
qa Reference w i n d pressure yu Distance between centre of g r a v i t y and shearing centre
qz D y n a m i c w i n d pressure at height z above ground z Height of attachment, height abowe ground
Q Shear force zmax M a x i m u m edge distance f r o m centre of g r a v i t y o f section
Qa Background response part a Imperfection factor, angle between the crossarm axis and the perpen-
QCK C o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force d e p e n d e n t o n t e m p e r a t u r e , w i n d a n d ice l o a d d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e c e n t r e a x i s , l e g sslope, f a c t o r f o r c o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i o n
QWM W i n d load on tower strength
QIK Ice load o n conductor ab Coefficient of bearing resistance
QK Characteristic value o fan action aB Tilting angle of a joint
QPK L o a d s from c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e civ Coefficient of shearing resistance
Qwc W i n d load on conductor 0 A n g l e line deflection
Qwins W i n d load on insulator 0M M o m e n t coefficient
QWK Characteristic value of w i n d load Pity, PMZ M o m e n t c o e f f i c i e n t s r e l a t e d t o th«e a x e s y , z
RTS Rated tensile strength /3W N N o m i n a l strength of concrete
ffd Structural design resistance 0 B u c k l i n g l e n g t h factor related t o t h e axis parallel t o one leg
RX Resonant response p a r t ycr P a r t i a l factor for resistance o f concrete
RK Characteristic value o fstructural resistance yc P a r t i a l factor for conductor t e n s i l e forces
Si Distance between b a t t e n plates •yp P a r t i a l factor for actions
«k Buckling length JQ P a r t i a l factor for permanent a c t i o n
sv D i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e angle legs yi P a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r ice a c t i o n
S Leg m e m b e r f o r c e , m e m b e r f o r c e 7 M P a r t i a l factor for m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y
S M e m b e r force due t o vertial load JP P a r t i a l factor for construction an,d m a i n t a n a n c e loads
Sd A x i a l force o ft h e s u p p o r t i n g m e m b e r i n case o f cross bracings 7s P a r t i a l factor for resistance of r e i n f o r c i n g steel
Sg Force of guy wire yw P a r t i a l factor for w i n d action
SE Leg m e m b e r f o r c e A Increase of latitude of tower
SH H o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t of leg m e m b e r force A A , A B Increase of l a t i t u d e o f face A or B o f a l a t t i c e t o w e r
SL H o r i z o n t a l force perpendicular t o t h e crossarm axis A A F , A B F Increase o f l a t i t u d e o f face A or B o f a l a t t i c e t o w e r w i t h i n t h e f o u n -
Sv S h e a r stiffness o f a laced m e m b e r , v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o fleg m e m b e r force dation
Sx, S y Leg m e m b e r force due t o e x t e r n a l load P x , P y AB B o l t slippage
t D i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e force S L a n d t h e t o w e r a x i s ; t h i c k n e s s o f angle leg; t h i c k - AA S u m o fall borehole areas
ness o f p l a t e s At Increase of latitude of the c r o s s a r m lower chords
Tj Transformation matrix ec Concrete strain
Ts Shear ecu U l t i m a t e concrete strain
Tt R e t u r n period Ec2 C o n c r e t e s t r a i n o f 0,2 %
u Coordinate Ep Steel strain
m E d g e d i s t a n c e from c e n t r e o f g r a v i t y K; Buckling reduction factor
u; Vector of longitudinal node displacement of element t i n local coordinate system KM-,A M i n i m u m buckling reduction factor
u n , Ui2 L o n g i t u d i n a l node displacements o felement i i n local coordinate system KY, KZ B u c k l i n g r e d u c t i o n factor related t o t h e axes y, z
U Node displacement vector of total system i n global coordinate system A Slenderness ratio
U a Vector o fu n k n o w n node displacements A N o n - d i m e n s i o n a l slenderness r a t i o
354 12 Supports 12.1 S u p p o r t types a n d their applications 355

Symbols Signification
Ai Slenderness ratio o f a submember o f a c o m p o u n d m e m b e r
A. Reference slenderness r a t i o
Aeff Effective slenderness ratio
Ap N o n - d i m e n s i o n a l slenderness ratio o f plates
E q u i v a l e n t slenderness ratio
Ay, A Z S l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o r e l a t e d t o a x e s y, z
C o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m o m e n t f a c t o r 0M
+.

Q R e d u c t i o n factor for t h e calculation o f effective cross section properties

Qi, 02 R e d u c t i o n factor for t h e calculation o f effective angle leg w i d t h
0b B e n d i n g stress
0c C o n c r e t e stress i n concrete poles
0d D e s i g n value o f n o r m a l stress
0CR C o n d u c t o r tensile stress w i t h o u t w i n d
0P Steel stress i n concrete poles
0Rd D e s i g n value o f resistance o f n o r m a l stress
0vd Design value o fthe yield condition
0cw C o n d u c t o r tensile stress u n d e r w i n d
Yd D e s i g n value o f shear stress
0 Coefficient for calculation o fthe buckling reduction factor
00 S w i n g angle
0CR S w i n g angle w i t h o u t w i n d a c t i o n i n case o f angle s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s
0CW S w i n g angle under w i n d a ta n angle suspension support F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 : Suspension tower o f a 220 k V F i g u r e 1 2 . 2 : Suspension pole o f a 33 k V line
0 Combination factor l i n e w i t h s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets w i t h line post insulators

12.1 Support types and their applications suspension supports are aimed at. I n F i g u r e 12.1, the suspension support o fa 220 k V
line is s h o w n , i n F i g u r e 12.2 t h e suspension pole o f a 3 3 k V line.
12.1.1 Definitions

Towers o r poles o f o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s a r e p a r t s o f t h e supports a n d c o n s i s t o f tower 12.1.2.2 Angle suspension supports

or pole body, earth wire peaks a n d crossarms. T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e , t h e n u m b e r o f
circuits, t h e height o ft h e s u p p o r t s a n d o t h e r aspects d e t e r m i n e t h e s u p p o r t design a n d
m a t e r i a l s , w h e r e b y steel, reinforced concrete o r w o o d a r e u s e d . T h e s u p p o r t s d o m i n a t e
the aesthetic impact o f a n overhead line, govern t h e operational reliability a n d deter-
m i n e t h e necessary i n v e s t m e n t t o a certain extent. T h e y need t ow i t h s t a n d reliably t h e
conductor forces a n d e x t e r n a l loads.
Poles m a d e of reinforced concrete,solid-wall steel a n d wood a s w e l l a s lattice steel towers
a n d portal structures a r e s u m m a r i z e d a s self-supporting structures. A d d i t i o n a l g u y w i r e s
g u a r a n t e e t h e s t a b i l i t y o f guyed structures.
T h e type o f conductor attachment t h r o u g h the insulators a t the supports depends
o n t h e t a s k o f t h e s u p p o r t w i t h i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m . A t suspension supports,
the c o n d u c t o r s a r e fixed t o suspension insulator sets o r t o l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s i n c a s e
of low- and medium-voltage lines. L i n e post insulators are o n l y t o a low extent able
t o t r a n s f e r forces i n line d i r e c t i o n . S u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets s w i n g r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o
t h e c o n d u c t o r d i r e c t i o n b e i n g p r e v a l e n t f o r t h e t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y . A t angle-strain
a n d dead-end supports, t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e a t t a c h e d b y m e a n s o f t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s e t s
w h i c h t r a n s f e r t h e t o t a l c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force t o t h e s u p p o r t .
12.1.2 T a s k s of s u p p o r t s i n a n o v e r h e a d l i n e
Angle suspension supports s e r v e a s s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r s w h e r e t h e
l i n e changes d i r e c t i o n a t l i n e a n g l e deflections. I nt h i s case, t h e s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r
sets a s s u m e a ninclined p o s i t i o n even w i t h o u t w i n d action. A n g l e suspension s u p p o r t s
a r e u s e d for l i n e d e f l e c t i o n s b e t w e e n 0 a n d 20° a n d a t t a i n m o r e s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r l i n e s
w i t h one o r t w o circuits a n d voltages u p t o 110 k V . I n case o f h i g h e r voltages, a n u n -
favourable tower top geometry results; therefore, their economic advantage as compared
w i t h angle supports should b e studied for each project. T h e conductor attachment t o
angle suspension structures is technically disadvantageous.
12.1.2.3 Angle supports
Angle supports c a r r y t h e r e s u l t i n g c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s w h e r e t h e l i n e c h a n g e s d i r e c -
t i o n at line angle deflections. C o n t r a r i l y t o angle suspension supports, t h e y are equipped
w i t h t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets. A n g l e s u p p o r t s are l o a d e d i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s angle-
strain supports. I n t h e spans adjacent t o such supports, considerable differences i n the
c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e c a n o c c u r , e. g. d u e t o n o n - u n i f o r m i c e a c c r e t i o n ; h o w e v e r , t h i s
s u p p o r t t y p e is n o t designed for a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o a d case, c o n t r a r i l y t o a n g l e - s t r a i n
supports. D u e t o this reason, angle supports are rarely used i n areas w h i c h are prone
t o h e a v y i c i n g , e. g. i nC e n t r a l a n d N o r t h e r n E u r o p e .

12.1.2.1 Suspension supports

Suspension supports c a r r y t h e c o n d u c t o r s i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e . D u r i n g n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n ,
t h e y d o n o t transfer conductor tensile forces t o t h e s u p p o r t s a n d , therefore, c a n b e
designed relatively light-weight. Since t h e y represent the most favourable conductor
s u p p o r t s , so far i n v e s t m e n t isconcerned, line sections a s l o n g as possible e q u i p p e d w i t h
12.1.2.4 Strain and angle-strain supports
Strain a n d angle-strain supports c a r r y t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s i n l i n e d i r e c t i o n o r
i n t h e r e s u l t a n t d i r e c t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d s e r v e a d d i t i o n a l l y a s rigid points i n t h e
line. T h e y are designed for conductor tensile forces differing i n b o t h line directions a n d
500 1 2 supports
F i g u r e 12.3: S t r a i n s u p p o r t o f a 1 1 0 k V l i n e
w i t h t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets
secure t h e line against cascading failures. I nC e n t r a l E u r o p e , i t is c o m m o n practice
t o u s ea n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s a t p r a c t i c a l l y each angle p o i n t o f t h e line. T h i s eases t h e
c o n d u c t o r i n s t a l l a t i o n a s well. I ncase o f long, s t r a i g h t l i n e sections, s t r a i n s u p p o r t s
should b e arranged i n distances between 5 t o 10k m t oprovide rigid points i n t h e line,
t h u s l i m i t i n g cascading failures w h i c h m i g h t s t a r t a t s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s . I n F i g u r e
12.3, a s t r a i n s u p p o r t o f a 110 k V line is s h o w n .
12.1.2.5 Dead-end supports
Dead-end supports c a r r y t h e t o t a l c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s i n l i n e d i r e c t i o n o n o n e
side. F r e q u e n t l y , dead-end s u p p o r t s are a d d i t i o n a l l y loaded b y t h e c o n d u c t o r s l e a d i n g
to the substation portals w h i c h a c t often under a large angle t o t h e h o r i z o n t a la n d
w i t h conductor tensile forces caused b y t h e short distances t o t h e p o r t a l . T h e s e load
conditions m a y lead t o unfavourable loads o f i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s o f lattice steel towers
a n d need t ob e considered d u r i n g design. Dead-end supports o fdouble circuit lines w i t h
only one circuit installed experience a h i g h torsional load.
12.1.2.6 Special supports
I n transmission lines, a support m a y b e used for several functions o fi n d i v i d u a l support
types, e. g. i n case o f branch-off s u p p o r t s w h e r e t w o circuits m a y pass t h r o u g h a n d
o n e o r t w o o t h e r c i r c u i t s a r e t e r m i n a t e d . S u c h a branch support a s s u m e s t h e t a s k o f a n
angle o r angle-strain support concerning the circuits passing t h r o u g h . T h e t e r m i n a t e d
circuits load t h e s u p p o r t as i ncase o f a dead-end s u p p o r t . T h e load cases need t o b e
combined t o cover t h e m o s t unfavourable load conditions t a k i n g care o f t h e f u n c t i o n o f
such a support.
12.1.3 Support design and application
12.1.3.1 S e l e c t i o n of s u p p o r t d e s i g n
N u m e r o u s d e s i g n s o f s u p p o r t s a r e u s e d i n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s , s u c h a s self-
supporting steel towers, guyed steel towers, e i t h e r o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l t y p e o r c r o s s r o p e
s u s p e n s i o n [ 1 2 . 1 ] , self-supporting steel poles, flexible a n d s e m i - f l e x i b l e s t e e l t o w e r s [ 1 2 . 2 ]
IZ.L o u p p u n uypes emu m e n c i p p u u a i i u i i s ooi
a n d p o l e s , wood poles, w o o d H - f f a m e s a n d concrete poles o r c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s . T h e
selection o f t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e support design f o r a c e r t a i n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n
line i s a sensitive issue, d e p e n d i n g o n several p a r a m e t e r s o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e :
— A n o p t i m u m utilization o f t h e rights-of-way, considering t h a t the obtainabilityo f
l a n d for n e w lines isb e c o m i n g increasingly difficult a n d costly. T h u s , for a better
use o f land, t h e design o f c o m p a c t lines o r o f m u l t i p l e - c i r c u i t lines is m o r e a n d
more attractive and economic.
— T h e reduction of environmental impacts o f l i n e s h a s a l s o t u r n e d o u t t o b e a k e y
f a c t o r , e s p e c i a l l y r e g a r d i n g t h e i m p a c t o f e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields, t h e v i s u a l
impact and the impact o f location.
— O n e o f t h e line designer's p r i m a r y interest is ensuring t h a t t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n line
is c a p a b l e o f t r a n s f e r r i n g t h e necessary p o w e r a t a r e a s o n a b l e price.
— T h e prospected life t i m e o f t h e line is o f h i g h interest as well, because t h i s p o i n t
w i l l have a prevalent role i n t h e selection o f t h e s u p p o r t t y p e for a n e w line.
— Location and importance o f the line.
— T h e t e r r a i n a n d its access decides o n t h e s p a n l e n g t h s a n d s u p p o r t sites. H e a v y
concrete poles c a n n o t b e used i n a t e r r a i n n o t accessible t o h e a v y t r u c k s .
— N u m b e r o f circuits t o b e installed o n c o m m o n structures.
T h e mechanical load o f t h e conductors a n d climatic loads t o b e w i t h s t o o d .
— T h e height o f structures necessary t o cross obstacles.
— T h e l a n d use u n d e r a n e w l i n e a n d i n its vicinity.
— T h e possibilities t o acquire t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y a n ds u p p o r t sites as w e l l a s t h e
compensations t o b e paid.
— T h e keraunic level and the arrangement o f e a r t h wires.
— T h e availability o f s u p p o r t designs.
— T h e m e t h o d s t o b e used for line construction a n d maintenance.
— L a s t b u t n o t least t h e i n v e s t m e n t necessary t o construct a n e w line.
T h e i m p a c t o f these aspects varies f r o m line t o line a n d f r o m region t o region. O p t i -
mizing the support design for a nindividual line can prove t o b e economic particularly
for long lines.
12.1.3.2 Self-supporting lattice steel towers
Self-supporting lattice steel towers a r e t h e m o s t t r a d i t i o n a l t y p e s u s e d i n o v e r h e a d
power lines. T h e y a r ep r e d o m i n a n t l y adopted w h e r e t h erequirements d u e t o local
conditions a n d the e n v i r o n m e n t call for n a r r o w tower locations a n d right-of-way (Figure
12.4). Lines exceeding A C 1 5 0 k V a r efrequently equipped w i t h t h i s s u p p o r t type.
T h e i r configuration can b e adjusted t o accommodate several circuits a n d all types o f
conductor configurations; t h e l a t t i c e steel design i s e c o n o m i c also i n case o f t a l l t o w e r s
(Figure 12.5).
Weights a n dlengths o f tower elements t o b e transported a r elower compared with
concrete o r solid-wall steel poles.
I f necessary, u p g r a d i n g o f e x i s t i n g towers c a n b e carried o u trelatively simply. T h e
e x c h a n g e o f c r o s s a r m s i s p o s s i b l e . Increasing of existing tower heights c a n b e a c h i e v e d
by inserting additional tower b o d y sections. D a m a g e occurring d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n c a n
be repaired b y simple means as well. T h e installationo f additional components such
as t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n t e n n a a n d associated p l a t f o r m s i s possible i f t h e s t r u c t u r a l
stability p e r m i t s that. Towers not a n y m o r e necessary can b e scrapped a n d recycled.
Steel w i t h o u t a protected surface offers o n l y a l o w resistance against t h e i m p a c t o f
c l i m a t e a n d e n v i r o n m e n t . T o d a y , a l l l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s a r e h o t - d i p g a l v a n i z e d f o r cor-
rosion protection a n d receive often a n a d d i t i o n a l protective coating resulting i n a long
life cycle.
358 12 Supports
F i g u r e 12.4: 3 8 0 k V t o w e r a d j u s t e d t o l o c a l F i g u r e 12.5: S u s p e n s i o n tower o f 500 k V
requirements, E O S , Lausanne, Switzerland Suez crossing, E g y p t
L i n e s fitted w i t h s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s n e e d a h i g h a m o u n t o f s t e e l t o
be m a n u f a c t u r e d , t r a n s p o r t e d a n d erected. T h e r e f o r e , other designs replaced t h e m ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n l o n g s i n g l e - c i r c u i t e x t r a - h i g h - v o l t a g e lines i n less d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d areas
and i n agricultural o rnon-cultivated terrain.
12.1.3.3 Self-supporting steel poles
Self-supporting steel poles a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n c o n g e s t e d u r b a n o r s u b u r b a n a r e a s
w h e r e r i g h t s - o f - w a y a v a i l a b i l i t y i s l i m i t e d a n d s h o r t spans are possible only. T h e i r use,
i n s u c h cases, p l a y s a v a l u a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e t o u n d e r g r o u n d cables. T h e y p r o v i d e also t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f b e i n g u s e d a s c o m p a c t s t r u c t u r e s i n c l u d i n g t h e e m p l o y m e n t o f insulating
crossarms m a d e , f o r i n s t a n c e , o f c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s . R e g a r d i n g a e s t h e t i c s , s t e e l p o l e s
c o m p l y w i t h t h e desire t o use v i s u a l l y pleasing s t r u c t u r e s , o f t e n r e q u i r e d i n u r b a n areas
or o t h e r sites w h e r e aesthetics m a y play a role i n t h e s u p p o r t selection.
Suspension poles made of H-beam sections c a n b e a d o p t e d f o r m e d i u m - v o l t a g e l i n e s .
Since t h e y d o n o t require m u c h effort i n the p r o d u c t i o n , their costs per weight u n i t are
relatively low, a l t h o u g h t h e y have a relatively h i g h d e a d weight. H - b e a m sections show
d i f f e r e n t r e s i s t a n c e r e l a t e d t o t h e i r p r i n c i p a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a x e s a n d a l o w torsional
stiffness o n l y .
Seamless tubular steel poles w i t h s e c t i o n b y s e c t i o n d i f f e r i n g d i a m e t e r s o r w i t h c o n -
tinuously conical shape are produced b y rolling o r d r a w i n g . I tis possible t o adjust
their cross-sectional dimensions t o t h e bending m o m e n t . Since expensive e q u i p m e n t
is n e c e s s a r y f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g , t h i s t y p e o f p o l e s i s a d o p t e d i n c o u n t r i e s w h e r e l o c a l
m a n u f a c t u r e r s offer t h e m .
Conical steel poles w i t h s i x , e i g h t o r m o r e s i d e s a x e m a d e o f s t e e l p l a t e s b y b e n d i n g a n d
welding, t h u s enabling t o produce poles w i t h relatively h i g h resistance and sufficient
torsional stiffness aswell. Shape a n d cross section can b e adjusted t ot h e load. C o n i c a l
steel poles are also used for high-voltage lines. I n F i g u r e 12.6, a solid-wall suspension
pole o fa 110 k V double circuit line i ss h o w n . A l s o 400 k V lines have been constructed
12.1 Support types and their applications 359
F i g u r e 12.6: O n e - p i e c e , c o n i c a l s o l i d - w a l l F i g u r e 12.7: G u y e d V - t o w e r ( B r a z i l )
s t e e l p o l e o f a 110 k V l i n e ( P f l e i d e r e r A G )
w o r l d - w i d e using steel poles, for e x a m p l e i n t h e U n i t e d States a n d i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s
[12.3]. L i n e s e q u i p p e d w i t h such p o l e s need considerably h i g h e r i n v e s t m e n t s for 110 k V
a n d higher transmission voltages because o f the considerably higher efforts for the
foundations a m o n g other things compared w i t h wide-spread lattice steel tower design
especially i n case o fu n f a v o u r a b l e subsoil.
12.1.3.4 Steel-reinforced concrete poles
Steel-reinforced concrete poles h a v e b e e n u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s f o r o v e r h e a d p o w e r
l i n e s d u r i n g m a n y y e a r s a n d a r e u s e d w i d e - s p r e a w l a s spun concrete poles f o r l o w - a n d
m e d i u m - v o l t a g e installations nowadays. A l s o for 110 a n d 132 k V double circuit lines,
this design has been adopted m o r e recently. T h e possibility t o achieve the s t r e n g t h
necessary for angle a n d angle-strain poles w i t h spun concrete was a precondition for
t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . Vibrated concrete poles a x e u s e d f o r l i n e s w h e r e t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a
plant for s p u n concrete poles cannot b e economically justified and, o n t h e other h a n d ,
the t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o fs p u n concrete poles w o u l d b e t o o e x p e n s i v e [12.4, 12.5].
W h e n d e s i g n e d a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o p e r l y , c o n c r e t e p o l e s w i l l h a v e a l o n g service life
w i t h o u t a n y efforts for maintenance. I n particular, recoating o fpoles will not b e neces-
sary c o n t r a r i l y t o steel structures. Concrete poles possess a n unreduced serviceability
also after h a v i n g been 5 0years i n service, as d e m o n s t r a t e d b y examples.
C o n c r e t e p o l e s Eire c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a f a v o u r a b l e v i s u a l i m p a c t b e i n g o f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t
close t o residential areas. T h e y are reasonable a n d c o m p e t i t i v e concerning costs due
to t h e essentially lower r e q u i r e m e n t o f steel. T h i s i so f special interest for projects i n
countries w h e r e steel needs t o b e i m p o r t e d b u t cement a n d concrete aggregates are
available.
T h e h i g h weight presents a m a j o r disadvantage for concrete poles, t h u s increasing t h e
e f f o r t s f o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d e r e c t i o n . T h e h i g h w e i g h t r e s t r i c t s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n t o less
t a l l p o l e h e i g h t s i n m o s t c a s e s . C o r r e s p o n d i n g l y p o w e r f u l t o o l s a x e n e c e s s a r y f o r erection
w h i c h cannot b e used i n every t y p e o fterrain. W h e n being u n d u l y t r a n s p o r t e d , cracks
50U 12 OUppUllS
42 m
F i g u r e 12.8: General layout of
chainette tower (Hydro Quebec,
Canada)
can occur a n d t h e pole w o u l d n o t b e a n y m o r e serviceable. D u e t ot h e h i g h weight, o n l y a
transportation over short distances should b e considered. I n addition t oproduction, the
possibilities o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n limit the lengths o f poles t o b e realized. I n m o u n t a i n o u s
regions, t h e useo f concrete poles is often precluded d u et o t h e difficulty t o t r a n s p o r t
t h e poles t o t h e l o c a t i o n sites (see [12.6]).
12.1.3.5 W o o d poles
T h e u s e o f wood poles f o r o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s i s c o m m o n i n c o u n t r i e s w h e r e w o o d i s
available i n g o o d q u a l i t y a n d large q u a n t i t i e s . F o r e x a m p l e , 110 a n d 2 2 0k Vlines have
been constructed using timber structures i n N o r t h and S o u t h America and i n Australia.
12.1.3.6 Guyed supports
Guyed supports have b e e n i n t r o d u c e d e a r l y i n t h e t h i r t i e s i n t h e s h a p e o f H - o r p o r t a l
types. G u y e d V - (and rarely guyed Y - ) types came later, b u t little b y little have been
used as a s u b s t i t u t e for s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e s for l o n g single-circuit lines, especially
i n flat o r e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e t e r r a i n , f o r e c o n o m i c a l a n d a e s t h e t i c r e a s o n s . I n a g r i c u l t u r a l
a r e a s , w h i c h a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y flat, g u y e d s u p p o r t s s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d w i t h p r o t e c t i o n
o f t h e anchors against i m p a c t o f m a c h i n e s p r o n e t o d a m a g e t h e m . I nF i g u r e 12.7, a
guyed V-tower is shown.
12.1.3.7 Crossarmless supports
T h e a d v e n t o f crossarmless towers, w h e r e t h e c r o s s a r m w a s r e p l a c e d b y r o p e s , r e d u c e d
still f u r t h e r t h e weight o f steel necessary f o r t h e design o f single-circuit lines. Such
t o w e r types m a d e i t easier t o o b t a i n c o m p a c t lines w i t h increased surge impedance
l o a d . C r o s s a r m l e s s t o w e r s w e r e first a d o p t e d f o r 7 3 5 k V s i n g l e - c i r c u i t l i n e s i n C a n a d a
[12.7]. I n F i g u r e 12.8, t h e i r general l a y o u t is s h o w n . T h e s e t o w e r t y p e s need r e l a t i v e l y
w i d e a r e a s f o r t o w e r s i t e s . T h e i r u s e i s l i m i t e d t o m o r e o r less u n c u l t i v a t e d t e r r a i n ,
therefore.
12.2 Tower top geometry
12.2.1 Requirements
T r a n s m i s s i o n line s u p p o r t s r e q u i r e a design w i t h sufficiently safe clearances between
the conductors w i t h i n a span, as well as between earth a n dlive components a t t h e
s u p p o r t s u n d e r a l l c l i m a t i c a n d electric effects l i k e l y t o o c c u r . T h e a t t a c h m e n t h e i g h t
of t h e conductors depends o n t h e required clearance t og r o u n d o r t ocrossed objects. T h e
required clearance is m a i n l y d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e relevant line voltage. T h e attachment
height i t s e l f d o e s n o t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e t o w e r t o p . T h e . c l e a r a n c e
required between t h econductors depends m a i n l y o n t h es a g and, therefore, o n t h e
span length, w h i l e t h e clearances t o earthed parts o n t h e s u p p o r t is d e t e r m i n e d b y
t h e t y p e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f i n s u l a t o r s , t h e electric stresses a c t i n g o n t h e line a n d t h e
w i n d action o nconductors and insulators. Conductors and insulators swing under w i n d .
Therefore, the positions o f the conductors and insulators depend o n the w i n d action,
w h i c h p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e w h e n d e s i g n i n g t h e tower top geometry. T h e o c c u r r e n c e
probability o f a certain clearance can b e described b y statistical distributions.
T h e required m i n i m u m electrical clearances d e p e n d o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions,
the t y p e o f air g a p a n d t h e voltage stress:
- Power frequency voltages,
- Slow-front overvoltages and
- Fast-front overvoltages.
Details o n voltages a n d overvoltages are dealt w i t h i n clause 2.5.1.2.2.
12.2.2 E l e c t r i c a l clearances according to relevant standards
T h e distances between t h e conductor a t t a c h m e n t s are selected such t h a t i n n o r m a l sys-
t e m o p e r a t i o n flashovers b e t w e e n l i v e a n d e a r t h e d c o m p o n e n t s o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e w i l l
b e u n l i k e l y . N o r m a l s y s t e m o p e r a t i o n i n c l u d e s switching operations, lightning strokes
a n d overvoltages d u e t o s y s t e m f a i l u r e s . A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 8 ] , i t i s d i s t i n -
g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e minimum air clearance De\, w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d t o a v o i d a d i s t u r b i n g
discharge between conductors a n d e a r t h potential, a n d t h e m i n i m u m air clearance Dpp,
w h i c h is r e q u i r e d t o a v o i d a discharge b e t w e e n live c o n d u c t o r s . T h e m i n i m u m clearances
t o b e a d o p t e d a x e described i n clause 2.5.1.2.3. T h e clearances b e t w e e n conductors i n
m i d s p a n a n dt h eclearance o f s w u n g conductors t o earthed components need t o b e
studied as well.
12.2.3 Clearance between conductors
12.2.3.1 E q u a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s , a l i k e m a t e r i a l s a n d e q u a l sags o f c o n d u c t o r s
A s d e f i n e d i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 8 ] , c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s a r e internal clearances.
T h e r e b y i tis accepted t h a t t h e e c o n o m i c design o f a power n e t w o r k w i l l have a l i m i t e d
n u m b e r o f flashovers a c r o s s s o m e i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e s . I n s t i l l a i r , t h e e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s
De\ b e t w e e n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a n d e a r t h w i r e s a n d Dpp between phase conductors
need t o b e complied w i t h . D u e t o t h e low probability o f simultaneous occurrence o f
overvoltages w h i l s t the conductors are moved b y w i n d load, the mentioned electrical
c l e a r a n c e s De\ a n d Dpp m a y b e r e d u c e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e m b y a f a c t o r fci. F a c t o r s fci
are defined i n t h e N o r m a t i v e N a t i o n a l Aspects ( N N A ) established b y t h e members o f
C E N E L E C . T h e r e , fci i s b e t w e e n 0 , 7 5 a n d 1 , 0 0 .
T h e minimum clearance b e t w e e n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a t m i d s p a n s h o u l d b e
Cminpp = kcVfc +k + fei • D p p (12.1)
362 12 Supports 12.2 T o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y 363

conductor 1

F i g u r e 1 2 . 9 : M i n i m u m clearances between
conductors o fa 2 2 0 k V line (example)
Figure 12.10: Determina-
t i o n o f clearances a t a n a n -
a n d between a phase conductor a n d a n earth wire gle s u p p o r t
Cminpe = fect/Tc+X+fel ' D e l, (12.2)
such spans, a clearance between t h e conductors equal t o 1 % o f t h e span l e n g t h h a s
where p r o v e d i t s a d e q u a c y [12.12]. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t is r e c o m m e n d e d f o r s u c h cases t o s t u d y i n
kc factor depending o n t h erelative position o ft h e conductors a n d t h es w i n g angle detail t h e s w i n g i n g o f t h e conductors under t h e action o fdiffering w i n d loads o n t h e
4>c o f t h e c o n d u c t o r u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t o r s (see clause 12.2.3.2).
fc s a g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t +40° C , i n m ;
lk l e n g t h o ft h e insulator set swinging rectangularly t ot h eline axis, i nm ; Example: D a n u b e configuration o f t h e conductors a t a tower ( F i g u r e 12.9)
Ik = 0 a p p l i e s i n case o f l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s a n d t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets;
T w i n bundle conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A (Table 7.9) arranged h o r i z o n t a l l y
Upp m i n i m u m phase t o phase clearance depending o n t h evoltage, i nm ;
Subconductor diameter d = 22,4 m m
D e i m i n i m u m phase t oe a r t h clearance d e p e n d i n g o n t h e voltage, i nm .
Conductor mass m c= 0,994 k g / m
D r a g factor C c = 1,0
T h e relations (12.1) a n d (12.2) c a n b ef o u n d i nseveral N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects o f
Nominal voltage 2 2 0 k V , (Us = 2 4 5 k V )
t h e E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 [ 1 2 . 9 ] . T h e r e , t h e f a c t o r kc v a r i e s b e t w e e n 0 , 5 a n d M i n i m u m clearance according t o Table 2 . 2 0 D P P = 2,0 m
0,7 f o r h o r i z o n t a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d b e t w e e n 0 , 6 a n d 1,0 f o r v e r t i c a l Span length a = 500m
p o s i t i o n o f t h e t w o conductors. I nT a b l e 2.21 a n d F i g u r e 2.15 t h ed a t a according t ot h e Span length reaction factor G xc = 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 5 0 0
G e r m a n N N A E N5 0 341-3-4 [12.10] a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e s e d a t a a p p l y as w e l l f o r A u s t r i a , S a g a t 5 0 0 m a n d +40°C fc = 2 5 , 6 0 m
B e l g i u m a n d Switzerland. A s a further example, t h e practice f r o m Brazil should b e Length o fthe insulator set Ik = 4,0 m
Reference w i n d pressure ( w i n d zone 1) qB = 8 0 0 N / m 2
m e n t i o n e d [12.11]. T h em i n i m u m clearance s h o u l d b e a t least
Conductor a t t h elower crossarm:
c m i n = 0 , 3 7 v * 9 c + 0 , 0 0 7 6 Us i n m , (12.3) height of attachment z = 34,0 m
dynamic w i n d pressure qz = 0 , 5 8 (go + 3 • z) = 5 2 3 N / m 2
w h e r e fc i s t h e s a g i n t h e l o n g e s t s p a n a n d Us t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e i n k V . swing angle 0 c = t a n - 1 [{qz • d • GxC • C c ) / ( m c • 9)) = 34,4°
T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e i sbased o nt h e a p p r o a c h a s g i v e n i n [12.10]. T h e r e , t h e factor Conductor a t t h eupper crossarm:
fci i s 0 , 7 5 a n d fcc i s o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 1 . height o f attachment z = 40,0 m
d y n a m i c w i n d pressure qz = 0 , 5 8 (go + 3 • z) = 5 3 3 N / m 2
T h e c l e a r a n c e c m m m a y n o t b e l e s s t h a n fcc, i n m . I n c a s e o f p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t s w i t h
swing angle 0 c = t a n ' 1 [(qz • d • GxC • C c ) / ( m c • g)] = 34,9°
differing o p e r a t i o n a l voltages o n t h es a m e s u p p o r t s , t h eh i g h e r values f o r D p p a n d T*ei,
respectively, a r e used. B a s e d o n t h e s e s w i n g a n g l e s , fcc = 0 , 6 0 f o l l o w s f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 2 f o r c o n d u c t o r s i n a h o r i z o n t a l
T h e conductor swing angle 0 c r e s u l t s from p l a n e a n d fcc = 0 , 6 2 f o r c o n d u c t o r s a t d i f f e r i n g c r o s s a r m s .
According t o (12.1), t h e m i n i m u m h o r i z o n t a l clearance is
0c = t a n - 1 [w/ ( m c • g)] = t a n - 1 [qz • d • GxC •C c / ( m c • 9)] • (12-4)
Cmin = 0 , 6 0 • ^ 2 5 , 6 + 4 , 0 + 0 , 7 5 • 2 , 0 = 4 , 7 6 m
According t o E N 5 0341-3-4, the w i n d load h a v i n g a r e t u r n period o f three years a m o u n t -
a n d t h em i n i m u m clearance t o t h e t h i r d conductor i s
ing t o 5 8 % o ft h e m a x i m u m d y n a m i c w i n d pressure is used i n equation (12.4). T h e
s a g fc i s a s s u m e d a t a c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e o f + 4 0 ° C w i t h o u t w i n d a c t i o n . T h e c m i n = 0,62 • x/25,6 + 4,0 + 0,75 • 2,0 = 4,87m .
s a g fc i n e q u a t i o n s ( 1 2 . 1 ) a n d ( 1 2 . 2 ) d e p e n d s o n t h e s p a n l e n g t h . T h e m a x i m u m s p a n
I n t h e spans w i t h angle supports, t h e angle position needs t o b e considered w h e n
b e t w e e n t w o s u p p o r t s , f o r w h i c h a t o w e r f a m i l y i s d e s i g n e d , i s d e s i g n a t e d a s phase span
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m i n i m u m clearances. I n F i g u r e 12.10, a n e x a m p l e is s h o w n f o r span
length, t h e r e f o r e . T h e l e n g t h lk o f t h e s w i n g i n g p a r t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t i s a s s u m e d t o
between a n angle support w i t h a suspension support. T h edistance o fthe attachments
b e zero i n case o ft e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a n d line post i n s u l a t o r s . E q u a t i o n s (12.1) a n d
at t h eangle tower results t o b e
(12.2) a p p l y t o c o m m o n l y encountered conditions a n ds p a n lengths; t h e y d on o t include
a n y p r o v i s i o n s f o r galloping a n d s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r s p a n s l o n g e r t h a n 1 0 0 0 m ; f o r f>w = ( 2 c m i n -6r)/[(l - Af/2 • tana)cosa] , (12.5)
364 12 Supports

36° f o l l o w s f o r 2 0 0 m s p a n l e n g t h . T h e c l o s e s t d i s t a n c e s o f t w o c o n d u c t o r s m a y n o t
a l w a y s o c c u r a tt h e m a x i m u m w i n d a c t i o n o n o n e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s , b u t a tlower w i n d
pressures. Therefore, t h e w h o l e range o fs w i n g angles f r o m zero t ot h e m a x i m u m needs
to b e studied.

12.2.4 C l e a r a n c e s at s u p p o r t s

T h e conductor next t o the tower b o d y needs t o b e arranged such that the required
m i n i m u m clearances between live components a n d e a r t h e d s u p p o r t p a r t s are o b e y e d
also u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n . I n m a n y cases, t h e f i t t i n g s s u c h as y o k e plates o f d o u b l e i n s u l a t o r
sets o r p r o t e c t i o n fittings p r e v a i l o n t h e m i n i m u m clearances at supports s i n c e t h e y
approach closer t o t h e t o w e r b o d y t h a n t h e conductors i na s w u n g condition. T h e
m i n i m u m clearances occur between t h e live p a r t s a n d the angle l e go f the bracing
F i g u r e 12.11: S w i n g i n g o f t w o c o n d u c - F i g u r e 12.12: S w i n g i n g o f a 1 1 0 k V s i n g l e - a r r a n g e d o u t s i d e t h e t o w e r b o d y o r t h e s t e p b o l t s . T h e swing angle of the insulator set
tors a t w i n d loads reduced b y 4 0% o n s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r set under w i n d action is
one o fthe t w o conductors
0c = t a n - 1 [ ( Q w c + O , 5 - Q w i n s ) / ( W c + O,5-lFins)] , (12.7)
w h e r e 6 x ' s t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s , Cmin i s
where Q w c isthe w i n d load o nthe conductor, Qwins the w i n d load o nthe insulator,
t h e clearance i n m i d s p a n a n d A ft h e increase o fw i d t h o f t h e crossarm lower face.
W c t h e conductor weight f o rt h e shortest w e i g h t s p a n a n d Wins t h e weight o f t h e
i n s u l a t o r set.
12.2.3.2 Conductors w i t h different cross sections, m a t e r i a l s o r sags T h e l o w e s t weight span t a k e s c a r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n h e i g h t s b e t w e e n n e i g h b o u r i n g s u p -
I n c a s e o f c o n d u c t o r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t c r o s s s e c t i o n s , m a t e r i a l s o r s a g s , t h e f a c t o r fcc c o r - ports. T h e fittings o f double i n s u l a t o r sets a r r a n g e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o l i n e d i r e c t i o n
responding t o t h e higher s w i n g angle 0 c i s used for calculating t h e clearances according m a y t o u c h each o t h e r o r e v e n get stuck w h e n large s w i n g angles occur. W h e n a r r a n g -
t o (12.1) a n d (12.2), a s w e l l a s t h e h i g h e r sags i n case o f d i f f e r i n g sags. i n g t h e double i n s u l a t o r sets i n line direction, t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r strings d o n o t
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e clearances between the conductors i n s t i l l a i r , t h e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n i n t e r f e r e w i t h each o t h e r i n case o f s w i n g i n g u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n .
swung conductors should b e studied. I tcan b e recommended that under the action T h e clearance b e t w e e n t h e s w u n g i n s u l a t o r set a n d t h e c r o s s a r m needs t o b e checked a s
of d y n a m i c w i n d pressures differing u p t o 4 0 % f o rt h e i n d i v i d u a l conductors, t h e w e l l . I n F i g u r e 12.12, t h e s w i n g i n g o f a 110 k V s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r set is s h o w n w i t h
c l e a r a n c e s s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t k\ • De\ o r k\ • Dpp, r e s p e c t i v e l y . D u e t o t h e l o w p r o b a b i l i t y t h e clearances t ot h e tower b o d y a n d t o t h e lower face o ft h e crossarm. I f the clearance
of simultaneous occurrence o fovervoltages a n d e x t r e m e w i n d loads, a r e t u r n period o f t o t h e l o w e r face is n o t sufficient, t h e h i n g e o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set c a n b e l o w e r e d b y m e a n s
three years for t h e w i n d i sr e c o m m e n d e d for c o m p u t i n g t h e s w u n g conductor position. o f a dropper. H i n g e d d r o p p e r s r e d u c e t h e t o r s i o n a l l o a d o n t h e c r o s s a r m r e s u l t i n g f r o m
forces i n line direction. E x t e n s i o n s o f t h e i n s u l a t o r l e n g t h b y m e a n s o f links between
T h e w i n d load acts p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e conductor. A c c o r d i n g t o E N 50 341-1, i t
t h e hinge bracket a n d t h e a t t a c h m e n t eye can also b e used t o increase t h e clearance.
applies t o the w i n d load
I n c a s e o f angle suspension supports, t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s a t t a i n a s w u n g p o s i t i o n a l s o
Qwc = n • qz • Gx c •C c •d • a w in k N , (12.6) w i t h o u t w i n d a c t i o n d u e t o t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s . T h e swing angle w i t h o u t w i n d
action a t an angle suspension support is
where
n number o f subconductors 0CR = t a n - 1 [ ( 2 - n - A - C T C R - s i n / 3 / 2 ) / ( a g - n - m c S + O,5-Wins)] , (12.8)
qz the dynamic w i n d pressure o nthe conductors f o r t h e r e f e r e n c e h e i g h t z,
w h e r e A i s t h e c o n d u c t o r c r o s s s e c t i o n , CTCR t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e , n t h e n u m b e r
Gx c gnst and span length reaction factor depending o nthe span length and the
o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s , / ? t h e a n g l e o f l i n e d e f l e c t i o n , a g t h e w e i g h t s p a n , meg t h e c o n d u c t o r
d y n a m i c b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s , a l s o c a l l e d span length coefficient.
d e a d w e i g h t p e r u n i t l e n g t h a n d Wins t h e d e a d w e i g h t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set. W i t h o u t
A c c o r d i n g t o [12.8], t h e factor G x c c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m
w i n d a c t i o n , m i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e s Dei h a v e t o b e c o m p l i e d w i t h .
G x c = 1,30 — 0 , 0 8 2 . I n a w f o r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y I I .
T h e swing angle u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e
A c c o r d i n g t o [12.10], i t can b e assumed:
force a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f +5°C.
GxC = 0,75 for span lengths u pt o200 m ,
G x c = 0,45 + 6 0 / a w for span lengths longer t h a n 200 m , , . - i Q w c + 2 •A • n - g c w s i n / 3 / 2 + 0,5 • Q w i n s „ n,
0cw = tan , (12.9)
Gc drag factor for conductors. a g • n • mcg + 0 , 5 • W i n s
d conductor diameter i nm ,
aw w i n d s p a n e q u a l t o ( L i + L2)/2 i n m . w h e r e Q w c is t h e w i n d l o a d o n t h e c o n d u c t o r a c c o r d i n g t o (12.6), Q w i n s t h e w i n d l o a d
o n t h e i n s u l a t o r , A t h e conductor cross section, n t h e n u m b e r o f subconductors, CTCW
B a s e d o n t h i s w i n d l o a d , t h e conductor swing angle c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n a t +5°C; r e g a r d i n g o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s see
( 1 2 . 4 ) . T h e s a g a t 40°C c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d b e u s e d . I n F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 1 , s w i n g - under (12.8).
ing o f the conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A is s h o w n according t o the above mentioned A t a n g l e a n d d e a d - e n d s u p p o r t s , t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e jumper loops i s c o m p o s e d o f a
e x a m p l e . F o r a d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e r e d u c e d b y 4 0 %, a c o n d u c t o r s w i n g a n g l e o f transfer o ft h e points connecting conductor a n d j u m p e r loop a n d the m o v e m e n t o f the
 12.3 Basic design r e q u i r e m e n t s 3 6 7

I f t h e d i s t a n c e bs i s h i g h f o r b i g l i n e d e f l e c t i o n s , i t c a n b e m o r e e c o n o m i c t o a d o p t a n
auxiliary insulator set t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e j u m p e r l o o p a n d t h e
t o w e r b o d y a n d t okeep t h e c r o s s a r m d i m e n s i o n s s h o r t e r . S u c h a u x i l i a r y i n s u l a t o r sets
c a n b e d e s i g n e d a s V - s h a p e d s e t s o r i n c l i n e d s i n g l e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s . Additional weights
a r r a n g e d a t t h e j u m p e r loops serve t h e s a m e p u r p o s e . I n case o f big l i n e deflections,
it t o b e considered h a s a d d i t i o n a l l y t h a t t h e clearances b e t w e e n t h e e a r t h e d fittings
of t h e tension i n s u l a t o r set and t h e j u m p e r loop i nstill air, as well as i nt h e s w u n g
c o n d i t i o n w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 4 ) . I f n e c e s s a r y , extension links c a n b e
used t o reach t h e r e q u i r e d clearances.

12.3 Basic design requirements

12.3.1 Introduction

E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 8 ] d e f i n e s t h e basic requirements for design o f o v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s

as f o l l o w s .
- I tshall p e r f o r m its purpose under a defined set o f conditions, w i t h acceptable
l e v e l s o f r e l i a b i l i t y a n d i n a n e c o n o m i c m a n n e r . T h i s r e f e r s t o a s p e c t s o f reliability
requirements.
- I t s h a l l n o t b e l i a b l e t o a p r o g r e s s i v e c o l l a p s e (cascading) i f a f a i l u r e i s t r i g g e r e d
i n a d e f i n e d c o m p o n e n t . T h i s r e f e r s t o a s p e c t s o f security requirements.
- I t s h a l l n o t b e l i a b l e t o cause h u m a n i n j u r i e s o r loss o f life d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n
a n d m a i n t e n a n c e . T h i s r e f e r s t o a s p e c t s o f safety requirements.
T o c o m p l y w i t h these basic requirements, all components o f a n overhead line should
j u m p e r loop itself (Figure 12.13). T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n n e r m o s t conductor a t t a c h m e n t
be selected, designed a n d installed such t h a t t h e y p e r f o r m r e l i a b l y u n d e r t h e c l i m a t i c
to t h e c r o s s a r m needs t ob e selected such t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d clearance t ot h e tower b o d y
impacts t o b e regularly expected, under t h e m a x i m u m operating voltage, under the
is c o m p l i e d w i t h . T h e i n c r e a s e o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e t o w e r b o d y a n d t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f
effect o ft h e electric l o a d C u r r e n t a n d u n d e r a s h o r t - c i r c u i t l o a d . I m p a c t s o f a t m o s p h e r i c
the bracings arranged outside the tower body o r the length o f stepbolts need t o b e
and switching overvoltages should b e t a k e n into consideration.
considered a s w e l l . T h e clearance t ot h e closest e l e m e n t o f t h e t o w e r b o d y s h o u l d b e a t
R e g a r d i n g t h e support design, t h e actions on the supports axe c o m b i n e d t o l o a d c a s e s
least
s u c h t h a t reliability,security a n d safety p e r f o r m a n c e w i l l b e a c c o m p l i s h e d . U n c e r t a i n t i e s
6s = / k - s i n / 3 / 2 + / o - s i n 0 c + / s - s i n 3 O ° + fci-£lei , (12.10) due t o scattering o f actions, imperfections o f the supports a n d variation o f m a t e r i a l
properties need t o b e considered t o achieve a probability o f occurrence low enough t o
w h e r e l k i s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t ; r e g a r d i n g 0 s e e ( 1 2 . 8 ) . T h e v a l u e fo r e p r e s e n t s be accepted regarding reliability and security.
the distance b e t w e e n t h e lower face o f t h e c r o s s a r m a n d t h e connections b e t w e e n t h e T h e loads acting o n t h e supports under n o r m a l operation depend o n the s t r u c t u r a l
conductors and t h e j u m p e r loop, 0 C is the swing angle o f the conductor under w i n d design a n d o n t h e u s eand location o f the supports w i t h i n the overhead line. T h i s
a n d fs t h e s a g o f t h e j u m p e r l o o p . circumstance is taken into account w h e n designing the supports because a grading o f
If applicable, the subconductor distance o fa bundle conductor has t ob e considered as t h e i r s t r e n g t h r e s u l t s i n a r e d u c t i o n o f investments w i t h o u t jeopardizing the reliability.
w e l l . T h e d i s t a n c e fo c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e s a g fe i n t h e complementary span ae W h e n designing s u p p o r t s t h e actions d u e t o differences i n t h e conductor tensile force
w h i c h considers t h e difference o f conductor a t t a c h m e n t heights a t adjacent towers: because o f n o n - u n i f o r m icing and t o a local damage are considered. D u e t o economic
reasons, not all supports will b e designed such strong that t h e y w o u l d w i t h s t a n d a l l t h e
fo = 4 • / e - lk • (ae - Z k ) / a 2 . (12.11) m o s t unfavourable loads. B u t at o u t s t a n d i n g locations w i t h i n t h e right-of-way, supports
a r e a r r a n g e d b e i n g d e s i g n e d f o r t h e s e s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , cascading failures
L o n g s p a n s e x c e p t e d , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o a s s u m e a c o n d u c t o r d o w n s t r a i n a n g l e o f 10° a n d
will b e limited t o a short line section only. D u e t o these considerations, different support
fo = h • s i n 10°. T h e e n d p o i n t s o f t h e j u m p e r l o o p a r e d i s p l a c e d d u e t o t h e s w i n g i n g
t y p e s a r e u s e d i n o n e l i n e (see c l a u s e 1 2 . 1 . 2 ) .
o f t h e c o n d u c t o r u n d e r w i n d l o a d i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e t o w e r b o d y b y (see F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 3 )

f>sw = / o • s i n 0 c , (12.12) 12.3.2 Static design

w h e r e 0 c is d e t e r m i n e d according t o (12.4) a n d 6 s W t h e displacement o fj u m p e r loop T h e s u p p o r t s a r e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t s u f f i c i e n t ultimate strength a n d serviceability un-

ends under w i n d action. der the given requirements are guaranteed. Calculations are carried out using suitable
J u m p e r loops have a certain stiffness due t otheir short l e n g t h a n d their a t t a c h m e n t t o design models w h i c h d e s c r i b e t h e s t a t i c p e r f o r m a n c e c o r r e c t l y . T h e s e d e s i g n m o d e l s a r e
t h e t e n s i o n c l a m p s , t h e r e f o r e , a s w i n g a n g l e o f 30° h a s p r o v e d t o b e s u f f i c i e n t i n d e p e n - based o n approved design theories a n d practices, w h i c h are verified b y tests as well.
dently o fthe conductor type and w i n d load. Such models for analysis and design are established i nrelevant standards, too. T h e
 500 i z supports

modelling as a three-dimensional lattice framework w i t h h i n g e d m e m b e r s for lattice

T a b l e 1 2 . 1 : S t a n d a r d l o a d cases a c c o r d i n g t o E N
steel towers a n d t h e equivalent-member method for b u c k l i n g a c c o r d i n g t o E u r o c o d e 3 5 0 4 3 1 - 1 [12.8]
[12.13] s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d a s s u i t a b l e d e s i g n m o d e l s . Load Conditions
T h e serviceability m i g h t b e r e s t r i c t e d o r n o t a n y m o r e e n s u r e d i f t h e s u p p o r t e x p e r i e n c e d case
large d e f o r m a t i o n s . T h e s e m a y affect t h e aesthetics, however, t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e la Extreme w i n d load
c o n d u c t o r a t t a c h m e n t r e d u c e a l s o t h e electrical clearances. T h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y i s e n s u r e d lb W i n d load a ta m i n i m u m temperature
i f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e s u p p o r t s d o n o t i m p a i r t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e (see 2a U n i f o r m ice l o a d s o n a l l s p a n s
clause 12.5.14). C a l c u l a t i o n o fd e f o r m a t i o n s i s carried o u t t o verify t h e serviceability. 2b U n i f o r m ice loads, t r a n s v e r s a l b e n d i n g
2c U n b a l a n c e d ice l o a d s , l o n g i t u d i n a l b e n d i n g
A sufficient strength ensures that damage o f the support due t o exceedingly h i g h d e -
2d U n b a l a n c e d ice l o a d s , t o r s i o n a l b e n d i n g
f o r m a t i o n s , loss o f s t a b i l i t y , o v e r t u r n i n g o r collapse i s n o t likely. I f t h e s t r e n g t h l i m i t s C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice l o a d
3
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l elements are not exceeded, sufficient strength o f the whole structure C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads
4
i s v e r i f i e d . T h o s e l i m i t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e d e s i g n v a l u e s for i n t e r n a l f o r c e s a n d 5a Security loads, t o r s i o n a l loads
m o m e n t s o r for stresses. A l i m i t for s t r e n g t h , a s a n e x a m p l e , i st h e plastic d e f o r m a t i o n 5b Security loads, l o n g i t u d i n a l loads
o f t h e m a t e r i a l w h i c h i s d e s c r i b e d b y t h e d e s i g n v a l u e fyd o f t h e yield strength. The
s t r e n g t h l i m i t i s a l s o c a l l e d structural design resistance. T h e actions o n the supports
r e s u l t i n i n t e r n a l f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s a s w e l l a s i n s t r e s s e s w h i c h a r e c a l l e d effects of o f e x i s t i n g designs. V a l u e s a r e g i v e n f o r e x a m p l e i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] a n d t h e associated
actions. A s u f f i c i e n t s t r e n g t h o f a n e l e m e n t i s v e r i f i e d i f t h e e f f e c t o f a c t i o n d o e s n o t N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s , e. g. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [12.10].
exceed the s t r u c t u r a l resistance. T h e design value J Q of a structural resistance i s d e f i n e d b y

T h e static design o f s u p p o r t s i s s u b d i v i d e d i n t o s e v e r a l s t e p s . I n t h e first s t e p , t h e Rq = - R K / T M • (12T4)

a c t i o n s Eire d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e l o a d c a s e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e y d e p e n d o n t h e t y p e
and arrangement o f conductors, the type and application o f support and the support
g e o m e t r y . I n t h e s e c o n d step, t h e effects o f a c t i o n s , w h i c h are t h e i n t e r n a l forces a n d
m o m e n t s i n t h e i n d i v i d u a le l e m e n t s a r e c o m p u t e d f o r t h e s t i p u l a t e d l o a d cases. I n each
case, t h e m a x i m u m forces a n d m o m e n t s are selected since o n l y these d a t a influence t h e
rating. I n the t h i r d step, t h e rating o f t h e elements is carried o u t . For each i n d i v i d u a l
e l e m e n t , t h e p r e v a l e n t l o a d is d e t e r m i n e d , t h e m a t e r i a l Eind cross sections b e i n g selected
such t h a t t h e i r d e s i g n resistance i s sufficient t o w i t h s t a n d t h e effects o f a c t i o n s . W h e n
t h e global d i m e n s i o n s a n d t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e selected design a r ek n o w n , t h e d e a d
weight o f the structure and the area exposed t o w i n d can b e calculated. D u e t o the
influence o f the dead weight a n d t h e w i n d action o n t h e s u p p o r t structure itself, the
final design depends o n these parameters as well. T h e static design o f a transmission
line s u p p o r t is, therefore, a ni t e r a t i v e process, i n principle.
12.3.3 Design values and verification methods
I t i s t h e t a r g e t o f t h e d e s i g n t o v e r i f y t h a t damage o r failure limits w i l l n o t b e e x c e e d e d
u n d e r a l l r e l e v a n t design conditions.
T h e m e t h o d o f partial factors f o r m s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t r a n s -
m i s s i o n l i n e s u p p o r t s . P a r t i a l factors for Editions a n d for resistance t a k e care o f uncer-
tainties i nt h e actions, i ng e o m e t r i c d a t a a n d i nt h e s t a t i c m o d e l s i m u l a t i o n . P a r t i a l
f a c t o r s m a y a l s o b e s e l e c t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o a d e s i r e d coordination of strength a n d C E i n
depend, therefore, o n the type o f support a n d its f u n c t i o n w i t h i n the line. T h e func-
tional conditions w i t h i n t h e overhead line s y s t e m are explained i n clause 6.2.1; clause
6.1.4 c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n o n c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h s . I ft h e design values f o r a c -
tions, m a t e r i a l properties and geometrical d a t a are used suitably i n the design models,
damage o r failure states w i t h i n overhead lines are unlikely.
T h e design value Fd of a n action i s e x p r e s s e d i n g e n e r a l b y
F A = T F F K o r F d = F T , (12.13)
w h e r e F k i s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e o f t h e a c t i o n , yp t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r for t h i s a c t i o n
a n d F T t h e a c t i o n h a v i n g a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f T T years. P a r t i a l factors f o ractions a r e
b a s e d o n t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , e x p e r i e n c e Eind c a l i b r a t i o n b y r e t r o s p e c t i v e a n a l y s i s
T h e p a r t i a l {actor f o r t h e m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t y T M t a k e s c a r e o f t h e u n f a v o u r a b l e v a r i a t i o n s
from t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e RR, o f i n a c c u r E c y i n t h e a p p l i e d c o n v e r s i o n f a c t o r s a n d
u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n g e o m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s a n d resistEince m o d e l s . T h e r e f o r e , i tapplies t o t h e
verification o f the failure limit o r a n excessive d e f o r m a t i o n o f a component, a n element
or a connecting joint:
Ed<Rd , (12-15)
w h e r e Ed i s t h e t o t a l d e s i g n v a d u e o f t h e e f f e c t o f a c t i o n s a n d Rq t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
structural design resistance, associating cdls t r u c t u r a l properties w i t h t h e respective
design values.
T h e total effect of actions r e s u l t s from t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e a c t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
l o a d c a s e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e r e b y , t h e a c t i o n s Eire d e f i n e d b y t h e i r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s a n d
m u l t i p l i e d b y pairtial factors o r b y u l t i m a t e design loads:
$ > i Qac \ . (12.16)
i=l J
T h e i n d i v i d u a d c o m p o n e n t s o f actions are defined b y t h e l o a d cases t o b e considered.
12.4 Load cases and partial factors
12.4.1 C o m b i n a t i o n of loads
Differing e x t e r n a l loads acting s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n the supports o f overhead lines are
c o m b i n e d t o load cases i n a n a d e q u a t e m a n n e r . T h e s e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f a c t i o n s n e e d t o
c o m p l y w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g reliability, security a n d safety. T h e l o a d c a s e s
s h o u l d t a k e c a r e o f cdl l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s t o b e e x p e c t e d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d d u r -
i n g t h e w h o l e life p e r i o d o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e such t h a t d a m a g e w i l l b e unlikely. F o r t h e
d e s i g n o f e l e m e n t s , a l l a c t i o n s o f a l o a d c a s e a r e a s s u m e d as a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a n d
t h a t load case w i l l b e selected w h i c h results i n t h e highest l o a d o f t h e e l e m e n t i n ques-
t i o n . I n m a n y s t a n d a r d s for o v e r h e a d lines, e. g. [12.10] a n d [12.14], i ti s d i s t i n g u i s h e d
b e t w e e n normal a n d exceptional loads, w h e r e b y d i f f e r i n g s t a b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s o r d i f -
fering p e r m i s s i b l e stresses apply. T h e classification o f t h o s e specific loads m a y o c c u r t o
370 12 Supports
T a b l e 1 2 . 2 : L o a d c a s e s a c c o r d i n g to E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [ 1 2 . 1 0 ]
Load Conditions
case
A Wind load in direction of crossarms, conductors without ice loads
B Wind load in line direction, conductors without ice loads
C Wind load under 45°, conductors without ice loads
D Reduced wind load in direction of crossarms, conductors with ice loads
E Reduced wind load in line direction, conductors with ice loads
F Reduced wind load under 45°, conductors with ice loads
G Conductor tensile forces at -20° C, unbalanced ice loads, conductors particularly with ice
loads
H Conductor tensile forces at -20°C or -5°C with ice load, conductors with ice loads. Dif-
fering conductor tensile forces. This case does only apply for strain towers.
I Construction and maintenance loads, conductors without ice loads
J Torsional load, one conductor tensile forces reduced, conductors with ice loads
K Longitudinal bending, all conductor tensile forces reduced, conductors with ice loads
L Load after failing of one insulator string, conductors with ice loads
b e c h o s e n a r b i t r a r i l y i n a specific case. I n g e n e r a l , a l l cases o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g t h e n o r m a l
o p e r a t i o n o f a n overhead line a r e considered a s n o r m a l load. W i n d load is, therefore,
an example f o ra n o r m a l load. Loads o r load combinations having a low probability
o f o c c u r r e n c e a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s e x c e p t i o n a l l o a d s , e. g. a n o n - u n i f o r m i c e a c c r e t i o n o f
t h e s p a n s o r i c e s h e d d i n g . I n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 five standard load cases a r e s p e c i f i e d . T h e y
affect t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s i n a d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r , w h e r e b y i t c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d
i n a d v a n c e w h i c h l o a d cases w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s o f a s u p p o r t .
T h e l o a d cases a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1 2 . 1 .
L o a d cases f o r design o f s u p p o r t s a n d f o u n d a t i o n s a r e d e f i n e d i n each o v e r h e a d l i n e
s t a n d a r d o r p r o j e c t specification. A s a n e x a m p l e f o ru s e f u l d e f i n i t i o n s , t h e l o a d cases
a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 341-3-4 [12.10] a r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e a f t e r .
I n v i e w o f t h e design, t h e l o a d cases a r e s u b d i v i d e d t a k i n g care o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f
weight spans a n d line deflections corresponding t o t h e application o f each i n d i v i d u a l
s u p p o r t t y p e . A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r a n angle support d e s i g n e d f o r l i n e d e f l e c t i o n s b e t w e e n
0 a n d 20°, a l l l o a d c a s e s s h o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e s e t w o a n g l e s t o c o v e r a l l p r e v a l e n t
stresses o f i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . T o c o m p u t e t e n s i l e forces i n e l e m e n t s a n d u p l i f t o f t h e
foundations, t h e lowest values o f t h e p e r m a n e n t loads need t o b e used i f these actions
reduce t h e effects o f o t h e r actions. H e r e , t h e s h o r t e s t w e i g h t s p a n needs t o b e a s s u m e d
for t h e d e a d l o a d s o f c o n d u c t o r s .
12.4.2 E x t r e m e w i n d load
I n c a s e o f extreme wind load, p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , w i n d l o a d i n a l l r e l e v a n t d i r e c t i o n s o n t h e
conductor, t h e support, o n insulators, accessories a n d o n t h e e q u i p m e n t as well as t h e
conductor tensile forces increased b y w i n d a c t i o n a r e a s s u m e d as a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
T h e w i n d a c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e o r u n d e r a n a n g l e o f 45° ( d i a g o n a l w i n d )
will b e prevalent forthe m a j o r i t y o f suspension supports. Other w i n d directions m a y
gain relevance depending o n t h e conductor a r r a n g e m e n t a n d line angles. T h e applicable
t e m p e r a t u r e affects t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile force a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s
o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a considered. I n T a b l e 12.2, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o a d cases a r e
listed a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 341-3-4 [12.10] as a n e x a m p l e .
L o a d c a s e A a s s u m e s p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , wind in direction of the crossarm axis o n c o n -
ductors, tower a n d e q u i p m e n t as well as conductor tensile forces a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f
+5°C a s a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s l o a d c a s e , i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t f o r t h e
12.4 L o a d cases a n d p a r t i a l f a c t o r s 371
l e g m e m b e r s a n d b r a c i n g s i n t h e f a c e i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e c r o s s a r m Eixis f o r s u s p e n s i o n ,
angle suspension a n d tall angle towers.
L o a d c a s e B a s s u m e s p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , wind load rectangularly to the crossarm axis o n
conductors, tower a n d e q u i p m e n t as well as t h e associated conductor tensile force a t a
t e m p e r a t u r e o f +5°C a s a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s l o a d case y i e l d s t h e h i g h e s t f o r c e s
i n t h e faces p a r a l l e l t o t h e w i n d d i r e c t i o n i n case o f t a l l l a t t i c e t o w e r s .
L o a d case C assumes p e r m a n e n t loads, w i n d load o n conductors, t o w e r a n d e q u i p m e n t
u n d e r a n a n g l e o f 45° t o w a r d s t h e c r o s s a r m E i x i s a n d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a t a t e m -
p e r a t u r e o f +5°C a s a c t i n g s i m u l t E i n e o u s l y . T h e d i a g o n a l w i n d a c t i o n y i e l d s f r e q u e n t l y
the highest loads o f leg m e m b e r s a n d t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n s i n case o f suspension a n d angle
s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s a n d , i n s o m e cases, f o ra n g l e t o w e r s a n d a n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s as well.
12.4.3 W i n d load at m i n i m u m temperature
T h i s load case assumes p e r m a n e n t loads, a reduced w i n d l o a d c o m p a r e d w i t h l o a d
case l a ( T a b l e 12.1), a n d conductor tensile forces a t m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e as a c t i n g
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s l o a d case m a y b e i m p o r t a n t w h e r e c o n d u c t o r forces a c t a g a i n s t
t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a t t h e s u p p o r t . T h e y a r e c a l l e d uplift forces.
L o a d case G a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] i s a p p l i c a b l e o n l y w h e r e u p l i f t forces o c c u r ; t w o l o a d
c o m b i n a t i o n s n e e d t o b e s t u d i e d . I n t h e first c a s e , t h e p e r m a n e n t l o a d s a n d c o n d u c t o r
t e n s i l e f o r c e s a c t a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f -20° C . T h e r e b y , t h e l o w e s t c o n d u c t o r s a g s o c c u r
r e s u l t i n g i n t h e m a x i m u m u p l i f t forces. T h i s l o a d case w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t i fu p l i f t forces
act i n b o t h a d j a c e n t spans. I n t h e s e c o n d case, t h e p e r m a n e n t loads a c t a n d i c e loads
are assumed i n one span.
12.4.4 U n i f o r m and unbalanced ice loads w i t h o u t w i n d
E x t r e m e ice l o a d
I n c a s e o f extreme ice load, p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , i c e l o a d s a n d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s
increased d u e t ot h e ice load a ta c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e act s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . Several
conditions c a nb e distinguished w i t h respect t o ice load. A u n i f o r m ice load m a y b e
assumed a t t h e conductors a n d e a r t h wires i n a l lspans o f a line section either w i t h t h e
s a m e m a g n i t u d e a t a l l conductors (load case 2 a ) o r w i t h differing values a ti n d i v i d u a l
conductors resulting t h e n i n a bending o f t h e supports perpendicularly t o t h eline
d i r e c t i o n (load case 2 b ) . I n case o f n o n - u n i f o r m ice a c c r e t i o n a t c o n d u c t o r s a n d e a r t h
wires, differences i n t h e conductor tensile forces are created w h i c h load t h e s u p p o r t i n
l i n e d i r e c t i o n (load case 2 c ) a n d m a y r e s u l t i n t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t s (load case 2 d ) . T h e
ice a c c r e t i o n o n s u p p o r t s t h e m s e l v e s i s s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y i n c o u n t r i e s w i t h e x t r e m e l y h i g h
ice l o a d s , e . g . i n n o r t h e r n S c a n d i n a v i a .
L o a d c a s e J a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] a s s u m e s a torsional load t a k i n g c a r e o f d i f f e r i n g i c e
a c c r e t i o n i n t h e adjacent spans, o f ice s h e d d i n g a n d o f d i f f e r i n g c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces
a f t e r a l i n e f a i l u r e a n d c o r r e s p o n d s t o l o a d case 2 d o f [12.8]. T h e p e r m a n e n t loads a n d
ice l o a d s o n c o n d u c t o r s a t a t e m p e r a t u r e of-5°C a r e a s s u m e d a s a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,
w h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile force o f o n e o r several conductors is reduced depending o n
the design o f t h e conductors. T h e tensile force o f conductors is assumed as one-sided
reduced. D e t a i l s c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m [12.10].
T h e a m o u n t o f reduction of the conductor tensile force d e p e n d s o n t h e s u p p o r t t y p e
a n d design. I n case o f s u s p e n s i o n a n d a n g l e s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile
force o f o n e c o n d u c t o r i s reduced t o o n e side b y 5 0 % i ncase o f single c o n d u c t o r s , i n
c a s e o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h l e n g t h s o f i n s u l a t o r s e t s u p t o 2 , 5 m b y 3 5 %, i n c a s e
o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h l e n g t h s o f i n s u l a t o r s e t s a b o v e 2 , 5 m b y 2 5 %. I n c a s e o f
e a r t h w i r e s , t h e r e d u c t i o n i s a s s u m e d t o b e 6 5 %. I n [ 1 2 . 1 5 ] , c o n d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g i c e
accretion o r reduction o f conductor tensile forces are e x p l a i n e d w h i c h w o u l d lead t o
these loads.
I n case o f angle, s t r a i n , d e a d - e n d a n d a n g l e d e a d - e n d t o w e r s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e force
o f o n e s i n g l e o r b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r i s a s s u m e d t o b e r e d u c e d t o o n e s i d e b y 1 0 0 %.
T h i s load case affects i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e c r o s s a r m lower chords o f suspension a n d angle
towers a n d is frequently prevalent for t h e design o f bracings o f lattice tower bodies.
I n l o a d case K a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e l o a d case 2 c , p e r m a n e n t
l o a d s a n d i c e l o a d s o n a l l c o n d u c t o r s a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f -5°C a c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h
conductor tensile forces b e i n g reduced at a l l conductors o none side o f t h e s u p p o r t . F o r
suspension a n d angle suspension s u p p o r t s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile forces o f a l l conductors
are reduced b y 2 0 % for line post i n s u l a t o r s a n d suspension i n s u l a t o r sets w i t h lengths
u p t o 2,5 m , b y 1 5 % f o r s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r set l e n g t h s a b o v e 2 , 5 m . F o r e a r t h w i r e s ,
t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a r e r e d u c e d b y 4 0 %. F o r s t r a i n a n d a n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s , t h e
h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e i s r e d u c e d o n o n e s i d e b y 4 0 %. L o a d c a s e K a f f e c t s i n p a r t i c u l a r
the design o fstrain supports w i t h o n l y one circuit installed so far t h e r a t i n g o f bracings
of lattice steel supports structures is concerned.
12.4.5 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice load
I n c a s e o f combined wind and ice load ( l o a d c a s e 3 o f T a b l e 1 2 . 1 ) p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , i c e
loads, w i n d loads o n supports, e q u i p m e n t a n d ice covered conductors as well a s the
c o n d u c t o r tensile forces increased b y w i n d a n d i c e l o a d a c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . E x t r e m e
w i n d a n d ice l o a d s o c c u r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o n l y i n r a r e cases. A s a r u l e , a l o a d c o m b i n a t i o n
w i l l b e selected w h e r e t h e e x t r e m e iceload a n d a m o d e r a t e w i n d load corresponding
to 4 0 t o 7 0 % o fthe 5 0years w i n d load w i l l b e combined.
L o a d case D a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] c o m b i n e s p e r m a n e n t loads, i c e loads, w i n d l o a d i n
direction o f the crossarm axis o n conductors w i t h iceload, o n t h e support a n d equip-
m e n t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e a s s o c i a t e d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force u n d e r ice a c c r e t i o n a n d w i n d
a c t i o n . T h e d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e i s r e d u c e d b y 5 0 %, a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e l o a d
cases A t o C . S i n c e t h e w i n d a c t i o n o n t h e i c e covered c o n d u c t o r s r e p r e s e n t s a n a d -
d i t i o n a l load, t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile forces are increased. T h i s l o a d case r e s u l t s i n t h e
m a x i m u m l o a d for l e gm e m b e r s o f angle a n d a n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s w i t h l i n e deflections
a b o v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40° a n d f o r d e a d - e n d t o w e r s . T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h i s l o a d c a s e
w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t f o r s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s d e p e n d s o n t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e ice l o a d , t h e
d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d o n t h e s u p p o r t design [12.15].
L o a d cases E a n d F c o r r e s p o n d t o l o a d case D , h o w e v e r , w i t h w i n d a c t i n g r e c t a n g u l a r l y
a n d u n d e r 45°, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t o t h e c r o s s a r m a x i s .
12.4.6 C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads
D u r i n g construction a n d maintenance, loads m a y result f o rexample f r o m climbing
members, f r o m t e m p o r a r y anchors o r b y a t t a c h m e n t o f tools o r f r o m stringing o f con-
ductor. These loads s h o u l d b e d u l y considered w h e n designing t h e supports.
I n [ 1 2 . 1 6 ] , a s e r i e s o f s u c h l o a d s i s d i s c u s s e d . D u r i n g tower erection, f o r c e s d u e t o
t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f derricks h a v e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s w e l l a s r e s u l t i n g f r o m a n c h o r s .
S u p p o r t s E i r e a n c h o r e d t e m p o r a r i l y d u r i n g stringing operations, w h e r e b y l o a d s o c c u r
w h i c h could exceed those loads acting p e r m a n e n t l y . Especially, increased conductor
tensile forces m a y occur d u r i n g s t r i n g i n g o p e r a t i o n s because o f i m p a c t s , j o i n t s g e t t i n g
stuck i nr u n n i n g blocks o r similar events. Increased loads m a y occur a t t e m p o r a r y
terminations o f the conductor stringing operation. W h e n m a i n t a i n i n g the line, towers
are c l i m b e d r e s u l t i n g i n a n a d d i t i o n a l l o a d o nl a t t i c e f r a m e w o r k m e m b e r s . T h e l o w e r i n g
o f conductors u s i n g s n a t c h blocks a r r a n g e d at t h e crossEirms m a y also result i n increased
loads t o w h i c h t h e supports should w i t h s t a n d .
T h e s u p p o r t s s h o u l d p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e r e s i s t a n c e t o a l l t h e loads p r o b a b l y o c c u r r i n g
from construction a n d maintenance procedures. C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m E i i n t e n a n c e p r o c e -
dures s h o u l d b e p a i d special a t t e n t i o n since failing o f a n element w o u l d p r o b a b l y lead
t o i n j u r i e s o f l i n e m e n . S u p p o r t s d e s i g n e d f o r i c e l o a d c o n d i t i o n s Eire, a s a r u l e , s t r o n g
e n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d t h e c o m m o n l y occurring construction a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads.
S o m e e l e m e n t s o f s u p p o r t s i n Eireas w i t h o u t i c e l o a d s m a y , h o w e v e r , e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r
m a x i m u m load during construction o r maintenance.
F o r s i m u l a t i n g l o a d s d u r i n g construction and maintenance, p e r m a n e n t loads a n d con-
s t r u c t i o n l o a d s a s w e l l a s c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a t +5°C Eire a s s u m e d a s a c t i n g s i -
m u l t a n e o u s l y i n l o a d c a s e I o f [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] . A t e m p o r a r i l y h i g h e r l o a d b y over tensioning
the conductors i s c o n s i d e r e d b y i n c r e a s e d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s , i f a p p l i c a b l e . C o n -
s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e l o a d cases affect especially t h e d e s i g n o f c r o s s a r m s . I n case
of lattice steel structures, the loads are assumed as acting a t t h e m o s t unfavourable
n o d e s o f t h e l o w e r c h o r d o f a c r o s s a r m face. F o r o t h e r designs, t h e y a r e a s s u m e d a t
the a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s o f a conductor. T h i s l o a d case m a y also b e p r e v a l e n t for l o n g
m e m b e r s i n t h e tower b o d y used for climbing because these m e m b e r s need t ob e rated
for b e n d i n g d u e t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads.
12.4.7 Security loads
Line components m a y fail due t o a n insufficient quality o r due t o sabotage a n d m a y
cause, as a consequence, a d d i t i o n a l loads t o t h e o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s o fa line. T h e t a r g e t
o f t h e d e s i g n w i l l t h e n b e t h e containment of damage and, e s p e c i a l l y , t h e prevention
of cascades. E s p e c i a l l y , t h e f a i l u r e o f a n a n g l e s u p p o r t m a y l e a d t o cascading a n d i s ,
therefore, hazardous.
T h e extent o f a damage will b e contained b y adequate load assumptions a n d corre-
sponding line design. T h e Eirrangement o f strain supports i n long line sections protects
the line against cascading because these special supports are designed t o w i t h s t a n d
l o n g i t u d i n a i l c o n d u c t o r forces. A s a n e x a m p l e , a c c o r d i n g t o [12.16] t h e c o n d u c t o r s o n
one side o f t h e relevant s u p p o r t are a s s u m e d t o b e loaded w i t h a fictitious a d d i t i o n a l
load equal t o the conductor dead weight.
I n [12.8], t o r s i o n a l a n d l o n g i t u d i n s i l l o a d s Eire s p e c i f i e d . D e t a i l s s h o u l d b e s t i p u l a t e d
i n s t a n d a r d s o r p r o j e c t specifications. L o a d case H a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] i s p l a n n e d t o
p r o v i d e r i g i d p o i n t s i n a l i n e a n d a p p l i e s t o { e m p h s t r a i n a n d angle-strain towers. T o
ensure the s t a b i l i t y o f the strain towers for unbalanced longitudinail conductor loads a
conductor force isassumed as acting a t the m o s t unfavourable position a n d t w o t h i r d s
o f t h e one-sided c o n d u c t o r forces o f a l l t h e o t h e r c o n d u c t o r s act i n t h e s a m e d i r e c t i o n .
L o a d c a s e L o f [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] s i m u l a t e s t h e l o a d w h i c h w o u l d o c c u r a f t e r a failure of a string of
a multiple insulator set, a n d a f f e c t s m a i n l y t h e d e s i g n o f c r o s s a r m s . P e r m E i n e n t l o a d s ,
i c e l o a d s a n d a s s o c i a t e d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a t -5°C a c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t h i s l o a d
case, w h e r e b y t h e f a i l i n g o f o n e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g i s considered a d d i t i o n a l l y .
12.4.8 P a r t i a l f a c t o r s for a c t i o n s o n s u p p o r t s
P e r m a n e n t a n d v a r i a b l e a c t i o n s Eire c o m b i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l o a d c a s e s c o n s i d e r e d .
T h e design v a l u e s are o b t a i n e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c vailues o f t h e a c t i o n
w i t h partial factors. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 d i s t i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n t h e General Approach a n d Em-
pirical Approach f o r d e s i g n . I n t h e G e n e r a l A p p r o a c h , t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r s a r e a p p l i e d
on t h e actions, like icea n d w i n d load. I n the E m p i r i c a l Approach, partial factors axe
a p p l i e d o n t h e effects o f t h e actions. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a c t i o n s o f c o n d u c t o r s t o t e m -
perature changes, as w e l l as t o w i n d a n d iceactions are calculated w i t h characteristic
v a l u e s ; t h e n t h e d e s i g n v a l u e s Eire d e t e r m i n e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s
374 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 375

T a b l e 1 2 . 3 : P a r t i a l factors for actions, u l t i m a t e limit states T a b l e 1 2 . 4 : M a t e r i a l p a r t i a l factor for s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l according t oE N 50 3 4 1 - 1

A rtinn Symbol EN 50 341 l " EN 50 3 4 1 - 1 2 ' EN 50 341-3-4 Material Type of strain Material partial
Permanent action factor 7 M
1,0 1,0 7 or (1,UJ
1,35 f i nA3)
- unfavourable 7G 1,0 1,1 [1,UJ Concrete and compressive concrete strength 1,50
— favourable 7G 1,0 1,0 i n i n I n reinforced compressive concrete strength for prefabricated parts 1,40
1,U 1,0 1 A)
Variable action concrete reinforcing steel, yield strength or 0*0,2 1,15
- wind load 7w 1,0 1,2 I,4 1,4 11 ,U) 1 IS f l f\\
Steel resistance of sections and stability (yield strength) 1,10
— ice load 7i 1,0 1,25 1,0 n
i,o [fii , u
ni; i,oa ^i-jVJ/
resistance of bolted and welded connections (ultimate tensil 2 1,25
e/iri Hn/*frtr TArrpg
— 1_U IT LI Ll\_. QUI L\J1
7C 1 3 fl 01 1 35 f 1 0) streng th)
*,o \ L + I
Accidental action members with boreholes in tension (ultimate tensile strength) 1,25
- torsional load 7A 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
Timber resistance of sections 1,50
- longitudinal load 7A 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 resistance of bolted connections 1,25
Construction and
maintenance load 7P 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5 1,5
v z u y z z
" General Approach; 2' Empirical Approach; 3' in case of an accidental action

b y p a r t i a l f a c t o r s . T h e design value Ed r e s u l t s f r o m t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
values o fsimultaneous actions multiplied b y the corresponding partial factors:

Ed = ^2 ( T G G K + T W Q W K + T I Q I K + 7P<3PK + 7 C Q C K )

T h e r e , G K i s t h e dead w e i g h t o ft h e conductors, i n s u l a t o r sets a n d s u p p o r t s , Q W K t h e

w i n d load, Q I K the iceload o n the conductor, Q P Kthe load due t o construction and
maintenance, Q C K t h e conductor tensile force depending o n t e m p e r a t u r e , w i n d a n d ice
load, 7 G t h e partial factor for the dead weight, T W the partial factor for the w i n d load,
7 1 t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r ice l o a d , T P t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r loads d u e t o c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d
m a i n t e n a n c e a n d 7 c t h e p a r t i a l factor for t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile forces.
E N 50 341-1 distinguishes b e t w e e n p e r m a n e n t , variable a n d accidental actions as well
as c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads. T h e r e l e v a n t p a r t i a l f a c t o r s are g i v e n i n T a b l e
12.3. N a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s m a y b e defined i n t h e N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects. A s a n
e x a m p l e , t h e p a r t i a l factors according t o E N 50 341-3-4 are presented i n T a b l e 12.3.
I n case o ft h e G e n e r a l A p p r o a c h , t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r s o f w i n d a n d ice l o a d s w e r e specified
i n [12.8] d e p e n d e n t o nt h e r e l i a b i l i t y l e v e l o r t h e d e s i g n v a l u e s o f t h e w i n d a n d ice l o a d
are d e t e r m i n e d directly for t h e selected reliability level.
W h e n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e effect o f a c t i o n o nt h e c o n d u c t o r , t h e p a r t i a l factors are applied
t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e o f t h e a c t i o n , i . e. d i r e c t l y o n w i n d a n d i c e l o a d a c t i n g o n
the conductor. T h e computed value o fthe conductor tension i st h e n the design value.
12.4.9 P a r t i a l f a c t o r s for m a t e r i a l s
I n Table 12.4 t h e partial factors according t o E N 50 341-1 for m a t e r i a l are presented
used f o rt o w e r s a n d poles. T h e m a t e r i a l design values are o b t a i n e d b y d i v i d i n g t h e
characteristical values o f the material strength b y the partial factor.
12.5 Lattice steel towers
12.5.1 Structural design
12.5.1.1 S t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n of m e m b e r s
Lattice steel towers a r e m a d e o f i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s f a b r i c a t e d i n t h e w o r k s h o p , t h e n
shipped t o the construction site and assembled a n d erected there using bolts.
H o t - r o l l e d a n g l e sections a c c o r d i n g t o E N 10 0 5 6 - 1 [12.17] o r o t h e r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s are
p r e d o m i n a n t l y u s e d f o r members of lattice steel towers [ 1 2 . 1 8 ] . T h e j o i n t s c a n b e d e -
signed s i m p l y a n d often w i t h o u t additional plates o r other s t r u c t u r a lelements. Angle
F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 5 : C o m m o n l y a d o p t e d m e m b e r s e c t i o n s , a : a n g l e s e c t i o n ; b : c r u c i f o r m s e c t i o n ; c:
back-to-back angle section
sections can b e economically processed b y program-controlled machinery available t o -
day. T h e profiles c a n b e b u n d l e d i n a space-saving m a n n e r for t r a n s p o r t .
Single angle sections are t h e m o s t economic design; t h e y are m a n u f a c t u r e d u p t o a
size o f 250 x 2 8 m m w i t h a t o t a l cross section o f 133 c m 2 ( F i g u r e 12.15 a ) . U s i n g t h e
steel grade S355, a s t r e n g t h o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 200 k N r e s u l t s w i t h these angle sections
being sufficient also for t h e m a j o r i t y o fstrain towers o f double circuit 400 a n d 550 k V
lines. For towers o f m u l t i - c i r c u i tlines and, p a r t i c u l a r l y for very tall towers, m e m b e r
d e s i g n s w i t h a h i g h e r s t r e n g t h m a y b e n e c e s s a r y . I n t h i s c a s e , cruciform sections made
u p o ft w o , t h r e e o r f o u r angle sections are used for t h e leg m e m b e r s according t o F i g u r e
12.15 b . W h e r e t h i s a r r a n g e m e n t does n o t suffice, special m e m b e r s can b e w e l d e d f r o m
plates o r box-type m e m b e r s can b e adopted. E x a m p l e s for such designs are described
i n [12.19].
Hot-rolled angle sections are p r e d o m i n a n t l y used for t h e bracings aswell. D u e t o static
reasons, i t could b e favourable t o u s enon-equal angle sections. F o r bracings, cold-
f o r m e d sections are used s o m e t i m e s w h e r e t h e angle b e t w e e n t h e t w o legs o ft h e section
c a n b e d e s i g n e d w i t h 60° i n s t e a d o f 90°, t h u s a c h i e v i n g a n i n c r e a s e d m i n i m u m r a d i u s
of gyration a s c o m p a r e d w i t h s t a n d a r d a n g l e s e c t i o n s . J o i n t s b e t w e e n l e g m e m b e r s
a n d bracings w i t h bigger dimensions often necessitate gusset plates w i t h a n adjusted
d i m e n s i o n . I n t h e s e c a s e s , back-to-back angle sections a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 5 c o f -
fer advantages because t h e j o i n t s possess t w o shear planes r e s u l t i n g i n a considerably
s h o r t e r t o t a l l e n g t h o f t h e j o i n t . R e f e r e n c e [12.19] c o n t a i n s t y p i c a l e x a m p l e s f o r t h e
design o f bracings.
Single angle sections proved their qualification for t h e upper chords o fcrossarms a n d ,
alternatively, if single angle sections are not sufficient, back-to-back angle sections ac-
cording t oF i g u r e 12.15 c c a n b e adopted for this application.
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] a n d o t h e r s t a n d a r d s , t h e minimum thickness of the
elements m a y n o t f a l l b e l o w 4 m m ; b o l t s w i t h d i a m e t e r s b e l o w 1 2 m m a r e n o t p e r m i s s i -
o Iu l z o u p p u i ta -•j uuvumq J H A . 1 o v.< *-v >_ i . j u> • \

fable 1 2 . 5 : D i m e n s i o n s of joints a n d edge distances o f jointing components i n m m according

to E N 50341-3-4
Dimension of bolt M[VI li 9L M20 M24 M27 M30
Maximum diameter of borehole
1 It, v"Ci rrn n riril Fc 14 18 22 26 29 32
Rivets 13 17 21 25 28 31
Minimum width of angle leg 35 50 60 70 75 80
Minimum edge distance in direction of the force (a) 20 25 30 40 45 50
(b) 25 35 40 50 55 65
a connection of bracings and redundants; b connections of leg members and upper crossarm chords

ble. A m i n i m u m w i d t h o f the angle sections o f 35 m m results f r o m these specifications;

t h e a n g l e s e c t i o n L 3 5 x 4 i s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e smallest cross section u s e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e
t o w e r s . M a n y u t i l i t i e s , h o w e v e r , specify l a r g e r m i n i m u m d i m e n s i o n s , e. g. L 4 0 x 4 o r
i F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 6 : D e s i g n o f leg m e m b e r joints: a double b u t t
joint; b lap joint
L 4 0 x 5.

i n caise o f b r a c i n g s c o n n e c t e d b y o n e a n g l e l e g o n l y .
12.5.1.2 Connections
F o r l e g m e m b e r s e i t h e r b u t t joints a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 6 a o r lap joints according
W h i l e f o r m e r l y r i v e t s w e r e u s e d f o r l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s , bolted c o n n e c t i o n s p r e d o m i n a t e to F i g u r e 12.16 b are used. B u t t j o i n t s c a n b e designed w i t h t w o shear planes a n d a r e
by far today. T h i s connection element is adequate for hot-dip galvanization. T h e indi- preferred i n case o ftowers for higher strengths t o facilitatet h e erection. L a p j o i n t s save
vidual members and bolts can b e galvanized separately and bolted together afterwards. material, however, are not frequently used a n y m o r e because o fthe more costly erection
A tolerance between 1 a n d 2 m m is provided between the diameter o ft h e bolt and the process.
d i a m e t e r o f t h e h o l e . M e m b e r s Eire f r e q u e n t l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h o n e b o l t o n l y , i n p a r t i c u l a r A l l n u t s s h o u l d b e s e c u r e d a g a i n s t g e t t i n g l o o s e . F r e q u e n t l y , spring washers axe u s e d
a l l redundant members i n l a t t i c e f r a m e w o r k s a n d bracings o f l e s s h e a v i l y l o a d e d t o w e r s . f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e n u t s c a n b e p u n c h e d o n t h r e e p o i n t s s p a c e d a t 120°,
D u e t o this design, the bracings o r redundant members c a nb e directly connected t o being protected w i t h anti-corrosive dyes.
t h e l e g m e m b e r s w i t h o u t a n y gusset plates. N o t m o r e t h a n s i x b o l t s s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d
in a line f o ra l l types o f connections t h u s ensuring t h e utilization o f total strength o f 12.5.1.3 W a l k w a y s
t h e i n d i v i d u a lb o l t s . W h e r e t h i s t y p e o f c o n n e c t i o n d i dn o t suffice, connections w i t h
Lattice steel towers need t o b e climbed b y experienced staff d u r i n g construction a n d
t w o shear plsines o r t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f b o l t s i n t w o pEirallel lines s h o u l d b e adopted.
m a i n t e n E m c e . T h e r e f o r e , a c c o r d i n g l y d e s i g n e d walkways axe n e c e s s a r y . F o r t h i s p u r -
T h e w i d t h o f angle sections determines as well t h e largest diameter o f bolts o r rivets
p o s e , stepbolts oistirrup arrangements axe o f t e n i n s t a l l e d a t t w o d i a g o n a l l y o p p o s i t e
t o b e u s e d . R e g a r d i n g arrangement of boreholes, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 r e f e r s t o E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 .
l e g m e m b e r s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , ladders i n t h e f a c e s o r w i t h i n t h e b o d y c a n b e i n s t a l l e d .
A r r a n g e m e n t o f holes should p r e v e n t corrosion a n dlocal b u c k l i n g a n d facilitate t h e
W a l k w a y s should b e installed o n self-supporting steel structures, starting a t a height
installation o fbolts. T h e end distance e, f r o m the centre o f a borehole t o the adjacent
of 3 m above ground level and progressing until the top o f the structure. Stepbolts are
e n d o f t h e m e m b e r , m e a s u r e d i n d i r e c t i o n o f f o r c e ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 3 ) , s h o u l d b e n o t less
m a d e o f g a l v a n i z e d steel a n d s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d o n t w o legs f o reach t o w e r a n d b e
t h a n 1 , 2 d o > w h e r e d o i s t h e h o l e d i a m e t e r . T h e edge distance e 2 f r o m t h e c e n t r e o f a
s p a c e d b e t w e e n 3 0 0 t o 4 0 0 m mo n centres. T h e s e b o l t s s h o u l d b e a t least 1 6 m m i n
borehole t ot h e adjacent edge o f the m e m b e r , measured perpendiculEirly t ot h e direction
diameter, 1 2 5m mlong, furnished w i t h a b u t t o n head a n d t w o h e x n u t s a n d locknuts.
o f force, s h o u l d n o r m a l l y b e n o t less t h a n 1,5 d o - C o m p l y i n g t h i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n , t h e e d g e
Stepbolts should be installed f r o m t h e m a i n crossarm t ot h e earth wire peaks as well.
d i s t a n c e s e 2 p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f force s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 1,2 t i m e s t h e
I n c a s e o f g u y e d s t r u c t u r e s , w a l k w a y s Eire u s u a l l y p r e c l u d e d i f t h e m a s t t r u s s e s a r e
b o r e h o l e d i E i m e t e r , t h e distances between centres of boreholes s h o u l d a t l e a s t b e 2 , 5
sufficient t o provide a good p a t h for climbing.
t i m e s t h e b o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r . T h e e d g e d i s t a n c e m a y b e r e d u c e d t o n o t less t h a n 1,2 do
A t t u b u l a r o r p o l y g o n a l steel poles, aswell as concrete poles, s u p p o r t bolts for c l i m b i n g
provided t h a t t h e design b e a r i n g resistance i s reduced accordingly (see clause 12.5.11).
ladders a r e i n s t a l l e d s t a r t i n g f r o m a distance o f 3 m a b o v e t h eg r o u n d level. T h i s
T o prevent corrosion, t h e m E i x i m u m e n d o redge distance s h o u l d n o t exceed 4 0m m +41,
practice a i m s a t avoiding o r a t least discouraging persons t o c l i m b t h e structures j u s t
where t is the thickness o f the thinner o f the connected parts. T h e m i n i m u m spacing
for curiosity, v a n d a l i s m o rother purposes. T h e ladders can b e p e r m a n e n t l y installed for
p i b e t w e e n centres o f b o l t s i n d i r e c t i o n o f force s h o u l d b e n o t less t h a n 2 , 2do a n d t h e i r
u s e b y m a i n t e n a n c e c r e w s o r a r e fixed t e m p o r a r i l y a t t h e o c c a s i o n o f s e r v i c e s . D e t a i l s
m a x i m u m s h o u l d n o t exceed t h e lesser o f 1,4 t i m e s t o r 200 m m .
are g i v e n i n[12.10] a n d [12.20].
T a b l e 12.5, according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , represents t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n d i a m e t e r o f
Stepbolts and stirrups are rated f o ra concentrated load o f 1 k Nacting a t the most
holes a n d w i d t h o f angle sections. T h e r e , t h e edge distances are as well s h o w n w h i c h
u n f a v o u r a b l e p o s i t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , w h e r e b y a p a r t i a l f a c t o r o f q p = 1,5 i s
m e a s u r e f r o m t h e centre o f t h e holes. T h e values i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 12.5 b y ( b ) s h o u l d
assumed.
be complied w i t h for tensile-loaded elements o fcrossarms a n d for j o i n t s o fleg m e m b e r s .
T h e s m a l l e r v a l u e s a p p l y t o a l l o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s , e. g. f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n s o f b r a c i n g s .
W h e n d e s i g n i n g t o w e r s , t h e eccentricity o f c o n n e c t i o n s i n t h e n o d e s s h o u l d b e k e p t a s
low as possible. T h i s eccentricity needs n o t t o b e especially considered i n t h e analysis
378 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 379

12.5.1.4 Production T a b l e 12.6: Characteristic values o f T a b l e 1 2 . 7 : Characteristic values o f

yield strength a n du l t i m a t e tensile yield strength and u l t i m a t e tensile
M a n u f a c t u r i n g o f h o l e s f o r b o l t s o r r i v e t s i s a n e s s e n t i a l s t e p i n t h e production of lattice
s t r e n g t h for s t r u c t u r a l steel s t r e n g t h for b o l t m a t e r i a l s
steel towers. T h e h o l e s c a n e i t h e r b e d r i l l e d o r p u n c h e d o r s u b p u n c h e d a n d r e a m e d .
Steel Yield Ultimate tensile Bolt Yield Ultimate tensile
P u n c h i n g full-size i s a fast, e c o n o m i c a l w a y t o g e t precise h o l e size, b u t t h e m a t e r i a l
grade strength fy strength / u grade strength fy strength / „
thickness being punched is l i m i t e d . Different limits are given i n project specifications. N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
T h e t h i c k n e s s s h o u l d n o t b e g r e a t e r t h a n 2 0 m m f o r m i l d s t e e l , e. g. S 2 3 5 , o r 1 6 m m f o r
S235 235 360 4.6 240 400
h i g h - s t r e n g t h steel, e. g. S355. A n a l t e r n a t i v e specification l i m i t s t h e m a t e r i a l t h i c k n e s s
S355 355 510 5.6 300 500
to t h e n o m i n a l diameter o f the bolt plus 3 m m . According t o E N 50 341-3-4, punch- 8.8 640 800
ing o f full-size holes is p e r m i t t e d f o ra m a t e r i a l thickness n o t greater t h a n 12 m m . 10.9 900 1000
P e r m a n e n t s u p e r v i s i o n s h o u l d ensure t h a t s h a r p punches a n d s u i t i n g dies are used for
the m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A slightly conical f o r m o f holes t h a t n a t u r a l l y results f r o m p u n c h -
ing o p e r a t i o n is acceptable. Since t h e p u n c h i n g process leads t o h a r d e n i n g o f t h e hole
e d g e w i t h t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f flaws o c c u r r i n g l a t e r , m e m b e r s o f c r o s s a r m s p e r m a n e n t l y m o r e , whereby a paint coating is applied directly after t h e hot-dip galvanizing o f steel
loaded i ntension m a y not b e punched. I f the m a t e r i a l thickness is greater t h a n the p a r t s [12.8]. T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e h o t - d i p g a l v a n i z a t i o n , t h e c o a t i n g achieves synergetic
limits above m e n t i o n e d , the holes should either b e drilled o r subpunched a n d reamed. e f f e c t s [ 1 2 . 2 5 ] r e s u l t i n g i n a m o r e t h a n d o u b l e d l i f e c y c l e as a c h i e v e d b y o n e c o r r o s i o n
T h e die for a l l s u b p u n c h e d holes s h o u l d b e a t least 1,5 m m s m a l l e r t h a n t h e n o m i n a l protection m e t h o d alone. T h e thickness o fthe coating should b e approximately 7 0 p m .
diameter o fthe bolt. A n u m b e r o f differing systems i s used f o rp a i n t coating w h i c h are under continuous
development also w i t h respect t o t h e protection o f e n v i r o n m e n t .
T h e q u a l i t y o f t h e w e l d i n g seams s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l l e d . T h e s t r u c t u r a l steels
specified i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 for t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f overhead line towers are suited f o r
welding without any limitations. 12.5.2 Materials

12.5.2.1 M a t e r i a l s for angle s e c t i o n s a n d p l a t e s

12.5.1.5 Corrosion protection
P r a c t i c a l l y a l l l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s a r e h o t - d i p g a l v a n i z e d n o w a d a y s i n v i e w o f corrosion
protection. Hot-dip galvanization according t o international standard E N I S O 1461
[12.21] e n s u r e s a d u r a b l e a n d l o n g - l a s t i n g c o r r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n . T h i s s t a n d a r d specifies
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d t e s t m e t h o d s o f h o t - d i p g a l v a n i z a t i o n . A protective l a y e r o f i r o n -
z i n c a l l o y i s f o r m e d o n t h e s t e e l d u r i n g hot-dip galvanizing a n d a b o v e t h a t a l a y e r m a d e
of pure zinc isconstituted. T h e iron-zinc crystals occur t ob e dull-grey w h i l e pure zinc
s h o w s b r i l l i a n t flower o r n a m e n t s . T o w h a t e x t e n t t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s o c c u r a t t h e
surface, depends m a i n l y o n t h e content o f silicon w i t h i n t h e steel. Silicon is used as
a desoxidation agent d u r i n g steel p r o d u c t i o n . W i t h a silicon content b e t w e e n 0,03 t o
0 , 1 2 % a n d a b o v e 0 , 3 %, t h i c k z i n c l a y e r s a r e f o r m e d w h i l e a t a s i l i c o n c o n t e n t b e t w e e n
0,12 a n d 0,3 % these layers w i l l n o t exceed 100 p m . W h i l e for steel grade S235 t h e
s i l i c o n c o n t e n t w i l l s t a y b e l o w 0 , 3 %, i t r i s e s i n c a s e . o f s t e e l g r a d e S 3 5 5 u p t o 0 , 5 %.
Therefore, frequently iron-zinc crystals are f o r m e d u p t o the surface o f S355, resulting
in a dull-grey appearance o ft h e galvanized steel grade S355. O n the contrary, the zinc
surface o n steel grade S235 has a brilliant-flowery structure.
For m e m b e r s m a d e o f S355 w i t h large cross sections, thick zinc layers m a y b e f o r m e d
w h i c h a r e u n d e s i r e d s i n c e t h e y s h o w a l e s s firm a d h e s i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g
u n i f o r m i t y , e n o u g h adhesion strength i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e zinc layer. A t p r e s e n t , n o
I S O standard exists for testing o f adhesion. B u t t h e adhesion can b e tested w i t h the
hammer test a c c o r d i n g t o N i e t h [ 1 2 . 2 2 ] s t a n d a r d i z e d i n D I N 5 0 9 7 8 [ 1 2 . 2 3 ] . F o r t e s t i n g
t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e z i n c l a y e r s , t h e Preece test [ 1 2 . 2 4 ] w a s u s e d f o r m e r l y i n g e n e r a l .
For this test, a specimen is dipped i n a copper-sulphur solution. N o adherent copper
layer is p e r m i t t e d t o b e f o r m e d d u r i n g this process. T h e result o f this test, however,
depends o n t h e conditions o ft h e execution a n d is, therefore, not a n y m o r e standardized.
Z i n c i s w e a t h e r e d w i t h t i m e w h e r e b y t h e a n n u a l loss o f z i n c o c c u r s t o b e b e t w e e n 2 a n d
10 p m . T h e r e f o r e , it s h o u l d b e a s s u m e d t h a t after a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0t o 15years t h e zinc
layer will b e weathered t osuch a n extent t h a t a nalternative corrosion protection will
be necessary. T h e w e a t h e r i n g p e r i o d o f zinc layers m i g h t b e even s h o r t e r i n corrosive
a t m o s p h e r e s . T h e r e f o r e , o p e r a t o r s o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s a p p l y t h e Duplex system m o r e a n d
T h e m a t e r i a l s used f o r angle sections need n o to n l y b e sufficiently s t r o n g b u t also
t o u g h since i m p a c t a n d a l t e r n a t i n g loads a sw e l l a s v i b r a t i o n s m a y occur i n a d d i t i o n t o
t h e s t a t i c l o a d i n g . A s u p e r i o r capacity to deformation reduces local stress peaks, t h u s
avoiding cracks. F u l l y k i l l e d steel complies w i t h these conditions. B y a d d i n g silicon,
a l u m i n i u m , calcium o r t i t a n , t h e oxygen solved i n t h e l i q u i d steel is b o u n d w i t h i n the
m e l t , i t is desoxidized a n d t h e steel solidifies w i t h o u t bubbles. T h i s procedure results i n
homogeneous steel w e l l suited for w e l d i n g not prone t obrittle fracture. T h e steel grades
S 2 3 5 J 0 o r S 2 3 5 J 2 G 3 / G 4 a s w e l l a s S 3 5 5 J 0 a n d S 3 5 5 J 2 G 3 / G 4 a c c o r d i n g t o E N 10 025
[12.26] b e l o n g t o t h e s e t y p e s o f steels. A f t e r t h e r o l l i n g process, t h e p r o d u c t s m a d e
of S235J0 and S355J0 are not f u r t h e r processed. P r o d u c t s m a d e o f S 2 3 5 J 2 G 3 / G 4 and
S 3 5 5 J 2 G 3 / G 4 are heated a n d cooled d o w n slowly. T h i s procedure iscalled normalizing.
B y t h i s p r o c e s s , b r i t t l e z o n e s a r e r e m o v e d a n d a fine g r a i n s t r u c t u r e i s o b t a i n e d .
T h e materials used i n t h e fabrication o ftransmission line supports should comply w i t h
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 , chapter 3, annexes B a n d D , o r w i t h e q u i v a l e n t
standards. For s t r u c t u r a l steel, these requirements are complied w i t h i ft h e m a t e r i a l
corresponds t o E N 1 0 0 2 5 [12.26]. S t e e l t o b e g a l v a n i z e d s h o u l d m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
concerning the m a x i m u m silicon (Si) a n d phosphorus ( P )contents o f E N I S O 1461,
subclause C.1.4 [12.21] t o a v o i d d u l l , d a r k g r e y a n d excessively t h i c k c o a t i n g w h i c h
m a y r e s u l t i n a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f coating damage. A l l t h e s t e e l g r a d e s a c c o r d i n g t o E N
10025 are suitable for welding.
I n general, angle sections m a d e o fS235J0 a n d S 3 5 5 J 2 G 3 / G 4 are available i n t h e m a r k e t .
N o m i n a l v a l u e s f o r t h e yield point a n d t h e ultimate tensile strength a r e u s e d a s c h a r a c -
teristic values for t h e design. T h e s e d a t a are g i v e n i n T a b l e 12.6 for steel grades S235
and S355. T h e y apply t o a thickness not more t h a n 4 0 m m .
12.5.2.2 M a t e r i a l for b o l t s
I n general, o n l y t h e s t r e n g t h q u a l i t i e s 4.6, 5.6, 8 . 8a n d 10.9 a c c o r d i n g t o E N I S O 8 9 8 - 1
[ 1 2 . 2 7 ] o r e q u i v a l e n t m a t e r i a l m a y b e u s e d a s material for bolts. W h e n a n a l y s i n g t o w e r s ,
t h e s t r e n g t h o fbolts i sverified b y a s s u m i n g a c o n s t a n t stress across t h e i r cross sections.
 UKJU * *J TJ\.yyuTvu
LZ.O UCtULlt-G D t C C i W f f f C I O uu *

T h e local peaks o f stresses o c c u r r i n g a t t h e b o l t s a n d close t o t h e holes m a y n o t b e

specifically considered i ncase o f a sufficient d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l since after e x c e e d i n g t h e
yield point, large deformations can b e endured until failure. F o r overhead line towers,
connections w i t h one o r t w o shear planes stressed o nshearing a n d bearing are adopted
(shear/bearing connections). T h e deformation occurring during the shearing process
is d e t e r m i n e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y b y t h e e l e m e n t w i t h t h e l o w e r y i e l d p o i n t i n a d d i t i o n
to the tolerance o f the boreholes. Thereby, bolts m a y show a bending deformation
F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 7 : C a l c u l a t i o n o f m e m b e r forces
a n d a s h e a r i n g off-set w h i l e t h e boreholes i n sections a n d plates w i l l g e toval a n d are
deformed t o a longitudinal shape. T h e deformation potential o f low-tensile bolts o f
grades 4.6 a n d 5.6 is h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f h i g h - t e n s i l e b o l t s o f grades 8 . 8a n d 10.9. T h e w i t h a n y finite e l e m e n t p r o g r a m . H o w e v e r , t h e m a n h o u r s f o r t h e d a t a i n p u t c a n b e c o n -
less s t r o n g e l e m e n t h a s t o e n s u r e a sufficient d e f o r m a t i o n p o t e n t i a l . D e f o r m a t i o n s o f siderably h i g h . A Y - t y p e t o w e r possesses a p p r o x i m a t e l y 400 n o d e s a n d 600 m e m b e r s ,
b o l t s a s w e l l a s o fprofiles o c c u r i n t h e f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n a tconnections u s i n g l o w - t e n s i l e the geometry a n d t h e correlations o fw h i c h need t ob e described. I n addition, all loads
b o l t s o f g r a d e s 4.6 a n d 5.6. W h e n u s i n g b o l t s o f grades 8 . 8 a n d 10.9, t h e b o l t s t r e n g t h acting o n t h e structure need t o b e defined as loads acting a t the nodes. T h e hazard o f
is h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e a n g l e s e c t i o n s , r e s u l t i n g i n p e r m a n e n t d e f o r m a t i o n s o f t h e i n p u t errors i s increased b y such a h i g h n u m b e r o f d a t a a n d requires t h o r o u g h checks.
angle section. T o enable c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h acceptable effort, specific c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for lattice steel
T h e coordination of strength b e t w e e n b o l t a n d e l e m e n t s t o b e c o n n e c t e d s h o u l d b e towers are required w h i c h limit the input data considerably.
carried o u t such t h a t n of a i l u r e o ft h e bolt m i g h t occur since such a f a i l u r e w o u l d r e s u l t
in a complete separation o f the connected elements. Some tower manufacturers use 12.5.4 C a l c u l a t i o n of the m e m b e r forces at a p l a n e s y s t e m
b o l t s o f t h e grades 5 . 8 a n d 6 . 8 a s w e l l . H o w e v e r , E N I S O 8 9 8 - 1 [12.27] requires o n l y
m i n o r d u c t i l i t y d e s c r i b e d b y t h e elongation at breaking a n d l o w d a t a f o r t h e t o u g h n e s s 12.5.4.1 Basic procedure
[12.28] o f these grades. T h e m i n i m u m e l o n g a t i o n a t b r e a k i n g , r e q u i r e d for b o l t s m a d e
To analyse lattice steel towers w i t h acceptable effort reliably b y h a n d , m e t h o d s were
o f g r a d e 6.8, reaches o n l y 4 0 % o f t h e v a l u e s for b o l t s m a d e o f g r a d e 5.6. T h e r e a r e n o
d e v e l o p e d w h i c h consider l a t t i c e steel t o w e r s a s s t a t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d p l a n e t r u s s faces.
r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e sharpy-V-notch energy a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a n d a r d . B o l t s m a d e o f
T h e r e s u l t o ft h e analysis leads t oa reliable r a t i n g o f t h e t o w e r s i n case o fa s y m m e t r i c
grades 5.8 a n d 6.8 will not show sufficient ductility, resulting i nconnections w i t h o u t
design; t h i s p r o c e d u r e f o ranalysis is used, therefore, i nt h e o v e r h e a d l i n e design t o -
sufficient possibilities for d e f o r m a t i o n especially i n angle sections m a d e o f grade S355.
day as well. T h e acting loads can b e distributed i n directions o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l tower
I f the bolt s t r e n g t h is lower t h a n t h a t o f the angle sections, t h e bolt w i l l fail w i t h o u t
faces. H o w e v e r , a d d i t i o n a l a s s u m p t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d i ncase o f t o r s i o n a l l o a d a r o u n d
a noticeable deformation before the connected elements are deformed adjacent t o the
the vertical tower axis.
borehole. I f the strength is approximately equal t o t h a t o f the angle section, a local
T h e c e n t r o i d a l axes o ft h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s i n one face c o n s t i t u t e t h e static s y s t e m .
exhausting o f the deformation potential cannot b e excluded. Special attention should
T h e m e m b e r forces can b e calculated b y sectioning t h e truss appropriately. A c u t is
be paid t o this p r o b l e m i nareas w i t h low a m b i e n t temperatures. B o l t s o f grades 5.8
a n d 6 . 8 h a v e o n l y a l o w d u c t i l i t y l e a d i n g t o brittle fracture u n d e r h i g h i m p a c t l o a d . made t h r o u g h the truss structure such that three m e m b e r s not ending t o the same
Therefore, t h e y are not p e r m i t t e d to b e used i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e for overhead line towers. n o d e are separated a n d t h e truss s y s t e m is divided i n t o t w o parts ( F i g u r e 12.17). For
T h e characteristic values o fyield strength and u l t i m a t e tensile strength o fbolts as used each p a r t , t h e e q u i l i b r i u m conditions need t ob e complied w i t h . Since i n a plane s y s t e m
for design are presented i n T a b l e 12.7. three e q u i l i b r i u m conditions are available, these are sufficient t o determine the three
u n k n o w n m e m b e r forces. T h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s are e s t a b l i s h e d m o s t - e f f e c t i v e l y
for t h e m o m e n t s a r o u n d p o i n t s w h e r e t w o o f t h e m e m b e r forces intersect. T h e n , each
12.5.3 A n a l y s i s of m e m b e r forces e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n contains o n l y o n eu n k n o w n m e m b e r force. F o r e x a m p l e , t o cal-
c u l a t e t h e m e m b e r f o r c e Si ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 7 ) , t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s i s e s t a b l i s h e d
Lattice steel towers c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l h y p e r - s t a t i c t r u s s s y s t e m s . a r o u n d t h e p o i n t Pi. T h e f o r c e s S2 a n d S3 i n t e r s e c t i n g i n t h i s p o i n t d o n o t c o n t r i b u t e
T h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s are m a i n l y l o a d e d b y a x i a l tensile a n d c o m p r e s s i o n forces. T h e t o t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s a n d t h e u n k n o w n f o r c e Si c a n b e d i r e c t l y c o m p u t e d .
member forces c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a t t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m o r a t t h e e q u i v a l e n t
plane system. B y utilizing t h e conditions o f s y m m e t r y f o rdesigns w i t h rectangular
12.5.4.2 F o r c e s i n the leg m e m b e r s
tower bodies and crossarms, the three-dimensional static system m a y b e reduced t o a
s t a t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d p l a n e s y s t e m . S o m e design computer programs a r e b a s e d o n t h e B y s e c t i o n i n g t h e t r u s s , t h e leg member force S can b e obtained f r o m the equilibrium
application o fconventional design m e t h o d s for plane trusses. of m o m e n t s a r o u n d p o i n t 1 ( F i g u r e 12.18)
O t h e r tower configurations are not suitable t o b e analysed b y using equivalent plane
s y s t e m s d u e t o t h e m i s s i n g s y m m e t r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . Y-shaped towers o r portal designs Y^Ph = 2 S e - y i + A2/4, 5 = (Y.ph) / (2 e • f l + A2/!) , (12.17)
used frequently for single-circuit lines fall i n t o this category. C o m p u t e r programs avail-
able today enable t o analyse lattice steel towers based o n a three-dimensional truss w h e r e e is t h e distance o ft h e c e n t r o i d a l axes a n d A t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e t o w e r
s y s t e m w i t h a c c e p t a b l e e f f o r t s [ 1 2 . 2 9 ] . F o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e three-dimensional sys- b o d y per unit length.
tem, t h e deformation method i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e f a v o u r a b l e p o s s i b i l i t y o f I n case o f s y m m e t r i c a l double w a r r e n s according t o F i g u r e 12.19, i t can b e assumed
systematic processing. F o r f r a m e o r truss structures, the d e f o r m a t i o n m e t h o d is identi- t h a t b o t h l e g m e m b e r f o r c e s Eire e q u a l b u t Eict i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s . T h e e q u i l i b r i u m
c a l t o t h e finite element method. T h u s , l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s c a n b e a n a l y s e d i n p r i n c i p l e
of m o m e n t s a r o u n d the crossing point 1 results again i n equation (12.17).
382 12 S u p p o r t s 12.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 383

F i g u r e 12.18: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l e g F i g u r e 12.19: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l e g
m e m b e r force (simple w a r r e n bracings) m e m b e r force (double w a r r e n s )

F i g u r e 12.22: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m e m b e r F i g u r e 12.23: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f member

forces i n case o f a s y m m e t r i c v e r t i c a l loads forces i n case o f a t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t

Since t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e values h a n d I c a nb e t r o u b l e s o m e , t h e f o l l o w i n g t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n s m i g h t b e favourable (Figure 12.21):

P-h = 2(Dnh0 + Dvba/2) ,

w h e r e DB = D • (b0 + 6 u ) / ( 2 i d ) , Dy = D • (hu - h0)/ld. S i n c e h/b = h0/b0 = KIK,

h = h Q • b/b0, K = h0- bu/b0 i t i s o b t a i n e d D = P - b • ld/(2 b0 • 6 U ) a n d i n g e n e r a l

D = W ( 2 6 o - h u ) - E p - 6 * ( 1 2 ' 2 0 )

12.5.4.4 F o r c e s i n b r a c i n g s , l o a d e d b y a s y m m e t r i c a l v e r t i c a l forces

F i g u r e 12.20: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m a x i - F i g u r e 12.21: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f o r c e s i n T h e load created b y a s y m m e t r i c a l l y acting v e r t i c a l forces yields analogously t o (12.20)

m u m leg m e m b e r forces bracings (Figure 12.22)

D = A-ld/(2b0-bu)-Y,Pvbv . <12'21)
F o r a n y k i n d o f t o w e r l o a d , t h e l e g m e m b e r f o r c e s a r e c o n s t i t u t e d from t h e i n d i v i d u a l
c o m p o n e n t s Px a n d Py a c t i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r f a c e s . T h e v e r t i c a l l o a d Pz w h e r e A designates t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e considered t o w e r face per u n i t l e n g t h .
is d i s t r i b u t e d e q u a l l y o n t h e f o u r l e gm e m b e r s . T h e m a x i m u m force r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , T h i s e q u a t i o n applies o n l y t o bracings b e l o w t h e level o f t h e a c t i n g force Py.
f o r t h e l e g m e m b e r s 1 o r 3 ( F i g u r e 12.20) t o b e

S = TSX T Sy - Pz/4 , (12.18) 12.5.4.5 Forces in bracings, loaded by torsional m o m e n t s

w h e r e t h e u p p e r s i g n s a p p l i e s t o c o m p r e s s i o n , t h e l o w e r s i g n s t o t e n s i o n ( F i g u r e 12.20). T h e l o a d i n g o f t h e t o w e r b o d y b y torsional moments i s a h y p e r s t a t i c p r o b l e m [ 1 2 . 3 0 ] .

However, simplifying assumptions forthe distribution o f the torsional moment o n the
i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r faces m a yb e a s s u m e d a c c o r d i n g t o , e. g. E N 50 341-3-4, i f a t a l l
12.5.4.3 F o r c e s i n b r a c i n g s , l o a d e d b y h o r i z o n t a l forces
c r o s s a r m levels a n d a tchanges o f slope o fleg m e m b e r s , h o r i z o n t a l bracings are provided
T h e l o a d P i s d i s t r i b u t e d o n t w ot o w e r faces. T h e m o m e n t around point 1 (Figure a n d t h e r a t i o o f t h e w i d t h o f faces i s n o t m o r e t h a n 1:1,5 a n d t h e s h a p e o f t h e t o w e r i s
12.21) y i e l d s prismatic o r corresponds t o a truncated p y r a m i d .

D = P-h/(2-l) . (12.19) T h e load o f t h e tower face b y a t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t A f r s h o u l d n o t result i n leg m e m b e r

f o r c e s , i . e . t h e l e g m e m b e r f o r c e s Sx a n d Sy r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e f o r c e s P x a n d Py s h o u l d
T h e m e m b e r force o b t a i n e d b y this procedure c a n a c t as a tensile o r a compression be equal a n d act i nthe opposite direction (Figure 12.23), therefore:
force since t h e e x t e r n a l l o a d m a y a c t i nb o t h directions. I n case o f d o u b l e w a r r e n s , t h e
m e m b e r f o r c e s a r e h a l f o f t h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d f r o m (12.19). Px • hjbA = Py • h/bB ; Px/Py = W&B = W & B 1
 F i g u r e 12.25: D e t e r m i -
n a t i o n o f m e m b e r forces i n
a horizontal plan bracing

F i g u r e 12.24: D e t e r m i -
n a t i o n of m e m b e r forces a t
change of l a t i t u d e increase
face A of a t o w e r b o d y

The t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t i so b t a i n e d f r o m : F i g u r e 12.26: C o m p e n -
sation o f terrain height
M T = S L • t = Px • &B1 + Py • & A I = Py • ( W & B I ) • & B ! + Py • b A 1 = 2 Py •6 A i differences i n case o f sepa-
rate foundations: a exten-
F r o m t h e s e r e l a t i o n s , i t f o l l o w s f o r Px a n d Py sions o ff o u n d a t i o n muffs;
b a r r a n g e m e n t o f leg e x -
PT = MT/(26BI) ; Py = Af T /(26 A 1 ) (12.22) tensions
B y i n s e r t i n g Px a s e x t e r n a l l o a d i n ( 1 2 . 2 0 ) , t h e f o r c e s i n t h e b r a c i n g s o f t o w e r f a c e A
are o b t a i n e d as

DA = M T • ( W & B l ) • Id/ ( 2 &Ao • &Au) • (12.23)

F i g u r e 12.27: A n a l y s i s
T o bracings i n t h e t o w e r face B , i t applies analogously of m e m b e r forces o f l e g
extension: Q shear force,
DB=MT-(&Bl/&Al)-Zd/(2&Bo-i>Bu) ' (12.24) D\ b r a c i n g m e m b e r f o r c e
of shortest leg e x t e n s i o n ,
12.5.4.6 T o t a l forces i n bracings D i bracing m e m b e r force
of l e g extension i , D m
E q u a t i o n s (12.20), (12.21) a n d (12.23), a p p l y i n g t oforces in the bracing due t o hor- bracing m e m b e r force o f
izontal load, asymmetrical vertical load and torsional moments, can b e combined t o longest leg e x t e n s i o n
o b t a i n t h e total bracing force

12.5.4.8 Forces in horizontal bracings within the tower body

D A = f e p b+ A Y,n,.bv + '£MTA±). J g - . (12.25)
V t»B / m • bAo • bAu
Horizontal bracings arranged a t t h e level o f t h e lower crossarm chords in the tower
F o r a s i n g l e b r a c i n g , m w i l l b e 2 , i n c a s e o f d o u b l e w a r r e n s , m w i l l b e 4 . F o r DB i n face body distribute the torsional moments resulting from t h e c r o s s a r m s t o t h e f o u r faces
B, the values 6 A a n d i>B h a v e t o b e c h a n g e d a n d & A 0 , &AU are replaced b y6 B o , 6BU- of a tower b o d y (Figure 12.25). T h e members D transfer a portion o f the torsional
m o m e n t t o t h e f a c e s B , s u c h t h a t t h e f o r c e PB = S L • < / 2 6 A w i l l a c t t h e r e . T h e r e f o r e , i t
12.5.4.7 Forces in horizontal members a tt o w e r waist is o b t a i n e d
L a t t i c e steel towers are frequently designed w i t h a w i d e spread lower p a r t w i t h respect (12.27)
D = S L •V 6 A + b l •( F - &A)/(4£>A • 6 B ) •
to t h e f o u n d a t i o n forces a n d because o f a e s t h e t i c a l reasons ( F i g u r e 12.24). T h e h o r i z o n -
tal forces produced b yt h e change o fleg m e m b e r i n c l i n a t i o n h a v e t ob e w i t h s t o o d b y a The m e m b e r Z isnot loaded b ytorsional m o m e n t s .
h o r i z o n t a l b r a c i n g . W h e n l o a d e d b y t h e f o r c e P y, n oforce w i l l occur i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l
m e m b e r a t t h e w a i s t o f f a c e B . I n f a c e A , t h e h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e UA w i l l b e
12.5.4.9 Forces i n leg extensions
SB2y = SVy •tana 2 = SVyA2A/2 s s Sy - A 2 A / 2 The f o u n d a t i o n m u f f s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d a s close a s possible b e l o w t h e connection o f
Smy = SVy • t a n d i = SVyAiA/2 s s Sy • A1A/2 (12.26) the l o w e r b r a c i n g m e m b e r t o t h e c o r n e r leg t o keep l o w t h e b e n d i n g o f t h e u n s u p p o r t e d
UA = SR2y - S m y = S y ( A 2 A - A 1 A ) / 2 . l e g m e m b e r s r e s u l t i n g from t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t s o ft h e b r a c i n g forces.
T h e extension of foundation muffs according to F i g u r e 12.26a requires a strong concrete
A c c o r d i n g l y i t applies for face B r e i n f o r c e m e n t , especially i n case o f h i g h differences i n t h e g r o u n d surface. T o avoid
these expensive reinforcement, t h e connection o ft h e lowermost bracing isarranged a t
UB = £r(A2B - A I B ) / 2
the s a m e height above g r o u n d for each i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r leg ( F i g u r e 12.26b) r e s u l t i n g
386 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 387

T h e system height 6 j + i can be computed from

6 i + i = l(bn - bo) • hl+j]/(h + bn • A / 2 ) + b0 . (12.30)

T h e r e , A m e a n s t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f the tower body. I n case o f several vertical

loads acting a t different attachments, t h e lever a r m s h , _ i are accordingly applied. T h e
force i n the upper chord o f panel i is o b t a i n e d from

F i g u r e 12.28: Analysis o f
m e m b e r forces i n a hori- <*-* + | + (++75) • <12-3"
z o n t a l crossarm face
T h e bracing m e m b e r s inclined t o w a r d s t h e crosssirm p e a k are loaded b y tensile forces
according t o

D z i = Pv.MM = ^ H b ^ + ( h ^ - k i ) 2 , ( 1 2 .32)

w h e r e v = (h + bn • A / 2 ) • b0/(bn - b0).
F i g u r e 12.29: Analysis of T h e bracing members inclined towards the tower body experience compression forces
m e m b e r forces i n a v e r t i - according t o
cal crossarm face

D D i = ^ P v. ^ = Z ^ H b ' + ^ - k ^ . ( 1 2 .33)
i n differently l o n g l e gextensions. T h e s e differing l e gextensions need t o b e considered v 2dDl 26; v + hi+1 1 '
w h e n calculating the lower parts o f t h e tower body, because t h e m e m b e r forces a n d
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e forces o f t h e lower chords, t h e values d e t e r m i n e d f r o m h o r i z o n t a l a n d
the buckling l e n g t h o f t h e m e m b e r s change. Since t h e design is n o t s y m m e t r i c a l ,t h e
vertical loads have t o b e s u m m e d u pw i t h due consideration o f their direction o f action.
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e loads o n leg m e m b e r s a n d bracings changes as well. A precise r a t i n g
r e q u i r e s a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t u d y . T o l i m i t t h e e f f o r t f o r c a l c u l a t i o n a n d d e s i g n , leg
extensions E i r e p r o v i d e d w i t h s t e p s o f 0 , 2 5 o r 0 , 5 0 m a n d t h e d e s i g n i s b a s e d o n t h e 12.5.5 A n a l y s i s of m e m b e r forces at a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m
m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f leg extensions ( F i g u r e 12.27). A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , 12.5.5.1 B a s i c a p p r o a c h of t h e finite e l e m e n t method
t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f o r c e s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 2 7 from w h i c h
the relation T h e finite element method r e p r e s e n t s a n a p p r o a c h e n a b l i n g s y s t e m a t i c c o m p u t a t i o n
of any type o f three-dimensional, statically determined or hyperstatic truss structures.
T h e complete structure is divided into elements, the mechanical behaviour o f which is
A = 2D 0 , ~r-S-77 - V ( 1 2 - 2 8 ) k n o w n . T h e t h e o r y o f m e m b e r t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h f o r m s t h e bEisis f o r t h e m a t r i x
bi + hi-bm/hm f q + ^hf)2
m e t h o d s o f t h e m e m b e r static [12.31, 12.32], is used t o analyse lattice towers. T h e
can b e d e r i v e d . T h e m e m b e r f o r c e Do i s t a k e n from t h e b a s i c t o w e r a n a l y s i s . T h e e l e m e n t stiffness m a t r i x describes t h e correlation between displacements o f nodes a n d
m a x i m u m f o r c e s i n t h e l e g e x t e n s i o n s r e s u l t from t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e l o n g e s t l e g forces acting a t t h e nodes o f each i n d i v i d u a l element. B y f o r m u l a t i n g t h e equilibrium
e x t e n s i o n i n each case. conditions b e t w e e n i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l forces a t t h e n o d e s w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
o f t h e k i n e m a t i c c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f t h e deformation of nodes a n d elements, a s y s t e m o f
linear e q u a t i o n s i so b t a i n e d describing t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e u n k n o w n d e f o r m a t i o n s
12.5.4.10 Forces in crossarm m e m b e r s
o f t h e n o d e s , t h e deformation quantities a n d t h e forces a t t h e nodes. T h i s s y s t e m o f
S i m i l a r t o t o w e r b o d i e s , t h e crossarms a r e c o m p o s e d o f p l a n e t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s ; h o w e v e r , l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s f o r m s t h e b a s i s o f t h e displacement method of analysis. T h e m a t r i x o f
there is only a simple s y m m e t r y t o t h e crossarm l o n g i t u d i n a l axis. T h e m e m b e r forces c o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h i s s y s t e m o f e q u a t i o n s i s c a l l e d t h e total stiffness matrix. T h e d e f o r -
i n t h eh o r i z o n t a l c r o s s a r m face ( F i g u r e 12.28) a r e c o m p u t e d a s i n case o f a t o w e r m a t i o n s o f nodes are o b t a i n e d b y solving this s y s t e m o f linesir equations. T h e m e m b e r
b o d y face. E q u a t i o n s (12.17), (12.20) a n d (12.21) a p p l y t o t h e forces i n t h e chords a n d f o r c e s c a n t h e n b e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s u s i n g t h e stress-strain relation.
bracings, w h e r e b y t h e n u m b e r 2 i nt h e d e n o m i n a t o r i s d r o p p e d . For analysis o ftowers s m a l l displacements a n d a linear elastic behaviour o fthe m a t e r i a l
T h e m e m b e r forces i n a vertical c r o s s a r m face are c o m p u t e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e sectioning, are assumed. T h e calculation yields the d e f o r m a t i o n state o f the structure as well.
whereby the leverarms a r emeasured f r o m a to-scale d r a w i n g o f t h e static s y s t e m o r A s far a st h e p r o g r a m m i n g is concerned, t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d o f analysis is i d e n t i c a l
are computed (Figure 12.29). t o t h e finite element method w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s y s t e m . T h e r e s u l t s a r e p r e c i s e , t h e
T h e force i n p a n e l i o f t h e lower c h o r d results, considering t h e r e l a t i o n s according t o theory o flinear static analysis provided. T h e m e t h o d has been systematically developed
F i g u r e 12.29, from to such a n extent that all types o f trass structures c a nbe analysed. M a n y computer
p r o g r a m s for f r a m e w o r k systems are available for practical application. A t t h e beginning
Ui = - P v - h m / ( 2 & , + 1 ) . (12.29)
of a specific c a l c u l a t i o n , d a t a need t o b e p r e p a r e d describing t h e s t u d i e d framework i n
There, P v is t h e t o t a l v e r t i c a l l o a d w h i c h is d i s t r i b u t e d t o t w o faces. detail a n d completely. T h e s e d a t a are:
 o f t h e e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 3 5 ) i n t o t h e global coordinate system. T h i s procedure yields the el-
e m e n t stiffness m a t r i x r e l a t e d t o t h eglobal c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m . F r o m F i g u r e 12.32 i t is
y — <s< concluded:

£4 2 h. u, ua = U i i x • c o s a + Uny • s i n a . (12.36)
3,00 2,00 4 "i2 = Ui2x • c o s a + Ui2y •s i n a . (12.37)
F=10kN F = 10 kN
The indices 1 a n d 2 a r e related t o t h et w oends o f t h e m e m b e r i.
E q u a t i o n s (12.36) a n d (12.37) c a n b e represented b y m e a n s o f matrices:
F i g u r e 12.30: S t r u c t u r e i n t h e g l o b a l c o o r d i - F i g u r e 12.31: F i n i t e t r u s s s t r u c t u r e e l e m e n t
nate system in the local coordinate system Uj = T j U j , (12.38)

cos a sin a 0 0
where T j =
0 0 cos a sina
The m a t r i x T j transfers displacements f r o m the global coordinate system into the local
one. A s p e r definition, a truss m e m b e r carries forces o n l y i n its l o n g i t u d i n a l direction.
The f o r c e s fn a n d f,2 c a n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e global coordinates x a n dy ( F i g u r e 12.33):

Pili = / j i - c o s a ; Fjiy = /ji-sina (12.39)

Fi2x =/i2-cosa ; Fi2y = / j 2 -sina . (12.40)
F i g u r e 12.32: D i s p l a c e m e n t o f e l e m e n t i n F i g u r e 12.33: E l e m e n t forces i n the
the global coordinate system global coordinate system These equations c a n b e w r i t t e n i nt h em a t r i x format:

Fj = T,Tfj . (12.41)
— T h en u m b e r o f m e m b e r s ;
The transformation matrix Tj represents t h e transposed o f t h e m a t r i x T ja s defined
- T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e n o d e s i n a n x-, y-, z - c o o r d i n a t e system;
b y e q u a t i o n (12.38). I f(12.35) is i n s e r t e d i n t o (12.41), i tis o b t a i n e d
— I n f o r m a t i o no n t h et w onodes connected foreach member;
- T h e e x t e r n a l forces w i t h t h ec o r r e s p o n d i n g n o d e o f a t t a c k , t h e i r m a g n i t u d e a n d Fj = T^kjUj . (12.42)
d i r e c t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e s u p p o r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o fn o d e s a n d d i r e c t i o n o ft h e forces.
W i t h (12.38) i t results:
In this context, a m e m b e r isaddressed asa finite element o fthe truss structure, where
the w o r d finite, i . e. l i m i t e d , i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d c o n t r a r i l y t o i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y s m a l l . T h e F; = T f k j T j U j . (12.43)
m e t h o d will b eexplained a t t h e e x a m p l e o fa simple plane truss structure ( F i g u r e 12.30).
For this truss s t r u c t u r e , t h e axial forces ( m e m b e r forces) are t o b e calculated under This equation issimplified using the abbreviation
the action o f e x t e r n a l loads. A compression o r tension loaded member w i t h pivoted
Kj = T^kjTj (12.44)
connections a t i t s e n dforms o n e element. I t smechanical behaviour is described by
the relation between t h e f o r c e s fx, f2 a n d t h e displacements u i , u2 at t h e m e m b e r to b e
ends ( F i g u r e 12.31). T h edisplacements o f t h e element ends a n dt h em e m b e r forces i n
F, = KjUj (12.45)
direction o f t h em e m b e r axis are designated w i t h small characters a n d are related t o
the local coordinate system o f a n element. and establishes t h er e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h eforces a n d displacements i nt h e global coor-
A global coordinate s y s t e m isdefined w h e r e t h e displacements a n d forces are designated d i n a t e s y s t e m . T h e m a t r i x K j i s t h e element stiffness matrix i n t h e g l o b a l c o o r d i n a t e
by capital letters. T h eforces a r e related t o t h e displacements i nt h e local coordinate system. T h erelations a r e equally structured f o r each element w i t h i n t h e truss; how-
system as follows: ever, t h eelements o f t h e m a t r i x K j a r e dependent o n t h e mechanical a n d geometric
characteristics o feach element.
' fil' EA l - l " I n case o f t h e e x a m p l e described b y F i g u r e 12.30, four elements f o r m t h e complete
(12.34)
~ ~T~ -l l Ui2 s t r u c t u r e w h i c h is described b y e q u a t i o n (12.45). T h ep o s i t i o n o f each e l e m e n t i s d e -
t e r m i n e d b y i t sangle a a n d b y t h enodes connected b y t h eelement. T h e mechanical
or abbreviated
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e e l o n g a t i o n s t i f f n e s s EA/l. T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
forces a n d displacements f o rt h e overall s t r u c t u r e c a n b e expressed b y t h e f o r m a t o f
ft = l q u i . (12.35)
(12.45); t h en u m b e r o f n o d e forces a n d displacements i s increased t h e n . T h e matrices
are c o n n e c t e d b y a m a t r i x e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e f o r m a t
The m a t r i x k j i s t h e element stiffness matrix o f t h e e l e m e n t i i n t h e local coordinate
system, E i s t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y a n dA t h e cross-sectional area. Matrices a r e F = K U . (12.46)
designated w i t h bolt-typed letters.
The local e l e m e n t coordinates possess differing p o s i t i o n s i n t h eglobal c o o r d i n a t e sys- U is t h e node displacement vector o f t h e overall structure i n t h e global coordinate
tem. T h e p o s i t i o n o fa n e l e m e n t i nt h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e i s o b t a i n e d b y a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m . T h e m a t r i x K i s t h e total stiffness matrix o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . I t i s o b t a i n e d
390 12 Support: 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 3 9 1

by a p p l y i n g t h e direct stiffness m e t h o d [12.32, 12.33]. F o r this purpose, t h e stiffness T h e r e , t h e n o d e f o r c e s F3x, F3y, Fix, Fiy a r e t h e u n k n o w n support reactions a n d t h e
matrices o f the individualelements i are added: d i s p l a c e m e n t s Uix, Uiy, U2x, U2y t h e u n k n o w n n o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t s . A l l o t h e r q u a n t i -
(12.47) ties a r e k n o w n . K n o w n d i s p l a c e m e n t s n e e d n o t t o b e z e r o i na n y case. F r o m a g i v e n
d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a s u p p o r t m e m b e r , forces c a n r e s u l t i n h y p e r s t a t i c s y s t e m s , e. g. b y
foundation settleme nts.
T h e n , each element m a t r i x K j ist r a n s f o r m e d i n t o m a t r i x K© w h i c h has got the same
The lines a n d c o l u m n s o f t h e equation system F = K U are rearranged such that t h e
order as t h e stiffness m a t r i x K . I t contains values differing f r o m zero o n l y a t such
format
positions w h i c h correspond t o a degree o f freedom o f the relevant element. T h u s , i t
applies for the element 3 o f the example Fa ' U a
(12.48)
u2x U2y U3x U3y Uiy +-

id
degrt F b
' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
is o b t a i n e d , w h e r e F a i s t h e v e c t o r o f t h e k n o w n forces a n dF b t h e vector o f t h e
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Uly
u n k n o w n forces. T h e m a t r i x K has a s y m m e t r i c structure which iscomposed from the
0 0 Kf Kf . 0 0 Kf Kf u2x
sub-matrices K a , K a b a n d K b b i nt h e m a n n e r described. T h e r e , K b a = K a b because
0 0 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf Uly
K< > 3 = of t h e s y m m e t r y . T h e equations can b e solved w i t h respect t o t h e u n k n o w n vectors.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u3x
F r o m t h e first l i n e o f t h e m a t r i x , i t i s o b t a i n e d
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U3y
0 0 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf uix F = K ^ U a - +K U . (12.49)
a a b b
_ 0 0 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf _ U4y
The s o l u t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e u n k n o w n node displacements r e s u l t s i n
A p p l y i n g t h e above m e n t i o n e d procedure o n t h e overall s t r u c t u r e , t h e stiffness m a t r i x
U a = K M ' ( F a - K a b U b ) . (12.50)
is o b t a i n e d :
ulx Uly 172. Uly 17s. U3y uix Uly I n case o fr i g i d s u p p o r t s ( U b = 0), it is obtained:
— 1 1
K f —19 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kl Ulx
K? Kj
Kf Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf Uly U a = K ~ F a (12.51)

Kf1 Kf Kf Kf Kf Kf Kf Kf u2x A corresponding sy s t e m o f linear equations m a y c o n t a i n several h u n d r e d s o f u n k n o w n

K = Kf Kf Kf Kf Kf Kf Kf Kf Uly variables i n case o f large s t a t i c s y s t e m s w i t h m a n y e l e m e n t s a n d n o d e s such as a l a t t i c e
Kf Kf Kf u3x
fr
to CO

0 0 0 0
to

tower. T h e s o l u t i o n will t h e n o n l y b e possible w i t h adequate c o m p u t e r programs.

0 0 Kf Kf 0 0 U3y A f t e r calculating t h e displacements U a f r o m e q u a t i o n (12.51), t h e u n k n o w n force q u a n -
Kf Kf 0 0 Kf uix
to

to

tities F b can b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e second line o f the m a t r i x i n (12.48)

Kf Kf Uly
-±++

0
to

to

0 Kf.
K ^ U a + K b b U (12.52)

w h e r e K f = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; K f = The element stiffness matrices k j are multipliedb y the element displacements t o com-
Kf + Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + pute the member forces:
Kf + Kf; K f = Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf. (12.53)
kjUj

T h e node forces w i t h i n t h e c o l u m n m a t r i x F o f e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 4 6 ) c a n b e s e p a r a t e d i n t o T h e local displacements U j can t h e n b e expressed according t oequation (12.38) b y the
t w o g r o u p s . T h e u n k n o w n f o r c e s f o r m t h e first g r o u p a n d t h e a c t i n g e x t e r n a l f o r c e s t h e global vector U ja n d t h e m e m b e r force for t h e element i iso b t a i n e d f r o m
o t h e r o n e . S i m i l a r l y , t h e node displacements a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s . O n e c o n s i s t s
of the u n k n o w n node displacements and the other o f the displacements given b y the fi = kjTjUj
s u p p o r t conditions. F o r a given displacement, t h e corresponding n o d e force w i l l b e
u n k n o w n ; i n case o f a k n o w n force, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g displacement w i l l b e u n k n o w n . T h e same sequence o fcalculations applies t o all tasks t o b e achieved:
F r o m F i g u r e 12.30 i t iso b t a i n e d for t h e matrices F a n d U (a) Establishing geometry, materials and section properties, numbering nodes
and members;
0 " Uix '
(b) E s t a b l i s h i n g the element stiffness matrices;
—F Uly
(c) T r a n s f o r m a t i o n t othe global coordinate system;
0 U2x
(d) F o r m i n g t h e stiffness m a t r i x o f the overall system;
F =
—F ; u = Uly (e) Insertion o f load and supporting conditions;
F3x 0
(f) Solving t h e system o fequations o r (12.50) o r (12.51);
F 3y 0
(g) C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m e m b e r forces u s i n g e q u a t i o n (12.53);
Fix 0
(h) Calculation o f the support reactions using equation (12.52).
. Fly _ 0
392 12 Supports

Example: T h e steps of calculation w i l l b e d e m o n s t r a t e d by m e a n s of a s i m p l e e x a m p l e 219,3 164,5 -219,3 -164,5

164,5 123,4 -164,5 -123,4 kN
(Figure 12.30). K, =
—219,3 — 1D4,5 219,3 1 CA C cm '
Table of nodes: Relations between nodes and elements:
-164,5 -123,4 164,5 123,4
Nodes X y Element Nodes •
COS Ct SIR Ct Cross section
1 0,00 0,00 I r [ m ] Ai ( c m 2 ) 113,7 34,1 -113,7 -34,1 '
2 3,00 0,00 1 1 2 3,00 1,0000 0,0000 9,40 34,1 10,2 -34,1 -10,2 kN
K 4 =
3 5,00 0,00 2 2: 3 2,00 1,0000 0,0000 9,40 -113,7 -34,1 113,7 34,1 cm
4 5,00 1,50 3 2: 4 2,50 0,8000 0,6000 4,08 -34,1 -10,2 34,1 10,2
4 1 4 5,22 0,9578 0,2873 3,08
T h e s y s t e m h a s e i g h t degrees o f f r e e d o m . T h e t o t a l stiffness m a t r i x K is a n 8 b y 8 m a t r i x .
M a t e r i a l : steel E = 210 000 N / m m 2
I t i s e s t a b l i s h e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i r e c t s t i f f n e s s m e t h o d from t h e e l e m e n t m a t r i c e s K ? . T h e
n o d e - e l e m e n t relation can be used for this purpose. O n this basis, a c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x C wifl
T h e v e c t o r of t h e e x t e r n a l loads is o b t a i n e d b y t h e e x t e r n a l forces a c t i n g a t n o d e s 1 a n d 2
be established for each element. T h e elements o f t h e m a t r i x C are 1 i f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n at t h e
0 m e m b e r e n d coincides w i t h t h e d e f o r m a t i o n of t h e node a n d will be zero otherwise.
-10 kN 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
-10 kN 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Furthermore, the displacements of nodes at the supports are k n o w n . Rigid supports are assumed
i n t h i s case. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
C 3 = c 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 '3 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

C / K j C j i t is o b t a i n e d :
T h e e l e m e n t s t i f f n e s s m a t r i c e s i n t h e g l o b a l s y s i t e m are c o m p u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 4 4 ) .
658,0 0,00 -658,0 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 "
F o r this purpose t h e element stiffness m a t r i c e s i n t h e local s y s t e m a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 Ci n n n nn un , un un n nn
matrices are needed. A t first, the element stiffness matrices are established:
-658,0 0,00 658,0 0,00 un , unun un , unun un , un un Un , UnUn
E- Ai 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 n nn nu , UnUn nu , un un n nn kN
1 -1
kj = 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 n nn nU,UU nn nU,UU nn n nn
- 1 cm
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 Un , UnUn n nn n nn
U,UU Un , UnUn
658,00 -658,00 " kN 987,00 -987,00 kN 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 n nn n nn n nn nU,UUnn
-658,00 658,00 cm -987,00 987,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 nU , n0 0n n0 , 0n0n n0 , 0n0n 0,00
cm '

342,72 -342,72 " kN 123,90 -123,90 kN " 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 '
-342,72 342,72 cm -123,90 123,90 cm 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 987,0 0,00 -987,0 0,00 0,00 0,00
T o t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n matrices i t applies: 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 kN
0,00 0,00 -987,0 0,00 987,0 0,00 0,00 0,00 cm '
cos a t s m Of 0 0
and 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0 cos Q j s i n oti 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 " 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,80 0,60 0,00 0,00 0,96 0,29 0,00 0,00
T 3 T 4 •• 0,00 0,00 219,3 164,5 0,00 0,00 -219,3 -164,5
0,00 0,00 0,80 0,60 0,00 0,00 0,96 0,29 123,4
0,00 0,00 164,5 0,00 0,00 -164,5 -123,4 kN
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 cm '
O n this basis, t h e stiffness m a t r i c e s are o b t a i n e d according t o e q u a t i o n (12.44)
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
Kj = TTkjTj 0,00 0,00 -219,3 -- 1 6 4 , 5 0,00 0,00 219,3 164,5
0,00 0,00 -164,5 -- 1 2 3 , 4 0,00 0,00 164,5 123,4
658,0 0,0 -658,0 0,0
0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 kN 113,7 34,1 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 -- 1 1 3 , 7 -34,1
K 1 = 34,1 10,2 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 -34,1 -10,2
-658,0 0,0 658,0 0,0 cm
0,0 0,0 0,0 O.0 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 kN
987,0 0,0 -987,0 0,0 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 cm
0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 kN 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
-987,0 0,0 987,0 0,0 cm -113,7 -34,1 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 113,7 34,1
0,0 0,0 0,0 O,0 -34,1 -10,2 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 34,1 10,2
394 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 395

T h e t o t a l stiffness m a t r i x K is o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a t i o n (12.47).

K = £K?

771,7 34,1 -658,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -113,7 -34,1

34,1 10,2 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 -34,1 -10,2
F i g u r e 12.34: Bracings
-658,0 0,0 1864,3 164,5 -987,0 0,0 -219,3 -164,5
w i t h pivots a t connection
0,0 0,0 164,5 123,4 0,0 0,0 -164,5 -123,4 kN
K with members o f tower
0,0 0,0 -987,0 0,0 987,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 cm faces
0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
-113,67 -34,1 -219,3 -164,5 0,0 0,0 333,0 198,6
-34,10 -10,2 -164,5 -123,4 0,0 0,0 198,6 133,6

T h e degrees of f r e e d o m 1 t o 4 establish t h e u n k n o w n n o d e displacements. P r o m t h e t o t a l stiffness

matrix, the sub-matrices K M and K a b are obtained.

771,7 34,1 -658,0 0,0

34,1 10,2 0,0 0,0 kN
Kai T h e e x a m p l e d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e n u m e r i c a l effort is h i g h even i n case o f t h e s i m p l e s t r u c t u r e .
-658,0 0,0 1864,3 164,5 cm '
0,0 0,0 164,5 123,4 I t d o e s n o t m a k e m u c h s e n s e t o c a l c u l a t e s u c h a s t r u c t u r e u s i n g t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d s i n c e
conventional approaches lead m u c h faster t o t h e target. T h e example, however, explains the
0,0 0,0 -113,7 -34,1 procedure.
0,0 0,0 -34,1 -10,2 kN T h e s i z e o f t h e stiffness matrix K a a i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 5 2 ) h a s a p r e v a l e n t i m p a c t o n t h e
K a
-987,0 0,0 -219,3 -164,5 cm calculation effort. T h e stiffness matrices are s y m m e t r i c a l , positive definite a n d assume
0,0 0,0 -164,5 -123,4 a b a n d - t y p e s t r u c t u r e i n case o f large s y s t e m s . T h e i n v e r s i o n o f t h e m a t r i x is
c o m b i n e d w i t h m u c h effort i f i t is o f large order. I n general, t h e inverse o fb a n d m a t r i c e s
F r o m equation (12.51), the node deformations U a are obtained and f r o m equation (12.52) the will b e completely occupied requiring m a n y calculation operations for their inversion.
u n k n o w n s u p p o r t r e a c t i o n forces F b :
T h e n , i t m i g h t b e m o r e e f f e c t i v e t o u s e t h e elimination procedure a c c o r d i n g t o G a u s s
0,98 -46,7 o r t h e C h o l e s k y m e t h o d f o r s o l v i n g t h e e q u a t i o n K^ffJ^ = F a . T h e Cholesky method
-13,04 0,0 is i np a r t i c u l a r s u i t e d for s o l v i n g e q u a t i o n s y s t e m s w i t h s e v e r a l l o a d v e c t o r s (several
U a = K~ 1 F a
•mm ; •kN.
0,47 46,7 load cases). D e t a i l s can b e followed u p i n t h e references [12.32, 12.33].
-1,44 20,0

T o calculate t h e m e m b e r forces f r o m (12.53), t h e d e f o r m a t i o n vector is needed. T h e t o t a l d e - 12.5.5.2 A p p l i c a t i o n to t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s y s t e m s

formation vector will be:
T h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d i s a n o u t s t a n d i n g t o o l f o r a n a l y s i n g l a r g e t r u s s s y s t e m s s u c h
0,98
a s l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s . W h i l e a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e three-dimensional system represented
-13,04
0,47 e x c e p t i o n s i n t h e past a n d w e r e l i m i t e d t o special cases [12.34], a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e finite
-1,44 element m e t h o d isstandard practice now. T h i s is due t o the possibilities o f data pro-
0,00 cessing available nowadays a n d t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e E u r o p e a n a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l
0,00 overhead line standards and open market.
0,00
T h e u s e o f t h e finite element method l e a d s t o e x a c t r e s u l t s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e o f l i n e a r
0,00
static. However, the c o m p u t a t i o n effort isconsiderably h i g h such t h a t i t is indispensable
For t h e element displacements i n t h e global system, i t applies: for a n economic execution o ft h e calculation t oadopt p r o g r a m s specifically designed for
lattice towers i n order t o limit the i n p u t effort t o a nacceptable extent. T h e geometry
" Di " 0,98 ' ' u3 ' 0,47 " should b e defined b y a few i n p u t d a t a only, f o r m i n g t h e basis for generation o f nodes
u2 -13,04 ut -1,44
and m e m b e r relations b y the computer p r o g r a m . T h e node loads corresponding t o the
u, = u3 0,47 u2 = 0 0,00
-1,44 c o n s i d e r e d l o a d cases are d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m itself. T h e r a t i n g o f t h e
. u * . 0 0,00
m e m b e r cross sections a n d connections d e p e n d s o n t h e s t a n d a r d s t o b e applied a n d is
' u3 ' 0,47 " " C/i " 0,98 " carried out b y t h e computer p r o g r a m as well.
Ui -1,44 u2 -13,04 T h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e model of the overhead line structure f o r m s a n i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t f o r
u3 0 0,00 u4 0 0,00 the analysis. Lattice towers can b e modelled aspure truss structure o r as a framework.
0 0,00 0 0,00 I n c a s e o f t h e truss w i t h h i n g e d c o n n e c t i o n s , a l l m e m b e r s w i l l b e m o d e l l e d a s h i n g e d
truss members. Such a m o d e l can o n l y b e formed i f the k i n e m a t i c stabilityo f the truss
T h e w a n t e d axial m e m b e r forces are o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a t i o n (12.53) u s i n g t h e above q u a n t i t i e s
structure is guaranteed. E v e r y e x i s t i n g instability leads t o a singular total stiffness
fi = K j T i U i and matrix; t h e n , the equation system can not b e solved anymore.

Instabilities occur a t such nodes where members are jointed being all situated i n the
same plane. T h i s is t r u e o f the crossing points o f bracings a n d the connections w i t h
t h e l e gm e m b e r s i ncase o f staggered bracings. F i g u r e 12.34 s h o w s a t r u s s s t r u c t u r e
w i t h double warrens, w h e r e the bracings are connected b y hinges a t crossing points.
T h i s system will b e unstable i n view o f the truss theory, because the centre nodes can
be m o v e d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e face. T o generate s t a b i l i t y , i t w o u l d b e
not sufficient j u s t t o supplement t h e truss s t r u c t u r e b y a horizontal bracing consisting
of four members w h i c h connect the centre nodes o f the bracings. T h e four triangles
generated w o u l d b e stable, however, they could rotate around the l e gm e m b e r like a
r i g i d b o d y . I n t h i s case, t w o n o d e s o f t h e crossing p o i n t s w o u l d m o v e i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e
tower b o d y axis and the others t o the opposite. T h e system can b e deformed w i t h o u t
any constraint. T h e system would assume stability only i ftwo opposite nodes were
connected additionally.
However, the instabilitydescribed isa theoretical one only, because i n reality t h e brac-
ings a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l m e m b e r s i n t h e faces pass t h r o u g h a t t h e crossing p o i n t w i t h -
out losing t h e i r bending stiffness. T h i s bending stiffness transfers t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
truss structure into a general framework system.
M o d e l l i n g o f a lattice steel tower as a pure truss structure proofs t o b e difficult i n
practice, since i n case o f a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m , i n s t a b i l i t y can f r e q u e n t l y occur.
Therefore, i t needs t o b e consequently obeyed t h a t the three-dimensional truss con-
sists o f triangles o n l y w h i c h f o r m r i g i d panels b e i n g u n a b l e t o c a r r y o u t r i g i d b o d y
movements.
T h e r e f o r e , l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s a r e m o d e l l e d m o s t l y a s framework systems consisting
o f bending-resistant beams m o d e l l i n g t h e l e g a n d t r u s s m e m b e r s f o r m i n g t h e b r a c i n g s .
A hinge i s assumed a t t h e b e n d o f leg m e m b e r s a n d h o r i z o n t a l bracings are arranged
t h e r e t o w i t h s t a n d t h e forces d u e t o leg member bends. I f t h e l e g m e m b e r p r o f i l e s v a r y
in sections w i t h constant increase o f l a t i t u d e t h e n leaps o f t h e centroidal axes occur a t
the limits o f t h e b o d y sections. These eccentricities can b e neglected i f t h e centroidal
axes are averaged along t h e range h a v i n g t h e s a m e increase o f l a t i t u d e . T h i s p r a g m a t i c
approach yields t o sufficiently precise stresses i n t h e m e m b e r s .
Double warrens c a n b e m o d e l l e d a s t r u s s e l e m e n t s i f c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h e i r c r o s s i n g p o i n t s
are w a i v e d . T h e r e b y , t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e a p p a r e n t i n s t a b i l i t y is p r a c t i c a l l y c i r c u m v e n t e d .
Redundant a n d horizontal members a r e n e g l e c t e d i n m o s t c a s e s w h e n f o r m i n g t h e m o d e l
structure. T h e y serve t o stabilize t h e m a i n m e m b e r s against b u c k l i n g a n d are arranged
accordingly w i t h o u t being considered i n the static model.
T h e magnitude o f the occurring bending m o m e n t s i nthe members needs t o b e con-
sidered w h e n m o d e l l i n g t h e s y s t e m . F o r r a t i n g , i t c a nb e t r e a t e d as a truss s t r u c t u r e
w h e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y a x i a l m e m b e r forces occur, despite t h e m o d e l l i n g a s a f r a m e w o r k .
T h e occurring bending m o m e n t s m a y b e considered as secondary m o m e n t s w h i c h are
negligibly small. H i g h bending m o m e n t s draw the attention t o a violation o f the truss
structure modelling, w i t h the result t h a t external loads are w i t h s t o o d b y bending. I n
these cases, t h e t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e a c c o r d i n g l y a d j u s t e d o r t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t s
need t o b e considered w h e n verifying t h e cross sections. T h i s could lead t o big cross
sections o f i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s a n d m i g h t b e uneconomic.
12.5.6 C o m p a r i s o n of c o m p u t a t i o n s at p l a n e a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
systems
Lattice steel towers c a n b e analysed using a n a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d considering t h e
s t r u c t u r e a s c o m p o s e d o f p l a n e t r u s s e s o r t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m u s i n g t h e dis-
placement method. T h e a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n v i e w o f a n a n a l y s i s
by conventional processing b y h a n d . T h e m e m b e r forces are derived o n l y o nt h e condi-
12.b L a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s 39Y
tions o f e q u i l i b r i u m . Thereby, a recursive calculation o f t h e m e m b e r forces is possible.
T h e calculation starts a t the tower peak, whereby the proportional dead weights and
w i n d forces can b e i m m e d i a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d a n d t h e m e m b e r considered c a n b e r a t e d
d i r e c t l y w i t h i t s final d i m e n s i o n . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t o w e r s d e s i g n e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t b o d y
extensions i s possible i n a s i m p l e m a n n e r since a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n extension, t h e
loads resulting f r o m the tower sections above are u n a m b i g u o u s l y defined.
T h i s will n o t b e possible w h e n using t h e displacement m e t h o d . T h e structure is t o t a l l y
described b y its nodes and connecting elements and needs t o b e analysed t a k i n g care
of t h e external actions, t h e w i n d and dead loads o f the structure included. Therefore,
i n a first s t e p p r o f i l e s w i t h a m i n i m u m d i m e n s i o n a r e a s s u m e d f o r w h i c h t h e w i n d
a n d dead load can b e calculated i n a second step. T h e r a t i n g o f t h e m e m b e r s for t h e
forces o b t a i n e d results i n changes o fangle sections o b t a i n e d i n t h e preceding step. T h e
iterative calculation o fthe total structure ist o b e continued u n t i l n o changes o f profiles
occur anymore. T h e numerical effort for the calculation using t h e displacement m e t h o d
is essentially h i g h e r t h a n i n case o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n u s i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o x i m a t e
procedures not o n l y because o f basic procedures b u t also because of t h e overall i t e r a t i o n .
T h e displacement m e t h o d can b e used for all types o ftowers. C e r t a i n types o f towers are
not suited t ot h e calculation using the a p p r o x i m a t e procedures because o f their design,
especially w h e n s y m m e t r y is missing. T h e w o r l d - w i d e frequently used Y - t y p e towers
or p o r t a l structures fall w i t h i n t h i s category. D a t a f o r a d j u s t i n g the p o s i t i o n o f t h e
i n d i v i d u a l leg m e m b e r stubs w i t h respect t ot h e i n c l i n a t i o n o ft h e u n l o a d e d t o w e r t o t a k e
care o f t h e expected deformations c a nb e s t i p u l a t e d w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l calculations.
W h e n t h e s t r u c t u r e has been established for t h e computer, a d d i t i o n a l studies such as
a n a l y s i s o f i t s d y n a m i c s a n d o f e f f e c t s o f foundation settlement c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t .
C o n s t r a i n t s are given j u s t b y t h e performance o f t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s y s t e m used.
I n m i n i n g areas w i t h setting terrain i n particular, t h e f o u n d a t i o n settlements c a n b e
of interest. T h i s strain cannot b e analysed using calculations based o n a plane static-
determined system. T h e transposition o f loads d u et o t h e failure o f a m e m b e r o r a
foundation can b e studied as well.
T h e r e i s a close coincidence b e t w e e n b o t h m e t h o d s o f c a l c u l a t i o n , especially f o r t h e
l a t e r a l l o a d o f t h e t o w e r s w i t h o u t t o r s i o n a l effects. I n case o f a t o r s i o n a l load, t h e r e are
d e v i a t i o n s especially close t o t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e loads a c ta n d i n p a r t s o f t h e t o w e r s
w i t h horizontal bracings.
S m a l l e r differences o f t h e m e m b e r forces m a y b e d u e t o different m o d e l l i n g o f t h e
static systems. I n case o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o x i m a t e procedure, t h e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e
is a n a l y s e d a s a t r u s s s y s t e m . I n case o ft h e c a l c u l a t i o n u s i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d ,
the legmembers are assumed as bending-stiff beams and the bracings as members o f
a truss structure. W i t h i n t h i s hyperstatic s y s t e m , forces due t o constraints are created
b e c a u s e o f t h e m e m b e r d e f o r m a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t s Eire d i f f e r e n t a s w e l l . W h i l e
i n case o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o x i m a t e p r o c e d u r e dead w e i g h t s a n d w i n d loads a r e
d e t e r m i n e d for each tower panel as acting i n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l centre o f t h e panel, t h e
l o a d s a c t a t t h e n o d e s i n c a s e o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s Eire r e l a t i v e l y
s m a l l i n case o fleg m e m b e r s , those p o i n t s e x c e p t e d w h e r e t h e loads f r o m t h e crossarms
are introduced.
H o r i z o n t a l b r a c i n g s Eire E i r r a n g e d a t t h e c r o s s a r m c o n n e c t i o n s a n d a t p o s i t i o n s w h e r e
t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e t o w e r faces changes. T h i s h o r i z o n t a l bracings t a k e care
o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i n t r o d u c e d forces o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r faces. H o w e v e r , a
hyperstatic s y s t e m is created there, especially, w h e r e h o r i z o n t a l m e m b e r s are arranged
above o rbelow double warrens. T h e constraint forces created b y t h e deformations result
i n m e m b e r forces w h i c h are different f r o m those o b t a i n e d b y t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l procedure,
w h e r e i t isa s s u m e d t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l loads are w i t h s t o o d j u s t b y t h e leg m e m b e r s . T h i s
h y p o t h e s i s is n o t t r u e f o r h y p e r s t a t i c s y s t e m s . T h i s effect w i l l b e r e c o g n i z e d i n p a r t i c u l a r
398 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 399

T a b l e 1 2 . 8 : R e d u c t i o n factor g for angles depending o n t h e

r e l a t i v e p l a t e s l e n d e r n e s s A,
H o t - r o l l e d angles C o l d - f o r m e d angles O x ,

AP Q Ap g
< 0,91 1,0 < 0,809 1,0 /////(/////j/AA F i g u r e 12.35: Dimensions and c
0,91 t o 1,213 2 - Ap/0,91 0,809 t o 1,213 (5 - A p /0,404)/3 y sectional axes
> 1,213 0,98/Ap > 1,213 0,98/Ap

T h e structural design resistance Rd i s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s o f t h e

at a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e v e r t i c a l loads f r o m t h e c r o s s a r m u p p e r c h o r d t o t h e t o w e r b o d y r e s i s t a n c e RK d i v i d e d b y t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r s 7 M : .
and a t b e n d s i nt h e t o w e r faces. I n t h i s p a r t o f a t o w e r , t h e b r a c i n g forces o b t a i n e d
f r o m b o t h m e t h o d s differ t o a considerable degree. Ed = -RK/TM (12.55)
Torsional load cases r e s u l t i n d i f f e r i n g b r a c i n g f o r c e s . I n c a s e o f s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s
w i t h square bodies, t h e b r a c i n g forces w i l l b e h i g h e r i nt h e faces i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e 12.5.8 D e s i g n of c o m p r e s s i o n m e m b e r s
line direction w h e n using the conventional approximate procedure t h a n i nthe other
12.5.8.1 E f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s for c o m p r e s s i o n m e m b e r s
faces. T h e y are c o m p o s e d f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force i n l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n a n d
the reactions t o t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t s . T h e forces p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e are a s s u m e d F o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f stability of compression-loaded members, t h e effective cross section i s
to w i t h s t a n d the other half o f the torsional m o m e n t only. T h e calculation using the c o n s i d e r e d . W h e n e x c e e d i n g c e r t a i n r a t i o s b e t w e e n t h e l e g w i d t h b a n d t h e t h i c k n e s s t,
displacement m e t h o d r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r forces i n t h e bracings o f t h e faces p e r p e n d i c u l a r the effect o f l o c a l b u c k l i n g o n t h e i n s t a b i l i t y n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d b y r e d u c i n g t h e
to the line direction. a v a i l a b l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a . T h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a *4eff i s c o m p u t e d f r o m
U s i n g t h e conventional approximate procedure f o r l o a d s i n p a r a l l e l t o o n e t o w e r f a c e , t h e e f f e c t i v e l e g w i d t h beg w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e r e l a t i v e p l a t e s l e n d e r n e s s A p , a s s u m i n g
the bracings i nt h e faces r e c t a n g u l a r t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l o a d a r e a s s u m e d a s n o t a u n i f o r m s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e a n g l e l e g . T h e relative plate slenderness i s
contributing t o the load reaction. According t o the displacement method, the expan-
sion o f tensile-loaded leg m e m b e r s a n d s e t t i n g o f t h e compression-loaded leg m e m b e r s Ap = 0,05376 / (t • j / 2 3 5 / / Y J = 0 , 0 0 3 5 • ( 6 / f ) • i/fy , (12.56)
p r o d u c e forces w i t h i n these bracings as well. T h e s e m e m b e r forces, h o w e v e r , are m o s t l y
lower t h a n those r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l loads. I n case o f d o u b l e w a r r e n s , t h e vir- w h e r e 6 i s t h e n o m i n a l l e g w i d t h , t t h e t h i c k n e s s a n d fy the yield strength.
tual buckling length is changed because b o t h bracings will b e compression-loaded due T h e effective leg w i d t h i s o b t a i n e d f r o m
to t h e s e t t i n g o f t h e leg m e m b e r s a n d t h e s u p p o r t i n g effect o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n a t t h e i r
crossing p o i n t is n o longer effective. A s explained i n clause 12.5.8.2, t h e resistance is 6eff = Q• b . (12.57)
l o w e r i n this case, t h e r e f o r e .
The reduction factor g is d e t e r m i n e d depending o nt h e relative plate slenderness A p for
L e g e x t e n s i o n s w i t h d i f f e r i n g l e n g t h s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l legs affect t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e hot-rolled angles according t o T a b l e 12.8. T h e cross-sectional area o f h o t - r o l l e d angles
forces w i t h i n t h e leg m e m b e r s . T h i s effect i s n o t considered w h e n u s i n g a c o n v e n t i o n a l is r e d u c e d i f t h e r a t i o s 6 / f i s a b o v e 1 7 , 0 f o r m i l d s t e e l S 2 3 5 o r a b o v e 1 3 , 8 i n c a s e o f
procedure. T h e s u p p o r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d stiffness i n case o f d i f f e r e n t l y l o n g leg e x t e n - high-tensile steel S355.
sions create a n a s y m m e t r y i n t h e s t a t i c m o d e l , r e s u l t i n g i na d i f f e r i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f
T h e effective cross-sectional area o f a n y a n g l e ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 5 ) c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d accord-
the forces. T h e s e differences o fm e m b e r forces, h o w e v e r , d o n o t l e a d t oa m o r e e c o n o m i c ing t o [12.35] f r o m :
rating b y one o r the other m e t h o d . Steel lattice towers need t o b e analysed for a large
n u m b e r o fl o a d cases. A l t h o u g h f r o m b o t h m e t h o d s d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e forces A e f f = A - 1 [ h ( 1 - p i ) + 62 ( 1 - e i ) ] , (12.58)
m a y r e s u l t f o r i n d i v i d u a l l o a d cases s u c h difference w i l l b e c o m p e n s a t e d considering
the r e s u l t s o f t h e l o a d cases a t a l l . T h e i r effect o n t h e r a t i n g w i l l b e l i m i t e d , t h e r e f o r e . w h e r e Q\ a n d Q2 a r e d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h l e g b y T a b l e 1 2 . 8 u s i n g A p f r o m (12.56).

12.5.8.2 F l e x u r a l b u c k l i n g of a x i a l l y c o m p r e s s e d m e m b e r s
12.5.7 G e n e r a l format of verification of m e m b e r s a n d connections
M e m b e r s o f lattice towers m a yb e considered a s s t r a i g h t a n da x i a l l y compressed,
T h e rating of lattice steel towers a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 8 ] f o l l o w s t h e E u r o p e a n
w h e r e b y t h e eccentricity o f t h e l o a d a c t i o n m a y n o t b e considered i n case o f leg m e m -
s t a n d a r d E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 ( E u r o c o d e 3 ) [12.13] f o rsteel s t r u c t u r e s . T h e design is b a s e d
bers, a s w e l l a s i n case o f b r a c i n g s c o n s i s t i n g o f o n e a n g l e s e c t i o n w h i c h is f r e q u e n t l y
o n t h e limit state approach. T h e m e m b e r f o r c e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e d e s i g n v a l u e s
connected b y one leg only. T h e n , t h e design v a l u e o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n force 7Vd d i v i d e d
o f a c t i o n s u s i n g t h e elastic global analysis. T h e s e d e s i g n v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e
b y t h e d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e flexural buckling resistance N R d s h o u l d s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n
characteristic values b y multiplication w i t h partial factors 7 F . T h e m a x i m u m m e m b e r
forces f o r m t h e basis for t h e r a t i n g o f t h e m e m b e r s .
Nd/Nm < 1 . (12.59)
T h e t o t a l design value Ed o f a t o w e r e l e m e n t c a u s e d b y t h e d e s i g n l o a d i s c o m p a r e d
w i t h t h e structural design resistance f Q . T h e s t a b i l i t y o f a n e l e m e n t i s v e r i f i e d i f t h e T h e r e , Nd i s t h e design value of the compression force for the m e m b e r considered. The
design value isn o t greater t h a n structural resistance: design buckling resistance l\7Rd is defined b y

Ed — E-d (12.54) N R d = K • AfS • / y / 7 M (12.60)

4UU 1 2 supports

a b e d a b e d

F i g u r e 12.36: S y m m e t r i c bracing types F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 7 : Staggered bracings for leg members

w h e r e n i s t h e r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r , Aeg t h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , fy t h e y i e l d , T h e relevant radius o f gyration i is determined according t o t h e buckling direction,

strength o f t h e m a t e r i a l a n d 7 M t h e p a r t i a l factor o f resistance, being a t least 1,1 t a k i n g c s i r e o f t h e g r o s s c r o s s s e c t i o n . S l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s a n d buckling lengths d e p e n d
according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8]. o n t h et y p e o fb r a c i n g ; f o r l e g m e m b e r s a n d chords, several cases a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d . F o r
I n case o f c o m p r e s s i o n l o a d , t h e m e m b e r s fail d u e t o i n s t a b i l i t y , w h e r e b y t h e r e s i s t a n c e leg m e m b e r s a n d chords w i t h s y m m e t r i c bracings Eiccording t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 6w h e r e t h e
does n o t o n l y d e p e n d o n t h e m a t e r i a l values b u t also o n t h e geometric d i m e n s i o n s o f nodes a r e s u p p o r t e d w i t h i n t w o faces, t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h i s equal t o t h e distance o f
the members. Therefore, t h e reduction factor K depends o n t h e slenderness A , o n t h e t h e n o d e s . T h e n , t h e slenderness ratio i s
m a t e r i a l d a t a E a n d fy a n d o n t h e t y p e o f buckling curve u s e d .
A = Ljivv , (12.66)
T h e European buckling curves [ 1 2 . 3 6 ] w e r e c r e a t e d a s a r e s u l t o f c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e -
search. T h eb u c k l i n g curves consider geometric imperfections d u e t o p r e c u r v a t u r e a n d w h e r e L i s t h e system length o f t h e l e g m e m b e r o r c h o r d a n d i m t h esmallest radius o f
s t r u c t u r a l i m p e r f e c t i o n s d u e t o p r o f i l e - d e p e n d i n g r e s i d u a l stresses. U s i n g t h e reference gyration o f t h eprofile (Figure 12.35).
s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o A a , t h e b u c k l i n g c u r v e s axe d e f i n e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h : I f t h e b u c k l i n g isc o n s t r a i n e d t oa c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n b y i n t e r m e d i a t e r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s
or staggered bracings, t h er a d i u s o fg y r a t i o n i sused i nr e l a t i o n t o t h e a x i s r e c t a n g u l a r l y
\ z = ,lfElTy • (12.61) t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f b u c k l i n g . I n c a s e o f staggered bracings ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 7 ) , t h e s l e n d e r n e s s
ratios o fleg m e m b e r s m a d e o f equal-leg angles are:
T h e s l e n d e r n e s s A o f t h e c o n s i d e r e d m e m b e r i s r e l a t e d t o A a a n d r e s u l t s i n t h e non-
dimensional slenderness A ,t a k i n g care o f t h eeffective cross-sectional area: W i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e brticing acc. t o F i g u r e 12.37 b, d: A = 1,0 •L/i,,,,:
1 m (12.67)
W i t h s t a g g e r e d b r a c i n g s a c c . t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 7 a , c: A = 1,2 -L/iyy.
A = ( A / A a ) y/An/A = ( A / * ) • y/Uy • AT) /(E-A) . (12.62)
Leg m e m b e r s s u p p o r t e d a l t e r n a t e l y i n t w o f a c e s a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 7 a a n d c
T h e buckling curves c a n b e equated as follows:
h a v e b e e n s u b j e c t o f stability investigations. T h et h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p r o b l e m o f s t a b i l i t y
( F i g u r e 12.37) w a s s t u d i e d b y several a u t h o r s [12.37, 12.38, 12.39]. T h eresults o f their
*= l/(V+vV-A2) (12.63)
studies a r es u m m a r i z e d i nT a b l e 12.9. I n [12.37], a leg m e m b e r w a s s t u d i e d considering
a v a r y i n g a x i a l f o r c e from p a n e l t o p a n e l a n d a d i f f e r i n g n u m b e r o f p a n e l s . P a p e r
where
[12.38] deals w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o fa d i f f e r i n g n u m b e r o fp a n e l s , h o w e v e r , w i t h a c o n s t a n t
0 = 0,5 [ l + a ( A - 0 , 2 ) + A 2 ] . (12.64) l o n g i t u d i n a l force. I n [12.39], t h ep r o b l e m w a s s t u d i e d f o r a differing n u m b e r o f panels
w i t h c o n s t a n t Etxial force, h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e d r i l l i n g o f t h e cross s e c t i o n . T h e
T h e imperfection factor a d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e o f b u c k l i n g c u r v e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , o n t h e results o b t a i n e d i n [12.39] a r ep r e s e n t e d i nT a b l e 1 2 . 9w i t h o u t t a k i n g care o ft h e d r i l l i n g .
classification o f t h e cross section. F o r t h e design o f compressed m e m b e r s , t w oa l t e r n a - T h e slenderness ratio A i s r e l a t e d t o t h e a x i s yy p a r a l l e l t o o n e l e g b y m e a n s o f t h e
tives c a n b e adopted according t oE N 5 0 341-1: b u c k l i n g l e n g t h f a c t o r 0yy
- Design w i t h o u t load tests;
- Design verified b y testing o ffull-scale structures. A = 0yy • L/iyy . (12.68)
I n s o m e c o u n t r i e s , l i k e G e r m a n y , o n l y t h e first a p p r o a c h i s p e r m i t t e d a n d s h o u l d b e f o l -
T h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n [ 1 2 . 3 7 ] d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e buckling length factor 0yy d e p e n d s
l o w e d a l s o i f l o a d t e s t s Eire C E i r r i e d o u t [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] . B o t h d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s Eire d i s t i n g u i s h e d
on t h e d i s t r i b u t i o no f t h e a x i a l force; t h e h i g h e r t h e increase p e r p a n e l , t h e lower t h e
by t h eselection o fthe buckling curve f o r angle sections a n d their differing assessment
b u c k l i n g l e n g t h f a c t o r is.T h em o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e case o c c u r s i ft h e s a m e a x i a l force acts
of load eccentricity a n d conditions o f connections. I f t h e design isdone b y calculation
in a l l panels. W i t h increasing n u m b e r o f panels, t h eb u c k l i n g l e n g t h factor increases a s
o n l y , t h e buckling curve c a p p l i e s t o a n g l e s e c t i o n s w i t h a n i m p e r f e c t i o n f a c t o r a e q u a l
well. T h em o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e v a l u e i sreached a l r e a d y a ts i x panels i n case o fa c o n s t a n t
to 0,49.
a x i a l force. T h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e a x i a l f o r c e o ft h e l e g m e m b e r s o f l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s i s less
T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f b u c k l i n g s t a b i l i t y i s b a s e d o n t h e member slenderness
t h a n 1 0 % from p a n e l t o p a n e l a b o v e t h e t o w e r w a i s t , a s a r u l e . B e l o w t h e t o w e r w a i s t ,
(12.65) t h e a x i a l f o r c e c a n d e c r e a s e f u r t h e r d o w n a s w e l l . A b u c k l i n g l e n g t h f a c t o r 0yy = 1 , 2 0
A = sk/i
402 12Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 4 0 3

F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 9 : C o m m o n l y adopted diagonal bracings, a: single w a r r e n ; b : sin-

g l e w a r r e n w i t h r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s ; c: d o u b l e w a r r e n ; d : d o u b l e w a r r e n w i t h
redundant members

T h e c r o s s i n g p o i n t c a n b e a s s u m e d a s fixed i n c a s e o f d o u b l e w a r r e n ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 9 c )
if b o t h m e m b e r s pass u n c u t a n da r econnected b ya t least o n e bolt. T h e c o n s t r a i n to f
crossarm lower chord d e f o r m a t i o n r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h eplane o f bracings depends o n t h e r a t i o o f t h e forces
\Sd/Na\ o f t h e d o u b l e w a r r e n , w h e r e 5 d i s t h e f o r c e i n t h e s u p p o r t i n g m e m b e r a n d Nd
T a b l e 1 2 . 1 0 : Buckling length factor for bracing patterns t h e f o r c e i n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n m e m b e r . Sd c a n b e a t e n s i l e o r c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e . I f a
according t oF i g u r e 12.37a and c s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t e n s i l e f o r c e Sd a c t s i n t h e s u p p o r t i n g m e m b e r , t h e n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n
Buckling length factor 0yy m e m b e r is stabilized.
D I N V D E 0210 [12.14] 1,00
D I N 4114 [12.40] 1,10 If \Sd/Nd\ > 2 / 3 , t h e n i t a p p l i e s A = Li/ivv . (12.69)
A.SCE Manual 52 [12.20] 1,20
B S [12.411 1,20 T h e s t a b i l i z i n geffect decreases i ft h e t e n s i l e force isg e t t i n g l o w e r . T h e n , b u c k l i n g o u t
E C C S [12.42] 1,20 of t h e t r u s s p l a n e needs t ob e s t u d i e d as well.
Literatur [12.37, 12.38, 12.39] 1,20

H \Sd/Nd\ < 2 / 3 , then i tapplies A = ( L i / f y y ) ^ 2 - 1 , 5 \Sd/N6\ . (12.70)

yields r e s u l t s o n t h esafe side. I nt h el i t e r a t u r e , d i f f e r e n t b u c k l i n g l e n g t h f a c t o r s c a n I f e q u a l c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e s Sd = Nd a c t i n b o t h m e m b e r s , t h e n t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h

be f o u n d f o r a l t e r n a t e l y s u p p o r t e d m e m b e r s i n t w o faces. I nT a b l e 12.10, t h e b u c k l i n g corresponds t o the system length L 2 . T h e members deviate rectangularly t othe truss
length factors a r e s u m m a r i z e d as presented i ns t a n d a r d s o r references. A c c o r d i n g t o plane. I f t h e compression forces are different,t h e m e m b e r loaded t o a lower e x t e n t s t a b i -
[12.14], i t is a s s u m e d t h a t b u c k l i n g occurs r e c t a n g u l a r l y t ot h e s u p p o r t i n g face w i t h i n
lizes t h e m e m b e r w i t h t h e h i g h e r c o m p r e s s i o n force. T h e n , i t applies t o t h e slenderness
t h e s y s t e m l e n g t h L . F o rt h e c a l c u l a t i o n , t h er a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n i y y is used r e s u l t i n g
ratio
i n a b u c k l i n g l e n g t h f a c t o r 0yy = 1 , 0 . T h e e v i d e n c e o f t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n a s s u m p t i o n h a s
b e e n p r o v e d b y t e s t s . T h e s e v a l u e s c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e d a t a d e t e r m i n e d i n [12.37] f o r t w o A = (ii/iyy) v / 2+ 2|5d/ATd| with A < L2/iyy . (12.71)
panels, corresponding t o a bracing according t o F i g u r e 12.37 b. T h eb u c k l i n g l e n g t h
factor a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m e r D I N 4 1 1 4 [12.40] i s a d e q u a t e i ft h e l e g m e m b e r force B u c k l i n g l e n g t h s f o r o t h e r b r a c i n g s a r e g i v e n i n [12.36] a n d i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8].
decreases d o w n w a r d s b y a t least 1 0 % p e rpanel. T h i s v a l u e coincides well w i t h t h e I n c a s e o f design validated by tower tests, t h e buckling curve b a c c o r d i n g t o E N V 1 9 9 3 ¬
result o b t a i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o [12.37] f o r five p a n e l s w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 1 3 ] i s a d o p t e d w i t h a n i m p e r f e c t i o n f a c t o r a = 0 , 3 4 . T o c a l c u l a t e t h e member
o f a x i a l f o r c e . I n c a s e o f a c o n s t a n t a x i a l f o r c e i n a l l p a n e l s , t h e f a c t o r 0yy = 1 , 2 0 c a n resistance, t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s e f f e c t i v e s l e n d e r n e s s A e f j i s i n t r o d u c e d , d e p e n d i n g o n :
be f o u n d i nt h e literature. U s i n g this factor, conservative results a r eo b t a i n e d because — The type o f member;
t h e l e gm e m b e r compression forces a n d t h eeffective b u c k l i n g lengths o f lattice steel — T h e cross-sectional axis f o rw h i c h the resistance isdetermined;
towers decrease i n u p w a r d direction. T h i s result h a sbeen considered i n A S C E [12.20], — T h e connection type;
B S [12.41] a n d E C C S [12.42]. — T h e bracing type a n d
— T h e member continuity.
A s a r u l e , t h e chords of crossarms a r e a l t e r n a t e l y s u p p o r t e d b y b r a c i n g s , w h e r e b y t h e
T o t a k e care o fthese effects, s i xb u c k l i n g cases a r ei n t r o d u c e d f o r a n g l e sections.
b u c k l i n g i st i e d t oa c e r t a i n d i r e c t i o n . F i g u r e 12.38 s h o w s t h e cases t ob e s t u d i e d . B e -
tween t w o consecutive nodes, t h e profile buckles a r o u n d its weakest cross-sectional axis. Case 1: exp(l,747-A-1,98) for 0,2 < A < 1,035
Aeff =
T h e n , t h e m i n i m u m r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n i sa s s u m e d for t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e slenderness 1,091 •A - 0,287 for A > 1,035,
Aeff =
ratio. T h e r a d i u s o fg y r a t i o n related t o t h e axis i n parallel t o o n eleg i sused for b u c k l i n g Case 2: e x p ( l , 7 4 7 - 1 , 2 • A - 1,98) for 0,2 < 1,2 • A < 1,035
Aeff =
r e c t a n g u l a r l y t ot h e h o r i z o n t a l o rv e r t i c a l c r o s s a r m face. 1,091- 1 , 2 - A - 0 , 2 8 7 for 1,2 • A > 1 , 0 3 5 ,
Aeff =
C o m m o n l y u s e d bracing arrangements f o r t o w e r b o d i e s a n d c r o s s a r m f a c e s a r e p r e s e n t e d (12.72)
Case 3: Aeff = 0 , 0 2 + 0,88 A ,
in F i g u r e 12.39. I n case o fsingle w a r r e n , t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e s y s t e m Case 4: Aeff = 0 , 3 0 + 0,68 A ,
l e n g t h o f t h e m e m b e r ( F i g u r e 12.39 a). I n case o f single w a r r e n w i t h r e d u n d a n t t r u s s Case 5: 0 , 5 2 + 0,68 A ,
Aeff =
( F i g u r e 12.39 b ) , t h e b u c k l i n g o u t o ft h e t r u s s p l a n e h a s t o b e considered as well. Case 6: 0 , 1 6 + 0,94 A .
Aeff =
T a b l e 12.11: B u c k l i n g c a s e s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 8 ] fable 12.12: E f f e c t i v e s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o a c c o r d i n g t o A S C E 5 2
Function Buckling Slender ness Lond ^1 ember Number of bolts Number Type of member Slenderness Slenderness condition Support condition
CU
L n iTl Iv/. ll li fLl O
STU l11 L LL.CHL 1 1L1L y \. U l i b i l l 111 I V aatt nHoUnH- rL.UJULIUUUUi>
nnlinnniiQ of case Leg member Aeff = A 0 < A < 150 bolted in both faces at
condition co ndition connections
Bracing vv < v2 1 end - 3 Bracing Aeff = A 0 < A < 120 concentric load at both ends
member < V2 2 ends - 4 member 0 < A < 120 concentric load at one end
> v2 2 ends 1 and normal framing eccentri-
^ ,/9 Aeir = 30 + 0,75 • A city at the other end
— 1 end 2 bolts
> v z 0 < A < 120 normal framing eccentricities
v* V * 1 bolt
at both ends
> — 0 end Z LHJlbD 4
Aeff = 60 + 0,50 • A 120 < A < 200 unrestrained against rotation
> — 0 end 1 bolt j
at both ends
yy or z z < v2 1 end - 4
Aeff = A i in —- 1 ' l i e
A partially restrained against
< \/2 2 ends — 5
rotation at one end
> v2 -- 2 ends 1 12U < A S 425
Aeff = 28,6 + 0,762 A partially restrained against
Z
«-> V 1 end 9
Z K/altc
DOILS A
•A rotation at both ends
> y/2 — 1 end 1 bolt 1 120 < A < 250
Aeir = 46,2 + 0,615
5 Redundant Aeff 7 A 0 < A < 120 concentric load at both ends
> 1/2 - 0 end 2 bolts
member Aeff = A 120 < A < 250 unrestrained against rotation
> y/2 0 end 1 bolt 6
at both ends
Leg vv all Figure 12.36 1 Aeff = 28,6 + 0,762 A 12U < A < z9U partially restrained against
member yy or z z values Figure 12.37 b , d 1 rotation at one end
of A Figure 12.37 a, c (staggered) 2 Aeff = 46,2 + 0,615 A 120 < A < 330 partially restrained against
rotation at both ends

T h e r e , A i s c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 2 ) . T h e a p p r o p r i a t e buckling case c a n
be selected f r o m T a b l e 1 2 . 1 1 . T w o cases a r e c o n s i d e r e d for leg m e m b e r s a n d b r a c i n g s
c o n n e c t e d w i t h b o t h legs. T h e first case refers t oa n a x i a l l y l o a d e d m e m b e r , c o n t i n u o u s l y
r u n n i n g t h r o u g h a n u m b e r o f panels w i t h s u p p o r t s n o t staggered as i nF i g u r e 12.36.
E q u a t i o n (12.72), case 1 , refers t o Aeff. T h e second case refers t o a n a x i a l l y loaded
m e m b e r , h o w e v e r , w i t h s t a g g e r e d s u p p o r t s a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 7 a a n d c. E q u a t i o n
F i g u r e 12.40: R e s i s t a n c e i n c a s e o f flexu-
(12.72) case 2 , applies t o Aeff. r a l b u c k l i n g o f angle sections m a d e o f S235
T h e ends o f b r a c i n g m e m b e r s o fl a t t i c e steel t o w e r s a r e c o n n e c t e d a t o n e angle l e g according to: 1E N 50341-1, buckling curve
only. T h i s connection produces a n eccentric load o n t h e m e m b e r w h i c h reduces i t s 11 I I i I _l c; 2 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , b u c k l i n g c u r v e b ; 3 A S C E
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
resistance. I f t h e m e m b e r isconnected b y m o r e t h a n one b o l t o rb y w e l d i n g , a restraint Slenderness ratio A — m a n u a l 5 2 [12.20]
is g i v e n w h i c h y i e l d s a h i g h e r resistance. W i t h i n c r e a s i n g s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o , t h e effect
o f t h e eccentricity decreases a n dt h e b e n e f i c i a l effect o ft h e r e s t r a i n t increases. F o r where E isthe m o d u l u s o felasticity (210000 N / m m 2 ) a n d fy t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h o f t h e
calculation purposes i t s h o u l d b e a s s u m e d t h a t these effects cancel o u t each o t h e r a t material. C ci s 133 for steel S235 a n d 108 for steel S355.
a n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o A = y/2. I n c a s e o f s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s A < y/2,
T h e n , t h e resistance is:
t h e e f f e c t o f t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y p r e d o m i n a t e s . I n c a s e o f s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s A > y/2, t h e
effect o f c o n s t r a i n t s a t t h e e n d s p r e d o m i n a t e s , e n a b l i n g t o u t i l i z e t h e f a v o u r a b l e effect JVRd = A 1-1/2(A/C C ) • fy f o rX< C c

of connections carriedput b y welding o r b y m o r e t h a n one bolt. (12.74)

T h e b u c k l i n g v e r i f i c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o A S C E 5 2 [12.20] i s w i d e - s p r e a d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , NRA = A • 2
7T • EjX2 for X > Cc
whereby eccentricities a n d restraintso ft h e connections are considered as well. Effective T o t a k e c a r e o f local buckling i n c a s e o f s l e n d e r m e m b e r s , t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h fy i s
slenderness ratios are calculated depending o n t h e task o f t h e m e m b e r , its slenderness replaced b y t h e critical stress / c r i n equations (12.73) a n d (12.74), w h i c h is d e t e r m i n e d
ratio and the type o fend connection. d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r a t i o o f t h e leg angle w i d t h t o t h e angle thickness. T h e leg w i d t h w
A centric load i s g i v e n i f t h e m e m b e r i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h b o t h l e g s o r c o n t i n u e s u n c u t is m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r a d i u s ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 5 ) .
a t a c r o s s i n g p o i n t . A n eccentric load i s g i v e n i f t h e m e m b e r i s c o n n e c t e d b y o n e l e g
only. T h e n , i t i sa s s u m e d t h a t a b o v e a slenderness r a t i o o f 120 t h e effect o ft h e r e s t r a i n t 209,6 w 377,3
1,677 - 0,677 • •/Ty My
cancels o u t t h e effect o f t h e eccentricity. A r e s t r a i n t c a n b e a s s u m e d i f t h e m e m b e r i s 1 ~7Jf 209,6 • t
welded o r connected b y more than one bolt. (12.75)
T h e resistance can b e calculated based o n t h e slenderness r a t i o A e j (seeT a b l e 12.12). 377,3 w 0,0332 •n •E
E l a s t i c a n d u n e l a s t i c b u c k l i n g i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o . Elas- sfTy 1 (wit)2
tic buckling o c c u r s a b o v e t h e limit of proportionality C c ,unelastic buckling below this
F i g u r e 12.40 s h o w s t h e resistance for a leg m e m b e r d e p e n d i n g o n t h e slenderness r a t i o X
l i m i t . Cc r e p r e s e n t s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o
for t h e t h r e e m e t h o d s o f verification discussed here. T h e resistance W a d i spresented i n
Cc = , • y/2 • E/fy (12.73) r e l a t i o n t o t h e a x i a l force JVpi according t o t h e f u l l - p l a s t i c state.
406 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 4 0 7

s u m e d . T h e v a l u e s 0o f o r warping c a n b e t a k e n b e t w e e n 0 , 5 f o r a r i g i d w a r p i n g r e s t r a i n t
a n d 1 , 0 f o r u n r e s t r i c t e d s u p p o r t a g a i n s t w a r p i n g . S i n c e t h e c o m p l e t e unrestricted sup-
7 !S" 7fe" port against warping i s n o t p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e n o d e s , a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o n
ii Figure 12.41: D e f o r m a t i o n t h e s a f e s i d e i s o b t a i n e d b y /So = 1 , 0 . T h e e f f e c t o f t h e w a r p i n g i s a n y w a y n o t e s s e n t i a l
behaviour of a n equal-leg a n - for t o w e r m e m b e r s , w h e r e cross sections w i t h o n l y low w a r p i n g resistance are adopted.
+ gle section a t a ) flexural I n case o f lattice t o w e r s , it isa s s u m e d t h a t t h e m e m b e r s are s u p p o r t e d a t t h e i r ends b y
4/ "to b u c k l i n g a n d b ) flexural t o r - hinges w i t h o u t a n y constraint for w a r p i n g . T h e difference between t h e s y s t e m l e n g t h
flexural buckling flexural torsional buckling sional buckling
of the m e m b e r a n d the distance between the connections a t b o t h m e m b e r ends i s
negligibly small. Consideiing these simplifications, i tis obtained for single-symmetric
cross sections h a v i n g t h e u-axis a s s y m m e t r y axis:
12.5.8.3 F l e x u r a l t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g of c e n t r a l l y c o m p r e s s e d m e m b e r s
A s a r u l e , t h i n - w a l l e d angles w i t h o p e n cross sections are used for l a t t i c e steel towers.
T h e stability behaviour o f these m e m b e r s depends o n t h e shape o f t h e cross section, 1 + 1A-,-.? , A
being completely irregular, single-, double- o r c e n t r a l l y - s y m m e t r i c . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e \ 2c2 V V < C 2 +
y i
IM ) 2
( 1 2 - 7 8 )

position o f the gravitational centre, t h e shearing centre a n d the point o f load action where c = yj % + 0 , 0 3 9 • s2 • I T ) / I U , (12.79)
flexural buckling, flexural torsional buckling o r torsional buckling c a n o c c u r . F l e x u r a l
t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g or t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g w i l l b e t h e m o r e l i k e l y t ob e prevalent t h e lower I n these f o r m u l a e there are
t h e slenderness r a t i o o f t h e m e m b e r is. L o w slenderness r a t i o s o c c u r i n p a r t i c u l a r at leg sk t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h o f t h e leg m e m b e r o r chord;
members o r crossarm lower chords and m o r e rarely a tbracings o r redundant members. iuu the radius o fgyration a r o u n d t h e s y m m e t r y axis;
T h e cross sections o f profiles used for leg m e m b e r s are single- o rd o u b l e - s y m m e t r i c . F o r u M distance between centre o fgravity a n d shearing centre;
lower chords o f crossarms, single-symmetric sections are used. ip = \ A ? v + iuu P ° l a r r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n a r o u n d t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e n t r e ;
Equal-leg angles a r e s i n g l e - s y m m e t r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n s , t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e n t r e o f w h i c h * M - y/ip + « M polar radius o fg y r a t i o n related t o the shearing centre;
does not coincide w i t h the shearing centre. T h e m e m b e r s are assumed a scentrally com-
Iu m o m e n t o finertia related t othe s y m m e t r y axis;
pressed such t h a t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l centre i s t h e load p o i n t . A m e m b e r can fail either
Iu w a r p i n g constant related t ot h e shearing centre;
b y flexural b u c k l i n g i n d i r e c t i o n o f o n e o f t h e s y m m e t r y a x e s o r b y flexural t o r s i o n a l
IT torsional m o m e n t o f inertia.
b u c k l i n g . F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 1 s h o w s i n s t a b i l i t y o f a n e q u a l - l e g a n g l e . I n c a s e o f flexural b u c k -
ling, the cross section moves rectangularly t ot h e cross-sectional axis ( F i g u r e 12.41a). The equivalent slenderness ratio c a n b ecalculated from equation (12.78) f o r angle
T h i s axis shows t h e m i n i m u m radius o f gyration. sections a s well as for U - t y p e channel sections. Results w e l l coinciding w i t h those f r o m
I n c a s e of flexural torsional buckling, t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n m o v e s r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o o n e o f t h e e q u a t i o n (12.78) are o b t a i n e d for equal-leg angles b y a na p p r o x i m a t i o n according t o
cross-sectional a x i s - i n case o f equal-leg angles r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e axis o f s y m m e t r y [12.43]:
(Figure 12.41 b ) - while it is drilled simultaneously along its longitudinal axis. Failing
by flexural t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g w i l l b ep r e v a l e n t i n case o f equal-leg angles w i t h l o w 5^06^/f
s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s . C h a n n e l s e c t i o n s f a i l e i t h e r b y flexural b u c k l i n g i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e Av ' v¥+3,53(6/sk)2
s y m m e t r y a x i s o r b y flexural t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g w h e r e t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n m o v e s r e c t a n -
w h e r e s k i s t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h o f t h e leg m e m b e r o r t h e chord, bt h e leg w i d t h o f t h e
gularly t othe s y m m e t r y axis and isdrilled a r o u n d its l o n g i t u d i n a l axis simultaneously.
section a n d t the thickness o ft h e angle.
Cruciform angles a r e d o u b l e - s y m m e t r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n s w h e r e t h e c e n t r e o f l o a d , t h e
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8], t h e e q u i v a l e n t slenderness r a t i o for equal-leg angles
shearing centre a n d t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e n t r e c o i n c i d e . T h i s c r o s s s e c t i o n f a i l s e i t h e r b y
can b e calculated as a n approximation f r o m
flexural buckling rectangularly t othe weaker axis o rb ytorsional buckling. I n the latter
case, t h e cross section is d r i l l e d w i t h o u t a l a t e r a l m o v e m e n t .
A^ = 56/t . (12.81)
T h e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t flexural t o r s i o n a l a n d t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g i s d e t e r m i n e d b y e q u a -
t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 0 ) a s i n c a s e o f flexural b u c k l i n g c o n s i d e r i n g , h o w e v e r , a n equivalent slender- T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n , h o w e v e r , leads t o u n f a v o u r a b l e r e s u l t s i n case o f l o w slenderness
ness ratio A v j f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e b u c k l i n g r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r K . T h e n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l ratios. T h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n (12.80) yields m o r e reliably results.
s l e n d e r n e s s i s d e f i n e d a s (see e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 2 ) ) F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 2 s h o w s t h e l i m i t s f o r t h e r e l a t i o n A„j/AOT o f c e n t r a l l y c o m p r e s s e d e q u a l -
leg angles for v a r y i n g r a t i o s o f w i d t h t o thickness. F l e x u r a l t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g prevails
A = (Aw/AJ^Aeff/A . (12.76)
above t h e relevant curves a n d flexural b e l o w . I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e r a t i o b/t h a s
I n case o f a s i n g l e - s y m m e t r i c cross s e c t i o n w h e r e t h e j / - a x i s f o r m s t h e s y m m e t r y a x i s , a n e s s e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e o n t h e s t a b i l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e . W i t h thin angle sections, flexural
t h e equivalent slenderness ratio i s torsional buckling is possible also a t slenderness ratios w h i c h c o m m o n l y occur a t leg
members.
C2 + 4 ^ + 0 , 0 9 3 ( « - l ) v i , , - T o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g o c c u r s i n c a s e o f double-symmetrical cross sections o n l y i f t h e p o l a r
1 2 7 ;
A 1 +. r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n ip i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e v a l u e c a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 7 9 ) . T h e
equivalent slenderness r a t i o is calculated for such cross sections f r o m :
T h e f a c t o r s 0 a n d 0o take c a r e o f t h e d e g r e e o f r e s t r a i n t f o r b e n d i n g a n d w a r p i n g . T h e
values d e p e n d o n the design o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . F o r t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s , 0 = 1,0 can b e as- > * = («k-<p)/(Vc) • (12.82)
4U8 12 Supports

F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 2 : L i m i t s o f r a t i o A„i/A„„ f o r d i s -
c e r n i n g flexural a n d flexural t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g
SL
i n case o f c e n t r a l l y c o m p r e s s e d equal-leg angle
30 40 50 60 70 sections w i t h v a r y i n g relations o f w i d t h b t o 1 1
Slenderness ratio A w — thickness t

T a b l e 12.13: M o m e n t coefficients /3M a c c o r d i n g t o E N V 1993¬ Fully c o m p o s i t e partially c o m p o s i t e

1-1 [12.13] ____
Moments at member ends Moments due to transverse loading F i g u r e 12.43: C r u c i f o r m c o m p o u n d m e m b e r s : a c o n t i n u o u s l y w e l d e d , b w i t h b a t t e n plates

h- • — H m
1 F i g u r e 12.44: M e m b e r s
composed o f back-to-back
z T
angle sections
fat = 1 , 8 - 0 , 7 0 fat = 1,4

p l a t e s . F r e q u e n t l y , cruciform angle sections according t o F i g u r e 12.43 are used for leg

12.5.8.4 B e n d i n g a n d a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n forces
m e m b e r s o ft o w e r s f o r h i g h loads. I ft h e y a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y w e l d e d t h e y c a n b e t r e a t e d a s
Bending a r o u n d b o t h p r i n c i p a l a x e s c o m b i n e d w i t h axial compression forces represents a s i n g l e f u l l y - c o m p o u n d m e m b e r . Back-to-back angle sections ( F i g u r e 12.44) a r e used
the most general loading o fa member. B e n d i n g i scaused either b y a n eccentrically f o r d i a g o n a l b r a c i n g s . Batten plates s h o u l d a tleast b e a r r a n g e d a t o n et h i r d o ft h e
a c t i n g c o m p r e s s i o n force a s designed o rb y t r a n s v e r s e e x t e r n a l loads. T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f total buckling length. Each batten plate isconnected t o t h e submembers b y means o f
m e m b e r s i scarried o u t according t oE N V 1993-1-1 [12.13], w h e r e b y t h e cross-sectional b o l t s o r a n e q u i v a l e n t w e l d e d s e a m . F o r cruciform angle sections, a tleast t w o bolts
m o d u l u s related t ot h e principal axes y a n d z are considered. I t should b e verified that a r e n e c e s s a r y a t e a c h s u b m e m b e r a t e a c h b a t t e n p l a t e . T h e s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o y\ o f t h e
submember should comply with
+ kyMyA + kzMzd < l 3^

KminA/Y/7M Wy/y/TM Wzfy/lM \i = S i / i v v <50 (12.84)

w h e r e S i i s t h e distance between t h e b a t t e n plates (seeF i g u r e 12.44) and i the

where ky = 1 — p.yNdl{ny • A - fy), h o w e v e r , ky < 1 , 5 ,
m i n i m u m radius o fgyration o fa submember.
py = Aj,(2/3My - 4 ) , however, p s < 0,9 ,
Compression-loaded compound members w h i c h consist o f m submembers a n d have a m a -
kz = 1 — P z N d / ( K 2 • A • fy), h o w e v e r , kz < 1 , 5 ,
terial principal axis m a y b ecalculated against buckling transversely t othese material
Pz = K(20uz - 4), h o w e v e r , pz < 0 , 9 .
axis a s a single compression m e m b e r . A s f a r a s b u c k l i n g transversely t ot h a t princi-
pal axis i s c o n c e r n e d , t h e c o m p o u n d m e m b e r c a n b e t r e a t e d a s a s i n g l e - c o m p r e s s i o n
T h e v a l u e K m i n i s t h e l o w e r o f Ky a n d K Z . T h e r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r s ny a n d nz a r e d e t e r m i n e d
m e m b e r w i t h a n equivalent slenderness o f
f r o m e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 3 ) f o r t h e y- a n d z - a x i s . T h e m o m e n t c o e f f i c i e n t s 0My a n d 0MZ c a n
b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 1 2 . 1 3 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d i a g r a m o fb e n d i n g m o m e n t s . F o r a n g l e y/\l + (ml2)\\ (12.85)
sections, t h e cross-sectional m o d u l i a n d o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s related t o t h e p r i n c i p a l axes
u and v ( s e e F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 5 ) have t ob e used. F o r o t h e r t y p e s o f loads, t h e m o m e n t where m is the number o fsubmembers, A z t h e slenderness ratio o ft h e compound
coefficients a r e g i v e n i n E N V 1993-1-1 [12.13]. m e m b e r a n d A jt h e slenderness ratio o f one submember.
The submembers o f t h e design s h o w n i n F i g u r e s 12.43 a n d12.44 have o n l y a l o w
distance. C o n n e c t i o n s b yb o l t s o r b y w e l d i n g t o t r a n s f e r t h e l o n g i t u d i n a lshear forces
12.5.9 D e s i g n of c o m p o u n d m e m b e r s
b e t w e e n t h e s u b m e m b e r s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r a t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e Vs e q u a l t o 2 , 5 % o f t h e
12.5.9.1 M e m b e r connected by batten plates l o n g i t u d i n a l force a c t i n g i nt h e c o m p o u n d member. F o r b a t t e n p l a t e s a n d flat steel
packing plates, i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o v e r i f y t h a t t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s c a n t r a n s f e r a s h e a r force
Members connected by batten plates axe u s e d f o r h i g h - l o a d e d l e g m e m b e r s a n d b r a c i n g s .
T h e y consist a tleast o ft w o i n d i v i d u a l angle sections w h i c h a r e c o n n e c t e d b y b a t t e n TS = V S- s i / e (12.86)
410 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 4 1 1

f, = 1.52a
If
/, = 1,28a
F i g u r e 12.47: Buckling
lengths o f laced corner
members

T h e shear stiffness Sy i s d e t e r m i n e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f b r a c i n g a c c o r d i n g t o
F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 6 . I t a p p l i e s t o t h e cases a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e s 1 2 . 4 6 a a n d b

Sy = EAd-a-hl/d3 , (12.88)

a n d t o t h e case a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 12.46 c

Sy = 2EAd • a • h2 J { d 3 [ l + (Adh30/(Avd3))]} . (12.89)

F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 5 : L o w e r section o f a 400 k V
crossing suspension tower, Bosphorus,
Turkey
F i g u r e 12.46: Parameters t o determine the
shear stiffness o f compression-loaded m e m b e r s :
asingle w a r r e n ; b single w a r r e n w i t h h o r i z o n t a l
member; cbracing with diagonal and horizontal
members
T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s f o r t h e shear stiffness a r e based o n rigid connections o f t h e brac-
i n g s t o t h e c o r n e r m e m b e r s . Resilience i n t h e c o n n e c t i o n s m a y r e d u c e t h e s t r e n g t h
a n d , t h e r e f o r e , s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d w h e n v e r i f y i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y . Slipping of the con-
nections c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e v i r t u a l g e o m e t r i c i m p e r f e c t i o n e 0 . A s a n
approximation, t h eadditionaldeformation can be taken as

r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e Vs. T h e r e , s i i s t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e b a t t e n (12.90)
n l a . t p s a . n d p t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e c e n t r n i r l a l Q V O O p.f r + * * n i t m p T i t i T i u r t , * . - , ,1-..:*-», es = ( A s - d - 0 / (2hoV^
t — —— —- " - - - • — ......... . . . i U L uuv. PULJuLillULlP. \A HVjAl l_it.OlgIlii.lg

the connections o f t h e b a t t e n plates, also t h e m o m e n t is considered w h i c h i s created w h e r e A s i s t h e s l i p p i n g , I t h e t o t a l l e n g t h o f t h e l a c e d c o m p o u n d m e m b e r ; h o a n d d,

by t h eeccentric action o f t h e shear force T s . T h eb a t t e n plates o f compression-loaded see F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 6 .
cruciform angle sections c a n b e staggered rectangular o r i n parallel. T h e n , eo + e s i n s t e a d o f eo i s a s s u m e d a s t h e set o f t h e p r e c u r v a t u r e .
T h e m a x i m u m m e m b e r force i n t h ecorner m e m b e r s results i n t h em i d d l e o ft h e com-
12.5.9.2 Laced box-type members p o u n d m e m b e r t ob e

Laced box-type members a r e n e e d e d f o r t a l l , h i g h l y - l o a d e d t o w e r s . T h e s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s NG = Nd/4 + Ms/(2ho) (12.91)

o f l o n g - s p a n overhead lint crossings ( [ 1 2 . 1 2 , 1 2 . 4 4 , 1 2 . 4 5 ] , F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 5 ) f a l l i n t o t h i s
E a c h i n d i v i d u a l corner m e m b e r isverified f o r a hinged connection a tb o t h ends as well
category. T h e m e m b e r forces t o b e w i t h s t o o d r e a c h u p t o 13 000 k N i ncase o f leg
a s f o r a s l e n d e r n e s s A i = h/ivv a n d t h e a x i a l f o r c e NQ a s a s i n g l e m e m b e r . T h e b u c k l i n g
m e m b e r s a n d u p t o 1 0 0 0k N i n case o fb r a c i n g s [12.44].
l e n g t h h h a s t o b e selected f r o m F i g u r e 12.47 depending o n t h e t y p e o f bracing. T h e
T h e laced b o x - t y p e m e m b e r s consist o f f o u r s u b m e m b e r s arranged i n parallel w h i c h
shear force d e t e r m i n e s t h e m e m b e r forces o f t h e bracing. T h e m a x i m u m shear force
are laced i n t h e f o u r side faces b y a r e g u l a r single w a r r e n b r a c i n g . T h e y a r e l o a d e d b y
o c c u r s a t t h e e n d o f t h e m a i n m e m b e r t o b e V s = "* Ms/I- T h e r e f o r e , t h e a x i a l f o r c e i n
a c e n t r a l l y a c t i n g c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e Nd, w h i c h r e s u l t s f r o m t h e s t a t i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e
the bracings results t o b e
structure. F o rthis analysis, t h elaced m e m b e r m a yb e considered as a single m e m b e r .
T h e section properties o fthe complete m e m b e r a r e used for t h eanalysis based o n t h e ND = Vs-d/(2ho) (12.92)
finite element m e t h o d , as a n e x a m p l e . T h e stresses i n t h e s u b m e m b e r s a r e calculated
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e second order theory c o n s i d e r i n g a s i n u s - t y p e d e f o r m a t i o n w i t h a d e - T h e bracings a r e designed f o r this force i n v i e w o f a n a x i a l l y - l o a d e d c o m p r e s s i o n w i t h
flection of e 0 =1/500. T ot h eb e n d i n g m o m e n t i nt h e m i d d l e o ft h e m e m b e r , i t applies t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h d. T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n b r a c i n g s a n d c o r n e r
m e m b e r s isnecessary as well.
MS = Nd • e o / [1- ( N d / K c r ) - (Nd/Sv)] , (12.87)
Example: Verification o f a laced c o m p o u n d m e m b e r ( F i g u r e 12.48)
where C o m p r e s s i o n force Nd = 1 2 8 0 0 k N
NCI = ,2EIeg/l2 virtual buckling load o ft h e laced m e m b e r , Modulus o f elasticity E =210000 N / m m 2
7 e f f = AQ • hq effective m o m e n t o f inertia o f t h e laced m e m b e r , Length o ftotal member I = 13,5 m

AG cross-sectional area o f o n e corner m e m b e r , Imperfection e0 =1 3 5 0 / 5 0 0 = 2,7 c m

Distance between the centre o f gravity ho = 100 c m
ho distance o fthe centre o f gravitation o f corner members,
System length o flattice truss a = 200 c m
I length o fthe total member, Length o f bracings d = y/2-a = 1 4 1 , 4 c m
E modulus o felasticity a n d Cross-sectional area o fcorner member A G = 2 • 83,5 = 167 c m 2
Sy shear stiffness o f t h e bracing. Cross-sectional area o f bracings A d = 9,40 c m 2
 412 1 2 supports

1000 12.5.10 D e s i g n of tensile-loaded m e m b e r s

12.5.10.1 M e m b e r s axially loaded in tension

F o r truss members loaded in tension, i t n e e d s t o b e v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e d e s i g n v a l u e Nd i s

less t h a n t h e r e s i s t a n c e A Mor:

A D / J V R d < l • (12.93)

T h e connection part o f the angle section determines the resistance A M - According t o

E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , t h e tensile resistance a tthe connection isnot based o nthe yield strength
fy b u t o n t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h /„ o f t h e material:

NRd = 0,9A n e t /u/lM , (12.94)

where A n e t i s t h e n e t c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , fu the tensile strength o f the material and

7 M t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r o f m a t e r i a l (yu = 1 , 2 5 a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 ) .
R e l a t e d t o t h e g r o s s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a A, t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s I V M = A • fy/fM, where
/ y is the yield strength and 7 M = 1,1. T h e lower o f b o t h values is prevalent f o r the
r a t i n g . T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n based o nt h e net cross section is, therefore, p r e v a l e n t i f

A > f 121 f o r S235 and . ,

F i g u r e 12.48: Design o f a compound A n e t \ 1 14 f o r S355. [ U ^ >
member
O t h e r w i s e , t h e verification is carried o u t considering gross cross-sectional area a n d t h e
yield strength. However, this verificationcan only b e prevalent i f the compression force
Effective m o m e n t o f inertia Jeff =
1 6 7 - 1 0 0 2 = 1,67 • 1 0 6 c m 4 acting i n t h e m e m b e r i s considerably below t h e tensile force.
Ideal elastic buckling load NCI IT2 • 2 1 0 0 0 • 1 , 6 7 • 1 0 6 / 1 3 5 0 2 = 1 9 0 - 1 0 3 k N
=
I n case o f a n g l e sections c o n n e c t e d a t b o t h legs s u c h a s j o i n t s o f leg m e m b e r s and
Shear stiffness Sv =
2 1 000 - 9,43 - 2 0 0 - 1 0 0 2 / 1 4 1 , 4 3 = 140 • 1 0 3 k N
Bending moment c h o r d s , t h e b o r e h o l e s i n b o t h legs a r e s u b s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e gross cross-sectional area.
M s =
12 8 0 0 - 2 , 7 / ( 1 - ( 1 2 8 0 0 / 1 9 0 - 1 0 3 ) -
(2 8 0 0 / 1 4 0 - 103)] = 4 1 1 k N m T h e connections are designed w i t h t h e bolts i n o n e line i n case o fangle sections with
A x i a l force o f corner m e m b e r NG = 1 2 8 0 0 / 4 + 4 1 1 0 0 / ( 2 - 1 0 0 ) = 3 4 0 6 k N legs u p t o 1 1 0 m m w i d e , w h e r e b y t h e b o l t s a r r a n g e d i n t h e t w o legs m a y b e s t a g g e r e d
Shear force VS =w- 4 1 1 / 1 3 , 5 = 9 5 , 6 k N t o each o t h e r . T w o r o w s o fstaggered b o l t s can b e a r r a n g e d i n o n e leg o f angle sections
A x i a l force o fbracing m e m b e r ARD = 95,6 • 141,4/(2 • 100) = 67,6 k N w i t h a t least 110 m m w i d e legs. I n w i d e r legs, t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o fb o l t s i n t w o l i n e s i n
p a r a l l e l i s possible i n b o t h legs, d e p e n d i n g also o n t h e b o l t d i a m e t e r .
Resistance o fcorner m e m b e r
F o r a n g l e s e c t i o n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h b o t h l e g s , t h e n e t cross-sectional area i s t h e l o w e s t
M i n i m u m radius o f gyration = y/2 1 2 7 6 / 1 6 7 = 3 , 9 1 c m value w h i c h isobtained along differing sectional lines
Buckling length h = 1,52 - 1 0 0 = 1 5 2 c m
Slenderness ratio A = 152/3,91 = 38,87 A n e t — A — AA , (12.96)
Aa = , - ^ 2 1 0 0 0 0 / 3 5 5 = 76,4
A = 38,87/76,4 = 0,5088 where A n e t i st h e n e t cross-sectional area, A t h e gross a r e a a l o n g t h e section s t u d i e d a n d
Buckling curve c = 0,49 A A the s u m o ft h e area o fall boreholes i n the studied section. T h e net cross-sectional
= 0,5(1 + 0,49(0,5088 - 0,2) + 0,50882) = 0,7051 a r e a is t h e g r o s s a r e a o f t h e m e m b e r less t h e s u m o f t h e a r e a o f a l l b o r e h o l e s i n t h e
Buckling reduction factor K = 1/(0,7051 + v / 0 , 7 0 5 1 2 - 0,50882) = 0,8375 regarded section perpendicular t ot h e axis o f t h e angle. I f the boreholes are staggered
Resistance A R D = 0,8375 - 1 6 7 • 35,5/1,1 = 4 524 k N it needs t o b e checked w h e t h e r t h e net cross-sectional area along any diagonal o r zigzag
NG/NBA = 3 4 0 6 / 4 514 = 0,755 < 1,0 line leads t o a l o w e r v a l u e ( F i g u r e 12.49). I nt h i s case, t h e n e t cross-sectional area
is d e t e r m i n e d b y d e d u c t i n g f r o m t h e g r o s s a r e a i n t h e s u m o f b o r e h o l e s e c t i o n s i n t h e
Resistance o fbracing m e m b e r
d i a g o n a l o rzigzag line a n d a d d i n g s 2 t / ( 4 p ) for each g a u g e space, w h e r e t is t h e t h i c k n e s s
M i n i m u m radius o f gyration = 1,37 c m o f t h e angle leg, s t h e l o n g i t u d i n a lc e n t r e - t o - c e n t r e p i t c h o f t w o consecutive boreholes
Buckling length I, = d = 141,4 c m and p the transverse centre-to-centre pitch between the bolt gauge lines. T h e spacing
Slenderness ratio A = 1 4 1 , 4 / 1 , 3 7 = 103 p ismeasured perpendicular t o the axis o fthe m e m b e r .
= Tr- v * 2 1 0 0 0 0 / 3 5 5 : 76,4
I f applicable, t h e r e d u c t i o n o ft h e leg m e m b e r cross section b y boreholes for c o n n e c t i o n
A = 1 0 3 / 7 6 , 4 = 1,348
Buckling curve c = 0,49 of diagonal bracings needs t o b e considered ( F i g u r e 12.50) i na d d i t i o n t o verify the
resistance t o tensile forces.
= 0 , 5 ( 1 + 0 , 4 9 ( 1 , 3 4 8 - 0,2) + l , 3 1 8 ) = 1,6901
2

Buckling reduction factor 1/(1,6901 + v / 1 , 6 9 0 1 2 - 1,3482) = 0,3691 I f a n angle i s connected a tone leg o n l y b y o n e b o l t , t h e tensile resistance i s o b t a i n e d
Resistance N R D 7 0,3691 -9,40 • 3 5 , 5 / 1 , 1 = 111,97 k N f r o m (Figure 12.51 a):
N D / N R 7 67,6/111,97 = 0,601 < 1,0
A M = A n e t • / „ / T M = ( 6 1 - d0) • t • / U / T M (12.97)
414 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 4 1 5

F i g u r e 12.52: R u p t u r e r e s i s t a n c e

F i g u r e 12.49: S t a g g e r e d
Example: ( F i g u r e 12.49)
Angle section: L 1 0 0 x 8 S235
Cross-sectional area: A = 1550 m m 2
B o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r : do = 1 7 m m
N e t cross-sectional area:
boreholes S e c t i o n I A„eti = 1 5 5 0 - 2 • 1 7 • 8 = 1 2 7 8 m m 2
Section I I A n e t n = 1550 - 4 • 17 • 8 + 2 • 4 0 2 • 8 / ( 4 • 3 0 ) + 4 0 2 • 8 / ( 4 • (35 + 35)) = 1 2 6 5 m m 2

Section I I I A n e t i i i = 1550 - 3 • 17 • 8 + 402 • 8 / ( 4 • 3 0 ) + 4 0 2 • 8/(4 • (35+ 35)) = 1294 m m 2

12.5.10.2 A x i a l tensile force a n d b e n d i n g

I f a m e m b e r i s l o a d e d b y a n a x i a l t e n s i l e f o r c e Nd a n d b e n d i n g m o m e n t s Myd a n d Mzd,
t h e n t h e cross section w i t h o u t a n yr e d u c t i o n f o r boreholes is verified i ft h e f o l l o w i n g
condition iscomplied with:

A d + M ;* < i , (12.102)
A / y / l M W y / y / 7 M Wz fy/yu
F i g u r e 12.50: C o n n e c t i o n o f a F i g u r e 12.51: N e t cross sections i n case o f w h e r e A i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , W t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n m o d u l u s , fy t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h
bracing t o a legmember tension-loaded angle section connected b y o n e
o f t h e m a t e r i a ! a n d 7 M t h e p a r t i a l factor f o rm a t e r i a l ( 7 M = 1,1according t o E N 5 0341¬
leg: a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o n e b o l t ; b c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h several bolts 1). W h e n a b e n d i n g m o m e n t a r o u n d o n e p r i n c i p a l axis o n l y o r n o tensile forces a c t ,
the verification c a n b e carried o u t using the same approach.

If a n angle isconnected a to n e legw i t h t w o o r m o r e bolts t h e n t h e tensile resistance i s

12.5.11 D e s i g n of connections
obtained f r o m (Figure 12.51b):
F o r o v e r h e a d l i n e t o w e r s , p r e d o m i n a n t l y shearing-bearing connections a r e used a n d
A R d = A n e t • / u / 7 M = ( & i -d0 + 62/2) •t • / U / T M . (12.98) m o r e r a r e l y prestressed shearing-bearing connections, s l i p p i n g r e s i s t i n g p r e s t r e s s e d c o n -
n e c t i o n s o r welded connections. T h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s m a d e i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] a p p l y
A c c o r d i n g t o s t a n d a r d A S C E 5 2 [12.20], t h e tensile resistance i s b a s e d o n t h e y i e l d
t o g e t h e r w i t h E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 [12.13] t o t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s . C o n n e c t i o n s b y b o l t s a r e d e -
strength /y o fthe material. T h e tensile resistance o f centrally loaded m e m b e r s bolted
signed such that t h e force t o b e transferred acts r e c t a n g u l a r l y t othe bolt axis a n d t h e
i n b o t h angle legs i s
b o l t i s l o a d e d b y shearing i n t h e c o n t a c t p l a n e o f t h e e l e m e n t s t o b e j o i n t e d . S e c t i o n s
A R d = A„ef/y , (12.99) m a y h a v e s e v e r a l shear planes. T h e r e f o r e , t h e y a r e a d d r e s s e d a s s i n g l e - s h e a r , d o u b l e -
s h e a r o r t r i p l e - s h e a r c o n n e c t i o n . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o v e r i f y t h a t t h e shear force F d i n e a c h
where A n e t ist h e n e tcross-sectional area o f t h e angle being calculated as above m e n - s h e a r p l a n e a n d e a c h c o n n e c t i n g e l e m e n t d o e s n o t e x c e e d t h e shear resistance F v R d :
t i o n e d . I fa n angle i s c o n n e c t e d a to n e l e g o n l y , t h e t e n s i l e resistance i s
F d / F v R d < l • (12.103)
K M = 0 , 9- A n e t - / y . (12.100)
T h e r e b y , i tis d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n connections w h e r e t h e shear plane passes t h r o u g h
I f t h e legs a r e u n e q u a l a n d t h eangle i s c o n n e c t e d a t t h es h o r t e r l e g , t h e u n c o n n e c t e d t h e u n t h r e a d e d p o r t i o n o f t h e s h a n k a n dthose w h e r e i tpasses t h r o u g h t h e t h r e a d e d
leg i s considered w i t h t h es a m e size a s t h ec o n n e c t e d leg.T h e n e tcross-sectional a r e a p o r t i o n . I f t h e shear p l a n e passes t h r o u g h t h e u n t h r e a d e d p o r t i o n , t h es h e a r i n g cross
A n e t i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a less t h eb o r e h o l e s e c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e a n g l e section corresponds t o t h e cross section o f t h e s h a n k . I ft h e shear p l a n e passes t h r o u g h
axis. I f the gauge line o ft h e bolts o nt h e connected legisoutside t h e centroidal axis o f t h e t h r e a d e d p o r t i o n , t h e tensile cross section i s u s e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e
the angle, the connection ischecked f o rr u p t u r e ( F i g u r e 12.52). T h e r u p t u r e resistance per shear plane is:
is o b t a i n e d f r o m
F v M = a vA v •/ U b / 7 M • (12.104)
K R d = 0 , 6 - A v - / u + A f / y , (12.101)
I f t h e shear plane passes t h r o u g h the u n t h r e a d e d p o r t i o n o f the bolt, i t applies:
w h e r e / y i s t h e yield s t r e n g t h a n d /„ t h e tensile s t r e n g t h o f t h e m a t e r i a l , A v t h e A v = 7r • d£/4 cross section o f t h e shank,
m i n i m u m n e t a r e a i n shear a l o n g a line o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e dforce a n dA t t h e m i n i m u m /ub tensile strength o f t h e b o l t ,
net area f r o m t h ecentre o f t h e borehole t o t h e edge o f t h e angle p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e a v factor equal t o0,6 for a l l bolt grades according t oE N 50341-1,
line o f action o f t h e tensile force. 7 M partial factor o f material equal t o 1,25 according t o E N5 0 341-1.
 '±_L U i - i d vJ l i . \ J \ J i i i >JL.i

T a b l e 12.14: P e r m i s s i b l e m e m b e r F o r i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s l , 2 d o < e2 < l , 5 d o , t h e v a l u e F m a ybe determined b y lin-

b R d
length i n m f o r bending b y a force e a r i n t e r p o l a t i o n . E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 p e r m i t s e d g e d i s t a n c e s e2 = l , 2 d o w i t h o u t r e d u c t i o n
1,0 k N a c t i n g o n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e
of t h edesign b e a r i n g resistance F b R d -
member
e± Pi
Section S235 S355
12.5.12 D e s i g n for b e n d i n g d u e t o t r a n s v e r s e loads
U Ly
F i g u r e 12.53: P o s i t i o n o f b o r e -
35 x 4 0,57 0,69 0,85 1,04 A l l m e m b e r s w h i c h c a n b e climbed d u r i n g erection o r maintenance a r ebent a n d should
holes for connections i n a n angle
35 x 5 0,68 0,85 1,02 1,27 be designed accordingly. Following E N 5 0 341-1, m e m b e r s o f lattice steel towers w h i c h
member
40 x 4 0,75 0.91 1,12 1,37 a r e i n c l i n e d w i t h a n a n g l e n o t m o r e t h a n 30° t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d a l o a d
40 x 5 0,90 1,12 1,35 1,68
of 1,0 k N a c t i n g v e r t i c a l l y a t t h e m e m b e r c e n t r e . O t h e r loads n e e d n o t t o b e considered
45 x 4 0,95 1,15 1,43 1,73
45 x 5 1,16 1,43 1,74 2,14 s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . W h e n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e construction load, a p a r t i a l
50 x 4 1,19 1,45 1,78 2,17 factor T P = 1,5 i s considered. S i m i l a r r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s t i p u l a t e d i n o t h e r standards,
50 x 5 1,46 1.79 2,19 2,69 e. g . [ 1 2 . 1 6 ] .
50 x 6 1,69 2,11 2,54 3,17
I n case o f angle sections, t h e construction load acts m o s t l y i n parallel t o o n eo ft h e
55 x 4 1,45 1,75 2,17 2,62
y legs w h i l e t h e m e m b e r i s b e n t a r o u n d i t s p r i n c i p a l axes ( F i g u r e 12.54). F o r a b e a m
55 x 5 1,77 2,17 2,67 3,25
55 x 6 2,10 2,57 3,15 3,86 supported a t b o t h ends b y hinges, t h eb e n d i n g stress is o b t a i n e d from
60 x 5 2,13 2,61 3,19 3,91
60 x 6 2,52 3,11 3,77 4,65 <7b = 1 / 4 T P • P • L v (vi/Iu since + ui/Iv cosa) . (12.111)

F i g u r e 12.54: D e s i g n o f a n a n - I f b e n d i n g i s restricted t o a naxis i n p a r a l l e l t o o n e leg ( F i g u r e 12.54), i t applies

gle loaded b y a b e n d i n g m o m e n t
CTb = 7 P - P - L , , - z l n a x /(47!,) . (12.112)

T h e shear resistance m a y b e s u m m e d u p even i f some o f t h e shear planes o f a m u l t i - T h e m a x i m u m length for which a section m a yb e used w h e n loaded b y a given vertical
shearing connection pass t h r o u g h t h e u n t h r e a d e d p o r t i o n a n d t h e others t h r o u g h t h e load, iscalculated based o n t h etensile yield stress. I t is obtained
threaded portion.
Q m i x = 4 / Y / [ 7 M 7 P - P K / Z u S i n a + Ui/fycosa)] (12.113)
T h e forces a r e i n t r o d u c e d into t h e b o l t s h a n k b y pressing o n t h e bearing area. T h e
a c t i n g b e a r i n g f o r c e Fd o f a c o n n e c t i n g e l e m e n t m a y n o t e x c e e d t h e bearing resistance or
o f t h e b o r e h o l e face:
F y m ; i x = 4 / y - V ^ M T P - R - Z m a x ) " (12.114)
-Fd/KbRd < 1 • (12.105)
T h e m a x i m u m permissible lengths a r e i n T a b l e 12.14 given for frequently used profiles
T h e bearing resistance is: made o f S235 o r S355.

FbRd = ab-db-t-fr/yu , (12.106)

12.5.13 D e s i g n of redundant m e m b e r s
w h e r e / „ i s t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f t h e m a t e r i a l , db t h e b o l t d i a m e t e r , T M t h e p a r t i a l
Redundant members s t a b i l i z e l e g m e m b e r s a n d m a i n b r a c i n g s b y r e d u c i n g t h e i r b u c k l i n g
factor o f m a t e r i a l (equal t o 1,25 according t o E N 5 0 341-1) a n d a b a factor, w h i c h i s
d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 from t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s , w h e r e t h e s m a l l e s t length. T h eredundant o r secondary members are n o t loaded directly b y t h eexternal
value will b e prevalent (Figure 12.53): forces i ft h e analysis is carried o u t a s s u m i n g a m o d e l consisting o f planes according t o
12.5.4. B y a nanalysis u s i n g a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l , such m e m b e r s m a y experience
a b = 1,20-ei/do I (12.107) forces d u e t or e s t r a i n t a n dd e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i f t h e s y s t e m ish y p e r s t a t i c . T o
a b = 1 , 8 5 • (ei/do - 0,5) ; (12.108) g u a r a n t e e t h e s t a b i l i z i n g effect f o r t h es u p p o r t e d m e m b e r , t h e s e c o n d a r y members are
designed w i t h h y p o t h e t i c a l forces A h y p w h i c h a r eassumed asacting a t each node w h e r e
orb = 0,96• (pi/do - 0,5) ; (12.109)
a secondary m e m b e r i s attached. H o w e v e r , these forces d on o t a c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a t
ab = 2 , 3 0 - (e2/do - 0 , 5 ) . (12.110)
all nodes b u t o n l y o n eforce is assumed as a c t i n g i n t h e m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e position.
T h e r e i n , e i i s t h e e n d d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t r e o f h o l e t o t h e a d j a c e n t e n d i n d i r e c t i o n o f T h e h y p o t h e t i c a l forces need n o t t o b e a d d e d t o t h em e m b e r forces r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e
t h e f o r c e , e2 t h e e d g e d i s t a n c e from t h e c e n t r e o f h o l e t o t h e a d j a c e n t e d g e r e c t a n g u l a r l y external load. W h e r e a secondary m e m b e r is loaded as a result o f t h eglobal analysis,
to t h ed i r e c t i o n o f force, p i t h e distance b e t w e e n borehole centres a n d do t h e borehole t h i s l o a d i s u s e d f o r t h e d e s i g n o n l y i f t h e f o r c e i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e hypothetical force.
diameter. T h e h y p o t h e t i c a l force is stipulated i n E N 5 0 341-1 b y :
Specifications o ft h e permissible e n d , edge a n dhole distances a r e given i n clause
K h y p = K •K d / 1 0 0 , (12.115)
12.5.1.2.
For t h everification i n compliance w i t h E N 50341-1 a n d E N V 1993-1-1, t h eedge dis- w h e r e K = 1 / 6 0 ( A + 3 2 ) w i t h 1 < K < 2 ,a n d A ist h e slenderness r a t i o o ft h e s u p p o r t e d
t a n c e e2 i s n o r m a l l y 1 , 5 d o , b u t m a y b e r e d u c e d t o n o t less t h a n 1,2 d 0 p r o v i d e d t h e m e m b e r a n d Nd t h e d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e s u p p o r t e d m e m b e r .
d e s i g n b e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s r e d u c e d a c c o r d i n g l y . I f e2 i sr e d u c e d t o 1,2 d 0 , t h e n t h e T h e factor K depends o n the slenderness ratio o fthe supported m e m b e r . F o r slenderness
bearing resistance F b R d should b e reduced t o t w o third o f the value given i n (12.106). r a t i o s A < 2 8 , K i s 1,0 a n d t h e design v a l u e o f t h e secondary m e m b e r i s1 % o ft h e
418 12 Supports
c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e Nd i n t h e m e m b e r . F o r s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s A > 8 8 , K i s 2 , 0 a n d t h e
design value o f t h e secondary m e m b e r reaches 2 % o f t h e force i n t h e m e m b e r . O t h e r
s t a n d a r d s specify d i f f e r e n t h y p o t h e t i c a l forces. T h e A S C E M a n u a l 5 2 [12.20] a s s u m e s
0,5 t o 2,5 % o f t h e s u p p o r t e d m e m b e r force f o r t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y m e m b e r .
12.5.14 Deformation
Lattice steel towers constitute stiff constructions w h i c h , nevertheless, will b e deformed
u n d e r a l o a d . T h e o c c u r r i n g bending deformation m a y b e v i s i b l e a t t o w e r s p e r m a n e n t l y
loaded b y h o r i z o n t a l conductor forces such as angle a n d dead-end towers. T o reduce
the visibility o f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n , i tis s t a n d a r d practice t o erect these towers w i t h a n
inclination against the anticipated direction o fload such that the tower will b e vertical
after s t r i n g i n g o f conductors. P r o m the aesthetical p o i n t o fv i e w , a h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n o f
the lowest crossarm after stringing t h e conductors should b e favoured. T o determine t h e
necessary inclination o f t h e s t u b s , w h e n i n s t a l l i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n s , t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s
or o v e r t u r n i n g angles need t o b e well k n o w n .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e deformation under m a x i m u m loads m a y n o t reach a nextent w h i c h
w o u l d l i m i t t h e serviceability o f t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e . T h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y o f t h e t o w e r s t h e m -
selves w i l l n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d b y t h e d e f o r m a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e effect o f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n
on t h e conductor position m a y b ecrucial. I np a r t i c u l a r , t h e h o r i z o n t a l deflection o f
an angle t o w e r affects t h e sag s u b s t a n t i a l l y a n d c a n lead t o a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e t h e r e -
quired electrical clearance isn o t a n y m o r e obeyed. A nincrease o f t h e deflection under
the a c t i n g o f m a x i m u m loads s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e l i m i t e d t o 0,5 m c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e
deflection u n d e r e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n [12.46].
T h e d e f o r m a t i o n s a r e c o m p u t e d b a s e d o n t h e characteristic values of the load.. P r a c t i -
c a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r a c t i o n s T F i s a s s u m e d a s 1,0. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e
deformation for t h e necessary i n c l i n a t i o n w h e n erecting angle a n d dead-end towers is
c a r r i e d o u t for t h e e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n . T y p i c a l l y s t a n d a r d s , e. g. E N 50 341-3-4, define
t h e e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n a s 10°C a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e w i t h o u t w i n d a c t i o n .
F o r l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s , t h e d e f o r m a t i o n c a u s e d b y t h e bolt slippage m a y c o n t r i b u t e
essentially t othe total deformation. Elastic deformations m a y b e determined using the
principle of virtual work. F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , a v i r t u a l f o r c e F = 1 i s a s s u m e d a s a c t i n g
in t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d a t t h e p o s i t i o n o ft h e deflection t o b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e v i r t u a l
i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s are calculated for t h i s force. I f t h e i n c l i n a t i o n isw a n t e d , a
virtual m o m e n t M = 1 isassumed. T h e deflection wanted isobtained b y superposition
of t h e r e a l a n d t h e v i r t u a l internal forces a n d m o m e n t s :
—r f N(x)N{x) _, f M(x)M(x) , b e a m i s c o n s t a n t , t h e v i r t u a l m o m e n t a t t h e s u p p o r t r e s u l t i n g from t h e t r i a n g u l a r l y
u = l ^ ) d x + J ^ k r A x • (12-116)
w h e r e N(x) i s t h e a x i a l f o r c e d u e t o t h e e x t e r n a l l o a d , N(x) t h e a x i a l f o r c e d u e t o t h e
v i r t u a l l o a d , A(x) i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , M(x) t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t d u e t o t h e
e x t e r n a l l o a d , M(x) t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t d u e t o t h e v i r t u a l l o a d , I(x) t h e m o m e n t o f
inertia a n d E the m o d u l u s o f elasticity.
T h e m e m b e r s o f l a t t i c e steel t o w e r s are s u b s t a n t i a l l y l o a d e d b y a x i a l forces. Moments
m a y b e neglected. T h e n , i t i s o b t a i n e d for t h i s case f r o m e q u a t i o n (12.116)
li = YjlxSfSil(EAi) , (12.117)
!=1
w h e r e , f o r t h e m e m b e r i, S; i s t h e m e m b e r f o r c e d u e t o t h e e x t e r n a l l o a d , S; t h e m e m b e r
f o r c e d u e t o t h e v i r t u a l l o a d , I ; t h e m e m b e r l e n g t h , A; t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a a n d E
the m o d u l u s o felasticity.
12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 4 1 9
F i g u r e 12.55: D e t e r m i n a t i o no f F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 6 : D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f deflection a tt h e peak o f
deflection a tvirtual beam a lattice steel pole
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 1 1 7 ) y i e l d s p r e c i s e v a l u e s f o r t h e elastic deflection con-
dition i n c a s e o f l i n e a r g l o b a l a n a l y s i s ; h o w e v e r , i t i s c o m b i n e d w i t h a c o n s i d e r a b l e
calculation effort because o f the h i g h n u m b e r o f members. A s a na p p r o x i m a t i o n , the
deflection o f a lattice steel tower can b e calculated based o nt h e analogy o f t h e defor-
m a t i o n o fa bent beam w i t h the m o m e n t o f ab e a m loaded b ya linearly increasing load
M/EI(x). T h e analogy will yield a correct result i f t h e b o u n d a r y conditions o ft h e de-
f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e area o f m o m e n t s corresponds. F i g u r e 12.55 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e a p p r o a c h
by means o f a virtual beam. T h e approach is favourable, especially w h e n s t u d y i n g b y
h a n d t h e b e n d i n g d e f o r m a t i o n o f structures h a v i n g a variable b e n d i n g stiffness.
A t t h e free e n d o f t h e b e a m , t h e deflection a n d t h e b e n d i n g angle are n o t restrained:
therefore, also m o m e n t s a n d transverse force at t h e v i r t u a l s y s t e m m a y n o t b e restrained
t h e r e , b e i n g different f r o m zero. I n case o fa b e a m w i t h a fixed s u p p o r t a t one e n d , t h i s
l e a d s t o e x c h a n g e d b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s . T h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y from
the free e n d o f t h e b e a m t o t h e value M = P • I a t the s u p p o r t . T h i s b e n d i n g m o m e n t
is d i v i d e d b y t h e b e n d i n g s t i f f n e s s o f t h e b e a m E I a n d i s a s s u m e d a s t h e l o a d p e r u n i t
l e n g t h o f t h e virtual beam w h i c h i s s u p p o r t e d a t t h e t o p . I f t h e b e n d i n g s t i f f n e s s o f t h e
d i s t r i b u t e d load will be:
— M-L 2 T P L 3 , , „ i
1 M = L = . (12.118
2EI 3 3 E I v '
T h e virtual m o m e n t under t h e load P is equal t o the bending deflection. Therefore
/ = P L 3 j (3 E I ) is t h e b e n d i n g d e f l e c t i o n o f a b e a m r i g i d l y s u p p o r t e d a t o n e e n d w i t h
a concentrated load at its top. T h e b e n d i n g stiffness of lattice steel towers, however, will
not b e constant b u t changes f r o m section t osection due t ov a r i a t i o n i n t h e leg m e m b e r
cross section a n d , w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l sections, because o f t h e changing w i d t h .
For t h e m o m e n t o f inertia, i t applies
I = 4A{b(x)/2-ef ,
w h e r e A i s t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e l e g m e m b e r , b(x) t h e e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f t h e t o w e r
b o d y a tt h e c o o r d i n a t e x a n d e t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e t o w e r edge a n d t h e c e n t r o i d a l
axis o f t h e leg m e m b e r .
 each t o w e r leg. T r a n s v e r s e forces, w h i c h l o a d t h e f o u n d a t i o n s , o c c u r a t t h e connections
of t h e bracings D a n d , w h e n t h e leg m e m b e r s are b e n t w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n , a t t h e
b e n d K a s w e l l ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 7 ) . I t c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e m o m e n t s Mx, My a n d Mz
a n d t h e f o r c e s Px, Py a n d Pz at t h e l e v e l o f t h e d i a g o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s E i r e k n o w n . T h e n
t h e vertical components of the leg member forces a r e o b t a i n e d from

S=±Mx/(2bn)±My/(2bA)-Pz/4 . (12.121)

The force w i l l act i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e leg member

SE = S - \ / I + ( A a / 2 ) 2 + (AB/2) 2 , (12.122)

w h e r e AA and A B are t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e i n t h e faces A a n d B , respectively. A s a n

approximation, it can b e assumed 5 E S S S. T h e forces at the connections of the bracings
are ( F i g u r e 12.57)

F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 7 : H o r i z o n t a l forces a t connection D o fbracings F i g u r e 12.58: Horizon- Dx = Px/4 - My/(2bA) •A A / 2 ± Mz/(4bB) (12.123)

tal forces a t leg m e m b e r
bend K and

I f t h e w i d t h o f t h e t o w e r i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h x, t h e m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a i n c r e a s e s Dy = Py/4-Mx/(2bB)-AB/2±Mz/{4bA) . (12.124)
squarely. A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , i ti s p e r m i s s i b l e t o a s s u m e a l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o no f t h e
If t h e leg m e m b e r is b e n t a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n t o p level, a d d i t i o n a l transverse forces w i l l
virtual load along one tower section w h e n determining the bending deflection. T h e n , the
occur there:
m o m e n t o ft h e v i r t u a l load w i l l a s s u m e t h e shape o f a h y p e r b o l a . U s i n g t h e designations
o f F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 6 , t h e bending deformation at tower top w i l l b e
Kx = ±5/2 •( A A - A A F ) , (12.125)

2Mj M j _ r \ k , (Mi , x i _ 1
(12.119) Ky = ±5/2 •( A B - A B F ) • (12.126)
/ d = ^ 2 ^
1=1
The values A A E a n d A B F represent t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e faces w i t h i n the
T h e r e l a t i o n (12.119) does n e i t h e r t a k e care of t h e elasticity o ft h e bracing diagonals nor
f o u n d a t i o n . I n m o s t cases, A A F and A B F are either equal t o A A and A B , respectively
of t h e slippage i n t h e leg m e m b e r j o i n t s . C o m p a r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n s [12.47] h a v e shown
(leg m e m b e r s w i t h o u t b e n d ) , o r e q u a l zero ( v e r t i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f leg m e m b e r s , e. g.
that the portion o felasticity o fthe bracings will b e 12 t o 15 % o f the total deflection
i n case o f augered f o u n d a t i o n s ) . F i g u r e 12.58 s h o w s t h e forces a tt h e leg m e m b e r bend
[12.48]. T h i s p o r t i o n can b e considered a p p r o x i m a t e l y b y r e d u c i n g t h e b e n d i n g stiffness
assuming that a l e gm e m b e r tensile force acts. I fa compression force acts i na l e g
b y a f a c t o r o f 0,9.
m e m b e r , t h e h o r i z o n t a l forces will act i n t h e opposite direction.
The bolt slippage w i t h i n t h e l e g m e m b e r j o i n t s l e a d s t o t i l t i n g a t e a c h j o i n t b y t h e a n g l e
as = AB/b, where A S i st h e bolt slippage and b t h e w i d t h o ft h e tower.
For t h e b o l t s l i p p a g e , a v a l u e o f 4 m m p e r j o i n t c a n b e a s s u m e d . T h e total deflection 12.5.16 A p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t t i c e

is o b t a i n e d b y s u m m i n g u p t h e e l a s t i c d e f l e c t i o n a n d t h e t i l t i n g o f t h e s e c t i o n s d u e t o steel towers
the bolt slippage D u r i n g design o f lattice steel towers, m a n y steps o f calculation are carried o u t i n t h e
s a m e m a n n e r for w h i c h c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s can b e u t i l i z e defficaciously. S t a r t i n g a r o u n d
/tot = / d + ( t a n a s ) ^ h j , (12.120) 1960, t h e a p p r o v e d c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for static c a l c u l a t i o n o flattice steel t o w e r s w e r e
!=1 u s e d i n G e r m a n y [12.49] a n d h a v e b e e n stesidily d e v e l o p e d since t h e n [12.50]. T h e first
w h e r e fd i s t h e e l a s t i c d e f l e c t i o n , as t h e t i l t i n g a n g l e o f a j o i n t a n d hi t h e distance progiams were based o n conventional design procedures. Meanwhile programs based
between the joint i a n d t h e position o f t h e deflection. on the finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d axe used f o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s [12.29].
The capacity o f c o m p u t e r s c a n b e u t i l i z e d t h e f u l l e x t e n t o n l y if:
— The program flow a n d the correctness o f the results can b e validated b y means
12.5.15 C a l c u l a t i o n of foundation loads
of c o m p a r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h l o w effort. T h e d a t a necessary f o r checks s h o u l d
F o r compact foundations according t o clause 13.4.3.1, t h e m o m e n t s a n d transverse be part o f the o u t p u t .
forces a c t i n g i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n base are necessary for each l o a d case. T h e s e d a t a can — A l l i n p u t d a t a , i m p o r t a n t values a n d a l l o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s necessEiry for t h e f u r t h e r
b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s b y w e l l k n o w n r e l a t i o n s (see e x a m p l e clause processing can b e followed u pb y the o u t p r i n t .
12.5.18). — T h e r e s u l t s Eire p r e s e n t e d s u c h t h a t t h e y c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t e x t e n s i v e
I n c a s e o f separated foundations according t o clause 13.4.4.1, however, t h e forces i n t h e trEiining b y each overhesid line expert being civil engineer for static or t r a n s m i s s i o n
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l e g m e m b e r s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e s Eire n e c e s s a r y f o r line engineer.
422 12 Supports
M o d e r n c o m p u t e r programs for lattice towers e m p l o y a graphical interactive user inter-
face w h i c h visualizes t h e design process. D u r i n g t h e design w o r k , it i s possible t o check
t h e t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d t o c a r r y o u t m o d i f i c a t i o n s , i f necessary. T h e p r o g r a m s are
s t r u c t u r e d i n t o m o d u l e s w h i c h ease s u p p l e m e n t i n g n e w types o f bracings, a l t e r n a t i v e
single sections, m a t e r i a l s , n e w s t a n d a r d s for c a l c u l a t i o n a n d r a t i n g . T h e p r o g r a m s m a k e
use o f extensive databases w i t h w o r l d - w i d e available steel sections, bolts, m a t e r i a l s a n d
type o f bracings.
T h e geometry o f the lattice tower needs t o b e provided for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e
m e m b e r forces. T o ease t h e i n p u t process, i t i s necessary t h a t t h e t o w e r g e o m e t r y c a n
be described b y a few parameters only. B ygraphical p r e s e n t a t i o n o n t h e screen, s i m p l e
a n d quick modifications o f t h e t o w e r g e o m e t r y a r epossible. P r o g r a m s s h o u l d u s e a
p a r a m e t r i c structure w h i c h enables t o m o d i f y parameters such astower height, crossarm
dimensions, increase of l a t i t u d e of t h e tower b o d y or t h e w i d t h at t h e tower base w i t h o u t
m u c h effort. Tower b o d y and crossarm are divided i n t o sections w h i c h are characterized
by t h e same dimensions o f l e g m e m b e r s o r chords. T h e s e sections a r edivided i n t o
panels. E a c h i n d i v i d u a lpanel is described b y its height a n d type o f bracing. T h e types
o f bracings are characterized b y p a r a m e t r i c p a t t e r n s a n d c a nb e graphically inserted
i n t o t h e t o w e r m o d e l . T h i s leads t o a quick a n d error-free g e n e r a t i o n o f t o w e r models.
M e m b e r s t o w h i c h t h e same design specifications apply a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y grouped
together. M a x i m u m permissible slenderness ratios a n d m i n i m u m dimensions c a nb e
stipulated for a preselection o f profiles.
T h e a n a l y s i s a n d d e s i g n o f t o w e r s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s t e p s . T h e first s t e p i s
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o ft h e external loads resulting f r o m tower use, t h e conductoring a n d
standards t o b e considered. T h e n , t h e m e m b e r forces are calculated as resulting f r o m
t h e e x t e r n a l load for t h e i n d i v i d u a l load cases t a k i n g i n t o account t h e g e o m e t r y a n d , i n
particular, t h e m a x i m u m i n t e r n a l load for each m e m b e r is selected. F i n a l l y , t h e r a t i n g
o f each i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r follows.
T h e external loads are determined b y t h e corresponding p r o g r a m modules based o n
t h e l o a d cases t o b e considered f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r t y p e s such a s suspension, angle
suspension, angle-strain and dead-end towers. Also t h e loads f o rcomplex branch-off
a n d special t o w e r s , e. g. w i t h c r u c i f o r m c r o s s a r m s c a n b e h a n d l e d b y these p r o g r a m s .
T h e possible applications t o a c e r t a i n tower tpye are subdivided i n t o stages w h i c h are
characterized b y the type and arrangement o f the conductors. A n input i n f o r m a t i o n
o n conductors, tower type, w i n d a n d weight span length, line angle, position o f t h e
crossarms, the arrangement and type o f the i n d i v i d u a l conductors, the type and data
for the crossarms is required f o r t h e calculation o f t h e e x t e r n a l loads. I f a tower is
p l a n n e d t o serve several p u r p o s e s , e. g. t h e p u r p o s e o f a n a n g l e - s t r a i n a n d a d e a d -
end s u p p o r t , t h e n this c a nb e considered b y different d e v e l o p m e n t steps. T h e d e a d
weight a n d t h e w i n d load acting o nt h e tower are calculated considering t h e d i m e n s i o n s
and dead weight o f sections used for t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s . T h e a e r o d y n a m i c w i n d
pressure c a n b e described a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d . T h e l o a d cases
are composed based o n t h e relevant standards o r project specifications. T h e rules f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e actions a n d c o m b i n i n g t h e m t o load cases c a n b e defined a n d s t o r e d i n
t h e p r o g r a m s y s t e m . T h e a d j u s t m e n t t o a n y l o a d c o n d i t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d is, t h e r e f o r e ,
possible i n a simple m a n n e r . T h e m e m b e r forces a r ecalculated o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n
of plane trusses o r following the finite element m e t h o d based o n a three-dimensional
system.
W h e n calculating t h e m e m b e r forces using c o n v e n t i o n a l procedures, separate p r o g r a m
modules are used for tower bodies and crossarms, because o ftheir geometrically differ-
ent structure. T h e e x t e r n a l loads are grouped together a n d assumed as acting o n t h e
t o w e r b o d y o r c r o s s a r m . E a c h l o a d g r o u p i s d e f i n e d b y t h e f o r c e s Px, Py a n d Pz a n d
t h e m o m e n t s a r o u n d t h e t h r e e a x e s Mx, My a n d Mz a n d a c t s a t t h e r e l e v a n t t o w e r
12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 423
height. T h e calculation results i n compression a n d tensile m e m b e r forces for each load
case, f r o m w h i c h t h e m a x i m a are selected for each m e m b e r .
U s i n g t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d , t h e t o w e r a s a w h o l e i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a t h r e e -
dimensional system. Its static model is automatically produced b y generation o f the
nodes and their connections b y elements. T h e e x t e r n a l loads are defined as loads acting
at t h e nodes. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n as w e l l results i n compression a n d tensile m e m b e r forces
a n d d e f o r m a t i o n s for a l l l o a d cases.
For obtaining a n economic tower design, a n o p t i m i z a t i o n is carried out i n compliance
w i t h t h e design s t i p u l a t i o n s after h a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d t h e m e m b e r forces. F o r e x a m p l e ,
t h e design procedures according t o A S C E [12.20], E C C S [12.42], D I N 18800 [12.51,
12.52], E C3 [12.13] a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
A s p e c t s , e. g. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [12.10], c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t . A s t a t i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e sec-
t i o n i s selected f o rt h e m a x i m u m tensile a n d compression forces considering b u c k l i n g
l e n g t h , resistance a n d design details. T h e selected section provides t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c
solution together w i t h the joints. A database containing available a n d especially c u s t o m -
designed angle sections a n d other profiles is available f o rsolving this task, w h e r e the
profiles w i t h differing grades o f materials are grouped according t o economic aspects.
T h e database also contains a l l necessary static d a t a f o r sections. T h e o p t i m i z a t i o n
comprises material, cross section a n d t y p e o f profile a n d its j o i n t s .
C a l c u l a t i o n a n d r a t i n g o f a lattice steel tower is a n iterative process. A tfirst, o n l y t h e
e x t e r n a l l o a d s e x e r t e d b y t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e k n o w n f o r w h i c h a first s e t o f m e m b e r
d i m e n s i o n s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e m e m b e r forces, h o w e v e r , are also affected b y t h e
w i n d load acting o n t h e tower s t r u c t u r e a n d tower dead weight. I na second step o f
iterations, these d a t a c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o rt h e cross sections selected i nt h e preceding
step. T h e iterative process is continued u n t i l n o change o f profiles w i l l occur a n y m o r e .
A n u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f b o d y extensions c a nb e analysed after t h e basic t y p e o f t h e
t o w e r has been designed. T h e analysis scheme is t h e same as i n case o f t h e basic type.
L e g extensions can also b e connected t oeach tower basic t y p e a n d each b o d y extension.
E a c h l e g e x t e n s i o n is a n a l y s e d a n dr a t e d f o r t h e m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
different extension lengths.
A l l i n p u t d a t a a n d results are d o c u m e n t e d i na r e p o r t organized such t h a t i t c a nb e
checked easily. T h e r e p o r t contains asw e l l all d a t a necessary for t h e p l a n n i n g o ft h e line.
T h i s isi n particular t r u e o ft h e loads o ft h e foundations, o fc o m p a c t foundations as well
as o f s e p a r a t e f o o t i n g s . T h e r e s u l t s c o m p r i s e a l s o t h e t o w e r d e a d w e i g h t , a s u m m a r y
of t h e angle sections a n d connecting m a t e r i a l used a n d t h e surface t o b e coated. D a t a
needed f o rf u r t h e r processing are s t o r e d i na database t o w h i c h o t h e r p r o g r a m s have
access.
T o w e r o u t l i n e d r a w i n g s serve as a basis f o r establishing t h e p r o d u c t i o n drawings f o r
lattice steel towers. A l l necessary i n p u t data resulting f r o m t h edesign process a r e
stored, thus enabling plotting o fthe outline drawings. Additionally, information o n the
a r r a n g e m e n t o f details, o n scale a n d o n d r a w i n g f o r m a t are necessary. I n d e t a i l , t h e
tower body, crossarms, b o d y extensions, l e gextensions as well as horizontal bracings
a n d three-dimensional r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s are presented. T h e drawings can b e passed
t o a n y C A D a n d C A M p r o g r a m s for f u r t h e r processing.
12.5.17 Upgrading the support strength
A s a consequence o f t h e development o f electric systems w i t h changing transmission
t a s k s , uprating of existing supports f o r m o d i f i e d c o n d u c t o r i n g o r upgrading i n v i e w
o f i m p r o v e d l o a d a s s u m p t i o n s m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e strength of leg and
bracing members i s t o b e e n h a n c e d . N o s p e c i a l e f f o r t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e i n f o r c e t h e
bracings since a n e x c h a n g e o f m e m b e r s w i t h o t h e r s h a v i n g t h e r e q u i r e d higher s t r e n g t h

F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 9 : 380 k V suspension tower F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 0 : Connection o f t h e sup-
w i t h reinforced leg m e m b e r plemented profile
capacity is easily possible. A n increase o ft h e leg m e m b e r s t r e n g t h c a n b e achieved i f t h e
buckling length can b e reduced b y inserting additional redundant members. However,
this is o n l y possible i f i t suffices t o increase t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e n g t h . A r e d u c t i o n o f
t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h i s o n l y e f f e c t i v e i f flexural buckling i s p r e v a l e n t . I n c a s e o f flexural
torsional buckling, t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h h a s o n l y a m i n o r e f f e c t o n t h e
s t r e n g t h . I f b o t h t h e c o m p r e s s i o n a n d tensile s t r e n g t h a t t h e j o i n t s d o n o t suffice, t h e
i n s t a l l a t i o n o f r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s w i l l n o t achieve t h e r e q u i r e d increase o fs t r e n g t h .
T h e e x c h a n g e o f i n d i v i d u a l leg m e m b e r sections is possible o n l y i n case o f s u s p e n s i o n
s u p p o r t s w i t h l o w height. I n case o f t a l l s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s o r s u p p o r t s p e r m a n e n t l y
l o a d e d b y c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s s u c h a s a n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s , a n increase of the leg
member strength c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y b a t t e n p l a t e s b o l t e d w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g l e g m e m b e r
a n d supplementing angle sections t o c r u c i f o r m sections b y a na d d i t i o n a l angle.
I f t h e leg m e m b e r s s h o u l d b e redesigned w i t h respect t o stability, plates a r r a n g e d b e -
t w e e n t h e nodes o f leg m e m b e r s c a nsolve t h e p r o b l e m . A s t r e n g t h e n i n g w i t h i n t h e
range o f t h e nodes a n d across t h e j o i n t s i s n o t necessary i f t h e net cross section m u l -
tiplied b y t h e yield stress is higher t h a n t h e m a x i m u m force. T h e connections need t o
be designed for a shear force e q u a l t o 2 , 5 % o f t h e leg m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n force (see
clause 12.5.9.1). T h e distance b e t w e e n t h e bolts i s designed such t h a t local b u c k l i n g
and opening o fthe plates between the bolts will b e excluded a n d should uot exceed six
times the borehole diameter.
I f t h e cross-sectional s t r e n g t h o ft h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r s ise x h a u s t e d , a reinforcement
just by plates d o e s n o t s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m . T h e p l a t e s w o u l d h a v e t o b e a r r a n g e d a c r o s s
the nodes a n d joints, thus requiring that all bolts a t the connections o f the bracings
a n d joints are opened resulting i n a n excessive installation effort.
E x a m p l e s for line u p r a t i n g a n d u p g r a d i n g are presented i n [12.53]. Leg m e m b e r s c a n
b e s u p p l e m e n t e d t o cruciform sections. T h e s i z e o f t h e s u p p l e m e n t e d p r o f i l e i s s e l e c t e d
according t o s t a t i c r e q u i r e m e n t s . I nm o s t cases, a n angle i s sufficient w i t h a s m a l l e r
cross section t h a n t h a t o ft h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r . I n F i g u r e 12.59 a 380 k V s u s p e n s i o n
tower iss h o w n , w h e r e t h e e x i s t i n g L 1 2 0 x 1 2 leg m e m b e r profiles have been reinforced
b y a d d i t i o n a l L 7 0 x 7 angle sections below t h e lower crossarm. T h e profiles are joined
b y b a t t e n plates arranged a t least a tone t h i r d o f the buckling length. T h e thickness o f
t h e b a t t e n plates depends o nt h e design o f t h e existingj o i n t s a n d isselected such t h a t
t h e supplemented angle section passes t h e j o i n t s w i t h o u t a n y constraint. T h e distance
b e t w e e n t h e j o i n t m a t e r i a l a n d t h e supplemented angle section s h o u l d b e w i d e e n o u g h
t o c o m p e n s a t e p o t e n t i a l tolerances d u et o t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d assembling. H o w e v e r ,
t h e distances s h o u l d n o t b e t o o w i d e since t h e thickness o f t h e b a t t e n plates affects t h e
total weight o f t h e necessary reinforcement m a t e r i a l t oa large extent.
I t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o w e l d t h e b a t t e n p l a t e a t t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e w i t h fillet s e a m s t o t h e
supplemented sections i n t h e w o r k s h o p a n d adjust t h e m t o t h e l e gm e m b e r s o f t h e
existing towers a t site (Figure 12.60). A n integrated load c a r r y i n g b yb o t h sections will
be guaranteed only i f their relative m o v e m e n t iskept t oa m i n i m u m . T h i s requirement
is n o t c o m p l i e d w i t h b y a s h e a r i n g - b e a r i n g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h b l a c k b o l t s for t h e j o i n t i n g
b e t w e e n t h e e x i s t i n g l e g m e m b e r a n d t h e s u p p l e m e n t e d s e c t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , fitted bolts
o r slip-resistant connections s h o u l d b e selected. C o n n e c t i o n b y w e l d i n g should n o t b e
adopted because o f the costly execution and the infringement o f the galvanized m a -
terial. A slip-resistant,prestressed bolted connection w i t h high-strength bolts requires
a p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e surface w h i c h could b e carried out w i t h significant difficulties
o n l y a t t h e galvanized structure. G o o d experience has been gained b y t h e use o f fitted
b o l t s . T h e b o r e h o l e s a r e p r o d u c e d w i t h d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e s fixed t o t h e l e g m e m b e r s b y
s t r o n g m a g n e t s a d o p t i n g core drills. B ya precise installation, t h e permissible borehole
tolerances can b e m e t a n d r e a m i n g o f the boreholes can b e waived.
P a p e r [ 1 2 . 5 4 ] d e s c r i b e s s u p p l e m e n t i n g o f e x i s t i n g l e g m e m b e r s t o cruciform sections.
T h e p l a t e s b e t w e e n e x i s t i n g a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d l e g m e m b e r s e c t i o n s w e r e fixed t o e x i s t -
i n g b r a c i n g c o n n e c t i o n s . N o n e w b o r e h o l e s w e r e necessary i n t h i s case. T h e b o l t s o f t h e
bracing connections were removed, the b a t t e n plate was inserted a n d new, longer bolts
w e r e i n s t a l l e d . B o l t s w i t h t h e grade 8 . 8o r 10.9 w e r e used t o e n s u r e t h e load t r a n s f e r
t o t h e added angle sections.
A d d i t i o n o fa n angle section moves t h e centroidal axis o f t h e leg m e m b e r s o u t w a r d s . F o r
c o m m o n c a l c u l a t i o n i t is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e l e g m e m b e r force is e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d o n t h e
composite section, e . g . t h e a x i a l l o a d w i t h i n t h e l e g m e m b e r i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n r e l a t i o n
t o t h e cross-sectional areas. H o w e v e r , t h e e x i s t i n g legm e m b e r w i l l not b e u n l o a d e d
w h e n t h e additional section is installed because t h e s u p p o r t is loaded b y p e r m a n e n t
loads, w i n d loads a n d conductor tensile forces depending o nt h e t y p e o fsupports. T h i s
initial c o n d i t i o n leads t o a higher p r o p o r t i o n a t e a x i a l force i n t h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r
a n d a lower one i n the supplemented section. E v e n t u a l l y , t h e supplemented profile will
not carry a proportionate load. T o take care o f this load features, a na s s u m p t i o n o n
the installation condition should b e made.
T h e increased f o u n d a t i o n loads need t o b e transferred t ot h e foundations as well. T h e
s u p p l e m e n t e d a n g l e s a r e e m b e d d e d i n t o t h e foundations such that their proportion o f
t h e force w i l l b e c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n . I n s o m e cases i t m i g h t b e
n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a s w e l l . T h e n , t h e f o u n d a t i o n m u f f s Eire r e -
m o v e d a n d concreted a n e w after i n s t a l l i n g t h e s u p p l e m e n t e d leg m e m b e r s . A c c o r d i n g
to [12.54], a concrete core drill procedure can b e applied a s well. B y m e a n s o f h y d r a u l i -
c a l l y d r i v e n core d r i l l devices, b o r e h o l e s w i t h 180 m m d i a m e t e r a n d a d e p t h o f 1,20 m
are d r i l l e d b e n e a t h t h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r a n d t h e core i sb r o k e n o u t . A f t e r instadliug
t h e l e g m e m b e r s t u b i n t h e b o r e h o l e , t h e h o l e i s filled u p w i t h g r o u t c o n c r e t e .
12.5.18 E x a m p l e : S t a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of a 110 k V s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t
Analysis o f a suspension tower for t w o circuits 110 k V arranged i n D a n u b e configuration ac-
cording t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 a n d E N 50341-3-4 ( F i g u r e 12.61).
426 12 S u p p o r t s 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 427

Conductors: 1 earth wire 9 7 - A L 1 / 5 6 - S T 1 A ( A l / S t 9 5 / 5 5 ) , 6 conductors 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A

(Al/St 230/30), V1 3/2 1/1 1/2
P r e l i m i n a r y i n s t a l l a t i o n : o n e c i r c u i t o n o n e side of t h e t o w e r b o d y a n d o n e e a r t h w i r e .
S p a n l e n g t h s : w i n d s p a n 3 8 0 m , m a x i m u m w e i g h t s p a n 1,5 • 3 8 0 = 5 7 0 m , m i n i m u m w e i g h t
span 0,5 • 3 8 0 = 190 m .
Conductor data 97-AL1/56-ST1A 231-AL1/30-ST1A
T o t a l cross section mm2 152,8 260,8
Diameter mm I E fl zl,U
Weight kg/m 1 00, ,U7 1 4 0,874
Ice l o a d (ice l o a d z o n e 1) N/m 6,60 7,10
W e i g h t w i t h ice l o a d N/m 13,60 15,67
C o n d u c t o r stress N/mm 2 123,0 85,0
C o n d u c t o r tensile force kN 18,79 22,17
1100 p
Insulators (double suspension sets):
Weight N 800
W e i g h t w i t h ice l o a d N 1000
W i n d load N 250
M a x i m u m tower b o d y extension T 37,0

Suspension heights: Earth wire 45,80 m

Phase conductor upper crossarm 40,80 m
Phase conductor lower crossarm 37,00 m

I n t h e e x a m p l e , w i n d a n d ice l o a d z o n e 1 a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] a r e c o n s i d e r e d .
Vertical loads:
Conductor and insulator weiehts:
Earth wire: w i t h o u t ice l o a d m e g = 9 , 8 1 0 , 7 1 4 = 7,004 N / m
with i c e l o a d mcig == 7 , 0 0 4 + 6 , 6 = 1 3 , 6 0 4 N / m
Vertical load max min
W i t h o u t ice l o a d 5 7 0 - 7,004 = 3,99 k N 1 9 0 - 7,004 = 1,33 k N
W i t h ice l o a d 5 7 0 - 13,604 = 7,75 k N 1 9 0 - 13,604 = 2,58 k N
Phase conductor: w i t h o u t ice l o a d m G g 9 , 8 1 0 , 8 7 4 = 8 , 5 7 4 N / m
with i c e 'A>,id m c i g ~= 8 , 5 7 4 + 7 , 1 0 = 1 5 , 6 7 4 N / m
Vertical load max min
W i t h o u t ice l o a d 570- 8,574 = 4,89 k N 1 9 0 - 8,574 = 1,63 k N
Insulation = 0,80 k N = 0,80 k N
= 5,69 k N = 2,43 k N
W i t h ice l o a d 5 7 0 - 15,674 = 8,93 k N 1 9 0 - 15,674 = 2,98 k N
Insulation = 1,00 k N = 1,00 k N
= 9,93 k N = 3,98 k N
T o w e r d e a d w e i g h t s : e a r t h w i r e p e a k : 1,30 k N ; c r o s s a r m 1 : 3,50 k N ; c r o s s a r m 2: 5,20 k N ; t o w e r
s e c t i o n 1 : 4 , 0 0 k N ; t o w e r s e c t i o n 2 : 5 , 7 0 k N ; t o w e r s e c t i o n 3 : 8 , 2 0 k N ; t o w e r s e c t i o n 4: 9 , 5 0 k N :
tower i n total: 37,40 k N .
H o r i z o n t a l loads:
W i n d load on conductors:
E a r t h w i r e : z = 4 5 , 8 0 m ; gz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 4 5 , 8 0 = 9 3 7 , 4 N / m 2
W i n d l o a d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o l i n e (<f> = 0°): F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 1 : Suspension t o w e r for a 110 k V line
Q w c x = 9 3 7 , 4 • 1,0 • 0 , 0 1 6 • 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 3 , 4 6 k N

Diagonal wind (0 = 45°):

Q W C E = 9 3 7 , 4 • 1,0 - 0 , 0 1 6 • c o s 2 45° - 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 1 , 7 3 k N

W i n d l o a d o n t h e i c e - c o v e r e d e a r t h w i r e : d\ = y / 1 6 2 + 6 , 6 • 4 / ( 0 , 0 0 7 5 • , ) = 3 7 , 1 0 m m .
W i n d l o a d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e ( 0 = 0°):

Qwc± = 0 , 5 • 9 3 7 , 4 • 1,0 - 0 , 0 3 7 1 • 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 4 , 0 2 k N .
t+O LtUJ/J/ui lis
LZ..O J-fcLUtlUC I U W C 1 S *±Z.U

D i a g o n a l w i n d (0 = 45°):
0 = 0 ° : Q W M X = 2,66 • 2,8 - 8 8 0 = 6,55 k N ; Q W M | | = 0.
Q W C E = 0 , 5 • 9 3 7 , 4 - 1 , 0 • 0 , 0 3 7 1 - c o s 2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 0 1 k N .
0; = 6,55 k N .

0
+,

O
QWM||

II
Q W M X =

P h a s e c o n d u c t o r s u p p e r c r o s s a r m : z = 4 0 , 8 0 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 4 0 , 8 0 = 9 2 2 , 4 N / m 2 . 0 = 45° : Q W M X = Q W M | | = 1,2 - 6 , 5 5 • 0 , 7 0 7 = 5 , 5 6 k N .
W i n d l o a d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e (0 = 0°):
tower section 4: A , = 2-6,5-0,11+ 2-4,1-0,05 + 2-5,7-0,06 + 2

±
H

*
Q w c x = 9 2 2 , 4 • 1,0 • 0 , 0 2 1 • 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 4 , 4 7 k N . 0,04 + 2 -2,8 0,035 = 2,99 m 2 ;
D i a g o n e d w i n d (0 = 45°):
z = 2 3 , 1 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 2 3 , 1 = 8 6 9 N / m 2 ;
Q W C E = 9 2 2 , 4 • 1,0 • 0 , 0 2 1 • cos2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 2 4 k N . 0= 0 Q W M X = 2 , 9 9 •2 , 8 • 8 6 9 = 7,28 k N ; Q | | = 0.
W M

W i n d o n i c e - c o v e r e d p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s : di = y 2 1 2 + 7 , 1 - 4 / ( 0 , 0 0 7 5 - ir) = 4 0 , 5 8 m m . 0 = 90 Q W M X = 0; Q W M | | = 7,28 k N .

W i n d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e ( 0 = 0°): 0 = 45 Q W M X = Q W M I I = 1,2 • 7 , 2 8 • 0 , 7 0 7 = 6 , 1 7 k N .

Q w c x = 0,5 • 922,4 - 1 , 0 - 0,04058 • 2 3 1 = 4,32k N .

crossarm 1:A w y = 4,7 •0,06 + 4,8 •0,05 + 6,0 - 0,035 = 0,73 m 2 ;
Q u a r t e r i n g w i n d (0 = 45°):
z = 4 1 , 2 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 - 4 1 , 2 = 9 2 4 N / m 2 ;
Q W C E = 0 , 5 - 9 2 2 , 4 • 1 , 0 • 0 , 0 4 0 5 8 • c o s 2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 1 6 k N .
0 = 0 ° Q W M X = 2 • 0 , 4 • 9 2 4 • 0 , 7 3 - 2 , 8 • c o s 2 0° = 1 , 5 1 k N ; Q W M , | = 0.
P h a s e c o n d u c t o r l o w e r c r o s s a r m : z = 3 7 , 0 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 - 3 7 = 9 1 1 N / m 2 .
0 = 90° Q W M X = 0; Q W M | | = 2 • 9 2 4 • 0 , 7 3 • 2 , 8 - s i n 2 90° = 3 , 7 8 k N .
W i n d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e U n e ( 0 = 0°):
0 = 45° Q W M X = 1 , 5 1 - c o s 2 45° = 0 , 7 6 k N ; Q W M , j = 3 , 7 8 • s i n 2 45° = 1 , 8 9 k N .
Q w c x = 9 1 1 • 1,0 • 0 , 0 2 1 • 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 4 , 4 2 k N .
c r o s s a r m 2 : Aw|| = 6,5 • 0,065 + 6,7 • 0,05 + 9 , 1 • 0,035 = 1,08 m 2
D i a g o n e d w i n d (0 = 45°):

Q W C E = 9 1 1 • 1 , 0 • 0 , 0 2 1 • c o s 2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 2 1 k N . z = 3 7 , 5 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 3 7 , 5 = 9 1 3 N / m 2 ;

0 = 0 ° Q W M X = 2 - 0 , 4 - 9 1 3 • 1,08 • 2,8 = 2 , 2 1 k N ; = 0.
W i n d o n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i c e r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e (0 = 0°):
Q W M | |

0 = 90° Q W M X = 0; Q W M | | = 2 •9 1 3 - 1,08 •2,8 = 5,52 k N .

Q w c x = 0 , 5 • 9 1 1 - 1,0 • 0 , 0 4 0 5 8 • 2 3 1 = 4 , 2 7 k N . 0 = 45° Q W M X = 2 , 2 1 •0,5 = 1,11 k N ; Q W M | | = 5,52 - 0,5 = 2,76 k N .

D i a g o n a l w i n d o n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i c e (0 = 45°):
D i f f e r e n c e s i nc o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces:
Q W C E = 0 , 5 • 9 1 1 • 1 , 0 • 0 , 0 4 0 5 8 • c o s 2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 1 3 k N . Load case J:
E a r t h w i r e : SL = 0 , 6 5 - 1 5 2 , 8 • 1 2 3 , 0 = 1 2 , 2 2 k N ; p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s : 5 L = 0 , 5 • 2 6 0 , 8 • 8 5 , 0 =
W i n d o n tower:
11,08 k N .
Load case K
e a r t h w i r e p e a k : A „ x ~ A„^ = 2 • 3 , 9 - 0 , 0 5 + 6 , 1 • 0 , 0 3 5 = 0 , 6 0 m 2 ;
E a r t h w i r e : 5 L = 0 , 4 - 1 5 2 , 8 - 1 2 3 , 0 = 7 , 5 2 k N ; p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s : Sh = 0 , 2 - 2 6 0 , 8 - 8 5 , 0 = 4 , 4 3 k N .

z = 4 2 , 4 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 4 2 , 4 = 9 2 7 N / m 2 ;
L o a d cases
Q W M X = QWM|| = 0,60 • 2,8 • 9 2 7 = 1,56 k N ; Q W M E = 1,2 • 0 , 7 0 7 • Q W M X = 1,32 k N .
T h e i n d i v i d u a l l o a d s a r e c o m b i n e d t o l o a d cases a c c o r d i n g t o clause 1 2 . 4 . F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 2 s h o w s
t o w e r s e c t i o n 1 : A „ x ss A w x = 2 • 4 , 9 - 0 , 0 6 + 2 - 4 , 9 • 0 , 0 3 5 + 2 • 0 , 7 • 0 , 0 4 0 + 2 • 2 , 1 - 0 , 0 4 5 + 2 • the characteristic values a n d F i g u r e 12.63 t h e design values o f t h e loads for t h e individual load
2,3 - 0 , 0 5 + 1,9 - 0 , 0 6 = 1 , 5 1 m 2 ; cases. I f o n l y o n e c i r c u i t i s i n s t a l l e d , t h e loads o n j u s t o n e t o w e r side a c t ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 4 ) . T h e
design values w e r e calculated considering t h e partial factors according t oE N 50341-3-4 (see
z = 3 7 , 7 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 - 3 7 , 7 = 9 1 3 N / m 2 ;
clause 12.4.8).
0 = 0° : Q W M X = 1,51 - 2,8 913 = 3,86 k N ; Q W M | | = 0.
0 = 90° : Q W M X = 0; Q W M | | = 3,86 k N . D e s i g n of a c r o s s a r m
0 = 45° : Q W M X = 1,2 - 3,86 0,707 = 3,27 k N ; Q W M | | = 1,2 - 3 , 8 6 • 0 , 7 0 7 = 3 , 2 7 k N
As a n example, t h e upper crossarm o f t h e 110 k Vtower i s verified. F i g u r e 12.65 shows t h e
dimensions of the crossarm.
t o w e r s e c t i o n 2 : Aw± ss A „ x = 2 - 6 , 4 • 0 , 0 7 5 + 2 • 9 , 5 - 0 , 0 4 + 1,4 • 0 , 0 6 = 1 , 8 0 m 2 ;
T h e l o a d cases t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 6 . T h e d e a d w e i g h t o f 3 , 5 k N
z = 3 1 , 3 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 3 1 , 3 = 8 9 4 N / m 2 ; will b e distributed equally o n t h e attachment points o ft h e bracings i nt h e vertical crossarm
0= 0°: Q W M X = 1,80-2,8 -894 = 4,51 k N ; Q W M | | = 0. face. T h e l o a d cases D , L a n d I m i g h t b e p r e v a l e n t . F o r l o a d case L , t h e v e r t i c a l l o a d w i l l b e
carried o n l y b yo n e face o f t h e vertical truss after failing o f o n e insulator string. T h i s c o n d i t i o n
0 = 90° : Q W M X = 0; Q M | | = 4,51 k N .
W
is c o v e r e d b y l o a d c a s e J . I n l o a d c a s e I , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n l o a d 1 , 5 k N i s a s s u m e d a s a c t i n g
0 = 45° : Q W M X = QWM|| = 1,2 • 4 , 5 1 - 0 , 7 0 7 = 3 , 8 3 k N . alternatively a t t h e nodes o f t h e vertical truss.
T h e force i n t h e u p p e r c h o r d results f r o m (12.31) f o r t h e l o a d case L , w h e r e b y t h e force o f
tower section 3:A w ± « A w X = 2 -7,6 • 0 , 1 + 2 • 12,6 -0,04 + 2,2 • 0,06 = 2,66 m 2 ; 9,93 k N is carried b y o n e l o w e r c h o r d o n l y :

z = 2 6 , 6 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 2 6 , 6 = 8 8 0 N / m 2 ; 0 = (9,93 • 4,62 + 0 , 9 / 2 ( 4 , 6 2 + 3,47 + 2,32 + 1,17)] 1,023/1,069 = 4 8 , 9 k N

 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s

430 12 S u p p o r t s

4,67

6,37- -6,37

k!k
82-
4,72 c— + P
6,30_ i L - L - L -6,30

Load case B
4,67. on tower
4.67 Load case A
dead weight

Load case B

3,28 3,28

4,45 4,46

2,42
5,94 5,94
3,23 JMLXP1MMS4 3,23
reduced wind
3.23 3,23 dead weight
load on tower
• » + P .% i + P in St \\
• deadweight Load case O
4,40

10,

5I 1
2,39 to ro
dead weight *. 4
o ro
load on tower
dead weight Load case D

t^—(3,98)
13,41

13,41
Load case C 4" Ol

2.01 2,25 — i c — 2.:

2,25
k! i>
XM

.98)

,98)
02

,98)
41

,41
2,25- P + or
2,25 - P1
-++kVJtfAk»
r \ PP
*» CTi
•0 3,00
2
ro - , 3,00 3,00
ro'P
2,22 2,22
Load case F
,oced

1 k *
dead weight
Load case K

Load case J/L d i n 6 t o t h e considered l o a d cases; t w o circuits

„ dead load
Load case K F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 3 : D e s i g n values of forces according t o m e
dead load
Load case J/L c o n s i d e r e d l o a d cases ( a c c o r d i n g to installed
values o f forces for t h e
F i g u r e 12-62: Characteristic
50341-3-4)
432 i z supports i£CLLUJV.C a u c c i UUWLIC

T h e geometric d a t a used i n (12.31) result f r o m F i g u r e 12.65 considering t h e c e n t r o i d a l axis o f

t h e profile t o be:

hi = 4 , 6 1 7 m ; 5 ; = fr„ = 1,1 - 0,0169 - 0 , 0 1 4 = 1,069 m ,

b0 = 0,1 - 0,0169 - 0,014 = 0,069 m ,
A/2 = 0,03 m / m .

T h e compression a n d tensile force o f t h e lower chord result f r o m (12.17) a n d (12.29), respec-

tively, u s i n g b = 1,051 m a n d h = 4,13 related t o t h e crossing p o i n t o f t h e bracings w i t h i n t h e
panel adjacent t o t h e tower body t o be:
Compression force

UD = - ( 1 1 , 0 8 • 4 , 1 3 ) / 1 , 0 5 1 - [9,93 • 4,62 + (4,62 + 3,47 + 2,32 + 1,17)0,9/2] / 1 . 0 6 9

= -91,3 k N

a n d tensile force

Uz = ( 1 1 , 0 8 • 4 , 1 3 ) / 1 , 0 5 1 - 0 , 9 ( 4 , 6 2 + 3 , 4 7 + 2 , 3 2 + l , 1 7 ) / ( 2 • 1 , 0 6 9 ) = 3 8 , 7 k N .

Since o n l y o n e face carries t h e l o a d , i t applies t o d o u b l e w a r r e n i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s a r m face

according t o (12.20)

Di = liiPb/(2boiboi) .

T h e l o a d case J i s p r e v a l e n t . T h e p r o d u c t P • b r e s u l t s t o b e

P- b= 1 1 , 0 8 - ( 0 , 4 - 2 e ) = 1 1 , 0 8 • ( 0 , 4 - 2 - 0 , 0 1 6 9 ) = 1 1 , 0 8 0 , 3 6 6 = 4 , 0 6 k N m .

All dimensions are related t o t h e centroidal axes o f t h e static system. T h e distance o f t h e

F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 4 : Design values o f forces according t o t h e considered load cases; one circuit centroidal axes o f lower chords needs t ob e evaluated f r o m t h e o v e r a l l dimensions. T a b l e 12.15
stalled only c o n t a i n s t h e g e o m e t r i c d a t a a n d t h e forces calculated, thereof.
434 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 435

T a b l e 12.1.5: C a l c u l a t e d m e m b e r design forces o f T a b l e 12.17: R a t i n g o f m e m b e r s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s o f c r o s s a r m

t h e d i a g o n a l s i n t h e c r o s s a r m h o r i z o n t a l face Mem- Angle Joints Cross section Buck- Radius Slender- Buckling Permissible
Diagonal tut 6oi hi l-ii Dt ber section ling of ness coeffi- length in
m m m m kN length gyration ratio cient case of
.4 Anet bending
i 0,366 0,432 0,400 0,565 ±7,25 2 2
0,515 0,500 0,688 mm mm m cm A K m
2 0,432 ±6,28
3 0,515 0,615 0,600 0,824 ±5,28 O L50 x 5 3 M 12 480 310 — — — —
4 0,615 0,731 0,700 0,971 ±4,38 U L60 x 6 3 M 16 691 438 0,92 1,17 79 0,639 —
5 0,731 0,847 0,700 1,055 ±3,46 Di L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88 0,31 0.68 46 0,851 0,57
6 0,847 0,980 0,800 1,214 ±2,97 D2 L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88 0,37 0,68 54 0,798 0,57
7 0,980 1,132 0,917 1,390 ±2,55 D3 L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88 0,45 0,68 66 0,722 0,57
Dt L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88 0,53 0,68 78 0,643 0,57
D3 L40 x 4 1 M 12 308 108 0,57 0,78 73 0,676 0,75
T a b l e 12.16: C a l c u l a t e d design m e m b e r forces o f t h e m e m b e r s in t h e De L40 x 4 1 M 12 308 108 0,65 0,78 83 0,608 0,75
crossarm v e r t i c a l face D7 L45 x 4 1 M 12 349 128 0,75 0,88 85 0,595 0,95
L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88 0,32 0,68 47 0,842
Member © © ® LG" L LC" I M e m b e r f o r c e V, Fi
V2 L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88
£ S w / 2 £S, u/2 LC" L LC" I
kN kN v3 L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88 0,56 0,68 82 0,614
V, L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88
1 0,32 0,32 1,47 3,322 1,901 -2,26 -1,29 L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88 0,81 0,68 119 0,402
Vs
2 0,564 1,281 1,47 3,983 4,508 6,15 6,96 Ve L35 x 4 1 M 12 267 88
3 0,564 0,564 2,62 3,983 4,508 -1,52 -1,72
4 0,811 1,407 2,62 5,162 7,805 3,42 5,17
5 0,811 0,811 3,77 5,162 7,805 -1,37 -2,07 T a b l e 12.18: R a t i n g o f m e m b e r s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s o f c r o s s a r m
6 1,069 1,607 3,77 6,859 11,792 2,74 4,70
Member Loading Resistance
Column (T) 6; and b i + i , respectively, Tension Compression Compression Tension Shearing Bearing
Column ® v ' 5 ? + (ft, + 1 - k i ) 2 and f b 2 i + 1 + kN kN kN kN kN kN
Column (3) v + hi and i? + h i + i , respectively. 48,90 80,35 81,43 83,46
0
" LC= load case V 38,70 91,30 94,30 113,61 144,76 133,54
th 7,25 7,25 48,55 22,81 27,14 22,26
T h e m e m b e r forces i n t h e v e r t i c a l face r e s u l t f r o m (12.32) a n d (12.33). T h e r e , l o a d case L o r I D2 6,28 6,28 45,49 22,81 27,14 22,26
D3 5,28 5,28 41,17 22,81 27,14 22,26
m a y b e g o v e r n i n g . I n T a b l e 12.16 t h e calculation is d e m o n s t r a t e d . T h e value v isobtained f r o m
D2 4,38 4,38 36,70 22,81 27,14 22,26
D-, 3,46 3,46 44,47 27,99 27,14 22,26
v = (4,617 + 1,069 - 0 , 0 3 ) / ( l , 0 6 9 - 0 , 0 6 9 ) • 0,069 = 0,32 m .
D6 2,97 2,97 39,98 27,99 27,14 22,26
W i t h t h e m e m b e r forces, t h er a t i n g o f angles c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t . T h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h f o r t h e D7 2,55 2,55 44,38 33,18 27,14 22,26
bracings i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l crossarm face c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m Fi 2,26 48,05 22,81 27,14 22,26
Fj 6,96 22,81 27,14 22,26
S K = Idi • b0i/(b0i + (>„;) . v3 1,72 35,03 22,81 27,14 22,26
V, 5,17 22,81 27,14 22,26
F o r e x a m p l e , i t i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e m e m b e r £>3: F5 4,06 2,07 22,96 22,81 27,14 22,26
F6 4,70 22,81 27,14 22,26
s K = 0,824 • 0,615/(0,515 + 0,615) = 0,45 m .

I n Tables 12.17 a n d 12.18, t h eresults a r e presented. T h e resistance o f t h e m e m b e r s a n d con- B u c k l i n g resistance

n e c t i o n s a r e n o t e x c e e d e d . F o r a l l a n g l e s e c t i o n s , t h e s t e e l g r a d e S 2 3 5 w i t h fy = 2 3 5 N / m m 2 Slenderness ratio (12.65): A = 81/0,68 = 119,12
a n d / u = 3 6 0 N / m m 2 isused. A l l bolts a r eprovided w i t h grade 5.6. T h e compression s t r e n g t h N o n - d i m e n s i o n a l slenderness (12.62): A = 119,12/TT • ^ 2 3 5 / 2 1 0 0 0 0 = 1,268
i s d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 0 ) f o r flexural b u c k l i n g . F l e x u r a l t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g i s n o t
g o v e r n i n g here. T h e upper chord i sj o i n t e d w i t h t h r e e b o l t s a r r a n g e d i no n e angle leg. T h e n e t Buckling reduction factor
cross-sectional area for t h e upper chord is determined using equation (12.98). T h e members According t o (12.64): <j> = 0,5[1 + 0,49(1,268 - 0,2) + 1,2682] = 1,566
i n t h eh o r i z o n t a l c r o s s a r m face a n d t h e v e r t i c a l faces a r e c o n n e c t e d b y o n e b o l t only. T h e n e t = 1/(1,566 + x / 1 , 5 6 6 2 - 1 , 2 6 8 2 ) = 0,402
According t o (12.63): K
cross-sect i o n a l a r e a is c o m p u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 9 7 ) . I n case o f s h e a r i n g , i t is a s s u m e d
Resistance according t o (12.60): J V R d = 0,402 • 267 • 2 3 5 / 1 , 1 = 22,96 k N
t h a t t h e s h e a r planes pass t h r o u g h t h e u n t h r e a d e d b o l t s h a n k . T h e factor a b = 1,61 i s consid-
ered f o r t h e bearing resistance according t o equations (12.106) a n d (12.110). F o r verification o f
Tension resistance:
bending d u et o construction load, t h e buckling length o fthe diagonal members i n the horizontal
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , t h e design t e n s i o n resistance o f angle calculated according t o
face is g o v e r n i n g . T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c o m p l i e d w i t h i f t h e p e r m i s s i b l e b e n d i n g l e n g t h l m a x
(12.97) needs t o b e reduced b y 10 %
given i nT a b l e 12.14 is n o t exceeded.
A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e r a t i n g o f b r a c i n g V$ i n t h e v e r t i c a l f a c e i s d e t a i l e d h e r e . N R d = 0,9(35 - 13)4 • 360/1,25 = 22,81 k N

Effective cross section (12.56): A p = 0,0035v/235 • 35/5 = 0,38 Shear resistance (12.104): F v R d = 0,6 • 1 2 2 • ?r/4 • 500/1,25 = 27,14 k N
A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 12.8: A p < 0 , 9 1 , 0 = 1,0; A e f f = A = 2 6 7 m m 2 B e a r i n g resistance:
 T ^ b l e 1 2 . 1 9 : L e g member, section 3, calculation of m o m e n t s
Designation Height Lever arm Load case A Load case C
Face A Face B rectangularly rectangularly in parallel
Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment
in m m kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm
Earth wires -3,90 22,00 22,80 4,67 102,76 2,34 51,38 0 0,00
Earth wire peak -1,95 20,05 20,85 2 11 42,23 1,28 35,73 1,78 37 15
Conductors 1 1,10 17,00 17,80 12,74 216,65 6,53 111,08 0,49 8,65
Crossarm 1 1,10 17,00 17,80 2,04 34,65 1,03 12,44 2,55 45,41
Section 1 2,45 15,65 16,45 5,21 81,55 4,41 69,09 4,41 72,62
Conductors 2 4,90 13,20 14,00 25,22 332,88 12,91 170,36 0,92 13,61
Crossarm 2 4 90 13,20 14,00 2,98 39,38 1,50 19,78 3,73 52,16
Section 2 8,10 10,00 10,80 6,09 60,89 5,17 51,71 5,17 55,84
Section 3 15,00 3,00 3,80 8,84 26,53 7,51 22,52 7,51 28,39

F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 7 : Dimensions of section 3: Total moment 937,52 549,09 313,98

a face rectangularly to line; Designation Load Load Load Load
b face i n parallel to line case D case F case A case D
one circuit one circuit

T h e bearing resistance coefficient a b is calculated according to (12.107), (12.108) a n d (12.110) rectangularly rectangularly i n parallel rectangularly rectangularly
considering the selected end distance in direction of the force e3 = 1,5 do a n d the edge distance Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment
kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm
rectangularly to the direction of force e2 = l , 2 d o as specified in E N 50 341-3-4 [12.10].
Earth wires 5,43 119,39 5,45 59,70 0 0,00 4,67 102,76 5,43 119,39
= 1,20 1,5 = 1,80 Earth wire peak 1,05 21,11 0,89 17,86 0,89 18,58 2,11 42,23 1,05 21,11
Conductors 1 12,02 204,26 6,08 103,28 0,24 4,32 6,37 108,32 6,01 102,13
Ub = 1,85 (1,5 - 0 , 5 ) = 1,85 Crossarm 1 1,03 17,44 0,51 8,72 1,28 22,83 2,04 34,66 1,03 17,44
Section 1 2,61 40,77 2,21 34,78 2,21 36,42 5,21 81,55 2,61 40,77
= 2,30 (1,2 - 0 , 5 ) = 1,61 Conductors 2 23,76 313,63 8,88 158,25 0,49 7,32 12,61 166,44 11,88 156,82
Ub
Crossarm 2 1,50 19,78 11,99 9,98 1,86 26,08 2,98 39,38 1,50 19,78
Section 2 3,05 30,51 2,59 25,92 2,59 28,041 6,09 60,89 3,05 30,51
T h e m i n i m u m value a b = 1,61 is governing.
Section 3 4,43 13,28 3,75 11,26 3,75 14,2>6 8,84 26,53 4,43 13,84
Bearing resistance: FbKd = 1,61 - 1 2 • 4 • 3 6 0 / 1 , 2 5 = 22,26 k N
Total moment 780,19 429,61 157,219 662,76 521,25

D e s i g n of a t o w e r section

A s a n example, the tower section 3 is designed. I n F i g u r e 12.67, the dimensions of this section _. , .p, „ 429,16 . 157,29 11 f 54,36 1\ 123,35 k N
L o a d case b : b E = ±„ ±; J 1 —
are shown. "2 -2,13 2 -2,179 4 \ 128,59 J -169,07 kN
L o a d case A , only one circuit installed:
Leg members 6 6 2 , 7 6 +-7,68
7,68(5,2
(5,2 + 3,3 + 7,1) I1 ff 39,07 T
V _ 173,93 k N
Vertical forces: 5 E = ± -
2-2,13 4 \ 66,10 J -200,23 k N
Without ice load
L o a d case D , only one circuit installed:
all circuits installed Syma* = 1,35 • 27,9 + 5,39 + 6 • 7,68 = 89,14 k N ,
5 2 1 , 2 5 + 13,41(5,2 + 3,3 + 7,1) I f 46,59 1 159,82 k N
5vmin = 27,9 + 1,33 + 6 • 2,43 = 43,81 k N . B 2 -2,13 4 ( 88,36 / -193,56 kN
only one circuit installed S V max = 1,35 • 27,9 + 5,39 + 3 • 7,68 = 66,10 k N ,
Svmin = 27,9 + 1,33 + 3 • 3,28 = 39,07 k N . L o a d case A is prevalent. Design value of the leg member compression a n d tensile force:
W i t h ice load
all circuits installed Sy m a x = 1,35 • 27,9 + 10,46 + 6 • 13,41 = 128,59 k N , f 209,12 k N X
Sv m i„ = 27,9 + 2,58 + 6 • 3,98 = 54,36 k N , b E ~ \ -242,37 kN J
only one circuit installed Svmax = 1,35 • 27,9 + 10,46 + 3 • 13,41 = 88,36 k N ,
Svmin = 27,9 + 2,58 + 3 - 5,37 = 46,59 k N , T h e forces in the bracings result from (12.25), where it is a s s u m e d

L e g member forces
£ > - 6 + A - ^ S v - ( ' v + 5ZMT-i,A/i>b = AfD •
T h e calculation of the moments is presented i n T a b l e 12.19. T h e leg member forces result from
(12.18). T h e load case J , one circuit installed only, torsion at lower crossarm, results in the m a x i m u m
forces.
L o a d case A SE = ± f f,52
' 5 2
7 4 3 , 8 11 )
1 1 f f43,81 209,12 k N
2 - 22,13
,13 4 \( 89,14 JJ -247,37 kN
i>Ao = 6BO = 1,723 - (11,3 - 4,9) • 0,06 = 1,339 m .
, , „ „ , 549,09 313,98 1 f 43,81 \ 157,13 k N
L o a d case C : S F= ± ± < > =
Bracings D3 to D$ (face rectangularly to the line)
2-2,13 2-2,179 4 \ 89,14 j -223,23 kN
T . F, c 780,19 . 1 f 54,36 1 169,55 k N
L o a d case D : SE = ± _ - ± - { ^ = _ ^ ^
M D = 0,06 [9,93 • (5,2 + 3,3 + 7,1)] + 11,08 - 7,1 = 8 8 , 0 0 k N m .
438 12 S u p p o r t s L2.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 439

T a b l e 1 2 . 2 3 : Determination of moments for foundation loads

T a b l e 1 2 . 2 0 : Forces of diagonals i n section 3 Designation Height Lever arm Load case A Load case C
Diagonal bUi boi hi id. D, rectangularly rectangularly in parallel
m m m rn kN Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment
D, 1,723 1,807 1,40 2,253 15.92 m m kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm
D2 1,807 1,897 1,50 2,383 15,29 Earth wires -3,90 29,80 3,46 103,11 1,73 51,55 0,00 0,00
D3 1,897 1,987 1,50 2,454 14,32 Earth wire peak -1,95 27,85 1.56 43,45 1,32 36,76 1.32 36,76
DA 1,987 2,083 1,60 2,589 13,76 Conductors 1 1,10 24,80 9,44 234,11 4,84 120,03 0,36 8,93
Ds 2,083 2,179 1,60 2,665 12,92 Crossarm 1 1,10 24,80 1.51 37,45 0,76 18,85 1,89 46,87
D& 1,765 1,852 1,45 2,318 16,58 Section 1 2,45 23,45 3,86 90,52 3,27 76,68 3,27 76,68
D; 1,852 1,942 1,50 2,418 15,72 Conductors 2 4,90 21,00 18,68 392,28 9,56 200,76 0,72 15,12
Ds 1,942 2,035 1,55 2,522 14,92 Crossarm 2 4,90 21,00 2,21 46,41 1,11 23,31 2,76 57,96
De 2,035 2,131 1,60 2,627 14,16 Section 2 8,10 17,80 4,51 80,28 3,83 68,17 3,83 68,17
Dm 2,131 (2,229) (1,637) (2,726) 13,41 Section 3 15,00 10,90 6,55 71,40 5,56 60,60 5.56 60,60
Section 4 22,40 3,50 7,28 25,48 6,17 21,60 6,17 21,60
In total 59,06 1124,47 38,15 678,32 25,88 392,70

T a b l e 1 2 . 2 1 : R a t i n g of members a n d connections of tower section 3

Bracings D 6 to J9io (face i n parallel to the line). L o a d case J , torsion at lower crossarm,
Member Angle Joint Cross- Buckling Radius Slender- Buckling
section sectional length of ness reduction
area gyration ratio M D = 11,08 • 1,339 + 11,08 • 7,1 = 93,50 k N m .
.4 A„et A
mm2 mm2 m cm In Table 12.20, the calculation of the forces is presented. T h e r a t i n g is carried out as presented
Leg memb sr L100x8 6 M 16" 1550 1278 1,60" 3,06 633> 0,743 in Tables 12.21 a n d 12.22. T h e strengths of the members a n d their connections comply with
Face A acting forces. A s an example, the rating of the leg member is detailed here.
Di L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,04 0,78 133 0,342
D2 L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,10 0,78 141 0,314 Effective cross section (12.56): Ap = 0,0035\/235 • 100/8 = 0,67
D3 L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1.13 0,78 145 0,301 According to Table 12.8: A p < 0 , 9 1 , e = 1,0; AeS = A = 1550 m m 2
DA L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,19 0,78 153 0,277
B u c k l i n g resistance
De L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,23 0,78 158 n ICQ
Slenderness ratio, flexural buckling: A = 160/3,06 = 53
Face B torsional flexural buckling: A c i = 5 • 100/8 = 63
D6 L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,07 0,78 137 0,328
T h e m a x i m u m value is governing.
D7 L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,11 0,78 142 0,310
L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,16 0,78 149 0,289 Non-dimensional slenderness (12.62): A = 6 3 / u V 2 3 5 / 2 1 0 0 0 0 = 0,671
D„
De L40x4 1 M 12' 308 108 1,21 0,78 155 0,270
Die L40x4 1 M 12 308 108 1,20 0,78 154 0,274
B u c k l i n g reduction factor
" double covered 2' buckling length l v 3' flexural torsional buckling According to (12.64): 0 = 0,5[1 + 0,49(0,671 - 0,2) + 0 , 6 7 1 2 ] = 0,841
According to (12.63): K = 1 / ( 0 , 8 4 1 + ^0,8412 - 0.671 2 ) = 0,743
Resistance according to (12.60): N R d = 0,743 • 1 550 • 2 3 5 / 1 , 1 = 245,92 k N

T a b l e 1 2 . 2 2 : R a t i n g of members and connections of tower section 3 Tension resistance:

Member Loading Resistance Net cross section: A n e t = 1 550 - 2 • 17 • 8 = 1 278 m m 2
Tension Compression Compression Tension Shearing Bearing
kN kN kN kN kN kN According to E N 50341-3-4, the tension resistance of angle according to (12.94) follows from:

Leg member 205,29 242,37 245,92 331,26 579,06 356,11

N R d = 0 , 9 - 1 2 7 8 • 3 6 0 / 1 , 2 5 = 331,26 k N .
Face A
Dj 15,92 15,92 22,50 27,99 27,14 22,26
D2 15,29 15,29 20,66 27,99 27,14 22,26 Shear resistance of the connection with six bolts and two shear planes results in
D3 14,32 14,32 19,81 27,99 27,14 22,26
DA 13,76 13,76 18,25 27,99 27,14 22,26 F v R d = 0,6 • 2 • 0,6 - 1 6 2 • T T / 4 ' 5 0 0 / 1 , 2 5 = 579,06 k N .
De 12,92 12,92 17,30 27,99 27,14 22,26
Face B Bearing resistance:
De 16,58 16,58 21,56 27,99 27,14 22,26
D; 15,72 15,72 20,37 27,99 27,14 22,26 T h e bearing resistance coefficient a b is calculated considering the edge, end a n d borehole dis-
DK 14,92 14,92 19,01 27,99 27,14 22,26 tances e i = l , 5 d o , £2 = l , 2 d o a n d p i = 2,5do. T h e m i n i m u m value results from (12.110)
De 14,16 14,16 17,77 27,99 27,14 22,26 o-b = 1,61. T h e bearing resistance for the leg member is calculated according to (12.107) for six
Dio 13,41 13,41 18,01 27,99 27,14 22,26 bolts
E b R d = 6 • 1,61 • 16 • 8 • 3 6 0 / 1 , 2 5 = 356,1 k N .
440 12 Supports

4—-1,44 | 1,44 — 3 4— 13,4 | 16.7— 3

|~U1,0 ' -173+1 J fT+I.O ' -173+1 j
CO CM
1 + o5

I _ S 1 I 1
— S u e
1 to C\J
1 + CD'

[i4i,o ' -ms] I [141,0 ' -ms] \

Figure 12.68: Founda-
1—1,44 | 1,44—2 1—13,4 | 16,7—2 tion loads

withoul bend with bend

F o u n d a t i o n loads

T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o ff o u n d a t i o n loads i s r e p r e s e n t e d f o r l o a d cases A a n d C i n T a b l e 12.23. L o a d =22,0 I 22,0

case A is g o v e r n i n g .
F i g u r e 12.69: O u t l i n e o fa 500 k V guyed-V tower
SVimnc = 37,4 + 3,99 + 6 • 5,69 = 75,53 k N ,
•SVmin = 3 7 , 4 + 1,33 + 6 - 2 , 4 3 = 5 3 , 3 1 k N .
'M = + ll = 3 4 , 9 m
S y s t e m w i d t h 6 = 3,704 - 2 - 0,0298 = 3,644 m (angle section L 1 1 0 x 8 ) ,
O v e r t u r n i n g m o m e n t a r o u n d base A is
1124,47 _ 1 / 53,31 \ _ 141,0 k N .
M A = 3 - Q w c • to + Q w C A d (to + I K / 2 ) + 2 • g w T • I & / 2 =
Sm ™ 2-3,644 4 ( 75,53 J -173,2 k N .
= 3 - 5 8 - 3 4 + 5,0 ( 3 4 + 2 / 2 ) + 2 - 0,60 • 3 4 2 / 2 = 6 7 8 5 k N - m
T h e e x t e r n a l h o r i z o n t a l load is S H * = 56,06 k N . T h e residual h o r i z o n t a l force a t t h e connection
T h e m a s t s Eire p i v o t e d o n f o u n d a t i o n A a n d t h e g u y w i r e s c o u n t e r a c t t h e b e n d i n g moment
of t h e b r a c i n g i s (see ( 1 2 . 1 2 3 )
M A = 6785 k N m . B o t h g u y w i r e s 1 a n d 2 receive e q u a l p o r t i o n o f loads, t h e r e f o r e
DH% = 5 9 , 0 6 / 4 - 1124,47 • 0,21/(2 • 2• 3,644) = 14,8 - 16,2 = - 1 , 4 4 k N . 2 -S g -JH • (Wig) = M A or S g = M A • Ig/(2 • iH/ • ID) ;

I f t h e l e g m e m b e r s a r e b e n t , t h e f o r c e s Kx = S • A / 2 = S • 0 , 2 1 / 2 ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 8 a n d e q u a t i o n = 6785 • 40,5 (2 - 22,0 • 34,0) = 184 k N

(12.124)) will result.
T h e t o t a l transverse forces result as s u m o f t h e forces a t t h e diagonal connection a n d t h e T h e r e q u i r e d s t r e n g t h o f t h e g u y w i r e i s o b t a i n e d a s s u m i n g a m a t e r i a l p a r t i a l f t i c t o r T M = 1,5
d e v i a t i o n f o r c e s . T h e e x t e r n a l h o r i z o n t a l l o a d s S H + a n d Snv, r e s p e c t i v e l y , r e s u l t f r o m t h e s u m R T S > T M • S g = 1,5 • 1 8 4 = 2 7 6 k N
o f f o r c e s Px a n d Py i n t h e x and i n t h e y d i r e c t i o n ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 8 ) .
T h e w i n d w a r d m a s t is t h a t l o a d e d h i g h e s t b ycompression. T h e f o l l o w i n g c o m p o n e n t s c o n t r i b u t e
to t h e load:
12.5.19 E x a m p l e : C a l c u l a t i o n g u y w i r e a n d m a s t loads i n a g u y e d - V - T h e vertical conductor loads S g V i = 3/2 • G c d = 3 •4 0 / 2 = 6 0 k N
tower - T h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t for g u y w i r e forces S g v 2 = 2-Sg-Iii/Ig = 2 - 1 8 4 - 3 4 / 4 0 , 5 = 3 0 8 k N
- T h e tower weight S g V 3 = G T d / 2 = 50/2 = 25 k N
T h e loads i n t h e guy wires and masts should b e calculated for g u y e d - V tower used for a 500 k V
T h e t o t a l v e r t i c a l resiction i s S g v = 6 0 + 3 0 8 + 25 = 393 k N . T h e c o m p r e s s i o n force o f t h e m a s t
line i n B r a z i l . T h e p r i n c i p a l dimensions o f t h e t o w e r are s h o w n i n F i g u r e 12.69. T h e l e n g t h o f
will b e S M d = S g v •I M / I H = 393 • 34,9/34 = 403 k N .
a m a s t is34,9, t h a t o f a guy w i r e 40,5 m . T h e loads are d e t e r m i n e d for high w i n d loads and for
unbalanced l o n g i t u d i n a l loads a t an outer phase. F o r t h e 1 s t order t h e o r y analysis, t h e structure
A n a l y s i s for a n u n b a l a n c e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l o a d
is a s s u m e d a s n o t d e f o r m e d a n d t h e e q u i l i b r i u m m e t h o d i s e m p l o y e d .
T h e g u y w i r e a n d m a s t f o r c e a r e t o b e d e t e r m i n e d f o r a s i n g l e l o n g i t u d i n a l t o r q u e lOEid S L =
55 k N a t one o ft h e outer phases ( F i g u r e 12.69). G u y w i r e 2 will g o slack a n d t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l
A n a l y s i s for h i g h w i n d l o a d s c o m p o n e n t S G H o f t h e force i n g u y w i r e 1 b y e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s a b o u t a v e r t i c a l axis
C o n s i d e r i n g t h e s t a t i c s y s t e m a n d t h e l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n , a b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n can b e m a d e : T h e through point C will be:
loads are equally d i s t r i b u t e d o nt h e guy w i r e s 1 a n d 2 a n d t h e tensile force i n g u y w i r e s 3 a n d
4 is relieved. S g H = S L •( 2 I E + IT)/2 f E = 5 5 • ( 2 • 8,0 + 5 , 5 ) / 2 • 8,0 = 7 4 , 0 k N .
T h e design loads are: The guy wire tension is
- Vertical load o fconductors and insulators: G c d= 4 0 k N
- Tower weight G T d= 50 k N S g = S G H • Ig/Ii = 74,0 • 4 0 , 5 / 1 7 , 0 = 177 k N .
- W i n d load o n crossarm Q w c A d = 5 k N The required strength o fthe guy wire is
- W i n d load o nconductors and insulators: Q w C d = 5 8 k N
- W i n d load o n t h e m a s t s ? W T = 0,60 k N / m R T S > T M - S g = 1,5 - 1 7 7 = 2 6 4 k N .
T h e l e n g t h o f g u y w i r e s a n d m a s t s a r e (see F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 9 ) : T h e r e , t h e R T S i s less t h a n t h a t i n case o f w i n d a c t i o n . A 1 9 m m e x t r a - h i g h t e n s i l e s t e e l s t r n d
conductor w i t h a R T S o f 311 k N o r a na l u m i n i u m clad steel conductor 2 4 3 - A 2 0 S A h a v i n g a
(G = I / ( I D - I E ) 2 + ' ? + '?[ = V / ( 2 2 , 0 - 8,0)2 + 17,02 + 34,02 = 40,5 m R T S o f 3 2 5 k N (see T a b l e 7.8) c o u l d b e u s e d .
442 12 Supports 12.6 Steel poles 4 4 3

12.6 Steel poles

12.6.1 Structural design

S o l i d - w a l l steel poles w i t h v a r i o u s d e s i g n s a r e u s e d f o r l o w - v o l t a g e , m e d i u m - v o l t a g e a n d
h i g h - v o l t a g e l i n e s . Polygonal conical poles h a v e 8 - , 1 2 - o r 1 6 - s i d e d s h a p e s w h e r e b y t h e
p l a t e s a r e b e n t a n d finally w e l d e d i n l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n . T h e m a t e r i a l g r a d e s S 2 3 5
a n d S355 are m a i n l y used for these poles. T h e lengths o f t h e poles o r their sections i s
limited t o approximately 15 m b y the weights for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d t h e possibilities
o f g a l v a n i z a t i o n . T h e r e q u i r e d j o i n t s o f t a l l e r p o l e l e n g t h s c a n b e d e s i g n e d a s slip joints
o r flange joints w i t h p r e s t r e s s e d h i g h - t e n s i l e b o l t s .
Slip j o i n t s can b e a d o p t e d w i t h o u t specific c o n n e c t i o n e l e m e n t s a n d w i t h o u t a verifica-
t i o n b y c a l c u l a t i o n i f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s are c o m p l i e d w i t h [12.8]:
- W h e n modelling the tower b o d y i n view o f global static analysis o f resistance, F i g u r e 12.70: Connection o f crossarms
o n l y t h e n o m i n a l cross section o f t h e inserted p a r t i s considered i n t h e r a n g e o f
the joint. E i t h e r staggered stepbolts are welded o r ladders are arranged p e r m a n e n t l y o r w h e n
- T h e n o m i n a l slipping length i s a t l e a s t 1 , 5 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r r e q u i r e d for c l i m b i n g o f t h e poles. R a i l s are a r r a n g e d o nt h e crossarms for h a n g i n g o n
measured across the corners o f t h e outer section.
the safety equipment.
- A s s e m b l i n g is c a r r i e d o u t o n s i t e . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t o l e r a n c e s o f m a t e r i a l t h i c k -
A l l solid-wall steel poles should b e hot-dip galvanized. A design o f connections appro-
ness due t o g a l v a n i z a t i o n a n d o f p o l y g o n a l cross-sectional d i m e n s i o n s , t h e final
priate for galvanizing should b e used. T h e poles should b e coated b y using green, grey
s l i p p i n g l e n g t h o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s h o u l d b e m o r e t h a n 1,35 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m
or black p a i n t w i t h a corresponding layer thickness for i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e corrosion
average diameter, measured across t h e corners o ft h e female section.
protection a n d for visual adjusting t o the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i c k layer coating systems
- T h e f o r c e f o r fitting b o t h p a r t s s h o u l d e x c e e d t h e m a x i m u m d e s i g n c o m p r e s s i o n
have proved their qualification for galvanized steel components a n d reach a lifetime o f
force, t h e p a r t i a l factor b e i n g i n c l u d e d , a t t h e level o f t h e j o i n t .
2 0 y e a r s w i t h o u t r e c o a t i n g (see a l s o c l a u s e 1 2 . 5 . 1 . 5 ) .
- I f necessary, brackets s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d o n b o t h ends o f t h e slip j o i n t a t t h e
p o l e b o d y , t h u s e n a b l i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e fitting u s i n g h y d r a u l i c j a c k s o r p u l l i n g
e q u i p m e n t o n site. 12.6.2 A n a l y s i s of loads
- T h e increase o f p o l e w i d t h s h o u l d b e n o t less t h a n 1 0 m m / m . Solid-wall steel poles c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o a d e d s t a t i c a l l y a s i s t h e
- T h e thickness o fthe wall should b e not m o r e t h a n t o 16 m m .
case o f lattice steel towers. T h e i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s are c o m p u t e d b y a global
T h e p o l e s c a n b e fitted t o g e t h e r o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e i n a h o r i z o n t a l o r v e r t i c a l elastic analysis. A linear-elastic stress-strain r e l a t i o n isassumed for the materials. T h e
p o s i t i o n , w h e r e b y a fitting a n d m a r k i n g o f t h e p o l e p a r t s i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t i n t e r n a l f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s n e e d t o b e d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e second order theory a t
has proved t o b e advantageous.
the deformed pole because o f the relatively high elasticity under the horizontal load.
B o l t e d flange j o i n t s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r p o l e s u s e d f o r h i g h loads, for w h i c h prestressed S o m e s t a n d a r d s , s u c h a s E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , a c c e p t a n a n a l y s i s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e first o r d e r
h i g h - s t r e n g t h bolts o f t h e s t r e n g t h grade 8 . 8o r 10.9 are used. T h e flange jointsc a n t h e o r y for poles w i t h a c e r t a i n l e n g t h , e. g. 4 0 m b e t w e e n t h e t o p o f f o u n d a t i o n a n d
be a r r a n g e d outside o r inside t h e pole shaft. I n case o f a n inside arrangement, t h e
the top o f the upper crossarm, whereby t h e internal m o m e n t s have t o b e increased.
dimensions o ft h e pole m u s t b e sufficiently wide t oenable arrangement o fcut-outs and
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 50 341-3-4, t h e f o l l o w i n g applies:
ladders i n the pole.
- S u s p e n s i o n p o l e s , a n g l e s u s p e n s i o n a n d a n g l e p o l e s : Mu = 1 , 0 5 A f 1 ,
Poles can b e connected t o the foundations b y embedding directly the pole body o r - S t r a i n p o l e s , a n g l e - s t r a i n p o l e s a n d d e a d - e n d p o l e s : M n= 1,03 M b
b y m e a n s o f a flange a n d anchor bolts. E m b e d d i n g i n c o n c r e t e i s l e s s c o s t l y . I f t h e
T h e analysis using the second order theory represents t h e state o f the art and should
f o u n d a t i o n i s d e s i g n e d a s a sleeve foundation, a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h e p o l e l e n g t h i s n o t
be used for d e t e r m i n i n g the internal forces a n d m o m e n t as well as t h e deformations.
used effectively for s u p p o r t i n g t h e conductors. Poles can b e m o r e easily adjusted w h e n a
T h e internal m o m e n t results according t o the second order theory f r o m
f o u n d a t i o n w i t h a n c h o r b o l t s is used. P o l e s c a n b e e q u i p p e d w i t h s i n g l e o r d o u b l e flanges
depending on the static requirements. T h e use o fbolts, n u t s a n d washers facilitates t h e ni ri2
plumbing adjustment.
Mu = E5Vi-/d. + E 5 H,^i , (12-127)
W h e n c u t - o u t s are necessary for d o o r s a n d t h e like, t h e p o l e r e s i s t a n c e is v e r i f i e d based
o n t h e effectively available section properties. I f necessary, t h e pole faces need t obe i=l i=l
w h e r e S f y i i Sm a r e v e r t i c a l a n ( l h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , fdi i s t h e h o r i z o n t a l
strengthened around the openings. I n order t o avoid precipitation o f h u m i d i t y within
d e f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e l y t o t h e p o l e a x i s a t t h e p o i n t o f a t t a c k o f t h e f o r c e S V i a n d hi t h e
the pole, its shaft aswell as h o l l o w crossarms s h o u l d b e v e n t i l a t e d u s i n g a design which
l e v e r a r m o f t h e f o r c e Sm w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s t u d i e d s e c t i o n . T h e w i n d a c t i o n o n t h e
avoids penetration o frain water.
pole isconsidered for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s . T h e w i n d
T h e crossarms c a n b e d e s i g n e d u s i n g o p e n s e c t i o n s ( U - t y p e c h a n n e l s o r H - b e a m s ) w h i c h
load m a y b e assumed section b y section o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y for the pole as a whole. T h e
a r e b o l t e d t o t h e p o l e s h a f t b y m e a n s o f a flange. F o r l o n g e r c r o s s a r m s , h o l l o w c o n i c a l
w i n d l o a d for c o n i c a l poles is a c c o r d i n g t o [12.8]
shapes w i t h four- t o eight-sided cross sections are used. Brackets are welded t ot h e pole
shaft for t h e connection o f t h e crossarms. A n e x a m p l e is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 12.70. < 3 W M = Qz • G q •G x •C x • LM (di + d 2 ) / 2 , (12.128)
 T a b l e 1 2 . 2 4 : C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r m o m e n t s o f reg¬
ular polygons
N u m b e r o f sides 6 8 12 16
2,71 6,16 21,39 51,22
fcl(r) 2,50 6,16 21,39 51,22
2,60 4,83 11,20 20,11

w h e r e d\, d2 i s p o l e d i a m e t e r a t t h e t o p a n d b a s i s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d LM t h e l e n g t h o f
the pole. T h e aerodynamic drag factor C x is 0 , 7for c i r c u l a r cross sections, a n d 1,0 for
cross sections w i t h six o r m o r e sides. T h e gust f a c t o r G q can beobtained from equation
( 6 . 4 9 ) a n d t h e structural response factor G x from

G x = ( l / G q ) - (. +2g^Ql+R2/In (z/zo)) , (12.129)

w h e r e t h e p e a k f a c t o r g Q, t h e b a c k g r o u n d r e s p o n s e p a r t Q0 and the resonant response

part i ? x can b e obtained from E N V 1991-2-4, clause B.2 [12.55]. I n a d d i t i o n , z i s t h e
75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 °'%0 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250
h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d a n d zq t h e g r o u n d r o u g h n e s s p a r a m e t e r ( s e e T a b l e 6.13). dlt dlt
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] , t h e p r o d u c t qz • G q isreplaced b y the w i n d pressure q and G r m i

is set t o b e 1 , 1 . T h e r e f o r e , e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 1 2 8 ) i s t r a n s f o r m e d t o 1

Q W M = 1,1 q-Cx L u - ( d i +d2)/2 . (12.130) ^ V

T h e w i n d load m a y b e assumed as acting a thalf o f the pole height. 12 V

T h e calculation o fthe internal m o m e n t according t o (12.127), t a k i n g care o f (12.128) 8
a n d (12.130), i f relevant, is a n iterative process since the w i n d load a n d t h e deflection n- 6\
fdi d e p e n d o n t h e selected c r o s s s e c t i o n . T h e deflection of a pole w i t h continuously
constant cross section, for e x a m p l e a n H - b e a m section, c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d from L= Zmilmrrf

h = ( S H / 3 + Q W M / 8 ) • LlflEI) . (12.131)
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 50 75 1 00 125 150 175 200 225 250
dlt - dlt -
I n c a s e o f a v a r y i n g m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a I{x), a na n a l y t i c calculation according t o

F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 1 : R e l a t i o n o f t h e effective F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 2 : R e l a t i o n o f t h e effective
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l m o d u l u s Weg t o t h e e l a s t i c cross-sectional a r e a Aeff t o t h e t o t a l a r e a for
/d = 1/E J M ( x ) • x/I{x) • dx (12.132)
cross-sectional m o d u l u s for p o l y g o n a l cross polygonal cross sections; a ) S235; b ) S355
o sections; a ) S235; b ) S355
is r e c o m m e n d e d where the coordinate x starts a tthe position o fthe deflection.
H o w e v e r , t h e deflection c a nb e calculated according t o t h e equivalent beam method T h e walls o f solid-wall steel poles will buckle locally under compression or bending
as d e s c r i b e d i n clause 12.5.14 i ncase o f s t e p p e d o r c o n i c a l poles. I np a r t i c u l a r , t h e compression load i f the wall thickness t issufficiently low, as compared with the other
axial compression force c a n affect t h e r a t i n g o fg u y e d poles i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e bending cross-sectional dimensions. Reliability against b u c k l i n g is guaranteed i ft h e following
m o m e n t . D e s i g n o f steel poles is especially dealt w i t h i n [12.56]. l i m i t s are obeyed. C i r c u l a r cross sections are n o t endangered b y b u c k l i n g i f

12.6.3 Rating 176 for steel grade S235;

117 for steel grade S355,
The following partial factors 7 M h a v e t ob e used a c c o r d i n g t oE N 50 3 4 1 - 1 t o d e t e r m i n e
the resistance: w h e r e d is t h e pole d i a m e t e r a n d t t h e thickness o f walls. For p o l y g o n a l cross sections
— Resistance o fcross sections 7M1 = 1,10, w i t h 6 t o 2 4 sides local b u c k l i n g w i l l n o t b e h a z a r d o u s i f
— Resistance o f t h e residual cross section a t boreholes 7M2 = 1,25.
42 for steel grade S235;
T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n is c a r r i e d o u t b y m e a n s o f stresses, w h e r e b y t h e l o a d o d m a y n o t exceed
t 34 for steel grade S355,
the resistance strength op^:
w h e r e b ist h e w i d t h o fa side a n d t t h e thickness o fwalls. T h e verification o f thickness
is c a r r i e d o u t w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g c r o s s s e c t i o n s i f a h a z a r d o f b u c k l i n g d o e s n o t e x i s t . I n
w h e r e t h e r e s i s t a n c e s t r e s s i s oRd = fy/yu- case o f cross sections e n d a n g e r e d b y b u c k l i n g , t h e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t l o a d b y m o m e n t s
446 12 Supports 12.6 S t e e l poles 4 4 7

or compression needs t ob e determined considering the local buckling. T h e verification

i s c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s A e f f a n d Weg.
T h e s t r e s s od o f c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n s i s o b t a i n e d f r o m

a d = (NilA + M d / W e i ) IQ , (12.133)

w h e r e Q= 1,0for cross sections w i t h o u t a h a z a r d o f b u c k l i n g a n d

3
e = 0 , 7 + [ 5 3 / ( d / t ) ] • ( 2 3 5 / / y ) = 0 , 7 + 1 2 4 5 5 / [fy • (d/t)} . (12.134)
widtti over
flats (mm) 450 387,5 325 262,5 200
for cross sections endangered b y buckling. length of
T h e s t r e s s for p o l y g o n a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s w i t h o u t a h a z a r d o f b u c k l i n g i s o b t a i n e d f r o m side (mm) 184 159 133 107 81
moment of
od = Nd/A + Md/Wel . (12.135)
inertia(108mm4)1,92 1 24 0,72 0,37 0,16
first order theory
bending moment
T h e r e , Nd i s t h e d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e a x i a l f o r c e , A t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , M d the (kNm) 138,6 101.4 65,4 31,8 0
design value o f t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t a n d W e | t h e elastic cross-sectional m o d u l u s . WI (N/mnf) 0,723 0.818 0,908 0,859 0
second order fheory
T h e elastic cross-sectional modulus i s F i g u r e 12.73: D e t e r m i -
bending moment
(kNm) 142,8 105,4 69,4 35,8 4,01 nation o fdeformation of
W e i = I/y , (12.136) WI (N/mnf) 0,744 0,850 0,964 0,968 0.250 at u b u l a r steel pole

w h e r e y ist h e distance o ft h e edge f r o m t h e centroidal axis a n d I t h e m o m e n t o f inertia.

T h e m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a I c a n b e o b t a i n e d for r e g u l a r p o l y g o n a l c r o s s s e c t i o n from Limiting the deformation s h o u l d g u a r a n t e e t h e serviceability o fpoles since t h e d e f o r m a -
t i o n affects t h e c o n d u c t o r p o s i t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o fangle a n d a n g l e - s t r a i n poles
h , z = h{y,z) -b 3 t , (12.137) a n d , asa consequence, affects t h e clearances a s well. T h e serviceability c r i t e r i o n can b e
p r e v a l e n t for t h e r a t i n g i n case o ft a l l slender poles. T h e d e f o r m a t i o n needs t ob e deter-
w h e r e b i s t h e a v e r a g e w i d t h o f t h e s i d e s a n d t t h e t h i c k n e s s . T h e f a c t o r fci c a n b e
m i n e d considering all significant impacts. I n addition t o the elastic deformation o f the
o b t a i n e d from T a b l e 1 2 . 2 4 .
p o l e s , t h e slippage o f s l i p j o i n t n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . I n [ 1 2 . 5 7 ] , a b e n d i n g o f 0,4° p e r
F o r p o l y g o n a l cross sections w h i c h are endangered b y buckling, t h e stress is d e t e r m i n e d
j o i n t i s assumed. I n [12.46], m e a s u r e m e n t s o f t h e d e f o r m a t i o n a t s o l i d - w a l l steel poles
considering t h e effective cross-sectional values:
a r e r e p o r t e d . I n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e l o a d , a b e n d o f 0 , 3 t o 0,4° p e r j o i n t s h o u l d b e t a k e n
<7d = Nd/AtS + M d / W e f f , (12.138) i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h e d e f o r m a t i o n u n d e r l o a d affects t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e conductors
to a substantial extent. I t w o u l d increase w i t h pole l e n g t h i f the d e f o r m a t i o n were only
w h e r e A e f j i s t h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a u n d e r u n i f o r m c o m p r e s s i o n a n d Weg t h e limited i n relatively t othat length. W i t h respect t o the serviceability, t h e deformation
effective m o d u l u s o ft h e cross section i f i t i sloaded b y a m o m e n t a r o u n d t h e considered under m a x i m u m load compared with the deformation under everyday condition should
a x i s . T h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l v a l u e s Aeg a n d Weg c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e be l i m i t e d i n a b s o l u t e values. T ot a k e care o f t h i s aspect, E N 50 341-3-4 s t i p u l a t e s , t h a t
n o m o g r a m s i n Figures 12.71 a n d 12.72. i n d e p e n d e n t l y o ft h e pole l e n g t h , t h e deflection o f t h e t o p o fangle, a n g l e - s t r a i n o r dead-
T h e d e s i g n v a l u e f o r t h e s h e a r s t r e s s d u e t o t h e torsional load i s c a l c u l a t e d from end poles under m a x i m u m load m a y n o t increase b y m o r e t h a n 0,5m , as compared
w i t h t h e situation under everyday conditions. T h e everyday condition can b e defined
TD = M T d / ( 2 A T . ( ) , (12.139)
b y a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 10°C w i t h o u t w i n d l o a d o r s i m i l a r l y d e p e n d i n g o n t h e geographical
w h e r e A T is t h e area enclosed b y the centre line o f t h e cross-sectional contour. T oa area o f application.
c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n i t a p p l i e s A T = tP-it/A, a n d t o polygonal cross sections A T = fcr-h2
w h e r e k y i s o b t a i n e d from T a b l e 1 2 . 2 4 . I f s h e a r a n d a x i a l s t r e s s e s a c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , 12.6.4 E x a m p l e for design o f a c o n i c a l solid-wall steel pole
the equivalent stress i so b t a i n e d from E i g h t - s i d e d steel pole, l e n g t h 13,0 m , 3 conductors 1 2 2 - A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 1 2 0 / 2 0 ) , d =
15,5 m m , m c = 0,494 k g / m , w i n d s p a n 200 m , w e i g h t span 250 m , w e i g h t o f i n s u l a t o r 200 N ,
CTvd = V ^ + S T 2 . (12.140) w i n d l o a d : q0 = 8 0 0 N / m 2 .
Governing case: wind load on conductors with ice ( T F = 1 , 3 5 ) , b a s i s E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 a n d E N
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e verification of stability, t h e d e f o r m a t i o n a t t h e p o l e t o p r e s u l t i n g 50341-3-4.
from the loads needs t o b e d e t e r m i n e d i n order t o guarantee t h e serviceability o f the
poles. A s s t i p u l a t e d b y E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , t h e d e f o r m a t i o n m a y b e calculated using t h e first Ice load m c i g = 5 + 0 , 1 • 15,5 = 6,55 N / m ,
order theory w i t h o u t considering movements o fthe foundation, whereby the following
D i a m e t e r w i t h i c e d i = y / l 5 , 5 2 + ( 6 , 5 5 • 4 ) / ( 0 , 0 0 7 5 • ir) = 3 6 , 8 m m .
limits apply for t h e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e pole:
- Suspension a n d angle suspension poles: 4 % o f t h e pole l e n g t h loaded according Wind load on conductors: Q w c = 1 , 3 5 • 3 • 2 0 0 • 0 , 0 3 6 8 • 0 , 7 5 ( 8 0 0 + 3 • 1 3 , 0 ) / 2 = 9 , 3 8 k N ,
t o l o a d cases A o r D (clause 1 2 . 4 ) u s i n g t h e p a r t i a l factor T F = 1 , 0 . Vertical load: S v = 1 , 3 5 - 3 - 2 5 0 ( 6 , 5 5 + 9 , 8 1 • 0 , 4 9 4 ) + 1 , 3 5 • 3 - 2 0 0 = 1 2 , 3 5 k N .
- A n g l e , strain a n d dead-end poles: 2 , 5 % o f t h e pole l e n g t h loaded according t o Selected: D i m e n s i o n a t t h e basis 450 m m , a tt h e t o p 200 m m , m a t e r i a l S235;
l o a d case D (clause 1 2 . 4 ) u s i n g a p a r t i a l factor T F = 1 , 0 . Wind load on pole: Q W M = 1 , 3 5 • 1 , 1 ( 0 , 2 + 0 , 4 5 ) / 2 • 1 3 , 0 • ( 8 0 0 + 3 • 6 , 5 ) / 2 = 2 , 5 7 k N .
 m
F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 4 : Cross sections o f concrete poles:
a circular cross section; b r e c t a n g u l a r cross
section; c double-T-cross section

M o m e n t at t h e top o ffoundation w i t h a supplement o f5 % for considering t h e m o m e n t due to

the vertical load

MA = 1,05 ( 9 , 3 8 • 1 3 , 0 + 2 , 5 7 • 6,5) = 1 4 5 , 6 k N m .

Design value o ft h e resistance ( T M = 1,1) 0Rd = 2 3 5 / 1 , 1 = 213,6 N / m m 2 .

Required moment o f inertia

J r e < 1 = ( 1 4 5 , 6 • 4 5 0 • 1 0 6 ) / ( 2 1 3 , 6 • 2 ) = 1,53 • 1 0 8 m m 4 .
F i g u r e 12.75: Design o f a F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 6 : P r o d u c t i o n o fv i b r a t e d concrete poles
S e l e c t e d : t = 5 m m , 6 = 1 / 2 ( 4 5 0 - 5 ) • 2 • t a n 22,5° = 1 8 4 m m , spun concrete pole

I = 6,16 • 1 8 4 3 - 5 = 1,92 • 1 0 s m m 4 according t o (12.137) .

T h e r e l a t i o n b/t i s 3 6 , 8 a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n b a s e . T h e r e f o r e , a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e s e c t i o n p r o p e r t i e s
regarding o f b u c k l i n g is n o t necessary.
Alternatively, the deformation and iterative approach to the bending m o m e n t according to the
second order t h e o r y as per (12.119) are carried o u t . T h e pole is d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r sections,
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f d a t a see F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 3 .
T h e d e f o r m a t i o n according t ot h e first order t h e o r y is, therefore:
fl = [(2- 0,859 - 3 2 5 0 ) / 3 + (2 -0,908 + 0,859) 3 2 5 0 / 3 + ( 0 , 9 0 8 + 0,859)3250
+ (2 • 0,818 + 0,908) 3 2 5 0 / 3 + (0,818 + 0,908) 6500 + ( 2• 0,723 + 0,818) 3 2 5 0 / 3
+ (0,723 + 0,818) 9750] • 3 2 5 0 / ( 2 •2 1 0 0 0 0 )
= ( 1 8 6 1 + 2 8 9 8 + 5 6 4 3 + 2 7 5 6 + 1 1 2 1 9 + 2 4 5 2 + 15 0 2 4 ) - 0 , 0 0 7 7 3 8 = 3 2 5 m m .
F r o m t h e d e f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e v e r t i c a l l o a d , a n a d d i t i o n a l m o m e n t AM = 1 2 , 3 5 • 0 , 3 2 5 =
4 , 0 1 k N m r e s u l t s . T h i s m o m e n t i s a d d e d t o t h e m o m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e first o r d e r t h e o r y
a n d t h e d e f o r m a t i o n is calculated again according t o (12.119)
/d = [(2 • 0 , 9 6 8 + 0,250) 3 2 5 0 / 3 + (2 • 0 , 9 6 4 + 0,968) 3 2 5 0 / 3 + ( 0 , 9 6 4 + 0 , 9 6 8 ) 3 2 5 0
+ ( 2• 0,850 + 0,964) 3 2 5 0 / 3 + (0,850 + 0,964) 6500 + ( 2• 0,744 + 0,850) 3 2 5 0 / 3
+ (0,744 + 0,850) 9750] - 0,007738
= (2368 + 3137 + 6279 + 2886 + 1 1 7 9 1 + 2533 + 15542) • 0,007738 = 345 m m .
T h e deformation according t o the second order theory results from
fl1 = 325/(2 - 345/325) = 346 m m .
T h e bending m o m e n t according t o t h e second order t h e o r y w i l l be, t h e r e f o r e ,
Ml1 = 9,38 • 13 + 2,57 • 6,5 + 12,35 • 0 , 3 4 6 = 142,9 k N m .
Finally, t h e stress o b t a i n e d from
<r d = 1 2 3 5 0 / ( 5 • 8 • 1 8 4 ) + 1 , 4 2 9 - 1 0 8 • 2 2 5 / ( 1 , 9 2 • 1 0 s ) = 1 6 9 , 1 N / m m 2 .
T h e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e t o w e r t o p u n d e r t h e l o a d o f t h e second order t h e o r y corresponds t o 2,7 %
of the pole length and complies, therefore, w i t h t h e permissible d e f o r m a t i o nunder serviceability
conditions.
12.7 Steel-reinforced concrete poles
12.7.1 Selection of cross sections
T h r e e t y p e s o f concrete cross sections h a v e b e e n u s e d for s i n g l e p o l e s o r m u l t i p l e - p o l e
structures, asschematically s h o w n i n F i g u r e 12.74 a n d described as follows:
— P o l e s w i t h t u b u l a r h o l l o w c r o s s s e c t i o n s , v a r y i n g c o n i c a l l y from t h e p o l e t o p u n t i l
t o pole base. T h e y have t h e s a m e resistance for loads applied i na n y d i r e c t i o n
p r o v i d e d a s y m m e t r i c a l l ya r r a n g e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t ;
— P o l e s w i t h r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n s , a l s o w i t h s e c t i o n s i n c r e a s i n g from t h e t o p
to the base o fthe pole; t h e y are heavier t h a n h o l l o w concrete poles, however, can
be m a n u f a c t u r e d u s i n g s i m p l e e q u i p m e n t o n site;
— Poles w i t h H-cross sections, also called d o u b l e - T - o rI-section, w h i c h can increase
u n i f o r m l y from t h e t o p t o t h e b a s e . S u c h k i n d o f p o l e s h a v e a h i g h e r r e s i s t a n c e
perpendicularly t o t h e n a r r o w e r side t h a n t o o t h e r directions. T h e y c a n b e m o r e
e c o n o m i c for m e d i u m l o a d s t h a n t h e o t h e r t y p e s .
T h e p o s s i b i l i t yo f f a b r i c a t i n g c o n c r e t e p o l e s n e a r t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n s i t e is a n a d d i t i o n a l
advantage, w h i c h often has transferred concrete poles into a n attractive solution.
12.7.2 S p u n concrete poles
Spun concrete poles p o s s e s s a r i n g - t y p e c i r c u l a r c r o s s s e c t i o n w i t h a c o n t i n u o u s h o l l o w
space inside. T h e i r outer shape is conical w i t h a n increasing d i a m e t e r f r o m t o p t o
the base b y a t least 15 m m / m . S p i n n i n g i scarried o u t i n two-piece horizontal m o u l d s
w h i c h a r e r o t a t e d a r o u n d t h e i r l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . T h e s p i n n i n g p r o c e s s a c h i e v e s concrete
strengths u p t o 1 0 0 N / m m 2 c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c o n c r e t e c l a s s C 1 0 0 / 1 1 5 . T h e d e n s e
concrete texture being f o r m e d protects the reinforcement against corrosion a n d avoids
cracks. S p u n concrete poles, therefore, a r e e n d a n g e r e d b yc o r r o s i o n t o a l o w e x t e n t o n l y
if correctly m a n u f a c t u r e d a n d erected.
S p u n c o n c r e t e p o l e s c a n b e f i t t e d w i t h slack reinforcement b yusing c o m m o n reinforce-
m e n t s t e e l o r w i t h prestressed reinforcement. Prestressing isadopted t o the reinforce-
m e n t a l r e a d y before t h e s p i n n i n g process. A f t e r h a r d e n i n g o fconcrete a n d r e a c h i n g t h e
necessary s t r e n g t h ,t h e tensile force o ft h e steel reinforcement istransferredt ot h e con-
crete cross section g e n e r a t i n g compressive prestresses t h e r e . T h e s e compressive stresses
need t o b e exceeded i n case o fb e n d i n g before t h e concrete w o u l d b e loaded b y tensile
450 12 Supports
F i g u r e 12.77: D o u b l e c i r c u i t 132 k V F i g u r e 12.78: A n g l e - s t r a i n p o l e o f a
line i n t h e U S A , design w i t h spun con- 132 k V l i n e w i t h g u y w i r e for each con-
crete poles ( N e w m a r k L t d , B i r m i n g h a m , ductor ( N e w m a r k L t d , B i r m i n g h a m , A l -
A l a b a m a , U S A , affiliateof Pfleiderer A G , abama, U S A , affiliate o f Pfleiderer A G ,
Neumarkt, Germany) Neumarkt, Germany)
stresses, t h u s a v o i d i n g transverse cracks, o t h e r w i s e possible t o occur i ncase o f h i g h
loads. F i g u r e 12.75 shows t h e design o fa s p u n concrete pole. F o r s p u n poles, crossarms
m a d e o f concrete a r e p r e f e r r e d as w e l l . C a n t i l e v e r s m a d e o f steel a n d l i n e post i n s u l a t o r s
f o r m alternatives used t oa n increasing extent, especially i n N o r t h A m e r i c a . A produc-
t i o n o f c o n c r e t e c r o s s a r m s b ys p i n n i n g is n o t p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s h a p e . T h e r e f o r e ,
crossarms are produced i n the plant on v i b r a t i n g boards resulting i n concrete strengths
u p t o5 5 N / m m 2 corresponding t ot h e concrete class C 5 5 / 6 7 .
S p u n concrete poles are used t o a n i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a , t o o [12.58].
I n F i g u r e 12.77, a suspension pole iss h o w n , a s often used there. T h e conductors are
attached t o composite line post insulators w h i c h are fixed directly t o t h e pole shaft.
Angle poles are m o s t l y guyed w i t h one separate guy w i r e for each conductor (Figure
12.78). T h i s design reduces t h e h o r i z o n t a l loads e n a b l i n g t h e use o f r e l a t i v e l y s l i m poles.
T h e poles are e m b e d d e d directly i n t o u p to 8 m deep boreholes. T h e space a r o u n d the
pole i n the borehole isfilled u pw i t h backfill b o u n d together b y adding cement.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e w o r k i n g b e n d i n g m o m e n t for w h i c h t h e poles need t o b e designed,
a cracking m o m e n t i s stipulated. N ocracks m a y occur below t h i s m o m e n t w h e n t h e
poles are tested. O n site, a l o a d i n g could o c c u r w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n t r a n s v e r s e cracks, e. g.
w h e n hurricanes hit t h e poles and cause exceeding o f concrete tensile strength, and,
as a c o n s e q u e n c e , t r a n s v e r s e cracks. H o w e v e r , t h e p r e s t r e s s i n g closes t h e cracks after
release o f t h e loads a n d t h e poles r e m a i n fully serviceable.
T h i s design constitutes a n economic solution p r o v i d i n g o p t i m u m reliability a n d security.
I n particular, damage i sconsiderably reduced i n hurricane prone areas compared w i t h
o t h e r designs.
12.7 Steel-reinforced concrete poles 4 5 1
12.7.3 V i b r a t e d concrete poles
Vibrated concrete poles w i t h a s o l i d o r d o u b l e - T - c r o s s s e c t i o n a r e p r o d u c e d o n v i b r a t i n g
boards a sare crossarms for s p u n concrete poles. D u e t ot h e h i g h weight r e s u l t i n g f r o m
this design, the pole l e n g t h is l i m i t e d , however. T h i s type o f pole and its p r o d u c t i o n
is u s e d f o r i n d i v i d u a l p r o j e c t s w h e r e t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a p l a n t f o r s p u n c o n c r e t e p o l e s
w o u l d b et o o expensive. F i g u r e 12.76 shows a p r o d u c t i o n line for v i b r a t e d concrete poles
in Nigeria. T h e reinforcement i s installed i n m o u l d s w i t h rectangular cross section, the
c o n c r e t e is p o u r e d i n a n d c o m p a c t e d b ye x t e r n a l v i b r a t o r s . W i t h respect t o t h e v a r y i n g
q u a l i t i e s o f aggregates a n d c e m e n t , o n l y t h e concrete class C 3 0 / 3 7 s h o u l d b e selected,
w h e n r a t i n g concrete poles t o b e produced o n site. Pole lengths u p t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
12 m c a n b e o b t a i n e d w i t h t h i s c o n c r e t e class (see [12.4]).
12.7.4 Structural design
As a consequence f r o m experience gained i n particular i n Central Europe, the following
a s p e c t s s h o u l d b e d u l y c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e structural design of spun concrete poles:
- T o a v o i d a d v e r s e l o n g i t u d i n a l c r a c k s , a s t r o n g e n o u g h helical reinforcement i s
necessary a n d serves t o d i s t r i b u t e tensile stresses o c c u r r i n g a t t h e surface t o t h e
w h o l e cross section. T h e helical reinforcement, therefore, s h o u l d consist o f r i b b e d
concrete steel, i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e static requirements. A s a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n ,
helical reinforcement w i t h a r o d d i a m e t e r o f5 m m a n d a p i t c h o f60 m m o ra r o d
diameter o f4 m m a n d a pitch o f50 m m should b e used.
- T h e w a l l thickness o f t h e s p u n concrete poles s h o u l d h ea t least 5 0 m m .
- T h e clearance between parallel reinforcement bars needs t o b e h a l f o f t h e bar d i -
a m e t e r ; h o w e v e r , i t s h o u l d b e a t least a s l a r g e as t h e m a x i m u m a g g r e g a t e p a r t i c l e
size.
- T h e concrete covering s h o u l d b e a tleast 1 5m m above t h e helical reinforcement
or 2 0m m a b o v e prestressed r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
T h e e m b e d d i n g o ft h e pole shaft w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n needs t ob e verified separately.
S u c h a v e r i f i c a t i o n i s n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r p o l e l e n g t h s l e s s t h a n 2 0 m , characteristic tensile
forces l e s s t h a n 2 0 k N a n d e m b e d d i n g d e p t h s o f a t l e a s t 1 , 7 m .
12.7.5 Production
Production of vibrated concrete poles r e q u i r e s a p r e c i s e c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e c o n c r e t e
class a n d , therefore, a c o n t i n u o u s s u p e r v i s i o n o f aggregates a n d w a t e r - c e m e n t r a t i o
w h i c h s h o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,5 as is u s u a l i n case o f h i g h - s t r e n g t h c o n c r e t e . A t l e a s t ,
320 k g cement should b eused per cubic m e t e r concrete. T h e m o u l d should b esufficiently
stiff a n d s u p p o r t e d o n a r i g i d base t o guarantee s t r a i g h t poles. T h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t is
installed i n t h e m o u l d b y m e a n s o fspacers. A l s o t h e correct position o ft h e helical o r
stirrup reinforcement is i m p o r t a n t . T h e concrete i s compacted b y external vibrators
w h i c h a x e a p p l i e d a t d i s t a n c e s o f 1,5 t o 2 m . T h e y e x c i t e t h e m o u l d t o v i b r a t i o n s w i t h
a frequency o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 0 0 0 H z , w h e r e b y t h e concrete i s densely c o m p a c t e d
a n d air inclusions can escape. W i t h a s i m i l a r m e t h o d , t h e crossaxms for all concrete
p o l e s axe p r o d u c e d . O p e n i n g s , b o r e h o l e s a n d i n s e r t s for b o l t s c a n b e a p p l i e d d u r i n g
production. T h e poles can b e t a k e n out o f the m o u l d approximately one day after
concreting a n d reach t h e s t r e n g t h necessary for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o t h e line site after a
storing period o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 days. D u r i n g t h e h a r d e n i n g period, the concrete
should b e kept humid, particularly in hot climate.
S o m e d e t a i l s of production of spun concrete poles a r e p r e s e n t e d i n [ 1 2 . 6 ] a n d [ 1 2 . 5 9 ] .
T o achieve a sufficiently dense concrete, a t least 440 k g cement should b e provided
per cubic meter concrete. T h e content o f cement i n the hardened concrete is reduced
4UZ zz o u p p u i i a

fable 1 2 . 2 5 : p r E N 1992-1 [12.61]: C o n c r e t e for steel-reinforced concrete

poles
Desig- Characteristic Characteristic Desi 7n strength
nation cylinder strength cube strength value
/ck /ck cube /cd = 0,85 • /ck/7cr
N/mm2 N/mm2 Standard Prefabricated
concrete concrete
C 30/37 30 37 17,0 18,2

C 35/45 35 45 19,8 21,3

C 40/50 40 50 22,7 24,3

Figure 12.79: Produc- C 45/55 45 55 25,5 27,3
tion o f a spun concrete C 50/60 50 60 28,3 30,4
pole (Pfleiderer A G , Neu- C 55/67 55 67 31,2 33,4

markt, Germany) C 60/75 60 75 34,0 36,4

C 70/85 70 85 39,7 42,5

C 80/95 80 95 45,3 48,6

b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 %, s i n c e t h e finest p a r t i c l e s a r e d i r e c t e d t o t h e r o t a t i o n a x i s . C 90/105 90 105 51,0 54,6

T h e maximum particle size s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 1 6 m m a n d , t h e r e f o r e , r e m a i n w i t h i n C 100/115 100 115 56,7 60,7

t h e d i m e n s i o n o f t h e r e q u i r e d m i n i m u m c o n c r e t e c o v e r i n g . T h e water-cement ratio i s
r e d u c e d t o values b e l o w 0,4 d u r i n g t h e s p i n n i n g process, a desirable effect i n p r i n c i p l e .
S p u n concrete poles are produced i ntwo-piece m o u l d s split along their l o n g i t u d i n a l
a x e s . A t first, t h e p r e f o r m e d h e l i c a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e m o u l d a n d a f t e r -
w a r d s t h e slack o r prestressed l o n g i t u d i n a l reinforcement isguided t h r o u g h t h e helical
reinforcement. For prestressing, a head is applied o n each i n d i v i d u a l bar. A f t e r the
installation o finserts a n d other elements, the concrete i spoured i n a n d the upper part
of the m o u l d is applied a n d bolted. T h e n , the reinforcement i sprestressed t o approxi-
m a t e l y 1000 N / m m 2 .
T h e revolutions d u r i n g t h e s p i n n i n g process (Figure 12.79) are adjusted t ot h e pole di-
ameter. Centrifugal accelerations between 1 0and 3 0times the e a r t h gravity are aimed
a t . T h e s p i n n i n g p r o c e s s i s finished a f t e r 8 t o 1 5 m i n u t e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o l e d i -
ameter. T h e n , the m o u l d w i t h the pole can b e stored w i t h i n a heated chamber. T h e
m o u l d s should b e closed o n b o t h ends d u r i n g t h e storing period t o keep the m o i s t u r e
i n s i d e . T h e c o n c r e t e t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 55° C . T h e p o l e s s h o u l d r e m a i n i n
the steel m o u l d for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 hours. T h e n , the poles w i l l reach 8 0 % o f their
d e s i g n e d r e s i s t a n c e a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i n t h e m o u l d . Heat treatment w i t h e l e v a t e d
t e m p e r a t u r e s is not r e c o m m e n d e d because o f t h e h a z a r d o f l o n g i t u d i n a l cracks. A cor-
r e c t s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n a n d a t h o r o u g h p r o d u c t i o n f o r m p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a long lifetime
without damage.
12.7.6 R a t i n g
T h e e x t e r n a l l o a d s f o r t h e rating of concrete poles r e s u l t from t h e r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s ,
e. g . E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 o r E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , o r from p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . F o r l o w - a n d m e d i u m -
voltage lines, i ti ssufficient t o d e t e r m i n e t h e necessary w o r k i n g o r characteristic load
of a pole as a h o r i z o n t a l force acting a t t h e pole top, however, w i t h o u t w i n d load o n
the pole itself. Utilities' practice, i n general, considers a l l e x t e r n a l loads acting o n the
poles b y converting t h e m i n t o a n equivalent force a t t h e t o w e r top. T h e characteristic
load a c t s h o r i z o n t a l l y a n d i s a s s u m e d i n g e n e r a l a t a d i s t a n c e o f 0 , 2 5 b e l o w t h e p o l e
top. T h e characteristic load is defined as t h a t force r e s u l t i n g i n t h e same m o m e n t a t
the pole base as t h e external loads together a n d i sequal t o
SR = l/LMYzSm-hi , (12.141)
i=i
w h e r e hj i s t h e l e v e r a r m o f t h e f o r c e Sm r e l a t e d t o t h e b a s e a t g r o u n d s u r f a c e a n d L M
t h e p o l e l e n g t h . W i t h t h i s d a t a , t h e r e q u i r e d p o l e c a n b e s e l e c t e d from m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s
catalogues, either w i t h prestressed o r slack reinforcement.
T h e r a t i n g o f t h e cross sections is carried o u t based o n t h e relevant standards. T h e
m o m e n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d a n d t h e w i n d l o a d o r from t h e
a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l f o r c e s u s i n g t h e second order theory. F o r concrete poles produced in a
plant, the E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d p r E N 1 2 8 4 3 [ 1 2 . 6 0 ] c a n b e a p p l i e d t o d e s i g n a n d r a t i n g
i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h p r E N 1 9 9 2 - 1 [12.61]. T h e g u i d e [12.6] i so f t e n u s e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y
for designing concrete poles.
A c c o r d i n g t o p r E N 12 843 a n d p r E N 1 3 3 6 9 [12.59], t h e concrete classes C 3 0 / 3 7 t o
C 5 5 / 6 7 are s t i p u l a t e d for steel-reinforced concrete poles a n d , for prestressed s p u n con-
crete poles t h e classes C 3 5 / 4 5 t o C 5 5 / 6 7 ( T a b l e 12.25). H i g h e r concrete classes m a y
b e a d o p t e d i f a u t h o r i z e d b y n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s . I n p r a c t i c e , concrete classes C 7 0 / 8 5
to C 100/115 are preferably used t o p r o d u c e prestressed s p u n concrete poles. F o r this
concrete class, t h e G e r m a n I n s t i t u t e for C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g T e c h n o l o g y ( D e u t s c h e s I n -
stitut fur B a u t e c h n i k ) released a n a u t h o r i z e d general permission. Poles using concrete
C 100/115 can b e designed w i t h a dead weight reduced b y u p t o 2 5 % reaching the
same overall strength.
T h e f o l l o w i n g cases s h o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m o s t unfavourable
actions:
- Case 1:permanent actions,
- Case 2: variable actions,
— Case 3: accidental actions,
— C a s e 4 : o t h e r actions, e. g. t r a n s p o r t a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n loads.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e vertical loads, t h e conductor tensile forces a tt h e a n n u a l m e a n t e m -
p e r a t u r e , e . g . o f + 1 0 ° C i n C e n t r e d E u r o p e , a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s permanent loads. W i n d
loads need n o t t o b e dealt w i t h as p e r m a n e n t loads.
Variable actions r e s u l t from t h e i n d i v i d u a l l o a d c a s e s a s r e q u i r e d b y t h e a p p l i c a b l e
s t a n d a r d , e. g. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] for E u r o p e a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [12.10] for G e r m a n y .
Accidental actions r e s u l t from t h e r e l e v a n t l o a d c a s e s a s s p e c i f i e d b y t h e a b o v e m e n -
t i o n e d r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s . T h e transport and construction loads a c c o u n t f o r t h e c o r r e -
s p o n d i n g actions o n t h e poles. F o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e design loads i ncases 2 t o 4, t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s o f a c t i o n s a r e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e partial factors yp a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e a p p l i c a b l e s t a n d a r d ( T a b l e 1 2 . 2 6 ) . T h e resistance of concrete i s c o m p u t e d w i t h
the stress-strain d i a g r a m according t o F i g u r e 12.80. T h e design value o f t h e concrete
c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e n g t h i s / c d = ot • / c k / 7 c r - A c c o r d i n g t o p r E N 1 9 9 2 - 1 , c l a u s e 1 1 . 3 . 5 ,
t h e factor a i s0,85 for light-weight structures. T h e characteristic cylinder s t r e n g t h /ck
454 12 Supports 12.7 Steel-reinforced concrete poles 455

and from
T a b l e 1 2 . 2 6 : P a r t i a l factors according t o p r E N 1992-1, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 a n d E N 50 341-3-4
Case Description Value and source
M T = 0,3 • fekLte • Wrha f o rv i b r a t e d concrete, (12.143)
Partial factor for actions
1 Permanent actions, w h e r e /ckcube i s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u b e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n c r e t e i n N / m m 2 a n d Wr
vertical loads t h e torsional section modulus o f t h e c o n c r e t e c r o s s s e c t i o n i n m m 3 . W h e n u s i n g h i g h -
acting favourably 7F 1,0 ( E N 50 341-1; E N 50341-3-4)
strength concrete, o n l y t h echaracteristic s t r e n g t h o f C 55/67 should b e assumed f o r
acting unfavourably TF 1 n /•¥—ITVT e n i A t 1\ i ie 7TIi"\T t: f\ *k A 1 O A \

conductor tensile force 1,0 ( E N 50

50341-1); N 50
341-1); 1,35 ( E N 50341-3-4)
341-3-4J /ckcube i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e a c t u a l c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h .
TF
2 Variable actions T h e i n t e r n a l f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s f o r t h e limit states o f t h e s t r e n g t h a x e d e t e r m i n e d b y
wind loads TF 1,0 t o 1,4 ( E N 50 341-1); 1,35 ( E N 50 341-3-4) a s s u m i n g T F t i m e s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d a n d t a k i n g c a r e o f pole deformation (second
ice loads 7F 1,0 t o 1,5 ( E N 50 341-1); 1,35 ( E N 50 341-3-4) order theory). Thereby, a n u n i n t e n t i o n a l inclination o f t h e unloaded pole o f 5 m m / m
conductor tensile force 7F 1,0 t o 1,5 ( E N 50341-1); 1,35 ( E N 50 341-3-4) is a s s u m e d . T h e i n c l i n a t i o n t a k e s a s w e l l c a r e o f c u r v a t u r e s d u e t o u n e q u a l h e a t i n g .
3 Exceptional actions TF 1,0 ( E N 50 341-1); 1,0 ( E N 50 341-3-4)
T h e effects o f pole d e f o r m a t i o n need n o t t o b e considered i f t h e a d d i t i o n a l m o m e n t d u e
4 Transport and construction 7F 1,1 ( E N 12 843)
t o d e f o r m a t i o n a n d i n c l i n a t i o n i s less t h a n 5 % a t t h e t o p o f f o u n d a t i o n o r less t h a n
Partial factors for material
10 % f o rt h e m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e section. F o r v e r i f i c a t i o n , a n assessment o n t h e safe side
r.
J Ooncr ete
is s u f f i c i e n t . T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s f u l f i l l e d b y m o s t o f t h e o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e p o l e s .
normal load 1,50 ( p r E N 1992-1)
Prestressed poles h a v e t o b e designed such t h a t tensile stresses d o n o t occur n e i t h e r
accidental load 1,20 ( p r E N 1992-1)
i n case o f p e r m a n e n t loads (case 1) n o ru n d e r a c t i o n o f 4 0 % o f t h e m a x i m u m loads
precast concrete 1,40 ( E N 50341-3-4, T a b l e 4 . 3 . 1 1 / D E . 3 )
according t o case 2 w i t h o u t a n y p a r t i a l factors.
6 Reinforcing steel
normal load 7S 1,15 ( p r E N 1992-1) T h e m a x i m u m width of cracks u n d e r n o r m a l l o a d i s l i m i t e d t o 0 , 3 m m i n c a s e o f
accidental load 7S 1,00 ( p r E N 1992-1) reinforced concrete according t o E N 50341-1. T h everification o f constraint o f crack
" T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r i s r e l a t e d t o 0,85 • / C k a c c o r d i n g t o p r E N 1992-1, c l a u s e 11.3.5 w i d t h s is c a r r i e d o u t according t o p r E N 1992-1 [12.61].
A l l actions a r e assumed w i t h their characteristic values w i t h o u t partial factors f o r
v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e serviceability. T h e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p o l e t o p i s l i m i t e d t o 0 , 0 2 5 L M ,
w h e r e L M i s t h e t o t a l pole l e n g t h (seeE N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8]).

12.7.7 E x a m p l e for d e s i g n o f a s p u n c o n c r e t e pole

12.7.7.1 Basic data

A prestressed s p u n concrete suspension pole should be designed f o r a double circuit 1 1 0 k V line

equipped w i t h :
1 O P G W , cross section A c = 1 4 1 m m 2 ; d i a m e t e r d = 2 1 , 5 m m ; mass m c = 0 , 7 7 k g / m ;
oi = 1 2 6 N / m m 2 a t 1 4 , 3 0 N / m i c e l o a d .
2 x 3 conductors 2 4 3 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A , cross section A c = 232,5 m m 2 ; diameter d = 2 1 , 8 m m ;
m a s s m c = 0 , 9 8 k g / m ; o\ = 1 0 1 N / m m 2 a t 1 4 , 3 6 N / m i c e l o a d .
W i n d span 300 m , m a x i m u m weight span 400 m
W i n d l o a d according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [12.10], z o n e 1 ; ice l o a d according t o z o n e 2.
F i g u r e 12.80: Stress-strain diagram for F i g u r e 1 2 . 8 1 : Stress-strain diagram for
D i m e n s i o n s o f poles see F i g u r e 12.82, t o t a l l e n g t h 3 7 , 2 m , j o i n t a t 2 0 , 0 m f r o m t o p , increase o f
concrete i n compression t o determine t h e reinforcing steel f o rd e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e -
diameter 1 8 m m / m , weight o f pole 2 8 0 k N , concrete quality C 8 0 / 9 5 , steel S1570/1770.
resistance f o r internal forces a n d m o - sistance f o r i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s
ments a t t h e limit state o f strengths and t h e deformations a t t h e limit state
(parabola-rectangle diagram) of strengths 12.7.7.2 C a l c u l a t i o n of l o a d s

W i n d load w i t h o u t ice:
O P G W : height z = 35 m ; & = 800+ 3 • 35 = 905 N / m 2
corresponds t o t h e n o m i n a l cylinder strength o f t h e concrete class. I n g e n e r a l , a p a r - W i n d load (equation (6.73)): Q w c= 905 • 1,0 - 0,0215 • 300(0,45 + 60/300) = 3,79 k N
tial factor 7 c r = 1,50 applies f o r concrete [12.61]. A c c o r d i n g t o E N 50341-3-4, Table C o n d u c t o r s a v e r a g e h e i g h t z = 2 5 m , qz = 8 7 5 N / m 2
4.3.11/DE.3, 7 c r = 1,40is accepted f o rprefabricated concrete parts. T h edesign values W i n d load: Q w c= 875 - 1 , 0• 0,0218 • 300(0,45 + 60/300) = 3,72 k N
for compression stress a r e g i v e n i nT a b l e 1 2 . 2 5 a s s u m i n g 7 c r = 1,50a n d 1,40. I n s u l a t o r s : Q w ins ~ 0 , 3 5 k N
T h e stress-strain curve presented i nF i g u r e 12.81 is used f o r reinforcing steel a n d pre- Pole: T o p o f pole (equation (6.76)): Q ( v p o l e = 905 •0,7 •0,408 = 2 5 8 N / m ; B o t t o m o f pole:
stressed steel. According to prEN 1992-1, t h e modulus o f elasticity for analysis is Qwpole = 8 0 0 - 0 , 7 -1,038 = 5 8 1 N / m ; t o t a l pole: Q W p o ) e = (258 + 581)/2 - 35,0 = 14,7 k N
Es = 200000 N / m m 2 . T h e s t e e l s t r a i n c a n b e u t i l i z e d u p t o a v a l u e o f m a x £s = Vertical loads:
O P G W : W c = 4 0 0 • 9,81 • 0,77 = 3,40 k N
2 %.
Conductors: W c = 400-9,81 • 0,98 = 3,85 k N
T h e design torsional moment M r i nN - m m m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m :
I n s u l a t o r s : W m s ~ 1,0 k N
T o t a l vertical loads:
M T = 0 , 4 2 • / ^ / 3 u b e • Writer f o rspun concrete (12.142) O P G W G K ~ 3,5 k N
UOO Z Z 0 U p p 0 1 l D z z . i oieei-ieiniuioeu ouiicieie puies l o t

+ 0 0,.,408
T a b l e 1 2 . 2 7 : C a l c u l a t i o n of bending moment according to the 2 n d order theory
Desig- Lever Deflec- W i n d without ice Wind with ice
nation arm tion Qw • 7w M Q G K • 7K M a Q w ' 7w Mq G K • 7K M G
m rn kN kN-m kN kNm kN kN-m kN kNm
OPGW 35,0 3,0 5,12 179 4,6 14 6,41 224 11,8 35
Crossarm 1 27,5 2^2 10,05 276 67,5 149 13,39 368 83,7 184
5,0 5,0 Crossarm 2 23,0 1,7 20,10 462 105,3 179 26,78 616 141,8 241
Pole 17,5 0,6 19,85 347 243,0 146 9,92 147 243,0 146
Total 1265 488 1382 606

3,6 3,2 3,2 3,6

T a b l e 1 2 . 2 8 : D a t a for verification concrete cross section
1058
segment / Concrete class B 80/95
Steel quality S1570/1770
External pole diameter mm 1038
Thickness of wall mm 127
joint
0 0,768 Concrete cover mm 48
Total cross section of prestressed steel mm2 3 800
Axial force without prestressing kN 481
Concrete design stress / c d = 0, 85 • 8 0 / 1 , 4 N/mm2 48,6
Exponent of parabola (see Figure 12.80) 1,70
Concrete compression strain e c s (see Figure 12.80) % 0,22
Concrete compression strain e c u (see Figure 12.80) % 0,24
Modulus of elasticity of concrete N/mm2 44 000
Yield stress of steel N/mm2 1365
Yield strain of steel % 0,70
Modulus of elasticity of steel N/mm2 195 000
Prestrain £ p (see Figure 12.83) % 0,322
Prestress of steel N/mm2 628
Maximum tensile strain concrete % 0,52
£+ \ Prestrain ot steel e n Maximum tensile strain steel % 0,50
0 1,078 s p (0,32 %} Maximum compression strain concrete % 0,20
Prestressing force of steel 628 • 3 800 kN 2 368
Cross section concrete cm2 3635
Figure 1 2 . 8 2 : Dimensions of a suspension F i g u r e 1 2 . 8 3 : C r o s s section for verification 4
Moment of inertia concrete 3,84 10 6
pole for a 110 k V double c i r c u i t line (example) of bending cm
Diameter of steel ring mm 940
Moment of inertia steel 4 42,0 • 10 3
cm
C r o s s a r m 1 G K = 2(3,9 + 1,0) + 40 - 50 k N
C r o s s a r m 2 GK = 4(3,9 + 1,0) + 6 0 - 78 k N C r o s s a r m 1 : MT = 0,5 - 282,5 - 1 0 1 • 5,0 - 71,3 k N m
Pole G = 180 k N C r o s s a r m 2: MT = 0,5 • 282,5 - 1 0 1 • 6,8 - 97,0 k N m
W i n d loads w i t h ice: T h e resistance of the pole will be verified for t h e cross section at the ground surface. T h e
O P G W : D i a m e t e r w i t h ice (equation (6.84)), ice load gi = 14,30 N / m bending moment i s determined according to the 2 n d order theory using equation (12.127). T h e
Di = 1 /d 2 + 0 , 0 0 0 l 7 g i = v / 0 , 0 2 1 5 2 + 0,00017 • 14,30 = 0,0538 m deflection at the points of the load actions axe t h e result of a n iteration process as described
Q w c i = 0,5 • 905 • 1,0 • 0,0538 • 3 0 0 / 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 0 0 ) = 4,75 k N in clause 12.6.2. Here, they axe assumed as a result of a c a l c u l a t i o n carried out by a computer

Conductors: I c e load 14,36 N / m ; D i = v / 0 , 0 2 1 8 2 + 0,00017 - 1 4 , 3 6 = 0,054 m program.

T h e resulting moment will be
Q w c i = 0,5 • 875 • 1,0 - 0,054 • 3 0 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 0 0 ) = 4,61 k N
Insulators: Qwinsi ~ 0,35 k N M n = ^ Q w 7 w h + X j G - 7 K - / •
K
Pole: Q w p i = 0,5 Q W p = 7,35 k N
Vertical loads: T h e calculation is shown i n Table 12.27. P a r t i a l factors 7 w = 7 K = 1,35 are considered.
T o t a l bending moment for w i n d without ice is 1 753 k N m , for w i n d with ice 1 9 8 8 k N m . T h e
O P G W : W e i = 400 • (9,81 • 0,77 + 14,3) = 8,74 k N
moments do not differ so much; therefore, the same deflections c a n be used to take caxe of the
Conductors: Wen = 400 • (9,81 • 0,98 + 14,36) = 9,59 k N
effects due to the 2 n d order theory.
Insulators: W i n s i — 1,5 k N
T o t a l vertical loads:
O P G W GK - 8,75 k N 12.7.7.3 Verification of cross sections
C r o s s a r m 1 G K = 2(9,59 + 1,5) + 40 - 62 k N I n F i g u r e 12.83 the cross section is shown of the concrete pole a t the ground surface. I n T a b l e
C r o s s a r m 2 G K = 4(9,59 + 1,5) + 60 - 105 k N 12.28 t h e d a t a are given. T h e concrete class is C 8 0 / 9 5 , t h e quality of prestressing steel is
Pole G K = 180 k N S 1 5 7 0 / 1 7 7 0 . T h e bending resistance of the cross section i s determined assuming that the steel
Torsional loads: strain does not exceed 0,5 % . T h e cross section is divided into 20 segments. I n T a b l e 12.29 the
458 12 Supports 12.8 W o o d poles 4 5 9

T h e torsional resistance i sverified a tcrossarms 1 a n d 2 . A t crossarm 1 , the pole diameter is

T a b l e 1 2 . 2 9 : C a l c u l a t i o n o f design resistance d a = 0,408 + 5 , 5•0,018 = 0,507 m . A s s u m i n g a thickness o f8 0 m m , the inner diameter is
0 , 3 4 7 m . T h e t o r s i o n a l s e c t i o n m o d u l u s i s Wr = (<Pa - d 4 ) • J T / ( 1 6 d a ) = 2 0 , 0 • 1 0 6 m m 3 .
E q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 1 4 2 ) y i e l d s w i t h / c kcube = 6 7 N / m m 2 ( m a x i m u m a c c o r d i n g t o C 5 5 / 6 7 ) a n d
7cr = l , 4

oncrete
o
= Mrm = 0,42 •6 7 2 / 3 • 20,0 - 1 0 6 / 1 , 4 = 99,0 • 106 N • m m = 99,0 k N m .
n c
+> a I 4+>
Id
1 6 0 c t
"3 A t crossarm 2 , the pole diameter i s d a = 0,408 + 1 0 0,018 = 0,588 m . Here, i t i s W r =
0) t-
ac
faO 1 8> 1 .3
1 is - S
QJ
o
a (5884 - 4284) •TT/(16 - 588) = 28,71 •106 m m 3 a n d
Oi
'JZ 1 a; 1 € ! J 1 3
2
o

A oc M 2 = 0,42 • 6 7 2 / 3 • 28,71 • 1 0 6 / 1 , 4 = 142,1 •106 N - m m = 142,1 k N m .

Ap u <JP 0c Np Nc Mp M C T d
y
cm2 mm cm2 % % N/mm2 N/mm2 kN kN kNm KJN-ni

1,9 0,520 0,842 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 127,9 0,0 The design m o m e n t s are higher t h a n t h e loading.
1 117,4 493
2 279,0 441 1,9 0,482 0,804 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 114,4 0,0
3 354,0 389 1,9 0,445 0,767 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 101,0 0,0
4 207,9 337 1,9 0,407 0,729 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 87,5 0,0 12.8 Wood poles
5 172,7 285 1,9 0,369 0,691 1348 0,00 256,2 0,0 73,1 0,0
6 155,1 234 1,9 0,332 0,654 1275 0,00 242,2 0,0 56.6 0,0
12.8.1 Application a n d design
7 144,5 182 1,9 0,294 0,616 1 202 0,00 228,3 0,0 41,5 0,0
8 138,0 130 1,9 0,257 0,579 1 128 0,00 214,4 0,0 27,8 0,0
Wood poles a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y w h e r e t h e y a r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . M e d i u m a n d lower-
9 134,1 78 1,9 0,219 0,541 1055 0,00 200,4 0,0 15,6 0,0
voltages lines can b ebuilt economically w i t h such poles fitted w i t h either steel o r w o o d
10 132,3 26 1,9 0,181 0,503 981 0,00 186,5 0,0 4,8 n n
-26 1,9 0,144 0,466 908 0,00 172,5 0,0 -4,5 u,u
0,0 crossarms. W o o d H-frames composed o ftwo poles tied together a tthe top w i t h wood
11 132,3
12 134,1 -78 1,9 0,106 0,428 835 0,00 158,6 0.0 -12,3 0,0 or steel crossarms have been successfully used u pt o 3 4 5k V . T otake full advantage
13 138,0 -130 1,9 0,068 0,390 761 0,00 144,7 0,0 -18,8 0,0 o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e s t r e n g t h , s u c h poles c a nb e b r a c e d i n t e r n a l l y i n a t least a p o r t i o n o f
14 144,5 -182 1.9 n nn U.oDo u,uu 1 30 7 0,0 -23,7 0,0
their height w i t h w o o d o r m e t a l crosses.
15 155,1 -234 1,9 -0,007 0,315 615 -2,61 116,8 -40,5 -27,3 9,6
172,7 -285 1.9 -0,044 0,278 541 -15,88 102,8 -274,3 -29,4 78,3 I n E u r o p e , five s t a n d a r d s a p p l y t o p o l e s m a d e o f h a r d a n d s o f t w o o d . S u c h standards
16
17 207,9 -337 1,9 -0,082 0,240 468 -27,24 88,9 -566,2 -30,0 191,0 contain specifications a n d requirements for t h e classification o fw o o d poles according t o
18 354,0 -389 1.9 -0,120 0,202 394 -36,52 74,9 -1292,7 -29,2 503,2 visual and mechanical testing procedures [12.62], d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fcharacteristic data
19 279,0 -441 1,9 -0,157 0,165 321 -43,50 61,0 -1213,9 -26,9 535,5
[12.63, 12.64], procedures f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g p r o t e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t s [12.65] a n d preferred
20 117,4 -493 1,9 -0,195 0,127 248 -47,78 47,1 -561,0 -23,2 276,6
dimensions [12.66].
£ 3 669,9 38 3 463,5 -3948,5 425,0 1 594,0
Economically viable solutions adopting wood poles a r epossible i ft h e w o o d can be
£N = -485,0 £M = 2 019,0
supplied a t a reasonable price, t h e poles are simple t oproduce, last long enough and
sufficiently l o n g spans c a nb e o b t a i n e d b y t h e pole h e i g h t s . E c o n o m i c designs can be
c a l c u l a t i o n is d e m o n s t r a t e d . T h e s t r a i n d u e t o b e n d i n g is l i n e a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e achieved for o foverhead p o w e r lines w i t h l o w o p e r a t i n g voltages a n d s p a n lengths u p t o
12.83. T h e t o t a l s t r a i n o f t h e steel is t h e s u m o f t h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n a n d t h e p r e s t r e s s i n g s t r a i n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 m . T h e poles can b e used a s single o rdouble poles. However, longer
0 . 3 2 2 %. F r o m t h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n , t h e s t r e s s e s i n c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l c a n b e o b t a i n e d a s s u m i n g spans should b e a i m e d a tw i t h respect t o t h e i n v e s t m e n t necessary f o rt h e i n s u l a t i o n
a p a r a b o l a f u n c t i o n for concrete ( F i g u r e 12.80) a n d a bilinar f u n c t i o n for steel ( F i g u r e 12.81). of lines w i t h higher n o m i n a l voltages. S p a n lengths u pt o 2 5 0m c a nb e achieved b y
The concrete contributes t othe bending resistance only w h e r e t h e section i sunder compression,
wooden portal-type structures where the conductors are arranged i n a horizontal plane.
1. e . w h e r e t h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n £ c i s n e g a t i v e .
Still longer spans require heights o fstructures w h i c h cannot b e achieved b y one-piece
T h e p a r t i a l a x i a l force for each segment i s
w o o d poles. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o fj o i n t s , h o w e v e r , leads t o a m o r e e x p e n s i v e production.
JVC = A p • 0 C for concrete P r e d o m i n a n t l y , conifer w o o d is used characterized b y a straight, slender growing. I n
E u r o p e , especially pines and spruce conifer as well as larch are used according t o avail-
and ability. O t h e r t y p e s o fw o o d c a n b eused as well, w h e r e b y s t r a i g h t g r o w t h a n d g o o d con-
d i t i o n o ft h e s t e m w i t h o u t holes a n d cracks are i m p o r t a n t . E N 12 510 [12.62] contains
Np = A p -0 for steel.
requirements f o r t h e visual classification o f s t r e n g t h a n dspecifications for preferred
Finally, t h e partial m o m e n t for each segment i s obtained f r o m types o fw o o d t op r o d u c e poles. I n A u s t r a l i a , S o u t h A m e r i c a a n d o t h e r countries, euca-
l y p t u s a n d p i n e trees have been used successfully. S o m e preferred species are p a n i c u l a t a ,
Mc = Nc • y for concrete citri odora, terenticornis and alba rostata.

and The w o o d poles are specified as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r a t e d force a t t h e t o p a n d o ft h e t o p

a n d base dimensions.
M p = Np • y for steel. The r a t e d force a tt h e t o p s h o u l d n o t b eexceeded b y t h e characteristic loads w h i c h m a y
correspond, f o rinstance, t oa transverse w i n d having the probability o f2 % o f being
A s c a n b e s e e n from T a b l e 1 2 . 2 9 , t h e b e n d i n g r e s i s t a n c e d u e t o s t e e l i s 4 2 5 k N m a n d t h a t o f
exceeded. A h i g h p a r t i a l factor ( u s u a l l y i n t h e r a n g e 5 t o10) is considered towards the
concrete a m o u n t s t o 1594 k N m resulting i n a t o t a l o f 2 0 1 9 k N - m , being m o r e t h a n the u l t i m a t e
r u p t u r e o f t h e pole.
loading o f1988 k N - m .
460 1 2 Supports
F i g u r e 12.84: C a l c u l a - Figure 12.85: S t a t i o n f o r t e s t i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e t o w e r s
tion o fa w o o d pole
T h e r e a s o n f o r h i g h p a r t i a l f a c t o r s i s t i e d t o t h e organic decomposition o f the wood,
w h i c h is a c c e l e r a t e d w i t h i n t h e p o l e s e c t i o n close t o t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , w h e r e t h e b e n d i n g
m o m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m l o a d s a p p l i e d t o t h e p o l e i s t h e b i g g e s t . T h e e x t e r n a l fibres o f
t h e p o l e section at t h e e a r t h level are l o a d e d w i t h t h e h i g h e s t stress a n d is c o u n t e r a c t e d
w i t h t h e w o o d resistance m o d u l u s . S o t h e selection o f a w o o d pole refers t h a t section.
W o o d poles c a nconsist o f a single pole o r o f t w o poles connected t o double poles,
A - s h a p e d p o l e s o r p o r t a l s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e r e q u i r e d r e s i s t a n c e . Double poles c o n s i s t
of t w o i n d i v i d u a l poles w h i c h are a r r a n g e d o n e beside t h e o t h e r a n d connected b y
b o l t i n g o r d o w e l i n g . A-shaped poles a r e f o r m e d b y t w o i n d i v i d u a l p o l e s i n c l i n e d t o e a c h
other and bolted o rconnected b y dowels a tthe top and connected b y a transverse bar
a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t half o f the total height. P o r t a l structures consist o f t w o w o o d poles
and a horizontal crossarm.
12.8.2 Rating
I n m o s t cases, a v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e stresses c a n b e w a i v e d f o r w o o d poles. I t i s sufficient
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e characteristic force f r o m t h e s t i p u l a t e d a c t i o n s . T h e r e q u i r e d p o l e c a n
be selected f r o m t h e catalogues o ft h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o raccording t oE N 1 24 7 9 [12.66].
T h e m o m e n t due t o the external actions including the w i n d load o n the pole is de-
t e r m i n e d a t g r o u n d surface and, t h e r e f r o m , t h e stress. A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 8 4 i t
applies:
Af = P • ft + Q W M •L M / 2 , (12.144)
w h e r e P i s t h e e f f e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d a n d Wyi t h e w i n d l o a d o n p o l e .
T h e stress i n t h e section a t g r o u n d level is
o = N/A + M/W , (12.145)
w h e r e W = ,d3/32 a n d A = 7 r - d 2 / 4 . N is t h e a x i a l force d u e t o e x t e r n a l v e r t i c a l loads
and the pole dead weight. T h e actions have t o b e m u l t i p l i e d b y the relevant partial
f a c t o r s , f o r e x a m p l e a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 . T h e resistance o f t h e p o l e m a y n o t b e
exceeded. E N V 1 9 9 5 - 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 6 7 ] specifies t h e resistance c o n c e r n i n g tensile, compression
a n d b e n d i n g l o a d . A p a r t i a l f a c t o r yyii — E 5 0 i s c o n s i d e r e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e d e s i g n
v a l u e o f t h e resistance. O n t h e load side, p a r t i a l factors b e t w e e n 4 a n d 1 0 are applied,
relating t h e characteristic load t o the resistance.
T h e deformation o f w o o d poles can b e o b t a i n e d from
h = ( P / 3 + Q W M / 8 ) • h3/(EI) , - (12.146)
w h e r e t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y E can b e a s s u m e d t o b e 1 00 0 0 N / m m 2 , I is t h e m o m e n t
o f i n e r t i a a t t h e g r o u n d surface b e i n g 1"= d 4 •7 r / 6 4 w i t h d b e i n g t h e p o l e d i a m e t e r .
W i t h respect t ot h e resilience o ft h e upper soil layers, t h e l e n g t h h i n ( 1 2 . 1 4 6 ) a n d t h e
d i a m e t e r d s h o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o a cross section a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 5 m below t h e g r o u n d
surface level. According t oE N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , i t isrecommended t olimit the d e f o r m a t i o n t o
a m a x i m u m o f 1 0 % o fthe pole length under t h e relevant external load.
T h r e e times the section m o d u l u s o f a single pole can b e considered for t h e verification
of the resistance o f double poles w h i c h are sufficiently connected t o each o t h e r a n d
t h e l o a d acts i n t h e p l a n e represented b y b o t h pole axes. I n case o f l o a d i n a n o t h e r
direction, only twice the section m o d u l u s o f a single pole m a y b e considered.
T h e s t r e n g t h o f A-type poles d e p e n d s o n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s t r u t s . T h e
compression force iso b t a i n e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y from
SD = 2 P h / b , (12.147)
w h e r e b i st h e distance o f the central axes o f b o t h struts a t g r o u n d surface level. T h e
verification o f stability for one strut can b e d e m o n s t r a t e d according t o E N V 1 9 9 5 - 1 - 1
considering the corresponding buckling curve.
12.8.3 T r e a t m e n t of w o o d poles
Wood decay i s d u e t o a f u n g u s w h i c h r e q u i r e s a i r , m o i s t u r e , w a r m t h a n d f o o d f o r i t s
subsistence. T h e w o o d o f the pole constitutes its food. T h e conditions m o s t favourable
to t h e g r o w t h o f the fungus are found at the g r o u n d line. T h e preservatives should have
toxic and antiseptic properties w h i c h m a k e the w o o d either poisonous o r unfit for the
fungus.
A w a y u s e d e v e r y w h e r e t o i m p r o v e t h e w o o d q u a l i t i e s , a s f a r as resistance t o w e a t h e r i n g
i s c o n c e r n e d , i s t h e chemical preservative treatment w i t h c r e o s o t e o r p e n t a c h l o r o p h e n o l .
T h e m a i n m e t h o d s for a p p l y i n g t h e p r e s e r v a t i v e s t o t h e poles axe:
— T h e o p e n - t a n k m e t h o d , w h i c h consists i n boiling t h e b u t t s o ft h e poles i n a t a n k
of creosote oil, after w h i c h t h e oil is allowed t o cool o r the poles are transferred
t o a cold t a n k o fo i l .
- T h e pressure t r e a t m e n t , i n w h i c h t h e poles lie o n a t r u n k a n d are r u n into a steel
c y l i n d e r a n d s u b j e c t e d t o a s t e a m t r e a t m e n t f o ra p e r i o d o f several h o u r s a t a
t e m p e r a t u r e w h i c h w i l l n o t d a m a g e t h e w o o d cells. T h e p r e s s u r e i st h e n r e m o v e d
and a v a c u u m is applied.
B e s i d e t h e p r e s e r v a t i v e t r e a t m e n t , i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e b a s e s e c t i o n a n d a l e n g t h
u p t o a d e p t h o f a b o u t 0 , 6 m below t h e g r o u n d line receives a na d d i t i o n a l protection,
such as plastic band-aids o r special p a i n t i n g coating. T h e objective o fa pole t r e a t m e n t
a n d a d d i t i o n a l p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s o f t h e c o a t i n g s i s t o m a k e i t fit f o r a m i n i m u m l i f e
of 3 0 years.
12.9 Loading and failing tests
12.9.1 Introduction
Tests on supports m a y b e p e r f o r m e d f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s . I n a t r a d i t i o n a l proof test,
t h e test i s set u pt o v e r i f y t h e design c o n d i t i o n s , t h a t is, o n l y s t a t i c loads are a p p l i e d ,
462 12 Supports
t h e s u p p o r t h a s l e v e l , fixed f o u n d a t i o n s , a n d t h e r e s t r a i n t s a t t h e l o a d p o i n t s a r e t h e
same as i nthe design model. I fa proof test is ordered, i t should b e done o n a full
size p r o t o t y p e s t r u c t u r e before t h a t s u p p o r t , o r a n o t h e r t o w e r o f s i m i l a r design for t h e
same overhead line, isfabricated i n quantity. T h i s k i n d o f test will verify the adequacy
of t h e m e m b e r s a n d t h e i r connections t o w i t h s t a n d t h e static design loads specified for
that structure as a ni n d i v i d u a l entity under controlled conditions. P r o o f tests provide
i n f o r m a t i o n o n s u p p o r t b e h a v i o u r u n d e r l o a d , fit-up v e r i f i c a t i o n , a c t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r e
i n deflected positions, adequacy o f connections, a n d o t h e r benefits. T h e test cannot
completely confirm, h o w the tower will react i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n line w h e r e the loads
m a y b e d y n a m i c , t h e f o u n d a t i o n s m a y b e less t h a n i d e a l , a n d w h e r e t h e r e i s s o m e
restraint f r o m intact wires a t the load points.
T h e following guidelines are based o n p e r f o r m i n g a p r o o f test using a test i n s t a l l a t i o n
t h a t h a s f a c i l i t i e s t o a n c h o r a s i n g l e t o w e r t o a fixed b a s e , t o l o a d a n d m o n i t o r p u l l i n g
lines i n the vertical, transverse, a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l directions, a n d t omeasure deflections.
A S C E M a n u a l 5 2 [12.20] a n d I E C 6 0 652 [12.68] p r o v i d e d e t a i l s o n s u p p o r t t e s t i n g . I E C
60 652 i s under revision a n d w i l l b e published i n 2002.
Loading tests supplement the calculations and should validate t h a t the static calcula-
tions are correct a n d any shortcomings p o t e n t i a l l y given i n t h e s t r u c t u r e b e recognized.
I n c a s e o f failure tests, t h e l o a d s a r e i n c r e a s e d u n t i l t h e f a i l u r e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . T h i s
p r o c e d u r e e n a b l e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a c t u a l m a g n i t u d e o f t h e support resistance and i t s
s t r e n g t h r e s e r v e s , i f a n y . T e s t i n g s t a t i o n s a r e s i m i l a r l y d e s i g n e d (see F i g u r e 1 2 . 8 5 ) . T h e
specified loads are exerted o n t h e tested s t r u c t u r e s b y m e a n s o f ropes. T o enable a
h o r i z o n t a l loading, a u x i l i a r y p o r t a l f r a m e s are necessary.
W i t h respect t o loading tests, I E C 60 652 distinguishes b e t w e e n design tests a n d accep-
t a n c e t e s t s . Design tests a r e c a r r i e d o u t a t p r o t o t y p e s o f t h e s u p p o r t s a t f u l l s c a l e . T h e
load isincreased either u p t ot h e design load ( u l t i m a t e failure limit) o r u n t i l t h e failing
o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . Acceptance tests are c a r r i e d o u t e i t h e r b e f o r e o r d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n o f a
serial batch o fstructures, whereby the q u a l i t y o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d materials used should
be verified. T h e s t r u c t u r e m a y b e t a k e n f r o m t h e serial p r o d u c t i o n o n a r a n d o m basis.
Acceptance tests are carried o u t u p t o t h e design load. A s t r u c t u r e neither damaged
nor failed m a y b e used w i t h i n t h e line after b e i n g successfully tested.
12.9.2 F o u n d a t i o n s for s u p p o r t u n d e r t e s t
Tests should b e made w i t h the support o n rigid foundations. T h e design engineer and
the test facility engineer should establish allowable setting tolerances. P o s i t i o n i n g o f
t h e foundations should b e checked t o ensure t h a t accurate a l i g n m e n t prevents a n y
a b n o r m a l stresses i n t h e s u p p o r t o r t o w e r m e m b e r s .
12.9.3 M a t e r i a l for t h e t o w e r u n d e r t e s t
For a test, the structure needs t o b e m a d e o f m a t e r i a l t h a t is representative o f the
m a t e r i a l t h a t will b e used i n the p r o d u c t i o n o f towers. M i l l test reports o r c o u p o n
tests should b e available for a l l i m p o r t a n t m e m b e r s i nt h e t o w e r comprising a t least
the m e m b e r s designed for tension loading o n l y a n d compression m e m b e r s w i t h a slen-
d e r n e s s r a t i o less t h a n 120. P r o p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m t e s t i n g
is r e q u i r e d f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e t r u e c a p a c i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s . T h e r e i s c o n c e r n
about using members in a test tower w h i c h have yield points considerably higher t h a n
t h e m i n i m u m guaranteed values used as t h e basis for design. T h e actual yield p o i n t s o f
t e n s i o n m e m b e r s a n d o f c o m p r e s s i o n m e m b e r s w i t h s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o v a l u e s less t h a n
120 are critical i nd e t e r m i n i n g t h e m e m b e r capacity. A l l o t h e r m e m b e r s o f test t o w e r
should conform t o standard m a t e r i a l specifications, b u t their actual yield points a r e
n o t a s c r u c i a l t o t h e i r load-carrying capabilities.
12.9 L o a d i n g a n d f a i l i n g tests 463
12.9.4 F a b r i c a t i o n of t h e p r o t o t y p e t o w e r u n d e r test
Fabrication of the prototype tower s h o u l d b e d o n e i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s f o r t h e t o w e r s
i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n r u n . A t o w e r t h a t is specified t o b e galvanized for t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
line needs not b e galvanized for t h e test, b u t t h e purchaser has t h e o p t i o n o f specifying
that the test tower m u s t b e galvanized.
12.9.5 Strain measurements
S t r e s s d e t e r m i n a t i o n m e t h o d s , p r i m a r i l y strain gauging, m a y b e u s e d t o m o n i t o r t h e
loads i ni n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s d u r i n g testing. C o m p a r i s o n o f t h e measured u n i t stress
to t h e predicted u n i t stress i s useful i n v a l i d a t i n g t h e p r o o f test a n d refining analysis
m e t h o d s . C a r e m u s t b e e x e r c i s e d w h e n i n s t r u m e n t i n g w i t h strain gauges, b o t h a s t o
l o c a t i o n a n d n u m b e r , t oassure v a l i d c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h design stress levels. I n m o s t cases,
o n l y t h e t o t a l loads are m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h l o a d cells i n s t a l l e d n e a r t h e l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n
points o r panels.
12.9.6 Assembly and erection
T h e tower assembly method of t h e t e s t e d s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e s p e c i f i e d b y t h e p u r c h a s e r .
If t i g h t b o l t i n g o f subassemblies is not p e r m i t t e d b y t h e construction specifications,
t h e t e s t t o w e r s h o u l d b e a s s e m b l e d a n d e r e c t e d w i t h a l l b o l t s finger t i g h t o n l y , a n d
t i g h t e n i n g t o final t o r q u e s h o u l d b e d o n e a f t e r a l l t o w e r m e m b e r s a r e i n p l a c e . P i c k - u p
points t h a t have been designed i n the tower can b e used d u r i n g erection as part o f the
test procedure. T h e erected tower should c o n f o r m w i t h t h e special requirements o f the
purchaser's instructions; m a n y purchasers specify m i n i m u m t o r q u e for bolt t i g h t e n i n g ,
and that the vertical axis should not be out o f plumb b y more t h a n around 3 % o f
height, o r 0,5m a t m a x i m u m . I n F i g u r e 12.85 a t o w e r i n a test s t a t i o n i s s h o w n .
12.9.7 Test loads
T h e loads t o b e a p p l i e d t o t h e test s u p p o r t s h o u l d reflect t h e l o a d cases specified f o r
design and should include a l l overload capacity p a r t i a lfactors. T h e testing specifications
d e s c r i b e t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r t e s t i n g t o destruction. W i n d - o n - t o w e r l o a d s m a y b e a p p l i e d
as c o n c e n t r a t e d loads o n t h e t o w e r a t selected p a n e l p o i n t s . T h e s e loads s h o u l d b e
applied a t p a n e l points w h e r e stressed m e m b e r s intersect so t h a t t h e loads c a nb e
resisted b y the m a i n s t r u c t u r a l system o f the tower.
C a r r y i n g o u t o f a l o a d t e s t i s d e s c r i b e d b y a testing specification. Its essential contents
concern i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e design loads w h i c h are specified f o reach i n d i v i d u a l load
case o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n i s c o n t a i n e d o n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e l o a d
actions, t h e m e a s u r i n g p o i n t s o fdeflection a n d m e m b e r s w h i c h s h o u l d b e e q u i p p e d w i t h
strain gauges. T h e loads are usually applied either m a n u a l l y b y hydraulic jacks a n d
b l o c k a n d t a c k l e s o r b y m o t o r - d r i v e n w i n c h e s a n d a r e m e a s u r e d b y l o a d cells i n s t a l l e d
close t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n p o i n t s t oe l i m i n a t e t h e losses i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n systems. B a s e d
o n t h e t e s t i n g s p e c i f i c a t i o n , t h e t e s t i n g e n t i t y e s t a b l i s h e s a testing program. E s s e n t i a l
details o f the testing program concern the explanation and schematic presentation o f
the test arrangement, the position o fd y n a m o m e t e r s , o f deflection measurement points
a n d s t r a i n gauges as w e l l as details o n t h e loads f o r each i n d i v i d u a l l o a d case tested
a n d each step o f load.
T h e directions a n d p o i n t o f actions o f loads are specified for each i n d i v i d u a l load case
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e forces. T h e forces s h o u l d a s far a s possible c o r r e s p o n d t o t h o s e w h i c h
m a y occur d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . W i n d loads need t o b e s i m u l a t e d as concentrated actions,
the arrangement o fw h i c h should result i n the same m o m e n t s as the design w i n d load.
101 zz ouppuns
12.9.8 L o a d application
R o p e s should b e attached t o the load points o n the test tower s i m u l a t i n g the in-service
l o a d application a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e . T h e a t t a c h m e n t h a r d w a r e o f t h e t e s t s h o u l d h a v e
t h e s a m e d e g r e e s o f freedom a s i n - s e r v i c e h a r d w a r e . V - t y p e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s s h o u l d
be loaded a t t h e p o i n t w e r e t h e i n s u l a t o r sets intersect. I f t h e i n s u l a t o r for t h e t o w e r
i n t h e l i n e are V - t y p e sets t h a t w i l l n o t s u p p o r t compression, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t
articulated bars o r w i r e rope slings are used t os i m u l a t e t h e insulators. I f compression o r
cantilever insulators are planned for the towers, m e m b e r s that s i m u l a t e those conditions
should b e used i n t h e test.
A s a s t r u c t u r e deflects u n d e r load, ropes m a y c h a n g e t h e i r d i r e c t i o n o f p u l l . A d j u s t m e n t s
s h o u l d b e m a d e i n t h e applied loads o r t h e test rigging b e offset accordingly, s o t h a t
t h e v e r t i c a l , t r a n s v e r s e a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l v e c t o r s a t t h e d e f l e c t e d load p o i n t s c o r r e s p o n d
t h e loads specified i n t h e tower loading schedule.
12.9.9 Load procedure
T h e n u m b e r a n d sequence o f l o a d cases t e s t e d s h o u l d b e specified b y t e s t i n g specifi-
cation a n d the testing program, b o t h approved b y the purchaser. I tis recommended
t h a t t h o s e l o a d cases h a v i n g t h e least influence o n t h e r e s u l t s o f successive tests b e
t e s t e d first. T h e s e q u e n c e s h o u l d s i m p l i f y t h e o p e r a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t t h e
load procedure a n d t h e t e s t p r o g r a m .
Loads are n o r m a l l y i n c r e m e n t e d t o 50, 75, 90, 9 5 a n d 100 % o f t h e m a x i m u m specified
l o a d s . A f t e r e a c h load increment i s a p p l i e d , t h e r e s h o u l d b e a h o l d t o a l l o w t i m e f o r
reading deflections a n d t o p e r m i t engineers observing t h e test t o check f o r signs o f
s t r u c t u r a l distress. T h e 1 0 0 % load for each load case s h o u l d b e h e l d a t least for o n e
m i n u t e a n d f o r five m i n u t e s a t m a x i m u m .
I n case o f design tests, t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e r e q u i r e d a n d t h e m e a s u r e d load a t a n
i n d i v i d u a l l o a d a c t i o n p o i n t s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 5 %, a n d 1 0 % i n c a s e o f a c c e p t a n c e t e s t s .
L o a d s s h o u l d b e r e m o v e d c o m p l e t e l y b e t w e e n t e s t i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l l o a d cases except
for n o n c r i t i c a l cases w h e r e , t h e loads m a y b e a d j u s t e d a s r e q u i r e d for t h e n e x t load
case. U n l o a d i n g o f t h e t o w e r s h o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d t o a v o i d o v e r s t r e s s i n g a n y m e m b e r s .
12.9.10 Load measurement
A l l applied loads s h o u l d b e m e a s u r e d as close t o t h e p o i n t o fa t t a c h m e n t t o t h e s u p p o r t
as possible. L o a d s s h o u l d b e m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h a s u i t a b l e a r r a n g e m e n t o fs t r a i n devices
o r b y p r e d e t e r m i n e d d e a d w e i g h t s . T h e e f f e c t s o f p u l l e y friction s h o u l d b e m i n i m i z e d .
Load measurement b y m o n i t o r i n g t h e l o a d i n a s i n g l e p a r t o f a m u l t i p a r t b l o c k a n d
tackle arrangement should b e avoided. S t r a i n devices should b e used i n accordance
w i t h manufacturer's recommendations a n d calibrated prior t o End after the conclusion
of testing.
12.9.11 Deflections
Support deflections under load should b e measured a n drecorded except as waived
by t h e purchaser. P o i n t s t o b e m o n i t o r e d s h o u l d b e selected t o v e r i f y t h e deflections
predicted b y the design analysis. Deflection reading should b e m a d e before and after
loading a t all intermediate holds d u r i n g testing. A l l deflections should b e referenced t o
c o m m o n base reading such as t h e initial p l u m b p o s i t i o n tEiken before a n y test loads are
applied.
12.9.12 A c c e p t a n c e and failures
A load test is considered as passed i f the s t r u c t u r e w i t h s t o o d t h e design loads for o n e
m i n u t e w i t h o u t f a i l u r e o f E i n e l e m e n t o r E i n a s s e m b l y . T h e n , acceptance o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s
c a n b e d e c l a r e d b y t h e p u r c h a s e r . I f a p r e m a t u r e s t r u c t u r a l failure o c c u r r e d , t h e c a u s e
of t h e f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m a n d t h e corrective measures t ob e tEiken s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d
in conjunction w i t h t h e engineer responsible for t h e test. Failed m e m b e r s a n d members
affected b y consequential damage should b e replaced. T h e load case w h i c h caused the
failure s h o u l d b e repeated. L o a d cases p r e v i o u s l y c o m p l e t e d n e e d n o t b e repeated.
A f t e r t h e s t r u c t u r e has successfully w i t h s t o o d a l l load cases, t h e t o w e r s h o u l d b e dis-
m a n t l e d and all members inspected. T h e following should not b e considered asa failure:
— Residual b o w i n g o f m e m b e r s designed for tension only.
— O v a l i z a t i o n o f n o m o r e t h a n half o f the holes i n a connection.
— Slight permEinent deformation o f n o more than half o f the bolts i n a connection.
12.9.13 D e s t r u c t i o n test
I n s o m e cases, t h e t o w e r u n d e r test after passing successfully a l l l o a d c o m b i n a t i o n s m a y
be loaded u n t i l r u p t u r e , a s p a r t o f a n agreement between purchaser a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r .
T h i s i s c a l l e d destruction test a n d t h e l o a d c o m b i n a t i o n for t a k i n g t h e t o w e r t o r u p t u r e s
is s e l e c t e d E i c c o r d i n g t o t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l o a d c o m b i n a t i o n i s t e i k e n a s
t h e one t h a t prevails i n t h e design o fm o s t c o m p o n e n t s . L o a d s are i n c r e m e n t e d i n steps
o f 5 %. T h e p u r p o s e o f d e s t r u c t i o n t e s t s c o u l d b e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s u r p l u s c a p a c i t y o f
the s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e economic adequacy o f t h e design.
12.9.14 D i s p o s i t i o n of test tower
T h e test specifications s h o u l d state w h a t use, i fany, m a y b e m a d e o f t h e test tower
a f t e r t h e t e s t i s c o m p l e t e d . A n u n d a m a g e d t o w e r i s u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d for u s e i n t h e
l i n e a f t e r a l l c o m p o n e n t s a r e v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t e d a n d found t o b e s t r u c t u r a l l y s o u n d a n d
w i t h i n design tolerances. I fa test exceeding t h e accepted loads h a d been p e r f o r m e d ,
c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e exercised i n accepting t h e p a r t s t h a t appear t o b e u n d a m E g e d since
they m i g h t have been overstressed.
12.9.15 Test report
T h e testing organisation should furnish t h e n u m b e r o f copies required b y t h e testing
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s o f a test report t h a t s h o u l d i n c l u d e :
— T h e designation and description o f the support tested.
— T h e n a m e o f utility o r line owner t h a t will use t h e tower.
— T h e n a m e o f person o r o r g a n i s a t i o n t h a t specified t h e loading, electrical clear-
ances, technical requirements a n d general EirrEingement o f t h e tower.
— T h e names o f engineers responsible for design o f s t r u c t u r e a n d execution o f the
test.
— T h e manufEicturer's name.
— A b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n a n d t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e test station.
— T h e n a m e a n d affiliations o f the test witnesses.
— T h e dates o f each test l o a d case.
— Design and detail drawings o fthe tested tower including any changes made during
the testing program.
— Testing specification.
— Testing program.
— A rigging diagram w i t h details o f the points o f attachment t o the tower.
— C a l i b r a t i o n records o f the load-measuring devices.
466 12 Supports 12.10 References 467

- A l o a d i n g d i a g r a m for each l o a d case tested. 12.18 M o r s , H . : G i t t e r m a s t e f u r H o c h s p a n n u n g s l e i t u n g e n ( L a t t i c e steel towers for high-voltage

- A list o f deflections for each l o a d case tested. overhead lines). Leaflet steel 389. Diisseldorf. Beratungsstelle f u r S t a h l v e r w e r t u n g 1966
- I n case o f f a i l u r e : p h o t o g r a p h s of t h e f a i l u r e , loads a t t h e t i m e of f a i l u r e , a b r i e f
1 2 . 1 9 K i e B l i n g , F . e t a l . : D i e M a s t e d e r n e u e n 3 8 0 - k V - H o c h s p a n n u n g s f r e i l e i t u n g fiber d i e E l b e
description of failure, the remedial actions taken, the physical dimensions of the ( T h e towers of t h e n e w 3880 k V high-voltage crossing over t h e rive E l b e ) . S t a h l b a u 48
failed members, test coupon reports of failed members. (1979), pp. 321 t o 326, 360 to 366
- Photographs of the overall testing arrangement and rigging.
- A i r temperature, w i n d speed and direction, any precipitation and other pertinent 12.20 A S C E M a n u a l 52: G u i d e for design of steel t r a n s m i s s i o n towers. N e w Y o r k , A S C E , 1988
meteorological data. 12.21 E N I S O 1461: H o t - d i p p e d galvanized coatings o n i r o n a n d steel articles. Specifications
- M i l l test r e p o r t s as s u b m i t t e d d u e t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of m a t e r i a l t o g e t h e r w i t h and test methods ( I S O 1461). Brussels, C E N , 1999
additional i n f o r m a t i o n specified by t h e purchaser
12.22 N i e t h , F . : D i e Haftfestigkeit feuerverzinkter Uberzuge ( T h e adhesion of galvanized zinc
c o a t i n g ) . B a n d e r , B l e c h e & R o h r e . 14 ( 1 9 7 3 ) , pp. 95 t o 102
12.10 References 12.23 D I N 50 978: T e s t i n g of metallic coatings. A d h e r e n c e of h o t - d i p zinc coatings. B e r l i n , D I N ,
12.1 B o l d i n , Y . A . et al.: G u y e d circuit-type suspension tower of p o l y m e r long-rod insulators 1985
for 1150 k V transmission lines. Cigre R e p o r t 100-02, S y m p o s i u m Leningrad, 1991 1 2 . 2 4 H o r s t m a n n , D . : U n t e r s u c h u n g fiber d i e P r f i f u n g v e r z i n k t e r D r a h t e n a c h W . H . P r e e c e
12.2 B o n i , F . et al.: E N E L ' s achievements and prospects i n t h e area of c o m p a c t 380 k V (Investigation on testing galvanized wires according to W . H . Preece). S t a h l u n d Eisen
overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t 100-10, S y m p o s i u m Leningrad, 1991 80 (1960), pp. 9 3 1 to 935

12.3 Steel poles i n the U S for 400 k V lines ((open)) 12.25 v a n Oeteren, K . - A . : Feuerverzinken u n d Beschichten = D u p l e x - S y s t e m ( G a l v a n i z a t i o n
and coating by p a i n t constitutes t h e D u p l e x system). M e r k b l a t t S t a h l 329. Diisseldorf:
1 2 . 4 F e n z , J . ; K o r t m a n n , S.: F r e i l e i t u n g e n f u r N i g e r i a ( O v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s f o r N i g e r i a . Beratungsstelle ffir S t a h l v e r w e r t u n g , 1981
Siemens Power Engineering 2 (1980), pp. 223 t o 226
12.26 E N 10 025: H o t - r o l l e d p r o d u c t s o f n o n a l l o y s t r u c t u r a l steels. T e c h n i c a l d e l i v e r y condi-
12.5 S c h m i d t , G . : S t a h l b e t o n m a s t f e r t i g u n g i m A u s l a n d ( P r o d u c t i o n of concrete steel poles i n tions. Brussels, C E N , 1994
foreign countries). B B C - N a c h r . 59 (1977), pp. 62 t o 65
12.27 E N I S O 8 9 8 - 1 : M e c h a n i c a l properties of fasteners m a d e of c a r b o n steel a n d alloy steel.
12.6 A S C E 1052: G u i d e for the design and use of concrete poles. N e w Y o r k , A S C E , 1987 P a r t 1: Bolts, screws and studs. Brussels, C E N , 1999
12.7 Souchereau, N . et al.: V a l i d a t i o n of a chainette tower for a 735 k V line. Cigre Report 12.28 D f i n k e l , V . : V e r f o r m u n g s f a h i g k e i t u n d T r a g f a h i g k e i t v o n V e r b i n d u n g s m i t t e l n ffir d e n
22-04, 1978 S t a h l b a u / M a s t b a u - G e b r a u c h s t a u g l i c h k e i t v o n S c h r a u b e n d e r F e s t i g k e i t s k l a s s e 5.6 u n d
6.8 n a c h I S O 8 9 8 - 1 ( D u c t i l i t y a n d s t r e n g t h o f f a s t e n e r s for s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s a n d steel
12.8 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : Overhead electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l requirements
t o w e r s - s e r v i c e a b i l i t y o f b o l t s o f s t r e n g t h classes 5.6 a n d 6.8 a c c o r d i n g t o I S O 8 9 8 - 1 ) .
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
Bochum und Parey. Schrauben und D r a h t U n i o n G m b H & Co K G
1 2 . 9 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
12.29 S c h m i d t , B . : D i e B e r e c h n u n g v o n F r e i l e i t u n g s m a s t e n nach der M e t h o d e der finiten
Aspects ( N N A ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
E l e m e n t e ( C a l c u l a t i o n o f o v e r h e a d t o w e r s u s i n g t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d ) . Elek-
12.10 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a - trizitatswirtschaft 84 (1985), pp. 846 to 851
tive Aspects ( N N A ) for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C 2001
12.30 Bufier, H . ; K i e B l i n g , F . : D i g i t a l e Berechnung torsionsbeanspruchter G i t t e r m a s t e v o n
12.11 N B R 5422: D e s i g n of o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n lines - P r o c e d u r e s . R i o de J a n e i r o , M a r c h Freileitungen ( C a l c u l a t i o n of torsion-loaded lattice steel t o w e r s o f overhead lines). E l e k -
1985 trizitatswirtschaft 64 (1965), pp. 711 t o 718

12.12 KieBling, F . ; Sperl, H . D . : T h e new 380 k V river E l b e crossing of t h e Nordwestdeutsche
K r a f t w e r k e A G . Siemens P o w e r E n g i n e e r i n g 1 (1979), pp. 75 t o 79
1 2 . 1 3 E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 : E u r o c o d e 3: D e s i g n o f s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s ; P a r t 1 - 1 : G e n e r a l r u l e s a n d r u l e s
for buildings. Brussels, C E N , 1992
12.14 D I N V D E 0210: P l a n n i n g and design of overhead power lines w i t h rated voltages above
1 k V . B e r l i n , D K E , 1985
12.15 KieBling, F . ; R a n k e , K . : B e a n s p r u c h u n g v o n Freileitungen durch e x t r e m e W i n d - u n d E i s -
lasten ( L o a d i n g o f o v e r h e a d lines b y e x t r e m e w i n d a n d ice l o a d ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t
79 (1980), pp. 683 t o 692
12.16 I E C / T R 60826: L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h of overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Geneva, I E C , 1991
12.17 E N 1 0 0 5 6 : S t r u c t u r a l steel equal a n d u n e q u a l leg angles.
P a r t 1: Dimensions. Brussels, C E N , 1998;
P a r t 2: Tolerances o n s h a p e a n d d i m e n s i o n s . Brussels, C E N , 1994
1 2 . 3 1 H a h n , H . G . : M e t h o d e d e r finiten E l e m e n t e i n d e r F e s t i g k e i t s l e h r e ( M e t h o d o f finite
elements i n s t r e n g t h analysis). Wiesbaden. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 2 n d edition,
1982
12.32 L a w o , M . , T h i e r a u f , G.: M a t r i z e n m e t h o d e n der S t a t i k u n d D y n a m i k ( M a t r i x m e t h o d s of
statics and d y n a m i c ) . Braunschweig, Wiesbaden: V i e w e g V e r l a g , 1980
12.33 B a t h e , K . - J . : F i n i t e element procedures i n E n g i n e e r i n g analysis. L o n d o n , P r e n t i c e - H a l l ,
1982
12.34 Fenz, J . ; K o c h , E . : D i e M a s t e der 3 8 0 - k V - L e i t u n g K K E L i n g e n - S t a t i o n Hanekenfahr,
b e r e c h n e t n a c h d e r M e t h o d e d e r finiten E l e m e n t e ( T h e t o w e r s o f t h e 3 8 0 k V l i n e
K K E L i n g e n t o s u b s t a t i o n H a n e k e n f a h r , d e s i g n e d o n t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d ) . E l e k -
trizitatswirtschaft 86 (1987), pp. 926 to 930
12.35 G e m p e r l e i n , W . et a l . : D e r m o d e r n e TYagsicherheitsnachweis v o n Freileitungsmasten
( M o d e r n strength verification of overhead line towers). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 96 (1997),
pp. 1359 t o 1362
468 12 Supports

12.36 Petersen, C : S t a t i k u n d S t a b i l i t a t der B a u k o n s t r u k t i o n e n (Statics a n d s t a b i l i t y o f b u i l d - 12.54 Beck, H . ; B e n t z e n , P.; K n a u e r , F . : V e r s t a r k u n g s m a f i n a h m e n a n einer 1 1 0 - k V - D o p p e l l e i -

ing structures). Braunschweig, Wiesbaden, Vieweg Verlag, 1980
12.37 G i r k m a n n , K . : D i e K n i c k f e s t i g k e i t v o n R a u m t r a g w e r k e n m i t ebenen K n o t e n ( T h e buck-
l i n g s t a b i l i t y o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s w i t h p l a n e n o d e s ) . Z. d. V D I 7 2 ( 1 9 2 8 ) ,
pp. 588 t o 590
12.38 Bleich, H . : D a s A u s k n i c k e n der Eckstiele v o n G i t t e r m a s t e n ( B u c k l i n g of leg m e m b e r s of
lattice towers). B a u i n g e n i e u r 17 (1936), pp. 557 t o 558
12.39 D j u b e k , J . : D i e S t a b i l i t a t eines d u n n w a n d i g e n abwechselnd i n zwei E b e n e n g e s t u t z t e n
Stabes (Stability of a thin-walled m e m b e r alternately supported i n t w o planes). S t a h l b a u
29 (1960), pp. 218 t o 220
12.40 D I N 4 1 1 4 - 1 : Steel structures; s t a b i l i t y (buckling, o v e r t u r n i n g , bulging), m e t h o d o f calcu-
lation, regulations. B e r l i n , D I N , 1952
12.41 B S I D D 133: C o d e of practice for s t r e n g t h assessment of m e m b e r s of lattice towers and
masts. London, B S I , 1986
t u n g ( U p g r a d i n g of a 110 k V double circuit line). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 97 (1998), pp.
40 t o 42
12.55 E u r o c o d e 1. E N V 1991-2-4: Actions o n s t r u c t u r s . W i n d loads. Brussels, C E N , 1995
12.56 A S C E M a n u a l 72: D e s i g n of steel t r a n s m i s s i o n pole s t r u c t u r e s . N e w Y o r k , A S C E , 2 n d
edition 1990
12.57 S t a h h n a s t e i n V o l l w a n d b a u w e i s e (Solid-wall steel poles). Studiengesellschaft S t a h l a n w e n -
d u n g e. V . , P r o j e k t 1 5 2 . U n i v e r s i t a t - G e s a m t h o c h s c h u l e E s s e n , F a c h b e r e i c h B a u w e s e n ,
1992
12.58 S h e r m a n , D . : W h y concrete poles? M i s s o u r i V a l l e y electric association conference. K a n s a s
City 1991
12.59 p r E N 13 369: C o m m o n values for precast concrete products. Brussels, C E N , 2002
12.60 p r E N 12 8 4 3 : P r e c a s t c o n c r e t e m a s t s a n d poles. B r u s s e l s , C E N , D r a f t 1999

12.42 E C C S C o d e N o . 39: R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for angles i n l a t t i c e t r a n s m i s s i o n towers. Brussels, 1 2 . 6 1 p r E N 1 9 9 2 - 1 ( F i n a l d r a f t ) : E u r o c o d e 2: D e s i g n o f c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s ; P a r t 1 : G e n e r a l

E C C S , 1985 rules a n d rules for buildings. Brussels, C E N , 2001

12.43 Beer, H . : Statische u n d k o n s t r u k t i v e G e s i c h t s p u n k t e i m S t a h l l e i c h t b a u ( S t a t i c a n d 12.62 E N 12 5 1 0 : W o o d p o l e s for o v e r h e a d lines - S t r e n g t h g r a d i n g c r i t e r i a . B r u s s e l s , C E N ,

s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t s o f l i g h t - w e i g h t s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s ) . S t a h l b a u - R u n d s c h a u , Z e i t s c h r i f t des Draft 1996
osterreichischen Stahlbauvereins (1964), pp. 3 1 to 48
12.63 E N 12 5 1 1 : W o o d poles for overhead lines - D e t e r m i n a t i o n of characteristic values. B r u s -
12.44 F u c h s , A . : F r e i l e i t u n g s m a s t e m i t a u f i e r g e w o h n l i c h e n D i m e n s i o n e n f u r d i e K r e u z u n g des sels, C E N , 1 9 9 6
Suez-Kanals (Overhead line towers w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r y dimensions for the crossing of Suez
12.64 E N 12 509: W o o d poles for o v e r h e a d lines - T e s t m e t h o d s , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f m o d u l u s o f
Channel). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 98 (1999), pp. 36 t o 4 1
elasticity, bending strength, density and m o i s t u r e content. Brussels, C E N 1996
12.45 S c h r a m m , H . et a l . : F r e i l e i t u n g der S u p e r l a t i v e verbindet E u r o p a u n d A s i e n ( O v e r h e a d
line of t h e superlative connects E u r o p e a n d A s i a ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 99 (2000), pp. 12.65 E N 12465: W o o d poles for overhead lines - D u r a b i l i t yrequirements. Brussels, C E N , 1996
13 t o 20
12.66 E N 1 2 4 7 9 : W o o d poles for o v e r h e a d lines - Sizes - M e t h o d s o f m e a s u r e m e n t a n d per-
12.46 G o h m , H . ; K i e B l i n g , F . ; M a h r , V . : V e r f o r m u n g e n v o n S t a h l v o l l w a n d m a s t e n m i t Stecksto- missible deviations. Brussels, C E N , D r a f t 2001
Ben b e i m E i n s a t z i n H o c h s p a n n u n g s f r e i l e i t u n g e n ( D e f o r m a t i o n of steel poles w i t h slipped
1 2 . 6 7 E N V 1 9 9 5 - 1 - 1 : E u r o c o d e 5: D e s i g n o f t i m b e r s t r u c t u r e s ; P a r t 1 - 1 : G e n e r a l r u l e s a n d r u l e s
joints used for high-voltage t r a n s m i s s i o n lines). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 97 (1998) 23, pp.
for buildings. Brussels, C E N , D r a f t 1993
27 t o 3 1
12.68 I E C 6 0 6 5 2 : L o a d i n g tests o n overhead line towers. Geneva, I E C , D r a f t 2000
12.47 B a u e r , K . - H . ; S c h m i d t , B . : E i n V e r f a h r e n z u r n a h e r u n g s w e i s e n E r m i t t l u n g des V e r f o r -
mungszustandes von Freileitungsmasten ( A n approach to approximate determination of
t h e d e f o r m a t i o n c o n d i t i o n of overhead line towers). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 88(1989) 23,
pp. 1605 t o 1611

12.48 Peterson, C : S t a h l b a u (Steel s t r u c t r u r e s ) . B r a u n s c h w e i g , W i e s b a d e n . V i e w e g V e r l a g , 3 r d

edition 1993

12.49 Fenz, J . et al.: D i g i t a l e B e r e c h n u n g der T r a g w e r k e v o n H o c h s p a n n u n g s f r e i l e i t u n g e n ( D i g -

i t a l c o m p u t a t i o n of o v e r h e a d p o w e r lines s u p p o r t s ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 6 1 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , pp.
866 t o 871

12.50 Fenz, J , : 20 J a h r e E i n s a t z v o n D i g i t a l r e c h n e r n fur die mechanische B e m e s s u n g v o n

Freileitungen ( T w e n t y years of c o m p u t e r application for the mechanical design of over-
head lines). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 8 1 (1982), pp. 189 t o 197

12.51 D I N 1 8 0 0 - 1 : D I N 18 8 0 0 - P a r t 1 : S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k . Design a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . B e r l i n ,
D I N , 1990

12.52 D I N 18 00-2: D I N 1 8 8 0 0 - P a r t 2: S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k . S a f e t y a g a i n s t b u c k l i n g o f l i n e a r
members a n d frames. Berlin, D I N , 1990

12.53 K i e B l i n g , F . et a l . : U p g r a d i n g h i g h - v o l t a g e lines t o increase t h e i r capacity a n d m i t i g a t e

environmental impacts. Cigre R e p o r t 22-208, 1998
13 F o u n d a t i o n s

13.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
A Cross-sectional area
As Cross-sectional area in case of tensile load
b, b x , by Foundation width
Foundation width w i t h rectangular subface
B E Tower width at ground level
c A u x i l i a r y value
d Cohesion
l-U U n d r a i n e d shear strength
C l e a r distance of foundation testing equipment
d D i a m e t e r of foundation shaft
d Pile diameter
<k Anchor rod diameter
D Diameter of a pole at ground level
e Eccentricity
p Mechanical earth resistivity
P Passive e a r t h pressure
E c c e n t r i c i t y of total load in the foundation subface
F ' Modulus of elasticity
E d Design value of the foundation load
E-K C h a r a c t e r i s t i c value of the foundation load
E s Compressibility modulus
fcK C h a r a c t e r i s t i c concrete strength
fs L o c a l skin friction
fu b Tensile strength
/w Mechanical earth resistivity according to B l u m
J V-
F M Design resistance of a n anchor
Ft Design value of the resistance of an anchor
Ft, Design tensile force of a n anchor
G ' Sum from foundation dead load and e a r t h weight vertically above foundation
subface
G B D e a d weight of concrete body
G E D e a d weight of e a r t h body
h E q u i v a l e n t height of load action
h' Free pole length
ky G r o u t i n g length of a n anchor
H Horizontal load
I Moment of inertia
ftp Coefficient of passive e a r t h pressure
As Subgrade modulus
L P i l e length
M, M x , M y B e n d i n g moment
n R a t i o of height of step to w i d t h of projection of a stepped concrete foundation
"10, "30 Number of blows for a penetration of 10 a n d 30 c m , respectively
AT Resultant total vertical load
Br Resultant horizontal force acting horizontally at pole peak
1P x , rP
y, rP z Horizontal forces in x , y, z direction
pD pD Horizontal forces resulting from bracings
1 ' y
pK p K Horizontal forces at leg member bend
X , y
Pile point compression
0 g Ultimate tensile strength of a pile
 Symbols Signification
T a b l e 13.1: C o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d s o i l s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 3 . 1 ] , A n n e x M
Rc Crushing strength Description Technical features and
Soil type Mode of formation
RA Design resistance aptitude as foundation
A d comp Design compression resistance course
A d lit L a t e r a l design resistance 1 Lateral sandy-gravelly deposit sandy-gravelly medium to high com-
Adsf Design resistance o f f o u n d a t i o n subface moraine, of glacial origin, material, with a wide paction, low compressi-
Af R a t i o o f local skin friction t o pile point compression gravelly deposited at the edge of range of particle sizes; bility, pervious; very
Rperm Permissible loading gl acier very heterogeneous good foundation layer
A t Tensile strength 2 Glacial till unsorted glacial deposit gravelly material in a high compaction, low
s Settlement (unsorted) from clay to gravel, silty-clayey matrix, compressibility, impe-
Vertical c o m p o n e n t o f t b e u l t i m a t e uplift force usually in dense state; with wide range of rious; good foundation
5 K u p V e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e characteristic uplift force usually covers molassic particle sizes layer
5 Equivalent skin friction layers or bedrock
Sz Vertical c o m p o n e n t o f uplift force 3 Glacial sandy-gravelly layer sandy-gravelly material, mean compaction, mean
t D e p t h o f f o u n d a t i o n subface, p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h i n good-bearing soil drift, sorted from morainic aluvium without boulders, and to high compressibility,
to Auxiliary value for insertion depth according t o B l u m by rivers clay with little silt pervious; good founda-
Insertion length tion layer
tE
ts Height o f l o w e r m o s t step o f a stepped f o u n d a t i o n 4 Glacial clay very fine grained varied clays with layers low compaction, medium
T Depth ofearth frustum material from morainic of silt and fine sands; to high plasticity, com-
W Section modulus aluvium and deposited possible presence of pressible, impervious;
in lakes peat and mud poor foundation soil
m Location o f the m a x i m u m m o m e n t i n good-bearing soil
Y Deflection o f a pile 5 Alluvial soil deposits in flood plains alternately silty-sandy variable compaction and
z Thickness o f non-bearing soil layer and estuaries and gravelly deposits; permeability, inhomoge-
possible presence of neous soil; poor to good
p e r m at Permissible bearing pressure a t depth t
peat and mud foundation soil
0,00 E a r t h f r u s t u m angle
Specific d e a d w e i g h t 6 Boulders boulders heap at the toe detached angular rock low compaction, high
7
of a cliff fragments of varying permeability; acceptable
V Specific d e a d w e i g h t w i t h buoyancy
sizes for foundations, although
7B Specific dead weight o f concrete
unstable
7cr Partial factor for concrete strength
7 Overcon- sedimentary soils clays, sands, silts generally acceptable for
TP P a r t i a l factor for action
soli dated subjected to greater foundations
TM P a r t i a l factor for resistance
soils overburden than at
5 Angle o fskin friction
present
A A Reject o f the s h u t t e r i n g compared t o the 2 n d step
8 Soft rock sedimentary soils etc. mud-stone (inch marl), weathered rocks should
K Factor
(weathered subjected to greater sandstone chalk be evaluated from case to
h Poisson's coefficient case; otherwise generally
to un- overburden pressure
a Soil pressure weathered) good for foundings
than overconsolidated
01,5 Permissible bearing pressure a t a depth o f 1,5 m soils
0d Design value o f stress
0R,d D e s i g n value o f l i m i t stress
0ult U l t i m a t e bearing pressure 13.2 T y p e s of subsoils
Angle of internal friction
13.2.1 Classification of soil
13.1 Requirements and preconditions
T h e subsoil e n c o u n t e r e d is assigned t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t y p e s o f soils d u r i n g soil i n v e s t i -
Foundations of supports a r e d e s i g n e d t o t r a n s f e r t h e f o u n d a t i o n l o a d s r e s u l t i n g from g a t i o n a n d t h e soil characteristics n e c e s s a r y for s e l e c t i o n a n d d e s i g n o f f o u n d a t i o n s a r e
t h e s t r u c t u r e s according t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l l o a d cases i n t o t h e subsoil w i t h sufficient d e t e r m i n e d . T a b l e 13.1 contains c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d soils.
reliability, while inadmissible movements o f the foundation b o d y m a y not occur. S t a n - T h e s u b s o i l f o r m i n g t h e Earth's crust i s c l a s s i f i e d g e o t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y i n t o undisturbed
d a r d s s u c h as c h a p t e r 8 o f E N 5 0 4 3 1 - 1 [13.1] s t i p u l a t e t h e r u l e s for selection, a n a l y s i s , loose soils, rock (solid soil) a n d filled-up ground. L o o s e s o i l i s a n a t u r a l p i l e s t o c k o f
structural design and verification o f foundations. m i n e r a l particles. I t c a n b e s e p a r a t e d i n t o i t s p a r t i c l e sizes b y m e c h a n i c a l t o o l s w i t h o u t
T o w e r dimensions a n d forces acting o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s as established b y s u p p o r t a n a l y - a p p l i c a t i o n o f force. I t is self-evident t h a t t h e r e are t r a n s i t i o n ranges w h e r e a classifi-
s i s form t h e b a s i s f o r t h e foundation design. S u p p o r t s i t e s a n d t e r r a i n f o r m a t i o n a r e c a t i o n either t o loose soils o r t o solid soils m i g h t b e difficult because o f t h e stronger
k n o w n from s u r v e y i n g d o c u m e n t s . S i n c e t h e s u b s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s u p p o r t s i t e s p e r m a n e n t cohesion forces b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l soil particles. T h e classification a s -
affect t h e selection a n d design o f f o u n d a t i o n s t o a great e x t e n t , t h e y need t o b e s t u d i e d sumed here is c o m m o n l y used i n civil engineering. However, i t will n o tb e adopted
b y soil investigation. e v e r y w h e r e . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e t h e t e r m rock c o m p r i s e s a l l m a t e r i a l
forming the E a r t h ' s crust w i t h o u t considering t h e m u t u a l cohesion o f t h e m i n e r a l par-
t i c l e s . W i t h i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e , a g a i n t h e t e r m soil i s a p p l i e d o n l y t o t h a t p a r t
of the E a r t h ' s crust w h i c h is able t o produce vegetation.
474 13 Foundations 13.3 S u b s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n 4 7 5

fable 13.2: Classification o f non-cohesive soil according t o p a r t i c l e size is less t h a n 1 5 % a n d t h e n o n - c o h e s i v e p a r t s d e t e r m i n e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o i l .

Designation Symbol Particle sizes in mm Otherwise, the soil is addressed as cohesive soil w i t h non-cohesive additions.
—
Range of coarse Boulders Y above 200
particles Stones Y between 63 and 200 O r g a n i c soils
A
Range of sieve Gravel particles G between 2 and 63 Organic soils c o n t a i n r e s i d u e s o f m o r e o r l e s s d e c o m p o s e d p l a n t s a n d a n i m a l o r g a n i s m s .
particles coarse gravel gG between 20 and 63 T h e r e a r e p u r e l y o r g a n i c s o i l s s u c h a s peat. F r e q u e n t l y , s o i l s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d w i t h c l a y e y
medium gravel mG between 6,3 and 20
fine gravel
o r s i l t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d a n e s s e n t i a l o r g a n i c p o r t i o n . T h e s e s o i l s a r e c a l l e d mud. T h e
fG between 2,0 and 6,3
Sand particles S between 0,06 and 2,0 o r g a n i c c o m p o n e n t s a r e finely d i s t r i b u t e d i n m o s t c a s e s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e c a n b e s h e l l s
coarse sand gS between 0,6 and 2,0 of mussels and visible residuals o fp a r t l y decomposed plants. T h e colour varies between
medium sand inS between 0,2 and 0,6 light a n d grey-black. T h e s e soils o f t e n c o n t a i n gases like C 0 2 a n d H 2 S , t h e latter b e i n g
fine sand fS between 0,06 and 0,2
recognized b y its o d o u r . Since t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f these soils is h i g h , t h e y a r e n o t
s u i t a b l e t o t r a n s f e r loads. D u e t o t h e d e t e r m i n i n g effects o f o r g a n i c c o m p o n e n t s o n
fable 13.3: C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f cohesive soil a c c o r d i n g t o p a r t i c l e size t h e f o u n d a t i o n selection, non-cohesive soils w i t h organic components o f m o r e t h a n 3 %
Designation Symbol Particle size in mm p o r t i o n o f w e i g h t a n d cohesive soils w i t h organic c o m p o n e n t s h a v i n g m o r e t h a n 5 %
Range of hue Silt U between 0,002 and 0,06 p o r t i o n o f weight a r eclassified as organic soils. T h e y a r e addressed f o r e x a m p l e as
particles coarse silt gu between 0,02 and 0,06 humusy sand, peaty sand, organic silt o r organic clay.
medium silt mU between 0,006 and 0,02
fine silt fU between 0,002 and 0,006
Clay T below 0,002 13.2.3 Rock

A l l solid soils a r e a d d r e s s e d b y t h e t e r m rock. T h e r o c k r e p r e s e n t s t h e h a r d p a r t s

13.2.2 U n d i s t u r b e d n a t u r a l soil of t h e E a r t h ' s crust. T h e degree o f w e a t h e r i n g is i m p o r t a n t (seeclause 13.3.4.2) f o r
the load b e a r i n g capacity o f rocks. R o c k s c a n b e classified according t o D I N 4022
Undisturbed, natural soil i s t h e r e s u l t o f a d e c a y e d E a r t h - h i s t o r i c a l p r o c e s s . I t c a n b e [13.2]. R e g a r d i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , rocks a r ed i v i d e d i n t o solidification
f o r m e d b y chemical o r physical w e a t h e r i n g a n d decomposition o f rocks b u t m a y also rocks, sedimentation rocks a n d metamorphoses rocks. S o l i d i f i c a t i o n r o c k s a r e o f m a g m a
be o f organic origin. I f the residues o f rock w e a t h e r i n g remained a t t h e place o f their origin (depth and eruption rocks), sediment rocks were formed b y sedimentation a n d
f o r m a t i o n , t h e y a r e c a l l e d residual soil, o t h e r w i s e transferred soil. R e s i d u a l s o i l s a r e firm metamorphoses rocks b y mechanical o r t h e r m a l transformation.
a n d stable i ngeneral. T r a n s f e r r e d soils, i n p a r t i c u l a r f o r m e d d u r i n g a glacial p e r i o d ,
c a n b e l o o s e a n d s o f t u p t o a g r e a t d e p t h . I f organic components a r e f o u n d i n b e t w e e n ,
13.2.4 F i l l e d - u p soil
t h e soils a r esensitive t o settlements. M o r e difficulties t o install f o u n d a t i o n s exist i n
p a r t i c u l a r i n case o f t r a n s f e r r e d soils. Filled-up soil c a n b e f o r m e d b y a r t i f i c i a l filling o r floating. T h e m a t e r i a l f o r p l a n n e d ,
H o w e v e r , i n g e o t e c h n o l o g y t h e soils axe n o t classified according t o t h e i r f o r m a t i o n b u t engineered filling is selected t h o r o u g h l y i n order t o a t t a i n a satisfying compaction.
a s i n o r g a n i c a n d o r g a n i c s o i l s . I n c a s e o f inorganic soils, t w o m a i n g r o u p s a r e d i s t i n - Foundations c a nbe accommodated i n well-compacted fillings. Uncompacted fillings
g u i s h e d : Non-cohesive soils a n d cohesive soils. P u r e s o i l t y p e s c o n s i s t o f o n e r a n g e o f a n d especially r u b b i s h damps settle so m u c h t h a t installation o f foundations will not
p a r t i c l e sizes o n l y . M o s t n a t u r a l soils a r e m i x t u r e s o f d i f f e r i n g p a r t i c l e sizes. T h e s e c o m - be possible there.
p o s e d soils h a v e t o b e classified according t o t h e i r m a i n c o m p o n e n t ; m a i n c o m p o n e n t
is t h e r e b y t h a t t y p e o f s o i l w h i c h s h a p e s t h e d e t e r m i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
13.3 Subsoil investigation

Non-cohesive soils 13.3.1 P u r p o s e of subsoil investigation

S o i l s w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e s a b o v e 0 , 0 6 m m a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s a non-cohesive soil. I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
incoherent piles o f sand, gravel, stones a n d rocks are w i t h i n this category. According
t o D I N 4022 [13.2], as a n o f t e n used s t a n d a r d , t h i s t y p e o f soil is f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d
according t o t h e p a r t i c l e size ( T a b l e 13.2).
Cohesive soils
T h e cohesive soils c o n s i s t o f p a r t i c l e s i z e s b e l o w 0 , 0 6 m m . T h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s
c a n n o t b e t o l d a p a r t b y t h e u n e q u i p p e d eye. C o h e s i v e soils a r e s u b d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e i n t o silt a n d clay ( T a b l e 1 3 . 3 ) .
Soils w i t h m i x e d particle sizes
M o s t s o i l s a r e m i x t u r e s o f n o n - c o h e s i v e a n d c o h e s i v e p o r t i o n s . Mixed particle size soils
axe c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n - c o h e s i v e i f t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f w e i g h t o f p a r t i c l e s b e l o w 0 , 0 6 m m
T h e supports o f a n overhead line are distributed over long distances w h e r e a l t e r n a t i n g
and widely differing soil conditions are frequently encountered a tthe i n d i v i d u a l support
s i t e s . B y subsoil investigation, t h e necessary i n f o r m a t i o ni sgathered for selecting a w e l l -
suited foundation type and determining the dimensions o f the individual foundation
bodies. Subsoil investigation f o r m s the basis for t h e global analysis o f t h e foundations.
A subsoil investigation should, therefore, b e carried out a t each i n d i v i d u a lsupport site
a n d comprise all soil layers affecting t h e f o u n d a t i o n resistance.
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 1 7 7 3 [13.3], t h e d e p t h o f s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u l d b e n o t less t h a n
t h e f o u n d a t i o n d e p t h i n case o f u p l i f t a n d s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e l y a u g m e n t e d i ncase o f
compression f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e r e c o m m e n d e d d e p t h i nthis case is t h e greatest o f1,1
times the foundation depth or the m a x i m u m horizontal dimension plus the foundation
depth. T h e depth o f the soil investigation needs not t o reach deeper t h a n 3,0m below
t h e f o u n d a t i o n base. A s i m i l a r specification c a n b e f o u n d i n D I N 1054 [13.4]. F o r rock
sites, I E C 6 1 7 7 3 r e c o m m e n d s cores t o b e s a m p l e d t o a m i n i m u m d e p t h o f 3,0 m .
110 10 rUUllUdblULIO

D u e t oeconomic reasons a n d because o f lack i n t i m e , soil investigations need n o t t ob e falling weight

c a r r i e d o u t a t a l l i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t s i t e s i n a c o n s t a n t t e r r a i n . T h e n , final d e c i s i o n s
o n the type a n d dimensions o fthe foundations have t o b em a d e w h e n installing t h e
f o u n d a t i o n . I n t h i s case, f o u n d a t i o n s are designed for t w o o r t h r e e subsoil conditions,
e. g . f o r n o r m a l , w e a k a n d v e r y g o o d s o i l , w i t h o r w i t h o u t c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f g r o u n d

X
w a t e r , i f any. T h e decision o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n t y p e t ob e used w i l l b em a d e d u r i n g
excavation. anvil
H o w e v e r , s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are a b s o l u t e l y necessary w h e n i t is o b v i o u s t h a t non-bearing
soil layers s u c h a s p e a t , m u d , s i l t o r q u i c k s a n d a r e e n c o u n t e r e d w h e r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y
to d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h a t w h i c h w e l l - b e a r i n g soil i s f o u n d . S o i l investigations are also
scale
necessary i n filled-ups, d a m s a n d areas o f l a n d slides.
A t h o r o u g h i n s p e c t i o n of the right-of-way a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t sites s h o u l d b e extension rod

m a d e t odecide o n t h e t y p e o f soil investigation. I n f o r m a t i o no nt h e soil t o b e expected

c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e g r o u n d w a t e r c o n d i t i o n , from w a t e r c o u r s e , v e g e t a t i o n o f t r e e s
a n d p l a n t s , from o t h e r e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e s a n d s e t t l e m e n t s b e i n g o b s e r v e d t h e r e , i f a n y .
Details c a n b erecognized a t sand o rgravel p i t s a sw e l l a sexcavations. I n f o r m a t i o n
obtained f r o m authorities o r local people m a y help as well. A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n can
worm to pick up
b e o b t a i n e d f r o m geological maps.
and lift the
I n c a s e o f s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , i t i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n m e t h o d s w h i c h s e r v e t o collect loosened soil
base
soil samples a n d supplementing probings t o i n v e s t i g a t e o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s u c h a s plate

density of soil strata o r s k i n f r i c t i o n v a l u e s . \

13.3.2 M e t h o d s for o b t a i n i n g soil s a m p l e s

13.3.2.1 T y p e of samples probe

jr^/ point
T h e m e t h o d s f o ro b t a i n i n g soil samples can b e classified as established i nD I N 4 0 2 1
[13.5], a s a n e x a m p l e . O t h e r s t a n d a r d s d e a l i n g w i t h t h i s s u b j e c t s a r e B S 5 9 3 0 [13.6]
a n d A S T M D 1 4 5 2 [ 1 3 . 7 ] . I n D I N 4 0 2 1 , five q u a l i t y c l a s s e s o f t h e g a t h e r e d s a m p l e s a r e F i g u r e 13.2: W o r m f o r b o r i n g Figure 13.3: L i g h t - d u t y p r o b e
F i g u r e 13.1: A u g e r - t y p e
distinguished: d r i l l for h e a v y soils in all k i n d o fsoil, excepted sand according to D I N 4094
- Q u a l i t y class 1 : and gravel w i t h ground water
Unaffected samples w i t h respect t og r a n u l a t e d c o m p o s i t i o n , m o i s t u r e content,
density, coefficient o f p e r m e a b i l i t y , m o d u l u s o f stiffness, shear s t r e n g t h .
d i r e c t i o n w h e r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t y p e o f soils o f t h e u p p e r layers d o w n t o t h e w a t e r t a b l e
- Q u a l i t y class 2 :
Unaffected samples w i t h respect t o g r a n u l a t e d composition, m o i s t u r e content, can be studied.
density, coefficient o f p e r m e a b i l i t y .
- Q u a l i t y class 3: 13.3.2.3 E x p l o r a t o r y borings
Unaffected samples w i t h respect t o g r a n u l a t e d composition, m o i s t u r e content.
- Q u a l i t y class 4 : I n w e l l - s t a n d i n g s o i l s , borings w i t h d i a m e t e r s b e t w e e n 3 0 0 t o 5 0 0 m m a n d w i t h o u t
Unaffected samples w i t h respect t o granulated composition! any casing deliver suitable results concerning t h e identification o f t h e soil, the water
- Q u a l i t y class 5 : c o n t e n t a n d t h e w a t e r t a b l e , t h e stability and t h e density of soil strata. B o r i n g s u p t o 7 m
Incomplete samples, only sequence o f strata t o b e determined. d e p t h can b e carried o u t w i t h t h e tools used for overhead lines. A u g e r - t y p e drills are
F o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s , i t i s n o r m a l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o o b t a i n soil samples disturbed f r o m t h e i r used for this purpose ( F i g u r e 13.1). T h e d e p t h issufficient i f p a d - a n d - c h i m n e y o r auger-
n a t u r a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n since for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e soil characteristics, geotechnical char- bored foundations will b e used. T h e b o r i n g diameters m e n t i o n e d need high-performance
acteristics established b yl a b o r a t o r y tests a r en o tnecessary. T h e d i s t u r b e d samples boring tools asused for augered foundations aswell. Specially designed l o w - d u t y boring
s e r v e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e sequence of soil strata, t h e i r b o u n d a r i e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f tools are available for e x p l o r a t o r y borings enabling b o r i n g diameters between 100 a n d
t h e s t r a t u m , t h e composition of particles, t h e c o n s i s t e n c e , t h e watertable a n d o r g a n i c 1 5 0 m m . F o r l i f t i n g t h e s o i l , worm-type drills a r e u s e d ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 ) , w h i c h a r e s u i t e d
components. For this purpose, soil samples o f class 4 o r 5 are sufficient. t o e x p l o r e less s t a b l e a n d g r o u n d w a t e r c o n d u c t i n g soils. B o r i n g d e p t h s u p t o 1 2 m
c a n b e a c h i e v e d w i t h o u t u n d u e e f f o r t s . T h e s o i l s a m p l e s l i f t e d from t h e b o r e h o l e s a r e
m o r e o r l e s s m i x e d . T h e soil profile c a n b e r e c o g n i z e d from t h e s o i l a d h e r i n g t o t h e
13.3.2.2 T r i a l pits
individual pitches o f the w o r m .
Trial pits c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h o u t s p e c i a l t o o l s , h o w e v e r , t h e y a r e t i m e - c o n s u m i n g T h e ground-water level w i l l b e s t a b l e o n l y a f t e r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d o f t i m e , e . g . a f t e r
a n d costly. P i t s asn a r r o w aspossible are excavated step b y step deeper i n a l o n g i t u d i n a l several h o u r s i n case o fcohesive soils. T h e borehole, t h e r e f o r e , s h o u l d r e m a i n o p e n
478 13 Foundations 13.3 S u b s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n 4 7 9

T a b l e 13.4: D a t a o f d r i v e n p r o b e s a c c o r d i n g t o D I N 4 0 9 4
Device Hammer weight Height
Light-duty probe (DPL) 10 kg 0,50 m fable 13.5: Guiding data for t h erelation fable 13.6: S t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t ( S P T )
Medium-heavy-d uty (DPM) 30 kg 0,20 m between n u m b e r o f blows a n d compactness in non-cohesive a n d cohesive soil
probes (DPM-A) 30 kg 0,50 m Type of soil) Number of blows njo Non-cohesive soil Cohesive soil
Heavy-duty probe (DPH) 50 kg 0,50 m compactness Light Heavy Number Compactness Number Consistence
probe probe of blows of blows

Sand nza "30

over a sufficient l o n g period. B o r i n g s a d o p t i n g casings need t o b e carried o u t i n g r o u n d medium dense > 15 > 5 0 to 4 very losse 0 to 2 very soft
w a t e r s a t u r a t e d soils. T h e soil i s l i f t e d b y special t o o l s , e. g. s p l i t s p o o n s a m p l e r s . I n dense > 30 > 10 4 to 10 loose 2 to 4 soft
10 to 30 medium-dense 4 to 8 medium
c a s e o f r o c k y s u b s o i l , c o r e drillings c a n b e e n v i s a g e d . Sand-gravel mixture
30 to 50 dense 8 to 15 stiff
medium dense > 15 >5
_ D > 50 very dense 15 to 30 very stiff
dense > 18
13.3.2.4 Soil investigation b y drilling probes > 30 hard
1) light-duty p r o b e not suited
T o g a t h e r l o w q u a n t i t i e s o f s a m p l e s , drilling probes a r e u s e d w h i c h E i r e e q u i p p e d w i t h
a longitudinal groove. T h e g r o o v e d p r o b e c o n s i s t s o f a p r o b e l i n k a g e w i t h a i m l o n g
l o n g i t u d i n a l groove a t i t spoint. A f t e r d r i v i n g , soil samples a r e pressed i n t o t h e groove
by r o t a t i n g t h e probe. T h e soil samples a r e l i f t e d b y p u l l i n g t h e linkage o u t o ft h e
borehole. S a n d y soils u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r c a n n o t b e e x p l o r e d w i t h t h i s m e t h o d since
the sand is washed o u t .F o r this purpose, a probe w i t h a sampler a t i t spoint is used
to encase t h e soil sample t o b e lifted. Drilling probes deliver continuous soil profiles i n
n o t t o oh a r d soil f o r w h i c h pile f o u n d a t i o n s a r e i n p a r t i c u l a r suitable. T h e s t a b i l i t y o f
t h e soil w h i c h i s essential f o r a d o p t i o n o f augered f o u n d a t i o n s c a n b e assessed b yt h e
soil samples recovered, w h e r e b y adequate experience i s necessary.

13.3.3 Probes

13.3.3.1 Types o f probes

Driven a n d compression probes a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e t h o d o f a p p l i c a -

t i o n . T h e resistance o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e soil is recorded i n b o t h cases.
Soil samples a r en o trecovered. Probings complement t h e soil profile obtained f r o m bor-
i n g s s i n c e t h e m a j o r i t y o f b o r i n g m e t h o d s d o n o t p e r m i t a n y q u a n t i t a t i v e findings o n
t h e density of stratification. T h e probes p e r m i t t o distinguish i n particular loose a n d
h a r d z o n e s a n d t o a s s e s s t h e uniformity of subsoil.

13.3.3.2 D r i v e n probes

Dimensions o f t h e probes as well as advice for their application can b e found i n D I N

4094 [13.8]. I n case o f d r i v e n p r o b e s as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 ,a r o d w i t h a c o n u s - t y p e
p o i n t i s d r i v e n i n t o t h e s o i l u n d e r s t a n d a r d i z e d c o n d i t i o n s , w h e r e b y t h e n u m l i e r of
blows i s r e c o r d e d a s n e c e s s a r y f o r a p e n e t r a t i o n b y 0 , 1 m ( n i o ) . F r o m t h i s q u a n t i t y ,
i t i s c o n c l u d e d t o t h e c o m p a c t n e s s a n d consistence o f t h etested s t r a t u m . I t is distin-
g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e light-duty, medium-duty a n d heavy-duty driven probe ( T a b l e 1 3 . 4 )
d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w e i g h t o f t h e h a m m e r . T h e l i g h t - d u t y d r i v e n p r o b e i s s u i t e d f o r less
firm s o i l s u p t o a d e p t h o f 6 m . T h e h e a v y - d u t y d r i v e n p r o b e i s s u i t e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n
o f s u b s o i l i n g r e a t e r d e p t h a n d i n c o a r s e , firm s o i l .
R e s u l t s o fp r o b i n g d e p e n d o na great n u m b e r o f p a r a m e t e r s w i t h d i f f e r i n g i n f l u e n c e (see F i g u r e 13.4: S t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t ( S P T ) . F i g u r e 13.5: W o r k i n g p o s i t i o n s o f G o u d a
D I N 4094 [13.8]). A correct assessment o f t h e p r o b i n g r e s u l t s w o u l d o n l y b e possible i f 1 cable; 2 s t u f f i n g b o x ; 3 a u t o m a t i c release probe t o measure t h e point pressure a n d t h e
t h e t y p e o f s o i l w a s k n o w n f r o m a n e x p l o r a t o r y b o r i n g . T h e resistance of penetration mechanism; 4 pushrod; 5 protective mantel; 6 local skin friction (manufacturer: Goudasche
of t h e driven probe alone does n o t p e r m i t t o determine reliably t h e type o f soil. C o n - anvil; 7 penetrometer; 8 b o t t o m o f borehole; t Maschinenfabriek, Gouda, Netherlands)
clusions o n t h e c o m p a c t n e s s a r e o n l y possible i ncase o f non-cohesive soil. A c c o r d i n g d e p t h o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; tB b o r e h o l e d e p t h
t o [13.8] a n d [13.9], t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n n u m b e r o f b l o w s a n d c o m p a c t n e s s g i v e n i n
T a b l e 13.5 c a n b e assumed f o r non-cohesive soils.
 iou J_ %J A' \J U H U f Z L ' I V U o

c o n s i s t s o f a d e v i c e t o r e c o r d t h e point pressure a n d t h e skin friction, a t u b e f o r p r e s s -

ing the point and a linkage arranged i n the tube t o operate the probe point and the
s l e e v e f o r r e c o r d i n g t h e s k i n friction. I n F i g u r e 1 3 . 5 t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e G o u d a p r o b e i s
d e m o n s t r a t e d . I n p o s i t i o n 1 t h e p r o b e i s pressed v i a t h e sleeve t u b e i n t o t h e s t a r t i n g
position a n d t h e total resistance encountered isrecorded. B ypressing the p r o b e point
by t h e l e n g t h a using t h e inner linkage (position 2), the p o i n t pressure is d e t e r m i n e d
and b yexerting additional compression o n the inner linkage, t h e point i s extended
by the length b (position 3 ) a n d the s u m o f point pressure and local s k i n frictionis
d e t e r m i n e d . A f t e r t h a t , t h e p r o b e is a d v a n c e d i n t o t h e n e w s t a r t i n g p o s i t i o n 0,20 m
deeper b y e x e r t i n g pressure o n t h e o u t e r sleeve o f t h e probe. T h i s sequence i s repeated
i n 0,20 m steps u n t i l t h e desired d e p t h o r t h e m a x i m u m permissible compression i s
attained. T h e probes are equipped w i t h mechanical o r electronic m e a s u r i n g devices.
T a b l e 13.7: C o r r e l a t i o n b e - Studies [13.13] carried o u t i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s lead t o t h e conclusion t h a t for a g i v e n
tween point pressure and com- t y p e o f s o i l t h e r a t i o A f b e t w e e n l o c a l s k i n friction / s a n d p o i n t p r e s s u r e qs i s a p p r o x i -
p a c t n e s s i n u n i f o r m fine- a n d m a t e l y constant a n d typical for the k i n d o f soil encountered. Values A f equal t o 6,0%
m e d i u m grain sand c o r r e s p o n d t o p e a t , o f 2,5 t o 6 , 0 % t o c o h e s i v e soil, o f 2,5 t o 1,0 % t o m i x e d p a r t i c l e
Point pressure qs Compactness s o i l a n d l e s s t h a n 1 , 0 % t o n o n - c o h e s i v e s o i l a s c a n b e s e e n from F i g u r e 1 3 . 6 . I n c a s e
(MN/m2)
6 0,05 0,1 0,15 0^2 0,25 (L3 MN/m2 0+ of e a r t h - h u m i d u n i f o r m sand, the correlations between point pressure and compactness
Local skin friction L < 2,5 very loose presented i n T a b l e 13.7 a p p l y a c c o r d i n g t o [13.9].
2,5 to 7,5 loose
F i g u r e 13.6: R e l a t i o n between point pressure 7,5 to 15,0 medium dense T h e watertable cannot b e monitored b y compression probes. T h e skin friction values
15,0 to 25,0 dense obtained f r o m compression probing can b e used directly for the design o f pile lengths
and local skin friction (friction ratios) i n typical
> 25,0 very dense
soils a c c o r d i n g t o [13.13] due t o the similarity o fthe models.
F o r d e s i g n o f h o r i z o n t a l l y l o a d e d p i l e s , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e horizontal subgrade
modulus a l o n g t h e d e p t h i s n e c e s s a x y w h i c h d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e o f s o i l , t h e c o m p a c t n e s s
13.3.3.3 S t a n d a r d penetration test a n d also o n t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e loaded area. A c c o r d i n g t o [13.14], t h e s u b g r a d e
m o d u l u s c a n b e o b t a i n e d from Ks = l , 4 - E , / d w h e r e Es i s t h e modulus of compressibility
T h e standard penetration test ( S P T ) w a s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e U S A [ 1 3 . 1 0 ] a n d i s n o w u s e d a n d d t h e p i l e d i a m e t e r . T h e m o d u l u s o f c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y c a n b e a s s e s s e d from t h e p o i n t
w o r l d - w i d e . I n F i g u r e 1 3 . 4 t h e t e s t i n g d e v i c e i s s h o w n . A t first, a b o r e h o l e i s p r o d u c e d p r e s s u r e qs a c c o r d i n g t o Es = ( 1 , 5 t o 3 ) • qs a s m e n t i o n e d i n [ 1 3 . 9 ] . T h e v a l u e s o b t a i n e d
a n d equipped w i t h a casing. I n t o t h i s borehole, a t u b e sampler w i t h 3 5 m m female from this procedure should b e calibrated w i t h the guideline data given i n Tables 13.11
d i a m e t e r i s p r e s s e d d o w n w a r d s a n d finally d r i v e n 0 , 1 5 m i n t o t h e s o i l b y m e a n s o f a a n d 13.15.
63,2 k g w e i g h t f r o m a height o f0,76 m . A l o n g t h e f o l l o w i n g 0 , 3 0 m d e p t h o f p e n e t r a t i o n ,
t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g n u m b e r o f b l o w s i s r e c o r d e d (1130). T h e s o i l s a m p l e s p r e s s e d i n t o t h e
13.3.4 E v a l u a t i o n of soil investigation
t u b e s a m p l e r d u r i n g d r i v i n g can b erecovered t h e n . T h e s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n test i s
carried o u t w h e r e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e soil profile i s desired. C o m p a r e d w i t h t h e d r i v e n 13.3.4.1 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d d e s c r i p t i o n o f soil t y p e s
probes standardized i n D I N 4094, the soil will not b e completely displaced b y the point
T h e classification of t h e soil a c c o r d i n g t o s t a n d a r d s a n d i t s c o n d i t i o n i s e s s e n t i a l w i t h
of the probe. Therefore, the penetration resistance iscomposed o ft h e punching o f
respect t o the technically correct and economically viable design o f foundations. T h e
the soil and the friction along the cylinder. Depending c n the number o f blows, t h e
p r o c e d u r e s f o r classification and description of the soil types a x e g i v e n i n D I N 4 0 2 2
c o r r e l a t i o n presented i nT a b l e 13.6 a c c o r d i n g t o [13.11] isp r o p o s e d for assessing t h e
[13.2], a s a n e x a m p l e . I n t h i s s t a n d a r d , i t i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n v i s u a l a n d m a n u a l
c o m p a c t n e s s o f non-cohesive soils a n d t h e consistence o f cohesive soils.
procedures for the identification.
T h e visual identification c o m p r i s e s t h e p a r t i c l e size a n d colour. I t applies t o t h e particle
13.3.3.4 V a n - t y p e probes
size ranges:
D i m e n s i o n s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f van-type probes a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n D I N 4 0 9 6 [ 1 3 . 1 2 ] , Range o f gravel: smaller t h a n hen's eggs, larger t h a n m a t c h heads;
V a n - t y p e p r o b e s a r e u s e d i n w a t e r s a t u r a t e d c o h e s i v e soiLs o f s o f t t o s t i f f c o n s i s t e n c e Coarse gravel: s m a l l e r t h a n hen's eggs, larger t h a n hazelnuts;
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e shearing s t r e n g t h a n d serve t o recogniie gliding zones a n d gliding M e d i u m gravel: smaller t h a n hazelnuts, larger t h a n peas;
p l a n e s . I t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o d i v i d e t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h r e c o r d e d i n t o i t s s k i n friction a n d Fine gravel: smaller t h a n peas, larger t h a n m a t c h heads;
cohesion components. Experience o n the application o f results obtained b y van-type Range o fsand: smaller t h a n m a t c h heads, d o w n t o the limit o f visibility;
probes t o design overhead power line foundations d o not exist t o a sufficient extent. Coarse sand: smaller t h a n m a t c h heads, larger them grit;
M e d i u m sand: equal t o grit;
Fine sand: smaller t h a n grit, still visible b y the unequipped eye.
13.3.3.5 Compression probes
T h e colour of soil i s c a u s e d b y a d d i t i o n s . L i g h t c o l o u r s i n d i c a t e h u m u s - f r e e s o i l s , r e d
F o r o v e r h e a d l i n e t e c h n o l o g y , t h e Gouda probe i s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d w h i c h w a s d e v e l o p e d colours axe d u e t o i r o n oxide. D a r k colours arise d u e t oo r g a n i c c o m p o n e n t s . The colour
for fine-grain sandy soil w i t h o u t stones o r coarse gravel i nt h e N e t h e r l a n d s . I t s p o i n t is t h e d a r k e r , t h e m o r e o r g a n i c c o m p o n e n t s are contained.
482 13 Foundations
A manual soil identification i s u s e d i n c a s e o f cohesive soil w h e r e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s
c a n n o t b e a n y m o r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e e y e . B y m e a n s o f h a n d a n d finger t e s t s , i n f o r -
m a t i o n o n t h e fine a n d c o a r s e p a r t i c l e c o n t e n t c a n b e o b t a i n e d . I t c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
between silt a n d clay; plasticity a n d consistence can b e determined.
Dry strength
T h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m dry strength testing p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e p l a s t i c i t y o f
a soil a n d t h u s o n its classification a s silt o r clay.
T o establish t h e d r y s t r e n g t h , a soil sample is dried i n air, i n t h e s u n o r i n a noven. Its
r e s i s t a n c e t o b e i n g c r u m b l e d o r p o w d e r e d b e t w e e n t h e fingers i s a m e a s u r e o f t h e s o i l
d r y s t r e n g t h , w h i c h i s g o v e r n e d b y t h e t y p e a n d p e r c e n t a g e o f fines. T h u s , i t p e r m i t s
t h e soil t o b e classified a s follows:
- Soil has n odry strength, if it disintegrates w i t h o u t being touched o r a tthe slight- .
est t o u c h .
- S o i l h a s l o w d r y s t r e n g t h , i f i t d i s i n t e g r a t e s u n d e r l i g h t t o m o d e r a t e finger p r e s -
sure.
- Soil h a sm e d i u m dry strength, i f i t disintegrates only under substantial finger
pressure i n t o pieces w h i c h still s h o w cohesion.
- Soil h a sh i g h d r y s t r e n g t h , i fthe soil c a nn o longer b e disintegrated b y finger
pressure b u t can only b e broken between the hand.
P u r e gravel o r sand does not have any dry strength. Silt, silt-fine sand and silt-gravel
m i x t u r e s s h o w a l o w d r y s t r e n g t h . M i x t u r e s b e t w e e n gravel a n d clay, s a n d a n d clay a s
well a s silt a n d clay show a m e d i u m d r y s t r e n g t h . Clay, clay-silt a n d clay-sand m i x t u r e s
as w e l l a s c l a y - s i l t - s a n d a n d g r a v e l m i x t u r e s p o s s e s s a h i g h d r y s t r e n g t h .
Dilatancy
T h e behaviour o f a soil w h e n shaking indicates w h e t h e r a n d t o w h a t extent silt is
present.
T o e s t a b l i s h t h e dilatancy, a p a t o f s o i l m o i s t e n e d t o b e s o f t i s s h a k e n f r o m h a n d t o
h a n d . D i l a t a n c y i s s h o w n b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a s h i n y film o f w a t e r o n t h e s u r f a c e o f
t h e p a t . W h e n t h e p a t i s s q u e e z e d o r p r e s s e d w i t h t h e fingers, t h e s u r f a c e d u l l s a s t h e
p a t s t i f f e n s a n d finally c r u m b l e s . W i t h f u r t h e r s h a k i n g , t h e c r u m b s o n c e a g a i n b e c o m e
a cohesive mass o n w h i c h the test can b e repeated.
Considering the t i m e taken f o r water t o appear a n ddisappear during shaking a n d
pressing, t h e soil can b e classified as follows:
- H i g h dilatancy, if t h e process described occurs very quickly;
- L o w d i l a t a n c y , i f t h e s h i n y film o f w a t e r f o r m s a n d c h a n g e s v e r y s l o w l y ;
- Showing n o reaction, if the sample does not respond t o the dilatancy test.
V e r y fine s a n d , s i l t y fine s a n d , f i n e s a n d y s i l t , c o a r s e s i l t a n d r o c k p o w d e r s h o w a q u i c k
reaction. C l a y e y silt a n d sandy-clayey silt react slowly, silty clays a n d p u r e clays d o n o t
show any reactions.
Plasticity
T o e s t a b l i s h t h e plasticity ( t o u g h n e s s ) , a s o i l s a m p l e p r e p a r e d t o b e s o f t b u t n o t s t i c k y
is r o l l e d o n a s m o o t h s u r f a c e o r o n t h e p a l m o f t h e h a n d t o p r o d u c e t h r e a d s a b o u t
3 m m i n diameter, moulded together, and rolled again until it has dried sufficiently and
finally crumbles w h e n rolled out. F r o m this point onwards, the sample c a nn o longer
be rolled o u t , b u t o n l y m o u l d e d u n t i l i t crumbles, t h i s p r o p e r t y being t a k e n a s a basis
for classifying soil as follows:
- L o w p l a s t i c i t y , i f l u m p s s h o w i n g c o h e s i o n can n o l o n g e r b e m o u l d e d from the
threads;
13.3 Subsoil i n v e s t i g a t i o n 4 8 3
- M e d i u m plasticity, i fthe l u m p formed cannot b e moulded because i t crumbles
under light finger pressure;
- H i g h plasticity, i fthe l u m p formed from the threads c a n b e moulded w i t h o u t
c r u m b l i n g , e v e n u n d e r s t r o n g e r finger p r e s s u r e .
H e a v i l y sandy clays a n d w e a k l y clayey silts are distinguished b y a l o w plasticity, silt-
clay m i x t u r e s as w e l l a s w e a k l y s a n d y clays b y a m e d i u m p l a s t i c i t y a n d clay a n d little
silty clays b y h i g h plasticity.
S a n d c o n t e n t of soils
T o c h e c k a s o i l f o r t h e content of sand, s i l t a n d c l a y , a s m a l l s o i l s a m p l e i s r u b b e d
b e t w e e n t h e fingers, i f n e c e s s a r y u n d e r w a t e r . T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s a n d f r a c t i o n c a n
b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l feels g r i t t y . I n cases o f d o u b t , t h e
test m a y b e carried o u t b y g r i n d i n g the soil between t h e teeth, the presence o f sand
being felt due t o its grittiness.
A c l a y e y s o i l f e e l s s o a p y a n d s t i c k s t o t h e fingers a n d c a n n o t b e r e m o v e d w i t h o u t
w a s h i n g , even w h e n i n t h e d r y state, whereas silty soils feel s m o o t h t o t h e t o u c h . T h e
d r y s o i l p a r t i c l e s t h a t s t i c k t o t h e fingers c a n b e e a s i l y b l o w n a w a y o r r e m o v e d b y
clapping the hands.
C l a y a n d silt c o n t e n t of soils
T o c h e c k a s o i l f o r t h e content of clay or silt, a s a m p l e i n i t s n a t u r a l l y m o i s t s t a t e
is c u t w i t h a k n i f e . A s h i n y c u t s u r f a c e i n d i c a t e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f clay, w h i l e a d u l l
sample surface is characteristic o f silt o r o f clayey-sandy silt o f low plasticity. F o r a
r a p i d assessment, t h e sample surface m a y b e scored w i t h a fingernail o r smoothed.
O r g a n i c soil a n d p e a t
T h e o d o u r o f a soil gives a n i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e t h e r i tis o f inorganic o r organic n a t u r e .
F r e s h , m o i s t organic soils g e n e r a l l y h a v e a m o u l d y o d o u r w h i c h c a n b e i n t e n s i f i e d b y
heating a moist sample.
Putrefying, r o t t e n organic components i n soil can b erecognized b ythe typical hydrogen
sulfide odour w h i c h can b e intensified b ypouring dilute hydrochloric acid o n the sample.
T h i s odour is produced particularly b y m u d a n d fresh slightly decomposed peat. D r y
inorganic clays have a n e a r t h y o d o u r after being moistened.
Consistence
T h e consistence o f a cohesive soil can b e d e t e r m i n e d i n a field test, t h u s p e r m i t t i n g the
following classification:
- A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s p a s t y i f i t e x u d e s b e t w e e n fingers w h e n s q u e e z e d i n t h e
hand.
- A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s s o f t i f i t c a n b e m o u l d e d b y l i g h t finger p r e s s u r e .
- A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s s t i f f i f i t c a n n o t b e m o u l d e d b y fingers b u t r o l l e d i n t h e
hand t o3 m m thick threads without breaking o r crumbling.
- A soil ist ob e classed as semi-solid if i t crumbles a n d breaks w h e n rolled t o3 m m
thick threads b u t isstill sufficiently moist t o be moulded t o a l u m p again.
- A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s firm i f i t h a s d r i e d o u t a n d i s m o s t l y l i g h t c o l o u r e d . I t
can n o longer b e m o u l d e d but crumbles under pressure.
13.3.4.2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of r o c k
For the classification o f rock material, there are, i n contrast t o soil, n o simple distin-
g u i s h i n g features t h a t can b e observed o nsite. D e t a i l s o n t h e classification o nt h e basis
o f i t s m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d f o r m a t i o n h i s t o r y are g i v e n i n D I N 4022, P a r t 1 [13.2].
Regarding the f o r m a t i o n history, rock is classed as:
*±0*± AO J'Uuiiuauiuiiri

T a b l e 1 3 . 8 : Assessment of rock weathering condition by inspection of excavated m a t e r i a l T a b l e 1 3 . 9 : Assessment of rock compactness

Shape of the rock Weathering of Strength of the Strength or the Degree of dis- Layer thick- CleRing Degree of dis- Zones of Structure of zones
the surface rock surface integration in ness, distance, integration weathering
water average mean of rock
Regular rock fresh sound, no only divisible cannot be no disintegra- distance values on fields
WO
material with at oxidation, no by hitting fissured using tion in water, m m
least two approx. change of colour powerfully with steel nail or tip no disintegra- WO 0,60 to 2,00 0,60 to 2,00 disintegration only not visible very closed, closely
parallel surfaces hammer of knife tion is visible when blasted linked together
WI Irregular rock discoulered, little fissures crack can hardly be no disnitegra- WI 0,20 to 0,60 0,20 to 0,60 disintegration only several narrow partially closed
material, surfaces oxidation, little using hammer fissured using tion in water, with hydraulic zones and linked together
often not parallel loss of strength, steel nail or tip no disintegra- hammer, use of
hard of knife tion is visible compressor, hardly
weakened, oxi- visual cracks, rather difficult no disintegra- possible
W2' Rock material
has sharp edges dated and par- divisable with to fissure using tion in water, W2 0,06 to 0,20 0,06 to 0,20 can easily be several broad usually open, par-
and some parts of tially disintegra- hammer steel nail or no disintegra- disintegrated with zones tially still linked
surface have ted and decom- tip of knife tion is visible compressor or together
broken off posed m echamc ally
W3 Rock material rock material breakes easily, can easily be only surfaces W3 0,02 to 0,06 0,02 to 0,06 not easy to many zones and open and not
with only a few mostly visible, only fragments fissured using disintegrate disintegrate areas linked together
sharp edges and heavily decom- can be obtained steel nail or in water manu ally
large parts of posed and weath- tip of knife W4 0,006 to 0,02 <0,02 easy to disintegrate hardly anymore wide open
surface broken off ered manually, using zones
W4 Rock material rock material de- falls apart into little parts decomposition shovel
has a round form, composed into little pieces at can be rubbed into parts W5 < 0,006 loose material, e. g, no zones not visible due to
no sharp edges small particles light stroke of off easily with sand, clay, easy to weathering
due to weath- hammer finger dig with shovel
ering
W5 No solid parts no rock material can be crushed falls apart total disinte-
obtainable left due to weath- easily by hand when being gration, no 13.3.4.3 C o n c r e t e - a g g r e s s i v e w a t e r a n d soils
ering rubbed solid parts
left,paste-like W a t e r a n d s o i l s m a y a t t a c k c o n c r e t e i f free a c i d s , s u l p h i d e s , s u l p h a t e s , m a g n e s i u m
substance
s a l t , a m m o n i u m s a l t o r g r e a s e a n d o i l a r e c o n t a i n e d . Concrete-aggressive ground water
is recognized b y a d a r k colour, r o t t e n o d o u r a n d e m e r g i n g g a s bubbles. I n case o f
suspicions o n concrete aggressiveness o f t h e g r o u n d w a t e r o r o f t h e soil, samples s h o u l d
— Igneuos rock s u c h a s a n d e s i t e , b a s a l t , d i a b a s e , d i o s i t e , g r a n i t e , q u a r t z .
be t a k e n . I n D I N 4030 [13.16], i n s t r u c t i o n s a r e g i v e n f o r collecting a n d e x a m i n i n g
— Sedimentary rock s u c h a s c h a l k , c l a y s t o n e , d o l o m i t e , g y p s u m , l i m e s t o n e , marl-
samples. T h e s a m p l e s are tested i nt h e l a b o r a t o r y a n d t h e degree o faggressiveness i s
stone, sandstone.
d e t e r m i n e d . I t i s distinguished b e t w e e n lowly, h e a v i l y a n d v e r y h e a v i l y aggressive. T h e
— Metamorphisic rock s u c h a s g n e i s s , m a r b l e , m i c a c e o u s s h i s t .
degree of aggressiveness of water and soil i s a s s e s s e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l i m i t d a t a g i v e n
T h e characteristics used t o class rock such a s g r a n u l a t i o n , g r a i n size, clay m i n e r a l con-
i n T a b l e 13.10. F o r t h e degree o faggressiveness, t h e m a x i m u m value i s prevalent also
tent, b u l k density, grain bond and hardness, stability in water can only b e determined
if i t i s recorded o n l y once. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e e x i s t i n g degree o f aggressiveness, special
f r o m core drilling w h i c h i s n o t o f t e n c a r r i e d o u t w h e n i n v e s t i g a t i n g s i t e s for o v e r h e a d
r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e concrete q u a l i t y (see clause 16.3.7.3) are requested according t o
line supports. For design and implementation o ffoundations, the weathering condition
E N V 1 9 9 2 - 1 [13.17] o r specific m e a s u r e s t o p r o t e c t t h e c o n c r e t e s h o u l d b e t a k e n .
is m o r e i m p o r t a n t .
P r o p o s a l s f o r a s s e s s m e n t a n d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e degree of rock weathering a r e g i v e n
i n [13.15]. T h e range b e t w e e n loose a n d solid rock i sd i v i d e d i n t o s i xgroups W O t o 13.3.4.4 B o r e h o l e log
W 5 depending o nthe degree o fweathering. Based o n visual characteristics o f the rock
T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n c a n b e e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o D I N 4 0 2 2 [13.2] a n d
s t r a t u m , the degree o f weathering, the strength o fthe rock a n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f grains
p r e s e n t e d i n borehole logs. T h e results of probings c a n b e r e c o r d e d a c c o r d i n g t o D I N
it is distinguished b y
4 0 9 4 [ 1 3 . 8 ] . T h e b o r e h o l e l o g s f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e soil characteristics. A
- W O m o u n t a i n fresh, - W I weathering started, - W 2 moderately weathered,
f o r m a t f o r t h e b o r e h o l e l o g a n d i t s filling i n a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n D I N 4 0 2 2 ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 7 ) .
- W 3strongly weathered, - W 4completely weathered, - W 5 f o r m a t i o n o f soil.
W h e n c a r r y i n g o u t t h e s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e c o l u m n s 1 t o 3 a r e filled i n . I n c o l u m n 1
Rock-type foundations c a n b e a d o p t e d i n case o f t h e w e a t h e r i n g conditions W O t o the depth o ft h e currently encountered s t r a t u m isrecorded. I n c o l u m n 2 the type o f
W 2 . W i t h o u t costly soil investigations b y core drilling a n d investigation o f the rock s o i l i s filled i n u n d e r i t e m a ) u s i n g t h e d e s i g n a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o D I N 4 0 2 2 , T a b l e 6 .
characteristic i nthe laboratory, t h e weathering condition o f t h e excavated m a t e r i a lis I n c a s e o f m i x e d - t y p e s o i l s , t h a t t y p e o f s o i l i s m e n t i o n e d first w h i c h d e t e r m i n e s t h e
addressed according t o T a b l e 13.8 a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p a c t n e s s according t o T a b l e characteristics o f t h e soil, for e x a m p l e gravel, s a n d y ; silt, s a n d y o r clay, silty. A d d i t i o n a l
13.9 b ys i m p l e measures. B y these m e a s u r e s a classification t o o n e o ft h e w e a t h e r i n g c o m p o n e n t s s u c h a s w o o d o r p a r t s o f b r i c k s , filled-up s o i l s e t c . s h o u l d b e a d d e d .
conditions is possible. I n c o l u m n 2 c ) , t h e condition of the recovered samples w i t h s t a n d a r d i z e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
486 13 F o u n d a t i o n s 13.3 Subsoil investigation 4 8 7

DW4022 Parti Appendix B

S p e c i m e n form for e borehole log (flekf log) T a b l e 1 3 . 1 0 : L i m i t s for assessment o f aggressiveness o f w a t e r a n d soil
The not* hi UM nwgln on pgga 1 proNUHng fogroCucUoo ol any par! pf Um stondwd doea not w*t t o tha tpdoMtog apacPnao l a m
Type of investigation Level of aggressiveness
Lowly aggressive Heavily aggressive Very heavily aggressive
Borehole log (field log) Report No.:
pH value 6,5 to 5,5 pH value 5,5 to 4,5 pH value below 4,5
for drilling not involving continuous sample recovery Water
Ret.: 4 3 3 - 1 0 0 6 6 7
Lime soluting carbonic acid 15 to 40 40 to 100 above 100
Name »f project: 1 1 0 XV l i n e North station
( C O 2 ) in mg/1 determined
Borehole Date:
_ . , ,. NO. T o w e r /Sheet 1 by the marble test
TMalpH H o . 3 29.10.99 according to Heyer
1 2 3 4 5 I 6 Ammonia ( N H / ) in mg/I 15 to 30 30 to 60 above 60
a) Designation of sod type Samples Magnesium ( M g 2 + ) in mg/1 300 to 1000 1 000 to 3 000 above 3000
and secondary constituents Notes recovered
End Sulphate ( S O 2 - ) in mg/I 200 to 600 600 to 3 000 above 3000
of b) Notes') (special sample,
bore- water conditions, Depth
Soil
hole c) Condition of d) Condition of soil/rock e) Colour drilfing tools, (bottom
Type No. Sulphate (SO[ ) i n m g / k g 2 000 to 3 000 3000 to 5 000 above 12 000
al. ..m sample according to depth core loss. sample
face).
of air-dry soil
depth f) Usual g) Geological h) 1) I) U m mlsceBaneous)
designation designation') Group content In m
a) humus, fine sandy rotary
drilling,
b) auger-type
should be mentioned:
drill. - Non-cohesive soil: s h a r p e d g e s , r o u n d e d g e s , l i k e p l a t e s , d r y , e a r t h h u m i d ;
O,10 3 00 mm
c) d) easy to e) brown
drill diameter, - Cohesive soils: c o n s i s t e n c e : p a s t y , s o f t , s t i f f , s e m i - h a r d , h a r d ;
0 Top s o i l Q) Top s o i l h) I)
dry — Organic soils: w i t h m u c h w o o d , flaky, like a sponge, decomposed, n o n -
decomposed;
fl)coarse sand, l i t t l e clayey — Filled-up soils: c o m p a c t e d , non-compacted.
dry
b) U n d e r c o l u m n 2 d ) , i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e drifting process i sgiven w h i c h is i m p o r t a n t
for t h e assessment o f t h e load-bearing capacity a n d stability o f the soil. T h e following
0,50 c) round edges, d) easy to e) brown/grey
loose drill t e r m s should b e used: E a s y o r difficult t o drill, h i g h o r low p e n e t r a t i o n resistance, drill
f) sand 0) • h) i) deviates laterally, sloughing o f drill, hindrances t o drilling available.
U n d e r c o l u m n 2e), t h e colour o f t h e soil i s m e n t i o n e d , e.g .grey, b r o w n , bluey, r u s t y -
fl) fine sand dry, speckled, yellowly-grey.
borehole i s
b) enlarged I n c o l u m n 2 f ) , t h e l o c a l l y u s e d n a m e i s filled i n t o e a s e t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s o i l : Quick
1,50
C) round edges d) normal
sand i s fine s a n d w h i c h flows u n d e r w a t e r a c t i o n . A f t i d i s a s i l t y , l i m e - c o n t a i n i n g c l a y
fl)light brown
to d r i l l w i t h r e s i d u a l s o f p l a n t s . Loam i s a c l a y s o i l w i t h a p r o p o r t i o n o f s i l t a n d fine s a n d
f) sand 0) h) i) b e t w e e n 3 0 a n d 7 0 %. B e c a u s e o f t h e c o n t e n t o n i r o n h y d r o x i d e , i t i s m o s t l y y e l l o w t o
b r o w n coloured. D e p e n d i n g o n the mass proportions o f clay a n d sand, i tis addressed
a) c l a y , f i n e sandy
a s s a n d y l o a m o r l o a m y s a n d . Marl i s a c l a y w i t h 2 5 t o 3 0 % o f l i m e . M a r l i s h a r d i n
b) i t s n a t u r a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . H o w e v e r , i t f a l l s a p a r t q u i c k l y a t a i r . Looze i s a d e s i g n a t i o n
3,00 for organic soil w i t h clayey a n d fine-sandy additions, especially o n river beds. Looze
c) semi-hard d) normal e) brown/grey
to d r i l l s t a n d s f o r a fine s a n d y , s i l t y s o i l c e m e n t e d b y c h a l k . I t s c o l o u r i s y e l l o w t o l i g h t b r o w n .
") loamy 3 o i l a) h) i) Foul mud i s a s e d i m e n t o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y o r g a n i c s u b s t a n c e s b e l o w w a t e r . I t i s b r o w n
to black, greasy and o f bad odour.
a) coarse sand, vary clayey Hater table
reached I n c o l u m n 3 , t h e d r i l l i n g t o o l u s e d a n d a l l o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s a x e filled i n , w h i c h a r e
b) not to d r i l l of significance for t h e decision o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n , e. g . borehole collapse, borehole i s
deeper
4,0C c) rounded, because
e n l a r g e d f r o m z m d e p t h , b o r e h o l e s t a n d s firmly, d e e p e r d r i l l i n g n o t p o s s i b l e . T h e w a t e r
d) difficult ») gtey
dense to c u t of sandstone table observed d u r i n g drilling and the permanent water table observed after some hours
f) sand stone a) h) I) should b e m e n t i o n e d there. T h e columns 4, 5a n d 6 are o n l y necessary w h e n soil samples
are recovered.
*) This section shall be completed by the geologist

F i g u r e 1 3 . 7 : Borehole log according t o D I N 4022, P a r t 1

13.3.4.5 Graphical representation

I n order t o g e t a n overview o n t h e soil conditions along t h etotal line, a graphical

p r e s e n t a t i o n o fb o r e h o l e logs m i g h t b e s u i t e d , w h e r e b y t h e s y m b o l s a n d colours a s
specified i n D I N 4 0 2 3 [13.18] c a n b e u s e d for t h e i n d i v i d u a l soil types.
+50 13 r u u n u a L i u u s z o . t u e s i g i i a i m csuuuiaiiuii u i luunuaciuus toa

13.4 Design and calculation of foundations

T a b l e 1 3 . 1 1 : Geotechnical characteristics o f s o m e f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u n t e r e d soils according
to E N 50341-1, Annex M
13.4.1 T y p e of f o u n d a t i o n a n d load
Soil Specific weight force Angle of Cohesion Undrained Subgrade
T h e type of f o u n d a t i o n for a n o v e r h e a d l i n e s u p p o r t d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e o f t h e s u p p o r t , naturally under internal shear modulus
humid buoyancy friction strength
o n t h em a g n i t u d e a n d type o f load, o n t h esoil conditions a n d o n t h epossibilities f o r
7 1 f c cu KB
installing the f o u n d a t i o n . S i n c e a c l o s e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e exists between t h e design o f kN/m3 kN/m3 Degree kN/m2 kN/m2 MN/m3
supports a n d foundations, t h e possibilities f o r design a n d installation o f foundations 11 ± 2 25 ± 5
Maxl, com p tict 20 ±2 30± 5 60 ± 20 > 200
should b e considered already w h e n designing the supports. ma E m 4- i n K n x in
Marl, altered 19±2 11 ± 2
T h e decision o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n t y p e i s based o n i t s limit resistance. T h e l i m i t resistance OU It 1U OU ± 1U
Gravel, graded 19 ± 2 10 ± 2 Oft 4- 4 ifin4- i n
is t h e l o a d , b e y o n d which t h efoundation cannot anymore carry o u t itsfunction a n d 10U it UJ
Sand, loose 18 ± 2 10 ± 2 on j- 4 fin 4- in
fails. I t is a specific characteristic o f each f o u n d a t i o n type. M e t h o d s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e OU 3: 0 OU It 1U
semi-dense 19 ± 2 11 ± 2 32 ±5 80 ± 10
l i m i t r e s i s t a n c e o r t h e u l t i m a t e strength will be given for foundation types frequently dense 20 ± 2 12 ± 2 35 ± 3 100 ± 1 0
used for o v e r h e a d p o w e r lines i nt h e f o l l o w i n g . T h e s e m e t h o d s are based o n geotechnical Sandy silt 18 ± 2 10 ± 2 25 ± 5 lOtfc 5 30 ± 10 60 ± 10
theories o r empirical formulae validated t h r o u g h tests a n d long-term experience. Clayey silt 19 ± 2 11 ± 2 On 4- fi on
zu 4- 1 n
± 1U An 4- i n fin 4- i n
4U It 1 u OU it 1U
T h e g e o t e c h n i c a l d e s i g n of f o u n d a t i o n a i m s a t t h e l o a d t r a n s f e r t o t h e s u b s o i l a n d t h e Loam, silt, malleable 17 ± 2 7 + 2 on 4- fi on 4- i n ftfi It4- ofi
OO
Z\i It o ZU It 1 u
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the limit resistance o r a t the dimensions required t o achieve t h e limit L-lay, son; 17 dr 2 7 + 2 10 j . e Ofi 4- fi
11
IE J±. Eo O*! ZD
on it 0
resistance. E . g., d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f pile l e n g t h s is p a r t o f t h e geotechnical design. T h e semi-stiff 19 ± 2 9 + 2 ZD it4- fi
0 nn 4- i n 4- fi
stiff 20 ± 2 10 ± 2 20 ± 5 DU ± 1U OU it± 05
40
r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d basis o f geotechnical design f o l l o w f r o m t h e state o f t h e a r t , w h i c h c a n
be f o u n d i nt h e literature a n di nstandards, especially i n E u r o p e i nE N5 0 341-1 [13.1] Clay till 20 ± 2 10 ± 2 30 ± 5 12 ± 7 400 ± 350
a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 [13.19], e. g. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 |T1 PW nntVi cvT*tranir

[13.20] for Germany. Also t h eexperience f r o m tests a n d previously constructed lines addition 15 ± 2 5 ±2 15 ± 5

can b e used f o rthe geotechnical design o f f o u n d a t i o n s . A n o v e r v i e w is g i v e n i n [13.21]. Peat, marsh 12 ± 2 2 + 2

T h e geotechnical design o f foundations c a nb e based o n characteristic o r design loads, Backfill, embankment,

medium compaction 19 ± 2 10 ± 2 25 + 5 15 ± 5 20 ± 5
which, as defined i n E N 50341-1, correspond t o u l t i m a t e loads. Regarding detailed
d e s i g n a n d s t i p u l a t i o n o f p a r t i a l factors, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 refers t o t h eN a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects established forthe individual countries [13.19].
o f s u p p o r t s a n d f o u n d a t i o n s i s a c h i e v e d as r e q u i r e d b y [ 1 3 . 1 ] , t h e s t r e n g t h o f foundation
According t o [13.20] v a l i d f o r G e r m a n y , t o m e n t i o n a n e x a m p l e , v e r i f i c a t i o n o f f o u n - being higher than that o f t h e supported structures. T h e partial factors T M c a n be
dations is based o n characteristic loads. Since E u r o p e a n standards using t h e partial stipulated as required for t h e t y p e o f f o u n d a t i o n , also i n a project specification.
factor approach based o n u l t i m a t e loads a n d resistance d o n o texist so far, t h e stability T h e structural d e s i g n of f o u n d a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o t h e i n t e r n a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n
of foundations is verified b y proofing that body. T h e load o f the foundation is determined f r o m the design values o f the supports.
I n case o f concrete f o u n d a t i o n s , t h eanalysis, t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l forces
EK < -Rperm i (13.1)
and m o m e n t s a n d t h estructural design c a n be carried o u t according to E N V 1992-1
w h e r e Aperm is obtained either b y d i v i d i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n resistance A d b y a partial [13.17]. T h e concrete used f o r f o u n d a t i o n s h o u l d have a m i n i m u m compressive strength
factor T Morb y evaluating A p e r m directly f r o m permissible resistance parameters. Deter- according t o C20/25. T h e s t r u c t u r a l design o f steel components o f t h e foundations
m i n a t i o n o f uplift capacity is a n example f o r t h e o p t i o n m e n t i o n e d first, the evaluation can b e carried o u t according t o E N V 1993-1-1 [13.22]. T h ep a r t i a l factors f o r actions
of compression capacity a n example f o r t h e second approach. are contained i n t h edesign values; f o r t h ed e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the resistance, t h e partial
T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o u n d a t i o n loads result f r o m the support analysis using characteristic factors f o r m a t e r i a l s c a n b e t a k e n f r o m t h erelevant s t a n d a r d o r project specification.
e x t e r n a l loads. Since t h e s u p p o r t analysis is carried o u t w i t h design o r u l t i m a t e loads,
a separate analysis is required. I f the support analysis h a sbeen carried out w i t h design
13.4.2 Soil characteristics
loads only, t h e characteristic values E R o f f o u n d a t i o n loads m a y be approximately
derived f r o m t h edesign values E D o f f o u n d a t i o n loads b y I f soil i n v e s t i g a t i o n d i d n o t y i e l d o t h e r values, t h e soil characteristics according to
Tables 13.11, 13.12, 13.13 a n d 13.14 c a n b e used f o rdesign o f f o u n d a t i o n s . A sufficient
A K = A d /l,35 . (13.2)
c o m p a c t i o n of the backfill is assumed w h e n adopting this values.
A n alternative approach o f verification o f foundation stability is presented here, where I n T a b l e s 1 3 . 1 3 a n d 1 3 . 1 4 t a k e n f r o m E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [ 1 3 . 2 0 ] , s o i l characteristics are given
t h e geotechnical design is carried o u t o n split partial factors. T h i s approach is t h e same for different soil types for use w h e n designing foundations. T h esoil types determined
as a d o p t e d f o r design o f supports a n d f o r t h es t r u c t u r a l design o f f o u n d a t i o n a n d h a s d u r i n g s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u l d b e c o r r e l a t e d t o t h e soil types given i n Tables 13.12,
t h e advantage o f consistence o f geotechnical a n dstructural foundation design. 13.13, a n d 13.14. A s a precondition, t h erules m e n t i o n e d i n clause 13.3.4.4 s h o u l d b e
It is required t o prove that duly considered w h e n filling i nthe borehole log.
F o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l s o i l t y p e s , t h e s p e c i f i c w e i g h t , t h e internal f r i c t i o n angle, t h e per-
ED < R d / l M , (13.3)
m i s s i b l e bearing p r e s s u r e u n d e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d u l t i m a t e l o a d s a n d t h e earth frustum
where t h e partial factors T M m a y b e different f r o m those used i n t h e conventional angle a r e g i v e n i n tables 13.13 a n d 13.14. T h e d e n s i t y o f a soil t y p e is needed f o r t h e
approach. These factors c a nbe established such that the coordination between strength v e r i f i c a t i o n o f s t a b i l i t y a n dt h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e soil p r e s s u r e b e l o w a f o u n d a t i o n .
490 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 491

T a b l e 13.12: M e c h a n i c a l properties o f s o m e c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d rocks according t o E N

50 3 4 1 - 1 , A n n e x M 1 2 3 4 5 6
Rock designation Crushing strength Rc Tensile strength Rt Modulus of elasticity E Type of soil Specific weight force Angle Bearing pressure at Coeffi-
MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2 naturally with of a depth of 1,5 m cient
humid buoyancy internal permissible ultimate 1 !
Granite, gneiss, basalt 100 to 200 4 to 10 20 000 to 70 000
(values for design) friction
Clay, shale 15 to 100 0 to 10 7 000 to 50 000
Limestone, compact 50 to 100 5 to 7 30000 to 60 000 7 7 V> 01.5 01,5 K

kN/m3 kN/m3 Degree kN/m2 kN/m2

Limestone, soft 10 to 20 1 to 3 4 000 to 20 000
Marl, not altered 10 to 20 1 to 2 200 to 1000 N o n - c o h e s i v e soil
Sandstone 10 to 100 1 to 6 10 000 to 40 000 1 Sand, loose 1 / Q 30 200 320 3,5
2 to 10 0,2 to 1 2 Sand, semi-loose yn 32,5 300 480 4
Molasse 1 500 to 5 000 1
1U
21
Gypsum 3 to 10 0,3 to 1 2 000 to 5 000 3 Sand, dense 19 35 400 640 5
4 Gravel, bolder, uniform 17
11 Q 35 400 640 5
- Poisson's coefficient \i is commonly between 0,25 and 0,35. V
5 Gravel, sand, graded 1O 1U 35 400 640 5
- The angle of internal friction ip is commonly between 35 and 45° and strongly depends upon
6 Boulder, stones, macadam, 15 In 35 400 640 6
degree and direction of fissures. 1U
graded
C o h e s i v e soils
T h e s p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f t h e s o i l a f f e c t s a l s o t h e permissible a n d ultimate bearing pressure 7 pasty 16 8 0 0 0 1
8 soft (easy to knead),
g i v e n i nT a b l e 1 3 . 1 3 , c o l u m n 5 , f o r 1,5 m d e p t h ( 0 1 , 5 ) . I f t h e e m b e d m e n t d e p t h t is m o r e
purely cohesive 18 9 15 40 65 2
t h a n 1,5 m a t a l l s i d e s o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y , t h e p e r m i s s i b l e a n d u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g 9 soft, with non-cohesive
p r e s s u r e (at) m a ybe increased b y a value w h i c h results f r o m the surcharge o f t h e soil additions 19 10 17,5 40 65 2,5
associated w i t h the additional depth multiplied b y the factor K t o be 10 firm (difficult to knead),
purely cohesive 18 9 17,5 100 160 2,5
11 firm, with non-cohesive
0t = 01,5 + ( * - l , 5 ) - 7 - « (13-4)
additions 19 10 22,5 100 160 3
12 stiff, purely cohesive 18 10 22,5 200 320 3
for t h e permissible bearing pressure a n d
13 stiff, with non-cohesive
additions 19 11 25 200 320 3,5
0 t = 01,5 + 1 , 6 • ( t - 1,5) • 7 • K (13.5) 14 hard, purely cohesive 18 07 r 400 640 o,j
3 6

15 hard, with non-cohesive

for t h e u l t i m a t e c o n d i t i o n . additions 19 30
OK) 400 040 4
I f ground water is f o u n d , t h e specific weight reduced b y t h e buoyancy according to O r g a n i c soils a n d soils w i t h o r g a n i c additions
c o l u m n 3 , T a b l e 1 3 . 1 3c a n b e used, o n l y . I n t h i s case, t h e m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e water 5 to 16 0 to 7 15 1
table should be considered. Rock
The earth frustum angle 0q a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 13.14 c o l u m n s 2 t o 4 is used f o r t h e -with considerable fissures 20 up to 1000 2 ) 1600 2 '
or unfavourable stratifaction
verification of stability i n case o f u p l i f t - l o a d e d auger-bored, concrete stepped block
-in sound, non-decomposed 25 up to 3000 2 ) 4800"
a n d p a d a n dc h i m n e y f o u n d a t i o n s . C o l u m n 5 applies t o m o n o b l o c k foundations loaded
condition with minor fissures
p r e d o m i n a n t l y b y b e n d i n g m o m e n t s . N o to n l y t h ed e a d w e i g h t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d or favourable stratification
the load o f the soil resting vertically above t h ef o u n d a t i o n base is considered but in M a d e u p g r o u n d a n d fill
a d d i t i o n a b o d y o f e a r t h extending over t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface. T h ev o l u m e o f this uncompacted embankment 12 to 16 6 to 10 10 to 25 30 to 100 48 to 160 2
e a r t h f r u s t u m i s d e t e r m i n e d b y m e a n s o f t h e a n g l e fig d e p e n d i n g o n the foundation compacted embankment Classification according to type of soil, density of stratification
dimensions . and consistence, respectively
The dead weight o f monoblock foundations m a y be increased b y the dead weight o fa n " data established by the authors; 2) independent of depth
e a r t h f r u s t u m w i t h t h e angle 0 according t o T a b l e 13.14 c o l u m n 5 . T h i s a p p r o a c h leads
to a conservative f o u n d a t i o n resistance as confirmed b y full-scale tests.
13.4.3.2 Monoblock foundations

13.4.3 Compact foundations Monoblock foundations axe m a d e u p o f concrete either as a p r i s m a t i c b o d y w i t h vertical

faces o r as stepped b o d y w i t h o n e o r several steps. T h e b e a r i n g pressure i nt h e subface
13.4.3.1 Definition as w e l l a s t h e l a t e r a l e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e l i m i t s t r e n g t h o f t h i s f o u n d a t i o n
type. Today, monoblock foundations axe predominantly carried out for medium-voltage
I n c a s e o f compact foundations, t h e t o w e r o r p o l e b o d y is e m b e d d e d i n a m o n o l i t i c
lines equipped w i t h concrete poles, solid-wall steel poles o r lattice steel towers with
foundation b o d y loaded substantially by bending m o m e n t s , i naddition t o horizontally
s m a l l w i d t h . I n case o f wide-spread lattice steel towers, t h econcrete volume would be
a n d v e r t i c a l l y a c t i n g forces. T h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e s t r u c t u r a lloads t o t h e s u b s o i l i s achieved
extremely high and, therefore, this type o f foundation w o u l d be uneconomic. I n this
by bearing pressures i n the f o u n d a t i o n subsoil o r b y lateral e a r t h resistance depending
case, c o n c r e t e slab f o u n d a t i o n s offer a n i n t e r e s t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e .
on the type of compact foundation. Compact foundations a r ecarried o u t f o r a n y t y p e
o f o v e r h e a d line s t r u c t u r e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r also f o rt o w e r s w i t h e x t r a o r d i n a r i l yh i g h loads,
e. g . b e n d i n g m o m e n t s o f 2 0 0 0 0 0 k N m a n d m o r e .
4yz i df oundations J-«-».l J-^rr-or^i-J.ttLnacure U I C V L I U L I %JL I U L H I U L I U I I / I I L ) S.\J%J

where, according t o E N 5 0 341-3-4,

T a b l e 13.14: A n g l e o f e a r t h frustum according t o E N 50341-3-4 for design o f f o u n d a t i o n
1 2 3 4 5
7 M = 1 , 5 - 0 , 5 ( 1 ^ / . ? ^ ) (13.8)
Type of soil Auger-bored Stepped concrete foundation Monoblock
foundation concreted to foundation and T M > 1,0.
undisturbed soil planking
I n a d d i t i o n , t h e b e a r i n g pressure i n t h e subface a s w e l l a s i n t h e l a t e r a l faces m a y n o t
00 0
exceed t h e permissible b e a r i n g pressures as given i n T a b l e 13.13.
N o n - c o h e s i v e soil
11 ^^tiri li-trtcc*
O x U l U , JUU.7C 18 to 21 16 to 18 5 to 10 F o l l o w i n g t h e second approach, t h ei n c l i n a t i o no ft h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y s h o u l d n o t exceed
2 Seind, semi-loose i a f n 40 99 tn 9^ 18 to 20 5 to 10 1,5 % u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f u l t i m a t e l o a d s . I f t h e r e s i s t a n c e d u e t o t h e l a t e r a l e a r t h
OO L U Htf X'-' L U X
3 Sand, dense 4
H 1I Fn 5^
LU OO 99
X X tn
L(J 9fi
XO on tn 00 8 to 10 pressure exceeds t h a t d u e t o t h e subface, i tshould b e verified t h a t
+U lU +_
4 Gravel bolder, uniform 41 to 53 22 to 25 20 to 22 8 to 12
5 Gravel, sand, graded 41 to 53 22 to 25 20 to 22 8 to 12 EA<(Riu% + Rdsf) (13.9)
6 Boulder, stones, macadam, 99 fn 95 OH tn 02 8 to 12
XX LU XU
graded w i t h decreasing c o n t r i b u t i o n o f lateral resistance, i tshould b e proved t h a t
C o h e s i v e soils
7 pasty — Ed < ( A d l a t + A d s f ) / T M (13.10)
8 soft (easy to knead),
purely cohesive 9 to 11 6 to 8 4 where
9 soft, with non-cohesive
additions 11 to 13 8 to 10 4 TM = 7Mmax - (TMmax - 1 , 0 ) (Adiat/Adsf) . (13.11)
10 firm (difficult to kneed),
purely cohesive 21 to 27 11 to 15 8 to 11 6
T h e m a t e r i a l p a r t i a l f a c t o r TMmax s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 1 , 2 a n d T M n o t l e s s t h a n 1 , 0 .
11 firm, with non-cohesive
additions 26 to 34 13 to 17 10 to 13 6 T h e b e a r i n g pressure i n t h e subface a s w e l l a s i n t h e l a t e r a l faces m a y n o t exceed
12 stiff, purely cohesive 26 to 34 15 to 23 11 to 19 8 the u l t i m a t e bearing pressure as given i n Table 13.13, i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d n a t i o n a l
13 stiff, with non-cohesive standards o r i n project specifications.
additions 29 to 38 17 to 26 13 to 21 8
14 hard, purely cohesive 32 to 42 23 to 28 19 to 23 10
15 hard, with non-cohesive R a t i n g u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h e l a t e r a l s o i l r e s i s t a n c e
additions 35 to 46 26 to 28 21 to 23 10 I n case o f p r i s m a t i c f o u n d a t i o n bodies, t h e h e i g h t o f w h i c h is greater t h a n i t s w i d t h ,
M a d e u p g r o u n d a n d fill the load isp r e d o m i n a n t l y transferred b y alateral embedment. T h e design w i l l b e con-
Uncompacted embankment 6 to 13 4 to 10 servative i f t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e subface i s neglected. A s s u m i n g t h e p i v o t i n g axis o f
Compacted embankment Classification according to type of soil, density of stratification the foundation b o d y a tt w o t h i r d s o f its depth a n d aparabolic d i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e bear-
and consistence, respectively
i n g pressure b e t w e e n t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y a n d t h e soil, t h e m a x i m u m bearing pressure
occurs a t t h e foundation lower edge a n d is
13.4.3.3 M o n o b l o c k foundations w i t h o u t base enlargement
a e = 1 2- M - ( h + 2 / 3 •t ) / { h •b - 1 2 ) , (13.12)
W h e n d e s i g n i n g m o n o b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n s w i t h o u t base e n l a r g e m e n t s , t h e l a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e
w h e r e t h e significance o f h , b a n d t c a n b e t a k e n f r o m F i g u r e 13.8. T h e v i r t u a l height
of soil m a y b e taken into account according t o t h e compaction a n d t h e soil characteris-
o f a t t a c k hresults f r o m t h e characteristic o r u l t i m a t e m o m e n t M a n d t h e s u m o ft h e
tics, i f i t is ensured t h a t t h e soil w i l l b e n e i t h e r p e r m a n e n t l y n o r t e m p o r a r i l y r e m o v e d
transverse loads H according t o h =M / H .
as l o n g a s t h ee x t e r n a l loads a r e applied. T h e l a t e r a l e a r t h resistance m a y b e considered
T h e permissible o r u l t i m a t i v em o m e n t isobtained f r o m
by t h e d e a d load o f a n e a r t h f r u s t u m , t h e faces o f w h i c h s t a r t a t t h e lower edges o f t h e
foundation subface a n d are inclined a t a n angle 0 according t o Table 13.14 outwards
- M p e r a i ( u l t ) = 0 p e r m ( u l t ) ' ? " b ' h l [ T M • 1 2 (h + 2 / 3 • f ) ] , (13.13)
from t h e vertical.
T h e geotechnical design o f monoblock f o u n d a t i o n s refers t o i n c l i n a t i o n a n d t o t h e ver- where
ification o f stability. T h e design c a nb e carried o u t based o n characteristic loads as TM = 1 , 0 f o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s a n d
specified e. g. i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 o r o n u l t i m a t e loads, t h e s e c o n d a l t e r n a t i v e represent- TM = 1 , 2 f o r u l t i m a t e v a l u e s , a t l e a s t .
ing t h e more general approach. M o r e sophisticated models are described i n [13.23] a n d [13.24].
U s i n g t h e first a p p r o a c h , i t s h o u l d b e v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y w i l l n o t b e
inclined b y m o r e t h a n 1% under t h e action o f characteristic loads. E x a m p l e : M o n o b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n : W i d t h 1,5 m , d e p t h 2 , 0 m , p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g pres-
I f t h e resistance d u et o t h e l a t e r a l e a r t h pressure R q ] a t exceeds t h e r e s i s t i n g m o m e n t sure 200 k N / m 2 , u l t i m a t e bearing pressure 320 k N / m 2 , design bearing pressure 320/1,20 =
Adsf m s u b f a c e , i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o v e r i f y t h a t 2 6 7 k N / m 2 , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m o m e n t MK = 8 0 k N m a n d t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e A K = 1 0 k N , u l -
t i m a t e m o m e n t M D = 1 0 8 k N m , u l t i m a t e force A d = 1 3 , 5 k N , v i r t u a l height o f a t t a c k
EK < (Adiat + Adsf) • (13.6)
h = 8 0 / 1 0 = 8,0 m .
B e a r i n g pressure: a = 1 2 - 8 0 • ( 8 , 0 + 2 / 3 • 2 , 0 ) / ( 8 , 0 • 1,5• 2 , 0 2 ) = 1 8 7 k N / m 2 < 2 0 0 k N / m 2 .
W i t h decreasing contribution o f lateral resistance, i tshould b e proved that U l t i m a t e pressure: a = 1 2 • 1 0 8 • ( 8 , 0 + 2 / 3 • 2 , 0 ) / ( 8 , 0 • 1,5 • 2 , 0 2 ) = 2 5 3 k N / m 2 < 2 6 7 k N / m 2 .
Permissible m o m e n t : M p e r m = 2 0 0 • 2 , 0 2 - 1 , 5 • 8,0/[12 • (8,0 + 2 / 3 • 2,0)] = 85,71 k N m .
EK < (Adlat + A j s f ) / T M (13.7) M u H = 3 2 0 • 2 , 0 2 • 1,5 • 8 , 0 / [ l , 2 • 1 2 • ( 8 , 0 + 2 / 3 • 2 , 0 ) ] = 1 1 4 , 3 k N m .
494 13 Foundations 13.4 Design a n d calculation o f f o u n d a t i o n s 495

13.4.3.5 Slab foundations

Slab foundations accommodate the legmembers i na foundation body consisting o f

a steel-reinforced concrete slab. T h e loads are transferred t o t h e soil b y pressures i n
the foundation subface. T h e lateral embedment is low only and should be neglected
w h e n verifying the stability. Therefore, only a relative low depth o f the foundation
subface is sufficient. T h e m i n i m u m f o u n d a t i o n depth results f r o m t h e requirements o f
a frost-proof position o fthe foundation subface i n countries, where temperatures below
freezing point occur, f r o m a sufficient e m b e d m e n t length o f the legmembers within
t h e slab a n d t h e load-bearing capacity o f t h e subsoil. Slab f o u n d a t i o n s are selected a t
t o w e r sites w i t h a h i g h w a t e r t a b l e a n d r e l a t i v e l y g o o d - b e a r i n g subsoil.
A l s o i n case o fs m a l l t o w e r w i d t h s a n d h i g h leg m e m b e r forces, slab concrete foundations
can b e necessary because separated pad and chimney foundations w o u l d not reach a
sufficient distance f r o m each other due t o t h e necessary dimensions. Slab foundations
are preferred for v e r y h i g h leg m e m b e r forces because o ft h e r e s u l t i n g large dimensions
F i g u r e 13.8: Monoblock foundation F i g u r e 13.9: Permissible range within t h e of separate foundations.
w i t h parabolic d i s t r i b u t i o nof e a r t h pres- r e c t a n g u l a r s u b f a c e f o r t h e p o s i t i o n s ex a n d T h e proof of stability i sc a r r i e d o u t a sdescribed i n clause 13.4.3.4. M o r e i n f o r m a t i o n can
sure ey o f f o r c e N r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s o i l p r e s s u r e s be f o u n d i n [13.25]. T h e steel-reinforced concrete cross section m a y b e r a t e d according
ill t h e subface
t o E N V 1 9 9 2 - 1 [13.17] o r o t h e r r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s , w h e r e t h e loads r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e
i n d i v i d u a l load cases a n d t h e d e a d l o a d o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y a s w e l l as t h e load
13.4.3.4 Monoblock foundation w i t h base enlargement
resulting f r o m t h e soil above the f o u n d a t i o n are considered, taking into account the
Monoblock foundations with base enlargement are selected i n case o f subsoil conditions, effect o f buoyancy, i fany. A proof o f stability using u l t i m a t e loads a n d split partial
w h e r e t h e v e r t i c a l faces o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n block c a n n o t b e concreted against the natural factors o nt h e load a n d resistance i s preferable, since t h i s proof i s consistent w i t h the
s o i l , e. g. i n case o f less s t a b l e soils o r h i g h w a t e r t a b l e . W h e n h i g h e x t e r n a l loads verification o fstructural strength.
act, m o n o b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n s w i t h base e n l a r g e m e n t s are selected because o f economic T h e design i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s o f t h e steel-reinforced concrete slab c a n b e
reasons. determined according t o differing models. T h e plate c a nb e described b y a grillage
W i t h this foundation type, the load ispredominantly transferred through the founda- with beams connecting the four leg m e m b e r s . T h i s design model, however, results i n
t i o n subface. T h e v e r t i c a l faces o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n block a d d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n resistance an unfavourable distributiono fthe reinforcement because its m a i n portion is arranged
t o a lower e x t e n t only, since t h e lateral e m b e d m e n t isn o t very effective because o f t h e w i t h i n t h e b e a m s necessitating a s t i r r u p reinforcement t o take care o f shearing.
b a c k f i l l o f soil. T h e effect o f t h e l a t e r a l e m b e d m e n t is considered b y a soil body, the A m o d e l m o r e f r e q u e n t l y used nowadays considers t h e leg m e m b e r s as supports when
l i m i t i n g faces o f w h i c h s t a r t a t a l l sides a t t h e lower edges o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n base a n d analysing concrete slabs. T h e slab is t r e a t e d a s loaded b y t h e dead w e i g h t o f concrete
a r e i n c l i n e d a t a n earth frustum angle 0 o u t w a r d s f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e a n d soil above t h e f o u n d a t i o n as w e l l as t h e bearing pressures. These components form
13.14, c o l u m n 5. T h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m angle 0 depends o nt h e soil type, a s y s t e m o f e q u i l i b r i u m w i t h t h e leg m e m b e r forces u n d e r t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f u l t i m a t e
o n the density o f non-cohesive soils a n d o n t h e consistence o f cohesive soils. T h e e a r t h loads. T h e i n t e r n a l design forces a n d m o m e n t s i nslab s t r u c t u r e axe c a l c u l a t e d using
f r u s t u m angle 0 m a y only b e considered w h e n the backfill iswell compacted and the the finite element m e t h o d o r another approximate procedure as described i n [13.26]. A
soil w i l l b e neither p e r m a n e n t l y nor t e m p o r a r i l y removed as long as t h e e x t e r n a l load m o r e u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e reinforcement across t h e slab is o b t a i n e d compared
is a c t i n g . w i t h t h e grillage m o d e l . A s t i r r u p r e i n f o r c e m e n t i sn o t necessary. A sufficient resistance
When loaded b y the characteristic o r u l t i m a t e m o m e n t s Mx a n d My, t h e force N i n v i e w o f t h e punching i nt h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e l e gm e m b e r s has t o b e verified for the
resulting from t h e bearing pressures i n t h e subface m u s t act w i t h i n a n ellipsis according compression forces a s w e l l a s for uplift forces.
t o F i g u r e 1 3 . 9 t o a c h i e v e a stability against overturning expressed b y the partial factor T h e thickness o f the slab results either f r o m the design i n view o f bending o r f r o m t h e
7 M - F o r rectangular subfaces according t o F i g u r e 13.9, t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s m e t i f verification o f punching. T h e design m o m e n t s i n t h e slab depend substantially o n t h e
distribution o ft h e pressure i n the subsoil w h i c h isusually determined according t o one
TM < 1 / ( 2 • yj(ex/bx)2 + (ey/byf) , (13.14) of the following three methods:
— T h e conventional procedure assuming an equivalent bearing pressure distribution,
w h e r e ex = My/N a n d ey = Mx/N. T h e partial factor 7 M s h o u l d b e a t least 1,5 w h e n
— T h e subgrade modulus procedure o r
t h e p r o o f is carried o u t based o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c loads a n d a tleast 1,2for u l t i m a t e loads.
— T h e compressibility modulus procedure.
T h e verification o ft h e b e a r i n g pressure can b e carried o u t a s s u m i n g a constant pressure
T h e application of the subgrade modulus or compressibility modulus procedure requires
d i s t r i b u t e d o n a r e c t a n g u l a r a r e a e q u a l t o (bx — 2/ex) t i m e s (by — 2/ey) (see Figure
13.9). T h e n , t h e s u m N o f t h e v i r t u a l l y acting loads s h o u l d b e a n extensive n u m e r i c a l effort and, therefore, the application o fcorresponding computer
programs while the conventional procedure can b e applied b y hand as well.
^<0 p e rm(ult)-(fri-2|eI|)-(6s-2|ey|)/TM , (13.15) I n c a s e o f t h e conventional procedure, the deformation behaviour o f the slab and o f the
w h e r e <7perm o r c r u i t c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e 1 3 . 1 3 a n d e q u a t i o n ( 1 3 . 4 ) (see clause subsoil are not considered a n d a l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e bearing pressure in the foun-
13.4.2). T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r T M i s 1,0 f o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c loads a n d 1,2 f o r u l t i m a t e loads. d a t i o n s u b s o i l r e s u l t s . T h e subgrade modulus a n d compressibility modulus procedures
4yb 16 foundations

Section 1 -1 (Figure 13.11) rectangularly to the line direction

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5.038

G
45

(AJ spacer reinforcenent

16 m o t s , 1.67/2.15 m

Section 2 - 2 (Figure 13.11) parallel to the line direction

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45
45

F i g u r e 13.10: S l a b foundation, dimensions and reinforcement, sections

assume a deformation-dependent d i s t r i b u t i o n o fthe bearing pressure. T h e a s s u m p t i o n

that the settlement s isp r o p o r t i o n a l t ot h e b e a r i n g pressure f o r m s t h e basis o fthe sub-
g r a d e m o d u l u s p r o c e d u r e : s = a / K B . T h e s u b g r a d e m o d u l u s K s is d e t e r m i n e d b a s e d
on values obtained f r o m experience o r b y calculation o f the settlement. I tis n o ta
characteristic value o ft h e soil, however, depends o nt h e t y p e o fsoil, t h e dimensions o f
the f o u n d a t i o n slab a n d t h e thickness o f t h e compressive soil layers. T h e calculation
f o l l o w i n g t h e s u b g r a d e m o d u l u s p r o c e d u r e i s f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h e finite e l e -
m e n t m e t h o d , w h e r e b y t h e subgrade reaction can b es u b s t i t u t e d b ya b e d o fu n i f o r m l y
distributed coil springs w i t h a spring constant K s .
T h e compressibility modulus procedure i s a d o p t e d v e r y r a r e l y i n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n
line engineering. I t assumes t h a t the settlement o f the subsoil and the d e f o r m a t i o n
o f t h e slab coincide. I t c a nb e a d o p t e d f o ra n y t y p e o f soil s t r a t i f i c a t i o n . I n case o f
cohesive soils, a constant compressibility m o d u l u s can b e assumed, however, i n case o f F i g u r e 13.11: Slab f o u n d a t i o n , r e i n f o r c e m e n t , p l a n v i e w
non-cohesive soils t h i s i sa r o u g h a p p r o x i m a t i o n only. Reference [13.27] provides m o r e
i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fb e a r i n g pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e subface.
498 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o ff o u n d a t i o n s 499

O p t i m i z a t i o n . o f t h e slab d i m e n s i o n s , design o ft h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f T a b l e 1 3 . 1 5 : G u i d e l i n e d a t a f o r t h e s iu b g r a d e m o d -
t h e corresponding documents can b e carried o u t b y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s . F i g u r e 13.10 u l u s a c c o r d i n g t o [13.28]
T y p e o f soil MN/m pole
depicts p a r t i a l views o fa reinforcement p l a n o fa slab f o u n d a t i o n . T h e procedures t o
Light-weight peat concrete cap
be carried o u t for geotechnical v e r i f i c a t i o n i sdescribed b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e . 5 to 10
H e a v y - w e i g h t p e a t a n d fine s a n d 10 to 15
Fill-ups o f h u m u s , sand, gravel 10 to 20
E x a m p l e : A slab f o u n d a t i o n has t ob e designed for a 110 k V dead end tower. Loam, wet 20 to 30
Loam, humid
Loads a t the level o f lowermost bracing connection: 40 to 50
Loam, dry 60 to 80
L o a d case w i n d a c t i o n o n ice covered conductors, angle b e t w e e n c r o s s a r m axis a n d axis o f l i n e
L o a m , dry, hard 100
d i r e c t i o n 90°, u l t i m a t e d e s i g n l o a d s Sand, l o a m and few boulders 60 to 80
- Perpendicularly t o crossarm axis M x = 5 775 k N m , P y = 217 k N . Sand, loam and m a n y boulders 80 to 100 filler concrete
- I n direction t o crossarm axis M v = 1072 k N m , P x= 62k N . F i n e g r a v e l w i t h m u c h fine s a n d 70 to 90
- Tower dead weight: P x= 200 k N . M e d i u m g r a v e l w i t h fine s a n d 90 to 110 steel tube
L o a d case w i n d a c t i o n o n ice-covered c o n d u c t o r s , angle b e t w e e n c r o s s a r m a x i s a n d a x i s o f l i n e M e d i u m g r a v e l w i t h m u c h c o a r s e s a n d 110 to 130
d i r e c t i o n 50° Coarse gravel w i t h coarse sand 110 to 130
- I n direction t o crossarm axis M x = 2 215 k N m , P y = 8 3 k N . Coarse gravel w i t h l i t t l e coarse s a n d 130 to 160
Coarse gravel w i t h l i t t l e coarse sand,
- Perpendicularly t ocrossarm axis M y = 6 6 4 1 k N m , P x= 271 k N . F i g u r e 13.12: Pole inserted
Densely stratified 130 to 200
- Tower and equipment dead weight: P z—250 k N . in a steel t u b e
Tower w i d t h at ground level B E : 5,038 m .
Increase o f w i d t h o f the lowermost tower section: 220 m m / m .
T h e p a r t i a l factor 7 M follows f r o m (13.14)
T y p e o f soil according t o soil investigation: Clay, sandy, s e m i - h a r d , n o g r o u n d w a t e r .
E a r t h covering o f t h e slab: A t least 0,60 m .
7MK = 1 / ^ 2 • v / ( 0 , 6 6 / 8 , 0 ) z + ( 1 , 9 8 / 8 , 0 ) ^ = 1,92 > 1,50.
L e g e x t e n s i o n s : A : + 0 , 2 5 m , B : + 0 , 5 0 , C : + 0 , 2 5 , D : ±0.
Since the m o m e n t s rectangular and i n parallel t o the line d o n o t differ t h a t m u c h , a square slab
is u s e d . T h e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n h e o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e 1 3 . 1 3 f o r a s e m i - h a r d c o h e s i v e s o i l S i n c e T M K i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1,50, t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e slab i s v e r i f i e d .
w i t h non-cohesive additions: T h e permissible vertical load is obtained f r o m (13.15)
Specific w e i g h t o f soil 7 = 19 k N / m 2 , p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g pressure 2 0 0 k N / m 2 , u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g N = ( 2 0 0 + 0,25 - 0,35 • 1 9 ) / ( 8 , 0 - 2 • 0,66)(8,0 - 2 • 1,98) = 5 8 4 6 k N > 2 7 0 9 k N .
K
p r e s s u r e 3 2 0 k N / m 2 a t 1,5 m d e p t h , specific w e i g h t o f t h e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 7 3 = 2 4 k N / m 2 .
A v e r a g e d e p t h 1,75 m . T h e dimensions o f t h e slab complies w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s concerning t h e geotechnical design
U s i n g the dimensions according t o F i g u r e 13.10, the dead weight o f t h e concrete results t o be: of the foundation.
Slab 8,00 • 8,00 • 0,90 - 2 4 = 1382 k N
F o u n d a t i o n muffs 4 • 1,102 • r r / 4 • (0,85 + 0,30) •2 4 = 105 k N 13.4.3.6 Single grillage foundation
W e i g h t o f soil considering avarage soil covering:
Single grillage foundation for s u p p o r t s m a y b e s u i t e d i n axeas w h e r e concrete i s e x p e n -
(8,00 - 8 , 0 0 - 0,85 - 4 • 1,102 • r r / 4 • 0 , 8 5 ) - 1 9 = 972 k N
Tower and equipment dead weight 250 k N sive. A l s o i n case o f difficulties c o n c e r n i n g p r o c u r e m e n t o r t r a n s p o r t o f r e a d y - m i x e d
Total weight 2 709 k N concrete, single grillage foundations present a favourable alternative.
Verification under u l t i m a t e loads T h e f o u n d a t i o n slab consists o f i n d i v i d u a l sleepers, e i t h e r m a d e o f i m p r e g n a t e d h a r d
M x d = 2 215 + 83(1,35 + 0,9) = 2 4 0 2 k N m , w o o d o r o f steel sections. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , there i s experience f r o m 5 0 years o f
M y d = 6 6 4 1 + 271(1,35 + 0,9) = 7 2 5 1 k N m . a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s f o u n d a t i o n t y p e , h o w e v e r , g e n e r a l l y v a l i d findings o n t h e d u r a b i l i t y
Hence, i t is obtained of sleepers a n d s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s b u r i e d i n soil c a n n o t b e concluded.
e x = 2 4 0 2 / 2 7 0 9 = 0 , 8 9 m ; ey = 7 5 2 1 / 2 7 0 9 = 2 , 6 8 m . T h e geotechnical design i s carried o u t as i n case o f concrete slab f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e
T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r JM f o l l o w s f r o m ( 1 3 . 1 4 ) f o u n d a t i o n subface asa w h o l e can b eapplied i n design calculations if t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
space b e t w e e n t h e sleepers i sn o t m o r e t h a n one t h i r d o f t h e sleeper w i d t h . T h e rules
7Md = V ( 2 • V/ ( 0 , 8 9 / 8 , 0 ) 2 + ( 2 , 6 8 / 8 , 0 ) 2 ^ = 1,42 > 1,20. for steel o r w o o d structures apply t ot h e r a t i n g o fthe grillage. M e m b e r s o fthe supports
e m b e d d e d i n e a r t h a n d i n c l i n e d b y m o r e t h a n 15° f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l s h o u l d b e a s s u m e d
Since 7 M i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1,20, t h e r e q u i r e d m i n i m u m s t a b i l i t y i s v e r i f i e d . as a d d i t i o n a l l y l o a d e d b y t h e s o i l r e s t i n g u p o n t h e m e m b e r . T h e a d d i t i o n a l l o a d t ob e
T h e u l t i m a t e vertical resistance results f r o m equation (13.15) assumed should a tleast correspond t o t h e load o f a p r i s m a t i c e a r t h b o d y f o r m e d b y
t h r e e t i m e s t h e m e m b e r w i d t h a n d w i t h v e r t i c a l side faces.
N d = ( 3 2 0 + 1,6 • 0 , 2 5 • 3 , 5 • 1 9 ) • ( 8 , 0 - 2 • 0 , 8 9 ) ( 8 , 0 - 2 • 2 , 6 8 ) / l , 2 = 4 7 4 3 k N ,

w h i c h i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1,35 • 2 7 0 9 = 3 6 5 7 k N . 13.4.3.7 Single pile foundations

Verification using t h e conventional approach based o n characteristic loads. T h e characteristic
Single pile foundations axe a d o p t e d f o r m e d i u m - v o l t a g e l i n e s i n c a s e o f s o i l c o n d i t i o n s
loads are
M x K = Mxd/1,35 = 2402/1,35 = 1779 k N m , n o t p e r m i t t i n g t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o fa m o n o b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n o r w h e r e economically viable.
MyK = M y d / 1 , 3 5 = 7 2 5 1 / 1 , 3 5 = 5 3 7 1 k N m . Subsoils w i t h h i g h watertable o r non-bearing layers under t h e surface are w i t h i n this
Therefore, c a t e g o r y . T o t r a n s f e r t h e l o a d t o t h e d e e p e r g o o d b e a r i n g l a y e r s , piles a r e n e c e s s a r y .
e x = 1 7 7 9 / 2 7 0 9 = 0 , 6 6 m ; ey = 5 3 7 1 / 2 7 0 9 = 1 , 9 8 m . Piles w i t h t u b e - t y p e cross section i n t o w h i c h t h e pole c a nb e inserted are frequently
u s e d ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 2 ) . Spun concrete poles a n d s t e e l p o l e s w i t h c o m p a c t c r o s s s e c t i o n a r e P,

m o r e s u i t e d for t h i s foundation type t h a n lattice steel towers.

T h e h o r i z o n t a l l o a d effects o n t h e pole are t r a n s f e r r e d b y l a t e r a l e m b e d m e n t o f t h e pile,
t h e v e r t i c a l loads b y s k i n f r i c t i o na n d p o i n t pressure. T h e r a t i n g o fsingle p i l e f o u n d a t i o n 40,4 mm
assumes elastic behaviour o fthe subsoil a n d pile u pt ot h e failure conditions o f the soil. GL

Elastic behaviour may b e assumed u p t o a m a x i m u m o f the horizontal displacement

o f 3 0 m m o r , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p i l e d i a m e t e r d, u p t o 0 , 0 3 • d. T h e s m a l l e r v a l u e w i l l
be prevalent. T h e pile should b e considered as being i nfailure condition, w h e n these
horizontal displacements are exceeded.

Continuous elastic support

F o r p i l e r a t i n g u s i n g t h e t h e o r y o f a b e a m - b e d d e d o n a n elastic foundation, the mag-
n i t u d e a n d v a r i a t i o n o f t h e subgrade modulus i s n e c e s s a r y ( s e e c l a u s e 1 3 . 3 . 3 . 5 ) f o r t h e
soil profile i nquestion. T h e subgrade m o d u l u s , however, cannot b e d e t e r m i n e d such
precisely f r o m soil investigations c o m m o n l y adopted for overhead contact lines w i t h rea-
sonable effort such that reliable results will b e obtained. Therefore, design should b e
b a s e d o n s u b g r a d e m o d u l i from p u b l i c a t i o n s ( T a b l e s 1 3 . 1 1 a n d 1 3 . 1 5 ) a n d o n p r o p o s a l s
for its v a r i a t i o n w i t h d e p t h according t o literature [13.29, 13.30]. F o r cohesive soil, a
constant subgrade m o d u l u s a l o n g t h e d e p t h is assumed, w h i l e i n case o f non-cohesive
soil a n increase o f subgrade m o d u l u s w i t h d e p t h is proposed. T h e pile will b e rated
for t h e calculated internal design loads and m o m e n t s . U n d e r the a s s u m p t i o n o f a skin
friction angle 8 = 0, it needs t ob e verified that t h e existing bearing pressures are lower
t h a n t h e e a r t h resistance.
A t first, t h e coefficient of passive earth pressure kp a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 3 . 3 1 , 1 3 . 3 2 ] i s c a l c u -
lated based o n soil characteristics according t o soil i n v e s t i g a t i o n o r T a b l e 13.13. F o r a
h o r i z o n t a l t e r r a i n surface a n d a na p p r o x i m a t e l y v e r t i c a l pile, t h e coefficient o f passive
earth pressure is
fcp = t a n 2 ( 4 5 + ip/2) , (13.16)
w h e r e ip i s t h e internal friction angle, e . g . a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 1 3 . 1 3 .
T h e f o r m u l a f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e coefficient o f passive e a r t h pressure is given
i n [13.31, 13.32] for i n c l i n e d t e r r a i n a n d a r a k e d pile. T h e coefficient o f passive e a r t h
pressure d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e soil characteristics i n c l u d e p a r t i a l factors a l r e a d y [13.33].
B y t h e i r c o m p i l a t i o n a n e f f e c t i v e r e l i a b i l i t y a g a i n s t soil fracture w i t h a n o r d e r o f 2 , 0
results. T h e e a r t h resistance is obtained b y
perme p = kp • y • t , (13.17)
w h e r e y is t h e specific w e i g h t o f t h e soil a n d t t h e d e p t h .
A displacement of the pile point o f 2 0 t o 3 0 m m c a n b e t o l e r a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
pole deformation. T h e displacement o f the pile head is essentially higher under t h e
condition o fsoil fracture.
F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 3 : D a t a for analysis o f a single-pile f o u n d a t i o n follow- F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 4 : D a t a for
ing t h e m e t h o d o felastic embedment analysis o f a single-pile
foundation following
Blum's approach
Example: A single pile f o u n d a t i o n will b e analysed according t o t h e t w o m e t h o d s described
above: P o l e f o r a m e d i u m - v o l t a g e single c i r c u i t line, u l t i m a t e design force a t t h e pole t o p
P r d = 2 8 , 4 k N , f r e e l e n g t h h' = 1 0 , 0 m , e m b e d m e n t l e n g t h t E = 2 , 0 m , d i a m e t e r a t b o t t o m
D = 574 m m , dead weight o f the pole 3 3k N , the crossarm a n d conductors included.
T h e m e n t i o n e d d e s i g n l o a d a c t s a t t h e t o p . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a w i n d l o a d o f 2,3 k N o n t h e p o l e
s h a f t i n a h e i g h t o f 4,6 m a b o v e g r o u n d l e v e l w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e d e s i g n l o a d a t t h e t o p i s
increased d u e t o w i n d o n t h e pole t o F r d = 28,4 + 2,3 • 4 , 6 / 1 0 = 29,5 k N .
S o i l : U p t o a d e p t h o f 1,00 m p e a t , f r o m 1,00 m d e p t h s a n d , g r o u n d - w a t e r l e v e l 3,0 m b e l o w
s u r f a c e . T h e l a y e r o f p e a t i s a s s u m e d a s n o n - b e a r i n g ( z = 1,0 m ) .
T h e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s a n d a r e : S p e c i f i c w e i g h t w i t h b u o y a n c y y' = 1 0 k N / m 3 a n d
7 = 1 7 k N / m 3 w i t h o u t b u o y a n c y ; a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n tp = 30°; Ks = 4 0 M N / m 3 i n a
depth o f6 m ; variation o fthe subgrade modulus: L i n e a r l y increasing s t a r t i n g at a depth o f 1 m
up t o6 m depth.
S i n c e t h e s a n d is l o o s e l y s t r a t i f i e d , a l o w e r s u b g r a d e m o d u l u s i s u s e d t h a n g i v e n i n T a b l e 1 3 . 1 5 .
A h e l i c a l l y - w e l d e d t u b e w i t h a d i a m e t e r d = 7 6 2 m m is selected f o r t h e pile. I t s w a l l t h i c k n e s s i s
8 m m , i t s cross section A = 190 c m 2 , its m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a / = 1 3 4 6 8 3 c m 4 ; its cross-sectional
m o d u l u s W = 3535 c m 3 .
T h e result o ft h e calculation according t o the m e t h o d o ft h e elastic e m b e d m e n t ispresented i n
F i g u r e 13.13 [13.35].
Using t h e above mentioned soil characteristics under buoyancy a n d the d a t a according t o Figure
13.14, t h e coefficient o f passive e a r t h pressure i n t r o d u c e d b y B l u m w i l l b e

/„ = j -tan 2 (45° +tp/2) = 1 0 - tan 2 (45° + 30°/2) = 3 0 k N / m 3 . (13.18)

A p p r o a c h b a s e d o n f a i l u r e c o n d i t i o n a c c o r d i n g to B l u m
T h e calculation o nt h e basis o ft h e failure c o n d i t i o n originates f r o m a procedure devel- T h e p o s i t i o n xm o f t h e m a x i m u m b e n d i n g m o m e n t s m e a s u r e d f r o m t h e u p p e r l e v e l o f t h e
o p e d b y B l u m [ 1 3 . 3 4 ] t o analyse piers f o r s h i p s . T h e f o u n d a t i o n p i l e n e e d s t o e x p e r i e n c e bearing soil layer results f r o m
plastic displacements w i t h i n the soil before stabilizing m o m e n t s are created. T h e e a r t h
resistance isassumed as linearly increasing w i t h depth. T h e reliability o fthis approach xl, + 3 • d • a £ = 6 • F r d / / » , (13.19)
was approved empirically b y tests a n d b y l o n g - t e r m experience. O n e m a i n objection
a g a i n s t finds f a u l t w i t h t h e a s s u m e d c o n d i t i o n o f a r e s i d u a l p l a s t i c d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e a4 + 3 • 0 , 7 6 2 • x2m = 6 - ( 2 8 , 4 + 2 , 3 ) / 3 0 = 6 , 1 4
p i l e . Blum's calculation approach a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d f o r m u l i w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d b y m e a n s
of the following example. t o be r m = 1,30 m .
502 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 503

T h e m a x i m u m m o m e n t will be

M m a i c = Prd-(h + 2+ Zm)-/w(d-a4/6 + < / 2 4 ) = (13.20)

= 2 9 , 5 ( 1 0 + 1,00 + 1,30) - 3 0 (0,762 • l , 3 0 3 / 6 + l , 3 0 4 / 2 4 ) =
= 3 6 2 , 9 - 11,9= 3 5 1 k N m .

T h e steel stress o ft h e pile will b e

0d = (1,35 • 3 3 / 1 9 0 + 35 100/3535) = 12,27 k N / c m 2 < trRjd = 23,5/1,1 = 21,4 k N / c m 2 .

A c c o r d i n g t o [13.1], t h e resistance o fsteel grade S 2 3 5 is /„ = 2 3 , 5 k N / c m 2 . T h e p a r t i a l factors

a r e a s s u m e d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 3 . 2 0 ] JF = 1 , 3 5 a n d T M = 1 , 1 f o r s t e e l c o m p o n e n t s f o r n o r m a l l o a d
conditions.
A c c o r d i n g t o B l u m , t h e e m b e d m e n t d e p t h i n t h e b e a r i n g soil t i s o b t a i n e d f r o m t = 1,2 • t 0 ,
where to can b e calculated b y solving t h e equation

4-(t0 + 4d)/(t0 + h) = 4-xll(xm+3d) . (13.21)

E q u a t i o n (13.21) c a n b e solved numerically. P r o m •( t 0+ 4 • 0,762) / ( t 0 + 11,0) = 4 •6,14 =

24,56 i t i s o b t a i n e d t 0 = 3,76 m a n d t = 1,2 • 3 , 7 6 = 4 , 5 1 m . Figure 13.15: Timber F i g u r e 13.16: Concrete block foundation according t o E N
T h e embedment depth will b e rounded t ob e t = 4,50 m . Therefore, a pile l e n g t h L o f 4,50 + pole w i t h concrete f o o t i n g 50 341-3-4: a f o u n d a t i o n type A - concreted t o earth; b f o u n -
1,00 = 5 , 5 0 m r e s u l t s . dation type S - concreted t o p l a n k i n g
T h e displacement Y o ft h e pile a t t h e ground level is

(k + 0 , 6 5 • t ) 3 _ (h + 0 , 6 5 • t ) 2 V 3
t h e d e a d w e i g h t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y a n d a n a v a i l a b l e dead load of the soil, i f a n y ,
Y = P ' d
(13.22)
E I 3 2 + 6 a n d / o r t h r o u g h shearing i n t h e subsoil. Separate foundations are used for wide-spread
29,5 (1100 + 0,65 • 450)3 (1100 + 0,65 • 450)2 10003 lattice steel towers w h e r e b y uplift forces u p t o 50 0 0 k N need t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e
21000-134683 n Z 1 000 + s u b s o i l i n case o f s t a n d a r d lines.
1,01 c m . T h i s t y p e o f f o u n d a t i o n i s technically s o u n d a n d e c o n o m i c i n case o f loads occurring
typically a t lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltages o f 110k V a n dabove. A sufficiently wide distance
The m a x i m u m bending moments coincide quite well f o rb o t h methods o f analysis.
between t h e leg m e m b e r s i s necessary for construction o ft h e foundations i n question,
T h e displacement o f t h e pile, however, differs considerably. Substantially higher pile
as w e l l a s w i t h r e s p e c t t otheir load-carrying function. T h e tower width should b e a t
displacements result f r o m t h e m e t h o d o f elastic e m b e d m e n t as compared t o Blum's
least 3,5m f o r t h e application o f separate footings. D e p e n d i n g o nt h e soil conditions,
empirically developed formulae which have been validated b y experiments o f other
t h e loads, t h e available tools, t h e accessibility t o t h e t o w e r sites a n d e c o n o m i c aspects,
authors. T h e available bearing pressure according t o Figure 13.13 w o u l d exceed t h e
t h e suitable t y p e o f separate footings c a n b e selected f o r each i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r type.
permissible values i n t h e upper range o ft h e pile; this c a n b e tolerated, however.

13.4.3.8 F o u n d a t i o n of s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g t i m b e r p o l e s 13.4.4.2 Stepped block foundations

Self-supporting timber poles c a n b e e m b e d d e d d i r e c t l y i n t o s o i l s w i t h s u f f i c i e n t b e a r i n g A s f a r a s i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r l o a d a r e c o n c e r n e d , stepped block founda-

capacity s o f a r t h e load p e r m i t s t o d o so. A c c o r d i n g t oE N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , t h e d e p t h s h o u l d b e tions c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a s ( s e e e . g . E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [13.20]):
a t least o n e s i x t h o ft h e p o l e l e n g t h a n d n o t less t h a n 1 , 6 m . T h e e x c a v a t i o n s h o u l d b e F o u n d a t i o n t y p e A ( F i g u r e 13.16 a ) : T h el o w e r m o s t step is concreted to the undisturbed
filled w i t h gravel a n d stones w h i c h should b e carefully c o m p a c t e d t oensure t h e lateral subsoil. T h e p l a n k i n g o f t h e excavation p i t reaches d o w n t o t h e upper surface o ft h e
resistance o f t h e embedment. I n case o f less b e a r i n g s o i l , a r i n g o f s t o n e s o r sleepers lower step. T h i s t y p e o f f o u n d a t i o n needs firmly-standing, cohesive, d r y soil. Since o n e
arranged rectangular t ot h edirection o f t h eload should b e provided. or t w o days a r e necessary t oadjust t h etower stubs, t h e lower part o fthe excavation is
T o a v o i d r o t t e n n e s s i n t h e s o i l , t i m b e r p o l e s a r e c o n n e c t e d t o footings made o f reinforced endangered b y collapsing u n t i l t h e concrete w i l l b e placed.
concrete. T h e t i m b e r pole ends above t h e g r o u n d level o u t o f t h e range o f splashing F o u n d a t i o n t y p e S ( F i g u r e l 3 . 1 6 b): T h e lowermost step i s concreted t o the planking.
water a n d is clipped t ot h e footing. F i g u r e 13.15 shows a n e x a m p l e o f a footing made T h e planking of the excavation ends a t t h efoundation subface a n d is used as f o r m w o r k
of concrete. I n s e r t i o n o f t i m b e r poles into concrete sheaths isn o t advisable d u e t o t h e for t h e lower step. T h e f o u n d a t i o n type S c a n b e adopted innot firmly-standing and
high hazard o f rottenness. w e t soils.

13.4.4 Separate foundations Geotechnical design

D i f f e r i n g a p p r o a c h e s f o r d e s i g n i n g stepped block foundations are followed i nindividual
13.4.4.1 Definition
countries a sc a n b e seen f r o m [13.19]. H o w e v e r , t h e y a r e m a i n l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d b yt h ep a -
I t i s t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f separate foundations that each l e gm e m b e r o f lattice steel rameters adopted a n d t h ereliability level required. T h e standard E N 50 341-3-4 [13.20]
towers isanchored into a n i n d i v i d u a l footing, a n d each o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n s i sloaded b y should b e used here as a nexample f o r a geotechnical design standard. T h e bearing
vertically acting forces i n a d d i t i o n t oh o r i z o n t a l ones. U p l i f t loads a r e counteracted b y pressure under compression needs t o b e verified under consideration o f a dead weight
 o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e soil resting vertically u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n base. side. A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e p a r t i a l factor i s 1,5 according t o E N 50 341-3-4 [13.20]. The
S h e a r forces o c c u r i n a n a r e a l i m i t e d b yt h e p e r i m e t e r o ft h e l o w e r step a n d t h e g r o u n d p a r t i a l factor s h o u l d b e chosen such t h a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n resistance i shigher t h a n t h a t
level a n d determine substantially the resistance o fa f o u n d a t i o n loaded b yuplift. Since of the tower because o fcoordination o f strengths.
generally valid i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e m a g n i t u d e o ft h e shear forces cannot b e provided, a W h e n t h e p r o o f is carried o u t for u l t i m a t e loads, t h e p a r t i a l factor 7 Mu p should b e a t
procedure was developed w h i c h substitutes t h e shear forces b y t h e weight of a soil b o d y least 1,2t ocare for t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o fs t r e n g t h b e t w e e n s u p p o r t s a n d foundations.
l i m i t e d b y t h e earth frustum angle 0 [ 1 3 . 3 6 ] , T h i s a n g l e d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e l i m i t s I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s t i p u l a t e d u p l i f t s t a b i l i t y , i ts h o u l d b e v e r i f i e d t h a t
of the earth b o d y w h i c h will b e lifted w h e n pulling out the foundation. T h e magnitude - for foundation type A :G / 5 K u p > 0,67 o r G / 5 d u p > 0,50;
of earth frustum angles 0 depends o n t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n m e t h o d o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n , its - for foundation type S: G / 5 K u P > 0,80 o r G / 5 d u p > 0,60 are met.
dimensions and the type o fsubsoil a n d iscalculated according t o [13.20] from T h e r e , G is t h e s u m o f t h e d e a d w e i g h t o ff o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e soil r e s t i n g v e r t i c a l l y u p o n
t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e ; 5 K up i s t h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o ft h e characteristic uplift force
0 = 0ofb/T , (13.23) and 5 d u p the vertical component o ft h e u l t i m a t e uplift force acting o nthe f o u n d a t i o n .
The resistance o f f o u n d a t i o n s loaded by uplift is s u b s t a n t i a l l y affected b y t h e density
where 6 is the w i d t h o f the foundation and T the depth o f the earth frustum body
a n d consistence of t h e s u r r o u n d i n g subsoil. Intensive artificial compaction of the subsoil
( F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 6 ) . I n T a b l e 1 3 . 1 4 , t h e a n g l e s o f e a r t h f r u s t u m 0q a r e g i v e n f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
by v i b r a t i n g compaction or similar procedures can b econsidered accordingly. According
t y p e s o fsubsoils c o r r e l a t e d t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e a n d t h e t y p e o f soil. T h e v a l u e s
to E N 50341-3-4 [13.20], t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e leg m e m b e r axis and the foundation
a p p l y t of o u n d a t i o n w i d t h s b e t w e e n 1,5 t o 5,0 m . T h e f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h b i st h e l e n g t h
subface m a y deviate f r o m the centre o f the foundation base only b y the dimension e
o f o n e side i n case o f q u a d r a t i c l o w e r m o s t blocks o r t h e d i a m e t e r i n case o f c i r c u l a r
blocks. I n case o f a r e c t a n g u l a r subface, t h e equivalent w i d t h i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e defined i n F i g u r e 13.16.
l e n g t h o ft h e sides 6] a n d 62according t o
S t r u c t u r a l design
6 = fbi -62 • (13.24) W h e n c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s a r e c o m p l i e d w i t h , reinforcement of stepped block foundations
can b e waived. However, i ft h e load o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n requires a r e i n f o r c e m e n t , the
T h i s a p p l i e s a s l o n g a s 61/62 < 1,4 a n d 61 i s t h e w i d t h o f t h e longer side. T h e lower
i n t e r n e d forces a n d m o m e n t s m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t oE N V 1 9 9 2 - 1 [13.17] form
v a l u e 0Q o f t h e r a n g e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 3 . 1 4 a p p l i e s t o a f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h o f 5 , 0 m
the f o u n d a t i o n loads a n d t h e r a t i n g i scarried o u t according t o this standard as well.
a r i d t h e u p p e r 0o value t o 1 , 5 m f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h . I n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s m a y b e l i n e a r l y
The concrete employed s h o u l d at least c o m p l y w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h class C 2 0 / 2 5 . O n the
interpolated.
other hand, concrete o fa higher s t r e n g t h class s h o u l d b e avoided a s far a s possible t o
The depth o fthe earth frustum depends o nthe foundation construction method. I n
ease t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n process.
case o f f o u n d a t i o n types A a n d S , t h e p o i n t o f a t t a c k o f t h e e a r t h frustum angle is
The selected d i m e n s i o n s o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n s s h o u l d also t a k e care o ft h e r e q u i r e d space
situated above the foundation subface and the depth T o f the earth frustum body is
for w o r k i n g . R e q u i r e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h i s a s p e c t a r e g i v e n i n r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s , e. g.
d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 6 f o r t h e s e c a s e s . I f t h e r a t i o b/T e x c e e d s t h e v a l u e 1 , t h e n 0 = 0o
i s t o b e u s e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s . T h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e i s l i m i t e d t o v a l u e s l e s s t h a n 35°. D I N 4 1 2 4 [ 1 3 . 3 7 ] . T h e working space i s a s s u m e d a s t h e c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e f o r m w o r k
The described calculation m e t h o d applies t ostepped block foundations w i t h a ratio o f of the f o u n d a t i o n b o d y a n d t h e inner edge o fb e a m s for t h e excavation p l a n k i n g . T h e
w i d t h 6 t od e p t h T o fm o r e t h a n 0,60. w o r k i n g space s h o u l d b e 0,35 m a t t h e closest p o s i t i o n a n d a t least 0 , 5m i n case o f
r e c t a n g u l a r f o u n d a t i o n b l o c k s a n d c i r c u l a r f o u n d a t i o n b l o c k s u p t o 1,50 m d i a m e t e r .
W h e n v e r i f y i n g t h e stability using characteristic loads, t h e bearing pressure m a y not
For 0,1 m thick b e a m s o ft h e excavation s h u t t e r i n g , a m i n i m u m projection o fthe lower
exceed permissible limits. E x a m p l e s for permissible bearing pressures are given i n Table
block o f 0,45 m results a n d , a s a consequence, a m i n i m u m f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h o f 2,0 m
13.13. W e r e u l t i m a t e design loads are given, i t i srequired t oprove that
i n case o f a f o u n d a t i o n s h a f t w i t h 1,10 m d i a m e t e r .
Ed < Ad C o m p/7Mc , (13.25) The height of blocks m a d e o f non-reinforced concrete isdetermined b y the ratio n o f
the height o f steps t o t h e w i d t h o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n being a t least 1,4 according t o the
where the design compression resistance is
l o n g - t e r m p r a c t i c e i n G e r m a n y . I n c a s e o f t r a n s i t i o n from a c i r c u l a r f o u n d a t i o n block

fldcomp = 0 u l t • A (13.26) to a quadratic lowermost block, the diameter d should b e replaced b y the equivalent
w i d t h 6 = d/1,13 o fa quadratic subface w h e n checking the mentioned criteria.
w i t h cr^t u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g pressure according t oT a b l e 13.13 a n d A subface area o f t h e The p r o j e c t i n g f o u n d a t i o n b l o c k is stressed b y b e n d i n g w h e n a n u p l i f t l o a d acts. I n case
f o u n d a t i o n . T h e p a r t i a l factor T M Cs h o u l d b e t a k e n a s 1,2a t least. o f a rectangular concrete block, t h e m a x i m u m b e n d i n g m o m e n t a n d stress will occur at
A u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e pressure i nt h e subface i s assumed. T h e dead weight the lower edge o ft h e second concrete block, counted from the bottom, if a monolithic
of soil r e s t i n g v e r t i c a l l y u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n b a s e n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d as acting concrete structure is assumed. I n case o f a circular design o f t h a t block, i tmay be
permanently. T h e influence o f t h e horizontal loads o n the bearing pressure may be a s s u m e d t h a t t h e m a x i m u m b e n d i n g stress w i l l occur i n a cross section a t a distance
neglected, compared w i t h t h e p r e v a l e n t effect o f t h e v e r t i c a l loads. T h e h o r i z o n t a l l o a d according t o ci/2,26 from the block centre, where d is the diameter o f the circular
m a y , however, increase t h e bearing pressure considerably w i t h bent stubs or h i g h loads, concrete block. T h e r a t i o n > 1,4 s h o u l d b e o b e y e d for a l l steps o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n .
e. g . f o r d e a d - e n d towers. T h e stability against uplift is verified b y F o u n d a t i o n s w h e r e projections result i n n < 1,4need t o b e reinforced a n d specifically
verified.
EK,{d) = Rdup/TMup • (13.27)
With bent l e gm e m b e r stubs, the i n d i v i d u a l blocks can b e symmetrically arranged
When characteristic loads ER are given, the partial factor T M u p should ensure the one a b o v e t h e other. I n case o f a continuous, u n b e n t s t u b , t h e first block is arranged
stability under u l t i m a t e conditions a n d consider the uncertainties o n the resistance centrally above t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface a n d the following blocks are staggered according
 506 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 507

5,40'
R e s i s t a n c e r e s u l t s f r o m w e i g h t o f c o n c r e t e a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m : RK = 2 5 2 + 8 4 6 = 1 0 9 8 k N
Be=5,038 m P r o o f : R K / F K > 1,5 : 1 0 9 8 / 6 5 8 = 1,67 > 1,5
s II Additional conditions: G / S K U P = (252 + 335)/658 = 0,89 > 0,67
Design based o ndesign u l t i m a t e loads:
III V e r i f i c a t i o n o f resistance i n case o f l o a d b y c o m p r e s s i o n :
III
1.1O 0 P a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r w e i g h t o f concrete a n d soil 7 = 1,35
'I I 1~ C o m p r e s s i o n l o a d : EA = 1 0 1 2 + 1 , 3 5 • ( 2 5 2 + 3 3 5 ) = 1 8 0 4 k N
[" -0
M.3O T h e u l t i m a t e bearing pressure i n adepth o f 3,20 m results f r o m (13.5):
u l t a = 3 2 0 + 1,60 • (3,20 - 1,50)• 1 9 •3,5 = 5 0 0 k N / m 2
»|2,5O0 P a r t i a l f a c t o r o f resistance 7 = 1,2
Resistance: R j= 500(3,0 • 3,0)/l,2 = 3750 k N
,b,ooD
P r o o f : Ed/Rd < 1 , 0 : 1 8 0 4 / 3 7 5 0 = 0 , 4 8 < 1 , 0
e=0,176
F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 7 : Concrete block founda- Proof o fstability under uplift:
1,50 1,50
tion (example) Uplift load: E d = 888 k N
P a r t i a l f a c t o r o f resistance T M = 1,2
R e s i s t a n c e r e s u l t s from w e i g h t o f c o n c r e t e a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m : Rd = ( 2 5 2 + 8 4 6 ) / l , 2 = 9 1 5 k N
to t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e leg m e m b e r . T h e centre o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface m a y only
P r o o f : Ei/Rd < 1 , 0 ; 8 8 8 / 9 1 5 = 0 , 9 7 < 1 , 0
deviate f r o m t h ev i r t u a l p e n e t r a t i o n o f the leg m e m b e r t h r o u g h t h ef o u n d a t i o n subface
A d d i t i o n a l conditions: G / S D U P = (252 + 335) /888 = 0,66 > 0,50
by t h ed i m e n s i o n egiven i n F i g u r e 13.16. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t needs also t ob e considered
w h e n pegging o u t t h ef o u n d a t i o n excavation. I t is expedient t o adjust t h e i n d i v i d u a l steps o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n t o t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e leg
m e m b e r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l blocks w i l l be designed w i t h w i d e r projections i n t h e o u t w a r d
direction t h a n inwards, t h e second block excepted. T h e projection t o t h etower centre h a s t o
Example: A separated concrete block f o u n d a t i o n ( F i g u r e 13.17) h a s t o b e designed f o r t h e be selected such t h a t t h e f o r m w o r k s c a n b e a r r a n g e d o n e above t h e o t h e r . A n expedient design
110 k V dead-end t o w e r t r e a t e d i nclause 13.4.3.5. T h e d a t a are: L e g m e m b e r uplift force 8 8 8 k N o f t h e block f o u n d a t i o n is achieved, i ft h e m i d d l e o f t h e e x c a v a t i o n intersects t h e axis o f t h e leg
( u l t i m a t e design l o a d ) , l o a d case w i n d a c t i o n o n c o n d u c t o r s w i t h ice; l e g m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n member a t half o fthe foundation depth. T h i s arrangement assumed, t h eeccentricity o fthe leg
force 1 0 1 2 k N ( u l t i m a t edesign load); t h e equivalent characteristic loads are 658 k N a n d 7 5 0 k N , member penetration point relative t o t h ecentre o ft h e excavation will be
respectively; l e g m e m b e r angle section L 1 8 0 x 16; t o w e r w i d t h a t t h e g r o u n d level: 5,038 m ;
increase o f w i d t h o f the lowermost tower section: 2 2 0 m m / m .
e = 2 2 0 / 2 • 1,60 = 176 m m < m a x e = 0,15•3000 = 4 5 0 m m .
Subsoil according t o soil i n v e s t i g a t i o n : Clay, sandy, s e m i - h a r d . T h e soil encountered p e r m i t s t o
install a block foundation type A concreted t ot h e u n d i s t u r b e d soil. T h esoil characteristics for
t h e d e s i g n a r e t a k e n from T a b l e s 1 3 . 1 3 a n d 1 3 . 1 4 f o r s e m i - h a r d c o h e s i v e s o i l w i t h n o n - c o h e s i v e T h e distance b e t w e e n t h e edge o f t h e lower steps o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n is: 5,038 + 2 • 0,176 - 3,00 =
additions. T h e f o l l o w i n g values r e s u l t f o r f o u n d a t i o n t y p e A : Specific weight o f t h e soil 7 = 1 9 2 , 3 9 m . T h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m i s 2 , 9 5 • t a n 22,14° = 1 , 2 0 m . D u e t o 2 • 1 , 2 0 m ~
k N / m 3 ; p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e u p t o 1,5 m d e p t h 2 0 0 k N / m 2 ; u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g pressure 2,39 m , t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m s o f t w o footings j u s t m e e t a tt h e g r o u n d level. T h e distance o f t h e
3 2 0 k N / m 2 ; f a c t o r n = 3 , 5 ; e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e /?„ = 17° f o r 5 , 0 m f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h , e a r t h footing is sufficient, therefore.
f r u s t u m a n g l e 0O = 26° f o r 1 , 5 m f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h a n d s p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f t h e n o n - r e i n f o r c e d
concrete T B = 2 2 k N / m 3 .
13.4.4.3 Auger-bored a n d excavated foundations
S i n c e f > / T = 3 , 0 0 / 2 , 9 5 = 1 , 0 2 > 1 , 0 , t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e i s e q u a l t o 0O ( s e e a b o v e u n d e r
s u b c l a u s e 1 3 . 4 . 4 . 2 , g e o t e c h n i c a l d e s i g n ) . T h e a n g l e o f a d e q u a t e e a r t h frustum w i l l b e f o r t h e
T h e e x c a v a t i o n o f auger-bored foundations iscarried o u t b y a dry-drilling process. A n
3 , 0 0 m w i d e f o u n d a t i o n 0 = 1 7 + ( 2 6 - 1 7 ) • ( 5 , 0 0 - 3 , 0 0 ) / ( 5 , 0 0 - 1 , 5 0 ) = 22,14°.
W i d t h o f t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a t g r o u n d l e v e l 3 , 0 0 + 2 • 2 , 9 5 t a n 22,14° = 5 , 4 0 m . auger is c o m m o n l y used as t h e drilling tool. T o achieve t h e required resistance, t h e
V o l u m e o f t h e s o i l b o d y w i t h a n e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e 0: V E F = 1 / 3 • 2 , 9 5 • ( 5 4 2 + 5 4 • 3 0 + a u g e r e d f o u n d a t i o n i s e x p a n d e d a t i t s b a s e u s i n g a n under-cutting tool. T h i s e x c a v a t i o n
3,02) - 8,9 = 53,45 - 8,9 = 44,55 m 3 m e t h o d assumes soils able t o b e augered, load-bearing a n d d r y ,h a v i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y
W e i g h t o f the soil body G E F= 44,55 • 19= 8 4 6 k N cohesive characteristics. Bigger stones f o r m obstacles f o r augering. D e c o m p o s e d brittle
V o l u m e o f t h e soil b o d y vertically u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface: layers o f rock m i g h t b e penetrated under certain circumstances whilst compact rock
VE = ( 3 , 2 0 - 0 , 6 0 ) • 3 , 0 0 2 - ( 0 , 5 7 0 + 1 , 1 9 5 + 1 , 5 2 7 + 2 , 4 5 4 ) = 1 7 , 6 5 4 m 3 cannot a n y m o r e b e excavated w i t h this procedure. Augered foundations a r edrilled ver-
W e i g h t o f t h e s o i l b o d y GE = 1 7 , 6 5 4 - 1 9 = 3 3 5 k N tically t o counteract t h e h a z a r d o f collapsing o f holes. D u e t o t h e bend between t h e
V o l u m e o ft h e concrete b o d y 11,463 m 3
axis o f t h e d r i l l i n g a n d t h e axis o f t h e l e g m e m b e r , h o r i z o n t a l l y a c t i n g r a d i a l forces a r e
D e a d weight o f t h e concrete body G B = 11,463 • 22 = 2 5 2 k N
created i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e s i d u a l transverse forces f r o m t h e t o w e r loads. T h e s e hori-
R a t i o o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e l o w e r step 0 , 6 0 / [ ( 3 , 0 0 - 2 , 5 0 / 1 , 1 3 ) - 0,5] = 1,52 > 1,40
z o n t a l forces a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h esubsoil b y t h e l a t e r a l e m b e d m e n t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n
Design based o n characteristic loads:
body. T h eb e n d i n g m o m e n t s l o a d i n g t h econcrete cross section r e q u i r e a corresponding
V e r i f i c a t i o n o f resistance i n case o f l o a d b y compression:
M a x i m u m bearing pressure: a = (750 + 2 5 2+ 3 3 5 ) / ( 3 , 0 • 3,0) = 149 k N / m 2 reinforcement. W i t h respect t o t h e construction o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n , short tower stubs
T h e permissible bearing pressure i n a depth o f 3,20 i n results f r o m (13.4): are used w h i c h d o n o t reach t o t h ef o u n d a t i o n subface. T h e r e f o r e , also t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l
p e r m a = 200 + (3,20 - 1,50) •19 • 3,5 = 3 1 3 k N / m 2 forces need t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d t h r o u g h t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
Proof: o = 149 k N / m 2 < perm o = 313 k N / m 2 Excavated foundations a r e o n l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e e x c a v a t i o n p r o c e d u r e from a u g e r e d
Proof o fstability under uplift: f o u n d a t i o n s since excavation is carried o u t b y m e a n s o f a grab a n d soil p l a n k i n g i s as
U p l i f t l o a d : EK = 6 5 8 k N well n o t used.
 DUO 10 r u u i i u a u u n s

01,30 section A-A - D e p t h o f f o u n d a t i o n b e t w e e n 1,8 a n d 7,0 m ;

- D i a m e t e r o f concrete shaft between 0,7 a n d 1,5 m ;
T) 14 0 12
- W i d t h o f f o u n d a t i o n b e t w e e n 1,2 a n d 2 , 1 m ;
- P r o j e c t i o n o f t h e foundation subface > 0,2 m ;
- R a t i o o f f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h t o f o u n d a t i o n d e p t h 0 , 2 5 < b/t < 0 , 7 .
W i t h r e g a r d t o i n s t a l l a t i o n , t h e r a t i o o f t h e projection of foundation subface t o t h e
) reinforcement of cap
h e i g h t o ff o u n d a t i o n base s h o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 5 i n case o f cohesive soil a n d
012 a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,33 i n case o f non-cohesive soil.
leg member
W h e n ultimate design loads axe g i v e n , i t i s r e q u i r e d t o p r o v e t h a t

y/XYXAj F d /(Ad U p/7M)<l,0 , (13.30)

V '
© helical reinforcement 0 10
© w h e r e yu s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 1 , 2 t o t a k e c a r e o f c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h b e t w e e n towers
a n d f o u n d a t i o n s . P a r t i a l factors T M b e t w e e n 1,35 a n d 2 , 0 0 a r e a p p l i e d w h e n character-
istic uplift loads axe g i v e n . T h e n
>0,2 m

6 or d
) auxiliary ring for A d u p / F K > 7 M (13-31)
installation 0 20
according t o E N 5 0 341-3-4, t h e p a r t i a l factor i s 1,5 t o m e n t i o n a specific example.
Figure 13.18: Auger- F i g u r e 13.19: Reinforcement o f a n auger-bored foundation
bored o r excavated foun- Example: A nauger-bored foundation has t o b e designed f o r t h e 1 1 0 k V dead-end tower
dation, foundation type B t r e a t e d u n d e r clause 13.4.3.5. T h e dimensions o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a r e assumed according t o
Figure 13.19.
Geotechnical design F r o m t h e static analysis o f t h e t o w e r , i t results: H o r i z o n t a l u l t i m a t e design force o ft h e bracings
pD = 7 , 7 5 k N , Pfj = 3 , 0 8 k N a n d r a d i a l f o r c e d u e t o b e n d i n g o f t h e l e g m e m b e r P x =
T h e geotechnical design o f a u g e r - b o r e d o r e x c a v a t e d f o u n d a t i o n s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t
P * = 96,5 k N . T h e corresponding characteristic values a r e :P f = 5,74 k N ; P f= 2,28 k Na n d
u s i n g t h e earth frustum p r o c e d u r e a s i n c a s e o f b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n s .
pk = pk = 7 1 , 4 8 k N .
A t first t h e s o i l e n c o u n t e r e d a t t h e s i t e i s a s s i g n e d t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t y p e o f s o i l
T h e soil characteristics result f r o m Tables 13.13 a n d 13.14 f o r semi-hard cohesive soil w i t h
a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 1 3 . 1 4 a n d t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e ft> f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n t y p e B
n o n - c o h e s i v e a d d i t i o n s : S p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f t h e s o i l y = 1 9 k N / m 3 , e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e 0O = 29°
i s d e t e r m i n e d ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 8 ) . T h e 0o v a l u e s a p p l y t o f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h s b e t w e e n 1 , 2 0 f o r d = 2 , 1 0 m ; 0O = 38° f o r d = 1 , 2 0 m , a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n ip = 25°, s p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f
a n d 2 , 1 0 m . W i t h i n t h eranges mentioned for t h ei n d i v i d u a l types o fsoil, a lower value reinforced concrete T B = 24 k N / m 3 .
00 a p p l i e s t o a l a r g e f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 1 m a n d t h e u p p e r v a l u e 0o S i n c e b/t = 1 , 8 0 / 5 , 2 0 = 0 , 3 5 , t h e c o n d i t i o n 0 , 2 5 < b/t < 0 , 7 0 i s m e t .
to a l o w f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h o f 1,20 m .Values i n between m a y b e interpolated linearly. T h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e 0o r e s u l t s f o r b/t = 1 , 0 a n d d = 1 , 8 0 m t o b e
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 3 . 2 0 ] , t h e earth frustum angle s t a r t s a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e a n d i s 00 = 29 + ( 3 8 - 2 9 ) • ( 2 , 1 0 - 1 , 8 0 ) / ( 2 , 1 0 - 1 , 2 0 ) = 32°.
determined from T h e r e f o r e , i t i s o b t a i n e d 0 = 3 2 • \ A b 3 5 = 18,83°.
D i a m e t e r o f t h e s o i l b o d y a t g r o u n d l e v e l : d» = 1 , 8 0 + 2 • 5 , 2 0 • t a n 18,83° = 5 , 3 5 m .
0 = 0o-ifbjt . (13.28) T h e distance o fthe leg m e m b e r s a t ground level is 5,038 m . T h a t means, t h e inverted t r u n c a t e d
cones o f e a r t h intersect b y 5,35 - 5,038 = 0 , 3 1 m . T h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e reactive force i s such
T h e ultimate compression resistance c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y a s s u m i n g t h e u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g i n s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i t w i l l n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d , a l s o w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e fictitious a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e
pressure as equally distributed w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface. earth f r u s t u m shape.
V o l u m e o f s o i l frustum c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a n g l e 0: VE = 5 , 2 / 3 • ( 1 , 8 s + 1 , 8 - 5 , 3 5 + 5 , 3 5 2 ) • 0 , 7 8 5 -
Adcomp = 0ult • d2 - r r / 4 , (13.29) 6,599 = 5 6 , 4 5 8 - 6 , 5 9 9 = 4 9 , 9 m 3 .
w h e r e trrat c a n be taken from table 13.13 a n d equation (13.5). W e i g h t o f e a r t h f r u s t u m : G E = 49,9• 19 = 9 4 7 k N
V o l u m e o f concrete b o d y 7,041 m 3 ; v o l u m e o f concrete b o d y below g r o u n d level 6,599 m 3
W h e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d s Eire u s e d f o r v e r i f y i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n , t h e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e
W e i g h t o f concrete body: G B = 7,041 • 24 = 169 k N
in t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface m a y n o t exceed t h e permissible bearing pressures according
V o l u m e o f soil b o d y resting vertically u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface 5,20 • 1,82 •7r/4- 6,599 =
to T a b l e 13.13a n d e q u a t i o n (13.4). 6,627 m 3 ; weight o f soil b o d y 6,627 • 19 = 1 2 6 k N
T h e dead load o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y a swell a st h e dead load o f t h e soil resting Design based o n characteristic loads:
vertically u p o n t h e foundation subface m a y b e neglected w h e n calculating t h e bearing P r o o f o f stability under compression loads:
pressure because t h edead load o ff o u n d a t i o n a n d soil b o d y a r e counteracted b y t h e s k i n M a x i m u m bearing pressure:
friction a n d o n l y t h e leg m e m b e r compression force w i l l b e transferred t o t h e subface. A c t i o n o f l e g m e m b e r compression force together w i t h t h e concrete a n d soil f r u s t u m weight:
T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n f o r u p l i f t l o a d s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h e earth frustum method t o o = (750 + 169 + 1 2 6 ) / ( 1 , 8 2 •0,785) = 4 1 1 k N / m 2
determine t h e uplift resistance. W h e r e b y , additionally t o t h e load o f t h e foundation A c t i o n o f t h e l e g m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e o n l y : <r = 7 5 0 / ( l , 8 2 • 0 , 7 8 5 ) = 2 9 5 k N / m 2
body, t h e dead load o f t h e soil b o d y defined b y a ne a r t h f r u s t u m angle 0 s t a r t i n ga t The permissible bearing pressure under characteristic loads a m o u n t s t o :
p e r m o = 2 0 0 + (5,20 - 1,50) •19 •3,50 = 446,05 k N / m 2 according t o (13.4)
the edge o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface m a y b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n (see F i g u r e 13.18).
U n d e r b o t h assumptions, t h ebearing pressure does n o t exceed t h epermissible value o f
E q u a t i o n ( 1 3 . 2 8 ) f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e earth frustum angle 0 is v a l i d a t e d f o r
446 k N / m 2 .
f o u n d a t i o n s w i t h d i m e n s i o n s c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s (see [13.20]):
510 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 511

Proof o fstability under uplift: E

ro
Uplift load: E K = 658 k N o
o
Resistance results f r o m w e i g h t o f c o n c r e t e a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m : fix = 1 6 9 + 9 4 7 = 1 1 1 6 k N backfill in cement-soil 1
Proof: fix/Fx > 1,5 : 1 1 1 6 / 6 5 8 = 1,7 > 1,5
Design based o n design u l t i m a t e loads:
V e r i f i c a t i o n o f r e s i s t a n c e i n case o f l o a d b y c o m p r e s s i o n :
P a r t i a l factor f o r weight o f concrete a n d soil 7 = 1,35
C o m p r e s s i o n load: E D = 1012 + 1,35 • (169 + 126) = 1440 k N
T h e u l t i m a t e bearing pressure i n a depth o f 5,20 m results f r o m (13.5):
u l t a = 320 + 1 , 6 0 • ( 5 , 2 0 - 1 , 5 0 ) • 1 9 • 3 , 5 0 = 7 1 4 k N / m 2
P a r t i a l f a c t o r o f resistance 7 = 1,2
F i g u r e 13.20: Grillage foun- F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 1 : Grillage foun- F i g u r e 13.22: Grillage foun-
R e s i s t a n c e : RA = ( 7 1 4 • 1 , 8 2 • T / 4 ) / 1 , 2 = 1 5 1 4 k N
dation d a t i o n w i t h concrete slab d a t i o n w i t h concrete block
Proof: E D / R D < 1,0: 1440/1514 = 0,95 < 1,0
P r o o f o f stability under uplift:
Uplift load: E D = 8 8 8 k N 13.4.4.4 Separate grillage foundations
P a r t i a l f a c t o r o f r e s i s t a n c e T M = 1,2
Resistance results f r o m weight o f concrete a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m : R d = ( 1 6 9 + 9 4 7 ) / l , 2 = 9 3 0 k N Description a n d applications
P r o o f : F d / R < j < 1,0 : 8 8 8 / 9 3 0 = 0 , 9 6 < 1,0 Grillage foundations a x es h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n s , w i t h a d e p t h v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 2 , 0 a n d
T h e bending m o m e n t s required for t h e design o f t h e reinforcement are determined m o s t l y using 4,0 m , m a d e e n t i r e l y o f g a l v a n i z e d s t e e l sections, f o r m i n g a p y r a m i d e i t h e r t r i a n g u l a r
t h e approach described i n clause 13.4.3.7 u n d e r u l t i m a t e c o n d i t i o n o r w i t h t h e procedure o f or square w i t h a grillage b o l t e d t o t h e b o t t o m e n d . T h e steel p y r a m i d transfers t h e
t h e elastic e m b e d m e n t . A s s h o w n there, t h e m a x i m u m calculated m o m e n t s differ t o a l o w horizontal shear load d o w n t o t h e grillage base b y truss action. I nF i g u r e 13.20, a
extent only. s t a n d a r d design is s h o w n consisting o f steel only. Sometimes, t h e grillage is enclosed
T h e bracings a r e connected t ot h e leg m e m b e r s 0,5 m above the g r o u n d level. T h e leg m e m b e r by concrete slab ( F i g u r e 13.21) o r a concrete block ( F i g u r e 13.22). T h el a t t e r designs
is b e n t a t t h e g r o u n d level. T h et o t a l r e s u l t i n g u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n t a l force w i l l b e are adopted t o enable t h e u s e o f t h e s a m e steel c o m p o n e n t s a t t o w e r sites w i t h soil o f
lower bearing capacity.
Ad = yJ(P? + P * ) 2 + (PyD + R K ) 2 = v/(7,75 + 96,5)2 + (3,08 + 9 6 , 5 ) 2 = 144 k N .

T h e soil resistant coefficient i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h eavailable subsoil Geotechnical design

T h e resistance o f grillage foundations against compression m a y b e verified either f o r
/ „ = 7 • t a n 2 ( 4 5 + ip/2) = 1 9 • t a n 2 ( 4 5 + 2 5 / 2 ) = 4 6 , 8 k N / m 3 . characteristic o r f o r u l t i m a t e loads. W h e n proving t h e stability using characteristic
loads, t h e b e a r i n g pressure related t o t h e gross area o f t h e grillage subface m a y n o t
T h e position o f the m a x i m u m m o m e n t results f r o m (13.19) e x c e e d h a l f o f t h e p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e s <7 p e rm a c c o r d i n g t o fable 1 3 . 1 3 , c o l u m n
5 . T h e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e r e l a t e d t o t h e n e t s u b f a c e a r e a m a y n o t e x c e e d t h e v a l u e s <7 pe rm.
a4 + 3 • 1 , 2 - x j ^ = 6 • 1 4 4 / 4 6 , 8 = 1 8 , 4 6 t obe x m = 1,85 m ,
W h e n u l t i m a t e loads a r egiven, i tisr e q u i r e d t op r o v e t h a t e q u a t i o n (13.25) i s c o m p l i e d
w h e r e t h e f o u n d a t i o n shaft d i a m e t e r i s d = 1,20 m . w i t h . T h e r e , 7 M C ' S 1J2 o r m o r e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s t a n d a r d o r p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n t o
T h e bending m o m e n t s resulting f r o m t h e forces P x andP y a tt h eposition x m are: be adopted. T h e design resistance c a n b e obtained f r o m e q u a t i o n (13.26) w h e r e A is
t h e n e t a r e a o f g r i l l a g e a n d <7 u i t c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m fable 1 3 . 1 3 o r f r o m e x p e r i e n c e .
My = P ? • (ft + xm) + P?-xm = 7,75 - ( 0 , 5 + 1 , 8 5 ) + 96,5 1,85 = 196,7 k N m , T h e m a x i m u m clear spacing between steel m e m b e r s t h a t f o r m t h egrillage base should
Mx = P y D • (h + x m )+ P ?•x m = 3,08 • (0,5 + 1,85) + 9 6 , 5 - 1 , 8 5 = 185,8 k N m . b e n o t less t h a n 1 5 0 m m n o r m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 m m . T h e s u r f a c e o f a n y s u c h m e m b e r
bearing directly o nsoil should have a m i n i m u m lateral dimension o f 50 m m .
Therefore, the resulting moment will be: T h e verification o f stability under uplift is carried using e q u a t i o n (13.27) based o n
characteristic o r l i m i t design loads. T h e r e , t h e partial factor T M U P should b e higher
M = ijMl + Ml = ©196.7 2 + 1 8 5 , 8 2 = 2 7 0 , 6 k N m . t h a n i n case o f concrete blocks, since t h e resistance is provided b y e a r t h resistance
o n l y , w h i c h v a r i e s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t . V a l u e s o f 7 M up b e t w e e n 1 , 5 a n d 1 , 8 a r e u s e d f o r
T h e bending m o m e n t f o rthe r a t i n g results f r o m (13.20) t o b e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c loads a n d 1,3 t o 1,5 f o r l i m i t loads.

M m a x = 270,6 - 46,8 • (1,20 • l , 8 5 3 / 6 + l , 8 5 4 / 2 4 ) = 188,5 k N . T h e u l t i m a t e uplift resistance o f t h e grillage foundations c a nb e calculated b y t h e

A c c o r d i n g t o general agreed practice, t h e tolerances o f i n s t a l l a t i o n a r e considered b y a n eccen-
t r i c i t y o f e = 0 , 0 5 - d. T h e m o m e n t r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y u n d e r u p l i f t l o a d w i l l b e
S z - e = 8 8 8 - 0 , 0 5 - 1 , 2 0 = 53,3 k N m .
T h e shaft, therefore, h a s t o b e r a t e d f o r a n u l t i m a t e b e n d i n g m o m e n t M = 188,5 + 5 3 , 3 =
241,8 k N m . T h e s e calculated i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s a r e u l t i m a t e values. T h e design o f
t h e reinforced concrete cross sections i s carried o u t according t o E N V 1992-1 [13.17].
a d d i t i o n o f t h e w e i g h t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e w e i g h t o f soil enclosed i na f r u s t u m
of a n i n v e r t e d p y r a m i d w h o s e faces m a k e a nangle 0 w i t h t h ev e r t i c a l , w h e r e 0 c a n b e
t a k e n f r o m experience o r f r o m T a b l e 13.14, c o l u m n 4. O t h e r d a t a according t o n a t i o n a l
standards, utility o rcontractor experience a n dtests c a nb e adopted aswell. T h e weight
of t h e soil should b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 13.13, w h e r e o p t i m u m compaction o f backfill is
assumed, o r f r o m local experience.
T h e s e values d e p e n d n a t u r a l l y o nt h e soil characteristics a n dt h em a i n design o b j e c t i v e
is t o p r e v e n t b i g d i s p l a c e m e n t s w h e n t h e g r i l l a g e i s s u b j e c t e d t o u p l i f t forces. T h e
0 1 Z I D rouuuauuiis
compacted backfill soil ist h e n one m a i n security factor against uplift. I t isi m p o r t a n t t o
control the h u m i d i t y o fthe backfill soil during compaction. Grillages cannot b e applied
i n s w a m p y soils p r o n e t o cause corrosion a n d i n sites subjected t o e r o s i o n p r o n e t o
cause instability.
A practical e x a m p l e for t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f grillage f o u n d a t i o n s is i l l u s t r a t e di n Figures
13.20 t o 13.22. F o r t h e t h r e e cases, t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l steel p a r t s are used:
— T h e grillage f o u n d a t i o n s h o w n i nF i g u r e 13.20 is used a t sites w i t h permissible
bearing pressure o f 340 k N / m 2 a n d more. T h e net area o ft h e grillage is sufficient
t o k e e p t h e p r e s s u r e u n d e r t h a t l i m i t . T h e f r u s t u m a n g l e i s 20° o r m o r e a n d t h e
specific w e i g h t force o f t h e w e l l c o m p a c t e d backfill is a t least 1 4 k N / m 2 . T h e r e is
not watertable.
— T h e grillage f o u n d a t i o n w i t h a concrete slab a t t h e b o t t o m s h o w n i n F i g u r e 13.21
is used a t sites w i t h permissible b e a r i n g pressures b e t w e e n 2 0 0a n d 3 4 0 k N / m 2 .
T h e gross area o f t h e grillage is n o te n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d t h e loads w i t h o u t e x -
ceeding t h e specified soil pressure. Therefore, i t is necessary t o b u i l d a concrete
slab w i t h a larger area i n order t o increase t h e b e a r i n g surface a n d also provide
a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t u p l i f t . T h e f r u s t u m a n g l e i s 16° a n d t h e s p e c i f i c
weight force o f t h e c o m p a c t e d backfill is 1 2 k N / m 3 . T h e r e is n o w a t e r t a b l e .
— T h e grillage f o u n d a t i o n w i t h a concrete block s h o w n i nF i g u r e 13.22 is used a t
sites w i t h a p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e less t h a n 2 0 0k N / m 2 . T h e g r i l l a g e a n d
s l a b a l o n e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o w i t h s t a n d t h e l o a d s . T h e f r u s t u m a n g l e i s 10° a n d
there isa m a x i m u m w a t e r t a b l e u p t o t h e m i d - d e p t h o f t h e excavation. T h e height
o f t h e concrete block m a y v a r y f r o m a m i n i m u m o f 0,5 m u n t i l a h e i g h t e q u a l t o
t h e m i d - d e p t h o f t h e excavation, so t h a t i n a n y case t h e t o p o f t h e concrete block
stands above the w a t e r level.
13.4.4.5 P i l e foundations
Pile foundations axeadopted f o rtechnological a n d economic reasons i nsubsoils w i t h
h i g h ground-water level. Stepped concrete foundations cannot b e adopted a t such soil
conditions because o f the costly watertable lowering w i t h i n the excavation a n d t h e
resulting foundation dimensions due t o the buoyancy below the water table. Pile foun-
d a t i o n s are also expedient w h e n b e a r i n g soil layers are o n l y encountered i n greater d e p t h
a n d a n exchange o f n o n - b e a r i n g o r settlement-sensitive soil isn o t economic. D r i v e n a n d
drilled piles are distinguished according t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d .
D r i v e n piles
I n E N 1 2 6 9 9 [13.38], general principles f o rdesign o f concrete, steel a n d t i m b e r d r i v e n
p i l e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f driven piles n e e d s s u b s o i l s s u i t e d f o r d r i v i n g
a n d h a v i n g sufficient thickness such t h a t t h e uplift a n dcompression loads o f t h e leg
m e m b e r c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e subsoil. H e a v i l y c o m p a c t e d layers, cohesive soils,
especially clay o f stiff a n d h a r d consistence a n d subsoils w i t h b i gstones exert a h i g h
resistance against pile driving, often completely p r o h i b i t i n g this technology.
P i l e types are selected o n t h e possibility t o d r i v e t h e pile, t h e d r i v i n g characteristic o f
t h e p i l e a n d t h e s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s i m p o s e d from t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s s u c h a s t r a n s f e r
of uplift loads, m o b i l i t y o f t h e construction machinery, l o w quantities o f m a t e r i a l a n d a
r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n . F r o m t h e m a n i f o l d o f k n o w n p i l e t y p e s [13.39] o n l y a f e w
aire s u i t e d t o o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s a n d a r e u s e d t o a n e x t e n t w o r t h t o b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e .
Baure s t e e l p i l e s
Bare steel piles are u s e d a s hollow tube-type piles, c o n s i s t i n g o f s i n g l e s h e e t - w a l l p i l i n g
s e c t i o n s w e l d e d t o g e t h e r , o r o p e n hot-rolled sections ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 3 ) . T y p e a n d s h a p e o f
a b c d e
F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 3 : C r o s s s e c t i o n o f d r i v e n b a r e s t e e l p i l e s : a , b , c d r i v e n p i l e c o m p o s e d from s i n g l e
sheet p i l i n g w a l l sections; d t u b e - t y p e pile, helically-welded t u b e ; e h o t - r o l l e d steel pile (used
for sheet piling walls)
piles are selected as s u i t e d t o t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e l e g m e m b e r stubs, t h e resistEmce
r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d t h e a b i l i t y o f d r i v i n g piles i n t o t h esubsoil. I f t h e leg m e m b e r is
e m b e d d e d i n a h o l l o w p r o f i l e b y e n c a s i n g i n c o n c r e t e , steel cleats a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r
anchoring. I n case o f h o t - r o l l e d sections, a reinforced concrete m u f f is provided w h i c h ,
h o w e v e r , i s m o r e e x p e n s i v e . H o l l o w t u b e - t y p e s e c t i o n s Eire w e l l - s u i t e d f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g
b e n d i n g m o m e n t s especially i n case o f soft subsoil layers d u e t o t h e i r h i g h section
modulus. T h e i r larger perimeter results i na larger friction surface between pile a n d
soil compared w i t h hot-rolled sections. O p e n hot-rolled sections c a n b e d r i v e n w i t h
lower effort since t h e y cut i n t o t h e soil. However, depending o nt h e t y p e o f soil, t h e soil
i n b e t w e e n t h e flanges i s c o m p a c t e d t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e s o i l w i l l m o v e d e e p e r
together w i t h t h e pile. T h i s p l u g o f soil c a n a s s u m e t h e size o f t h e pile c o n t o u r area.
I t i s also f o r m e d i n s i d e h o l l o w piles a n d seals t h e t u b e . T h e resistEmce agsunst d r i v i n g ,
therefore, increases considerably since t h e soil needs t o b e displaced. T h e r e b y , t h e soil
is c o m p a c t e d a n d t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n increases m o r e i n t e n s i v e l y t h a n i n case o f o p e n h o t -
rolled sections. Steel piles c a nb e extended easily, w h e r e b y t h e j o i n t s are produced b y
w e l d i n g o r b y m e a n s o fg l i d i n g - r e s i s t a n t , prestressed b o l t e d connections [13.40]. D r i v i n g
d e p t h s u p t o 4 0 m can b e reached for o v e r h e a d lines [13.41].
G r o u t e d s t e e l piles
T h e s k i n f r i c t i o n o f grouted steel piles i s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d b y a mortar layer
b e t w e e n steel pile a n d soil [13.42]. T h e pile p o i n t projects over t h e pile c o n t o u r ( F i g u r e
13.24), ast of o r m a hollow space between the pile and the displaced soil. C e m e n t mortair
is p r e s s e d d u r i n g t h e d r i v i n g p r o c e s s i n t o t h i s h o l l o w s p a c e u s i n g a h o s e w h i c h e n d s
closely above t h e pile p o i n t . T h e g r o u t i n g pressure is controlled such t h a t t h e upper
level o ft h e cement m o r t a r iskept a tt h e t e r r a i n level. A f t e r reaching t h e p l a n n e d d r i v i n g
d e p t h , t h e pressure is increased t o achieve a close i n t e r l o c k i n g w i t h t h e soil. G r o u t e d
s t e e l p i l e s c+m b e e x t e n d e d b y m e a n s o f w e l d e d j o i n t s s i m i l a r l y t o b a r e s t e e l piles.
C a s t - i n - s i t u d r i v e n c o n c r e t e piles
F o r c o n s t r u c t i n g driven in-situ concrete piles, a t h i c k - w a l l s t e e l t u b e w i t h a d i a m e t e r
b e t w e e n 0 , 4 a n d 0 , 5 m a n d a loosely i n s e r t e d p i l e p o i n t [13.43] a r e d r i v e n i n t h e soil.
T h e t u b e is used as a casing f o rt h e concrete. T h e p o i n t projects laterally s o m e w h a t
a b o v e t h ew a l l o f t h e t u b e . T h e p r o j e c t i o n is selected w i d e r i n case o f silt a n d clay
soils t h a n i n case o f non-cohesive soils. A seal b e t w e e n t h e t u b e a n d t h e p o i n t h i n d e r s
t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t o ingress i n t o t h etube. A f t e r d r i v i n g , t h esteel reinforcement is
i n s t a l l e d i n t o t h e t u b e E m d t h e n t h e t u b e i s filled u p w i t h c o n c r e t e . D u r i n g l i f t i n g o f t h e
t u b e , t h e concrete is c o m p a c t e d b y a v i b r a t o r a n d , thereby, pressed t o the s u r r o u n d i n g
s o i l . A r o u g h p i l e s u r f a c e i s f o r m e d p r o v i d i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y h i g h skin friction. T h e
i n s t a l l a t i o n process c a n b e observed w i t h i n t h e t u b e a t a n y stage since w a t e r ingress
i s a v o i d e d . C o n c l u s i o n s o n t h e p i l e r e s i s t a n c e t o b e e x p e c t e d c a n b e m a d e from t h e
514 13 Foundations
• u \i i y
# Y
Y g
Figure 13.24: Design
of pile points o f grouted
d r i v e n steel piles: a pile
composed o f sheet-wall
piling sections; b tube-type
pile; c H - b e a m section ( M V
piling system)
e n e r g y e x e r t e d f o r p i l e d r i v i n g a s w e l l a s from r e s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t u b e l i f t i n g . D u e t o
t h e difficult construction process, cast-in-situ d r i v e n concrete piles are r a r e l y used for
overhead lines nowadays.
Precast concrete piles
Precast concrete piles a r e a d o p t e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s w i t h c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l dimensions
u p t o 0,35 x 0,35 m a n d w i t h lengths u p t o 2 0 m . T h e y are p r o d u c e d w i t h slack o r
prestressed r e i n f o r c e m e n t . T h e i r h i g h w e i g h t does n o t f a v o u r t h e u s e a t t o w e r sites
difficult t o access. A n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e piles c a n b e achieved b y specific c o u p l i n g ar-
r a n g e m e n t s [13.44]. R e q u i r e m e n t s are g i v e n i n p r E N 12 7 9 4 [13.45].
Drilled piles
D e s i g n , c a l c u l a t i o n a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f drilled piles c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o E N
1 5 3 6 [13.46] o r D I N 4 0 1 4 [13.47], a s a n e x a m p l e . D r i l l e d p i l e s c a n b e i n s t a l l e d w i t h o r
w i t h o u t casing. F o r a n i n s t a l l a t i o n w i t h o u t casing, s i m i l a r restrictions exist concerning
t h e subsoil a s i n case o f auger-bored a n d excavated f o u n d a t i o n s . W h e n u s i n g a casing,
t h e d r i l l e d piles can b e adopted also i n u n s t a b l e a n d g r o u n d w a t e r - p r o n e soils. D r i l l e d
piles can b e also installed i n soils difficult t oloosen a s w e l l a si n soft rock. A n expansion
of t h e pile p o i n t ispossible depending o n the drilling m e t h o d . S u c h a p o i n t expansion
s h o u l d o n l y b e p l a n n e d i n firm, s t a b l e s o i l l a y e r s .
Hammer drilling a n d rotating drilling a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e f u n c t i o n o f
the drilling tools. H a m m e r drilling drives the casing t u b e b y a casing machine and
t h e soil is excavated b y m e a n s o f a circular grab. R o t a t i n g d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e s possess
a r o t a t i o n drive f o r the drilling tool and the casing arranged moveably a n d height
adjustable a t a rig. T h e soil is excavated b y means o f w o r m drills, buckets o r other
tools adjusted t o the i n d i v i d u a l drilling process.
D r i l l e d piles require relatively heavy m a c h i n e r y w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y cannot b e m o v e d t o
the i n d i v i d u a l sites o fa n overhead line. T h e r e f o r e , t h e i r application i sl i m i t e d t o special
cases, e. g. close t o b u i l d i n g s w h e r e h a m m e r d r i v i n g c a n n o t b e p e r m i t t e d .
Geotechnical design
S e p a r a t e p i l e f o u n d a t i o n s a r e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t t h e l o a d s from t h e s t r u c t u r e a r e t r a n s -
ferred t o t h e soil b y t h e piles alone. H i g h h o r i z o n t a l load c o m p o n e n t s can b e counter-
acted b y a b e n d i n g resistant design o ft h e piles i n a d d i t i o n t oa n oblique a r r a n g e m e n t o f
13.4 Design a n d calculation o f f o u n d a t i o n s 515
raked piles o r piles in groups. P i l e s f o r s e p a r a t e f o u n d a t i o n s s h o u l d b e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
l o a d e d i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e i r l o n g i t u d i n a l a x e s . Geotechnical design r e f e r s t h e n t o
r a t i n g w i t h regard t o uplift a n d compression forces a n d l a t e r a l loadings.
W i t h i n a separate pile f o u n d a t i o n , piles should b e used for t h e same static f u n c t i o n ,
for e x a m p l e t r a n s f e r o f u p l i f t o r c o m p r e s s i o n forces, w h i c h b y t h e i r a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e i r
material properties and their construction provide approximately the same performance
in respect o f uplift o r settlement.
I f a l o a d d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a n e x t e n d e d a r e a , f o r e x a m p l e d u e t o fill, a c t s u p o n a s o f t
soil layer above g o o d b e a r i n g subsoil i nt h e v i c i n i t y o f a pile f o u n d a t i o n , h o r i z o n t a l
m o v e m e n t s o fsoft soil can occur. T h e piles w i l l t h e n b e a d d i t i o n a l l y loaded b y bending.
T h e external pile loads r e s u l t f r o m t h e u l t i m a t e d e s i g n l o a d o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d o f t h e
s t r u c t u r e s . W h e n r a t i n g t h e piles, t h e effect o f b u o y a n c y a n d o t h e r effects w h i c h m i g h t
r e d u c e t h e s t a b i l i t y n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . H o w e v e r , t h e r e l e a s i n g e f f e c t o f buoyancy
m a y n o t b e t a k e n i n t o account for piles loaded b y compression.
Piles for transmission line supports should b e constructed w i t h a m i n i m u m length o f
6,0 m a n d b e e m b e d d e d a t least 3 , 0 m i n t o g o o d - b e a r i n g s o i l unless t h e i r s t a b i l i t y is
d e m o n s t r a t e d b y proof tests.
P a r a l l e l a n d r a k e d piles s h o u l d have sufficient spacing b e t w e e n t h e i r axes, such t h a t
neither during construction nor after loading adverse reactions can occur o n adjacent
piles. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t is m e t i f t h e distance o f t h e pile axes a t t h e pile p o i n t s reaches
at least three t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m cross-sectional d i m e n s i o n o f t h e pile.
T h e resistance of a pile d e p e n d s o n t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s u b s o i l ,
on the g r o u n d water condition, o n the l e n g t h o f e m b e d m e n t i n bearing soil layers, o n
the shape o f the pile a n d its cross-sectional o r circumferential area, o n t h e m a t e r i a l
of the pile, o n the n a t u r e o f the pile surface, o n t h e design o f the pile point, o n the
a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e piles a n d o n t h e distance o f piles as w e l l as o n t h e construction
procedure. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e thickness a n d s t r e n g t h o f o v e r b u r d e n soil layers are sig-
n i f i c a n t . M o r e o v e r , t h e e f f e c t s o f a g i n g , o f n e g a t i v e s k i n friction a n d o f s u p e r i m p o s e d
l a t e r a l l o a d i n g m i g h t b e o f i n t e r e s t . T h e r e s i s t a n c e o f d r i v e n p i l e s , t h e skin friction o f
w h i c h provides a nsubstantial p o r t i o n o f t h e i r t o t a l capacity, m a y even increase over
longer periods after d r i v i n g especially i n fine-sandy, silty a n d clayey soils.
A compression-loaded pile m a y b e stressed additionally b y negative s k i n friction if t h e
u p p e r l a y e r s o f t h e s o i l s e t t l e . T h e e f f e c t o f n e g a t i v e s k i n friction o n t h e p i l e a n d o n t h e
f o u n d a t i o n can b e reduced b y suitable design o fpiles a n d b y choice o fadequate spacing
b e t w e e n piles. T h e r e l e a s i n g effect m a y n o t b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n for u p l i f t l o a d e d
piles.
T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e ultimate tensile resistance o f p i l e s m a y b e c a r r i e d o u t b a s e d o n
the skin friction per u n i t area and the resistance o f the pile point. T h e values o f skin
f r i c t i o n c a n b e deduced f o rt h e soil c o n d i t i o n g i v e n a n d t h e selected t y p e o f pile, a s
based o n experience a n d tests carried o u t w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r types o f soils a n d piles
o r e v a l u a t e d from s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n c a s e o f s o i l l a y e r s w i t h v a r y i n g s k i n f r i c t i o n ,
the u l t i m a t e resistance m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d separately for each i n d i v i d u a l layer a n d t h e
ultimate tensile load m a y t h e n b e calculated b y s u m m a t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l values,
whereby the thickness o f the layers a n d the sequence o flayers asw e l l as the watertable
s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e l y c o n s i d e r e d . T h e r e s i s t a n c e o f pile groups m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d b y
s u m m a t i o n o f t h e resistance o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l piles.
Since for piles a wide v a r i a t i o n o f s k i n friction values has t o b e expected, the p a r t i a l
factors h a v e t o b e a d j u s t e d accordingly. T h e y axe h i g h e r c o m p a r e d w i t h those d a t a u s e d
for stepped block o r auger-bored foundations. Moreover, the required p a r t i a l factors
should consider w h e t h e r t h e uplift resistance is checked b y tests o r not.
T h e d e s i g n b a s e d o n ultimate design resistance s h o u l d i n c l u d e a p a r t i a l f a c t o r 7 M = 1 , 5
w h e n t h e uplift resistance is calculated theoretically o n t h i s basis o f t h e s k i n friction,
riiU

Local Sum of _ Friction

Point pressure — skin friction *"~ skin friction ratio fable 13.16: R e d u c t i o n f a c t o r f o r d e t e r m i n i n g fable 13.17: D a t a o f s k i n f r i c t i o n f o r b a r e
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24MN/mg30 0 0,1 0.3 MN/m2 0,7 0 1 MWm 4 4 2 1,4 1.0 t h e l e n g t h o f u p l i f t l o a d e d p i l e s i n fine s a n d h o l l o w steel piles
Type of pile Reduction T y p e of soil Skin friction
factor in iviiN / m
H-beam section, grouted 0,8" Sand, very dense 0,037
1,0 ' Sand, dense 0,022
Hollow pile, bare without pile point 0,35 Sand, medium dense to dense 0,020
H-beam section, bare 0,35 Sand, medium dense 0,019
Concrete pile with point 0,6 Sand, medium dense to loose 0,017
Concrete pile without point 0,30 Sand, loose 0,014
1) specific weight of grout mortar 1,8 Sand, very loose 0,008
Silt, stiff 0,022
2) specific weight of grout mortar 2,0
Silt, soft to stiff 0,017
Silt snft 0,011
Silt, very soft 0,009
Clay 0,022
Peat 0
Mud 0

p r o b e i s s u m m e d u p from t h e g r o u n d l e v e l d o w n t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r d e p t h ( s e e F i g u r e
1 3 . 2 5 ) . I t w a s c o n c l u d e d from t e s t s o n p i l e s t h a t a f t e r s e v e r a l l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g
Figure 13.25: Result o f compression probing cycles t h e t r a n s f e r r e d f r i c t i o n force i s d i s t r i b u t e d along t h e pile such t h a t i n t h e u p p e r
a n d l o w e r q u a r t e r o f t h e p i l e t h e t o t a l f r i c t i o n f o r c e s e x p e c t e d from t h e p r o b i n g w i l l b e
t r a n s f e r r e d a t f u l l e x t e n t a n d i n b o t h o f t h e m i d d l e q u a r t e r s o n l y t o 3 0 %• R e d u c t i o n
a n d a factor T M = 1,2 w h e n t h e uplift resistance is approved b y tests.
f a c t o r s a r e u s e d t o t a k e c a r e o f t h e d i f f e r i n g skin friction values. These reduction factors
T h e design based o n characteristic loads should include a partial factor T M = 2 , 0 w h e n
d e p e n d o n t h e p i l e t y p e a n d a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 3 . 1 6 f o r fine s a n d .
t h e uplift i s d e t e r m i n e d theoretically, a n da factor T M = 1,5 w h e n approved b y tests.
T h i s specification corresponds t o t h estipulations m a d e b y E N5 0341-3-4, t o m e n t i o n
an example. Skin friction data f o rbare steel piles
I n [13.49] i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t , a s a r e s u l t o b t a i n e d f r o m u p l i f t tests, t h e h o t - r o l l e d H -
W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e resistance o f compression-loaded piles, a t least those values o f
b e a m s e c t i o n s P S p 3 0 0 ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 3 e ) t r a n s f e r o n a v e r a g e o n l y 6 4 % of t h e u p l i f t l i m i t
skin friction adopted f o r uplift-loaded piles i n a d d i t i o n t o t h eresistance o ft h e pile
l o a d o fa n e q u a l l y l o n g b o x - t y p e pile L P 2 0( F i g u r e 13.23 a ) . I n case o ft h e b o x - t y p e
p o i n t m a y b et a k e n i n t o consideration. T h e p a r t i a l factors m a y b e a s s u m e d as i n case
pile L P 2 0 ,t h e total perimeter o f 1,40m c a nb eassumed as load-carrying. E q u a l s k i n
of uplift loaded piles. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n , t h e p o i n t pressure counteracts
friction values assumed, a load-carrying perimeter o f 0,64-1,40 = 0,90 m results fort h e
the compression load.
P S p 3 0 0 pile. T h ep e r i m e t e r o f t h e P S p 3 0 0 pile, however, is 1,34 m a n d i t s development
T h e permissible p o i n t pressure depends also o n t h e pile s e t t l e m e n t . D a t a c a n b e o b -
is 1,90 m . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n q u o t i n g s k i n f r i c t i o n values, reference t o a specific profile
tained f r o m soil investigation using a compression p r o b e (seeclause 13.3.3.5 a n d F i g u r e
a n d i t s l o a d - c a r r y i n g p e r i m e t e r i snecessary. R e l a t e d t o t h eperimeter o fa n H - b e a m
13.22). F u r t h e r d e t a i l s c a n b e f o u n d i n [13.48] a n d [13.47].
section, o n l y t w o t h i r d s o f t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n values o f a h o l l o w pile c a n b eassumed as
T h e b u c k l i n g s t a b i l i t y o f free-standing piles s h o u l d b e a n a l y s e d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e b u c k l i n g
contributing t o load bearing.
length a n d t h e restraining conditions. Piles e m b e d d e d i nsoil are n o t prone t o buckling,
I n [13.49] s k i n friction d a t a f o r t h e p r o f i l e t y p e s P S p 3 0 0a r e q u o t e d w h i c h w e r e t r a n s -
even n o ti nv e r y soft layers.
formed t oskin friction data i nM N / m 2 for bare h o l l o w piles as presented i n T a b l e 13.17.
T h e s e limit skin friction data c o r r e s p o n d t o t h eresistance reached b yt h epiles. T h e
Design o f pile lengths values presented i n T a b l e 13.17 a r eaverage values. Considerable deviations might b e
T h e s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e c o r d e d i n borehole o r probe logs f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r design of pile possible w h i c h w o u l d lead t oa w i d e scatter o f t h euplift resistance. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s
lengths. P r o b i n g s d o n o tsuffice alone since t h e i r results c o u l d b ew r o n g l y i n t e r p r e t e d recommended t o test each i n d i v i d u a l bare steel pile under uplift load.
w i t h o u t knowledge o f t h e type o f subsoil.
T h e pile lengths cannot b edirectly determined f r o m t h eresistance t o penetration o f Skin friction data o f grouted steel piles
driven probes i n t o t h e particular soil type. Instead, t h edensity o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l soil T h e concrete grout f o r m i n g a cover a r o u n d t h epile results i n a r o u g h surface, a n d ,
layer (see clause 13.3.3.2) h a st o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e results o f t h e probing. Based therefore, i nconsiderable increased skin friction d a t a . T h e skin friction data of grouted
o n t h i s r e s u l t s , t h e skin friction c a nb e determined based o n research tests carried o u t steel piles p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 6 h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d f r o m u p l i f t t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t
previously a n d o n experience. O n t h e other h a n d , t h e required lengths o f piles c a n b e at 4 5 test piles, according t o [13.50].
d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o f compression probings (seeclause 13.3.3.5).
A procedure t o calculate t h e p i l e l e n g t h f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o fc o m p r e s s i o n probings is Example: P i l e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a 110 k V d e a d - e n d t o w e r
given i n [13.13]. A t first, t h elocal s k i n f r i c t i o n i sd e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e t e s t i n g results T h e 1 1 0 k V dead-end t o w e r o f t h e e x a m p l e according t o clause 13.4.3.5 s h o u l d b e erected with
according t oclause 13.3.3.5. Then, the friction force related t o t h ep e r i m e t e r o f t h e d r i v e n g r o u t e d h o l l o w steel piles.
518 13 Foundations 13.4 Design a n d calculation o f foundations 519

0,30

a b c d

F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 7 : Design o fsteel-reinforced pad and chimney foundations

transfer o f the h o r i z o n t a l forces c a nbe verified as d e m o n s t r a t e d for single pile foundations i n

clause 13.4.3.7 a n d , t h e r e f o r e , w i l l n o t b e repeated here.

Medium depth of grouted pile section h,
F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 6 : S k i n friction d a t a o fgrouted steel piles for calculation o ft h e u l t i m a t e resistance
L e g m e m b e r u p l i f t design l o a d : 8 8 8 k N , l o a d case: W i n d a c t i o n o n i c e covered c o n d u c t o r s ; l e g
m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n d e s i g n l o a d : 1 0 1 2 k N ; h o r i z o n t a l d e s i g n l o a d s o f t h e d i a g o n a l s : Pz = 7 , 7 5
k N , P y D = 3,08 k N ; characteristic loads: u p l i f t 658 k N ; compression 750 k N ; P ° = 5,74 k N ;
P° = 2 , 2 8 k N .
S o i l a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b o r e h o l e log: U p t o 0,3 m d e p t h : h u m u s ; f r o m 0,3 m d e p t h : m e d i u m s a n d
w i t h 6ne sand, silty, clayey; w a t e r t a b l e u p t o t h e g r o u n d level; compression p r o b i n g see F i g u r e
13.25.
Steel pile: H e l i c a l l y - w e l d e d t u b e 609,6 x 10 m m , l e n g t h : 10,0 m ; steel cross section A s = 188 c m 2 ;
section m o d u l u s W = 2778 c m 3 .
P i l e p o i n t w i t h 0,70 m l o n g sides a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 13.24 b; p e r i m e t e r 4 • 0,70 = 2 , 8 0 m .
T h e compression probing shows point pressures between 8 a n d 18 M N / m 2 a n da correlated
r a t i o o f s k i n f r i c t i o n fs t o p o i n t p r e s s u r e qs o f 2 t o 1 %. A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 3 . 6 , t h e s o i l
is s a n d t o c l a y e y s a n d , a s c a n b e seen as w e l l f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e l o g . T h e s o i l i s classified as
m e d i u m - d e n s e according t o Table 13.7.
T h e u l t i m a t e resistance o f the pile will b e calculated f r o m the recorded skin friction values
f o l l o w i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e p r o p o s e d i n [ 1 3 . 1 3 ] . T h e first 2 , 0 m o f t h e p i l e l e n g t h a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s
non-bearing and t h e residual 8,0 m long section o f pile divided i n t o four parts. T h e expected
friction forces result t h e n f r o m t h e d i a g r a m o f t h e local s k i n f r i c t i o n d a t a ( F i g u r e 13.25).
Depth i n m R e l a t e d friction force i n M N / m
2 to 4 (0,60 - 0,20) = 0,40
4 to 8 ( 1 , 3 5 - 0,60) 0,3 = 0,22
8 to 10 ( 1 , 6 0 - 1,35) = 0,25
Total 0,87
A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 13.16, t h e r e d u c t i o n coefficient w i l l b e 0 , 8 for a g r o u t e d h o l l o w pile. Since
i n case o f h o l l o w piles t h e m o r t a r g r o u t i n g does n o t r e a c h t h e i n t e n s i t y as i n case o f s h e e t - p i l i n g
w a l l p i l e s , o n l y 9 0 % of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e a r e c o n s i d e r e d .
U l t i m a t e u p l i f t f o r c e : 0 , 8 7 • 2,8 • 0,8 • 0,9 = 1,75 M N .
R e q u i r e d u l t i m a t e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e : 1,5 • 0 , 8 8 8 = 1,332 M N o r 2 , 0 • 0 , 6 5 8 = 1,316 M N . T h e
expected u l t i m a t e uplift force is higher t h a n t h e required one.
Alternatively, t h e uplift capacity is d e t e r m i n e d according t o F i g u r e 13.26. A s k i n f r i c t i o n S ; =
0 , 0 9 M N / m 2 r e s u l t s f o r s a n d a t hm = 2 , 0 + 8 , 0 / 2 = 6 , 0 . F o r t h e u l t i m a t e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e
90 % o fthis value are considered as well. T h e r e f o r e , t h e u l t i m a t e uplift resistance results t o b e
0,09 • 2,80 • (10 - 2) • 0,9 = 1,81 M N .
T h e u l t i m a t e uplift forces d e t e r m i n e d according t o b o t h procedures coincide q u i t e well. T h e
13.4.4.6 S t e e l r e i n f o r c e d p a d a n dc h i m n e y foundation
P.e.inforced pad and chimney foundations are characterized b y a slender shaft ending i n
a p a d . T h e p a d c a n b e d e s i g n e d w i t h a flat u p p e r f a c e ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 7 a , b ) , a n i n c l i n e d
u p p e r face ( F i g u r e 13.27 c) o r w i t h a stepped block ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 7 d ) . T h e p a dc a n b e
undercut i n t o t h e soil, stable soil provided (Figure 13.27b). T h e loads a r e transferred
f r o m t h e c h i m n e y t o t h ep a da n d t h e n t o t h e subsoil. T h ec h i m n e y is adjusted t o
the i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e l e gm e m b e r s t u b , w h i c h reaches f r e q u e n t l y i n t o t h epad. T h i s
design is statically favourable a n d results i n a low a n d economic concrete volume. T h e
c h i m n e y can as w e l l b e arranged vertically. However, its cross section needs t h e n t o b e
selected large e n o u g h t oa c c o m m o d a t e t h e a n c h o r i n g elements o ft h e leg m e m b e r s t u b .
I f t h e l e gm e m b e r is b e n t t ot h e v e r t i c a l ( F i g u r e 13.27 c), t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f
the l e gm e m b e r force creates a na d d i t i o n a l b e n d i n g m o m e n t i nt h e c h i m n e y , w h i c h i s
c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n i n case o f a n i n c l i n e d design. T h e h o r i z o n t a l force increases
the bearing pressure a t t h e edges o f t h e p a d subface. A vertical a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e
c h i m n e y r e s u l t s i na less e c o n o m i c design t h a n a n i n c l i n e d a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e c h i m n e y
can b e designed w i t h square o r circular cross section. T h e circular cross section is o n l y
advisable w h e r e circular f o r m w o r k elements a r e available; otherwise, a square cross
section is t ob e preferred because o ft h e simpler f o r m w o r k .
T h e geotechnical design c o m p r i s e s t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f s t a b i l i t y u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f b o t h
compression a n d uplift loads. U n d e r compression loads, the resistance against compres-
sion divided b y the m a t e r i a l partial factor should b e higher t h a n the acting u l t i m a t e
force o r t h ep e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g pressure m a y n o texceed u n d e r characteristic loads.
The dead weight o f the foundation a n dt h e w e i g h t o f t h e soil resting vertically u p o n
the p a d need t o b e considered i n a d d i t i o n t o t h el e g m e m b e r force. T h eh o r i z o n t a l
forces a c t i n g o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l footings y i e l d t o a m o m e n t i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e
w i t h t h e consequence o f a b e a r i n g pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h m a x i m a a t t h e p a d edges.
T h i s distributionm a y b e mathematically represented b ya ninclined plane. T h e bearing
pressure a t the edges c a nb e o b t a i n e d from
a = N/(bx-by)-(l + 6ex/bx + 6ey/by) , (13.32)
w h e r e bx a n d by a r e t h e w i d t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e a n d t h e e c c e n t r i c i t i e s ex a n d
ey follow from ex = My/bx < 6 z / 6 a n d ey = Mx/by < 6v/6.
T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o fs t a b i l i t y u n d e r u p l i f t loads i scarried o u t as i n case o fconcrete block
foundations. T h e d e a d weight o f t h e soil resting u p o n t h ep a da n d t h edead weight
o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n i s a s s u m e d t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e u p l i f t force. A n e a r t h frustum m a y b e
t a k e n i n t o account, w h e r e t h e angle depends o n t h et y p e o f soil a n dt h edesign a n d
520 13 Foundations i6.i u e s i g n a n a calculation ort o u n a a t i o n s o z i

^ I , M5 • I ro
F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 9 : Foundations i n rock: a w i t h o u t anchors, b w i t h anchors
0.85 | 1,20 I 0.85 I o

Design based o n characteristic loads:

P r o o f o fstability under compression loads:
F i g u r e 13.28: Pad and chimney foundation (example) V e r t i c a l force due t o leg m e m b e r compressive force, w e i g h t o f concrete a n d soil: N = 546 +
78,3 + 467,2 = 1092 k N
M o m e n t s o f a c t i o n s : Mz = 2 6 , 5 • 3 , 8 0 = 1 0 0 , 7 k N m ; Mv = 2 5 , 8 • 3 , 8 0 = 9 8 , 0 k N m
construction o ft h e pad. T h e s e angles can b et a k e n f r o m T a b l e 13.14 o rf r o m experience. E c c e n t r i c i t i e s : ex = 9 8 , 0 / 1 0 9 2 = 0 , 0 9 m ; ey = 1 0 0 , 7 / 1 0 9 2 = 0 , 0 9 m
T h e partial factors applied t o the design resistance o f the foundation depend o n t h e M a x i m u m soil pressure: o = 1 0 9 2 / 2 , 9 0 2 • ( 1+ 6 •0 , 0 9 / 2 , 9 + 6 •0 , 0 9 / 2 , 9 ) = 178 k N / m 2 <
loads, b e i n g characteristic o f u l t i m a t e loads. T h e s e p a r t i a l factors are b e t w e e n 1,5 i n 203 k N / m 2
case o f characteristic loads a n d m o r e t h a n 1,2i n case o f u l t i m a t e loads. T h e permissible bearing pressure i n 3,30 m d e p t h according t o (13.4) a m o u n t s t o
T h e internal m o m e n t s a n d forces need t ob e calculated t a k i n g i n t o account t h e design o r = 100 + (3,30 - 1,50) •19 • 3,0 = 203 k N / m 2
P r o o f : <J = 1 7 8 k N / m 2 < c r r = 2 0 3 k N / m 2
loads a n dt h e m a t e r i a l p a r t i a l factors r e q u i r e d b y t h e r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d o r project
P r o o f o f stability under uplift:
specification such a s B N 50 3 4 1 - 1 . T h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n o ft h e p a d , w h i c h i sp r e v a l e n t for
P a r t i a l f a c t o r a t least 1,5
the design o ft h e reinforcement below t h e upper surface, results f r o m the weight o f the Uplift load: 5 K = 474 k N
soil i n case o fa n u p l i f t - l o a d e d f o u n d a t i o n . F o r t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t close t o t h e lower face W e i g h t o f concrete a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m 78,3 + 705 = 783 k N
of the pad, the bearing pressure under the compression-loaded foundation is prevalent. P r o o f : 7 8 3 / 4 7 4 = 1,65 > 1 , 5
T h e s h e a r s t r e s s e s w i t h i n t h e p a d h a v e t o b e v e r i f i e d . A verification of punching f o r D e s i g n based o n design u l t i m a t e loads:
the compression- o ru p l i f t - l o a d e d f o u n d a t i o n s needs t ob e carried o u t a tt h e t r a n s i t i o n P r o o f o f s t a b i l i t y u n d e r compression loads:
between the chimney and the pad. P a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r w e i g h t o f c o n c r e t e a n d s o i l y = 1,35
V e r t i c a l force due t o l e gm e m b e r compressive force, w e i g h t o f concrete a n d soil: N = 738 +
Example: A p a d a n d c h i m n e y f o u n d a t i o n has t ob e designed. T h e dimensions o ft h e f o u n - 1,35 • ( 7 8 , 3 + 4 6 7 , 2 ) = 1 4 7 4 k N
dation are assumed asshown i n F i g u r e 13-28. T h e lowermost pad isconcreted t ot h e planking. M o m e n t s o f a c t i o n s : Mx = 3 5 , 7 • 3 , 8 0 = 1 3 5 , 7 k N m ; M„ = 3 4 , 8 • 3 , 8 0 = 1 3 2 , 2 k N m
F r o m t h e static analysis o f t h e tower, i t results: Leg m e m b e r tensile design force 640 k N ; leg E c c e n t r i c i t i e s : ex = 1 3 2 , 2 / 1 4 7 4 = 0 , 0 9 m ; e„ = 1 3 5 , 7 / 1 4 7 4 = 0 , 0 9 m
m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n d e s i g n f o r c e 7 3 8 k N ; h o r i z o n t a l d e s i g n f o r c e o f t h e b r a c i n g s P " = 3 4 , 8 kN, M a x i m u m s o i l p r e s s u r e : a = Ed = 1 4 7 4 / 2 , 9 0 2 • ( 1 + 6 • 0 , 0 9 / 2 , 9 + 6 • 0 , 0 9 / 2 , 9 ) = 2 4 1 k N / m 2

Pf = 3 5 , 7 kN. T h e e q u i v a l e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d s a r e 5 K up = 4 7 4 k N ; 5 K C O H I P = 5 4 6 k N ; T h e permissible b e a r i n g pressure i n 3,30 m d e p t h according t o (13.5) a m o u n t s t o

Pf = 2 5 , 8 kN, P™ = 2 6 , 5 kN. o T = 1 6 0 + 1,6 - ( 3 , 3 0 - 1 , 5 0 ) - 1 9 - 3 , 0 = 3 2 4 k N / m 2
T h e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e s u l t f r o m T a b l e s 1 3 . 1 3 a n d 1 3 . 1 4 f o r firm c o h e s i v e s o i l w i t h n o n - P a r t i a l factor o f resistance y = 1,2
c o h e s i v e a d d i t i o n s : S p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f s o i l y = 1 9 k N / m 3 , e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e 0o = 1 0 + ( 1 3 - Design bearing pressure: A d = 324/1,2 = 270 k N / m 2
1 0 ) ( 5 , 0 - 2 , 9 ) / ( 5 , 0 - 1 , 5 ) = 11,8°; 0 = 1 1 , 8 ^ / 2 , 9 / 3 , 0 5 = 11,5°; p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e P r o o f : E d / A d < 1,0 : 2 4 1 / 2 7 0 = 0,89 < 1, 0
u p t o 1,5 m d e p t h 1 0 0 k N / m 2 ; u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e 160 k N / m 2 , f a c t o r K = 3,0. Proof o fstability under uplift:
Specific w e i g h t o f reinforced concrete: T B = 2 4 k N / m 3 Uplift load: E d= 640 k N
V o l u m e o fconcrete b o d y : V c r = 3,20 • 0,52 + 0,25 • ( 1 , 2 0 2 + 2,902) = 3,26 m 3 W e i g h t o fconcrete a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m 78,3 + 705 = 783 k N
D e a d w e i g h t o fconcrete b o d y : G c r = 3,26 - 2 4= 78,3 k N P a r t i a l f a c t o r o f resistance T M = 1,2
V o l u m e o f s o i l b o d y v e r t i c a l l y u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e : VE = 2 , 9 0 2 • 3 , 0 5 — 1 , 2 0 2 • 0 , 2 5 — P r o o f : E d / ( A d / 7 M ) < 1,0 : 6 4 0 / ( 7 8 3 / 1 , 2 ) = 0,98 < 1 , 0
0,52 • 2,80 = 24,59 m 3
W e i g h t o f t h i s soil b o d y : G B = 24,59 • 19 = 4 6 7 , 2 k N
W i d t h o f e a r t h f r u s t u m a t g r o u n d l e v e l : 2 , 9 0 + 2 • 3 , 0 5 • t a n 11,5° = 4 , 1 4 m 13.4.4.7 Foundations i n rock
V o l u m e o f s o i l b o d y w i t h a n e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e : Vfe = 3 , 0 5 / 3 • ( 4 , 1 4 2 + 4 , 1 4 • 2 , 9 0 + 2 , 9 0 2 ) -
Foundations in rock a r e u s e d i f t h e s u b s o i l i s a t l e a s t m o d e r a t e l y w e a t h e r e d r o c k c o r -
1,202 • 0,25 - 0,52 • 2,80 = 37,12 m 3
r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e classifications W 2 defined i n clause 13.3.4.2. I ft h e rock is cleft o r
W e i g h t o f e a r t h f r u s t u m : G E = 37,12 • 19 = 7 0 5 k N
strongly weathered, a foundation for n o n - c o h e s i v e s o i l i s u s e d , for e x a m p l e a s t e e l -
r e i n f o r c e d p a da n d c h i m n e y foundation. I n case o f m o d e r a t e l y w e a t h e r e d rock, w h i c h
522 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d calculation o f f o u n d a t i o n s 523

can b e excavated b y mechanical tools, a concrete block w i t h o u t o r w i t h undercutting T a b l e 1 3 . 1 8 : U l t i m a t e values for shear T a b l e 13.19: Permissible bond
c a n b e e m b e d d e d i n t o t h e rock ( F i g u r e 13.29 a). C o m p r e s s i o n forces are t r a n s f e r r e d a n d c o m p r e s s i v e stress i n case o f a n c h o r - stresses for s t r u c t u r e s a n c h o r e d
t o t h e r o c k b y t h e p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e a n d l a t e r a l f a c e s . Bearing ing steel m e m b e r s i n concrete i n concrete b y adhesion
pressures b e t w e e n 1 0 0 0 a n d 3 0 0 0 k N / m 2 a r e p e r m i s s i b l e f o r r o c k d e p e n d i n g o n t h e Strength class Shear Compression Strength class Permissible
w e a t h e r i n g c o n d i t i o n ( T a b l e 13.13) u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f characteristic loads a n d b e - of concrete stress stress of concrete bond stress
MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2
tween 1600 and 4 800 k N / m 2 under ultimate conditions. T h e uplift load is prevalent
C 20/25 2,3 14,0 C 20/25 1,1
f o r t h e geotechnical design. S i z e a n d d e p t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n d e p e n d o n t h e b o n d s t r e s s
C 30/37 3,0 21,0 C 30/37 1,3
between concrete a n d rock; bonding should b e strong enough t o produce a sufficiently
high u l t i m a t e resistance w i t h respect t o p u l l i n g - o u t o f t h e concrete block. I n addition,
the shear a n d tensile s t r e n g t h o f the rock s h o u l d b e h i g h enough such t h a t the con- w h e r e db i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e b o r e h o l e , L b t h e l e n g t h o f t h e a n c h o r a n d / a t h e b o n d
crete f o u n d a t i o n block w o u l d not be pulled-out together w i t h a b o d y o frock. Potential stress.
fraction lines need t o b e studied for verification o ft h e resistance. D a t a for u l t i m a t e o r
T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r 7 M a p p l i e d o n t h e t e n s i l e force i s b e t w e e n 2 , 0 a n d 3,0, d e p e n d i n g
permissible shear a n d tensile stress are difficult t o establish since these values depend
o n t h e definitiono f load being characteristic, o r u l t i m a t e a n d the project specification.
o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e crevice.
T h e b o n d stress b e t w e e n grout concrete a n d rock depends o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f rock a n d
Anchor foundations c a n b e a d o p t e d i nsolid r o c k w h i c h c a n b e excavated w i t h diffi- concrete, t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e borehole face, t h e crevice o ft h e rock, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
culties o n l y ( F i g u r e 13.29 b). A concrete block is a r r a n g e d u p o n t h e r o c k a n d slack, c o n c r e t e b e i n g c o m p a c t e d o r j u s t c a s t i n . B o n d s t r e s s e s o b t a i n e d from t e s t s a r e g i v e n i n
n o n - p r e s t r e s s e d a n c h o r s c o n n e c t t h e c o n c r e t e b l o c k s w i t h t h e r o c k . T h e rock anchors [13.52] b e i n g b e t w e e n 0,3 a n d 5 , 7 N / m m 2 . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s reference r e c o m m e n d s v a l u e s
can b e arranged vertically o r inclined. T h e compression load is transferred t o the rock b e t w e e n 0,1 a n d 1,0 N / m m 2 for t h e p r a c t i c a l design. A c c o r d i n g t o [13.51], a v a l u e o f
by the bearing pressure i n the subface o f the concrete block. T h e uplift load is assumed 0,24 N / m m 2 w a s u s e d for t h e design i n case o f a specific p r o j e c t a n d a resistance b e i n g
to b e counteracted b y t h e anchors only. T h e b o n d i n g between the g r o u t i n g concrete twice as m u c h verified b y testing. Reliable a n d e c o n o m i c d a t a for t h e b o n d stress t o
and the rock as well asbetween the steel anchor a n d t h e grout determines t h e required be applied are difficult t o r e c o m m e n d because o f t h e variations discussed. T h e data
number and lengths o f anchors. selected s h o u l d b e verified b y tests t o b e carried o u t for each i n d i v i d u a lapplication.
For the rock anchors, reinforcement steel w i t h conventional ribs as well as w i t h threads T h e anchoring length s h o u l d b e l o n g e n o u g h s u c h t h a t a p u l l i n g - o u t o f t h e r o c k b o d y
w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f 18 t o 3 0 m m a n d steel s t r e n g t h class S 4 2 0 / 5 0 0 o r s i m i l a r grades are w i l l n o t b e possible. T h e resistance against being pulled-out is f o r m e d b y t h e dead
used. T h e anchoring bar is designed considering the required material partial factor. weight o f t h e soil a n d the shearing a n d tensile s t r e n g t h o f t h e rock along the surface
T h e design value o fthe resistance is of t h e soil b o d y considered. T h e weight o f the rock provides the p r e d o m i n a n t p o r t i o n
of resistance. I tis c o m m o n practice t o neglect t h e shear a n d tensile s t r e n g t h because
Ft,Rd = 0 , 9 / u b -As/7M , (13.33)
reliable data for the encountered rock are seldom available. For solid, slightly weathered
w h e r e / u b i s t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , As t h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n a n d 7 M t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r r o c k a f r u s t u m a n g l e o f 45° c a n b e a s s u m e d . T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r T M s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t
t o b e c o n s i d e r e d , e. g. 1,25 a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 . 1,5 f o r u l t i m a t e l o a d d e s i g n .
T h e b o n d i n g transfers t h e tensile force f r o m t h e anchor t o the g r o u t i n g concrete. T h e
p e r m i s s i b l e bond stress d e p e n d s o n t h e c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h . A c c o r d i n g t o E N V 1 9 9 2 - 1
[13.17], for r i b b e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t steel t h e design v a l u e o f t h e b o n d stress results f r o m 13.4.5 A n c h o r i n g of leg m e m b e r stubs

/ b d = 0,4725 -/^k/3/7cr , (13.34) Anchoring of leg member stubs i n t o t h e c o n c r e t e c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t e i t h e r u s i n g a d d i -

where /ck is the characteristic concrete cylinder strength and 7cr the partial factor
for b o n d , e. g. 7 c r = 1,50 a c c o r d i n g t o E N V 1 9 9 2 - 1 . F o r g r o u t c o n c r e t e C 1 2 / 1 5 , t h e
b o n d stress i s / b d 1,6 N / m m 2 a n d 2,3 N / m m 2 f o r g r o u t c o n c r e t e C 2 0 / 2 5 . T h e r e q u i r e d
anchoring length r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , f r o m
F b = Ft,sd/(ir-ds-/ b d ) ,
w h e r e F j . S d i s t h e d e s i g n t e n s i l e f o r c e o f o n e a n c h o r a n d els t h e b a r d i a m e t e r .
T h e p u b l i c a t i o n [13.51] considers t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f b o n d stresses a s u s e d i n concrete
e n g i n e e r i n g a s t o o c o n s e r v a t i v e f o r anchor foundations a n d suggests t o p e r m i t 4 0 %
of t h e concrete compression s t r e n g t h as b o n d stress. T h i s suggestion i s s u p p o r t e d b y
experience f r o m tests.
T o determine the bonding between the anchor and the surrounding rock, a uniform
d i s t r i b u t i o n o ft h e strain a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o ft h e anchor i sc o m m o n l y adopted. However,
i n r e a l i t y t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n o t u n i f o r m . D e t a i l s c a n b e t a k e n from t h e r e f e r e n c e
[ 1 3 . 5 2 ] . I n c a s e o f a u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t r a i n , t h e resistance of the anchor i s
obtained from
Fbd = T •rib• Lb • A , (13.36)
tional cleats o r b y b o n d i n g between t h e leg m e m b e r stubs a n d t h e concrete alone. I n
m o s t c a s e s , a n c h o r i n g e l e m e n t s m a d e o f c o m m o n l y u s e d a n g l e s e c t i o n s o r cleats w i t h
square o rrectangular cross section are used, t h e latter particularly for pile foundations.
T h e structural engineering verificationo f the bending between anchoring elements and
concrete is carried o u t for the compression stress b e t w e e n t h e a n c h o r i n g elements a n d
t h e concrete, for t h e b o n d stress w i t h i n t h e circumference area o ft h e a n c h o r i n g element
(13.35)
a n d f o rt h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e a n c h o r i n g e l e m e n t s w i t h t h e l e gm e m b e r s t u b . D e s i g n
values are g i v e n i nT a b l e 13.18. T h e shear stress o f t h e w e l d i n g seams b e t w e e n t h e
a n c h o r i n g e l e m e n t s a n d t h e leg m e m b e r i s v e r i f i e d according t o E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 [13.22].
T h e bending stress o f t h e welding seams can b e neglected.
If t h e l e gm e m b e r s are anchored b y b o n d i n g only, i t should b e ensured t h a t t h e leg
m e m b e r stubs are closely encased i n concrete along their total length. F o r angle sections
o r c h a n n e l s , t h e a n a l y s i s m a y b e b a s e d o n t h e p e r i m e t e r o f t h e e n c l o s e d a r e a , e. g.
for angle sections b y the leglength plus t h e hypotenuse. T p improve the anchoring,
a d d i t i o n a l cleats o r t h e like s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d a t t h e l e gm e m b e r s t u b s close t o t h e
f o u n d a t i o n subface w h i c h need not t o b e considered i n t h e analysis. T h e leg m e m b e r s
s h o u l d e n d closely a b o v e t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface. P e r m i s s i b l e b o n d stresses are g i v e n
i n T a b l e 13.19.
t>24 ID r o u n a a u o n s ZO.I lDCOlgll CLX1H C+LlUUiaHUIl U l l U l i l l U c l l l U l l S O Z D

cross section AA
plan view

F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 1 : C e n t r a l footing for guyed tower

F i g u r e 13.30: Anchoring o f leg members

Example: I n t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e , t h e leg m e m b e r s are anchored b y m e a n s o f angle sections

according t o F i g u r e 13.30 into t h e concrete b o d y o f t h e stepped concrete block f o u n d a t i o n
t r e a t e d i n clause 13.4.4.2. A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 13.18, t h e permissible compression stress o f the
concrete grade C 2 0 / 2 5 is 14,0 M N / m 2 a n d t h epermissible b o n d stress is 2,3 M N / m 2 . F o r
t h e shear stress i n t h e w e l d i n g seam, a v a l u e o f 2 0 8 N / m m 2 i s permissible according t o E N V
1993-1-1 [13.22].
T h e l o w e r m o s t angle section u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface does n o tc o n t r i b u t e t o t h e transfer
o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n forces.
U l t i m a t e l e g m e m b e r compression force: 1 0 1 2 k N
A r e a o f one a n c h o r i n g angle: 0,35 • 0,13 = 0,045 m 2 F i g u r e 13.32: Foundation forg u y wires
C o n c r e t e c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s : <7 D = 1 0 1 2 / ( 3 - 0 , 0 4 5 ) = 7 , 5 0 M N / m 2 < 1 4 , 0 M N / m 2
P e r i m e t e r o f o n e a n c h o r i n g angle: 0,35 + 2 • 0,13 = 0,61 m
T h e side o f t h e a n c h o r i n g angle directed t o t h el e g m e m b e r is n o t considered i n t h e analysis average o r w e a k soils, their r e g e n e r a t i o n is a d m i t t e d u n t i l 1,0 m b e l o w t h e subjacent
since i t s efficiency i s r e s t r i c t e d b y t h e l e g m e m b e r layer t o t h e block, i no r d e r t o achieve t h e required soil pressure (see F i g u r e 13.31).
B o n d stress: r = 1 , 0 1 2 / ( 3 • 0 , 3 • 0,61) = 1,84M N / m 2 < 2,3 M N / m 2 T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s u c h b l o c k s i s l i m i t e d t o t e r r a i n w i t h a m a x i m u m s l o p e o f 10°. F o r
W e l d i n g stress i n t h e s e a m : T = 1,012/(3 • (0,13 + 0,18) •2 - 0,004] = 136 N / m m 2 < 2 0 8 N / m m 2 t e r r a i n w i t h s l o p e s h i g h e r t h a n 10°, o r i f t h e g e o t e c h n i c a l p r o f i l e r e q u i r e s , t h a t c e n t r a l
foundation needs t o b e reinforced w i t h piles o r a pier f o u n d a t i o n should b e designed
13.4.6 F o u n d a t i o n for g u y e d t o w e r s i n s t e a d . I n t h el a t t e r case, f o r r o c k y soils, t h eo p t i o n c o u l d b e r o c k footings anchored
in rocks.
13.4.6.1 A c t i n g loads
13.4.6.3 F o u n d a t i o n s f o rg u y w i r e s
Guyed towers, s p e c i a l l y o f t h e V - t y p e , a r e u s u a l l y p r o v i d e d w i t h f o u r g u y s ; e a c h o f t h e m
i s s u b j e c t e d t o a p u l l - o u t l o a d t h a t i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e r e l e v a n t guy anchor foundation. T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l t y p e s o f foundations for guy wires u s e d t o w i t h s t a n d w i t h o u t p e r m a -
T h e central foundations o fthe masts aresubjected m a i n l y t ocompression loads. n e n t d e f o r m a t i o n t h e m a x i m u m u p l i f t f o r c e s o r i g i n a t i n g from t h e s p e c i f i e d s t r u c t u r e
u l t i m a t e loads. Grillage footings, concrete anchor a n drock anchors have a widespread
13.4.6.2 C e n t r a l footings use a n d t h e i r choice w i l l d e p e n d o n specific characteristics o f t h e site o f i n s t a l l a t i o n .
T h e subject i s dealt w i t h i n [13.53].
C e n t r a l footings o f g u y e d towers, b e i n g n o t subjected t o u p l i f t forces, are u s u a l l y shallow A m o n g t h e v a r i o u s e x i s t i n g m e t h o d s for c a l c u l a t i n g a n c h o r p l a t e s for g u y w i r e s , i t
foundations if c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r t o w e r f o u n d a t i o n s ( F i g u r e 13.31). Grillage, concrete can b e mentioned: T h e inverted cone o r p y r a m i d a l frustum method, t h eBiarez a n d
or r o c k f o o t i n g s m a y b eu s e d a s c e n t r a l f o u n d a t i o n s o fg u y e d towers a n d must be B a r r a u d ' s m e t h o d [13.54], t h e M e y e r h o f a n d A d a m ' s m e t h o d [13.55]. T h e resistance
designed t o withstand, without permanent deformation, t h em a x i m u m compression o b t a i n e d from a n y m e t h o d s h o u l d b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h eacting load o f t h eg u y w i r e
forces a n d e v e n t u a l h o r i z o n t a l shears o r i g i n a t e d f r o m t h e specified u l t i m a t e loads f o r t a k i n g care o f partial factors a s well.
the structures. Usually, t h eg u y w i r e a n d g u y h a r d w a r e a r e designed t o have a certain partial factor
T h e concrete blocks have generally the f o r m o fastepped block o r ap y r a m i d a l f r u s t u m t o w a r d t h e g u yanchors. S o m e u t i l i t i e s specify g u yw i r e s s o h a v i n g a n u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h
w i t h a w i d e n i n g a n g l e t o w a r d s t h e b a s e o f 60°, a t a d e p t h n o t e x c e e d i n g 1 , 0 m . F o r 1,25 t o 1 , 5 0 t i m e s t h e g u y a n c h o r w i t h s t a n d . E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 r e q u i r e s a p a r t i a l f a c t o r
526 13 Foundations 13.5 T e s t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s 527

carry out field tests d u r i n g the design stage.

T h e procedure forthe final d e f i n i t i o n o f g u y w i r e f o u n d a t i o n s c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d as
follows:
— P r e l i m i n a r ydesign is based o n theoretical models.
— F i e l d tests, c o m p r i s i n g t h e m a i n f o u n d a t i o n types a n d possibly different soils, are
carried out.
— R e s u l t s o f field t e s t s a r e u s e d a s a f e e d b a c k t o t h e p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n a n d c o r r e c -
t i o n s a x e m a d e u n t i l r e a c h i n g a final d e s i g n .
T h e m a i n considerations t o be evaluated before t h e final s o l u t i o n i s f o u n d a r e t h e
following:
— The w i t h s t a n d o f the anchor foundation t o uplift;
— The accommodation o f the guy anchor b a rinside t h e foundation body;
F i g u r e 13.33: Injection anchor — The compaction o f backfill;
type Titan forterminating guy
— The displacement o f the guy wire foundation;
wires
— The cost o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s .
T h e tests a t least validate o r n o t t h e p r e l i m i n a r y design a n d indicate shortcomings o r
7 M = 1, 65. I nF i g u r e 13.32, a t y p i c a l g u ya n c h o r is s h o w n designed f o r5 0 0k V lines. o v e r d e s i g n . T h e final d e s i g n c a n b e b a s e d o n t h e t e s t r e s u l t s . T h e d e s c r i b e d procedure
T h r e e basic variations are considered: results i n reliable a n d cost-effective g u y w i r e f o u n d a t i o n s .
— G u y a n c h o r s for g o o d soils
T h i s t y p e o f g u y anchor is applied i ndry, n o t r o c k y soils, w i t h o u t possibility o f
s h a l l o w w a t e r levels, t h a t could reach t h e footing. T h e e x c a v a t i o n i s r e c t a n g u l a r 13.5 Testing of foundations
and vertical and the m i n i m u m depth is about 2,5 m . T h e g u yanchor b a ris a
forged r o u n d rod, w i t h a diameter o f about 32 m m , m a k i n g w i t h the vertical the 13.5.1 Definitions and object
s a m e a n g l e a s t h e g u y w i r e o f a b o u t 30°.
T h e anchor end is connected t o t w o steel channel sections, t h a t are e m b e d d e d i n Testing of foundations f o roverhead line s t r u c t u r e s is carried o u t t o check t h e s t a b i l i t y
the concrete block t o help the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the load into the w h o l e block. T h e o f f o u n d a t i o n s . D e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n i s g i v e n i n I E C 6 1 7 7 3 [13.3] a n d [13.57]. T h a t
backfill is well compacted. standard distinguishes between
- G u y a n c h o r s for p o o r soils — F o u n d a t i o n s p r e d o m i n a n t l y loaded b y a x i a l forces either i n uplift o r compression
T h i s anchor is destined t o w e t soils, w h e n w a t e r o r h u m i d i t y is f o u n d o n t h e a c t i n g i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n c e n t r a l axis as discussed i n clause 13.4.4.4;
b o t t o m o f t h e e x c a v a t i o n . T h e e x c a v a t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e first o n e , e x c e p t t h a t — F o u n d a t i o n s p r e d o m i n a n t l y loaded b y l a t e r a l forces, o v e r t u r n i n g m o m e n t s o r c o m -
the d e p t h is bigger, reaching a b o u t 3,5 m . A l l o t h e r characteristics are s i m i l a r t o b i n a t i o n o f b o t h a s discussed i nclause 13.4.3.
the anchors f o rg o o d soils, b u t a larger concrete v o l u m e i s r e q u i r e d . S o m e t i m e s , T h e object o ftesting f o u n d a t i o n ist oprovide i n f o r m a t i o n o n the load-carrying capacity
the e a r t h backfill is replaced b y a soil-cement backfill. For preventing corrosion, and the load response o f the total foundation as a ninteraction between the foundation
t h e g u y a n c h o r b a r s m a y b e e n c a p s u l a t e d w i t h p l a s t i c t u b e s filled w i t h c e m e n t and the s u r r o u n d i n g soil o r rock.
paste (seeF i g u r e 13.32).
— R o c k anchors
13.5.2 C a t e g o r i e s of tests
For rocky terrain, the guy anchors can b e inserted into sound rock arid the m i n i -
m u m l e n g t h o f e m b e d m e n t needs t o b e d e t e r m i n e d (seeclause 13.4.4.7). W i t h respect t o t h e purpose o f t h e test, t h e level o f investigation a n d t h e m e t h o d o f
- Injection anchors execution, three categories o f tests c a nb e distinguished:
I n F i g u r e 13.33, a ni n j e c t i o n a n c h o r t y p e I s c h e b e c k " T i t a n " [13.56] i s s h o w n . T h i s — Scientific researched tests. S u c h t e s t s a r e c a r r i e d o u t u n d e r r e s e a r c h c o n d i -
type adopts a tube inserted o f a solid b a rf o rthe anchor rod. T h e point o f the tions. T h e tests have t o b e designed r e g a r d i n g t h e t a r g e t s o f t h e test. N o specific
anchor consists o f a lost drilling head. T h e drill r o d isused as g r o u t i n g c o n d u i t for stipulations can b e made i n general.
filling t h e a n n u l u s f r o m t h e b o t t o m up. T h e anchor is suited especially f o r n o n - — D e s i g n t e s t s . Design tests on foundations are n o r m a l l y carried out o n specially
cohesive soil a n d rock, w h e r e a nu l t i m a t e resistance u p t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2000 k N installed foundations t overify design parameters o r methodologies o r construction
can b e achieved depending o n the dimensions o f the anchor tube, its length and procedures, t o establish geotechnical design parameters o r a design methodology
the subsoil. for a specific a p p l i c a t i o n ; t o v e r i f y c o m p l i a n c e o f f o u n d a t i o n design w i t h p r o j e c t
specification; t o d e t e r m i n e t h e average f a i l u r e load a n d coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n o f
t h e f o u n d a t i o n t y p e u n d e r specific soil c o n d i t i o n s . D e s i g n tests s h o u l d b e prefer-
13.4.6.4 F i e l d tests
ably carried o u tw i t h full-scale foundations. I ngeneral, design tests a r e carried
T h e theoretical analysis o f anchor foundations is based u p o n experimental methods. o u t t o a t least t h e design load o r t o f a i l u r e especially w h e n a specific t y p e w a s
A s a consequence, i tis o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e t o test prototype foundations i n the designed using t h e limit state approach. T h e level o f i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n and o f i n -
field, b e f o r e c o m i n g t o a final d e s i g n o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s f o r g u y w i r e s . S e v e r a l u t i l i t i e s vestigation should b e appropriate for the purpose o f t h e test.
aza I D foundations

I n case o f large d i m e n s i o n f o u n d a t i o n s , design tests o n reduced scale f o u n d a t i o n s test loading connecting member

m a y b e considered. T h e specific c o n d i t i o n s t o b e c o m p l i e d w i t h i nt h i s case c a n

be t a k e n f r o m I E C 6 17 7 3 .
— P r o o f t e s t s . Proof tests on foundations are carried out o n production founda-
tions t o a c t a s a check o n the q u a l i t y o f the installation, o n t h e m a t e r i a l s being
used a n d o n the absence o f any m a j o r variations i n the assumed geotechnical d e -
sign p a r a m e t e r s . P r o o f tests are t a k e n t o a specific percentage o f t h e design load,
u s u a l l y 6 0 t o 7 5 %, a s s t i p u l a t e d i n r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s o r i n a p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a -
tion. T h e proof test should not exceed the serviceability l i m i t load. L i m i t a t i o n s
of the displacement should b e stipulated a n d considered. T h e foundations tested
F i g u r e 13.34: Load ap-
should b e fully serviceable after successfully passing t h e test.
plication b y means of hy-
T h e extent o fproof tests depend o nt h e soil conditions, the type o ff o u n d a t i o n and draulic jack a n d fulcrum
the design approach. P r o o f tests should b e carried out i n particular o n foundations beam
where ah i g h p o r t i o n o fthe load ist r a n s m i t t e d t o the s u r r o u n d i n g soil b y friction.

T h e m i n i m u m c l e a r d i s t a n c e C L b e t w e e n r e a c t i o n s u p p o r t s (see F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 4 ) s h o u l d b e
13.5.3 Foundation installation chosen carefully t oprevent any influence o nthe behaviour o fthe foundation. According
P r o o f tests a r ec o n d u c t e d o n p r o d u c t i o n f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o to I E C 6 1 7 7 3 , t h e m i n i m u m clearance is
difference between the foundation tested a n d those n o t subjected t o tests.
C L = 6 + 0 , 7•t i n m, (13.37)
Design tests are generally carried o u t o n specifically installed foundations which should
be constructed u s i n g t h e specified m a t e r i a l s a n d dimensions a s close as possible t o w h e r e b is t h e w i d t h o f f o u n d a t i o n i nm , t t h e d e p t h o f f o u n d a t i o n i n m a n d C L t h e
those required b y design. F o r the purpose o f design tests, the connection between the
distance between nearest point o f the reaction supports.
f o u n d a t i o n a n d the test device requires adequate s t r e n g t h possible higher t h a n t h a t o f
T o concrete piers, driven piles, d r i l l e d a n d g r o u t e d p i l e s , o r h e l i x a n c h o r s i t a p p l i e s :
t h e leg m e m b e r stubs. T h e connection needs t o b e designed accordingly, however, m a y
not alter the geotechnical characteristics o f the foundation. CL = 3 • d ( m ) o r2 m , (13.38)
T o ease foundation testing, the f o u n d a t i o n m a y b e modified so t h a t i t s test axis is
v e r t i c a l a n d t h e l o a d s m a y b e a p p l i e d v e r t i c a l l y w h e r e t h e m a x i m u m t r u e s l o p e i s less whichever is greater. T h e r e , d is t h e pier o r pile diameter. T h e clear distances between
t h a n 2 0 % . T h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d for i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t e s t f o u n d a t i o n s h o u l d b e a s c l o s e t h e r e a c t i o n s u p p o r t s s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o t h e m o d e l o f f o u n d a t i o n design. I n case o f
a s p r a c t i c a l t o t h o s e w h i c h a r e i n t e n d e d t o b e u s e d for t h e p r o d u c t i o n foundation. A l l design tests, i tis advisable t o increase these distances.
relevant details o f foundation size, c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n s h o u l d b e recorded. M e c h a n i c a l d i a l g a u g e s w i t h a r e c o m m e n d e d r e s o l u t i o n o f 0 , 0 1 m m o r less a n d a r e c o m -
These records should contain details relating b o t h t o design requirements and t o the m e n d e d range o f travel o f 5 0 m m t o 1 5 0 m m m a y b e used for design a n d proof tests. I t
actual data f o r the as-built test foundation. T y p i c a l record formats c a n b e found i n is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e d i a l g a u g e s h o u l d b e c l a m p e d t o t h e r e f e r e n c e b e a m i n s u c h a
I E C 6 1 773. m a n n e r that the gauge will expand as the load is applied, i n order t o prevent damage
A sufficient period o f t i m e s h o u l d elapse b e t w e e n t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d to t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o ni n the event o f a sudden failure o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n o r equipment.
beginning o f testing t o ensure adequate strength o f concrete o r grout. A s a n example, G l a s s s l i d e s o r m a c h i n e d p l a t e s m a y b e fixed t o t e s t foundation t o provide a smooth
reinforced concrete foundations should b e tested not before 1 4 days after installation. b e a r i n g s u r f a c e for t h e d i a l g a u g e s . F o r u p l i f t a n d c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t s , a m i n i m u m o f t w o
T h e same applies t o concrete piles augered o r drilled a n d cast-in-situ. Piles i n cohesive g a u g e s s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d e q u i d i s t a n t from t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d f r o m
soils s h o u l d n o t b e tested before 2 1 days a f t e r d r i v i n g . each other. A s a check o nt h e p r i m a r y m e a s u r e m e n t system, a secondary s y s t e m should
b e u s e d f o r a l l d e s i g n t e s t s , e . g . a n o p t i c a l l e v e l m a y b e u s e d , w i t h a fixed b e n c h m a r k
13.5.4 Testing equipment a n d a scale.
T h e m i n i m u m l e v e l o f m e a s u r e m e n t for p r o o f t e s t s s h o u l d b e a r e c o r d o f t h e a p p l i e d
T h e testing equipment a n d t h e l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s h o u l d b e a b l e t o m o b i l i z e load a n d t h ecorresponding displacement o f t h efoundation, using a n optical level.
the f o u n d a t i o n capacity a n d overcome t h e design deflection criteria. T h e loads m a y b e R e s o l u t i o n o f t h e o p t i c a l l e v e l s h o u l d b e less t h a n 0 , 5 m m .
applied b y a h y d r a u l i c jack, a w i n c h s y s t e m o r a n o t h e r loading m e c h a n i s m . T h e loads
applied t o the test foundation m a y b e m e a s u r e d b y l o a d cells, b y p r e s s u r e gauge o n a
13.5.5 Testing procedure
calibrated hydraulic jack o r b y d y n a m o m e t e r s installed o n the w i n c h line. A back-up
s y s t e m i s r e c o m m e n d e d f o r design tests, f o r e x a m p l e l o a d cells a n d pressure gauge. T h e n u m b e r o f tests w i l l depend o n the following factors:
A c c u r a c y o f m e a s u r e m e n t s h o u l d b e w i t h i n five p e r c e n t o f t h e m a x i m u m t e s t l o a d . - T y p e o f test, such as design o r proof;
T h e test load can b e applied b y - Significant variations in geotechnical parameters along the transmission line route;
— T e s t l o a d i n g b e a m a n d s u p p o r t s (see F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 4 ) . - Proposed m e t h o d o f analytical review o f t h e test results.
— A fulcrum beam arrangement; W h e r e v e r possible, statistical techniques should b e used t oevaluate t h e results o f design
— A n A-frame or tests, especially i ft h e characteristic s t r e n g t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n is required (see I E C
— A hydraulically operated crane. 6 0 8 2 6 [13.58]). B ythis means, t h e results f r o m a t least three identical f o u n d a t i o n tests
530 13 Foundations 13.5 T e s t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s 531

50 -r
T a b l e 13.20: L o a d i n g s c h e d u l e
Test category Testing condition Loading steps in % of Minimum period for main-
target load according taining loading steps
to test condition
Design design or failure load 25, 50, 70, 80, 90, 100, 0 3) 10 min 11

Proof maximum proof load 50, 75, 90, 100, 0 . 3 min 2)

" I n case of design tests, loading may be continued until failure occurs, subject to satisfactory
provisions for sudden failure before the maximum load has been attained. The maximum load
during testing may be defined as the design load or the failure load. The design load should be
maintained for a minimum of 30 min to ensure that no significant movement has occurred.
" I n case of proof tests, the maximum (proof) loads will be based on an agreed percentage of
the design load and the time period that each load application is maintained will be governed
by the minimum period necessary to obtain the readings and to ensure that soil conditions have
stabilized.
3 ' For design tests carried out to failure, further load increments of 10 % should be made beyond

the design load until failure occurs. In case of cohesive soils, loading steps of 70 % and above
should be maintained for at least 30 min.

0 1 1 1 1 1

in similar soil conditions, under the same test loading regime, c a n b e satisfactorily
analysed.
The n u m b e r o f foundations subjected t o proof testing will depend o nthe soil type, the
extent o f soil investigations, the heterogeneity o f subsoils, the type o f foundation and
the reliability o f t h e design. W h e r e p r o o f tests a r econsidered necessary, i t is recom-
m e n d e d t h a t a t least 5 % o f the relevant foundations o r relevant i n d i v i d u a l elements,
for e x a m p l e piles, d e p e n d i n g o n size o f p o p u l a t i o n a n d ievel o f confidence, s h o u l d b e i n -
cluded i n a proof test p r o g r a m . Depending o n test results, the n u m b e r o ftests required
should b e adjusted b y considering the variations o f subsoil, the types and dimensions
of foundations, a n d the quality o f the site supervision t o b e expected d u r i n g installa-
t i o n . S o m e u t i l i t i e s c a r r y o u t proof tests o n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l p i l e . T h i s s t r a t e g y l e a d s t o
reliable f o u n d a t i o n s a t reasonable costs since overdesigning can b e avoided as well.
Testing o f foundations m a d e u p o f pile groups as a w h o l e w o u l d b e t h e ideal w a y o f
assessing t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n , b u t w o u l d b e technically a n d economically
p r o h i b i t i v e i n m o s t cases. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h ep e r f o r m a n c e o f p i l i n g s y s t e m s m a y b e
assessed b y c a r r y i n g o u t tests o ni n d i v i d u a l piles. W h e n e v a l u a t i n g t h e results t o deter-
m i n e t h e overall capacity, t h e load displacement r e l a t i o n observed d u r i n g testing, a n d
the i n t e r a c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l piles should b e d u l y considered.
T a b l e 13.20 gives t y p i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o rt h e l o a d i n g steps t o b e applied u n d e r b o t h
test categories a n d t h e p e r i o d for m a i n t a i n i n gt h e load. A p r e l i m i n a r y s t a b i l i z a t i o n cycle
of u p t o 10 % o f the test load m a y b e required t o ensure that all the test equipment
has been adequately stabilized.
E a c h test s h o u l d b e recorded. A typical test recording f o r m can b e f o u n d i n I E C 6 1 773,
a n n e x D . T h e record o f a design test s h o u l d include t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n :
(1) Soil profile a n d geotechnical design parameters;
( 2 ) P l a n a n d e l e v a t i o n o f t e s t f o u n d a t i o n s , r e a c t i o n s y s t e m s , fixed reference
for m e a s u r e m e n t o f h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s ;
(3) P l a n a n d e l e v a t i o n o f test f o u n d a t i o n a r r a n g e m e n t , g i v i n g d i m e n s i o n s a n d
tions o f m o v e m e n t s recorded d u r i n g tests;
(4) Record o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions, i n c l u d i n g a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s ,
ice, w i n d o r s n o w , i f a n y , d e p t h t o w a t e r - t a b l e ;
(5) D e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f e q u i p m e n t used t o m e a s u r e t h e applied loads a n d t h e
corresponding deflections, t h e following d a t a should b e recorded for each load o r
deflection measurement:
- T i m e a t start a n d end o f each load application, as well as the date;
0 10 20 30 mm 40 Figure 13.35: Tangent intersection
Displacement — method
— A p p l i e d loads;
— Displacement readings recorded a t the following: A t start o f load cycle; a t
regular t i m e intervals during load application and immediately prior t o re-
moval o f load.
(6) D u r i n g t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e test, t h e readings o f load versus displacement s h o u l d
be plotted o n a graph t o ensure that any unexpected variations o r anomalies are
checked carefully.
(7) F o r those tests w h i c h have b e e n t a k e n t o failure, t h e test r e p o r t s h o u l d include a
brief description o f the probable mechanism o f failure.
For proof tests, items (2), (3), (4) and (5) are recommended.
13.5.6 T e s t e v a l u a t i o n a n da c c e p t a n c e c r i t e r i a
Test evaluation s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e a s - c o n s t r u c t e d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e
results o f a design test should b e either evaluated against the design parameters used,
or c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e results o f similar tests i n different soil conditions. I f there is a
m a r k e d discrepancy between the theoretical analysis and practical results, further tests
m a y b e required t o identify the probable cause o f the discrepancy.
Several m e t h o d s are outlined i n greater detail i n I E C 61 773, a n n e x E , for the evaluation
o f u p l i f t o r c o m p r e s s i o n d e s i g n t e s t s . I n F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 5 , t h e tangent intersection method i s
s h o w n as a n example. T h e load capacity i sdefined as t h e load related t ot h e intersection
of t w o tangents t o t h e load-displacement curve, one representing t h e elastic range a n d
points
the o t h e r t h e plastic range. I n t h e e x a m p l e , t h e f o u n d a t i o n capacity is 41,5 k N .
Results o fproof tests m a y b e evaluated against predetermined criteria according t o the
direc- test m e t h o d a n d the requirements o f t h e design. T h e installation should b e checked
f o r i t s a d e q u a c y t o f u l f i l i t s p u r p o s e . S u i t a b l e acceptance criteria s h o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h e d
before t h e tests are made. Values o f admissible displacements associated w i t h applied
design o r proof load, including any partial factors that m a y apply, should b e agreed
upon during the design o f the foundations.
The results o f a design test m a y b e deemed satisfactory i f the following conditions have
been fulfilled:
- T h e specified design load has b e e n validated b y t h e test;
 D,}^ 10 rounaaiious

0,75 1,0 1.0 1.25 1,5

Ratio load to ultimate uplift load — Ratio load to ultimate uplift load —

F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 7 : U p l i f t load-displacement d i a g r a m for u p l i f t tests o n piles: a test load according

to E N 61773; b test load according t o E N 50341-3-4

pending o n the type o f pile, the soil conditions, the construction procedure a n d t h e
result o f pile d r i v i n g , i t is a proven procedure t o carry o u t uplift load tests a t least
at 5 % o f t h e installed c o n s t r u c t i o n piles. S o m e utilities i n G e r m a n y r e q u i r e t e s t i n g o f
each u p l i f t - l o a d e d pile. A f t e r a successful test, t h e pile s h o u l d b e fully serviceable. I n
F i g u r e 13.36, t h e f o u n d a t i o n iss h o w n o f t h e 240 m tall towers for t h e 400 k V river E l b e
crossing a s described i n [13.59, 13.60]. B a r e h o t - r o l l e d steel piles w i t h a cross section
A!titude+7,50m

{ 1yy> according t o F i g u r e 13.23 e have been used. A l l t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 m l o n g steel piles

1 i I i
1 1 were uplift tested.
XyX© />+:•
x\yxy© xyxyxv ©xyxyxy
1 '11 1 ! Jf F 1
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r o c e d u r e s t i p u l a t e d i n I E C 6 1 773 [13.3], t h e l o a d i sincreased step b y
Psp600L step u p t o t h e test load o f t h e pile a n d t h e displacement is recorded a t each load step.
A t e a c h i n c r e m e n t a l s t e p , t h e l o a d s s h o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d u n t i l t h e i n c r e a s e o f uplift
F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 6 : P l a n v i e w a n d section o f suspension t o w e r f o u n d a t i o n a d o p t i n g bare steel piles displacement has settled, i n a n y case for a t least 3 m i n u t e s . T h e results o f t h e tests a r e
( R i v e r E l b e crossing, G e r m a n y [13.60])
p r e s e n t e d i n a n uplift load/displacement diagram ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 7 ) . T h e p r o o f o f s u f f i c i e n t
uplift resistance will b e validated i f the displacement does not exceed a predetermined
— T h e associated displacement r e m a i n s w i t h i n specified l i m i t s w h i c h are compatible limit and the extrapolation o f the load displacement curve t o the required u l t i m a t e
with the function o f the structure. u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e i s p o s s i b l e . Extrapolation methods a r e g i v e n i n [ 1 3 . 3 ] .
If the test results d o n o tmeet these requirements, t h e design and/or construction According t o E N 50341-3-4, t h e test load is 1,25 times t h e n o m i n a l uplift load w h i c h
procedure, soil investigation and foundation testing need t o b e reviewed. corresponds t o t h e characteristic value o f t h e uplift load o f t h e pile. T h e verification
T h e results o f a proof test c a nb e deemed satisfactory i f the value o f the measured of sufficient resistance is considered as successful i fa displacement is m e a s u r e d under
d i s p l a c e m e n t a t t h e specified l o a d i s e q u a l t o o r less t h a n t h e l i m i t s specified. T h e l i m i t s t h e t e s t l o a d w h i c h p e r m i t s e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o t h e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e b e i n g a t least 1,5
depend o n the ability o f the structure, which is t o b e supported b y this foundation, t i m e s t h e n o m i n a l l o a d a n d t h e displacement n o texceeding the corresponding limit.
to absorb o r t o a c c o m m o d a t e m o v e m e n t s . I f the observed displacement exceeds these A f t e r u n l o a d i n g , t h e r e s i d u a l displacement s h o u l d also stay w i t h i n l i m i t s permissible
specified limits, o r i f t h e assessment o f t h e test results raises d o u b t s a b o u t t h e capacity according t o experience.
of the foundation, the following measures can b e taken: Uplift tests suggest t h a t t h e displacements differ for the i n d i v i d u a l pile types, compara-
— A d d i t i o n a l tests could b e m a d e o na t least t w o adjacent f o u n d a t i o n s o f four-legged ble forces a n d pile lengths assumed. T h u s , t h e displacement w i l l b e afew m i l l i m e t r e s i n
t o w e r s t o e n a b l e a s t a t i s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e first t e s t , w h i c h c a n case o f bare steel piles w h i l e s o m e t e n s o f m i l l i m e t r e s can b e observed i n case o f d r i l l e d
then b e used t o determine the acceptance o f the foundation tested: piles. O nt h e o t h e r h a n d , w i d e scattering o f t h e pile resistance was observed a t piles o f
— I ft h e results o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l tests c o n f i r m t h e p r e v i o u s ones, t h e f o u n d a t i o n s the same design i n comparable soil conditions even a t the s a m e t o w e r site a n d a ts i m i l a r
m u s t b e considered as unsatisfactory; driving criteria. Therefore, n o generally valid limit values for the displacement can b e
— A l l foundations deemed unsatisfactory as a result o f t h e p r o o f test need t o b e given. D i s p l a c e m e n t s o f 3 t o 5 m m i n case o f i n - s i t u cast concrete piles a n d u pt o 8 m m
strengthened o r redesigned accordingly. for g r o u t e d piles m a y b e accepted as permissible i f t h e uplift load/displacement d i a g r a m
u n a n i m o u s l y shows t h a t t h e pile p e r m i t s a n increase o f load b e y o n d t h e test load u p t o
the required u l t i m a t e uplift load. Differently f r o m t h e conventional design methods, the
13.5.7 Uplift load tests o n construction a n d test piles
s c a t t e r i n g o f r e s i s t a n c e i s c o n s i d e r e d i n c a s e o f a design based on probabilistic principles
Uplift load tests o n t e s t p i l e s o r m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e l y on construction piles o f o v e r h e a d [13.61].
lines represent a reliable a n d economic verification o f their resistance. T h e verification T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e u l t i m a t e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e c a n b e s t u d i e d b y i n v e s t i g a t i n g a test
of resistance o n construction piles, therefore, is very c o m m o n i nC e n t r a l E u r o p e . D e - pile a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 1 7 7 3 i n s t a l l e d a t t h e t o w e r s i t e b u t s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e c o n s t r u e -
534 13 Foundations
t i o n piles. I n t h i s case t h e p i l e i s loaded u p t o f a i l i n g . T h e test p i l e s h o u l d c o r r e s p o n d
to t h e construction pile as far as its dimensions, its design and its characteristic con-
struction data are concerned.
D u r i n g t e s t i n g t h e ultimate capacity i s r e a c h e d w h e n a n u p l i f t - l o a d e d p i l e i s l i f t e d
p e r c e p t i b l y o r a c o m p r e s s i o n - t e s t e d p i l e s e t t l e s d o w n p e r c e p t i b l y . O n t h e uplift force-
displacement curve o r o n t h e compression force-settlement curve t h e r e s i s t a n c e i s d e -
t e r m i n e d b y t h e p o i n t w h e r e t h e flat g r a d i e n t , a f t e r a r a n g e o f l o a d t r a n s i t i o n w i t h
progressively increasing displacements o r s e t t l e m e n t s , passes i n t o a steeply s l o p i n g leg
(Figure 13.37).
13.6 References
13.1 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2 0 0 1
13.2 D I N 4022: Subsoil a n d g r o u n d w a t e r . Classification a n d description o f soil a n d rock.
P a r t 1: Borehole logging o f soil and rock n o t i n v o l v i n g continuous core sample recovery.
Berlin, D I N , 1987
P a r t 2: Borehole logging o frock. Berlin, D I N , 1987
P a r t 3: B o r e h o l e logging for b o r i n g i n soil (loose rock) b y c o n t i n u o u s e x t r a c t i o n o f cores.
Berlin, D I N , 1987
13.3 I E C 6 1 7 7 3 : O v e r h e a d lines. T e s t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s o f s u p p o r t s . G e n e v a , I E C , 1997
13.4 D I N 1054: Subsoil; Permissible loading o f subsoil. B e r l i n , D I N , 1976
13.5 D I N 4 0 2 1 : Subsoil; G r o u n d e x p l o r a t i o n b y e x c a v a t i o n , b o r i n g a n d s a m p l i n g . B e r l i n , D I N ,
1990
13.6 B S 5930: C o d e o fpractice for site i n v e s t i g a t i o n . L o n d o n , B S I , 1981
13.7 A S T M D 1452: S t a n d a r d practice for soil investigation a n d s a m p l i n g b y auger borings.
N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1990
13.8 D I N 4094: Subsoil; G r o u n d e x p l o r a t i o n b y probes. B e r l i n , D I N , 1990
13.9 G r u n d b a u t a s c h e n b u c h (Soil mechanics handbook). Berlin, W i l h e l m E r n s t k Sohn, 3rd
edition, 1980
13.10 A S T M D 1586: S t a n d a r d test m e t h o d for p e n e t r a t i o n test a n d split-barrel sampling o f
soils. N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1999
13.11 T e r z a g h i , K . ; Peck, R.: B o d e n m e c h a n i k i n der B a u p r a x i s (Soil mechanics for civil engi-
neering practice). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1961
13.12 D I N 4096: Subsoil; V a n e testing; Dimensions of apparatus; M o d e l of operation evaulation.
Berlin, D I N , 1980
13.13 L G M mededelingen L a b o r a t o r i u m voor G r o n d m e c h a n i c a . D e l f t Deel X l l / X I I I 1969
13.14 S c h m i d t , H . G . : B e i t r a g z u r E r m i t t l u n g der h o r i z o n t a l e n B e t t u n g s z a h l f u r die B e r e c h n u n g
v o n Grofibohrpfahlen unter waagerechter Belastung (Contribution o n the evaluation o f
t h e h o r i z o n t a l subgrade m o d u l u s w i t h regard t odrilled piers under horizontal loading).
Bauingenieur 4 6(1971), pp. 233 t o 237
13.15 Heitfeld, K . H . : Ingenieurgeologische P r o b l e m e i m Grenzbereich zwischen Locker- u n d
F e s t g e s t e i n ( E n g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g y issues w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n loose soil a n d r o c k ) .
B e r l i n , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , 1985
13.6 References 535
13 16 D I N 4030: A s s e s s m e n t o f w a t e r , soil a n d gases for t h e i r aggressiveness t o c o n c r e t e ;
P a r t 1: Principles and l i m i t i n g values. Berlin, D I N , 1991
P a r t 2: Collection and e x a m i n a t i o n o f water a n d soil samples. Berlin, D I N , 1991
13.17 E N V 1 9 9 2 - 1 : E u r o c o d e 2 : D e s i g n o f concrete structures; P a r t 1: G e n e r a l rules a n d rules
for buildings. Brussels, C E N , 1991
13.18 D I N 4023: Borehole logging; G r a p h i c a l representation o fresults. B e r l i n , D I N , 1984
13.19 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects ( N N A ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
13.20 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a -
tive Aspects for G e r m a n y ( N N A ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
13.21 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 7 : T h e design o f t r a n s m i s s i o n line s u p p o r t foundations - a n overview.
Paris, Cigre Brochure No. 206, 2002
13.22 E N V 1993-1-1: E u r o c o d e 3: Design o fsteel s t r u c t u r e s . P a r t 1-1: G e n e r a l rules a n d rules
for buildings. Brussels, C E N , 1992
13.23 L o n g o , V . J . e t a l . : R e c e n t advances i n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e f o u n d a t i o n a n a l y s i s a n d design.
Cigre Report 22-10, 1986
13.24 L a p e y r e , J . L . e t a l . : T h e o r e t i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f a n o v e r t u r n i n g f o u n d a t i o n
for single m e m b e r support. Cigre R e p o r t 22-05, 1986
13.25 Zolezzi, R . : D i r e c t f o u n d a t i o n s b y m e a n s o f blocks a n d f o u n d a t i o n plates i n t r a n s m i s s i o n
lines w i t h self-supporting towers. C o m p a r a t i v e study. Cigre R e p o r t 22-01,1986
13.26 Grasser, E . ; T h i e l e n , C : H i l f s m i t t e l z u r B e r e c h n u n g v o n S c h n i t t g r o B e n u n d
Formanderungen v o n Stahlbetontragwerken, D A f S t B - Heft 240 (Remedies t o analyse
i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s o f steel reinforced concrete s t r u c t u r e s ) . D A f S t B - V o l u m n e
240). Berlin. Beuth-Verlag. 3 r d edition 1991
13.27 G r u n d b a u t a s c h e n b u c h , T e i l 3 ( S o i l mechanics h a n d b o o k , P a r t 3 ) . B e r l i n , W i l h e l m E r n s t
k Sohn, 5 t h edition 1997
13.28 S u l z b e r g e r , G . : D i e F u n d a m e n t e der F r e i l e i t u n g s t r a g w e r k e u n d i h r e B e r e c h n u n g ( T h e
foundations of overhead line supports and their calculation). B u l l . Schweiz. Elektrotechn.
Ver. 36(1945), pp. 289 t o 307
13.29 T i t z e , E . : U b e r den seitlichen B o d e n w i d e r s t a n d bei P f a h l g r i i n d u n g e n ( O n t h e l a t e r a l soil
resistance o f pile foundations). Bauingenieur P r a x i s , V o l u m e 77. Berlin, W i l h e l m E r n s t
k Sohn, 1970
13.30 W e r n e r , H . : B i e g e m o m e n t e elastisch eingespannter P f a h l e ( B e n d i n g m o m e n t s o f e l a s t i -
cally embedded piles). B e t o n - u n d S t a h l b e t o n b a u (1970) V o l u m e 2 , pp. 3 9t o 4 3
13.31 D I N 4085: Subsoil; A n a l y s i s o f e a r t h pressure; Basic principles for calculation. Berlin,
DIN,1987
13.32 T e n g , W . : F o u n d a t i o n design. L o n d o n , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1989
13.33 E m p f e h l u n g e n des A r b e i t s a u s s c h u s s e s U f e r e i n f a s s u n g e n ( R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e w o r k -
i n g group for shore reinforcements). B e r l i n , W i l h e l m E r n s t k S o h n , 1980
13.34 B l u m : W i r t s c h a f t l i c h e D a l b e n f o r m u n d deren B e r e c h n u n g ( E c o n o m i c types o fpiers a n d
their analysis). B a u t e c h n i k 9 (1932), pp. 50 t o 5 5
13.35 S c h m i d t , B . : B e r e c h n u n g b i e g e b e a n s p r u c h t e r elastisch g e b e t t e t e r P f a h l e ( A n a l y s i s o f
bending-loaded elastically e m b e d d e d piles). B a u t e c h n i k 62 (1985), pp. 2 0 t o 2 5
13.36 B u c k l e y , M . B . : R e l i a b i l i t y based design o f O H L f o u n d a t i o n s . C i g r e R e p o r t 22-203, 1994
13.37 D I N 4124: B u i l d i n g p i t s a n d trenches; Slopes, w o r k i n g space w i d t h s , sheeting.
D I N , 1981
13.38 E N 1 2 6 9 9 : E x e c u t i o n o f special geotechnical w o r k - Displacement piles. Brussels, C E N ,
2000
13.39 K o h n , W . : K a t a l o g der O r t p f a h l v e r f a h r e n (Catalogue of in-situ piling m e t h o d s ) .
baden, Bauverlag, 1968
13.40 V a l t i n a t , G.; A l t , K . ; W i n k l e r , F . : T r a g v e r h a l t e n v o n gleitfest-vorgespannten ( G V ) -
StoBen bei S t a h l r a m m p f a h l e n (Performance of gliding-resistant prestressed bolted con-
nections of d r i v e n steel piles). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 83 (1984), pp. 313 t o 318
Berlin, 13.57 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 7 : F o u n d a t i o n testing. Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 8 1 , 1994
13.58 I E C / T R 6 0 8 2 6 : L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h of overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Geneva, I E C , 1 9 9 1
13.59 K i e B l i n g , F . ; S p e r l , H . D . : T h e n e w 380 k V r i v e r E l b e crossing of t h e Nordwestdeutsche
K r a f t w e r k e A G . Siemens P o w e r Engineering, V o l . I (1979), pp. 75 60 79
Wies-
13.60 B e n k e , W . et a l . : D i e G r i i n d u n g f u r die 3 8 0 - k V - E l b e k r e u z u n g der N o r d w e s t d e u t s c h e n
K r a f t w e r k e A G ( T h e f o u n d a t i o n of the 380 k V crossing over t h e river E l b e of N o r d w e s t -
deutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G ) . Bauingenieur 54(1979)8, pp. 8 1 t o 90
13.61 K i e B l i n g , F . et a l . : F o u n d a t i o n design o n a probabilistic basis. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 - 1 1 , 1986

13.41 K o s w i g , J . ; M e u e l e r , W . ; S c h m i d t , B . : 1 1 0 - k V - B a h n s t r o m i e i t u n g , K r e u z u n g der W e s e r
bei B r e m e n - M i t t e l s b u r e n (110 k V t r a c t i o n p o w e r l i n e , crossing of t h e r i v e r W e s e r close
t o B r e m e n ) . Elektrische B a h n e n 78 (1980), pp. 273 t o 277

13.42 Schulte, C : B e i t r a g zur E r m i t t l u n g der T r a g f a h i g k e i t v o n Sugpfahlen u n t e r besonderer

Berucksichtigung der G r i i n d u n g v o n Hochspannungsmasten ( C o n t r i b u t i o n o n t h e deter-
m i n a t i o n of uplift pile resistance w i t h particular reference t o transmission line f o u n d a -
tions). Doctorate thesis, T U M u n c h e n , 1970

13.43 P a t z o l d , C : D e r O r t b e t o n - R a m m - V e r d r a n g u n g s p f a h l als G r i i n d u n g s e l e m e n t i m
F V e i l e i t u n g s b a u ( T h e i n - s i t u c a s t c o n c r e t e p i l e s u s e d as a f o u n d a t i o n c o m p o n e n t f o r t r a n s -
mission lines). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 74 (1975), pp. 682 t o 687

13.44 V o g t , H . : K u p p l u n g e n f u r S t a h l b e t o n - u n d Spannbetonpfahle (Couplings for steel-

reinforced and prestressed concrete piles). B a u t e c h n i k 55 (1978), pp. 188 t o 190

13.45 p r E N 12 794: Precast concrete f o u n d a t i o n piles. Brussels, C E N , D r a f t 1997

13.46 E N 1536: E x e c u t i o n of special geotechnical w o r k - B o r e d piles. Brussels, C E N , 1999

13.47 D I N 4014: B o r e d cast-in-situ piles; F o r m a t i o n , design a n d bearing capacity. B e r l i n , D I N ,

1990

13.48 D I N 1054: Subsoil; Verification of safety of e a r t h w o r k and foundation. Berlin, D I N , D r a f t

2000

13.49 P r e u s s , E . : U b e r die B e m e s s u n g g e r i n g a u f Z u g belasteter S t a h l p f a h l e i m L e i t u n g s b a u

( O n the design of uplift-loaded steel piles used for overhead power lines). D o c t o r a t e thesis,
University Braunschweig, 1967

13.50 Jelinek, R.; Ostermayer, H . : Z u r Tragfahigkeit v o n Zugpfahlen. Rechnerische Grenzbe-

l a s t u n g u n d Versuchsergebnisse bei M V - P f a h l e n ( O n t h e capacity of uplift-loaded piles.
T h e o r e t i c a l u l t i m a t e capacity a n d testing results of grouted steel piles). Felsmechanik
Ingenieurgeologie, V o l u m e 1, 1964

13.51 V a n n e r , M . J . : T h e design a n d construction of drilled anchor foundations a n d t h e i r use

o n a 380 k V overhead line near R i y a d h . Cigre R e p o r t 22-06, 1986

13.52 Littlejohn, G.S.; Bruce, D . A . : R o c k anchors - state of the a r t . B r e n t w o o d , F o u n d a t i o n

Publications L T D , 1977

13.53 G i d l u n d , J . et al.: F o u n d a t i o n of 4 0 0 / 8 0 0 k V middle-stayed p o r t a l towers i n Sweden w i t h

reference to different types, design criteria a n d economy. Cigre R e p o r t 22-07, 1978

13.54 B i a r e z , J . ; B a r r a u d , Y . : T h e use of soil mechanics for a d a p t i n g t o w e r f o u n d a t i o n s t o soil

conditions. Cigre R e p o r t 22-06, 1968

13.55 M e y e r h o f , G. C ; A d a m s , J . I . : T h e u l t i m a t e uplift capacity of foundations. Canadian

Geotechnical J o u r n a l 1968

13.56 T i t a n i n j e c t i o n anchors. D r i l l e d a n d injected anchors for soil a n d rock. C a t a l o g u e . E n -

nepetal ( G e r m a n y ) , Ischebeck G m b H , 1999
14 S a ga n d t e n s i o n calculations

14.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Span length
ae Complementary span length
aeq Equivalent span length
aj E x i s t i n g clearance a t t h e position £
A C o n d u c t o r cross section
c Catenary parameter
C o , C i , C2 Integration constants
di Conductor subsection length
ds Infinitesimal length o f the conductor element s
dS Infinitesimal value o f the conductor tensile force S
eei Elastic strain
eth Thermal strain
E Modulus o f elasticity
/ Vertical sag
/e S a gi n t h e complementary span length
fi S a g within the span i
fa S a g i n case o f l o c a l i c e l o a d
fr Sag a t t h e position f
g G r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration
G, Gi, G 2 , Gj, Gj, G „ Concentrated load
G A ,G B Support force
GK,GKi,GK2,G'K,i W e i g h t force a t t h einsulator set 1 ,2, o r i
h Difference i n height of the conductor support points
hi,h2lh3 Support height
hi Height o f conductor o f attachment at support i
hs Height o f conductor
H, H3,H2, Hi H o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile force
H0 I n i t i a l value o f t h e conductor tensile force
JK i W e i g h t force o f t h e insulator set a t t h e support i
Hu, Kn, Ku, Kii Auxiliary terms
Ki,K2,K3,Ki Coefficients
L , Li L e n g t h o f the sagging curve between t h e support points
Lij2 L e n g t h o f sagging curve a t a temperatures I \ a n d T 2 , respectively
Lot, L o i . i i Lo2,j Inclined span length i nt h e span i
LK Length of insulator set
LK,I L e n g t h o f i n s u l a t o r set, projected i n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l
rac,mci,mc! Conductor mass perunit length
moi Conductor mass p e runit length w i t h ice load
meg, mci,ig, mc2,,g Conductor weight perunit length
M Equivalent moment at support point
n N u m b e r o f spans i n a tensioning section
NNf Height above sealevel a t t h eposition £
Qt Transverse force
Qwc W i n d load o n conductor
s Distance o f a concentrated load t o t h e support
sm M i n i m u m clearance t o ground
S C o n d u c t o r tensile force
T\, T2 Conductor temperature
u Variable
V Vertical c o m p o n e n t o f conductor tensile force
\J~X\J J- 1 TJUufZj LI-UU 1IUUU1VU L,tlILUL(HilU[lU

Symbol Signification
X Variable
XA,XAi,XB Abscissa o ft h e sagging curve vertex
Xi C o n d u c t o r tensile force i n t h e span i r e l a t e d t o initial conductor
force H o
a O p e n i n g angle o f a n inverted V - t y p e insulator set
8i, <So,i Horizontal insulator displacement a tsupport i
Aa, Aai Change o fhorizontal distance o f conductor attachment points
Ahi C h a n g e o f difference i n height i n span t
AL, Change o fsagging curve length i n span i
A S C h a n g e o f conductor tensile force
A T T e m p e r a t u r e difference
E T Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion
Ei.Eoi Vertical displacement o finsulator set at support i
f Abscissa o f a r a n d o m point o f t h esagging curve
0, 0 1 ) 0 2 C o n d u c t o r tensile stress
Angle between conductor i n still a i ra n d i n s w u n g position
0 Down-strain angle, swing angle o f a n insulator set
F i g u r e 14.1: Condition of equilibrium a t a F i g u r e 1 4 . 2 : S p a n w i t h supports a t different
conductor element altitudes
14.1 Basis
Therefore, d H = 0 a n d after integration:
I f a conductor i ssagged w i t h a given tensile force b e t w e e n p o i n t s A a n dB representing
t h e a t t a c h m e n t s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h e s u p p o r t s , a c u r v e , t h e sagging curve o r cate- H = const. (14-4)
nary ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 ) w i l l b e f o r m e d d u e t o t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r d e a d l o a d s
a n d tensile forces. T h e v e r t i c a l distance o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t o t h e line c o n n e c t i n g b o t h T h e horizontal component H o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e d o e s n o t c h a n g e a l o n g t h e
a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s A a n d B i s c a l l e d t h e conductor sag f. conductor sagging curve. T h e balance o f m o m e n t s a r o u n d t h e centre o f gravity o f t h e
I n c a s e o f s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s u s e d for o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s , i t m a y b e a s s u m e d t h a t conductor element results i n
their dimensions a n d characteristics are constant a t least between t w o adjacent sup-
H • dy = V • dx ,
p o r t s . T h e conductor mass p e r u n i t l e n g t h , t h e conductor cross section a n d t h e o t h e r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d o n o t c h a n g e w i t h i n a s p a n . S i n c e t h e bending stiffness o f t h e c o n d u c t o r w h e n t h e effects w i t h s m a l l e r o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a r e neglected o r
is r e l a t i v e l y l o w t e n s i l e f o r c e s a c t p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h e c o n d u c t o r , t h e r e f o r e . A t t h e i r
V = H • dy/dx . (14.5)
ends, t h econductors aresupported rigidly b u tw i t h a pivot. Therefore, n obending m o -
m e n t s o c c u r t h e r e . T h e d e t a i l e d basis o fc o n d u c t o r s t a t i c i sdescribed i n d e t a i l i n [14.1]. B y d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f ( 1 4 . 5 ) t o x a n d i n s e r t i n g i n t o ( 1 4 . 2 ) t h e differential equation of
S o m e i n f o r m a t i o n o n s a g a n d t e n s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n i s g i v e n i n [14.2], [14.3] a n d [14.4]. the sagging curve i s o b t a i n e d :

d2y/dx 2 = ((mcg)/H) yj\ + ( d y / d x ) 2 . (14.6)

14.2 Sags described by the catenary curve
T h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e s t r e s s a c c o r d i n g t o a = H/A w a s n o t i n t r o d u c e d i n ( 1 4 . 6 ) , s i n c e
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e s a g g i n g c u r v e y = f(x), t h e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r ( 1 4 . 6 ) a p p l i e s e x a c t l y a l s o f o r c o m p o s i t e c o n d u c t o r s f o r w h i c h t h e r a t i o H/A f o r m i n g
t h e forces a c t i n g a ta conductor e l e m e n t w i t h t h e i n f i n i t e s i m a l l e n g t h d s ( F i g u r e 14.1). t h e equivalent tensile stress does n o t represent a m e a s u r a b l e physical quantity.
T h e conductor tensile force is d i v i d e d i n t o i t sv e r t i c a l a n d h o r i z o n t a lc o m p o n e n t . T h e T o integrate t h e equation (14.6), this is rearranged a n d expanded t o
balance o f forces i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n yields
( d 2 y / d x 2 ) •(dy/dx) / ^ 1+ ( d y / d x ) 2 • d x = (mcg/H) •(dy/dx) • d x .
mcg d s = V + dV- V (14.1)
A f t e r t h i s r e - a r r a n g e m e n t , b o t h sides o f t h e e q u a t i o n c a n b e i n t e g r a t e d a n d
and because o f
^ 1 + (dy/dx) 2 = mcg • y • C/H = mcg(y - yo)/H (14.7)
d s = \jdx2 + dy2 = dx\Jl + (dy/dx)2
is o b t a i n e d .
it results For t h e n e x t i n t e g r a t i o nstep, e q u a t i o n (14.7) i ssolved t o o b t a i n d y / d x :

dV/dx = mcg\/l + (dy/dx)2 . (14.2) dy/dx - \f\mcg(y - yo)/H]2 - 1 .

T h e balance o f forces i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n yields B y using t h e substitution

H + d H - H = 0 (14.3) (mcg/H)(y-y0) = u
542 14 Sag a n dtension calculations 14.2 Sags described b y t h e catenary curve 543

and, therefore, it is o b t a i n e d

dy/dx = (dy/du)(du/dx) = (H/(mcg))(du/dx) L = (H/(mcg)) [smh(mcjiB/ff) - sinh(mcgxA)/H)[

du/\/u2 — 1 = (mcg/H)dx i s o b t a i n e d . D u e t o f(l/Vu2 — 1 ) du = c o s h 1 u and eventually by means o fthe addition formulae

the n e x t i n t e g r a t i o n step is possible a n d
L = 2(H/(mcg))cosh[mcg(xA + xB)/2H}-smh[mcg(xB - xA)/(2H)} . (14.13)
c o s h - 1 [mcg(y - Vo)/H] = mcg(x - x0)/H
D u e t o c o s h 2 x — s i n h 2 x = 1 t h e conductor length i s o b t a i n e d u s i n g xB — xA = a, f r o m
i s o b t a i n e d . T h e f u n c t i o n c o s h _ 1 ( y ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e r e v e r s e o f t h e hyperbolic cosine (14.12) a n d (14.13):
function y = c o s h x = ( e 1 + e~x) / 2 . S o l v i n g t h i s e q u a t i o n t o o b t a i n y y i e l d s
L = \Jh2 + [(2 H)/(mcg) •s i n h f m c S •o / ( 2 H ) ) ] 2 . (14.14)
y = H/{mcg) {cosh [{mcg/H){x-x0)] +Co} . (14.8)
S u b t r a c t i n g (14.13) a n d (14.12) yields
T h e c o n s t a n t o f i n t e g r a t i o n y0 w a s r e p l a c e d b y C0-H/mcg. E q u a t i o n (14.8) shows t h a t a
conductor sagged b e t w e e n t h e p o i n t s A a n d B w i l l t a k e t h e shape o fa h y p e r b o l i c cosine
L - h = 2(H/(mcg))sinh[(mcg • a)/(2H)] •e x p [ - m C } ( i A + xB)/(2H)] .
curve. Since t h esame conditions apply t ochains made o f links, as for t h e conductors,
t h i s f u n c t i o n i s a l s o v a l i d f o r a f r e e l y s a g g e d c h a i n , b e i n g d e s i g n a t e d a s catenary curve, U s i n g x A +-X B = 2 x A + a a n d solving this f o r m u l a w i t h respect t o x A a n d w i t h some
therefore. t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t h e position of the vertex i s e v e n t u a l l y o b t a i n e d t o b e :
I n t h e f o r m a t (14.8), t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e sagging line is n o t well suited f o r practical
applications. T h e r e f o r e , t h e o r i g i n o f t h e coordinate s y s t e m is selected such t h a t t h e x A = (HI(mcg)) \n[HI(mcg(L - h)) • ( 1 - e x p (-mcg • a/H))] . (14.15)
v e r t e x o f t h e s a g g i n g l i n e h a s t h e o r d i n a t e s x = 0 , y = H/mcg ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 2 ) . U s i n g t h i s
If b o t h a t t a c h m e n t points A a n d B a r esituated a t t h esame level, t h e vertex will
f o r m a t f o r t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m , t h e c o n d u c t o r o r d i n a t e f o r a n y p o i n t o f t h e catenary
be i n t h e c e n t r e l i n e o f t h e s p a n because o f t h e s y m m e t r y . W i t h h = 0 a n dL =
i s o b t a i n e d from ( 1 4 . 8 )
2 (H/mcg) •sinh(mc.g-a,/2H), t h e n x A = — a / 2 isobtained f r o m (14.15). F r o m (14.10),
y = H/(mcg) c o s h (mcgx/H) . (14.9) t h e equation for the sag i n t h i s c a s e i s o b t a i n e d t o b e :

The sag o f a given point a t t h econductor related t o t h econnection line o fthe points f = (H/(mcg)) [cosh(mcg-a/(2H))-cosh (mcg-x/H)] . (14.16)
A a n d B (Figure 14.2)follows t ob e
The m a x i m u m sag isobtained for x = 0 being
/ = (h/a) (x - x A ) + [H/(mcg)) [ c o s h (mcgxA/H) - c o s h (mcgx/H)\ ,(14.10)
/max = [H/(mcg)) [ c o s h ( m c W ( 2 H)) - 1] (14.17)
w h e r e x A designates t h e abscissa o f t h e f i x i n g p o i n t A ( F i g u r e 14.2), w h i c h h a s still t o
b e d e t e r m i n e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s a g o f t h e vertex S i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 1 0 ) f o r x = 0 I n a d d i t i o n t o t h esags, t h e v e r t i c a l forces a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r
tensile force along t h esagging curve i s o f interest. F r o m (14.5) a n d (14.9), t h evertical
fs = [H/(mcg)) [ c o s h (mcgxA/H) - 1 ] - h • xA/a . (14.11) c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e i s o b t a i n e d t o b e V = H sinh (mcg • x/H).
T h i s f o r c e a c t s a g a i n s t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n i n c a s e o f a p o s i t i v e s i g n . T h e support forces a t
I n g e n e r a l , t h e s p a n l e n g t h a, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n h e i g h t h o f t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s , t h e t h e p o i n t s A a n d B f o l l o w u s i n g G = -V ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 2 ) t o b e :
m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e force a r e g i v e n for a n o v e r h e a d l i n e s p a n
but n o tt h eposition o f t h e vertex expressed b y t h ecoordinate x A . T h esag w i l l b e zero GA = -Hsinh(mcg • X A / H ) a n d GB = H sinh (mcg (a + x A) / H) (14.18)
for t h e p o i n t s A a n d B . F r o m ( 1 4 . 1 0 ) i t i s o b t a i n e d w i t h x = X B a n d xB — xA = a
T h e t o t a l t e n s i l e force i s e q u a l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e a t t h e v e r t e x o f t h e s a g g i n g curve
h = [H/(mcg)] [cosh(mcgxB/H) - cosh(mcgxA/H)] a n d increases towards t h esuspension points according t o :

and t r a n s f o r m e d b y m e a n s o f t h e a d d i t i o n formulae for t h ehyperbolic functions t obe S = VH2 + V2 = Hi/l + s i n h 2 (mcg-x/H) = H cosh (mcg • x/H) . (14.19)

h= (2H/mcg)s\nh[mcg{xA + xB)/(2H)]-Smh[mcg{xB -xA)/(2H)]. (14.12) The m e a n value o f t h e conductor tensile force c a n b e calculated f r o m :
T h e e q u a t i o n (14.12) c a n b e solved explicitly regarding the variable x A i ft h e conductor XB X B

length between t h esuspension points A a n d B is introduced: S = 1 / aj Sdx = H/a j c o s h (mcg • x/H) dx .

XA X A

L=/v+(<fcO d X
= / ^ l +
Sinh2 ^ m c 9 X l H ^
dx = j c-osh (mcgx/H) dx.
Since t h e i n t e g r a l i nthis f o r m u l a represents t h e l e n g t h L o ft h e c o n d u c t o r , i tis o b t a i n e d :

S=H-L/a . (14.20)
With
T h e mean value of the conductor force is e q u a l t o t h e c o n d u c t o r length divided b yt h e
c o s h (mcgx/H) dx = s'mhmcgx/H s p a n l e n g t h a n d m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e horizontal tensile force.
U t i i t uag ciiiu tciioiuii GcuiuuitiLiuiia

14.3 Conductor sagging curve as a parabola The conductor length c a nb e calculated from (14.14). F o rt h e parabola y = x2/2c,
w h e r e c = H/(mcg), t h econductor length within a span w i t h attachment points a t t h e
W i t h sufficient accuracy, i t c a n b e assumed f o r m a n y practical applications f o r cal- same level isobtained from
culation o f a n overhead conductor t h a t t h e gradient o f t h e tangent t o t h e sagging a/2
curve is s m a l l . I n this case ( d y / d x ) 2 c a n b e neglected compared t o 1,0 i n (14.2) a n d
d2y/dx 2 = mcg/H isobtained from (14.6). Neglecting t h e gradient o f tangent corre- / /
M»/2)
1 + (x/c)2 d x

sponds t o t h eassumption o f a uniform distributiono f t h e conductor mass along t h e

span ( F i g u r e 14.1) a n dn o t along t h esagging curve. B y c a r r y i n g o u t t w o i n t e g r a t i o n F o r cases w h e r e t h esagging c u r v e c a n b e r e p r e s e n t e d b y a p a r a b o l a , t h e e x p r e s s i o n
s t e p s , t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e p a r a b o l a y = mcg/(2H) x2 + C\-x+C2 isobtained. Choosing u n d e r a s q u a r e r o o t c a n b e d e v e l o p e d i n t o a s e r i e s b e c a u s e o f ( x / c ) 2 <K 1 a n d i n t e g r a t e d .
t h e o r i g i n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m a t t h e v e r t e x , y i e l d s t o g e t h e r w i t h C\ = C2 = 0 It follows
x=a/2
(mcg)2 • a2
y = mcg/(2H)x2 . (14.21) X + 1 + (14.30)
6c 2 = a + 2 4 © = a 24 H2
"(0/2)
The sag o f a g i v e n p o i n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r compared t o t h econnection line o f t h e
attachment points A a n d B (Figure 14.2) yields U s i n g (14.25) i ti s o b t a i n e d

L = a [ l+ ( 8 / 3 )(/max/a)2] - (14.31)
f = h/a{x-xA) + mcg/{2H)- (4 - x 2 ) - (14.22)
If t h e e q u a t i o n f o rt h econductor length L = sinh(a/2c), resulting f o rt h e catenary
T h e position of the vertex c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m the c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e s a g / h a s t o b e c u r v e i s d e v e l o p e d i n t o a series a n d t e r m i n a t e d after t h e second t e r m , t h e f o r m u l a
z e r o a l s o a t t h e p o i n t B . W i t h xB = a + xA, i tiso b t a i n e d from (14.22) (14.31) isobtained a s well.
I n case o f differing height levels o f t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s o f t h e span, i t is o b t a i n e d
xA = -a/2 + H/(mcg) • h/a . (14.23)
from (14.14)
M o v i n g t h e origin o f t h e coordinate system t o t h e attachment point A yields
•= Y + { o [ l+ (8/3) (/ m ax/a)2]} 2 (14.32)
/ = mcg • a21(2 H) ({/a - £ 2 / a 2 ) , (14.24)
T h e relative error expressed i np e r c e n t o f t h e s a gw h e n r e p l a c i n g t h e exact catenary
w h e r e £ = x + x A. T h e s a g , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f h e i g h t s . I t s curve b y t h e p a r a b o l a curve c a n b e calculated f r o m (14.17) a n d(14.25) t ob e
m a x i m u m value follows f o r£ = a / 2 t obe
A / / / = {cosh(a/(2c))-l - [(a/(2c))2/2]} / [(a/(2 c ) ) 2 / 2 ] •10O(%), (14.33)

/max = mcg •a
Related t othe m a x i m u m sag/
/ = 4/max(£/a)(l-£/a)
T h e m a x i m u m sag, w i t h a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a tt h e s a m e level a s s u m e d , iso b t a i n e d
(14.16) w i t h x = 0 t o b e
/max = H/{mcg)
2 / ( 8 H) . (14.25) w h e r e c = H/(mcg) i s t h e parameter of the catenary curve a n d a t h espan length. T h e
p e r m i s s i b l e e r r o r d e p e n d s o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l case. W h e r e t h e a b s o l u t e e r r o r i sm o r e than
m a x , t h esag a ta given position £ c a nb e obtained f r o m
0,10 m , t h e c a t e n a r y c u r v e s h o u l d b e used. N o w a d a y s , sags o fo v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s
. (14.26) are m o r e o rless e x c l u s i v e l y c a l c u l a t e d b y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s , w h e r e t h e e x a c t equations
can always b e adopted w i t h o u t a n yeffort.
from
Example: A n A C S R conductor 3 0 4 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A , according t o E N 50182, is sagged i n
spans w i t h 8 0 0a n d 4 0 0 m l e n g t h w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l tensile force o f 1 4 k N corresponding t o a
{ c o s h [mcg • a/(2H)\ —1} . (14.27) tensile stress o f 4 0 N / m m 2 . T h e p a r a m e t e r c is o b t a i n e d t o b e

D e v e l o p i n g c o s h ( x ) t o a series i t r e s u l t s c = 14 000/(1,235 • 9,81) fs 1155 m .

T h e r e l a t i v e e r r o r o f t h e p a r a b o l a a p p r o x i m a t i o n w i l l b e 0,2 % a c c o r d i n g t o (14.33) i n case o f

_ m c g • a2 (mcg)3a4 (mcgfa6
4 0 0 m s p a n l e n g t h a n d 1,0 % i n case o f 8 0 0 m s p a n l e n g t h .
/max- S H + 3 8 4 i f 3 + 4 6 0 8 0 ^ 5 + — • (14-Z«J
T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g sags a r e calculated u s i n g t h e c a t e n a r y c u r v e t o b e
C o m p a r i n g t h i s w i t h (14.25), i tc a n b e seen t h a t t h em a x i m u m s a g o f t h e p a r a b o l a i s 14000 / 4 0 0 • 1,235 • 9 , 8 1
71 max — cosh = 17,35 m ,
e q u a l t o t h e first t e r m o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l s e r i e s o f t h e c a t e n a r y c u r v e . F r o m (14.5) 1,235 • 9 , 8 1 ^ 2-14000 )-
t h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e i s o b t a i n e d t o b e V = H • dy/dx = 14000 £800-1,235-9,81
cosh = 69,92 m
mcg • x, c o n s i d e r i n g ( 1 4 . 2 1 ) a s w e l l . T h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e conductor tensile , + max 1,235.9,81 ^ 2-14000
force increases linearly w i t h t h e distance f r o m t h e v e r t e x . T h e conductor tensile force
and rising t h e parabola t obe
at t h e suspension p o i n t A o r B i sgiven b y
1,235 - 9 , 8 1 - 4 0 0 2
/:1 max —
= 17,31 m ,
SA,B = i/H2 + (mcg- XA,B) 2 • (14.29) 8 • 14 000
1,235 • 9,81 • 8 0 0 2
= 69,23 m .
T h e conductor tensile force, therefore, is g i v e n b y t h e g e o m e t r i c s u m o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l 8 -14000
component o f t h e tensile force a n d t h eweight o f t h e conductor section between t h e T h e errors, therefore, a r e 0,04 a n d 0,69 m , respectively. I n case o f s p a n lengths u p t o 5 0 0 m ,
vertex a n d the attachment point. t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e sags u s i n g t h e p a r a b o l a is sufficient i fa n e r r o r o f 0 , 1 m is accepted.
546 14Sag and tension calculations 14.5 C o n d u c t o r state change equation 547

14.4 Span with differing attachment levels

T h e e q u a t i o n (14.10) applies a s w e l l for t h e sag i n a s p a n w i t h differing height levels a t
b o t h ends. I n m a n y cases i t i sadvantageous for c a l c u l a t i n g t o e x p a n d t h e s p a n ideally,
such t h a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t points have the same level i n t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y span i n order
t o b e able t o a p p l y t h e s i m p l e r r e l a t i o n s for t h i s case. T h e r e f o r e , t h e complementary
span length a e i n t h e e x p a n d e d s p a n h a s t o b e c a l c u l a t e d . A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 4 . 2
ae = 2 | X A | a p p l i e s . T h e r e f o r e , ( 1 4 . 1 5 ) y i e l d s
W i t h a c c e p t a b l e a c c u r a c y , i t a p p l i e s (S2 - S i ) ~ (H2 - Hi). Inserting these t e r m s i n

ae = 2 H / ( m ) l n { [ l - e x p ( - m a / H ) ] / ( L - h ) } . (14.34) (14.39) yields

c 9 c S

a + a3(mc2-g?l(24H2) =
U s i n g t h e parabola for t h e sagging line i t i sobtained f r o m (14.23)
= [a + o 3 ( m c l • g ) 2 / ( 2 4 tf2)] [ 1 + e t . ( T 2 - T i ) ] • [ 1 + ( t f 2 - tfi) /EA] =
= a + aet(T2 - T x ) + a(H2 - HJ/EA + a3 (mCig)2 / (24 H\) +
ae = a + 2 H • h/(mcg • a) . (14.35)
+ aet(T2 - T i ) ( t f 2 - Hi)/EA + a3(mCig)2/(24Hf) • et(T2 - 2\) +
I f e q u a t i o n (14.16) i s used for t h e sag i n t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y span (14.19), i t applies + a 3 ( m C i 9 ) 2 / ( 2 4 t f i ) 2 • ( t f 2 - Hi)EA +
f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t A w i t h c o s h m c y • ae/(2H) = + a 3 ( m C i 9 ) V ( 2 4 t f j ) 2 • £ , ( T 2 - Ti)(H2 - HJEA.
fe • mcg/H + 1 I n this equation, t h e last four t e r m s are at least b y t w o orders o fm a g n i t u d e lower t h a n
the others a n d can b e neglected, therefore.
SA=H + fe- mcg (14.36)
W i t h t h e s e s i g n i f i c a t i o n s , t h e conductor state change equation is obtained:

and a tattachment point B accordingly EA(a mcig)2 F . , , EA(a • mC2g)2

tf2 - tfi + jfffl + E A ' eUTl ~ Tl ' (14.40)
24
SB = H+{fe-h)mcg . (14.37)
In equation (14.40), t h e conductor tensile forces i s t h e u n k n o w n variable. Equation
T h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t , t h e r e f o r e , is e q u a l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l (14.40) is, therefore, correct for a l l c o n d u c t o r types, w h e t h e r being single-material o r
force increased b y the product o fvertical distance between t h e a t t a c h m e n t point and composite conductors. T h e e q u i v a l e n t t e n s i l e s t r e s s o = H/A c a n b e i n t r o d u c e d and
t h e v e r t e x a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r w e i g h t force. U s i n g t h e f o r m u l a for t h e complementary
leads t o
span, t h e s a g s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a t a g i v e n p o i n t o f t h e s p a n i n q u e s t i o n .
E • (a • rngg)2 „ ,„ T ,
< 7 2 - ' 7 l + 2 4 u 2 - A 2 + S ' et G 2 - T 1 )
g - ( a - m Y • (14-41)
2 4 • A2 1 '
14.5 Conductor state change equation
T h e tensile stress can b e m e a s u r e d physically o n l y a t single m a t e r i a l conductors. The
If t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o r the loading o fa conductor varies i n a span, the conductor length conductor state change equation is a nalgebraic equation o fthe 3 r d degree w h i c h can
will b e expanded o r contracted resulting again i n a v a r i a t i o n o f the conductor tensile be practically solved b y n u m e r i c procedures available o nm o d e r n pocket calculators.
force ( F i g u r e 14.3). T h e l e n g t h o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i nc o n d i t i o n 2 characterized b y the If the span length is increased b y t h e v a l u e A a , e. g. b y s w i n g i n g o f a s u s p e n s i o n set,
temperature T 2 a n d t h e l o a d i n g mcig results from the length in the initial condition 1 the characteristics o f the conductor state will v a r y aswell. Because o f
according t o
L 2 = a + Aa + (a + Aa)3 • (mC2g)21(24 Hi) « a+ A a + a 3 •(m C 2 ff)V(24 tf|)

L 2 = L 1 ( l + e t h ) ( l + eei) , (14.38) w i t h the above mentioned approximation it isobtained from (14.39)

w h e r e eth a n d eei designate t h e t h e r m a l a n d elastic expansion, respectively. Because o f tf2 [tf 2 - tfi + EA(a • mag)2/(24 H\) + EA • st(T2 -TQ- EAAa/a] =
e t h = et • A T a n d e e [ = AS/(E • A) i t i s o b t a i n e d
= EA(a • mc2g)2/24 . (14.42)
L 2 = L1[l + et(T2-Tl)][l + (S2-S1)/(EA)} . (14.39)
A n analogous f o r m a t i s o b t a i n e d b y a d d i n g t h e t e r m (-E • Aa/a) t o the term i n the
W i t h sufficient accuracy, the parabola can b e used for t h e sagging line since n o t the
bracket o n t h e left side o f e q u a t i o n (14.41).
absolute l e n g t h o f the conductor b u t o n l y the difference i n length between t h e conditions
A change o f the relevant conductor length can b e caused b y failing o f a n insulator
1 a n d 2 i s c o n s i d e r e d . T h e r e f o r e , L \ a n d L 2 r e s u l t from ( 1 4 . 3 0 ) t o b e
s t r i n g o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r t e n s i o n set, for e x a m p l e . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e con-
d u c t o r tensile forces for this c o n d i t i o n i s relevant for crossings, where the verification
L j =a + a3(mci-gfl(24Hl) and L 2 = a + a3{mC2 • y)2/(24H|).
o f sufficient clearance a f t e r f a i l i n g o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s t r i n g o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r set i s
T h e f o r c e s Si a n d S2 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m (14.20): required.
T h e conductor state change equation ( 1 4 . 4 0 ) o r ( 1 4 . 4 1 ) c a n b e a p p l i e d t o a tensioning
S i = H i • (Li/a) a n d S2 = H2- (L2/a) section o f a n o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e w i t h n s p a n s , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e
f o r c e s Hi a n d t h e l o a d i n g s raci a r e e q u a l i n a l l s p a n s . T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s m o r e
precise t h a n t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f rigid a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s i neach span. I na tensioning
section, i t applies t o t h e total conductor lengths L i o rL 2 : . x3 .
. d
?

"fc9 G: G2 G3
Li,i,2 = £h+a?-(mCi,2ff)2/(24tf12i2)]
"TtT MINIMI IMMMMI I II I I I
i=l
W h e n neglecting again t h e t e r m s w h i c h are small b y a higher order o f m a g n i t u d e , i t is
a
obtained f r o m (14.39):

E-A(mclg)2
BS H2-Hx +
24 H2 £a?/X>i \+E-A-el (T2 - Ti)

E • A(mC2g)2
24
i=l ' t=l

The expression

"id = (14.43)
\ i=l ' t=l
i s c a l l e d t h e equivalent span o r ruling span o f a t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n . U s i n g t h i s t e r m , i t
is o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a t i o n s ( 1 4 . 4 0 ) a n d ( 1 4 . 4 1 )

H 2 _ H i + E A ^ a i d f + E A £ t { T 2 _ T i ) EA(mC2g • aid)2
m 24
(14.44)

F i g u r e 1 4 . 4 : S a gw i t h additional con- F i g u r e 1 4 . 5 : D i a g r a m o f transverse force a t t h e

and
centrated loads i n a span equivalent beam
E • (mCig • aid)2 „ (rr rri \ E(mC2g • aid)2
4 02 - 0 1 H TLTFi—75
2 4 o ? • A2 \- E - e t ( l 2 - Ti) 24 A2
(14.45)
T h i s equation is solved b y iteration o r b y a m o d e r n pocket calculator:
As a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n , t h e conductor tensile forces i n a t e n s i o n i n g section o f a n
o v e r h e a d line c h a n g e as i n a s p a n w i t h t h ee q u i v a l e n t s p a n l e n g t h . T h esags i n t h e H2,i = 1 6 0 0 0 y i e l d s H | [H2 + 8 9 7 4 2 ] = 2 7 0 7 , 0 0 • 1 0 1 0

individual spans c a n b e determined under t h e assumption o f equal conductor tensile H2,2 = 15 5 0 0 yields # | [ t f 2 + 8 9 742] = 2528,44 • 1 0 1 0

forces i na l l spans. H2,3 = 15 5 8 0 yields tf22[tf2 + 8 9 742] = 2556,55 - 1 0 1 0

tf2>4 = 15 575 yields tf22[tf2 + 8 9 742] = 2554,79 1 0 1 0

Example: A t e n s i o n i n g section o f a power line consists o f six spans w i t h t h e lengths 350,

200, 4 5 0 , 2 7 5 , 5 0 0 a n d 3 2 5 m . T h e c o n d u c t o r 3 0 4 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 3 0 0 / 5 0 ) i s i n s t a l l e d H2,4 = 15 5 7 5 N solves t h e conductor state change e q u a t i o n w i t h sufficient accuracy. T h e
w i t h a c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e s t r e s s o f 5 0 N / m m 2 a t 10°C. T h e s a g a t 60°C i n t h e s p a n w i t h 5 0 0 m m a x i m u m sagi n t h e 500 m long span is obtained f r o m equation (14.17)
length should be calculated.
The equivalent o r ruling span follows f r o m (14.43) t o 15575 Zl,235-9,81-500\
cosh = 24,39 m
f
1,235 • 9 , 8 1 V 2 • 15 5 7 5 )
/350 3 + 2 (0 0 3 + 450 3 + 275 3 + 500 3 + 325 3 322,125 • 1 0 6
= 391,65 m .
°id = V ^ 5 0 T2 0 0 + 4 5 0 + 2 7 5 + 5 0 0 + 3 2 5 2100 The application o f t h e conductor state change equation directly o nt h e 500 m long span would
have resulted i n a conductor tensile force o f 16 2 6 5 N w i t h a sag o f 23,35 m . T h i s w o u l d have
For t h e conductor 3 0 4 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A , A = 353,7 m m 2 ; m = 1,235 k g / m ; E = 77 0 0 0 N / m m 2
and e t = 18,9 • 1 0 " 6 K - 1 applies. T h e horizontal tensile force H i will b e 353,7 • 5 0 = 17685 N . resulted i n a sag t o b e t o o l o w b y 1,04 m .
F r o m (14.44) i tis obtained

Hl\H 2 - 17685 + 77 0 0 0 - 3 5 3 , 7 ( 1 , 2 3 5 - 9 , 8 1 ) 2 - 3 9 1 , 6 5 2 / ( 2 4 - 1 7 6 8 5 2 ) 14.6 Span with concentrated loads

+ 7 7 0 0 0 • 353,7 • 18, 9 • 1 0 ~ 6 ( 6 0 - 10)] = 7 7 0 0 0 • 353,7(1,235 - 9 , 8 1 ) 2 - 3 9 1 , 6 5 2 / 2 4 T h e s a g o f a c o n d u c t o r w i t h concentrated loads c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y m a k i n g u s e o f t h e
equivalence b e t w e e n conductor sags a n d b e n d i n g m o m e n t s o f a ne q u i v a l e n t b e a m w i t h
and
e q u i v a l e n t l o a d s . I n t h i s c a s e , i t a p p l i e s f o r t h e s a g / = M/H w h e r e H i s t h e c o n d u c t o r
Hl\H 2 + 8 9 742] = 2554,95 • 1 0 1 ' horizontal force a n d M is t h e m o m e n t . A t t h e coordinate x according t o F i g u r e 14.4,
550 14Sag and tension calculations 14.7 S p a n w i t h t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a t b o t h ends 5 5 1

it isobtained for a span w i t h n concentrated loads G

h = (!/#) ( a - x) mcg/2 + x J j ( 1 - s{/a) • Gt - J j (x - Si) - G j (14.46)

i=l i=l

T h e m a x i m u m sagm u s t not necessarily occur u n d e r n e a t h a concentrated load. T h e

h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e H, u n k n o w n i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 4 . 4 6 ) , c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o
a m e t h o d p r o p o s e d i n [14.5]. T h i s p r o c e d u r e s t a r t s w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r
length. W i t h (14.5) i t isobtained, therefore, Example: I n a 400 m long span w i t h the conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A and a conductor
t e n s i l e s t r e s s o f 5 0 N / m m 2 a t +10°C a c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d o f 2 0 0 0 N i s a p p l i e d i n t h e m i d d l e o f
rl a the span. H o w d o t h e conductor tensile stress a n d t h e sag change? T h e t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d n o t
(14.47) change.
L = J ijl + (dy/dx)2 • dx = j ijl + (V/H)2 dx
I t applies
a
T h e v e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t V c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e QT a c c o r d i n g t o
1/a ( Q2(x) = 2 0 0 0 2 / 4 + 2000 - 0,998 - 9 , 8 1 - 4 0 0 / 4 + ( 0 , 9 9 8 - 9 , 8 1 - 4 0 0 ) 2 / 1 2
F i g u r e 1 4 . 5 . B e c a u s e o f ( Q / H ) 2 <Si 1 t h e c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h L i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 4 7 ) a s
o

= 1 • 1 0 s + 1,958 - 1 0 6 + 1,278 • 1 0 6 = 4,236 • 1 0 6

L = J [ l + 1 / 2 • Q 2 / t f 2 ] d z = a + l / ( 2 t f 2 ) - J Q2 dx (14.48)
T h e equation (14.49) yields
74 000-297,8 1,278-10
Hi Hi - 2 9 7 , 8 - 5 0 + (74000 -297,8- 4,236 - 1 0 6 ) / 2
T h e equations (14.38) a n d (14.39) represent t h e relation between the conductor lengths 2- (297,8- 50)2
i n t h e conditions 1 a n d 2. I f the conductor l e n g t h according t o (14.48) isused i n these
e q u a t i o n s a n d p r o d u c t s o ft e r m s w i t h s m a l l o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e are neglected, i t i s
eventually obtained
H\\Hi- 1 4 8 9 0 + 63 515] = 46,675 - 1 0 1 2 .
a " l a
P A c P A r T h e r e o f , H2 = 2 5 1 5 2 N o r ai = 8 4 , 4 6 N / m m i s o b t a i n e d . T h e s a g i n t h e m i d d l e o f t h e s p a n
2
Hi H2-H1 + - - J Q2dx + EAet(T2 - Ti) = — • J Ql d x , (14.49) can b e calculated f r o m (14.46) w i t h z = a / 2 and j = 0 t o b e

/ = 1/H [mega2/8 + Ga/4] = 1 / 2 5 1 5 2 - [ 0 , 9 9 8 - 8 , 8 1 - 4 0 0 2 / 8 + 2 0 0 0 - 4 0 0 / 4 ]

w h e r e Qi i s r e l a t e d t o t h e c o n d i t i o n 1 , e . g . w i t h o u t c o n c e n t r a t e d l o a d s , a n d Q2 d u e t o = 15,74 m .
the c o n d i t i o n 2, e.g.w i t h concentrated loads. T h e i n t e g r a t i o ncan b e carried o u t a n a -
l y t i c a l l y , s e c t i o n b y s e c t i o n , o r w i t h w e l l - k n o w na p p r o x i m a t i o n s , e. g. w i t h t h e S i m p s o n W h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile force is increased b y 69 % t h e sag increases f r o m 13,15 m t o 15,74 m
rule. A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 14.5, t h e i n t e g r a t i o ncan b e carried o u t , section b y section, o n l y , t h a t m e a n s b y 2 0 %.
w h e r e b y i t a p p l i e s f o r e a c h s e c t i o n w i t h t h e l e n g t h di

14.7 Span with tension insulator sets at both ends

J Ql(x) dx = di/3 (QU + Q2 + Q j _ ! • Qz) I n a s p a n w i t h a s h o r t l e n g t h a n d t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a t b o t h ends, t h e i r effect o n
o conductor tensile forces a n d sags c a n n o t b e neglected. I n v i e w of adequate c o n s i d e r a t i o n
o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s , a d i s t i n c t i o n i s t o b e m a d e b e t w e e n r i g i d a n d flexible i n s u l a t o r s e t s .
and, therefore, for the total span T h e first c a s e c o r r e s p o n d s t o s e t s c o n s i s t i n g o f o n e l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r , t h e s e c o n d t o
a n i n s u l a t o r set m a d e o f c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s o r w i t h several l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s . I t
? (14.50) applies t o t h e case o f a r i g i d i n s u l a t o r set ( F i g u r e 14.6)
/ Q2(x) dx = Y.di/3 (QU + Q2i+ Qi_x • QQ
i i=i LK,X = L K / f l + (V/H)2 « L K [ l - 1 / 2 (V/H)2] . (14.51)
For a span w i t h o n l y one concentrated load G acting i nthe middle o f the span i t is
obtained T h e equivalent v e r t i c a l l o a d i si n t h i s case

u V = 1/2 [mcg(a - 2L K , X ) + G K ] ^ 1/2 [mcg(a-2 L K ) + G K ] , (14.52)

I Q2 dx = G2 • a/4 + G • (mcg • a) a/4 + (mcg • a)2 • a/12
w h e r e G K i s t h e w e i g h t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t , L K t h e l e n g t h o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t , mcg
the weight o f the conductor per unit length and L K , I the l e n g t h o f the insulator set
W i t h G = 0 , t h e conductor state change equation (14.40) follows f r o m (14.49). projected t ot h e horizontal line.
 J--X.U v/uniuuvuui iwi -_.V_.LJ uuiu u u g o x ii a. ii^lloiUUlllg OCLUiWil UDLT

For d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e tf2 a t a t e m p e r a t u r e T2 a n d w i t h t h e + 150 •9,81 • 2,116 - 9,81 • 5 , 0 / 2+ (150 • 9,81)2 •5,0/(4 • 40)] .
c o n d u c t o r m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h mcig, t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a f o r t h e conductor state
change equation can be obtained
W i t h H'2 = tf2/1000, t h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d t otff( t f { - 6 , 3 + 2 5 , 1 + 2 0 7 , 9 } = 8 3 9 6 , 5 .
S o l v i n g o f t h i s e q u a t i o n y i e l d s tf2 = 6 0 0 5 N , e v e n t u a l l y . F r o m ( 1 4 . 5 5 ) i t i s o b t a i n e d tf2 = 6 0 0 5 N
tf| j t f 2 - # 1 + EA • £ T (T 2 - T O + E • A/Hf as w e l l . W i t h V = ( 2 , 1 1 6 • 9 , 8 1 • 4 0 + 1 5 0 - 9 , 8 1 ) / 2 = 1150,9 N , a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 4 . 5 2 ) , t h e s a g i n
the m i d d l e o ft h e span follows f r o m (14.54) t o b e
{mcig)2(a - 2LK)(a + 4 L K ) G K I • mCig • L K G ^ •L K j1
24 2 4 ( a - 2 L ) J j 2,116-9,81(50- 2 -4,91)2
K
/-H^.sofi-IfA^Y 1,64 m
8•6005
1 6005 ' [ 2 \ 6005 )
= EA
{ 2 4 + 2 •
' + 4 ( a - 2 L K ) J ( 5 3 ) and f r o m (14.56) / = l/(2-6005)[(2,116-9,81-502)/4+2,116-9,81-5,02+150-9,81-5,0] = 1 , 7 4 m .
W h i l e t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile forces a r e t h e same, t h e sags differ b y 0 , 1 m . F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n
I n this equation, G K 2 represents t h e insulator weight w i t h iceload. C o m p a r i s o n w i t h —5°C w i t h i c e l o a d , t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 5 3 ) a n d ( 1 4 . 5 5 ) t o
the conductor state change equation i nt h e usual f o r m a t (14.40) shows that t h e t e r m be 9 1 2 2 N a n d 9 0 9 9 N , respectively. T h e sags c a n b e calculated f r o m (14.54) a n d (14.56) t o
be 1,54 a n d 1,64 m , respectively. A l s o i n t h i s case, v i r t u a l l y t h e s a m e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces
(mcg)2a2/24 has been replaced b y
result u n d e r b o t h a s s u m p t i o n s , w h i l e t h e sags differ t o a s m a l l e x t e n t . T h e sags a r e s o m e w h a t
("»Cg)2(" - 2 L K ) ( a + 4 L K ) GK • mcg -L K G^ • L K
h i g h e r i n t h e c a s e o f flexible i n s u l a t o r s e t s , t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o n s a s s u m e d .

24 2 4 ( a - 2 L K )

The s a g consists o ft h e l o w e r i n g o ft h e i n s u l a t o r set a n d t h ec o n d u c t o r s a g i nt h e m i d d l e

14.8 C o n d u c t o r forces and sags in a tensioning section
of t h e s p a n ( F i g u r e 14.6).
W i t h fr = ( V / t f ) L K , x a n d f2 = [ ( m c g ) / ( 8 t f ) ] ( a - 2 L K , X ) 2 , t h e t o t a l s a g i n t h e m i d d l e
14.8.1 Introduction
of t h e s p a n results
I n c l a u s e s 1 4 . 2 t o 1 4 . 7 i t w a s a s s u m e d t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s Eire r i g i d l y f i x e d a t t h e i r
/ =( y / t f ) L K [ l - l / 2 ( V / t f ) 2 ] + m c 9 ( a - 2 . L K , x ) 2 / ( 8 t f ) . (14.54) e n d s . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s o n l y v a l i d f o r e a r t h w i r e s w h i c h a r e d i r e c t l y fixed t o
the s u p p o r t s a n d f o r spans w i t h t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a t b o t h ends. A t a l l s u s p e n s i o n
A flexible insulator set c a n b e s i m u l a t e d b y a conductor section w i t h a l e n g t h according
s u p p o r t s o fa n o v e r h e a d p o w e r line, t h ec o n d u c t o r s a r e a t t a c h e d t o s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r
to t h e l e n g t h o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t L K , w h e r e t h ew e i g h t force o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t i s
sets w h i c h c a nm o v e i nc o n d u c t o r l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n a s w e l l a s r e c t a n g u l a r t o t h i s
assumed t o be uniformly distributed. T h e conductor state change equation c a n be
d i r e c t i o n . C h a n g e s i nt h e c o n d i t i o n , e. g. cheinges o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force i n o n e
expressed i nt h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m a t :
s p a n , affect t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile forces i nt h e n e i g h b o u r i n g spans a s well. T h e effect
tf?{tf2 — Hi+E •A -£ t ( T 2 - TQ + E • A/H2 of a change i nt h e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d s o n t h e s p a n l e n g t h . I n case o f differing spans
i n a tensioning section, t h etotal tensioning section has t obe taken into consideration,
•[ ( m C ig)2a2/24 + G K L • mClg •L K / 2+ G R , - L K / ( 3 a)]} therefore. T h i s applies p a r t i c u l a r l y t o t h e case o f differing ice loads i nt h e i n d i v i d u a l
s p a n s . T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s a g s a n d clearances to crossed objects occurring under
= tf-A[(mC2g)2a2/24 + G K 2 - r 7 i c 2 g - i K / 2+ G ? ; 2 -iK/(3a] . (14.55) this c o n d i t i o n is r e q u i r e d i n several s t a n d a r d s . I nt h e literature, a series o f m e t h o d s
to d e t e r m i n e t h e condition o f t h e conductor i nt h e tensioning section o f a n overhead
The term (mcg) 2 • a 2 / 2 4 o f t h e conductor state change e q u a t i o n (14.44) isreplaced b y p o w e r l i n e i s g i v e n [14.6] t o [14.8],
M o d e r n m e t h o d s utilize t h e possibilities o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s a n dhave been estab-
(mcg) 2 -a2/24 + G K •m c g •L K / 2 + G2KLK/(3a) .
lished, accordingly. O n l y these methods guarantee a sufficiently exact consideration o f
The total sagwill be all i m p a c t factors a n d deliver results w h i c h c o m p l y w i t h u p - t o - d a t e r e q u i r e m e n t so n
a c c u r a c y . H e r e a f t e r , t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e conductor tensile forces in a tensioning
/ =1/(2 tf)(mcg-a2/4 + m c g - L ^ + G K - L K ) . (14.56) section w i l l b e described, f o l l o w i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e p r e s e n t e d i n [14.6].
R e g a r d i n g design a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o foverhead contact lines, t h ef o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s
Example: T h e s a g s a t 40°C a n d - 5 ° C w i t h a n i c e l o a d o f 1 0 N / m s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r
can b e made for t h e conductors:
a s p a n o f a = 5 0 m a n d a c o n d u c t o r 5 6 5 - A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 5 6 4 / 7 2 ) . T h e i n s u l a t o r sets
are a s s u m e d t o b e 5 , 0 m l o n g a n d w e i g h 1 5 0 k gw i t h o u t ice l o a d a n d 2 0 0 k gw i t h i c e load, - C o n d u c t o r cross section a n d mass a r e constant i nt h e t e n s i o n i n g section a n d d o
r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e s t r e s s s h o u l d b e 1 0 N / m m 2 a t 10°C. T h e c o n d u c t o r c r o s s not d e p e n d o nt h et e m p e r a t u r e .
section is 635,5 m m 2 , t h em o d u l u s o f elasticity 6 8 k N / m m 2 , t h e coefficient o flinear e x p a n s i o n - I c eloads a r e a t least u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e do nt h e sagging curve i n o n e span.
19,4 • 1 0 _ 6 / K . F V o m (14.53) i t follows f o r t h e condition + 4 C C
- T h e b e n d i n g stiffness o ft h e conductors c a nb e neglected. T h e r e f o r e , o n l y tensile
forces o c c u r i nt h e c o n d u c t o r s .
tf?{tf2 - 10 • 635,5 + 6 8 - 1 0 3 •635,5 - 0,0000194 • 3 0+ 6 8 • 1 0 •635,5/6355 • 3 2
- T h e coefficient o f linear e x p a n s i o n a n d t h e m o d u l u s o f elasticity d o n o t depend
•[(2,116 •9,81)2 • 4 0• 7 0 / 2 4 + 1 5 0• 9,81 •2,116 •9,81 - 5 , 0 / 2 on t h e conductor t e m p e r a t u r e o r t h e tensile stress.
- T h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e fixed r i g i d l y a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s , s u c h t h a t conductor
+ (150 • 9,81)2 • 5,0/(4 • 40)]} = 6 8• 1 0 3 -635,5 • [(2,116 • 9,81)2 •4 0• 7 0 / 2 4 t e n s i l e forces i nl i n e d i r e c t i o n c a nb e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e i n s u l a t o r sets.
554 1 4S a g a n d tension calculations 14.8 C o n d u c t o r forces a n d sags i n a t e n s i o n i n g section 555

14.8.2 C o n d u c t o r state i n spans w i t h e n d points movable i n line di-

rection

I n c a s e o f a temperature change o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f i c e l o a d , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s a g g i n g
curve changes a n d , therefore, t h econductor tensile force a n d t h esag change aswell. I n
addition, these quantities d e p e n d o nt h ecurrent state o fthe conductor. I ft h e temper-
ature o f a conductor suspended movably a t i t sends changes f r o m T i t o T2,t h e n t h e
c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h i n t h estate 2 c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m (see also (14.39))

L 2 = Ll[l+Et(T2-T1)][l + (S2-S1)/(E -A)] . (14.57)

H.--1
A l l quantities w h i c h refer t o t h e initial state a r e m a r k e d b y t h e i n d e x 1 , a l l quantities
w h i c h refer t o t h e final state b y t h e index 2. T h e m e a n conductor tensile force S is
o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 2 0 ) t o b e H-L/a. Since t h et e r m s £ t - ( T 2 - T i ) and ( S 2 - S i ) / ( F - A )
are s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o 1 ,t h e i r product c a n b e neglected i n (14.57) a n d t h e following
relation is obtained

L 2 ~ L 1 + L1-et(T2-T1) + L1/(E-A)[H2(L2/a)-H1(Ll/a)] . (14.58) F i g u r e 14.7: Change o fthe span length d u e Figure 14.8: Equilibrium of
t o offset o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set forces a t a n insulator set
T h e length L o ft h ecatenary curve c a n b e taken from (14.14). F o rfurther processing,
the hyperbolic sine f u n c t i o n i sd e v e l o p e d i n t o a n e x p o n e n t i a l series a n d squared: follows from ( 1 4 . 6 0 ) , w h e r e T o = a, L \ a n d T 2 a r e neglected compared t o 1 a n d only
the first t e r m a2/24 c2 isconsidered for T .
r T a2 f a2 aa4 4 \
I n g e n e r a l , t h ec o n d u c t o r s a r ea d j u s t e d a t t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s s u c h t h a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n
L = L°\I1 + I 2 © 1 2 ? + 6 30 6c 04 c +4 '' 7 ' sets w i l l h a n g vertically after clipping-in. T h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile forces a r e equal i n a l l
spans t h e n i nt h e condition w h i c h w i l l b e assumed as initial state i nt h e following.
where To = \/a 2 + h2 a n d c = H/mcg. Since
A l s o i n cases, w h e r e t h i s a s s u m p t i o n d o e s n o t apply, t h ed e s c r i b e d m e t h o d c a n b e u s e d
accordingly.
4l(mL _©L^ ^
I f t h e c o n d u c t o r c o n d i t i o n i s c h a n g e d , e. g. b y a n i c e l o a d i n a s p a n , t h e c o n d u c t o r
L 2 \l2c2 + 360c4 + " ' J <<C tensile force i sincreased t h e r e w i t h t h e effect t h a t t h esuspension point moves into t h e
span w i t h t h e increased conductor tensile forces t h u s reducing t h e length there a n d
the square root c a n b e again developed into a converging e x p o n e n t i a l series b e c a u s e o f
increasing t h e length i n t h e adjacent spans. B ythis procedure, t h e conductor tensile
v¥Tx ~ l+ i / 2 - x 2 / 8+ ...:
force i sn o t increased t o s u c h a n e x t e n t a s i n c a s e o f fixed a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s . T h e s a g ,
however, is increased t oa larger e x t e n t . I nt h i s case, t h e r e w i l l b e a state o f e q u i l i b r i u m
To 1 + G + = T0(1 + T ) (14.59)
L \ \24c2 720c4 J Li 1152c4 b e t w e e n t h eeffects o ft h e h o r i z o n t a l forces i n t h eadjacent spans a n d t h evertical loads
at t h e insulator set. I t i st h e task t h e n t ocalculate, for this state o fequilibrium, t h e
where t h eabbreviation T w a s used for c o n d u c t o r tensile forces i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l spans o f a tensioning section considering t h e
offset o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets. F i n a l l y , t h e sags c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e conductor
tensile forces.
Ll\24c2 720c4/ Li 1152c4
T h e variation A T j o fthe length T o io ft h e line connecting t h et w o attachment points
Example: T h e accuracy o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n (14.59) should b e verified c o m p a r e d w i t h o f t h e span i c a u s e d b y t h e offset o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a t t h e ends, i s o b t a i n e d from
equation (14.14) b y a n example w i t h e x t r e m e conditions. F o rthe conductor 3 0 4 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A A T , - = Lq2,i - Toi.i = 7 ( a j+ A a j ) 2 + (hi + A T j ) 2 - i/(aj) 2 + (hi)2. A sa n approxima-
( A C S R 3 0 0 / 5 0 ) sagged w i t h 4 5 N / m m 2 c o n d u c t o r tensile stress, t h e c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h w i l l b e t i o n hereof, i t c a n b e w r i t t e n :
d e t e r m i n e d w i t h b o t h f o r m u l a e . F o r a span l e n g t h a = 8 0 0 m a n d 2 0 0 m difference i n height,
t h e r e l a t i v e e r r o r i s only 1,32 • 1 0 - 7 . T h e f o r m u l a (14.59) represents t h e c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h i n ATj s s ( a j • A a j + hi • A T j ) / L o i (14.61)
t h i s case w i t h ein a c c u r a c y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 1 m m , w h i c h i s sufficiently precise.
w h e r e A a j a n dA T j a r et h e changes o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l span l e n g t h a n d vertical difference
I n case o fa r i g i d t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h eends, t h elengths L \ a n dT 2 differ
in height, respectively, w i t h i n t h i s span i ( F i g u r e 14.7). B e t w e e n A a j a n d A T j , respec-
o n l y i nt h e terms L \ a n d T 2 , w h i c h a r e b o t h s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o 1 . Therefore, from
(14.58) a n d (14.59) i t is obtained: t i v e l y , a n d t h e offset of the insulator sets, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s e x i s t ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 7 )

A a j = ( i , + i - 7),t+i) - ( 7 - 7),i, (14.62)

Li - L 2+ Y i r ^ l 1 + G )- tfi(l + Li)] + E t { T 2 - T r ) ( l + T i ) = 0 . ( 1 4 . 6 0 )
A T j = (£j+i — £0,1+1) — ( E I — £o,i (14.63)
The equation (14.60) represents t h e conductor state change equation for a span with
suspension p o i n t s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t differing height levels. I n case o f t h e difference T h e v a l u e s 7 i n t h i s r e l a t i o n s a r e t h e h o r i z o n t a l , t h e v a l u e s £j t h e v e r t i c a l displacements
of height h = 0, t h ew e l l - k n o w n f o r m a t o ft h e conductor state change equation (14.40) a t t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s . T h e v a l u e s 7>,»+i a n d £o,i+l r e p r e s e n t t h e displacements i n the
i>JU X+ Z7<Xg CHILI ICiiOlUlJ LOLLUl(llilUlii3
i+.o C J O I I U U C I U I lorces a i m sags m a t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n ooi

Figure 1 4 . 9shows t h ei n v e r t e d V - a r r a n g e m e n t i n a s w u n g p o s i t i o n , t o o .W i t h t h e
symbols used i n clause 1 4 . 8 , i t a p p l i e s 7 = Ly. [ s i n ( a / 2 + 0 , ) — s i n a / 2 ] a n d £j =
Ly ]cos(a/2) — c o s ( a / 2 + 0 ; ) ] . U s i n g t h e a d d i t i o n f o r m u l a e o ft h e t r i g o n o m e t r i cf u n c t i o n s
a s w e l l a s cos fa « 1 ; sin fa wfa;t h e n 7 = Ly •fa• c o s ( a / 2 ) a n d e £ = Ly-fa- sin(a/2)
a r e o b t a i n e d . T h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s y i e l d s t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e a n g l e fa:

(Hj - tfj-Q cos(q/2) +(GKj-i,r +GK,,i) sin(q/2)

fa = (14.67)
(Hi + sin(a/2) +(G K i - i , r +G K i , i ) cos(a/2)
According t o (14.66), Gi<i-i,r a n d GKI,I are obtained from:

G K i-i, r =Jki/2 + tfi-isinh[mCi-i9(aj_i + xA,i-i)/tfi_i] , (14.68)

G K i , i = JKI/2 + Hi s i n h [mag • xA,i/tf«] •

i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n . T h e s e m a y b e a s s u m e d t o b e z e r o i n case o f s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets,
T h e v a l u e s 7 a n d £; c a n b e i n s e r t e d i n t o e q u a t i o n s ( 1 4 . 6 2 ) a n d ( 1 4 . 6 3 ) t o g e t h e r w i t h
w h i l e i ncase o f t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets, t h e y a r ed e t e r m i n e d b y t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f t h e
(14.67) a n d (14.68). T h e n , t h e horizontal conductor tensile forces can b e calculated, as
c o n d u c t o r tensile force a n d t h e dead w e i g h t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets.
described i n clauses 14.8.4 a n d 14.8.5.
D u e t o t h e difference o f t h e conductor tensile stresses i nadjacent spans, t h e insulator
I n [14.9], t h e consequences o f t h e i n v e r t e d V - a p p l i c a t i o n are m e n t i o n e d b y m e a n s o f a n
sets a r edeflected such t h a t t h e r e i s a n e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s resulting f r o m t h e
example for a 110 k V line equipped w i t h the conductor 1 8 4 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A . A s s u m i n g a n
vertical force a t t h einsulator s e t a n dt h eh o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t s of the conductor
o p e n i n g a n g l e o f 60° f o r t h e i n v e r t e d V , a 2 , 4 2 m h i g h e r c l e a r a n c e t o g r o u n d i s o b t a i n e d
tensile forces ( F i g u r e 14.8). F r o m t h i s c o n d i t i o n , i t i s o b t a i n e d
i n case o f 6,9 N / m local ice l o a d i n t h e s p a n s t u d i e d . T h e use o f i n v e r t e d V - i n s u l a t o r
sets a t s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r differences o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces
St = (Hi - tfi-i) •L K t i j (i/Gl i + ^i-Hi.-i)2) , (14.64)
i n t h e adjacent spans. W i t h t h e e x a m p l e m e n t i o n e d , t h i s difference i s4,0 k N , c o m p a r e d
w i t h 1,3 k N i n case o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s u s p e n s i o n sets. I n g e n e r a l , s u s p e n s i o n s s u p p o r t s
Ei = [ l - G K ,i / Y^ +t t f j - t f i - O 2 )] LK4 • (14.65) are d e s i g n e d f o r s u c h u n b a l a n c e d loads i n i c e - p r o n e r e g i o n s . T h e d e s i g n w i t h Em o p e n i n g
a n g l e o f 60° r e p r e s e n t s a u s e f u l c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n r e d u c t i o n o f s a g E i n d l i m i t i n g t h e
T h e equivalent vertical forces G K , J a t t h e insulator sets consist o f t h e vertical loadings load increase o f t h e suspension supports.
i n t h e adjacent spans according t o (14.18) a n d t h e dead weight JK,L o f t h e insulator
set. F o r a n i n s u l a t o r s e t a t t h e s u p p o r t i , i t applies
14.8.4 C o n d u c t o r s t a t e c h a n g e e q u a t i o n for a t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n

™-Ci-ig(a-i-i + XA,i-l) T h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets change t h e s p a n l e n g t h s a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r con-

'K,i =Y p + X j _ i # o sinh -Xjtfosmh .(14.66)
-O-itlg d i t i o n i n t h e a d j a c e n t s p a n s . A c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 4 . 5 8 ) , t h e conductor state change equation
T h e h o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t o r f o r c e Hi i n t h e s p a n i i s e x p r e s s e d a s a m u l t i p l e o f t h e i n i t i a l for t h e spam i c a nb e e s t a b l i s h e d , a s s u m i n g t h a t , i nt h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n , a l l i n s u l a t o r
h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e tfo: Hi = X ; • Hg. T h e c o o r d i n a t e o f t h e v e r t e x xA,i results f r o m (14.15) sets h a n g v e r t i c a l l y a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile forces i na l l spans a r e e q u a l
w i t h t h e l e n g t h o f t h e c o n d u c t o r Li f r o m ( 1 4 . 1 4 ) . I t c a n b e s e e n f r o m ( 1 4 . 6 6 ) t h a t t h e to Hg:
vertical insulator loading does not only depend o n t h e span length a n d the conductor
£<>2,i(l + ^ 2 , i ) = F o i , i ( l + + £oi,i • £t(l + - (T 2 - Ti) (14.69)
weights i n t h e adjacent spans, but also o nt h e difference i n height between the adjacent
attachment points and the conductor horizontal forces.
+ • K 1 + 1 2 ' 0 i °2-i • X i • h ° - ( * + Z i - 0 L n * •h°\ •
14.8.3 C o n d u c t o r stresses a n d sags i n case of i n v e r t e d V - i n s u l a t o r sets
I n ( 1 4 . 6 9 ) , t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e i f 2 , i i n t h e c o n d i t i o n 2 w a s e x p r e s s e d a s X ; • Hg
Inverted V insulator sets a r e s o m e t i m e s u s e d a t s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 9 ) . T h i s a n d i n t h e c o n d i t i o n 1 t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e H\p i s e q u a l t o Hg. T h e d i f f e r e n c e
design reduces t h e s w i n g i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s i n line d i r e c t i o n i n case o f u n b a l a n c e d ice i n t h e span l e n g t h To2,i — Toi,i i s e q u a l t o t h e chamge o f span lengths d u et o t h e
loads o fspans a n d t h e increase o f c o n d u c t o r sag r e s u l t i n g t h e r e o f . B ye q u i p p i n g e x i s t i n g d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a n d r e s u l t s f r o m (14.61). F o r t h e f u r t h e r steps o f
s u p p o r t s w i t h s u c h i n s u l a t o r sets, increase o f s u p p o r t h e i g h t s c a n b e w a i v e d t h a t w o u l d c a l c u l a t i o n , Lg2,i ~ T ( ) i , i ~ po,i can b e u s e d . T h e n i t i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 6 9 ) :
be necessary otherwise. T h e k i n e m a t i ca n d static b e h a v i o u r o fsuch a r r a n g e m e n t s differs
essentially f r o m t h a t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l s u s p e n s i o n sets. I n [14.9], basic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s are ( L h i - L 2 f + (1+Lui)- Lo'' [Xi • H0 ( l +i 2 , j ) - Hg ( l + L M ) ] (14.70)
ai - E • A
p r e s e n t e d f o rd e t e r m i n i n g t h e t e n s i l e forces a n d sags.
dj • A d j + hi • Ahj
C o m p r e s s i o n forces a r e possible i n t h e i n s u l a t o r so f s u c h sets. T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l + ( l+ T i , i ) e t ( T 2 - T 1 ) = 0 1,2,.
strings should b e designed t o b e compression-resistant. T h e short conductor section
b e t w e e n b o t h suspension clamps leads t o similar conditions as a ta conductor fixed toa
W i t h (14.62) t o (14.65) as well as
r i g i d i n s u l a t o r . I n case o fv i b r a t i o n s , a c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r s t r a i n i sp r o d u c e d , t h e r e f o r e ,
c o m p a r e d w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l suspension sets, r e q u i r i n g adequate v i b r a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n -.2
a i a 2 • (mC2,ig)2 <4 • (mC2,ig)2 o-i • (mc2,ig)4
L2,i (14.71)
provisions.
r2 24(X £ -tf 0 ) 2 720 ( X j - t f 0 ) 4 1152 (Xi-Hgf
•MM
558 14 S a ga n dtension calculations 14.8 C o n d u c t o r forces a n dsags i n a t e n s i o n i n g section 5 5 9

f r o m (14.59), a system o f n equations f o rt h e conductor t e n s i l e f o r c e s H2,i = Xi - i n general a t t h e suspension s u p p o r t s a n d c a n b ecalculated f o r t h e s t r a i n s u p p o r t s a t

H0(i = 1 , 2 , . . . , n ) is obtained f r o m (14.70), where n isthe n u m b e r o fspans w i t h i n the the begin a n de n d o ft h e tensioning section f r o m (14.64) a n d (14.65).
tensioning section: T h e equations (14.72) f o r m a system o fcoupled non-linear equations. I n the equation i
of t h e s y s t e m , t h e relative conductor tensile force X , i nspan i a n d t h e conductor tensile
Xi[Xl-Ki,iK-lji-Ci(XuXi)\ forces X j _ i a n dX , + i i n t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g spans i — 1 a n d i + 1 occur. T h e c o u p l i n g is
EA due t ot h e m o v e m e n t o ft h e i n s u l a t o r sets, asc a nb e seen f r o m (14.72) a n d(14.73). T h e
+ (Xi •J f w - • (X2 • K3++ KiX)^-=0,
H0 s y s t e m o f equations delivers t h e n u n k n o w n conductor tensile forces i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l
X\{X2 • Kh2K2,2 - C2(XUX2, X3)] spans o f a tensioning section w i t h n spans, i fthe condition o f t h e conductor changes,
e. g . b y v a r i a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e s o r d u e t o i c e l o a d s . A n a l o g o u s l y t o t h e c o n d u c t o r
s t a t e c h a n g e e q u a t i o n ( 1 4 . 4 0 ) f o r a n i n d i v i d u a l s p a n w i t h fixed c o n d u c t o r a t t a c h m e n t
•(X22 • X 3 , 2 + H4,2 Y=0, p o i n t s , t h e s y s t e m o f e q u a t i o n s ( 1 4 . 7 2 ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e conductor state change equation
Xf[Xi • KUKU - C!(Xi_ 1 ,Xi,X j + 1 )] for a t e n s i o n i n g section w i t h m o v a b l e i n s u l a t o r sets a t t h e suspension s u p p o r t s . F o r
EA ^0,2 a tensioning section w i t h n spans, therefore, n non-linear coupled equations have t o
+ [Xi-Ku • (X? • K3x + Kifyi- =0,
~HfT U0A
_2
be solved. A n explicit s o l u t i o n o fthis e q u a t i o n s y s t e m i s n o t possible. T o d e t e r m i n e
Xl_i[Xn-l • K\jl-\K2,n-\ ~ C n _ l ( X n _ 2 , X n _ i , X n ) ] the u n k n o w n variables X , ,numerical iteration methods a r eadopted. W i t h t h ea i d o f
E • A electronic computers, t h e e q u a t i o n s y s t e m c a nb e solved w i t h sufficient accuracy f o ra l l
+ I ' tfl,n-l • (Xl-i • tf+n-l + lf4,n-l) ,2" 1 —0) o c c u r r i n g cases.
~lfr
T h e Newton approximation method w i t h a n e x p a n s i o n t o s y s t e m s o f n o n - l i n e a r e q u a -
X4[Xn • KiinK2,n — G n ( X n _ i , X n ) ]
t i o n s c a n b ea d o p t e d [14.10] f o r s o l v i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r s t a t e c h a n g e e q u a t i o n s (14.40)
E •A
+ I Xn • K\t„ ( X 2 - J f 3 , n + ^ 4 , n ) - f - = 0 . for t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p a n a n d t h es y s t e m o f c o n d u c t o r s t a t e c h a n g e e q u a t i o n s (14.72).
H0 Lo,n According t othis method, the solution o fthe system o f equations

I n e q u a t i o n (14.72), t h e following t e r m s a r e used: f i ( X i , X 2 , ,X„) = 0 1,2, . ,7l) (14.74)

L0,i is t o b e f o u n d , w h e r e / , a r e n o n - l i n e a r f u n c t i o n s o f t h e u n k n o w n v a r i a b l e s X i , X ,
tfi,i=(l + L u 2

Xn. T h e equations (14.74) c a nb e expressed a s

L o i E- A- E-A-Et
(1 + L M ) •(T 2 - Ti), ( fi(X) \ ( fl(X1,X2,...Xn) \
Oj Bn H0
h(X) f2(Xi,X2, . . . Xn]
/(*) = •• 0 (14.75)
a2 • (mC2,i9)2
K3A=
\fn(X)J \ /„(X1,X2,...X„) /
4
„ _a\ • ( m c 2 , i g ) 4 4 • (wggjg) The functions / ; c a n b e differentiated i n t h econsidered range o f the elements X j o f
•"4,1 — „7 2„ 0„ tr fr ^4 Lfir 2 ' 1 n1 r5- 2o Hr M4 the vector X a n dt h e differentials a r e

_ a? / o 2 - ( m c l g ) 2 o 4 -(m C ig) 4 \ a 4 a 4 • (m C ig) 4 d / i ( X i , X 2 , . . . , X n )

fik(X) (i,k = l , 2 , . . . , n ) (14.76)
*~ To,i \ 24tf 2 + 720H 4 io,i ' H52tf 0 4
dXk

Gj(Xj_i,X£,Xj+i) = The differentials c a n b erepresented b y t h ef o l l o w i n g m a t r i x :

( fn(X), fu(X), M X ) \
E • A - ai)
Ho-L J 0,i ( Y Xi+\ — Xi
T K , I + I - <W+I tf(X)
M X ) , M X ) , M X )
(14.77)

\fnl(X), fni(X), M X ) J
^ / ( G K , , / t f o ) 2 + (Xi - Xt_r) 2
F u r t h e r m o r e , i t c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s F(X) have a ninverse ] F ( X ) ] - 1 .
tf • A • Q j W i t h these symbols, t h eiteration process o f t h e N e w t o n m e t h o d f o r a s y s t e m o f non-
+ 1 - i K , i + l - £ 0 , i +1
y/(GK,i+i/H0)2 + ( X i + 1 - X j ) 2 linear equations isdescribed b y :

GKA/HQ \ , X P + 1 = X , / - [ F ( X P ) ] - 1 ( / ( X P ) ) (14.78)
1 - 'lK,i - E0,i
v /(G K ,i/Ho) 2 + (Xt - X^)2 For a g i v e n a d e q u a t e l y selected start vector X o w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e values f o r t h e solu-
T h e t e r m s Ci, w h i c h d e p e n d i n e a c h c a s e o n t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s o f t h r e e t i o n s o f t h e e q u a t i o n s y s t e m ( 1 4 . 7 2 ) , v a l u e s XvXi a r eo b t a i n e d f r o m (14.78), i m p r o v e d
c o n s e c u t i v e s p a n s , c o u p l e t h e e q u a t i o n s o f ( 1 4 . 7 2 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r ( 1 4 . 7 3 ) y i e l d s C\ = step b y step.
C i • ( X i , X 2 ) w i t h X 0 = 0 a n d Cn = C n ( X „ _ i , X n ) w i t h X n + 1 = 0 . T h e q u a n t i t i e s 80ii; F r o m (14.72), t o g e t h e r w i t h (14.73), (14.66), (14.14) a n d (14.15), i tc a n b e seen t h a t t h e
< 5 o , i + i ! Eo,i a n d £o,i+i r e p r e s e n t t h e o f f s e t s i n t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n . T h e s e o f f s e t s a r e z e r o relation between the functions / j a n dt h e u n k n o w n variable X j f o rthe condition o f t h e
fable 14.1: C o n d u c t o r states w i t h i n a tensioning section o f a n overhead line fable 14.1: (continued)

COMPUTED CONDITION -5.0 7.240 .000

SIEMENS AG DEPT PTDH158 TRANSMISSION LINES **************************************************
COMPUTATION AND PLOT OF LONGITUTINAL P R O F I L E WITH CONDUCTOR
TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SQMM VERTEX INSULATOR S E T WEIGHT SPAN
110 NV L I N E HT76 F u e r s t e n b e r g
NO. LENGTH HORTZ.SUPPORT(L/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT L E F T
CONDUCTOR : 2 * 3 * 1 ACSR 265/35 » 47 . 0 N/QMM
251.48 5 . 8 0 78.86 7 9 . 2 1 7 9 . 1 4 133.8 294.9 2.97 .41 133.8
L I N E SECTION FROM TOWER NO. TO TOWER NO. 4
425.00 16.35 79.13 80.53 79.70 259.4 275.5 .02 1.80 259.4 117.6
235.45 5 . 1 2 78.80 80.09 7 8 . 8 1 249.4 262.8 - . 0 2 1.80 249.4 165.6
CONDUCTOR L E V E L 1 L E F T PHASE
•3.00 . 0 9 -14.0
*****************
CROSS SECTION DIAMETER WEIGHT MOD. E E I P . C O E F . STRENGTH
COMPUTED CONDITION -5.0 LOCAL I C E LOAD 3 . 6 2 0 N/M
SQMM SQMM MM KG/M KN/SQMM 1/K N/SQMM
263.66 34.09 22.40 .998 74.000 .0000196 278.51 ********* ************************* *************************

LIMITS TEMPERATURE ICE LOAD WIND LOAD TENSION

TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SQMM VERTEX INSULATOR S E T WEIGHT SPAN
****** DEGREE C N/M N/M N/SQMM
NO. LENGTH HORIZ.SUPPDRTCL/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT L E F T
-20.0 .000 .000 500.00
-6.0 7.240 .000 500.00
251.48 6 . 7 1 53.71 54.03 53.96 132.3 294.0 2.96 .51 132.3
10.0 .000 .000 47.00
425.00 16.59 61.37 62.48 61.83 258.7 275.3 .80 258.7 119.2
235.45 5 . 9 6 53.29 5 4 . 3 1 63.29 231.3 262.8 .17 .79 231.3 166.3
STARTING 10.0 .000 .000 47.00 .19
2.99 4.1
CONDITION -20.0 .000 .000 53.03
7.240 .000 79.39
-s.o COMPUTED CONDITION -20.0 INSULATOR FAILURE TOWER 1
TOWER POSITION CROSSARM INSULATOR S E T ************************ ********************************
TOWER HEIGHT HEIGHT LENGTH T Y P E LENGTH WEIGHT
TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SQMM VERTEX INSULATOR S E T WEIGHT SPAN
NO. TYPE STATIONS AB.SEA L E F T RIGHT
NO. LENGTH HORIZ.SUPPORTCL/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT LEFT
1 TT+O 00 285 50 16.00 -6 00 6 OO DA 3 00 2000 134. 2
251.48 5 . 3 1 49.84 50.03 49.99 134.2 295.4 2.97 .46
2 ST+3 251 00 264 50 17.20 -4 00 4 00 DH 1 80 IOOO
49.65 50.41 49.93 263.7 276.8 - . 0 2 1.60 263. 7 1 1 7 . 3
425.00 14.99
3 ST+12 676 00 261 05 26.20 -4 00 4 00 DH 1 80 1000 235.45 4 . 6 9 49.88 50.64 49.89 263.4 262.5 . 0 3 1.80 263. 4 161.3
4 TT+O 910 00 247 OO 16.00 -6 00 6 00 DA 3 00 2000 -3.00 .14 -27.9
TOWER PHASE EXTENSION
COMPUTED CONDITION -20.0 INSULATOR FAILURE TOWER 4
NO. TYPE LEFT SY.-AXIS RIGHT CROSSARM ANGLE
********************************************************
TT+O .47 .00 -.47 M 1 0 5 . 0 0 0 GON
TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SQMM VERTEX INSULATOR SET WEIGHT SPAN
TT+O 1.45 .00 -1.45 M 1 1 5 . 5 0 0 GON
NO. LENGTH HORIZ.SUPPORTCL/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT L E F T
EQUIVALENT SPAN 340.49 M 134.2 296.4 2.97 .46 134.2
251.48 5 . 3 1 49.84 50.03 49.99
425.00 14.99 49.65 5 0 . 4 1 49.93 263.7 276.8 - . 0 2 1.80 263.7 117.3
COMPUTED CONDITION 10.0 .000 .000
************************************************** 236.45 4 . 6 9 49.88 50.64 49.89 263.4 262.5 .03 1.80 263.4 161.3
-3.00 .14 -27.9

COMPUTATION OF WRIGHT-OF-WAY ZONE AND CONDUCTOR CURVE

TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SQMM VERTEX INSULATOR S E T WEIGHT SPAN *****************************************************
NO. LENGTH HORIZ.SUPPORTCL/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT L E F T
COMPUTED CONDITION TEMPERATURE 4 0 . 0 0 0 DEGREE C
251.48 5 . 6 4 47.00 47.20 47.16 133.6 295.0 2 . 9 6 .48 133.6
426.00 15.83 47.00 47.78 47.31 260.9 276.0 . 0 0 1.80 260.9 117.8
SPAN LENGTH LEFT 261 48 M SAG S.26 M
236.45 4 . 9 8 47.00 47.76 4 7 . 0 1 255.0 262.7 .00 1.80 255.0 1 6 4 . 1
SPAN LENGTH RIGHT 260 54 M SAG 6.22 M
-3.0O .17 -19.5
TOWER NO. 1 2
COHPUTED CONDITION - 2 0 . 0 .000 .000
SUSPirasion POINT HEIGHT 301.50 299.90
************************************************** CRDSSARM LENGTH 6.0O 4.00
WRIGHT-OF-WAY AT CROSA. DIR. 9.01 8.27
REQ. CLEARANCE 3.00
TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SOMM VERTEX INSULATOR S E T WEIGHT SPAN
NO. LENGTH HORIZ.SUPPORT(L/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT L E F T
INS.STR.SWING ANGLE .00 GON 4 9 . 8 3 GON WIND ON INSULATO 3 0 0 . 0 0 N
1 251.48 4 . 9 8 5 3 . 1 4 5 3 . 3 1 53.27 134.8 295.7 2 . 9 7 .43 134.8 CONDUCT.SWING ANGLE 5 6 . 1 0 GON LEFT WIND ON CONDUCTOR 1 1 . 8 7 N/M
2 425.00 14.11 52.74 53.47 53.00 266.9 277.6 - . 0 5 1.80 266.9 116.7
DISTANCE FROM HALF ALTITUDE ALTITUDE
3 236.45 4 . 3 9 53.22 53.98 53.24 273.1 262.4 .05 1.80 273.1 168.1
L E F T TOWER WIDTH S T I L L AIR SWUNG
4 -3.00 .11 -37.6
-.71 -8.98 301.50 301.50
COMPUTED CONDITION 40.0 .000 .000
a************************************************* .00 -9.04 301.41 301.46
31.38 -11.15 298.38 299.51
62.75 -12.51 296.30 298.18
94.13 -13.28 294.98 297.33
TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SQMM VERTEX INSULATOR S E T WEIGHT SPAN
115.31 -13.46 294.53 297.04
NO. LENGTH HORIZ.SUPPORT(L/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT L E F T
156.88 -13.06 294.65 297.11
1 251.48 6.26 42.33 42.55 42.51 188.25 -12.04 295.64 297.73
132.8 294.4 2.95 .53 132.8
2 425.00 17.42 4 2 . 7 1 43.55 43.07 219.63 -10.45 297.38 298.83
256.5 274.5 .05 1.80 266.5 118.7
3 235.45 5 . 5 4 42.26 4 3 . 0 1 42.26 241.2 262.8 - . 0 51.80 241.2 168.5 251.00 -8.27 299.90 300.42
4 -2.99 .22 -5.7
WRIGHT-OF-WAY AREA: (SQUARE M) TOTAL
PARABOLA 5940.94
COMPUTED CONDITION 80.0 .000 .000
STRAIGHT L I N E S 6731.56
**************************************************

TOWER PHASE SAG TENSION N/SQMM VERTEX INSULATOR S E T WEIGHT SPAN

NO. LENGTH HORIZ.SUPPORTCL/R) D I S T . HEIGHT HORIZ VERT RIGHT L E F T

1 251.48 7.06 37.58 37.82 37.79 131.9 293.6 2.94 .60 131.9
2 425.00 19.34 38.45 39.34 38.87 2 5 2 . 1 272.7 . 1 1 1.80 2 5 2 . 1 119.6
3 235.45 6.26 37.43 38.18 37.43 2 2 7 . 1 262.7 - . 1 2 1.80 227.1 172.9
4 -2.99 .28 8.3
562 14 Sag and tension calculations 14.9 Clearances t o g r o u n d a n d t o o b j e c t s 5 6 3

conductors w i t h i n a tensioning section o f a n overhead contact line is very complicated. T a b l e 1 4 . 2 : F a c t o r Ki f o r t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e

crossing span w i t h i n t h e tensioning section
According t o ( 1 4 . 7 2 ) , t h e functions d e p e n d o n t h e vertical forces G K + a t t h e i n s u l a t o r
1,2 Span 1 Span 2 Spans 3
s e t ; t h e s e a g a i n d e p e n d o n t h e u n k n o w n v a r i a b l e s X, a n d t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e v e r t i c e s
and n and n — 1 to n - 2
xA i o f the sagging curves. T h e coordinates xA,t are functions o f the u n k n o w n variables [for AL1/ST1 A, AL3/ST1A and
1.1 ALx/STIA
[for Cu, A U
X{ and the conductor lengths i j .Because o f this reason, a nexplicit calculation o f the and A L x 1,03 1,06 1,07
differentials a n d , i n t h e n e x t step, t h e f u n c t i o n a l m a t r i x i s n o tadvisable. Therefore, 1,07 Aluminium 1,05 1,09 1,11
this m a t r i x is approximated by:
T a b l e 1 4 . 3 : F a c t o r Kt d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
fik(x) = VilXh ••.,Xk+pk,...,Xn)-ffiXi,XkPk,.. .,Xn)) / ( 2 f t ) , (14.79) 0.9,11 1 1 1 I 1 _J nominal voltage and the length o f insulator
0 100 200 300 400 500 m 600 sets
w h e r e t h e q u a n t i t i e s pk r e p r e s e n t t h e e l e m e n t s o f a s u i t a b l y s e l e c t e d vector P f o r the Span length — Un in k V 20 110 220 380
step w i d t h s . L K i n m 0,5 0,80 1,00 1,80 3,25 5,00
F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 0 : F a c t o r K3 d e p e n d i n g o n the
Ki 0,94 0,95 0,96 1,00 1,02 1,03
s p a n l e n g t h a.
14.8.5 C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m for c o n d u c t o r s t a t e c h a n g e i n a t e n s i o n i n g
section
f a c t o r K3 t a k e s c a r e o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e c r o s s i n g s p a n a n d c a n b e t a k e n f r o m F i g u r e
T h e m e t h o d described for d e t e r m i n i n g t h e conductor s t a t e c h a n g e i n a t e n s i o n i n g sec- 1 4 . 1 0 . F i n a l l y , t h e f a c t o r K 4 d e p e n d s o n t h e l e n g t h o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s w h e r e b y K4 i s
tion o fa n overhead line can b e utilized practically, only w i t h the aid o f computers. The e q u a l t o 1,0 i ncase o fl e n g t h s b e t w e e n 1,80a n d 2,0m , w h i c h are typical f o r 110 k V
p r o g r a m m i n g should not b e explained i n detail here. W i t h the described methods, the lines (fable 14.3).
following problems can be studied and solved: T h e relation (14.80) delivers sufficiently exact r e s u l t s f o r i c e loads m c i • g less t h a n
- Influence o f differences i n t h e s p a n l e n g t h o n sags a n d tensile stresses, 10 N / m a n d f o rconductors A L 1 / S T 1 A , A L x / S T I A a n d A L x , u p t ospan lengths o f
- Influence o f differing conductor temperatures, 600 m , as w e l l as f o rA L 1 conductors u p t o 350 m s p a n l e n g t h . I n case o f spans with
- Influence o f the insulator length, higher differences i nt h e suspension heights o ri n lengths o fadjacent spans, errors o f
- Influence o f differences i n heights o f t h e suspension points, unacceptable magnitude may occur.
- E x a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e sags, i n case o f local ice loads,
- Influence o f iceloads i n parts o f t h e tensioning section, Example: T h e s a go f t h e last span o f a t e n s i o n i n g section w i t h six spans, equipped w i t h
- Effects o f concentrated loads, t h e conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A , span length 355 m , voltage 220 k V should b e determined a t
- L i n e sections w i t h i n v e r t e d V - i n s u l a t o r sets, -5°C a n d local i c e l o a d . C o n d u c t o r d e a d w e i g h t : ( m c g ) = 9,81 • 0,998 = 9,79 N / m , l o c a l i c e
load: ( m c i g ) = 3,62 N / m .
- Conductor tensile forces after failure o f a conductor.
T h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e s t r e s s a t —5°C a n d 3 , 6 2 N / m i c e l o a d i n t h e t o t a l t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n i s
In fable 14.1 results f o r a typical tensioning section o fa n overhead power lineare
assumed t ob e 68,0 N / m m 2 .
summarized. For this calculations i twas assumed t h a t , a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 10°C, a l l S a g w i t h ice l o a d : / ( _ 5 . + m c l s ) = ( 3 5 5 2 (9,79 + 3 , 6 2 ) ) / ( 8 • 2 9 7 , 8 • 68,0) = 10,43 m ,
i n s u l a t o r sets h a n g vertically, i . e. t h e c o n d u c t o r forces i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l spans o f t h e
t e n s i o n i n g sections are e q u a l . F o r each c o n d i t i o n t h e sag, t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile stresses
in the vertex and a tthe suspension points and the position o fthe vertex, as well as the 1,142,
offsets o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets i n each span, are calculated.

K2 = 1 , 0 3 ( l a s t s p a n ) ; K3 = 0 , 9 8 5 f o r a = 3 5 5 m a n d c o n d u c t o r AL1/ST1A; K4 1.02
14.8.6 A p p r o x i m a t e formulae of sags a t ice load i n o n e s p a n only (220 k V ) . W i t h this d a t a i t is obtained f r o m (14.80):

Although computer p r o g r a m s are available t ocalculate t h e sags precisely and with- fa = 1 0 , 4 3 • 1 , 1 4 2 • 1 , 0 3 • 0 , 9 8 5 • 1 , 0 2 = 1 2 , 3 3 m

o u t h i g h e f f o r t i n c a s e o f a n ice local load o n l y i n o n e s p a n o f a t e n s i o n i n g section
a p p r o x i m a t e values for t h e n e e d e d s a g m a y h e l p i n s o m e cases.
T h e relation for the s a g w i t h iceload i n one span only is
14.9 Clearances to ground and to objects

fn = Ki - K2 • K3 • K\ • / ( _ 5 ° + m c l 9 ) (14.80) 14.9.1 Requirements

where /(_5° + m c l 9 ) m e a n s t h e s a g i n t h i s s p a n w i t h i c e l o a d m c i • <?, w h e n a n i c e l o a d i s I n c l a u s e 2 . 5 . 2 . 7 , T a b l e 2 . 2 3 , t h e r e q u i r e d m i n i m u m clearances to ground surface a n d

present i n a l l spans o f t h e tensioning section. T h i s s a g can b ed e t e r m i n e d b y u s i n g the to crossed objects, according t o E N 5 03 4 1 - 1 [14.11], are given w i t h t h e corresponding
e q u i v a l e n t s p a n o f t h e t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n . T h e f a c t o r K\ i s o b t a i n e d from l o a d i n g cases. F o r v e r i f i c a t i o n o f c o m p l i a n c e w i t h these d a t a , t h e clearances b e t w e e n the
conductors a n d t h e g r o u n d o r crossed objects a tt h e m a x i m u m conductor temperature,
for t h e sags u n d e r i c e l o a d a n di n case o f ice l o a d o n l y i n o n e s p a n o f t h e r e l e v a n t
mcg
A i = 1-t (14.81) tensioning section, have t o b e d e t e r m i n e d . F o r t h i s purpose, a t first t h e corresponding
conductor tensile stresses h a v e t ob e d e t e r m i n e d . T h i s c a n b e achieved b ym e a n s o f
T h e r e , mcg r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o n d u c t o r d e a d w e i g h t p e r u n i t l e n g t h . T h e f a c t o r K2 takes the methods described i nclauses 14.5, 14.8.4 a n d 14.8.5. T h e practical c a l c u l a t i o n i s
care o ft h e p o s i t i o n o ft h e crossing span, i n r e l a t i o n t ot h e t e n s i o n towers o f t h e tension- d e m o n s t r a t e d b y m e a n s o f t h e e x a m p l e o f a t e n s i o n i n g section o f a 110 k V line ( F i g u r e
ing section; i t depends also o n t h e conductor m a t e r i a l a n d is listed i n T a b l e 14.2. The 15.18) hereafter.
 004 14 s a g a n u t e n s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s

T h e tensioning section consists o ft h r e e spans equipped w i t h the conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - M2 M3

ST1A ( A C S R 2 6 5 / 3 5 ) , a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 1 8 2 . T h e i n i t i a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s a t T i = 10°C i s h„-=299,90

assumed t ob e4 7 N / m m 2 (everyday stress). B ymeans o f the m e n t i o n e d d a t a a n d t h e

f o r m u l a e g i v e n i n t h e c l a u s e s 1 4 . 2 , 1 4 . 3 a n d 1 4 . 8 . 6 , t h e clearance of the conductor to
terrain, t oa crossed road a n d t oa crossed overhead power line w i l l b e calculated. The
differences b e t w e e n t h e results o fa s i m p l i f i e d a n d t h e exact c a l c u l a t i o n w i t h computer
programs will be demonstrated.

14.9.2 Calculation of clearance to ground

T h e e q u i v a l e n t s p a n l e n g t h r e s u l t s from ( 1 4 . 4 3 ) t o b e

£a3 /251,03 + 425,03 + 234,03

°'d =
£^ =
V 251,0 + 425,0 + 234,0 = 3 4 °' 3 2 '
4= 211,00m
the h o r i z o n t a l tensile stress is obtained from (14.45)
£ = 255,00 m
E • (mcig • a)2 a 2 = 425,00 m
02 - 01 4 24~cq©42 £ tCT2 - Ti)
2 4 • A2
F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 1 : E x p l a n a t i o n s t ocalculation o ft h e clearance t o ground
and t h e sagf r o m (14.16) w i t h x = 0

/ mcg T a b l e 14.4: Clearances t o ground

f
fid - ° A
cosh
mcg V 2(T A ) Calculation Computer Difference
by h a n d program
W i t h t h e g i v e n d a t a : 01 = 4 7 N / m m ; Tx = 10°C; m C i = 0 , 9 9 8 k g / m ; A = 2 9 7 , 8 m m 2 ; Equivalent span 340,32 m 340,49 m -0,17 m
d = 2 2 , 4 m m ; E = 7 4 0 0 0 N / m m 2 ; s t = 1 9 , 6 • 1 0 ~ 6 1/°C Equivalent sag at 80° C 12,55 in 12,56 m -0,01 m
i t r e s u l t s f o r T2 = - 5 ° C a n d m C 2 = 0 , 9 9 8 + ( 5 + 0 , 1 • 2 2 , 4 ) / 9 , 8 1 = 1 , 7 3 6 k g / m : Sag at mid span at 80° C 19,58 m 19,33 m +0,25 m
Sag location of minimum clearance at 80°C 18,80 m 18,55 m +0,25 m
02,id = 7 9 , 3 8 N / m m 2 a n d /2,id = 10,44 m Clearance at 80° C 6,43 m 6,68 m -0,25 m

a n d f o r T2 = - 2 0 ° C a n d m C 2 = 0 , 9 9 8 k g / m , i t f o l l o w s r r 2 , i d = 5 3 , 0 3 N / m m 2 a n d / 2 , j d = 8 , 9 8 m
a n d f i n a l l y f o r T 2 = 80°C a n d m C 2 = 0 , 9 9 8 k g / m a 2 , i d = 3 8 , 0 0 N / m m 2 a n d / 2 > i d = ' 1 2 , 5 5 m .
S i n c e t h e e q u i v a l e n t s a g a t T = 80°C i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e s a g a t T = - 5 ° C a n d i c e l o a d t h e
first c o n d i t i o n w i l l p r e v a i l . W i t h t h e s e d a t a t h e c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r a n d g r o u n d i s
calculated i n the span 2 (Figures 15.18 and 14.11) a t t h e longitudinal coordinate 506,0 m . T h e
sag i n span 2 ,h a v i n g a span l e n g t h a 2 , c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e sag i n t h e equivalent span:
h = ( a i / a i d f • fid (14.82)
F o r t h e e x a m p l e , t h e s a g i n m i d d l e o f t h e s p a n 2 ( F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 8 ) w i t h t h e s p a n l e n g t h a2 = 4 2 5 m
has t o b e determined. I t is obtained
14.9.3 Calculation of the clearance to a crossed road
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 4 . 1 1 ] , a m i n i m u m clearance to the road surface o f ( 6 + D e | ) m h a s t o b e v e r i f i e d
i n case o f t h e m a x i m u m sag o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d f o r l o c a l ice l o a d i n t h e s p a n . A s a n e x a m p l e ,
the d a t a f o r t h e local ice l o a d according t o E N 5 0341-3-4 [14.12] i s assumed. T h e e q u i v a l e n t
span, the tensile stress a n d sag as well as t h e sag a t t h e crossing p o i n t are calculated as s h o w n
i n clause 14.9.2, since t h e crossed r o a d issituated i nt h e same span.
A s i t c a nb e seen f r o m Figures 15.18 a n d 14.11, t h e shortest clearance has t o b e expected f o r
the coordinate 462,0 mo r£ = 211 m .
W i t h a s a g / m a x = 1 9 , 5 8 m a t 80°C a n d £ = 2 1 1 m , i t i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 2 6 ) ff = 1 9 , 5 7 m
a n d w i t h N N ? = 2 6 3 m from ( 1 4 . 8 3 )

12,55 m = 19,58 m . af = 2 9 9 , 9 - 1 4 , 4 5 ( 2 1 1 , 0 / 4 2 5 ) - 1 9 , 5 7 - 2 6 3 , 0 = 1 0 , 2 m .

T h e available clearance islarger t h a n t h a t required.

T h e s a g a t t h e s t u d i e d p o s i t i o n £ i s o b t a i n e d from ( 1 4 . 2 6 ) ff = 4 • / m a x £ / a ( l — £/<*) w i t h
£ = 2 5 5 m ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 1 ) t o b e ff = 1 8 , 8 0 m .
T h e a v a i l a b l e c l e a r a n c e af at t h e p o s i t i o n £ r e s u l t s f r o m
0{ = h o i - ( h o i - h o i + i ) £ M — f ( — N N { . (14.83)
I n t h e e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e hoi = 2 9 9 , 9 m , h o i + 1 = 2 8 5 , 4 5 m a n d N N 4 = 2 6 6 , 0 m .
T h e available clearance is 6 , 4 3 m , therefore. A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [14.11], a m i n i m u m
c l e a r a n c e o f ( 5 + D e i ) m w i t h Da = 1 , 0 m i s r e q u i r e d . T h e r e f o r e , t h e a v a i l a b l e c l e a r a n c e
complies w i t h this r e q u i r e m e n t . T h e results o f t h e calculation are given i nT a b l e 14.4 together
w i t h the results obtained b y ac o m p u t e r p r o g r a m . A l t h o u g h t h e difference i n height i n t h e span
3 is 22,45 m a n dthe span length i n span 2 is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 5 % higher t h a n t h e equivalent
span, the results differ o n l y t oa s m a l l extent.
I n addition, t h e clearance w i t h local iceload equal t o ( 5+ 0,1 •2,24)/2 = 2,62N / m i n t h e
r e l e v a n t s p a n h a s t o b e v e r i f i e d . S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s o f 01 = 4 7 N / m m 2
a t 10°C i n t h e e q u i v a l e n t s p a n , t h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s a t - 5 ° C a n d i c e l o a d o f 2 , 6 2 N / m h a s t o b e
d e t e r m i n e d . F r o m ( 1 4 . 4 5 ) , a h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e s t r e s s o f 02 = 6 5 , 0 7 N / m m 2 i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h i s
i c e l o a d a n d from ( 1 4 . 1 6 ) a n e q u i v a l e n t s a g o f / ; d = 1 0 , 0 3 m . R e l a t e d t o t h e a c t u a l s p a n l e n g t h
of 425 m , t h e s a g i n m i d s p a n i so b t a i n e d t o b e ( F i g u r e 14.11):
S) = ( g | ) 2 -10,03 = 15,65 m .
T h e sagw i t h local ice load follows f r o m (14.80). T h e used parameters there can b e t a k e n f r o m
(14.81), T a b l e 14.2 a n d 14.3, as well asf r o m F i g u r e 14.10:
Ki = ©2/(1 + ( 9 , 7 9 / 1 3 , 4 1 ) 2 ) = 1,142,
 566 14 Sag a n d tension calculations 14.9 Clearances t og r o u n d a n d t oo b j e c t s 5 6 7

fable 1 4 . 5 : C a l c u l a t i o n o f clearances t o a crossed r o a d fable 1 4 . 6 : Clearances t o a crossed road

Calculation Computer Difference
SIEMENS AG DEPT PTDH158 TRANSMISSION LINES
by hand program
110 kV L I N E HT76 F u e r s t e n b e r g - K a r e n
CONDUCTOR : 2 * 3 * 1 « ACSR 265/36 * 4 7 . 0 N/QMM Sag at crossing point
- at 80°C 19,57 m 19,34 in +0,23 m
LINE SECTION FROM TOWER NO. 1 TO TOWER NO. 4
- a t — 5°C and local ice load 18,18 m 16,59 m + 1,59 m
Clearances to road at the crossing point
CONDUCTOR LEVEL 1
***************** - a t 80°C 10,20 m 10,37 m -0,17 m
CROSS SECTION DIAMETER WEIGHT HOD. E E X P . C O E F . STRENGTH - at —5°C and local ice load 11,25 m 13,13 m -1,88 m
SQMM SQMM MM KG/M KN/SQMM 1/K N/SQMM
2S3.66 34.09 22.40 .998 74.000 .0000196 278.61

LIMITS TEMPERATURE I C E LOAD WIND LOAD TENSION

****** DEGREE C N/M N/M N/SQMM
-20.0 .000 .000 500.00
-5.0 7.240 .000 500.00
10.0 .000 .000 47.00

STARTING 10.0 .000 .000 47.00

CONDITION -20.0 .000 .000 53.03
-5.0 7.240 .000 79.39

CROSSGING CLEARANCES, LEFT PHASE

********************************
COMPUTED 1 MAX. TEMPERATURE 8 0 . 0 0 0 DEGREE C
CONDITIONS 2 LOCAL I C E LOAD 3 . 6 2 0 N/M

CROSSING NO. 01
CROSSING OBJECT: ROAD
**********************> * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
SCAN H 426.00
PHASE LENGTH 426.00
DISTANCE FROH L I N E AXIS TO CROSSING POINT 4.00
DISTANCE FROM L E F T TOWER TO CROSSING POINT 211.01
ALTITUDE OF L I N E AXIS AT CROSSING POINT 263.00
ANGLE OF L I N E AXIS RELATIVE TO CROSSING L I N E 1 nn [A
ALTITUDE OF REFERENCE POINT 263!10

TOWER NO. 2 3 *
TOWER TYPE
INSULATOR SET TYPE
SS+3 SS+12 *
LENGTH OF DROPPER
DH DH * F i g u r e 14.12: Deter-
•
M .00 .00
m i n a t i o n o f t h e crossing
WEIGHT OF INSULATOR SET WITH DROPPER N 1000.00 1000.00 *
STATION OF TOWER POSITION M 261.00 676.OO *
point o f t w o overhead
ALTITUDE OF TOWER LOCATION M 284.60 261.05 * lines
HEIGHT LOWEST CROSSARM M 17.20 26.20 *
LENGTH OF INSULATOR SET WITH DROPPER
ALTITUDE OF CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION POINT
M 1.80 1.80 *
M 299.90 285.45
CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE CONDITION "1" •2" E s s e n t i a l differences, however, occur f o r a local i c eload. T h e exact c a l c u l a t i o n results i n a
CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION HEIGHT DIFFERENCE
ALTITUDE OF CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION POINT
M -14.45 -14.46 clearance t o t h e r o a d surface o f 13,13 m , w h i l e t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n results i n a value o f 11,25m
M 292.73 292.73
SAG AT MIDSPAN M 19.34 16.69 o n l y . T h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s o n t h e safe side i n t h i s case.
SAG AT CROSSING POINT M 19.34 16.59
ALTITUDE OF CONDUCTOR M 273.38 276.14
ALTITUDE OF CROSSING POINT M 263.01 263.01
EXISTING CLEARANCE M 10.37 13.13
PEQUIRED CLEARANCE M 7.00 6.00 * 14.9.4 C a l c u l a t i o n of clearance to a crossed line
ADDITIONAL CLEARANCE (TO REQUIRED) M 3.37 7.13

T h e clearances t o a crossed 2 0 k V line i n span 1 ( F i g u r e 15.18) o f t h e example should b e

calculated. A c c o r d i n g t o [14.12], i t h a s t o b e checked, w h e t h e r t h e m i n i m u m clearances required
a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 4 . 1 1 ] Eire c o m p l i e d w i t h u n d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s :
K2 = 1,06 (second span, c o n d u c t o r A L 1 / S T 1 A ) ,
— Condition 1 : S a g a t m a x i m u m conductor t e m p e r a t u r e f o r t h e crossing overhead line:
K3 = 0,96 (span length 425 m , conductor A L 1 / S T 1 A ) , I n t h i s c a s e 80°C ; c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e 40°C f o r c r o s s e d l i n e ;
K4 = 1,0 ( 1 1 0 k V i n s u l a t i o n ) . — Condition 2 : L o c a l ice l o a d a t crossing l i n e ; n o ice l o a d a t crossed line, t e m p e r a t u r e -5°.
— Condition 3 : W i n d o n t h e conductors o f crossed line rectangular t o t h e line direction;
F r o m ( 1 4 . 8 0 ) i t i s o b t a i n e d i n m i d s p a n fa = 1 , 1 4 2 • 1 , 0 6 • 0 , 9 6 • 1 , 0 • 1 5 , 6 5 = 1 8 , 1 9 m a n d a t t h e w i n d a c t i o n o n t h e o v e r c r o s s i n g l i n e w i t h a n a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e r e d u c e d b y 4 0 %, d u e
c r o s s i n g p o i n t f r o m ( 1 4 . 2 6 ) w i t h £ = 2 1 1 , 0 m , fr = fu = 1 8 , 1 8 m . c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k , t e m p e r a t u r e 40°C.
F o r m u l a (14.83) yields t h e available clearance: T h e crossed 2 0 k Vline consists o f three spans w i t h 120, 148 a n d 133 m lengths. T h e relative
p o s i t i o n o f b o t h lines is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 14.12. I n principle, f o u r p o i n t s o f c o n d u c t o r i n t e r s e c t i o n
Of = 2 9 9 , 9 - 1 4 , 4 5 • ( 2 1 1 , 0 / 4 2 5 ) - 1 8 , 1 8 - 2 6 3 , 0 = 1 1 , 2 5 m . h a v e t o b e checked. F r o m t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e crossing a n d t h e sags, i t c a n b e seen, however,
t h a t t h e crossing o ft h e right-side conductor o ft h e 110 k V line w i t h t h e left conductor o f t h e
Also i n t h i s case, t h e clearance is larger t h a n t h e r e q u i r e d . T h e clearances w e r e calculated a s 20 k V line will result i nt h e shortest clearances.
aell w i t h t h e m e t h o d described i n clause 14.8.5. T a b l e 14.5 shows t h e results a n d T a b l e 14.6 I n condition 1 , t h e conductors d o n o t move a n d t h e coordinates o ft h e crossing points result
t i e c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s . A t 80°C, t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n a n d t h e e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n f r o m t h e intersection o f t h e b o t h straight lines w h i c h represent t h e conductor i n t h e plan view:
differ o n l y t o a s m a l l e x t e n t (10,20 m c o m p a r e d w i t h 1 0 , 3 7 m ) . y = 0,0079x - 5,98 a n d y = - x + 108,26 z u x P i = 113,36 m ( F i g u r e 14.12).
T a b l e 1 4 . 7 : Clearances t o a crossed overhead line fable 1 4 . 8 : C a l c u l a t i o n o f clearances f o r crossing o ft w o overhead lines
£>pP Calculation Computer Difference
SIEMENS AG DEPI PTDH158 TRANSMISSION LINES
110 k V by h a n d program
EVALUATION OF CLEARANCES FOR CROSSINGS WITH OTHER LINES
Clearance a t the crossing point
- condition 1 1,15 m 2,10 m 1,89 m +0,21 m 110 kV L I N E HT76 F u e r s t e n b e r g - H a i e n
- condition 2 1,15 m 1,50 m 1,93 m —0,43 m CROSSING NO. 0VERCR0SSING L I N E UNDERCROSSING L I N E
- condition 3 1,15 m 2,00 m 1,18 m +0,82 m
1.0 110 KV L I N E 20 KV L I N E
Federov-Waien e.dis
CONDUCTOR : ACSR 120/20
W i t h t h e e q u i v a l e n t s p a n a n d t h e e q u i v a l e n t s a g f o r 80°C, a c c o r d i n g t o 1 4 . 9 . 2 , t h e s a g o f t h e Ti H
uHUF
eRn Hfl
nu. 1 2 H20 M21
right-side conductor i nm i d s p a n o f t h e crossing span is obtained f r o m (14.82): TOWER TYPE TT+0 ST+3 HZ-M HZ-M
INSULATOR SET TYPE DT DS TK TK
CROSSARM LENGTH L E F T 6.0O 4 00 2.00 2.00
/max so = ( 2 5 0 , 5 / 3 4 0 , 3 ) 2 • 1 2 , 5 5 = 6 , 8 0 m . RIGHT 6.00 4 oo 2.00 2.00
SYSTEM DISPLACEMENT .00 oo .00 .00
HORIZ. ANGLE GON 396.00 .00 200.00 200.00
T h e saga t point P i (Figure 14.12) i nt h e span between tower 1 and t o w e r 2 follows according ALTITUDE OF TOWER LOCATION 286.50 284 50 282.00 279.00
to (14.26): CROSSARM HEIGHT 16.00 17 .20 12.40 15.40
INSULATOR SET LENGTH .00 1 .80 .40 .40
DROPPER LENGTH .00 .00 .00 .00
„ /113,36-0,47\ / 113,36-0,47\ „ „„ CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION ALTITUDE 301.50 299 .90 2:94.00 294.00
D I F F . OF SUSPENSION ALTITUDE 1 60 .00
SPAN LENGTH H 251 . 0 0 120.00
CROSSING ANGLE GON 50 00
Similarly, f o r m u l a (14.83) yields t h e altitude o f the conductor t o b e LINE ANGLE UNDERCR. L I N E GON 200 00
DISTANCE OF CROSSING POINT
OF AXES FROM LEFT TOWER 106 . 0 0 60.00
N N P I = 3 0 1 , 5 - 1,6 - 1 1 2 , 9 / 2 5 0 , 5 - 6 , 7 3 = 2 9 4 , 0 m . CONDUCTOR WEIGHT KG/M .998 .494
WIND LOAD N/M 4.020 10.300

For t h e crossed l i n e e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r 1 2 2 - A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A , t h e s a g a t 4 0 C C is 2,16 m SAGS, TEMPERATURES AND REQUIRED CLEARANCE FOR THREE CASES
UPPER L I N E LOWER L I N E REQUIRED
a n d a t —5°C w i t h o u t i c e l o a d 1 , 2 4 m . T h e s e v a l u e s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r s t a t e LEFT CENTRE RIGHT TEMP LEFT CENTRE RIGHT TEMP CLEARANCE
change e q u a t i o n (14.40) a n d t h e equation (14.82) ( F i g u r e 14.12). R e l a t e d t o t h e crossed line, t h e 7.06 7.03 7.01 80 2.11 2.11 2.11 40 1.15
6.71 6.69 6.66 -5 1.80 1.80 1.80 -5 1.15
crossing p o i n t P i is situated i n a distance o f 68,80 m f r o m support 20 ( F i g u r e 14.12). T h e r e , the 6.26 6.24 6.22 40 1.90 1.90 1.90 40 1.15
sag is 2 , 1 1 m a c c o r d i n g t o (14.26) a n d t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r N N P 2 = 2 9 4 , 0 - 2 , 1 = 291,9 m .
Therefore, t h e e x i s t i n g clearance i s 294,0 — 291,9 = 2,10 m , f o r w h i c h a tleast a clearance o f CALCULATION CONDITION AT S T I L L AIR AT S T I L L AIR
Dpp, i n t h i s c a s e 1 , 1 5 m , f o r 1 1 0 k V i s r e q u i r e d . TEMPERATURE CONDITION 80 DEGREE C 40 DEGREE C
CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 7.01 2.11
Also i n condition 2, the conductors stay i ntheir position i n the plan view. Therefore, the same SPAN LENGTH OF C R I T I C A L PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 5 4 SIGHT 120.00
DISTAHCE OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 1 1 3 . 4 5 1 69.19 M20
crossing p o i n t s a r e obtained a s i n c o n d i t i o n 1 . A s described i n clause 14.9.3, t h es a g o f t h e SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.95 2.06
110 k V line a t local ice load i nmidspan is obtained f r o m (14.80) t o b e DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 0.00
CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 293.83 291.94
CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.89 .74
/ u = 1,142 • 1,03 • 1,025 • 1,00 ( 2 5 0 , 5 / 3 4 0 , 3 ) 2 • 1 0 , 0 3 = 6,55 m
CALCULATION CONDITION LOCAL ICEL0AD HO ICELOAD
TEMPERATURE CONDITION - 5 DEGREE C 5 DEGREE C
and a t t h e crossing point t o b e / P u = 6,55•4(112,0/250,5) •( 1 - 112,9/250,5) = 6,48m . T h e CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.66 1.80
conductor height is, therefore, 294,3 m . SPAN LENGTH OF C R I T I C A L PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 5 4 RIGHT 120.00
D I S T . OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 113.45 1 6«.19 M20
F o r t h e 2 0 k V l i n e , a s a g o f 1 , 2 1 m r e s u l t s a t —5°C w i t h o u t i c e l o a d a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g SAG AT CROSSING POINT. 6.60 1.76
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 0.00
c o n d u c t o r h e i g h t w i l l b e 2 9 2 , 8 m . T h e r e f o r e , t h e c l e a r a n c e i s 1,5 m , w h i l e a g a i n a m i n i m u m CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.17 292.24
value o f 1,15 m is required. CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.93 5 .78
In condition 3, t h econductors o fb o t h lines swing under w i n d action. Therefore, t h e position CALCULATION CONDITION WIND 351 GON 100 % WIND 330 GON 100 V.
of t h e crossing p o i n t moves f r o m P i t o P 2 ( F i g u r e 14.12). T h e w i n d load o n t h e conductor 122- TEMPERATURE CONDITION 40 DEGREE C 10 DEGREE C
CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.12 .81
A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A r e s u l t s from ( 6 . 7 3 ) f o r a n a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e o f 0 , 7 5 ( 8 0 0 + 3 , 1 0 ) = 6 2 2 N / m 2 WINDL0AD N/M 3.69 10.30
at a h e i g h t o f1 0 m above g r o u n d t o b e 10,3 N / m a n d for t h e conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A a t a SWING ANGLE GON 11.70 72.01
SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 250.54 RIGHT 120.00
h e i g h t o f 1 6 m a b o v e g r o u n d t o b e w = 8 4 8 - 1 , 0 - 0 , 0 2 2 4 0 , 6 - c o s 2 4 5 - ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 2 5 0 , 5 ) ss 4 , 0 N / m . DIST. OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 115.05 1 69.40 M20
SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.07 .79
T h e s w i n g i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r h a s t o b e s t u d i e d f o r a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 40°© I n m i d s p a n , t h e s a g 0.00
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72
of t h e 2 0 k V line is 2,16 m . T h e s w i n g i n g angle o f t h e conductor 1 2 2 - A L 1/ 2 0 - S T 1 A is calculated CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.70 293.44
CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.26 5 .11
due t o the static condition approach:
CALCULATION CONDITION WIND 351 GON 60 % WIND 30O GON 100 X
TEMPERATURE CONDITION 40 DEGREE C 10 DEGREE C
0 2 = tan'1 [Qwc/(mcg)] = tazr1[10,3/(0,494 - 9 , 8 1 ) ] = 64,8° . CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.18 .81
WINDL0AD N/M 3.69 10.30
72.01
For t h e conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A the relevant swinging angle w i l l reach SWING ANGLE GON 7.07
120.00
SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 250.54 RIGHT
DIST. OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 115.53 1 70.10 M20
0i = t a n - 1 [ 4 , 0 / ( 0 , 9 9 8 - 9 , 8 1 ) ] = 22,2° . SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.14 .79
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 0.00
293.44
CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.62
T h e crossing p o i n t P 2 is o b t a i n e d as t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f b o t h conductor curves i n t h e p l a n view. CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.18
.03
T h e h o r i z o n t a l d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r o f a 1 1 0 k V l i n e i n m i d s p a n i s 6 , 1 2 s i n 22,2° = 2 , 3 1 m .
A t s u p p o r t 2 , t h e s u s p e n s i o n s t r i n g s w i n g s b y 1 , 8 • s i n 22,2° = 0 , 6 3 8 m .
For t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the crossing point P 2 o f t h es w u n g conductors, several alternatives
can b e adopted:
568 1 4 Sag and tension calculations 14.9 C l e a r a n c e s t o g r o u n d a n d t oo b j e c t s 5 6 9

T a b l e 14.7: Clearances t o a crossed o v e r h e a d line T a b l e 1 4 . 8 : C a l c u l a t i o n o f clearances for crossing o f t w o o v e r h e a d lines

Dpp Calculation Computer Difference
110 k V by hand program
SIEMENS AG DEPT PTDH158 TRANSMISSION LINES
Clearance at the crossing point EVALUATION OF CLEARANCES FOR CROSSINGS WITH OTHER LINES
- condition 1 1,15 m 2,10 m 1,89 m +0,21 m 110 kV L I N E HT76 F u e r s t e n b e r g - Waren
- condition 2 1,15 m 1,50 m 1,93 m —0,43 m
CROSSING NO. 0VERCR0SSING L I N E UNDERCROSSING L I N E
- condition 3 1,15 m 2,00 m 1,18 m +0,82 m
1.0 110 KV L I N E 20 KV L I N E
Federow-Waren e .dis
CONDUCTOR : ACSR 1 2 0 / 2 0
W i t h t h e e q u i v a l e n t s p a n a n d t h e e q u i v a l e n t s a g f o r 80°C, a c c o r d i n g t o 1 4 . 9 . 2 , t h e s a g o f t h e TOWER NO. 1 2 M20 M21 *
right-side conductor i n m i d s p a n o f the crossing span isobtained f r o m (14.82): TOWER TYPE TT+O ST+3 HZ-M HZ-M *
INSULATOR SET TYPE DT DS TK TK *
CROSSARM LENGTH LEFT 6.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 *
/ m a x so = ( 2 5 0 , 5 / 3 4 0 , 3 ) 2 • 1 2 , 5 5 = 6 , 8 0 m. RIGHT 6.00 4.00 2.00 2.00 *
SYSTEM DISPLACEMENT .00 .00 .00 .00 *
HORIZ. ANGLE GON 395.00 .00 200.00 200.00 +
T h e s a g a t p o i n t Pi ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 2 ) i n t h e s p a n b e t w e e n t o w e r 1 a n d t o w e r 2 f o l l o w s according ALTITUDE OF TOWER LOCATION 285.60 284.50 282.00 279.00 *
CROSSARM HEIGHT 16.00 17.20 12.40 15.40 +
to (14.26): INSULATOR SET LENGTH *
.00 1.80 .40 .40
DROPPER LENGTH .00 .00 .00 .00 *
r « «o A / H 3 . 3 6 - 0 , 4 7 ^ / 113,36 - 0,47^ CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION ALTITUDE 301.50 299.90 294.00 294.00 *
D I F F . OF SUSPENSION ALTITUDE 1.60 .00 *
SPAN LENGTH M 261.00 120.00 *
/ p = M 0 4 ( 250,5 H 1 550^ J =6,73m . CROSSING ANGLE GON 50.00 *
L I N E ANGLE UNDERCR. L I N E GON 200.00 *
Similarly, f o r m u l a (14.83) yields the altitude o f t h e conductor t o b e DISTANCE OF CROSSING POINT
OF AXES FROM LEFT TOWER 106.00 60.00 *
CONDUCTOR WEIGHT KG/M .998 .494 +
N N P I = 3 0 1 , 5 - 1,6 • 1 1 2 , 9 / 2 5 0 , 5 - 6 , 7 3 = 2 9 4 , 0 m . WIND LOAD N/M 4.020 10.300 *
F o r t h e c r o s s e d l i n e e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r 1 2 2 - A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A , t h e s a g a t 40°C i s 2 , 1 6 m SAGS, TEMPERATURES AND REQUIRED CLEARANCE FOR THREE CASES
UPPER L I N E LOWER L I N E REQUIRED
a n d a t —5°C w i t h o u t i c e l o a d 1 , 2 4 m . T h e s e v a l u e s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r s t a t e LEFT CENTRE RIGHT TEMP LEFT CENTRE RIGHT TEMP CLEARANCE
change equation (14.40) and the equation (14.82) (Figure 14.12). Related t o the crossed line, the 7.06 7 . 0 3 7 . 0 1 80 2.11 2 . 1 1 2 . 1 1 40 1.15
6.71 6.69 6.66 - 5 1.80 1.80 1.80 -6 1.15
crossing point P i is situated i n a distance o f68,80 m f r o m s u p p o r t 20 (Figure 14.12). T h e r e , the 6.26 6.24 6.22 40 1.90 1.90 1.90 4 0 1.1b
sag is 2,11 m a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 4 . 2 6 ) a n d t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r N N P 2 = 2 9 4 , 0 - 2 , 1 = 291,9 m .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e existing clearance i s 294,0 — 291,9 = 2,10 m , for w h i c h a t least a clearance o f CALCULATION CONDITION AT S T I L L AIR AT S T I L L AIR
TEMPERATURE CONDITION 80 DEGREE C 40 DEGREE C
Dpp, i n t h i s c a s e 1 , 1 5 m , f o r 1 1 0 k V i s r e q u i r e d . 7.01 2.11
CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN
Also in condition 2 , the conductors stay in their position i n the plan view. Therefore, the same SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 5 4 RIGHT 1 2 0 . 0 0
DISTANCE OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 1 1 3 . 4 5 1 69.19 M20
crossing points are obtained as i ncondition 1 . A s described i n clause 14.9.3, t h e s a go f the SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.96 2.06
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 O.OO
1 1 0 k V l i n e a t l o c a l ice l o a d i n m i d s p a n i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 8 0 ) t o b e 293.83 291.94
CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING .74
CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.89 1.15
fn = 1 , 1 4 2 • 1,03 • 1 , 0 2 5 • 1 , 0 0 ( 2 5 0 , 5 / 3 4 0 , 3 ) 2 - 1 0 , 0 3 = 6 , 5 5 m NO ICEL0AD
CALCULATION CONDITION LOCAL ICEL0AD
TEMPERATURE CONDITION - 5 DEGREE C 5 DEGREE C
a n d a t t h e c r o s s i n g p o i n t t o b e / P 1 i = 6,55 • 4 ( 1 1 2 , 0 / 2 5 0 , 5 ) • ( 1 - 1 1 2 , 9 / 2 5 0 , 5 ) = 6,48 m . T h e CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.66 1.80
SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 5 4 RIGHT 1 2 0 . 0 0
c o n d u c t o r height is, therefore, 294,3 m . D I S T . OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 113.45 1 69.19 K20
F o r t h e 2 0 k V l i n e , a s a g o f 1 , 2 1 m r e s u l t s a t —5°C w i t h o u t i c e l o a d a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.60 1.76
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0 . 7 2 0.00
c o n d u c t o r h e i g h t w i l l b e 2 9 2 , 8 m . T h e r e f o r e , t h e c l e a r a n c e i s 1,5 m , w h i l e a g a i n a m i n i m u m CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.17 292.24
v a l u e o f 1,15 m i s r e q u i r e d . CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.93 5 .78
I n condition 3, t h e conductors o f b o t h lines s w i n g u n d e r w i n d action. Therefore, t h e position CALCULATION CONDITION WIND 351 GON 100 7. WIND 300 GON 100 X
TEMPERATURE CONDITION 40 DEGREE C 40 DEGREE C
o f t h e c r o s s i n g p o i n t m o v e s f r o m Pi t o P 2 ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 2 ) . T h e w i n d l o a d o n t h e c o n d u c t o r 1 2 2 - 6.12 .81
CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 10.30
A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A r e s u l t s from ( 6 . 7 3 ) f o r a n a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e o f 0 , 7 5 ( 8 0 0 + 3 , 1 0 ) = 6 2 2 N / m 2 WINDL0AD N/M 3.69
SWING ANGLE GON 11-70 72.01
a t a h e i g h t o f 10 m a b o v e g r o u n d t o b e 10,3 N / m a n d for t h e c o n d u c t o r 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A a t a SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 5 4 RIGHT 1 2 0 . 0 0
height o f16 m a b o v e g r o u n d t o b e w = 848-1,0-0,0224-0,6-cos? 4 5 - ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 2 5 0 , 5 ) f s 4 , 0 N / m . D I S T . OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 116.05 1 69.40 M20
SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.07 .79
T h e s w i n g i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r h a s t o b e s t u d i e d f o r a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 40°© I n m i d s p a n , t h e s a g DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 0.00
CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.70 293.44
o f t h e 20 k V l i n e is 2,16 m . T h e s w i n g i n g a n g l e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r 1 2 2 - A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A is c a l c u l a t e d 5 .11
CLEARANCE EXISTING/REOUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.26
due t othe static condition approach:
CALCULATION CONDITION WIND 361 GON 6 0 V. WIND 300 GON 100 X
TEMPERATURE CONDITION 40 DEGREE C 40 DEGREE C
0 2 = t a n - 1 [ Q w c / ( m c g ) ] = t a n " 1 [ 1 0 , 3 / ( 0 , 4 9 4 • 9 , 8 1 ) ] = 64,8° . CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.18 .81
WINDL0AD N/M 3.69 10.30
SWING ANGLE GON 7.07 72.01
For the conductor 264-AL1/34-ST1A the relevant swinging angle will reach SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 6 4 RIGHT 1 2 0 . 0 0
D I S T . OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 116.63 1 70.10 M20
SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.14 .79
0! = t a n - 1 [ 4 , 0 / ( 0 , 9 9 8 - 9 , 8 1 ) ] = 22,2° . O.OO
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 293.44
CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.62 .03
T h e crossing point P 2 is obtained as the intersection o fb o t h conductor curves i n the plan view. CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.18
T h e h o r i z o n t a l d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r o f a 1 1 0 k V l i n e i n m i d s p a n i s 6 , 1 2 s i n 22,2° = 2 , 3 1 m .
A t s u p p o r t 2 , t h e s u s p e n s i o n s t r i n g s w i n g s b y 1,8 • sin22,2° = 0 , 6 3 8 m .
For the determination o f the crossing point P 2 o fthe s w u n g conductors, several alternatives
can b e adopted:
 -
B o t h curves for the s w u n g conductors are represented b y functions, t h e intersection o f 14.7 H a l b i g , A . : B e i t r a g z u r D u r c h h a n g s e r m i t t l u n g b e i H o c h s p a n n u n g s f r e i l e i t u n g e n ( O n t h e
w h i c h is c a l c u l a t e d t h e n ; sag calculation of high-voltage overhead lines). E T Z - R e p o r t 10, B e r l i n , V D E - V e r l a g 1973
— I n the vicinity of the intersection, the swinging curves can be a p p r o x i m a t e d by straight
lines, t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of w h i c h is t o b e d e t e r m i n e d ; 1 4 . 8 S c h m i d t , B . : D i e B e r e c h n u n g v o n P r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n n a c h d e r M e t h o d e d e r finiten E l e -
— T h e i n t e r s e c t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d i n a s k e t c h t o scale; m e n t e ( C o m p u t a t i o n o f o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s b a s e d o n t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d ) .
- A p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a e a r e used a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e s w u n g c o n d u c t o r is i n a p a r a l l e l posi- Elektrizitatswirtschaft 84 (1985), pp. 846 t o 8 5 1
tion to the conductor i n still air.
For t h e example t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n m e n t i o n e d last will b e used: 14.9 B e g e m a n n , D . e t a l . : V e r g r b B e r u n g v o n Seilabstanden m i t t e l s H a l b v e r a n k e r u n g s k e t t e n
an T r a g m a s t e n (Increasing clearances i n overhead power lines b y means o f i n v e r t e d - V
XP 2 = XPi + fi sin02/sina - (/i sin0i + Ai)/tana i n s u l a t o r sets a t suspension s t r u c t u r e s ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 9 1 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , pp. 1519 t o
1525
and
14.10 H u t t e : D i e G r u n d l a g e n der Ingenieurwissenschaften ( H a n d b o o k of E n g i n e e r i n g science).
£Pa = f P i + f i s i n * h / t a n a - ( / i sin 0 ) + A i ) / s i n a .
Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 2 9 t h edition, 1989
T h e s a g s f i a n d / 2 a p p l y i n t h i s c a s e f o r t h e p o i n t Pi b e i n g 6 , 0 2 a n d 2 , 1 2 m a t 40°C, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
14.11 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : Overhead electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: General requirements
A i takes care of t h e h o r i z o n t a l displacement of t h e conductor due t o t h e swinging of the insulator
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, Cenelec, 2 0 0 1
s e t s . I n t h i s c a s e : A i = 1 , 8 s i n 22,2° • 1 1 2 , 9 / 2 5 0 , 5 = 0 , 3 1 m . F o r t h e 2 0 k V l i n e , t h e i n s u l a t o r
l e n g t h is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e 0,4 m . T h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e c r o s s i n g p o i n t r e s u l t , t h e r e f o r e , a s 14.12 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a -
X P 2 = 1 1 3 , 3 6 + ( 2 , 1 2 + 0 , 5 ) sin64,8°/sin45° - ( 6 , 0 2 s i n 22,2° + 0,31)/tan45° « 1 1 4 , 1 m tive Aspects for G e r m a n y ( N N A ) . Brussels, Cenelec, 2001

and

£ P 2 = 6 8 , 8 + ( 2 , 1 2 + 0 , 5 ) s i n 64,8°/tan 45° - ( 6 , 0 2 s i n 22,2° + 0,31)/sin45° cs 6 7 , 3 1 m .

A s k e t c h t o s c a l e c o n f i r m s t h e s e v a l u e s . T h e e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s i n XPZ = 115,5 m a n d
£P2 = 70,1 m . T h e conductor h e i g h t for t h e undercrossing line is

NN S 2 = 2 9 4 , 4 - ( 2 , 1 2 + 0 , 5 ) c o s 64,8° = 2 9 3 , 3 m .

The conductor height for t h e overcrossing line follows f r o m

N N s i = hoi - (hoi - hoi+ijxp/ai - ( / P + l k -y P 2 / a j ) cos0i ,

w h e r e fp i s e q u a l t o t h e s a g o f 6 , 0 2 m a n d t h e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r l e n g t h a t s u p p o r t 2
is 1,80 • 1 1 4 , 1 / 2 5 0 5 = 0 , 8 2 m . T h i s h e i g h t i s

N N s i = 301,5 - (301,5 - 301,7)114,1/250,5 - 6 , 8 4 • c o s 22,2° = 2 9 5 , 3 m .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e a v a i l a b l e c l e a r a n c e is 2,0 m . I n T a b l e 1 4 . 7 t h e r e s u l t s a r e s h o w n . T h e clearances
calculated by c o m p u t e r are represented i n T a b l e 14.8. T h e r e , t h e conductor positions have been
d e t e r m i n e d exactly. W h i l e t h e clearances calculated by h a n d a n d b y p r o g r a m coincide quite w e l l
for c o n d i t i o n s 1 a n d 2, t h e differences a r e h i g h e r f o r c o n d i t i o n 3. T h e r e f o r e , i t is r e c o m m e n d e d
to check t h e clearances by exact c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s .

14.10 References
14.1 G i r k m a n n , K . ; Konigshofer, E . : Die Hochspannungsfreileitungen (Overhead power lines).
W i e n , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g 2 n d edition, 1952

14.2 F i n k , D . G.; Beaty, H . W . : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k for electric engineers. N e w Y o r k . M c G r a w -

Hill, 1 2 t h edition 1987

14.3 T r a s h , R . e ta l . : O v e r h e a d conductor m a n u a l . C a r r o l t o n , G a . , S o u t h w i r e , 1994

14.4 D r a f t I E C 6 1 9 8 9 : O v e r h e a d electrical conductors - G u i d e t o c a l c u l a t i o n o fsag a n d t e n -

sion. Geneva, I E C , D r a f t 1999

14.5 P a l k o w s k i , S.: S t a t i k der S e i l k o n s t r u k t i o n e n ( S t a t i c s o f s t r a n d e d w i r e s t r u c t u r e s ) . B e r l i n ,

Springer-Verlag, 1990

14.6 K i e B l i n g , F . : B e r e c h n u n g des Z u s t a n d e s der Seile i m A b s p a n n a b s c h n i t t e i n e r S t a r k s t r o m -

freileitung ( C o m p u t a t i o n of conductor state change i n a tensioning section of an overhead
p o w e r l i n e ) . S i e m e n s F o r s c h . E n t w i c k l u n g s b e r . 1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 125 t o 132
-

15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed l i n e
design

15.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Span length
Umax M a x i m u m span length
rtjnin M i n i m u m span length
Oph M a x i m u m span
Usom M i n i m u m distance i n air between live and earthed parts o fan insulator
set
fci, b i Tower width
c Calibration parameter
rimin Clearance according t o E N 50341-1
D a M i n i m u m clearance i n air b e t w e e n phase conductor a n d e a r t h e d ele-
ments
DPP M i n i m u m clearance i n air between phase conductors
fc Sag a tpoint C
/max M a x i m u m sag w i t h i n t h e span
F R e d u c t i o n coefficient
h. „
• -i , * Tower heights
h M i n i m u m g r o u n d clearance
Ho ,Hi,H 2 ,H 3 ,Hi Altitude o f tower locations
Hi Altitude o fsurvey instrument
H x Altitude o fmeasured point
i Height o f instrument
L, Di, D 2 Horizontal distance
Dpi, Dpi, D c Distances o fconductor points
m Calibration parameter
R Earth's radius
s Measured inclined distance
t Height o f reflector
u. Highest system voltage
Z, Zo, Z l , z 2 Z e n i t h angle
ai, a 2 Angle o fcrossarm axis
0 M 1 , 0 U 1 , 0 C H o r i z o n t a l angle
A h Difference o f altitudes
0C Conductor swing angle

15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Basic information

T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r route selection a n d d e t a i l e d l i n e d e s i g n o f a h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r -
head line are established b y the p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k , studies a n d assessments described
in C h a p t e r 1 " O v e r a l l p l a n n i n g " . T h e y have been developed o nt h e basis o fa n electric
network analysis, defining i n principle the required starting and t e r m i n a l point o f a
transmission connection t a k i n g into account the generation and c o n s u m p t i o n load cen-
t r e s . T h e voltage level a n d t h e r e q u i r e d conductor cross section a r e a s w e l l d e t e r m i n e d
b y t h e e x i s t i n g n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f l o a d flow, s u c h t h a t t h e d e -
sign engineer i sprovided w i t h essential parameters. T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o nt h e supports
to b e used for a line project depend o nthe line voltage, n u m b e r o fcircuits, conductor
()Y4 l O IVOUbC S C 1 C C L 1 U U aitZl u c i i a n c u lliiv. u + j i g u
dimensions a n d arrangement as well aso n climatic, topographic, i n f r a s t r u c t u r eo r legal
aspects. W h e n selecting the support structures, t h e design engineer w i l l t r y t outilize
available designs t o avoid t h e expenditures for a n e w tower f a m i l y i n c l u d i n g the w o r k -
s h o p d r a w i n g s , especially i n case o f r e l a t i v e l y short lines. H o w e v e r , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
n e w s u p p o r t s designed t ot h e specific l i n e r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n r e s u l t i n t e c h n i c a l i m p r o v e -
ments and investment savings and isa n often adopted and recommended practice.
T h e r e q u i r e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e l i n e r o u t e n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d d u r i n g route
selection. D e t a i l e d a n d a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
l i n e p r o j e c t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r s t a r t i n g t h e licensing approval procedure, a s p r e s e n t e d i n
clause 1.11.
T h e p r o v i s i o n o f suitable m a p s w i t h a scale adjusted t o t h e s p a t i a l expansion o f
t h e p r o j e c t t o b e designed i s necessary f o rt h e c o n t r a c t o r r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e design.
Overview maps i n a s c a l e o f 1 : 1 0 0 0 0 0 a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r m o r e e x t e n d e d p r o j e c t s .
M u l t i - c o l o u r U T M - m a p s i n a scale o f 1:50000 o r 1:25000 serve t o s h o w t h e affected
areas close t o t h e r o u t e . S u c h o v e r v i e w m a p s are u s u a l l y available for e x i s t i n g lines a t
the n e t w o r k operators. However, the m o s t recent edition o f m a p s s h o u l d b e used for
planning o f new line route corridors. These maps can b e acquired f r o m companies i n
t h e i n t e r n e t , f r o m t h e p r o v i n c i a l s u r v e y i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o r from l o c a l l a n d r e g i s t e r
a n d s u r v e y i n g a u t h o r i t i e s . F o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e affected properties a l o n g t h e n e w line
a x i s , m a p s w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:5 0 0 0 a r e h e l p f u l . I n c o u n t r i e s w i t h o u t a c o m p l e t e d l a n d
register system, ortho-photos can b e used as well t o determine a t least crop borders
w h i c h m i g h t indicate borders o f plots as well. I f neither maps nor aerial photos a r e
available, contacting local authorities m i g h t b e helpful for a detailed investigation o f
plot borders.
B e f o r e a first l i n e r o u t e p r o p o s a l w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e licensing authority i n c h a r g e ,
all the administrative and environmental concerns aswell as the exist ing and planned
l a n d use have t ob e observed a n d considered. T h e plans for f u r t h e r e x t e n s i o n o f infra-
structure a r o u n d municipalities should b e checked against the requirements o fthe new
line corridor. I n addition, this i n f o r m a t i o n needs t ob e acquired and provided w i t h i n a
wider corridor w h i c h m a y b e considered assuitable for the new line. A tthis occasion,
all t h e p r o b l e m a t i c areas close t o t h e l i n e r o u t e w i l l b e identified a n d assessed based o n
the line engineer's experience.
15.1.2 Preliminary activities
A contracting company w i t h experience i n overhead line construction o r a n adequate
surveying company should b e engaged for route selection a n d line design i f experienced
utility staff is not available w i t h i n the entity planning a n e w line. L a t e r on, synergy
effects m a y b e u t i l i z e d because n u m e r o u s contacts t o l a n d o w n e r s , a u t h o r i t i e s a n d o t h e r
institutions established d u r i n g the p l a n n i n g stage m a y n o t b e looked for again w h e n
the line construction will start.
If surveying activities w o u l d b e necessary d u r i n g the search for a line r o u t e , i t has t o b e
proved asexpedient t oask the involved municipalities t oi n f o r m the public i n order t o
a v o i d conflicts w i t h l a n d o w n e r s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e necessary i n a n y case w h e n
s t a r t i n g t h e detailed surveying.
D u r i n g t h e search for a line r o u t e , i t is necessary t o acquire a n o v e r v i e w as precise
as possible o n t h e t e r r a i n c o n c e r n e d b y t h e l i n e d e s i g n t o m o n i t o r a l l d e t a i l s a t t h e
most recent status. A terrain investigation t o the most attentive e x t e n t b y inspection
o n s i t e y i e l d s p a r t i a l i m p r e s s i o n s o n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d v i e w i nm o s t cases. A
c o m p l e t e o v e r v i e w , h o w e v e r , c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y flying a l o n g t h e r o u t e a n d t h r o u g h
d o c u m e n t a t i o n b y aerial photographs a n d laser scannings o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e a . T h e
scale o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h s can b e.selected such t h a t a sufficiently l a r g e a r e a i s recorded
a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , a l l necessary details axe p r e s e n t e d clearly. T h e t o w e r sites o f
existing t r a n s m i s s i o n lines get visible m o s t clearly t h r o u g h t h e shadow a t a low s u n .
W h e n searching for a line route, s e v e r a l t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s a s w e l l a s t h e m a n i f o l d c o n -
cerns o f n a t u r e a n d landscape, existing i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , other p l a n n i n g entities a n d ex-
i s t i n g traffic r o u t e s need t o b e considered. I tw i l l n o t b e possible i n a l l cases t o t a k e
c a r e o f a l l d i v e r g i n g i n t e r e s t s w i t h o u t c o n f l i c t s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s e x p e d i e n t j u s t from t h e
b e g i n n i n g t o e s t a b l i s h s e v e r a l optional line routes a n d t o p r e s e n t t h e m i n m a p s . D u r i n g
site inspections, these o p t i o n a l routes can b e studied i n t h e terrain a n d discussed w i t h
the municipalities a n d other authorities concerned t om i n i m i z e possible conflicts d u r i n g
t h e f o l l o w i n g licensing procedure.
Especially i n case o f m o r e extended projects, i t has proved favourable t o record t h e
s p e c i a l i t i e s o f t h e a r e a c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e avifauna; t h i s c a n b e d o n e b y
interviewing t h e local bird experts a n d initiating even a recording of nesting a n d visiting
birds i n d u e t i m e , since such a recording s h o u l d b e carried o u t d u r i n g t h e relevant
seasons. A delay o fl i n e design o r licensing procedures because o fm i s s i n g o r n i t h o l o g i c a l
data can b e avoided thereby.
After finalizing t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t u d i e s f o r a preliminary route, i t s h o u l d b e p o s s i -
ble t o establish the required d o c u m e n t a t i o n f o rthe licensing procedure, considering
the technical design o f the line and the k n o w n concerns o f entities w h i c h develop the
infrastructure planning .
M o r e o r l e s s n u m e r o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y r o u t e w i l l r e s u l t from t h e l i -
c e n s i n g p r o c e d u r e a n d f r o m t h e environmental impact study, w h i c h i s t o a s s e s s a n d
m i n i m i z e the impacts t o the nature. I n the context o f the line project, care should b e
t a k e n regarding a l l conditions a n d guidelines r e s u l t i n g f r o m these licensing processes.
T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e final r o u t e s e l e c t i o n a n d s u r v e y i n g . T o m e e t
t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d w i s h e s o f l a n d o w n e r s , i t i s e x p e d i e n t t o a g r e e first u p o n t h e l i n e
deflection p o i n t s a n d t h e n u p o n t h e sites for t h e suspension s u p p o r t s , w h i c h can b e
m o v e d easier along a straight line section.
I n some countries, overhead lines are not governed b y the directives for approvals a n d
supervision o fcivil engineering structures. T h e r e , a n application for construction i s not
necessary a n d the technical d o c u m e n t a t i o n needs not to b eapproved b yany authorities.
H o w e v e r , before s t a r t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e utilities need t oget t h e a p p r o v a l o ft h e l a n d
owners a n d tenants as well as t h e approval for crossing roads, railway lines, shipping
lanes etc., a n d t o finalize correlated contracts a n d t o o b t a i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y , i f any.
I n m o s t cases, t h e u t i l i t y w i l l a r r a n g e for t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y , since official a t t o r n e y i s
required f o rl a n d acquisition a n d legal procedures regarding infrastructure projects.
S o m e t i m e s , i t m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e u t i l i t y t o b u y t h e l a n d from t h e o w n e r s . I f a n
a g r e e m e n t i s n o t r e a c h e d , a l e g a l d e c r e e from a u t h o r i t y i s n e c e s s a r y . T h i s c a n d e l a y t h e
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o fthe project.
15.2 Route selection and licences
15.2.1 Introduction
15.2.1.1 General aspects and guidelines
T w o line categories can b e considered, regarding route selection, fitting lines i n t o the
terrain, line design and tower spotting, namely:
- Lines situated i n highly populated regions;
— L i n e s p r e d o m i n a n t l y located i n r u r a l areas o ri n regions o fl o w p o p u l a t i o n density.
F o r t h e first c a t e g o r y o f l i n e s , t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o p t i m i z e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o
technical a n d e c o n o m i c aspects w i l l n o t b e possible, for instance, i nC e n t r a l E u r o p e ,
p a r t s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d A s i a , b e c a u s e o f t h e n u m e r o u s c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e selection
576 15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design
of support sites a n d l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . T h e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f r e l e v a n t d i r e c t i v e s a n d
laws o n n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l level forces t h e design engineer t o accept n u m e r o u s
c o m p r o m i s e s a l r e a d y w h e n selecting the route t o fit t h e l i n e i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n
a n as far as possible considerate m a n n e r and t o get the r o u t e and its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
approved. R e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g a n d approval procedures o n t h e basis o f environmental
protection laws a r e u s e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e n u m b e r o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
a n d t h e i r consequences. A p r o f o u n d knowledge i snecessary i n line technology regarding
t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o a v o i d n e g a t i v e effects o n s e v e r a l
o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s w h e n m o d i f y i n g o n e p a r a m e t e r i n a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n a n d n o t t o lose
o f sight t h e r e s u l t i n g e c o n o m i c consequences [15.1].
However, f o rt h e second category o f lines mentioned above, a n overall o p t i m i z a t i o n
procedure is feasible. For such lines, a nappropriate f a m i l y o f towers can b e defined, a
r o u t e close t o a s t r a i g h t line can b e selected a n d a n o p t i m u m t o w e r s p o t t i n g c a n b e
implemented.
Selection o f a transmission line route between t w o defined ends isa n o p t i m i z a t i o n task
w i t h t h e a i m o f m i n i m i z i n g t h e impacts on landscape and environment as well as the
investments for i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . D u e t othe manifold constraints, such a n o p t i m i z a t i o n
is p o s s i b l e t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t o n l y . F r o m t h e t e c h n i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , a l i n e r o u t e s h o u l d
be selected w h i c h avoids angle points, a s far a s possible, since t h e y require considerably
h i g h e r efforts a n d i n v e s t m e n t . A t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n a s u n i f o r m as possible a n d a d j u s t e d
t o t h e t o p o g r a p h y s h o u l d b e selected. T o m i n i m i z e t h e i n v e s t m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e
costs, such a t o w e r configuration c a n b e o p t i m i z e d w i t h respect t o t h e required area
for t h e t o w e r sites a n d w i d t h o f r i g h t - o f - w a y a n d t o t h e height o f t h e towers w h i c h all
t o g e t h e r affect t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s for c o m p e n s a t i o n , f o u n d a t i o n s a n d towers. T h e r e f o r e ,
self-supporting structures have prone t o b e adequate w h e n compensations are high,
while guyed structures m a y f o r m a n interesting solution i nregions w i t h o u t intensive
use o f land.
A n e a s y access to the tower sites r e d u c e s t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r l a n d u s e a n d m a i n t e -
nance costs. T o w e r sites o n exposed p o i n t s o f t h e t e r r a i n , such a srock noses, s h o u l d b e
avoided a l t h o u g h t h e y w o u l d offer advantages concerning t h e a d j u s t m e n t o ft h e c o n d u c -
t o r c a t e n a r y t o t h e t e r r a i n . T h e l i n e s h o u l d b e r o u t e d w h e r e less v a l u a b l e l a n d c a n b e
used. Therefore, l a n d reserved for residential areas, v e r y fertile a g r i c u l t u r a l t e r r a i n a n d
forests should b e avoided f r o m t h e i n v e s t m e n t p o i n t o f view. Areas w i t h constraints for
a line i m p l e m e n t a t i o n such asair corridors s h o u l d b e by-passed a ta n adequate distance
w h e n selecting the route.
T h e i n v e s t m e n t f o r f o u n d a t i o n s r i s e s w i t h u n f a v o u r a b l e subsoil conditions. S o f a r a s p o s -
sible, s u p p o r t s should n o t b e spotted o nsites w i t h very low-bearing soil o r i n s w a m p s .
N u m e r o u s crossings w i t h traffic routes a n d o t h e r lines m a y b e necessary w h e n i m p l e -
m e n t i n g a n e w o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e . I n these cases, s m a l l angles o f i n t e r s e c t i o n b e t w e e n
t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n s s h o u l d b e avoided since t h e y w o u l d r e s u l t i n l o n g crossing sections.
C e r t a i n i n d u s t r i a linstallations such as cement plants f o r m a source o fincreased pollu-
t i o n w h i c h could endanger the insulation o fpower lines and cause corrosion a t metallic
elements. T h e r e f o r e , lines s h o u l d n o tb e r o u t e d close t o such areas since o t h e r w i s e
increased i n v e s t m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e costs have t o b e expected.
T h e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f wind energy converters a l s o a t w i n d - p r o n e i n l a n d s i t e s h a s l e d
t o discussions o nthe required distance t ooverhead lines a l t h o u g h n e w lines are seldom
p l a n n e d close t o existing w i n d energy p a r k s . A s a p r a g m a t i c c o m p r o m i s e , a m i n i m u m
distance o f three times the rotor diameter should b e met between the tip o f the rotor
w i n g o fa w i n d energy converter and the o u t e r m o s t conductor o fa line i n still air. W h e n
the line iswell protected against vibration o fconductors, this distance m a y b e reduced
t o o n e r o t o r d i a m e t e r [15.2], T h i s c o m p r o m i s e t a k e s care o f t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o p e r a t o r s
of w i n d energy converters t o accept distances as low as possible a n d t o m i n i m i z e the
15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 5 7 7
additional investments for the connections t o the n e t w o r k a n d mitigates the concerns
of electric n e t w o r k operators o n damage o f conductors d u et o the wake o f t h e w i n d
energy installations, failing o f rotor wings a n d increased hazard due t olightning.
15.2.1.2 A l t e r n a t i v e line designs
Self-supporting lattice towers c o m p o s e d o f a n g l e s e c t i o n s h a v e p r o v e d t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y
for t r a n s m i s s i o n lines w o r l d w i d e since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f overhead line technology. G u y e d
towers f o r m a n economic a l t e r n a t i v e w h e r e enough space i savailable a n d costs for l a n d
c o m p e n s a t i o n are low. W o o d h a sbeen used as a s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l f o r lines u pt o
2 2 0 k V w h e r e t i m b e r i s a v a i l a b l e . H o w e v e r , i t s l i f e t i m e i s l i m i t e d (see c l a u s e 12.1.3.5).
P l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s h a v e s h o w n i ns t u d i e s t o b e less e c o n o m i c w i t h respect t o t h e h i g h
loads t ob e carried. T h e y can b e used for i n d i v i d u a l elements like insulating crossarms.
Round-shaped poles made of spun concrete o f f e r a r e a l i s t i c a l t e r n a t i v e u p t o l i n e s o f
t h e 220 k V level a n d i n special cases for h i g h e r voltages, i f t h e y a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d w i t h
p r e s t r e s s e d s t e e l r e i n f o r c e m e n t (see clause 1 2 . 7 . 2 ) . P o l y g o n a l p o l e s m a d e o f s t e e l f o r m
a n a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r c o n c r e t e p o l e s a n d lattice towers b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s l e n d e r
aesthetic perception. Since these poles show a relatively h i g h deflection resulting f r o m
h o r i z o n t a l forces, c o n d u c t o r cross sections a n d forces, l i n e deflections, s p a n lengths
a n d pole heights need t o b e l i m i t e d t o avoid inadmissible deflections, inclinations o f
crossarms as w e l l as unacceptably large diameters a n d weights o ft h e poles. T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e y c a n n o t b e considered a sa fully adequate s u b s t i t u t e for r i g i d lattice or g u y e d towers.
H o w e v e r , t h e y are f r e q u e n t l y used i n valleys a n d n a r r o w forest aisles for voltages u p
to 500 k V because o f aesthetic reasons. Also i n s u b u r b a n areas, polygonal poles have
revealed t o b e a n a t t r a c t i v e s o l u t i o n , d u e t o t h e n a r r o w r i g h t - o f - w a y r e q u i r e d a n d also a s
a n economic alternative w h e n compared t o u n d e r g r o u n d cables. W o r l d w i d e a t t e m p t s
are m a d e t o adopt n e w t o w e r shapes designed according t o a r c h i t e c t u r a l ideas a n d
rules considering aesthetic aspects, also f o r e x t r a - h i g h voltages. T h e i n v e s t m e n t s f o r
such designs are considerably higher t h a n those o f conventional steel towers. Results
of studies carried o u t b y architects are presented i n [15.3, 15.4]. I n F i g u r e 12.10, a n
e x a m p l e i s s h o w n . A l t e r n a t i v e designs are p r e s e n t e d also i n [15.5].
15.2.1.3 C o n v e r s i o n of e x i s t i n g l i n e s
W h e n planning a new line, i tshould b e considered alternatively, whether bundling o f
t r a n s m i s s i o n circuits o w n e d b y different operators o n t h e same structures is possible
as f a r a s i n t e r e s t s o f these o p e r a t o r s a r e c o n g r u e n t . T h e c o m m o n use o f r i g h t - o f - w a y
a n d overhead line s t r u c t u r e s has t o b e settled i ncontracts t a k i n g care o f t h e m u t u a l
p o r t i o n s o n t h e i n v e s t m e n t s [15.6].
Uprating of existing transmission lines t o a n i n c r e a s e d c a p a c i t y o r a h i g h e r v o l t a g e
level instead o f constructing a n e w line c a nb e considered as a n alternative solution
as w e l l [15.7, 15.8]. T h e a d v a n t a g e o f a l e g a l l y o r c o n t r a c t u a l l y s e c u r e d r i g h t - o f - w a y i s
i m p o r t a n t a n d valuable i n densely populated o r sensitive areas. R e m o v a l o f a n existing
line a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n e w o n ew i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g r i g h t - o f - w a y is e c o n o m i c , since
n e c e s s a r y a d d i t i o n a l c o m p e n s a t i o n s a n d l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d w i t h less
problems t h a n the acquisition o f a new right-of-way.
15.2.1.4 Underground transmission
T h e adoption of underground cables i s a l w a y s q u e s t i o n e d i n c o n t e x t w i t h o v e r h e a d l i n e
projects d u r i n g the approval stage a n d required w i t h emphasis as well. T h e physical
p e r f o r m a n c e o f o v e r h e a d lines a n d u n d e r g r o u n d cables is different (see clause 1.12),
t h e i n v e s t m e n t f o ru n d e r g r o u n d cables is m u c h h i g h e r [15.9, 15.10]. T o d a y , t h e r e is a
certain consensus t o adopt preferably u n d e r g r o u n d cable installations for voltage lev-
els o f 110 k V a n d a b o v e o n l y , w h e r e o v e r h e a d lines c a n n o t b e r o u t e d , for e x a m p l e i n
u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s . H o w e v e r , s h o r t u n d e r g r o u n d sections b e t w e e n t w o adjacent over-
h e a d l i n e s e c t i o n s , c a l l e d intermediate underground cable sections, s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d .
U n d e r g r o u n d cables need larger cross sections a n d are n o t capable o fw i t h s t a n d i n g over-
loads contrary t ooverhead lines. Therefore, such i n t e r m e d i a t e cable sections represent
a n o p e r a t i o n a l l y weak element. E x t r a - h i g h - v o l t a g e u n d e r g r o u n d cable installations are
restricted t o u r b a n u n d e r g r o u n d n e t w o r k s i nlarge cities, such a s B e r l i n / G e r m a n y o r
C o p e n h a g e n [15.11]. F o r t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n , o t h e r s t a n d a r d s a p p l y t h a n
f o r o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k s . Gas insulated pipelines a n d c r y o g e n i c c a b l e s a r e
o n development stage n o w [15.12, 15.13].
15.2.2 Regulatory controls a n d permit procedures
15.2.2.1 Introduction
Regulatory controls f o r n e w o v e r h e a d l i n e s v a r y from c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y . T h e y h a v e t h e i r
origins i n the cultural, political and administrative systems o feach country. Although
t h e r e g u l a t o r y controls for overhead lines m a y differ greatly, there are s o m e c o m m o n
l e s s o n s t o l e a r n from g e n e r a l t r e n d s . I n [ 1 5 . 5 ] , a s u m m a r y i s g i v e n o n t h e s e g e n e r a l
t r e n d s based o n a q u e s t i o n n a i r e response [15.14] a n d a w o r k i n g d o c u m e n t regarding
licensing procedures and environmental impacts, that were prepared b y the members
of the Cigre SC22 working group.
15.2.2.2 Permits
T h e requirements regarding authority's approval are p a r t l y dependent o n the voltage
l e v e l . T h e l o w e r l i m i t v a r i e s from 1 k V t o 3 4 5 k V . A t y p i c a l l o w e r l i m i t i s a b o v e 2 0 k V .
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , Environmental Impact Assessments ( E I A ) for overhead lines have been
introduced i nt h e overhead line licensing procedures i n m a n y countries. S o m e t i m e s i t
is i n c o r p o r a t e d i na l r e a d y e x i s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . F o r m a l l i m i t s t r i g g e r i n g a n E I A have
often been introduced. For example, limits o n the voltage level a n d / o r the m i n i m u m
l e n g t h o f the line are used. T h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n ( E U ) has regulations concerning E I A
since 1985. U n d e r t h e D i r e c t i v e 8 5 / 3 3 7 / E E C [15.15] i t w a s left t o the responsibility o f
i n d i v i d u a l countries t o decide o nthe necessity for E I A o noverhead lines. B u t w i t h the
D i r e c t i v e 9 7 / 1 1 / E E E [15.16], E I A b e c a m e necessary f o r a l l o v e r h e a d lines o f a t least
220 k V and w i t h a length o f more t h a n 15 k m .
Moreover, the administrative requirements on carrying out the E I A have been tightened
u p c o n c e r n i n g p e r m i s s i o n s , p u b l i c h e a r i n g s , a s s e s s m e n t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s , i n f o r m a t i o n etc.
I n c a s e o f w o r k o n existing lines, p e r m i t s a n d E I A a r e n o r m a l l y n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r
m a i n t e n a n c e b u t t h e y c o u l d b e r e q u i r e d for m a j o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o e x i s t i n g l i n e s , e. g.
significant structure alterations, upratings o r upgradings.
15.2.2.3 Regulations, approvals and procedures
T h e various kinds o f permits required i n different countries c a nbe summarized as
follows:
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r environmental planning and a s s e s s m e n t a c t (e. g. N e w
W a l e s [15.17], G e r m a n y [15.18];
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r c o n c e s s i o n s , " e l e c t r i c a l p e r m i t s " (e. g . N e t h e r l a n d s , S w e d e n ,
tria);
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r r e g i o n a l p h y s i c a l p l a n n i n g (e. g. D e n m a r k [15.19]);
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r local physical p l a n n i n g (e.g. I r e l a n d [15.20]);
— I n G e r m a n y , a ne n v i r o n m e n t impact assessment ( E I A ) is m a n d a t o r y for a l l lines
longer t h a n 1 5k m w i t h a n o m i n a l voltage o f220 k V a n d above. F o r lines o f 110 k V
or shorter t h a n 15 k m , such a nassessment m a y b e required after a p r e l i m i n a r y
check o f the i n d i v i d u a l project. I naddition, a planning licensing procedure is
stipulated for construction, operation a n d modification o f lines for w h i c h a n E I A
is necessary [15.18];
— A p p r o v a l u n d e r n a t u r e conservation acts;
— P e r m i t s for r i g h t - o f - w a y , e x p r o p r i a t i o n acts;
— Building permits.
T h e m a i n issues r e g a r d i n g overhead lines considered i n licensing p r o c e d u r e s are:
— J u s t i f i c a t i o n , necessity a r i d p u b l i c i n t e r e s t : I nm o s t cases d e a l t w i t h b y t h e a u -
t h o r i t y w h o is responsible for the electricity supply i n d u s t r y ;
— R o u t i n g , i n c l u d i n g m i t i g a t i o n : I n m o s t cases dealt w i t h b y t h e p h y s i c a l a n d e n -
vironmental authority;
— C o n s t r u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g m i t i g a t i o n : D e a l t w i t h b y several a u t h o r i t y levels;
— Compensation: Dealt w i t h b y utilities, land owners and expropriation authority.
W h e n the necessary permits are obtained, appeals can b e lodged. These appeals are
dealt w i t h b y tribunals o r boards and often the courts are involved.
Appeals always include a serious risk o f losing licences granted. A s a consequence, the
whole procedure or parts o f the procedure m a y have t o start again. Therefore, i t is
i m p o r t a n t t o m i n i m i z e this risk.
T h e p e r i o d n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e permit process i n c l u d i n g E I A a n d a p p e a l s v a r i e s f r o m
c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y a n d i s i n d i c a t e d b y 1 t o 1 0 years i n [15.5].
T h e u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e for public c o n s u l t a t i o n a n d negotiations w i t h
l a n d o w n e r s o n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y a n d o n s u p p o r t sites a r e prevalent. T h e r e f o r e , t h e
a t t i t u d e o f m a n y utilities i s t o receive a p e r m i t even i f i t takes a longer t i m e t o b e
g r a n t e d , r a t h e r t h a n suffer a quick rejection.
Besides approval b y authorities, negotiations w i t h l a n d owners a r enecessary t o get
t h e i r a p p r o v a l f o r t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y , t o w e r sites a n d access roads. T h e u t i l i t y c a n b e
obliged t o b u y t h e l a n d affected b y t h e line o r a licence i sg r a n t e d a n d legally secured
by t h e l a n d register.
T h e authorisation of overhead lines i s n o t a l w a y s s t r u c t u r e d i n a l o g i c a l o r m o s t e f f i -
cient way. Local authorities a n d individuals can have a d e t e r m i n i n g influence o n the
licensing o foverhead lines a n d can cause u n a c c e p t a b l e delay. A l t h o u g h t h e e n v i r o n m e n -
tal r e q u i r e m e n t s f o roverhead lines are specified i nadvance, n e w r e q u i r e m e n t s could
c o m e u p d u r i n g t h e licensing process. T h i s is also t h e case for t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t studies o r t h e i r m e t h o d s o f e v a l u a t i o n [15.21].
15.2.2.4 Compensations
L i n e owners need t o compensate the land owners f o r t h eright-of-way a n d support
sites. I nm o s t cases, t h i s i s d o n e b y p a y i n g a l u m p s u m b a s e d o n a contract. T h e
a m o u n t o f p a y m e n t d e p e n d s o n t h e l a n d use a n d o nt h e v a l u e o f t h e l a n d . I n t o t a l , t h e
compensation can reach 2 0 % o f the line investment.
I n addition, contributions t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l o r c o m m u n i t y funds a r eoften required,
related t ospecific projects o ro t h e r f o r m s o fe n v i r o n m e n t a l o r c o m m u n i t y compensation.
South I n s o m e cases, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e u t i l i t y i s based o n a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e project
costs, e. g. 5 % o f i n v e s t m e n t i n B e l g i u m .
Aus- F e w utilities grant financial compensation t o local authorities. A m o n g those that do
so, s u c h c o m p e n s a t i o n t a k e s t h e f o r m o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l e n h a n c e m e n t p r o g r a m s o r c o n -
tributions towards t h e m based o n conditions as part o f government authorisations or
p l a n n i n g p e r m i t s r e q u i r e d for a specific project, o r t h e regulations i n force.
580 15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design
I n s t a l l a t i o n o fa n overhead l i n e m a y infringe t h e e n v i r o n m e n t balance at sensitive loca-
tions. T h e reasons can b e aesthetical o r visual impacts i n recreational areas, i m p a i r i n g
of b r e e d i n g a n d m i g r a t i n g birds, aisles i n forests, i n f r i n g e m e n t o f c o n t i n u o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l
areas o r approaching o f residual areas.
A s a first s t e p o f c o m p e n s a t i o n , i t i s l o o k e d f o r a d e q u a t e a r e a s w h i c h a r e s u i t e d f o r a
specific p r e p a r a t i o n t o re-establish t h e o r i g i n a l n a t u r a l f u n c t i o n s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e
r i g h t - o f - w a y . T h i s can b e achieved b y r e f o r e s t a t i n g , e s t a b l i s h i n g b i r d p r o t e c t i o n areas
or i n s t a l l a t i o no f recreational parks.
If n o suitable areas can b e f o u n d i n t h e direct line vicinity, t h e licensing a u t h o r i t y will
decide u p o n , w h e t h e r suitable areas w i t h o u t a r e l a t i o n t o t h e r o u t e s h o u l d b e looked for
or w h e t h e r expedient compensations have t ob e paid, t oenable realization o f measures
b u n d l i n g t o g e t h e r several projects. T h e scales for establishing c o m p e n s a t i o n p a y m e n t s
d e p e n d s u b j e c t i v e l y o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r t s since a n y assessment a p p r o a c h e s o n sci-
entific bases are lacking.
15.2.3 Environmental impact assessment
15.2.3.1 O u t l i n e of t h e p r o c e s s
A n environmental impact assessment ( E I A ) p r o c e s s c o n s t i t u t e s a n environmental im-
pact study a n d p u b l i c c o n s u l t a t i o n s a n d i s c a r r i e d o u t a s r e q u i r e d b y l a w a n d s o , t h e
content and m e t h o d are different f r o m country t o country. I n general, the E I A reports
cover the following subjects:
— Need for the project;
— System alternatives;
— Proposal o fline route a n d project;
— E n v i r o n m e n t a l impact assessment comprising:
— E n v i r o n m e n t a lsituation w i t h o u t the line project comprising hydrology and
w a t e r q u a l i t y , s o i l s u r f a c e , flora a n d f a u n a , l a n d s c a p e a n d v i s u a l i m p a c t ,
infrastructure and c u l t u r a l subjects, impacts o nh u m a n s , roads and traffic;
— Development o fenvironment w i t h o u t the line;
— E n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts o f the new line comprising the aspects mentioned
a b o v e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields, e f f e c t s o n l a n d u s e ,
sociological considerations;
— Conclusions.
T h e m e t h o d used for involving citizens and agencies i n the process often includes writ-
ten i n f o r m a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n displays, public workshops and land owner/occupier and
c o m m u n i t y consultations. N o r m a l l y , the citizens a n d agencies a r e involved early i n
t h e process b y comprehensive c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h official bodies, including government
representatives, and local authorities o r i n f o r m a l public consultation, including visits
and open evenings o r public presentations as well as discussion w i t h l a n d owners and
tenants.
O u t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l process, t h e selection o f a n alternative project location o r
design could result, aswell asre-evaluation o fthe planned n e t w o r k o reven w i t h d r a w a l
of the project.
I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e s c a n b e f o r m a l i z e d i n a n environmental man-
agement plan f o r t h e p r o j e c t , s e t t i n g o u t t h e m e c h a n i s m a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c a r r y i n g
o u t t h e m e a s u r e s a n d t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r m o n i t o r i n g t h e i r effectiveness. E x a m p l e s o f as-
p e c t s m o n i t o r e d a r e s o i l e r o s i o n , i m p a c t o n f a u n a a n d flora, i m p a c t o n l a n d u s e , v i s u a l
impact and impact o narchaeology a n d heritage.
15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 5 8 1
15.2.3.2 Enviromental impact studies
W h e n assessing a n e w line r o u t e , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s o f t h e p l a n n e d project o n
t h e l a n d affected b y t h e l i n e need t o b e considered especially i n case o f voltages above
1 1 0 k V . T h e a i m is a l i n e r o u t e l e a d i n g t o a m i n i m u m o f conflicts w i t h o t h e r p r o j e c t s for
u s e o f l i m i t e d l a n d r e s o u r c e s . T h e environmental impact study ( E I S ) i n t e n s i f i e s t h e s e
considerations, establishes a catalogue of measures t o avoid o rreduce t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
i m p a c t s a n d l i s t s compensation and substitute measures, i f a n y . S i n c e t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s
r e q u i r e d for such measures can a m o u n t t o a considerable c o m p o n e n t o f i n v e s t m e n t , t h e
design engineer, w h e n selecting the p r e l i m i n a r y route, should m a k e himself acquain-
tance w i t h the relevant environmental problems. For their detailed handling, experts
m i g h t b e engaged a s far a s necessary.
T h e f r e q u e n t l y a s k e d q u e s t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e n e c e s s a r y width of the corridor t o b e
s t u d i e d o n b o t h sides o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r o u t e cannot b e answered generally. I n
a d d i t i o n t o t h e possible infringement o f t h i r d p a r t y rights a n d interests, the impacts
d e p e n d on t h e visual a n d aesthetic impression o fthe line planned and, therefore, o n the
topography o f t h e t e r r a i n i n q u e s t i o n . I n a m o u n t a i n o u s o r r o l l i n g t e r r a i n , a d i s t a n c e
r e s u l t s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t i n a flat t e r r a i n w h e r e t h e f a r r e a c h i n g visibility o f t h e l i n e
requires wider corridors t o b e studied. T h e aspect o f visibility alone, however, w o u l d
result i n overdone widths o f corridors t o b e studied. A reasonable distance m a y result
f r o m the answer t o the question, h o w far f r o m the line a resident o r viewer w o u l d
be a n n o y e d b y t h e l i n e i n t h e g i v e n s u r r o u n d i n g . I n case o f a g r i c u l t u r a l t e r r a i n , s o m e
h u n d r e d m e t e r s o n b o t h sides o f t h e r o u t e centre l i n e r e s u l t a s a v i e w i n g corridor;
however, this distance w o u l d b e considerably wider i n terrain used b y tourists a n d for
recreation depending o nthe subjective sensitivity.
T h e i m p a c t o f a n e w overhead line c a n n o t b e assessed w i t h o u t conflicts. Especially, for
t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t studies n o a p p r o v e d a n d b i n d i n g p r o c e d u r e exists [15.22].
V e r b a l qualifying procedures are used i n addition t on u m e r i c a l assessment methods. I n
b o t h cases, t h e r e s u l t s c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t b y t h e assessing scale. Spe-
cial emphasis should, therefore, b e p u t o na i m i n g a t a transparent a n d comprehensive
assessment understandable for non-professionals as well.
I n a nenvironmental impact study, the expected impacts o f a n overhead line project
concerning the intrusiont othe situation o fnature a n d the environment compared w i t h
the original condition, have t o b e presented i na s u m m a r i z i n g assessment. Available
alternatives for the line route a r e w e i g h e d c o m p a r a t i v e l y a n d t h a t a l t e r n a t i v e i s i d e n t i -
fied, w h i c h w o u l d r e s u l t i n t h e l o w e s t i m p a c t s o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . W i t h i n t h e s t u d i e d
corridor, steps for avoiding o r reducing i n f r i n g e m e n t s are listed i n a catalogue o f m e a -
sures, arid r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are given for a r o u t e o p t i m i z e d f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
point o fview. I n addition, compensation a n d substitute measures are determined dur-
i n g t h e legal procedures for nature protection, w h i c h , a s a r u l e , w i l l b e i m p o s e d o n t h e
l i n e o w n e r t o b e i m p l e n t e d d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n i n a m o r e o r less m o d i f i e d m a n n e r .
15.2.3.3 E x i s t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l situation w i t h o u t the line project
T o a n a l y s e p o s s i b l e environmental impacts o f a p l a n n e d l i n e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e c o r d
the existing situation w i t h i n the planned line corridor. T h i s environmental situation,
a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g s t r a i n s i n c l u d e d , needs t o b e presented a n d assessed. P r e d o m i n a n t l y ,
the subjects t o b e protected are studied, including t h e following subjects:
- Water quality: T h e documentation should contain the ground-water quality,
already existing strains caused b y agriculture and industry, aswell asburdens b y
p r e v i o u s u s e , t r a f f i c e t c . W a t e r p r o t e c t i o n a r e a s a n d c a t c h m e n t a r e a s f o r drinking-
water supply r e q u i r e e s p e c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n a s w e l l a s flowing a n d c a l m w a t e r s ,
because a n i n p u t o fp o l l u t i n g agents m i g h t b e possible d u r i n g line construction.
15 R o u t e s e l e c t i o n a n a d e t a i l e a l i n e a e s i g n
S o i l s u r f a c e : I n general, o n l y t h a t soil f u n c t i o n is recorded a n d assessed w h i c h
m i g h t h a v e s o m e c o n t e x t t o possible effects o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f t h e
line. R e m o v a l o r c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f soil b y construction, l a n d u s ea n d sealing is
w i t h i n this category as well as the soil sensitivity t o compaction, erosion caused
b y c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a n d possible s t r a i n s b y p o l l u t i n g agents, e. g. b y o r g a n i c
material, heavy m e t a l o r locally b y dumps.
A i r a n d c l i m a t e : O n l y t h e micro climate o f t h e r e g i o n c o n c e r n e d m i g h t a f f e c t
the e n v i r o n m e n t w h i c h d e p e n d s m a i n l y o nt h e e x i s t i n g t e r r a i n i n f r a s t r u c t u r e . Loss
o f trees a n d coppices t o a larger e x t e n t a n d especially aisles i n forests m a y change
the micro climate conditions while sealing o f the soil a t the tower foundations
m a y h a v e n e g l i g i b l e effects o n l y . A i r q u a l i t y a n d a i r p o l l u t i o n c a u s e d for i n s t a n c e
by local emitters like traffic a n d i n d u s t r y are recorded a n d documented.
F l o r u a n d f a u n a : W i t h i n t h e l i n e c o r r i d o r , t h e e x i s t i n g vegetation biotopes a r e
classified a n d recorded m o s t l y b y m e a n s o f already e x i s t i n g m a p s ; t h e l a t t e r w i l l
be u p d a t e d b y inspections o n site. C o d e s for m a p p i n g biotope types are usually
available f r o m official i n s t i t u t i o n s .T h e i n f r i n g e m e n t s caused b y t h e line project
are i nm o s t cases l i m i t e d t o t h e s u p p o r t sites, t h e l o c a t i o n o f w h i c h c a nb e ad-
j u s t e d . T h e r e f o r e , d e t a i l i n g o frecords c a n b e l i m i t e d i n m o s t cases. R e g a r d i n g t h e
line project, t h e biotopes concerned are assessed w i t h respect t ot h e i r appreciation
of protection and sensitivity concerning impacts during line construction.
R e g a r d i n g t h e fauna, s p e c i f i c s t u d i e s a r e n e c e s s a r y o n l y w h e n f o r e s t s a r e u s e d f o r
h u n t i n g a r i d a n y a c t i v i t i e s c a r r i e d o u t t h e r e c o u l d lead t o e c o n o m i c losses. A f t e r
completion o f the construction activities, however, game animals will return t o
the site.
T h e avifauna ( b i r d f a u n a ) n e e d s d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n a n d d o c u m e n t a t i o n , a t l e a s t
in case o f l o n g lines w i t h t a l l towers. I n f r i n g e m e n t s o f t h e a v i f a u n a due t o instal-
lation o fn e w lines needs t o b e expected i f u n i f o r m landscapes are divided b y the
n e w line. I thas been observed t h a t species b r e e d i n g o n g r o u n d o r o t h e r species
p r o n e t o c o l l i d i n g w i t h l i n e s b y l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e i r flight s p a c e h a v e b e e n d i s p l a c e d .
C r o s s i n g o f bird migration corridors b y o v e r h e a d l i n e s m i g h t c r e a t e s e v e r e p r o b -
lems. I f such problems are expected w h e n selecting a line route, a n ornithological
s t u d y is r e c o m m e n d e d . I ts h o u l d b e carried o u t as early a s possible. T h e study
s h o u l d r e c o r d a n d assess t h e b i r d m i g r a t i o n d i n i n g s p r i n g a n d a u t u m n , a s w e l l
as b i r d s ' breeding o n g r o u n d i n areas close t o t h e l i n e r o u t e .
V i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n o f a l a n d s c a p e : T h e visual perception of a landscape could
lead t o long-lasting discussions between experts a n d non-professionals. T h e de-
scription a n d t h e assessment o fa subjectively perceived landscape, requires a h i g h
degree o f t h e observer's objectivity w h e n processing the n u m e r o u s i n f o r m a t i o n .
I n t h i s case, i t i s n o t dealt w i t h a q u a n t i t y t o b e assessed o b j e c t i v e l y b e c a u s e
the perception o f a landscape m a y change, depending o n t h e site o f observation
a n d o n the oberserver's sensitivity. N o internationallyaccepted tool for the ana-
l y s i s a n d assessment of landscape [ 1 5 . 2 3 ] e x i s t s . T h e r e f o r e , s u b j e c t i v e l y d e s c r i b i n g
procedures w i l l b e used i n m o s t cases. T h e scope o f a n a l y s i s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o
units characterized b y typical elements. T h e sensitivity o findividual parts o f the
landscape w i t h respect t o possible changes o r i n f r i n g e m e n t s is assessed step b y
step based o n the m a n i f o l d o f existing positive stimuli i ncontradiction t o the
disturbing elements.
Cultural a n d e c o n o m i c subjects: Since a generally accepted definition o f the
t e r m cultural subject d o e s n o t e x i s t , a n y m o n u m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g b u i l d i n g s , g a r d e n s
a n d n a t u r e , as well as specialities o f landscape can b e s u m m a r i z e d a n d recorded
u n d e r t h i s t e r m f o l l o w i n g t h e E C D i r e c t i v e [15.16]. U t i l i z a t i o n o fn a t u r a l resources
such a s all types o fm i n e s a s w e l l as protective a n d preferred areas for agriculture
a n d forestry need t o b e considered.
— H u m a n beings: T h e condition o fthe protected objects m e n t i o n e d afore w i t h o u t
a n y d o u b t s affects a tleast i n d i r e c t l y t h e w e l l - b e i n g a n d life q u a l i t y o fp e o p l e l i v i n g
i n t h e a r e a concerned. A l r e a d y e x i s t i n g b u r d e n s affect d i r e c t l y p e o p l e w h i c h m i g h t
be living i n the studied area and, therefore, have t ob e recorded. Road'and railway
traffic a sw e l l a s air p o l l u t i o n cam b e m e n t i o n e d i n t h i s c o n t e x t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
possibilities for sport activities, bike and h i k i n g paths, as well as recreational
areas, w i l l h a v e a p o s i t i v e effect a n d h a v e t o b e r e c o r d e d a n d assessed since t h e y
axe p a r t o f t h e e x i s t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a d s i t u a t i o n [15.24].
15.2.3.4 Reference alternative
A n analysis o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l aspects w i t h i n t h e area t o b e studied, comprising a
description o f the existing situation t o the extent as explained above, would not be
complete i fi tdidn't contain statements concerning the development o f the environ-
m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n w i t h o u t t h e l i n e p r o j e c t . W h e n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e reference alternative,
existing planning details a n d general development objectives, for example as a result o f
regional m a s t e r p l a n n i n g , need t o b e considered. E v e n t u a l l y , am assessment has t o b e
m a d e o n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e l i n e p r o j e c t w o u l d affect t h e g e n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t .
15.2.3.5 Environmental impacts o fa new line
T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a m d a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e environmental situation b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
a l i n e axe f o l l o w e d b y t h e assessment o f possible i n f r i n g e m e n t s o n t h e subjects m e n t i o n e d
i n c l a u s e 1 5 . 2 . 3 . 1 . A s a r u l e , i t is d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n i m p a c t s o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g t h e l i n e
c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i c h axe t e m p o r a r y o n l y , a n d i m p a c t s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a m c e .
For t h e l a t t e r , a p e r i o d o f t i m e o f a t least 5 0 years s h o u l d t o b e considered [15.25].
However, because t h e maintenance m e t h o d s will change d u r i n g t h e course o ft i m e a n d
will have t o b e adjusted t o developing e n v i r o n m e n t a l requirements, such assessment
c o n t a i n s s o m e u n c e r t a i n t y . T h e i m p a c t s axe discussed i n clauses 15.2.4 a n d 15.2.5.
15.2.4 R o u t e selection a n d line design in view of visual impact
15.2.4.1 Introduction
T h i s c l a u s e r e v i e w s t h e s u b j e c t o f visual impacts o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s , a n d h o w t h e s e
i m p a c t s can b e assessed a n d visualized. S o m e a t t e n t i o n isg i v e n t o e v a l u a t i o n principles
a n d t ot h e possibilities o fm i n i m i z i n g v i s u a l i m p a c t i n selecting t h e r o u t e for a n o v e r h e a d
line a n d its design.
A p a r t f r o m aspects o f r o u t e selection, t h e size a n d shape o f t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s u p p o r t s
and their components are considered ashaving the most significant influence o n visual
impacts o f a n overhead line. T h e r e f o r e , efforts t o reduce t h e v i s i b i l i t yo fthese supports
a n d t h e i r components o r t o increase t h e i r absorption b y the landscape are considered
most i m p o r t a n t i n reducing the visual impact o fa line.
R e p o r t [15.5] d e s c r i b e s v a r i o u s m e t h o d o l o g i e s for a s s e s s m e n t f o rt h e v i s u a l i m p a c t o f
o v e r h e a d lines i n t h e landscape a n d has been used as a basis for p r e p a r i n g t h i s clause.
I n recent years, a broad palette o f assessment models h a s been produced ranging
f r o m d e t a i l e d s u r v e y s s u p p o r t e d b y photomontage graphics t o e l a b o r a t e c o m p u t e r p r o -
grammes w h i c h combine visual modelling techniques w i t h rating methods. However, i n
t h e a u t h o r s ' o p i n i o n , t h e r e axe d o u b t s w h e t h e r t h e s e m o d e l s r e a l l y c o n t r i b u t e m u c h t o
validate t h e placement o f n e w overhead lines.
584 1 5R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design
15.2.4.2 C o n c e p t u a l approaches
A m a j o r c o n c e p t u a l a p p r o a c h a t t h e i n i t i a l p l a n n i n g stages i st h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f w h e t h e r
the existing landscape has the capacity t o absorb the proposed project. T h i s approach
establishes w h e t h e r t h e l i n e s h o u l d b e i n t e g r a t e d , i . e. c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n t h e landscape
so a s t o m a k e i t less c o n s p i c u o u s o r w h e t h e r t h e l i n e s h o u l d b e a s s e r t e d , i . e. m a d e a
visual feature.
I t i s t h e e l e m e n t o f scale w h i c h establishes t h e significance, character a n d i d e n t i t y o f
w h a t is associated w i t h various landscapes. A landscape w i t h broad p a n o r a m i c views
a n d s i m p l e , l a r g e t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s , w o u l d t e n d t o b e r e a d a s h a v i n g g r e a t e r scale
t h a n a landscape where views are restricted a n d there is a great diversity o f elements.
T h u s , a d e s e r t o r v e r y o p e n flat l a n d s c a p e w o u l d h a v e g r e a t e r s c a l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t
t h a n one w i t h m a n y hills a n d r a n d o m placement o f trees. A s a result, t h e assessment
of the visual impact o f a proposed overhead line i n a landscape isoften the combined
assembly o f t h e m a n y i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h create t h e scale a n d diversity o f
t h e l a n d s c a p e . T h e s e c o m p o n e n t s l i k e v e g e t a t i o n , s l o p e , field p a t t e r n s , d i v e r s i t y o f
elements, l a n d use are also the elements w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o fcriteria
for the eventual evaluation o f a power line w i t h i n t h e landscape.
It i s the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o fscale w h i c h i st h e single m o s t i m p o r t a n t element t h a t aids i n
the selection o f t h e basic p l a n n i n g approach o f a n overhead line. T h i s can b e achieved
either t h r o u g h asserting a power line w i t h i n a landscape as a n identifiable element
or icon, o r choosing t o integrate t h e power line w i t h i n t h e latent landscape character
a n d features. B o t h approaches c a n b e assessed t h r o u g h t h e use o f e i t h e r q u a l i t a t i v e o r
quantitative techniques.
15.2.4.3 Assessment through qualitative methods
T h e qualitative assessment approach places i m p o r t a n c e o nt h e q u a l i t y o f change i n v i -
sual i m p r e s s i o n caused b y t h e n e w line. T h i s a p p r o a c h g e n e r a l l y uses g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l
i n a s o c i a t i o n w i t h g u i d e l i n e s t o m e a s u r e p o t e n t i a l c h a n g e . W i t h r e s p e c t t o qualitative
assessment of visual impact, n u m e r o u s g r a p h i c a l t e c h n i q u e s a n d i l l u s t r a t e d g u i d e l i n e s
have been produced [15.26, 15.27]. T h e s e guidelines serve as checklists for procedures
or m e a s u r e m e n t t h a t s h o u l d b e devised for p r e s e r v a t i o n o f scenic sites.
I n p r i n c i p l e , these g u i d e l i n e s a r e specific t o regions a n d n o t a l w a y s a p p l i c a b l e o r t r a n s -
f e r a b l e t o o t h e r r e g i o n a l l a n d s c a p e s . R e c e n t computer simulation graphics a r e also
allowing better presentation o f i m p l e m e n t e d guidelines f o r assessment b y a l l parties
involved so as t o gain a n understanding o f various options impacting o n the visual
a m e n i t y o f t h e landscape [15.28, 15.29].
Qualitative techniques are generally t h e preferred techniques t ob e used for dealing w i t h
the public w h i l e q u a n t i t a t i v e assessment isused for in-house studies so as t o verify the
p r o c e s s o f final r o u t e s e l e c t i o n .
15.2.4.4 Assessment through quantitative methods
T h e quantitative assessment s e e k s t o c l e a r l y d e f i n e f a c t o r s t h a t c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
q u a n t i f i a b l e figures a n d f o r e c a s t s p e c i f i c i m p a c t s t h r o u g h f o r m u l a e a n d r e s u l t i n o b -
jective criteria t o b e applied t h r o u g h o u t the design procedure. T h u s , environmental
compensation o n the preservation o f landscape can m o r e easily b e applied t o any ad-
m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e i f b a s e d o n q u a n t i t a t i v e c r i t e r i a [ 1 5 . 2 9 , 1 5 . 3 0 ] . T h e landscape
units approach [ 1 5 . 2 0 ] i s a n e x a m p l e o f a q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d o f a s s e s s m e n t . T h e r e -
sults can b e easily u n d e r s t o o d a n d i tis easy t o visualize t h e distinctions between o n e
landscape type and another. However, i t is difficult t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l yevaluate the v i -
sual i m p a c t because i t depends n o t o n l y o n objective values, b u t also o n subjective
15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 585
factors. T h e definition o f these factors depends o n personal opinions a l t h o u g h these
can b e t a k e n i n t o account b y m e a n s o f s u i t a b l e coefficients [15.28, 15.29]. C u r r e n t ap-
proaches have not yet resolved satisfactory formulae o r scoring methods w h i c h could
be u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e public.
T h e r e is n o consistency i nm e t h o d s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e assessment a t present, as u r b a n
or r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s a n d cultures seee n v i r o n m e n t s i n different ways. M e t h o d s differ
for b o t h techniques a n d criteria w h i l e t h e t y p e o f models have a l l been developed
separately i n different regions. C u r r e n t research indicates that landscape evaluation is
still d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h a subjective basis a n d t h u s a difficulty arises i n f o r m u l a t i n g a n
e v a l u a t i o n m e t h o d f o r visual impact assessment. T h u s , rating systems should b e able
to account for variable public reactions. T h e use o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a e can b e
useful for analysing different routes, tower impact and design. However, this approach
is d i f f i c u l t for t h e p u b l i c t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , h a s l i m i t e d effect for p r e s e n t i n g
the impact a tpublic hearings.
15.2.4.5 R o u t i n g for m i n i m u m v i s u a l i m p a c t
Visual impact
Careful r o u t i n g o f a n overhead line is the single most i m p o r t a n t aspect i n reducing
the visual impact o f both line and support structures. T h e support structures need t o
b e v i s u a l l y a b s o r b e d b y integration into t h e landscape. I n t e g r a t i o n t r i e s t o l i m i t t h e
v i s u a l presence o f t h e l i n e t h r o u g h t h e use o f n a t u r a l features like forests, v e g e t a t i o n ,
backdrop o f hills, selective placement o f supports o r camouflaging the appearance o f
the components t h r o u g h vegetation, colour, height o fsupport structures.
T h e decision o n asserting o r integrating the proposed overhead line is followed u p
t h r o u g h the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the appropriate landscape guidelines prepared b y util-
i t i e s t o c o n t r o l a n d m i t i g a t e visual impact [ 1 5 . 3 1 , 1 5 . 3 2 ] a n d o n i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a n e w
line [15.33, 15.34, 15.35, 15.36].
O f course, r o u t i n g o f overhead lines m u s t also take account o f other constraints such
as l a n d use, sites o f ecological, h i s t o r i c a l a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t . A ts u c h sites, i t i s
important t omitigate the visual impact b y hiding the line behind natural screening o r
b y camouflage of line components.
Power corridors
B u n d l i n g o fn e w overhead line w i t h t r a n s p o r t a t i o nroutes o rexisting lines is frequently
r e q u i r e d b y a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , power corridors a r e c r e a t e d w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e
power line. T h e lines generally r u n parallel w i t h each other o rare arranged o n c o m m o n
structures. P o w e r corridors are considered t o b e a l a n d use issue, however, this choice
is t o c o n t r o l v i s u a l i m p a c t , a s w e l l . P o w e r c o r r i d o r s r e d u c e e n c r o a c h m e n t i n t o l a n d s a s
yet untouched b y overhead lines o r other infrastructure.
A s a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , lines t h a t are p u t i n t h e same area should, i f possible, share t h e
s a m e r o u t e a n d a v o i d s e m i - p a r a l l e l s o l u t i o n s . S u p p o r t s o f s i m i l a r s h a p e a n d size w i t h
tower spotting a t same span lengths reduce overall visual impact.
P l a n n i n g authorities require b u n d l i n g o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n corridors w i t h overhead lines
being placed beside existing infrastructure.Essentially, placement o f lines w i t h i n such
corridors reinforces t h e presence o f t h e line. S o m e l i n e designer feel t h a t this a p p r o a c h t o
line location w o u l d appear t oproduce the m a x i m u m visual impact b yensuring that the
line isvisible t oall travellers and rather t h a n integrating the line w i t h the surrounding
setting. T h i s approach reinforces t h e f u n c t i o n a n d scale o flarge e n g i n e e r i n g projects. I f
the visual characteristics o f the landscape favour the concept o f asserting a n overhead
line, j o i n t use o fcorridors s h o u l d b e p u r s u e d since t h e p r o b l e m o fscarce l a n d w o u l d b e
lessened. H o w e v e r , lines along such a corridor are harder t o blend i n t o t h e landscape.
080 1 0 ILOUte s e l e c t i o n a i i u u t i c i i i e u n u n u n s i g n
F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 : Line r o u t i n g t o avoid breaking the skyline, a recommended; b t o b e avoided
Routing guidelines
A large n u m b e r and variety o fguidelines have been developed w i t h regard t or o u t i n g
[15.5]. S o m e g e n e r a l l y applicable ones s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d here.
— A v o i d i n g n a t u r a l p a r k s a n d areas o f h i g h scenic, a r c h i t e c t u r a l o r historic value.
I n a n y case, t h e line s h o u l d b e h i d d e n , s o a s t o m i n i m i z e t h e v i s u a l i m p a c t .
— I t i sdesirable t oa v o i d o p e n expanses o f w a t e r a n d m a r s h l a n d . T h e o v e r h e a d l i n e
should n o t g o t o o close t o shores o f a river o r n a t u r a l lake. R i v e r s should b e
crossed a s close t o t h e right angle a s possible.
— T h e m o s t direct line w i t h n os h a r p change o fd i r e c t i o n s h o u l d b e chosen w i t h few
angle supports only, these being placed w h e r e t h e y are not t o o visible.
— I n moderately open valleys w i t h woods, the apparent height should b e aslow as
possible a n d views o f t h e line t ob e broken b y trees m i n i m i z i n g the exposure o f
numbers o f towers.
— I n forested land, a sinuous cut o rangle near i m p o r t a n t view points is preferable
to a straight o n eso that people cannot see t o o far d o w n t h e line.
— T h e line s h o u l d follow n a t u r a l lines created b y topographic change, geology a n d
vegetation t h a t will help t om i n i m i z e t h e visual impact.
— I ti s p r e f e r a b l e t o a v o i d b r e a k i n g t h e s k y l i n e (see F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 ) .
— T h e towers should b e placed near t othe m o s t vertical elements i n the landscape,
such a s tree g r o u p s o r h i l l slopes.
Structure allocation
T h o u g h technical a n d economic c r i t e r i aare i m p o r t a n t i n t h e selection o fs u p p o r t heights
a n d span lengths, evaluation o ft h e visual impact m a y lead t ot h e adoption o fa different
s p o t t i n g o fsupports o n the l o n g i t u d i n a l profile o f t h e line.
S u p p o r t h e i g h t h a s a n i m p o r t a n t influence o n v i s u a l i m p a c t , a s t h echoice o f taller
s t r u c t u r e s w i l l generate longer spans a n d reduced n u m b e r s o fs t r u c t u r e s . H o w e v e r , taller
supports have a greater presence i n the landscape a n d are m o r e conspicuous. Tall towers
allow having the line suspended above the m a t u r e canopy height, thus avoiding the
creation o fcorridors c u t t i n g t h r o u g h forests. L o w e r s u p p o r t s can b e v i s u a l l y integrated
w i t h e x i s t i n g v e g e t a t i o n a n d t o p o g r a p h y a s t h e y are easier t ov i s u a l l y absorb. H o w e v e r ,
the n u m b e r o fsupports w i l l increase, because span lengths need t ob e reduced.
A l t h o u g h , selection o f s t r u c t u r e sites depends o n local conditions a n d constraints o n
available locations, some generally applicable guidelines can b e given.
— W h e n crossing over t h e t o p o fa hill o r m o u n t a i n , t h e use o f lower s u p p o r t s r a t h e r
t h a n higher ones should b e considered (see F i g u r e 15.2).
— W h e n c r o s s i n g a flat l a n d s c a p e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a w i d e v i s u a l field a n d a c l e a r
organisation o fl a n d p a t t e r n , i tis preferable t ouse taller towers w i t h longer span
lengths.
— I n complex, picturesque landscapes, support heights should b e adjusted t o avoid
intruding i n t o the skyline a n d b e absorbed i n t o the background, thus the lowest
tower is preferable.
F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 : L i n e r o u t i n g o n hills, a recommended; b t o b e avoided
— S t r u c t u r e s should b e placed a t the edge o f woodlands, s m a l l groups o ftrees a n d
hedgerows along the route.
— T o w e r s s h o u l d b e p r e f e r a b l y l o c a t e d o n field b o u n d a r i e s r a t h e r t h a n f r e e s t a n d i n g
within fields.
— Skyline interruptionsb y individual towers could be overcome b y examining the
possibility o f l o w e r i n g t h e t o w e r height, i ftechnical c o n s t r a i n t s d o n o t resulti n
a d d i t i o n a l adverse v i s u a l i m p a c t s (see F i g u r e 15.2).
15.2.4.6 Visualizationo fn e w lines
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , v a r i o u s m e t h o d s o f visual s i m u l a t i o n a n d impact assessment a r e s u m -
m a r i z e d w i t h respect t ot h e i r techniques a n d c r i t e r i a . I n m a n y cases, these techniques
f o r visualization of new lines are u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r . S o m e t e c h n i q u e s
are best suited t oassessment a n d verification b y r o u t e planners, w h i l e others are better
suited for consultancy w i t h third p a r t y representatives o i public.
Sketches
T h e simplest m e t h o d f o rillustrating t h e p o t e n t i a l change i na landscape s e t t i n g as a
r e s u l t o f p l a c i n g a p r o p o s e d o v e r h e a d l i n e , i s t o c r e a t e freehand d r a w i n g s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l
changes generally rendered i npencil. Reproductions o f photos f o r m the base f o r t h e
sketches. S i m p l e sketches a n d p h o t o g r a p h s can create a sufficient u n d e r s t a n d i n g for t h e
p o t e n t i a l i m p a c t o f a n e w l i n e . H o w e v e r , t h e visibility of overhead lines i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t
t o s h o w t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e scale. I n a d d i t i o n , t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s o f t e n d e p e n d e n t u p o n
the capability o fdetailed representation.
Photomontages
Photomontages provide a rather accurate future representation o fproposed overhead
lines as they illustrate t h e existing landscape w i t h the insertion o f a C A D - g e n e r a t e d
v i e w o fp r o p o s e d t o w e r s a n d o v e r h e a d lines. W i t h t h i s technique, i t is possible t o p r o v i d e
an accurate overhead line representation. G o o d q u a l i t y site photographs w h i c h can b e
u s e d f o r final p r e s e n t a t i o n a r e t h e b a s i c r e q u i r e m e n t . T k i s t e c h n i q u e h a s b e c o m e t h e
most popular m e t h o d used b y utilities for illustrating a new line o nsite. D u e t o t i m e
necessary t o produce several single point views o f a proposed project, this m e t h o d is
expensive a n d time-consuming, especially w h e n presenting alternatives.
Digitized terrain models
Digitized terrain models r e p r e s e n t t h e r e l i e f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e t e r r a i n . T h e y a r e e i -
ther p r o d u c e d b y d i g i t i z i n g t h e c o n t o u r lines o nexisting t o p o g r a p h i c a l maps, o r cre-
ated using aerial stereo-photogrammetry. Digital terrain models can b e viewed as two-
d i m e n s i o n a l h e i g h t c h a r t s o r c a n b er e p r e s e n t e d i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s , i. e. i n a perspective
588 15R o u t e selection and detailed line design
v i e w . D i g i t a l t e r r a i n models can b e overlaid w i t h a d i g i t a l o r t h o - p h o t o m a p o ft h e same
area, t h u s creating a virtual landscape.
D y n a m i c 3 D s i m u l a t i o n models can provide a representation o fvirtual landscapes so as
to include realistic impressions o f proposed structures. T h i s approach allows t o travel
t h r o u g h t h e landscape b y showing a quick succession o f 3 D static images, o n e after
another. T h e use o f m a n i p u l a t e d geometrically corrected aerial photographs o r ortho-
photo maps can allow the creation o f virtual 3 D landscape models i n w h i c h the new
structures can b e visualized. These techniques depend o n the availability o f digitized
base m a p s w h i c h c a n b e t i e d i n t o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m s ( G I S ) . P a p e r [15.37]
outlines h o w these techniques have been developed for use w i t h t h e B e l g i u m utilities.
Computergraphic methods
M o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d computergraphic methods h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d s e e m t o b e b e -
c o m i n g b e t t e r a n d better. A n e x a m p l e i s t h e m e t h o d m e n t i o n e d i n [15.38], w h e r e t h e
landscape i s digitally reconstituted b y using aerial photographs a n d a c o m p u t e r soft-
w a r e p r o g r a m m e . I n fact, this is t h e same principle as t h e use o f a digitized terrain
model, but a picture o f the landscape is superimposed o n t h e terrain model b y this
m e t h o d . T h e resulting landscape can b e analysed, and a nintended overhead line can
b e set u p i n a s i m u l a t e d f o r m , a n d v i s u a l i z e d f r o m a n y p o i n t o f v i e w . I tis possible t o
s h o w h o w t h e line w i l l look like f r o m m a n y viewpoints, either i n pictures o r o n video
film, a n d it is possible t o analyse different routes.
Recommendations
W i t h respect t o t h e use o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n techniques for p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t h e public, the
following can b e recommended:
— T h e selected m e t h o d is n o t so i m p o r t a n t as l o n g as t h e result i s lifelike a n d
understandable for most people and not only for experts.
— P h o t o m o n t a g e s are still t h e m o s t suitable m e t h o d for v i s u a l presentation t o the
public. T h e accuracy o f t h e tower heights a n d placement w i t h i n the terrain is
crucial t opublic acceptance. T h e y are also h e l p f u l i n i l l u s t r a t i n g camouflage tech-
niques a n d different designs.
— Digitized terrain models a r en o tv e r y effective, however, i f t h e y a r e overlaid
w i t h digitally reconstituted aerial photographs, a basic visual presentation c a n
be achieved.
W i t h respect t o t h e use for p l a n n i n g a n d r o u t i n g , t h e f o l l o w i n g w o u l d b e t h e case:
— D i g i t i z e d t e r r a i n models i nc o m b i n a t i o n w i t h c o m p u t e r design o f towers is fast
to use a n d gives a ni n d i c a t i o n o f t h e v i s i b i l i t yo f t h e l i n e a n d towers f r o m m a n y
different points o f view.
— M e a n s o f measuring potential impact are still under consideration. However, n o
specific s y s t e m has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o b e h e l p f u l a t p u b l i c hearings. T h u s ,
qualitative m e a s u r e m e n t s o f change are a tpresent t h e m o s t prevalent m e t h o d for
assessing v i s u a l i m p a c t .
15.2.4.7 Design o fcomponents t o reduce visual impact
Supports
Since design o f s u p p o r t s h a s a n i m p o r t a n t effect o n t h e v i s u a l l i n e p e r c e p t i o n , s o m e
m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e s r e g a r d i n g support design a r e w i d e l y a d o p t e d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 5 . 5 ] :
— C o n s t r u c t i o n o f compact lines w i t h m i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e s :
— C o n s t r u c t i o n o f multi-circuit lines w i t h f o u r a n d m o r e c i r c u i t s o n c o m m o n s t r u c -
tures;
— Use o f poles instead o flattice towers;
— Use o fcomposite insulating crossarms;
— Coating o ftowers t ocamouflage the line against the background.
15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 589
A d o p t i o n o fdifferent tower configurations i n one line m a y b e required t o take account
of t h e different e n v i r o n m e n t s crossed a n d o fv i s u a l i m p a c t s o ft h e line o nthese e n v i r o n -
m e n t s . S o m e o fthese solutions m a y increase t h e necessary i n v e s t m e n t , however, can b e
r e c o m m e n d e d t oget a project approved.
Lattice towers
Lattice towers a r e s t i l l t h e p r e d o m i n a n t s t r u c t u r e f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s o f 1 1 0 k V
and above. T h e y are usually constructed i np y r a m i d o r delta shape w i t h the bodies
a n d crossarms c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m h o t - r o l l e d angle steel sections. F o r voltage levels a b o v e
2 2 0 k V , l a t t i c e t o w e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s h a v i n g less v i s u a l i m p a c t t h a n o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s ,
whereas poles are used o n lower voltage levels for t h e same reason. S o m e t i m e s , cold-
f o r m e d steel m e m b e r s are used t o reduce t h e visibilityo fbracing i n lattice towers. T h e
use o f t u b e sections i n s t e a d o f t h e u s u a l angle steel m e m b e r s enables a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e
n u m b e r o f members i nthe structure due t o the greater resistance t o buckling o f the
t u b e sections. H o w e v e r , t h i s is c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d b y t h e r e q u i r e d greater i n v e s t m e n t a n d
the problems regarding corrosion protection o f tubes.
Poles
Poles m a d e o f w o o d , c o n c r e t e o r s t e e l a r e o f t e n u s e d o n l i n e s f o r v o l t a g e s b e l o w 2 2 0 k V
a n d have been introduced a t higher voltages, specially for compact lines. T h e use o f
insulating crossarms o n p o l e s r e s u l t s i n c o m p a c t e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s [ 1 5 . 4 ] . C a m o u f l a g e o r
h i d i n g o flines constructed o fpoles is o f t e n considered m o r e difficult due t o t h e s u p p o r t s
solidity a n d the generally shorter spans as compared w i t h lattice structures especially
i n t h e case o f lines w h e r e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t v i e w s o f t h e l i n e a r e d i s t a n t . F o r these
reasons, t h e use o f pole designs is f a v o u r e d for overhead lines w h e r e t h e line appears i n
the foreground and lattice towers where lines appear i n distant views.
A s poles need a reduced area for t h e i r base, rights-of-way a n d impacts o nl a n d use can
be reduced. T h i s is balanced b y shorter span lengths necessitating m o r e supports for
the line. I n industrial and u r b a n environments, these types o f lines are a n advantage
d u e t o t h e p e r c e i v e d r e d u c e d v i s u a l i m p a c t . Timber poles are u s e d f o r m e d i u m v o l t a g e s ,
mainly in Scandinavian countries, the U S A , Canada, South America and Australia.
Portals and guyed structures
Portal or f r a m e s t r u c t u r e s a r e t y p i c a l s u p p o r t s f o r s i n g l e - c i r c u i t l i n e s . T h e y c a n b e m a d e
of t i m b e r , lattice o r t u b u l a r steel, o fconcrete o ra c o m b i n a t i o n of these materials, being
H-frames, portals o r A-frames a n d often provided w i t h guys. Self-supporting structures
n e e d m o r e m a s s i v e f o o t i n g , w h i l s t g u y e d s t r u c t u r e s r e s u l t i n s m a l l e r sizes o f f o u n d a t i o n s
but increased use o f g r o u n d space due t o their increased n u m b e r o f anchoring points.
Guyed supports a l l o w f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n v o l u m e t r i c d i m e n s i o n s b u t i n c r e a s e d
right-of-way. P r o b l e m s w i t h f a r m i n g a n d security s o m e t i m e s p r e v e n t t h e use o f g u y e d
towers.
Structures without a metallic upper beam bring reductions i n tower weight resulting in
a lightweight appearance. T h e function o fthe missing upper beams istaken b y chains
of insulators. I n general, portals and guyed structures d o not reduce the visual impact
t o a p e r c e i v a b l e e x t e n t (see c l a u s e 1 2 . 1 . 3 . 7 ) .
Unconventional tower design
Unconventional structures h a v e b e e n d e s i g n e d b y i n d u s t r i a l a r c h i t e c t s . S o m e o f t h e s e
supports m a y b e considered m o r e asm o d e r n art t h a n asoverhead line supports. Several
ideas are k n o w n presenting U - f r a m e structures, egg-shape a n d Y - s h a p e towers, t e n n i s
r a c k e t f o r m (see F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 ) a n d m a n y o t h e r s . T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s m a y c o n s i s t o f l a t t i c e
s t e e l , c o n c r e t e , w o o d o r s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l s a n d a r e u s e d a s s i n g l e s o l u t i o n s , e. g . f o r
deviations f r o m existing lines o r as eye-catcher near facilities. T h e y d o not reduce t h e
visual impact b u t i m p r o v e t h e line aesthetics. T h e investment significantly exceeds t h a t
for s t a n d a r d towers'. S o m e e x a m p l e s are s h o w n i n [15.5].
t>y(J ID i t o u i e s e l e c t i o n a n a a e t a n e a l i n e a e s i g i i
Surface treatment o f supports
Surface treatment of metallic supports i s n e e d e d f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n . T h e
worldwide standard procedure is galvanizing. T h i s zinc protection coating does n o t
last for e t e r n i t y a n d a d d i t i o n a l protective coating o f towers o n site is necessary after a
lifetime o f zinc protection between 10 a n d 3 0 years.
I n recent times in-factory-coating o f galvanized steel h a sb e c o m e a n o p t i o n f o r long-
l a s t i n g p r o t e c t i o n o f s t e e l s u p p o r t s . T h i s m e t h o d f o l l o w s t h e Duplex system a n d a t
least doubles t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e u n t i l a na d d i t i o n a l c o a t i n g w i l l b e necessary. C o a t i n g
o f s u p p o r t s w i t h camouflage colours a n d s o m e t i m e s a d d i t i o n a l c o a t i n g o f c o n d u c t o r s
a n d fittings [ 1 5 . 3 9 ] w a s u s e d i n s p e c i a l c a s e s t o h i d e a l i n e i n a s e n s i t i v e b a c k g r o u n d .
Special care s h o u l d b e t a k e n w h e n deciding t h e colour a n d i t s h o u l d b e d o n e i n close
cooperation w i t h the concerned people and the authority. T h e line's background, pre-
d o m i n a n t w e a t h e r conditions, k i n d a n d d u r a t i o n o fv e g e t a t i o n etc. are t o b e considered.
W r o n g decisions m a y t u r n t h e effect t o t h e o p p o s i t e a n d r e s u l t i n greater l i n e visibility.
Conductors
T h e visual impact o fconductors depends m a i n l y o nthe phase arrangement, the n u m b e r
of subconductors and o n the brilliance o f the conductors. T h e phase arrangement is a
m a j o r c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s u p p o r t s , a n d v i c a v e r s a . V e r t i c a l phase
arrangement, associated w i t h h i g h supports, tends t o produce a h i g h v i s u a l impact
of the line as a whole, d u et o the height above ground o f the conductors and o f the
t o w e r s , r e s u l t i n g i n a fence effect w h i c h m a y also increase t h e r i s k o f collision for birds.
O n the other hand, the vertical arrangement provides the m i n i m u m right-of-way r e -
q u i r e m e n t . H o r i z o n t a l phase a r r a n g e m e n t s p r o d u c e t h e o p p o s i t e effects. B e t w e e n these
t w o extremes, intermediate arrangements are compromise solutions as a result o f the
circumstances g o v e r n i n g each specific project.
N e w u n t r e a t e d conductors e x h i b i t a h i g h l y reflective surface; they usually achieve a
m a t t finish a f t e r a f e w y e a r s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c l i m a t e a n d d e g r e e o f a i r p o l l u t i o n .
E v e n n e w c o n d u c t o r s c a n , h o w e v e r , b e t r e a t e d t o reflect less l i g h t o r t o e x h i b i t a l o w
contrast w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d [15.39]. L o w reflection c o n d u c t o r s are either o b t a i n e d b y
sandblasting t h e complete conductor, b y coating w i t h a camouflage colour o r b y use o f
special additives d u r i n g the p o l t r u s i o n process o f the wires. P r o p e r surface t r e a t m e n t
a l l o w s t o l o w e r t h e r e f l e c t i v i t y o f a n e w c o n d u c t o r t o less t h a n h a l f o f t h e s t a n d a r d
value o f a new untreated a l u m i n i u m conductor.
Insulators
T h e n e e d t o find v i s u a l l y l e s s o b s t r u s i v e l i n e s , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o m p o s i t e m a -
terials have made i tpossible t o adopt increasingly n e w insulator types w h i c h i n t u r n
m a y influence the line visibility:
— Horizontal V-arrangement: T h e crossarm o f a tensioned and a compressed insu-
lating element rotates a s a w h o l e p e r m i t t i n g c o m p a c t tower designs.
— Line post insulators: T h e progress i n t h edevelopment o f n e w composite-type
materials enables t h e i r use, w h e r e t h e line loading is low.
— Cross-rope or chainette arrangement: I n t h i s c o n c e p t , a l l t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e s u p -
ported b y a funicular polygon composed o f insulating elements, strung between
two vertical guyed supports.
— Insulated crossarms: Insulated crossarms adopting flexible composite insulators
have a low visual impact.
A proper choice o finsulator m a t e r i a l , configuration a n d colour m a y reduce the visibility
significantly. Use o f composite i n s u l a t o r s i s advantageous i nt h i s aspect.
15.2.5 R o u t e s e l e c t i o n i n v i e w of people
Electric energy cannot b e transported t o t h e consumers w i t h o u t conflicts w i t h interests
o f p e o p l e , e. g. w i t h o u t v i s u a l i m p a c t s . R e g a r d i n g t h i s a s p e c t , b u n d l i n g o f l i n e c o r r i d o r s
w i t h traffic infrastructure such as railways a n d highways c a nb e considered as m o r e
readily "acceptable since such i n f r a s t r u c t u r e corridors are unavoidable. O v e r h e a d lines
are o n l y r o u t e d t o t h e periphery o f residual areas, a n d u n d e r g r o u n d cables distribute
the energy a t m e d i u m and low voltage. Frequently, line corridors situated previously
i n t h e o p e n t e r r a i n a r em o r e a n d m o r e used f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g hauses. I ns o m e cases,
the residents complain o n emissions f r o m lines, however, only contractual terms c a n
protect t h e utility against requirements f o rline upgrading t o m i t i g a t e the emissions.
W h e r e n e w lines approach o r traverse existing residential areas, p o t e n t i a l infringement
of people b y emissions needs t o b e considered d u r i n g r o u t e selection. Electrical a n d
m a g n e t i c fields, a u d i b l e n o i s e a n d r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y u n d e r b a d w e a t h e r c o n -
ditions s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d . L i n e design s h o u l d o b e y t h e specified limits. L i m i t a t i o n
o f emissions t o harmless, acceptable levels is a m a t t e r o f line design a n d line o p e r a t i o n
a n d not a n aspect o f line route selection.
15.2.6 R o u t e selection a n d line design in v i e w of ecological systems
15.2.6.1 Introduction
T h i s c h a p t e r f o c u s e s o n t h e impacts f r o m o v e r h e a d l i n e s on flora a n d fauna, i . e v e g e -
tation and wildlife, and the interdependence between t h e m , covering impacts o n birds
a n d w i l d h e r d s a n d d e a l i n g w i t h t h e effects o nv e g e t a t i o n . T h e p r o t e c t i o n o f e n d a n g e r e d
species i s a m a t t e r o f u n i v e r s a l concern, a n d m o s t often this involves the preservation
of t h e h a b i t a t o f r a r e b o t a n i c a l species o r a d w i n d l i n g colony o f a n i m a l s etc. T h e m a i n
ecological problems are the possible b i r d collision w i t h t h e conductors o r e a r t h wires
a n d effects o f t r e e c l e a r i n g a n d r e m o v a l o f v e g e t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y .
I n t h e R a m s a r C o n v e n t i o n o n W e t l a n d s ( U N E S C O ) [15.40], several countries have
agreed u p o n t h e protection o fwetlands o f international i m p o r t a n c e especially as water-
f o w l h a b i t a t . T h e l i s t o f l o c a l i t i e s i n c l u d e d is c o n t i n u o u s l y s u p p l e m e n t e d . M o s t c o u n t r i e s
also have o t h e r protected areas due t o regional, n a t i o n a l o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n -
t a l classifications. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f overhead lines i nsuch areas s h o u l d b e avoided. A
c o n s i d e r a t e r o u t e p l a n n i n g a n d u s e o f b i r d flight d i v e r t e r s t o r e d u c e bird collisions a r e
the m o s t c o m m o n m i t i g a t i o n measure w h e n lines are constructed i n sensitive areas.
C l e a r i n g t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y m a y h a v e p o s i t i v e ecological effects d u e t o t h e increased b i o t i c
d i v e r s i t y i n t h e c l e a r i n g z o n e u n d e r t h e l i n e . T h e p o s i t i v e ecological effects s e e m t o a
great extent t o b e a result o f tree clearing i nm o n o - c u l t u r a l forested areas. U n d e r t h e
line, there w i l l b e m a n y n e w p l a n t species a n d low, n a r r o w vegetation h a v i n g a positive
effect o n d i f f e r e n t a n i m a l s a s f e e d i n g sites o r p l a c e s o f r e f u g e . S y s t e m a t i c p l a n n i n g a n d
m i n i m i z i n g v e g e t a t i o n t r i m m i n g m a y a v o i d t h e negative effects w i t h i n t h e clearing zone
(see c l a u s e 1 7 . 4 . 3 . 6 ) .
15.2.6.2 Impacts o n avifauna
R e g a r d i n g t h e avifauna, b i r d m o r t a l i t y d u e t o c o l l i s i o n i s a n o f t e n d i s c u s s e d n e g a t i v e
e c o l o g i c a l i m p a c t . M o r t a l i t y d u e t o electrocution is m a i n l y a p r o b l e m f o r l o w e r v o l t a g e
lines, typically lower t h a n 6 0 k V , d u et o the short distances between conductor a n d
earth.
T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s subject is comprehensive, b u t i t i s n o t a l l easily accessible since
m u c h is found as unpublished reports a n d i n n a t i o n a l o r regional periodicals. A review
of literature regarding birds interactions w i t h overhead lines isgiven i n reference [15.41,
592 15 R o u t e selection and detailed line design
F i g u r e 15.3: L i n e r o u t i n g t o a v o i d c o l l i s i o n w i t h b i r d s ( a c c o r d i n g t o [15.5]). a n o t d e s i r a b l e , b
to a s p i r e
15.42] a n d [15.43]. B i r d collisions a n d m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e s are dealt w i t h i n references
[15.44] a n d [15.45].
Flight behaviour and vision are the t w o i m p o r t a n t biological aspects t o b e considered
w h e n e v a l u a t i n g t h e collision p o t e n t i a l o f a b i r d species. A t r a i n e d o r n i t h o l o g i s t m a y
b e a b l e t o p r e d i c t l e a d i n g l i n e s , migration sectors a n d f l i g h t l a n e s o n t h e b a s i s o f
topographical features. A noverhead line located between a feeding area a n d a roosting
site o f w e t l a n d birds can b e hazardous, especially w h e n only a short distance separates
t h e m s o t h a t t h e b i r d s o n l y h a v e t o m a k e a s h o r t flight a t t h e c r i t i c a l h e i g h t . O v e r h e a d
l i n e s p a s s i n g n e a r k e y ornithological habitats s h o u l d b e s k i l f u l l y l o c a t e d c l o s e t o t h e
b a s e s o f n e a r p r o t e c t i v e r o w s o f t r e e s , w h i c h f o r c e b i r d s t o fly o v e r t h e w i r e s ( F i g u r e
15.3). Locating a power line i nt h e vicinity o f tall buildings, bridges and other m a n -
m a d e structures m a y also reduce t h e collision risks, as w e l l as locating t h e line along
m a i n r o a d s w h e r e b i r d s u s u a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e i r flying h e i g h t .
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f f o r c i n g a n i n c r e a s e i n flying h e i g h t s , l i n e s s h o u l d , i f
p o s s i b l e , b e p l a c e d p a r a l l e l t o m a j o r flight c o r r i d o r s . Breeding areas f o r d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s
along a line i n t h e open terrain are devaluated because the supports are often used b y
predators as resting places.
Topographical, biological and meteorological aspects are i m p o r t a n t i nthe route plan-
n i n g process. C a r e f u l r o u t e p l a n n i n g is a m o n g t h ebest a n d least expensive w a y o f
reducing b i r d collision. I n general, ecologically sensitive areas such as wetlands, where
birds congregate t o nest, feed, roost, m i g r a t e o r stay o v e r w i n t e r , s h o u l d b e avoided.
A reduction o f collision frequency c a nb e achieved t h r o u g h adjusting phase conductor
h e i g h t , c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r , s p a c i n g , c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d n u m b e r o f c i r c u i t s . A f l a t fine
configuration is preferred t o a vertical one. T h e e a r t h wires are particularly likely t o
c a u s e b i r d c o l l i s i o n . T h e u s e o f t h i c k e r e a r t h w i r e s a n d o f bird fly diverters, thatare
balloons, spheres, spirals, plastic s t r i p s , etc. a t t a c h e d t o phase conductors a n d / o r e a r t h
wires are t h e most c o m m o n m i t i g a t i o n measures. Several studies have found t h a t use
o f d i v e r t e r s can b e effective a n d decrease t h e n u m b e r o f v i c t i m s b y u p t o 9 0 % [15.46].
I n sensitive line sections, sufficient m i t i g a t i o n measures should b e adopted after con-
sultation w i t h environmental experts and the environmental authorities. Therefore, the
r o u t e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s s h o u l d i n c l u d e ornithologist consultation t o verify if vulnerable
species can b e influenced b y a l i n e a n d r e g i s t r a t i o n o f p r i m a r y o r n i t h o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s
of a n area t o consider t h e m d u r i n g l i n e design [15.47].
15.2.6.3 I m p a c t s on w i l d a n i m a l s
It is general regarded t h a t w i l d animals get accustomed t o overhead lines, a n d thus
t h e i r presence does n o tneed t o influence t h e choice o f t h e p o w e r line r o u t e . I n fact,
t h e change i n vegetation w i t h i n t h e right-of-way i n extensively forested areas w i l l often
15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 593
h a v e a p o s i t i v e e c o l o g i c a l effect for s e v e r a l species since t h i s z o n e p r o v i d e s a n a d d i t i o n a l
source o f food. I n areas w i t h w i l d herds, route p l a n n i n g a n dchoice o f construction
p e r i o d s h o u l d b e carefully discussed w i t h w i l d life agencies.
15.2.6.4 I m p a c t s on vegetation
Aisles in forests e x c e p t e d , t h e i m p a c t o n v e g e t a t i o n i s l i m i t e d t o t h e s u p p o r t s i t e s .
I f these sites a r eselected such t h a t areas o f rare a n d endangered plants a r en o t i n -
f r i n g e d , impairing the flora c a n b e v i r t u a l l y n e g l e c t e d , a l t h o u g h w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y
a l i m i t a t i o n o f tree heights m i g h t b e necessary. I f b e i n g selected skilfully r e g a r d i n g t h e
t o p o g r a p h i c a l , forest a n d ecological aspects [15.48], t h e r e is little h a r m o n v e g e t a t i o n .
W h e r e n e c e s s a r y , vegetation control s h o u l d b e p r e f e r a b l y c a r r i e d o u t b y m e c h a n i c a l
methods a n d not b y application o f chemical products o r herbicides.
15.2.6.5 Conservation a n d wilderness areas
P o s s i b l e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l i n e s i n conservation, r e c r e a t i o n a n d wilderness areas i s h i g h l y
dependent o n t h e legislation o f each country. I f avoidance o f such areas is impossible,
specific p r e c a u t i o n s have t o b e t a k e n . T h e r o u t e p l a n n i n g a n d t o w e r design need t o
consider t h e special values o f t h e areas a n d m a k e every effort t o protect t h e m . C l e a r i n g
o f t h e line corridors s h o u l d b e d o n e w i t h special care t o avoid d a m a g e t o t h e genuine
n a t u r a l landscape as m u c h as possible. T h e u n d e r g r o w t h u n d e r t h elines should b e
a l l o w e d t o flourish s o t h a t t h e b i o - d i v e r s i t y o f t h e a r e a d o e s n o t s u f f e r .
15.2.7 R o u t e selection i n v i e w of l a n d use
15.2.7.1 Introduction
I n t h i s s e c t i o n s e l e c t i o n o f p o w e r c o r r i d o r s i s d i s c u s s e d i n v i e w o f less conflicts w i t h u s e
of l a n d under o r i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f the line o r o n t h e possible f u t u r e u s e o f the different
types o f l a n d over w h i c h t h e line i srouted. Restrictions o n f u t u r e l a n d use result m a i n l y
f r o m t h e tower structures a n d conductors, o rf r o m electric safety requirements. T h e area
of l a n d u n d e r t h e tower structures is occupied b y t h e m . Restrictions i n the use o f l a n d
under t h e conductors vary, depending o n t h e i r earlier use a n d o nstipulations applicable
i n various countries. Especially, t h e required clearances l i m i t t h e height o f buildings t o
be c o n s t r u c t e d b e l o w lines [15.47].
15.2.7.2 A g r i c u l t u r a l areas
I n m a n y regions, like C e n t r a l E u r o p e , overhead lines r u n p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n agricultural
terrain. T h e y d o n o t p r e v e n t a g r i c u l t u r e a l t h o u g h t h e y m a y i m p a i r i t i n p a r t i c u l a r
l o c a t i o n s . T h e r e w i l l n o t b e a n y c r o p loss d u e t o t h e presence o f t h e h i g h - v o l t a g e
conductors as such. T h e inconvenience o f t h e lines results p r i m a r i l y f r o m t h e tower
structure. T h e circling o f tower structures causes e x t r a w o r k a n d t h e tower structures
m a y i n c r e a s e w e e d s i n t h e fields. S a f e t y c l e a r a n c e s r e q u i r e d f r o m c o n d u c t o r s i n fields
m a y also result i n precautions i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f large f a r m machines.
C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f lines m a y cause losses o f crops, c o m p a c t i o n o r r u t t i n g
of soil, breakage o f covered drains o r fences, blocking o f ditches a n d wear a n d tear o n
f a r m roads a n d tracks. A l l l a u d d a m a g e d h a st o b e r e s t o r e d t o its o r i g i n a l c o n d i t i o n
a n d a n y loss o f use c o m p e n s a t e d for a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e w o r k s .
A l i n e r o u t i n g a t t h e b o r d e r b e t w e e n fields a n d c o p p i c e s o r f o r e s t s p r o v e s t o b e
favourable since i n f r i n g e m e n t o fa g r i c u l t u r a luse w i l l b e l o w . S u p p o r t s s h o u l d b e s p o t t e d
at t h e edge o f paths o r borders o f plots t o keep low damage t o crops a n d i n f r i n g e m e n t
of a g r i c u l t u r a l use. A n u n r e s t r i c t e d u s e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e s is m a n d a t o r y .
15.2.7.3 Forestry — A i r p o r t s a n d a i r f i e l d s : C l o s e t o airports, t h e h e i g h t o f n e w l i n e s w i l l b e l i m i t e d
by air traffic regulations a n d m a r k i n g the structures b y coating w i t h w a r n i n g
W h e r e t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f forested areas o f t h e e n t i r e l a n d a r e a i s s m a l l , f o r e s t s a r e
colours o r w a r n i n g l i g h t i n g d u r i n g t h e n i g h t is' r e q u i r e d . T h e c o n d u c t o r s o r e a r t h
appreciated as a n element o f the environment more t h a n as a raw material f o r t h e
w i r e s n e e d t o b e fitted w i t h w a r n i n g s p h e r e s .
forest industry. W h e r e forestry is a significant part o f t h e economy, its use is natural,
— M i n i n g a r e a s : I n a r e a s w i t h open-pit mining, o r w i t h underground mining, r o u t -
w i t h o u t forgetting the values o f nature conservation.
ing o foverhead lines has t o take care o f these installations. Open-pit m i n i n g m a y
C r o s s i n g o f e x t e n d e d a r e a s w i t h l a r g e r s t o c k s o f forests, w o o d s , c o p p i c e s o r h e d g e s c a n
cause p o l l u t i o n w h i c h has t o b e considered w h e n designing t h e insulation. T r a n s -
b e c a r r i e d o u t b y passing above the forest o r b y p r o v i d i n g a n aisle. O n e o f t h e s e a l t e r -
mission lines need t o b e designed w i t h cautious consideration i nareas prone t o
n a t i v e s needs t o b e selected case b y case, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e g i v e n b o u n d a r y conditions.
cavity o r e a r t h falls. Corresponding investigations are necessary because possible
I n case o f crossing above t h e trees, i m p a c t s o n t h e forest w i l l b e l i m i t e d t o t h e t o w e r
settlement o fterrain plays a ni m p o r t a n t role w h e n designing the foundations.
sites w h e r e b y t h e necessary access roads n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d [15.49]. T h e w i d e - r o u n d
— Military installations: I n g e n e r a l , o v e r h e a d l i n e s c a n n o t b e c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h i n
visibility o f tall towers forms a disadvantage i n particular after c u t t i n g t h e trees o r
t h e p r o t e c t e d a r e a o f military installations. Military installations which cannot
devastation caused b y storms. T h e lines situated t h e n relatively h i g h above the terrain
be v i s u a l l y identified, such a s pipelines, u n d e r g r o u n d storage, communication
f o r m a danger f o rbirds t o collide w i t h the c o n d u c t o r s w h e n t h e y s t r e t c h outside t h e
installations, will b e realized only during approval procedure and request often
forest scenery. W h e n crossing above the forest, the final height o f the trees has t o b e
wide-space rerouting.
considered for defining t h e t o w e r height. W h e n c u t t i n g a n aisle t h r o u g h t h e forest veg-
— M i c r o w a v e l i n e s : I f c r o s s i n g o f microwave lines o f t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n c o m p a n i e s
e t a t i o n , specific directives [15.50, 15.51] a n d forestry aspects are i m p o r t a n t . D e p e n d e n t
or other operators had not been k n o w n w h e n establishing a preliminary line route,
o n t h e specific forest aisle, its economic u t i l i z a t i o n a n d maintenance, a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e
t h e y n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d d u r i n g t h e final approval procedure. Conflicts m a y b e
v e g e t a t i o n s p e c t r u m h a s t o b e e x p e c t e d . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e a d j a c e n t vegetation in the
solved b y a suitable selection o f t h e tower sites.
forest c o u l d c h a n g e b e c a u s e o f b o u n d a r y e f f e c t s .
— R o a d s : I t i s e x p e d i e n t t o r o u t e l i n e s i n p a r a l l e l t o traffic routes f o l l o w i n g t h e
D u e t o certain safety considerations, the heights o f trees g r o w i n g i n a line corridor are principle o f b u n d l i n g between power lines a n d other infrastructure installations.
restricted, unless the line is constructed w i t h adequate clearances above the tree tops. H o w e v e r , overhead l i n e s u p p o r t s m a y n o t b e s p o t t e d i nc e r t a i n protective areas
T h e r e c a nalso exist zones w h e r e t h e trees c a ng r o w freely u n d e r the c o n d u c t o r s d u e along motorways o r highways.
to t h e terrain, f o r instance w h e n crossing valleys. D u e t o these restrictions, t h e u s e
— R a i l w a y s : T o c r o s s i n g s o f railway lines a s w e l l a s o f ropeways, s p e c i f i c g u i d e l i n e s
of overhead line corridors f o rn o r m a l t i m b e r p r o d u c t i o n is usually not possible. I t is
apply w h i c h should b e considered already w h e n selecting a p r e l i m i n a r y route.
m a i n l y seeding stands o r C h r i s t m a s trees t h a t c a n b e g r o w n under t h e lines a n d i n
— W a t e r w a y s a n d w a t e r e n g i n e e r i n g : W h e n crossing waterways u s e d b y a n y
the m a r g i n a l zone t h e height o f the growing t i m b e r is restricted so t h a t a falling tree
k i n d o f vessels, t h e clearance is s t i p u l a t e d b y a c e r t a i n gauge w h i c h needs t o b e
cannot t o u c h t h e conductors. T h e c o m p e n s a t i o n t o b e p a i d for t h e t i m b e r depends o n
a g r e e d u p o n b e f o r e d e c i d i n g o n t h e final l i n e r o u t e . F o r t h e c r o s s i n g o f s h i p p i n g
the v a l u e o f t h e trees a n d t h e i r age. T h e greatest loss n o r m a l l y c o m e s f r o m t h e area
lanes a n d o t h e r w a t e r s , as w e l l a s for s u p p o r t sites p r o n e t o flooding, approvals
r e m a i n i n g p e r m a n e n t l y o u t o f t h e n a t u r a l cyclic g r o w t h o f t h e forest.
need t ob e applied for t h r o u g h t h e a u t h o r i t i e s i n charge. Special p r e c a u t i o n m e t h -
A s a r u l e , forested areas s h o u l d b e u s e d b y l i n e s o n l y t o a n e x t e n t a s l o w a s p o s s i b l e .
o d s h a v e t o b e a d o p t e d i n drinking-water protection areas w h e n c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e
W h e n crossing forested areas, i tshould b e agreed u p o n b e t w e e n t h e l a n d owners, a u -
line, t o avoid any pollution.
t h o r i t i e s a n d experts p r i o r t o f u r t h e r steps, w h e t h e r a n aisle o r a crossing above t h e
tree tops w o u l d result i n m i n i m u m impacts o n the interests involved.
15.2.7.5 U r b a n areas

15.2.7.4 Industrial areas and infrastructure developments A s m a n y e x a m p l e s d e m o n s t r a t e , e x i s t e n c e o f t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i n b u i l t - u p urban areas

does not cause any m a j o r problems f o rland u s eb y t h e inhabitants, but restrictions
T h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f l i n e s i n industrial areas d o e s n o r m a l l y n o t c a u s e a n y m a j o r
w i l l b e g i v e n i n p l a n n i n g t h e f u t u r e l a n d use. C h a n g e i n l a n d use w i t h i n t h e a r e a u n d e r
problems w i t h regard t o land use i f the line corridor w a s taken into consideration
the lines is n o ta m a j o r p r o b l e m , b u t p r o b l e m s a r ecaused b y t h e encroachment o f
w h e n t h e u s eo f l a n d was p l a n n e d . T h e area u n d e r t h e lines c a nb e used f o r storage
other developments o nt h e line corridor resulting, for example, i n the location o f towers
o f l o w height goods o r f o rc a rp a r k i n g , b u t i n d u s t r i a l b u i l d i n g s can b e allowed u n d e r
in the i m m e d i a t e vicinity o f dwelling areas a n d raising the question o f alleged h e a l t h
the conductors. L a n d s c a p e problems are n o t significant i n i n d u s t r i a lareas w h e r e other
risks. I ns o m e countries, b u i l d i n g o f residential homes under lines is n o t p e r m i t t e d .
e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts resulting f r o m various activities are n o r m a l l y greater t h a n those
P r o b l e m s r e s u l t i n g from t h e s e c h a n g e s i n t h e l a n d u s e c a n b e d i m i n i s h e d b y u t i l i z i n g
caused b y the lines. I n t h e i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y o f w o r k places near t r a n s m i s s i o n lines,
t h e l i n e c o r r i d o r s for v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s , such a scar p a r k i n g , g a r d e n i n g , f o o t p a t h s , access
i s s u e s r e l a t i n g t o e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c fields m a y a r i s e .
corridors.
T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f lines i nareas i nuse f o ro t h e r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t s o r re-
served for public roads, railways, pipelines, w a t e r channels a n d watercourses o r i n t h e i r
close v i c i n i t y does n o tchange t h e o r i g i n a l l a n d u s e t o a n y great extent a n d indeed
15.3 Survey on site
m a y facilitate o p t i m u m use o f a l a n d c o r r i d o r w i t h m i n i m i z e d o v e r a l l i m p a c t f r o m t h e
overhead line. T h e layout o f tower structures a n d conductor g r o u n d clearances need t o
15.3.1 S t e p s of s u r v e y
consider certain restrictions.
Line r o u t i n g i n the vicinity o f certain infrastructure installations needs t o take care o f D e t a i l e d m a p s a l o n g t h e s e l e c t e d l i n e c o r r i d o r s h o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e a s a b a s i s f o r detailed
special requirements o r w i l l not b e possible a t all. Such installations are: design. B a s e d o n t h e s e m a p s , a layout of the line i s e s t a b l i s h e d , w h i c h t h e d e s i g n
596 1 5 R o u t e selection and detailed line design 15.3 S u r v e y o n site 5 9 7

satellites

checking segment receiver recever

segment segment
stationary (station) moveable (rover)

F i g u r e 15.6: G P S d e v i c e F i g u r e 15.7: D i s t a n c e s u r v e y w i t h G P S

a r e w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f m i l l i m e t r e s , a mean precision of profile points b e l o w 1 0 m m c a n

e n g i n e e r uses t o select t h e s u p p o r t sites a n d t o i d e n t i f y t h e o w n e r s o f t h e r e a l estates
concerned b y t h e line project.
T h e a c t i v i t i e s o n site start w i t h t h e t r a n s f e r o f t h e selected r o u t e into t h e terrain, i n
p a r t i c u l a r b y fixing the angle points. T h e l i n e a x i s i s d e s i g n e d a s a s t r a i g h t c o n n e c t i o n
o f t h e l i n e a n g l e p o i n t s . A l o n g t h e l i n e a x i s , centre line beacons a r e i n s t a l l e d t o i d e n t i f y
a n d s e c u r e t h e l i n e . T h i s s t e p i s c a l l e d line alignment. T h e survey of the longitudinal
profile f o l l o w s , w h e r e b y t h e t e r r a i n a n d a l l o b j e c t s w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y a r e s u r v e y e d
s u c h a s r o a d s , w a t e r s t r e t c h e s , b u i l d i n g s a n d t r e e s . T h e pegging of the support sites
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e i r c e n t r e s a n d t h e survey of diagonal profiles at t o w e r s i t e s i n
inclined terrain complete the activities o n site.
15.3.2 Survey procedures and instruments adopted
15.3.2.1 Direct survey in the terrain
I n c a s e o f direct survey, t h e s u r v e y o r e s t a b l i s h e s t h e d e s i g n e d r o u t e i n t h e t e r r a i n
and carries out the profile survey there. Regarding the adopted procedures a n d the
i n s t r u m e n t s used, considerable progress h a sbeen achieved d u r i n g the recent years,
c o n t r i b u t i n g t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e t e r r a i n a c t i v i t i e s a n d t o p e r m i t a continuous data flow
w i t h computers i nview o f further processing o f measured data. T h e utilization o f
satellite-based systems formerly reserved only f o rmilitary application simplified and
a c c e l e r a t e d t h e a c t i v i t i e s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e t e r r a i n . N o w a d a y s , s o - c a l l e d total
stations a r e m o s t l y u s e d f o r s u r v e y o f o v e r h e a d l i n e r o u t e s i n t h e t e r r a i n ( F i g u r e 1 5 . 4 ) .
T h e s e a u t o m a t i c a l l y r e c o r d i n g theodolites e q u i p p e d w i t h a p o g r a m m a b l e s u r f a c e p r o c e s s
the distances measured i nthe terrain and the directions into point coordinates and
record t h e m i n a three-dimensional coordinate system.
T h e coordinates o f the i n d i v i d u a l points are required f o rthe graphical o u t p u t o n a
c o m p u t e r screen as used nowadays. Since t h e m e a s u r i n g tolerances f o rstraight lines
be o b t a i n e d r e l a t e d t o distances u pt o 3 k m . A u t o m a t i c a l l y focussing s y s t e m s , so-called
one-man stations, w h e r e t h e s u r v e y o r c o n t r o l s t h e total station u s i n g a n e l e c t r o n i c field
logger a t t h e reflector, are n o t v e r y suited for overhead lines since t h e activities i n t h e
t e r r a i n are o r i e n t e d a ts t r a i g h t lines a n d r e c o r d i n g a h i g h p o i n t d e n s i t y isn o t necessary.
I n F i g u r e 1 5 . 5 , t h e m e a s u r e d q u a n t i t i e s i, t, s a n d z a r e s h o w n r e c o r d e d b y a t a c h y m e t e r
i n c a s e o f height a n d distance measurements. F o r each i n s t r u m e n t , t h e calibration d a t a
c (addition parameter) and m (multiplication parameter) are given. W h e n determining
t h e t r i g o n o m e t r i c height, the r e d u c t i o n coefficient F has t o b e considered as well. T h i s
coefficient takes care o f t h e E a r t h ' s c u r v a t u r e
F = L2/(2R) , (15.1)
w h e r e R = 6 3 7 0 k m i s t h e E a r t h ' s r a d i u s . T h e w a n t e d q u a n t i t i e s Ah, L a n d Hx r e s u l t
from
A h = c + s • m • cos z + F , (15.2)
L = c + s • m • sin z + F a n d (15.3)
Hx = H0 + i + Ah - t . (15.4)
B y means o fgeocentrically positioned satellites, each spot o nE a r t h can b e reached b y
Global Positioning Systems (GPS). B y m e a s u r i n g o f t h e w a v e r u n n i n g p e r i o d b e t w e e n
satellites a n d t w o receivers o n t h e E a r t h surface, t h e distances a r ec o m p u t e d . A s a
result, three-dimensional coordinates are obtained, w h i c h can b e transformed t o the
reference coordinate system.
T h e i n d i v i d u a lsatellite signals experience disturbances o n their w a y t h r o u g h t h e iono-
sphere a n d , i na d d i t i o n , are falsified, t o s o m e e x t e n t , b y t h e o p e r a t o r s o f t h e s a t e l l i t e
networks. T h e results o f these facts w o u l d constitute coordinates f r o m measurements
based o n one satelliteonly not having a n y acceptable accuracy i n view o fthe overhead
line survey requirements. Differential measurements b y receiving simultaneously d a t a
 F i g u r e 15.8: Graphical
computer data logger
from several E a r t h orbiting satellites compensate t h e errors a n d result i n data w i t h
coordinate discrepancies o f a few centimetres only. For several years, real-time G P S
systems have been o n the market enabling measurement, correction and immediate
e v a l u a t i o n w i t h a h i g h accuracy directly o nsite. D e - a c t i v a t i n g the d i s t o r t i n g signal b y
t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n c e i n 2 0 0 0 b r o u g h t t h e G P S s y s t e m t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f total
stations. I n F i g u r e 1 5 . 6 , a G P S e q u i p m e n t i s s h o w n a n d i n F i g u r e 1 5 . 7 t h e a r r a n g e m e n t
o f geocentric satellites a n d basis o fdistance m e a s u r e m e n t s .
G P S systems are available worldwide, enabling a quick recording i n the open terrain.
T h e y are, t o a large extent, independent o f the weather, d o not require any visual
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t a t i o n a r y a n d t h e m o v a b l e r e c e i v e r s e g m e n t , c a l l e d rover, a n d
n e e d fix points i n a d i s t a n c e o f s o m e k i l o m e t r e s o n l y . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e G P S s u r v e y a r e
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o o r d i n a t e s . H o w e v e r , i t i s d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r survey of overhead
lines, t h a t t h e G P S s y s t e m s d o n o t p e r m i t d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f
heights o f crossed objects such as t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, b u i l d i n g s etc. F o r this purpose,
tachymeters are necessary i n addition.
T o t a l s t a t i o n s a n d r e a l t i m e G P S s t a t i o n s can store t h e q u a n t i t y o fd a t a recorded d u r i n g
a w h o l e week. A s w i t h o t h e r electronic storage systems, security copies, however, are
r e c o m m e n d e d . D u r i n g practical use, t h e devices h a v e proved t o b e reliable u n d e r a l l
m e a s u r i n g conditions. Direct m e a s u r i n g systems need a virtually complete accessibility
to the line route.
T o visualize t h e d a t a o n site a n d to increase t h e performance o fsurvey, t h e d a t a record-
i n g c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t o n s i t e d i r e c t l y u s i n g a graphic data logger. G r a p h i c d a t a l o g g e r s
are c o m p u t e r s suitable for use i n the o p e n w h i c h , due t o their capacity, p e r m i t stor-
age a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l a n d a n d t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p s . U s i n g corresponding calculation
routines, each measured p o i n t can b e directly checked against the designed line r o u t e
o n t h e c o m p u t e r display ( F i g u r e 15.8).
15.3.2.2 I n d i r e c t line s u r v e y
Indirect survey systems r e c o r d t h e r o u t e c o r r i d o r e i t h e r b a s e d o n p h o t o g r a p h s ( a e r i a l
p h o t o g r a m m e t r y ) o r b y s i g n a l s o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s c a n n i n g . I n c a s e o f aerial photogram-
metry, t h e s u r v e y c o r r i d o r i s flown o v e r b y a p a n c h r o m a t i c a e r i a l s u r v e y c a m e r a ,
w h i c h d e l i v e r s o v e r l a p p i n g p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e terrain surface. B y m e a n s o f a d j u s t -
m e n t points w i t h k n o w n coordinates w i t h i n the line corridor, the photographs a r e
aligned and rectified. T h e evaluation using a digital stereograph delivers rectified aerial
F i g u r e 1 5 . 9 : P r i n c i p l e of laser scanning w i t h r o t a t -
ing lasers i n s t a l l e d a t a helicopter
p h o t o g r a p h s a s r e s u l t s , b e i n g c a l l e d ortho-photographs. P r o m the ortho-photographs, a
three-dimensional terrain model c a n b e p r o d u c e d u s i n g ; c o m p u t e r s .
T h e m o r e r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d laser scanning m e t h o d a d o p t s r o t a t i n g l a s e r s i n s t a l l e d a t
a n airplane o r helicopter t o scan the E a r t h ' s surface arid existing installations such as
overhead electrical lines ( F i g u r e 15.9). Since w i t h i n t h e right-of-way m a n y vertically
s t r u c t u r e d objects need t ob e s u r v e y t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t w o laser devices obliquely be-
low the helicopter has proved t o b e advantageous. B ym e a n s o f the G P S , the position
of the helicopter i s controlled providing continuously a three-dimensional determina-
t i o n o ft h e laser p o s i t i o n s . T h e helicopter flies a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m a b o v e g r o u n d w i t h
a r o u n d 5 0 k m / h . T h e laser scanning m e t h o d enables t o survey t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n y
objects i n three d i m e n s i o n s . I t i s possible t o scan 200 I m o f lines per day. A s results,
digital profiles are obtained w i t h the relevant i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e terrain, i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
a n d e x i s t i n g l i n e s i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . T h e m e t h o d is: a p p l i c a b l e a l s o i n f o r e s t a r e a s
u n d e r trees [15.52] i f sufficient o p e n i n g s are g i v e n i n t h e leafy c a n o p y . A p p l i c a t i o n s
[15.53] d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h i s s y s t e m i s c a p a b l e o f v e r i f y i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e s t r u c t u r e s ,
finding s p a n l e n g t h s , c o n d u c t o r sags a n d checking c o n d u c t o r clearances t o g r o u n d a s
well as vegetation, residential a n d industrial buildings .and crossed infrastructure. A i r -
b o r n e survey combines h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d r e l a t i v e l y l o w costs. I t displays a l l features
of profiles a n d g r o u n d surface. T h e location o f i m p o r t a n t objects w i t h i n a n d close t o
the right-of-way can b e determined. Utilities use t h e s u r v e y results t o decide o n a n d
prepare r e f u r b i s h m e n t a n d u p g r a d i n g . T h e y i m p r o v e t h e reliability a n d efficiency o f
maintenance as well.
W h e n u s i n g indirect s u r v e y i n g systems, a n a p p r o v a l t o access t h e l i n e r o u t e i s n o t
necessary. T h e h i g h o n e - t i m e expenses are c o m p e n s a t e d b y s h o r t e n i n g o f t h e p l a n n i n g
period, w h i c h m i g h t b e advantageous i n case o f big p r o j e c t s . I n d i r e c t systems deliver
data w i t h a naccuracy w i t h i n the decimeter range; heights o f objects w i t h i n the line
corridor can b e determined. Alternative routes can b eevaluated, too. However, i n view
o f accuracy a n d costs, t h e direct s u r v e y i n g s y s t e m s a r e superior t ot h e indirect ones.
600 15R o u t e selection and detailed line design 15.3 S u r v e y o n s i t e 6 0 1

15.3.2.3 Terrain data banks 15.3.4 S u r v e y of t e r r a i n profile

W h e n u s i n g d i r e c t s u r v e y s y s t e m s , t h e terrain profile along the line axis and a parallel

Terrain data banks h a v e b e e n u n d e r p r e p a r a t i o n i n 2 0 0 2 b u t a v a i l a b l e o n l y i n p a r t s
profile at t h e e d g e o f t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y i n c a s e o f l a t e r a l l y i n c l i n e d t e r r a i n , n e e d t o b e
o f E u r o p e , N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d J a p a n . H o w e v e r , i n f u t u r e t h e y w i l l f o r m t h e basis for
measured and recorded. D u r i n g this procedure, all striking points within the terrain
planning o fextended infrastructureprojects. W i t h i n a few years, numerous geographic
a n d crossed objects w i t h i n t h e line corridor are recorded w i t h their position a n d height.
satellites will b e commissioned which will provide highly-resolving photographs. These
W h e n using indirect survey systems, a t first t h e e s t a b l i s h e d d i g i t a l terrain model i s
photographs w i l l b e accessible i n t h e f o r m a t o f t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l t e r r a i n models via
restricted t o t h erelevant line corridor. W i t h the a i do f angle point coordinates, a
internet. B y i n p u t o f the coordinates o f the line angle points, the user can receive the
straight line isd r a w n t h r o u g h the digital terrain model, representing the line axis, and
wanted corridor and evaluate it. A t the m o m e n t , mesh w i d t h s o f 1 0 m axe available
t h e n a l o n g i t u d i n a l profile is interpolated along t h e line axis b y means o f a n e v a l u a t i o n
a n d linear i n t e r p o l a t i o n is carried o u ti n between. Resolutions below o n e meter axe
software. I n t h i s case, t h e step w i d t h selected f o rt h e i n t e r p o l a t i o n o f t h e profile i so f
envisaged w h i c h w o u l d b e sufficient for p l a n n i n g o f overhead line routes a tall.
substantial importance. A longitudinal profile produced b y means o f a terrain model
The decision on t h e system t ob e used depends o nlocal conditions, the density o f points
can only b e such accurate as the w i d t h o f meshes w i t h i n the terrain models. Since the
w i t h i n the surveyor fix p o i n t net as w e l l as t h e period o f t i m e available for design and,
resolution o fsuch a model amounts t osome meters only, the results obtained f r o m the
therefore, needs t o be decided u p o n separately for each i n d i v i d u a l project.
terrain model should be compared w i t h t h e real terrain t o verify t h e correct line design.
Critical points should b e checked i n the terrain.

15.3.3 S u r v e y of angle p o i n t s a n d line a l i g n m e n t

15.3.5 L o c a t i o n of s u p p o r t s

A l a y o u t p l a n f o r m s t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r surveying angle points i n the terrain. I t should The s u p p o r t sites are pegged o u t u s i n g direct s u r v e y systems. T h e use o f G P S systems
b e e s t a b l i s h e d o n t h e b a s i s o f land maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 5 0 0 0 o r e v e n b i g g e r c o n t a i n i n g p r o v e d t o b e e c o n o m i c i n t h i s case. P e g g i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t based o n t h e calculated co-
the borders o f real estates, as well. Such land m a p s canbe obtained from surveying ordinates o f t h e s u p p o r t sites a n d can b e secured b y referencing t o buildings, s u r v e y i n g
authorities o r t h e l a n d register either printed i n island-type f o r m a t s o rf r a m e w o r k maps fix p o i n t s o r t h e l i k e . T h o r o u g h l y d o c u m e n t e d support sites f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r l i n e c o n -
o r e l e c t r o n i c a l l y a s automated land register maps. T h e y c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e u s e d struction. T h e w i d t h o ft h e supports a tt h e surface isprevalent for this activity and for
coordinate system as well. compensating the real estate owners.
I f l a n d m a p s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l a r e a s , t h e n topographical maps w i t h a smaller Pegging o u t o f t h e s u p p o r t sites h a s t o b e carried o u t unequivocally and durably,
s c a l e h a v e t o b e u s e d f o r d e f i n i n g t h e l i n e r o u t e . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e u s e o f GPS c a n complying w i t h the contract o r line owner specifications. T h e system Feno (Figure
be recommended t o define t h e angle points. A l a y o u t p l a n i n a larger scale w i l l b e 15.10) hasproved i t sq u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r m a r k i n g lines, because i t sresistance against
established i n t h e course o ft h e survey process. I f U T M coordinates are available i n the vandalism.
maps, the coordinates evaluated b y G P S c a nb e transferred t o t h i s system a n d serve
as reference b e t w e e n p l a n n i n g i n t h e m a p a n d o n site. 15.3.6 S u r v e y of e x i s t i n g lines
Before deciding o n and surveying o f the angle points, the objects w i t h i n the right-
Survey of existing lines gained increasing importance i ncountries w i t h a n extended
of-way, such as crossed overhead lines, buildings, r a i l w a y s a n d m o t o r w a y s should b e
infrastructure t o document the physical condition o fthe line network. I n some member
surveyed. I f a planned line route can b e realized w i t h o u t conflicting w i t h such objects,
countries o f the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y , the checking intervals a r e legally stipulated.
the angle points can b e referenced t o available fix points, b o u n d a r y stones, real estate
W h e n surveying existing lines, the data can b e recorded i nsuch a w a y t h a t t h e y c a n
boundaries o r t o t h ecoordinates o f t h e reference n e t a n dpegged out, then. After
b e d i r e c t l y t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o a graphic information system (GIS). D u r i n g resurveying,
d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a n g l e p o i n t s , a s t r a i g h t alignment is measured and pegged out i n the
the topography and the line condition can b e checked. T h e topographical check aims
terrain. I f a direct vision between t w o adjacent angle points isgiven, i t is recommended
at n e w l y i n s t a l l e d s t r u c t u r e s a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n o f l a n d u s e w i t h i n t h e line corridor.
to p e go u t t h e centreline beacons directly b y means o f a t o t a l s t a t i o n . T h e exact line
The engineering check comprises the condition o ffoundations, support structures and
a l i g n m e n t i s pegged o u tb y precisely arranged centre m a r k heads o n t h e centre line
insulators, as well as checking the conductor sag. F r o m t h e recorded sag, i t c a nb e
beacons. I n m a n y c a s e s , t h e l i n e a l i g n m e n t c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y , s i n c e distance,
concluded w h e r e the stipulated safety clearances a r emet a n dwhere refurbishment
forests, settlements o r terrain prevent a direct sight t o the adjacent angle point. I n this
m i g h t b e necessary.
case, t h e c e n t r e l i n e b e a c o n s c a n b e p e g g e d o u t u s i n g r e l e v a n t c o o r d i n a t e s without the
need o f a complete accessibility o f t h e line route. P l a c i n g o f t h e line r o u t e b y m e a n s o f To determine the conductor position b y a direct measuring system, a tachymeter posi-
G P S proves t o b e advantageous, since, i n t h i s case, s u r v e y is possible a t a l l accessible t i o n i sselected o n t h e line axis outside t h e s p a n t o b e surveyed ( F i g u r e 15.11). A t first,
points, also a t those w i t h o u t a direct sight. A survey b y polygons should b e limitedt o the w i d t h o fthe crossarm a ttower 2 isdetermined from
areas w h e r e t h e satellite signals are shadowed. Singular obstacles i n the line route can
b2 = L 2 s i n / 3 M 2 /sin(200g-a2-/3M2) , (15-5)
be passed b y t h r o u g h staggering the tachymeter i n parallel.
where /3M2 and L 2 a r e m e a s u r e d . T h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e a n g l e s 0M2 a n d c*2, a s w e l l a s
The determined right-of-way istransferred into the layout plan and handed out t o the
of the distance L 2 , can b e obtained from Figure 15.11. I f tower 2 isa suspension tower,
l i n e o w n e r f o r inspection. D u r i n g inspection, the route c a n b e visualized and critical
t h e n a2 = 100g. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the distances L p i and L p 2 follows, using the
points such as approaches a n d crossings b e agreed upon with the line owner before
cosine law:
starting the construction. T o avoid misunderstandings, the centre line beacons for line
points, angle points a n d tower sites s h o u l d b e characterized b y different colours. Lpi,P2 = Y L i , 2 + bi,2 - 2 • • ha c o s a i , 2 . (15.6)
 T a b l e 15.1: M i n i m u m clearances t odefine approaches
Load case Clearance
Gauge or components of a wind load, sags at 0,5 m + £>«],
r ail way contact line inst BJlation correlated temperature 1 1 minimum 1,5 m
Ropeway as above 4,0 m + £>,i,
Rim of a road, motorway as above U , D m + ry«i)
or shipping lane mimimum 1,5 m
Rim of a as above 4,0 m + Dei or 15,0 m , if
railway track electrification is planned
11 40° C in Central Europe

15.4 Line design and establishing of plans

15.4.1 Clearances

M i n i m u m clearances t o t h e terrain surface a n d t o crossed objects need t o b e com-

plied w i t h t o protect people as well as fixed o r movable objects against hazardous
approach t o live conductors a n d against discharges. T h e basic requirements are speci-
fied i n s t a n d a r d s , s u c h a s E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 [15.54] a p p l i c a b l e for t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y
and E N 50 341-3-4 [15.55] v a l i d for G e r m a n y a n d e x p l a i n e d i nd e t a i l i nclause 2.5.2.
According t o E N 50 341-1, i tis distinguished b e t w e e n m i n i m u m clearances t o
F i g u r e 15.10: L i n e F i g u r e 15.11: T a n g e n t i a l s u r v e y o f sag o f a n e x i s t i n g l i n e — Ground i n areas r e m o t e from buildings, roads, railways and navigable waterways
beacons type Feno ([15.54], T a b l e 5.4.4);
— Residential and other buildings ([15.54], T a b l e 5.4.5.2);
— Lines crossing roads, railways and navigable waterways ([15.54], T a b l e 5.4.5.3.1);
I n case o f suspension towers, t h e angles a are e q u a l t o 1 0 0 g . W i t h these d a t a , t h e
— L i n e s adjacent t oroads, r a i l w a y s , navigable w a t e r w a y s ([15.54], T a b l e 5.4.5.3.2);
c o o r d i n a t e s o f p o i n t s P i a n d P 2 a n d t h e i r d i s t a n c e aph c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d .
— Other power lines or overhead telecommunication lines ([15.54], T a b l e 5.4.5.4)
T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e h e i g h t s Hi, H2, H3 a n d Hi f o l l o w s r e l a t e d t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f
and
the tachymeter. F o r this purpose, t h e z e n i t h angles z i , z 2 a n d z c t o t h e p o i n t o f t h e
— Recreational areas ( [ 1 5 . 5 4 ] , T a b l e 5.4.5.5).
tangent C a tthe conductor have t ob e surveyed aswell asthe corresponding horizontal
The s t i p u l a t e d minimum clearances are presented i n T a b l e 2.22. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d a t a
a n g l e j 3 c . T h e h e i g h t s Hu H2, H3 a n d Hi a r e o b t a i n e d from
i n T a b l e 2 . 2 2 , a n electrical clearance DB\ h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d which depends o n the
i n s u l a t i o n o f t h e l i n e w i t h respect t ot h e stresses b yfast+front o rs l o w - f r o n t overvoltages.
#1,2 = Lpi,2 •t a n ( 1 0 0 E - z i , 2 ) , #3,4 = L P i , 2 • t a n ( 1 0 0 g - z c ) / c o s / ? c . (15.7)
D a t a o b t a i n e d f r o m experience for these distances are listed i n T a b l e 2.19, d e p e n d i n g on
T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s a g f c at t a n g e n t C, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n h e i g h t s Ahx a n d Ah2, t h e maximum voltage for equipment Us. T h e t o t a l c l e a r a n c e a g a i n s t r i g i d , non-movable
a s w e l l a s t h e d i s t a n c e s Lq a n d a p h a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 1 , a r e g i v e n b y crossed objects, o b t a i n e d ast h e s u m o ft h e values according t o T a b l e 2.22 a n d Dei> m u s t
a t l e a s t r e s u l t i n 1 , 1 t i m e s o f t h e s h o r t e s t v a l u e o f straight line distance asom b e t w e e n l i v e
fc = Ahi + Lc/apb • (Ah2 - Ahi) (15.8) p a r t s a n d e a r t h e d p a r t s o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s i n s t i l l a i r p o s i t i o n (see c l a u s e 2.5.2.2).
I n principle, t h e m i n i m u m clearances t ob e m e t b ya n i n d i v i d u a l line project need t o b e
T h e r a t i o Lc/apb c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e m e a s u r e d r e l a t i v e h e i g h t s U j , H2, H3 and
specified separately for each line, therefore. I n E N 50 341-1 [15.54], t h e conditions are
Hi a n d t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s Ahi a n d Ah2 b y
listed under w h i c h t h e afore m e n t i o n e d clearances have t ob e complied w i t h as follows:
— A t a maximum operating temperature of the conductors, specified for t h e line;
L c / a p h = i/Ahi/Ah2 j (/Ahi/Ah2 + lj , (15.9)
— U n d e r s p e c i f i e d ice loads, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a r e a w h e r e t h e l i n e w i l l b e e r e c t e d ;
— U n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f a wind load, h a v i n g a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f t h r e e y e a r s ;
w h e r e Ahi = # 1 — # 3 a n d Ah2 = H2 - Hi. F r o m t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s , t h e d a t a necessary
t o d e t e r m i n e t h e sag at midspan a r e k n o w n : — U n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f a w i n d l o a d w i t h a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f 5 0 years. I n t h i s case,
electrical clearances necessary t o w i t h s t a n d the power frequency voltage will be
fmzx = fcl [4• ( L c / a p h ) - ( 1- Lc/iph)] (15.10) sufficient;
— U n d e r c o m b i n e d a c t i o n o f w i n d a n d ice. N a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s o r a p r o j e c t specifi-
I n case o f a n indirect m e a s u r e m e n t (seeclause 15.3.2.2), t h e conductor position is c a t i o n s h o u l d s t i p u l a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s t o b e m e t i n t h i s case.
d e t e r m i n e d from t h e s u r v e y d a t a . I n a d d i t i o n t o these basic r e q u i r e m e n t s , s o m e s t a n d a r d s r e q u i r e t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f clear-
A s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t ot h e t a n g e n t i a l m e a s u r e m e n t o fsag, a m e a s u r e m e n t i spossible from ances u n d e r iceload i n one o r few spans only. T a b l e 2.21 lists conductor temperatures
a position laterally t o the line axis as well. T h e measurements can t h e n b e evaluated and iceloads for checking t h e clearances according t o [15.56]. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e s v a r y
using equations (15.2) t o (15.4). b e t w e e n 4 0 a n d 80° C , t h e i c e l o a d d e p e n d s o n t h e r e f e r e n c e c l i m a t e a t t h e overhead
604 1 5 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design 15.4 L i n e design a n d establishing o f p l a n s 605

l i n e l o c a t i o n . A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 50 341-3-4 [15.55] v a l i d
for G e r m a n y s h o u l d b e d i s c u s s e d h e r e a f t e r .
- A value for t h e m a x i m u m o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e i sn o t specified. T h e m a x i m u m
o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , h o w e v e r , s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 60°C. O f t e n , 8 0 , 1 0 0 o r 120°C
a r e s t i p u l a t e d b y l i n e o w n e r s p r o v i d i n g f o r conductor creep, a s w e l l .
- T h e clearances have t o b e verified for t h e ice loads specified for a line, w h e r e b y
all conductors a n d spans o f the line are loaded b y the same ice load.
- I n c a s e o f c r o s s i n g s , c l e a r a n c e s u n d e r local ice load i n t h e c r o s s i n g s p a n h a v e t o
be verified, w h e r e b y a local ice load o f 5 0 % o f t h e specified ice load has t o b e
assumed.
- T h e clearances have t o b e verified u n d e r action o f a m e d i u m w i n d load, corre-
sponding t o a three year r e t u r n period. T h i s a m o u n t s t o 5 8 % o fthe design w i n d
load, w h e r e b y t h e m i n i m u m clearances according t o E N50 341-1 ( T a b l e 2.22) F i g u r e 15.12: P r o t e c t i v e r a n g e s b e t w e e n F i g u r e 15.13: M i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n
p l u s De\ n e e d t o b e o b e y e d . T h e c o n d u c t o r p o s i t i o n c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g conductor i n still air o r swinging under w i n d high-voltage overhead lines w i t h n o m i n a l v o l t -
t o s a g s o c c u r r i n g a t + 4 0 ° C . T h e determination of swing angles i s e x p l a i n e d i n a n d t h e nearest p a r t o f a b u i l d i n g i n case o f ages above 3 0 k V a n d w i n d energy converter
clause 2.5.2.4. I ncase o f angle s u s p e n s i o n towers, t h e r a d i a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c r o s s i n g o f o b s t a c l e s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 341¬ installations:
c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force acts i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e w i n d l o a d (see clause 12.2.4). 3-4. T h e angle 0 c applies i n b e t w e e n t h e con- - w i t h o u t vibration protection L > 3 D
ductor i n still air a n d in a s w u n g position u n - - with vibration protection L > D
- T h e clearances need not b e verified u n d e r design w i n d load o r under combined der w i n d load; d m i n clearance according t o E N
action o f w i n d a n d ice loads. 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 ; .Dei n o m i n a l a i r c l e a r a n c e d e p e n d i n g
I n c a s e o f crossings between two overhead lines, t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s o f b o t h on the operating voltage
lines vary w i t h temperature, w i n d a n d ice load. T h e most unfavourable condition de-
p e n d s o n loads, crossing angles a n d c o n d u c t o r t y p e s . T h e r e f o r e , s o m e cases a r e v e r i f i e d
- E q u a l o r larger t h a n three times the rotor diameter i ft h e conductors a r e n o t
in practice as stipulated i n t h e relevant s t a n d a r d o r project specification. A tleast, the
f o l l o w i n g t h r e e conditions s h o u l d b e a n a l y s e d according t o [15.55]: protected against aeolian vibrations o r
- M o r e t h a n o n e r o t o r diameter i f t h e conductors a r eprotected against aeolian
- T h e m a x i m u m sag either a t t h e m a x i m u m conductor t e m p e r a t u r e o r a t ice loads
vibrations. T h e tips o f the rotor m a y n o tproject into the right-of-way o f the
a t - 5 ° C o f t h e o v e r c r o s s i n g l i n e a n d t h e s a g o f t h e u n d e r c r o s s i n g l i n e a t +40°C
t r a n s m i s s i o n line. F i g u r e 15.13 depicts schematically these r e q u i r e m e n t s .
or -5°C w i t h o u t iceload. T h e conductors d o not s w i n g .
B e t w e e n a w i n d energy converter a n d overhead lines, lower clearances t h a n those de-
- L o c a l i c e l o a d a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s o f t h e o v e r c r o s s i n g l i n e a n d s a g s a t —5°C w i t h o u t
scribed above, m a y b e accepted if t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n line issituated outside t h e wake o f
ice l o a d o f t h e u n d e r c r o s s i n g l i n e . T h e c o n d u c t o r s d o n o t s w i n g .
t h e w i n d e n e r g y c o n v e r t e r (see [ 1 5 . 2 , 1 5 . 5 7 ] ) .
- M e d i u m w i n d load having a three year return period perpendicularly t o o n e o f
b o t h l i n e s w i t h s a g s a t +40° C a n d w i n d l o a d o n t h e o t h e r l i n e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e
square o f the cosine o f the angle o f w i n d attack o n t h e conductors o f the other 15.4.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of s u p p o r t locations, tower types a n d heights
l i n e . T h e r e b y , t h e w i n d l o a d h a s t o b e v a r i e d i n b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d 6 0 %.
15.4.2.1 E v a l u a t i o n of t h e profile s u r v e y
C l a u s e 14.9.4 c o n t a i n s a n e x a m p l e .
I n F i g u r e 15.12, the protective ranges are s h o w n between a conductor a n d a crossed T o o b t a i n a longitudinal profile f r o m t h e s u r v e y e d d a t a , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e f e r t h e
s t r u c t u r e . T h e r e , i t i s a l s o s h o w n w h e r e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r crossings h a v e t o b e m e t r e g i s t e r e d d a t a t o k n o w n a l t i t u d e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d t h e e n d o f t h e l i n e . A d a t a file o f
a n d w h e r e t h e s i t u a t i o n m a y b e considered a s a na p p r o a c h . F o r t h e l a t t e r case, T a b l e coordinates results f r o m t h e profile survey, e n a b l i n g t h e d r a w i n g o fa l o n g i t u d i n a l profile
5.4.5.3.2 o f [15.54] lists d i s c r i m i n a t i n g r u l e s w h i c h are s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1 5 . 1 . I f along t h e line axis w i t h a l l relevant i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s l o n g i t u d i n a l profile f o r m s t h e basis
these clearances are n o t m e t , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s specified for crossings apply. f o r t o w e r s p o t t i n g . W h e r e n e c e s s a r y , a parallel profile a t t h e e d g e o f t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y i s
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c l e a r a n c e s e x p l a i n e d , r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e line design in crossings established i n a d d i t i o n . T h e clearances between t h e respective l o n g i t u d i n a l profile a n d
axe s t i p u l a t e d i n m o s t s t a n d a r d s . I n [ 1 5 . 5 5 ] , t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s r e f e r t o : the conductor catenary curve are used for p l a n n i n g o f tower locations a n d heights.
- A r r a n g e m e n t o f c o n d u c t o r s a t multiple insulator sets, a t l e a s t d o u b l e s e t s ;
- C l e a r a n c e s o f 0 , 7 5 • Dpp b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s h a v e t o b e v e r i f i e d a l s o f o r t h e c a s e
15.4.2.2 Basis a n d relevant parameters
that o n econductor is loaded w i t h 5 0 % o f the design ice load while the other
c o n d u c t o r s a r e w i t h o u t i c e . T h e v a l u e s f o r Dpp c a n b e f o u n d i n T a b l e 2 . 1 9 ; A s a result o f t h e t e r r a i n survey, a l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile ( F i g u r e 15.18) o f t h e line r o u t e
- A f t e r failing of an individual insulator string o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r s e t , a c l e a r - w i t h all i n f o r m a t i o n relevant f o rthe detailed line design such as type o f terrain a n d
a n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o n d u c t o r s o f 0 , 7 5 • £>pp m u s t b e g i v e n a t - 2 0 ° C . utilization, crossed traffic roads, waters, r a i l w a y s isavailable. W i t h i n t h e n e x t step, the
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , wind energy converters have been installed i nm a n y countries. T h e support locations have t o be defined a n d the support types a n d heights t o b e deter-
clearances between such installationsa n d overhead power lines were controversial dis- m i n e d . T h i s step decides o n t h e v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n o ft h e line a n d affects t h e i n v e s t m e n t
cussed b e c a u s e o f possible effects o n t h e lines a n d t h e i r c o m p o n e n t s . A s a r e s u l t , clear- f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a s w e l l ; i t i s k n o w n a s tower spotting.
ance requirements were provided. A s a nexample, according t o t h e rules applicable i n E v e n w h e n t h e r o u t e h a s b e e n finally s e l e c t e d , t h e r e a r e m a n y p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d e s i g n i n g
G e r m a n y , t h e clearance t o t h e closest c o n d u c t o r i n still air s h o u l d b e : an overhead line b e t w e e n t w o given p o i n t s , e. g. a large n u m b e r o f l o w t o w e r s w i t h short
 sagging template
F i g u r e 15.14: Manual tower spotting with
the a i do f a sagging template. 1 ground
clearance curve; 2 conductor catenary
curve; T I suspension tower 1 ; T 2 suspen-
s i o n t o w e r 2 ; hi h e i g h t o f T I ; h 2 h e i g h t o f
T2;
hm m i n i m u m g r o u n d c l e a r a n c e ; a s p a n
length
spans o r a few tall towers w i t h long spans. I n general, t h e terrain, t h e soil character-
istics a n d l a n d u s e w i t h i n a no v e r h e a d c o r r i d o r c h a n g e t o a m o r e o r less g r e a t e x t e n t .
T h a t a l t e r n a t i v e s h o u l d b e selected, w h i c h complies w i t h a l l technological a n d t e r r a i n
conditions and involves the lowest investment.
T h e a n g l e p o i n t s a l o n g t h e s e l e c t e d r o u t e a r e fixed p o i n t s f o r t o w e r l o c a t i o n s , o n l y t h e
height o f angle towers is t ob e selected a t t h e t o w e r s p o t t i n g stage. T h e terrain profile
a l o n g a n d a c r o s s t h e r o u t e d e t e r m i n e s t h e n e c e s s a r y tower heights; t h e i n v e s t m e n t s n e c -
e s s a r y f o r f o u n d a t i o n s d e p e n d o n t h e s o i l c o n d i t i o n ; t h e accessibility of the individual
tower locations a f f e c t s t h e e f f o r t s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s w e l l a s f o r o p e r a t i o n . T h e c o n d u c -
tor sags b e t w e e n t h e a t t a c h m e n t s a t t h e t o w e r s change w i t h c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
ice loads. T o w e r s p o t t i n g m u s t e n s u r e t h a t a d e q u a t e clearances b e t w e e n t h e c o n d u c t o r s
themselves a n d t o objects crossed b y t h e line are m a i n t a i n e d u n d e r a l l conditions.
T h e possible conductor suspension heights a n d permissible spans between t w o towers
are determined b y the geometrical dimensions o f the available tower types and their
horizontal a n d vertical load capacities. A n o p t i m u m tower s p o t t i n g requires t a k i n g i n t o
account a l l i n v e s t m e n t s for towers, i n s u l a t o r s , accessories a n d f o u n d a t i o n s a s precisely
as p o s s i b l e . T h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p r o j e c t s
w h e r e access t o t o w e r sites is difficult. A t t e n t i o n h a s also t o b e g i v e n t o t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h land acquisition a n d compensation for tower locations a n d f o r r e a l
estates crossed b y t h e conductors.
15.4.2.3 M a n u a l tower spotting
I n a c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n n e r , tower spotting i s c a r r i e d o u t m a n u a l l y b y t h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r .
T h e r o u t e profile d r a w i n g a n d a t e m p l a t e s h o w i n g t h e c a t e n a r y t ot h e s a m e scale a s t h e
p r o f i l e d r a w i n g s a r e u s e d . T h i s sagging template i s p r o d u c e d b a s e d o n t h e s a g s r e l a t e d
to the expected equivalent span (ruling span) and the m a x i m u m conductor temperature
(Figure 15.14). I n parallel t o the g r o u n d curve, w h i c h i srepresented b y the edge o f the
t e m p l a t e , t h e conductor catenary i s s h o w n i n a d i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t i p u l a t e d
g r o u n d clearance. I fthe t e m p l a t e touches t h e terrain, t h i s parallel curve represents
the conductor position a n d enables d e t e r m i n i n g the conductor attachment points and
checking t h e clearances t o crossed objects.
I n F i g u r e 15.14, t h e sagging t e m p l a t e ispresented i n a p o s i t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n
a n d h e i g h t o f t o w e r 2 , a s s u m i n g t h a t t o w e r 1 i s fixed a t l o c a t i o n 1 . W h i l e t h e s a g g i n g
curve starts a t t h e conductor a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t a t tower 1 ,the g r o u n d clearance curve
touches t h e g r o u n d surface. T h e sagging t e m p l a t e is adjusted such t h a t its h o r i z o n t a l
edge r u n s i nparallel t o the abscissa o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l profile. Therefore, its centre
line is perpendicular t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l abscissa. I t is expedient t o s t a r t tower s p o t t i n g
at locations w h e r e c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e free selection o f a s u p p o r t site exist, e. g. a t
i m p o r t a n t c r o s s i n g s , fixed t o w e r l o c a t i o n s , a n g l e p o i n t s e t c . W h i l e c a r r y i n g o u t t o w e r
spotting, t h e engineer s h o u l d take care o f avoiding higher differences i n the span lengths
and tower heights.
After preparing a preliminary tower spotting, the compliance w i t h all technical stipu-
l a t i o n s , s u c h a s wind a n d weight span, r e l a t i o n s o f w i n d t o w e i g h t s p a n , g e o m e t r i c
m a x i m u m s p a n etc. need t o b e checked i n d e t a i l . W h e r e applicable, compliance w i t h
p e r m i s s i b l e electrical or magnetic field s t r e n g t h b e l o w t h e l i n e a n d a t t h e " e d g e o f t h e
right-of-way needs t o b e verified as well. I fthese conditions are n o t complied w i t h ,
tower heights, tower types o rthe tower spotting a tall need t ob e corrected accordingly.
T h e q u a l i t y o fm a n u a l t o w e r s p o t t i n g depends largely o n t h e experience a n d care o f t h e
design engineer. H ei sh a r d l y i n a p o s i t i o n t o evaluate t h e e c o n o m i c consequences o fa l l
the possible tower locations, because such a comparison o f possible alternatives w o u l d
t a k e t o o m u c h t i m e . E s p e c i a l l y i n l o n g l i n e sections, i ti s easy t o lose sight o f essential
parameters d u r i n g m a n u a l tower spotting. M u c h experience is, therefore, required t o
ensure t h a t a l l relevant factors receive sufficient a t t e n t i o n , a n d a correspondingly h i g h
quality o f t h e tower spotting is achieved.
15.4.2.4 Tower spotting and optimization b y means of d a t a processing
Tower spotting w i t h t h e a i d o f d a t a p r o c e s s i n g p r e s u p p o s e s , t h a t t h e t a s k c a n b e p e r -
f o r m e d a n a l y t i c a l l y a n d digitally t a k i n g care o fa l l relevant parameters. O p t i m i z i n g t h e
t o w e r s p o t t i n g c a n b e i n c l u d e d . I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e optimization of the tower spotting c o v -
ers t h e w h o l e line a n d can b e carried o u t b e t w e e n its e n d points. H o w e v e r , o p t i m i z a t i o n
is also possible for specific l i n e sections o n l y . T h e q u a l i t y a n d a c c u r a c y o f t h e r e s u l t s
do n o longer depend o nt h e the design engineer's experience, b u t solely o n the extent
of calculations performed.
T h e basic activities for preparing a no p t i m i z a t i o n o f tower spotting comprise t h e fol-
l o w i n g steps:
- Definition o f the tower family w i t h tower types and heights, available b o d y and
leg extensions, characteristic parameters like w i n d span, weight span, m a x i m u m
span;
- D e t e r m i n a t i o n , asaccurately aspossible, o fassociated investment for every tower
t y p e a n d h e i g h t , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e e q u i p m e n t l i k e i n s u l a t o r s e t s , fittings a n d
foundations as well ast r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o site and erection;
- A digitalized profile for i n p u t into the computer p r o g r a m ;
- D e f i n i t i o n o f ranges w h i c h c a n n o t b e u s e d for t o w e r locations;
- D e f i n i t i o n o f locations m a n d a t o r y for t o w e r sites, especially for angle points, a n d
the tower types t ob e adopted there;
- I n p u t o f location a n d height o f crossed objects w i t h i n t h e line corridor;
- Assigning additional investments t o i n d i v i d u a l line ranges, w h e r e tower location
is possible, h o w e v e r i n v o l v e s e x t r a m o n e y f o rc o m p e n s a t i o n s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f
m a t e r i a l a n d e q u i p m e n t , t o construct f o u n d a t i o n s a n d erect towers. E x a m p l e s
are s t e e p m o u n t a i n o u s t e r r a i n , s w a m p y l a n d , l o w - b e a r i n g s o i l ;
- E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s , fine d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e s , w e i g h t s p a n t o w i n d
s p a n r a t i o s , i n s u l a t o r set s w i n g angles, clearances t o g r o u n d , c o n d u c t o r sags etc.
T o w e r s p o t t i n g b y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h e successive elimination
method [ 1 5 . 5 8 , 1 5 . 5 9 ] . T h e r e , t h e l i n e i s d i v i d e d i n t o e q u i d i s t a n t s t e p s b e t w e e n 5 a n d
20 m long a n d each step o f t h e profile is dealt w i t h as a t e m p o r a r y e n d p o i n t for the
purpose o ftower spotting calculation. For each t e m p o r a r y end point, a n o p t i m u m tower
spotting isdetermined between the beginning o fthe line and the point currently being
dealt w i t h . O n l y t h e data o ft h e o p t i m u m tower s p o t t i n g calculated for each step need
to b e stored i n the m e m o r y and t o be given further consideration.
I n F i g u r e 15.15, t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n process is visualized. S t a r t i n g a t the tower S a t the
begin o f the line section t o b e spotted, each point o f the profile i n a distance between
608 15 R o u t e s e l e c t i o n a n d d e t a i l e d l i n e d e s i g n 15.4 L i n e design a n d establishing o fplans 6 0 9

ST,20*
ST.40* j 20*
N_ S T l
380 m 260 n t o g s ©190_m s 220 m 370 m 270 m 450 m
_^©- * //
~**L y \ *"'
/y - ^y V ST,2B" conductor sag "^d^*
\ r : ST,16*
! © r ^ r +T- S T , 3 6 * \ ^ < ^ © '
-----=+' / /
xx k/^x
ntre line profile
\ f \ .- ground line curve
f
\ ^ N > ce
pa rallel profile
380 640 830 1050 1420 1690 m 2140
distance
amin . I amin

, 3 max ,I

F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 5 : T o w e r s p o t t i n g w i t h l o c a t i o n Bi c o n s i d e r e d a s p r o v i s i o n a l
end point. 1centre line profile; 2 parallel profile; 3 ground curve of con-
d u c t o r s a g , a l t e r n a t i v e w i t h m a x i m u m t o w e r h e i g h t a t l o c a t i o n Bm;
4 range o ftechnically possible tower locations and extensions w i t h re-
s p e c t t o l o c a t i o n B\ a n d h e i g h t a l t e r n a t i v e 4 ; 5 t o w e r s p o t t i n g w i t h o n e
i n t e r m e d i a t e t o w e r b e t w e e n S a n d Bn 6 o p t i m u m t o w e r s p o t t i n g t o Bn

permissible m i n i m u m and m a x i m u m span i sconsidered as a possible tower site. T h e

first a c c e p t a b l e l o c a t i o n i s B i , s i t u a t e d a t m i n i m u m d i s t a n c e a m j n f r o m t o w e r S. T h e n a
c o n d u c t o r c a t e n a r y l i n e is established t o t h e l o w e s t h e i g h t a l t e r n a t i v e o f t o w e r Sa n d the
clearances to g r o u n d are checked at all intermediate profile steps between the locations
5 a n d B i . I t is obvious t h a t for t h e m i n i m u m span m i n i m u m t o w e r heights at b o t h tower
l o c a t i o n s w o u l d be sufficient. T h e r e f o r e , t h i s s o l u t i o n w o u l d p r e s e n t t h e o p t i m u m a n d is
the one kept i n the m e m o r y correlated to the site B i and tower height considered there.
A l l o t h e r t o w e r extension alternatives at t h e l o c a t i o n B i w o u l d also lead t o a m i n i m u m
investment i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h the shortest t o w e r a tlocation S. A f t e r processing all
tower height alternatives at the location B i , the procedure continues w i t h the location
B2. There, again the only span length alternative ist othe tower a t the location S 640 1050 1440 m 2140
a n d t h e technically acceptable a n d least expensive height a l t e r n a t i v e i sselected. T h i s distance
procedure is continued until a location corresponding t o the m a x i m u m permissible
span a m a x w i l l b e reached. However, i f t h e available m a x i m u m tower extensions a t F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 6 : T o w e r spotting using several types of suspension towers, a) tower spotting w i t h
locations B , and Swere not enough t o provide the required clearance to ground o r t o one suspension tower type; b )tower spotting w i t h t w o suspension tower types; c)tower spotting
w i t h t h r e e suspension t o w e r types; S T r t o S T 3 suspension towers; T T i , T T 2 angle strain towers;
obstacles, a n alternative is checked w i t h a n i n t e r m e d i a t e tower location between the
* height of the lowermost crossarm
t e m p o r a r y e n d a n d S. I n p r i n c i p l e , s u c h a s o l u t i o n c a n b e i m p l e m e n t e d a t l o c a t i o n B , i n
a d i s t a n c e o f t w o t i m e s a m j n f r o m S. I n t h i s case, a t o w e r s p o t t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e a s s u m i n g
lowest tower heights a t the involved tower locations considered would represent the the o p t i m u m tower spotting can b eobtained b yretracing back the chain of o p t i m u m
lowest investment. T h i s process iscontinued along the whole line section w h i c h i s t o solutions towards the start p o i n t of t h e line section. I n F i g u r e 15.15, t h e tower s p o t t i n g
be optimized. O n l y technically acceptable alternatives are subsequently included i n the step isd e m o n s t r a t e d , w h e r e t h e l o c a t i o n _ B n is c o n s i d e r e d a st h e c u r r e n t e n d p o i n t o f
comparison o finvestments. For each t e m p o r a r y end point o fthe profile studied, only t h e l i n e . F r o m F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 5 i t is o b v i o u s t h a t t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c t o w e r s p o t t i n g s t a r t i n g
t h e s o l u t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m i n i m u m i n v e s t m e n t is stored a g a i n characterized b y t h e w i t h t h e lowest e x t e n s i o n a t l o c a t i o n B n is t h a t w i t h o n e i n t e r m e d i a t e t o w e r at l o c a t i o n
distance o ft h e o p t i m u m t o w e r site a n d t h e h e i g h t t h e r e i n d i r e c t i o n o ft h e b e g i n n i n g B 3 , since o n l y one i n t e r m e d i a t e t o w e r is necessary a n d t h e t o w e r extensions are a l w a y s
o f t h e section t o b eoptimized. T h u s , s t a r t i n g f r o m each step c u r r e n t l y considered t h e l o w e s t possible. I n F i g u r e 15.15 t h i s a l t e r n a t i v e is g i v e n t h e n u m b e r 6 .
as l i n e e n d p o i n t , t h e m o s t cost-effective h e i g h t a l t e r n a t i v e a n d d i s t a n c e o f t h e n e x t
tower i s selected f r o m technically acceptable solutions. F o r each point o f the profile
c o n s i d e r e d t e m p o r a r i l y as a n e n d p o i n t , t h i s p r o c e s s is r e p e a t e d f o r t h e t e r r a i n b e t w e e n E x a m p l e : T h e design engineer should check the result o f the tower spotting i n view o f
consistence and construction requirements. H e m a y introduce modifications o f the o p t i m u m
the specified m i n i m u m a n d m a x i m u m s p a n l e n g t h t o w a r d s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e line
s p o t t i n g by m o v i n g t o w e r sites. T h e necessary modifications of other tower locations a n d heights
section. T h e m o s t economic tower s p o t t i n g i s t h e n assigned t o the particular tower
can b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n o u t p u t . D e t a i l e d design o f t h e selected a l t e r n a t i v e ,
height alternative at the tower location considered asa line end point. T h i s procedure p r e p a r i n g profile d r a w i n g s , lists of m a t e r i a l s , clipping offsets a n d sagging tables, c o n s t r u c t i o n
is c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e l i n e s e c t i o n t o b es p o t t e d . W h e n a r r i v i n g t h e e n d p o i n t , l i s t s , d e s i g n o f c r o s s i n g s etc. is t h e n c a r r i e d o u t .
 profile presents the tower s p o t t i n g a n d the clearances t o t e r r a i n a n d t o crossed objects.
T h e sagging curves a x e s h o w n f o r t h e final c o n d i t i o n w i t h d a t a a s p l a n n e d .
S a g g i n g t a b l e s : Sagging tables s h o u l d c o n t a i n i n i t i a l s a g s w i t h c o n d u c t o r s i n s t r i n g i n g
blocks a n d final sags w i t h conductors c l i p p e d - i n d e p e n d i n g o n a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s
and the period o f t i m e during w h i c h the conductors have been suspended o nthe string-
i n g blocks, s o t o c o m p e n s a t e creep. T h e offset a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n p o i n t s needs t o b e
listed a sw e l l (see clause 16.8.5).
D i a g o n a l p r o f i l e : T h e diagonal profile for self-supporting towers ( F i g u r e 15.20) shows
t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t e r r a i n e l e v a t i o n a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r legs i n a ni n c l i n e d t e r r a i n
w i t h reference t ot h e tower centre. Differences i n elevation b e t w e e n t h e positions o f leg
m e m b e r s a t t h e g r o u n d surface d e t e r m i n e the required lengths o f t h e leg extension. I n
case o f g u y e d t o w e r s , t h e d i a g o n a l profiles o f t h e g u y w i r e a t t a c h m e n t p r o j e c t i o n o n
F i g u r e 15.17: Overview plan
the surface level a n d between the masts should b esurveyed. Such diagonal profiles a i m
at defining t h e g u y w i r e a n d m a s t lengths a n d t h e points w h e r e these elements need t o
O t h e r c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s l i k e [15.60, 1 5 . 6 1 , 15.62] o p t i m i z e t h e t o w e r s p o t t i n g a l o n g a l i n e o r be installed.
p a r t s o f i t b y selecting t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l t e r n a t i v e o u t o f a l l feasible solutions a t t h e end o f T o w e r l i s t : I n t h e tower list ( F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 1 ) , a l l r e l e v a n t d a t a f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a x e
t h e calculation process. summarized: Tower numbers and designation, tower type, length coordinates, leg ex-
A s a n example f o ra digital tower spotting, the result o f optimization is shown fora 2,1 k m
tensions, lengths o fm a s t s a n d g u y ropes, t y p e o ff o u n d a t i o n , t y p e o fi n s u l a t o r set a n d
long line section (Figure 15.16), adopting different line d a t a for t h e tower spotting. T h e three
additional i n f o r m a t i o n , i f any.
alternatives are the following:
— Overhead line w i t h o n e type o f suspension tower, w i t h a permissible weight and w i n d L i s t o f l a n d o w n e r s : A s a basis f o r c o m p e n s a t i o n o f l a n d o w n e r s concerned b y a n
s p a n o f 4 0 0 m . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n p r o c e s s , s i x t o w e r l o c a t i o n s axe necessary o v e r h e a d l i n e , a real estates list i s e s t a b l i s h e d c o n t a i n i n g t h e s i z e o f t h e p a r t o f t h e p l o t
between the assumed end points (alternative a ) . tangled b ythe transmission line.
— O v e r h e a d line w i t h t w o types o f suspension towers, w i t h w e i g h t a n d w i n d spans o f 400
and 550 m , respectively. T h e r e , four tower locations result f r o m the o p t i m i z a t i o n (alter-
native b ) . 15.5 D a t a processing for line design and administration
— Overhead line w i t h three types o f suspension towers, w i t h permissible w i n d and weight
spans o f 400, 500 a n d 700 m , respectively. T h e result o f the o p t i m i z a t i o n are three tower 15.5.1 D a t a processing systems for planning of overhead lines
locations only (alternativec).
I n t h e p r e v i o u s c l a u s e s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t e p s t o b e t a k e n f o r t h e design of overhead lines
have been explained. Today, c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s axe available for a l l these steps, w h i c h
15.4.3 D o c u m e n t a t i o n of lines take care o fr o u t i n e w o r k .
T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l data processing programs h a v e b e e n c o m b i n e d t o program systems
A f t e r t h e a l i g n m e n t o ft h e line axis a n d t h e survey o ft h e l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile, a t r a n s m i s -
[ 1 5 . 6 3 ] for designing overhead lines [ 1 5 . 6 0 ] . I n F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 2 , t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s
sion line can b etechnologically p l a n n e d according t o t h e project specifications. D u r i n g
a n d t h e i r interfaces a r e s h o w n . T h e d a t a recorded i n t h e t e r r a i n (angles, distances,
p l a n n i n g , a s e r i e s o f d r a w i n g s a n d l i s t s a x e u s e d f o r documentation of lines:
c o o r d i n a t e s , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r a m e t e r s ) a r e t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m t h e e l e c t r o n i c field d a t a
O v e r v i e w p l a n : T h e o v e r v i e w plan ( F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 7 ) i s b a s e d o n t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p s
l o g g e r i n t o t h e c o m p u t e r , w h i c h e v a l u a t e s t h e terrain a n d crossing data, as well as
w i t h a scale o f 1:25 0 0 0 o r 1 : 5 0 0 0 0 a n dserves t o r e p r e s e n t t h e l i n e c o r r i d o r i n v i e w
the d a t a for the towers w h e n existing lines are surveyed. T h e d a t a for conductors and
of general p l a n n i n g procedures o nf u t u r e l a n d use. T h e entities t a k i n g care o f public
s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e s a r ea d d e d b y i n p u t o r e d i t e d f r o m e x i s t i n g d a t a files. T h e files
interests receive a corresponding section o ft h e m a p . T h e representation o f t h e right-
p r o d u c e d o u t o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r establishing the longitudinal profile,
o f - w a y i s l i m i t e d t o a n a c c u r a c y o f ±12,5 m a n d ±25 m , r e s p e c t i v e l y , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
f o r tower spotting, f o r c o m p u t a t i o n o f clearances in crossings, for establishing the tower
a m a p p i n g a n d r e a d i n g t o l e r a n c e o f ±0,5 m m . T h e o v e r v i e w p l a n i s a l s o u s e d t o d e f i n e
lists a n d conductor sagging tables, a s w e l l a s f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f leg extensions,
t h e access t ot h e t o w e r sites.
lengths o fi n d i v i d u a l m a s t s a n d g u y w i r e s , i f necessary. T h e results are a g a i n logged i n
P l a n l a y o u t : T h e plan layout ( F i g u r e 15.19) represents t h e line i n a scale o f 1:2000 o r a d a t a file, such t h a t a l w a y s u n a m b i g u o u s d a t a are available a s a basis for a l l k i n d s o f
1:5 0 0 0 w i t h h i g h p r e c i s i o n a n d i s e s t a b l i s h e d b a s e d o n l a n d m a p s o r o t h e r p r e c i s e m a p s . d o c u m e n t s t ob e p r o d u c e d d u r i n g t h e l i n e design process.
T h e p l a n l a y o u t c o n t a i n s a s w e l l t h e plot boundaries a n d a l l crossing objects (other lines, T h e line design p r o g r a m system c a nb e linked t oother independent digital computer
roads, w a t e r w a y s ) , i n t h e m o s t cases w i t h designations a n d a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e p r o g r a m s , e. g. f o re s t a b l i s h i n g l a n d o w n e r lists, f o rc o n d u c t o r sagging tables a n d f o r
design l a y o u t establishes t h e basis for t h e detailed p l a n n i n g i n densely p o p u l a t e d areas. calculation o f clearances t o buildings.
I f l a n d m a p s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e , ortho-photographs w i t h a scale o f 1 : 5 0 0 0 o r 1:10 0 0 0 c a n
be used for detailed line design w i t h o u t conflicting w i t h other objects.
15.5.2 E s t a b l i s h i n g the longitudinal profile
L o n g i t u d i n a l profile: T h e longitudinal profile ( F i g u r e 15.18) contains a l l parameters
a n d d a t a r e l e v a n t for d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f a l i n e i n a scale 1:200 t o 1:500 I n F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 3 , t h e n e c e s s a r y s t e p s a n d t h e d a t a flow a r e s h o w n f r o m t h e s u r v e y o f
at t h e v e r t i c a l a n d 1:2000 t o1:5000 a tt h e h o r i z o n t a l coordinates a d j u s t e d t o t h e scale field d a t a t o finalizing t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e . T h e r o u t e d a t a r e c o r d e d b y a n e l e c t r o n i c
of the p l a n layout. U s i n g t h e tower designation n u m b e r , reference t oother technological tachymeter o ra G P S (Global Positioning System) station, as well as added i n f o r m a t i o n
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d t odocuments concerning t h e ownership i spossible. T h e l o n g i t u d i n a l a r e s t o r e d a s a l p h a n u m e r i c a l l y c o d e d d a t a files i n a n e l e c t r o n i c field d a t a l o g g e r , f o r
612 15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design 15.5 D a t a processing for line design a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n 613

F i g u r e 15.19: P l a n l a y o u t
 LO.O D d t d i p i u u c a a m g I U I i m c u e s i g i i a n a a a m i n i s x r a i i o n OLD

Input: Preparation of longi-

terrain data, Data bank: tudinal profile:
conductor data terrain data, terrain data proces-
crossing data, sing, tower spotting
Survey:
tower data,
(digital field Preparation of cros-
data of tower family,
data logger), sing documentation
conductor data
crossing data
Preparation of
tower lists
Preparation of
Conductor sagging leg extensions
tables Figure 15.22: Schematic
Preparation of overview o f a p r o g r a m sys-
conductor sagging
t e m f o r design o f t r a n s -
Land owner lists schedules
mission lines established b y
F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 0 : Diagonal profile i n inclined terrain Computation ot Siemens A G and F B G - F r e i -
conductor conditions
Clearances to leitungsbau G m b H , Ger-
which a field computer o rt h e m e m o r y card o f a tachymeter c a n b eused. T h e data buildings Foundation selection many
stored i n the field data logger, given i n a b i n a r y code, are transferred into A S C I I data
files for t h e u s eb yt h e l i n e design p r o g r a m s y s t e m . W i t h i n t h e m o d u l e called "trans- I f a d i g i t a l automatically processed land map i s a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e s u r v e y a u t h o r i t i e s
m i s s i o n l i n e " i n F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 3 , t h e t e r r a i n d a t a a r e e v a l u a t e d , t h e tower spotting and the o n a continuous basis for t h e t e r r a i n concerned, this m a p can b e logged i n t o t h e C A D
conductors related mechanical engineering calculations are carried out. A sa result, a computer w o r k i n g place.
l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e i sp r o d u c e d c o n t a i n i n g t h e t e r r a i n , t h e t o w e r s , t h e c o n d u c t o r sags T o carry out data exchange concerning topography, boundaries forprotected areas,
and the clearances t o ground and t o crossed objects. d a t a o f t h e l i n e r o u t e etc. w i t h t h e p l a n l a y o u t s t ob e p r o d u c e d a t t h e C A D working
T h e r e s u l t i n g files c a n b e p r o c e s s e d f u r t h e r u s i n g C A D systems, like A u t o C A D , while place, a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o fdigitalized l a n d m a p s i n t o t h e corresponding data format is
additional i n f o r m a t i o n concerning l a n d use, protected areas, n o t yet surveyed o r planned required, w h e r e b y a conversion c a n also b ecarried o u t t o r e q u i r e m e n t s specified b y t h e
o b j e c t s etc. c a n b e a d d e d . T h e e s t a b l i s h e d p r o f i l e c a n b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a l l c o m m o n l y line owner concerning colours, layers etc. T h e d a t a e x c h a n g e w i t h t h e p l a n l a y o u t c a n
used C A D formats, according t o t h e specific r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e line owner. be utilized t ocopy t h e relevant section o fthe l a n d m a p i n t o t h e layout section o f the
Projects c a n a l s o b e p r o c e s s e d i n a Graphical Information System (GIS). I n Figure longitudinal profile.
15.24, t h e G I S processing used b y R W E N e t A G , G e r m a n y , ispresented as a n example. I n c a s e o f t h e GIS processing o fR W E Net A G , only o n eintegrated data processing
For this purpose, the terrain data are converted into the input format necessary for system isused according t o F i g u r e 15.24. I n t h i s case, n e i t h e r d u r i n g d a t a i n p u t n o r
the G I S processing, b y means o fa p r o g r a m module designed for this porpose. The d u r i n g d a t a o u t p u t , d a t a files h a v e t o b e c o n v e r t e d . T h e d a t a o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e s
Graphical I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m isexplained i n clause 15.5.4. are exchanged w i t h i n the system.

15.5.3 Establishing t h eplan layout

I n F i g u r e 15.23, t h e steps o f processing a n dt h e d a t a flow f o r establishing the plan

layout are shown. O na C A D computer w o r k i n g p l a c e , t h e land maps are digitalized.

er of

Z TO o n
F c i 2
|Tower platej

ft £ c o
Type of in-
Crossings

sulator set
Span I ength
Constructior

Remarks
Suspension
5*

Spacers
Tension Z
"§

Span Height Length of Line angle Type of ers

Dropper
elevation

Le g extensior
Final No.

Type of
subsoil
length differ- section foundation earth wind weight

(mm)
400 » 3 6 0 °
Tower

ence (nn)
tower
tower

wire ( m ) (m)
(m) (m) (m) (gon) (degree) A B D
No.

C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
DT/
1 1 right 0,0 0,5 0,0 CONCRETE SAND DT 440.0 390.6 W1
171°o' TT + O 1.0 20 kV UNE
190.00 3 3 1
251.00 - 1.00 CONCRETE SAND DS
2 2 0,0 1.0 0,0 0,0 ROAD 430.0 445.6
ST+3 3 3 1
425.00 -23.45 CONCRETE SAND •S
3 3 1,0 0,0 0,0 0,5 447.5 463.4
ST+12 GROUND 3 3 1
234.00 -14.05 910.0 DT/ W2
CONCRETE SAND
8>(£

4 4 0,0 0,0 0,0 1,0 DT 480.0 465.8

a

152°6' TT + 0
8

Name Date 20-7,2000 Sheet

D C
e. dis
fiarmnnu
SIEMENS AG
as built
D:rte
Drawing Miiller Siemens AG Tower list 1
PTD H1 58
£ 3 -B rev. checked Kliegel Page
from tower No. 1 to tower No. 4
Abt.PTD H 1 58 1
110 kV' Line Fuerstenberg - Waren
A
F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 1 : T o w e r list ( p a r t l y )
616 15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design 15.6 References 6 1 7

Survey of
Digital field Preliminary
The partial view o f plan layout correlated t o the line section i n progress is established
terrain with
data logger profile based o nt h e d a t a available i n t h e graphical d a t a b a n k , b e i n g generated w h e n p r e p a r i n g
tachymeter
t h e p l a n l a y o u t a n d t h e n a d d e d t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e . T h e finalized l o n g i t u d i n a l
p r o f i l e s a r e s t o r e d a s s e p a r a t e p l a n files.
Results:
longitudinal profile, Output: The line design system used b y R W E N e t A G is based o n a Graphical I n f o r m a t i o n
Computer
Land map. layout plan, plotter, printer, S y s t e m , w h i c h does n o t o n l y deliver d i g i t a l i n f o r m a t i o nas c o m m o n l y used C A D systems
program
automated real tower schedules, data storage
"transmission but also:
estate map documentation media,
lines"
for crossings . computer files — Adopts precise calculation procedures;
— Establishes logical objects i n different layers a n d
— Correlates these objects t o project data, such that, i n addition t o digital a d m i n -
Line-owner-opera- Output: istration o f plans a n d lists, t h e m a n i f o l d o f possibilities o f a d i g i t a l d a t a b a n k
Conversion for ted computer sys- plotter, printer, i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m can b e used.
processing by tems, administration data storage
line owner ot documents, media,
processing by GIS computer tiles
15.5.5 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of plans, lists a n d documents

F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 3 : E v a l u a t i o n o f l o n g i t u d i n a l profiles, establishing t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l profile and I n the course o f t i m e , each line will experience modifications; changes will occur i n the
processing the plan layout s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s , e. g .c h a n g e d t o w e r sites a n d h e i g h t s ,
have t o be followed u p i n line plans and documentation. Using the described program
Graphical
Project data _ information systems f o rline design, t h e necessary adjustments o f all kinds o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n c a n
Graphical
Information be c a r r i e d o u tefficiently a n dcompletely. D u r i n g t h i s p r o c e d u r e , a l l t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s
System concerning the line d a t a are carried out and the documents are revised according t o
| Plan layout t h e l a t e s t s i t u a t i o n . T h e i n p u t o f t h e m o d i f i e d d a t a i n t o o n e o f t h e files s u f f i c e s t o r e v i s e
| Engineering data all t h e documents, like p l a n layout, l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile a n d tower list. T h e possibilities
[Longitudinal profile]— o f administration of plans u s i n g c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s r e p r e s e n t a n e s s e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e
F i g u r e 15.24: Overview o fthe Graph-
ical I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m used b y R W E t o g e t h e r w i t h e l e c t r o n i c files w h e n e s t a b l i s h i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e p l a n s w i t h C A D s y s t e m s .
Legal aspects
| Overview plan Net A G , Germany-

15.6
lS.5.4 Graphical Information System with integrated data bank
I n F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 4 , t h e transmission line information system o f R W E N e t A G , G e r m a n y ,
is r e p r e s e n t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y . T h e s u b s y s t e m s , c a l l e d p r o j e c t d a t a a n d g r a p h i c a l i n -
f o r m a t i o n , a r e c o u p l e d v i a t h e Graphical Information System, t h u s e n a b l i n g a n e x -
change o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d d a t a between the systems. T h e layout plans are realized o n
a U N I X / I R I X w o r k s t a t i o n w i t h t h e G E O i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m S I C A D a n da n inte-
grated Oracle data bank assoftware. B ymeans o fthe modules developed b y R W E , the
following operations are carried out:
- T h e i n d i v i d u a lbasic elements are digitalized;
- C o m p l e x elements, like real estate units, buildings, t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, o n e -
d i m e n s i o n a l o r polygonal objects, are generated;
— T h e o b j e c t s a r e c o r r e l a t e d t o a project data set a n d
— T h e g r a p h i c a l d a t a a r e s t o r e d i n a c o n t i n u o u s graphical data bank w i t h o u t a n y
overlaps ( G P B ) .
The l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile a n d crossing objects are generated f r o m t h e measured d a t a b y
m e a n s o f a n i n t e r f a c e file a n d f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e .
O t h e r d a t a necessary for t h e c o m p l e t i o n o ft h e l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile p l a n are a d d e d inter-
actively a t t h e c o m p u t e r screen. Besides other studies, alternatives can b e investigated
by m e a n s o f m a s k s a t t h e screen, c o n c e r n i n g d i f f e r i n g c o n d u c t o r stresses, d i f f e r i n g con-
d u c t o r a t t a c h m e n t heights, differing span lengths etc. T h e p r o g r a m m o d u l e c a r r y i n g
out t h e calculations for conductor mechanics is based o n t h e catenary e q u a t i o n being
exact i n a n y case. T h i s m o d u l e i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s h o r t e s t g e o m e t r i c a l distances
to spot-type, one-dimensional o r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l objects as well as t o overhead lines.
T h e calculations can include concentrated loads o n t h e conductors as well.
References
15.1 L o m a s , C . e tal.: Integrating overhead lines i n t o an e n v i r o n m e n t a l l ysensitive w o r l d . Cigre
R e p o r t 22-206, 1996
15.2 D e g n e r , T . ; K i e B l i n g , F . ; T z s c h o p p e , J . : M i n d e s t a b s t a n d zwischen W i n d e n e r g i e a n l a g e n
und Freileitungen (Clearances between w i n d energy converters and overhead tower lines).
E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 9 8 (1999) 7, p p . 3 2 t o 3 5
15.3 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 2 : T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts o f high-voltage overhead transmission
lines. Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 2 . 0 2 , F i n a l D r a f t 1986
15.4 A m m a n n , M . e t a l . : A n e w 400 k V l i n e w i t h c o m p a c t t o w e r s a n d c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t e d
crossarms. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 / 3 3 / 3 6 - 0 6 , 1998
15.5 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 4 : H i g h - v o l t a g e overhead lines. E n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns, procedures,
i m p a c t s a n d m i t i g a t i o n . P a r i s , C i g r e B r o c h u r e 147, 1999
15.6 B o o s , K . - V . , e t a l . : E x p e r i e n c e gained i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f m u l i t p l e - c i r c u i t h i g h - v o l t a g e
overhead lines o f compact design. Cigre R e p o r t 22-12, 1986
15.7 K i e B l i n g , F . ; Nefzger, P . : U m r i i s t u n g v o r h a n d e n e r 2 2 0 - k V - L e i t u n g e n a u f den 3 8 0 - k V -
Betrieb ( C o n v e r t i n g existing 220 k V lines for 380 k V operation). Elektrizitatswirtschaft
89 (1990), pp. 1322 t o 1329
15.8 K i e B l i n g , F . e t a l . : U p g r a d i n g h i g h - v o l t a g e lines t o increase their capacity a n d m i t i g a t e
environmental impacts. Cigre R e p o r t 22-208, 1998
15.9 C i g r e S C 2 1 / 2 2 : C o m p a r i s o n o f h i g h - v o l t a g e lines a n d u n d e r g r o u n d cables. R e p o r t a n d
guidelines. Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e 110, 1997

15.10 Fricke, K . G . et a l . : A C overhead a n d u n d e r g r o u n d H V lines - C o m p a r i s o n a n d n e w
aspects. Cigte R e p o r t 21/22-07, 1 9 9 6
15.11 Andersen, et al.: Development o f a 4 2 0 k V X L P E cable system for t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n
power project i n Copenhagen. Cigre Report 21-201, 1996
15.12 T h u r i e s , E . et al.: U n d e r g r o u n d gas-insulated transmission line. Cigre R e p o r t 21/22-05,
1996
15.13 R y u , K . S. e t a l . : D e v e l o p m e n t a n d research activities o n t h e cryogenic power t r a n s m i s s i o n
cable i n Corea. Cigre R e p o r t 21/22-08,1996
15.14 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 4 : S u m m a r y r e p o r t o n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n t h e effects o f r e g u l a t o r y
controls, e n v i r o n m e n t a l legislation, concerns, issues a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s o n O H L design
r o u t i n g , e s t i m a t i o n a n d operation. S C 2 2 M e e t i n g , Sendai, J a p a n 1997 power transmission
cable i n Corea. Cigre R e p o r t 21/22-08, 1996
15.15 D i r e c t i v e 8 5 / 3 3 7 / E E C : A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e effects o f c e r t a i n p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e projects
on t h eenvironment. Brussels, E C , 1985
15.16 Directive 9 7 / 1 1 / E C : A m e n d i n g Directive 8 5 / 3 3 7 / E E C . Brussels, E C , 1 9 9 7
15.17 F i t z g e r a l d , C . F . e t a l . : C o m m u n i t y c o n s u l t a t i o n a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l assessment f o r h i g h -
voltage transmission line projects i n N e wS o u t h Wales. Cigre Report 22-202, 1996
15.18 Federal Republic o f G e r m a n y : Gesetz z u r U m s e t z u n g d e r U V P - A n d e r u n g s r i c h t l i n i e , d e r
IVU-Richtlinie u n d weiterer EG-Richtlinien z u m Umweltschutz (Law for implementation
of E I S directive and other EX! directives o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l protection). Bundesgesetzblatt
J a h r g a n g 2 0 0 1 , T e i l I , N r . 4 0 , A u g u s t 2 0 0 1 , p p . 1 9 5 0 ff
15.19 E n g s b r o , L . e t al.: M o d e r n i s a t i o n o f t h e high-voltage t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m i n D e n m a r k .
Cigre Report 21/22-03, 1996
15.20 O ' L u a i n , C . e t a l . : T r a n s m i s s i o n line r o u t e selection procedures for m i n i m a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l
impact i n Ireland. Cigre R e p o r t 22-203, 1 9 9 6
15.21 H i c k e y , J . : T h e effect o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t l e g i s l a t i o n o n r i g h t - o f - w a y u t i l i s a t i o n .
Cigre Report 22-202, 1992
15.22 Fleckenstein, K . ;Palic, M . ; R h i e m , W . : R a u m l i c h e A u s w i r k u n g e n v o n F e i l e i t u n g e n (Spa-
tial e f f e c t s o f o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s ) , e t z 1 1 3 ( 1 9 9 2 ) , V o l . 1 , p p . 3 2 t o 3 6
15.23 W e d e c k , H . : Z u r B e d e u t u n g d e r B u n d e l u n g technisch-industrieller S t r u k t u r e n b e i E i n -
griffen i n das Landschaftsbild ( O n t h e significance o f b u n d l i n g technical a n di n d u s t r i a l
structures affecting t h e landscape). R a u m f o r s c h u n g u n d R a u m p l a m i n g 5 4 (1996), p p . 45
to 53
15.24 Nolasco, J . F . , d a Silva, J . B . G . F . : U s e o f r i g h t s - o f - w a y o f overhead lines i n u r b a n areas
- a n experience i n Brazil. Cigre R e p o r t 22-204, 1992
15.25 E n e r g i e i i b e r t r a g u n g u n d Okologie: I n f o r m a t i o n e n z u r Ttassenpflege ( E n e r g y t r a n s m i s s i o n
a n d ecology: i n f o r m a t i o n o n maintenance o f r i g h t - o f - w a y ) . Essen, R W E Energie A G , 1996
15.26 S w i t z e r l a n d , Federal D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e I n t e r i o r : T r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f electrical energy a n d
protection of landscape: Guidelines. Berne, 1980
15.27 O ' N e i l l , A . M . : C r i t e r i a f o r t h e s i t i n g o f p o w e r line towers. D u b l i n , E S B I , 1 9 9 4
15.28 Takebe, T . et a l . : Scenery preservation measures a n d e v a l u a t i o n m e t h o d s f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n
lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-205, 1 9 9 6
15.29 D ' A j e l l o , L . e t a l . : Q u a n t i t a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e v i s u a l i m p a c t o f overhead lines. Cigre
R e p o r t 22-210, 1996
J.e».U I L C l C l C i i C V B V1B
15.30 S h o j i S h i n t a n i , S.: T r a n s m i s s i o n lines a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t - R o u t e selection systems.
Sendai, Cigre SC22 Colloquium, 1997
15.31 T h e N a t i o n a l G r i d C o m p a n y pic. E n g l a n d . Guidelines f o r t h e r o u t i n g o f n e w high-voltage
overhead transmission lines. T h e H o l f o r d rules
15.32 F E R C Guidelines. Federal E n e r g y R e g u l a t o r y C o m m i s s i o n ( U S A ) . Guidelines f o r t h e
Protection o f N a t u r a l , Historic, Scenic, a n d Recreational Values i nthe Design a n d Loca-
tion o f Rights-of-Way a n d Transmission Facilities.
15.33 T h o m p s o n , J . W . : S i t i n g t h eL i n e . L a n d s c a p e A r c h i t e c t u r e 4 6 , A u g u s t 1 9 9 6
15.34 P i l e g a a r d , M . : L o c a l a n d r e g i o n a l r e l a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues. E n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t
a n d consequences o f electrification i n r u r a l areas, grid expansions a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n lines.
Paper o n behalf of U N I P E D E Group 4 0 . S Y S T .
15.35 Weedy, B . M . : E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s p e c t s o f R o u t e Selection f o r O v e r h e a d L i n e s i n t h e U . S . A .
Electrical Engineering Department, T h eUniversity, Southhampton. Electric P o w e r Sys-
t e m Research, 16(1989), pp. 2 1 7 t o 226
15.36 V i t e , M a l l e t a n d C h a m b o n : C o m p a r i s o n o f Technologies f o r Devloping 4 0 0k V N e t w o r k s ,
w i t h C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i r E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t . E D F , P a p e r from S e c o n d C o n f e r e n c e
on the Development a n d Operation of Interconnected Power Systems. Budapest, Novem-
ber 1996, Session 4: T h eI n s e r t i o n o f Interconnected Systems i n t o t h e E n v i r o n m e n t .
15.37 Rogier, J . e t al.: V i s u a l i z a t i o n o f overhead line project i n B e l g i u m . Cigre R e p o r t 22-209,
1996
15.38 Doyen-Vigvier, C. et al.: D i g i t a l s i m u l a t i o n for better integration o f overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n
lines i n the e n v i r o n m e n t . Cigre R e p o r t 22-201, 1 9 9 6
15.39 3.30: Lugschitz, H . ; Egger, H . : Experience w i t h a 3 8 0 k V camouflage line. C i g r e Report
22/33/36-04, 1998
15.40 U N E S C O : C o n v e n t i o n o n wetlands o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l i m p o r t a n c e especially as w a t e r f o w l
habitat. 1971, amended 1982a n d 1987
15.41 Bevanger, K . : B i r d interactions w i t h u t i l i t y structures: Collision a n d electrocution, causes
and mitigation measures. I B I S 136:pp. 312 t o 425
15.42 Heijnis, R . : V o g e l t o d d u r c h D r a h t a n f l i i g e b e i Hochspannungsleitungen ( D e a t h o f b i r d d u e
t o collisions w i t h overhead power lines). Okologie der Vogel, Second Special issue 1 9 8 0
15.43 Hoerschelmann, H .et al.: Verluste u n d V e r h a l t e n v o n V o g e l n a n einer 3 8 0 - k V - F r e i l e i t u n g
(Losses a n d behaviour o f birds o n a 3 8 0 k V overhead line). Okologie der Vogel, (1988),
pp. 8 5 t o 103
15.44 A v i a n P o w e r L i n e I n t e r a c t i o n C o m m i t t e e ( A P L I C ) : M i t i g a t i n g b i r d collisions w i t h power
lines: T h estate o f t h e a r t i n 1994. W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., E d i s i o n Electric Institute, 1 9 9 4
15.45 A v i a n P o w e r L i n e I n t e r a c t i o n C o m m i t t e e ( A P L I C ) : Suggested practices f o r r a p t o r pro-
t e c t i o n o n p o w e r lines: T h e s t a t e o f t h e a r t i n 1996. W a s h i n g t o n , D . ©, E l e c t r i c I n s t i -
t u t e / R a p t o r Research Foundation, 1996
15.46 K o o p s , F . B . J . : C o l l i s i o n v i c t i m s o f h i g h t e n s i o n lines i n t h eN e t h e r l a n d s a n d effects o f
m a r k i n g . M a d r i d , Technical sessions o n power lines a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , 1 9 9 4
15.47 P i p e r , W . e t al.: Ornithologische Begleituntersuchungen z u r E r r i c h t u n g einer 3 8 0 - k V -
L e i t u n g (Stadorf) - L i i n e b u r g - K r u m e l (Ornithological studies referring t o construction
of a 3 8 0 k V line Stadorf-Liineburg-Kriimmel). Interned report o f PreussenElek t r a A G
prepared b y I N U F , 1992
15.48 V D E W : Orientierungshilfe z u PflegemaCnahmen i n Leitungstrassen ( O r i e n t a t i n g guide-
lines o n maintenance activities i n overhead line rights-of-way). F r a n k f u r t a m i M a i n ,
V D E W - V e r l a g , 1993
620 15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design

15.49 Fleckenstein, K . ;R h i e m , W . : Waldiiberspannung u n d W a l d d u r c h q u e r u n g . Okologische

u n d landschaftspflegerische A s p e k t e b e i m F r e i l e i t u n g s b a u (Crossing above forests o r
16 C o n s t r u c t i o n
aisles t h r o u g h f o r e s t s . E c o l o g i c a l a n d l a n d s c a p e a s p e c t s i n case o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s ) . R e p o r t s
of A N L , 1991

15.50 Brackel, V . W . : Vegetationskundliche Untersuchung einer Stromleitungstrasse (Investiga-

tions o f vegetation w i t h i n t h e power line r i g h t - o f - w a y ) . N a t u r u n d Landschaft, 6 4 (1989) 16.0 Symbols
Vol. 11
Symbol Signification
15.51 Coch, T . ; U t h e r , D.: Biotopmanagement i n walddurchquerenden Trassen von Hochspan-
nungsleitungen (Biotope management i n the right-of-way o f overhead power lines t h r o u g h a Span length
forests). N a t u r s c h u t z u n d Landschaftsplanung 26 (1994), V o l . 3 as P o s i t i o n o f t h e sagging curve vertex
A Cross-sectional area
15.52 Hoss, H . : Digitales H o h e n m o d e l l i n Waldgebieten. E r f a h r u n g e n a u s Laserscanner- c P r o p a g a t i o n speed
Befliegungen ( D i g i t a l height elevation m o d e l i n forestal areas. E x p e r i e n c e f r o m laser D Vertical distance between attachment point o f the conductor and the theodolite
s c a n n i n g flights). L a n d e s v e r m e s s u n g s a m t B a d e n - W i i r t t e m b e r g 1 9 9 4 tilting axis
e Creeping strain
15.53 M e k h a n o s h i n , B . I . e t a l . : U s e o f a n a i r b o r n laser locator t o i m p r o v e a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d
e C r e e p i n g s t r a i n a t everyday stress
quality o f maintenance o f overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-204, 2000
eih P a r a m e t e r for creep strain
15.54 E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C4 5 k V . P a r t 1 : G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s t"30 Creeping strain after 3 0 years
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C 2001 C r e e p i n g strain a t e v e r y d a y stress after 3 0 years
E Modulus of elasticity
15.55 E N 50 341-3-4: O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a - f Sag i n general
tive Aspects ( N N A ) for Germany. Brussels, C E N E L E C 2001 Sag within span i
h Sag t o horizontal viewing line
15.56 E N 50 341-3: O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e F V i r t u a l force
Aspects. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001 9 Gravitational acceleration
G K D e a d w e i g h t force o f i n s u l a t o r set
15.57 V D E 0210: P l a n n i n g a n d design o f overhead power lines w i t h r a t e d voltages above 1 k V ,
h Difference i n height o f adjacent conductor a t t a c h m e n t points
a m e n d m e n t A 4 . F r a n k f u r t a m M a i n , D K E D r a f t , 1999
hi Difference i n height o f conductor attachment point i n span i
15.58 D a h l b e r g , F . ; P a l m , Y . : O p t i m u m t o w e r s p o t t i n g o n t r a n s m i s s i o n lines b y means o f hy Reference height above tower base
electronic c o m p u t e r . S w e d i s h S t a t e P o w e r B o a r d , B l u e - w h i t e series N o . 3 3 ( 1 9 6 3 ) hhi Difference of height o f vertices i n adjacent spans
H H o r i z o n t a l conductor tensile force
15.59 K i e B l i n g , F . : O p t i m u m t o w e r s p o t t i n g f o r a noverhead line. Siemens P o w e r E n g i n e e r i n g #E,k E q u i v a l e n t h o r i z o n t a l c o n d u c t o r tensile force i n t h e i t e r a t i o n step k
5 (1983), pp. 3 4t o3 8 Ho H o r i z o n t a l conductor tensile force o f clipped-in conductor
H, H o r i z o n t a l conductor force i n span i
15.60 P S L C A D D : C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m for t h e integrated analysis a n d design o f a transmission I(x) M o m e n t of inertia
line. M a d i s o n ( W i . ) P o w e r line systems, 1997 K Factor for creeping strain
U Inclined span length i
15.61 Riisio, P . J . ; K i o i v a n t a , V . M . : C o m p u t e r aided design systems f o r line routes tower
L0 Conductor length i n span t
spotting and line structures i n F i n l a n d . Cigre R e p o r t 22-104, 1990
LK Length of insulator set
15.62 R a n e r o , I . : A u t o m a t i c m i n i m u m cost s u p p o r t s p o t t i n g b y c o m p u t e r . Cigre R e p o r t 22-105, M Centre o f stringing blocks
1990 mc Conductor mass per unit length
M{x) B e n d i n g m o m e n t due t o external load
15.63 Siemens p r o g r a m system Overhead Power L i n e . E s t a b l i s h m e n t a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f M(x) Bending m o m e n t due t o virtual load
plans for overhead power lines using S I C A D . E r l a n g e n , Siemens A G 1987 Mq Bending m o m e n t due t o a virtual moment
n E x p o n e n t o f creeping strain
n N u m b e r o f t o w e r sections o r j o i n t s
N A x i a l force due t o virtual load
N(x) A x i a l force due t o e x t e r n a l load
r Eccentricity o f point o f load attack
rc Residual eccentricity
rei Elastic bending deformation
rm Horizontal displacement a t tower top o r considered crossarm height
Sj Distance between j o i n t i and position, w h e r e deflection is considered
Si, Se C o n d u c t o r tensile force a t s u p p o r t
t R u n n i n g t i m e o f a w a v e , t i m e a f t e r first l o a d i n g o f a c o n d u c t o r , p e r i o d o f t i m e
Vi Offset o f conductor a t tower i
V Vertical load a tinsulator
v, Vertical load a t insulator seti
622 16 Construction

Symbol Signification
w Steel p o r t i o n o f conductor weight
Tilting of joint i
p I n s u l a t o r set s w i n g angle, i n c l i n a t i o n o f t o w e r s
6 Displacement o fconductor attachment point f r o m t h e vertical axis
£T Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion
A/isj Difference i n height o f conductor vertices i n spans i a n d i + 1
Arid V i r t u a l conductor temperature change
£>el Elastic d e f o r m a t i o n angle a t crossarm height
a R e l a t i v e e v e r y d a y stress
0 Vertical angle for sagging

16.1 Construction planning

16.1.1 Introduction

T h e construction o fa transmission line requires the installation a n d operation o fa high

n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n sites t o c a r r y o u t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f tower f o u n -
d a t i o n s , erection of supports a n d stringing of conductors along a line m a n y kilometres
long.
A s w e l l as t h e design o fa n overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d needs t o
be adjusted to the type o fterrain encountered. For carrying o u t the i n d i v i d u a l construc-
t i o n steps d u r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e , specific k n o w l e d g e , c r a f t s m a n s h i p a n d
p h y s i c a l fitness o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s t a f f a r e n e c e s s a r y a s w e l l a s s u i t a b l e e q u i p m e n t .
A foresighted p l a n n i n g o f the construction a n d a n expedient site organisation are re-
quired t o achieve a perfect quality, construction t o schedule w i t h infringement o f the
e n v i r o n m e n t o n l y t o a ne x t e n t as low as possible a n d a satisfying e c o n o m i c result.
D u r i n g t h e construction period, a t t e m p t s should b e m a d e t o avoid amy p o l l u t i o n o f
the surface o rg r o u n d - w a t e r , e. g. b y a n a p p r o p r i a t e selection a n d u s eo f h a r m l e s s
substances. P o l l u t i o n m i g h t b epossible as a consequence o f a n accident. Therefore,
i t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o u s e b i o l o g i c a l l y recycling oils f o r h y d r a u l i c p u r p o s e s . Damage of
vegetation a n d d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e s o i l s u r f a c e , e . g . b y c o m p a c t i o n d u e t o h e a v y v e h i c l e s ,
c a n n o t a l w a y s b e a v o i d e d , a l t h o u g h t h e s u p p o r t sites h a v e b e e n selected close t o access
roads and thick planks o r plates are used t odrive along. A f t e r ending the construction
activities, such soil compactions have t o b e b r o k e n u p again. T e m p o r a r i l y constructed
access roads n e e d t o b e r e m o v e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y a n d r e s i d u a l excavation material s h o u l d
be recycled whenever possible. A not complete r e m o v a l o f packing and construction
m a t e r i a l such as steel parts, conductor a n d w i r e ends, lost bolts, packing foils a n d w o o d
p a r t s m a y i n f r i n g e t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d u s ea l o n g t h e line r o u t e a n d d i d s o m e t i m e s
r e s u l t i n d a m a g e o f a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e s o r l e a d t o loss o f c a t t l e . D a m a g e o r e v e n
loss o f trees c a u s e d b y c o n s t r u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t f o r m m a j o r i n f r i n g e m e n t s . A n n o y a n c e
to n e i g h b o u r i n g residence b y noise generated a t t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n site for e x a m p l e b y
pile d r i v i n g has t ob e expected o n l y a t a few line sections, however, should b e reduced
to a m i n i m u m b y using insulated low-noise e q u i p m e n t .
A t h o r o u g h investigation o f the local conditions should precede the construction plan-
n i n g . T y p e o ft e r r a i n , soil conditions, existence o fb u i l d i n g s , a g r i c u l t u r a luse, i n f r a s t r u c -
ture, crossing roads a n d other lines as well as t h e accessibility are o f special interest.
16.1.2 Construction time schedule
Based o n the n u m b e r o fsupports and foundations as well as o n the length o f the line,
the quantities t ob e installed are d e t e r m i n e d a n d t h e activities t ob e carried o u t d u r i n g
a given p e r i o d o f t i m e w i l l b e calculated. T h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n steps correlated
to each other can b e clearly presented above t h e construction period i n a construction
Conductors, insulators, fittings
F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 : C o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e schedule
Full line: p l a n n i n g , broken line: actual progress o f construction
time schedule ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 ) . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e a c h i e v a b l e p r o g r e s s a n d t h e c o r r e l a t e d
e x p e n d i t u r e s , t h e construction methods c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d f o r e a c h i n d i v i d u a l s t e p
and t h e required d e m a n d for m a n p o w e r , vehicles a n d e q u i p m e n t b e established for the
c o n s t r u c t i o n gangs. F r o m t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e schedule, also t h e d a t a for supply o f
t o w e r s t u b s , s u p p o r t p a r t s , c o n d u c t o r s , i n s u l a t o r s a n d fittings t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e
can b e realized. For m o r e extended overhead line installations, the construction t i m e
s c h e d u l e c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s a network diagram. T h i s f a c i l i t a t e s t o p u r s u e t h e d e a d -
lines for m a t e r i a l s u p p l y a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n progress t o a large extent. B y inserting t h e
progress achieved i n t o t h e construction t i m e schedule, a comparison between planned
a n d achieved milestones ispossible a t a n y t i m e .
16.1.3 Mobilisation and stockyard
T h e mobilisation of the construction site b e l o n g s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p l a n n i n g a s w e l l .
C o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e office a n d s t o c k y a r d s h o u l d b e c h o s e n closely t o t h e l i n e r o u t e a n d
need good road connections as well.
A s u f f i c i e n t l y w i d e a r e a w i t h a s o l i d s u r f a c e u s a b l e f o r h e a v y l o r r i e s i s s u i t e d a s a stock-
yard f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l , c o n c r e t e f o r m w o r k , s h u t t e r i n g a n d p l a n k i n g , p a r k i n g
of vehicles a n d for a w e l l - s t r u c t u r e d storage o f t h e supplied m a t e r i a l including driven
p i l e s , r e i n f o r c e m e n t s t e e l , t o w e r p a r t s , fittings, e a r t h w i r e a n d c o n d u c t o r r e e l s . I n c a s e s
w h e r e the tower parts are supplied bundled item-wise, a sufficient large area should
be available for sorting a n d warehousing parts tower b y tower. T h e stockyard should
include a hall o r shelter where tools a n d fittings c a n b estored as w e l l as cement i f
required for s i t e - m i x e d concrete. F o r m a i n t e n a n c e a n d repair o f vehicles a n d tools, a n
accordingly equipped w o r k s h o p is installed i n case o f larger line projects.
Activities a tthe stockyard include unloading, inspecting, inventing and storing all ma-
terials. M a t e r i a l should b e inspected t o conform w i t h the shipping manifest. D a m a g e d
m a t e r i a l s h o u l d b e rejected a n d arrangements m a d e t oexpedite replacements. A deter-
m i n a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l r e q u i r i n g special protection should b e m a d e so t h a t appropriate
624 16 Construction 16.3 C o n s t r u c t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 625

cases w i t h h y d r a u l i c a l l y - o p e r a t e d cranes i n s t a l l e d o n t h e lorries. C o n d u c t o r reels are

transported b y means o f self-loading transport trailers. T h e hydraulic pressure for the
lifting equipment is provided f r o m a tractive engine t o the trailer.

16.2.2 Access roads

Access roads s h o u l d b e b u i l t w h e r e necessary, t a k i n g i n t o account t h e site topography

F i g u r e 16.2: Ropeway
storage isprovided. I n order t o reduce delays a n d cost overruns, a l l m a t e r i a l should be
o n h a n d a n d i n g o o d condition before i n s t a l l a t i o nbegins. M a t e r i a l stored i n open area
should b e protected f r o m soil w i t h wood blocking.
L a y d o w n areas a t each site s h o u l d b e prearranged. A sketch s h o w i n g m a t e r i a l place-
m e n t ishelpful for the unloading crew. Tower m a t e r i a l should b e arranged t o m i n i m i z e
r e h a n d l i n g a n d should b e checked for shortages o r damaged m e m b e r s . T h e m e m b e r s o r
t o w e r c o m p o n e n t s should b e located w i t h i n reach o f t h e erection e q u i p m e n t . I f special
h a n d l i n g o re r e c t i o n procedures arc t o b e followed, t h e y s h o u l d b e o u t l i n e d o nt h e erec-
t i o n d r a w i n g , o r appropriate sketches provided t o t h e crews. T o w e r m e m b e r s should
not b e dragged across t h e ground. I n particular, all j o i n t s should b e clean o f m u d o r
other u n d u e substances before assembly.
and line importance, considering the following conditions:
- A f t e r t h e l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n , easy access t o t h e s u p p o r t s i s r e q u i r e d , for m a i n t e -
nance purposes.
- E x i s t i n g roads s h o u l d b e used, as far as possible.
- R a i n water drainage should b e built.
- E v e r y road b u i l t should b e conveniently recorded o n design maps w i t h the n u m b e r
of towers t o b e accessed, clear reference b e i n g m a d e t o h i g h w a y s a n d secondary
roads t o reach t h e m .
- I n special cases, p r e p a r a t i o n o fe x i s t i n g r o a d s (paved o r u n p a v e d ) m a y b e r e q u i r e d
f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s . T h e r e b y , t h e s t e e p e s t r a m p s h o u l d b e l e s s t h a n 2 0 %,
the m i n i m u m curvature radius 10m and the m i n i m u m w i d t h 3m .
- T r a f f i c o f vehicles u n d e r g u y w i r e s s h o u l d b e avoided a n d , therefore, access roads
are not allowed t o cross such areas. I n areas subjected t o traffic o fa g r i c u l t u r a l
machines, guy w i r e s s h o u l d b e protected against b e i n g h i t a n d c o n v e n i e n t l y sig-
nalized.
D a m a g e t o r o a d s , p a t h s a n d fields c a u s e d b y t r a n s p o r t v e h i c l e s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d
as f a r a s possible; also i t s h o u l d b e a i m e d a t l i m i t i n g t h e l a n d d a m a g e c a u s e d b y
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l t o a n u n a v o i d a b l e e x t e n t . F o r t h i s purpose, t h e access roads
a n d w o r k i n g areas a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r sites need t o b e p r e p a r e d for h e a v y loads. I n
soft t e r r a i n , r e i n f o r c i n g b y t e m p o r a r y t r u c k w a y s is advisable.

16.2 Transportation 16.2.3 Fences, gates a n d cattle-guards

16.2.1 M e a n s of t r a n s p o r t A l l e x i s t i n g fences t h a t have t ob e o p e n e d for w o r k needs o r f u t u r e m a i n t e n a n c e s h o u l d

be r e c o m p o s e d o r protected w i t h gates, gateposts o r cattle-guards, under a n agreement
D u e t o t h e e x t e n d e d l e n g t h o f a l i n e , transportation gains h i g h i m p o r t a n c e w h e n con- w i t h t h e o w n e r . Fences f o r crossing r a i l w a y s o r h i g h w a y s a r et o b e m a d e w i t h t h e
structing t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Concrete aggregates o rr e a d y - m i x e d concrete, considerable relevant criteria o f the crossed ways.
quantities o f reinforcement steel, soil excavation, m a t e r i a l for p l a n k i n g a n d s h u t t e r i n g I n order t o i n t e r r u p t the electric continuity o f conducting m a t e r i a l , barbed-wire o r
a n d concrete f o r m w o r k , d r i v e n piles, setting t e m p l a t e s , t o w e r parts, reels w i t h e a r t h flat-wire fences r u n n i n g parallel o r crossing a power line have t o b e sectionalized a n d
w i r e s a n d c o n d u c t o r s , i n s u l a t o r s , fittings a s w e l l a s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n e q u i p m e n t n e e d t o earthed before conductor stringing.
be t r a n s p o r t e d t o o r f r o m t h e i n d i v i d u a l support sites, sometimes i n a n undeveloped
t e r r a i n w i t h o u t access roads. A n o p t i m u m o r g a n i s a t i o n o f t h e t r a n s p o r t , t h e r e f o r e , is
decisive for a n economically successful i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a project. 16.3 Construction of foundations
For construction o f t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, vehicles w i t h four-wheel drive, cross-country
gear a n d d i f f e r e n t i a l b l o c k i n g a r e used i n m o s t cases: L o r r i e s , u n i m o g a n d t r a c t o r s . 16.3.1 Introduction
O n surface w i t h peat o r sand, the wheel diameter should b e as large as possible and
T h e construction of foundations should b e considered already w h e n selecting a n d plan-
l o w pressure p n e u s w i t h a large surface a r e a s h o u l d b e used; for special cases, vehicles
n i n g t h e type o f f o u n d a t i o n t a k i n g care o f the soil and terrain conditions as well as o f
equipped w i t h tracks are used.
t h e access t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r sites. T h e construction o ffoundation types typically
I n steep t e r r a i n n o t accessible for l o r r i e s , e. g. i n h i g h m o u n t a i n s , t h e m a t e r i a l i s t r a n s - for transmission lines will b e discussed i n t h e f o l l o w i n g clauses.
p o r t e d e i t h e r w i t h ropeways o r b y helicopters t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l tower sites. F o r rope-
ways, designs are used w h i c h consist o f low-weight c o m p o n e n t s easily to b e t r a n s p o r t e d ,
16.3.2 C o n c r e t e foundations black a n d slab foundations
q u i c k l y i n s t a l l e d a n d r e m a i n i n g reusable after b e i n g d i s m a n t l e d ( F i g u r e 16.2). T h e ex-
pensive b u t versatile usable helicopter is as w e l l qualified for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f trans- T o s t a r t t h e e x c a v a t i o n o f p i t s f o r stepped concrete foundations, slab foundations o r pad
mission line materials. However, t h e relatively h i g h costs, t h e l i m i t e d load capacity a n d and chimney foundations (see c l a u s e 1 3 . 4 . 4 . 2 ) , t h e foundation pits are surveyed a t the
the sensitivity o n weather ask for a detailed p l a n n i n g o f helicopter disposition. individual tower site a n d pegged out. Concerning excavation, the following types o f soil
L o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g activities a r ep r e d o m i n a n t l y c a r r i e d o u t b y cranes; i n m o s t can b e distinguished:
 — Normal soil, c o m p r i s i n g c l a y , s i l t , s a n d a n d t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g r o c k y
fragments w h i c h are easy t ob e removed.
— Decomposing rocks, p r e s e n t i n g p e b b l e s o r g r a v e l a n d r e q u i r i n g p i c k m a t t o c k o r
even a big compressor for their removal.
— Loose stones, c o m p r i s i n g r o c k y t e r r a i n w h o s e s t o n e s h a v e s u c h s i z e s a n d d i m e n -
sions t h a t h i g h gear force i s required for excavation.
— Sound rocks w h i c h r e q u i r e v e r y h i g h g e a r f o r c e o r e x p l o s i v e s .
— Soil under water a n d swamp terrain.
H y d r a u l i c e x c a v a t o r s a r e p r e f e r a b l y u t i l i z e d f o r t h e e x c a v a t i o n i n t h e first c a t e g o r y .
I n h e a v y soils o f t h e second a n d t h i r d category, excavators w i t h back-action shovels
h a v i n g a h i g h gear force are adopted. T oloosen rock characterized b y t h e f o u r t h cate-
gory, p n e u m a t i c h a m m e r s , h e a v y excavators w i t h h y d r a u l i c h a m m e r s o r explosives are
necessary. H e r e , anchor f o u n d a t i o n s are advantageous, r e q u i r i n g a m i n i m u m o f excava-
t i o n f o r t h e c o n c r e t e m u f f o n l y . I n t e r r a i n o f t h e fifth c a t e g o r y , d r i v e n p i l e s s h o u l d b e
preferred which d o not require excavation.
T h e f o u n d a t i o n pits should b e secured against collapse a n d inadmissible entering ac-
c o r d i n g t o labour safety standards [ 1 6 . 1 ] . T h e p r o t e c t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t b y a v e r t i c a l
p l a n k i n g w i t h h o r i z o n t a l s h u t t e r i n g u s i n g t i m b e r o r steel. I n case o f steel reinforced
foundations, a 5 0 t o 100 m m thick layer o flean concrete isplaced t oachieve a subface
keeping the reinforcement clean.
F i g u r e 16.3: E a r t h drilling rig mounted F i g u r e 1 6 . 4 : P i l i n g r i g w i t h a diesel-
A f t e r h a r d e n i n g o f the lean concrete, t h e reinforcement is installed so far as necessary
o n a c r a w l e r t r a c k chassis operated hammer
according t o t h e design d r a w i n g s , a n d t h e leg m e m b e r s t u b s o r t o w e r b o d i e s are i n s t a l l e d
a n d a d j u s t e d . T h e c o n c r e t e i s p l a c e d l a y e r b y l a y e r (see clause 16.3.7.5) a n d c o m p a c t e d .
T h e concrete formwork i s i n s t a l l e d i n c a s e o f s t e p p e d o r p a d a n d c h i m n e y f o u n d a t i o n s d i a m e t e r o f 1,50 m m o u n t e d o n c r a w l e r s e x c a v a t e t h e s o i l a t d e p t h s u p t o 8,00 m .
according t o t h e progress o f w o r k . A f t e r ending t h e stipulated periods f o r concrete After the cylindrical borehole has reached the designed depth, a n expansion i n f o r m
curing, t h e concrete f o r m w o r k a n d p i t s h u t t e r i n g can b e r e m o v e d a n d t h e open space of a t r u n c a t e d cone can b e produced b y m e a n s o f a n u n d e r c u t t i n g device. A u g e r b o r e d
o f t h e p i t i s filled i n b y e x c a v a t e d s o i l a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l . f o u n d a t i o n s are equipped w i t h reinforcement steel t o provide f o r tensile forces a n d
Before beginning the backfill, the water and m u d eventually present i n the pit should b e n d i n g m o m e n t s a c t i n g o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n w h e n loaded b y lattice towers o r poles.
be r e m o v e d . I n general, t h e soil a t sites w h e r e concrete f o u n d a t i o n s are installed i n P r i o r t oplacing t h e concrete, t h e reinforcement is installed i n the borehole.
e x c a v a t e d p i t s , c a n b e u s e d f o r b a c k f i l l . H o w e v e r , t h e b a c k f i l l s h o u l d b e free o f r o o t s , T h e borehole needs t ob e secured against collapsing. T h i s can b e achieved b y a protec-
organic material and/or waste. T h e backfill should b e carried out and compacted a t tive casing or b yinstalling the reinforcement a n d placing t h e concrete i m m e d i a t e l y after
layers a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,20 m thick, considering also t h e line o w n e r criteria. I f t h e exca- a u g e r i n g t h e h o l e . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e b o r e h o l e i s filled u p w i t h c o n c r e t e t o s u c h a n e x t e n t
vated soil isn o t suitable for compaction, other m a t e r i a l should b e i m p o r t e d . T h e m a i n t h a t e n o u g h space is left for i n s t a l l i n g a n d a d j u s t i n g t h e t o w e r stubs. Since t h e f o u n -
target o f backfill i s t o achieve soil characteristics close t o those o f t h e n a t u r a l soil. d a t i o n p i t i s c o m p l e t e l y filled u p w i t h c o n c r e t e , t h e e x c a v a t e d m a t e r i a l i s d i s t r i b u t e d
Compaction should preferably b e made b y motor-driven hammers. I fthey a r e n o t o n t h e tower site o r carried t o a d a m p .
available, m a n u a l compaction equipment w i t h a weight o f about 2 0 k g is acceptable.
T h e backfill services, once b e g u n , s h o u l d b e c o m p l e t e d u p t o t h e surface level a t t h e 16.3.4 D r i v e n pile foundations
s a m e day. I f this i s n o t feasible, i t is necessary t o scarify t h e superficial layer o f t h e
e x i s t i n g backfill, before c o n t i n u i n g t o set n e w layers u p t o t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e w o r k . 16.3.4.1 C o m m o n rules
C o m p a c t i o n o fsoil above concrete bases should begin n o t before 2 4h o u r s after placing
Driven pile foundations (see c l a u s e 1 3 . 4 . 4 . 5 ) a r e o f t e n a d o p t e d i n c a s e o f l o w b e a r i n g
the concrete.
soils o r a g r o u n d - w a t e r table close t o the surface. T h e conditions o f a n overhead line
C o m p a c t i o n should b e carried out thoroughly i n order t oachieve characteristics o f the p r o j e c t i m p o s e s e v e r a l s p e c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e pile driving device ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 4 ) .
backfill a s close as possible t o those o f t h e u n d i s t u r b e d soil. T h e residual excavation Its weight s h o u l d b e as low as possible w i t h respect t o t h e m o b i l i t y a n d cross-country
m a t e r i a l i s d i s t r i b u t e d o n t h e t o w e r site o r carried t o a d a m p . I n case o f a n inclined suitability. O n soft soil surfaces, t h e crawler tracks need t ob e equipped w i t h w i d e a n d
terrain, special care needs t ob e t a k e n t h a t the required soil surcharge w i l l b e achieved. long tracks t oa t t a i n a low soil pressure. T oachieve a short period o f t i m e t omove the
pile d r i v i n g device f r o m one site t o the next, the piling rig w i t h the h a m m e r should
16.3.3 Augerbored foundations be easily erected and dismantled. T h e rig should p e r m i t rakes u p t o 250 m m / m . Its
height should b e tall e n o u g h such t h a t 1 4 t o2 0 m long piles can b e d r i v e n . T h e action
Auger-bored foundations (see c l a u s e 13.4.4.3) r e q u i r e s t a b l e soils w h i c h c a n b e augered. w e i g h t o ft h e d r o p h a m m e r s h o u l d a p p r o x i m a t e l y b e e q u a l t ot h e weight o ft h e piles t o
For t h e excavation o fsuch foundations, e a r t h - d r i l l i n g rigs are used w h i c h are m o u n t e d be d r i v e n .
o n c r o s s - c o u n t r y v e h i c l e s w i t h w h e e l s o r t r a c k s ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 ) . Earth-drilling rigs s h o u l d D u r i n g pile driving, the position o f the pile, its deviation, distorsion and penetration
reach t h e t o w e r sites w i t h o u t e x t r e m e effort. A u g e r s o r split buckets w i t h a maximum as w e l l a s i t s r a k e h a v e t o b e m o n i t o r e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d . T h e d r i v i n g p r o c e s s i s r e c o r d e d
628 16 Construction 16.3 C o n s t r u c t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 629

T a b l e 1 6 . 1 : E x a m p l e for a driving report

Line: 110 k V line T-off Haffeld HT35; tower no. 17H; tower
type W A 2 + 0 , type of pile: steel tube 609 x 10; length 12,5 m;
diesel hammer D30-32; Date: June 25, 2000
Depth Number of blows for tower leg
m 1 2 3 4
0 to 1 10 9 8 11
1 to 2 15 12 9 13
2 to 3 19 14 12 16
3 to 4 22 18 15 19
4 to 5 38 22 19 24
Figure 16.5: Test loading
5 to 6 51 33 24 31 bridge
6 to 7 72 48 37 38
7 to 8 81 57 49 44
8 to 9 90 83 55 55 16.3.4.4 Testing
9 to 10 95 91 73 76
10 to 11 108 96 88 83 T e s t i n g o f installed f o u n d a t i o n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r o f piles a n d anchors, i s p a r t o f the con-
11 to 12 118 105 100 97 s t r u c t i o n . A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 1 7 7 3 [ 1 6 . 2 ] , uplift proof testing o f t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e p i l e s
12 to 12,5 91 83 74 61 i n heterogeneous soils a n d v a r y i n g soil densities i s r e c o m m e n d e d . A d o p t i n g t h i s proce-
In total 810 671 563 568 dure, the reliability o f the f o u n d a t i o n can b e increased a n d the necessary investment
Volume of grout ( m 3 ) 1,75 1,80 1,65 2,00 lowered. A tleast 5 % o f all installed piles should b e proof-tested. However, tests a t a
Grouting factor 0,81 0,83 0,76 0,93
group o f piles o r a t piles w i t h v e r y h i g h capacity cannot b e carried o u t a t overhead
line tower sites because o f t h e necessary e q u i p m e n t a n d reaction a b u t m e n t . According
i n a driving report. T h e n u m b e r o f b l o w s f o r o n e m e t e r o f p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h o f t h e p i l e t o [ 1 6 . 2 ] , t h e proof test load s h o u l d b e 6 0 t o 7 5 % o f t h e e x p e c t e d l i m i t l o a d o r 1 2 5 %
into t h e soil p e r m i t s conclusions o n d r i v i n g resistance a n d o n uplift load capability o f o f t h e w o r k i n g l o a d [16.3]. T h e t e s t loads a r ea p p l i e d b y h y d r a u l i c jacks. I ncase o f
t h e piles. A p i l e d r i v i n g r e p o r t is s h o w n i nT a b l e 1 6 . 1 . R e f e r e n c e [16.2] gives g u i d a n c e t e n s i l e t e s t i n g u p t o i o a d s o f 1 0 0 0 k N , a tesl loading bridge ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 5 ) i s a r r a n g e d
on preparation o fdriving reports. above the pile t o b e tested such that the loading axis coincides w i t h the pile axis. For
the i n d i v i d u a l l o a d i n g steps, t h e pile displacements are m e a s u r e d a n d recorded i n a
load-displacement diagram. E x a m p l e s f o r t e s t r e c o r d i n g s a x e c o n t a i n e d i n [ 1 6 . 2 ] . A l o w
16.3.4.2 Steel piles displacement u n d e r load indicates a higher b e a r i n g capacity o f t h e pile. B a r e steel piles
B o x - t y p e , tubes o r H - b e a m sections are suited for t r a n s m i s s i o n line foundations. A l lo f should b e tested not earlier t h a n three weeks after driving since the skin friction and
t h e m a r e o p e n a t t h e i r p i l e p o i n t ( s e e c l a u s e 1 3 . 4 . 4 . 5 , b a x e steel piles), i . e . t h e y a r e the tensile capacity increase considerably after pile d r i v i n g . G r o u t e d steel piles can b e
driven into t h e soil w i t h o u t a specially prepared point. A pile helmet adjusted t o the t e s t e d a f t e r h a r d e n i n g o f t h e m o r t a r (see c l a u s e 1 3 . 5 . 3 ) .
pile profile avoids d a m a g e o f t h e pile heads b y pile d r i v i n g . E x t e n s i o n s o f piles can b e I n F i g u r e 1 6 . 6 , load-displacement diagrams axe s h o w n f o r t w o r o u t i n e p r o o f t e s t s c a r r i e d
carried out b y welding o r fish-plating a b u t t joint w i t h the additional pile length o n o u t a t piles w h i c h w e r e loaded t o 1,2 t i m e s t h e w o r k i n g - l o a d . T h e l o a d d i s p l a c e m e n t
site. T h e welded b u t t j o i n t is reinforced b y welded fishplates which c a nbe arranged l i n e s h a v e b e e n e x t r a p o l a t e d t o 1,5 t i m e s t h e w o r k i n g l o a d . F o r p i l e 1 ,a n e x t r a p o l a t e d
inside o r outside t h e pile. I ncase o f a d r i v i n g resistance t o o h i g h o r soil layers n o t d i s p l a c e m e n t o f 5,2 m m is e x p e c t e d w h i l e p i l e 2 w i l l r e a c h a d i s p l a c e m e n t o f o n l y 1,5 m m
a n y m o r e suited f o r pile driving, the surplus pile length c a n b e shortened b y c u t t i n g at t h i s l o a d . D i s p l a c e m e n t s o f b o t h piles axe b e l o w t h e l i m i t o f 6,0 m m .
w i t h a blow-torch. T h e uplift resistance o f the shortened pile should b e verified b y a
load test.
16.3.5 Grillage foundations

T h e e q u i p m e n t m e n t i o n e d h e r e a f t e r s h o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g grillage foun-
16.3.4.3 Steel piles g r o u t e d b y m o r t a r
dations ( s e e c l a u s e 1 3 . 4 . 4 . 4 ) :
T h e steel parts h a v i n g a box-type, t u b e o r H - b e a m cross section are provided w i t h a -Inclination and torsion templates;
laterally p r o t r u d i n g point for cladding t h e pile b y g r o u t (seeclause 13.4.3.4). D u r i n g -Face t e m p l a t e s o r m e a s u r e s d e t e r m i n i n g i n c l i n a t i o n s o f each face o f t h e stubs;
p i l e d r i v i n g , t h e s p a c e f o r m e d b y t h e p r o t r u d i n g p i l e p o i n t w i l l b e filled f r o m t h e p o i n t -M e a s u r i n g e q u i p m e n t o r devices such as transits, optical levels, m e a s u r i n g tapes,
up t o t h e g r o u n d surface w i t h concrete m o r t a r b y means o f a pressuring hose guided p l u m b s , squares, b u b b l e levels.
t o t h e p i l e p o i n t . A p r e s s u r e o f 1 0 b a r i s a i m e d a t f o r t h e filling p r o c e s s . R e a d y - m i x e d Before starting grillage assembly, soil regeneration should b e carried o u ti f existing
grout supplied b y a concrete plant should b e preferred i n general and pressed i n b y a soil is very w e a k a n d m o r e resistant soil needs t o b e t a k e n f r o m a n o t h e r area. T h e
concrete p u m p . However, site-mixed grout is used as well. construction activities comprise:
T h e r a t i o o f t h e filled i n m o r t a r v o l u m e t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d s p a c e f o r g r o u t - - Levelling o f excavation b o t t o m which should be covered b y a n approximately
i n g i s n a m e d grouting factor. I t i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d a t a e x p r e s s i n g t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h 0,10 m t h i c k layer o f sand.
t h e s p a c e f o r m e d b y t h e p i l e p o i n t i s filled u p w i t h g r o u t . T h i s f a c t o r i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e - Positioning a n d levelling o f grillage base profiles.
driving report a n d c a n b e u s e d t o a s s e s s t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e grouted steel - A s s e m b l i n g a n d levelling o f grillage support m e m b e r s o r tower stubs (see clause
pile ( s e e T a b l e 1 6 . 1 ) . 16.5).

— F i l l i n g o f a l l v o i d s i n b e t w e e n g r i l l a g e m e m b e r s w i t h f r i a b l e m a t e r i a l , e. g. s a n d .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e grillage base profiles are cast i n concrete, i f specified.
— T h e n , backfilling needs t o b e carried o u tcarefully w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g t h e steel
parts. T h e r e f o r e , mechanical backfilling is n o t advisable. Instead, t h e backfill is
placed i nmanually.
— C o m p a c t i o n o fbackfill iscarried o u t w i t h a p n e u m a t i c h a m m e r o rb y a compactor
h a v i n g a w e i g h t o f a t least 1 0kg. I t i s preferable t o use t h e s a m e soil for backfilling
as r e m o v e d d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n , i f s u i t a b l e . T h e l a y e r t h i c k n e s s for b a c k f i l l s h o u l d
be a r o u n d 0,20 m .
— I tis r e c o m m e n d e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e backfill u n t i l a height o f a b o u t 0,30 m above
the ground level, i n order t o avoid water accumulation a r o u n d t h e foundation.
G r i l l a g e f o u n d a t i o n s h a v e b e e n successfully u s e d for l i n e s i n less c o r r o s i v e s o i l c o n d i t i o n s
a n d for towers w i t h relatively l o w f o u n d a t i o n loads.
16.3.6 Anchor foundations
T r a n s m i s s i o n line towers a tsites w i t h rock subsoil can b e erected o n foundations using
tensile anchors, i f t h e r o c k c o m p l i e s w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s W O a n d W I a c c o r d i n g t o
T a b l e 13.8 characterized a s n o t t o b e loosened m a n u a l l y . Special anchors are adopted
for the stay wires o f guyed towers.
T h e d r i l l i n g s i n t o t h e r o c k a r e c a r r i e d o u t b y rock drilling rigs w h i c h a d o p t r o t a t i o n a l
drilling, beat drilling o r beat-rotational drilling methods. F o r t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, the
b e a t d r i l l i n g r i g s u s i n g c o m p r e s s e d a i r for r i n s i n g o u t t h e m a t e r i a l a r e u s e d . D r i l l i n g
d i a m e t e r s u p t o 120 m m can b e achieved.
T o transfer the loads f r o m the anchor t o the subsoil, the borehole together w i t h the
i n s t a l l e d a n c h o r b a r is cast w i t h m o r t a r . M o r t a r p r e m i x e d b y t h e p r o d u c e r o r s i t e - m i x e d
m o r t a r w i t h a d m i x t u r e s can b e used. T h e borehole diameter should b e 4 0 m m larger
t h a n t h e n o m i n a l diameter o ft h e anchor bar t o achieve complete covering o ft h e anchor
bars b y m o r t a r as w e l l as the required resistance a n d sufficient corrosion protection.
Spacers are required t o guarantee t h e necessary concrete covering.
T h e tensile strength can b e tested after sufficient hardening o f the m o r t a r . W h e n using
premixed cast-in m o r t a r o r site-mixed m o r t a r w i t h admixtures f o ra n early strength,
testing can b e carried o u t already after a few days. According t oc o m m o n practice, o n e
anchor istested for each i n d i v i d u a l foundation. T h e anchors are connected t othe tower
stubs b y means o f a steel-reinforced concrete muff.
16.3.7 C o n c r e t e for foundations
16.3.7.1 R e a d y - m i x e d and site-mixed concrete
Ready-mixed concrete s u p p l i e d b y a c o n c r e t e p l a n t s h o u l d b e p r e f e r r e d for foundations
of o v e r h e a d lines. I n E u r o p e a n d o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries, a narea-covering s u p p l y
w i t h o n l y s h o r t t r a n s p o r t distances is g u a r a n t e e d ; i n t h i s case, t h e use o f r e a d y - m i x e d
concrete is economic a n dprovides a guaranteed quality b y supervision a n d quality
testing a t t h e concrete plant a n d d u r i n g transport.
I n less i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s a n d i n case o f n o n - a c c e p t a b l y l o n g t r a n s p o r t d i s t a n c e s ,
the concrete needs t o b e m i x e d o n site. T h i s is t h e reason w h y the basic principles o f
concrete technology a r e p r e s e n t e d h e r e . T h e c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h c l a s s C 2 0 / 2 5 o r a t m o s t
C 3 0 / 3 7 a c c o r d i n g t o [16.4] i s sufficient for f o u n d a t i o n s o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s . E x p e r i e n c e d
w o r k m a n s h i p is necessary t o prepare high-quality concrete o n site.
16.3.7.2 Constituent materials
Cement
Cement i s a h y d r a u l i c b i n d e r f o r m o r t a r a n d c o n c r e t e . W h e n m i x e d w i t h w a t e r , c e m e n t
hardens a t the air a n d is capable doing so under water. T h e hardened cement paste
f o r m e d s u c h is w a t e r r e s i s t a n t . T h e s t a n d a r d s E N V 1 9 7 [16.5] a n dD I N 1 1 6 4 [16.6]
apply for cement. E N V 197 distinguishes between three m a i n types:
— C E M I : O r d i n a r y P o r t l a n d cement,
— C E M I I :P o r t l a n d iron pulverized fuel-cement, P o r t l a n d ash cement, Portland
limestone cement,
— C E M III: Blast furnace cement.
C e m e n t isoffered w i t h special features such as " L H P C " for low-heat P o r t l a n d cement,
"SR." f o rh i g h - s u l p h u r - r e s i s t i n g cement a n d " L A " f o rl o w alcali c e m e n t a n d w i t h dif-
f e r i n g s t r e n g t h classes.
Ordinary Portland cement w i t h t h e strength classes 3 2 , 5 o r 4 2 , 5 i s u s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y
for overhead line foundations, whereby t h e n o m i n a l s t r e n g t h after 2 8 days will b e a t
least 32,5 N / m m 2 o r 42,5 N / m m 2 , respectively. T h e letter " R " (rapid) a d d e d t o t h e
s t r e n g t h class refers t o a n e a r l y s t r e n g t h . F o r o r d i n a r y P o r t l a n d c e m e n t , t h e i n i t i a l
s e t t i n g t i m e m a y n o t b e l e s s t h a n 6 0 m i n u t e s ( a t 20°C) a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 6 . 6 ] a f t e r a d d i n g
t h e w a t e r . T h e concrete has t o b e placed w i t h i n t h i s p e r i o d o f t i m e . I n case o f cement
according t o [16.5], t h e s e t t i n g m a y s t a r t a l r e a d y after 4 5 m i n u t e s . T h e s t a r t o f s e t t i n g
c a n b e d e l a y e d b y admixtures, e . g . c a l c i u m s u l p h a t e .
C e m e n t takes u p h u m i d i t y and carbonic acid f r o m the air resulting i na strength re-
duction. Therefore, the cement needs t o b e protected against these impacts d u r i n g
t r a n s p o r t a n d s t o r i n g (see [16.7], c l a u s e 2 . 1 . 3 ) . C e m e n t u s e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n s t r u c -
tion should not be older t h a n three months.
Aggregates
F o r concrete aggregates, E N V 2 0 6 [ 1 6 . 4 ] r e f e r s t o n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s o r p r o j e c t s p e c -
ifications. Aggregates according t o s t a n d a r d r e q u i r e m e n t s a s specified i n D I N 4226-1
[16.8] a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s . T h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h i s a n e s s e n t i a l p r o p e r t y
of the concrete. I t w i l l b e achieved if the compressive s t r e n g t h o f hardened cement paste
a n d a g g r e g a t e s i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e concrete compressive strength e n v i s a g e d . I n p r a c t i c e ,
t h e compressive s t r e n g t h o f t h e aggregates is higher t h a n t h a t o f t h e h a r d e n e d cement
paste a n d , therefore, n o t decisive for t h e concrete s t r e n g t h . T h e compressive s t r e n g t h
of concrete is not m u c h affected b y t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e aggregates unless t h e y were very
weak.
632 16 Construction
T h e particle size distribution o f a g g r e g a t e s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y grading curves. T h e p r o -
p o r t i o n i n m a s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e sizes c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f
t h e t o t a l m a s s w i t h sieves o f v a r y i n g m a s h o r h o l e w i d t h s . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e a g -
gregates s h o u l d s h o w a g r a d i n g c u r v e w i t h i n t h e lines A a n d C ( F i g u r e 16.7) [16.7]. T h e
shape o faggregates is usually described b y items such as rounded, angular o r irregular
w h e r e b y l o n g i t u d i n a l l y s t r e t c h e d a n d flat p a r t i c l e s o f t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e 4 / 3 2 s h o u l d b e
l i m i t e d t o below 5 0 % o f mass p r o p o r t i o n . T h e grading o f aggregates determines the
water demand a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e c e m e n t d e m a n d . T h e m o r e f i n e p a r t i c l e s t h e
aggregate m i x t u r e contains the higher the w a t e r d e m a n d will b e and, therefore, t h e
cement d e m a n d w i l l rise.
W h e n designing a concrete m i x t u r e , the requirements concerning concrete properties
a n d w o r k a b i l i t y h a v e t o b e complied w i t h a n d t h e economics a n d possibilities o f aggre-
gate p r o c u r e m e n t t ob e considered as well. For several overhead power line construction
sites, i t m i g h t b e d i f f i c u l t t o p r o c u r e g r a v e l o r c r u s h e d g r a v e l w i t h p a r t i c l e sizes a b o v e
4 m m . A h i g h aggregate content o f sand requires a nincreased a m o u n t o f m i x i n g water
and a higher a m o u n t o f cement.
T h e ultra-fines content c o n s i s t s o f c e m e n t a n d t h e a g g r e g a t e s w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e
0/0,125 m m . U l t r a - f i n e s contents a r enecessary f o r a superior adhesive performance
a n d avoiding demixing. A n ultra-fines (0/0,125) content o f 350 k g / m 3 a n d a n ultra-
fines p l u s v e r y fine s a n d ( 0 , 1 2 5 / 0 , 2 5 0 ) c o n t e n t o f 4 2 0 k g / m 3 i s e n v i s a g e d f o r o v e r h e a d
line f o u n d a t i o n s . A too h i g h content o f ultra-fines particles increases t h e w a t e r d e m a n d
a n d affects t h e frost resistance a n d t h e resistance t o chemical a t t a c k s o f t h e h a r d e n e d
concrete. T h e content o f ultra-fines particles s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o a n extent necessary
for a s m o o t h placing o f t h e concrete (see[16.7, 16.9]).
S e t t l e a b l e solids w i t h p a r t i c l e sizes b e l o w 0,063 m m r e d u c e t h e b o n d i n g b e t w e e n t h e
cement paste a n d t h e aggregates especially i f these settleable solids are clayey; therefore,
t h e i r c o n t e n t n e e d s t o b e l i m i t e d . P e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t s a r e g i v e n i n [ 1 6 . 8 ] . Settleable solid
particles a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y c o m b i n e d w i t h fine g r a i n a g g r e g a t e s . F o r t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e
0 / 4 , t h e l i m i t o f settleable solids is 4 , 0 % b y mass. B y m e a n s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t test
according t o D I N 4226-3 [16.10], t h e c o n t e n t c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e t o g e t h e r w i t h n o n - s o l u b l e p a r t i c l e s o f o r g a n i c o r i g i n , e. g . h u m u s .
16.3 C o n s t r u c t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 633
A n y c o m p o n e n t s o f o r g a n i c o r i g i n , sugar, s u l p h a t e s a n d chlorides affect t h e concrete
quality negatively i n different manners a n dshould b e avoided. Reliable limits a n d
v e r i f i c a t i o n m e t h o d s a r e s t i p u l a t e d i n [16.8] a n d [16.10], r e s p e c t i v e l y .
M i x i n g w a t e r a n d s u r f a c e w a t e r of aggregates
Mixing water i s a d d e d t o t h e c o n c r e t e d u r i n g t h e m i x i n g p r o c e d u r e . D r i n k i n g w a t e r
a n d w a t e r f r o m any other source not adversely affecting the essential properties o f t h e
concrete c a nb e used. W a t e r c o n t a i n i n g o i l , grease, sugar, dust, h u m u s o r peat is n o t
s u i t e d a s is w a t e r f r o m m i n e r a l sources, t o o . I n case o f d o u b t s , t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f t h e
water should be examined.
Salty seawater could b e used f o r p l a i n concrete a n d f o r reinforced concrete, i f the
chloride contents w i t h i n the concrete r e m a i n e d below generally accepted limits. H o w -
ever, n u m e r o u s corrosion d a m a g e w a sexperienced o n t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a , w h e r e
aggregates a n d m i x i n g w a t e r f r o m t h e ocean were used. T h e damage w a scaused b y
carbonizing a n d attack b y chlorides and other salts present i n the m i x i n g water. T h e r e -
fore, s a l t y seawater o r aggregates t a k e n f r o m t h e sea are n o longer accepted i n t h i s area
at all.
A certain a m o u n t o f w a t e r r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s u m o f free m i x i n g w a t e r a n d surface
water o f the aggregates is necessary t o achieve t h edesired consistence o f t h e fresh
concrete. T h e w a t e r content o f t h e aggregates f r o m w h i c h i t is concluded o n t h e surface
w a t e r c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d b y a relatively cost-effective d r y i n g test. F o r overhead lines,
values f r o m experience o r a v i s u a l assessment o f t h e aggregates o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n site
are sufficient.
I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , a n aggregate m i x t u r e w i t h a m a x i m u m p a r t i c l e size o f 32 m m w i t h a
g r a d i n g i n t h e r a n g e A / B c o n t a i n s 2 , 5 % o f m a s s o f w a t e r o n a v e r a g e a s surface moisture.
I n c a s e o f 1 9 8 0 k g a g g r e g a t e s f o r 1 m 3 c o n c r e t e , t h i s w i l l b e 1 9 8 0 k g • 0 , 0 2 5 =s 5 0 k g
w a t e r , i . e. a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 % o f t h e r e q u i r e d w a t e r w i l l b e s u p p l i e d b y t h e s u r f a c e
moisture.
Concrete admixtures
Concrete admixtures m a y b e a d d e d t o t h econcrete t o c o n t r o l t h e properties o f t h e
fresh o r hardened concrete. A certificate issued b y a civil engineering supervising o r -
ganisation or, a t least b y t h e supplier, is a p r e c o n d i t i o n for their application. Concrete
plasticizers improve consistence a n d w o r k a b i l i t y w i t h o u t m o d i f y i n g the water-cement
r a t i o . Retarding o r a c c e l e r a t i n g admixtures c o n t r o l t h e s e t t i n g t i m e . F o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s ,
r e t a r d i n g a d m i x t u r e s axe f r e q u e n t l y necessary t op l a c e t h e concrete before i n i t i a l s e t t i n g
in case o f long t r a n s p o r t distances o r w a r m weather.
A d m i x t u r e s f o r water and damp proofing s h o u l d a v o i d t h e i n g r e s s o f w a t e r i n t o t h e
concrete. However, expedient concrete composition a n d compaction achieve the same
d e n s i t y i n t h e m o s t cases. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f concrete a d m i x t u r e s a s s u m e s t h e verifica-
tion o f the suitability o f a concrete m i x t u r e . Therefore, suitability tests o r experience
w i t h c o m p a r a b l e m i x t u r e s o v e r m a n y y e a r s axe r e q u i r e d .
16.3.7.3 R e q u i r e m e n t s on c o n c r e t e a n d c o n c r e t e p r o p e r t i e s
Concrete strength
T h e concrete strength classes C20/25 a n d C30/S7 a c c o r d i n g t o E N V 2 0 6 [ 1 6 . 4 ] a r e
u s e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e first v a l u e r e f e r s t o t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h
obtained b y testing a cylinder w i t h 1 5 0 m m diameter a n d3 0 0 m m height a n d t h e
second value t o the compressive s t r e n g t h o f a cube w i t h 150 m mlength o f edge, b o t h
g i v e n i n N / m m 2 . P r e p a r a t i o n a n d s t o r a g e o f test specimens a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n I S O
2736 [16.11]. D u e t o t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f s i t e - m i x e d concrete, o v e r h e a d l i n e f o u n d a t i o n s
 70
T a b l e 1 6 . 2 : Consistence ranges a n d indices for concrete
Spreading N/mm2
Consistence Compaction Slump Vebe
range index factor time
(mm) (mm) (sec)
Stiff Fl CI Sl VI
up to 340 1,45-1,26 10-40 30-21
Plastic F2 C2 S2 V2
340 to 410 1,25-1,11 50-90 20-11
Soft F3 C3 S3 V3
420 to 480 1,10-1,04 100-150 10-5
Flowing F4 S4 V4
490 to 600 > 160 < 4

s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d for t h e s t r e n g t h class C 2 0 / 2 5 s o f a r a s possible. T h e s t r e n g t h class

g 1QI 1 1 1 1 1 1
C 3 0 / 3 7 c a n b e used i n case o fr e a d y - m i x e d concrete. O T>,3 0.4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1,0
A c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h d a t a a c c o r d i n g t o [16.4] t o those specified i n Water/cemeni ratio — Finess index

national standards cannot b e established directly and is only possible t o a limited

e x t e n t . T h e d a t a a c c o r d i n g t o D I N 1045 refer t o a c u b e w i t h 200 m m l e n g t h o f edges
a n d s t o r i n g c o n d i t i o n s for t h e s p e c i m e n s different f r o m those a c c o r d i n g t o [16.11].
T h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e h a r d e n e d c e m e n t p a s t e a r e p r e v a l e n t f o r t h e concrete compressive
strength,. T h e s e p r o p e r t i e s d e p e n d o n t h e s t r e n g t h c l a s s o f t h e c e m e n t a n d o n t h e w a t e r -
cement ratio. Guideline data to determine the concrete compressive strength depending
o n t h e c e m e n t class a n d w a t e r - c e m e n t r a t i o can b e o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 16.8.
W h e n carrying out a suitability test, a higher strength needs t o b e verified t h a n the
n o m i n a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n c r e t e . E . g., t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f a 150 m m t e s t c u b e
s h o u l d b e 3 5 N / m m 2 i n case o f concrete class C 2 0 / 2 5 .
Consistence
F o u r consistence ranges are distinguished for fresh concrete: Stiff, plastic, soft a n d flow-
i n g ( I S O 4 1 0 3 , [ 1 6 . 1 2 ] ) . T h e consistence i s a s u m m a r i z i n g p r o p e r t y f o r t h e w o r k a b i l i t y
o f t h e c o n c r e t e , w h e r e b y t h e consistence data axe u s e d a s m e a s u r i n g a n d a s s e s s m e n t
q u a n t i t i e s . F o u r m e t h o d s c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e consistence indices: T h e s p r e a d -
i n g i n d e x test [16.13], t h e c o m p a c t i o n test [16.14], t h e S l u m p test [16.15] a n d t h e V e b e
t e s t [16.16]. F o r o v e r h e a d l i n e f o u n d a t i o n s , p r e d o m i n a n t l y plastic c o n c r e t e is u s e d w h i c h
c a n b e w e l l c o m p a c t e d b y v i b r a t o r s . T a b l e 16.2 contains t h e consistence ranges a n d t h e
related consistence indices according t o standardized test m e t h o d s .
Water and cement demand
Cement a n d water demand o f c o n c r e t e a r e c l o s e l y c o r r e l a t e d . T h e c o r r e l a t i o n i s d e -
s c r i b e d b y t h e water-cement ratio d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o o f t h e w e i g h t o f w a t e r t o t h e
weight o f cement. I n F i g u r e 16.8, t h e concrete s t r e n g t h is s h o w n a s a f u n c t i o n o f the
w a t e r - c e m e n t ratio. However, e n o u g h w a t e r isnecessary t o p r o v i d e for g o o d w o r k a b i l i t y
a n d compaction w i t h the available compaction tools, e.g. vibrators. A water-cement
ratio between 0,5 and 0,6should b e used w h e n preparing plastic concrete for tower
f o u n d a t i o n s . I f a w a t e r - c e m e n t r a t i o o f 0,5 i senvisaged, t h e w a t e r d e m a n d c o r r e s p o n d s
to half o fthe cement weight.
T h e r e are several possibilities t o determine the water and cement d e m a n d o f a n a g -
g r e g a t e m i x t u r e . O n e o f t h e s e m e t h o d s i s b a s e d o n t h e finess index, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e
p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e a g g r e g a t e s . T h e finess i n d e x i s a s c a l e f o r t h e t o t a l s u r f a c e
of all particles and, therefore, for the water d e m a n d w h i c h depends directly o n this
s u r f a c e . T h e finess i n d e x i s o b t a i n e d b y s u m m i n g u p t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e s t s i e v e r e s i d u a l s
o f a test sieve s e t i npercent b y mass a n d d i v i d i n g t h i s s u m b y 100. D e t a i l s c a n b e
found i n [16.7].
F i g u r e 16.8: Compressive concrete strength F i g u r e 1 6 . 9 : D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e consist-
depending o nt h e water-cement ratio, ce- ence-depending water demand o f aggregate
m e n t classes C E 4 2 , 5 a n d C E 3 2 . 5 , cubes w i t h m i x t u r e s b y m e a n s o f finess i n d e x
150 m m l e n g t h o f edges a n d storage o f t h e
cubes according t o I S O 2736
F r o m F i g u r e 1 6 . 9 , t h e water demand o f a n a g g r e g a t e m i x t u r e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e n v i s a g e d
c o n s i s t e n c e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b a s e d o n t h e finess i n d e x . E . g . , 1 6 8 1 / m 3 w a t e r w i l l b e
necessary for aggregates h a v i n g a g r a d i n g curve B 3 2 t oachieve a plastic concrete close
t o t h e l i m i t o f soft consistence. F o r concrete s t r e n g t h class C 2 0 / 2 5 , a m i n i m u m c e m e n t
content o f 280 k g / m 3 is r e q u i r e d according t o T a b l e 16.3. I n case o f a w a t e r - c e m e n t
r a t i o o f0,6, a t o t a l o f 168 1 / m 3 w a t e r w i l l b e necessary, a r e s u l t w h i c h i salso o b t a i n e d
from F i g u r e 16.9.
I n s o m e project specifications, a m i n i m u m cement content i sstipulated, l y i n g well
above the content necessary due t oconcrete technology. Such stipulations take care o f
frequently adverse conditions a n d uncertainties for m i x i n g a n d h a n d l i n g o fconcrete o n
site.
Concrete temperature
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 6 . 4 ] a n d [ 1 6 . 9 ] , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e fresh c o n c r e t e s h o u l d n e i t h e r
e x c e e d 30°C n o r f a l l b e l o w 5°C d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n m i x i n g a n d p l a c i n g o f t h e
c o n c r e t e . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e fresh c o n c r e t e c a n b e c o n t r o l l e d b y h e a t i n g u p t h e
aggregates a n d the added water during cold weather. I t needs t ob e ensured that the
t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e c o n c r e t e d o e s n o t f a l l b e l o w 5°C b e f o r e t h e s t r e n g t h h a s a c h i e v e d
at least 6 N / m m 2 . I nh o t weather, a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d t o avoid h e a t i n g u p o f
aggregates and water. T h e water needs t ob e cooled i n extreme climate.
Durability of concrete
Concrete s h o u l d d u r a b l y protect the reinforcement against corrosion a n d resist given
e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions. S t a n d a r d E N V 206 [16.4], therefore, requires measures re-
l a t e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g five exposure conditions:
— (1) D r y e n v i r o n m e n t ;
— (2 a / b ) H u m i d e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h o u t a n d w i t h frost, respectively;
— ( 3 )H u m i d e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h frost a n d effects o f de-icing salts;
— ( 4 )A t t a c k b y seawater e n v i r o n m e n t ;
— ( 5 a / b / c ) A t t a c k b y chemically aggressive e n v i r o n m e n t (low, m e d i u m , high).
636 16 Construction 16.3 C o n s t r u c t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 637

According t o E N V 206, Table 4, requirements o n t h e composition o f the concrete con- T a b l e 1 6 . 3 : R e q u i r e m e n t s o n standard-mixed concrete C 2 0 / 2 5 depending o n exposure
c e r n i n g minimum cement content a n d m a x i m u m w a t e r - c e m e n t r a t i o , o n t h e t y p e o f c o n d i t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o E N V 2 0 6 [16.4] a n d o n c o n c r e t e w i t h o u t s u i t a b i l i t y t e s t a c c o r d i n g
c e m e n t , e. g. c e m e n t w i t h s u l p h a t e r e s i s t a n c e , a n d f o r c o a t i n g s t o p r o t e c t t h e c o n c r e t e t o D I N 1 0 4 5 [16.9]. M a x i m u m p a r t i c l e s i z e 3 2 m m , c e m e n t a c c o r d i n g t o s t r e n g t h c l a s s 3 2 , 5
i n direct contact w i t h aggressive m e d i a (exposure c o n d i t i o n 5 c) result for t h e i n d i v i d u a l ENV 206 D I N 1045
exposure conditions. N a t i o n a l standards m a y b e used until E N V 206 will b e m a n d a t o r y VjUllUll 1U11 Water/ Cement Grading Water/ Cement content for consistence class
of cement content curve cement F1/C1/S1 F2/C2/S2 F3/C3/S3
a p p r o v e d . A c c o r d i n g t o [16.9], concrete c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s for e x p o s u r e
exposure ratio kg/m3 ratio kg/m3
c o n d i t i o n 2 b (concrete for e x t e r n a l application) s h o u l d b e used for o v e r h e a d lines.
2a 0,60 280 No information
2b 0,55 280 A/B 0,6 300 2 > 3202> 3502>
16.3.7.4 Ready-mixed concrete B/C 0,6 350 2 ) 380 2 '

CD
Ci
5a 0,55 2803) n. p. 1 * n. p.» n. p . 1 '
Ready-mixed concrete i s p r e p a r e d i n a c o n c r e t e p l a n t , m i x e d i n t h e p l a n t o r o n a t r u c k 5b 0,50 3003) n. p . 1 ' n. p . 1 ' n. p . 1 '
m i x e r a n d delivered t o site i n a c o n d i t i o n r e a d y f o r placing. R e a d y - m i x e d concrete 5c 0,45 300 3 ) n. p. 1 * n. p . 1 1 n. p . 1 '
presents the m o s t economic solution for m a n y overhead lines, complying reliably w i t h U Not permissible without suitability test
t h e q u a l i t y a n d t e s t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n [16.4], t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e construc- 2) Concrete for external applications according to D I N 1045, 6.5.5.1 - Table 4
t i o n c o m p a n y (user o f concrete) a n d the producer o f the concrete is controlled w i t h 3) In case of a sulphate content above 500 mg per kg water or above 3000 mg per kg soil, sulphate
reference t o t h e following types o f order: resistance cement needs to be used

— P r e s c r i b e d m i x t u r e : T h e concrete c o m p o s i t i o n a n d t h e aggregates are specified

by the construction company.
— D e s i g n m i x t u r e : T h e concrete producer selects t h e aggregates a n d determines
the concrete composition.
F o r overhead line purposes, m o s t l y design m i x t u r e s are selected f r o m t h e concrete t y p e
list o f the producer, considering t h e following criteria:
Strength classes: C 2 0 / 2 5 o r C 3 0 / 3 7 o r o t h e r s ;
— Maximum particle size of aggregates: 32 m m o r others;
— P u r p o s e o f use: R e i n f o r c e d concrete, e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , e x p o s u r e condi-
tions: see clause 16.3.7.3;
— W o r k a b i l i t y : Consistence, a d m i x t u r e s i n case o flong t r a n s p o r t distance o r placing
periods, ability for p u m p i n g , fresh concrete temperature;
— T y p e o fcement: Special climatic conditions, special requirements concerning pro-
tection against chemical attack.
T h e construction company should check the delivering notes i n view o fc o n f o r m i t y w i t h
t h e order a n d t h e t r a n s p o r t period before u n l o a d i n g o n t h e construction site. D u r i n g
u n l o a d i n g , t h e consistence s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d v i s u a l l y o r b y t e s t s i n c a s e o f d o u b t s .
16.3.7.5 Site-mixed concrete
M i x i n g o f c o n c r e t e o n s i t e r e q u i r e s a mixing instruction w h i c h can b e obtained from:
— Specifications stipulated b y the line owner o r b yproject specification. These stip-
ulations should b e checked o n compliance w i t h t h e m i n i m u m requirements o f the
relevant standards.
— U s e o f standard-mixed concrete, e . g . a c c o r d i n g t o D I N 1 0 4 5 ( T a b l e 1 6 . 3 ) , i f t h i s
is p e r m i t t e d f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l a p p l i c a t i o n .
— Selection o f aggregates a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f concrete according t o t h e m i x design
a n d verification o f the required properties o f fresh a n d hardened concrete.
M i x t u r e s stipulated b y a line owner a i m a tachieving the desired quality w i t h o u t m u c h
care o n economics. T h e y take i n t o consideration a n y uncertainties possibly occurring
a t o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e s a n d a s s u m e grading curves w i t h h i g h w a t e r d e m a n d
w h i c h m a y n o t care e n o u g h o n t h e p a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o no f a c t u a l l y used aggregates.
Concrete m a y b e produced following prescribed m i x t u r e s w i t h o u t suitability tests ac-
c o r d i n g t o [16.9]. S t a n d a r d - m i x e d concrete s h o u l d c o m p l y w i t h t h e m i n i m u m r e q u i r e -
m e n t s according t o T a b l e 16.3. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s t a n d a r d - m i x e d concrete i s a d v a n -
tageous i f l o w concrete q u a n t i t i e s a r e necessary o r a t i g h t schedule requires its use.
However, i tis a prerequisite t h a t the specifications valid for a project p e r m i t s the use
of standard mixtures.
A mix design o f f e r s t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c s o l u t i o n i n c a s e o f l a r g e r c o n c r e t e q u a n t i t i e s
as r e q u i r e d for o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n sites. T h e m i x t u r e o f t h e concrete s h o u l d b e
specified based o n s u i t a b i l i t y tests o r o n experience w i t h co m parable conditions. T h e
special conditions concerning the aggregates available o n t h e construction site need t o
be considered t o ensure t h a t the required characteristics o f the concrete w i l l b e met.
For m a n y overhead lines, the exposure condition 2 b ( h u m i d environment w i t h frost)
a c c o r d i n g t o [16.4] i s r e l e v a n t . T h e c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h class C 2 0 / 2 5 a n da m a x i m u m
p a r t i c l e size o f32 m m for t h e aggregates a r e p r o v i d e d for t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n . F o r a s u p e r i o r
w o r k a b i l i t y , p l a s t i c consistence, e. g. a consistence w i t h a s p r e a d i n g i n d e x o f 3 7 0 t o
390 m m , should b e a i m e d at.
According t o T a b l e 16.3, a cement content o f 280 k g / m 3 isnecessary according t o E N V
2 0 6 [16.4] w i t h o u t a n y s p e c i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e s t r e n g t h class a n d t y p e o f c e m e n t .
T h e w a t e r - c e m e n t r a t i o m a y reach 0,55 a t m a x i m u m according t o a w a t e r d e m a n d o f
2 8 0 - 0 , 5 5 = 1 5 4 1. T h e g r a d i n g c u r v e m a y b e b e t w e e n t h e l i n e s A 3 2 a n d C 3 2 a c c o r d i n g t o
F i g u r e 16.7. A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 16.8, a c u b e s t r e n g t h o f 3 7 N / m m 2 c a n b e e x p e c t e d
u n d e r these p r e c o n d i t i o n s , u s i n g a c e m e n t w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h class 32,5. H o w e v e r , t o
a c h i e v e a c o n s i s t e n c e r a n g e F 2 w i t h a w a t e r d e m a n d o f 1 5 4 1 / m 3 , a finess i n d e x o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5,0 is r e q u i r e d according t o F i g u r e 16.9. T h e r e f o r e , t h e g r a d i n g curve
needs t o b e w i t h i n t h e range A / B . T h i s c a n b e achieved w i t h 600 k g / m 3 aggregate o f
t h e p a r t i c l e size 0 / 4 , 800 k g / m 3 o f t h e p a r t i c l e size 4 / 1 6 a n d 600 k g / m 3 o f t h e p a r t i c l e
size 1 6 / 3 2 .
T h e example demonstrates t h a t w i t h standard m i x t u r e s according t o E N V 206 the re-
quired properties cannot b e securely achieved. Therefore, a verification o ft h e stipulated
properties should be carried out.
A c c o r d i n g t o D I N 1 0 4 5[16.9], a s t a n d a r d m i x t u r e w i t h o u t suitability tests f o r t h e
c o n s i s t e n c e r a n g e F 2 a n d for t h e e x p o s u r e condition 2 b is required as follows (Table
16.3): M i n i m u m cement content 3 2 0k g / m 3 w i t h a c e m e n t s t r e n g t h class 32,5; w a t e r -
cement r a t i o a t m a x i m u m 0,6, t h a t i s 320 • 0,6 = 192 1 w a t e r ; g r a d i n g c u r v e w i t h i n t h e
range A / B .
U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , a s t r e n g t h o f 3 5 N / m m 2 t e s t e d a t c u b e r e s u l t s from F i g u r e 1 6 . 8 .
I n c a s e o f 1 9 2 1 / m 3 w a t e r , a finess i n d e x o f 3 , 4 i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n s i s t e n c e r a n g e F 2
according t o F i g u r e 16.9. F o r t h i s w a t e r a n d cement content, a l l types o f aggregates
h a v i n g g r a d i n g curves w i t h i n t h e range A / C can b e used. T h e specified properties can
 iw.u +,vuobi iv.uuu y j L LyjiiLi.ma.ijzyjizo

be safely achieved w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d m i x t u r e s according t o [16.9]. - Backfilling o f the excavation w i t h slightly h u m i d material immediately after re-
I f n o other s t i p u l a t e d properties require t h e use o f cement according t o the strength moving o fthe formwork and planking;
class 32,5, c e m e n t according t o t h e strength class 4 2 , 5 s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d . T h e c o n c r e t e - S p r a y i n g o f curing agents w h i c h f o r m a protecting film.
strength will b e increased a n d the m i n i m u m cement demand c a n b e r e d u c e d b y 1 0 %. T h e required period for concrete curing a m o u n t s between t w o a n d t e n days according t o
C e m e n t w i t h b o t h s t r e n g t h classes is offered a t t h e s a m e price o n t h e m a r k e t . [16.4] a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o fconcrete strength and o nthe environmental
conditions such as sun radiation, action o fw i n d and air humidity. C u r i n g the concrete

16.3.7.6 Handling and placing the concrete m a y also b e necessary t o protect t h e concrete against h e a v y rainfall, flowing water, a
t o o r a p i d c o o l i n g o r f r e e z i n g a t l o w a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s . A t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 1 0 t o 20°C,
Placing the concrete requires a clean a n d s o fax a s p o s s i b l e d r y e x c a v a t i o n p i t . W a t e r the concrete reaches 8 0 % o f its final strength after a period o f 1 4days; t h e n the tower
should be pumped out o rthe concrete has t ob e placed as under-water concrete. erection can start.
T h e reinforcement m a y n o t b e p o l l u t e d b y soft soil subfaces. T h e r e f o r e , a subgrade
layer o f lean concrete should b e provided before installing the reinforcement. Mixing
16.3.7.8 Methods for verification o fconcrete properties
of soft soil a n d c o n c r e t e w o u l d affect t h e c o n c r e t e q u a l i t y a n d needs t o b e avoided.
T h e concrete f o r m w o r k should w i t h s t a n d the expected load. I t should b e clean and Compressive strength
coated w i t h release agents not contaminating the reinforcement. T h e position o f the S t a n d a r d [ 1 6 . 4 ] r e q u i r e s a test series of the concrete compressive strength according t o
reinforcement m a y not b e dislocated w h e n placing t h e concrete. T oavoid such a dislo- [16.17] a n d [16.11] t ob e carried o u t after 2 8 days a t300 m m t a l l c y l i n d e r s w i t h 150 m m
cation o freinforcement, thick timber planks should b e used t ow a l k on. d i a m e t e r o r a tcubes w i t h 150 m m l e n g t h o fedges. T h e test s p e c i m e n s axe stored under
Ready-mixed concrete s h o u l d b e p l a c e d w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n after delivery. I n case o f w a t e r a t 1 8 t o 22° C b e f o r e t e s t i n g . S t a n d a r d [ 1 6 . 9 ] r e q u i r e s a t e s t s e r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o
c o n c r e t e w i t h o u t r e t a r d i n g a d m i x t u r e s , t h e t r a n s p o r t a n d p l a c i n g p e r i o d a t 20°C m a y [16.18]. T h e test s p e c i m e n s axe stored seven days u n d e r w a t e r a n d 2 1days a t a i r w i t h
n o t exceed 6 0 m i n u t e s i n case o f cement types according t o G e r m a n standards o r45 a h u m i d i t y o f 5 0 t o 7 0 % a n d 1 5 t o 22° C t e m p e r a t u r e .
m i n u t e s i n case o f cement types according t oE N standards. T h e differing d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e test s p e c i m e n s affect t h e t e s t i n g results. F o r compar-
T h e w o r k a b i l i t y o fconcrete depends o n its consistence. P l a s t i c concrete, e. g. according isons, t h e compressive strengths o b t a i n e d f r o m d i f f e r i n g test specimens c a nb e con-
to consistence range F 2 , can b e compacted b y vibrators. D u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and verted using factors gained f r o m experience. Assuming the storing conditions accord-
placing, the concrete m a y not demix, especially honey combs m a y not b e generated. i n g t o [ 1 6 . 9 ] , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e s t r e n g t h s a p p l y : /? cu be200 = 0,95/3cubel5o;
E l e p h a n t t r u n k s , c r a n i n g skips o r chutes n e e d t ob e u s e d i n case o ff a l l i n g h e i g h t s a b o v e A;ube200 = l , 1 8 / S c y i a n d / 3 c u b e i 5 0 = l , 2 4 / 3 c y i , w h e r e /3 cu be200 i s t h e compressive strength
2,0 m , c o l u m n - t y p e structural components w i t h a cross section o f 0,5 m t i m e s 0 , 5 m g a i n e d a t a t e s t c u b e w i t h 2 0 0 m m l e n g t h o f e d g e s , /? c u bel50 t h a t a t a t e s t c u b e with
excepted. 1 5 0 m m l e n g t h o f e d g e s a n d 0cy\ t h a t g a i n e d a t a s t a n d a r d cylinder.
T h e concrete should b e placed such that after compaction n o h o l l o w spaces w i l l b e W i t h increasing p e n e t r a t i o n o fh u m i d i t y , the f r i c t i o n forces w i t h i n t h e t e x t u r e decreases
left below anchoring sections o r cleats. T h e concrete is placed i n 0 , 5 m t h i c k layers T h e r e f o r e , i tc a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t also t h e s t o r i n g conditions affect t h e test results.
a n d c o m p a c t e d b y internal vibrators. T h e internal vibrator should b e dipped rapidly Test results gained f r o m the procedures according t oE N o r D I N standards cannot b e
into t h e concrete a t distances o f 0,4t o 0,8 m and pulled out slowly depending o n c o m p a r e d directly. Test results gained f r o m t e s t i n g a cube w i t h 200 m m l e n g t h o f edges
the working principle o f the vibrator. T h e vibrator should penetrate approximately and processed according t o specifications g i v e n i nD I N 1048 have t o b e r e d u c e d b y a
0,15 m i n t o t h e b o t t o m layer w h i c h was previously c o m p a c t e d , t o achieve a sufficient factor o f 0,92 according t o [16.19], page 5.6 t o g a i n d a t a w h i c h c a n b e c o m p a r e d with
b o n d i n g between t h e i n d i v i d u a l layers a n d avoid unscheduled construction joints. W h e n compressive strengths obtained f r o m tests o n cylinders.
pulling o u t t h e vibrator, t h e hole w i t h i n t h e concrete s h o u l d close itself. T h e v i b r a t i o n
procedure s h o u l d b e stopped w h e n n o m o r e air b u b b l e s escape a t t h e surface. A t o o Consistence
long v i b r a t i o n process should b e avoided since otherwise a w a t e r y concrete m u d would T o a s s e s s t h e consistence, the spreading index test according t o I S O 9812, the com-
be formed a t the surface. paction test according t o I S O 4110 o r t h e S l u m p test according t o I S O 4109 sue fre-
R a i n asexperienced i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e does n o t affect t h e concrete q u a l i t y t o a notice- q u e n t l y used. T a b l e 16.2 represents i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t f o r o v e r h e a d lines. T h e assess-
able extent. However, very heavy a n d e n d u r i n g rainfalls m a y result i n w a s h i n g off the m e n t o fconsistence according t o t h e specified approaches does n o t c o m p l e t e l y coincide.
cement a t h o r i z o n t a l a n d inclined surfaces a n d i n d e m i x i n g o f concrete layers close t o T h a t means, that the consistence range F 2 is not completely e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e class
the surface, t h u s increasing t h e water-cement ratio. Therefore, the concrete should be S2. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , the spreading index o r compaction test is given priority, while
adequately protected i n t h i s cases. outside o f E u r o p e the S l u m p test i s most frequently adopted.

16.3.7.7 Curing the concrete 16.3.7.9 Quality supervision and quality management

T h e c o n c r e t e n e e d s t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t f o r h a r d e n i n g , t h e r e f o r e a curing of freshly placed According t o [16A],quality supervision comprises a l l measures, decisions a n d tests w h i c h
concrete i s a l w a y s necessary, e. g. t o a v o i d d r y i n g o u t . are carried o u t corresponding t ostipulations for concrete w i t h the a i m o f guaranteeing
M e t h o d s o fcuring the concrete are: the specified requirements.
- Continuous spraying with water; T h e quality supervision can b e divided into:
- A p p l i c a t i o n o f h u m i d covers; - Contractor supervision ( p r o d u c t i o n s u p e r v i s i o n ) : Contractor supervision com-
- Keeping the formwork u pt othe end o fthe curing period; prises checks a n d tests including t h e e v a l u a t i o n o ft h e test results. T h e contractor
640 16 Construction 16.5 S e t t i n g o f t o w e r stubs o r bases 6 4 1

supervision needs t ob e carried out b y the construction manager, the subcontrac-

tors a n d suppliers, w h e r e b y each o f these entities is responsible for its range o f
tasks.
- Quality verification: Quality verification comprises measures a n d decisions
b a s e d o n s t i p u l a t e d c r i t e r i a t o assess c o n f o r m i t y w i t h s t i p u l a t e d r e q u i r e m e n t s .
W i t h i n t h i s group a r et h e q u a l i t y verification b y independent q u a l i t y control
organisations a n d / o r acceptance tests t a k i n g test specimens. For overhead lines
using concrete according t o t h e s t r e n g t h class C 2 0 / 2 5 , t h e q u a l i t y v e r i f i c a t i o n can
b e c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n y , s i n c e i n c a s e o f site-mixed concrete
o n l y negligible reliabilityrelated risks are given.
A documentation according t o the rules is a n essential part o f quality supervision.
R e t r a c e a b l e records need t ob e m a d e for w h i c h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e r is responsible.
T h e tests need t o b e recorded a n d approved w i t h respect t o t h e necessary n u m b e r o f
tests a n d t h e compliance o ft h e results w i t h t h e stipulations. T h e chronological progress
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l activities like installation o f the reinforcement, placing the concrete
a n d curing have t o b e documented. For this purpose, the weather conditions, unusual
events a n d special measures, i f any, t oreach the stipulated concrete characteristics are
r e c o r d e d , e. g. p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t f r o s t .
Suitability tests belong t o the responsibility o f the contractor's supervision. P r i o r t o F i g u r e 16.10: E x a m p l e o f an equipment for installationo f individual stubs
u s i n g t h e c o n c r e t e , t h e concrete composition is verified w h i c h is needed t o reach reli-
ably t h e requirements o n t h e concrete w i t h t h e aggregates a n d t h e conditions a t t h e o n b o t h sides. L o w e a r t h i n g resistance are achieved i n cohesive soil. Stones o r coarse
c o n s t r u c t i o n site. g r a v e l d i r e c t l y a t t h e e a r t h e l e c t r o d e i n c r e a s e t h e earthing resistanceto a large extent.
I n c a s e o f ready-mixed concrete, t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t v e r i f i e s t h e s u i t a b i l i t y i f c o n - Earthing rods a r e d r i v e n m a n u a l l y o r b y t o o l s a s d e e p l y a s p o s s i b l e i n t o t h e s o i l . I n
crete is delivered according t o a design m i x t u r e . D e l i v e r y notes and consistence need case o f s h a l l o w f o u n d a t i o n s , t h e y c a n b e d r i v e n i n t o t h e soil f r o m t h e e x c a v a t i o n p i t
to b e checked visually w h e n the ready-mixed concrete is delivered t o site. subface before s t a r t i n g o f concrete placing.
F o r site-mixed concrete, a s e r i e s o f t e s t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n s t i t u e n t m a t e r i a l s o f c o n - T h e e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e a r e m e a s u r e d b y m e a n s o f a n e a r t h t e s t e r (see clause 5.11). I f t h e
crete, t o o l s a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e c o n c r e t e h a v e t o b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o [16.4], required earthing resistance is exceeded, the earthing properties need t o b e improved
Also for production, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , placing, compacting, curing a n d quality supervi- by additional e a r t h electrodes. T o achieve l o wt r a n s i t i o n resistance, metallic bright
s i o n o f c o n c r e t e quality management programs a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y e s t a b l i s h e d o r r e q u i r e d . connections between earth connectors and towers should b e envisaged and supervised.
T h e s e c o n t a i n r e q u i r e m e n t s , measures t oc o m p l y w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s , tests a n d spec-
ifications for d o c u m e n t a t i o n . W i t h i n these categories are:
- Requirements o nconstituent materials (cement a n d aggregates);
16.5 Setting of tower stubs or bases
- Requirements o ncomposition a n d properties o ft h e concrete;
16.5.1 M e t h o d s and tools
- Type, extent a n d documentation o f tests for verification t h a t the requirements
are complied with; T h e s t u b s o r bases o f l a t t i c e steel t o w e r s n e e d t o b e set i n place before e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e
- Description o f m e t h o d s for production, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , placing, compaction and connection w i t h the foundation. T h e r e are t w o procedures adopted:
curing o fthe concrete; - T h e s t u b s are set b y m e a n s o f a s e t t i n g t e m p l a t e o r w i t h t h e t o w e r base.
- M e t h o d s for documentation. - T h e s t u b s are set i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f each o t h e r .
Quality management programs have proven their adequacy for a qualitatively convinc- I n case o f shallow f o u n d a t i o n s , t h e stubs are a r r a n g e d o n concrete blocks i nt h e e x -
ing a n d e c o n o m i c e x e c u t i o n o f concrete w o r k s [16.20]. cavation o r o n a layer o f lean concrete. Differences i n heights are balanced b y placing
steel plates u n d e r n e a t h t h e stubs o r b y a d j u s t m e n t o f bolts arranged a tthe lowermost
cleats a tt h e stubs.
16.4 Installation of earthing I n case o f augered f o u n d a t i o n s o rpiles, t h e s e t t i n g t e m p l a t e s are s u p p o r t e d a n d a d j u s t e d
by jack stands. T h e stubs are connected t o the setting templates hanging into the
W h e r e necessary, t r a n s m i s s i o n line s u p p o r t s are equipped w i t h e a r t h i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s borehole o r above the pile head. T h e tower axis should intersect the line axis a t the
to conduct failure and induction currents aswell ascurrents f r o m l i g h t n i n g strokes into tower witness pillar. T h e tower base o r setting template can b e adjusted b y means o f
the e a r t h (seeC h a p t e r 5). For t h i s purpose, h o r i z o n t a l l y arranged electrodes, n a m e d a t h e o d o l i t e . Reference m a r k s a t t h e t e m p l a t e o r t o w e r base c a n ease t h i s a c t i v i t y .
counterpoises o r e a r t h i n g rods can b e installed i n the soil. Setting of stubs i n d i v i d u a l l y h a s p r o v e d i t s q u a l i f i c a t i o n e s p e c i a l l y i n c a s e o f w i d e - s p r e a d
Horizontally arranged electrodes c a n b e i n s t a l l e d r a d i a l o r a s r i n g s i n m a n u a l l y o r t o o l - towers a n d towers w i t h great differences i n t h e level o ft h e i n d i v i d u a l leg m e m b e r f o u n -
assisted excavated trenches i n d e p t h s b e t w e e n 0,6 a n d 1,0 m .T h e e a r t h i n g c o n d u c t o r dations. E a c h i n d i v i d u a l leg m e m b e r stub is separately adjusted t othe required position
or strap is conductive connected t o the t o w e r leg m e m b e r s . E a r t h i n g straps s h o u l d b e a n d fixed t h e r e . T h e r e b y , t h e e f f o r t s f o r m a n u f a c t u r i n g , t r a n s p o r t a n d e x p e n s i v e i n s t a l -
installed endup i n the trench such t h a t the back-filled soil touches the earthing strap lation and removing o fwide and heavy setting templates can b e waived. A n equipment
 where
r m is the horizontal displacement a t the top o f the structure (Figure 16.11 a ) a n d
/IT the reference height above t h e base o f t h e structure.

T h e horizontal displacement follows from

n

envisaged
t=l
tower position
undet everyday where
conditions
r m is t h e elastic d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e structure a t the reference height,
asj the tilting angle o fthe joint,
i a n d sz the distance between this joint and the position o f the structure where
the deformation is considered and
n the n u m b e r o fjoints.
F i g u r e 16.11: P o s i t i o n o f T h e elastic deformation re\ c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o the principle o f the virtual
towers without a n d with
energy a s s u m i n g a v i r t u a l h o r i z o n t a l force F = 1 a tt h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e d e f o r m a t i o n
conductor everyday loads
a) tower t o p vertically is considered:
above the tower centre; N(x)N(x) fhx M(x)M(x)
Tel dx . (16.3)
b) crossarm h o r i z o n t a l l y J0 EA{x) d X + J 0 EI(x)

In this equation, there are

is s c h e m a t i c a l l y s h o w n f o r s e t t i n g s t u b s i n d i v i d u a l l y i n F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 0 . T h e s t u b s s h o u l d N(x) a x i a l m e m b e r force due t o e x t e r n a l load a t everyday condition;
be carefully levelled c o m p l y i n g w i t h a m a x i m u m tolerance o f level between the highest N a x i a l m e m b e r force d u e t o v i r t u a l load;
a n d lowest leg n o t m o r e t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 m m . A(x) cross-sectional member area;
B o t h methods are suited t o reach the accuracy needed i n view o f the tower alignment. M(z) bending m o m e n t due t o external load a t everyday condition;
O n l y t w o days after placing t h e concrete, the setting t e m p l a t e o r the equipment for M(z) bending m o m e n t due t o virtual load;
setting t h e stubs m a y b e r e m o v e d . T h e concrete s t r e n g t h achieved is decisive f o r this I(x) m o m e n t o f inertia;
period. Since d u r i n g the short period, t h e concrete s t r e n g t h does n o treach its final E m o d u l u s o f elasticity.
value, a n y v i b r a t i o n s o f t h e leg m e m b e r s s h o u l d b e avoided w h e n r e m o v i n g t h e setting W h e n a i m i n g a t a horizontal position o f the considered crossarm after stringing, the
templates or equipment. inclination angle 0 o f the unloaded structure should b e (Figure 16.11 b):
n
16.5.2 I n c l i n a t i o n of angle a n d d e a d - e n d towers 0 = Qe\+Y,-asi <16-4)
i=l
I n order t o achieve a vertical position o f angle, angle-section a n d dead-end supports,
w h e r e Qe\ 1S t h e e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n a n g l e a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c o n s i d e r e d c r o s s a r m .
p e r m a n e n t l y loaded b y conductor tensile forces after stringing, t h e structures need t o
T h e d e f o r m a t i o n a n g l e ge\ c a n b e o b t a i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t h e v i r t u a l e n -
be erected w i t h a n i n c l i n a t i o n against t h e direction o f loading. T h e objective o f the
e r g y a s s u m i n g a v i r t u a l e x t e r n a l m o m e n t Me = 1 a t t h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e d e f o r m a t i o n
inclination can b e either
is c o n s i d e r e d
- A p o s i t i o n o f t h e tower t o pvertically above t h e tower centre a t the tower base
(Figure 16.11 a ) o r
— A h o r i z o n t a l position o f t h e longest crossarm since a n inclined crossarm w o u l d ^ = /o - i m x r d x • (16 -5)
provide a negative visual impression.
w h e r e Me i s t h e v i r t u a l b e n d i n g m o m e n t a n d / I T t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c o n s i d e r e d c r o s s a r m
I n t h e l a t t e r case, a v e r t i c a l t a n g e n t l i n e t o t h e d e f o r m a t i o n c u r v e o f t h e t o w e r b o d y
above ground. A l t e r n a t i v e approaches for calculation o f deformations are described i n
at t h e height o f t h e crossarm connection is a i m e d a t ( F i g u r e 16.11b). Before stringing
clause 12.5.14.
t h e c o n d u c t o r s , t h e inclination o f t h e t o w e r is higher i n t h i s case t h a n w i t h respect t o
W h e n a i m i n g a t a h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s a r m p o s i t i o n , a neccentricity o f
a vertical position o f the tower top.
n
T h e loads u n d e r e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n s f o r m t h e basis for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e neces-
s a r y i n c l i n a t i o n ; i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 t h e e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n i s s p e c i f i e d a s 10°C w i t h o u t r c = kr t a n 0 — r e i — J j a S i s i (16.6)
w i n d , t o m e n t i o n a n e x a m p l e . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n , t h e bolt slippage i=l
a n d t h e t i l t i n g o f slip joints o f s o l i d w a l l s t e e l p o l e s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e f o r m a t i o n . results after installation o f conductors (Figure 16.11b). T h e necessary inclination is
W h e n a i m i n g a t a vertical p o s i t i o n o f t h e reference p o i n t above t h epole centre a t d e t e r m i n e d for t h e a c t u a l l o a d a t t h e specific t o w e r o r pole site.
ground, t h e inclination d u r i n g erection i s expressed b y the angle 0 U s i n g t h e m e t h o d described i nclause 12.5.14, t h e elastic d e f o r m a t i o n o f lattice steel
towers can b e determined. D u e t o the great number o f members, this might b e t i m e -
0 = arctan ( r m //iT) ~ rm/hT (16.1) consuming. I n a d d i t i o n t ot h e elastic d e f o r m a t i o n o f bolted lattice steel towers, also t h e
644 16 Construction 16.6 E r e c t i o n o f s u p p o r t s 6 4 5

1.8
%
1,6

ro

0,4

0,2
F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 2 : I n c l i n a t i o n o f a n angle strain
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 degree 180 tower given asapercentage o fthe tower w i d t h
Line angie (example)
tilting due t o the bolt slippage w i t h i n t h e joints should b e considered. A n assumption
of 4 m mslip p e rj o i n t h a sbeen proved a s correct. A n a d d i t i o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n o f 0,1 t o
0,2 % o f t h e t o w e r h e i g h t t a k e s care o f v i s u a l a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t o w e r i n c l i n a t i o n d u e t o
t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a n d t h e d e f o r m a t i o n o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n . I n F i g u r e 16.12, t h e d a t a
for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n c l i n a t i o n depending o nt h e l i n e angle are s h o w n for a 110 k V line.
T h e i n c l i n a t i o n i s expressed as t h e increase i nlevel o f t h e compression loaded stubs
relatively t o t h e tower w i d t h a t the j o i n t above g r o u n d surface.
T h e d i a g r a m i n F i g u r e 16.12 applies for a tower installed i nt h e bisectrix o f t h e angie.
F r o m t h i s d i a g r a m , also t h e necessary i n c l i n a t i o n o f t o w e r s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d w h i c h
are n o t a r r a n g e d i n t h e bisectrix o r are loaded b y d i f f e r i n g c o n d u c t o r tensile forces. F o r
this purpose, t h e acting forces are divided i n t o c o m p o n e n t s i n p a r a l l e l t o b o t h tower
axes. F o r these c o m p o n e n t s , t h e equivalent l i n e angles can b e d e t e r m i n e d w h i c h w o u l d
lead t o t h e s a m e h o r i z o n t a l forces. F o r these f i c t i t i o u s l i n e angles, t h e i n c l i n a t i o n as
a percentage o f t h e t o w e r w i d t h c a nb e t a k e n f r o m t h e d i a g r a m i n F i g u r e 16.12. B y
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n w i t h t h e tower w i d t h s , the portions i n increase o fstubs o fthe individual
t o w e r legs c a nb e o b t a i n e d .
E x a m p l e : F o r a l i n e a n g l e o f 145° a n d a t o w e r w i d t h o f 6 , 3 0 m , t h e i n c r e a s e o f s t u b e l e v a t i o n
should b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 16.12.
F o r 145° a n i n c l i n a t i o n o f 0 , 8 6 % r e s u l t s f r o m F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 2 , y i e l d i n g a d i f f e r e n c e i n h e i g h t o f
6,30 • 0,86 - 1 0 0 0 / 1 0 0 = 5 4 m m .
I n c a s e o f solid wall steel poles w i t h s l i p j o i n t s , t h e p u b l i c a t i o n [ 1 6 . 2 1 ] p r o p o s e s t o
c o n s i d e r a t i l t i n g o f 0,4° p e r j o i n t a t t h e m a x i m u m l o a d . I n [ 1 6 . 2 2 ] , t h e d e f o r m a t i o n
of solid wall steel poles equipped w i t h slip j o i n t s i s reported. T h e poles were erected
w i t h the predetermined inclinations and t h e n checked w i t h respect t o the position o f
the crossarms after finalizing conductor stringing. F r o m this study, i tcan b e concluded
t h a t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e l o a d i n g a n d t h e p o l e t y p e a t i l t i n g o f 0 , 3 t o 0,4° s h o u l d b e
considered for each j o i n t . F r o m these m e a s u r e m e n t s , n o conclusion o nt h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f
the foundations could b e d r a w n . Since a n inclination against t h e t o w e r loading seems
always t o b e m o r e expedient, t h e inclination o f the f o u n d a t i o n s h o u l d b e considered
b y a n a n g l e o f a t l e a s t 0,1° u n l e s s l o c a l l y m o r e u n f a v o u r a b l e s u b s o i l c o n d i t i o n s w o u l d
advice t o adopt higher values.
F i g u r e 16.13: Tower erection b y elevation
16.6 Erection of supports
16.6.1 Introduction
T h e m e t h o d used for erection o fsupports depends o n design, weight a n d dimensions o f
towers o r poles, accessibility o ft o w e r sites, available tools a n d machines a n d qualifica-
t i o n o f t h e erection staff. T h e m e t h o d has t o b e selected w i t h respect t o e c o n o m i c s as
well. Assessing these aspects, lattice steel towers are erected piece b y piece w i t h pre-
assembled walls, w i t h preassembled sections o r completely assembled o n g r o u n d a n d
lifted o rtilted then.
16.6.2 Assembly and erection b y elevation
Low-weight and short self-supporting lattice steel towers are frequently assembled b y
e l e v a t i o n . T h e a c t i v i t i e s a r e s t a r t e d b y e r e c t i o n o f t h e l e g s , c o n t i n u i n g w i t h t h e first h o r -
izontal d i a p h r a g m as base for t h e erection o ft h e supports. T h e erection t h e n proceeds
b y i n s t a l l i n g sets o f preassembled o r i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s . H o i s t i n g o f p a r t s i s carried
out m a n u a l l y assisted b ywinches a n d trucks. T h e hoisted m e m b e r s are rendered t o the
linemen a t the m o u n t i n g position t o insert t h e m i nd u eplace and tighten the bolts.
After completing atower section, t h e assembly o fthe following section can start. I n this
phase, bolts are only p a r t i a l l y tightened j u s t enough t o keep the structure i n position.
T h e final b o l t t i g h t e n i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t w h e n r e v i s i n g t h e a s s e m b l i n g . I n F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 3 ,
t o w e r assembly by elevation method i s s h o w n . G u y e d t o w e r s a s w e l l c a n b e e r e c t e d b y
elevation m a k i n g use o fprovisional guys. Here, winches are generally adopted.
16.6.3 Tower erection using a crane
Tower or pole erection b y m e a n s o f a mobile crane s u i t a b l e f o r g o i n g c r o s s - c o u n t r y i s
advantageous i ft h e s u p p o r t sites c a n b e accessed w i t h o u t difficulties a t a l l w e a t h e r
conditions. Single poles m a d e o fw o o d , concrete o r steel tubes can b e lifted b y a crane
onto the f o u n d a t i o n o r into a nexcavation. B ythe help o f a crane, lattice steel towers
h a v i n g heights u p t o 3 0 m a n d w i d t h s u pt o 2,5 m can b e erected i n o n epiece. A suf-
ficiently w i d e space isnecessary for a complete t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l assembly o n ground.
Taller and wider towers have t o b e erected section b y section after preassembling o n
ground.
646 l b (Jonstrucuon

16.6.4 T o w e r erection by means of a gin pole

16.6.4.1 Procedures

W h e r e erection b y mobile crane isnot possible o r uneconomic, several methods are i n

u s e w h e r e t h e c r a n e i s r e p l a c e d b y a gin pole i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h a h o i s t i n g w i n c h . A
lattice steel structure m a d e o f tubes o r angle sections is used as a g i n pole, whereby
the dimensions correspond t o the required rating and the hoisting height. A gin pole
m a d e o f a l u m i n i u malloy is l i g h t e r i n w e i g h t , h o w e v e r , i sm o r e susceptible t o d a m a g e a n d
c a n n o t b e r e p a i r e d b y tools available o nt h e c o n s t r u c t i o n site. T o ease its t r a n s p o r t , t h e
gin pole isdivided into individual parts w i t h lengths o fapproximately 5 m . Therefore,
the t o t a l l e n g t h can b e adjusted b y r e m o v i n g o r i n s e r t i n g i n d i v i d u a l sections. A t t h e
ends o f the gin pole, foot a n d head components, respectively, are arranged depending
on the application.
F o r h o i s t i n g t h e t o w e r c o m p o n e n t s , s l o w l y r u n n i n g drum winches w i t h c o n t i n u o u s l y
v a r i b l e r e v o l u t i o n c o n t r o l a r e u s e d w h i c h c a n a l s o b e a d o p t e d f o r sagging d u r i n g c o n -
ductor stringing operation. T h e required l e n g t h o frope o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 300 m can b e
perfectly w i n d e d u p layer b y layer o na sufficiently w i d e reel. I t s core diameter should
at least reach 2 0t i m e s t h e r o p e d i a m e t e r . C r a n e ropes available o nt h e m a r k e t are used
a s hoisting ropes, t h e t h e o r e t i c a l f a i l i n g l o a d o f w h i c h s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t t h r e e t i m e s
the e x p e c t e d tensile force. T h e h o i s t i n g w i n c h e s are h y d r a u l i c a l l y d r i v e n . W h e n t h e
pressure w i t h i n t h e h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m decreases, t h e reel b r a k e i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y closed.
I n a d d i t i o n , a deadman's circuit leads t o a n i m m e d i a t e s t a n d - s t i l l o f t h e w i n c h i f t h e
c o n t r o l s t i c k i s l e t g o off. T o b e able t o u n w i n d t h e w i n c h r o p e w i t h o u t a n y l o a d , t h e
reel is decoupled f r o m the hydraulic drive. A protecting device against slacking rope
prevents a nu n i n t e n t i o n a ldecoupling under load.
T h e d i f f e r i n g erection procedures f o r p i e c e m e a l t o w e r e r e c t i o n a x e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e
arrangement o fthe gin pole a tthe tower.

16.6.4.2 E r e c t i o n w i t h a gin pole outside the tower

W h e n e r e c t i n g a t o w e r w i t h a gin pole arranged outside the tower body, a b r a c k e t i s

fixed a t t h e upper p a r t o f a leg m e m b e r b y w h i c h t h e g i n pole i s supported (Figure
16.14). T h e foot component o f the g i n pole is articulated o n t h e bracket a n d fixed t o
the l e gmember. T h e head o f the gin pole is equipped w i t h four anchors t o ground
s t a g g e r e d a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90°, t h e l e n g t h o f w h i c h c a n b e v a r i e d f r o m t h e g r o u n d
surface b y means o fcome-alongs. Therefore, i t ispossible t oincline t h e gin pole i n t o a
position required for hoisting o f a tower component. T h e hoisting rope r u n s f r o m the
a n c h o r e d h o i s t i n g w i n c h t o t h e l e g m e m b e r , i s d e v i a t e d b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 90° u p w a r d s
by m e a n s o fa pulley a n d r u n s t h e n i n parallel t oleg m e m b e r a n d gin pole over pulleys
at the head component t o the load. T h e part t o b e hoisted being a tower section, a
t o w e r face o r a ni n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r i s guided b y a nanchor rope t o avoid clashing t o
the gin pole o r t o the tower b o d y already assembled.
W h e n a tower section iscompletely assembled, the gin pole is lifted. For this purpose,
an additional bracket is arranged a t the upper end o f the l e gmember o f the tower
section just assembled. T h e hoisting rope r u n s t h e n f r o m the w i n c h t o the pulley a t
t h e leg m e m b e r stub, f u r t h e r t o t h e p u l l e y a t t h e u p p e r bracket a n d t h e n d o w n w a r d s
to b e fixed t othe foot component o f the gin pole. W h e n the w i n c h starts pulling, the
foot component can b e released f r o m t h e lower bracket a n d t h e gin pole is hoisted b y
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y r e l e a s i n g t h e h e a d a n c h o r s u n t i l t h e f o o t c o m p o n e n t c a n b e fixed t o t h e
upper bracket.
Tower erection b y means o fa gin pole arranged outside the tower b o d y requires a wide
w o r k i n g area because o f t h e anchors t o ground. O t h e r t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, railways o r
F i g u r e 16.14: E r e c t i o n w i t h a g i n p o l e o u t s i d e F i g u r e 16.15: E r e c t i o n w i t h a g i n pole a r -
the tower ranged i n t h e centre o f the tower
roads i n close p r o x i m i t y t ot h e t o w e r t ob e erected aggravate t h e a n c h o r i n g , as d o f r u i t -
trees, vineyards o r forests. Also t h e soil conditions m a y not b e i n favour o f installing
a n c h o r s , e. g . m u d o r rock. U n d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , a n e r e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d b e
preferred w i t h o u t the necessity o f anchors t o ground.
16.6.4.3 E r e c t i o n w i t h gin pole i n the tower centre
E r e c t i o n u s i n g a gin pole arranged in the tower centre i s e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d f o r t o w e r s
w i t h large w i d t h s a n d a t t o w e r sites w i t h m o r e difficult conditions since n o anchors t o
g r o u n d are necessary.
T h e gin pole has i n principle the same design asused for w o r k i n g outside the tower b o d y
a n d is arranged i n the centre o f the tower body. T h e foot component issupported b y
four equally long anchors w h i c h are carried b y brackets arranged i n the upper section o f
t h e leg m e m b e r s . A p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o t h i r d s o f t h e t o t a l g i n pole l e n g t h p r o t r u d e a b o v e
the brackets. T h e head o f the gin pole is anchored b y means o f four anchors t o the
same brackets as the foot anchors (Figure 16.15). T h e lengths o fthe head anchors can
648 16Construction 16.6 E r e c t i o n o f s u p p o r t s 649

b e v a r i e d b y m e a n s o f c o m e - a l o n g s s i m i l a r l y as i n c a s e o f g i n p o l e a r r a n g e d o u t s i d e t h e
tower. T h e h o i s t i n g rope i sguided f r o m t h e h o i s t i n g w i n c h over a p u l l e y i n s t a l l e d close
to t h e g r o u n d surface i n t h e centre o ft h e t o w e r a n d t h r o u g h t h e g i n pole a n d a r e v o l v i n g
pulley a t the gin pole head t o the load. B ythis procedure, the tower components can
b e a s s e m b l e d piece b y piece o r face b y face.
W i t h the w o r k progress, the gin pole m u s t b e lifted t o a higher section. For this purpose,
t h e h e a d a n c h o r s e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e c o m e - a l o n g s a r e first fixed t o b r a c k e t s i n s t a l l e d a t
the tower section just assembled. T h e n , the lifting o f t h e gin pole is carried out b y
m e a n s o f a h o i s t i n g r o p e fixed a t t h e f o o t c o m p o n e n t o f t h e g i n p o l e . T h i s h o i s t i n g r o p e
is g u i d e d o v e r a p u l l e y a r r a n g e d a t a r o p e b e t w e e n t w o o p p o s i t e l e g m e m b e r s o f t h e j u s t
assembled section. D u r i n g lifting o fthe g i n pole, t h e head anchors are released such t o
keep the gin pole i n a vertical position as far as possible. W h e n the foot anchors c a n
be arranged t othe same brackets as the head anchors, the new position o ft h e gin pole
is r e a c h e d .
By means o f a gin pole arranged i n the centre, towers w i t h large w i d t h s a n d tall
heights can b e erected w i t h o u t any anchors t othe ground. Therefore, this m e t h o d has
gained priority d u r i n g the last years, especially for erection o f self-supporting towers
consisting o fa tower b o d y and several crossarms. A sa n example the suspension towers
of t h e 380 k V crossing over t h e river E l b e w i t h a height o f 227 m a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1000 t w e i g h t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d [16.23]. T h e 4 0 m l o n g g i n pole h a d a load capacity
of 100 k N .
Using the same procedure, the suspension towers o f t h e 500 k V crossing over t h e Suez
c a u a l [16.24] w i t h a w e i g h t o f 7 1 0 t each a n d a h e i g h t o f 2 2 0 m a s w e l l a s t h e s u s p e n s i o n
t o w e r s o f t h e 380 k V crossing I I I over t h e B o s p h o r u s [16.25] ( w e i g h t 450 t , h e i g h t 160 m )
were erected. I n F i g u r e 16.16, t h e erection o f a suspension tower o f t h e crossing over
the Suez canal is shown .

16.6.4.4 E r e c t i o n w i t h a g i n pole i n t h e t o w e r a t a leg m e m b e r

For light-weightlattice towers w i t h small w i d t h , t h e assembly using a gin pole arranged
in t h e tower centre seems not t o b e expedient because o f the costly handling o f foot
a n d h e a d a n c h o r s . I n s u c h a c a s e , e r e c t i o n u s i n g agin pole arranged inside the tower at
a leg member i s m o r e s u i t e d b e c a u s e n e i t h e r a n c h o r s t o t h e g r o u n d n o r a n c h o r s w i t h i n
t h e t o w e r a r e n e c e s s a r y . T h e g i n p o l e i s a r r a n g e d a r t i c u l a t e l y o n a b r a c k e t fixed t o t h e
leg m e m b e r inside t h e tower. A t a height o f one t h i r d o f t h e g i n pole l e n g t h , a strop
e q u i p p e d w i t h a c h a i n h o i s t a n d fixed t o t h e s a m e l e g m e m b e r i s a d o p t e d t o m o v e t h e
gin pole into t h e desired position. A nanchoring o f t h e g i n pole head t o t h e g r o u n d
surface i n opposite direction o f t h e load relieves t h e g i n pole w h e n heavy components
are h o i s t e d . T h e h o i s t i n g r o p e i s g u i d e d t h r o u g h t h e g i n p o l e a n d over a p u l l e y a t t h e
gin pole head ( F i g u r e 16.17).
I t is possible t o h o i s t t o w e r faces o r single m e m b e r s . Since t h e g i n pole is loaded o n
bending, special care has t o b e t a k e n o n a v o i d i n g a n y overloads. D u e t o their limited
hoisting capacity, the g i n pole and t h e w i n c h c a n b e designed relatively light a n d
t r a n s p o r t e d s i m p l y also i n t e r r a i n difficult t o access.
F i g u r e 16.16: G i n pole arranged i n the centre F i g u r e 16.17: Tower erection b y means o f
of a t o w e r , 550 k V line across t h e Suez c a n a l a g i n pole a r r a n g e d inside t h e t o w e r a t a leg
member
and bolted t o the tower body. O t h e r crossarms arranged below can b e lifted using the
already installed upper crossarm. For this purpose, the hoisting rope is guided from
the g i n pole h e a d t o t h e crossarm assembled a t g r o u n d , t h e n deviated b y a p u l l e y a n d
guided back t o t h e crossarm already installed. According t o this arrangement, t h e gin
pole and the already installed crossarm each carry half o f t h e loads t o b e hoisted .
A gin pole arranged i nt h e centre o f t h e tower b o d y can b e inclined t o a low extent
only. Therefore, the upper crossarm m u s t b e hoisted w i t h its t o pdirected upwards,
then jointed t ot h e tower body b y means o fthe upper crossarm chords and tilted into
t h e final p o s i t i o n a n d b o l t e d ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 8 ) . T h e c r o s s a r m s a r r a n g e d u n d e r n e a t h t h e
first o n e a r e l i f t e d u t i l i z i n g t h e c r o s s a r m s a b o v e .
16.6.6 Tower erection using helicopters

16.6.5 E r e c t i o n of g u y e d t o w e r s T h e use o fhelicopters m a y b e a d v a n t a g e o u s w h e n t o w e r s have t ob e erected w i t h i n v e r y

16.6.5.1 H o i s t i n g of a c r o s s a r m u s i n g a g i n pole
After t h e tower b o d y has been erected completely, the crossarms are installed. F o r this
purpose, the gin pole arranged outside the tower b o d y is inclined t o arrange its head
d i r e c t l y a b o v e t h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e c r o s s a r m w i l l b e finally fixed t o t h e t o w e r b o d y .
T h e c r o s s a r m assembled a t t h e g r o u n d surface i s t h e n lifted i na h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n
s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e , l i n e s a r e c o n v e r t e d o r t h e access i s d i f f i c u l t , e. g. i n m o u n t a i n o u s
t e r r a i n . T h e use of helicopters, h o w e v e r , i s e x p e n s i v e , c o n n e c t e d w i t h s t r e s s f o r t h e e r e c -
tion staff a n d t oa great extent weather-dependent. T oachieve a n economic advantage,
the c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e t o w e r s are preassembled o nt h e g r o u n d surface corresponding t o
the capacity o fthe helicopter used. A sufficiently h i g h n u m b e r o fl i n e m e n is d i s t r i b u t e d
simultaneously o n several towers such that the helicopter c a ntransport tower parts
OOU 1 0 c^onstrucuoii iu.u ULVCIIVLI ui supports vol

- balance

vx pre-assembied tower masts, 7 steel rope /

• X X ^ X X X X X X V M xx auxiliary mast

- 1 — n - <
/ A
/ centra^ Rioting \ f f tower
/ to be
/ / auxiliary mast \ / lifted

i—•—j winch
I 1 truck
winch
777. 8s
Y777777Z7777>
guy anchor auxiliary base

F i g u r e 16.20: A r r a n g e m e n t o f t o w e r s i t e w i t h F i g u r e 16.21: L i f t i n g o f p r e a s s e m b l e d guyed

preassembled guyed tower tower with auxiliary mast

F i g u r e 16.18: H o i s t i n g o f a c r o s s a r m F i g u r e 16.19: T o w e r e r e c t i o n u s i n g a h e l i -
copter

from t h e s t o r a g e a r e a t o t h e t o w e r s i t e s w h e r e t h e y a r e i n s t a l l e d c o n t i n u o u s l y w i t h o u t F i g u r e 16.22: E r e c t i o n o f g u y e d t o w e r w i t h F i g u r e 16.23: E r e c t i o n o f g u y e d t o w e r b y

a n y i n t e r r u p t i o n .Therefore, t h e l i n e m e n o n the towers will b e active for short periods
of t i m e only. W h e n a d o p t i n g h i g h - p e r f o r m a n c e helicopters for heavier weights neces-
sary t o erect taller towers, t h e w a k e o f t h e r o t o r w i l l b e c o m e s o s t r o n g t h a t w o r k i n g
o f l i n e m e n o n t h e t o w e r s w o u l d b e r i s k y . F o r t h i s case, a u x i l i a r y e r e c t i o n r e m e d i e s are
required which provide guidance and temporarily fastening o f the tower components
flown in until the linemen can bolt this parts after the departure o fthe helicopter and
the a u x i l i a r y erection remedies can b ed i s m a n t l e d again. I n F i g u r e 16.19, tower erection
by means o fa helicopter is shown.
16.6.6.1 Manual method
F o r m a n u a l erection of guyed towers, t h e t o w e r i s a s s e m b l e d b y e l e v a t i o n s i m i l a r l y
to erection o f self-supporting towers described i nclause 16.6.2. P r o v i s i o n a l guys are
adopted for stability o f t h e assembled sections.
16.6.6.2 U s e of a n auxiliary mast
A tubular mast composed of about 5mlong modules, sufficiently high according to the
tower t o b e erected isused. O n its u p p e r part, a n a r t i c u l a t e d s u p p o r t piece is fastened
w h i c h lays horizontally d u r i n g t h e erection. A t the lower edge o f the mast, a base is
an a u x i l i a r y crossbeam b y cranes cranes w i t h o u t a u x i l i a r y crossarm
laid down for supporting the mast a n d transferring the compression loads t o t h e soil.
Figures 16.20 a n d 16.21 o u t l i n e this erection method.
16.6.6.3 E r e c t i o n by cranes
T h e quicker a n d u s u a l l y c h e a p e r m e t h o d o f e r e c t i n g g u y e d t o w e r s is b y m e a n s o f cranes
of adequate capacity, w h i c h picks u p t h e assembled tower o n the g r o u n d either directly
at t h e c r o s s a r m o r a ta n a u x i l i a r y crossbeam. I n F i g u r e s 16.22 a n d 16.23, i t i s o u t l i n e d
how the crane m e t h o d is applied for erecting towers u p t o 4 0 m high (crossarm t o
ground). T h e cranes adopted should have a capacity o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 500 k N a n d a
lifting height of 45 m . D u e t o the r e d u c t i o n o flifting capacity w i t h height, towers higher
t h a n 3 2 m require t h e use o f a u x i l i a r y crossbeams. T h e pick-up point o f the crane, as
well t h e detailed design of the auxiliarycrossbeam are m a d e by the tower manufacturer.
After erection, w h i l e the crane still holds the tower, t h e guy wires are provisionally tied
to t h e guy anchors. T h e g u y wires are t h e n cut t o appropriate lengths as a f u n c t i o n o f
the terrain slopes, a n d w i t h t h e help o f t w o theodolites laid d o w n a tlongitudinal and
transverse directions, t h e t o w e r i s p o s i t i o n e d a t t h e p l u m b , as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 16.24.
652 1 6C o n s t r u c t i o n 16.7 I n s t a l l a t i o n o f i n s u l a t o r sets a n d h a r d w a r e 6 5 3

T a b l e 16.4: T o r q u e s f o r b o l t t i g h t e n i n g
Bolt type Ml 2 M16 M20 M22 M24 M27
Bolt diameter (mm) 12 16 20 22 254 27
Torque (N-m) 40 to 60 80 to 120 130 to 180 190 to 230 300 to 340 475 to 610

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , b o l t s s h o u l d b e p u n c h e d o n t h r e e p o i n t s s p a c e d a t 120°, a n d p r o t e c t e d
w i t h anti-corrosive dyes. Alternatively, o t h e r b l o c k i n g systems c a n b e used, a s t h e
e m p l o y m e n t o fs p r i n g washers o r special glues.

16.7 Installation of insulator sets and hardware

qtheodoiite connection

F i g u r e 16.24: P l u m b i n g a g u y e d t o w e r
F i g u r e 16.25: D e t a i l o f g u y w i r e t e n s i o n i n g
and connection
16.7.1 I n s u l a t o r sets
T h e i n s u l a t o r s a r e t r a n s p o r t e d i n s t a n d a r d i z e d boxes o r i n crates t ot h e i n s t a l l a t i o n sites
a n d s h o u l d b e s t o r e d t h e r e o n w o o d s u p p o r t s a n d a d e q u a t e l y p r o t e c t e d . F o r assembling
the insulator strings, s p e c i a l c a r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n , s u c h a s :
— T h e i n s u l a t o r sets s h o u l d b e assembled i naccordance w i t h t h e design d r a w i n g s .
— P i n s o f shackles and clamps, w h e n installed vertically, should b e inserted f r o m
t o p t ob o t t o m such t h a t t h e y c a n n o t g e t lost.
— T h e h e a d s o f t h e c o u n t e r k e y s s h o u l d b e p o s i t i o n e d s u c h t h a t a n easy access d u r i n g
live-line w o r k s is possible.
T h e s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets are lifted a n d i n s t a l l e d before c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g . P r o -
tective cradles s h o u l d b eused for m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r sets t oa v o i d c l a s h i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l
s t r i n g s . T h e s t r i n g i n g b l o c k s a r e fixed t o t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s t o p r e p a r e t h e c o n d u c t o r
s t r i n g i n g . T h e i n s u l a t o r sets s h o u l d b ei n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n a f t e r t h e c o n d u c t o r sagging
and the m a x i m u m tolerance towards the p l u m b islimited t o2 % o fthe string length
f o r b o t h t r a n s v e r s e a n d l o n g i t u d i n a ld i r e c t i o n s (see c l a u s e 1 6 . 8 . 5 ) .

F i g u r e 16.26: L i f t i n g o f a 5 0 0 k V g u y e d - V t o w e r b y m e a n s o f a c r a n e p i c k i n g u p t h e t o w e r a t
an auxiliary crossbeam
A d y n a m o m e t e r controls t h e t e n s i o n a to n eo ft h e g u y w i r e s prescribed t o b e b e t w e e n
7 t o 10% o fthe rope R T S . T h e preformed grips are t h e n installed a n d the guy wire
ends are connected t ot h e counterpoise wires, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 16.25. T h e acceptable
tolerances forthe tower being out o f the perpendicular a n d torsion a r e3 m m / m o f
t o w e r height. I nF i g u r e 16.26, t h e e r e c t i o n o f a 5 0 0k V g u y e d - V t o w e r u s i n g a crane
is s h o w n . T h e c r a n e p i c k s u pt h e s t r u c t u r e a t a n a u x i l i a r y c r o s s b e a m , since t h e c r a n e
height is t o ol o w for reaching t h e crossarm. T h e a u x i l i a r y c r o s s b e a m i sr e m o v e d after
t i g h t e n i n g o fg u y w i r e s .
E r e c t i o n b y c r a n e i s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r flat t e r r a i n , w h e r e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s n o t
d i s t u r b e d essentially. F o r h i l l y t e r r a i n , t h e m a n u a l e r e c t i o n a n d t h e use o fa n a u x i l i a r y
m a s t a r e u s u a l l y preferable, because t h e y r e q u i r e n e i t h e r special access r o a d s n o r large
terrain cuts near the assembled structure.
16.6.7 Bolts a n d torques
Bolts should b e tightened i n accordance w i t h prescribed torques o rvalues, asgiven i n
T a b l e 16.4.
I n s o m e cases, t h e use o f special t o r q u e s c a n b er e q u i r e d b y t h e design. A l l n u t s s h o u l d
be secured against getting loose. F r e q u e n t l y springer w a s h e r s are used for this purpose.
16.7.2 Joints
A l l c a r e s r e c o m m e n d e d f o r t h e i n s u l a t o r s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e installation of hardware
a s w e l l . I n p a r t i c u l a r , d a m a g e t o t h e finish s h o u l d b e p r e v e n t e d , i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e
replacements.
C o m p r e s s i o n c l a m p s a n d splices, after b e i n g m a d e , s h o u l d b e accurately checked w i t h
r e g a r d t o correct w o r k m a n s h i p . I n case o fd o u b t s , X - r a y tests c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t .
Conductor splices s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 1 0 m f a r f r o m t h e n e a r e s t s t r u c t u r e . D e p e n d i n g
on t h e project, conductor j o i n t s m a y n o t b ep e r m i t t e d a tspans crossing over highways,
r a i l w a y s o ro t h e r t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. I t i sr e c o m m e n d e d t ol i m i t t h e n u m b e r of j o i n t s t o
one p e r span f o revery conductor o r subconductor. A l l t h e conductors c a n b e j o i n t e d
at t h e same span, b u t the subconductors o ft h e same phase should b ej o i n t e d o n l y a t
m i n i m u m s p a c i n g o f 1,5 m f r o m o n e a n o t h e r .
16.8 Conductor stringing
16.8.1 General requirements
Conductor stringing s h o u l d b e h a n d l e d b y a n e x p e r i e n c e d c r e w , n o t o n l y t o p r e v e n t
d a m a g e t ot h e conductors a n d e a r t h w i r e s b u t also t o m a i n t a i n t h e sags a n d tensions
specified i n t h e design. C o r r e c t sags are essential t o give t h e r e q u i r e d m e c h a n i c a l safety,
b u t i t is j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e a c t u a l sags i nt h e line c o r r e s p o n d t o those used i n
t h e design, t oe n s u r e p r o p e r clearances t og r o u n d a n d t o obstacles.

F i g u r e 16.27: S t r i n g i n g o f a t w i n b u n d l e conductor
T o p r e v e n t d a n g e r o u s overvoltages t h a t m a yr e s u l t f r o m electrostatic i n d u c t i o n b y
parallel energized lines, safety measures should b e adequately defined d u r i n g conductor
stringing.
Before stringing, d y n a m o m e t e r s , e a r t h meggers a n d other equipment should b e checked
and adjusted.
Before conductor stringing, the contractor should present t o the client, for approval, a
complete p l a n o fd i s t r i b u t i o na n d u n w i n d i n g o ft h e conductor a n d e a r t h w i r e reels along
the line, containing control spans, layout o f stringing equipment, position o f the joints,
provisional anchors t o ground. A t t e n t i o n should b e given t o the reel lengths, a i m i n g
at losing t h e least possible a m o u n t o f cables. T h e m a x i m u m l e n g t h o f conductor t o b e
s t r u n g u n d e r t e n s i o n s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 8 t o 10 k m .
16.8.2 Stringing methods
T h e r e is n o i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r E u r o p e a n standard o n conductor stringing. I E C 61 328 T S
[16.26] deals w i t h i n s t a l l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f l i v e c i r c u i t s . T h e G e r m a n
s t a n d a r d D I N 4 8 2 0 7 - 1 [ 1 6 . 2 7 ] i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r t h e stringing of o v e r h e a d l i n e conductors.
Phase conductors and earth wires should b e installed under tension w i t h o u t touching
t h e g r o u n d o r a n y obstacles. T o u c h i n g g r o u n d o r obstacles could cause d a m a g e o f the
conductors, t h a t w o u l d infringe their mechanical a n d electric characteristics. F u r t h e r -
more, the conductors could corrode because o f chemical products potentially available
o n t h e soil. Therefore, t h e conductors should r u n over s t r i n g i n g blocks suspended a t
t h e supports, w i t h sufficient t e n s i o n t o keep t h e m clear o f g r o u n d surface o r obstacles.
F o r t h i s purpose, t h e conductor t o b e u n w i n d e d is connected t o a p u l l i n g rope a t t h e
t e n s i o n e r s i t e a n d s t r u n g b y a p u l l e r t o t h e puller site, w h i c h c a n b e i n s t a l l e d s o m e
kilometres apart f r o m the tensioner site ( F i g u r e 16.27). T o guarantee e n o u g h clearance
t o t h e g r o u n d d u r i n g conductor s t r i n g i n g , a n adequate tensile force has t o b e applied
by means o f a controlled tensioner.
I n case o f l o n g l i n e routes w i t h o n l y a f e wangle p o i n t s , i t is expedient t o u t i l i z e the
capacity o f conductor reels t o t h e i r full e x t e n t w i t h respect t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n l e n g t h ,
F i g u r e 16.28: B r a i d e d p u l l i n g ropes F i g u r e 16.29: J o i n t i n g o f c o n d u c t o r a n d p u l l -
ing rope
stringing the conductors even over strain towers. For this stringing procedure, the same
l e n g t h s a r echosen f o r t h e p u l l i n g ropes as f o r t h ephase conductors. H o w e v e r , i tis
necessary t o establish tensioner a n d puller sites regardless t h e t e r r a i n a n d t h e sites o f
the strain towers. T h e ends o f the conductors are anchored t oground after stringing a t
the tensioner site as w e l l as a tt h e puller site. A line crew o p e r a t i n g independently o f the
stringing procedure adjusts the conductors and terminates t h e m a t the strain towers.
I n densely populated areas like C e n t r a l E u r o p e , t h e terrain a n d t h e l a n d use d o rarely
p e r m i t t o p l a n a n dconstruct lines w i t h long straight t e n s i o n i n g sections. T h e r e , i t
is m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t r i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r s t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n b y t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n
f r o m o n estrain tower t o t h e next. B e h i n d each strain tower a t t h e end o f a tensioning
section a tensioner o r puller site is installed. T h e stringing operation is carried o u t
independently o f t h e lengths o f the conductors a n d the available p u l l i n g ropes. I f the
tensioning section lengths are shorter t h a n the conductor manufacturing lengths, t h e
conductors are cut; i f they are longer, they need t o b e extended b y tension- and current-
r e s i s t a n t j o i n t s (see c l a u s e 1 0 . 2 . 4 ) .
16.8.3 Conductor stringing equipment
16.8.3.1 Requirements
C o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l pulling ropes, stringing blocks, pullers, tensioners
a n d accessories. T h e conductor t y p e a n d cross section t ob e installed are decisive for t h e
design o f conductor stringing equipment. T h e required stringing equipment depends
o n t h e conductor stringing force f o r w h i c h t h e e v e r y d a y s t r e s s m a y b e a s s u m e d a s
m a x i m u m . F o r s t a n d a r d conductors, t h e everyday stress i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 N / m m 2 .
16.8.3.2 Pulling ropes
Pulling ropes s h o u l d b e a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e t w i s t - f r e e . T h e i r m i n i m u m f a i l i n g l o a d s h o u l d
be a t least t h r e e t i m e s t h e e x p e c t e d s t r i n g i n g force. R o p e s m a y n o t b e used f u r t h e r i f a
given n u m b e r o f visible strand failures has been reached. T w o p u l l i n g rope types have
proved w o r t h w h i l e and are m a i n l y used:
Braided ropes m a d e o f e i g h t o r t w e l v e p l a i t e d s t e e l s t r a n d s h a v e l o w t w i s t a n d a r e ,
therefore, well-suited (Figure 16.28). Loops f o r m e d d u r i n g the stringing process open
again automatically under tension without forming a typical sharp bend within t h e
rope. T h i s t y p e o f p u l l i n g rope h a sa r e l a t i v e l y l o w filling coefficient compared w i t h
656 16 Construction 16.8 C o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g 657

T a b l e 16.5: Specification o f p u l l i n g ropes

-
Subconductor Pulling rope
cross section Diameter Ultimate tensile Standard length
mm2 mm strength kN m
Single up to 300 11 73 3 000
Single 300 to 500 13 115 1600
T w i n bundle up to 500 16 165 1200
Triple bundle up to 500 20 280 000
Quadruple bundle up to 600 24 380 800

stranded conductors. Therefore, braided pulling ropes are thicker t h a n stranded ropes
of t h e s a m e tensile s t r e n g t h a n d need a larger w i n d i n g v o l u m e o n reels o r w i n c h d r u m s .
D u e t o their costlier production, braided ropes are m o r e expensive t h a n stranded ropes.
Compacted, m o s t l y t h r e e - p l a i t e d - s t r a n d steel ropes axe l e s s t w i s t - f r e e a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,
should be kept continuously under tension during the stringing procedure. T h e com-
paction o f t h e ropes after stranding o f t h e litzes increases their strength a n d t h e filling
coefficient, t h u s reducing t h e twisting strain. P u l l i n g ropes compacted i nthis m a n n e r
need a n essentially lower winding v o l u m e compared w i t h braided pulling ropes, how-
ever, are m o r e susceptible against f o r m i n g o f loops a n d cannot b e spliced because o f
the design made o f three plaited strands. Therefore, joints and thimbles have t o b e
c o m p r e s s e d i nt h i s cases. I n T a b l e 16.5 s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r p u l l i n g r o p e s a r e s h o w n .
16.8.3.3 Rope connections
D u r i n g c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g , rigid connections a n d swivelling joints a r e u s e d . T h e f i r s t
t y p e is used for j o i n t i n g conductors o f t h e same t y p e d u e t o t h e absence o f a n y twist,
w h i l e t h e latter isused for j o i n t i n g different conductor types t oc o m p e n s a t e t h e expected
twist. Rigid connectors m a y r u n over the b u l l w h e e lpuller, however, swivels m a y not b e
used such.
A l l conductor connections a p p l i e d d u r i n g s t r i n g i n g o p e r a t i o n s s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h r e e
t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m stringing force t o b e e x p e c t e d . T h e y s h o u l d b e a s s l i m a s p o s s i b l e
a n d designed w i t h a d i a m e t e r as l o w as possible t oenable r u n n i n g over sheaves w i t h o u t
b e i n g blocked there. S h a r p edges m u s t b e avoided.
Several types o f connections can b e distinguishedi n view o f conductor stringing:
— Connection o f t w o identicalpulling ropes b y a rigid joint;
— Connection o f t w o pulling ropes w i t h differing diameter b y means o f a swivelling
joint;
— C o n n e c t i o n o f a c o n d u c t o r a n d a p u l l i n g r o p e b y m e a n s o f woven wire grips w i t h
a swivel (Figure 16.29);
— Connection o f t w o conductors b y t w o woven wire grips w i t h a rigid connector;
— Connection o fthe subconductors o fa bundle with one pulling rope by means o f a
running board, w h i c h e q u a l i z e s t h e t e n s i l e f o r c e s i n t h e s t r u n g s u b c o n d u c t o r s a n d
stabilizes t h e m i na horizontal p o s i t i o n t o guide t h e connection b e t w e e n pulling
ropes a n d the subconductor over the multiple stringing block w i t h o u t a jerk. T h e
pulling rope and the conductors are connected t o the running board b y means o f
swivels for this purpose. E a s y mobility o f the hinges a n d pulleys o f the running
b o a r d a n d t h e swivels is o f particular i m p o r t a n c e (seeF i g u r e 16.30).
F o r ease, c o m p r e s s i o n j o i n t s a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s c a nb e installed o n t h e g r o u n d surface
directly behind t h etensioner before continuing conductor stringing. T h e connector
should b e provided w i t h a protector against b e n d i n g w h e n r u n n i n g over stringing blocks.
Passing o f t h e protector, however, requires sheaves w i t h accordingly designed groove
dimensions.
balancing pulley steel wire conductor grip
F i g u r e 16.30: R u n n i n g b o a r d for s t r i n g i n g o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s
I n d u c t i v e o r capacitive interferencem a y occur o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s t ob e s t r u n g d u e t o live
parallel circuits w h i c h cannot b e disconnected. T h e current t o b e expected, therefore,
s h o u l d b e k n o w n i n advance t o select s u i t e d swivels a n d w o v e n w i r e grips. A c c o r d i n g
to D I N 48 207, P a r t 2 [16.28], w o v e n w i r e grips m a d e o f steel c a n b e used for c u r r e n t s
u p t o 1 6 0 A . i n case o f a h i g h e r c u r r e n t , d a m a g e c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d . F o r t h i s case,
t e m p o r a r y compression joints o r special clamps for a n increased current capacity should
be u s e d . A p p l i c a t i o n o f s w i v e l s a n d p u l l i n g w o v e n w i r e g r i p s is s t a n d a r d i z e d i n [16.28]
a n d [16.29], respectively.
16.8.3.4 Stringing blocks
T h e size o f sheaves f o rstringing o f overhead line conductors depends o n t h e d i a m e t e r
of t h e conductor t o b e strung; t h e diameter o f t h e pulleys a t the groove basis should
a m o u n t t o a t least 2 0 t i m e s t h e conductor diameter. A sufficient w i d t h o f t h e grooves
should enable a n u n h i n d e r e d passage o f t e m p o r a r y joints like swivels a n d w o v e n wire
grips. W h e n selecting t h estringing blocks, t h em a x i m u m load expected d u e t o t h e
conductor rollover angle s h o u l d b e considered as well. T h e r e f o r e , i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o
use r e i n f o r c e d s t r i n g i n g blocks a t s t r a i n t o w e r s close t o t h e t e n s i o n e r a n d puller site.
Neoprene- o r perlon-lined sheaves s h o u l d b e used t oprotect t h e a l u m i n i u m layers o f t h e
conductors. T h e sheaves c a nb e combined t o stringing blocks f o rstringing o f bundle
conductors, w h e r e b y t h egrooves o f t h ecentral sheaves a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e pulling
ropes need not t o b e lined.
16.8.3.5 P u l l e r for c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g
T h e pullers u s e d n o w a d a y s f o r conductor stringing haul either pilot ropes or pulling
r o p e s , w h e r e b y reel-type o r twin bullwheel pullers a r e u s e d . Reel-type pullers e q u i p p e d
w i t h a p e r m a n e n t l y i n t e g r a t e d d r u m a r e u s e d t o s t r i n g p i l o t o r p u l l i n g r o p e s for c o n -
ductors w i t h cross sections u p t o 300 m m 2 .
F o r p u l l i n g c o n d u c t o r s w i t h h i g h e r cross sections w i t h a d e q u a t e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces,
p r e d o m i n a n t l y h y d r a u l i c a l l y d r i v e n twin bullwheel pullers axe p r e f e r r e d w h i c h h a u l p i l o t
a n d p u l l i n g r o p e b y m e a n s o f t w o b u l l w h e e l s ( F i g u r e 16.31), designed w i t h s i xt o t e n
grooves each for r u n n i n g o f the ropes. T h e wheels h a v i n g a d i a m e t e r o fat least 3 0 t i m e s
the rope diameter are staggered b y half o f the groove w i d t h t o each other.
T h e shape o fthe groove isdesigned such that rigid connectors t ob e hauled will b e able

F i g u r e 16.31: T w i n b u l l w h e e l p u l l e r F i g u r e 16.32: C o n d u c t o r t e n s i o n e r d r i v e n
by a n engine
to pass over t h e grooves. A brake w o r k i n g at t h e b u l l w h e e l a n d a c l a m p i n g device, w h i c h
closes a u t o m a t i c a l l y i n case o f a s t a n d s t i l l o r a pressure decrease w i t h i n t h e h y d r a u l i c
system, exclude gliding o f t h e ropes.
B e h i n d t h e p u l l e r t h e r o p e i s w i n d e d o n a reel w i n d e r e q u i p p e d w i t h changeable reels.
T h e h y d r a u l i c d r i v e o ft h e reel w i n d e r keeps t h e r o p e c o n t i n u o u s l y u n d e r a tensile force
to exclude s l i d i n g o f t h e r o p e over t h e b u l l w h e e l s . T h e size o f t h e reels i s t h e s a m e for
all diameters o f pilot a n d p u l l i n g ropes. T h e reels, therefore, can store different rope
lengths d e p e n d i n g o n t h e rope d i a m e t e r . E . g., i n case o f a rope w i t h 2 4 m m diameter,
800 m can b e w o u n d o n one reel, w h i l e i n case o f a rope d i a m e t e r o f 11 m m 3 0 0 0 m
c a n b e w o u n d (see T a b l e 1 6 . 5 ) .
The lineman operating the puller controls the machine b y means o f a portable remote
control unit. H ecan, therefore, chose a p o s i t i o n w h e r e h e i s able t o follow closely t h e
r u n n i n g o f the ropes over the bullwheels a n d o n t o t h e reel w i n d e r . H e is located a t
sufficient distance f r o m t h e puller, such t h a t t h e noise generated b y t h e drive w i l l not
impair too much the communication.
T h e running velocity d e p e n d s o n t h e l o a d a n d m a y a c h i e v e u p t o 1 0 0 m / m i n i n c a s e o f
l o w loads a n d u p t o 5 0 m / m m i n case o f h e a v y b u n d l e conductors.
B u l l w h e e l p u l l e r s offer t h e following considerable advantages compared w i t h reel-type
pullers:
- D u e t o the separation o f the winder for t h e ropes the weight o f the bullwheel
puller is lower.
- A c h a n g e o f t h e r o p e t y p e is possible j u s t b y c h a n g i n g t h e r o p e reel w i t h o u t t i m e -
and cost-consuming rewinding activities.
- T h e total length o f the rope can b e expanded as necessary j u s t b y coupling the
ropes stored o n reels.
- W h e n r u n n i n g over t h e bullwheels, constant s t r i n g i n g speed a n d s t r i n g i n g forces
are achieved a tthe same d r i v i n g intensity due t o the constant wheel diameter.
- W i n d i n g off t h e ropes f r o m separate reels t r e a t s t h e m w i t h care since t h e ropes
are u n d e r a l o w p r e t e n s i o n o n l y a n d c a n n o t c u t i n t o t h e r o p e layers o nt h e reels
w i t h t h e full tensile force.
M o d e r n bullwheel pullers are equipped w i t h a n adjustable overload control, meter coun-
t e r s , t a c h o m e t e r s a n d i n s t r u m e n t s f o r r e c o r d i n g t h e t e n s i l e f o r c e . Tensioners equipped
w i t h a d r i v i n g u n i t , also called puller tensioner, are used t o h o l d t e n s i o n against the
p u l l i n g rope a n d are as w e l l suited t o s t r i n g pilot o r p u l l i n g ropes (see 16.8.3.6).
16.8.3.6 Tensioner
T h e c o n d u c t o r s t o b e s t r u n g r u n o v e r conductor tensioners w h i c h are used t o hold
tension against the pulling rope a n d are designed preferably as t w i n bullwheel units.
A l t e r n a t i v e designs adopt one w h e e l o n l y w h i c h isequipped w i t h a n endless shoe chain.
T h e conductor is guided over t w o bullwheels equipped w i t h three t o six grooves a n d
h o l d t o t e n s i o n . T h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e wheels s h o u l d correspond a t least t o 3 0t i m e s t h e
conductor diameter. T h e dimensions o f t h e grooves l i n e d w i t h neoprene are selected
such that the thickest conductor for w h i c h the tensioner is provided can r u n w i t h a
woven w i r e grip o r a connector over the wheel.
The tensioner should hold the conductor f r o m standstill t o the m a x i m u m stringing
speed a t different tensile forces c o n t i n u o u s l y variable a n d w i t h o u t j e r k s a n d dissipate
the b r a k i n g heat generated thereby. T h i s requirements have lead t odiffering designs o f
tensioners w h i c h will b e described hereafter.
Mechanical tensioners
T h e b u l l w h e e l s o f mechanical tensioners are e q u i p p e d w i t h mechanical braking units.
W h i l e i n t h e p a s t flexible b a n d b r a k e s o r b l o c k b r a k e s h a v e b e e n u s e d , n o w a d a y s p r e -
d o m i n a n t l y disc brakes w i t h sufficiently large discs are a d o p t e d w h i c h dissipate t h e
braking energy w i t h o u t artificial cooling. T h e required b r a k i n g pressure is applied
p n e u m a t i c a l l y o r h y d r a u l i c a l l y b y m e a n s o f a p u m p o p e r a t e d b y feet o r h a n d s i m i -
lar t o o p e r a t i o n o f disc brakes i n a u t o m o b i l e s .
A sufficiently large r o t a t i n g mass o f the bull wheels equalizes the r u n n i n g o f the me-
chanical tensioners d u r i n g s t a r t i n g due t o overcome t h e h i g h e r f r i c t i o n coefficient a t
standstill (adhesive friction) t h a n during operation (gliding friction) a n d ensures steady
s t r i n g i n g o f t h e conductor. M e c h a n i c a l tensioners are characterized b y noiseless r u n -
ning, a relatively simple design a n d economic advantages resulting therefrom.
H y d r a u l i c tensioners
T h e b u l l w h e e l s o f hydraulic tensioners are c o u p l e d w i t h a h y d r a u l i c p u m p w h i c h i s
d r i v e n b y t h e w h e e l s d u r i n g b r a k i n g o p e r a t i o n s . T h e b r a k i n g effect is a c h i e v e d b y
restraining t h e o i l s t r e a m generated b y t h e p u m p , w h e r e b y t h e b r a k i n g force can b e
controlled continuously variable b y means o f a throttle valve. T h e oil will b e heated
by t h e dissipated b r a k i n g energy. T h e heat i sextracted f r o m t h e oil i n a radiator unit
before being sent back t o t h e h y d r a u l i c p u m p .
Engine-driven brakes
T h e b u l l w h e e l s o f engine-driven tensioners as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 2 a r e d r i v e n h y -
draulically a s i ncase o f a t w i n b u l l w h e e l pullers. A diesel engine drives a h y d r a u l i c
p u m p , b y w h i c h the oil flow w i t h i n the hydraulic system iscontrolled. W h e n pullingo r
h o l d i n g conductors, t h e h a u l i n g o r h o l d i n g force, respectively, a s well a s t h e conductor
stringing speed can b e adjusted b y means o f t h e r u n n i n g speed o f the oil. T o avoid
overspeeding d u r i n g b r a k i n g , t h e o i l flow i s guided t h r o u g h a t h r o t t l e valve a n d decel-
erated, whereby the b r a k i n g energy is dissipated w i t h i n the oil circuit. T h e oil heated
up flows back t o the hydraulic p u m p via a radiator unit.
Engine-driven tensioners c a nb e universally used for stringing a n d replacing o f con-
d u c t o r s u n d e r e v e r y d a y t e n s i l e s t r e s s . T h e y are d e s i g n a t e d , t h e r e f o r e , a s c o m b i n e d
puller/tensioner and a r e s u i t e d f o r c o n d u c t o r s a g g i n g a s w e l l . W h e n c o m b i n e d w i t h a
r e e l s t a n d c o n n e c t e d t o t h e h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m , t h e t e n s i o n e r c a n a l s o b e u s e d for d i s -
m a n t l i n g conductors, w h e r e b y t h e conductor is p e r m a n e n t l y k e p t u n d e r tensile stress
by the driven reel stand and w o u n d up.
660 16 Construction
F i g u r e 16.33: R e e l s t a n d s
I n a d d i t i o n , t h ep u l l e r tensioner c a n b e used also t o h a u l p u l l i n g o r p i l o t ropes i n
connection w i t h a hydraulically d r i v e n reel stand. B ythis procedure, t h e pilot o r p u l l i n g
ropes are h a n d l e d w i t h care due t o t h e large d i a m e t e r o f t h e b u l l w h e e l s a n d t h e groove
lining made o f plastic material.
16.8.3.7 R e e l stands
T h e conductor reels are installed i n reel stands b e h i n d t h e tensioner for u n w i n d i n g the
c o n d u c t o r s ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 3 ) . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e reel stand, t h e d r u m s a r e
installed b y t i l t i n g o r lifting u s i n g winches. T h e conductor reels are c l a m p e d o n a shaft
b e t w e e n adjustable cones t o ensure a s m o o t h r u n n i n g w i t h o u t jerking. T h e reel stands
need t o b e equipped w i t h brakes f o rt h e reels t o p r e t e n s i o n t h e conductor i nfront o f
the bullwheel tensioner t o exclude slipping o f the conductor over the tensioner and t o
avoid continuation o fu n w i n d i n g the d r u m after a sudden stop o fthe tensioner. For this
purpose, disc brakes are used t h e saddle o f w h i c h is operated b y h a n d , air o r h y d r a u l i c
pressure f r o m the control unit o f the tensioner.
Reel stands equipped w i t h hydraulicallyoperated brakes are used i n combination w i t h
m o t o r - d r i v e n t e n s i o n e r s . I n t h i s case, t h e h y d r a u l i c s y s t e m o f t h e t e n s i o n e r supplies t h e
reel stand as well.
16.8.4 Conductor stringing
16.8.4.1 Preparations
B e f o r e s t a r t i n g conductor stringing, t h e l i n e s e c t i o n b e t w e e n t e n s i o n e r s i t e a n d p u l l e r
s i t e n e e d s t o b e p r e p a r e d a c c o r d i n g l y . Scaffolds a x e i n s t a l l e d t o p r o t e c t c r o s s e d o b j e c t s
d u r i n g c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g . Low-duty scaffolds m a d e o f w o o d a r e s u i t e d t o p r o t e c t
fences, o r c h a r d s , v i n e y a r d s etc. T h e y need n o t t o w i t h s t a n d t h e stresses d u e t o c o n d u c -
t o r f a i l u r e b e c a u s e t h e d a m a g e t o o b j e c t s w o u l d b e l i m i t e d i n s u c h a n e v e n t . Scaffolds
for p r o t e c t i n g roads, r a i l w a y lines, l o w - a n d m e d i u m - v o l t a g e lines, telephone lines etc.
should w i t h s t a n d t h e loads that m i g h t occur after failure o f a conductor o r o f a con-
nector d u r i n g stringing activities, t h u s excluding any contact w i t h objects under t h e
l i n e . I n s p e c i a l cases, e. g. i f m o t o r w a y s c a n n o t b e b l o c k e d f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d , p l a s t i c
or metallic nets are installed over t h e crossed object.
T o prepare for conductor stringing, the fittings preassembled i nthe store a r e trans-
p o r t e d t o t h e t o w e r sites a n d assembled t h e r e w i t h t h e i n s u l a t o r s t o f o r m suspension
i n s u l a t o r sets. T h e s t r i n g i n g blocks f o r t h e s t r i n g i n g o f single o r b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s
a r e fitted i n s t e a d o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s . T h e p u l l e y f o r t h e p u l l i n g r o p e i s p r o -
v i d e d w i t h a l i g h t - w e i g h t , flexible finger r o p e f o r l e a d i n g t h e p u l l i n g r o p e t h r o u g h t h e
stringing block.
E v e n t u a l l y , t h esuspension s e t c a n b e h o i s t e d i n o n e piece a n d suspended fromthe
16.8 C o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g 6 6 1
crossarm. Hoisting c a nb e carried out b y hand o r b y means o f a winch o r a wheeled
t r a c t o r . T h e u s e o f a lifting yoke o r c r a d l e i s r e c o m m e n d e d f o r d o u b l e o r m u l t i p l e i n s u -
l a t o r s e t s t o a v o i d c l a s h i n g o f i n s u l a t o r s . T h e finger ropes e a s e l e a d i n g t h e p u l i i n g r o p e
over stringing blocks a t t h e suspension supports w h i c h need not t o b e climbed again.
T h e crossarms of towers next t o t h e tensioner o rpuller site are anchored d u r i n gs t r i n g i n g
operation t o balance one-sided loads. T h e anchor ropes are arranged as l o w l y inclined
as possible u n d e r t h e g i v e n l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s . T h e c r o s s a r m e n d s a r e a n c h o r e d t o t h e
t o w e r t o p o r t o w e r b o d y . T h e tensioner site s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d f a x e n o u g h f r o m t h e
tower t o achieve only a s m a l l d o w n s t r a i n angle o f the conductor f r o m t h e tower t o t h e
tensioner. T h e tensioner isadjusted i n direction o f the stringingblock and anchored t o
t h e g r o u n d t a k i n g account o f t h e h o l d i n g force t o b e expected. T h e reel s t a n d is placed
in a distance o f a t least s i x t i m e s t h e reel w i d t h b e h i n d t h e tensioner a n d aligned t o
t h e tensioner intake. A f t e r p l a c i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r reels i n t h e reel stands, t h e reel cover
i s r e m o v e d a n d a p u l l i n g g r i p i s fitted t o t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e n , t h e c o n d u c t o r i s g u i d e d
t h r o u g h t h e g r o o v e s o f t h e b u l l w h e e l s b y m e a n s o f a p l a s t i c finger r o p e .
T h e puller i s i n s t a l l e d s u f f i c i e n t l y f a x f r o m t h e t o w e r s i t e , a l i g n e d t o t h e s t r i n g i n g b l o c k
a n d anchored t a k i n g account o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g force.
A l l conductor stringing devices should b e earthed precautionally t o t a k e care for possi-
ble short-circuit currents, inductive currents a n d atmospheric flashovers. T h e standing
sites o f t h e o p e r a t i o n staff at t h e m a c h i n e s , such as steel grades, are connected w i t h t h e
earthing o f the stringing machine f o requipotential bonding. I naddition, conducting
connections s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d b e t w e e n these e a r t h electrodes a n d t h e closest t o w e r a s
well as between stringing blocks and towers.
Before starting the conductor stringing, communication channels should be installed
between all l i n e m e n active i n t h e stringing operation.
16.8.4.2 Stringing procedure
B e f o r e stringing the conductors, a steel o r plastic pilot rope is installedpassing over t h e
stringing blocks a t t h e towers between puller a n d tensioner site. I f t h e p u l l i n g rope for
c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g i s t o o h e a v y t o b e s t r u n g d i r e c t l y , a t first a p i l o t r o p e i s i n s t a l l e d
h a v i n g a lower cross section. T h i s rope isused a f t e r w a r d s t ostring t h e p u l l i n g r o p e f r o m
t h e p u l l e r site t o t h e t e n s i o n e r site. T h e r o p e t o p r e p a r e a n i n i t i a l c o n n e c t i o n across
t h e r u n n i n g blocks a t towers is installed either b y h a n d , horses, tractors, caterpillarso r
helicopters d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t e r r a i n a n d t h e t o w e r design. I n a n y case, t h e r o p e needs
t o b e h e l d a t t e n s i o n t o a c h i e v e a c o n t r o l l e d u n w i n d i n g from t h e s t o r a g e r e e l o r t h e
d r u m o f a puller. T h i s c a n b e achieved b y reverse r u n n i n g o f t h e bullwheel puller o r
by using a reel stand equipped w i t h a mechanical brake. I f the rope stored o n a reel is
not long enough, i tc a nbe connected w i t h t h e rope o f another reel b y means o f rigid
connectors. A t the tensioner site, the p u l l i n g rope is coupled w i t h the conductor o r
conductor bundle.
A t t h e beginning o f conductor stringing process, t h e p u l l i n g rope puller is m o d e r a t e l y
accelerated u pt othe r u n n i n g speed envisaged. T h e tensioner has t ohold the conductor
well t u n e d , such t h a t i tdoes n o t t o u c h t h e g r o u n d surface o r a n y obstacles. T h e con-
d u c t o r s o n t h e r e e l s t a n d axe b r a k e d a c c o r d i n g l y t o achieve a s u f f i c i e n t l y p r e t e n s i o n e d
intake o f the conductors t o the tensioner. After arriving o f the conductor a tthe puller
site i tis connected b y m e a n s o f a dead-end clamp w i t h t h e dead-end i n s u l a t o r set a t
the strain tower.
W h e n t h e c o n d u c t o r o n o n e r e e l i s n o t l o n g e n o u g h t o fit b e t w e e n t w o a d j a c e n t s t r a i n
supports, p e r m a n e n t joints need t o be installed. Compression joints are used a t most
for this purpose. T h e j o i n t s a r einstalled o n g r o u n d following t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s i n -
structions.
uuz
16.8.4.3 Sagging the conductors
T h e conductor can b esagged after installation o ft h e dead-end clamps a t the insulator
set o f t h e s t r a i n t o w e r a t t h e p u l l e r site. F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h e t e n s i o n e r
s i t e i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a s a g g i n g w i n c h (see 1 6 . 6 . 4 . 1 ) a n d s t r u n g t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t
t h e r e q u i r e d initial sag i s a c h i e v e d . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n i t i a l s a g s i s d e s c r i b e d i n
clause 16.8.5. I f t h e tensioner i sequipped w i t h a d r i v e w h i c h c a n b e used t o h a u l t h e
c o n d u c t o r i n t o t h e r e v e r s e d i r e c t i o n , a n a d d i t i o n a l sagging w i n c h i s n o t n e c e s s a r y .
S e v e r a l p r o c e d u r e s c a n b e u s e d t o supervising the sags d u r i n g conductor sagging. I f p o s -
sible, h o r i z o n t a l s a gb a t t e n s are a r r a n g e d a tadjacent towers a theights corresponding
t o t h e i n i t i a l s a g . T h e n , t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force i s m o d i f i e d u n t i l t h e v i e w i n g l i n e
between t h e s a gbattens coincides w i t h t h e lowest p o i n t o f t h e conductor w i t h i n t h e
s p a n . I t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o u s e field g l a s s e s w i t h s p i d e r l i n e s , a t e l e s c o p i c s i g h t o r a
theodolite for sighting. T o avoid sagging mistakes, i t is necessary t o c a r r y o u t a d d i t i o n a l
checking m e a s u r e m e n t s i n a second s p a n especially i n case o fl o n g t e n s i o n i n g sections.
Measurement of the wave running periods forms a n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c h e c k i n g t h e
sag. T h e p r o p a g a t i o n s p e e d o fa t r a n s v e r s a l w a v e o n a c o n d u c t o r i s
c = i/H/mc - (16.7)
T h e r u n n i n g period o fa n i m p a c t wave i n a span will be, therefore,
t=a/c = a/y/H/mc , (16.8)
where a isthe span l e n g t h , H t h e conductor tensile force a n d m c t h e conductor mass
per unit length.
A s a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n , i t a p p l i e s f o r t h e s a g :
f = a2-mcg/(SH) , (16.9)
from w h i c h i t iso b t a i n e d using (16.8)
/ = S / 8 - t 2 . (16.10)
According t othese formulae, t h e r u n n i n g p e r i o d s o fw a v e s a l l o w t ocheck t h e sags. T h e
w a v e is i n i t i a t e d b ya n i m p a c t e x e r t e d b ym e a n s o f a r o p e g u i d e d across t h e c o n d u c t o r i n
t h e v i c i n i t y o ft h e a t t a c h m e n t . T h e w a v e i sreflected a tt h e adjacent t o w e r . T o i m p r o v e
the accuracy, t h e w a v e i sled t o r u n three t i m e s between adjacent towers before t h e
r u n n i n g period t i s measured i nseconds. T h e subconductors o f a bundle conductor
h a v e t o b e c h e c k e d s e p a r a t e l y . D u r i n g t h i s c h e c k i n g s t a g e , n o a d d i t i o n a l fittings, s u c h
a s s p a c e r s o r v i b r a t i o n d a m p e r s , s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d . F r o m t h e p e r i o d f6 m e a s u r e d i n
seconds for r u n n i n g six t i m e s t h e span l e n g t h , t h e corresponding sag can b e d e t e r m i n e d
by:
/ = 0 , 0 0 0 3 4 0 5 • t\ i n m. (16.11)
T h i s m e t h o d for conductor s a g d e t e r m i n a t i o napplies t os p a n lengths a n d conductor
tensile stresses a s far a s t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n (16.9) i s applicable. T h e m e t h o d i s inde-
pendent o ft h e conductor m a t e r i a l .
I n h i l l y t e r r a i n , checking the conductor sag b y m e a n s o f a v i e w i n g l i n e i n c l i n e d b y t h e
a n g l e i s w e l l s u i t e d ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 4 ) . T h e a n g l e <f> c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m
<f> = a r c t a n [h - 4 / + 4 ^ / ( / • D)Jaj . (16.12)
T h e r e , <f> i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o n a n g l e o f t h e t a n g e n t a t t h e i n i t i a l s a g g i n g l i n e (+<f> a b o v e
t h e h o r i z o n , —<f> b e l o w t h e h o r i z o n ) , a t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t o w e r s T i
a n d T 2 (span l e n g t h ) , / t h e initial sag according t ot h e t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g sagging, D
the vertical distance between the conductor attachment a n d the inclination axis o f the
theodolite placed a t the tower centre o ftower T i a n d h the vertical distance between
the conductor attachments a tthe towers T i and T 2 .
D u r i n g sagging, t h e conductor s h o u l d touch t h e horizontal spider lines w i t h i n t h e view-
i n g range o ft h e t h e o d o l i t e . F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e t h e o d o l i t e i sa l i g n e d i n t h e line direc-
tion, however, not t u r n e d laterally t ot h e conductor. T h i s a d j u s t m e n t procedure m a y
be used o n l y i f t h e conductor touches t h e v i e w i n g line w i t h i n t h e central t h i r d o f the
sagging control span.
I n l o n g spans h a v i n g h i g h differences b e t w e e n t h e a t t a c h m e n t levels o ft h e conductors
at t h e towers, t h e sag ischecked using a horizontal v i e w i n g line t h r o u g h t h e l o w e r m o s t
p o i n t o ft h e conductor ( F i g u r e 16.35). T h e sag a t this p o i n t iso b t a i n e d from
/h = / [ l + fl/(4-/)]2-fl , (16.13)
w h e r e fb i s t h e s a g a t a horizontal viewing line, f t h e t a r g e t i n i t i a l s a g c o r r e s p o n d i n g
to the temperature during sagging and h the vertical distance between the attachments
o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s . W h e n c h e c k i n g t h e s a g w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l v i e w i n g l i n e , t h e s a g fb i s
m e a s u r e d a ta t o w e r b e t w e e n t h e conductor a t t a c h m e n t a n d t h e v i e w i n g line. A t this
p o i n t , t h e t h e o d o l i t e for t h e h o r i z o n t a l sight i sa r r a n g e d . A check o ft h e v i e w i n g line i s
p o s s i b l e b y i n s t a l l i n g a sag b a t t e n a t t h e o p p o s i t e t o w e r o ft h e s p a n (see F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 5 ) .
16.8.4.4 Terminating the conductors
A f t e r sagging, t h e c o n d u c t o r can b et e r m i n a t e d t o t h e s t r a i n t o w e r close t ot h e t e n s i o n e r
site. F o r this purpose, t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e dead-end c l a m p has t o b e m a r k e d o n t h e
c o n d u c t o r t a k i n g account o f t h e l e n g t h o f t h e d e a d - e n d i n s u l a t o r set. T h e dead-end
c l a m p s c a nb e i n s t a l l e d o na w o r k i n g p l a t f o r m a r r a n g e d a t t h e t o w e r o r o n g r o u n d ,
whereby t h e conductor has t ob e lowered again.
16.8.4.5 Clipping-in o f conductors
After preparation o fthe dead-ends, t h e suspension clamps can b e installed. T h e n the
s t r i n g i n g blocks are r e m o v e d . W i t h respect o f a vertical p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets
a f t e r clipping-in, t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e c l i p p e d - i n w i t h a n o f f s e t c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n
o n t h e s t r i n g i n g blocks especially i n r o u g h t e r r a i n . T h e procedure t o d e t e r m i n e t h e offset
is d e s c r i b e d i n c l a u s e 1 6 . 8 . 5 . 2 . F o r c l i p p i n g - i n a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p o s i t i o n , i t is n e c e s s a r y
to m a r k t h e conductors a tthe position where they rest o nt h e stringing blocks and
m e a s u r e from t h a t p o s i t i o n t h e o f f s e t o f s u s p e n s i o n p o i n t s a s c a l c u l a t e d b e f o r e ( F i g u r e
16.36). C l i p p i n g - i n t o suspension c l a m p s c a n o n l y b e s t a r t e d w h e n offsets have been
m a r k e d a ta l l suspension sets o f t h e t e n s i o n i n g section o r a tleast t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e
conductors o nthe stringing blocks.
664 16 Construction
F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 6 : Offset o f t h e i n - F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 7 : L i n e car
stallation position o fa suspension
clamp
16.8.4.6 I n s t a l l a t i o n o fj u m p e r loops
At each strain tower, the corresponding ends o f the conductors terminated a tthe i n -
s u l a t o r sets n e e d t o b e c o n n e c t e d s u c h t h a t t h e y c a n conduct, t h e c u r r e n t . I n case o f
wedge-type tension clamps, the conductor ends extend through the clamps such that
t h e jumper loop c a n b e p r o d u c e d b y o v e r l a p p i n g t h e e n d s t o b e c o n n e c t e d . T h e c o n -
ductor ends overlapping o n approximately o n ethird o f the j u m p e r loop length a r e
connected b y t w o o r t h r e e parallel groove c l a m p s . I n case o f c o n d u c t o r t e r m i n a t i o n s
using compression dead-end clamps, preassembled ju m p e r loops made o fconductors o f
the same t y p e are connected t o the lugs a tt h e compression clamps.
All clamping positions a tthe j u m p e r loop connections should b e metallically clean t o
ensure l o w electric transition resistance. F o r a n y t y p e o f j u m p e r loops, t h e designed
distances b e t w e e n adjacent loops a n d t o t h e t o w e r s t r u c t u r e need t o b e obeyed also i n
swung conditions.
16.8.4.7 Installation o fdampers and bundle spacers
T h e installation of dampers and spacers f o r b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s c o m p l e t e s t h e c o n d u c t o r
stringing activities together w i t h t h e installation o f aircraft warning markers o n the
e a r t h w i r e s , i f a n y . L i g h t line cars d r i v e n m a n u a l l y o r h e a v y l i n e c a r s d r i v e n b y e n g i n e s
are used ( F i g u r e 16.37) f o r t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s . T h e d e s i g n e d p o s i t i o n s o f d a m p e r s a n d
distances b e t w e e n t h e b u n d l e spacers o r b e t w e e n m a r k e r s are m e a s u r e d using a m e t e r
c o u n t e r a r r a n g e d a t t h e line car.
16.8.4.8 Conductor replacement
Conductor replacements m a y b e necessary for r e f u r b i s h m e n t o r u p g r a d i n g o f existing
overhead lines. A procedure has p r o v e n its qualification f o rthis purpose, w h e r e t h e
t e n s i o n e r site is, a s i ncase o f s t r i n g i n g n e w c o n d u c t o r s , e q u i p p e d w i t h a reel s t a n d
and a tensioner a n d t h e conductor t o b e replaced is used directly as pulling rope f o r
stringing t h e n e w conductors [16.30].
Instead o fa conventional puller, a m o t o r driven tensioner (puller tensioner) is installed
at t h e puller site h a u l i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r t o b e replaced. Joints possibly available o n t h e
conductor can r u n w i t h o u t difficulties over t h e grooves of t h e puller tensioner. Separable
16.8 Conductor stringing 665
F i g u r e 16.38: Running earthing system
reels, i n s e r t e d t o a reel w i n d e r e q u i p p e d w i t h b r a k e , w i n d o n t h e replaced c o n d u c t o r s .
A f t e r w a r d s , t h e w i n d e d c o n d u c t o r coils c a n b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e separable reels a n d
recycled. I f t h e replaced conductors need t o b e d i s m a n t l e d i n a reusable c o n d i t i o n , a
d r i v e n s t a n d for s t a n d a r d i z e d conductor reels i s used.
16.8.4.9 Stringing conductors with optical fibres
C o n d u c t o r s w i t h optical fibres o r all dielectric self-supporting ( A D S S ) cables are fre-
q u e n t l y i n s t a l l e d i n o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s . S t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i n t e g r a t e d fibres
are a d o p t e d a s e a r t h w i r e s ( O P G W - o p t i c a l g r o u n d w i r e ) a n d less f r e q u e n t l y a s p h a s e
c o n d u c t o r s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s a m e t o o l s a n d p r o c e d u r e s a r e u s e d f o r stringing conductors
with optical fibres a s i n c a s e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n d u c t o r s . F o r s o m e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h o p t i -
c a l fibres, t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s s t i p u l a t e s p e c i f i c l i m i t s f o r t h e s t r i n g i n g t e n s i l e s t r e s s . T o
verify t h e compliance w i t h these limits, t h e tensile force o fpuller o r tensioner needs t o
be recorded continuously,for example b y means o f monitoring t h e hydraulic pressure.
In addition, the bending radii stipulatedb y the manufacturerand the m i n i m u m dia-
m e t e r s o f s t r i n g i n g blocks a s g i v e n for e x a m p l e i n D I N 48 207, P a r t 1 [16.27] m a y n o t
be disregarded.
D u r i n g t h e s t r i n g i n g p r o c e d u r e s , t h e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres m a y n o t b e h a n d l e d
w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k i n g g r i p s b u t o n l y w i t h a d j u s t e d tension-proof armor rods ( s e e
clause 10.2.2).
16.8.4.10 Installation o fconductors adjacent t oo r crossing energized lines
T h e p u b l i c a t i o n I E C 6 1 3 2 8 [16.26] deals w i t h p r e c a u t i o n m e a s u r e s for i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
conductors i n parallel t o o r crossing o f energized lines. T h e i r electrical a n d m a g n e t i c
field i n d u c e voltages a n d c u r r e n t s o n parallel conductors. I f t h e conductors w o u l d n o t
b e e a r t h e d , t h e e l e c t r i c a l field m a y i n d u c e a v o l t a g e a s m u c h a s 3 0 % o f t h a t o f t h e
energized line voltage. A d e q u a t e earthing reduces t h e voltage t o acceptable values. A
c u r r e n t o f s e v e r a l a m p e r e s w i l l flow t h r o u g h t h e e a r t h . I f t h e e a r t h i n g i s r e m o v e d , t h e
capacitive potential is i m m e d i a t e l y re-established a n d l i n e m e n could b e exposed t o a
dangerous voltage.
The energized, current-carrying conductor and the conductor being installed m a y b e
looked u p o n asp r i m a r y and secondary windings o fan air-core transformer. I f the new
c o n d u c t o r i s e a r t h e d s a y a t b o t h e n d s , a c i r c u l a t i n g c u r r e n t w i l l flow a l o n g a n d b a c k
through the earth. This current depends on the geometry and impedance o fthe system
and o n t h e l o a d o f t h e energized line. I tcan b e c o m e large a n d affect t h e selection o f
equipment, such as pulling grips, swivels and earthing assemblies. A t t h e m o m e n t o f
r e m o v i n g t h e last b u t one earth, t h e c i r c u l a t i n gc u r r e n t i sb e i n g b r o k e n a n d a voltage
appears across t h e gap, w h i c h c a nb e c o m e d a n g e r o u s l y high. T h e e a r t h i n g sections,
therefore, should b e short enough t o limit the open circuit voltage.
I E C p u b l i c a t i o n 6 1 328 c o n t a i n s a series o f p r o c e d u r e s o n e a r t h i n g o f w o r k sites. T h e
most i m p o r t a n t ones should b e s u m m a r i z e d here:
- T h e a u t o m a t i c reclosers s h o u l d b e disabled o n a l l energized lines w h e r e physical
contact m a y occur as a result o f a n accident.
- T h e conductor stringing equipment a n dt e m p o r a r y anchors should b e earthed
w i t h a n e a r t h r o d h a v i n g a n e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e less t h a n 2 5 f la n d l o c a t e d i n a n
area lined b y a nearthing m a t .
- W h i l e stringing, the conductors should have r u n n i n g earthing systems located i n
front o f the puller a n d tensioner, respectively. I n F i g u r e 16.38, a r u n n i n g e a r t h i n g
system is shown.
- T h e first structures i nfront o f t h e puller a n d tensioner as well as every third
support should b e equipped w i t h a stringing block earthing system.
- A t the tower, where clipping-in takes place, all conductors should b e earthed t o
a tower m e m b e r o r earthing point. T h e same applies t o attaching conductors t o
strain structures and installation o fj u m p e r loops.
- T h e e a r t h i n g e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d a t e s t c u r r e n t o f 2 0 k A f o r 0 , 4 s.

F i g u r e 16.39: Condition o f a Figure 16.40: Condition of a

16.8.5 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of i n i t i a l sags conductor suspended bya string- c o n d u c t o r fixed b y a s u s p e n s i o n
ing block before clamping clamp
16.8.5.1 Requirements

A f t e r s t r i n g i n g t h ec o n d u c t o r s t h e y a r esagged s o t h a t after c l i p p i n g - i n t h e y a r e i n
t h e p o s i t i o n d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e s u r v e y , p l a n n i n g a n d c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e s u s p e n s i o n sets
suspended vertically. W h e n adjusting the conductors, provisions need t o b e taken f o r
t h e p e r m a n e n t e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , c a l l e d conductor creep.
T h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e s a g g e d w h e n t h e y a r e s u s p e n d e d i n s t r i n g i n g b l o c k s . T h e initial
sags s h o u l d t a k e c a r e o f t h e c r e e p e x p e c t e d d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e c u r r e n t c o n d u c t o r
temperature.

16.8.5.2 Position of the conductor on stringing blocks and in clamps Figure 16.41: Data to
determine t h e conductor
T h e m e c h a n i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f conductors suspended on stringing blocks ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 9 ) state i n spans between sus-
w i t h i n a tensioning section differs essentially f r o m t h e b e h a v i o u r w h e n t h e conductors pension towers
a r e fixed t o s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 4 0 ) , i f e i t h e r l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a t t a c h -
m e n t heights o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a t t h etowers exist o r i f t h e s p a n l e n g t h s differ t o a of c o n d u c t o r tensile forces result thereof. T h e differences a f f e c t a displacement of the
larger extent w i t h i n a tensioning section. These aspects have t o b e considered w h e n insulator set i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s p a n w i t h t h e l o w e r c o n d u c t o r d o w n s t r a i n a n g l e . The
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e conductor sagging data.
difference o f h o r i z o n t a l tensile forces o f t w o adjacent spans results f r o m Figure 16.41
It i s t h e goal o f t h e p r o c e d u r e described i n[16.31] t o d e t e r m i n e t h e sags o f c o n d u c t o r s a n d [16.31] t o b e
and the installation positions o f the suspension clamps a t the conductors resting o n
s t r i n g i n g blocks such t h a t t h e sags o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n s u l a t o r Hi+i -Hi= (fr - fm) • mcg = hSi • mcg , (16.14)
sets a f t e r c l i p p i n g - i n c o m p l y w i t h t h e d a t a e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g l i n e p l a n n i n g .
w h e r e h$i i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e h e i g h t o f t h e s a g g i n g l i n e v e r t i c e s o f t w o a d j a c e n t s p a n s .
S i n c e t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e fixed i n l i n e d i r e c t i o n a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s , t h e i n s u l a t o r
T h i s relation describes the state o f e q u i l i b r i u m o f the conductor, w h e n the conductors
sets w i l l a s s u m e a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n o n l y i f t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c o n d u c -
rest o n s t r i n g i n g b l o c k s a t a l l s u s p e n s i o n sets o f t h e t e n s i o n i n g section. I f t h e h o r i z o n t a l
t o r tensile forces i n t h e adjacent spans are equal. However, i ft h e c o n d u c t o r s rest o n
t e n s i l e f o r c e i n t h e first s p a n i s g i v e n , t h e n t h e v a l u e i n t h e s p a n i r e s u l t s f r o m
stringing blocks, a c o n d i t i o n o f e q u i l i b r i u m exists i f t h e conductor tensile forces o n
b o t h sides o f t h e s t r i n g i n g blocks are equal. T h e n , n o r e s u l t i n g m o m e n t acts a r o u n d
t h e block axle ( F i g u r e 16.39). T h e h o r i z o n t a l components o f t h e tensile forces o f the Hi = Hi + mcg h s i (16.15)
c o n d u c t o r s i nt h e adjacent s p a n s w i l l b e e q u a l , i f t h e r e axe n e i t h e r differences i n h e i g h t
between the conductor attachments nor i n the span lengths. O n l y under this condition, I f t h e conductors are fixed t o a suspension clamp, t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s is c o m -
t h e d o w n s t r a i n angles o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s o n b o t h sides o f t h e s t r i n g i n g b l o c k are equal. plied w i t h a r o u n d t h e suspension pivot o f t h e insulator s e t ( F i g u r e 16.40). T h e b e -
I n case o f d i f f e r i n g a t t a c h m e n t h e i g h t s o f c o n d u c t o r s o r d i f f e r i n g s p a n l e n g t h s , d i f f e r i n g haviour o f conductors suspended b y clamps w i t h i n a tensioning section o f a n overhead
conductor d o w n s t r a i n angles a exist ( F i g u r e 16.39) a n d differing h o r i z o n t a l components l i n e i s d e a l t w i t h i n c l a u s e 14.8 i n d e t a i l .
668 1 6 Construction 16.8 Conductor stringing 669

For a n exact installation of the conductors, the position of the suspension clamps at
each suspension t o w e r of t h e t e n s i o n i n g section needs t o be d e t e r m i n e d . T h e exact
i n i t i a l sags h a v e t o be c a l c u l a t e d as w e l l f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r s s u s p e n d e d b y stringing
blocks such that the insulator strings assume a p l u m b position after clipping-in the
suspension clamps.
The swing angle ftm a t t h e i n s u l a t o r set i + 1 c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m

ft+i = arctan [ ( H i + 1 - H i ) / (V i + i + G K i + l / 2 ) ] , (16.16)

w h e r e V j + i is t h e v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t o r l o a d a t t h e set i + 1 a c c o r d i n g t o

Vi+1 = H i smh ( - ^ T ) + H i + i smh ( - - — j . (16.17)

The signification of the variables asi a n d asi+i can be taken from Figure 16.41. The
offset o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s u s p e n s i o n p o i n t is o b t a i n e d f r o m

5i+x = L K I + I •sin/3 i + i . (16.18)

Due t o t h e offset o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set, t h e t h e o r e t i c a ll e n g t h s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l spans a r e

modified according to

4 = ai + Si+1 - 5i . (16.19)

The conductor length can be obtained f r o m (14.14) for conductors o n stringing blocks

section. H o w e v e r , i n t h i s case t h e c o n d u c t o r needs t o b e r e a d j u s t e d a t t h e s t r a i n t o w e r

at t h e e n d o f t h e t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n w i t h n spans b y t h e v a l u e

The l e n g t h o f t h e c l i p p e d - i n c o n d u c t o r i n t h e s p a n i is o b t a i n e d f r o m
n n + 1 = f j A L 9 = E ( L 3 - © • <16-24)
3=1 J=l

(16.21) A n o p t i m u m could be achieved i f t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile stringing forces for t h e conductor

\ ' \ m c g 2 H 0 ) resting i n stringing blocks ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 4 2 ) were d e t e r m i n e d such t h a t t h e offsets w i t h i n
the t e n s i o n i n gsection are m u t u a l l y c o m p e n s a t e d after t h e c l i p p i n g - i n .T h e n , t h e offset
a s s u m i n g a c o n s t a n t h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e Hq i n a l l s p a n s . T h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e c o n -
v n + i at the strain tower will be zero a n d any r e a d j u s t m e n t w o u l d n o t be necessary
ductor length i n the span i between a suspension of conductors i n stringing blocks or
a n y m o r e ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 4 3 ) . T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t is c o m p l i e d w i t h , i f t h e s u m o f conductor
clipped-in results from
c a t e n a r y l e n g t h s is e q u a l for t h e c o n d u c t o r s o n s t r i n g i n g blocks a n d for conductors
Afa = L i - L ' i . (16.22) clipped-in at the suspension clamps.
W i t h the abbreviation
F r o m ( 1 6 . 2 2 ) , t h e offsets can be d e t e r m i n e d by w h i c h t h e suspension c l a m p s a t each
Lai = yjh2 + a2 (16.25)
i n s u l a t o r set need t o be displaced such t h a t t h e i n s u l a t o r sets w i l l be s u s p e n d e d verti-
cally after i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l forces a n d sags i n an a p p r o x i m a t i o n for the conductor catenary length can be obtained f r o m
a l l s p a n s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e r e q u i r e d d a t a . T h e offset measured approximately along
t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h e i n s u l a t o r set o f t h e t o w e r i o f a t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n w i t h n s p a n s is • < U M )

obtained from
The s u m o f t h e c o n d u c t o r c a t e n a r y l e n g t h s i n t h e t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n is o b t a i n e d f r o m
the horizontal tensile forces H i for conductors suspended o n stringing blocks from
u, = = E © - © • <16-23)
3=1 j = l

The offsets i n a t e n s i o n i n g section are s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1 6 . 4 2 . I n case o f a p o s i t i v e sign

o f t h e o f f s e t U j , t h e s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p a t t o w e r i h a s t o b e i n s t a l l e d i n a d i s t a n c e vt
A f t e r c l i p p i n g - i n o f c o n d u c t o r s w i t h t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e s Hq i n all spans from
measured i n direction to tower i + 1 .
T h e r e l a t i o n s ( 1 6 . 2 0 ) t o ( 1 6 . 2 3 ) e n a b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e offset Uj f o r a n y g i v e n h o r i z o n t a l the s u m o f t h e c a t e n a r y lengths w i l l be
tensile forces H i such t h a t t h e i n s u l a t o r sets w i l l be s u s p e n d e d vertically after c l i p p i n g - i n
1 K + Y € ) • (16-28)
and t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e i s c o n s t a n t a n d e q u a l t o Hq w i t h i n t h e w h o l e t e n s i o n i n g 24 L 0 i - H 2 J
A s a s s u m e d , t h e l e n g t h s L a n d V s h o u l d b e e q u a l . T h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e s Hi t o T h e r e , e i s t h e creep strain, measured i nt h o u s a n d t h ; e n , a n d n a r ep a r a m e t e r s d e -
be selected i nt h e s t r i n g i n g c o n d i t i o n can b e o b t a i n e d f r o m (16.27) a n d (16.28): pending o n the conductor design, conductor material and conductor cross section, the
n 4 i n 4 o p e r a t i o n history, t h e tensile stress a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s ; t ist h e p e r i o d o ft i m e elapsed
a f t e r t h e first l o a d i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s i n h o u r s . T h e p a r a m e t e r e n , r e p r e s e n t s t h e c r e e p
£rY = F ' £ r Oi • (16-29> strain one hour after loading the conductor.

w h e r e L ' 0 i ~ L o i a n d a{ ~ ai w a s assumed. T o d e t e r m i n e t h e p a r a m e t e r s n a n d en,, tests need t ob ecarried o u t for each conductor

E q u a t i o n (16.29) cannot b e solved directly t o o n e o ft h e n h o r i z o n t a l tensile forces # + under sagging conditions a n d a n expected m e a n temperature. Such tests, however,
A n iteration procedure isrecommended w h e r e a t first a v a l u e H\to f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l n e e d a l o n g p e r i o d o ft i m e a n d axe c o s t l y b e c a u s e o ft h e l o n g d u r a t i o n a n d t h e r e q u i r e d
tensile force i nt h e first s p a n o f a t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n i s a s s u m e d a n d t h e n t h e d a t a Hi q a c c u r a c y o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s . A p r o c e d u r e f o r testing the creep behaviour o f conductors
w i t h i n t h e other spans a r ecalculated b y equation (16.15). T h e equivalent horizontal is s t a n d a r d i z e d i n I E C 6 1 3 9 5 [16.35]. I n [16.34], a m e t h o d a n dd a t a a r eg i v e n which
t e n s i l e f o r c e HRk c a nb e c o m p u t e d from (16.29): can b e used t o forecast t h e creep strain for p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e c r e e p s t r a i n t o
be e x p e c t e d after a n o p e r a t i o n p e r i o d o f 3 0 years c a nb e o b t a i n e d from
n 4 n 1 / 2 \
e 3 0 = «30 - K - (16.33)

T h e r e , t h e i n d e x fc r e f e r s t o t h e i t e r a t i o n s t e p . U s i n g t h e v a l u e # E , * , t h e t e n s i l e f o r c e s T h e p a r a m e t e r 530 i s t h e n o n - e l a s t i c s t r a i n a t e v e r y d a y stress according t o 20 % of

Hjjk+i used i nt h e f o l l o w i n g step c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d according t o the rated tensile strength ( R T S ) o f the conductor. A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , t h e creep
elongation c a nb e assumed as depending linearly o nt h e steel content o ft h e conductor
Hi<k+1 = Hi<k + H0 - HE<k . (16.31) weight

T h e i t e r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s c o n t i n u e d u n t i l #E,Jfc c o r r e s p o n d s w i t h sufficient accuracy t o

e 3 0 = 1,12 - 0,97 • t u / 1 0 0 , (16.34)
the target value # o - A few steps are sufficient t o achieve t h i s goal.
T h e practical calculation needs s o m e effort because o ft h e necessary iterations and the
where w is t h e steel content o f the conductor weight, expressed i npercent. A s a n
large n u m b e r o f possible a d j u s t m e n t conditions w h i c h should take care o f the a m b i -
a p p r o p r i a t e a p p r o x i m a t i o n , t h e p a r a m e t e r ka is assumed t o depend linearly o n t h e
ent t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g adjustment a n d t h et i m e schedule o f conductor installation
relative everyday stress o.
activities. Therefore, the calculation iscarried out using computer programs.

ka = a / 2 0 . (16.35)
16.8.5.3 I m p a c t of conductor creep
T h e relative everyday stress i sexpressed as a percentage o f t h e r a t e d tensile stress.
C o n d u c t o r s f o ro v e r h e a d lines, b e i n g s i n g l e - m a t e r i a l c o n d u c t o r s made o fa l u m i n i u m o r
T h e r e l a t i o n s (16.34) a n d(16.35) a p p l y for A C S R conductors w i t h a < 30%, however,
a l u m i n i u m alloy o r composite conductors m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m a n d steel o r a l u m i n i u m
alloy a n d steel, e x p a n d non-elastically under a p e r m a n e n t tensile load. T h i s creep pro- t h e y c a nb e used f o rA A C S R conductors as a napproximation, too.
cess r e s u l t s i n a n o n - r e v e r s i b l e e l o n g a t i o n o ft h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g sags T h e creep process o fthe conductors starts i m m e d i a t e l y after stringing. Since the creep
d u r i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e o p e r a t i o n . P l a n n i n g a n d i n s t a l l a t i o ns h o u l d p r o v i d e for conductor strain is relatively high immediately after stringing, the period between the stringing
creep. and t h e sagging o f the conductor reaching u p t o several weeks should b e considered
w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e sagging data. F o r t h i s purpose, equation (16.32) can b eused. The
A non-reversible elongation o fa conductor iscaused b y consolidation o fthe conductor
e x p o n e n t n is g a i n e d f r o m tests [16.35]; for s o m e c o n d u c t o r t y p e s , i n f o r m a t i o nis g i v e n i n
s t r u c t u r e a f t e r t h e first l o a d i n g o f t h e s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r . This phenomenon occurs
[16.34]. W h e r e o t h e r d a t a are n o t available, n = 0,25 c a n b e used a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n .
already during stringing o f the conductor a n dcontinues during operation especially
under increased mechanical loads. T h e n , a d d i t i o n a l irreversible elongations are caused T h e parameter e n ,c a nb e obtained f r o m (16.32) w i t h t = 2 4•365 •3 0 = 2,628 • 1 0 s h
by metallurgical procedures within the conductor m a t e r i a l , w h i c h is called conductor a n d 530 a c c o r d i n g t o (16.34). F r o m (16.32), t h e creep strain a t a given t i m e c a nb e
creep. T h e conductor tensile stress a n d t h econductor t e m p e r a t u r e affect essentially c a l c u l a t e d t h e n u s i n g t h e m e n t i o n e d d a t a for e n , a n d n .
the conductor creep. W i t h rising tensile stress a n d t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e speed o f creep is T h e elongation o fconductors due t o creep produces t h e same change o ft h e conductor
increased as well. T o provide f o r t h ea d d i t i o n a l s a gd u e t o creep, i t i s necessary t o state as a n equivalent temperature variation A T j d , which c a nb e obtained from
e s t i m a t e t h e non-elastic e l o n g a t i o n t ob e e x p e c t e d d u r i n g t h e life-cycle o f t h e conduc-
tors. A forecast is difficult also i n case w h e r e m e a s u r e d d a t a f o rt h e creep behaviour AT i d = e / £ T , (16-36)
of a certain conductor are available, since such a forecast w o u l d need t h e v a r i a t i o n s o f
tensile forces a n dt e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , these d a t a a r e n o t k n o w n w h e r e e i st h e creep s t r a i n a c c o r d i n g t o (16.32) a n d £ T t h e coefficient o ft h e r m a l e x p a n -
in advance. s i o n g i v e n i n 1 / K . T o p r o v i d e for c r e e p , t h e c o n d u c t o r may not b e adjusted with data
for t h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g s a g g i n g , b u tw i t h d a t a f o r a conductor tempera-
Numerous measurements were carried o u ta t overhead line conductors t o determine
t u r e w h i c h i s l o w e r b y t h e equivalent temperature difference AT;d. faking into account
their creep behaviour [16.32, 16.33]. A ne v a l u a t i o n o f these tests w i t h proposals f o r
a c o n s t a n t c r e e p s t r a i n a n d a n e q u i v a l e n t t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e for a l l s p a n lengths
considering t h e creep i s g i v e n i n [16.34]. T h e e x p e c t e d irreversible creep s t r a i n c a n b e
means, t h a t t h e r e d u c t i o n o fsag i srelatively higher, the lower t h e span l e n g t h is. T h e
described b y
initial stress i s , therefore, increased t o a higher extent t h a n i nlong spans, and the
e = ei h • t n (16.32) resistance o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s m a y l i m i t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f sags.
672 16 Construction 16.9 References 6 7 3

Tower No. 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tower type A+18 T+20 T+20 T+20 T+20 A+1E T a b l e 1 6 . 7 : S a g g i n g t a b l e : Sags i n m a n d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e stresses i n N / m m 2 for
Span length m 412,0 293,0 239,0 250,0 438,0 sagging, conductors i n s t r i n g i n g blocks, 14 days after s t r i n g i n g
Difference in 15,06 96,00 96,65 73,56 1 09
AJtitude m T e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g s a g g i n g °C
0 5 10 15 o2U
n nr
OU 05
ZD
Span 1 Sag 16,36 16,64 16,92 17,19 17,47 17,74 18,01 18,27
412,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 50,3 49,5 48,6 47,9 47,1 46,4 45,7 45,0
Span 2 Sag 8,74 8,88 9,02 9,16 9.29 9.43 9,56 9,70
293,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 50,0 49,2 48,4 47,7 47,1 46,4 45,7 45,1
Span 3 Sag 5,70 5,79 5,87 5,96 6,04 6,12 6,20 6,28
Figure 16.44: Longitudi- 239,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 52,3 51,4 50,7 50,0 49,3 48,7 48,1 47,4
nal profile o f a tensioning Span 4 Sag 5,49 5,57 5,64 5,72 5,79 5,86 5,94 6,01
section i n a m o u n t a i n o u s 250,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 57,4 56,6 55,8 55,1 54,4 53,7 53,1 52,4
1632,0 area Span 5 Sag 15,23 15,44 15,65 15,86 16,07 16,27 16,47 16,66
438,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 61,0 60,1 59,4 58,6 57,8 57,1 56,4 55,7

T a b l e 1 6 . 6 : 110 k V line: Creep elongation, equivalent t e m p e r a t u r e differ-

ence a n d conductor offset
T a b l e 1 6 . 8 : Sags i n m a n d c o n d u c t o r tensile stresses i n N / m m 2 for conductors
Time 12 h 24 h 7 d 14 d 30 d clipped-in, adjustment 1 4days after stringing
Creep elongation i n thousands 0,441 0,431 0,393 0,376 0,353 T e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g a d j u s t m e n t °C
T e m p e r a t u r e difference i n K 23,3 22,8 20,8 19,9 18,7 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Offset i n cm at T e n s i l e stress 54,6 53,7 52,9 52,2 51,4 50,7 50,0 49,3
Tower No. 2 n 0 0 0 0 at N / m m 2
Tower No. 3 -6 -7 -10 -12 -13 Sag i n m
Span 1 15,07 15,31 15,54 15,77 16,00 16,22 16,45 16,67
Tower No. 4 -86 -87 -87 -88 -88
Tower No. 5 -96 -96 -97 -98 -98 412,0 m
Span 2 8,01 8,13 8,25 8,50 8,62 8,74 8,85
Tower No. 6 -56 -57 -57 -58 -58 >..'••>

Tower No. 7 2 2 2 2 2 293,0 m

Span 3 5,46 5,54 5,63 5,71 5,79 5,87 5,95 6,03
239,0 m
Span 4 5,77 5,86 5,95 6,04 6,12 6.21 6,30 6,38
250,0 m
E x a m p l e : For the conductor 5 6 4 - A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 564/72), w h i c h is used as a t w i n Span 5 17,03 17,29 17,55 17,81 18,07 18,33 18,58 18,83
b u n d l e f o r 4 0 0 k V l i n e s (see [ 1 6 . 3 6 ] ) , a n e q u i v a l e n t t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e o f 3 0 K i s a s s u m e d 438,0 m
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a c r e e p s t r a i n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 0 6 % f o r 3 0 y e a r s . T h e final e v e r y d a y s t r e s s
a t 10°C s h o u l d b e 5 7 N / m m 2 . F o r a s p a n l e n g t h o f 6 0 0 m , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e s a g i s 1 , 4 5 m
e q u a l t o 5 , 5 % o f t h e s a g , a n d for 4 0 0 m s p a n l e n g t h i t w i l l b e 1 , 3 0 m o r 1 1 , 4 % o f t h e s a g a n d , e 3 0 applicable for an operation period o f 30 years. F o r the conductor 1 2 8 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A , t h e
finally, f o r 2 0 0 m s p a n l e n g t h 0 , 8 0 m o r 2 7 , 5 %, r e s p e c t i v e l y . coefficient o f t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n is 18,9 • 1 0 - 6 1 / K .
T h e results o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n e x p l a i n e d above are s h o w n i n T a b l e s 16.6, 16.7 a n d 16.8 together
16.8.5.4 Example: Sagging data for a n overhead line i n amountainous area w i t h t h e d a t a n e c e s s a r y f o r s a g g i n g . T a b l e 1 6 . 7 i s d e s i g n a t e d a l s o a s sagging table. T h e o f f s e t a t
t h e t o w e r N o . 5 reaches a p p r o x i m a t e l y one m e t e r i n t h i s case. F o r o t h e r e x a m p l e s , especially i n
T h e longitudinal profile o f a n overhead line i n a m o u n t a i n o u s area i s shown i n Figure case o f l o n g t e n s i o n i n g sections, offsets r e a c h i n g several m e t e r s a r e possible. A s v e r i f i e d b y m a n y
16.44. P h a s e conductors 1 2 8 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A are used a n d installed w i t h a n everyday stress o f p r a c t i c a l e x a m p l e s , c o n d u c t o r sagging u s i n g t h e described p r o c e d u r e leads t o t h e designed final
50 N / m m 2 , reaching 13,7 % o f t h e r a t e d tensile stress o f 365 N / m m 2 . T h e conductor mass per sags also i n e x t r e m e cases. C o m p a r i s o n o f T a b l e s 16.7 a n d 16.8 a l l o w s t o recognize t h e essential
u n i t l e n g t h i s0,59 k g / m , h a v i n g a steel content o f 0,23 k g / m , reaching 3 9 % o f t h e conductor difference b e t w e e n t h e sags a n d c o n d u c t o r tensile stresses for c o n d u c t o r s suspended i n s t r i n g i n g
mass. blocks compared w i t h conductors clipped-in i n suspension clamps.
F r o m equation (16.34), t h e creep strain e 3 0 is obtained for this condition t o b e 0,074 % a n d
t h e p a r a m e t e r k„ i s c a l c u l a t e d f r o m ( 1 6 . 3 5 ) t o b e 0 , 6 8 5 . T h e c r e e p s t r a i n t o b e c o n s i d e r e d i s ,
therefore,
16.9 References
e 3 0 = 0,74 • 0,68 = 0,051 % .
16.1 V B G 37: Bauarbeiten, Unfallverhiitungsvorschrift (Construction works, safety regula-
tions). Cologne, Berufsgenossenschaft der F e i n m e c h a n i k u n d E l e k t r o t e c h n i k , 1977
T h e e x p o n e n t n u s e d i n e q u a t i o n ( 1 6 . 3 2 ) is a s s u m e d t o b e 0,2 [16.33]. T h e p a r a m e t e r e i h r e s u l t s
from
16.2 I E C 6 1 773: O v e r h e a d lines: T e s t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s for s t r u c t u r e s . Geneva, I E C , 1996
e n , = 0 , 5 1 / ( 2 , 6 2 8 • 105)°2 0,2 = 0 , 0 0 4 2 0 % .
16.3 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l lines e x c e e d i n g 45 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
I t is assumed, t h a t t h e conductors are sagged either 12 h , 24 h , 7 d , 14 d or 30 d after stringing. Aspects ( N N A ) for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2002
T h e e q u i v a l e n t t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s f o r w h i c h t h e s a g i s d e t e r m i n e d f o l l o w from ( 1 6 . 3 6 ) .
For this case, t h e creep s t r a i n e x p e c t e d a t t h e t i m e o f a d j u s t m e n t is t o b e d e t e r m i n e d from 16.4 E N V 206: Concrete; a t t r i b u t e s , p r o d u c t i o n , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a n d q u a l i t y evidence. B r u s -
(16.32) w i t h t h e m e n t i o n e d parameters n and en, a n d t h e n t o be substracted f r o m t h e strain sels, C E N , 1990
674 16 Construction

16.5 E N V 197: Concrete; c o m p o s i t i o n , requirements and parameter of conformity. Brussels, 16.28 D I N 48 207-2: O v e r h e a d lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltage exceeding 1 k V : M e t h o d s a n d equip-
C E N , 1992 m e n t for t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s . P a r t 2: P u l l i n g grips, steel m a d e . P r a n k u r t , D K E ,
Draft 2000
16.6 D I N 1 1 6 4 - 1 : C e m e n t ; P a r t 1: C o m p o s i t i o n , r e q u i r e m e n t s . B e r l i n , D I N , 1994
16.29 D I N 48207-3: Overhead lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltage above 1 k V : M e t h o d s and equipment
16.7 B e t o n k a l e n d e r ( A n n u a l concrete report 1996), P a r t 1. B e r l i n , E r n s t & Sohn f o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s . P a r t 3: S w i v e l j o i n t s . F r a n k f u r t , D K E , D r a f t 2 0 0 0

16.8 D I N 4 2 2 6 - 1 : Aggregates for concrete, aggregates w i t h dense s t r u c t u r e s , definitions, char- 16.30 R a y m o n d , W . : Replacing conductors of high-voltage t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Siemens Power
acteristics a n d requirements. B e r l i n , D I N , 1983 T e c h n o l o g y 2 (1980), pp. 35 t o 4 2

16.9 D I N 1045: Reinforced concrete s t r u c t u r e s ; design a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n s . B e r l i n , D I N , 1988 16.31 K i e B l i n g , F . : D i e V e r l e g u n g der L e i t e r einer H o c h s p a n n u n g s - F r e i l e i t u n g ( I n s t a l l a t i o n of

16.10 D I N 4226-3: Aggregates for concrete, aggregates w i t h dense a n d p o r o u s structures. B e r l i n ,
D I N , 1983
16.11 I S O 2736: Test of concrete; preparation of test cubes, specimens t a k e n f r o m fresh concrete.
Geneva, I S O , 1986
16.12 I S O 4013: Concrete; classification of consistence. Geneva, I S O , 1979
16.13 I S O 9812: F r e s h concrete: D e t e r m i n i n g of consistence, spreading index. Geneva, I S O 1979
16.14 I S O 1 4 1 1 : Fresh concrete: D e t e r m i n i n g of consistence, c o m p r e s s i o n test. Geneva,
1979
16.15 I S O 4109: F r e s h concrete: D e t e r m i n i n g of consistence, s l u m p test. Geneva, I S O , 1991
conductors for a high-voltage transmission line). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 78 (1979), pp.
712 t o 719
16.32 H e l m s , R.; Ziebs, J . : S t a n d der U n t e r s u c h u n g e n a n A l / S t - F r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n m i t u n t e r -
schiedlichen Querschnittsverhaltnissen (Status of actual investigation for A C S R conduc-
tors w i t h different cross-sectional portions). B e r l i n , B u n d e s a n s t a l t fur M a t e r i a l p r u f u n g ,
Report 1967
16.33 B r a n d t , E . ; T h o m a s , R.: D e r E i n f l u s s der bleibenden S e i l d e h n u n g a u f das D u r c h h a n g s v e r -
h a l t e n v o n F r e i l e i t u n g e n ( T h e influence o f p e r m a n e n t creep o n sags o f overhead lines).
ISO Elektrizitatswirtschaft 78 (1979), pp. 262 t o 268
16.34 Cigr4 S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 5 : A practical m e t h o d of c o n d u c t o r creep d e t e r m i n a t i o n . E l e c t r a 24
(1974), pp. 105 t o 137

16.16 I S O 4110: Fresh concrete: D e t e r m i n i n g of consistence; "Vebe" test. Geneva, I S O , 1991 16.35 I E C 6 1 3 9 5 : O v e r h e a d electrical c o n d u c t o r s . C r e e p test p r o c e d u r e for stranded conduc-
tors. Geneva, I E C , 1998
16.17 I S O 4012: Concrete; determining of compression strength at test cubes. Geneva, ISO,
1978 16.36 F l u g , R.; Schnakenberg, D . : Uberlegungen bei der P r o j e k t i e r u n g einer n e u e n 380-
kV-FVeileitung (Considerations on designing a new 380 k V transmission line). Elek-
16.18 D I N 1048-1: T e s t i n g concrete; testing of fresh concrete. B e r l i n , D I N , 1991 trizitatswirtschaft 70 (1971), pp. 606 t o 610

16.19 Schneider, K . - J . : Bautabellen fur Ingenieure (Construction tables for engineers).

Diisseldorf, Werner-Verlag, 13th edition 1998

16.20 Gardes, J . - L . et al.: E D F ' s approach t o t h e design and c o n s t r u t i o n of foundations for t h e

t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-104, 1994

16.21 Studiengesellschaft Stahlanwendung e.V. Stahlmaste i n Vollwandbauweise (Solid wall

steel t o w e r s ) : P r o j e c t N o . 152. U n i v e r s i t a t - G e s a m t h o c h s c h u l e Essen, D e p a r t m e n t C i v i l
Engineering, 1992

16.22 G o h m , H . ; KieBling, F.; M a h r , V . : V e r f o r m u n g v o n Stahlvollwandmasten m i t SteckstoBen

b e i m E i n s a t z i n Hochspannungsfreileitungen ( D e f o r m a t i o n of solid-wall steel poles w i t h
slip j o i n t used for t r a n s m i s s i o n lines). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 97 (1998)23, pp. 27 t o 3 1

16.23 R a y m o n d , W . ; Schnakenberg, D . : E r r i c h t u n g 227 m hoher S t a h l g i t t e r m a s t e f u r eine

Freileitungs-Flusskreuzung (Erection of 227 m h i g h steel towers for a 380 k V transmission
line river crossing). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 78 (1979), pp. 255 t o 261

16.24 Rrchs, A.; S c h r a m m , H . : 500 k V overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n line across Suez Canal. E r l a n g e n ,

Siemens A G P T D H 2 , 1999

16.25 S c h r a m m , H . et a l . : F r e i l e i t u n g der S u p e r l a t i v e v e r b i n d e t E u r o p a u n d A s i e n . 4 2 0 - k V / 8 0 0 -
kV-Bosporuskreuzung I I I (Superlative transmission line connects E u r o p e w i t h Asia, 420
k V / 8 0 0 k V B o s p h o r u s Crossing I I I ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 99 (2000), pp. 13 t o 19

16.26 I E C T S 61328: L i v e w o r k i n g - M i n i m u m requirements for t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of tools, devices

and equipment. Geneva, I E C , 2000

16.27 D I N 4 8 2 0 7 - 1 : Overhead lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltage exceeding 1 k V : M e t h o d s a n d equip-

m e n t for the installation of conductors. P a r t 1: I n s t a l l a t i o n of conductors. F r a n k f u r t ,
D K E , D r a f t 1999
17 Commissioning, operation and line
management

17.0 Symbols
Symbols Signification
Ci Annual expenditures
EiR D e t e r m i n i s t i c costs i n year i , planned expenditures
Et Costs o f failure consequences
EPi Probabilistic costs i n year i , risk o f failure
FEU Forced energy unavailability
EA Energy availability
FOR Forced outage rate
GRC G a l l o p i n g readiness coefficient
i Index t o designated year i
IAB,IAC,IBC, Current
Iw W i n d gust intensity
M T B F M e a n t i m e between failure
M T T R M e a n t i m e t o repair
71 Length o f period, number of elements
NPV Net present value
P Probability o f failure of an element
Ps Probability o f failure
Pfel Probability o f electric failure
Pi m Probability o f mechanical failure
Ffn P r o b a b i l i t y o f failure i n n years
^x,n Probability o f occurrence o f an event
POF Probability of failure
Ps Probability o f survival
r Discount rate
FA, F B , F C , Resistance
FAB, FAC, F B C
F A ' F g , F Q , ff-p Resistance p e r unit length measured a t temperature T
F^o R e s i s t a n c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h a t 20° C
SEU Scheduled energy unavailability
T Temperature
©ir Air temperature
^mean Mean conductor temperature
TD Dew point temperature
7S, 7 M , 7 E Temperature measured a t the beginning, middle and end of a line
FR R e t u r n period o f u l t i m a t e loads
FAB , VAC , F B C Voltage
V W W i n d velocity
X Elements o f a line
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistivity
S Angle between line and w i n d direction

17.1 Commissioning
17.1.1 Introduction

T h e high investment necessary f o ra n e w high-voltage overhead line justifies a contin-

uous check a n d supervision o f a l l p l a n n i n g a n d approval steps and o f design, m a n u f a c -
t u r i n g a n d construction activities. T o assure that the w h o l e line, its components a n d
elements will comply w i t h the specifications a n d fulfil t h e required performance, tests

a r e c a r r i e d o u t , h e r e n a m e d a s commissioning. I np a r t i c u l a r , a s t r i n g e n t supervision
of the schedule f o r a l l s t e p s o f a p p r o v a l , t h e n e c e s s a r y e x p e r t s t u d i e s i n c l u d e d , i s i m -
portant because the begin o f the construction activities depends o n the approval and
supply o f material, so it needs t o b e planned and controlled just i n time.
T h e complete procedure o fa continuous supervision o fapproval, design, m a n u f a c t u r i n g
a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n can b e split i n t h r e e stages, n a m e l y :
— Supervision o f approval, design a n d manufacturing, before starting construction;
— Supervision of construction activities;
— Final inspection a n d commissioning.
A f t e r c o m p l e t i o n , e a c h s t a g e i s s u b j e c t t o acceptance procedures c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e r e -
spective activities carried o u t for its completion, a sspecified i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l contract.
Supervision can b e carried out b y the line owner's engineering staff o r b y consulting
companies.
17.1.2 S u p e r v i s i o n of a p p r o v a l , design a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g stage
Before s t a r t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g subjects cam b e defined, w h i c h need a con-
tinuous supervision:
— Approval procedures, contracts w i t h land owners;
— E n v i r o n m e n t a l studies;
— S e l e c t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s , a e r i a l c a b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres, e a r t h w i r e s , i n s u l a t O T
s e t s , fittings a n d h a r d w a r e ;
— Studies o nvibration damping;
— T o w e r o u t l i n e , especially i n v i e w o frequired clearances, a n d tower analysis;
— Design o fearthing system;
— L i n e d e s i g n a n d s u r v e y , tower spotting, a n a l y s i s o f e x t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y
i n c r o s s i n g s , longitudinal profiles a n d l a y o u t s ;
— Checking of soil investigation and probing results;
— Selection of foundation design w i t h r e s p e c t t o f e a s i b i l i t y a n d e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y ;
— Supervision of production o f components b y checks, sample tests o r acceptance
tests a t the manufacturer's premises. Since the contractor is usually responsible
for s u p p l y o f m a t e r i a l according t o t h e contract, h e uses t o supervise t h e m a n -
ufacturing and, i nparticular, type and acceptance tests. L i n e owners, however,
use t o supervise p r o d u c t i o n o f s o m e m a i n i t e m s like f o u n d a t i o n s a n d towers b y
on-site i n s p e c t i o n especially i ncase o f l o n g lines. T h e l i n e o w n e r s h o u l d reserve
himself t h e right t o carry o u t o r observe acceptance tests.
T h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e i n d i v i d u a l steps need t ob e recorded o r approved a n d released
in detail b y the line owner m a y b e different f o r individual projects and should b e
agreed u p o n w h e n placing the contract. T h e responsibility for design a n d construction
activities belongs t o the line designer a n d t othe contractor, w h o should deliver t o the
line o w n e r c o m p l e t e sets o f d o c u m e n t s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e l i n e design a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n
planning.
W h e n time-consuming supervision cannot o r should n o tb e carried out b y the line
owner's staff, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o engage line experts f r o m consulting companies
independent o f the designing a n d construction companies. For approval procedures,
the help o f experienced lawyers m i g h t b e necessary a n d advantageous.
A f t e r supervision of design, t h e l i n e o w n e r o r i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e r e l e a s e s t h e d e s i g n f o r
m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . F o r a l l p r o t o t y p e , sample a n d routine tests, r e p o r t s
need t o b e issued b y the m a n u f a c t u r e r and confirmed b y t h e line o w n e r o r contractor.
T h e l i n e o w n e r o r h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e w i l l c h e c k t h e s e r e p o r t s a n d finally a p p r o v e t h e
m a t e r i a l f o rc o n s t r u c t i o n , s o far t h e r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s a n d specifications have been
fulfilled.
A i . j. v + u m u i i s s i u i i i i i g u/u
T h e t e s t s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t axe d e t a i l e d i n t h e r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s 7 t o 1 3 o f t h i s b o o k . A l l
the m a t e r i a l s composing t h e design s h o u l d b e clearly specified according t o aspects o f
design, m a n u f a c t u r i n g , inspection a n d testing. Also maintenance procedures for live-line
or dead-line w o r k s need t o b e specified.
T h e quality control a p p l i c a b l e d u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r i n g o f c o m p o n e n t s n e e d s t o c o m p l y
w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s . A l l m a t e r i a l s a n d e l e m e n t s Eire s u b j e c t e d t o a n a p p r o p r i a t e
q u a l i t y c o n t r o l d u r i n g t h e f a b r i c a t i o n . C e r t i f i e d r e p o r t s o f type tests o f t h e m a i n l i n e
components are usually supplied b y the manufacturer.
17.1.3 S u p e r v i s i o n a n d a c c e p t a n c e of c o n s t r u c t i o n
During construction stage, i tisi m p o r t a n t t h a t despite t h e contrEictor's responsibilities,
the line owner o rhis representative takes care o fsupervising t h e i n d i v i d u a l construction
activities a n d steps, since modifications a n d corrections w o u l d b e n o t always possible
after completion o f construction.
— I n f o r m a t i o n of municipalities, local residents, l a n d owners a n d tenants.
The start o fsurvey and construction activities needs t o b e openly announced t o
the public b y the municipalities. However, a direct approach t o t h e farmers and
real estate owners involved has proved as advantageous. So, problems concerning
access roads, d a m a g e o f crops, fences o r c a t t l e c a n b e solved b y m u t u a l u n d e r -
standing.
— O b e y i n g special conditions imposed w i t h the approval. S o m e contractors
m a y a t t e m p t t ocircumvent unpleasant conditions m a d e b y a u t h o r i t i e s and excuse
themselves as being not informed. Since the line owner constructing a line will
be h e l d responsible f o ra n y v i o l a t i o n a n d b e liable f o ra n y d a m a g e , preventive
supervisory checks s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t o n a s c h e d u l e d b a s i s .
— Line route, t o w e r s p o t t i n g and r i g h t - o f - w a y c l e a r i n g . A f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f
t h e right-of-way clearing, a p a r t i a l i n s p e c t i o n s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e l i n e
owner's representative a n d the contractor. T h e basic criteria used for defining the
r o u t e a n d right-of-way clearing will b e reviewed a n d its achievement checked. I f
any, corrective measures are agreed upon.
— A v o i d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f r i n g e m e n t s . A s in c a s e o f v i o l a t i o n o f a n y o t h e r
conditions, a n i m m e d i a t e r e m o v a l o f disturbances i nclose c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h t h e
environmental authorities i s indispensable. T h e t o u g h construction w o r k o n site
cannot b e used as a nexcuse. However, m a n y contractors a t t e m p t t o contribute
to e n v i r o n m e n t a l protection, for example b y replacing t h e hydraulic oil i n con-
struction machinery b y decomposable raps oil.
— I n s p e c t i o n o f a c c e s s r o a d s and their maintenance. E s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g c o n -
s t r u c t i o n o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s w i t h e x t r a - h i g h voltages, access roads n o t p r e p a r e d
for h e a v y l o a d t r a f f i c a r e o f t e n g r e a t l y affected. T h e r e f o r e , i t b e c a m e u s u a l f o r
s u c h projects t o record t h e c o n d i t i o n o ft h e access r o a d s t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e o w n e r
before the construction starts t o avoid arguments later on. Especially under ad-
verse weather conditions, a p e r m a n e n t supervision i srecommended t o decide i n
d u e t i m e o nmeasures such as filling u pe x t r a m a t e r i a l t oavoid extended damage.
— I n s t a l l a t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s . A l r e a d y before starting o f excavation activities,
the pegging should b e checked again t oavoid misplacing o fsupports. T h e i t e m s t o
be checked f r o m t h e engineering point o fv i e w are discussed i n detail i n chapters 13
a n d 1 6 a n d d e p e n d also o nt h e t y p e o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n t o b e installed. I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
s u r p l u s excavation m a t e r i a l needs t ob e recycled. A swell, residual concrete m a y i n
n o case b e deposited i n t h e close v i c i n i t y w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n . D u r i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n
o f foundations, checks should b e carried o u t comprising dimensions, backfill a n d
recomposition o fthe terrain near the foundations.
17 C o m m i s s i o n i n g , operation a n d line m a n a g e m e n t 17.1 C o m m i s s i o n i n g 681

A s s e m b l y a n d e r e c t i o n o f towers. A l t h o u g h checking o f all individual parts need a comprehensive p e r m a n e n t supervision even m o r e intensive t h a n d u r i n g
w i t h respect t o damage a n d completeness isw i t h i n t h e responsibility o f t h e con- • c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d itself. T h e l i n e o w n e r isresponsible for v i o l a t i o n s o fa n y s t a n -
struction company, a short-coming o fj o i n t i n g m a t e r i a l m i g h t b e realized a t the dards. S t r i n g e n t values f o rc o n d u c t a n c e a p p l y t o coating activities close t o live
start o ferection, w h i c h cannot b e compensated f r o m the m a t e r i a l i n the linemen's c i r c u i t s o r i n case o f p a r a l l e l lines d u e t ot h e h a z a r d o f electric i n t e r f e r e n c e [17.1].
h a n d . T h e r e f o r e , i tcan b e i n t h e l i n e o w n e r ' s i n t e r e s t t o check t h e completeness
A s agreed u p o n b y the contract, the performed activities o r checks have t ob e recorded
of supports before erection starts. After completion o f the erection activities, the
i n a n acceptance certificate, w h i c h w i l l b e s i g n e d b y t h e l i n e o w n e r a n d t h e c o n t r a c t o r .
vicinity o f a tower site should b e searched i n v i e w o f lost bolts, n u t s a n d other
A n y o p e n residual w o r k s o rshort-comings have t ob e settled according t ot h e stipulated
small parts w h i c h could otherwise damage agricultural machines t o b e indemni-
schedule; t h e i r c o m p l e t i o n needs t o b e supervised.
fied b y t h e l i n e o w n e r . I n c a s e o f l i n e s w i t h p o l e s , a n i n - t i m e c h e c k o f t h e c o r r e c t
inclination of angle supports h a s p r o v e d t o b e e x p e d i e n t .
S u p e r v i s i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g . Also before starting t h e conductor 17.1.4 Final inspection and acceptance
s t r i n g i n g , t h e p r o t e c t i o n scaffolds, p r o t e c t i n g nets i n c l u d e d , s h o u l d b e checked A s a r u l e , a final inspection i s c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i -
w i t h respect t o a n acceptable a n d proper i n s t a l l a t i o n . D u r i n g stringing, it should ties, a t least w i t h m o r e extended projects. T h e line o w n e r d e t e r m i n e s t h e people w h o
be continuously checked t h a t t h e conductors d o n o ttouch the g r o u n d o r o b - p a r t i c i p a t e i nt h i s inspection. T h e r e b y , each l i n e section is v i s i t e d a n d a l l o p e n i t e m s
s t a c l e s . A l l t h e fittings f o r a e r i a l c a b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres s h o u l d b e v i s u a l l y
recorded d u r i n g the construction supervision are checked and their grade o f completion
inspected again before i n s t a l l a t i o n . I t is t h e task o f t h e contractor t o care for a
i s r e c o r d e d . A n acceptance record i s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d s i g n e d b y t h e p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g
perfect c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s t r i n g i n g blocks, pullers a n d tensioners as w e l l as e a r t h -
i n t h e inspection. T h e record s h o u l d list a l l recognized short-comings a n d t h e necessary
ing w h e n stringing conductors i nthe vicinity o f live circuits. After completion
activities as well as t h e t i m e for completion.
o f s t r i n g i n g a c t i v i t i e s , i m p o r t a n t clearances to crossed objects s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d
T h e f o l l o w i n g c h e c k l i s t c a n b e u s e d f o r t h e final i n s p e c t i o n :
against the designed data. A f t e r conductor and shield w i r e stringing, the contrac-
Right-of-way
t o r s h o u l d p r e p a r e tables w i t h sag m e a s u r e m e n t s i n t h e r e g u l a t i n g spans, tables
— C l e a r i n g a n d , i f necessary, p r o t e c t i o n a r o u n d t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d g u y wires;
w i t h conductor-to-ground clearances i n t h e critical points o ft h e spans a n d tables
— R e m o v a l o f trees inside a n d outside t h e right-of-way, i f t h e y p u t the line security
w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s o f clearances a t strain structures.
under a nincreased risk;
I n s o m e c a s e s , recycling of packing material a n d w o o d e n p a l l e t s o f i n s u l a t o r s m a y
— R e m o v a l o fcut vegetation t o damps o r recycling facilities.
create problems. However, i t is n o t a n y m o r e p e r m i t t e d t o fire such m a t e r i a l s o n
Access roads
site. W i t h regard t o live stock, a n y w i r e ends a n d strips m u s t b e t h o r o u g h l y
— Checking general conditions;
collected a n d removed f r o m the construction site.
— Checking c o n s e r v a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s o f r o a d s , c a n a l i s a t i o n pipes, d r a i n a g e etc.;
C h e c k i n g of i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . T h e l i n e o w n e r s h o u l d c h e c k r a n d o m l y t h e
— Decisions o n i m p r o v e m e n t s , such a s t e r r a i n cuts, protections etc. t o restore t h e
connection of earthing, t h e installation of jumper loops, d a m p e r s , s p a c e r s e t c . R e -
previous condition.
pairing o f spacers w h i c h have failed due t o defective i n s t a l l a t i o nis e x t r a o r d i n a r y
Terrain and foundations
t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a n d expensive. T h e efficiency o f e a r t h i n g systems is c o m m o n l y
— Earth embankments o n the tower foundations;
v e r i f i e d b y earthing and interference measurements carried out shortly before en-
— T e r r a i n conditions that m a y put a risk t o tower stability, such as deviation or
ergizing. I ns o m e cases, i t m i g h t b e e x p e d i e n t t o check t h e e a r t h i n g resistance
channelling o frain waters;
before stringing the e a r t h wires.
— P r o t e c t i o n o f t h e t o w e r legs against collision o fvehicles, i f necessary;
C a l i b r a t i o n of t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s . T h i s a c t i v i t y c a n o n l y b e
— D a m a g e t olocal vegetation;
carried o u t b y specially t r a i n e d p e o p l e a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f splices a n d j o i n t s o f
— Rebuild o fterrain near the foundations.
o p t i c a l fibres u s e d o n m o s t l i n e s .
Earthing system
C l e a r i n g along the line route. I t s h o u l d b e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e l i n e
— C o m p a c t i o n and depth o f earthing rods o r strips;
route is cleared after completion o f construction. However, because o f t h e e n -
— Connections o fearthing conductors o r counterpoises;
hanced sensitivity o f the residents, this task needs t o b e carried out t h o r o u g h l y
— Check o f records w i t h f o u n d a t i o n resistance measurements;
and checked b y the line owner. T h e removal o f any m a t e r i a l residuals should b e
— E a r t h i n g o f fences o r o t h e r objects.
scrutinized especially.
Structures
R e c o r d i n g o f d a m a g e t o crops. I t is c o m m o n practice t o record any damage
— V e r t i c a l l y , torsion, deflection angle and alignment;
c o n t i n u o u s l y d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o b e a b l e t o l o c a t e a n d assess t h e d a m a g e a s
— Completeness o fmembers, bolts, step-bolts, washers, nuts and lock-nuts;
precise a s possible. D a m a g e t o forests a n d t o access roads needs a g a i n t o b e
— E x i s t e n c e o f d a m a g e d pieces; q u a l i t y coatings;
recorded after completion o f the construction activities together w i t h the land
owners o rauthorities. — Tightening, position, locking and coating o f the bolts;
— N u m b e r i n g o f t h e structures, arrangement o fw a r n i n g plates;
C o a t i n g o f structures. Coating o f structures iscarried out often directly after
— A n t i - c l i m b i n g devices, i f necessary.
c o m p l e t i o n o fconstruction preferably d u r i n g the spring o r s u m m e r season i n the
n o r t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e or, i nt h e s o u t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e c o u n t r i e s , i n d r y periods o f Insulation, h a r d w a r e a n d accessories
t h e year, because o f the favourable weather conditions. D u e t o the necessary d e - — Insulator string verticality, n u m b e r o f insulators, position a n d eventual lack o f
energizing, b a r r i n g and obeying o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l correctness, coating activities locking devices;
— C o n d i t i o n s o f cleanness, cracks, splits a n d bubbles i n t h e insulators;
682 1 7Commissioning, operation ana tine management i / . i commissioning O S J

— G e n e r a l checks o f t h e h a r d w a r e concerning bolt tightening, position, locking d e -

vices, c o u n t e r w e i g h t s etc.;
— N u m b e r a n d position o f spacers a n d dampers;
— I n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e a r m o r r o d s , r e p a i r sleeves, a r c i n g h o r n s , c o r o n a r i n g s etc.;
— U s e o f d o u b l e a n d m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r sets a n d j u m p e r s t r i n g s a s per design.
Conductors and earth wires
— Clearances conductor-to-ground o r conductor-to-obstacles a t crossings, checking
of t h e clearances w i t h i n s u l a t e d rods o r electronic m e a n s s h o u l d b e carried o u t a t
critical points;
— M i n i m u m clearances conductor-to-earthed parts o fthe structures, conductor con-
dition, b r o k e n strands, abrasion, twists, checking the clearances o fparallel phases
in one span; F i g u r e 17.1: S i m p l i f i e d d i a g r a m f o r m e a s u r i n g o f c o n d u c t o r r e s i s t a n c e . A , B , C p h a s e c o n -
— Aerial warning spheres o r l i g h t s ; ductors; I C connection between measuring k i t a n d conductors; C o capacitor ~ 30p F / 2 5 0 V ,
— Layout and arrangement o f the conductor jumpers a tstrain towers. A C ; S G general disconnecting switches A C 250 V , 6 0 A ; R variable resistance (Rheostat);
C D i n s u l a t e d downcable C u ~ 3 5 m m 2 ; W B W h e a t s t o n e B r i d g e asa l t e r n a t i v e device for check-
i n g p u r p o s e ; V j m o v i n g c o i l v o l t m e t e r - 0 t o 3 0 V s c a l e , a c c u r a c y c l a s s 0 , 5 %; A 2 m o v i n g c o i l
17.1.5 Quality assurance a m p e r e - m e t e r - a c c u r a c y c l a s s 0 , 5 %; G P S a f e t y e a r t h i n g p o i n t ( g r o u n d i n g ) , G i s p a r k i n g d e v i c e
(car s p a r k i n g p l u g t y p e ) ; S B safety s w i t c h
I t i s s t a n d a r d p r a c t i c e t o a p p l y quality assurance p r i n c i p l e s a s r e q u i r e d f o r e x a m p l e b y
E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [17.2]. D u r i n g design, m a n u f a c t u r e a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e q u a l i t y assurance
s h o u l d c o n f o r m t o t h e r e l e v a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f I S O 9 0 0 2 [17.3] a n d I S O 9 0 0 3 [17.4] a s p o w e r losses i s u s u a l l y n o t carried o u t d u et o t h e u n f e a s i b i l i t y o f i n s t a l l i n g accurate
appropriate. instrumentation i n the field and the low precision o f transducers t ob e installed a t the
T h e systems a n d procedures, w h i c h the designer a n d / o r installation contractor will s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g e n d s o f t h e l i n e sections. T h e percent losses are p r a c t i c a l l y o f
use t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e project w o r k s c o m p l y w i t h t h e project r e q u i r e m e n t s , s h o u l d b e the same order as the accuracy o f potential transformers, current transformers and
defined i n the designer's a n d / o r installation contractor's q u a l i t y assurance p l a n for t h e measuring instruments.
p r o j e c t w o r k s . E a c h quality assurance plan s h o u l d s e t o u t a c t i v i t i e s i n a l o g i c a l s e q u e n c e I n v i e w o f t h e u n f e a s i b i l i t y o f c a r r y i n g o u t m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e p o w e r losses, i ti s
and should take into account the following: s o m e t i m e s a g r e e d t o e x e c u t e measurements of conductor resistance, a s t h e l o s s e s a r e
— A n outline o f the proposed w o r k and p r o g r a m sequence; directly p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e conductor resistance.
— T h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n for t h e c o n t r a c t , b o t h a t t h e h e a d office a n d a t T h e measurements can b e carried o u t i na complete line section, a n d the voltmeter-
any other centres responsible for parts o f t h e w o r k ; ampere-meter m e t h o d isr e c o m m e n d e d w i t h D C voltage. V i a b i l i t y o fthis m e a s u r e m e n t
— T h e duties a n d responsibilities assigned t o staff ensuring q u a l i t y o f t h e w o r k ; should b e e x a m i n e d under the v i e w p o i n t o f safety for t h e workers a n d security for the
— Hold and notification points; m e a s u r i n g equipment. I n F i g u r e 17.1, a single line d i a g r a m o fa m e a s u r i n g arrangement
— Submission o f engineering documents required b y t h e project specification; is s h o w n a s e m p l o y e d i n a p r a c t i c a l e x a m p l e .
— T h e inspection o f materials a n d components o n receipt; T h e m e a s u r e m e n t o ft h e c o n d u c t o r resistance isp e r f o r m e d i n pairs o fphases A - B , B - C
— Reference t othe quality assurance procedures appropriate t o each activity; a n d C - A , short-circuiting t h e conductor phases i n one o ft h e terminals, a n d measuring
— Inspection during manufacture and construction; each set o f t w o phases a t each t i m e . T h e resistance for these pairs o f phases i s obtained
— Final inspection and testing. from
T h e q u a l i t y assurance p l a n i sp a r t o f t h e e x e c u t i o n p l a n o fa project o ra project phase.
F A B = RA + RB = FAB/FAB (17.1)

17.1.6 P e r f o r m a n c e tests - R B C = RB + Rc = LBC/FBC (17.2)

17.1.6.1 M e a s u r e m e n t s of tower e a r t h i n g resistance (17.3)

RAC = RA + RC = V W / A C

T h e tower earthing resistance s h o u l d b e m e a s u r e d b y t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c r e w b e f o r e t h e

w h e r e V A B I VBC a n d F v c a r e t h e r e c o r d e d v o l t a g e s a n d 7 A B > F B C a n d IAc t h e cor-
e a r t h w i r e stringing. T h e r e are several m e t h o d s for m e a s u r i n g t h e ground resistance, b u t
responding currents. B y solving equations (17.1), (17.2) a n d (17.3), t h e resistance o f
i t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o u s e t h e t h r e e - p o i n t m e t h o d (Wenner Method), w h i c h i s t h e m o s t
phases A , B and C are obtained.
u s u a l o n e [17.5]. T h e h i g h - f r e q u e n c y d e v i c e (see [5.12]) c a n b e u s e d t o c h e c k t h e e a r t h i n g
resistance w i t h t h e e a r t h w i r e s c o n n e c t e d t ot h e t o w e r . I n case o fc o m m i s s i o n i n g tests, i t # A = ( # A B+ # A C - # B C ) / 2 , (17.4)
can b e decided t oaccept measurements carried o u t b y construction crews o r t o execute
a d d i t i o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t s a t specially selected o r critical points. RB = ( # A B + # B C - RAC) / 2 , (17.5)

#c = (FAC + F B C - F A B )/ 2 . (17.6)
17.1.6.2 P o w e r losses a n d e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of c o n d u c t o r s
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e average t e m p e r a t u r e along the line is d e t e r m i n e d as
S o m e l i n e o w n e r s r e q u i r e t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e power losses a s t o a s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y
are under control o r w a r r a n t y b y the line contractor. However, direct measurement o f Frnean = ( T S + T U + TE) / 3 , (17.7)
684 1 7C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d line management 17.1 C o m m i s s i o n i n g 685

w h e r e T s , F M a n d Tfea r em e a s u r e d a t t h eb e g i n n i n g , a t t h em i d d l e a n d a t t h ee n d o f t h e — A p p l i c a t i o n o f r a t e d v o l t a g e t ot h e l i n e f o r d e t e c t i o n o fc o r o n a effects o n c o n d u c -
l i n e a n d Tmean is t h e average v a l u e . T h e n , t h e c o n d u c t o r unit resistance is calculated as tors and/or fittings;
a f u n c t i o n o f t h e measured values o ft h e resistance divided b y t h e conductor lengths, — M e a s u r i n g electrical a n d magnetic fields.
i n k m , a n d o ft h e temperatures: A n e x a m p l e o f e n e r g i z a t i o n test o n a 4 0 0 k m l o n g 2 2 0 k V l i n e i ss h o w n i n [17.6].
F o r c a r r y i n g o u t a l i n e e n e r g i z a t i o n test i n case o f a n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d s y s t e m , i t is necess-
F'20 = # r / ( l + a ( T m e a n - 20)) , (17.8) ary t ostudy carefully t h e conditions o ft h e system where t h e line will b e inserted. A
closing s c h e m e s h o u l d b eprepared, a i m e d a t a v o i d i n g a n y i n s t a b i l i t yt o t h eelectric sys-
w h e r e Rip i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h a t t h e m e a s u r e d a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e T m e a n t e m d u r i n g t h etest. I t is especially i m p o r t a n t t o define t h e reactive power requirements.
a n d a t h e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistivity; for a nA C S R conductor, a is equal T h e same i svalid even f o r radial lines, w h e r e overvoltages b y t h e F e r r a n t i effect m a y
to 0,00403 K _ 1 a n d F ' 2 gist h e conductor resistance p e r u n i t l e n g t h a t t h e reference occur. Reactors installed i n t h e line b y system reasons should b e switched o n d u r i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 20°© the test t oprevent t o o high overvoltages.
F i n a l l y , t h e u n i t resistance values i nD / k ma r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d c o m p a r e d with the
m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s base o rg u a r a n t e e d values. F o r t a k i n g i n t o account measurement errors
17.1.6.4 Electrical a n d magnetic fields ( E M F )
of resistance a n d temperatures, a tolerance o f a r o u n d 5 t o 1 0% i susually accepted.
T h e induced voltages a n d currents, caused b y parallel lines, should b e estimated o r T h e measurement of electrical and magnetic fields has become a requirement i n some
preferably measured for reasons o f personnel safety a n d equipment security. A s a func- projects. T h e k e y p o i n t i st h e g r o w i n g c o n c e r n o f t h e p u b l i c a n d c o m m u n i t i e s o n elec-
t i o n o ft h e o b t a i n e d values, longer o rshorter line sections s h o u l d b e selected f o r every trical a n d magnetic fields a n d t h e i r effects o nt h e health a n d welfare o fpersons a n d
measurement. animals. Because o fthat, t h e fulfilment o fprecaution values established for such fields
has t o b e verified t h r o u g h adequate m e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g stage. Elec-
Example: T h e ohmic resistance o fa 73,2 k m iong 220 k V line was measured with a n ar- trical a n d magnetic fields are usually measured before line energization for commercial
r a n g e m e n t as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 17.1. T h evalues obtained for each pair o f phase conductors a n d o p e r a t i o n . T h e best t i m e f o r t h e i r execution isd u r i n g t h e l i n e e n e r g i z a t i o n test a s t o
the resulting calculations o f the unit values a r eindicated below. T h eaverage t e m p e r a t u r e along clause 17.1.6.3.
the line was determined 32,9°C. U s i n g i n s t r u m e n t s available o n special m a r k e t , m e a s u r e m e n t s o f electrical a n d magnetic
F A B = F A B / /= 23,7/2,8 = 8,464Q;RBc = 23,4/2,79 = 8,387fl;F A O = 23,5/2,75 = fields are carried o u t across t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y o f a line t o survey t h e profile o ft h e fields.
8,545fl. T h e results are greatly affected b yt h e local conditions, such astopography, distortion
F r o m equations (17.4) t o (17.6) i t results b y b u i l d i n g s , t r e e s e t c . s i n c e t h e fields a r e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s . A n a c c u r a t e
RA = ( 8 , 4 6 4 + 8 , 5 4 5 - 8 , 3 8 7 ) / 2 = 4 , 3 1 1 f l ; R B = (8,464 + 8,387 - 8,545)/2 = 4,153 B ; R c = control o f t h e voltages, current a n d phase shift angles a teach phase d u r i n g t h e mea-
(8,545 + 8,387 - 8,464)/2 = 4,234 fl. surements is i m p o r t a n t i n order t om a k e possible a coherent set o fcomparable values
F o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n fl/km, i t s u f f i c e s t o d i v i d e t h e t o t a l v a l u e s b y as c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e calculated values. A previous coordination w i t h t h e dispatch
the conductor length. Assuming t h e catenary length is 2 % longer t h a n t h e line length, t h e c e n t r e i s r e q u i r e d for k e e p i n g a l l t h e s y s t e m c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r c o n t r o l . A f t e r h a v i n g t h e
conductor length is 1,02 • 7 3 , 2 = 7 4 , 6 6 k m . measurements i n several points, i t is possible t o establish representative graphs o f b o t h
S o , t h e r e s u l t i n g u n i t r e s i s t a n c e a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e T 2 = 32,9°C w i l l b e : electrical a n d magnetic fields.
R'A = 4,311/74,66 = 0,0577 f l / k m ; R E = 4,153/74,66 = 0,0556 ft/km a n d R'c = S t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t b y u t i l i t i e s [17.7, 17.8] revealed wide-spread effects o f transmis-
4, 2 3 4 / 7 4 , 6 6 = 0 , 0 5 6 7 f l / k m . sion line geometry, topography a n d other shielding influences greatly distorting t h e
C o r r e c t i o n o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e 20°C u s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 1 7 . 8 ) y i e l d s fields. However, investigations p e r f o r m e d i n areas n o t influenced b y such irregularities
R[,0A = 0,0577/(1 + 0,00403(32,9-20)) = 0 , 0 5 4 8 f l / k m ; R'20B = 0,0566/1,052 = demonstrated satisfying coherence w i t h calculated values.
0 , 0 5 2 8 f l / k m ; R'20C = 0,0567/1,052 = 0,0539fl/km.
T h e n o m i n a l value supplied b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r w a s 0,0545 f l / k m a n dt h e m a x i m u m tolerance 17.1.6.5 V i b r a t i o n performance measurements
a d m i t t e d w a s 5 %. S o t h e m e a s u r e m e n t p r o v e d t h a t t h e v a l u e s w e r e q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y a n d w e r e ,
therefore, approved b y t h eline owner. Vibration measurements, w h e n made, are usually carried o u t after line energization for
commercial operation i norder n o t t o impose m a j o r delays i nt h e line operation. I n view
of that line owner a n d contractor should come t oa n agreement a s far as w a r r a n t y is
17.1.6.3 Line energization test
concerned. P e r f o r m i n g v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s b yt h e line contractor before t h e line is
After finalizing t h econstruction o f m o r e i m p o r t a n t lines, especially relatively long E H V c o m m i s s i o n e d is h a r d l y possible because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l o n g p e r i o d necessary t o carry
l i n e s , i t i s s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y o u t line energization tests a s p a r t o f t h e c o m - out vibration measurements which can b e evaluated. However, i tseems appropriate
m i s s i o n i n g tests. T h e r e f o r e , t h e y s h o u l d b e a p p r o v e d b yt h e l i n e o w n e r o rb yt h e u t i l i t y to carry o u t such tests lasting generally several weeks, whereby the vibrations are
in whose system t h e line will b e inserted. m o n i t o r e d i nspecial points, supposedly more prone t o t h e occurrence o f vibrations
T h e m a i n purposes o fsuch tests could b e m e n t i o n e d as: after line energizing.
— D e t e c t i o n o f e v e n t u a l construction irregularities, for instance insulation flaws, Aeolian vibrations
loose e a r t h connections, like provisional earthing schemes n o t removed after Aeolian vibrations a r e m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h v i b r a t i o n sensors i n s t a l l e d 8 9m m a p a r t f r o m
stringing; the conductor clamp, according t o Cigre [17.9] or IEEE recommendations [17.10].
— D i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f voltage elevation a t t h e line e n d ( F e r r a n t i effect), measure- Clause 11.2.8 contains details o n m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e selected s p a n s o f a l i n e for p e r -
m e n t o f switching overvoltages caused b y energization; forming aeolian vibration measurements should b e preferably located where there isa
higher probability o foccurrence o f laminar winds in the range o f2 t o 10 m/s, as the
aeolian v i b r a t i o n p h e n o m e n o n is created p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h i s range o f w i n d speeds.
U s i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e conductor a n d e a r t h w i r e lifetime c a n b e
assessed u s i n g t h e m e t h o d r e p o r t e d i n [17.11] (see c l a u s e 1 1 . 2 . 9 ) . T h e w i n d v e l o c i t y i s
recorded b y mechanical o r ultrasonic anemometers.
Subspan oscillations
F o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f subspan oscillations, s p a n s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d w h e r e h i g h w i n d
s p e e d s o c c u r , s a y w i n d s h i g h e r t h a n 10 m / s . S u c h m e a s u r e m e n t i s p e r f o r m e d u s i n g s p e -
cial v i b r a t i o n sensors o r t h e same t y p e asemployed for aeolian v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t .
F o r t h i s case, t h e sensible axes o f t h e t r a n s d u c e r s s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d i n h o r i z o n t a l
direction so as t odetect horizontal oscillations o ft h e subconductors.
17.1.7 E n e r g i z a t i o n a n d c o m m e n c e of o p e r a t i o n
A f t e r a l l commissioning tests h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d , i t i s s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y
o u t corrections o f a n y p r o b l e m s t h a t m a y have b e e n detected. I n such cases, t h e line
a n d / o r t h e associated electric s y s t e m u s u a l l y needs t o stay o u t o f o p e r a t i o n u n t i l all
p e n d i n g i t e m s h a v e b e e n s o l v e d . T h e l i n e i s finally r e l e a s e d f o r commercial operation
and is t h e n energized a n d integrated w i t h the meshed electric system t o w h i c h i t will
b e l o n g or, i n case o f r a d i a l supply, i tis c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e l o a d for w h i c h i t has been
built.
17.2 Operation
17.2.1 R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g of c o n d u c t o r a m p a c i t y
17.2.1.1 T a r g e t s a n d benefits
P a p e r s [17.12] a n d [17.13] p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w o n t a r g e t s , benefits a n d m e t h o d s o f
real-time monitoring of conductor conditions a n d conductor ampacities h a v i n g b e c o m e
a w o r t h w h i l e tool for o p e r a t i o n o f transmission lines d u r i n g the last decade.
T h e thermal rating o f a n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i s t h e m a x i m u m c u r r e n t t h a t a
circuit can carry w i t h o u t exceeding t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e sag design t e m p e r a t u r e
is t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h t h e l e g i s l a t e d h e i g h t o f t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r a b o v e g r o u n d
or obstacles i s m e t . T h e t h e r m a l r a t i n g o f c o n d u c t o r s i s d e a l t w i t h i n clause 7.2.3.
A n o v e r h e a d l i n e i si n h e r e n t l y e x p o s e d t o m a n y factors such a sw i n d velocity a n d direc-
tion, intensity o fsolar radiation, ambient air t e m p e r a t u r e o r terrain conditions, w h i c h
are c h a n g i n g a l o n g t h e l i n e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i n space, i . e. t h e
sag, i s c o n t i n u o u s l y c h a n g i n g affecting t h e v e r t i c a l safety clearance a n d , subsequently,
the t h e r m a l r a t i n g o fthe line. T h e variabilityo f the parameters affecting the t h e r m a l
rating isdifficult t opredict. T h i s has resulted i n some conservative assumptions being
m a d e i n order t o always ensure public safety.
T h e m a i n purpose o fr e a l - t i m e line m o n i t o r i n g i s t o assist s y s t e m operators i n a better
utilization of the load current capacity o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s , e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e r e g u l a t o r y
clearances above g r o u n d are always m e t . R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g o f relevant p a r a m e t e r s
enables t h e conductor position above g r o u n d o robstacles t ob e determined i n real t i m e
or t o b e forecast. W i t h r e a l - t i m e systems, t h e line is n o t operated a t t e m p e r a t u r e s
higher t h a n designed b u t r u n n i n g at its design t e m p e r a t u r e for a longer p e r i o d o f t i m e .
A s t h e l i n e i s r u n n i n g closer t o t h e t h e r m a l l i m i t , t h e losses w i l l increase. T h e r e f o r e ,
c o n t i n u o u s r u n n i n g o f a line close t o its a m p a c i t y l i m i t c a n n o t b e r e c o m m e n d e d .
Real-time m o n i t o r i n g t o accurately determine the current t h e r m a l capacity o f a line
is o f t e n u s e d w h e n s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f a s y s t e m i s e n v i s a g e d d u et o t h e p r o j e c t e d l o a d
exceeding the existing t h e r m a l limit o ri n emergency situations w i t h other transmission
l i n e s o u t o f service. I n t h i s case, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t a p r o b a b i l i s t i c a p p r o a c h s h o u l d
be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t h e r m a l r a t i n g u s i n g a c t u a l recorded w e a t h e r d a t a [17.14]. I t
has been f o u n d t h a t t h e increase i n t h e r m a l r a t i n g o flines based o nr e a l - t i m e systems
i s u p t o 3 5 % [ 1 7 . 1 5 ] w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 1 5 %.
T h e monitoring methods c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o c a t e g o r i e s , n a m e l y d i r e c t m e a s u r i n g
the conductor temperature o r tension and indirect methods using the ambient condi-
tions and line current t ocalculate the conductor temperature.
17.2.1.2 Direct methods
Direct methods i n c l u d e c l a m p - o n d e v i c e s t o m e a s u r e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r
a s w e l l a s m e t h o d s t o m e a s u r e t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e . Direct temperature mea-
surements a r ep e r f o r m e d generally b y c l a m p - o n t h e r m a l couples t h a t t r a n s m i t t h e
t e m p e r a t u r e v i a radio c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o a central s t a t i o n [17.16, 17.17]. T h e recorded
temperature ist h e n compared t othe design t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e readings can b e used
for t h e r m a l limit determination.
T h e sensors are u s u a l l y located at one or a few positions only. However, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
varies a l o n g t h e s p a n a s w e l l a s b e t w e e n spans. T om a k e a j u d g e m e n t o na f e w readings
o n l y can b e r i s k y since t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e conductor can v a r y f r o m s p a n t o span
due t o different w i n d velocities o r angles o fw i n d attack, especially i f the line direction
or terrain changes. Therefore, conductor temperatures should b e determined i n several
spans and line sections a l l o w i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f average t e m p e r a t u r e s . Nevertheless,
the t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e d is t h e conductor surface t e m p e r a t u r e a n d n o t t h e average
c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t affects sag. T h e c o n v e r s i o n f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r surface
temperature t o a sag dimension isstill required i n order t o determine the position o f
the conductor i nreal time. T h e accuracy o f the t h e r m a l rating will depend o n how
precisely t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d sags can b e established [17.13].
A load cell i n t h e s t r a i n assembly can b e used t o m e a s u r e the conductor tensile force
[17.18]. T h e t e n s i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o a s t a t i o n b y cable o r r a d i o .
T h e load cell i s always a t g r o u n d p o t e n t i a l . Since t h e tensile force o f a conductor i n a
g i v e n section o f a l i n e d e p e n d s o nt h e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e t e n s i o n d a t a p r o v i d e
information o nconductor temperature.
Tension monitoring systems c a n b e m o u n t e d o n s e l e c t e d d e a d - e n d s t r u c t u r e s a l o n g a
t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e . T h e s y s t e m described i n [17.18] c a n also r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t a n d
n e t r a d i a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e ( s o l a r t e m p e r a t u r e ) . T h e net radiation temperature i s u s e d
to determine tension-based line ratings b y linking the conductor temperature w i t h
m e a s u r e d tensile force. T h e s h o r t - t e r m c u r r e n t r a t i n g c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y k n o w i n g
the difference between t h e present a n d t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e line. T h e r a t i n g
is t h a t c u r r e n t w h i c h w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e b e i n g r e a c h e d i n a g i v e n
p e r i o d o f t i m e , e. g. w i t h i n 30 m i n u t e s .
Tension m o n i t o r s are solar-powered. E i t h e r cellular phone technology o r t h e utilities
telecommunication systems can b e used i n retrieving and sending i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e
control centre. T h e m e a s u r e d tensile force i s t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e p a r a m e t e r for deter-
m i n i n g t h e w a n t e d sag. Less a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e readings is, t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n
t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e t e n s i l e force a l o n g t h e t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n i s a l m o s t
constant and, therefore, takes into account t h e changing conditions along t h i s section.
I t reflects t h e a v e r a g i n g effect o f a l l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e effect o f
w i n d a l o n g t h i s section o n t h e conductor tensile force.
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e thermal conductor rating, a l i n k b e t w e e n t h e n e t r a d i a t i o n s o l a r
t e m p e r a t u r e [17.19] a n d t h e s a gneeds t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s r e q u i r e s t h e c h a r a c t e r -
istics o f a line w i t h t e n s i o n a n d solar t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s being t a k e n . T h e
sag-temperature relationship i st h e n established.
688 17 Commissioning, operation and line management
O n l y lines equipped w i t h t h e system can b e m o n i t o r e d b y direct methods. T h e t h e r m a l
rating o f other lines i nthe area cannot b e determined. Direct methods f o rt h e r m a l
r a t i n g are used b y m o r e t h a n 5 0 utilities [17.13, 17.20, 17.21].
T h e Power D o n u t S y s t e m installed b y the B r a z i l i a n utility C E M I G is a nexample for
r e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g . I t consists of:
— C o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e sensors, w h i c h m o n i t o r t h e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
t h r o u g h a contact t h e r m o m e t e r installed at t h e line conductor w h i l e another sen-
sor measures t h e current. P o w e r sources are extracted f r o m t h e m o n i t o r e d line.
T h e sensors t r a n s m i t t h e recorded d a t a v i a radio l i n k t o a s u b s t a t i o n w h e r e t h e
d a t a are checked.
— O p t i o n a l s u b s t a t i o n e q u i p m e n t sensors m o n i t o r i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a m e t e r s i n substa-
tions, such as transformer temperatures.
— T h e d a t a are collected a ta r e m o t e t e r m i n a l u n i t , w h e r e t h e c o n t r o l i scarried out.
— T h e d a t a a r e t h e n t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e s y s t e m s o p e r a t i o n c e n t r e (dispatch centre)
t h r o u g h a dedicated communication channel. Depending o n the recorded data,
decisions are m a d e b y the people i n charge o f t h e s y s t e m operation.
17.2.1.3 Indirect methods
Indirect methods u s e t h e a m b i e n t c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e l i n e c u r r e n t t o c a l c u l a t e t h e t e m -
perature o f the conductor. T h e t e m p e r a t u r e is t h e n used t o determine the position o f
the conductor. I t is assumed t h a t t h e safety l i m i t could b e exceeded creating a risk t o
the public if the design t e m p e r a t u r e is reached.
T h e a m b i e n t conditions t ob e m o n i t o r e d are w i n d speed, w i n d direction, solar r a d i a t i o n
a n d ambient t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e a n e m o m e t e r should b e able t o measure w i n d speeds
below 1 m/s. M o r e t h a n one line i n the same area can b e monitored. A d d i t i o n a l lines
can, therefore, b e included w i t h o u t further equipment being needed. T h e weather data
can b e used as means o f forecasting probable t h e r m a l limits u p t o 2 4 h i n advance
[17.15], t h u s e n a b l i n g decisions o n p l a n n i n g o f generation capacities o rline de-energizing
for maintenance a n d repair.
I n d i r e c t m e t h o d s m a y n o t cater for v a r i a t i o n i n p a r a m e t e r s t h a t c o u l d affect t h e con-
d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d h e n c e t h e sag. V a r i a t i o n i nt h e v a l u e o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s c a n
be c a u s e d b y v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e t e r r a i n , e. g. s h e l t e r i n g o f a l i n e b y t r e e s o r b u i l d i n g s .
I n addition, w i n d speed a n d direction can differ f r o m the p o i n t o f m e a s u r e m e n t t o t h e
a c t u a l l i n e . T o m i t i g a t e t h e a b o v e effects, t h e r e m a y b e a n e e d t o i n s t a l l a n u m b e r o f
weather stations along the lines; associated c o m m u n i c a t i o n problems t o t r a n s m i t t h e
readings m a y occur together w i t h u n c e r t a i n t y o f t h e best location o f w e a t h e r stations.
T h i s is because the critical span for current determination could vary.
It is expedient t o combine the used weather data w i t h tension measurements getting
the benefit o f b o t h methods w i t h m i n i m i z i n g the drawbacks. T h e tension m e t h o d can
be used as a check t o decide w h e t h e r t o use o r n o t t h e w e a t h e r d a t a for other lines
i n t h e a r e a t h a t are n o t b e i n g m o n i t o r e d w i t h l o a d cells t h u s e n s u r i n g m o r e a c c u r a t e
predictions.
17.2.1.4 E x a m p l e s and experience
T h e r e a r e m a n y e x a m p l e s f o r application of real-time ampacity rating. A m o r e e f f e c t i v e
use o fe x i s t i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n lines i st h e goal o freed-time t h e r m a l r a t i n g based o n meas-
u r e m e n t s f r o m w e a t h e r s t a t i o n s a s r e p o r t e d i n[17.22]. T h e s h o r t - t e r m r a t i n g could b e
r a i s e d b y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 %. I n [ 1 7 . 1 5 ] , a d y n a m i c t h e r m a l r a t i n g s y s t e m i s p r e s e n t e d
w h i c h enables t o predict the ambient temperatures 2 4h i n advance being useful d u r i n g
emergency situations, w h e n higher capacity is needed, a n df o r p l a n n i n g o f line d e -
e n e r g i z i n g for m a i n t e n a n c e . A n i n c r e a s e o f a m p a c i t y u p t o 3 5 % i s r e p o r t e d .
17.2 O p e r a t i o n 689
P a p e r [17.23] deals w i t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e a m p a c i t y o f 4 0 0 k V lines c o n n e c t i n g t h e
former Yugoslavian power system with U C P T E . T h e comparison between measured
and predicted conductor temperatures showed errors o f only ± 2,5 K . Comparisons
b e t w e e n p r e d i c t i o n s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i np a p e r [17.24] a s w e l l . P a p e r
[17.25] deals w i t h t h e r m a l r a t i n g a n d u p r a t i n g o f e x i s t i n g lines.
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 7 . 2 6 ] , i t s e e m e d a p p r o p r i a t e for t h e N o r w e g i a n g r i d t o r e l a t e t h e t h e r -
m a l l i n e r a t i n g t o t h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h i s r e s u l t e d i n a n i m p r o v e d b a s i s for
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r m a l capacities o f i n d i v i d u a l lines a n d justified a nincrease b y 1 0 % i n
a m p a c i t y w i t h o u t exceeding t h e specified conductor l i m i t t e m p e r a t u r e . O t h e r applica-
t i o n s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n [17.13].
M o s t t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s a r e o p e r a t e d b a s e d o n t h e (n-1) criterion. After a distur-
bance, the system should return t o a stable condition w i t h i n typically 5 t o 15 minutes.
K n o w i n g t h e r e a l - t i m e a m p a c i t y o ft h e system, dispatch changes m a y not b e necessary
or a t least delayed, b e n e f i t i n g f r o m t h e t h e r m a l i n e r t i a o f conductors [17.27].
F r o m real-time rating i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t a m p a c i t i e s v a r y w i t h a d a i l y p a t t e r n . A
common finding isthat a tm a n y locations the ampacity during daytime ishigher t h a n
at night t i m e due t osubstantially higher w i n d velocities d u r i n g d a y t i m e t h a n a t night.
R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g can increase the line ampacity considerably. T h u s , investments
for l i n e u p g r a d i n g c a n b e p o s t p o n e d o r m a y n o t b e r e q u i r e d a t a l l .
17.2.2 T h u n d e r s t o r m m o n i t o r i n g a n d forecast
L i g h t n i n g p h e n o m e n a h i g h l y affect t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f o v e r h e a d lines, especially w h e r e
h i g h l i g h t n i n g flash d e n s i t i e s a n d h i g h s o i l r e s i s t i v i t i e s a r e p r e v a l e n t a l o n g t h e l i n e
route. T h i s fact justifies t h a t utilities, other relevant public entities a n d research centres
around the w o r l d decided t oestablish intensive lightning research programs, including
t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f L i g h t n i n g L o c a t i o n S y s t e m s ( L L S ) f o r thunderstorm monitoring and
forecast. S o m e o f s u c h s y s t e m s a r e m e n t i o n e d i n C h a p t e r 4 . B e s i d e s b e i n g e x c e l l e n t
operative tools, such systems c a n b e useful f o ri m p r o v i n g the lightning performance
of the transmission system. These location systems can b e isolated o r operated i n a n
integrated structure. According t o experience i n Germany, u p t o 3 0 % o f the total
a m o u n t o f faults is due t o lightning strokes and a higher percentage is reported f r o m
r e g i o n s w i t h h i g h k e r a u n i c a c t i v i t y , e. g. 6 0 % i n B r a z i l . M o d e r n l i g h t n i n g l o c a t i o n
s y s t e m s a r edescribed i n [17.28, 17.29, 17.30]. I nt h e l a t t e r case, t h e r e a r e a c e n t r a l
station a n d regional stations aswell, comprising great parts o fa country o reven several
countries.
Several l i g h t n i n g location systems have been installed a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , as can b e seen
in Chapter 4, Table 4.1; a m o n g t h e m , one example can b e m e n t i o n e d f r o m Brazil, com-
prising a total o f 21 detection sensors installed i n six B r a z i l i a n states i nC e n t r a l a n d
S o u t h Brazil w i t h three network central analysers i n different points o fthe high-voltage
s y s t e m [17.28]. D u e t o t h e i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e m o n i t o r e d area is e x p a n d e d a n d recorded
d a t a a r e s h a r e d , l e a d i n g t o a b e t t e r d e t e c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y a n d a m u c h m o r e a c c u r a t e light-
ning location. F i g u r e 1 7 . 2 s h o w s a flow c h a r t o f t h e l i g h t n i n g l o c a t i o n s y s t e m d i a g r a m
of B r a z i l for processing, visualizing a n d storing l i g h t n i n g data. T h e technology applied
is c a l l e d L i g h t n i n g P o s i t i o n a n d T r a c k i n g S y s t e m ( L P A T S ) , d e v e l o p e d b y G l o b a l A t -
mospherics Inc. T h e central s t a t i o n processes d a t a t r a n s m i t t e d b y sensors located i n
t h e d e t e c t i o n s t a t i o n s , s y n c h r o n i z e d b y t h e Global Position System ( G P S ) , s u p p l y i n g
t i m e i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h a 100 nanosecond resolution asw e l l as its location, p o l a r i t y a n d
m a x i m u m return stroke current.
T h e processing u n i t configures, m o n i t o r s , stores a n d processes t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e
signals received. I t can store t h e r o u g h d a t a supplied b y t h e sensors a n d also t r a n s m i t
t h e m t o a s t o r i n g centre, w h i c h a l l o w s a naccess t o v i s u a l i z i n g software. V i s u a l i z a t i o n
 staff, t h e d i s p a t c h c e n t r e s a n d c l i e n t s t h u s t r i g g e r i n g c o u n t e r m e a s u r e s , e. g . e s t a b l i s h i n g
magnetic d e - i c i n g c i r c u i t s . I c i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s y s t e m s are r e p o r t e d i n [17.31, 17.32] a n d [17.18].
lime of impact
arrival
direction T h e p a p e r [17.31] describes ice o b s e r v a t i o n s i n r e m o t e areas b y v i d e o d e t e c t i n g s y s t e m s
sensors finding
sensors a n d fibre o p t i c s e n s o r s t o m o n i t o r t h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s .
sensors
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 7 . 3 2 ] , H y d r o Q u e b e c ' s ice accretion telemonitoring system S Y G I V R E
1
consists o fa n e t w o r k o f20 sites d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r s m s m i s s i o n s y s t e m , w h e r e
ice a c c r e t i o n a n d a i r t e m p e r a t u r e axe m e a s u r e d u s i n g a n i c i n g r a t e m e t e r a n d a t h e r m a l
modem cluster probe. T h e data are t r a n s m i t t e d t oacentral computer, w h e r e t h e y are analysed i n real
communication channel t i m e 2 4h o u r s a day. F o r each site, each event isanalysed according t o t h e t y p e o f icing
g o v e r n i n g t h e site. T h e t y p e o f ice i n v o l v e d i s i d e n t i f i e d a s b e i n g glaze ice, r i m e ice o r
visualizing and fault snow a n d t h e t o t a f a c c u m u l a t i o n i s cEdculated observed d u r i n g one h o u r .
procesing remote pro- storing F i g u r e 17.2: Typical
analysis P a p e r [17.18] r e p o r t s o n t h e use o f l o a d cells i n s t a l l e d p r i m a r i l y f o r r e a l - t i m e a m p a c i t y
unit cessing unit centre d i a g r a m f o r processing,
unit
visualizing a n d storing r a t i n g also f o r o b s e r v a t i o n o f ice o n c o n d u c t o r s . T h e loEid cells m o n i t o r t h e c o n d u c t o r
visual lightning data in alight- tensile stress. T h e iceaccretion c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y plots o f t e n s i o n versus t h e net
information adapter or ning location system r a d i a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e technicsil r e p o r t I E C 6 1 774 [17.33] describes s t a n d a r d i z e d
terminal server
system (see [17.28]) ice measurement techniques u s i n g t e s t s t a n d s s e p a r a t e d from l i n e c o n d u c t o r s .
T h e scope o f t h e r e p o r t [17.34] i s t o p r o v i d e l i n e o p e r a t o r s w i t h guidelines t o collect
of l i g h t n i n g discharges can b e p e r f o r m e d t h r o u g h computers connected t o t h e central i c i n g d a t a from o v e r h e a d l i n e s a n d t o e v a l u a t e t h e s e d a t a w i t h t h e g o a l o f e s t a b l i s h i n g
processing unit o r t o the data bank i n the storing centre. an i m p r o v e d base for design o f n e w lines o r u p g r a d i n g existing ones.
T h i r t e e n m e a s u r i n g stations a l l over G e r m a n y register t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e elec-
tromagnetic wave arrives a t the receiving aerial. T h e h i g h exactness o f the lightning 17.2.4 Galloping alerting system
detection system is based o n the time o f arrival principle. T h e strike location is anal-
ysed b y t h e difference o f t h e t i m e s recorded b y t h e different receivers. T i m e signals v i a C o n d u c t o r g a l l o p i n g c a n c a u s e s e v e r e d i s t u r b a n c e s for l i n e o p e r a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
satellites o f the G l o b a l Positioning S y s t e m assure a highly exact synchronization o f the G e r m a n u t i l i t y V E W , s i n c e 2 0 0 1 p s i r t o f R W E E n e r g y A G , d e v e l o p e d a galloping alert-
receivers. I n case o f a n a l a r m f r o m t h e protective devices a l i g h t n i n g stroke i n the net- ing system t o w a r n e a r l y w h e n a g a l l o p i n g - p r o n e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n c o u l d o c c u r . T h e
work can b e determined b y comparing the coordinate o f the stroke location indicated utility would t h e n b e able t otake precautions b y re-arranging the energy supply thus
by the system w i t h the corresponding coordinates o fthe line o rtransformer station. avoiding damage due t oline failures.
T h e G e r m a n u t i l i t y E . O N e x a m i n e d exactness a n d business benefits o fa l i g h t n i n g A t o t a l o f6 6 g a l l o p i n g cases w e r e correlated t o t h e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s g i v e n w i t h i n
location s y s t e m . A c o m p a r i s o n o ft h e l i g h t n i n g detection s y s t e m w i t h f a u l t locators a period o f 7 2 hours before t h e galloping events. T h e s t u d y identified t h e w i n d con-
was carried out. T h e deviation between the location signalized b ythe system and dition, t h e iceaccretion, t h e air t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e dew p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e as those
real f a u l t location proved t o b e lower t h a n i ncase o ff a u l t locators used previously. parameters governing the galloping probability.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s y s t e m r e d u c e s t h e c o s t s f o r c h e c k s . T h e b e n e f i t s Eire e s p e c i e d l y h i g h i n T h e s t u d i e s r e s u l t e d i n a galloping readiness coefficient
110 k V n e t w o r k s w i t h resonant earthed n e u t r a l , w h e r e faults could otherwise allocated
to the electric circuit only.
G R C ( 1 7 9 )
T h e applications can b e summsirized as follows: - i + ( r r i , - r D ) / 2 + 23 r • '

— Anticipation o f thunderstorm approach and establishing preventive measures t o

reduce t h e i m p a c t o nelectric systems. where
— L i g h t n i n g strokes can b e located i m m e d i a t e l y a n d reliably. T h i s assists t h e oper- S angle between direction o f line and w i n d ,
a t o r t o e s t a b l i s h first f a u l t d i a g n o s i s a n d t o i n i t i a t e l i n e p a t r o l s f a s t a n d s y s t e m - .Iw w i n d gust intensity,
atically. Vw w i n d velocity i n m/s,
— D a m a g e d line components detected d u r i n g regular controls can b e traced back t o Tair a i r t e m p e r a t u r e i n °C,
lightning strokes based o ndata logged i n the system. Tp d e w p o i n t t e m p e r a t u r e i n °C.
— T h e s y s t e m sillows a statistical analysis o f t h e frequency a n d i n t e n s i t yd i s t r i b u t i o n
of l i g h t n i n g strokes. O n this basis, t h e design o f n e w lines can b e i m p r o v e d . U s i n g G R C = 4 0 a s a t h r e s h o l d , 8 5 % o f t h e g a l l o p i n g cases c o u l d b e forecast. E x p e -
— I n case o fw o r k b e i n g carried o u t o n lines, especially live-line w o r k i n g , t h e l i n e m e n rience has s h o w n t h a t t h e w a r n i n g should b e k e p t i n force d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f 1 0 h o u r s
ctin b e w a r n e d i n t i m e , t h u s i m p r o v i n g safety a n d security o f the i n s t a l l a t i o n . after the threshold o f40 h a d been reached.

17.2.3 I c e observations 17.2.5 Insulator contamination andperformance

Ice accretion o n conductors causes a nincrease o f sags a n d h i g h loads o n conductors, T h e e l e c t r i c , m e c h a n i c a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l performance of overhead line insulators i s
insulators a n d supports. Damage w o u l d result i f the design iceload were exceeded t o i m p o r t a n t w i t h respect t o t h e l i n e life. T o o l s have been developed for i m p r o v i n g a n d
a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . T h e r e f o r e , ice monitoring systems E i r e u s e f u l t o a l e r t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l optimizing design and maintenance o fthe insulators.
692 1 7 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.3 Asset m a n a g e m e n t 693

Damaged or cracked insulators m a y b e d e t e c t e d w h i l e t h e y a r e i n s e r v i c e , b u t s u i t a b l e 17.3 Asset management

precautions s h o u l d b e followed. I n general, t h e m e t h o d s employed for f a u l t y cap-and-
p i n i n s u l a t o r detection are based u p o n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f the voltage gradient across 17.3.1 Definitions
the individual u n i t s o fa string o fsuspension insulators o racross the parts o f m u l t i - p a r t
I n t h e c o n t e x t o f line asset management, t h e f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s a s p e r [ 1 7 . 3 9 ] a r e
p i n - t y p e insulators. For safety reasons, none o f the test m e t h o d s should b e used i n wet
used:
weather.
Availability: T h e state o f a n i t e m being able t o perform its required function.
F a u l t y insulators m a y also b e detected b y special radio interference locators, consisting
Capability: T h e p r o d u c t o f capacity a n d i t s availability-
essentially o f a sensitive battery-operated receiver coupled t o either a directional loop
Capacity ( e l e c t r i c ) : T h e p r o d u c t o fn o m i n a l values of voltage a n d c u r r e n t i n a circuit.
a n t e n n a o ra w h i p antenna. T h e latter type m a y b e attached t oa hot-line stick t o enable
Capacity ( m e c h a n i c a l ) : T h e m a x i m u m rated mechanical strength o f a component
close i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the i n s u l a t o r u n d e r test; i n f r a - r e d techniques are also employed.
or element.
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 7 . 3 5 ] , t h e energized insulator tester [ 1 7 . 3 6 ] r e p r e s e n t s a s p a r k - g a p v o l t -
m e t e r w h i c h i s safe t o use a n d gives h i g h a c c u r a c y i n m e a s u r i n g p o t e n t i a l s i n t h e field Chance: T h e potential for the occurrence o f a n event.
of live-line insulators. Conductor assembly: A l l current carrying elements, overhead earth wires and fibre
T h e e q u i p m e n t consists o f a m i c r o m e t e r spark-gap i nseries w i t h a capacitor a n d a optic cables including conductor clamps, spacers, dampers a n d other a t t a c h m e n t s .
special telephone-type headset t o listen t ogap sparkovers. T h e degree o f defect i n the Component: A p a r t o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e , i . e. i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g a s s e m b l y , c o n d u c t o r
t e s t e d disc i s i n d i c a t e d b y t h e size o f t h e m a x i m u m g a p a t w h i c h a noise i s h e a r d i n assembly, support assembly o r foundation.
t h e t e s t e r , a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e size o f a m a x i m u m g a p f o r a g o o d disc i n t h e s a m e Consequence: R e s u l t o f a n event.
p o s i t i o n i n a s t r i n g . A t o t a l l y d e a d disc gives n o s o u n d , irrespective o f t h e gap setting. Defect: I m p e r f e c t i o n i n t h e state o f a n i t e m , w h i c h increases t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e
I n p r a c t i c e , o n e g a p l e n g t h i s fixed i n a d v a n c e a n d u s e d f o r a l l u n i t s o f t h e s t r i n g . T h e of itself, o r another i t e m .
o p e r a t o r j u d g e s i f a u n i t is defective f r o m t h e noise h e a r d i n t h e headset. Design working life: A s s u m e d p e r i o d f o r w h i c h a n i t e m i s t o b e u s e d f o r i t s r e q u i r e d
T h e live-line insulator tester can also detect defective insulators, either m u l t i - p a r t p i n - f u n c t i o n w i t h anticipated m a i n t e n a n c e b u t w i t h o u t substantial repair being necessary.
type o r suspension, b y c o m p a r i n g t h e measured voltage d i s t r i b u t i o n over insulators o r Event: O c c u r r e n c e o f a set o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
insulator strings i n service w i t h characteristic curves p l o t t e d for g o o d insulators o f t h e Failure: T h e termination o f the ability o f an item t operform a required function.
same type. Inspection: T h e total process o f detecting, measuring o r estimating those properties
Long rod insulators d o n o t require a n y tests t o detect f a u l t y u n i t s since t h e y a r e and characteristics o r s y m p t o m s , t h a t contribute t o the physical condition o f a n i t e m ,
puncture-proof. In-service testing iscompletely u n k n o w n w i t h these insulators. using either non-destructive o r destructive m e t h o d s t o enable t h e production o fa n
Non-ceramic insulators, d u e t o p r e s e n c e o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s i n t h e i r s t r u c t u r e , m a y inspection report.
suffer l o n g - t e r m d e g r a d a t i o n . T h i s m o t i v a t e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f c o n d i t i o n assess- Life extension: Extensive renovation or repair o f a n i t e m w i t h o u t restoring their
m e n t m e t h o d s being able t o detect t h e evolution o f defects before t h e y b e c o m e critical o r i g i n a l design w o r k i n g life.
for t h e dielectric w i t h s t a n d o f the line. D u r i n g t h e tests, e x t e r n a l defects are applied Maintenance: T o t a l seto f activities performed during the design w o r k i n g life o f a n
along t h e i n s u l a t o r surface b y means o f t h i n conductive foils h a v i n g 5 m m w i d t h a n d i t e m t om a i n t a i n its purpose. I t includes routine conservation and small o rlocal repair.
variable length. T h e sound insulator length, f o rw h i c h a 5 0 % flashover probability is Outage: T h e state o f a circuit being unable t o p e r f o r m its required function.
d e t e r m i n e d , i s c a l l e d c r i t i c a l d e f e c t l e n g t h . T h e critical defect length i n a c o n f i g u r a t i o n Outage duration: T h e period during w h i c h a circuit is incapable o f performing its
representative o f live-line w o r k i n g conditions c a n b e used f o r assessment. Results o f required f u n c t i o n w i t h i n a specified p e r i o d o f t i m e .
dielectric tests carried out i n 145 a n d 420 k V configurations have s h o w n critical defect
Predictable event: A n event t h a t h a sa well defined probability o f occurrence a t
lengths between 3 5 and 4 0 % o f the design length; t h a t means, b y s i m u l a t i n g external
a given location, and whose probability o f occurrence and/or consequences c a nb e
defects along the insulator surface, i n s u l a t i o n failures occurred i n conditions o f live-line
economically reduced w i t h proactive measures.
w o r k w h e n t h e i n s u l a t o r r e d u c t i o n r e a c h e d a r o u n d 6 0 t o 7 0 %: S w i t c h i n g i m p u l s e a n d
Proactive measure: M e a s u r e o r a c t i o n t a k e n p r i o r t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f a n event i n
p o w e r f r e q u e n c y stresses, c o m b i n e d w i t h e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s . Reference [17.37]
o r d e r t o r e d u c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f failure.
deals w i t h assessment o f non-ceramic i n s u l a t o r s .
Reactive measure: M e a s u r e o r action t h a t b e c o m e effective after t h e occurrence o f
I n [17.38], o t h e r m e t h o d s are described for checking r e s i d u a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f n o n - c e r a m i c a n event, i . e . t h e y d o n o t r e d u c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e b u t r e d u c e t h e consequences
i n s u l a t o r s e s p e c i a l l y c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s . T h e e l e c t r i c a l field d i s t r i b u t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t of failure.
a n d t h e infra-red thermography are a m o n g t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d a n d s e n s i t i v e t o d e - Refurbishment: E x t e n s i v e r e n o v a t i o n o r r e p a i r o f a n item t o r e s t o r e t h e i r i n t e n d e d
tect f a u l t y i n s u l a t o r s i n t h e e a r l y stage o f d e g r a d a t i o n . P a p e r [17.38] concludes t h a t design w o r k i n g life.
non-ceramic insulators can have potential advantages as compared t o other insulator
Reliability: P r o b a b i l i t y o f a n i t e m t o p e r f o r m a required function u n d e r a s e t o f c o n d i -
designs; however, the presence o f p o l y m e r i c m a t e r i a l i n t h e i r s t r u c t u r e s rises the possi-
tions for a specified p e r i o d o f t i m e achieved b y appropriate design. I t is t h u s a measure
b i l i t y o f l o n g - t e r m defects u n d e r t h e different design stresses. D i a g n o s t i c m e t h o d s are,
o f t h e s u c c e s s o f a n item i n a c c o m p l i s h i n g i t s required function.
therefore, necessary t o check periodically their o p e r a t i n g conditions.
Restoration: R e p a i r o f a f a i l e d item, s o t h a t i t m a y p e r f o r m a required function.
Required function: Specific performance f u n c t i o n .
Risk: C o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e c h a n c e o f a n e v e n t a n d i t s c o n s e q u e n c e s . Risk i s p r o d u c t o f
the annual probability o f occurrence o f failure o f a nitem and the totality o f resulting
consequences expressed i n m o n e t a r y terms.
 Risk increase: Actions increasing t h e chance, negative consequences, o r b o t h , o f a 17.3.4 N e t p r e s e n t v a l u e of a n n u a l e x p e n d i t u r e s
p a r t i c u l a r risk f o r p o s s i b l e g a i n .
It isassumed that t h e goal o fa n y m a n a g e m e n t decision is t om i n i m i z e t h e n e t present
Risk reduction: A c t i o n s t a k e n t o l e s s e n t h e c h a n c e , n e g a t i v e consequences, or both,
value ( N P V ) o f t h e a n n u a l expenditures over a predetermined investment period. I n
of a particular risk.
order t o get c o m p a r a b l e results, f u t u r e costs a r e discounted t o t h e present. I n general
Unpredictable event: A n e v e n t w h o s e risk i s m a n a g e d b y r e a c t i v e m e a s u r e s s i n c e i t s
terms:
probability o foccurrence cannot b e economically reduced w i t h proactive measures.
Upgrading: Increasing t h e o r i g i n a l mechanical s t r e n g t h o fa n i t e m d u e t o , f o r e x a m p l e ,
a requirement for higher meteorological actions. U p g r a d i n g will decrease t h e probability
NPV = f Y / ( l + r ) i , (17-10)
i=0
of failure.
Uprating: I n c r e a s i n g t h e e l e c t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a l i n e d u e t o , for e x a m p l e , a r e q u i r e - w h e r e N P V i s t h e net present value o f t h e a n n u a l e x p e n d i t u r e s , n t h e p e r i o d o f y e a r s
m e n t for higher electric capacity, o r larger electrical clearances. U p r a t i n g w i l l increase t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , r t h e d i s c o u n t r a t e a n d C , t h e a n n u a l e x p e n d i t u r e s i n y e a r i,
the electric capacity o f a line, thereby, p o t e n t i a l l y increasing t h e consequences o f a with
failure.
Ci = Edi + Epi , (17.11)

17.3.2 Introduction and targets w h e r e Edi a r e t h e d e t e r m i n i s t i c c o s t s o r p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s i n y e a r i, a n d Epi t h e

p r o b a b i l i s t i c c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i s k o f f a i l u r e i n y e a r i. F o r a n o v e r h e a d l i n e a s s e t
I n t h e p a s t , d e c i s i o n s o n t h e management of existing overhead lines w e r e f r e q u e n t l y
all relevant deterministic a n d probabilistic cost factors have t o b e t a k e n into consider-
based o n t h e q u a l i t a t i v ej u d g e m e n t o f experienced i n d i v i d u a l s . I n [17.39], guidance is
a t i o n d u r i n g t h e i n v e s t m e n t p e r i o d . T h e d e t e r m i n i s t i c c o s t f a c t o r s a r e c a l l e d planned
p r o v i d e d o nq u a n t i t a t i v e assessment. T h e r e , m e t h o d s f o r e s t i m a t i n g costs a n d r i s k s a r e
expenditures (Edi). T h e y consist o f n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e costs, p l a n n e d
g i v e n associated w i t h a c t i o n s r e q u i r e d f o r p r o p e r m a n a g e m e n t o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e asset.
outages a n d i n v e s t m e n t costs accounted for i n t h e year o ra tt h e t i m e t h e y a r e incurred.
T h e s e m a n a g e m e n t a c t i o n s a r e b a s e d o n a d e q u a t e inspections o f t h e transmission line
T h e s e costs a r e discussed i n clause 17.3.5.
components, cost factors, safety, r e g u l a t o r y a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l considerations. D u e t o
T h e p r o b a b i l i s t i c c o s t f a c t o r i s c a l l e d risk of failure (Epi). I n general terms, risk is
their complexity, extent a n d bold exposure t ot h e elements o foverhead power lines are
defined as t h e product o f chance a n d consequence. Chance is usually expressed as a
v u l n e r a b l e t o degradation a n d p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e f r o m a w i d e v a r i e t y o f i n i t i a t i n g e v e n t s .
p r o b a b i l i t y o fa n event. I n c o m m o n usage, t h eevent is undesirable a n d t h e consequences
S i n c e i t i s b e c o m i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t t o a c q u i r e n e w rights-of-way a n d t obuild n e w
are adverse.
lines, utilities a r e seeking w a y s t og e t t h e m o s t f r o m t h e i r e x i s t i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e assets.
T o i n c r e a s e t h e availability o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e , t h e r e s h o u l d b e a c l e a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g W h e n t h e event is a n overhear! line failure, t h e chance is t h e probability o f occur-
of t h e negative a n d positive risks r e s u l t i n g f r o m m a n a g e m e n t decisions. rence o f t h e event initiating failure, a n d t h e consequences a r e t h e totality o fr e s u l t i n g
c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h i s risk of failure (Epi) c a n b e s t a t e d i n i t s s i m p l e s t f o r m a s :

17.3.3 R i s k m a n a g e m e n t of line assets tfpi = P O F - t f f , (17.12)

F u t u r e m a n a g e m e n t decisions c o n c e r n i n g l i n e assets m a y b e b a s e d o n m a x i m i z i n g t h e
return on investment of t h e s e a s s e t s a n d / o r m i n i m i z i n g e x p e n d i t u r e s for m a i n t a i n i n g
t h e s e a s s e t s . O t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e : availability, reliability, system
operation a n d e n v i r o n m e n t . A m o d e l f o r l i n e m a n a g e m e n t s h o u l d b e a b l e t o q u a l i t a -
tively include all o fthese factors. A n overhead line m a y b e degraded t oa lower level o f
reliability o r i tm a y b e upgraded o r u p r a t e d t o a higher level o f reliability o r electric
capacity.
Inspection a n d r e p a i r a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n d u c t e d t o p r e v e n t degradation b e y o n d a d e s i r e d
p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l . T h e t i m e t o p e r f o r m t h e s e maintenance activities t o a c h i e v e a d e s i r e d
performance level o f t h e overhead line is a critical question. A l t h o u g h failure o f a n
overhead line is n o t desirable, total e l i m i n a t i o n o f this risk m a y n o t b e economically
justifiable.
Failures a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e a n d c a n
r e s u l t from e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s s u c h a s e i t h e r p r e d i c t a b l e c a u s a l e v e n t s e . g . i n f r e q u e n t
high w i n d s a n d ice loads o r unpredictable causal events such asn a t u r a l disasters, h u m a n
error o rsabotage. A n overhead line is considered t ohave failed w h e n i t cannot t r a n s m i t
power from one end t ot h e other.
Since overhead lines are subject t oa wide range o fe n v i r o n m e n t a l factors, management
decisions w i l l a l w a y s have t o b e m a d e u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o frisk a n d u n c e r t a i n t y [17.40].
It i st h e k n o w l e d g e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fv a r i o u s o p t i o n s a n d their associated risk t h a t
will allow t o choose t h e most appropriate option.
w h e r e Ef i s t h e c o s t o f c o n s e q u e n c e s .
Risk o f failure d u r i n g a t i m e interval m a y b e defined i n economic terms, such as n e t
present value N P V . I ti s a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e since b o t h t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e a n d
the consequences will v a r y a s a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e . F r o m e q u a t i o n (17.12), i tis obvious
t h a t risk c a n b e controlled b y either t h e l i k e l i h o o d o foccurrence o f t h e failure i n i t i a t i n g
event, o r t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e resulting consequences. I n general, t h e risk o f failure
(Epi) i s a f u n c t i o n o f p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s Ed,. R i s k o f f a i l u r e , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e
a n d their r e s u l t i n g consequences a r e discussed i n clause 17.3.6.
17.3.5 Planned expenditures
Planned expenditures include costs o f n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d costs o f i n v e s t m e n t s ,
namely:
- Costs of investments;
- Energy and capacity losses d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d t h e l o a d ;
- Costs o fplanned outages;
- Operation a n d maintenance costs. R e g u l a r i n s p e c t i o n s a n d p a t r o l s a r e n e c e s s a r y
a n d t h e conditions o f t h e components a n d elements need t o b e checked. R e -
coating, tree t r i m m i n g a n d smaller interventions a r e performed regularly.
- C o s t s for c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a d a t a b a s e f o r m a n a g e m e n t o f
the o v e r h e a d l i n e asset.
696 17 C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d l i n e m a n a g e m e n t 17.3 A s s e t m a n a g e m e n t 697

failure initiating data collection

T a b l e 17.1: C o m p a r i s o n o f predictable and unpredictable events event©
Failure due to I
line failure
Predictable events Unpredictable events
Probability relatively high relatively low
management
Economic way to avoid failure exists does not exist
decision ®
Proactive action can be taken economically not economically
Properly designed line will survive will not survive risk reduction j (risk acceptance] | risk increase
Reactive actions are possible may reduce the risk
regulations risk <SJ> data base
© assessment ©
17.3.6 R i s k o f failure F i g u r e 17.3: Process o r m o d e l f o r
z :
inspection management o f existing overhead
T h e risk o f failure o f a n overhead line is defined as t h e probability o f failurem u l t i p l i e d line assets
by t h e totality o f resulting consequences. T h e event causing failure m a y b e predictable
or u n p r e d i c t a b l e , a n dt h e consequences o f t h e f a i l u r e m a y b e expressed q u a l i t a t i v e l y
or quantitatively.T h e consequences o f a predictable event m a y b e different f r o m t h e - T r a n s m i t power between points A and B i f another line failed;
consequences o f a n unpredictable event. T h efollowing sections w i l l briefly describe - Increase stability m a r g i n w i t h o u t continuous t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f power.
f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t i e s a n d l i s t t h e p o s s i b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s [17.41]. T h e r e f o r e , t h e consequences w o u l d b e different, should t h e overhead line fail. Conse-
U n d e r the simple laws o f statistics, there are t w o outcomes t o a nevent: Failure o r sur- q u e n c e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m a n e x t e n d e d o u t a g e o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e Eire s i t e - a n d f u n c t i o n -
v i v a l . T h e a n n u a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u r v i v a l P$ i s t h e c o m p l e m e n t o f t h e a n n u a l p r o b a b i l i t y s p e c i f i c a n d c a n b e c o n s i d e r a b l e a n d monetary losses c a n o c c u r t o t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e
o f f a i l u r e P{ o r owner.
The f o l l o w i n g costs m a y b e associated t o overhead line failures:
Ps = l - P c . (17.13) - I n t h e w o r s t case, i n j u r i e s o r d e a t h m a y occur, m a i n l y i n u r b a n areas a n d a t cross-
T h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u r v i v a l is over a nextended l e n g t h o f t i m e such a s n years o f service ings. T h e line o w n e r has t o pay c o m p e n s a t i o n as far as n o t covered b y insurance.
life, o r a n i n v e s t m e n t p e r i o d o f n years: T h e responsible persons w i l l b e cited t o t h e c o u r t a n dt h e l i n e o w n e r m a y h a v e
negative publicity.
©Sl ' # S 2 • # S 3 • • • • • Psn) = ( P s ) " , (17.14) - Serious damages t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t caused b y line failures have a similar, b u t
less c r i t i c a l effect o n t h e l i n e o w n e r t h a n m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .
p r o v i d e d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u r v i v a l r e m a i n s constant over t h e p e r i o d o f n years. T h e n ,
- Frequent failures c a ncreate negative publicity for the company even i fthere is
the p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e P f n over n years o f service life is:
little o r n o direct effect o n t h e p u b l i c o r o n t h el i n e c u s t o m e r s . I t c a n h a v e a
Ff„ = l - ( P s r • (17.15) m a j o r e c o n o m i c i m p a c t o n t h e l i n e o w n e r because o f t h e p o t e n t i a l loss o f m a -
jor customers a n do t h e r factors such as l o o k i n g f o r n e wright-of-way, o r public
For example, i f t h e components o f a n overhead line have t h e s t r e n g t h t o w i t h s t a n d a pressure t o p u t overhead lines underground.
predictable fifty-year s t o r m , r e s u l t i n g i n a n a n n u a l p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u r v i v a l Ps = 1 —
- S o m e failures can lead t o t h e collapse o f a p a r t o ft h e electric s y s t e m o r l i m i t a t i o n
1/50 = 0,98, t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s t i l l h a s a (1 - 0 , 9 8 5 ) • 100 = 9,6 % p r e d i c t a b l e c h a n c e
o f s u p p l y i nt h e s y s t e m .
o f f a i l u r e w i t h i n t h e n e x t five y e a r s .
- E n e r g y losses generally increase because o f t h e failed line.
Failures due t o predictable events c a n b e f o r e c a s t b y a n a l y t i c a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e m e c h a n i -
- Sometimes, more expensive generation must b e used during the failure period
cal capability o f t h e line components a n d t h e least reliable c o m p o n e n t can b e identified.
because o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a p o w e r p l a n t f r o m t h e n e t w o r k o r because o ft h e r m a l
D e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f component, t h eline d a m a g e after a n initial failure c a n b e
or s t a b i l i t y l i m i t s i nt h e n e t w o r k .
assessed.
- Revenues a n d profits will b e lost i fcustomers are n o t supplied.
T h e t e r m unpredictable event i s u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t e v e n t s t h a t a r e m a n a g e d b y r e a c t i v e
- Depending o n contracts f o r delivering energy, penalties m a y have t o b e paid i n
measures, since t h e i r p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence c a n n o t b e economically reduced w i t h
case o f s u p p l y i n t e r r u p t i o n s .
proactive measures. C e r t a i n events such as n a t u r a l disasters, sabotage o r h u m a n error
- Sometimes, regulators set requirements concerning reliability o f t h elines a n d
w i l l occur; however, t h e n a t u r e o f the event precludes t a k i n g proactive correctives t o
p e n a l t i e s m u s t b e p a i d i n case o f t o o m a n y f a i l u r e s .
reduce t h eprobability o f failure o f the event. N a t u r a l disasters such as hurricanes,
- C o s t o f r e p a i r i n g t h e l i n e t h a t held failed.
c y c l o n e s o r t y p h o o n s , t o r n a d o e s , m a s s i v e i c e s t o r m s , floods, e a r t h q u a k e s a n d e a r t h
slides f o r t u n a t e l y occur infrequently. W h e n t h e y d o , these disasters c a n cause total
destruction o f the overhead line a n d c a n cause the total outage for a long period. I n 17.3.8 O v e r h e a d line asset m a n a g e m e n t process
fable 17.1, p r e d i c t a b l e a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e e v e n t s a r e a s s e s s e d .
To present t ot h e m a n a g e m e n t appropriate options t h a t m i n i m i z e the net present value
of a n n u a l expenditures over a n investment period, a m a n a g e m e n t process needs t o b e
17.3.7 Consequences of a failure
i m p l e m e n t e d . I n F i g u r e 17.3, Ein i d e a l i z e d p r o c e s s o r m o d e l o f t h e a c t i v i t i e s l e a d i n g t o
Overhead lines m a y provide different functions: m a n a g e m e n t d e c i s i o n s f o r a n o v e r h e a d l i n e a s s e t i s s h o w n . T h i s management process
— Transmit power between points A and B continuously; p r e s e n t s t h e a c t i v i t i e s a s d e s c r i b e d i n [17.39].
 fable 1 7 . 2 : M a n a g e m e n t options a n d their consequences — T h e original physical composition o f the line and the components b y a n as-built
Management decision Planned expenditures Change of Change of failure documentation.
failure consequences — T h e modifications o f the line and the components: Exchanged parts, alterations,
probability life e x t e n s i o n , re-coating, r e f u r b i s h m e n t , u p g r a d i n g , u p r a t i n g etc.
Proactive risk reduction - Service experience w i t h t h e line a n d t h e c o m p o n e n t s : Forced outages, defects,
Maintenance increase in annual costs decrease no failures, availabilitya n d reliability.
Refurbish ment increase in investment decrease no
- T h e a c t u a l physical c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p o n e n t s a n d elements: W e a r , ageing, etc.
Life extension increase in investment decrease no
M a n a g e m e n t m a y n e e d d a t a g i v i n g a n o v e r v i e w o ft h e o v e r h e a d l i n e assets. Maintenance
Upgrading increase in investment decrease no
activities, including reliability centred refurbishment, need detailed i n f o r m a t i o n about
Decommissioning decrease in annual costs zero local consequences
each i n d i v i d u a l component.
Reactive risk reduction
Fast restoration increase in investment no yes, mainly system I f a defect is f o u n d i n a c o m p o n e n t o r element, t h e assessment o f these c o m p o n e n t s o r
consequences decrease e l e m e n t s m a y r e q u i r e t h e i r d e t a i l e d h i s t o r y . S u c h a d e t a i l e d h i s t o r y , i . e. s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a
Insurance increase in annual costs no decrease o n t h e i r o r i g i n a l s t r e n g t h , h i s t o r y o f f a i l u r e s o r l o c a t i o n o f c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t s o r ele-
System development 11 increase in investment no decrease ments, w o u l d b e invaluable i n estimating their probability o ffailure. O t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n
Risk acceptance such a s s y s t e m r e l a t e d costs m i g h t need t o b e o b t a i n e d f r o m o t h e r sources.
Do nothing no change no no T h e d a t a base m u s t b e designed t o fulfil a l l needs, w i t h i n cost limitations. P r o m a failure
Risk increase
assessment p o i n t o f view, t h e r a w data o n all elements should b e kept for possible
Reduce maintenance decrease in annual costs increase no
f u t u r e processing, since i t m a y n o tb e k n o w n w h i c h element is critical o r i m p o r t a n t
Uprating without upgrading increase in investment increase increase
f o r m a n y y e a r s . I n [ 1 7 . 3 9 ] , s u g g e s t i o n s for d e s i g n a n d h a n d l i n g o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e
Installation of new lines
d a t a base are m a d e . K e e p i n g a d a t a base u p d a t e d needs a t h o r o u g h , continuous a n d
consequent h a n d l i n g o fi n p u t s a n d care over long periods. T h e r e f o r e , considerable efforts
T h e r e i s n o fixed s t a r t i n g p o i n t i n t h i s p r o c e s s . H o w e v e r , i t c o u l d b e g i n b y e x a m i n i n g are r e q u i r e d t o g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h e d a t a base reflects correctly t h e life h i s t o r y o f a line.
the process after a n overhead line failure ( A ) (see F i g u r e 17.3). L i n e failures cannot b e
c o m p l e t e l y e x c l u d e d , h o w e v e r , m a n a g e m e n t m a y d e c i d e t o a c h i e v e a n a c c e p t a b l e rate of
failures d u e t o c e r t a i n e v e n t s w h i c h a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h m a n a g e m e n t g o a l s ( B ) . F a i l u r e s
17.3.10 Management options
m a y also b e due t o outside failure events ( C )beyond the m a n a g e m e n t ' s control.
W h e n a n o v e r h e a d l i n e failure event o c c u r r e d , d a t a m u s t b e t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
Management options m a y b e g r o u p e d i n t h r e e b a s i c c a t e g o r i e s : Risk reduction, risk
cause o f t h e f a i l u r e ( D ) , a s described i n clause 17.4.4. W i t h o u t this d a t a collection,
acceptance a n d risk increase. T h e t h r e e t y p e s a r e e q u a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e b a s e d o n t h e
i m p r o v e m e n t s t o the m a n a g e m e n t decision m a k i n g process will b e difficult i fnot i m -
risk assessment. I f t h e r i s k i s d e e m e d a c c e p t a b l e , n o a c t i o n o r d e c i s i o n i s a p p r o p r i a t e .
p o s s i b l e . I d e a l l y , a u s e f u l data base, a s d e s c r i b e d i n [ 1 7 . 3 9 ] , w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d ( F ) .
W h e n risk is deemed t o olow, risk m a y b e increased w i t h a no p p o r t u n i t y forgain b y
T h i s data base could contain i n f o r m a t i o no n t h e overhead line, its components a n d its
decreasing p l a n n e d expenditures. I f risk seems t o b e t o oh i g h , i tc a nb e decreased b y
critical elements.
increasing planned expenditures. W h e n the risk d u et o predictable events is deemed
The overhead line must be patrolled a n d inspected ( G ) i norder t o update informa-
too high, generally proactive decisions are appropriate. W h e n the risk is too h i g h d u e
tion o n the degradation o f right-of-way and overhead line components and elements.
to unpredictable events, generally reactive decisions a r eappropriate. I ft h e p o t e n t i a l
T h i s i n f o r m a t i o nis supplied t o the d a t a base a n d used t o determine the line's present
consequences a r et o o h i g h , b o t h proactive a n d reactive decisions m a y b e appropriate
capabilities ( H ) including residual electric o r mechanical strength, a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g
in order t o reduce risk.
life o f t h e covered c o m p o n e n t o r element. T h e n , t h e risk c a n b e calculated f o r various
m a n a g e m e n t o p t i o n s a n d used a s a basis for m a n a g e m e n t decisions ( B ) . P r o a c t i v e actions t e n d t o decrease t h ep r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e as well. T h e proactive
T h e cost a n d benefit o f each m a n a g e m e n t o p t i o n i sconsidered a n d accounted for i n the o p t i o n s are m a i n t e n a n c e , r e f u r b i s h m e n t , u p g r a d i n g a n d d e c o m m i s s i o n i n g . T h e i r effects
net present value calculations. V a r i o u s options a n d m a n a g e m e n t initiatives are o u t l i n e d on p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s , p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e a n d consequence o f failure can b e seen
a n d described i n clause 17.3.10. M a n a g e m e n t c a n t h e n select t h e best o p t i o n consistent i n T a b l e 17.2.
w i t h c o m p a n y goals. A l t h o u g h t h e n a m e s used i n F i g u r e 17.3 f o r m a n a g e m e n t options Reactive actions t e n d t o decrease t h e consequences o f failure. T h e reactive options are
m i g h t give the impression that o n e type o f decision is better t h a n t h e other, this is not fast r e s t o r a t i o n , i n s u r a n c e a n d s y s t e m d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e i r effects o n p l a n n e d e x p e n d i -
true. A l l types are equally appropriate based o n the risk assessment ( H ) . I n addition, tures, p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e a n d consequence o f failure c a n b e seen i n T a b l e 17.2.
f a i l u r e e v e n t s m a y i n i t i a t e a r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ( E ) w i t h a f e e d b a c k o n risk Risk acceptance m e a n s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e i s a c c e p t a b l e a n d t h e r e i s n o r e a s o n t o
assessment and inspection practice. take a n yspecial action. N o change is planned i n the present maintenance practice.
Increasing risk m a y m e a n that the present status is t o ogood and there is a potential
for e c o n o m i c g a i n t h r o u g h less p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e a n d a l l o w i n g g r e a t e r r i s k . C o s t s
17.3.9 D a t a base
c a n b e s a v e d b y b u i l d i n g less r o b u s t l i n e s i n t h e f u t u r e o r b y less m a i n t e n a n c e o n t h e
A n i n v e n t o r y o f t h e l i n e c o m p o n e n t s o r line data base i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e q u a n t i f i c a t i o n e x i s t i n g lines. Increased risk m a y also occur i f o v e r h e a d lines are u p r a t e d w i t h o u t also
of the management options as well as the organization o f daily maintenance. T h e data b e i n g u p g r a d e d . T h e e f f e c t s o f risk increase o n p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s , p r o b a b i l i t y o f
base is a source o f i n f o r m a t i o n about: failure a n d consequence o f f a i l u r e can b e seen i n T a b l e 17.2.
700 17Commissioning, operation and line management 17.3 Asset m a n a g e m e n t 701

T a b l e 1 7 . 4 : R i s k a n d cost calculation i n E U R
T r a n s m i s s i o n line Number of Annual Annual loss Risk Annual Annual Risk Total
Voltage 11 n K V failed probability (EUR) ( E U R ) probability loss (EUR)
Length 10 km towers or of tower of insulator (EUR)
Number of towers 50 insulators failures failures
Number of insulators 168 System risk
Resistance of conductor 0,5 Q/phase 0 0,99501223 0 0,00 0,966954961 0 0,00
Number of crossings 1 1 0,00497556 9 600 000 47 765,36 0,032496186 200 000 6499,24
Load 2 l,21913E-05 19 200000 234,07 0,000542795 400 000 217,12
Continuous load for 8 700 hours/year 100 MW 3 l,95008E-08 28 800 000 0,56 6.00813E-06 600 000 3,60
Load can be supplied from medium voltage in emergency 60 MW 4 2,29243E-11 38 400 000 0,00 4.9577E-08 800 000 0,04
Loss of load (penalties to be paid for) 40 MW 5 2,10925E-14 48 000 000 0,00 3.2529E-10 . 1000000 0,00
6 1,58209E-17 57 600 000 0,00 1.76776E-12 1 200 000 0,00
A n n u a l p r o b a b i l i t y of failures o f a n e l e m e n t
7 9.94558E-21 67 200 000 0,00 8,18386E-15 1400000 0,00
Failure of a single tower (times per year) 0,0001
al risk 48 000,00 6 720,00 54 720
Failure of a single insulator (times per year) 0,0002
T i m e of repair Line risk
0 0,99501223 0 0,00 0,966954961 0 0,00
Tower failure 240 hoars
Insulator failure 1 0,004975559 20 000 99,51 0,032496186 1500 48,74
5 hours
2 l,21913E-05 40 000 0,49 0,000542795 3 000 1,63
C o s t s , p e n a l t i e s a n d losses
Subtotal 100,00 50,40 150
Management and headquarters costs 10 000 EUR/year
Risk at crossing
Penalty for not delivering energy 1000 EUR/MWh
0,00019999 100 000 000 19 999,00 0,0011994 100 000 000 119 940,00
Cost of losses 25 EUR/MWh
Line risk 20 099,00 119 990,40 140 089
Cost of tower repair 20 000 EUR
Total risk 68 099,00 126 710,40 194 809
Cost of changing failed insulator 1500 EUR
Cost of doubling insulator 1000 EUR Costs
Management and headquarters 10000
Principal costs for human injuries and damage at railway • 100 000 000 EUR
Cost of upgrading with higher reliability insulators Losses 90 089
700 EUR
Cost of one emergency tower Total planned annual costs 100 089
20 000 EUR
Cost of a new line 1000 000 EUR Total risk plus cost 294 898

17.3.11 E x a m p l e on management of risk of failure I = 1 0 0 • 1 0 6 / ( 1 K ) • 1 0 3 • v/3) = 5 2 5 A . T h e e n e r g y loss is 3 • 5 2 5 2 • 0 , 5 = 0,413 M W , t h e y e a r l y

17.3.11.1 Basic data
A 10k m l o n g 110 k V r a d i a l t r a n s m i s s i o n line has 5 0t o w e r s , 168 l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s , 4 4 suspen-
s i o n a n d 6 t e n s i o n t o w e r s . Resistance o f c o n d u c t o r is 0,5 f i / p h a s e . T h e r e i s one r a i l w a y crossing.
T h e load is c o n t i n u o u s l y 100 M W . I f t h e line failed, 6 0 M W could b e supplied f r o m t h e m e d i u m
voltage n e t w o r k b u t 4 0 M W load w o u l d n o t b e covered. T h e basic d a t a can b e seen i n T a b l e
17.3.
17.3.11.2 C a l c u l a t i o n of p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s a n d r i s k s
T h e failures are supposed t o b e independent f r o m each o t h e r a n d t h e t i m e o frepair is negligible.
T h e probability P I > n o f occurrence o f t h e event t h a t x elements w i l l fail f r o m n elements w h e n
p isthe failure probability for a n individual element is obtained f r o m
(17.16)
x\(n — x)\
T h e results o f risk a n d cost c a l c u l a t i o n are presented i nT a b l e 17.4.
T h e loss i n case o f a t o w e r f a i l u r e i s 2 4 0 h o u r s • 4 0 M W • 1 0 0 0 E U R / M W h = 9 6 0 0 0 0 0 E U R .
T h e loss i n case o f a n i n s u l a t o r f a i l u r e i s 5 h o u r s • 4 0 M W - 1 0 0 0 E U R / M W h = 2 0 0 0 0 0 E U R .
R i s k s a r e c a l c u l a t e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g a n n u a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s a n d a n n u a l losses (see T a b l e 17.4).
S y s t e m risk o f tower failures is48 000 E U R , system risk o f insulator failure is6 720 E U R i no n e
year. T h e line risk comprises t h e costs connected t o repair.
T h e risk connected t o the r a i l w a y crossing i s separately presented. P r o b a b i l i t y o f failure o f one
or m o r e t o w e r s a n d i n s u l a t o r s is calculated as previously. P r i n c i p a l losses a r e k n o w n f r o m basic
data. R i s k o f t o w e r failure is 1 9 9 9 9 E U R , risk o f i n s u l a t o r failure i s 119 940 E U R i n a year.
O t h e r costs are m a n a g e m e n t a n d h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d energy losses, b e i n g 1 0 0 0 0 E U R i n o n e
year. E n e r g y loss i s calculated f r o m t h e l o a d , t h e v o l t a g e a n d t h e resistance. T h e c u r r e n t i s
loss 8 7 0 0 • 0 , 4 1 3 = 3 6 0 0 M W , i t s v a l u e i s 9 0 0 8 9 E U R i n o n e y e a r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p l a n n e d
a n n u a l costs are 1 0 0 0 8 9 E U R . T h e v a l u e o f a l l costs a n d risks i s 294 898 E U R i n one year.
17.3.11.3 Management options a n d assessment
The options examined i n this example are
- D o n o t h i n g b u t follow present maintenance activities (1).
- Selectively upgrade b y doubling insulators a t t h e railway crossing (2).
- U p g r a d e b y c h a n g i n g a l l i n s u l a t o r s t o a m o r e r e l i a b l e d e s i g n h a v i n g a 5 t i m e s less p r o b -
ability o f failure (3).
- Fast restoration o f a tower failure w i t h emergency towers (4).
- S y s t e m development b y installing a second transmission line (5).
- C o m b i n e d action b y doubling insulators a t crossing a n d b u y i n g emergency towers (6).
T h e expenses o f these activities i n year 0 can b e seen i n T a b l e 17.5. T h e costs o f t h e following
years will b e d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e activities i n year 0 . I t is supposed t h a t inflation is zero and
there is n o change i n the conditions o fthe line o r i n the system. 5, 10 and 2 0 years are taken
into consideration. T h e discount r a t e is 5 % i n t h e w h o l e period. T h e costs are as follows:
- D o n o t h i n g c o l u m n i s t h e collection o f n u m b e r s f r o m T a b l e 17.4. N e t present value for
20 years is 3675 089 E U R .
- Selective u p g r a d i n g b y doubling insulators a tr a i l w a y crossing w i l l decrease local risks
at t h e crossing. I t is supposed t h a t failures i n a double chain a r eindependent f r o m
each other. T h e r e i s a n additional advantage b y reducing system risk, however, this is
neglected. S o t h e s u m o f costs a n d risks is a b o u t 174982 E U R . N e t present value for 2 0
years is 2 1 8 6 6 7 0 E U R .
- U p g r a d i n g insulators w i l l decrease s y s t e m risk caused b y t h e insulators. S y s t e m risks and
c r o s s i n g r i s k s c a u s e d b y i n s u l a t o r s a r e 5 t i m e s less t h a n p r e v i o u s l y . N e t p r e s e n t v a l u e i s
2529415 E U R .
 I \J£J J . i \D\j±L±±±±±wi\Ji-ia.±±£, u p c i a i j i u i i a n a Line i l l collage i l l C1J.L I i .i M a i n t e n a n c e /uJ

T a b l e 17.5: Options and evaluation Maintenance comprises

Option - Inspection;
Do nothing Selective Upgrade Fast System Combined - Servicing;
upgrade restor- develop- action - Repair.
at ion ment
Inspection m e a n s t h ea s c e r t a i n m e n t a n d o b j e c t i v e o f t h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f assets,
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
comprising:
Absolute Change in E U R compared to "do nothing"
EUR - P r e p a r a t i o n o fi n s p e c t i o n i m p l e m e n t a t i o n .
Investment at beginning 000 11 11 17 firm
ouu on non 1l UUU
nnfl onn on UUU
nun - I m p l e m e n t a t i o no ft h e inspection, m a i n l y t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e recording o f parameters
LU uuu UUU Zo
System risk of tower no uuu o
u 0 -38 400 -48 000 -38400
defined i nt h e p l a n a n d t h e assessment b ym e a n s o fcomponent-specific criteria.
System risk of insulator 6 720 o -5 367 0 -6 720 nu - R e v i e w i n g o fthe inspection results.
Local risk of tower 100 0 0 0 100 0 - Q u a l i t a t i v e assessment o f t h e i n s p e c t i o n r e s u l t s t odefine t h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n .
Local risk of insulator 50 0 -40 0 50 0
- Decision o n measures based o n the maintenance strategies.
Local risk of tower/crossing 19 999 0 0 0 0 0
Local risk of insulator/crossing 119 940 -119 916 -95 952 0 -119916
- Documentation o f inspection.
Planned annual costs Service a c t i v i t i e s , i n g e n e r a l , a r e m e a s u r e s a i m i n g a t k e e p i n g t h e f u n c t i o n o f c o m p o -
Management 10000 0 0 0 10000 0 nents, w h i c h d o not concern t h e p l a n n i n g strategy. Servicing is n o t required for overhead
Energy loss 90 089 0 0 0 -45 044 0 power lines.
Sum of changes compared Repairs c o m p r i s e m e a s u r e s a i m i n g a t t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e d e s i r e d c o n d i t i o n o f c o m -
to "do nothing" 0 -119 916 -101368 38 400 -89 614 -158 316 ponents, w h i c h a r et ob e coordinated w i t h t h em a n a g e m e n t options. These measures
Annual costs and risks 294 898 174 982 193 530 256 498 205 284 136 582 comprise:
Net present value (20 years) 3 675 089 2186 670 2 529 415 3 216 540 3 556 566 1728122
- D e f i n i t i o n o ft h e c o n t e n t o f w o r k t ob e p e r f o r m e d , t e n d e r i n g a n d c o n t r a c t i n g .
Net present value (10 years) 2 277129 1357 169 1611989 2 000 614 2 584133 1080 654
Net present value ( 5 years) 1 276 756 763 583 955 485 1 130 504 1 888 266 617 331
- P r e p a r a t i o n o fi m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e m e a s u r e : C o s t e v a l u a t i o n , t i m e scheduling,
coordination w i t h external and internal parties concerned, assignment o f in-house
a n d / o r e x t e r n a l p e r s o n n e l a n dm a t e r i a l , a n dp r e p a r a t i o n o f measures.
- F a s t r e s t o r a t i o n w i l l decrease system risk o f t o w e r failure f r o m 4 8 0 0 0 t o 9 6 0 0 E U R - Documentation o f measures.
because t i m e w i l l decrease f r o m 2 4 0t o 4 8 h o u r s . N e t present value is 3 216 540 E U R . - F i n a l assessment a n dcost accounting.
- S y s t e m development w i t h a second transmission line will d i m i n i s h system risks practically.
T o achieve t h etargets o f inspections a n drepairs, experienced a n dskilful l i n e m e n are
I t w i l l decrease e n e r g y losses t o t h e h a l f o f t h e o r i g i n a l v a l u e . M a n a g e m e n t costs a n d local
risk c o s t s o f r e p a i r w i l l b e d o u b l e d . I t i s s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e r e i s n o c r o s s i n g t h r o u g h t h i s necessary, w h ohave a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o ff u n c t i o n a n dt h edesign criteria o f supports,
line a t a l l . N e t present value f o r2 0years is 3 5 5 6 5 6 6 E U R . conductors, insulators a n dother components. T h e y should b e able t o i m m e d i a t e l y
- C o m b i n e d action is t h e combination o f insulator doubling a t crossing a n d emergency recognize a n yd e v i a t i o n s f r o m t h edesired c o n d i t i o n like b r o k e n strands o rinsulators,
tower utilization. T h i s is a reasonable action because these risks a r e independent a n d missing bolts o r components.
these are t h e greatest risks. N e t present value f o r2 0 years is 1728 121 E U R . T h e necessity o fperiodical maintenance o felectric t r a n s m i s s i o n a n dd i s t r i b u t i o n net-
A l l t h e actions seem reasonable f o r t h e long r u n . However, t h e2 0years n e t present value o f w o r k s d o e s n o t o n l y r e s u l t from e n g i n e e r i n g a n d e c o n o m i c r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n m a n y c o u n -
s y s t e m d e v e l o p m e n t is v e r y close t o t h a t o f t h e s a m e p e r i o d w i t h n o a c t i o n a n d i t s 5 years v a l u e
t r i e s , a r e g u l a r i t y framework f o r t h e e n e r g y s e c t o r c o m p r i s i n g a s e r i e s o f l a w s e x i s t s from
is m u c h h i g h e r . A s c i r c u m s t a n c e s m a y c h a n g e i n t h e f u t u r e , t h i s a c t i o n s e e m s t o b e a r a t h e r
risky investment. T h e combined action is the best solution f o rthe long t e r m and f o rthe short which the maintenance requirements c a nb e derived.
r u n as well. R i s k s c a n b e decreased substantially w i t h o u t huge i n v e s t m e n t .
17.4.2 Inspection

17.4 Maintenance 17.4.2.1 R e a s o n s a n d p r o c e d u r e s for i n s p e c t i o n s

17.4.1 Introduction U t i l i t i e s o r l i n e o w n e r s u s u a l l y h a v e a n e s t a b l i s h e d maintenance inspection program

conducted a t defined frequencies. Aerial inspection b y helicopter should b e supple-
E f f e c t i v e maintenance of a system i s a s e s s e n t i a l t o s u p e r i o r s e r v i c e a s i s e x c e l l e n t e n g i - m e n t e d w i t h g r o u n d inspection, a swell a sw i t h c l i m b i n g inspection p r o g r a m s t o check
neering design. I nfact, a well designed s y s t e m m a y fall short o f its service requirements the structures and other components.
o w i n g t o f a u l t y m a i n t e n a n c e . A s i d e from s w i t c h i n g l i n e s p r o m p t l y t o m e e t l o a d c o n - U n d e r a broad classification, inspections c a n b epreventive o rcorrective, t h e former o n e
ditions o f t h e s y s t e m , m a i n t e n a n c e consists n o t o n l y i nr e s t o r i n g service i m m e d i a t e l y b e i n g considered a s t h em o s t i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e t h eobjective o f assessing
after a n i n t e r r u p t i o n , b u t also i np r e d i c t i n g , detecting, r e m o v i n g a n dreplacing faulty the conditions o fe q u i p m e n t a n do fdetecting problems a t a n initial phase; thus, i t is
components, thus actually preventing t h edevelopment o ffaults o r l o n g - t e r m outages. possible t oprovide f o rt h e correction o r replacement o ffaulty components before they
T h e power utility o r t h eline owner is,therefore, also concerned about preserving t h e cause m a j o r d a m a g e o r longer outages t ot h e lines.
integrity o f t h e line c o m p o n e n t s d u r i n g t h e life o f t h e line, especially i n a m a r k e t - d r i v e n S o , periodic inspections a r e n o r m a l l y p r o g r a m m e d f o r all lines, w i t h the frequency of
electricity i n d u s t r y [17.42]. inspections depending o nt h e terrain traversed, t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e s (metallic, concrete
A c c o r d i n g t o D I N 3 1 0 5 1 [ 1 7 . 4 3 ] , t h e t e r m maintenance describes measures a i m i n ga t or w o o d ) , line age, l i n e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d i m p o r t a n c e . I ns o m e densely settled areas,
the preservation a n d / o r r e s t o r a t i o n o ft h e desired c o n d i t i o n a n da tt h e ascertainment m o r e frequent p a t r o l s m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y , w h e r e a s i m p o r t a n t l i n e s i n r e m o t e
a n d assessment o ft h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e engineering c o m p o n e n t s o fa system. a r e a s d o n o t r e q u i r e i n s p e c t i o n m o r e t h a n o n c e a y e a r . Corrective o r special inspections
704 17 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 705

Routine inspections (RI) a r e visual inspections carried o u t along t h e lines, w i t h o u t

T a b l e 17.6: I n s p e c t i o n p r o g r a m d e p e n d i n g o n s u p p o r t m a t e r i a l , e x a m p l e f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a
compulsory climbing the structures. Such inspections areperformed using binoculars
Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 'i 10 11
for verifying t h e high parts o f the structures, conductors and e a r t h wires. T h i s type o f
Wood SI1 Ri+PI PI RJ RI+PI RI+SI3 LI+RI RI+PI RI RI PI+SI2
inspection c a n b e carried out efficiently w i t h helicopters, f r o m w h i c h the detection o f
Metallic SI1 RI PI - RI PI+SI3 PI RI CI RI+SI2
Concrete
failures b e c o m e s m u c h easier. L o c a l patrols c o m e a f t e r w a r d s t odefective spots identified
SI1 RI PI - RI PI+SI3 PI RI CI RI+SI2
by t h e helicopter crew. C l i m b i n g m i g h t b e necessary for a local a n d careful verification.
SI1 Inspection by commissioning crew; SI2 Inspection of conductors and earth wires; R I Routine
R o u t i n e inspections usually have a n a n n u a l frequency f o rlines w i t h w o o d structures,
inspection; P I Preventive inspection; SI3 Inspection of earthing system; L I Tower leg inspection; C I
Corrosion inspection. and a triennial frequency, starting i nt h e second year o f line operation, f o r lines w i t h
metallic o r concrete structures.
Tower leg inspections (LI) a r e u s u a l l y p e r f o r m e d i n lines w i t h w o o d s t r u c t u r e s , w i t h
s h o u l d b e carried o u tafter heavy s t o r m s o r other events p r o b a b l y h a v i n g affected a n
excavations a r o u n d t h e poles a n d a preservative t r e a t m e n t o f affected areas. T h i s i n -
overhead power line.
spection is carried out every eight t o t e n years continued w i t h routine inspections.
Patrols m a y cover the line o n foot, o n horseback, b y motorcycle, b y a u t o m o b i l e o r b y
Corrosion inspections (CI) a r e s a m p l i n g i n s p e c t i o n s , p e r f o r m e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e c o r r o -
helicopter, depending u p o n the characteristics o f the right-of-way. Close and accurate
s i o n s t a t e a t grillages o r legs o f steel s t r u c t u r e s . I t s f r e q u e n c y d e p e n d s o n t h e e x t e n t
p a t r o l l i n g isn o t o b t a i n e d b y one person i n a na u t o m o b i l e , i n general, e v e n w h e n t h e line
of corrosion that h a s been detected a t a line. A f t e r the tenth year o f operation, about
follows a highway. Helicopter p a t r o l is b y far t h e best over m o u n t a i n o u s a n d sparsely
10 % o f t h e steel structures s h o u l d b e inspected a n n u a l l y . I f corrosion is detected, t h e
settled terrain. A n efficiency o fu p t o 300 k m a d a y can b e covered readily. T h e helicopter
remaining structures should be examined as well.
c a n fly a s s l o w l y a n d a s c l o s e t o t h e l i n e a s n e c e s s a r y , a n d i t h a s t h e g r e a t a d v a n t a g e
Special inspections (SI)
that the patroller is looking d o w n o n the line instead o f u p against t h e bright sky as
— A p p r o v a l i n s p e c t i o n s (SI1) p e r f o r m e d b y t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g c r e w a f t e r t h e
background. T o w e r a n dwood-pole structure numbers should b e fastened t o the tops
of t h e s u p p o r t s i nsuch a m a n n e r t h a t t h e y c a nb e r e a d w i t h o u t t r o u b l e b y t h e person completion o f line construction o r its upgrading and/or uprating.
i n t h e h e l i c o p t e r . Helicopter patrol c a n n o t b e u s e d o v e r u r b a n o r c o n g e s t e d i n d u s t r i a l — I n s p e c t i o n s o f c o n d u c t o r s (SI2) a n d e a r t h w i r e s i s a n a p e r i o d i c i n s p e c t i o n
a r e a s b e c a u s e o f r e s t r i c t i o n s o n h e i g h t o f flight. P a t r o l s o n f o o t a r e b e s t i n s u c h a r e a s . t o verify t h e existence o f v i b r a t i o n problems, fatigue signs, damages near spacers
Horseback p a t r o l are nowadays r a r e l y used b u t t h e y can b e best i n cattle-range terrain, etc. I t s frequency depends chiefly o n t h e past occurrences o f conductor d a m a g e s
if aerial p a t r o l isn o t available. M o t o r c y c l e p a t r o l s have h a d g r o w i n g use i n r o u g h t e r r a i n d u e t o v i b r a t i o n s , p o l l u t i o n etc.
instead o f horseback o r a u t o m o b i l e patrols, because t h e y are faster, m o r e efficient a n d — E a r t h i n g s y s t e m i n s p e c t i o n (SI3) c o m p r i s e s c h e c k i n g t h e s t a t e o f c o u n t e r -
less costly. poise a n d o t h e r e a r t h i n g schemes, m e a s u r i n g e a r t h resistance etc. E x c a v a t i o n f o r
checking the earthing rods o r counterpoises m a y b e required.
L a n d s l i d e s , w a s h o u t s , loose t i m b e r o r a n y t h i n g else s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d a s a p o t e n t i a l
— I n s p e c t i o n s t h r o u g h e l e c t r o n i c s y s t e m s a r e b a s e d o n e l e c t r i c a l field d i s t o r -
danger t o t h e line, such as piles o f b r u s h , s t r a w o r sugarcane p l a n t s w h i c h , i f b u r n e d ,
tions caused b y defective components under voltage, such as t h e so called " C o r o n a
c o u l d c a u s e h o t g a s e s t o flashover t h e l i n e . O f c o u r s e , t h e p e r s o n s o n p a t r o l s h o u l d
S y s t e m " a n d t h e " N e t S p y S y s t e m " [17.44]. I t operates as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e elec-
c l o s e l y l o o k o u t f o r d a m a g e d c o n d u c t o r s , i n s u l a t o r s , fittings a n d s t r u c t u r e s .
Emergency crews are stationed a t locations always available b y telephone o r radio so t r i c a l field e m i t t e d b y e n e r g i z e d p a r t s a n d i t s e v e n t u a l d i s t o r t i o n b y a f a i l e d
that every i m p o r t a n t section o f the transmission line c a nb e reached b y a crew w i t h i n component. I t doesn't require load b u to n l y t h a t t h e r a t e d voltage b e applied.
a reasonable short period o f t i m e . Depending o n t h e distances, s m a l l storage houses S o m e u t i l i t i e s c o n s i d e r i t a s q u i t e e f f i c i e n t f o r d e t e c t i n g insulation flaws ( s h i v e r s
containing spare parts, such as insulators, lengths o f conductors a n dcables, clamps, i n t h e glass skirts, defects i nt h e pins, shells), b a d j o i n t s , scratches o n conductor
repair sleeves etc. s h o u l d b e located a t i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d accessible p o i n t s a l o n g t h e line s u r f a c e s , broken strands i n t h e c o n d u c t o r s , l o o s e d a m p e r s o r s p a c e r s .
in sparsely settled regions. — T h e r m o g r a p h i c o r i n f r a - r e d p r o c e s s ( t h e r m o v i s i o n ) operates as a func-
tion o f t h e temperature o f the inspected components. Some manufacturers have
equipment that directly indicate t h e temperature. T h i s process requires a con-
17.4.2.2 Inspection classification a n d frequency
d u c t o r l o a d o f a t least 6 0 % o f t h e full load. I n such case i t detects overheating
Following S o u t h - A m e r i c a n practice, t h e m a i n types o f inspections a n d their frequencies problems. I t i s a f f e c t e d b y s o l a r r a d i a t i o n a n d i n s e v e r a l c a s e s a h i g h i n t e n s e l e v e l
are i l l u s t r a t e di nT a b l e 17.6 c o m p r i s i n g m a i n l y : of r a d i a t i o n forces t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n o f t h e inspections.
Preventive inspections (PI) a r e c a r r i e d o u t a t a l l s t r u c t u r e s o f a l i n e a n d c o m p r i s e I n T a b l e 17.6, a n illustrative e x a m p l e i s s h o w n o f t h e frequency o f different i n s p e c t i o n
basically the climbing a t the structures t o p e r f o r m the following activities: types according t o the practice i na utility. S o m e particularitiess h o w n i nthe example
- Verification o f loose o r missing bolts and their tightening, fatigue o r w e a t h e r i n g are f o rinstance: W o o d pole lines should b e s u b m i t t e d t o preventive inspection m u c h
p r o b l e m s , d a m a g e t o m e m b e r s o r b o l t finish; v e r t i c a l i t y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s ; g u y m o r e frequently t h a n concrete poles o r m e t a l l i c structures. I t isr e c o m m e n d e d t o s u b m i t
w i r e t e n s i o n s etc. concrete and metallic structures t o a corrosion inspection after 10 years o f operation.
— Vandalism i n c l u d i n g i n s u l a t o r s , h a r d w a r e o r c o n d u c t o r d a m a g e a n d c o l l i s i o n d a m - A special e a r t h i n g s y s t e m inspection is proceeded i nlines h a v i n g metallic o r concrete
age, signs o fv i b r a t i o n d a m a g e a t c o n d u c t o r s , h a r d w a r e o r i n s u l a t o r m e t a l l i c p a r t s , supports after 5 years o f operation. Conductors a n d earth wires should be inspected
w e a r o f fittings. T h i s k i n d o f i n s p e c t i o n h a s u s u a l l y a b i e n n i a l o r q u a d r e n n i a l f r e - closely after 10 years.
quency after t h e second year o ft h e start o f line o p e r a t i o n for w o o d - p o l e structures, Utilities i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e carry o u t inspections b y a i ro r b y patrolling along t h e
and quadrennial frequency after the third year for lines w i t h metallic o r concrete lines. A i r inspection b y helicopter is carried o u t a p p r o x i m a t e l y once a year. G o o d
structures. flying w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e a p r e c o n d i t i o n . T h e a v e r a g e flying s p e e d i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y

2 0 k m / h a n d n o r m a l l y i n c l u d e s a s h o r t s t o p a t e v e r y t o w e r . T h e flight c r e w c o n s i s t s o f
two staff members having knowledge o n the topography and right-of-way. E v e r y line
i s flown a l o n g i n j u s t o n e d i r e c t i o n . I f t h e r e a r e m o r e t h a n t w o c i r c u i t s p e r t o w e r , t h e
circuits are shared o u t a m o n g the crew a n d inspected. I n the next year, the same line
i s flown a l o n g o n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e t o w e r s .
Patrolling inspections o fthe line route and checking o f the line b y binoculars, basically
w i t h o u t c l i m b i n g t h e t o w e r s , is c a r r i e d o u t o n c e a y e a r o n a n average, a sw e l l . E s p e c i a l l y
the f o l l o w i n g issues are t o b e p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o :
— Vegetation along the route; climbing o fthe towers m i g h t b eadvantageous t o
assess t h e h e i g h t o f v e g e t a t i o n ;
— B u i l d i n g activities w i t h i n r i g h t - o f - w a y adong t h e r o u t e a n d i n t h e v i c i n i t y ;
— Foundations;
— Tower structures:
— S u s p e n s i o n a n d dead-end i n s u l a t o r sets;
— T i l t e d bundles, loose o r damaged bundle spacers;
— Conductors, earth wires and O P G W .
Independent o f a n n u a l inspections, in-depth inspections are carried out approximately
every t e n years comprising:
— T o w e r sites a n d foundations;
— C l i m b i n g o ftowers i n order t o ascertain c o n d i t i o n o f crossarms, corrosion, i n -
sulators and fittings, suspensions, line conductors, e a r t h wires, optical ground
wires.
The findings o f t h e inspections are d o c u m e n t e d i n s t a n d a r d i z e d f o r m a t s [17.45].
A d d i t i o n a l inspections combined w i t h tests are performed o n a condition-oriented o r
r a n d o m s a m p l e basis, e i t h e r a s a result o f r e g u l a r i n s p e c t i o n s h o w i n g specific s h o r t -
comings o r o noccasion o f special events, e. g.e x t r e m e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s o r l i g h t n i n g
strokes.
17.4.2.3 Foundations and stubs
For the m a j o r i t y o f foundations, constructed using appropriate m a t e r i a l s a n d installa-
tion workmanship, there are n o significant modes o f degradation. Poor workmanship
a n d design deficiency however, give rise t op o t e n t i a l l y serious problems. U p l i f t failures,
where the foundation body remains in the ground, can occur if the stub is insufficiently
encased i n t h e b o d y o r the cleating isinadequate. Corrosion o f t h e tower steel stub can
occur w h e n moisture and oxygen are present.
The m a i n factors, w h i c h affect t h e r a t e a tw h i c h t h e t o w e r s t u b c a n corrode, are:
— F o u n d a t i o n construction quality - c o n t i n u i t y o f concrete, interface quality, con-
crete thickness;
— S o i l types - clay, a l l u v i a l soils are w o r s t d u e t o w a t e r r e t e n t i o n ;
— G r o u n d - w a t e r levels a n d frequency o f change i n level.
Inspection of foundations i sdescribed i n d e t a i l i n [17.46]. T h e r e i sn o general applicable
strategy a n d m e t h o d for foundation inspection due t o the heterogeneous n a t u r e o f the
soil, changing e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions causing p o t e n t i a l degradation o f foundations,
w i d e reliability i n t h e q u a l i t y o fc o n s t r u c t i o n a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l n u m b e r o f different
types o ffoundations available. Therefore, a n appropriate inspection strategy should b e
selected b y t h e line o p e r a t o r considering t h e i n d i v i d u a l conditions.
A c c o r d i n g t o [17.46], t h e i n s p e c t i o n c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t o n f o u r levels.
L e v e l 1 inspections are m a i n l y o f t h e v i s u a l n a t u r e a n d designed t o f o r m a basis f o r
m o r e c o m p l e x inspections. T h i s t y p e o fi n s p e c t i o n i scarried o u t o n a i l f o u n d a t i o n s
under consideration and is normally part o f a complete inspection o f a transmission
line. I t should establish t h e type o f f o u n d a t i o n , s o far as n o t exactly k n o w n , d e t e r m i -
— . - J. L T U U i l i C U O l i L C I \J I
n a t i o n o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g l a n d use a n d vegetation, profile o f t h e t e r r a i n s u r r o u n d i n g
the f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e soil cover, present p o l l u t i o n , surface conditions shortcomings
i n concrete m a k i n g , d a m a g e d edges, gaps b e t w e e n tower s t u b steel w o r k i n concrete,
corrosion o f f o u n d a t i o n steel parts, previous modifications o r repairs. T h e m a i n object
is t o i d e n t i f y t h o s e f o u n d a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g m o r e d e t a i l e d i n s p e c t i o n s .
Level 2 inspections a i m a t identifying f o u n d a t i o n types, extent o f deterioration,r e -
establishing o f geotechnical parameters. T h e evaluation o f level 2 inspections should
i n d i c a t e t h o s e f o u n d a t i o n s , w h e r e refurbishment o r upgrading m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y .
T h e m a i n a i m o f level 3 inspection is t oprovide t h e data for d e t e r m i n i n g the geotech-
nical strength o fthe foundation and the degree o fdeterioration o f individual elements
i n o r d e r t o p l a n r e f u r b i s h m e n t . P a p e r [17.47] describes a n e x a m p l e for t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n
o f p a d a n d c h i m n e y f o u n d a t i o n s . I n case o f grillage f o u n d a t i o n s , excavations s h o u l d b e
m a d e until the water level, i f any, t o verify the existence o f corroded coatings. W h e r e
the corrosion infringes the strength o f the grillage, the change o f the grillage w o u l d b e
necessary. Since this i s a r o u g h a n d onerous w o r k n o t w o r t h w h i l e t ob e carried o u t , t h e
replacement o f the grillage b y a concrete footing should b e considered instead.
A t level 4 i n s p e c t i o n , i n [17.46] f u l l scale t e s t i n g o f e x i s t i n g f o u n d a t i o n s is r e c o m m e n d e d
to d e t e r m i n e the load capacity, i n a d d i t i o n t o inspections as per level 3.
17.4.2.4 Supports including corrosion protection
T h e m a i n factors, w h i c h affect t h e r a t e a n d onset o fsteel corrosion, c a n b e categorised
i n t o effects caused b y e n v i r o n m e n t s u c h a s p r e v a l e n t w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , c l i m a t e , fer-
tilisers a n d p o l l u t i o n levels a n d effects b y s h o r t c o m i n g s o fp r o t e c t i o n s u c h a s w o r k m a n -
ship a n d coating policy.
I n most circumstances] it will b e a combination of t w o o rmore factors causing corrosion.
A n y c o m b i n a t i o n o f the above factors will lead t o a variety o f support steel conditions.
I f t h e first c o a t i n g i s d e l a y e d u n t i l s i g n i f i c a n t l o s s o f g a l v a n i z i n g h a s o c c u r r e d a n d t h e
steelwork has become corroded, extensive p r e p a r a t i o n m a y b erequired before coat-
ing. T h i s w o r k m a y involve grit b l a s t i n g o r replacement o fc e r t a i n tower m e m b e r s .
Inevitably, this w i l l reduce t h e overall life o f supports. M o s t s u p p o r t s are constructed
using galvanized steel members, w h i c h m a y b e coated prior t oerection o r coated some
time after erection.
D u r i n g support inspection, t h e f o l l o w i n g v e r i f i c a t i o n s s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t regarding
the state o f metallic supports:
— Loose o r lacking bolts;
— Existence o fb i r d nests o r bee hives;
— Loose o r unattached guy wires o fguyed towers;
— C o r r o s i o n vestiges a t t h e g u y anchors a n d anchor rods;
— Loose o r lacking stepbolts;
— F i n i s h state o f coatings; measuring o f paint and galvanizing thickness;
— Torsion a t the structures;
— Deformation o f members.
T h e strength of concrete o r o f steel structures i s a f f e c t e d b y v a r i o u s o f t h e a b o v e m e n -
tioned parameters, beside the ageing o r defects o f the steel o r concrete as well asb y
corrosion o f t h e steel grillage f o u n d a t i o n s o r o f t h e r e i n f o r c i n g steel i n case o f concrete
s t r u c t u r e s [17.47].
I n non-aggressive e n v i r o n m e n t , experience has s h o w n t h a t galvanized a n d coated steel
structures and steel foundations are resistant t o corrosion after being m a n y years i n
service. However, i n i n d u s t r i a l areas, especially near chemical industries, several pre-
m a t u r e corrosion problems have been detected i n t h e super-structure, depending also
o n the frequency o fcorrective coating. T h e necessity o f coating refurbishment depends
708 17Commissioning, operation and line management
on the condition o f a line i n total and its residual life time. E .g. a line w h i c h will b e
decommissioned i n some years needs not t ob e coated a l t h o u g h being i n bad condition.
I aggressive soils, steel f o u n d a t i o n s o rsteel c o m p o n e n t s o fconcrete f o u n d a t i o n s m a y b e
subject t o a n early corrosion attack.
R e g a r d i n g t h e tools employed for checking steel properties, hardness tests can b e easily
done o nsite. However, t h e execution o f laboratory analysis i n samples t a k e n f r o m the
steel o r concrete is m o r e recommended.
C o r r o s i o n a n d c o n n e c t i o n p r o b l e m s a r e s t i l l b e t t e r d e t e c t e d b y visual inspection. Since
c o r r o s i o n does n o t a t t a c k a s u p p o r t u n i f o r m l y , t h e r e a r edifficulties t o assess t h e i r
s t r e n g t h b a s e d o n spot checks. P a p e r [17.45] s u m m a r i z e s experience o n steel s t r u c t u r e
inspections.
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f visual inspection by climbing, e a c h s u p p o r t i s s u b d i v i d e d i n t o z o n e s
according t o t h e height a n d design o f t h e s u p p o r t . S t e e l w o r k c o n d i t i o n is assessed
against standard photographs showing steelwork a t various stages o f deterioration.
E a c h zone ist h e n given a score accordingly.
Thickness measurement o f n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l p a i n t s (e. g . c h r o m i u m , c o p p e r , z i n c , etc.)
or plastic coatings o nsteel, can b e carried o u t b y means o f i n s t r u m e n t s using magnetic
induction. W i t h paint o r plastic coating, o r o n non-ferrous structures, measurements
are possible u s i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , w h i c h e m p l o y e d d y c u r r e n t s . T h i s technique can also
be used f o rt h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f ferrous a n d non-ferrous m e t a l coating o n steel. T h e
thickness o fprotective coatings a n d the i n d i v i d u a l layers can b ereliably measured using
a paint inspection gauge ( P I G ) , a l s o c a l l e d t h i c k n e s s c u t t e r .
Stay wires are subjected t o elongation due t o oscillations whilst under tension. These
oscillations result i n mechanical fatigue o f the wires, causing m i n o r separation o f the
strands and thus, a relaxation a n d / o r lengthening o f the cable, w h i c h c a nresult i n
m e c h a n i c a l d a m a g e t o t h e s u p p o r t . I t is, therefore, necessary t o v e r i f y t h e t e n s i o n o f
the stays o n a r e g u l a r basis a n d i n s o m e cases, t o c a r r y o u t r e t e n s i o n i n g .
M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e t e n s i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e d o n j a c k s fixed t o t h e s t a y s
anchorage devices allows simultaneous retensioning i f required.
M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e perpendicular effort required t o initiate a calibrated deflection
between t w o points enables calculation o f t h e corresponding tension i n t h e stay. T h e
e q u i p m e n t is light a n d easy t o operate.
Devices based o nmagnetic induction process record the v a r i a t i o n o fthe magnetic flux
at t h e defect locations o fstay wires. T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s are identified o n t h e signal records
a n d t h e n compared t o signals related t o typical defects o f various magnitudes due t o
corrosion o r broken strands.
17.4.2.5 Conductors
Inspection of conductors a i m s a t d e t e c t i n g b r o k e n s t r a n d s , l o o s e s p a c e r s , d e f e c t i v e j o i n t s
a n d clamps as well as spots showing increased corona.
T w o b a s i c e l e c t r o n i c t o o l s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r inspecting components o f h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r -
h e a d l i n e s : T h e first o n e r e q u i r e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f v o l t a g e t o t h e l i n e a n d u s e s t h e
d i s t o r t i o n c a u s e d b y s o m e f a u l t y c o m p o n e n t s o n t h e e l e c t r o n i c field p r o d u c e d b y t h e
conductors o r energized components o f the line. T h e second m e t h o d is based o n the
a p p l i c a t i o n o f c u r r e n t t o t h e l i n e a n d u s e s t h e temperature increase c a u s e d b y h e a t i n g
of joints o r any elements through which the current flows.
T h e first m e t h o d can b e used either for inspecting a line before t h e s t a r t - u p o f the
commercial operation a t the commissioning phase, as well as for r o u t i n e inspection.
S o m e s y s t e m s a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y k n o w n s u c h a s t h e corona system inspection o r t h e
net spy system [ 1 7 . 4 4 ] . S u c h e l e c t r o n i c e q u i p m e n t i s i n s t a l l e d i n a h e l i c o p t e r t h a t flies
at a safe distance t o t h e l i n e conductors, a t a m a x i m u m s p e e d o f a r o u n d 5 0 k m / h ,
17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 709
F i g u r e 1 7 . 4 : Spacer w i t h a loose grip connection
detected b y electronic equipment (Courtesy f r o m
G r i d Services G m b H , K a r l s r u h e , G e r m a n y )
e n o u g h t o d e t e c t a n y d i s t o r t i o n s i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field c a u s e d b y a n y e n e r g i z e d f a u l t y
c o m p o n e n t o f t h e l i n e . D e t e c t i o n o f a n o m a l i e s i n connectors, splices, j o i n t s , i n s u l a t o r s
etc. is possible.
A n o r m a l corona pattern is adjusted i n a noscillograph being part o f the equipment.
A n y distortion of the electrical field i s s h o w n t h r o u g h a c h a n g e i n t h e c o r o n a p a t t e r n .
A calibration carried o u t i nt h e l a b o r a t o r y forecasts different types o f distortions as
caused b y v a r i o u s f a u l t y c o m p o n e n t s . T h e f a u l t i n d i c a t i o n is a f t e r w a r d s a n a l y s e d i n t h e
o f f i c e . Corrective actions a r e t h e n p r o g r a m m e d . W h e n a n a p p a r e n t l y p r o m i n e n t f a i l u r e
i s d e t e c t e d , t h e h e l i c o p t e r c a n fly a r o u n d t h e p r o b a b l e d e f e c t i v e p o i n t t o p e r m i t a c l o s e r
spotting o fit.
T h e net spy system, d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e , b u t o p e r a t i n g d i g i t a l l y , e n a b l e s
to examine and analyse i n real t i m e f r o m t h e helicopter the surrounding electrical field
o f each h i g h - v o l t a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s t a r t i n g f r o m 10 k V , based o n h i g h - f r e q u e n c y dis-
t u r b a n c e s . S u c h d i s t u r b a n c e s a r e c a u s e d m a i n l y b y s p a r k s o r partial discharges, w h i c h
a r e o r i g i n a t e d f r o m l o c a l i n c r e a s e d i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h a t d e f e c t i v e
points. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t procedure complies w i t h the distances o f the visual control
m e t h o d a n d t h e flight s p e e d i s a t 5 0 k m / h m a x i m u m . High-frequency disturbances are
signalized t othe operator graphically and acoustically b ythe measurement equipment.
W h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s p o t s a d e f e c t i v e p o i n t , t h e flight i s i m m e d i a t e l y s t o p p e d a n d
the operator tries t o locate t h e source o f t h e disturbances f r o m t h e helicopter w i t h a
digital video camera. Likewise, the disturbance isdigitally recorded and the global po-
s i t i o n i n g s y s t e m d a t a i sentered. I f i t i sn o t possible t o localize t h e source i m m e d i a t e l y ,
a l a t e r m o r e exact a n a l y s i s o f t h e recorded s i g n a l i s p e r f o r m e d i n t h e office a n d i t i s
decided whether the point should b e submitted t o a more accurate control f r o m the
g r o u n d w i t h a telescope o r should b e checked live-line. A l l relevant defects are listed
i n a r e p o r t . I nF i g u r e 17.4 a p h o t o g r a p h o f a spacer d a m p e r i s s h o w n w i t h a loose
c o n n e c t i o n t h a t w a s spot b y t h i s s y s t e m , w h a t w o u l d n o t b e possible b y n a k e d eye.
I n m u l t i - c i r c u i t l i n e s , l o c a t i n g d e f e c t e d f a u l t s s e e m t o b e less effective, a c c o r d i n g t o
e x p e r i e n c e . T h e s y s t e m s b a s e d o n e l e c t r i c a l field m o n i t o r d i s t o r t i o n s p r o d u c e d b y b a d
connections, cracked insulators o r other abnormalities.
T h e thermal image test, a l s o c a l l e d thermovision, i s used for inspecting energized lines
to assess t h e c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h c a r r y t h e c u r r e n t . T h e test r e s u l t s are
reliable a n d reflect t h e actual condition.
Infra-red thermography allows the inspector t o see t h e r m a l patterns t h a t correspond
t o s e v e r e p r o b l e m s . N o r m a l c u r r e n t flow, f o r e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h a l o o s e o r c o r r o d e d
 / xu x i V x u m i m s s i u i i i i i g , u p e x a u u i i a x i u 1111c i i i a i i c x g c u i c i i t
connection, results i nelevated temperatures as a consequence o f increased electrical
resistance. Before the t e m p e r a t u r e is h i g h enough t o cause a damage o r a n outage,
the patterns can easily b e e x a m i n e d t h r o u g h a n infra-red i m a g i n g camera. Similarly,
a video camera converts t h e r m a l radiation into a visible picture. Surface temperature
d i f f e r e n c e s a s s m a l l a s 0,3° C c a n b e d i s p l a y e d i n b l a c k a n d w h i t e o r c o l o u r t e m p e r a t u r e
maps. Infra-red survey is not suitable t o detect conductor corrosion unless there is a
large n u m b e r o f broken strands i n the conductor.
T h e t h e r m a l i m a g e t e s t o p e r a t e s o n t h e flow o f c u r r e n t a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o v e r -
heating produced i f the connection isnot well executed. T h e t h e r m a l image inspection
requires a t least 5 0 t o 6 0 % o f the full load for a n adequate performance.
Internal corrosion o f zinc coating i s c a u s e d p r i n c i p a l l y b y i n d u s t r i a l a n d s e a s a l t p o l -
l u t i o n i n t h e presence o f m o i s t u r e . O r i g i n a l conductor grease levels, together w i t h con-
dition a n d thickness o f t h e galvanizing coating o f t h e steel, w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e rate o f
corrosion. Corrosion o fthe zinc coating i st e m p e r a t u r e dependent a n d has a m a x i m u m
b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 70°© A b o v e t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e r a t e o f c o r r o s i o n d e c r e a s e s .
W h e n c o n t a c t i n g u n p r o t e c t e d steel, e. g. a f t e r t h e loss o f zinc o r a l u m i n i u m c l a d d i n g ,
t h e a l u m i n i u m w i l l b e s a c r i f i c i a l . T h e rate of aluminium corrosion i s h i g h w h e n t h e r e
are m a r i n e and i n d u s t r i a l pollutants present. T h e a l u m i n i u ma n d its corrosion products
eventually cause t h e conductor t o bulge. R e d u c t i o n i n t h e a l u m i n i u m section leads t o
a loss o f m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h a n d electric c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n severe cases, t h i s causes a
transfer o f current t o t h e steel a n d subsequent failure due t o overheating. I t i s possible
t h a t a l l t h e outside strands o ft h e conductor appear intact w h i l s t i n n e r a l u m i n i u m wires
have severed [17.48].
I t i s p o s s i b l e i n n o n - p o l l u t e d a r e a s , f o r t h e unprotected steel t o a c t a s t h e a n o d e , r e -
s u l t i n g i n loss o f section o f t h e steel w i t h o u t loss o f a l u m i n i u m section. N o e x t e r n a l
indication o fthis process o fdeterioration w i l l b e visible until t h e conductor fails i n t e n -
s i o n . Visual inspection w i l l n o t d e t e c t c o r r o s i o n a t a n e a r l y s t a g e . A s c o r r o s i o n b e c o m e s
m o r e advanced, a n experienced line inspector will detect t h e conductor bulging due t o
the corrosion products being several t i m e s t h e v o l u m e o f t h e a l u m i n i u m a n d possible
discolouration o f several strands.
T h e eddy current corrosion detector [ 1 7 . 4 9 ] w o r k s i n a n i n d i r e c t m a n n e r b y d e t e c t i n g
the loss o f g a l v a n i z i n g f r o m t h e steel s t r a n d s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . L o s s o f g a l v a n i z i n g
can b e detected b y i n d u c i n g e d d y c u r r e n t s i n t o t h e conductor f r o m a coil t h a t clips
a r o u n d t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e r e s u l t a n t m a g n e t i c field i s m e a s u r e d w i t h a s e c o n d c o i l t h a t
i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s e n s i t i v e t o d e t e c t t h e d i s t u r b e d field i n c o n d u c t o r s e c t i o n s w h e r e t h e
galvanizing has been attacked. T h i s detector c a nb e used f o rA L x / S T y z conductors
but n o t w h e r e a n optical cable has been w r a p p e d o nt h e e a r t h w i r e .
It can also b e used o ne a r t h wires m a d e o f galvanized steel b y a d d i n g a plastic shell t o
t h e s e n s i n g h e a d w i t h a d e q u a t e n u m b e r o f a l u m i n i u m w i r e s fitted i n i t .
T h e steel core c o r r o s i o n detector detects a loss i n steel cross-sectional area. T h i s a r e a i s
measured b y generating a n d receiving 2 000 pulses per second: T h e highest a m p l i t u d e
of every 2 0 pulses received is recorded o n t h e built-in computer, w h i c h compiles t h e
d a t a at 100 points per second. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n can b e p r i n t e d later b y t h e computer's
graphic plot program.
S u l p h u r o u s p o l l u t a n t s c a u s e external corrosion o f aluminium conductors, i . e. p i t t i n g ,
o f t h e surface w h e r e solid i m p u r i t i e s axe deposited o n t h e o u t e r surface o f t h e c o n d u c t o r .
S m a l l c o r r o s i o n cells a r e t h e n set u p w h e n m o i s t u r e i s p r e s e n t . N o r m a l l y , t h i s t y p e o f
corrosion is evenly spread o n the outside o f the conductor and does not reduce the
strength t othe same extent as internal corrosion.
O v e r h e a d l i n e s a r e a f f e c t e d b y wind induced oscillation i n f o r m o f aeolian vibration,
subconductor oscillation, a n d galloping. I n g e n e r a l , t h e d a m a g e c a n b e s e e n a s :
— Drooping/missing/slipped vibration dampers;
x i .-± iviaxnienaiice i xx
— Missing nuts f r o m suspension clamps o r hardware;
— S p l i t p i n s m i s s i n g o r displaced f r o m n o r m a l p o s i t i o n s i n c o t t e r (clevis) p i n s , etc.;
— C o r o n a r i n g s o r i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s d i s p l a c e d from t h e i r p r o p e r p o s i t i o n s ;
— B r o k e n o u t e r c o n d u c t o r s t r a n d s , u s u a l l y e m a n a t i n g from t h e e n d s o f t h e s u s p e n -
sion clamps;
— Aircraft warning markers moved o r missing f r o m conductors o rsupport wires;
— Loose o r broken tower members;
— Severe wear o fsuspension hardware.
I n s u m m a r y , w i n d induced motions m a y cause one o rm o r e o fthe following damage t o
conductors: Fretting, fatigue o r abrasion.
T h e m a i n problem, as w i t h conductor corrosion, ist h e identification o fsusceptible line
s e c t i o n s t o b e i n s p e c t e d f o r i n c i p i e n t d a m a g e i n d u e t i m e . T h e first s t e e l b r e a k s i n
conductors occur under clamps and spacers a n d are n o t detectable b y a n y practical
techniques t r i e d t o date. However, i ng o o d conditions i t m a y b e possible t o detect
b r o k e n c o n d u c t o r s t r a n d s p r o t r u d i n g from t h e c l a m p b y u s e o f v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n .
T h e w o r n s u r f a c e s o f fittings a r e u s u a l l y v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o s e e from t h e g r o u n d a n d m a y
even b e missed i n a climbing o r helicopter inspection. I n due t i m e , this wear can b e
sufficient t o reduce t h e r e m a i n i n g s t r e n g t h o f the supporting h a r d w a r e t o dangerous
levels a n d t o a l l o w t h e conductor t o drop.
I n s t e a d o f e x a m i n a t i o n b y t h e s t a f f a n d r e c o r d i n g findings o n t h e s i t e , t h e u s e o f a v i d e o
c a m e r a i s r e p o r t e d a s a s u i t a b l e m e t h o d t o s u r v e y a l i n e from a h e l i c o p t e r a n d e x a m i n e
all fittings i na relatively short period. Pictures taken a t a long distance allow t h e
m a j o r i t y o fcomponents t ob e e x a m i n e d . T h e images are recorded a n d can b e analysed
l a t e r . B r o k e n s t r a n d s , w e a r o f fittings, d e f e c t i v e o r l o o s e n e d s p a c e r s a n d m i s s i n g o r
d r o o p i n g d a m p e r s c a n b e d e t e c t e d b y t h i s m e t h o d . T h i s m e t h o d gives less s a t i s f y i n g
results for m u l t i - c i r c u i t lines.
E a r t h wires are installed at t h e top o fhigh-voltage lines t o protect t h e conductors from
l i g h t n i n g strokes. H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h t h e y are designed t ohave a g o o d level of resistance
t o l i g h t n i n g i m p a c t , p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s m a y s u f f e r damage from lightning strikes d u r i n g
p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e s t r o k e s . T h e d a m a g e v a r i e s from p i t t i n g o f t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e , t o
melting a n d breakage o f outer strands w i t h consequent reduction o f the mechanical
strength o f t h e conductor. Detection o f damage is possible using o n e o f the above
mentioned methods.
17.4.2.6 Joints and fittings
Inspection of fittings a n d joints i s c a r r i e d o u t t o p r e p a r e c o r r e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . A m o n g
t h e fittings u s e d i n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s , o n e o f t h e m o s t v i t a l c o m p o n e n t s a r e t h e
conductors' f u l l tension joints. T o a s s e s s t h e j o i n t c o n d i t i o n a n d i t s r e m a i n i n g l i f e , a
n u m b e r o f inspection m e t h o d s have been proposed, some o f t h e m are difficult i f not
i m p r a c t i c a l t o a p p l y a s t h e y s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e w o r k a t l i v e l i n e , s u c h a s X ray imaging,
infra-red techniques a n d resistance measurements. T h e l a s t m e t h o d is r e c o m m e n d e d a n d
a p p l i e d w i t h success a c c o r d i n g t o [17.50] t h r o u g h a t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p e d i n S w e d e n . T h e
resistance isobtained indirectly f r o m the temperature o fthe joint, w h i c h is measured
w i t h a h i g h accuracy. T h e resistance is calculated t h r o u g h t h e A C voltage drop over
each h a l f o fthe joint, current t h r o u g h the conductor and the temperatures o fthe j o i n t
and the conductor.
P a p e r s [17.50] a n d [17.51] consider t h e j o i n t s a s t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t t h a t o p -
erates i n series w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d , therefore, i s p e r m a n e n t l y s u b m i t t e d t o full
m e c h a n i c a l tensile load. T h e use o ft h e r m o g r a p h y is i n t h i s case proposed. S y s t e m a t i c
laboratory evaluation o f this m e t h o d has indicated sufficient accuracy. O t h e r conclu-
sions o fsuch e x p e r i m e n t a l investigation are t h a t critical conditions are already reached
712 17 Commissioning, operation and line management
w h e n t h e j o i n t resistance becomes t w o o r three t i m e s t h e resistance o f a conductor
section o f equal length.
M o s t joints used o nA L x / S T y z conductors have been o f the compression type, although
bolted j o i n t s a r e used i n j u m p e r s . O v e r h e a t i n g o f these j o i n t s arises f r o m incorrectly
constituted compression along the length o f the joint, m a i n l y due t o either poor design
or installationproblems. T h i s will allow moisture penetration and results i n oxidation
o f t h e i n t e r n a l a l u m i n i u m surfaces b e t w e e n t h e j o i n t a n d conductor. T h e resistive a l u -
m i n i u m o x i d e r e d u c e s t h e p a t h s f o r c u r r e n t flow a n d m a y c a u s e m i c r o a r c i n g w i t h i n
t h e j o i n t . I n cases o f m a l f u n c t i o n , t h e r e i s a n increase i n t h e contact resistance b e t w e e n
t h e a l u m i n i u m layers a n d t h e a l u m i n i u m sleeve o f t h e j o i n t g i v i n g rise t o a nincrease o f
t h e j o i n t temperature. T h i s can b e detected using infra-red thermography, being used
either f r o m a helicopter o r f r o m the ground. I t provides evidence for further action and
justification f o r accurate measurement o f joint resistance. Over a period o f t i m e ,t h e
j o i n t r e s i s t a n c e w i l l i n c r e a s e , r e s u l t i n g i n e x c e s s c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e s t e e l c o r e o f t h e
conductor, leading t ooverheating and rupture.
J o i n t s i nj u m p e r s a r et y p i c a l l y b o l t e d p a r a l l e l groove o r compression t y p e o r w e d g e
t y p e clamps. Overheating o f these joints occurs p r i m a r i l y due t o improper preparation
and installationo f the joint. Under n o r m a l conditions, the temperature o f the joints
w i l l b e lower t h a n t h a t o f t h e conductors d u e t o the lower resistance p e ru n i t l e n g t h
a n d t o t h e larger a m o u n t o fsurface area t odissipate t h e heat generated b y t h e current.
T o o b t a i n a better assessment o f the actual condition o f t h e j o i n t , especially w i t h low
currents a n d / o r high w i n d speeds, i t i s advisable t o record load a n d w i n d d a t a a n d
make allowance foroperation under standard conditions. Infra-red survey should b e
carried o u t a t times o f adequate t h e r m a l loads.
Various devices o f j o i n t resistance measurers a r eavailable w h i c h c a n b e used w i t h
live-line o r dead-line circuits. T h e technology used is m o r e direct t h a n infra-red ther-
m o g r a p h y a n dis n o tsubject t o radiation, weather, current loading a n d background
conditions. T h e lightweight live-line devices are designed t o b e attached directly t o the
high-voltage line b y t h e u s eo f a n i n s u l a t e d stick a n d read t h e resistance o f a n y j o i n t
directly i nm i c r o - o h m s . T h e y c a n also b e designed t o s i m p l y indicate g o o d o r b a d f o r
a g i v e n j o i n t [17.50] a n d [17.51].
A l l the articulated connections i na line experience tear a n dwear during operation.
T h e w e a r is h i g h a tsuspension sets a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a t t h e suspensions o f e a r t h w i r e s
a n d O P G W . T h e wear m a y b e expected t ob e f u r t h e r increased i n line sections r u n n i n g
perpendicular t othe m a i n w i n d direction a n d a tsupports w i t h a low vertical load only.
T h e fittings s u b j e c t t o s u c h c o n d i t i o n n e e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g i n s p e c t i o n .
17.4.2.7 Insulators
Damaged o r c r a c k e d cap-and-pin insulators m a y b e d e t e c t e d w h i l e t h e y a r e i n s e r v i c e
b u t suitable precautions should be followed. Maintenance o f insulators can distinguish
among the following insulator types involved and their behaviour:
- Glass cap-and-pin insulators u s u a l l y p r e s e n t m o r e p r o b l e m s d u r i n g t h e first y e a r s
o f o p e r a t i o n . T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f i n s u l a t o r u n i t s w i t h b u b b l e s a n d s p l i n t e r s is a c o m -
m o n m a n u f a c t u r e deficiency w h i c h can lead i n s u l a t o r s t o fail i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
their o p e r a t i o n a l existence. B u b b l e s u s u a l l y cause t h e glass i n s u l a t o r s , even w h e n
provided w i t h a convenient toughening, t o explode w h e n submitted t o varying
climatic variations. Splinters i ntheir t u r n a r e a k i n d o f superficial defects t h a t
i n m o s t cases a r e acceptable t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t w i t h o u t c a u s i n g m a j o r f a i l u r e s .
H o w e v e r , v a n d a l i s m cases e x c e p t e d , glass i n s u l a t o r s t e n d t o s t a b i l i z e a n d e v e n
i m p r o v e their performance w i t h ageing.
Glass cap-and-pin insulators a r eusually inspected b y naked e y e o r telescope,
17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 713
f r o m a helicopter o r f r o m the ground. Electronic systems based o nelectrical field
d i s t o r t i o n , such as corona s y s t e m o r net s p ys y s t e m , are also a n efficient t o o l f o r
detecting glass i n s u l a t o r a b n o r m a l i t i e s , as b r o k e n shells, p i n r e d u c t i o n etc.
— Porcelain cap-and-pin insulators h a v e a d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o u r . U s u a l l y t h e y p r e s e n t
few failures d u r i n g t h e first periods o f o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , ageing acts i n a g r o w -
ing r a t e as t h ei n s u l a t o r s a r e s u b m i t t e d t o l o n g periods o f o u t d o o r o p e r a t i o n .
P o r c e l a i n u s u a l l y degrades m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n glass, especially i nareas w i t h l o w
t e m p e r a t u r e , so t h a t t h e r a t e o f i n s u l a t i o n defects increases w i t h t i m e .
T h e m a i n c a u s e o f f a i l u r e t o s u s p e n s i o n a n d t e n s i o n cap-and-pin porcelain in-
sulators i s c o r r o s i o n o f t h e s t e e l p i n i n t h e c a p a n d t h e p i n a s s e m b l y . S u r f a c e
leakage currents are concentrated a t the p i n , causing a higher current density i n
this area a n d consequent d r y b a n d f o r m a t i o n a r o u n d t h e p i n base. P a r t i a l dis-
charges bridge these d r y bands r e s u l t i n g i nsevere spark erosion a n d after r a p i d
removal o fthe galvanizing, natural corrosion o fthe p i n occurs until the remaining
cross-sectional area c a nn o longer support t h e load. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e expansive
corrosion p r o d u c t s create a tensile, h o o p stress, w h i c h leads t o r a d i a l cracks i n t h e
porcelain. Defective insulators will b e m o r e susceptible t o failure d u r i n g a pol-
l u t i o n o r l i g h t n i n g flashover a s t h e a r c p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c a p o f t h e p u n c t u r e d
unit causing it t osplit open and precipitate a line drop. M o s t failures o fthis type
have occurred a t t h e live end o f suspension strings w h e r e t h e voltage across the
shells is highest.
Incipient r a d i a l cracks t h a t occur i n porcelain i n s u l a t o r shells a n dw h i c h c a n
i n i t i a t e t e n s i l e f r a c t u r e , c a n b e d e t e c t e d f r o m g r o u n d l e v e l u s i n g a n insulator
voltage drop measurer b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f a 3 0 o r 5 0 k V t e s t v o l t a g e . T h i s r e q u i r e s
extensive outage d u r a t i o n o f 1 t o 10 hours. M e t e r s have been developed for testing
in-situ, dead-line o r live-line. T h i s m e t h o d is t i m e consuming and the reliability
o f t h e results is dependent u p o n t h e w e a t h e r , p o l l u t i o n a n d h u m i d i t y levels.
A l s o infra-red thermography, o p e r a t e d f r o m a h e l i c o p t e r o r f r o m t h e g r o u n d , c a n
be used t o identify defective insulators. T h e technique can identify defects under
favourable conditions w h e r e head cracks result i n w a r m e r i n s u l a t o r caps. However,
the differentiation between w a r m insulators a n d cracked insulators is not always
great enough t ob e completely reliable and, therefore, t h i s m e t h o d should b e used
i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e e l e c t r i c a l field o r v o l t a g e d r o p m e a s u r e r .
— Long rod insulators a r eelectrically puncture-proof. Therefore, they d o n o t r e -
quire a periodical check o f their electric performance. T h a t is economically a d -
vantageous. D u r i n g scheduled line patrol, long r o d insulators are checked visually
regarding possible mechanical damage o f sheds caused b y vandalism o r arcing.
I n s u l a t o r s are replaced i ft h e d a m a g e is i m p o r t a n t . A g e i n g o f m o d e r n long r o d
insulators made o f alumineous porcelain is not k n o w n .
— Composite insulators. D e g r a d a t i o n o f c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s c a n o c c u r t h r o u g h p r e -
m a t u r e ageing o r i n t e r n a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g defects. I t i s n o t possible, u s i n g c u r r e n t
technology, t o choose a single technique t h a t w i l l detect all types o f defective
insulators w i t h a satisfactory degree o f confidence. A c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o o r m o r e
techniques has b e e n proved i npractice t o b e t h e m o s t effective m e a n s o f i d e n t i -
f y i n g defective c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s i n service [17.52].
17.4.2.8 Clearances
T h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f safe clearances along t h e line is a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t o b e observed
by t h e p a t r o l s , especially i nm o r e sensitive areas, such as crossings w i t h o t h e r lines o r
w i t h h i g h w a y s . T h e p a t r o l l i n g c r e w n e e d s t o b e p r o v i d e d w i t h p l a n s for t h e crossings
a n d tables s h o w i n g t h e clearances depending o n the conductor t e m p e r a t u r e i n order t o
( X+t XI i_uiiixna3i^iimb; u p c i cnjivxii C W I X L ixiiro ixickiictgciiicixu
i *. i iviaxmenance / xu

c h e c k t h e c o n d u c t o r p o s i t i o n b y d i r e c t s i g h t . E v e n t u a l l y , d u r i n g inspection of clearances,
the patrollers can m a k e measurements w i t h electronic infra-red devices, so as t o certify T a b l e 17.7: M i n i m u m s o u n d c a p - a n d - p i n U 7 0 B L , U 1 0 0 B L o r U 1 2 0 B i n s u l a t o r s p e r s t r i n g
Voltage kV 500 380 345 230 138 no 69
t h a t t h e m i n i m u m design clearances are still kept. U s i n g o f scanning technology c a n
Usual number of insulators 24 to 26 19 to 21 17 14 9 8 5
a l s o p r e c i s e l y m e a s u r e c l e a r a n c e s b u t t h e p r o c e s s i s m o r e e x p e n s i v e (see c l a u s e 1 5 . 3 . 2 . 2 ) .
Minimum number of sound insulators 15 13 11 7 5 4 2

17.4.3 Corrective maintenance

17.4.3.1 Strategy
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e findings o n t h e l i n e c o n d i t i o n s b a s e d o n i n s p e c t i o n , a n a s s e s s m e n t o f
the f u t u r e line f u n c t i o n i n t h e n e t w o r k is required. Safety-relevant defects need t o b e
r e p a i r e d i m m e d i a t e l y . H o w e v e r , o t h e r r e f u r b i s h m e n t a c t i v i t i e s w i l l d e p e n d o n t h e asset
o w n e r ' s decisions. E . g., i n al i n e h a v i n g ar e s i d u a l life t i m e o f s o m e years o n l y , p a r t i a l l y
w o r n - o u t fittings n e e d n o t t o b e r e p l a c e d . C o r r e c t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d
i n t h e o w n e r ' s files. U t i l i t i e s o p e r a t e c o m p u t e r d a t a b a s e s f o r t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s .
M a i n t e n a n c e o ft h e line d o c u m e n t a t i o n such as l o n g i t u d i n a l profiles, p l a n layouts, cross-
ing clearances, t o w e r lists etc. i s p a r t o f t h e o w n e r ' s c o m m i t m e n t s .
Replacements o f damaged elements are accomplished either w h e n the line is energized
(live-line) o rde-energized (dead-line). T h e line crew should notify the dispatching centre
w h e n a particular line o r section is desired f o r maintenance, either under live line or
de-energized w o r k . F o rt h el a t t e r case, t h e l i n e s h o u l d t h e n n o t b e m e r e l y cleared
t h r o u g h t h e circuit breaker b u t opened b y disconnectors as well. A u t o m a t i c reclosing
device s h o u l d b e s e t inactive. I f i t i s t o b e o u t o f service f o ra n e x t e n d e d p e r i o d a n d
there is a danger o f lightning, the line should b e earthed a t its t e r m i n a l s f o r safety
reasons. According t o some n a t i o n a l standards, e a r t h i n g o f circuits t o b e subjected t o
m a i n t e n a n c e i s m a n d a t o r y [17.53].
17.4.3.2 Refurbishment and upgrading of foundations
Refurbishment a n d u p g r a d i n g of foundations are dealt w i t h i n [17.46]. T h e corrective
measures regarding foundations comprise t h e following processes:
— T h e t r e a t m e n t o f grillage foundations o r o fmetallic elements o f foundation types
is c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r c l e a n i n g b y s a n d j e t t i n g o r b y h y d r a u l i c m e a n s , c o n s i s t i n g
first i n a p p l y i n g a n e p o x y r e s i n o r c o a l t a r t y p e p a i n t ; i n s o m e c a s e s , cathodic
protection is t h e n applied t o i m p a i r t h e corrosion process.
— T h e structures w h i c h have already lost m o r e t h a n 1 0 %o f the steel cross sections
need t o b e replaced because they are considered as being i n failure state.
— T h o s e structures w h i c h have lost u p t o 1 0 %o f t h e cross sections are considered
to b e able o f repair w o r k t h r o u g h mass deposit (electric weld). A f t e r such r e -
covery, t h e f o u n d a t i o n i s coated as i n t h e l a t t e r case a n d s o m e t i m e s cathodically
p r o t e c t e d . A S T M E 3 7 6 [17.49] gives b a s i c r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n
of cathodic protection.
17.4.3.3 R e n e w a l of coating, r e p l a c e m e n t of tower components
Renewal of coating i s n e c e s s a r y i n i n t e r v a l s b e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 2 0 y e a r s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
environmental conditions. I tshould a i m a t protecting the galvanization subjected t o
corrosion t o aconsiderable e x t e n t . G a l v a n i z a t i o n i s t h e basic p r o t e c t i o n g u a r a n t e e i n g a
long life o fsteel structures. T h e repair o faerial corrosion is carried o u t a t the following
manner:
— Cleaning and painting all components w h i c h have lost t h e galvanizing coating;
— Replacing components w h i c h have lost m o r e t h a n 1 0 %o f their mass;
— R e s t o r i n g w i t h e l e c t r i c w e l d c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h m a t e r i a l l o s s i s u p t o 1 0 %, s i n c e
this process is considered as m o r e viable t h a n the replacement.
— Reinforcing o f components b y bolting plates o r angle sections t o restore the full
l o a d r e s i s t a n c e . F r e q u e n t l y , p r e s t r e s s e d o r fitted b o l t s a r e u s e d .
17.4.3.4 R e p a i r of conductors
The f o l l o w i n g cases are considered:
— C o n d u c t o r s h a v i n g b r o k e n s t r a n d s a r e r e p a i r e d t h r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f con-
ductor repair sleeves, m a i n l y a r m o r p a t c h r o d s ;
— C o n d u c t o r s w i t h t h e steel core corroded need t o b e t o t a l l y replaced.
P a p e r [17.54] r e p o r t s o n r e p l a c i n g A C S R h a v i n g c o r r o d e d steel cores. R e p l a c i n g o f
conductors o r earth wires isoften carried out i n parallel t o live conductors. Therefore,
the provisions given i n clause 16.8.4.10 s h o u l d b e obeyed.
17.4.3.5 R e p l a c e m e n t of i n s u l a t o r s , fittings, d a m p e r s a n d spacers
17.4.3.5.1 Tasks and priorities
Cap-and-pin porcelain insulators need t o b e replaced either live-line o r dead-line w h e n
t h e r e a r e b r o k e n s h e l l s o r c o r r o d e d m e t a l l i c p a r t s ( p i n s a n d s h e d s ) . F o r insulator re-
placements, the m i n i m u m n u m b e r o f sound cap-and-pin units p e rstring is shown i n
Table 17.7 a sa f u n c t i o n o ft h e voltage level according t o practice i n S o u t h A m e r i c a . T h i s
t a b l e s h o w s t h e m i n i m u m n u m b e r o f s o u n d u n i t s r e q u i r e d f o r safe l i v e - l i n e w o r k . Glass
insulators are replaced w h e n they are broken b u t keeping their mechanical function.
Live-line replacement has been n o t necessary for long r o d insulators, because there are
practically n o failures o f sheds o r bodies a n d t h e system p e r m i t s t o switch off a circuit
keeping t h e service t h r o u g h other lines. However, live-line replacement o f old defective
long rod insulators could b e carried out where required.
R e p l a c e m e n t o f fittings, d a m p e r s a n d s p a c e r s i s a l w a y s t o t a l , i . e . n o p a r t t h e r e o f i s
changed separately. F o r r e p l a c i n g spacers a n dspacer d a m p e r s a n di n s t a l l i n g repair
j o i n t s , e. g. p a t c h r o d s o n d a m a g e d c o n d u c t o r s , l i n e cars a r eu s e d w h e r e possible i n
v i e w o f l a b o u r safety.
The priority o f performing acertain replacement task isrelated t o the urgency of the
repair. W o r s e p r o b l e m s s h o u l d have p r i o r i t y over p r o b l e m s o f lower severity. T h e classi-
fication of the priority should take into account the component where the problem was
detected, as well as t h e importance o f the line, the m a i n loads supplied a n d the perfor-
m a n c e r e q u i r e d . T h e p r i o r i t i e s o f t h e r e p a i r o r m a i n t e n a n c e services c a nb e classified
in four groups, namely:
— Priority U : Urgent repair
— Priority A : Immediate repair
— Priority B : R e p a i r less t h a n o n e y e a r
— Priority C : Repair i n m o r e t h a n o n e year
T h e m e t h o d adopted for t h e replacement o f components isi m p o r t a n t because i t defines
the tools a n de q u i p m e n t required, t h eagreement w i t h o p e r a t i n g personnel f o r line
outages etc. I t i s preferable t o c a r r y o u t replacements o n de-energized lines, since i t
p e r m i t s t o c a r r y o u t t h e tasks m o s t effectively. L i v e - l i n e techniques m a y b e adopted
w h e r e s w i t c h i n g off i s n o t feasible o r w o u l d b e expensive.
716 17Commissioning, operation and line management 17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 717

p r e v e n t e d . I f t h e l i n e is s w i t c h e d off, r e c l o s i n g c a n o n l y b e p e r f o r m e d a f t e r t h e a u -
fable 1 7 . 8 : C l e a r a n c e s t o l i n e m e n for l i v e - l i n e w o r k i n g
thorization b y the maintenance crew. A l l t h e personnel involved i n live-line w o r k
Voltage k V 36,0 72,5 145 245 362 525 765
must b e able t o perfectly master the w o r k i n g techniques. T h e methods used i n
Minimum clearances m 0,70 0,92 1,10 1,55 2,20 3,60 4,60
each service s h o u l d b e previously studied a n d e x a m i n e d t o avoid improvisations.
- F o r e v e r y j o b , a specific i n s t r u c t i o n is developed, l i s t i n g t h e tools w h i c h w i l l b e
17.4.3.5.2 Dead-line work used, t h e n u m b e r o f l i n e m e n r e q u i r e d a n d t h e j o b stages, step b y step. T h e loads
Dead-line work r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e l i n e s h o u l d b e s w i t c h e d o f f a n d e a r t h e d . B e s i d e t h e to w h i c h every tool will b e submitted during all phases o f the w o r k need t ob e
earthing m a d e a tthe line t e r m i n a l s i n t h e substations, each w o r k i n g crew should install carefully analysed.
its o w n t e m p o r a r y a n d clearly visible e a r t h i n g s y s t e m a i m i n g a t p r o t e c t i n g t h e electri-
cians against accidental e n e r g i z a t i o n , i n d u c e d voltages, a t m o s p h e r i c overvoltages etc.
17.4.3.6 Clearing o fright-of-way, t r i m m i n g o f trees
For accomplishing t e m p o r a r y earthings, heavy extra-flexible copper cables are speci-
fied, b e i n g a t t a c h e d b y m e a n s o f h o t - l i n e t o o l s a n d c l a m p s ; t h e l i n e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e Right-of-way clearing i s c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o a p l a n n e d s c h e d u l e . T h e l i n e s o r p a r t s
h o t u n t i l t h e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m is applied. of long lines are split i n separate groups a n d each group iscleared i n one year so that
at t h e end o f t h e scheduled cycle t h e complete n e t w o r k has been cleared. T h e cycle
17.4.3.5.3 Live-line work depends o n t h e climate a n d vegetation. I ntropical countries, t h e frequency m a y b e
T o carry out diagnostics, repairs and replacements w i t h o u t switching off a circuit m e t h - t h r e e y e a r s , i n m o d e r a t e c l i m a t e five t o t e n y e a r s . I n t h i s w o r k , t h e t r i m m i n g o f t r e e s
o d s a n d t o o l s for live-line work have b e e n d e v e l o p e d . P a p e r s [ 1 7 . 5 5 ] a n d [ 1 7 . 5 6 ] g i v e is p e r f o r m e d a n d t h e v e g e t a t i o n i s s e l e c t i v e l y c l e a r e d s o a s t o k e e p t h e n e c e s s a r y s a f e t y
a g o o d account o f t h e state o f t h e a r t . A c c o r d i n g t o [17.57], f o u r categories are d i s t i n - clearances. S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d t o s u g a r c a n e p l a n t a t i o n s , e. g. b e c a u s e o f
guished: t h e h i g h p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i r i n g a n d , t h e r e f o r e , l i n e s w i t c h i n g off d u e t o t h e e x h a u s t e d gases.
It s h o u l d b e a i m e d a t avoiding chemical clearing d u et o t h e possible e n v i r o n m e n t a l
— C o n t a c t o r barehand work, i n w h i c h t h e l i n e m a n a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t , f o r e x a m p l e
d a m a g e s t o c r o p s , f a u n a a n d flora. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d o t h e r r e g i o n s , t h i s m e t h o d i s
the helicopter, are energized a tt h e phase p o t e n t i a l a n d fully i n s u l a t e d f r o m o t h e r
not anymore accepted but m a y b e permitted elsewhere under certain limitations. Tree
energized parts a n d earth. T h i s category is used o n t h e highest voltage systems.
gangs w h o s e sole d u t y i s t o r e m o v e b r u s h , t r i m trees a n d r e m o v e danger t i m b e r h a v e
D e t a i l s are g i v e n i n [17.56].
been f o u n d t o b e advantageous b y large utilities.
— A t - a - d i s t a n c e o r hot-stick work, i n w h i c h t h e l i n e m a n u s e s i n s u l a t i n g ( f i b r e g l a s s )
sticks t o p e r f o r m w o r k o nenergized parts. T h i s category isused o n intermediate A s a n example for right-of-way management, the procedures introduced b y R W E i n
voltage systems. G e r m a n y s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d here [17.60]. R W E is p r e s e n t l y t h e largest p r i v a t e u t i l i t y
— Insulated glove work, i n w h i c h t h e l i n e m a n i s f u l l y i n s u l a t e d f r o m a l l e n e r g i z e d i n E u r o p e ; its power l i n e s y s t e m exceeds 25 000 k m . R W E considers ecological p l a n -
parts b y t h e use o f i n s u l a t i n g gloves, sleeves a n d cover-up e q u i p m e n t . T h i s cate- ning o fright-of-way m a n a g e m e n t i m p o r t a n t now. Scientific studies suggest t h a t several
gory isused o nsystems below 60 k V . successive years o f clear-cutting a n d t r e e - t r i m m i n g c a ni m p r o v e the ecological situa-
— De-energized work, i n w h i c h w o r k i s p e r f o r m e d o n l y a f t e r t h e s y s t e m i s d e - t i o n because such successive processes are r a t h e r r a r e i n o p e n cultivated landscapes as
energized. T h i s category o f w o r k is also considered a sl i v e w o r k i n g for t h e f o l l o w i n g w e l l a s i nforested areas. P r o m a necological p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e f o l l o w i n g a c t i v i t i e s are
three reasons: recommended:

- T h e parts that will b e handled b y the linemen may b e a tnon-zero potential
just prior t oearthing;
- T h e parts that will b e handled b y the linemen m a y b e a tnon-zero potential
immediately after e a r t h i n g connections are removed;
- Significant p o t e n t i a l s m a y appear a t t h e w o r k s i t e i n case o f accidental ener-
gization o fthe system.
S o m e care m u s t b e t a k e n w h e n a live-line w o r k isp e r f o r m e d a m o n g w h i c h t h e following
should be mentioned:
— Safety clearances according t o [17.51], d e t e r m i n e d as a f u n c t i o n o f s o m e voltage
levels p r e s c r i b e d i n I E C 60 0 7 1 - 1 [17.58] a n d I E C 6 1 4 7 2 [17.59] a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e
17.8.
— Live-line tools a n d e q u i p m e n t s u c h a s s t i c k s , l a d d e r s a n d r o p e s m u s t b e r i g o r o u s l y
clean a n d should b e tested before beginning every service t o ascertain t h a t their
i n s u l a t i o n i s perfect. S u c h e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d b e stored i nstoves t o prevent t h e
absorption o f moisture.
— A t m o s p h e r i c conditions need t o b e obeyed. N o live-line w o r k should b e per-
f o r m e d w h e n t h e w e a t h e r is r a i n y , s n o w y , h e a v i l y c l o u d e d o r s u b j e c t e d t o l i g h t n i n g
strokes.
— Operative conditions require agreements made w i t h operating personnel and must
warrant that reclosing o f circuit breakers, either m a n u a l l y o r automatically, b e
- Selective a d v a n c e m e n t o f s m a l l a n d l o w - g r o w i n g p l a n t species t o m i n i m i z e t h e
effects o f s e p a r a t i n g t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y ;
- Developing vegetation w h i c h stabilizes the edge o f t h e forest;
- R e a l i z a t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n m a i n t e n a n c e techniques a p p r o p r i a t e for specific sections;
- N oservice i n tree- a n d shrub-free p r i m a r y sites;
- P r e s e r v a t i o n o f n a t u r a l g r o u n d reliefs;
- M o w i n g , i f necessary, a t l o n g - t e r m intervals.
Forests i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e h a v e b e e n affected b y i n t e n s i v e h u m a n use f o rm o r e t h a n
1 000 years. Accordingly, n a t u r a l forests are rare nowadays. I n t h e course o f t i m e , a l l
utility companies have turned away f r o m complete clear-cutting and the application o f
herbicides i n t h e right-of-way t h r o u g h forests. T h e m a i n objective t o d a y ist o o p t i m i z e
t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y m a i n t e n a n c e ecological, economic a n d technical f r a m e w o r k . O n e i m -
p o r t a n t step t o w a r d s achieving t h i s goal iss u p p o r t o f s l o w - g r o w i n g species w i t h heights
e n d i n g far below t h e lines. T h e a i m o fthese measures i st odevelop a stepped s t r u c t u r e
across t h e c o r r i d o r t o t h e edge o f t h e forest a s s h o w n i nF i g u r e 17.5. T h i s decreases
v e g e t a t i o n m a i n t e n a n c e costs a n d i m p r o v e s ecologically t h e right-of-way. I talso helps
t o ensure t h e reliability o felectric systems b y stabilizing the adjoining forest stand.
T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o fvegetation systems has t ob e p l a n n e d a n d realized continuously b y
long-term programs. Before planning activities can start, the following basic i n f o r m a t i o n
is r e q u i r e d :
 F i g u r e 17.5: D e v e l o p i n g a s t e p p e d s t r u c t u r e a c r o s s t h e l i n e c o r -
ridor i n forests ( R W E N e t A G , G e r m a n y F i g u r e 17.6: D i v i s i o n o f r i g h t - o f - w a y i n v e g e - F i g u r e 17.7: R i g h t - o f - w a y management
t a t i o n c o n t r o l zones, a chess b o a r d p a t t e r n ; t h r o u g h vegetation islands ( R W E Net A G ,
b fishbone p a t t e r n ( R W E N e t A G , G e r m a n y ) Germany)
— E x t e n t a n d e x a c t l o c a t i o n o f n a t u r e r e s e r v e s , i . e. f o r e s t , w a t e r a n d s o i l ;
— O w n e r o ft h e p r o p e r t y ;
— Ecological i m p o r t a n c e o f the area; f o l l o w i n g years. I f t h e r e is a n a t u r a l s t r u c t u r e o ft h e r i g h t - o f - w a y f o r m e d b y vegetation
— Recording a n d description o fthe ecological system. islands, the management follows this structure b y carrying out activities o n certain
Based o nt h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , a concept for f u t u r e maintenance has been developed. Be- islands according t o a regular schedule ( F i g u r e 17.7).
sides m e e t i n g a l l technical r e q u i r e m e n t s , c o n t r o l procedures for c e r t a i n p a r t s o f t h e
corridor are defined b yd e t e r m i n i n g t h e m e t h o d , scale a n d interval. T h i s process helps
17.4.3.7 Access roads
t o e n s u r e t h a t , a s a first s t e p , e a c h r i g h t - o f - w a y i s o p t i m i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e c o l o g i c a l
possibilities. T h e final o p t i m i z a t i o n process depends o neconomic a n d safety perspec- T h e maintenance of the access roads t o t h e t o w e r s i s o f h i g h i m p o r t a n c e f o r l i n e s i n r e -
tives. Corrective actions will b erealized i f needed. T h e different maintenance activities m o t e areas a n d is r e p o r t e d t o present s o m e p r o b l e m s at i n d i v i d u a l lines. W h e n s u p p o r t
axe recorded i n o p e r a t i o n m a p s . I n o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f t h e actions, failures occur, i t h a s b e e n observed t h a t t h e access t ot h e t o w e r sites i ss o m e t i m e s i m -
the biotope management planning procedure iscoordinated b y competent authorities, p r a c t i c a l because t h e access roads were d a m a g e d o r even t o t a l l y destroyed. A g r e e m e n t s
nature conservation organisations and property owners. w i t h l a n d o w n e r s s h o u l d b e k e p t r e g a r d i n g a m i n i m u m p r e s e r v a t i o n o f access roads.
R i g h t - o f - w a y m a i n t e n a n c e i n d e v e l o p e d areas a n d i n o p e n c u l t i v a t e d landscape is differ-
ent t o t h a t i n forests. T h e control procedures, i n contrast t o forested areas, have to take 17.4.3.8 Earthing
care o f a large n u m b e r o f isolated shrubs a n d trees o nwayside, i n fields, gardens a n d
E a r t h i n g installations, essential t o keep t h e lightning performance and safety o f the
parks. T h e r e , i t i s essential t h a t all actions should b e carried o u t w i t h great respect
line asdesigned, a n d a n y protective measures against inadmissible touch voltages need
to the sensibility o f individual land owners. T o improve the maintenance procedure
outside forests, R W E has developed a data base m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m w h i c h documents t o b e repaired w h e r e necessary a s a result o f inspection o r measurements. T h e same
hundreds o findependent actions. T h e basic i n f o r m a t i o n , such a sprocedure o f mainte- principles apply a s t oe a r t h i n g i n s t a l l a t i o nat n e w l i n e s (see C h a p t e r 5 ) .
nance, l a n d o w n e r a n d n a t u r e preserve, i s collected, d o c u m e n t e d a n d transferred t o a
land register data bank. 17.4.4 Investigation of line failures
T h e p h y s i c a l vegetation control p r o c e d u r e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t e i t h e r b y u t i l i t y s t a f f o r
17.4.4.1 General
b y c o n t r a c t o r s . I n b o t h cases, i t h a s t o b e e n s u r e d t h a t a l l c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s w i l l
be performed correctly, according t o requirements o f t h e competent authorities a n d Line failures o c c u r i n f r e q u e n t l y ; h o w e v e r , t h e s e f a i l u r e s p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y
internal entrepreneurial guidelines. Therefore, the relevant knowledge, including m o d i - to increase the understanding of transmission line behaviour. A systematic investigation
fied t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s b y a u t h o r i t i e s , a r e i m p a r t e d can provide i n f o r m a t i o n which m a y b e used t oimprove design criteria o r the investi-
by t r a i n i n g a n d practical introductions. E a c h predefined step o f action isfollowed b y g a t i o n m a y reveal t h a t t h e conditions were e x t r a o r d i n a r i l yr a r e a n d i n excess o f design
quality control measures, w h i c h are also useful for controlling a n d o p t i m i z i n g costs o f criteria and n omodification o f the criteria seems justified. Consequently, the goal o f
m a i n t e n a n c e . A c q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n i sused t oassist f u t u r e p l a n n i n g activities. any failure investigation is t o establish the cause o f the failure and determine w h a t
Today, electric utility companies like R W E endeavour t o develop n e w strategies f o r change t o design criteria a n d i n s t a l l a t i o ni sappropriate, i f any.
right-of-way maintenance t h a t fulfil ecological a n d economic requirements. T h e pro-
posed concept for a long-term oriented vegetation management program, performed
17.4.4.2 Causes o ffailure
w i t h o u t the application o fherbicides, helps t otake into account the different interests
of the competent authorities, property owners and the public. T h e causes of line failures can b e grouped as follows:
T h e r e are several strategies adopted b yR W E depending o n t h e vegetation encountered Natural phenomena exceeding design conditions
along t h e right-of-way. T h e r i g h t - o f - w a y area is d i v i d e d i n several plots f o r m i n g a chess - Extreme wind;
b o a r d o r a fishbone p a t t e r n ( F i g u r e 17.6) a n d vegetation is controlled successively i n - E x t r e m e ice loads;
one group o f plots i none year a n d maintenance carried out o n other plots o n the - C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice loads;
720 17 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 721

— L i g h t n i n g strokes; can b e h e l p f u l i n i d e n t i f y i n g t h e l o c a t i o n a n do r i e n t a t i o n o f displayed p a r t s o f t h e

— Conductor vibrations and galloping; structure. E a c h p h o t o g r a p h s h o u l d b e indicated o na sketch. I n t e r v i e w s w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s
— Avalanches: living i n the area of the failed line should b e m a d e asa n a d d i t i o n a l source of i n f o r m a t i o n .
— Landslides; I f t h e w i n d is suspected as t h e cause o f failure, damage t o s u r r o u n d i n g trees, buildings
— Flooding. e t c . s h o u l d b e l o o k e d f o r . T h e u s e o f t h e B e a u f o r t S c a l e (see c l a u s e 6.3.2) c a n p r o v i d e
External effects v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n a s t o t h e a p p r o x i m a t e w i n d velocity. R e p o r t [17.61] gives i n f o r -
— Sabotage, vandalism, theft o f members and bolts; m a t i o n o n i c e o b s e r v a t i o n s i nC a n a d a a n d [17.34, 17.62] p r o v i d e g u i d e l i n e s t o collect
— D a m a g e caused b y e q u i p m e n t a n d vehicles, airplanes, cranes, etc. ice d a t a o n o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s .
Structural deficiency A n y a t t e m p t s h o u l d b e m a d e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e trigger mechanism t h a t i n i t i a t e d t h e l i n e
— Design inadequacies o f structures; failures. Signs o f rust o n sheared surfaces indicate t h a t the bolt o r m e m b e r m a y have
— Missing members o r bolts caused b y vibration o r vandalism; partially failed previously; b u r n marks o n the conductor o r tower indicate initial point
— M i s f a b r i c a t e d m e m b e r s r e s u l t i n g i n incorrect size, l e n g t h o r grade o f steel; of discharge t o ground; missing o r loose bolts m a y give h i n t s t o sabotage. I f h a r d w a r e ,
— Inadequate foundations concerning concrete quality; insulators, conductors o roverhead earth wires are broken, they m a y have contributed t o
— Bad workmanship. t h e failure, s o m e severed specimens s h o u l d b e retrieved. I t m a y b e desirable t o r e m o v e
Conductor, earth wire and hardware deficiencies tower steel f r o m selected tower m e m b e r s for m a t e r i a l tests.
— I m p r o p e r w i r e splices d u e t o design a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n ; A search for d e s i g n i n a d e q u a c i e s s h o u l d b e d o n e s u c h as: C o n d u c t o r w e a k e r t h a n t o w e r s ,
— Faulty o r inadequate hardware; c o m b i n e d l o a d i n g p r o d u c i n g c r i t i c a l m e m b e r stress n o t p r e v i o u s l y considered, p r e m a -
— Fatigue failure o fwire o r hardware components; t u r e f o u n d a t i o n failures. W e a t h e r d a t a f r o m nearest weather s t a t i o n should b e asked for.
— Puncture o f insulators. T h e field d a t a n e e d t o b e s t u d i e d c a r e f u l l y , t r y i n g t o m a t c h field d a t a w i t h p o s t u l a t e d
C o n s t r u c t i o n related causes cause o f failure. I f the structure appears t o have failed below the design loads, a m o r e
— A l l k i n d s o f i n s t a l l a t i o n d e f i c i e n c y n o t d e t e c t e d d u r i n g final i n s p e c t i o n ; d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s m a y b e i n i t i a t e d , t a k i n g i n t o account secondary stresses d u e t o b e n d i n g
— Excess vertical load d u r i n g stringing; a n d n o n - l i n e a r i t i e s . C o n d u c t o r b e h a v i o u r a n d i t s p o t e n t i a l effect o n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
— E x c e s s l o n g i t u d i n a l l o a d d u r i n g s t r i n g i n g , e. g. c a u s e d b y r u n n i n g b o a r d h a n g i n g line system should b e examined.
u p i n the stringing block o r b y anchoring; A n i n i t i a l failure report s h o u l d b e p r e p a r e d d e t a i l i n g t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d o u t l i n i n g
— R e s i d u a l stresses caused b y overloading d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n ; the resulting conclusions. These should cover t h e following i n f o r m a t i o n :
— I m p r o p e r stringing sequence d u r i n g reconductoring. - L i n e t r i p p e d out o f service due t o structure failure: D i d the tower o r foundations
Operation related causes fail completely? W e r e adjacent towers affected?
— Overvoltages; - L i n e r e m a i n e d i n service even w i t h damaged structure: H a s the line t o b e t a k e n
—Pollution. o u t o f service t o repair d a m a g e ?
- T h e conclusions should define i f the damage was initiated b y foundation, struc-
ture, conductor o r hardware failure.
17.4.4.3 Investigation procedures
T h e utilities legal staff should review the initial report and determine i f there are any
T h e first p r i n c i p l e f o r investigation procedures consists i n avoiding p r e m a t u r e judge- legal problems involved. T h e initial report should b e circulated t o other utilities, com-
m e n t s a s t o a f a i l u r e c a u s e u n t i l a t h o r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s c o m p l e t e d . A t first i t ments should b e solicited. A l l the i n f o r m a t i o n gained d u r i n g the investigation process
should b e a t t e m p t e d t o eliminate events t h a t m a y not have happened. T h e n , several s h o u l d b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a final r e p o r t .
failure scenarios should b e postulated a n d t h e data e x a m i n e d t o seew h i c h one, if any,
is s u p p o r t e d b y t h e d a t a . W h e n p o s s i b l e , a t e a m a p p r o a c h s h o u l d b e u s e d i n t h e i n -
17.4.4.4 Experience o n line failures
vestigation. M e m b e r s o f the t e a m c a ncomplement o n eanother, and possibly supply
valuable theories a n d pieces o fi n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h m i g h t b e overlooked b y a n i n d i v i d u a l . A n investigation was carried o u t b y Cigre t h r o u g h a questionnaire i nthe period 1991
Prior t o visiting t h e site, a review should b e carried out o n the p l a n a n d profile, con- t o 1 9 9 6 , r e g a r d i n g transmission line failures t h a t o c c u r r e d a r o u n d t h e w o r l d [ 1 7 . 6 3 ] .
struction data, stringing m a n u a l and other pertinent design i n f o r m a t i o n .T h e equipment T h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n d o c u m e n t e d i n t h i s p r o j e c t a i m e d a t c o m p i l i n g failures of towers
u s e f u l f o r field i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d , s u c h a s p o c k e t s c a l e , c l o t h m e a s u r - a n d foundations and trying t o analyse t h e m inside a statistical approach. A total o f
ing t a p e , m i c r o m e t e r , notebooks, m a r k e r s , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n tags, safety gear, pocket t a p e a r o u n d 3 0 0failures was surveyed, i n v o l v i n g m o r e t h a n 1 700 towers. I n T a b l e 17.9, a
recorders, b i n o c u l a r s , p h o t o g r a p h i c e q u i p m e n t w i t h s t a n d a r d a n d teleobjective lens etc. s u m m a r y is presented o f t h e events reported. Some c o m m o n observations and realistic
If the line crews have already arrived a t the site f o r s t a r t i n g repair operations, t h e conclusions could b e extracted:
n e c e s s a r y p e r i o d o f t i m e s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d f o r a visual inspection o f t h e d a m a g e d l i n e - A t o t a l sample o fa r o u n d 50 000 k m o foverhead lines, i n v o l v i n g m o r e t h a n 100 000
section. A n overall picture o f t h e site a n d o f details m a y provide i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h towers, d u r i n g a n average period o f 15 years, experienced t h e failures analysed
c o u l d b e l o s t a f t e r t h e r e p a i r a c t i v i t y h a s s t a r t e d . T h e first i m p r e s s i o n o n s i t e s h o u l d in this project. T h e sample is statistically big enough t o permit deductions and
be recorded as i tcan result i n a m u l t i t u d e o f ideas a b o u t t h e failure. conclusions herein presented.¬
Sketches a n dnotes should b e prepared o f the damaged p o r t i o n o f t h e line, showing - T h e great m a j o r i t y o f t h e failures d o c u m e n t e d were o r i g i n a t e d f r o m causes t h a t
position o fconductors, insulators, towers, guy anchors, foundations and any indication c a n b e s t a t i s t i c a l l y t r e a t e d : W i n d , i c e o r w i n d p l u s ice, a l t h o u g h s u c h t r e a t m e n t
of t h e conductors h a v i n g been pulled across t h e g r o u n d . A reference coordinate s y s t e m h a d not been used i n t h e original project design.
 the original line design itself b u t f o rt h e redesign o r repair o f t h e failed towers,
fable 1 7 . 9 : S u m m a r y o f line failures as per origin
Cause of e s p e c i a l l y . O f t e n t h e design criteria f o r n e wlines were amended, based o n t h e
H V lines, voltage < 240 k V E H V lines, voltage > 240 k V
failure Events Towers SpecisJ cispccts Events TViurpr*; Special aspects
statistical r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e failures. I n o n e case, t h e feasibility a n d advantage
failed
L UW6IO
failed of using t h e probabilistic approach t u r n e d o u tevident. T h u s , t h e reappraisal o f
Wind 94 606 Hi§ii wind, cyclone, A*\
HD /.HA) high, wind, tornado, t h e lines after failures u n d e r a statistical a p p r o a c h proved t o b e a n efficient w a y
t hun d erstor rn thunderstorm, to establish a certain reliability level f o r t h a t line henceforth. A clear conclusion
cascading effect inadequate design is t h a t w h e n a f a i l u r e o c c u r s i n a l i n e , t h e s t a t i s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e l o a d s a s a
Ice 28 205 csscsding effect Q wet snow, ice,
y
f u n c t i o n o f t h e real spans a n d tower heights, c a nresult i nsignificant savings o n
cascading effect
the required reinforcements.
Wind and ice 65 122 snow and wind 16 21 no information
Broken conductor 4 16 - D u e t o t h e failure descriptions, h i g h costs i n c u r r e d i n t h e repairs, b o t h direct costs
or shield wire a n d lost-energy costs. S u c h h i g h costs o f r e p a i r s s h o w t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o r r e c t l y
Hardware 4 4 insulator Hardware fa
O c c h o o s i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y l e v e l f o r a l i n e , a s a l o w reliability level m e a n s g e n e r a l l y a
D bolt or hardware
failure f v r fain I T I T Y failure breakage, stress l o w i n i t i a l i n v e s t m e n t b u th i g h e r m a i n t e n a n c e a n d r e p a i r costs i n t h e f u t u r e a n d
Ol t_lQ-LLX^J l o l l ILL C .
corrosion corrosi on v i c e - v e r s a . A t r u e line optimization h a st o t a k e this p o i n t i n t o account.
Vandalism 1 j t A
sabotage, bolt
LfUlL 1 C l l i U V (ki , 111 L 1 L
o H Concerning t h esilhouettes a n dconstruction types o f the failed towers, n o ref-
removal, theft
erence is m a d e i n [17.63] t o concrete poles. J u s t o n e f a i l e d w o o d pole l i n e w a s
Impact of 3 3 f arming t r act or farming tractor
vehicles described. A m o n g the metallic towers, there is a wide v a r i a t i o no f types involved
airplane
Soil sliding, 8 17 overflow, avalanche
in t h e failures, self-supporting a n d guyed structures, steel poles etc.,w i t h n o
2 5 mud sliding
overflow apparent advantage o f one design type over the others.
Others 8 8 flood, fire 1 1 airplane clashing - T h e c h a n g e o f design criteria, especially regarding ice loads, h a s occurred fre-
Total 215 982 84 749 quently, as a consequence o f failures. I t seems that ice load criteria have been
often defined i nthe past w i t h o u t h a v i n g e n o u g h climatic m e a s u r e m e n t s o r expe-
rience. A s t h e t i m e passed, t h e occurrence o f failures a n d t h e execution o fm o r e ice
measurements have p e r m i t t e d the improvement o f the design criteria regarding
- T h e u s e o f statistical methods t o e v a l u a t e c l i m a t i c l o a d s w o u l d h a v e p r e v e n t e d
ice loads. I n [17.65] s u g g e s t i o n s a r e m a d e f o r d e s i g n i c e l o a d s i nG e r m a n y b a s e d
some o f t h e failures, o f course, if enough statistical d a t a h a d been available a t t h e
on the evaluation o f line failures.
time o f the projects. However, a better knowledge o f such phenomena, obtained
- T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f h i g h - w i n d e v e n t s k n o w n a s t r a n s v e r s e cascades o r c y c l o n i c
t h r o u g h measurements, w o u l d have l e dthe line designer t o increase their design
w i n d s r e s u l t i n g i n tower failures h a sbeen also r e p o r t e d , s h o w i n g t h a t t h e y a r e
loads i nregions prone t o higher w i n d s o r ice accretions. O n the other h a n d , line
not a rare phenomenon. These c a nrequire other design assumptions, as n o t y e t
designs i n regions o f m i l d e r w i n d o r iceactivities w o u l d have led t o m o r e economic
considered i n existing lines.
lines. T h i s p o i n t emphasized t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s t o install m o r e measurement
stations f o r c l i m a t i c v a r i a b l e s t o i m p r o v e t h e s t a t i s t i c a l d a t a .
- A m o n g all t h e events o f w h i c h some i n f o r m a t i o n o r a more detailed description
17.5 Reliability and availability
h a d b e e n r e c e i v e d , a v e r y l o w p e r c e n t a g e o f foundation failures w a s r e p o r t e d , a s
c o m p a r e d w i t h tower failures. T h u s , t h e e x t e n s i o n o f t h e p r o b a b i l i s t i c a p p r o a c h
17.5.1 Introduction and definitions
to the f o u n d a t i o n design, even w i t h a reliability level higher t h a n the o n eused f o r
the supports, could result i n more economic foundations and, therefore, i n global Reliability a n d availability o f t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s h a v e b e c o m e o f g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n t h e
cost savings. e x c h a n g e o f e l e c t r i c e n e r g y a f t e r t h e deregulation process o f t h e e l e c t r i c s y s t e m s . P r i v a t e
- E x a m i n i n g the failures under the viewpoint o f strength coordination, a few com- s u p p l i e r s a n d l i n e o w n e r s assess electric s y s t e m s u n d e r a set o fn e w m a r k e t c o n d i t i o n s , i n
m e n t s c a n b e m a d e o n t h esuggestions m a d e i n I E C 6 0826 [17.64]: S u s p e n s i o n w h i c h t h e continuity of services o f t h e e l e c t r i c s u p p l y i s o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e . I t i s
towers proved t obe really the weakest component, as compared w i t h angle towers, n o t possible t o design a power s y s t e m w i t h h u n d r e d percent reliability. However, power
d e a d - e n d t o w e r s a n d c o n d u c t o r s . T h e strength coordination within major com- s y s t e m managers a n d engineers strive t o o b t a i n t h e highest possible system reliability
ponents is seemingly tower, hardware, foundations, t h e foundations seem t o be w i t h i n their socio-economic constraints. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t e r m s listed i n clause 17.3.1,
the last c o m p o n e n t t o fail. W i t h i n t h e conductor system, t h e observed coordina- t h e list below shows basic definitions o f some m a i n i t e m s directly o r indirectly related
t i o n seems t o b e i n s u l a t o r s , h a r d w a r e , conductors, t h a t is, t h e conductors are t h e to l i n e p e r f o r m a n c e , reliability a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y (seealso [17.66]).
strongest component. T h u s , i tseems that failures d u et o conductor failure could
Absolute unavailability (%): Total unavailable time d i v i d e d b y period duration a n d
be t a k e n as a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t security loads were n o t adequately considered.
m u l t i p l i e d b y100.
I n g e n e r a l , i t c a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e s t r e n g t h c o o r d i n a t i o n s e t u p b y [17.64]
seems t o b e t h emost adequate a n d , therefore, b e kept as i t is. L i n e designers Forced energy unavailability ( F E U ) : I t is a n index that measures the percent ratio
keep i n m i n d m a k i n g t h e low-cost components, insulators a n d h a r d w a r e , stronger between the n u m b e r o f forced unavailable hours o f a line d u r i n g o n e year divided b y
t h a n the high-cost conductors. the total n u m b e r o f hours o f one year.
- T h e great m a j o r i t y o f the failures occurred i n lines w h i c h were only deterministi- Forced outage: T h e outage d u et o unscheduled p u t t i n g o u t o f service o f a circuit.I t
c a l l y t r e a t e d . I n f e w c a s e s , t h e u s e o f probabilistic methods w a s r e p o r t e d , n o t for refers t o a u t o m a t i c o r emergency de-energizing o f a circuit.
724 17 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.5 R e l i a b i l i t y a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y 7 2 5

Forced outage frequency (1/100 k m a ) : N u m b e r o f forced o u t a g e s d i v i d e d b y k i l o - 17.5.2 E n e r g y availability, general description a n d guidelines
meter a n d years.
17.5.2.1 Availability
Forced outage rate (FOR): Ratio between the m e a n time t orepair and the number
of hours per year. T h e availability is measured i n n u m b e r o f hours t h a t a n electric system is able t o
Forced u n a v a i l a b l e t i m e ( h ) : Elapsed time (hours) required t o completely restore perform its function. I t depends o n the individualavailability of every m a j o r component,
t h e circuit t o service after a forced outage. such as transformers, circuit breakers, i n s t r u m e n t transformers, bus bars a n d overhead
lines. Here, o n l y the availability o f t h e overhead lines is dealt w i t h , considering b o t h
Kilometer-year (km a): S u m m a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t o f l i n e o r c i r c u i t l e n g t h (km)
m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l a v a i l a b i l i t y . T h e mechanical availability o f t h e l i n e i s d e f i n e d
a n d the period d u r a t i o n (years) for t h e lines o r circuits.
on the base o f the following assumptions:
M a i n t a i n a b i l i t y : T h e ability o f a component o r element t o b e retained i no r t o b e - R i s k o f outage o f the line caused b y mechanical failure o f towers is computed
r e s t o r e d t o a s t a t e i n w h i c h i t c a n p e r f o r m a required function w h e n maintenance is according t o [17.64] b y
p e r f o r m e d using t h e required resources following stated procedures.
Pn = l / ( 2 T r ) , (17-17)
M e a n t i m e between failures (MTBF): Index that measures t h eaverage time w h e r e Pa i s t h e y e a r l y f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y a n d T r the return period o f ultimate
elapsed between t w o consecutive failures. loads.

M e a n t i m e t o r e p a i r ( M T T R ) (h/a): Average t i m e for repairing the non-scheduled - Risk o f outage o f the line caused b y mechanical failure o f other mechanical com-
failures, expressed i n hours per year. ponents is generally t a k e n as a ne m p i r i c a l value a t t h e order o f 3 0 % o f t h e risk
of a tower failure.
M e a n u n a v a i l a b i l i t y d u r a t i o n (h): T o t a l u n a v a i l a b l e t i m e s ( h o u r s ) d i v i d e d b y t h e
n u m b e r o f forced outages. T h e electric unavailability o f a line relates t o failures comprising three m a i n sources,
namely:
N u m b e r of forced outages: N u m b e r o f c i r c u i t r e l a t e d f o r c e d outages during the
- T h e failure rate o f t h e line as a consequence o f l i g h t n i n g discharges o n t h e line
period duration.
that m a y cause overvoltages and flashovers w i t h the following line outage. T h i s
O u t a g e d u r a t i o n : T h e time during which a circuit was incapable o f performing its k i n d o f f a i l u r e s i s m e a s u r e d w i t h t h e i n d e x forced outages/'(100 km • a);
r e q u i r e d f u n c t i o n w i t h i n a specified p e r i o d o f t i m e . - Flashovers caused b y switching overvoltages t h a t m a y exceed the line insulation.
P e r i o d d u r a t i o n (a): N u m b e r o f y e a r s o f o b s e r v a t i o n o f f o r c e d outages. I t s c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e u s u a l l y m e a s u r e d i n t e r m s o f flashover probability ( P O F ) a n d
its order o f m a g n i t u d e is usually s m a l l and i nt h e range o f one outage p e r 100
P l a n n e d or scheduled o u t a g e : T h e o u t a g e d u e t o t h e p r o g r a m m e d taking out of to 1000 switching operations. T h i s index is usually s m a l l and c a nb e neglected
service o f a circuit.
when determining line unavailability;
R e l a t i v e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y ( % / 1 0 0 k m ) : Total unavailability time (years) d i v i d e d b y - Flashovers caused b y power frequency overvoltages.
kilometer-years (100 k m a ) a n d m u l t i p l i e d b y 100. T h e r e l a t i v e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y i s e q u a l t o T h e s u m m a t i o n o f the mechanical a n d o f the. electrical unavailability o f a line com-
t h e p r o d u c t o f forced o u t a g e frequency ( 1 / ( 1 0 0 k m - a ) a n d p e r i o d d u r a t i o n (a) m u l t i p l i e d p o s e s t h e t o t a l unavailability o f t h e line. T h e availability o f t h e line is, therefore, the
by 100 o r absolute unavailabilityt i m e s 100 divided b y the line length. complement t o 100 % o f the unavailability.
T h e m e c h a n i c a l p o r t i o n o f forced energy unavailability (FEU) o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i s
Safety: T h e ability o f a n overhead line not t o cause injuries t o h u m a n s a n d animals
or loss o f lives. m a i n l y based o n the probability o f mechanical failures o f the weakest link, considered
t o b e t h e suspension t o w e r , according t o I E C 60826 [17.64]. I t d e p e n d s o n t h e a s s u m e d
Scheduled energy unavailability ( S E U ) : Index t h a t measures the percent ratio r e t u r n p e r i o d o f t h e c l i m a t i c loads causing t h e design stress. T h e failures o f a l l t h e
between the number o f unavailable hours o f a line i no n eyear divided b y the total other components such as conductors, insulators, foundations, can add not m o r e t h a n
n u m b e r o f hours o f one year (8760).
about 30 % t o the tower failures in order t o compose the mechanical unavailability.
S e c u r i t y : T h e a b i l i t y o f a n overhead line t o b e protected f r o m a m a j o r collapse (cas- T h e electric p o r t i o n o f t h e forced energy unavailability ( F E U ) o f a transmission line
cading effect) i f a f a i l u r e i s triggered i n a g i v e n c o m p o n e n t . depends p r e d o m i n a n t l y o n the probability o f electric failures produced b y lightning
overvoltages. T h e risk o f p e r m a n e n t outages associated w i t h l i g h t n i n g flashovers, that
S u s t a i n e d forced outage: Forced outage o f w h i c h the outage d u r a t i o n isone m i n u t e
or more. result i n unsuccessful reclosing operation o f the line, is considered as a n average o f
around 35 % o f the total lightning flashovers determining t h enumber o f line out-
T o t a l u n a v a i l a b l e t i m e (h): S u m m a t i o n o f f o r c e d unavailable times (hours) o f a ages/(100 k m - a ) as obtained b y different line performance assessment methods. T h e
circuit d u r i n g the period duration. average time to repair o f t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d f a u l t i s a s s u m e d t o b e b e t w e e n t w o a n d
Transient forced outage: Forced outage w h e n outage d u r a t i o n i s less t h a n o n e four hours, according t o utility experience.
minute. A s a second cause, i ts h o u l d b e considered the occurrence o f failures due t opower fre-
quency flashovers associated w i t h different causes, such as vegetation b u r n i n g under-
Unavailability: T h e state o f a component being unable t o p e r f o r m its required func-
n e a t h t h e line, branches o f trees touching o n the conductors, non-restorable flashovers,
tion.
associated w i t h breaking o f insulator shells. T h i s c o m p o n e n t accounts i n average t o 0,3
U n r e l i a b i l i t y : C o m p l e m e n t t o reliability or the probability o foccurrence o fa compo- events per year according t o utilities' experience. T h e average t i m e t orepair t h e above
nent or element failure. failure can b e assumed t o be about eight hours.
 A l l maintenance operations t h a t require switching off a n overhead line are considered
in the calculation o f the scheduled t i m e while the line m u s t b e out. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
o f t h e scheduled energy unavailability (SEU) a n d i t s r e d u c t i o n t o a m i n i m u m s h o u l d
take into account several measures such as:
- A r i g o r o u s p r o g r a m o f routine maintenance o n the line components should b e
established. S o i t w i l l b e i m p o r t a n t t o predict, detect, remove a n d replace f a u l t y
components, thus actually preventing the development o f permanent faults or
long-lasting line outages.
- A m i n i m u m o f spare components s u p p l i e d a n d s t o r e d i n c o n v e n i e n t l y
places along t h e line, so as t o speed u p emergency restorations.
- Live-line maintenance, either b ythe stick-rod m e t h o d orb ythe bare-hand
could b e p r o g r a m m e d for t h e line [17.67], i f p e r m i t t e d a n d adquate.
- T h e maintenance crews should b e planned t o b e sited s o as t o reach failure areas
or components inside not more t h a n few hours after the occurrence o f a failure
having the consequence o f an unscheduled outage.
- T h e lightning performance is predicted t o b e about one outage/(100 km-a) (see
c l a u s e 4 . 4 . 4 ) . A c o n v e n i e n t reclosing scheme c a n a v o i d t h a t a b o u t 6 5 % o f s u c h
outages degenerate i n t o p e r m a n e n t outages. T o keep t h a t performance, i tis i m -
p o r t a n t t h a t t h e n u m b e r o fb r o k e n i n s u l a t o r s per s t r i n g b e k e p t t h e lowest possible
through a nadequate preventive maintenance program.
The scheduled energy unavailability ism u c h higher t h a n the forced unavailability.
T h e energy availability (EA) i s d e f i n e d b y
E A = 100 - ( F E U + S E U ) .
W i t h the d a t a determined above, i t isobtained for t h e example
E A = 1 0 0 - ( 0 , 0 8 4 + 0,27) o r E A = 99,65 % .
T h e i n d e x E A d e t e r m i n e d above refers t o t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e scheduled a n d forced unavailability.
H o w e v e r , i norder t o d e t e r m i n e t h e index E A , v a l i d for t h e whole electric system, all o t h e r
located u n a v a i l a b i l i t y indices, related t o o t h e r components o ft h e s y s t e m , should also b e calculated a n d
added t o the line unavailability index. T h e n , t h e complement t o 100 % should be determined.
method According t o t h e calculations already performed, t h e s u m o f t h e forced outages considering
b o t h lightning a n d power frequency events are 3,5 + 0,3 = 3 , 8 M u r e s per year. T h e period
c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e f a i l u r e s i s 2 , 4 5 + 2 , 4 = 4 , 8 5 h o u r s ( r o u n d e d v a l u e 5 h o u r s ) . T h e mean
time between failure w i l l b e , t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e e x a m p l e
M T B F = 8760/3,8 - 5 = 2303 hours.
I f t i l l o u t a g e p e r i o d s o f t h e l i n e a r e d u l y a d d e d , i t r e s u l t s f o r t h e m e a n time to repair:
M T T R = 5,6 hours per year (rounded value M T T R 6 hours).
T h e forced outage rate (FOR) r e l a t e s t o f o r c e d o u t a g e s a n d i s t h e r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e m e a n t i m e
to repair a n d the n u m b e r o f hours per year. F o r t h e example, this index will be:

FOR = 6 • 100/8760 = 0,068 % .

17.5.2.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of energy availability, e x a m p l e

T h e m a i n indices o f a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d reliability as described a n d defined above w i l l b e presented

by means of a n example. A 500 k V line, 350 k m long, will b e considered i n this example, a n d t h e 17.6 L i n e refurbishment, upgrading and uprating
n u m b e r o f line outages due t o l i g h t n i n g will be taken as 1/(100 k m a), resulting i n a n average
n u m b e r o f 3,5 o u t a g e s / a . 17.6.1 Definitions
The proposed unavailability t o be expected can be determined as follows:
T h e need o f n e w Knes, also adopting higher voltages, t o increase t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
- Mechanical unavailabilityo f the towers follows f r o m (17.17) assuming a r e t u r n period o f
150 a for u l t i m a t e loads a n d considering a n average failure d u r a t i o n o f 7 days. According capacity o f existing t r u n k s has existed permanently, as the load g r o w t h and system
to [17.62], t h e l i n e l e n g t h a b o v e 100 k m m a y b e considered b y increasing t h e p r o b a b i l i t y development continue t ob e significant. However, obtaining n e w servitude and corridors
of e x t r e m e load and associated failures i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e l e n g t h o f a line. F o r t h e line i n becomes increasingly difficult and expensive.
q u e s t i o n , t h e r e t u r n p e r i o d o f t h e u l t i m a t e l o a d w o u l d b e 1 5 0 • ( 1 0 0 / 3 5 0 ) PS 4 3 a . H e n c e , T h e r e f o r e , t a k i n g advantage o fexisting overhead lines a n d i m p r o v i n g t h e i r t r a n s m i s s i o n
f o r c e d u n a v a i l a b l e t i m e i s ( 1 / ( 4 3 • 2 ) ) • 2 4 • 7 ~ 2 , 0 h / a o r P f l m = 2 , 0 • 1 0 0 / 8 7 6 0 = 0 , 0 2 2 %. capacities, has been a n extensively used tool. T h e n , n e w servitude are not required.
- Mechanical unavailability o f other components is considered not t o exceed 3 0 % o f the T h e increased use o fexisting lines a n d rights-of-way can b e achieved b y three methods:
unavailability o f the towers
- Increasing thq power transmitted b y the line through increasing the conductor
•Pram = 0 , 3 - 0 , 0 2 2 = 0 , 0 0 7 % .
design temperature, o r alternatively, b yreplacing conductors o r b y increasing the
Therefore, the mechanical unavailability is 0,029 % in total.
- T h e electric unavailability i s d u e t o u n s u c c e s s f u l r e c l o s i n g o p e r a t i o n s a n d t o f a i l u r e s a t v o l t a g e , o r b o t h , d e f i n e d a s uprating;
p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e . I n t h e first c a s e , i t i s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t 3 5 % o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s - I n c r e a s i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e l i n e , d e f i n e d a s upgrading a n d
a r e n o t successful a n d t h a t e v e r y l i n e o u t a g e lasts t w o h o u r s i n average: - Repair o fdamaged components o r restoring their capacities, defined as refurbish-
P n e i = 0,35 - 3 , 5 - 2 = 2,45 h / a o r
ment.
Pn e i = 2,45/8760 -100 = 0,028 % . T h e first m e t h o d - uprating - c a n b e p r a c t i c a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e d e s i g n
F r o m adverse w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e , 0,3 e v e n t s per year are t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e existing conductors i f t h e y are n o t t ob e changed, o r b y u s i n g bigger
assumed lasting o naverage eight hours: conductor cross sections, o r other types w i t h higher current r a t i n g .
Pf2ei = 0 , 3 - 8 = 2 , 4 h or A n o t h e r t y p e o f u p r a t i n g consists i n increasing t h e i n s u l a t i o n levels, i f feasible, o r
Pn ei = 2 , 4 / 8 7 6 0 - 1 0 0 = 0 , 0 2 7 % . compacting t h eline, t h a t w i l l eventually operate w i t h lower i n s u l a t i o n levels f r o m
T h e r e f o r e , t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c a l u n a v a i l a b i l i t y i s 0 , 0 5 5 %. thereon i fthe compaction would not b e viable b y keeping insulation o n the original
T h e s u m m a r y o f t h e predicted u n a v a i l a b i l i t y f o rt h e e x a m p l e is: M e c h a n i c a l u n a v a i l a b i l i t y : level.
0 , 0 2 9 %, e l e c t r i c a l u n a v a i l a b i l i t y : 0 , 0 5 5 %. T h e r e f o r e , t h e forced enerqy unavailability (FEU) i s T h e s e c o n d m e t h o d - upgrading - r e f e r s t o t h e l i n e c o m p o n e n t s s u c h a s t o w e r s , c o n -
0 , 0 8 4 %.
ductors, foundations so as t o increase t h e line reliabilitylevel, for instance b y reducing
T h e scheduled unavailability for the transmission lines is based o n a p p r o x i m a t e l y three out-
ages/year, w i t h a n average d u r a t i o n o feight h o u r s per outage reaching a scheduled unavailabil- the a n n u a l risk o f failure f r o m 2 • 1 0 " 2 t o level 10 - 2 ' 5

ity of The t h i r d m e t h o d - refurbishment - consists simply i nrenovating the deteriorated

or weathered line components, so restoring their ability t o a sound operation w i t h o u t
S E U = 3 - 8 - 1 0 0 / 8 7 6 0 = 0 , 2 7 %.
upgrading or uprating.
 728 17 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.6 L i n e r e f u r b i s h m e n t , u p g r a d i n g a n d u p r a t i n g 7 2 9

a A b n

V V
V
\ T \ 7 ~ ~\7^7
I 1 i
F i g u r e 17.9: Profile o fthe 220/380 k V
4 circuits 220 kV 2 circuits 380 kV river Weser crossing
twin bundle ACSR 240/40 triple bundle ACSR 340/30 F i g u r e 17.8: Conversion o f a
Pm = 2080 MVA P m = 3030 MVA 220 k V four-circuit line t oa line
2 circuits 110 kV w i t h t w o circuits 3 8 0 k V a n d g i t u d i n a l a n d v e r t i c a l loads. I n [17.68], s o m e e x a m p l e s for u p r a t i n g are represented. A
single conductor ACSR 560/50
t w o circuits 110 k V four-circuit line i n G e r m a n y installed i n1965 a n d situated i n t h e highly-industrialized
ft.= 400 MVA
'th~ a before conversion; R u h r area, had been equipped w i t h four circuits o ft w i n bundle 2 4 3 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A .
Capacity 2080 MVA Capacity 3700 MVA b after conversion Closing o fa380 k V ring was o n l y possible using this existing right-of-way a n d m a i n t a i n -
ing t h e sites for 2 2 tension a n d 13 suspension towers. D u r i n g t h e approval procedures,
17.6.2 Uprating a n agreement w a s achieved w i t h the authorities t o transfer a parallel 110 k V d i s t r i b u -
17.6.2.1 Current uprating tion line t o the line under construction and t o abandon this right-of-way. Due t o the
high n u m b e r o f residential areas along t h e right-of-way, n o tower site could b e moved
I f t h e voltages a n dt h econductors a r e t ob e k e p t , t h ec u r r e n t c a n b e increased b y a n d t h e w i d t h o f t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y a n d t o w e r heights n o t b e changed. T h e selected tower
a m e n d i n g t h e l i n e f o r a h i g h e r c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e . I f a l i n e w a s p l o t t e d u s i n g 50°C top g e o m e t r y ( F i g u r e 17.8) takes i n t o account t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t s .
as t h e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d i t i s i n t e n d e d t o increase t h e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e T o a r r i v e a t t h e p l a n n i n g target o f3300 M W t r a n s m i s s i o n capacity, a decision h a d
t o 80°C, w h a t w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o a b o u t 3 0 % m o r e p o w e r , a c o m p l e t e r e d e s i g n o f t o b em a d e o n t h e 3 8 0k V circuits t o u s ea q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A o r a
the line should b e carried o u t , i n order t o solve clearance-to-ground a n d clearance-to- triple bundle 3 8 2 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A . I n view o f the more favourable swinging properties,
obstacles problems w h i c h m a y arise a t t h e n e w conductor t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e activities t h e t r i p l e b u n d l e w a s finally s e l e c t e d . T h e t o t a l c a p a c i t y w a s i n c r e a s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
required are usually as follows: by 1 600 M W .
- D i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f conductor temperatures a n dclearances o fconductor t o I n order t ocomply w i t h t h estipulations concerning clearances, sags a n dw i d t h s o f
g r o u n d o r t o o b s t a c l e s . A field c h e c k i s a l s o r e c o m m e n d e d o f t h e s p a n l e n g t h s , right-of-way, conductor tensile forces v a r y i n g b y ± 7,5 % w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l line
t o w e r heights, c o n d u c t o r tensions, etc. E v e n t u a l l y , a n e w t o p o g r a p h i c s u r v e y m a y sections were adopted. N e w tower tops w i t h adjusted insulation, n e w conductors and
be required. M o d e r n tools have been developed i nt h e recent years f o r s u r v e y i n g reinforcement o f foundations a n d tower bodies were necessary f o rt h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
exactly t h e existing conditions o f a line b y laser scanning (seeclause 15.3.2.2). of the modifications.
- U s i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s o r a n e w s u r v e y (see clause 15.3.6) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l
design d a t a , i f available, t h e line s h o u l d b e redesigned s o t h a t t h e least a n d 17.6.2.3 R e p l a c e m e n t of e a r t h w i r e by optical cables (OPGW)
cheapest modifications are required, only.
A n o t h e r k i n d o f modification t h a t has become very c o m m o n i n existing overhead lines
- Agreement should be made between operating and maintenance personnel about
the schedule o f w o r k s required a t t h e line, s ot h a t w o r k i n g procedures either a t is t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f o n e o r t w o c o n v e n t i o n a l e a r t h w i r e s b y O P G W . T h e o p t i c a l cables
live-line o r dead-line can b e established, w i t h n o o r m i n i m u m line outages. are a i m e d a t t r a n s m i t t i n g t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n signals a n d t h e u s e o f overhead lines for
C o m m o n modifications for this k i n d o f current u p r a t i n g o f a n existing line are: such purposes has t u r n e d o u t advantageous (seeC h a p t e r 8 ) .
- Replacement o f existing structures b y higher structures i n order t o increase con-
d u c t o r heights a n d , therefore, clearances o f conductor t o g r o u n d a n d t o obstacles. 17.6.3 Upgrading
T h i s activity usually requires some line outages, unless a provisional parallel line
17.6.3.1 Introduction
section is built.
- I n s e r t i o n o f structures a t m i d s p a n position t o increase conductor heights. A s i n A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n c l a u s e 1 7 . 3 . 1 , upgrading m e a n s i n c r e a s i n g t h e o r i g -
t h e l a t t e r case, t h i s w o r k requires s o m e h o u r s o f l i n e outages. inal mechanical o r electric strength o f aline o r a component, e.g.t o adjust t h e line t o
- R e s t r i n g i n g o fconductors a n d e a r t h wires, t oincrease conductor heights. T h i s job h i g h e r m e t e o r o l o g i c a l actions. I nt h i s case, i t s h o u l d b ea i m e d a t r e d u c i n g t h e p r o b a -
requires some line outages aswell. T h e mechanical resistance o f t h e structures bility o f f a i l u r e b y o n eorder o f m a g n i t u d e , e. g. f r o m 2•1 0 - 2 t o 2• 1 0 " 3 because o f t h e
should b e checked as higher l o n g i t u d i n a lloads will b e applied t o t h e m . E v e n t u a l l y uncertainties i n t h e basic data.
field t e s t s o n c o m p o n e n t s , s u c h a s s t r u c t u r e s o r f o u n d a t i o n s , m a y b e n e c e s s a r y .
17.6.3.2 Upgrading of a 380/220 k V river crossing i n G e r m a n y
17.6.2.2 U p r a t i n g b y reconductoring or voltage increase
I n 1968, at r a n s m i s s i o n line comprising t w o 380/220 k V circuits w i t h t r i p l e b u n d l e 434-
Voltage increase o r reconductoring m a y impose a n e wset o fload conditions t o t h e A L 1 / 5 6 - S T 1 A and t w o 220 k Vcircuits w i t h single 4 3 4 - A L 1 / 5 6 - S T 1 A was constructed
supports. T h u s , the structural design should b ere-evaluated f o rn e w transverse, lon- across t h eriver Weser i n G e r m a n y . T h et w o suspension towers reached a height o f
 12,40m I conversion increased t h e limit ice load t o6 0N / m . According t oiceload observations,
these loads m a y b e e x p e c t e d every 2 0a n d 200 years, respectively [17.65], t h u s c o m p l y i n g
w i t h t h e target o fr e d u c i n g t h e risk o ff a i l u r e b yo n e order o f m a g n i t u d e .
Towers a n d foundations were f o u n d not t ob estrong enough for t h e increased loads a n d
were upgraded. A s a n example, upgrading o ffoundation should b e described here. T h e
c o n c r e t e b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n s o f five t e n s i o n t o w e r s r e c e i v e d l o a d s i n c r e a s e d b y 3 2 0 k N .
U p g r a d i n g w a s a c h i e v e d b y a r r a n g i n g flat r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s l a b s b e t w e e n t h e t w o
p e r m a n e n t l y uplift-loaded foundations (Figure 17.11). T h e increase o fs t r e n g t h capacity
was obtained f r o m t h e dead weight o ft h e concrete slab a n d the soil w h i l e t h e uplift
capacity o ft h e r e m a i n i n g concrete blocks c a n b e used a sl o n g a s i tw i l l n o t b e affected
by the upgrading measures.

17.7 References
17.1 D I N V D E 0105-100: O p e r a t i o n o f electrical installations. Berlin, D K E , 2000

17.2 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s

- C o m m o n specifications; Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2 0 0 1

17.3 I S O 9002: Q u a l i t y systems. M o d e l for q u a l i t y assurance i n p r o d u c t i o n , i n s t a l l a t i o n and

servicing. Geneva, I S O , 1998

F i g u r e 1 7 . 1 1 : Upgrading a tension tower founda- 1 7 . 4 I S O 9 0 0 3 : Q u a l i t y s y s t e m s . M o d e l f o r q u a l i t y a s s u r a n c e i n final i n s p e c t i o n a n d t e s t s .

F i g u r e 17.10: Reinforcement o f tion (380/110 k V line Kastenweiher-Hausen, Ger-
a leg m e m b e r many)
134 m ( F i g u r e 17.9). T h e line has b e e n i no p e r a t i o n w i t h o u t a n y p r o b l e m s since c o m -
missioning.
T h e line h a d been designed according t o the G e r m a n standard valid a tthe t i m e o f
construction. M o r e recently, the utility i ncharge decided t o analyse the reliability o f
the crossing under amended load assumptions and, i findicated, t oupgrade strength
w i t h t h e a i m o fr e d u c i n g t h e risk o ff a i l u r e b y o n eorder o f m a g n i t u d e .
A t the reference height o f7 0 m , the u l t i m a t e w i n d pressure a t design was 1600 N / m 2
while 2080 N / m 2 was used for upgrading. A s s u m i n g a gust factor o f 2,6according t o
[17.64], t h e reference 1 0m i n w i n d velocities 1 0m a b o v e g r o u n d w e r e o b t a i n e d t o b e
31,3 m / s a n d 36,0 m / s .
T h e reference w i n d velocity 1 0m above g r o u n d i s32,0 m / sh a v i n g a r e t u r n period o f
50 a. Therefore, t h e w i n d load f o rw h i c h t h e line h a d been o r i g i n a l l y designed w o u l d
be e x p e c t e d every 3 5years a n d t h a t used for redesign every 300 years.
T h e suspension towers o f t h e crossing h a dl e g m e m b e r s consisting o f t w o cruciform
high-tensile angle sections L 2 0 0 x l 6 . T h e characteristic compression load was 2350 k N
a n d reached 2 965 k N under the modified load assumptions. T h e reinforcement w a s
a challenging t a s k i nt h i s case a n d w a ssolved b y a d d i n g t w o a d d i t i o n a l high-tensile
sections L 1 5 0 x 6 0 ( F i g u r e 17.10). E x i s t i n g a n d n e w leg m e m b e r sections w e r e connected
by b a t t e n p l a t e s a t distances o f700 m ma d o p t i n g prestressed h i g h - t e n s i l e bolts.
T h i s e x a m p l e proves t h a t lattice steel towers m a d e o f o p e n h o t - r o l l e d angle sections,
in contrast t oother support types, can b e reinforced f o r higher loads w i t h acceptable
investment.
Geneva, I S O , 1998
17.5 W e n n e r , F . : A m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g soil r e s i s t i v i t y . Scientific p a p e r s o f t h e B u r e a u o f
S t a n d a r d s 285 (1917), pp. 469 t o 478
17.6 Nolasco, J . F . : 220 k V lines A g u a y t i a - T i n g o M a r i a - P a r a m o n g a : S u m m a r y o f the
project and engineering studies. L i m a , U n i v e r s i t y 1996
1 7 . 7 S e n d a u l a , M . e t a l . : A n a l y s i s o f e l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c fields. I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r
A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 103, N o . 2 , 1984
1 7 . 8 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 0 9 : E l e c t r o m a g n e t i c f i e l d s - E l e c t r i c fields o f o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s
- R e l a t i o n b e t w e e n e l e c t r i c field a n d o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e c o s t s . W o r k i n g G r o u p
Report, 1991
17.9 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 1 : G u i d e t o v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s o n overhead lines. E l e c t r a 163
(1995), pp. 125 t o 137
17.10 I E E E P a p e r 3 1 C P 65-156: S t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f conductor v i b r a t i o n measurements. I E E E
Transactions o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 85, N o . 1 , 1965
17.11 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 4 : E n d u r a n c e capability o fconductors - F i n a l report. Paris, 1988
17.12 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 2 : R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g . E l e c t r a N o . 197(2002), pp. 3 3 t o 4 7
17.13 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 2 : Description o f state o f t h e a r t m e t h o d s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r m a l rating
o f l i n e s i n r e a l - t i m e a n d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n i n o p t i m i z i n g p o w e r flow. C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 4 ,
2000
17.14 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 1 2 : Probabilistic d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f conductor current ratings. Electra
164(1996), pp. 103 t o 1 1 7

17.15 C i b u l k a , L . e t al.: P G & E ' s transmission line d y n a m i c t h e r m a l rating system. Cigre

17.6.3.3 U p g r a d i n g o f a 3 8 0 / 1 1 0 k V l i n e i n v i e w o f i n c r e a s e d i c e loads R e p o r t 22-102, 1992
T h e line h a d originally been designed f o r a characteristic i c eload o n conductors o f 17.16 D a v i s , M . W . : T h e r e a l - t i m e t h e r m a l r a t i n g system for strategic overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n
8,2 N / m w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o a l i m i t ice l o a d o f3 8 N / m . T h e a s s u m p t i o n a d o p t e d for lines. P a r t 1. I E E E Transactions o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 96, 1977
732 17 C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d line m a n a g e m e n t
1 7 . 1 7 F o s s , S . D . e t a l . : C o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s e n s o r a n d l a b o r a t o r y field t e s t e v a l u a t i o n .
I E E E Transactions on Power A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 102(1983), pp. 1865 t o 1873
1 7 . 1 8 S e p p a , T . O . e t a l . : U s e o f o n - l i n e t e n s i o n m o n i t o r i n g s y s t e m s f o r r e a l - t i m e r a t i n g s , ice
l o a d s a n d o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l effects. C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 1 0 2 , 1998
17.19 Seppa, T . O . et al.: Accurate ampacity d e t e r m i n a t i o n : T e m p e r a t u r e - s a g m o d e l for op-
erational real-time ratings. I E E E Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems V o l
10(1995), pp. 1460 to 1470
17.20 Seppa, T . O . et a l . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f r e a l - t i m e t h e r m a l r a t i n g s for o p t i m i z i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n
line i n v e s t m e n t a n d o p e r a t i o n decisions. C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 1 , 2000
17.21 Douglass, D . A . et al.: I E E E ' s approach for increasing transmission line ratings i n N o r t h
A m e r i c a . Cigre R e p o r t 22-302, 2000
17.22 S o t o , F . et al.: Increasing t h e capacity of overhead lines i n t h e 400 k V S p a n i s h t r a n s m i s -
sion network: R e a l - t i m e t h e r m a l ratings. Cigre Report 22-211, 1998
17.23 M u f t i c , D . et a l . : O v e r h e a d lines a m p a c i t y i n t h e E u r o p e a n i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n . C i g r e R e p o r t
.22-104, 1992
17.24 Palazuelos, E . et a l . : C o n d u c t o r t h e r m a l r a t i n g , m e t h o d o l o g y a n d analysis C i g r e R e p o r t
22-105, 1992
17.25 S t e p h e n , R . ; M u f t i c , D . : D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t h e r m a l r a t i n g a n d u p r a t i n g m e t h o d s for
existing lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-305, 2000
1 7 . 2 6 V o g n i l d , L . H . ; F i k k e , S. M . : U t i l i z i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l d a t a f o r p e a k l o a d r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r -
a t u r e a n d a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e for conductor r a t i n g s i n system p l a n n i n g a n d operation.
Cigre R e p o r t 22-103, 1992
17.27 Seppa, T . O.: I m p r o v i n g asset u t l i z a t i o n of t r a n s m i s s i o n lines by r e a l - t i m e r a t i n g
S P M E d m o n t o n , 1999
17.28 Cherchiglia, L . © L . et a l . : C E M I G experience i n i m p r o v i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n line l i g h t n i n g
performance using a lightning location system. Cigre R e p o r t 33-207, 2002
17.29 B e r n s t e i n , R . et a l . : L i g h t n i n g detection n e t w o r k a v e r t s d a m a g e a n d speeds r e s t o r a t i o n .
I E E E C o m p u t e r A p p l i c a t i o n i n P o w e r 9 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 2 , p p . 12 t o 1 7
17.30 K a p p e m a n n , J . G.; v a n H o u s e , D . L . : L o c a t i o n - c e n t r e d m i t i g a t i o n of lightning-caused
disturbances. I E E E Computer Applications i n Power 9(1996)4, pp. 36 to 40
1 7 . 3 1 F i k k e , S. M . et a l . : R e m o t e m o n i t o r i n g o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s o n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i n
Norway. Cigre R e p o r t 22-103, 1998
17.32 H a r d y , C. et a l . : M o n i t o r i n g t h e effect o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s o n H y d r o Q u e b e c ' s o v e r -
head line. Cigre R e p o r t 22-101, 1998
17.33 I E C 6 1 7 7 4 / T R : M e t e o r o l o g i c a l d a t a for assessing c l i m a t i c loads. G e n e v a , I E C , 1998
17.34 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 0 6 : G u i d e l i n e s for o b s e r v a t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t o f ice l o a d i n g s o n over-
head power lines. Paris, Cigre Brochure N o . 179, 2001
17.35 F i n k , D . ©; B e a t y , H . W . : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k f o r e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r s . N e w Y o r k , M c
G r a w - H i l l , 1 2 t h edition 1987
1 7 . 3 6 D o b l e , F . ©: P r o g r e s s i n field t e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r s . E l e c t r i c a l W o r l d , V o l . 8 1 ( 1 9 2 3 )
1397
17.37 de T o u r r e i l , C; I s h i w a r i , M . : Assessment o f t h e s t a t e o f i n s u l a t o r s o n l i v e t r a n s m i s s i o n
lines. Cigre R e p o r t 01-04, 2000
17.7 References 733
17.38 D e N i g r i s , M . et a l . : Diagnostic m e t h o d s of non-ceramic i n s u l a t o r s for H V lines. Cigre
Report 22-207, 2000
17.39 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 3 : M a n a g e m e n t of existing overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. P a r i s , Cigre
B r o c h u r e N o . 175, 2001
17.40 D r u c k e r , P. F . : M a n a g e m e n t : T a s k s , responsibilities, practices. N . N . , H a r p e r & R o w , 1973
17.41 P o h l m a n , J . © et al.: P r a c t i c a l steps for increasing availability of existing overhead
transmission lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-105, 2000
17.42 C a r t e r , © N . et a l . :W o r k i n g i n a m a r k e t - d r i v e n electricity supply i n d u s t r y : M o d i f i c a t i o n s
t o U K overhead transmission line w o r k i n g practice. Cigre R e p o r t 22-201, 2000
17.43 D I N 3 1 0 5 1 : P h y s i c a l assets m a i n t e n a n c e ; d e f i n i t i o n s a n d actions. B e r l i n , D I N , 1985
17.44 G r i d Services: C o r o n a n e t spy s y s t e m . Catalogue. K a r l s r u h e , G r i d Services G m b H , 2001
17.45 K o h l m e y e r , A . ; P o h l m a n n , H . : C o n d i t i o n o f old lattice steel t o w e r s - E v a l u a t i o n of d a m -
ages, description o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n concepts. C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 1 , 1994
17.46 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 7 : R e f u r b i s h m e n t and upgrading of foundations. Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e
No. 1 4 1 , 1999
17.47 C h o n e , F . et al.: Assessment of existing overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines a n d solutions for
extending their residual lifetime. Cigre Report 22-201, 2000
17.48 M a d d o c k , B . J . et al.: S o m e investigation of t h e ageing of overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t
22-09, 1988
1 7 . 4 9 A S T M E 3 7 6 : M e a s u r i n g c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s b y m a g n e t i c field o r e d d y - c u r r e n t (electro-
magnetic) test methods. N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1976
IEEE
17.50 P i r o v a n o , G . e t a ! . : Diagnostics of compression j o i n t s of conductors for H V overhead lines.
Cigre Report 22-206,1998
17.51 O r m i n , J . ; Bartsch, J.: Hot-line inspection and control of joints. Cigre R e p o r t 22-203,
1998
17.52 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 3 : A n in-service diagnostic testing of composite insulators. E l e c t r a
169(1996), pp. 105 t o 119
17.53 Delree, X . et al.: Inspection policy of existing overhead lines a n d assessment methodology
based o n practical experience. Cigre R e p o r t 22-302, 1994
17.54 R a y m o n d , W - : Replacing conductors on a high-voltage overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n line.
Siemens Power Engineering (1990), pp. 9 1 to 94
17.55 T h i o n e , L . : A n overview of live-line diagnostic techniques. Cigre R e p o r t P l - 0 2 , 2000
17.56 G e l a , ©: L i v e w o r k i n g and maintenance techniques. Cigre R e p o r t P l - 0 3 , 2000
17.57 I E C 60 743: T e r m i n o l o g y for tools a n d e q u i p m e n t t o be used i n live w o r k i n g . Geneva,
IE© 1995
17.58 I E E E : R e c o m m e n d a t i o n for safety i n live-line maintenance. I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n o n P o w e r
A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 57 (1999)
17.59 I E C 6 1 4 7 2 : L i v e w o r k i n g , m i n i m u m approach distances; m e t h o d of calculation. Geneva,
pp I E C , 1998
17.60 D r a x l e r , R . et a l . : N e w aspects of r i g h t - o f - w a y m a n a g e m e n t for high-voltage power lines.
N e w Orleans, E P R I , the sixth i n t e r n a t i o n a ls y m p o s i u m on e n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns i n
rights-of-way m a n a g e m e n t , 1997
734 17 C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d l i n e m a n a g e m e n t

17.61 Bell, N . ; et al.: Increasing t h e reliability of transmission lines rebuilt after t h e J a n u a r y

1 9 9 8 ice s t o r m . C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 1 0 6 , 2 0 0 0 Index
17.62 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 0 6 : P r o b a b i l i s t i c design of overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. P a r i s , Cigre
B r o c h u r e N o . 178, 2001
( n — 1 ) c r i t e r i o n 5, 6 8 9 alloy 198
17.63 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 0 6 : R e v i e w o f I E C 6 0 8 2 6 L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h of overhead power lines. ( n —2) design c r i t e r i o n 18 cladding
Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 109, 1996 50 % withstand voltage 53 thickness 204
uniformity 204
17.64 I E C 6 0 8 2 6 : L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h of overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Geneva, I E C , 1991 AAC 204 conductor
AACSR 207 external corrosion 710
17.65 K i e f i l i n g , F . ; R u h n a u , J . : Ice loads a n d t h e i r effects o n r e l i a b i l i t y a n d design of o v e r h e a d
A C resistance 8 1 , 225 corrosion rate 710
line. 6 t h International W o r k s h o p on Atmospheric Icing of Structures. Budapest, 1993
acceptance hard drawn 198
17.66 B i l l i n g t o n , R . et al.: P o w e r system reliability calculations. Massachussets and L o n d o n , certificate 681 hollow conductor 221
T h e M I T Press, 1973 criteria 271, 274 m a g n e s i u m alloy 199
procedure 678 thermal-resistant 203
17.67 T h i o n e , L . : A n overview of live-line w o r k i n g a n d m a i n t e n a n c e techniques. Cigre R e p o r t record 681 ambient condition 224
P01-01, 2000 access r o a d 17, 6 2 2 amortization 228
maintenance 719 ampacity 225
17.68 Kiefiling, F . et a l . : U p g r a d i n g h i g h - v o l t a g e lines for increase t h e i r capacity a n d m i t i g a t e accidental action 453 amplitude-frequency-matrix 338
environmental impacts. Cigre R e p o r t 22-208, 1998 ACSR 207 anchor
adhesion strength 378 bolt 442
adiabatic process 224, 244
foundation 522, 630
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of plans, lists a n d docu-
resistance 522
ments 617
anchoring
a d m i x t u r e 6 3 1 , 633
length 522, 523
a d o p t i o n of u n d e r g r o u n d cables 577
of leg m e m b e r s t u b 523
adverse weather conditions 31
angle
aeolian
of w i n d a t t a c k 72
vibration 217, 2 2 1 , 322, 685, 710
section 406
performance 207
back-to-back 375,409
aeolian noise 287
cruciform 406,409
aerial
supplemented 425
cable 306
thin 407
metal-reinforced 308
support 370
w i t h o p t i c a l fibres 3 1 2
angle point
photogrammetry 598
fixing of 596
photograph 574
surveying 600
w a r n i n g sphere 682
angular ultrasonic test head 275
a g g r e g a t e m a x i m u m p a r t i c l e size 636
a n n u a l loss 4
aggressiveness of w a t e r a n d soil 485
agricultural terrain 593 annual utilization period 228, 229
air 582 a n t e n n a s t r u c t u r e 176
approval inspection 705
density 164
arcing
gap 282
distance 284
distance determination 54
factor 53 horn 313
airfield 595 protection 313
airport 595 fitting 267, 279, 280, 313
aisle i n forest 593 armor grip suspension ( A G S ) 306
A l / C u b i m e t a l 310 armor r o d suspension ( A R S ) 306
Aldrey 199 assembly by elevation m e t h o d 645
alignment 600 assessment
Almelec 199,206 of visual impact 584
alternating bending strain 331 assessment of landscape 582
a l t e r n a t i n g bending stress 207, 236, 305 attached cable 253
altitude factor 283 attachment
aluminium height 361
-magnesium-silicon alloy 201 point 187
-steel conductor 199 attenuation constant 93
736 Index
Index 737

audible noise 36, 40, 42, 218, 234, 286 b o n d stress 522 capacity t o d e f o r m a t i o n 379 climatic load
auger-bored f o u n d a t i o n 507, 626 bonding surface 276 cascade arcing 2 9 1 evaluation
geotechnical design 508 borehole cast m o u l d 267 statistical m e t h o d 722
authorisation of overhead lines 579 arrangement 376 casting/rolling process 2 0 1 closing operation 5
a u t o m a t e d l a n d register m a p 600 log 485, 516 catenary 540, 542 coating
automatic boring 477 curve 542 damage 379
reclosing 50, 247 bracing 376 parameter 545 of structure 680
automatically processed land m a p 615 arrangement 402 parameter 333 coefficient
availability 2 1 , 694, 723, 725 member strength 423 cathodic protection 714 of passive e a r t h pressure 500
avalanche 188 staggered 401 cement 631 of t h e r m a l expansion 206, 209
Average Customer Interruption Frequency branch-off clamp 305 m i n i m u m content 636 of v a r i a t i o n 1 6 1 , 188
Index 30 breaking strain 203 s t r e n g t h class 6 3 8 cohesive soil 474
avifauna 575, 582, 591 breeding area 592 centre line beacon 596, 600 collector ring 286
brine 292 ceramic r a w material 262 c o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice
back-flashover 46, 50, 105-108, 243 brittle chainette arrangement 590 action 183
failure 110 failure 268 chainette tower 11 load 372
ball a n d socket connection 313 fracture 380 characteristic force 460 commercial operation 686
barehand w o r k 716 bronze 206 charge commissioning 678
basic buckling matrix 36 test 686
i n s u l a t i o n level 5 1 , 109 case 4 0 4 voltage 37 compact
surge insulation level 47 curve 400, 403 chemical preservative treatment 461 foundation 420, 490
batten plate 409 European 400 chord of crossarm 402 overhead line 20, 29, 588
beam elastic 404 circuit m e a n capacitance 234 structure 9
bending-resistant 396 flexural 399, 406, 424 clay 474 compaction of backfill 489
bearing torsional 406, 424 cleaning effect 291 comparison of insulator type 270
pressure 494, 495, 522 flexural torsional 406 clearance compensating discharges 290
maximum 493 length 401 additional component 58 compensation 579
permissible 489, 490 length factor 401 a t w i n d 60 and substitute measures 581
ultimate 490 local 405 between conductors 364 complementary span 366
resistance 416 torsional 406 buildings 67 component 145
beat p a t t e r n 329 bundle distance 53 brittle 156
behaviour
conductor 197, 217, 310 electrical 3 6 1 , 368, 603 inspection 694
thermal 200 equivalent radius 82 empirical data 57 composite
under v i b r a t i o n 200 line car 3 1 1 external 58 conductor 197, 199, 206, 331
bending 415 expansion 29 in crossing 6 1 1 production 211
amplitude 327, 337 ring 280 in H V D C line 57 insulator 286, 713
deformation 418 spacer 217, 305 internal 58, 59, 361 section 425
at tower top 420 buoyancy 490,515 lowest 59 composition of particles 476
due t o transverse loads 417 butt joint 377 midspan 65 compount member
resistance 290 minimum 65 compression loaded 409
stiffness 323, 325, 327, 540 calculation of pier 500 minimum 67 compressibility modulus procedure 495,
effective 328 camouflage m i n i m u m air 361 496
maximum 328 colour 590 t o a crossed line 67, 567 compression
minimum 328 of line component 585 t o a crossed r o a d 565 dead-end clamp 308
strain 327, 335 technique 17 to crossed objects 553, 563, 680 force-settlement curve 534
w i t h axial compression 408 cap t o ground 67, 563, 564, 682 probe 478, 516
B e t a d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n 155
ball-and-socket type 260 to navigable waterways 67 resistance 262
bipolar line 13
clevis-and-tongue type 260 to railways 67 ultimate 508
bird
cap-and-pin insulator to r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s 67 computer simulation 584
collision 591 damaged 712 to residential and other buildings 67 computergraphic method 588
fly d i v e r t e r 592 glass 712 t o r o a d 67, 565 concentrated load 549
m i g r a t i o n corridor 582 porcelain 713 to telecommunication line 67 concrete
bird caging 216 capability of a line 30 to tower 47 admixtures 633
Blum's calculation approach 500 capacitance 28, 80, 88 traffic routes 67 aggregate 631
body current 34 positive sequence 234 clearing 680 cement demand 634
bolt capacitive cleat 523 composition 640
fitted 425 current 288 clevis a n d t o n g u e c o n n e c t i o n 313 compressive
material 379 reactance 28, 88 climate 582 strength 6 3 1 , 634, 639
slippage 418, 420, 642 susceptance 88 s t r e n g t h t e s t series 639
 consistence 634, 636, 639 dull finish 223 technical development 198 copper 202
indices 634 economic selection 230 t e m p e r a t u r e 6 1 , 212, 224 conductor hollow 217
curing 638 e x t r e m e stresses 235 tensile core drilling 478
durability 635 failure 235 force reduction 371 corona 297
formwork 626 fitting 305 tensile force discharge 36, 234
pier 529 for t r a n s m i s s i o n line selection 199 horizontal component 541 effect 3 6 , 2 8 0 , 3 1 4
pile precast 514 force i n a tensioning section 553 in a tensioning section 553 extinction voltage 284, 297, 314
placing of 638 galloping 311, 341 mean value 543 inception level 40
plasticizer 633 hanging i n stringing blocks 666 tensile stress loss 30, 36, 232, 234
pole 9 heat balance 224 limit 236 noise 232
cross section 449 higher operational temperature 219 optimum 238 onset voltage 297
erection 359 innovative design 199 selection 238, 334 performance 4, 8, 218
produced in a plant 453 inspection 708 tension joint 711 phenomena 217, 232, 234
rating 452 length 543, 545 tensioner 658, 659 protection fittings 305
spun 359 lifetime 686 terminating 663 system inspection 708
steel-reinforced 359 l o w noise 222 testing 213 corrective
vibrated 359 made of formed wires 221 transmission action 709
ready-mixed 6 3 1 , 636, 638, 640 mass 214, 540 ' costs 224 inspection 703
reinforced 354 material loss 224 corrosion
resistance 453 partial factor 235 type of 197 contact 140
site-mixed 631, 640 physical characteristic 200 type test 213 inspection (CI) 705
standard-mixed 636 m a x i m u m operating temperature 603 vibration 322, 328 internal of zinc coating 710
strength 449 mechanical design 234 vibration-resistant 222 protection 315, 357, 378
s t r e n g t h class 633 operating temperature 212 voltage gradient 234 resistance 119, 200
C20/25 633 o p t i m u m cross-sectional area 230 w i t h enlarged diameter 220 cost o f losses 8
C30/37 633 over tensioning 373 w i t h optical fibre stringing 665 counter of e a r t h discharge 102
technology 631 permissible t e m p e r a t u r e 223, 224 w i t h s m o o t h surface 221 counterpoise 112, 640
temperature 635 position 61 w i t h treated surface 223 wire 129
ultra-fines content 632 distribution 61 connecting the fitting 265 coupling factor 106
water demand 632, 634, 635 time-dependent 61 connection crack w i d t h 455
condition rated tensile strength 235 design 415 cradle 661
emergency 32 reliability 236 slip-resistant 425 creep 207
normal 32 repair sleeve 715 connector 305, 309 behaviour testing 671
of recovered sample 485 replacement 664 non-tension-proof 309 characteristic 200
steady-state 47 resistance measurement 683 tension-proof 309 diagram 216
transient 47 rigid connection 656 consistence 478 elongation 216
conductance 91 sag 540, 662 of cohesive soil 483 of conductor 216
conductivity 199 condition 238 construction 185, 186, 679 process 671
electric 200 sag d a t a 666 and maintenance 373 strain 671
of steel 246 sample test 213 irregularity 684 creepage
conductor 145, 197 selection 8 load 417 current 291
all a l u m i n i u m alloy 205 self-damping 221, 323 method 623 creepage distance
aluminium 8 shipping 213 m o b i l i s a t i o n of site 623 adjustment 266
a l u m i n i u m alloy 8 splice 653 planning 622 m i n i m u m n o m i n a l specific 285-
a l u m i n i u m steel r e i n f o r c e d 8, 1 9 9 standard for 197 time schedule 623 reduction of required 268
a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel 206 standardized 198 containment of damage 373 critical
bending stiffness 324 state change equation 546, 547, 550, contaminant deposition 286 defect l e n g t h 692
catenary 606 552, 554, 557, 559 contamination 45 surface gradient 36
clipping-in 663 steel 206 continuity cross section
compacted 221 stress 332 of services 723 double-symmetrical 407
configuration 357 stringing 653, 654, 660, 661 of supply 30 effective 399
connection 656 equipment 655 c o n t i n u o u s d a t a flow 5 9 6 cross-rope arrangement 590
c o p p e r 8, 206 force 655 contractor supervision 639 cross-sectional
copper alloy 206 procedure 186 coordinate system effective area 399
creep 216, 238, 604, 666, 670 supervision 680 local 388 elastic m o d u l u s 446
cross section 540, 573 structure 328 coordinating spark gap 313 standardized ratio 207
design 235 surface gradient 36 coordination withstand voltage crossarm 354, 386, 442
regarding short-circuit current 228 s w i n g angle 63, 74, 362, 364 deterministic 283 chord of 402
d i a m e t e r w i t h ice a c c r e t i o n 171 swung 66 statistical 283 hoisting a 648
740 Index Index 741

insulated 358, 590 quantity 387 dispatch centre 688 installation 640
crossarmless tower 360 degradation 694 displacement 533 measurement 680
crossing 604 degree location-dependent 324 radial counterpoise 139
clearance 680 of rock weathering 484 method 396 resistance 122,127,132, 133, 138,641
object 610 density of analysis 387 c o m p u t a t i o n 136 -
of overhead line 604 of soil s t r a t a 476, 477 of the pile point 500 i n real soils 135
cultural subject 582 density of stratification 478 distance rod 127,641
cumulative distribution function 188 deposit distribution 286 between centres of boreholes 376 parallel 127
of strength 146 depreciation 228 measurement 597 strip 139
current deregulation process 723 disturbance high-frequency 709 ring-type 139
carrying capacity 204, 217, 223-225, derrick 372 disturbed condition 232 system inspection 705
228, 231 design double i n s u l a t o r set 281 s y s t e m r a t i n g 120
magnitude 104 based on probabilistic principles double warren 396 earthquake 188
Customer Average Interruption Duration computer program 380 d r a g factor 163, 170, 1 7 1 , 173 eccentricity 376
Index 30 condition 368 drilled pile 514 economic
criteria 723 drilling probe 478 comparison o f D C and A C lines 12
damage Empirical Approach 373 drinking-water data 16
from lightning strike 711 General Approach 373 protection area 595 optimization 152
l i m i t 156, 158, 368 load 287 supply 581 eddy current 314
of vegetation 622 ultimate 509 driven corrosion detector 710
state 156 m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e 59 in-situ concrete pile 513 edge distance 376
to crop mechanical 287 pile 512, 529 effect
recording 680 of overhead line 611 probe 478 of action 368
damper resistance driving report 628 of total action 369
festoon-type 334 ultimate 515 dropper 365 o n l a n d use 17
location 336 strength 147 drum winch 646 effective power 326, 335
Stockbridge-type 312, 334 supervision 678 dry efficiency r a t i o 32
weight 335 test 276 snow accretion 165 elastic
damping test o n foundation 527 strength testing 482 deflection condition 419
device 236 torsional moment 454 d r y i n g process 264 foundation 500
measures 336 validated by tower 403 D u p l e x system 378, 590 global analysis 398
Danube configuration 11 value 374, 398 dynamic electric
dart leader 100 of an action 368 performance 4 arc resistance 258
data of compression force 399 viscosity 227 effect 33
base 698 of s t r u c t u r a l resistance 369 energy
for commissioning 21 voltage 284 earth transmission of 196
processing program 611 destruction test 465 conductivity 126 origin
DC detail design 595 electrode impact 8
line insulation 284 detailed surveying 574 bond 140 parameter 232, 234
nominal voltage 286 deviation factor 52 frustum 508 performance 2 1 , 43
transmission 12 diagonal profile 611 angle 489, 490, 494, 504, 508 representation 92
de-energized w o r k 716 dielectric method 508 requirements 281
dead constant 37 megger 131 unavailability 3 1 , 725
load of soil 503 loss 30 reference 133 electrical
weight of soil 504 self-supporting cable 253 tester 133 clearance
dead-end w i t h s t a n d strength 52 e a r t h w i r e 107, 243 basic 58
clamp 305, 308, 315 digitized terrain model 587 efficiency 106 minimum 51
preformed 308 dilatancy 482 final temperature 245 required 56
set s u s p e n d e d 307 direct low conductivity . 244 field 33, 42, 100, 232
dead-line w o r k 716 c u r r e n t l i n e i n s u l a t i o n 55 material 244 control 280
deep electrode 112 incidence of lightning stroke 243 peak 354 distorsion 709
deflection temperature measurement 687 selection 244 strength 34
of a pole 444 dirt accumulation 263 steel 245 resistance 80
total 420 disc-type fracture 275 Earth's crust 473 study 4
deformation 418 discharge earth-drilling rig 626 electrical and magnetic field
calculation of 643 downward 101 earthing measurement 685
element 281 negative 101 conductor 140 electrocution 591
limiting 447 partial 709 connection 140, 680 electrode
method 380 upward 101 for personal safety 121 complex 138
 earthing 140 evolution of voltage level 5 to j o i n the insulator 313 separat 420
extended 138 excavated foundation 507 fix p o i n t 598 separate 502
point-type 138 excavation m a t e r i a l 622 fixing o f a n g l e p o i n t s 596 settlement 397
ring 130 exceptional meteorological event 58 flange j o i n t 442 slab 625
spherical 126 exclusion l i m i t 147, 152, 157 flash sleeve 442
electromagnetic existing line 578 density 102 stepped concrete 625
field 4 expenditure planned 695 to g r o u n d 104 structured design 489
induction 244 exposure condition 635 flashover 361 testing 527
electrostatic influence 244 extension link 367 complete 290 four-point method 130, 131
element extra-high voltage 6 measurement of 294 framework
deformation 387 extreme value distribution - type I 190 path 258 system 396
stiffness m a t r i x 388, 389 e x t r u d i n g process 201 probability 283, 725 free-span
elimination procedure 395 eye flickering 35 voltage 106, 296 a m p l i t u d e 324, 325
elongation at breaking 380 flexible A C transmission system ( F A C T S ) vibration amplitude 325
E M F effect 17 F A C T S 8, 8 1 32, 232 vibration angle 327
emission coefficient 223 failing of an insulator string 604 flexural buckling resistance 399 free-standing pile 516
Empirical Approach 174 failure flora 582 freezing rain 165
endurance cascading 187, 356, 367, 373 flow-induced vibration 323 frequency
capability 330 event 698 footing 502 natural 325
diagram 331 l i m i t 156, 158, 368 resistance 132 of occurrence 329
limit 340 o f a s t r i n g o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r set force of vortex shedding 328
energized insulator tester 692 373 at connections of bracing 421 fretting 331
energy probability 145, 149, 236 due t o leg m e m b e r b e n d 396 friction corrosion 331
availability ( E A ) 727 rate 267, 698 hypothetical 417
balance principle 312, 325, 329, 333, report 721 in bracing 382, 383 galloping 2 2 1 , 344, 362, 710
334, 337 state 157 in horizontal bracing 385 alerting system 691
loss structural 465 in horizontal member 384 oscillation 322
a n n u a l costs 229 fall-of-potential method 132 i n leg e x t e n s i o n 385 readiness coefficient 691
by convection 224, 226 fast-front in the crossarm 386 galvanic contact corrosion 310
by r a d i a t i o n 224, 226 overvoltage 6 1 , 272 toted bracing 384 galvanization test 273
costs 228 withstand voltage forced gap factor 52
environment 33 test, dry 272 energy u n a v a i l a b i l i t y 3 1 , 723, 725 gas i n s u l a t e d p i p e l i n e 578
environmental withstand voltage test 296 outage 723 G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n 153, 188
compensation 584 fatigue 334, 340 outage frequency 724 general approach 174
impact 19,581 limit 339 outage rate 3 1 , 724 geological maps 476
reduction 357 strength 200, 263, 334 unavailable time 724 geometric m e a n distance 83
i m p a c t assessment 578, 580 fauna 582 forest 594 geotechnical design of f o u n d a t i o n 488
i m p a c t s t u d y 1 , 17, 575, 580, 5 8 1 Ferranti Effect 32 forested area 594 GFC
infringement 679 festoon damper 336 formed wire 221 insulator 286
m a n a g e m e n t p l a n 18, 580 field formed wires 222 rod 267
planning 578 electrical 607 foul m u d 487 gin pole 646
protection law 576 magnetic 607 f o u n d a t i o n 145, 425 G I S processing use 615
situation 583 measurement 40 auger-bored 626 g l a s s fibre m a t e r i a l ( E C R )
equilibrium condition 387 strength 232 characteristic load 488 brittle failure 267
equivalent fill r a t i o 220 construction 625 g l a s s fibre r e i n f o r c e d c o r e s ( G F C ) 267
Il-circuit 95, 96 filled-up soil 475 design 472 glaze 165,263
beam method 444 fined d r i v e n pile 627 defect 275
member method 368 burning position 279 failure 722 global coordinate system 389
resistance 81 inspection 678, 681 for g u y w i r e 525 globed p o s i t i o n s y s t e m ( G P S ) 689
short-circuit current 245 finess i n d e x 634 grillage 156, 5 1 1 , 629 globed p o s i t i o n i n g s y s t e m ( G P S ) 597,
t e m p e r a t u r e difference 671 finger r o p e 661 guy anchor 524 Gouda probe 480
erection finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d 3 8 0 , 3 8 7 , 3 9 5 in rock 521 grading
of support 622 fitted l e n g t h 213 geotechnical design 522 curve 632, 636
procedure 646 fitting inspection 706 fitting 313
estimation of investment 16 for g r a d i n g 313 installation 488, 679 ring 305, 313, 314
ethylene-propylene rubber 316 for i n s u l a t o r set 305 load calculation 420 grain boundary corrosion 316
everyday for i n s u l a t o r sets 313 of support 472 graphic
condition 332 for o p t i c a l cable 306 pad and chimney 625 data logger 598
stress 235,236,251,332 to a t t a c h t h e i n s u l a t o r set 313 refurbishment 714 information system (GIS) 601
 Index 745
744 Index

graphical viewing line 663 inclination set

data bank 616 horizontal member 396 of angle s u p p o r t 680 auxiliary 367
i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m ( G I S ) 614, 616 horizontally arranged electrode 640 of support 642 displacement 667
grease 207 Hornisgrinde 181 inclination necessary 418 double 278
drop point 207, 212 hot-dip galvanizing 315, 378 inductance 28, 80 fittings for 315
soap-containing 212 hot-rolled section 512 inductive reactance 28, 29 inverted V 556
hot-stick w o r k 716 industrial area 594 multiple 278
soap-free 212
h u m a n being 583 influence of p o l l u t i o n layer 277 offset 555
ground filled-up 473
infra-red suspension 278
ground water 490 h u m i d i t y voltage correction factor 49
shape 258
concrete-aggressive 485 H V D C system 284 technique 711
string 259, 271, 278
ground-water hyperbolic cosine f u n c t i o n 542 t h e r m o g r a p h y 709, 713
assembly 653
level 477 initial sag 662, 666
electric s t r e n g t h 47
grouted steel pile 628 IACS 198,200-202 inspecting component 708
failure of one 287
grouting factor 628 ice inspection 600, 694, 703
length 284
G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n 6 1 , 1 4 6 , 147, 1 5 9 , accretion 165, 182 o f access r o a d 679
testing procedure 271
168, 190 non-uniform 181 of clearance 714
voltage drop measurer 713
gusset plate 376 property 166 of conductor 705
washing 294
gust response factor 163, 175 simulated 167 of insulator 711
of joint 711 w i t h semi-conductive glaze 294
guyed telemonitoring system 691
of right-of-way 476 interface 145
structure 1 1 , 354 density 171
t h r o u g h electronic system 705 interference
support 589 formation
visual 710 high-frequency 290
tower erection 650 n o n - u n i f o r m 169, 181
instability risk 99 measurement 680
uniform 169
instantaneous sag 251 voltage test 272
hammer load 181, 183, 603
insulated glove w o r k 716 intermediate
drilling 514 characteristic 59
insulating transmission link 6
test 378 extreme 371
underground cable section 578
hand cleaning 294 local 60, 562, 604 capacity 287
internal friction angle 489, 500
handrail 186 model 181 crossarm 260, 589
International Annealed Copper Standard
h a r d - d r a w n a l u m i n i u m 200, 202 reference 168 length 269
insulation (IACS) 81
hardware reference design 168
coordination 46, 47, 272 I N V A R steel w i r e 220
installation 653 zone 183
disruptive strength 258 investigation procedure 720
h a r m o n i c coefficient 325 measurement technique 691
flashover 99, 109 investment
heat monitoring system 690
flaw 705 for a n o v e r h e a d l i n e 196, 237
cycle test 314 observation 167
level 106 initial 8
exchange 244 radial thickness 168
maintenance measure 294 postponing 232
treatment 452 shedding 181
heavy-current injection method 132 weight 167 performance 257
joint
heavy-duty driven probe 478 insulation capacity
per u n i t length 168 aluminium 212
height icing maintaining of 294
i n a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel w i r e 212
measurement 597 atmospheric 165 insulator 257
i n steel w i r e 212
of block 505 estimation 167 anti-fog cap-and-pin 286
swivelling 656
helical reinforcement 451 arrangement 287
incloud 165, 166, 169 Joule
helicopter 624 cap-and-pin 259
precipitation 165 heat 30, 224
patrol 704 composite 286
thickness 167 law 244
Hewlett insulator 259 cracked 692
immersion loss 32
h i g h p r e s s u r e i n j e c t i o n p r o c e s s 257 damaged 692
process 264 j u m p e r loop 310, 365, 664
high voltage 6 design 258
test 276 installation 664, 680
high-frequency failure 274
impact
glass c a p - a n d - p i n 266
earth tester 132 assessment 587 K a r m a n v i b r a t i o n 322, 323
high-voltage delta 259
interference 290 o n f a u n a a n d flora 5 9 1 keraunic level 50, 102
high-voltage wide shed 259
high-surge impedance load 8 on landscape and environment 576 kieselgur 292
long rod 284
high-voltage direct current transmission 8 i m p a i r i n g t h e flora 5 9 3 Motor 259 labour
hoar-frost 165 impedance 335
hoisting performance under pollution 291 safety 185
characteristic 28
of crossarm 648 position 61 safety legislation 2 9 1
to earth 133
rope 646 raw m a t e r i a l ceramic 262 safety s t a n d a r d 626
imperfection factor 400
h o l l o w t u b e - t y p e pile 512 replacement 715 lace box-type m e m b e r 410
impulse
horizontal selection 297 ladder 377
reflection analysis 275
earthing wire 112 l a m i n a r flow o f t h e w i n d 222
voltage peak 108
 land state 455 eccentric 404 testing 275
acquisition and compensation 606 state approach 398 effect 147 maintainability 724
map 600,614 value 284 erection 185 maintenance 185, 186, 228, 699, 702
landscape value of radio interference exceptional 369 activity 694
integration 585 assessment of 297 flow 1 , 5, 8 0 inspection program 703
units approach 584 line forecast 3 of a system 702
visual perception 582 alignment 596 from c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e d u r e 373 service 232
lap joint 377 asset m a n a g e m e n t 693 from m a i n t e n a n c e p r o c e d u r e 373 m a l l e a b l e cast i r o n 266
laser scanning 574, 599 capacity 232 increment 464 management
lattice steel t o w e r 374, 380, 577, 589 car 664 longitudinal 186, 187 option 699
rating 398 compaction 32 maintenance 185 process 697
self-supporting 357 configuration 42 measurement 464 mandrel diameter 204
wide-spread 503 d a t a base 698 normal 369 manufacturing ovality 255
lay design 42, 603 operation 185 map overview 574
direction 212 in crossing 604 permanent 453 m a r k e t forecast 3
ratio 211 documentation 610 procedure 464 marl 487
layer dropping 5 rejection 5 material 258
direction 198 energization test 684 residual static 187 non-metallic 316
left-hand 198 failure 719 security 188, 373 partial factor 287
right-hand 198 cause 719 s t a n d a r d case 370 property
layout of a line 595 e x t e r n a l effect 720 thermal limit 200 characteristic 158
lead a n t i m o n y alloy 265 natural phenomena 719 time characteristic 276 physical 158
leakage current 266 infinite 94 torsional 371 maximum
measurement of 294 length 21 transfer 281, 331 ice l o a d y e a r l y 168
leg location 603 transport and construction 453 intensity 152
extension 386 long 93 weather-related 149 loss 2 1
member losses 30 loading voltage for equipment 603
force 381 of m e d i u m length 92 exceptional 183 mean
force, vertical c o m p o n e n t 421 optimization 723 longitudinal 187 precision of profile point 597
strength 423 outage 99, 102 torsional 187 recurrence interval 47
strength, increase of 424 owner 152 loam 487 surface gradient 234
legal procedures for n a t u r e protection 581 parameter 80 location of support 601 time
licensing performance locking system 273 between failure 2 7 1 , 724
approved procedure 574 index 110 l o g - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n 1 4 6 , 1 5 3 , 154, 190 between failures 3 1
authority 574 u n d e r l i g h t n i n g 110 logarithmic law 162 to repair 3 1 , 724, 727
procedure 575 post insulator 590 long r o d insulator 260, 284, 692, 713 unavailability duration 724
life cycle 149 protection 80 long-term value 188
lifetime 322 route measurement 337 measurement
lifting yoke 661 alternatives for 581 stress 235, 236 of local p o l l u t i o n 293
light-duty driven probe 478 optional 575 longitudinal station 722
lightning 284 searching for a 575 bending of the support 183 mechanical
arrester 101 security 186 groove 478 availability 725
current 108 short 92 profile 605, 610, 678 behaviour 43
discharge 99-101 survey establishing 611 braking unit 659
embracing exposure 104 indirect 598 looze 487 design 287
impulse 53 list of plot o w n e r 611 loss 4 failing load 273
shape 283 live-line monetary 697 impedance 335
location 689 tool 716 low strength 201
overvoltage 106 w o r k 58, 716 voltage 6 strength requirement 281
performance 50, 726 load weight 268 unavailability 3 1
protection earthing 116 application 276, 464 m e d i u m voltage 6
stroke 111, 361 carrying capability 462 magnetic medium-duty driven probe 478
slope 105 case 369 field 33, 42, 224, 279 member
withstand centric 404 acceptable limits 36 connected by b a t t e n plates 408
impulse 108 characteristic 418, 452 strength 34 design of c o m p o u n d 408
voltage 51 climatic 152 flux d e n s i t y 34 force 380
limit control device 307 induction 34 resistance 403
resistance 488 displacement 207 loss 224 slenderness 400
skin friction data 517 displacement diagram 629 penetration 204 stability of compression-loaded 399
 Index 749
748 Index

metamorphoses rock 475 network wind induced 710 phase

meteorological analysis 282 outage duration 724 arrangement 590
analysis 168 diagram 623 oval conductor 222 conductor resistance 81
model 167 overhead line constant 93
loading balance 231
station 162 crossing 410 spacer 3 1 1 , 3 4 3 , 3 4 4 .
neutral point connection 121
wind velocity 162 design 145, 367 span length 362
Newton approximation method 559
micro climate 582 fitting 305 to-phase spacer 15, 269
node
microwave line 595 investment 16 photomicrograph 204
deformation 387
m i g r a t i o n sector 592 i n v e s t m e n t for a n 197 photomontage 17, 587
displacement 390, 391
military installation 595 m a x i m u m capacity 231 graphics 583
force 390
minimum regional standard 172 pile 499
noise p o t e n t i a l 4 1
reliability requirement 367 design of pile length 516
clearance 5 1 , 603 nominal
safety requirement 367 driving device 627
to buildings 603 Il-circuit 93,95
security requirement 367 external load 515
to ground 603 system voltage 43
standard 172 foundation 512
to line crossing roads, railways and non-ceramic insulator 692
overheating 705 geotechnical design 514
navigable waterways 603 non-cohesive soil 474
overload long-term 18 free-standing 516
t o power line 603 n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n 146, 154, 188
overview plan 610 group 515
to recreational area 603 notched impact strength 316
overvoltage 2 1 , 43, 361 resistance 515
c o n d u c t o r cross section 197 number
conventional m a x i m u m switching 48 pin-type insulator 259
creepage distance 293 of blows 478
fast-front 46, 50, 54, 283, 284 pivot 281
lifetime 340 of circuits 21
induced 105, 106 plan layout 610
thickness of elements 375 of samples 273
m i n i n g area 595 maximum 47 establishing 614
of unit 271
Minor's rule 340 switching 50 p l a n k i n g of excavation 503
NuBelt number 226
m i x design 637 power frequency 44 planned
mixing +D D r „ 2 u^ n o IK7 representative 282 expenditures 695
slow-front 46, 47, 54, 283 outage 724
instruction 636 obstacle 51
surge 99 planning
water 633 offset 668
mobile crane 645 t e m p o r a r y 43, 283 long-term 1
ohmic
medium-term 1, 2
model of an overhead line structure 395 loss 32
p a c k i n g p l a t e flat s t e e l 409 process 2
modulus losses 30
paint inspection gauge 708 short-term 3
of compressibility 481 surface resistance 288
parallel profile 6 0 1 , 605 stage 21
of elasticity 208, 327 one-man station 597
partial studies 1
monitoring method 687 open-pit m i n i n g 595
arc 292 plastic 258, 267
direct 687 operating
capacitance 288 material 277
monoblock foundation 491 condition 257
factor 150, 157, 368, 373, 453 plasticity 482
w i t h base enlargement 494 current 223
material factor 287 p l a t e slenderness relative 399
w i t h o u t base enlargement 492 power frequency voltage 282
p a r t i c l e size plot boundary 610
m o r t a r layer 513 operation
distribution 632 Poffenberger-Swart formula 339
m u d 475, 487 planning 3
maximum 452 point pressure 481
m u l t i - c i r c u i t l i n e 9, 5 8 8 operational e a r t h i n g 116, 124
range 481 pole 589
multiple optical
passing above t h e forest 594 body 354
echo 275 attenuation 255
patch rod concrete 357
i n s u l a t o r set 2 8 7 , 3 1 5 , 6 0 4 fibre c a b l e 197
protective 309 deformation 455
phase line 14 ground wire 244
repair 309 of an overhead line 354
phase system 14 optional tests 271
peat 475 polygonal conical 442
characteristics 15 organic
pegging of s u p p o r t sites 596 reinforced concrete 186, 354
m u t u a l impedance 85, 86 clay 475
pendulum 343 round-shaped
component 474
penetration factor 137 made of spun concrete 577
National Normative Aspects 176 decomposition 460
performance serviceability 447
natural peat 483
of overhead line insulator 691 steel 186, 354
frequency 325 silt 475
t h e r m a l mechanical test 272 wood 354, 357
power 28, 92 soil 475, 483
period duration 724 polluted area 266
negative-sequence impedance 80 ornithological habitat 592
periodic inspection 703 p o l l u t i o n 258, 284
net ornithologist consultation 592
p e r m a n e n t sag 251 heavy 293
cross-sectional area 413 ortho-photograph 599, 610
p e r m i t process 17, 579 layer 288, 292
present value 695 oscillating movement 306
personal safety 51 conducting 288
radiation temperature 687 oscillation
influence 277
spy system 708, 709 subconductor 710
 liquid 292, 293 p r e v e n t i o n of cascade 373 quadruple bundle 336 r e f u r b i s h m e n t 707, 727
simulation of 292 preventive inspection 704 quality regulatory control 578
solid 292, 293 principal axis 409 assurance 316, 682 reinforcement
level 284-286, 293 principle of virtual w o r k 418 assurance plan 682 by plates 424
light 293 probabilistic method 722 check 265 of stepped block foundation 505
local 293 probability
medium 293 control 679 relative insulation strength 49, 295
density function 146, 188 management program 640 release suspension c l a m p 307
performance 292
of flashover 48, 50 management system 271 r e l i a b i l i t y 1 , 3, 2 1 , 4 3 , 145, 150, 3 6 7 , 6 9 4 ,
saline 292
probe of supply 30 723
test 273
heavy-duty driven 478 supervision 639 absolute 152
very heavy 293
light-duty driven 478 verification 640 assessment 30
polyethylene 316
log 516 q u a n t i t a t i v e assessment 584 target 151
porcelain 258
medium-duty driven 478 quartz 263 repair 703
cap-and-pin insulator 713 p r o g r a m system for overhead line design quick sand 487 required w i t h s t a n d voltage 52, 283
porosity test 273, 274 611 r e q u i r e m e n t electric 313
portal project radial arranged electrodes 130 residual
structure 354, 589 d a t a set 616 radio soil 474
tower 380 justification 17 interference 36, 39, 42, 234, 284 strength test 273
Portland cement 265 specification 275 level 40, 314 resilience 411
ordinary 631 projection of foundation subface 509
strength 284 resistance 444
positive discharge 102 proof
strength test 296 against ultraviolet radiation 267
positive-sequence of stability 495 voltage ( R I V ) 284 anchor 522
capacitance 89, 90 test 461, 530 noise 39 loaded by uplift 505
impedance 80, 81 load 629
radius of gyration 375 measurement 711
inductive reactance 82 on foundation 528
railway 595 mechanical 258
potential propagation
rain artificial 295 member 403
coefficient m a t r i x 37 constant 93
raked pile 515 of a pile 515
control ring 288 of cascading 150
rated tensile s t r e n g t h 2 1 1 , 215, 235 of penetration 478
grading ring 286 of failure 150
rating 157 to abrasion 315
power Properzi blank 201
reactance resistivity 204, 210
angle 29 proportionality limit 404
capacitive 233 apparent 138
arc 50 protection
inductive 233 i n non-homogeneous soil 135
base 279 against aeolian vibration 217
per u n i t length 83 mean 136
behaviour 296 earthing 116
reactive resonance factor 164
behaviour test 296 lightning 124
compensation 1 structural 163
arcing test 273 system 247
p o w e r flow c o n t r o l 4 response factor structural 444
corridor 585 protective
power requirement 31 result of probing 485
factor 29, 92 arcing fitting 279
reactor 31 r e s u l t i n g stress 258
frequency fitting 315
real estates list 611 retarding 633
clearance 47 relaying 4
reed-time return
flashover voltage 288 puller 655, 661
ampacity rating application 688 on investment 694
voltage 6 1 , 232 for conductor stringing 657
monitoring period 148, 149
voltage test 296 reel-type 657
of conductor ampacity 686 stroke 100
withstand voltage test, wet 272 site 654
of conductor condition 686 Reynolds number 226, 328
law 162 t w i n bullwheel 657, 658
rating 689 R I level 290
loss 2 2 8 , 6 8 2 puller/tensioner 659
reclosing scheme 247, 726 calculation 40
loss costs 228 pulling
reconductoring 728 r i g h t - o f - w a y 9, 6 9 4
t o be t r a n s m i t t e d 21 rope 655
recrystallization temperature 202 clearing 679, 717
precipitation icing 165, 169 winch 216
recycling inspection of 476
Preece test 378 punching 495
of packing material 680 utilization 357
preformed puncture
oil 622 rigid point 355
dead-end rod 309 path 258
reduction factor 120 rime
dead-ends 308 test
redundant member 376, 396, 417 hard 166
splice 309 impulse voltage 273
design 417 soft 166
present voltage 273
reel s t a n d 660 risk
value 8 voltage w i t h s t a n d test 274
reference acceptance 699
w o r t h of investment 4 puncture-proof 258
standard atmosphere 295 assessment 699
prestressed reinforcement 449
w i n d velocity 171 increase 699
prestressing 263, 266
reflection coefficient 135 of failure 48, 695
 752 Index Index 753

maximum 50 scaffold 660 initial alternating 246 fracture 500

reduction 699 low-duty 660 duration 245 identification m a n u a l 482
river crossing 307 schedule 21 force 344 identification visual 481
rms current 33 scheduled energy unavailability 3 1 , level 2 1 inorganic 474
road 595 second order theory 410, 443, 453 loading 313 investigation 472, 475 .
rock 473, 475, 483 section oscillation 344 checking 678
anchor 522 cruciform 375, 424, 425 short-term current 125 layer non-bearing 476
drilling r i g 630 support within the line 187 shunt loose undisturbed 473
igneuos 484 security 43, 367, 724 admittance 91 m i x e d p a r t i c l e size 474
metamorphose 475, 484 load 187 capacitance 28 non-cohesive 474, 487
sedimentation 475, 484 measure 187 capacitor 28 organic 475, 487
solidification 475 sedimentation rock 475 compensation 31 profile 477
type foundation 484 selection reactor 29 residual 474
rope of f o u n d a t i o n design 678 signal-to-noise r a t i o 39 resistivity 126, 130-132
braided 655 of m a t e r i a l 316 siliceous a n d a l u m i n o u s porcelain 262 apparent 130
connection 656 self b r e a k i n g 266 silicone sample
ropeway 595, 624 self-cleaning grease 286, 294 disturbed 476
rotating drilling 514 process 288, 292 high-temperature cross-linked 267 t o collect 476
route properties 286 hydrophobic characteristic 277 solid 473, 475
preliminary 575 self-damping 222 rubber 267, 316 surface 582
selection 17, 573, 574, 576 self-impedance 85, 86 silt 474, 482 transferred 474
routine self-supporting s i m u l t a n e o u s o c c u r r e n c e o f w i n d a n d ice type 489
inspection 705 optical ground wire 252 loads 170 classification and description 481
maintenance 726 structure 354 single undisturbed 474
test 2 7 1 , 275 , 277, 316, 678 timber pole 502 circuit line 9 uniformity of 478
rover 598 sensitivity analysis 4 conductor 197 solar r a d i a t i o n 224, 225
ruling span 548 sequence of soil s t r a t a 476 foundation solid w a l l steel poles 644
running series c o m p e n s a t i o n 31 steel-reinforced pad a n d chimney solid-core i n s u l a t o r 258, 259
board 656, 657 service 703 519 solidification rock 475
velocity 658 life 359 grillage f o u n d a t i o n 499 spacer 310, 336
serviceability 368, 418, 455 material conductor 197, 331 damper 310, 312, 334, 336
S-N-curve 339 limit state 157 pile f o u n d a t i o n 499 flexible 310
sacrificial electrode 266 settleable solid particle 632 s k m effect 225 for bundle conductor 312
saddle-type clamp 307 shackle 281 skin friction 4 8 1 , 513, 515, 516 rigid 310
safe shallow electrode 112 d a t a of bare h o l l o w steel piles 517 span
border line 339 sharpy-V-notch energy 380 d a t a of grouted steel pile 517 complementary length 546
design tension 332, 334 shear slab f o u n d a t i o n 495 equivalent 548
tensile stress 236 force 415 slack reinforcement 449 factor 164
safety 367, 724 plane 415 slenderness length 325
sag 544 resistance 415 equivalent ratio 406, 407 coefficient 364
at midspan 602 stiffness 411 non-dimensioned 400 equivalent 188
checking 662 shearing 415 ratio 401 mean weight 155
equation 543 centre 406 slip j o i n t 442, 642 wind 155
supervising 662 shearing-bearing slippage 447 w i t h concentrated loads 549
sagging 646, 662 connection 380, 415 slipping w i t h differing a t t a c h m e n t levels 546
curve 540, 611 prestressed 415 length 442 w i t h t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets 551
differential equation 541 shed of the connection 411 spare component 726
error 218 broken 270 slow-front special conductor 218
table 611, 673 shape 260 overvoltage 61 specific
template 606 shielding test 296 heat 210
salinity 293 angle 107 withstand voltage test 296 mass 209
salt f a i l u r e 50, 105 smallest cross section 376 of air 227
concentration 292 r a t e 108, 110 snow creeping 188 t r a n s m i s s i o n costs 229
deposit density equivalent 294 protection 106 soil 473 specified m e c h a n i c a l l o a d ( S M L ) 277
sample test 203, 2 7 1 , 273, 277, 316, 678 shipping lane 151 characteristic 473, 485, 489 s p i r a l effect 225
sand s h o r t c i r c u i t 5, 3 3 , 1 8 8 , 3 4 3 classification 481 spraying the insulator 294
content of soil 483 current 223, 244 cohesive 474, 482, 487 spring washer 377
humusy 475 carrying capacity 248 colour 481 spun concrete pole 449, 500
peaty 475 distribution 251 filled-up 475, 487 lifetime 452
 production 451 stockyard 623 angle-strain 355 pole
stability 1, 30, 477, 504 straight line distance 603 branch 356 m a d e of H - b e a m sections 358
against o v e r t u r n i n g 494 strain gauge 463 clearance 365 support 354
investigation 401 strand 327 dead-end 354, 356 sustained forced outage 724
of a long line 233 broken 705 deflection 464 swing angle 63, 365
steady-state 29 stranding 208, 209, 211 design 367, 588 calculation 6 1 , 63
transient 29 stratification model 367 determination of 604
verification 446 of soil 130 selection 357 t i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n 72
stage of p r o d u c t i o n 264 strength 147 erection 645 switching
standard after stranding 201 force 543 impulse air gap factor 52
assembly arrangement 296 characteristic 149, 153, 157 guyed 360 operation 361
a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n 272, 295 class 636 inspection 707 shape impulse 283
deviation 188 for P o r t l a n d cement 631 investment 367 surge overvoltage 1
lightning impulse 46 coordination 150, 368, 380, 722 metallic surface t r e a t m e n t 590 synthetic resin 267
penetration test 480 factor 153 reaction 391 system
solar r a d i a t i o n 225 mechanical 200 reliability 369 length 401
static design 368 of concrete structure 707 resistance 462 operation 694
statistical of steel s t r u c t u r e 707 safety 369 planning 18
coordination factor 55 v a r i a t i o n coefficient 149 security 369 s t a b i l i t y 4, 5
distribution 188 stress cracking corrosion 316 serviceability 367 voltage 43
overvoltage 49 stress-strain site 601 highest 43
steatite 262 diagram 214 selection 576
steel relation 387 special 356 T 2 conductor 222
cleat 513 stringing strain 355 T A L conductor 202
core 199 block 655, 657 structural tangent intersection method 531
pile 517, 628 force 656 acceptance test 462 target horizon 2
bare 512 method 654 design test 462 teflon 267
by m o r t a r 628 of conductor 622 M u r e test 462 temperature
grouted 513 operation 372 suspension 354 change 554
pole 442- stroke 109 angle 355, 365 coefficient of resistance 248
conical 358 current 101 test 461 cycle test 274
self-supporting 356, 358 Strouhal number 325, 328 surface final 245
solid-wall 443 s t r u c t u r a l design resistance 368, 369, 398, condition 214 increase 708
polygonal pole 9 399 conductance measurement 294 initial 245
preformed wire 212 stub setting 641 conductivity 292 permissible highest 244, 247
rope compacted 656 study of insulation coordination 282 current 288, 291 rise 119
tower subconductor 197, 217 gradient 217, 218, 234 shock 266
guyed 356 number 42 moisture 633 t e m p o r a r y overvoltage 5
self-supporting 356 subgrade roughness 330 tensile
unprotected 710 layer 638 surge anchor 630
wire 198 modulus 50Q arrester 110 b r e a k i n g s t r e n g t h 215
a l u m i n i u m - c l a d 198, 202 horizontal 481 impedance 28, 93, 94, 106, 110, 111, cross section 415
INVAR 220 procedure 495 218, 233 force
tensile strength 202 s u b m a r i n e cable 18 load 28, 29, 92, 94, 218, 233 axial 415
zinc-coated 202 subsoil load increase 233 characteristic 451
Stefan-Boltzmann constant 226 condition 576 load line 80 horizontal 543
Stefan-Boltzmann's radiation law 223 subspan oscillation 217, 322, 340, 686 survey load at 1 % elongation 204
step voltage 119 successive e l i m i n a t i o n m e t h o d 607 direct 596 resistance 413
stepbolt 186, 443 sulphur cement 265 of diagonal profile 596 strength 415
arrangement 377 supervision of existing lines 601 rated 216
stepped of construction 678 of longitudinal profile 596 test 203
block foundation 503 of production 678 of overhead line 598 stress 210
geotechnical design 503 of schedule 678 of terrain profile 601 in individual wires 211
reinforcement 505 supervisory check 679 susceptance 91 tension
leader 100 supplementing probing 476 suspension clamp 330
stiffness m a t r i x 395 supply quality 3 clamp 305, 315, 330 monitoring system 687
total 387 support 145,354 sliding 307 safe design 334
stirrup arrangement 186, 377 action on 367 insulator 259 stringing ability of conductors 216
Stockbridge-type damper 326 angle 355 set 305, 354 tension-proof armor rod 665
756 Index Index 757

tensioner 216, 654, 655 total transmission u p r a t i n g 3, 727

engine-driven 659 load distribution 287 .capacity 217,218 of an existing transmission line 577
hydraulic 659 station 596-598 costs 228 of existing support 423
mechanical 659 stiffness m a t r i x 389 economy 200 of lines 269
site 661 tensile stress 211 line u r b a n areas 595
tensioning section 547, 553 unavailable time 724 failure 721 use factor 155
terminating of conductor 663 touch voltage 118, 120, 121 function 157 coefficient 155
terrain toughened glass 265 information system 616 utilization
category 162, 163 tower planning 2 of load current capacity 686
data 611 angle 354 regional 6 of resources p l a n n i n g 232
data bank 600 angle-strain 373 type 21 p e r i o d o f p o w e r loss 229
model 601 assembly 463 transmitted power m a x i m u m 229
three-dimensional 599 body 354 transportation 624 V-arrangement horizontal 590
profile 601 bolted 376 transposition 1 v a c u u m e x t r u s i o n press 264
surface 598 configuration selection 9 transverse cascade 723 van-type probe 480
test construction 680 travelling wave velocity 325 vandalism 266, 704
evaluation 531 e a r t h i n g resistance 110, 1 1 1 , 682 trial pit 476 variable action 453
loading bridge 629 erection 372, 639, 645 trigger mechanism 721 vegetation
method non-destructive 317 by a helicopter 649 truss 395 biotope 582
of mechanical failing 272 by crane 645 member loaded i n tensile 413 control 593, 718
of radio interference voltage 273 by means of a gin pole 646 three-dimensional system 395 of forest 594
of residual s t r e n g t h 273 w i t h a gin pole arranged inside the t u b u l a r steel p o l e seamless 358 velocity
pile 533 t o w e r a t a leg m e m b e r 648 t u r n buckle 309 of sound w a v e 275
report 465 w i t h a gin pole i n tower centre 647 twin bundle conductor 217 of wave propagation 94
specimen 263, 633, 639 w i t h gin pole outside the tower 646 twisting test 204 verification
station 465 failure 7 2 1 , 722 t w o - l a y e r soil s t r u c t u r e 135 of punching 520
stipulated 271 guyed 524 type of foundation 488 of s t a b i l i t y 490
testing height 237,606 type test 2 7 1 , 277, 316, 679 vertex 542
equipment 528 increasing of height 357 position 543, 544
program 463 lattice steel 354, 368 ultimate very light pollution 293
specification 463, 465 member 374 capacity 534 vibrated concrete pole 451
theodolite 596 production 378 limit state 157 v i b r a t i n g process 328
thermal leg inspection 705 strength 367, 488 vibration
conductor r a t i n g 687 list 6 1 1 tensile aeolian 322, 323
image test 709 location accessibility 606 resistance 515 amplitude 222
limit 30 of an overhead line 354 strength 379 damper 311
radiation 223 potential 107 ultra-high voltage 6
failure 331
rating 686 production 378 ultrasonic test 265, 275
field m e a s u r e m e n t 338
shock test 273 , 274 prototype fabrication 463 unavailability 30, 723, 724
intensity 327, 330, 333, 336
t h e r m o g r a p h y i n f r a - r e d 692, 705 renewal of coating 714 unbalanced fault 5
calculation 337
t h e r m o v i s i o n 705, 709 self-inductance 106 unconventional structure 589
Karman 322
thickness measurement 708 site access 5 7 6 under-cutting tool 507
measurement 685
three-dimensional system 380, 395 spotting 605-607, 611, 614, 678, 679 underground cable system 18
protection 251
three-layer soil m o d e l 135 manual 606 underground m i n i n g 595
protection fitting 236, 305
three-point method 133 optimization 607 uniformity of subsoil 478
recorder 337
threshold of hazard 35 strain 373 unreliability 724
safe c o n d u c t o r stress 332
t h u n d e r s t o r m forecast 689 untwisting equipment 211
stub setting 641 study 335
timber pole 589 u p g r a d i n g 3, 707, 727, 729
to-conductor flashover 106 susceptibility 236
topographical map 600 top geometry 74, 361 of existing supports 423
test stand 336
topography 581 traffic route 595 uplift
wind-induced 322
torsional transferred displacement 533
vibrator internal 638
load 446 potential 132 force 3 7 1
virtual beam 419
case 398 soil 474 -displacement curve 534
viscosity 207
loading of tower body 183 transformation m a t r i x 389 load visibility 581
moment 383 transformer load 5 -displacement diagram 533
of overhead lines 587
section m o d u l u s 455 transient characteristic 509
visual
stiffness 358 forced outage 724 test o n construction piles 532
impact 17, 19
vibration mode 335 network analyser 46 proof testing 629
inspection 705, 708, 720
by climbing 708
 perception 9 data 176 X ray imaging 711
visual impact 583, 585 energy converter 576, 604
assessment 585, 587 excitation frequency 325 Y-shaped tower 380
visualization of new line 587 extreme 370 yield
voltage force 221 point 379
and current-depending phenomena 42 in direction of the crossarm axis 370 strength 368
classification 6 input power 326 yoke plate 313
critical flashover 48 load 603 trapezoidal 281
distribution 286 according t o B e a u f o r t Scale 159
along the insulator 288 design reliabilitylevel 175 zero-sequence
drop 29, 30, 93 extreme 60 capacitance 89, 90
gradient 37 measurement 180 per unit length 89
increase 728 m o d e l 172, 176, 179 impedance 80, 85
level 4, 573 moderate 60 zinc
m i n i m u m insulation withstand 47 o n a n ice c o v e r e d c o n d u c t o r 171 coating 198,202
operating power frequency 282 on conductor 173, 174, 181 failure 275
p o w e r frequency h i g h e s t 55 on lattice tower 175 dip test 204
range 5 on support 173 layer 378
regulation 30 measurement 158 mass 204
stress design 232 o n insulator 173 of type of coating 204
system power frequency 43 pressure sleeve 266, 286
voltage drop 313 basic 176 zirconium 202
volume conductivity measurement 294 dynamic 163
vortex shedding frequency 329 reference 173
vortex-induced vibration 322 rectangularly to the crossarm axis
371
w a l k w a y 186, 377 span 607
warping 407 velocity 159, 224
water in Europe 173
and damp proofing 633 reference 159
diffusion test 277 wire
engineering 595 diameter 203
quality 581 standardized 198
water-cement ratio 452, 634 surface 203
watertable 476 testing 203
waterway 595 w i t h trapezoidal cross section 221
crossing of 595 w i t h z-shaped cross section 221
wave withstand
front 102 salinity 292
length 94 salt deposite 293
running period measurement 662 test
weather condition foul 287 impulse voltage 276
wedge-type clamp 307, 308 puncture voltage 274
W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n 52, 62 voltage
weight insulation coordination 283
additional 367 of air gap 52
of a string 270 required 52
per unit area 275 wood
span 365, 607 decay 461
welding connection 415 pole 360,459
W e n n e r M e t h o d 131, 682 A-shaped 460, 461
wet snow 166 deformation 461
accretion 165 double 460
width of the corridor 581 resistance 460
wind wooden portal-type structure 459
action w o r k i n g space 505
o n ice c o v e r e d c o n d u c t o r 60, 169, worm-type drill 477
184 woven wire grip 656
on line components 163 wrapping test 204
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Overhead Power Lines p r e s e n t not nnly the f.nglbh language edition i t h a m d o n the *th

u i n t l i f k a n d engineering basis for the German-language cdili on and i n c c w p o n l c t

electric and meihanicaJ design, bat also m m - the latest inter national standards edited by

p r e h e n s n r t y describe* all aspects of m m • i •! rhe lnternalinn.il C l m m d l of Large

recent technology, including the selection and Electric Systems, I E C and C E t i f t J C The
design of component* » K h u tondudors, authors arc r r c o g n i i e d experts who have long
participated in. a n d mri tributes! aciivdy, to
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