Atomic Structure Timeline

Democritus (400 B.C.)

• Proposed that matter

was composed of tiny
indivisible particles
• Not based on
experimental data
• Greek: atomos
Alchemy (next 2000 years)

• Mixture of science and mysticism.

• Lab procedures were developed, but
alchemists did not perform controlled
experiments like true scientists.
John Dalton (1807)
• British Schoolteacher
– based his theory on
others’ experimental
data
• Solid Sphere Model
– atom is a
uniform,
solid sphere
John Dalton
Dalton’s Four Postulates
1. Elements are composed of small
indivisible particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are
identical. Atoms of different
elements are different.
3. Compounds contain atoms of
more than one element
4. In a compound, atoms of different
elements always combine the same
way.
Henri Becquerel (1896)
• Discovered radioactivity
– spontaneous emission
of radiation from the
nucleus
• Three types:
– alpha (α) - positive
– beta (β) - negative
– gamma (γ) - neutral
J. J. Thomson (1903)
• Cathode Ray Tube
Experiments
– beam of negative
particles
• Discovered Electrons
– negative particles
within the atom
• Plum-pudding Model
Thomson’s ExperimentThe Cathod
 High Voltage

Gas at very low

pressure(almost vacuum)

Direction of Cathode
Rays

Cathode -
screen with hole Anode +
to vacuum pump
 High Voltage

Gas at very low

pressure(almost vacuum)

Negatively charged plate

Direction of cathode ray

+

Cathode - Positively charged plate

screen with hole Anode +

to vacuum pump
 High Voltage

Shadow formed

Cathode -
screen with hole Anode +
to vacuum pump
 High Voltage

Cathode -
screen with hole Anode +
to vacuum pump
• Thomson Thomson Model
studied the
passage of an
electric current
through a gas.
• As the current
passed through
the gas, it gave
off rays of
negatively
charged
particles.
J. J. Thomson (1903)

Plum-pudding Model
– positive sphere
(pudding) with
negative
electrons (plums)
dispersed
throughout
Eugen Goldstein (1886)

• Discovered
proton
(component of
canal rays)
– Positive
particles within
the atom
 High Voltage

Cathode rays (Electrons)

Direction of canal rays

Canal
rays Direction of Cathode
Rays
(positive
particles
Cathode -
screen with hole Anode +
to vacuum pump
Robert Milikan (1909)

• Determined the electric

charge of an electron

• The charge on a single

electron: 1.602 × 10−19
coulomb
Milikan’s Oil Drop Experiment
Ernest Rutherford (1911)

• Gold Foil Experiment

• Discovered the
nucleus
– dense, positive
charge in the center
of the atom
• Nuclear Model
Rutherford’s ExperimentGold Foil
 Gold foil

Source of
alpha
particles
Fluorescent
screen
 NUCLEUS

Alpha
particles

Atoms of gold
 Ernest Rutherford (1911)

• Nuclear Model
– dense, positive nucleus surrounded
by negative electrons
James Chadwick (1932)

Discovered the neutron

– neutral particles
within the atom
 Subatomic Particles
ATOM
ATOM

NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS ELECTRONS
ELECTRONS

PROTONS
PROTONS NEUTRONS
NEUTRONS NNEGATIVE
E G A T I V E CHARGE
CHARG E

P O S IT IV E
POSITIVE NEUTRAL
NEUTRAL
CHARGE
CHARG E CHARGE
CHARG E
Atomic Structure
 12
C
Mass
Number

Atomic
Number
6
 Element

A
X
Mass
Number

Atomic
Number
Z
 Atomic Number (Z)

• Number of protons in an atom

• Unique for each element

Z = p+
 Mass Number (A)

• Number of nucleons in an atom

– Nucleon is the numerical sum of the
protons and neutrons

A = p + + n0
 Subatomic Particles
ATOM
ATOM

NUCLEUS
NUCLEUS ELECTRONS
ELECTRONS

PROTONS
PROTONS NEUTRONS
NEUTRONS NNEGATIVE
E G A T I V E CHARGE
CHARG E

PPOSITIVE
O S IT IV E NNEUTRAL
EUTRAL
CCHARGE
HARG E CCHARGE
HARG E in a neutral atom

Most of the atom’s mass. Atomic Number

equals the # of...
How do we compute for the number
of protons, electrons and neutrons
in a neutral atom?
• Protons
p+ = Z
• Electrons
e- = p+
• Neutrons
n0 = A – Z or n0 = A – p+
 Example
Determine A, Z, p+, e-, n0 and net charge of
the neutral atom carbon.
A = 12
Z=6
12 p+ = 6

6 C e- = 6
n0 = 6
Net Charge = 0
 Ions

• Charged particle
• Exist when an atom transfers or
gains one or more electrons
• May be positive (cation) or negative
(anion)
 Example
Determine A, Z, p+, e-, n0 and net charge of
the charged atom carbon.
A = 12
Z=6
12 4+
C
p+ = 6
e- = 6 – 4 = 2
6 n0 = 6
Net Charge = +4
 Isotopes

• Atoms that have the same number

of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.
Ex. 1
1H – hydrogen
2
1 H – deuterium
3
1 H – tritium
 Atomic Mass

• The mass of an atom in atomic

mass unit (amu).
• Atomic mass unit is defined as the
mass exactly equal to 1/12 the
mass of one carbon-12 atom
 Example

The element copper has naturally

occurring isotopes with mass
numbers 63 and 65. The percent
abundance and atomic masses are
69.2% for atomic mass=62.93 amu,
and 30.8% for atomic mass=64.93.
Calculate the relative atomic mass
of copper.
 Example

Calculate the relative/average atomic

mass of bromine. The two isotopes
of bromine have atomic masses
and percent abundance of 78.92
amu (50.69%) and 80.92 amu
(43.91%).
 Example
Compute for X.

Relative
Atomic
% Atomic
Isotope mass
Abundance Mass
(amu)
(amu)
35
17 Cl 34.969 75.53
35.45
37
17 Cl X 24.47
 Example
Compute for X.

Relative
Atomic
% Atomic
Isotope mass
Abundance Mass
(amu)
(amu)
3
2 He X 0.0001
4.0026
4
2 He 4.0026 99.9999
Modern Atomic Theory
Niels Bohr (1913)
• Bright-Line Spectrum
– tried to explain
presence of specific
colors in hydrogen’s
spectrum
• Energy Levels
– electrons can only exist
in specific energy
Niels Bohr (1913)

Bright-line spectrum
• Planetary Model
– electrons move in
circular orbits within
specific energy levels
Erwin Schrödinger (1926)
• Quantum mechanics
– electrons can only exist
in specified energy
states
• Electron cloud model
– orbital: region around
the nucleus where e-
are likely to be found
 Erwin Schrödinger (1926)

Electron Cloud Model (orbital)

• dots represent probability of finding an e-
Wave Model
James Chadwick (1932)
• Discovered neutrons
– neutral particles in the
nucleus of an atom
• Irene and Frederic
Joliot-Curie
– Chadwick based his
theory on their
experimental
evidence
 James Chadwick (1932)

Neutron Model
• revision of Rutherford’s Nuclear Model
 Atomic Orbitals
• Orbital
– Region of space
around the
nucleus where
an electron is
likely to be found
– More energy =
more orbitals
The Wave Model
• Today’s atomic
model is based
on the principles
of wave
mechanics.
• According to the
theory of wave
mechanics,
electrons do not
move about an
atom in a definite
path, like the
 The Wave Model
• In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact
location of an electron. The probable location
of an electron is based on how much energy
the electron has.
• According to the modern atomic model, at
atom has a small positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a large region in which there
are enough electrons to make an atom
neutral.
 Electron Cloud:
• A space in which
electrons are likely to be
found.
• Electrons whirl about
the nucleus billions of
times in one second
• They are not moving
around in random
patterns.
• Location of electrons
depends upon how
much energy the
electron has.
 Electron Cloud:

• Depending on their energy they are locked

into a certain area in the cloud.
• Electrons with the lowest energy are
found in the energy level closest to the
nucleus
• Electrons with the highest energy are
found in the outermost energy levels,
farther from the nucleus.
 Indivisible Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
Cloud
Greek X
Dalton X
Thomson X
Rutherford X X
Bohr X X X
Wave X X X
 RADIOACTIVITY
Definition: spontaneous emission of
particles and.or radiation
TYPES:
• Alpha (α) Ray – consists of
positively charged particles
• - has a low penetrating
ability (can be stopped by
paper)
• Beta (β) rays – consists of
electrons.
• has a medium penetrating
ability (can be stopped by
heavy clothing)
• Gamma (γ) Rays – no charge
and not affected by an external
field.
• high penetrating
ability (can be
stopped by lead)
 Fundamental Subatomic Particles
Particle Symbol Relative Mass Mass
Electrical (g) (amu)
Charge

ELECTRON e- -1 9.11 x 10-28 0.0006≈0

PROTON p+ +1 1.67 x 10-24 1.0073≈1

NEUTRON n0 0 1.67 x 10-24 1.0087≈1

 Electron Configuration
• Arrangement of electrons within the
orbitals of the atom
– The most stable configuration is the
one in which electrons are in their
lowest possible orbitals. This is called
their Ground State.
• If energy is added, electrons can move
to a higher energy orbital. The atom is
then considered to be in an excited
state.
• Lithium
– When lithium Example
reacts with water,
the atom goes to
an excited state.
– When the
electron returns
to its ground
state, it gives of
energy in the
form of fire.