02
004.738.5
18
18
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. 5- . .: , 2012. 960 .: .
ISBN 978-5-459-00342-0
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1980 ,
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, 802.12 802.16, 3G, RFID, CDN, , , -
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32.973.202+32.988.02
004.738.5
ISBN 978-0132126953 .
ISBN 978-5-459-00342-0
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.3.3.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.4.1. OSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.4.2. TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.4.3. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.4.4. OSI TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.4.5. OSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.4.6. TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.5.3. : 802.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
1.5.4. RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
1.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.5. CDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.3. : , ADSL, . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1. :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.2. :
(G2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.3. :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8.5. ADSL ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
106
107
107
110
112
112
113
114
115
116
122
123
127
128
132
133
135
136
140
140
143
145
145
150
153
155
156
159
160
163
165
173
182
186
188
192
197
202
202
203
205
206
208
210
211
8
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2. . . . . . . . .
3.3.3. . . . . .
3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.2. n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1. SONET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.2. ADSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
216
217
219
223
224
225
227
233
239
244
245
247
251
253
256
263
269
269
273
276
277
4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2. , . . .
4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1. ALOHA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2. . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1. Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2.
Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3. Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.4. Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.5. Fast Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.6. Gigabit Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.7. 10- Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.8. Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1. 802.11: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.2. 802.11: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.3. 802.11: .
4.4.4. 802.11: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
282
282
284
286
286
291
294
298
302
305
306
307
311
313
316
319
322
324
325
326
327
329
336
338
9
4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1. 802.16 802.11 3G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2. 802.16: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.3. 802.16: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.4. 802.16: MAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.5. 802.16: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6. Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1. Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.2. Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.3. Bluetooth: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.4. Bluetooth: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.5. Bluetooth: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.6. Bluetooth: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7. RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.1. EPC Gen2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.2. EPC Gen2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.3. EPC Gen2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.4. , , , ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.8.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
340
341
342
343
345
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
354
356
357
357
359
360
361
361
363
366
368
371
378
380
5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.5. . . . . . .
5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
384
384
385
387
389
390
392
394
395
398
399
403
409
411
413
416
417
420
424
426
427
10
5.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.1. IP 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.2. IP- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.3. IP 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.5. MPLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.6. OSPF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.7. BGP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.9. IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
428
430
434
436
437
439
443
447
451
454
457
458
459
462
464
465
469
471
475
488
498
504
507
512
518
519
521
522
6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
6.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.1. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.4. : - . . . . .
6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4. : UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1. UDP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . .
527
527
529
533
535
540
541
544
550
554
559
560
563
563
568
572
574
575
577
580
11
6.5. : TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.1. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.2. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.3. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.4. TCP- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.5. TCP- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.6. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.7. TCP- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.8. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.9. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.10. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.5.11. TCP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.1. . . . . . . .
6.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.6.6.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.1. DTN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.7.2. Bundle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
586
586
587
590
591
595
596
597
599
603
606
617
618
618
619
623
626
629
631
636
637
639
642
643
7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
7.1. DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1. DNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. (WWW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3. - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.4. HTTP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.6. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
648
649
653
656
660
661
664
668
677
682
685
687
702
712
724
734
736
739
741
747
755
763
767
12
7.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.1. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.2. - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5.4. ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
778
779
782
787
792
801
803
8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
8.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1. DES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2. AES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1. RSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2. X.509 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1. IPsec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.1. , . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.2. :
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.3. . . . . . . .
8.7.4. Kerberos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7.5. . . . . . . .
8.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8.1. PGP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.8.2. S/MIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
810
811
814
815
817
822
824
826
829
833
838
839
840
841
843
844
845
846
847
852
854
855
856
858
861
862
866
869
871
876
877
882
884
887
889
890
891
895
13
8.9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9.3. SSL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.10.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
896
896
897
902
906
910
910
914
917
921
922
9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
9.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.8. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
928
929
930
930
931
931
932
933
933
935
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947
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, . OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing,
)
, (,
).
. ,
. , .2.22, , .
.
, ,
, . , .
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, OFDM
( , ). OFDM
802.11, .
.
2.5.
155
, . ,
;
,
.
f
f1
f2
f3
f5
f4
. 2.22. (OFDM)
2.5.4.
FDM TDM (Time Division Multiplexing,
, ). (
),
. , TDM,
.2.23.
.
. .
, ,
, .
1
2
3
. 2.23. (TDM)
TDM . , ,
STDM ( ).
, , . STDM
.
156 2.
2.5.5. CDM
, , FDM
TDM, CDM ( , ). ,
.
,
.
, CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access,
).
CDMA
. . ,
. .
. ,
. ,
: , ,
, . CDMA
, ,
.
, . ,
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. CDMA.
CDMA m , , (chip).
64 128 . , 8 ,
. m- ,
. 1 +1.
.
, . 0,
(
, ). . , m = 8 A (1 1 1 +1 +1 1 +1 +1), 1,
, 0, (+1 +1 +1 1 1 +1 1 1).
,
.
, ( b/, mb ),
m . ,
CDMA m ,
2.5.
157
CDMA (,
). 1,
100 ,
10 10/ (, 1/).
CDMA (1),
10/ .
.2.24,a
, .
. S m S, S S. .
,
S T ( S T) 0. ,
, . , :
ST !
1 m
" S T = 0.
m i =1 i i
(2.3)
, , . . : S T = 0,
ST 0.
1:
SS =
1 m 2
1 m
1 m
S
S
=
S
=
!
!
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m i =1 i i m i =1 i
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, m 1,
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. 2.24. :
; ;
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158 2.
1,
, 0,
, . ,
,
.
,
. ,
+1, 1, +2. :
+1, 1. +2.
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, .
B C ,
, :
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=(02 0 0 0 +2 +2 0 2).
, ,
.
( ) ,
. S , C,
S C.
, , , AC.
, B .
, : S = A + B + C, :
S C = (A + B + C) C = A C + B C + C C = 0 + 0 + 1 =1.
, , ,
. (2.3). ,
.
, .2.24,.
.2.24,. , , C,
S1S6.
(S) C
(..2.24,), 8 ( m=8 ).
, . , !
2.6.
159
CDMA , , , ,
,
. 2n 2n 2n. ,
, . ,
( CDMA 1990-).
, CDMA
CDMA.
CDMA .
. , CDMA, Viterbi
(1995) Lee and Miller (1998). , ,
.
2.6.
, , ,
.
. , , ,
- ,
. ,
.
.
,
(PSTN, Public Switched Telephone Network),
- .
.
, ,
, ,
1/ . ADSL,
, 1/.
.
, , .
,
, .
, .
160 2.
, , , ,
, .
, . . (Bellamy, 2000).
2.6.1.
, (Alexander Graham Bell) 1876
( , (
Elisha
Gray
)) , . ,
.
. n , n .
, .
,
(.2.25,).
, Bell Telephone
Company
, 1878 -, . .
, ,
, ,
, .
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Bell System , , , Bell System
. :
,
(.2.29,).
. ,
.
2.6.
161
1890 , , (
, ,
), ,
. . (Hawley,
1991).
,
Bell System 100.
; .
( ). 1 10, ,
.
22000
.
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).
, 1000.
80% AT&T
. , AT&T
. , . -
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, .
, , , , .
.
, .
, - (, ,
). .
.
(
, ),
. .2.25, ,
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,
. .
1984, AT&T, ,
162 2.
, .
, . 2.26 , .
. 2.26.
. , 5,
3,
. , .
, . ,
,
. , ,
.
: 0 1. ,
. .
, .
1. ( , ).
2. ( ).
3. (
).
, .
, ,
. , .
. ,
,
. . ,
, .
2.6.
163
2.6.2.
, 1984,
Bell
System
,
. 1970- ,
, AT&T.
, 1 1984 AT&T
AT&T Long Lines, 23 BOC (Bell
Operating Company) . 23 BOC
7 RBOC .
( ) .
MFJ. (Modified
Final
Judgment
. : , , .)
, ,
, . , :
.
.
,
,
. , , 164 , LATA (Local
Access and Transport Area ).
LATA ,
. LATA LEC (Local Exchange
Carrier ),
LATA.
LEC BOC, LATA
LEC
, 1500.
, LATA
Sprint
. AT
&
T
, ,
.
.2.27. LATA
. LATA 2 3
(
LATA ).
, POP (Point of Presence ), LATA
164 2.
, . ,
LEC
, LATA
1 3 (. .2.27), , LATA2. , , ,
,
. , , LATA1
, , LATA3.
MFJ ,
.
, , , ..
1984 .
,
. , ,
. , , ,
.
1995
,
, , ,
. ,
,
, . , . 1996 -
2.6.
165
, BOC IXC, ,
, , ,
, LEC.
1996 :
.
, , .
(
) 2003 .
,
.
. . :
, , , .
, - .
2.6.3. : , ADSL,
.
,
. , ,
.
, .
100 , ,
(- ).
, .
,
. - ,
,
ADSL, ,
, . ADSL :
,
, .
. .
. . ,
.
, , . , ADSL, .
166 2.
, ,
.
, . .
,
, ,
, (
-). : , DSL, , .. (
) ( DSL ). , () ()
, .2.28.
. 2.28.
.
() , .
, 3100, , . ,
, Ethernet 802.11 (WiFi).
,
Ethernet 802.11.
, . ,
3000 (
) , 6000.
2400 , 2400,
,
( ).
2400 0 1 , .
4 , QPSK,
4800 /.
2.6.
167
.
.
.
, . ,
TCM (Trellis-Coded Modulation). (Ungerboeck, 1987.)
, , V.32 32 4
2400, 9600/ .
9600/ 14400/. V.32bis
6 2400.
.
V.34bis 14/
2400, 33600 /.
? 33600 / ,
35/
. .
.
( ).
, , ,
35/. .
, /,
.
56/. ,
,
. ( ), 70/.
, , 33,6/.
, 56/ (
70/), .
.
4000 (
). , ,
, 8000. , , 8, 1 ,
56000/. 8 ,
, , 64000/,
56000 /.
V.90 V.92.
168 2.
33,6/ 48/, 56/.
,
. ,
,
56 /.
56/,
, . , 10/ .
,
( ,
LEC
) , .
, .
, xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line ), x
. , , ,
, .
ADSL (Asymmetric DSL DSL).
DSL xDSL .
, , , , ,
. .
, ( ), , 300
3400. 3, 4000,
3100. ,
.
, xDSL, , , .
, .
,
3100.
,
, .
.
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. , , .
2.6.
169
, ,
, : , 100
, , .
? , . , , ,
.
, .
xDSL . -,
,
3. -,
. -,
56/. , -,
, , .
, 1,1 256 4312,5 . .2.30. ADSL AT&T
,
1,1, .
OFDM, , , , ADSL,
, DMT (Discrete MultiTone). 0
POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service ). 1 5
,
. 250
, ,
.
170 2.
. 2.30. ADSL
, , - , . ,
, .
50/50, 8090%
,
, . 32
, .
, ,
.
1999 ADSL, G.dmt.
8/ 1/. 2002 ,
ADSL2, , 12/
1/ . ADSL2+,
( ) 24/,
, 2,2 .
, ,
( 12) . ,
. , 1/
256/ ( ), 4/ 1/
( ) 8/ 2/ (-).
QAM
4000/. ,
, .2.19.
, 15 ,
/, 2, 1 0 ,
/ .
ADSL- .2.31. ,
2.6.
171
, , ADSL-,
OFDM. ADSL ,
.
Ethernet, USB- 802.11.
. 2.31. ADSL
, ,
.
. ,
, 26, , DSL, DSLAM (Digital
Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer), ADSL- , .
, .
ADSL. DSLAM ADSL .
(, ISDN)
172 2.
.
.2.31
NID .
, , ,
.
, G.lite, . .2.31 ,
. . ,
,
,
ADSL- .
, 3400.
ADSL-, , , ,
0 26. ,
G.lite 1,5/ ( 8/
). ADSL Starr (2003).
ADSL .
, , . FTTH (Fiber To The Home ). FTTH
, 2005
, DSL
, . 4%
FTTH 100/.
FTTX ( X ,
). , , . ( )
. ,
, , . ,
. FTTH.
, .
,
- .
. , ,
.
,
100 . ,
. ,
. -
2.6.
173
,
.
PON (Passive Optical Network ), .2.32.
.
, PON
20.
. . GPON ( PON)
, ITU.
EPON (Ethernet PON) ,
IEEE. , , . , GPON
2,4/ 1,2 2,4/ .
. 2.32.
.
. ,
, . , , ,
. ,
, . , ,
. , , , ,
, .
, . .
(Grobe Elbers, 2008).
2.6.4.
, ,
.
, ; , .
174 2.
. , .
,
( ) .
.
,
. , , ,
TDM, (SONET).
FDM, ,
.
. FDM 4000 (3100 )
. , 12 60 108
, ( 60 ) .. FDM
. FDM
, . TDM, , , ,
. TDM ,
,
, ,
.
,
( -). -
8000 (125 /), ,
, 4.
;
. 8-
.
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation, - ). . ,
, 125.
, , 8 125, 64/.
, .
2.6.
175
, ,
, . - , .
,
. ,
.
: - (-law),
, A- (A-law), . ITU G.711. ,
(
) , () , , .
(companding).
, , ,
64/. ,
, IP-.
, - , , ,
125.
, ITU (CCITT) - .
.
, , T1,
.2.33. ( , DS1,
T1, , .) T1 24
, . 24 , ,
8 .
. 2.33. T1 (1,544/)
176 2.
248=192 , 193 125.
1,544/. 193- . 193- 24
. , 4-, 8-, 12-, 16-,
20- 24- , 001011 . . . , , .
, ,
. 6 ,
, ,
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12 , .
T1 .
, , , . ,
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. ,
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, .
,
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.
. 64
, , (
, ),
.
T1
. 2.34 ,
. T1,
2. 2 , , 24
T1. T1 1,544/ 6,176/,
2.6.
177
2 , 6,312/.
.
T1 T3 , T2 T4
, .
. 2.34. T1
2 3.
3 4.
.
, ,
. 4, 7 6 , , , ITU
. ,
ITU. ITU
32, 128, 512, 2048 8192 , 2,048,
8,848, 34,304, 139,264 565,148/.
SONET/SDH
,
.
1984 AT
&
T
TDM
. . 1985 Bellcore
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network ).
ITU
178 2.
. ,
, , .
-, , , 64/ - ,
( ) .
-, SONET
. SONET
T3 44,736/. 4
, , 4 .
SONET ,
.
SONET.
-, SONET , (OAM, Operation, Administration, Maintenance).
.
SONET
,
,
, . SONET .
109.
, .
SONET 810,
125. SONET , - , .
8000
PCM, .
SONET 810 9
90. , 8 810 = 6480 8000 ,
51,84 /. SONET, STS-1 (Synchronous Transport Signal ).
SONET STS-1.
, . 2.35. ,
. ,
.
SONET 810 , (
). .
, ? ,
,
.
, ,
2.6.
179
.
, , ,
,
.
. 2.35. SONET
87 .
87 9 8 8000 = 50,112 /. , T1 , . SONET
. ,
, SPE (Synchronous Payload Envelope),
. SPE
.
. SPE (
).
SPE SONET , . 2.35, .
, ,
SONET , ,
.
SONET/SDH . 2.5.
STS-1 STS-768,
T3 40 /. ,
, , OC-3072 160 /
, . (OC,
Optical Carrier), n- (STS-n),
OC-n STS-n , ,
. SDH OC-3, ITU
180 2.
51,84 /. , ,
C-3, 4. . SPE
.
87 .
- , OC-3, , ,
c, concatenated (). , OC-3
155,52- , OC-1, OC-3c
155,52 /.
-1 -3 . 1 1, 1 2, 1 3, 2 1 270 9 .
2.5. SONET SDH
SONET
SDH
, /
SPE
51,84
50,112
49,536
STS-1
OC-1
STS-3
OC-3
STM-1
155,52
150,336
148,608
STS-9
OC-9
STM-3
466,56
451,008
445,824
STS-12
OC-12
STM-4
622,08
601,344
594,432
STS-48
OC-48
STM-16
2488,32
2405,376
2377,728
STS-192
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STM-64
9953,28
9621,504
9510,912
STS-768
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STM-256
39813,12
38486,06
38043,648
.
(WDM, Wavelength-Division Multiplexing).
.2.36. ,
. .
.
, ,
.
.
. . , WDM
2.6.
181
, .
,
,
.
, ,
, ,
, , .
. 2.36.
, , ,
- . , ,
,
. 25000 (..2.6),
, 1/ 2500
10/ ( ).
WDM ,
.
1990. 8
2,5/ . 1998 40- . 2006 192 10/ 64 40/. ,
80 DVD- . , 200, 100 50 . ,
,
, .
, , WDM, DWDM (Dense WDM).
182 2.
.
100 ,
,
.
1000,
.
.2.36 .
1 3, 2 1 ..
WDM-.
.
.
,
.
, Ramaswami . (2009).
2.6.5.
,
: ( ,
) (),
. .
.
:
.
, IP-.
. ,
.
( ) ,
, , . , ,
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( ).
.
, ( ).
,
.
.
XIX .
2.6.
183
(AlmonB.Strowger) . - ,
: , , . ,
,
. ,
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. . 100
. (
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.)
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, .2.37,a, , , ,
,
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184 2.
10 .
, .2.38,. ,
. (, ) .
. 2.38. () ()
,
,
, 5
1000. ,
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(, ).
, ,
. , , - .
2.6.
185
, .2.37, 1.
.
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,
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.
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186 2.
.
( ),
(, , 2000 , 1000
, ).
, .
, ,
.
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2.6.
,
, .
.
(, X.25), IP-.
, ,
.
, , ,
, .
2.7.
(
)
, .
2.7.
187
,
- : , , ,
. ,
. ,
.
.
()
. 1G, 2G 3G.
1. .
2. .
3. (, ..).
( , .
.
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.)
, ,
. AT&T,
, FCC,
. ()
, , , , ,
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, ,
.
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(
GSM
), . ,
, . ,
,
.
, . ,
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.
.
, , , (212) 234-5678,
( )
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188 2.
. .
( 800900),
. , , : ( ,
).
, ,
( 75% ). , ,
. , , 20 50,
PIN-. ,
, ,
.
, ,
,
.
2.7.1. :
. . .
XX. 1946 -
. , , . ,
, .
, ,
50-. CB-, , ,
.
1960-
(IMTS, Improved Mobile Telephone System).
(200) , ,
: , .
.
(
, ).
IMTS 23 150 450. -
.
-
. , -
.
2.7.
189
(AMPS)
(AMPS, Advanced Mobile Phone System), Bell Labs
1982. ,
TACS, MCS-L1.
2008 , ,
2G 3G, .
( ). AMPS
10 20 ; .
, .
AMPS
( )
. IMTS 100
, AMTS
5 10
. ,
, , ,
.
B
B
C
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A
A
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D
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, ,
. 2.39, .
. . ,
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190 2.
.
,
.
- ,
. , .
- ,
, ,
(), .2.39,.
,
, , .
(), , .
/, .
, MTSO
(Mobile Telephone Switching Office ) MSC
(Mobile Switching Center ).
,
..
.
,
, .
. , , .
,
, , . , ,
(
). (handoff) 300. , .
.
AMPS (FDM).
832 ,
. FDD (Frequency Division Duplex
2.7.
191
). 832
824 849, 832 869
894. 30.
832 .
1. ( ) .
2. ( )
.
3. ()
.
4. () , .
21.
, ,
, 832 45.
AMPS 32- 10- ,
. 3- ,
10, 7- , 24.
21 ,
. 32-
34- .
AMPS, ,
, ,
.
,
, , .
15 .
, ,
SEND. .
, .
, .
, (
), .
, .
, , , .
. , . (
192 2.
), ,
. , : 14, ? ,
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14, 3.
3 ( ,
).
2.7.2. :
(G2)
.
. ,
.
. , ,
, , - . ,
, .
, .
, .
D-AMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System ) AMPS,
AMPS , . IS-54 IS-136. GSM (Global System for Mobile
communications ,)
, , . D-AMPS, GSM
. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access
), IS-95,
, . CDMA
,
.
PCS (Personal Communications Services
)
(, ). ,
1900, , .
GSM, 2G. CDMA, 3G.
2.7.
193
GSM
GSM 1980-
.
, Groupe Special Mobile.
GSM 1991 .
, GSM ,
, , .
GSM , ,
, ,
. . GSM.
GSM 5000 (sic!) .
, , , . , .
2.40 , GSM AMPS,
.
, (SIM card, Subscriber Identity Module ). -
, . -
, ,
, .
. 2.40. GSM
, . BSC
(Base Station Controller ), . , ,
( AMPS),
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network
).
194 2.
, ,
.
, ,
. VLR (Visitor Location Register ). ,
. HLR (Home Location Register ).
, . ,
.
. GSM
, 900, 1800 1900 . AMPS
, . GSM,
AMPS, . ,
,
( 55 GSM, 80 AMPS).
AMPS GSM
. .
,
GSM
AMPS (200 30).
200, .2.41. GSM 900 124
.
200. 8 .
. 992 ,
. .2.41 , .
, GSM
.
890,4/935,4 2
,
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. , .
TDM
, .2.41, . ,
. .2.42. ,
TDM 148- ,
577 ( 30).
, .
57- (Information) ,
(/).
26- (Sync), .
2.7.
195
. 2.42. GSM
547,
4,615, . 270883/.
8. , AMPS,
196 2.
, 24,7/ ( ).
13/, . , 64 / -
,
.
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TDM 120- ().
, ,
24 .
26- ,
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,
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,
.
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. , ,
.
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,
. (),
. ,
.
.
, GSM AMPS , . AMPS
MSC .
GSM , .
.
BSC. BSC , ,
, .
MAHO (Mobile Assisted HandOff).
2.7.
197
2.7.3. :
,
. , 3G, .
. -,
, , . :
. -,
.
, , -,
DVD-, , -,
, , .
iPhone Apple 3G-. ,
AT&T iPhone. , iPhone
2,5G 2G , 3G, , .
3G , .
1992 , ITU,
IMT2000, IMT (International Mobile
Telecommunications).
, IMT-2000.
1. .
2. ( e-mail, , SMS, ..).
3. ( , , , ..).
4. ( - ).
, ,
, (
). ,
( , ),
.
ITU IMT-2000 ,
,
( -
).
. ( Betamax
VHS ) .
198 2.
, . 2000 :
(1) , , , , (2) , ,
, ( ), (3) , ( /). .
2000 .
ITU 2
. . ,
- , 2/, (
). 2/
, (
ADSL), 384/ , , 144/ , .
, .
, . WCDMA
CDMA (Wideband CDMA), Ericsson
, UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System ).
CDMA2000, Qualcomm.
, .
CDMA. WCDMA 5, CDMA2000 1,25.
Ericsson Qualcomm
, , , . , , ,
, . , GSM; ,
(IS-95). (Ericsson
, Qualcomm ). ,
, CDMA.
1015 % 3G.
,
3G. ,
3G. UMTS, CDMA2000, 3G
, . , UMTS 3G
, CDMA2000. , .
UMTS, WCDMA, CDMA2000.
CDMA , . CDMA
`, , ,
. ,
2.7.
199
, , .
Qualcomm CDMA 2G (IS-95) ,
3G.
CDMA ,
CDMA, . ,
CDMA,
. ,
,
. , , . .
, .
, , .
,
,
.
. , ,
; , . (,
. .)
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.)
.
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CDMA ,
.
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, .
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.
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1/.
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, .
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.
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, , .
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. (hard handoff), , .
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, . ,
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. , , . EDGE
. , ,
.
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IP-,
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etal. (2009) Larmo et al. (2009).
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.
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. , , .
, .
.
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Jones (2001).
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.
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.
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.
2.8.
205
2.8.3.
,
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.
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, : , .
,
. ,
, . ,
( )
.
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. DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service
Interface Specification ) . DOCSIS1.0
1997 , , 2001 , DOCSIS2.0.
, , IP-.
DOCSIS3.0 2006 . , . EuroDOCSIS.
. , -
, , .
.
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.
, ,
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. . ,
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207
, ,
.
8 6 .
DOCSIS3.0.
, 6 ( 8)
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, 27/. QAM-256
39/. 1/3 .
, ,
, .
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, .2.46.
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, .
, , -. - .
8.
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.
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, . ADSL
.
, .
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, .
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, GSM
. , CDMA, WCDMA CDMA2000.
211
.
, . ,
,
.
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?
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?
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100 . ,
?
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, Iridium? , 10 6371 .
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/, NRZ, MLT-3 ? .
212 2.
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.
17. 1984 ,
? 29,
1 0, .
29; .
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10 (
). ,
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.
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? ,
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.
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: (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1) (1, 1).
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27. T1,
1,544 / ?
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29. T1
.
0,001?
213
30. , ,
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1,2 .
33. , .
, 64 ,
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34. . 2.5 OC-3 148,608 /. ,
OC-3 SONET. , SPE,
OC3072?
35. STS-1 SONET (VT). , STS-1
, . , VT1.5 , VT2 4 , VT3 6 ,
VT6 12 STS-1. VT
:
1) DS-1 (1,544 /).
2) CEPT-1 (2,048 /).
3) DS-2 (6,312 /).
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37. n . , ,
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, p , b /.
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45. CDMA.
.
.
46. CDMA : (1 + 1 3 + 1 1 3 +
+1 + 1). , , . 2.24,,
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.
51. ,
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1) 10 /, Ethernet;
2) 100 /, Ethernet;
3) , 54 /.
52. STS-1 SONET.
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,
1, 2 3 .
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215
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( ).
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. (pipes).
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: (t0, t1, t2 t3),
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, )
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.
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3.1.
221
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. ,
, , , .
, , .
escape- (
, ESC)
. ,
ESC.
escape-, .
(byte stuffing).
: ESC
? : escape-
. ESC ,
, ESC . .3.4,. ,
.
ESC.
, .3.4,
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.
, 8-
. ,
. HDLC (High-level Data Link Control
).
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222 3.
). .
, . (bit
stuffing) ,
escape-.
, .
USB (Universal Serial
Bus ).
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()
,
, . , ,
. (01111110) ,
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: 01111110. .3.5 .
. ,
, ,
.
, ,
, . ,
, 100 100.
, ,
3.1.
223
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.
, . ,
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. , 16 32
.
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,
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,
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. ( ). .
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225
,
, .
.
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,
, , , .
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, ,
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5). , .
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226 3.
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227
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3. .
4. .
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m , m r
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2. ,
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n ( n=m+r).
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n- .
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, m/n. . -
228 3.
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.
, , . ,
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. 3.
2 ( )
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+
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d .
,
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,
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d ,
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, , ,
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.
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3.2.
229
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, .
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,
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n ,
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. , 2m n+1 .
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:
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(3.1)
m
.
(1950). , 1. , 2 (1, 2, 4,
8, 16 ..), . (3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 ..) m . (11,7) 7
4 .3.6.
2 , .
. ,
k- ,
k 2. , 11=8+2+1, 29=16+8+4+1. ,
(, 11- 1, 2 8).
, A ASCII.
3,
( ). , .
230 3.
, , . .
,
. .
01 01
A
1000001
p1 p2 m3 p4 m5 m6 m7 p8 m9 m10 m11
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
A
1000001
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3.2.
231
, r 1/2.
,
, .
.
. ,
111,
, , 100000,
110000 111000 . 11, 10
01. (
), . k, , 7.
, ( ).
k , (Forney, 1973). ,
,
. ,
, .
,
(0 1).
, , 1 0, +1 1. 0,9 0,1.
1 0 , 0,9 , 0,1
.
. (soft-decision decoding). ,
, , ,
,
(hard-decision decoding).
232 3.
, , . ,
; .
, ,
m- . ,
, .
- , n- n+1 . ,
ax+b, . ,
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, , .
,
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, .
,
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. m=8, . 255 .
(255,233), 32 233 . , ,
(Massey, 1969).
, .
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-, DVD Blu-ray. m- , m-
. 2t
t . , , (255,233) 32 16 . , 8,
128. ,
(, -, ).
2t .
,
. . , , ,
, .
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233
3.2.2.
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.
-, , . , , ,
.
.
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
, , .
(parity bit),
, ( ).
2
( ). ,
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, 10110100.
, : 10110101. -
234 3.
,
. ,
.
,
106 . , , , .
1010. 1000. , 1000- ,
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10000 . 1- ,
. 1000
, (1001), . ,
2001 1 10000,
.
,
,
. 0,5, .
,
n k ( ).
,
k , ,
.
- , , ,
. (interleaving).
n ,
k , :
. n . .3.8
n=7 k=7.
N
e
t
w
o
r
k
1001110
1100101
1110100
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1101111
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1101011
1011110
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c
l
w
o
r
k
1001110
1100011
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3.2.
235
,
( ) , ,
( ) . .3.8, ,
n=7, ,
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). n ,
.
n kn
n .
n+1 , , .
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,
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, .
, , , 216.
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.
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.
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. , 1995 , , . ,
, .
, ,
, ,
.
, , , .
, ,
.
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1982). , :
.
.
,
, ,
, CRC (Cyclic Redundancy heck ).
, 0 1. k
k1, k xk1
x0. ( ) xk1, xk2 .. , 110001 6 ,
,
1, 1, 0, 0, 0 1: x5+x4+x0.
2
.
. , (XOR).
+
10011011
11001010
01010001
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11001101
11111110
1110000
10100110
01010110
01010101
10101111
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, , , 2. ,
, , .
3.2.
237
, G(x). 1. CRC
m, M(x), ,
. CRC
,
G(x) . , , ,
G(x). .
CRC :
1. r G(x). r ,
m + r xrM(x).
2. 2 , xrM(x),
, G(x).
3. 2 ( r ) , xrM(x).
, T(x).
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G(x)=x4+x+1.
, T(x) ( 2) G(x)
. , ,
. , ,
210278 10941, 2399. 2399
210278, (207879) 10941 .
. ? , ,
T(x) T(x)+E(x).
E(x) . E(x) k
1, , k . , ,
0.
G(x), [T(x)+E(x)]/G(x). T(x)/G(x) 0,
E(x)/G(x). ,
G(x), ,
.
, E(x)=xi, i
. G(x) , E(x) ,
.
E(x)=xi+xj, i>j,
: E(x)=xj(xij+1). ,
G(x) x,
G(x) xk+1 k 1
ij, .
238 3.
, .
, x15+x14+1 xk+1 k
1 32768.
.3.9. CRC
3.3.
239
, r+1
(1/2)r
, .
. ,
, , IEEE802 ( ,
Ethernet):
x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x1 + 1.
:
32 , . 1980- .
.
, (
Castagnoli
., 1993) (
Koopman
, 2002) CRC. ,
, 6, CRC-32 IEEE
4.
CRC , (Peterson)
(
Brown
) 1961 , CRC .
.
CRC, ( Ethernet, 802.11)
(, SONET).
3.3.
. , , .
, ,
, . .3.10.
, (Network Interface Card NIC).
. , . (, ,
, ,
, ). , . ,
,
.
240 3.
. 3.10. ,
, A B
, , .
, B
A. , A
, ,
. A ,
. ( .)
, .
, , .
, , ,
. ,
,
.
, ,
(..3.1). , , ( ) ( ).
.
, to_physical_layer
from_physical_layer . ( ),
, ,
. , , ,
.
. , ,
- . wait_for_
event(&event). , - (, ). event ,
.
. , ,
3.3.
241
, , .
.
,
.
3.1. .
protocol.h
#define MAX_PKT 1024
typedef
typedef
typedef
typedef
/* */
typedef struct {
frame_kind kind;
seq_nr seq;
seq_nr ack;
packet info;
} frame;
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
, */
*/
*/
*/
*/
/* event */
void wait_for_event(event_type *event);
/* */
void from_network_layer(packet *p);
/* */
void to_network_layer(packet *p);
/* r */
void from_physical_layer(frame *r);
/* */
void to_physical_layer(frame *s);
/* timeout */
void start_timer(seq_nr k);
/* timeout */
void stop_timer(seq_nr k);
/* ack_timeout */
void start_ack_timer(void);
/* ack_timeout */
void stop_ack_timer(void);
/* network_layer_ready */
void enable_network_layer(void);
242 3.
3.1 ()
/* network_layer_ready */
void disable_network_layer(void);
/* inc : k */
#define inc(k) if (k < MAX_SEQ) k = k + 1; else k = 0
, . ( ),
(event=cksum_err).
,
(event=frame_arrival),
from_physical_layer. ,
, ,
, .
.
: .
, .
.
,
.
3.1 ( C),
, . : boolean, seq_nr, packet,
frame_kind frame. boolean , true false. seq_nr ,
.
0 MAX_SEQ , , . packet ,
.
MAX_PKT , .
frame : kind, seq, ack info, , ,
. (frame header).
kind ,
, , , . seq ack
.
. , info, .
info . info , .
.
, -
3.3.
243
. , info . ,
.
, ,
.
3.1 . ,
,
. , wait_for_event
- .
to_network_layer from_network_layer
.
: from_physical_layer to_physical_layer
, to_
network_layer from_network_layer
. , to_network_layer from_network_layer
2 3, from_physical_layer
to_physical_layer 1 2.
,
.
, , . , -,
.
event=timeout,
wait_for_event. start_timer stop_timer . timeout , , stop_timer .
start_timer .
, ( , ).
start_ack_timer stop_ack_timer .
enable_network_layer disable_network_layer , ,
. , ,
. event=network_layer_ready.
, .
, , ,
.
0 MAX_SEQ
(). MAX_SEQ . 1 (
MAX_SEQ) inc. ,
,
. ,
244 3.
.
, .
3.1 .
, , ,
.
C
#include
protocol.h, .
3.3.1.
. , , -
.
. .
. , . ,
, 3.2.
, .
, sender1 () receiver1 (). sender1 ,
receiver1 . , , MAX_SEQ .
frame_arrival ( ).
sender1 , while, .
: ( )
, s
. info,
,
.
. ,
- , . ,
wait_for_event , event
frame_arrival ( ).
from_physical_layer r. , ,
.
3.2.
/* 1 ("")
. ,
. ,
. */
3.3.
245
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
s */
s */
", ".
.
, V, v */
}
void receiver1(void)
{
frame r;
event_type event; /* ,
*/
while (true) {
wait_for_event(&event); /* ,
frame_arrival */
from_physical_layer(&r);
/* */
to_network_layer(&r.info);
/* */
}0
}
,
, .
, ,
. .
3.3.2.
, 1, . ,
, . ,
. ,
. .
, (
,
, ).
246 3.
, .
, .
. , , . ,
:
.
. ,
, . ,
, .
.
, , , (stop-and-wait). 3.3
.
3.3.
/* 2 ( ) ,
. , .
, , ,
.
, . */
typedef enum {frame_arrival} event_type;
#include "protocol.h"
void sender2(void)
{
frame s;
packet buffer;
event_type event;
/* */
/* */
/*
( frame_arrival)*/
while (true) {
from_network_layer(&buffer);
s.info = buffer;
to_physical_layer(&s);
wait_for_event(&event);
/*
*/
/* s */
/* , , */
/* ,
*/
}
}
void receiver2(void)
{
frame r, s;
event_type event;
/* */
/* frame_arrival
*/
while (true) {
wait_for_event(&event); /*
( frame_arrival)*/
3.3.
from_physical_layer(&r);
to_network_layer(&r.info);
to_physical_layer(&s);
247
/* */
/* */
/* ,
*/
}
}
, ,
. , .
:
, ,
, . . .
1,
, . ,
1, ,
.
:
, : .
receiver2 receiver1 ,
receiver2 , .
, , .
3.3.3.
: , .
, . ,
, . ,
, , ( )
.
, 2.
. .
, . , , , .
.
, , .
, , ,
248 3.
. A ,
B . ,
B ,
, .
.
1. A 1 .
B . B
A.
2. .
A. , , , ,
.
3. A .
, ,
, .
4. B . A B ,
, , B
. , .
, ,
.
. ,
.
,
. :
, ? 1, , 1 . ,
,
.
m m+1. m ,
, .
, . . ,
, m m+1.
, m+1,
m. , m1
.
. ,
.
, ( 0 1).
3.3.
249
. , , .
2 ( 0 1,
1 0). .
, ,
.
3.4. ,
, , PAR (Positive Acknowledgement with
Retransmission ) ARQ
(Automatic Repeat reQuest ).
2, .
3.4.
/* 3 (PAR) . */
#define MAX_SEQ 1
/* 3 1 */
typedef enum {frame_arrival, cksum_err, timeout} event_type;
#include "protocol.h"
void sender3(void)
{
seq_nr next_frame_to_send;
frame s;
packet buffer;
event_type event;
next_frame_to_send = 0;
from_network_layer(&buffer);
while (true) {
s.info = buffer;
s.seq = next_frame_to_send;
to_physical_layer(&s);
start_timer(s.seq);
wait_for_event(&event);
/*
*/
/* */
/* */
/*
*/
/* */
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
frame_arrival, cksum_err
timeout */
if (event == frame_arrival) {
from_physical_layer(&s); /* */
if (s.ack == next_frame_to_send) {
from_network_layer(&buffer); /* */
/* */
inc(next_frame_to_send);
/* */
/* next_frame_to_send */
}
}
}
}
void receiver3(void)
250 3.
3.4 ()
{
seq_nr frame_expected;
frame r, s;
event_type event;
frame_expected = 0;
while (true) {
wait_for_event(&event); /* : frame_arrival, cksum_err */
if (event == frame_arrival) {
/* */
from_physical_layer(&r);
/* */
if (r.seq == frame_expected) {
/* */
to_network_layer(&r.info); /* */
inc(frame_expected);
/* */
/* */
}
s.ack = 1 - frame_expected; /* , */
/* */
to_physical_layer(&s);
/* */
}
}
}
3 , , .
next_frame_to_send, frame_expected.
.
, . , .
, ,
.
, , , . , -, ,
, .
, .
- .
: , , .
, . , .
, ,
, . ( , ).
, .
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3.4.
251
.
,
, ,
.
3.4.
.
.
,
( ). .
.
. , 2 3
, , . A B A B.
kind .
, . ,
, ,
.
ack . . piggybacking
( ).
. ack
,
. ,
, .
1 . .
. ,
?
, , , .
, ,
. , , ,
(,
), .
, .
252 3.
(sliding window). , , .
( 0 ). n , 2n1.
, 0 1,
n.
, ,
, . ,
. , , .
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.
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, .
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n .
,
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,
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,
,
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.
3.4.
253
.3.11 1.
, ,
. , ,
.
. 3.11. 1 3- :
; ; ;
3.4.1.
, , 1. ,
, , , ,
.
3.5. ,
. next_frame_to_send
, . frame_expected
, . , 0 1.
3.5. 1-
/* 4 ( ) . */
#define MAX_SEQ 1
/* 4 1 */
typedef enum {frame_arrival, cksum_err, timeout} event_type;
#include "protocol.h"
void protocol4 (void)
254 3.
3.5 ()
{
seq_nr next_frame_to_send;
seq_nr frame_expected;
frame r, s;
packet buffer;
event_type event;
/*
/*
/*
/*
0 1 */
0 1 */
*/
*/
next_frame_to_send = 0;
frame_expected = 0;
from_network_layer(&buffer);
s.info = buffer;
s.seq = next_frame_to_send;
s.ack = 1 - frame_expected;
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
, ""
*/
to_physical_layer(&s);
start_timer(s.seq);
while (true) {
wait_for_event(&event);
/* */
/* */
/*
/*
if (event == frame_arrival) { /*
from_physical_layer(&r); /*
: frame_arrival, */
cksum_err timeout */
*/
*/
if (r.seq == frame_expected) {
/* */
to_network_layer(&r.info); /* */
inc(frame_expected); /* , */
/* */
}
if (r.ack == next_frame_to_send) { /* */
from_network_layer(&buffer);
/* */
/* */
inc(next_frame_to_send);
/* */
/* */
}
}
s.info = buffer;
s.seq = next_frame_to_send;
s.ack = 1 - frame_expected;
to_physical_layer(&s);
start_timer(s.seq);
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
}
}
. ,
to_physical_layer start_timer .
, .
3.4.
255
( ) , ,
, 3. ,
, ,
.
.
, ,
,
.
.
4 , . , A 0 B,
B 0 A. , A
. ,
A seq=0 ack=1.
B, ,
frame_expected 1.
, B
1, 0. ,
ack=1, B 0, B
.
, A, B , seq=0 ack=0. ,
A, A
.
, , .
.
.3.12. 4: ; .
: (seq, ack, ). ,
256 3.
.
, , .3.12.
. . B A,
, ,
. .
A B , , .
, .
, .
,
. ,
, ,
.
3.4.2. n
, , , ,
, .
.
. 50/ , ,
500. 4
1000 . t=0
. t=20 .
t=270 .
520 . ,
,
. ,
500/520, 96% . ,
4% . , ,
.
, , .
, . , , w,
. w,
, ,
, .
3.4.
257
w, ,
, .
. ,
. BD (bandwidth-delay
product, , ). , w 2BD+1. 2BD ,
( ),
( , , ). ,
.
50/,
250. BD 12,5/
12,5, 1000. 2BD+1 26. , , 0 20. , 26 (
t=520), 0.
20. ,
.
25 26 , ,
26.
, 100%, . ,
:
w
!
.
1 + 2BD
,
. ,
. ,
BD w. ,
,
. ,
,
(, 1/
1 1). w=1,
,
50%.
, , (pipelining). . -, ,
?
, ,
. , , ,
,
258 3.
? ,
, .
. . 3.13.
k3
Ac
Ac
Ac
Ac
Ac
Ac
Ac
k7
k6
k5
k4
k2
Ac
k1
k0
Time
Ac
k1
Ac
k1
Ac
k1
15
Ac
k1
14
13
12
k9
k8
k6
11
Ac
10
Ac
Ac
Ac
k7
k2
Ac
Na
Ac
k5
Ac
3
k1
k0
10
11
12
13
14
. 3.13. : 1;
1
n (go-back-n) , . . 1.
, - ,
, . , ,
. , ,
, ,
.
.
.3.13, n . 0
1 , . 2
. , 2. , 2 ( 2, 3, 4 ..).
,
(selective repeat), , -
3.4.
259
, . .
,
, . ,
. , 1.
,
.
(NAK Negative Acknowledgement) ,
,
. NAK ,
. ,
.
.3.13, 0 1 , 2 .
3 , . 2
NAK
, 3 . 4 5,
.
NAK
2 , 2. ,
2, 3, 4 5,
. , , . NAK
, 2 2
( !), , NAK.
3.6. n
/* 5 () .
MAX_SEQ , . ,
, ,
. network_
layer_ready */
#define MAX_SEQ 7
/* 2^n-1 */
typedef enum {frame_arrival, cksum_err, timeout, network_layer_ready} event_type;
#include protocol.h"
static boolean between(seq_nr a, seq_nr b, seq_nr c)
{
/* true, (a <=b < c ; false */
if (((a <= b) && (b < c)) || ((c < a) && (a <= b)) || ((b < c) && (c < a)))
return(true);
else
return(false);
}
static void send_data(seq_nr frame_nr, seq_nr frame_expected, packet buffer[])
260 3.
3.6 ()
{
/* */
frame s;
/* */
s.info = buffer[frame_nr];
/* */
s.seq = frame_nr;
/* */
s.ack = (frame_expected + MAX_SEQ) % (MAX_SEQ + 1); /* ,
"" */
to_physical_layer(&s);
/* */
start_timer(frame_nr);
/*
*/
}
void protocol5(void)
{
seq_nr next_frame_to_send;
/*
seq_nr ack_expected;
/*
seq_nr frame_expected;
/*
frame r;
/*
packet buffer[MAX_SEQ+1];
/*
seq_nr nbuffered;
/*
seq_nr i;
/*
event_type event;
MAX_SEQ > 1; */
*/
, */
*/
*/
*/
*/
enable_network_layer();
ack_expected = 0;
next_frame_to_send = 0;
frame_expected = 0;
nbuffered = 0;
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
network_layer_ready */
*/
*/
*/
*/
while (true) {
wait_for_event(&event);
/* : . event_type */
switch(event) {
case network_layer_ready:
/*
*/
/* , */
from_network_layer(&buffer[next_frame_to_send]); /*
*/
nbuffered = nbuffered + 1; /* */
send_data(next_frame_to_send, frame_expected, buffer); /*
*/
inc(next_frame_to_send); /*
*/
break;
case frame_arrival:
/* */
from_physical_layer(&r); /*
*/
if (r.seq == frame_expected) {
/* */
3.4.
to_network_layer(&r.info);
inc(frame_expected);
*/
261
/* */
/*
}
/* n
n - 1, n - 2 .. */
while (between(ack_expected, r.ack, next_frame_to_send)) {
/* */
nbuffered = nbuffered - 1; /* */
stop_timer(ack_expected);
/* ;
*/
inc(ack_expected);
/* */
}
break;
case cksum_err: break;
/* */
case timeout: /* ;
*/
next_frame_to_send = ack_expected; /*
*/
for (i = 1; i <= nbuffered; i++) {
send_data(next_frame_to_send, frame_expected, buffer);
/* 1 */
inc(next_frame_to_send); /*
*/
}
}
if (nbuffered < MAX_SEQ)
enable_network_layer();
else
disable_network_layer();
}
}
. ,
, . 3.6 ,
. , , .
,
.
, , network_layer_ready.
,
. enable_network_layer disable_network_layer.
.
262 3.
n MAX_SEQ, MAX_SEQ + 1 : 0 MAX_SEQ. ,
, . ,
, MAX_SEQ=7.
1. 0 7.
2. 7 .
3. , 0 7.
4. 7 .
: , ,
, ( )? 7 . . MAX_SEQ.
5 , , ,
, .
n, n1, n2 ( )
. (cumulative
acknowledgement).
- . ,
, - . ,
network_layer_ready.
, ,
. 4 ,
, - .
.
5 ,
, . . ,
, .
, ,
, .
.3.14,
. ,
1. 10:00:00.000 -, 10:00:00.005, 10:00:00.013
10:00:00.019. , ,
. , -,
, .3.14,.
,
3.4.
263
start_timer stop_timer .
, ,
.
. 3.14.
3.4.3.
n , ,
,
. , ,
.
, .
. , , .
, .
, , . ,
between , . , . ,
, .
, . 3.7.
3.7.
/* 6 ( ) ,
, . .
, ,
5. */
#define MAX_SEQ 7
/* 2^n-1 */
#define NR_BUFS ((MAX_SEQ + 1)/2)
typedef enum {frame_arrival, cksum_err, timeout, network_layer_ready, ack_timeout} event_
type;
264 3.
3.7 ()
#include "protocol.h"
boolean no_nak = true;
/* (nak) */
seq_nr oldest_frame = MAX_SEQ+1;
/* */
static boolean between(seq_nr a, seq_nr b, seq_nr c)
{
/* , 5, */
return ((a <= b) && (b < c)) || ((c < a) && (a <= b)) || ((b < c) && (c < a));
}
static void send_frame(frame_kind fk, seq_nr frame_nr, seq_nr frame_expected, packet
buffer[])
{
/* , */
frame s;
/* */
s.kind = fk;
/* kind == data, ack, nak */
if (fk == data) s.info = buffer[frame_nr % NR_BUFS];
s.seq = frame_nr;
/* */
s.ack = (frame_expected + MAX_SEQ) % (MAX_SEQ + 1);
if (fk == nak) no_nak = false;
/* nak , */
to_physical_layer(&s);
/* */
if (fk == data) start_timer(frame_nr % NR_BUFS);
stop_ack_timer();
/* */
}
void protocol6(void)
{
seq_nr ack_expected;
/* */
seq_nr next_frame_to_send;
/* + 1 */
seq_nr frame_expected;
/* */
seq_nr too_far;
/* + 1 */
int i;
/* */
frame r;
/* */
packet out_buf[NR_BUFS];
/* */
packet in_buf[NR_BUFS];
/* */
boolean arrived[NR_BUFS];
/* */
seq_nr nbuffered;
/* */
event_type event;
enable_network_layer();
ack_expected = 0;
next_frame_to_send = 0;
frame_expected = 0;
too_far = NR_BUFS;
nbuffered = 0;
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
+ 1 */
*/
3.4.
265
switch(event) {
case network_layer_ready:
/* ,
*/
nbuffered = nbuffered + 1; /* */
from_network_layer(&out_buf[next_frame_to_send % NR_BUFS]);
/* */
send_frame(data, next_frame_to_send, frame_expected, out_buf);
/* */
inc(next_frame_to_send); /*
*/
break;
case frame_arrival: /* */
from_physical_layer(&r); /*
*/
if (r.kind == data) {
/* */
if ((r.seq != frame_expected) && no_nak)
send_frame(nak, 0, frame_expected, out_buf);
else start_ack_timer();
if (between(frame_expected, r.seq, too_far) &&
(arrived[r.seq%NR_BUFS] == false)) {
/* */
arrived[r.seq % NR_BUFS] = true;
/*
*/
in_buf[r.seq % NR_BUFS] = r.info; /*
*/
while (arrived[frame_expected % NR_BUFS]) {
/* */
to_network_layer(&in_buf[frame_expected % NR_BUFS]);
no_nak = true;
arrived[frame_expected % NR_BUFS] = false;
inc(frame_expected); /*
*/
inc(too_far);
/*
*/
start_ack_timer(); /*
,
*/
}
}
}
if((r.kind==nak) &&
between(ack_expected,(r.ack+1)%(MAX_SEQ+1),next_frame_to_send))
send_frame(data, (r.ack+1) % (MAX_SEQ + 1),
frame_expected, out_buf);
while (between(ack_expected, r.ack, next_frame_to_send)) {
nbuffered = nbuffered - 1; /*
*/
stop_timer(ack_expected % NR_BUFS); /* */
266 3.
3.7 ()
inc(ack_expected);
/*
*/
}
break;
case cksum_err: if (no_nak) send_frame(nak, 0, frame_expected, out_buf);
break; /* */
case timeout: send_frame(data, oldest_frame, frame_expected, out_buf);
break; /* */
case ack_timeout: send_frame(ack,0,frame_expected, out_buf);
/* "" ; */
}
if (nbuffered < NR_BUFS) enable_network_layer(); else disable_network_layer();
}
}
, .
. ,
3, ,
.
.3.15,. 0 6.
0 6 . ,
7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 5,
.3.15,. .
.3.15. : 7; 7
, ; 4;
, 4 ,
- , .
, . , , 0. , 0
(. 3.15,).
6, 0 6.
3.4.
267
,
, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 5. 7
, .
0,
.
, ; ,
.
, . ,
( ),
( ). .
, .
( .3.15,
3.15,.) , 3, 0 7. ,
. ,
0 3 4 7,
( 0 3) (47).
6 (MAX_SEQ+1)/2.
: ?
, .
,
. 3-
0 3. i,
imod4. , i (i+4), 4,
,
, ,
, 5.
, . ,
. , .
6 ,
. 5, .
,
, . , , ,
, .
6 . start_ack_timer . , ,
. -
268 3.
ack_timeout. ,
,
, .
. start_ack_timer, ,
. , .
,
. ,
, .
6 ,
5. , ,
(NAK).
:
, ( ).
, , NAK . 6
no_nak, true, NAK
( frame_expected) . NAK , , ,
, , ,
, . , NAK
, , no_nak true
. , (ACK)
.
, ,
, .
. NAK
.
. , ,
.
.
, .
. - .
,
,
,
.
-
, -. 5
ack_expected, . 6
, . ,
3.5.
269
0 4, : 01234 (
). , 0
, 5 (),
1 2 6 ( ). : 3405126,
. ,
.
,
. ,
oldest_frame - ,
.
3.5.
, .
4.
,
. SONET. , ,
.
ADSL
.
.
, , , ..
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol, ).
PPP RFC1661
RFC1662 . (Simpson, 1994a, 1994b). PPP SONET ADSL,
-.
3.5.1. SONET
SONET, 2, ,
, , .
, (,
2,4/ OC-48).
, 125, ,
.
,
, . IP PPP, .3.16.
270 3.
. 3.16. SONET: ;
PPP SLIP
(Serial Line Internet Protocol, - ),
, , .
PPP .
1. , . .
2. , , ,
, . LCP (Link Control Protocol).
3. , .
(NCP, Network
Control Protocol).
, PPP,
HDLC (High-level Data Link Control,
) .
- HDLC, PPP . , PPP ,
. PPP
, 30,25, HDLC.
.
HDLC
,
. PPP
, ;
RFC1663. .
.
PPP .3.17. PPP- HDLC 0x7E (01111110).
(Payload), 0x7D,
, 2
0x20 ( ). , 0x7D 0x5E
0x7E. , -
3.5.
271
,
0x7E. .
0x7D, ,
2 0x20. , . ,
.
(Address),
11111111, ,
.
.
. 3.17. PPP
(Control),
00000011. .
, LCP
, , 2 .
PPP (Protocol). ,
. , 0, IP 4 6 , IPX AppleTalk.
1 , PPP,
LCP NCP
. 2,
LCP .
, , , - 256 .
, .
LCP, 1500.
.
(Checksum),
2, 4. 4- 32- CRC,
. 2-
CRC.
, PPP
272 3.
,
. ,
, SONET
.
.
SONET, PPP ( ).
2
. .
, SONET
.
, ,
, , , . , ,
, .
PPP SONET,
PPP. ,
, , .3.18.
. 3.18. PPP
: (DEAD), .
, ESTABLISH ().
LCP
3.5.
273
.
.
AUTHENTICATE
(). ,
. NETWORK ()
NCP
. NCP , ,
, , . ,
IP IP-
.
OPEN (), .
IP- PPP SONET.
, TERMINATE (), DEAD (), .
3.5.2. ADSL
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop,
) ,
. , .
,
DSL-. ,
DSLAM (DSL Access Multiplexer, DSL),
.
ADSL.
.3.19.
, . IP- DSL-.
, Ethernet. DSL
274 3.
. ,
, , ,
, , , , , . .
, ATM ,
OSI: , ,
. ATM , OSI.
, , , DSL, WAN .
. 3.19. ADSL
ATM , (cells)
. , , , ,
( SONET). , - , . ATM
, .
(virtual circuit),
.
53: 48 5
. , ATM .
, , , . .
( 53 ,
) ,
. 48
32- , ,
64-, . (Siu, Jain, 1995).
ATM . ATM -
3.5.
275
, (segmentation and
reassembly). , , ,
, . , AAL5 (ATM
Adaptation Layer 5, ATM 5).
AAL5 .
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, CRC, PPP
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, ,
, . , AAL5 (Pad).
, 48. ,
. ,
, ,
.
, ATM. ,
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PPP ATM).
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ATM .
AAL5 PPP , ATM AAL5. . CRC PPP , AAL5
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, ADSL (
1- CRC ,
). , ,
SONET. ADSL
.
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3.6.
,
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.
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, ,
.
.
.
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,
CRC.
, SONET ADSL
.
277
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80%.
, ?
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,
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? ,
. , . ,
.
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.
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.
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280 3.
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36. , PPP
( ).
37. IP- PPP?
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?
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ADSL. ATM ? .
39. (CRC), .
: (generator) (verifier). - n- ,
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,
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, . , .
(multiaccess channels) (random
access channels).
, , , , MAC (Medium
Access Control ). MAC
, , . , ,
. . , , ,
MAC.
.
, , -, 3.
282 4.
, , ,
.
.
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, ,
, .
, . .
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.
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.
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283
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.
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, N , ,
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, FDM,
. (TDM, Time Division
284 4.
Multiplexing )
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100- 10-,
, 200 2.
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285
, , , , . ,
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1995; Leland ., 1994). , ,
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286 4.
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.
.
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MAC
1970-.
.
(Norman Abramson) ,
. ,
.
.
. .
(Schwartz, Abramson, 2009). ,
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.
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ALOHA : ,
. , , .
. ALOHA,
, .
, , . ,
,
.
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287
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,
, .
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, , ( .4.1). .
,
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.
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, ,
. , 0<N<1.
288 4.
, , . , G . ,
GN. ( N0) ,
, GN. , , G>N. ,
S G,
, S=GP0, P0 ,
.
,
, .4.2.
? t
, . -
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. ,
, , ALOHA
, ,
. , , t0+t t0+2t, .
. 4.2.
, , G ,
k , :
Pr[k] =
G ke !G
k!
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,
eG. ,
4.2.
289
. 4.3. ALOHA
ALOHA
ALOHA (Roberts, 1972) , ALOHA.
, ( ), .
.
, .
, ALOHA,
ALOHA , .
. , ALOHA . .
, .4.3 , .
,
, eG. :
S=GeG.
(4.3)
290 4.
.4.3, ALOHA G=1.
S=1/e, 0,368,
, ALOHA.
G=1, 0,368 ( 4.2). ALOHA 37%
, 37% 26%
. G ,
. , , . ,
, eG. ,
. ,
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, ,
:
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"
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k
!G
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k!1
E
G, .
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. 1970- ,
, .
,
. ALOHA.
, RFID
RFID, . ALOHA, ,
. ,
(,
- , ) - .
- , .
,
, , , ,
. , ,
.
4.2.
291
4.2.2.
ALOHA ,
, 1/e. ,
, , , . .
,
. , 1/e.
,
.
,
, . - . , . (Kleinrock, Tobagi, 1975).
.
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, , 1 CSMA (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access ). CSMA.
, ,
, . ,
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,
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, .
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, . , ,
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, , , CSMA p. .
, . ,
p . q=1p
. ,
- .
, . , . , ,
. IEEE802.11
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ALOHA.
. 4.4.
4.2.
293
CSMA
CSMA, , ALOHA, ,
, , . , , , ,
. ( ),
. , .
, CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Col
lision Detection
), Ethernet,
CSMA/CD. , .
.
, , . ,
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1000000 )
,
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).
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, , .4.5. t0 . ,
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. , t0.
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, , ? , ,
.
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.
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5. CSMA/CD ALOHA ,
,
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,
.
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, , ( )
. ,
, , , IP.
CSMA/CD .
,
, .
,
,
.
N ,
0 N1.
, .
4.2.
295
, .
:
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, , (basic bit-map method),
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0- . . 1 1 ,
, 1 0.
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(.4.6 N=8).
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, , .
, ,
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, ,
.
, , (reservation protocols),
, .
.
,
d .
, .
, 0 1. ,
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N () , , ,
.
. (N/2 ).
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. 1,5N ,
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.
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d/(N+d).
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. ,
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, .
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297
,
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.
,
. (token bus).
,
. , N
( ) , , , N1
( ).
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,
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.
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IEEE
, , - . ,
. , ,
, . ,
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. (binary countdown). Datakit (Fraser, 1987).
, ,
.
:
0 , 0
, . , 0010, 0100,
1001 1010 ,
0, 0, 1 1 . 1.
, 0010 0100 ,
1001 1010 .
298 4.
0 , . 1, 1001 .
1010, . ,
, . .4.8.
, .
, .
. 4.8. .
d/(d+log2N). ,
, log2N 100%.
, , .
, - .
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, : , CSMA, .
:
. ( ALOHA)
, ( ).
, ,
. .
,
, , , ( ).
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299
, , .
(limited-contention protocols). ,
.
, p. ,
,
.
,
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k .
p. , -
,
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k !1
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.
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, ,
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300 4.
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.
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0. - ,
. ,
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,
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).
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. ,
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301
. 4.10.
, 0,
. . ,
. ,
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1, ,
, . 2 3.
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,
. ,
q ( ), ,
.
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. q ,
i 2iq. ,
,
1, , 2iq=1. i=log2q.
, (Bertsekas)
(Gallager) 1992 . , ,
G H. 1 ,
2. . 3 ,
. ( , 1 2 ,
2 , 3.)
3 6.
6 , 7
G.
302 4.
4.2.5.
, , , .
. ,
(MAC).
.
802.11 (WiFi).
.
;
.
, , ,
,
, 2. ,
, ,
, .
600/.
,
, .
, , .
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.
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, ,
. ,
, ,
. .
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. ,
, ,
. , .4.11, .
4.2.
303
, , . ,
, A B, C B D, A.
. 4.11. : A C
B; B C A D
, , A C B, .4.11,. A , C
, A, , , B. C ,
B , A. (
, CDMA
, - .) MAC-, , . , ,
,
,
(hidden terminal problem).
: B A
, D, .4.11,.
, D (
).
B C, . MAC, ,
.
(exposed terminal problem).
, , , - .
CSMA
.
, . .
, , , , .
304 4.
,
, , .
,
.
, , MACA (Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance
) (Karn, 1990). , , ,
,
, .
.
MACA .4.12. ,
A B. A , B
RTS (Request To Send ), .4.12,.
(30) , .
B CTS (Clear To Send ),
.4.12,. CTS
( RTS). CTS, A .
, ,
. , RTS, A
, CTS A.
, CTS, B, ,
, B ,
CTS.
.4.12 C A, B.
RTS, A, CTS,
B. CTS,
4.3. Ethernet
305
,
. D, , B, A.
RTS, CTS, ,
, .
, . E , D, ,
.
, .
, B C RTS A.
. ,
CTS , .
4.3. Ethernet
, ,
. . (PAN), (LAN)
(MAN) IEEE 802.
, (..1.4). , , ,
IEEE
, . -,
. 802.3 (Ethernet) 802.11 (
). Bluetooth ( ) , , 802.15. 802.16 ( ) . ,
6- .
Ethernet, , . Ethernet:
Ethernet (classic Ethernet), , ;
Ethernet (switched Ethernet),
. , Ethernet, .
Ethernet ;
3 10 /. Ethernet ;
100, 1000 10000 / Fast Ethernet
( Ethernet), Gigabit Ethernet ( Ethernet) 10-Gigabit Ethernet
(10- Ethernet). Ethernet.
Ethernet , . Ethernet IEEE802.3 (
, ), . Ethernet, IEEE 802.3. , Ethernet, (Spurgeon, 2000).
306 4.
4.3.1.
Ethernet
Ethernet ALOHA,
, , .
. ,
, ,
Xerox.
, , . .
, , , (Metcalfe, Boggs, 1976).
, 3 /.
Ethernet , ,
- , . ( XIX
, , , ,
. ,
1887 , ,
.)
Xerox Ethernet , 1978 DEC Intel
Xerox 10- Ethernet, DIX (DIX standard). 1983 DIX IEEE 802.3. Xerox,
(
), (
Fumbling the Future, Smith, Alexander, 1988). ,
Xerox Ethernet
, , 3Com,
Ethernet .
.
Ethernet , , . .4.13.
, Ethernet (thick Ethernet), 2,5
. ( 802.3 , ,
.) Ethernet (thin Ethernet);
, BNC.
Ethernet ,
185 ( 500 Ethernet),
30 ( 100).
Ethernet ,
. -
4.3. Ethernet
307
(repeaters).
. , () . ,
, , (
, ).
. 4.13. Ethernet
.
Ethernet ,
2,5 .
MAC, .
4.3.2.
Ethernet
, , .4.14.
Preamble (, ) 8, 10101010 ( ,
11). 802.3 Start
of Frame ( ).
10 6,4,
. ,
, , .
: . 6.
0 1
. . , ,
, . (multicasting). ,
.
(broadcasting). ,
.
, .
308 4.
. IEEE, ,
. ,
48- . 3 OUI
(Organizationally Unique Identifier, ).
IEEE .
224 . 3 ,
.
Type Length, , Ethernet IEEE 802.3. Ethernet Type ,
. , , , Ethernet,
, . Type
, . , 0x0800
, IPv4.
IEEE802.3 ,
.
,
. , , ,
.
LLC (Logical Link Control,
). 8 2 .
, 802.3
DIX Ethernet, -
4.3. Ethernet
309
Type Length. 1997 IEEE .
, Type, 1997,
1500 (
). , , 0x600 (1536),
Length, 0x600 Type.
IEEE , , ,
, LLC
.
, Type , 1500.
, -, , Ethernet. , ,
. 1978 . ,
, , .
,
. , 0 , .
, ,
, , . , Ethernet
64 (
). 46 ,
Pad (),
.
( )
,
, ,
. .4.15. 0
A . . , (
), B . B ,
, , ,
. 48- ,
. 2
.
.
,
, . ,
- , , , , .
, 2.
10/
2500 ( 802.3) 50.
310 4.
, , . 10/
100, , 500.
512 64.
. 4.15. 2
Ethernet CSMA/CD 1,
. ,
, , ,
. , ,
. , , ,
.
,
, . , .4.5.
, (
), 2. Ethernet ,
512 51,2.
0 1,
.
, .
0, 1, 2 3 .
4.3. Ethernet
311
(
1/4) 0 231.
, i
0 2i1, . 10
1023.
16 . .
, (binary exponential backoff),
, .
1023, , ,
. , , 0 1,
, 99
1, 0. .
,
,
.
, , , ,
. , CSMA/CD, Ethernet
.
.
CRC . ,
.
4.3.3. Ethernet
Ethernet , k .
.
(Metcalfe) (Boggs) (1976) , .
p,
, - ,
A=kp(1p)k1.
(4.5)
A , p=1/k. k, , A 1/e. ,
j , A(1 A)j1, ,
"
# jA(1 ! A)
j =0
j !1
1
.
A
312 4.
2, w=2/A.
p
e, ,
2e5,4.
P,
:
P
=
(4.6)
.
P + 2/A
, . , .
, Ethernet
.
(4.6) F, B, L c
: e . P=F/B
(4.6) :
1
=
(4.7)
1 + 2BLe/cF
, . , (BL)
. ,
. (
, , ), ,
Ethernet .
Ethernet .
.4.16 2=51,2 , 10/.
(4.7). 64- 64-
, . ,
1024, e
, 64- , 174, 85%. , 37% ALOHA
.
, Ethernet
( ) . (, , ) . -,
,
.
, ,
, (Paxson and Floyd, 1994; Leland .,
1994). , .
4.3. Ethernet
313
,
, , .
. (1988 ) , Ethernet
, .
4.3.4. Ethernet
Ethernet , .
,
(hub) .
,
. .4.17,.
. 4.17. Ethernet: ;
314 4.
, ,
,
. ,
100 ( 200 5). ,
.
Ethernet.
, Ethernet.
. ,
.
, 10 100/, 1/
. , Ethernet
.
, , Ethernet. (switch),
, (. .4.17,). . ,
( 4 48) RJ-45
. , .4.18. .
, .
.
, ,
, , .
. 4.18. Ethernet
.
, .
Ethernet , Ethernet ,
. , ; ,
.
4.3. Ethernet
315
, .
.
; , .
.
.
,
? .
(collision domain).
CSMA/CD.
. , , , ,
. , CSMA/CD
. , , CSMA/CD .
, . -, ,
. -, ,
.
.
,
, . ,
, .
, .
, , , .
( ) (promiscuous mode),
, .
, ,
.
. . :
.
, .
Ethernet,
. .4.18
, 12- . , ,
.
,
. , . ,
316 4.
. ,
, ; , ,
. ,
- . Ethernet.
.
4.3. Ethernet
317
Fast Ethernet :
, ,
100 10. ? ,
10- Ethernet, 10 . ,
Fast Ethernet . , Fast Ethernet
() ;
BNC- .
. , .
3.
,
3 ( ): ( )
100 . . ,
Fast Ethernet,
. .
: 100- 100 (
, 10- ). 5
,
. - . , 802.3
, .4.2, ,
.
4.2. Fast Ethernet
100Base-T4
100
100Base-TX
100
100/ (
5)
100Base-FX
2000
100/;
100Base-4T, 3,
25, 25% , 20 Ethernet (,
, ,
). , 100Base-4T
.
, ,
.
318 4.
100/
. ,
.
,
. ,
,
.
100Base-T4 ,
100Base-TX, . , 125.
: , .
( NRZ), .
, 4B/5B ( ).
125
, 100 /. , ,
. 100Base-TX ,
100/ .
, 100Base-FX, , ,
100/ .
2.
Fast Ethernet ,
. CSMA/CD ,
,
10 100/. ,
( 64), ( 2500).
:
10 ,
. 100Base-FX 2
100- Ethernet. ,
.
Fast Ethernet,
10- Ethernet . 10-, 100- .
(autonegotiation),
(10 100) ( ). ,
.
4.3. Ethernet
319
, ,
(Shalunov, Carlson, 2005). Ethernet .
. 4.19. Ethernet, : ;
320 4.
. , , . , .
; ,
( ).
, CSMA/CD ,
, .
; ,
. , Fast Ethernet,
10, 100 1000 /.
,
, .
. ,
Ethernet. , CSMA/
CD. ( 64)
100 , Ethernet,
, , 100 . 25
. 2500 , 64 1/ ,
,
, .
, ,
200, , , . (carrier extension).
- , , 512.
, .
, 512 64
.
9%.
, , (frame bursting). ,
, , .
512, , ,
. , ,
, ,
. , , .
,
Ethernet, ,
Ethernet .
4.3. Ethernet
321
Gigabit Ethernet - ,
, . , , ,
.
Ethernet, 10, 100 1000 /
.
Gigabit Ethernet , - ,
.4.3. 1/
.
( 1000Base-CX) . , , ,
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1000Base-SX
550
(50, 62,5)
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323
, ,
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. CSMA/CD , , .
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grade
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Maler, 2009). Ethernet
,
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, .
.
4.4.
,
, , , , ,
, .
.
802.11.
1.5.3. 802.11.
, ( ), MAC, .
802.11 (Gast, 2005).
, IEEE
802.11-2007.
326 4.
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, , ,
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. 4.20. 802.11: ;
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, 1999 2003
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2,4 . 802.11g.
54/.
, 2009, 802.11n
,
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. , 2002 FCC , ,
,
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54/) , , 802.11b,
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, 802.11a/b/g .
, IEEE
802.11n, . 2009 . 802.11n
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. .
20 40 , . ,
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.
,
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, .
802.11 (Halperin ., 2010).
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.
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) 802.11
Ethernet , .
330 4.
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, , .
, 64,
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333
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.
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.
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336 4.
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,
. ,
, , , . , AIFS4, DIFS. ,
. , ,
.
,
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, . 802.11a/g
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, 9
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. (rate anomaly) (Heusse ., 2003).
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4.4.4. 802.11:
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337
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.
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.
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WiFi 2),
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4.4.
339
,
, ,
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.
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.
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.
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.
.
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,
. 802.11 Ethernet,
100%, .
.
. , ,
. (privacy service),
.
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), , 2002 .
, ,
.
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, .
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340 4.
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, ,
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. , ,
(Hiertz ., 2010).
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- . , , , .
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. ?
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. 802
802.16, , .
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802.16 2001.
. ,
WiMAX DSL . 2003 802.16 ,
OFDM
2 10. ,
.
4.5.
341
3G, .
2005 802.16 ,
.
, IEEE 802.16-2009.
802, 802.16
OSI. , , , .. ,
OSI, 802.16 . , WiMAX (WiMAX
Forum) , .
802.16, , .
WiMAX
(Andrews ., 2007).
342 4.
WiMAX, , , 2,5. ,
802.11. , ,
. 802.11 .
802.16 4-
(4G), LTE (Long Term
Evolution). 3G CDMA
, 4G OFDM MIMO
, . ,
WiMAX 4G . , , , , OFDM MIMO ,
.
4.5.2. 802.16:
802.16 .4.27.
, , ,
. . . (subscriber stations)
, , . ,
, , WiMAX.
. 4.27. 802.16
4.5.
343
. 4.28. 802.16
. (security sublayer),
, .
, , .
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, .
(
). 802. MAC- 802.16 , . ,
.
(service specific convergence sublayer)
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,
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, Ethernet ATM. IP , 802.16 MAC ,
.
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2,5. , 3G, .
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11. , 3,5 WiMAX 1,25 20 WiMAX.
344 4.
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. , ;
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, 100.
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DAMPS: , . , ,
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,
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,
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. ,
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, ( ), FDD (Frequency Division
4.5.
345
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, . ,
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(ranging)
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346 4.
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.
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.
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4.5.
347
. . ,
.
, , , . ,
.
, .
,
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(MAC)
. ( ) ,
(CRC).
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, . ( )
, , , , .
,
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.
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, .
, .
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348 4.
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. ,
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16- ,
. ,
.
802.16, - . , ,
IEEE802.16-2009.
4.6. Bluetooth
1994 .. (L.M.Ericsson)
(, ).
(IBM, Intel, Nokia Toshiba) 1998
(SIG Special Interest Group, ),
,
,
. Bluetooth ( )
II
(940981), (, ) . ,
.
Bluetooth1.0 1999, SIG
.
Bluetooth , , , , , , ,
. . Bluetooth
4.6. Bluetooth
349
, (pairing), .
.
, 2004 Bluetooth2.0
. Bluetooth3.0 2009 802.11 . 4.0 2009
. ,
. Bluetooth.
4.6.1. Bluetooth
Bluetooth ,
. Bluetooth (piconet),
( ) ,
10. , ,
. ,
( ), .4.31.
(scatternet).
. 4.31. , ,
, 255 . ,
. .
,
.
(
Bluetooth
$5). -
350 4.
, . ,
, . .
. .
.
4.6.2. Bluetooth
. , 802.11 ,
, .. , Bluetooth
. 25 ,
(profiles). , . ,
, , Bluetooth .
.
, intercom
. hands-free
. , , .
,
,
.
HID .
. , , ( Bluetooth).
.
Bluetooth
, 802.11, .
(dail-up networking) , , ,
. ,
, .
. , , , .
, , , , .
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351
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. ( 1968
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, , .4.32.
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. ,
.
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,
.
,
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Bluetooth, .
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Protocol
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.
.
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-
352 4.
, , ,
.
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, L2CAP ,
.
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.
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.
10 . ISM 2,4, 802.11.
79 1 . ,
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. 1600 ,
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.
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353
,
, . ,
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/
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. ,
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, . 2744 ( ). ,
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240.
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355
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.
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Bluetooth , ,
. Bluetooth4.0.
4.7. RFID
MAC .
, , ,
: RFID (Radio Frequency Identification
) , 1.5.4.
RFID , ,
, , . , , EPC (Electronic Product
Code ), Auto-ID 1999. EPC ,
10, . , , RFID- , .
EPC .
EPCglobal 2003, Auto-ID RFID. 2005,
Walmart 100 RFID. ,
, . , EPC Gen2 (EPCglobal, 2008).
4.7. RFID
357
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, WiFi. ,
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, . ,
.
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.
358 4.
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359
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360 4.
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,
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,
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; ,
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.
.
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,
( VLAN, Virtual LAN).
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(Seifert Edwards, 2008) (Perlman, 2000).
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,
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.
, .
, .
. 4.41. , .
,
, . ,
, . ,
, .
,
. , , MAC-,
, . MAC-
,
.
. , , , . .4.41
B1 .
. .4.41
B2 B3 B1 , , -
368 4.
. B4 ,
B2 B3. , , , B4 B2. B5
B3.
, . ,
. ,
.
, ( ) . ,
, .
,
.
(RadiaPerlman).
. , ,
(Perlman, 1985).
I think that I shall never see
A graph more lovely than a tree.
A tree whose crucial property
Is loop-free connectivity.
A tree which must be sure to span.
So packets can reach every LAN.
First the Root must be selected
By ID it is elected.
Least cost paths from Root are traced
In the tree these paths are placed.
A mesh is made by folks like me
Then bridges find a spanning tree.
IEEE802.1D
. 2001
.
. Perlman (2000).
4.8.4. , , ,
,
. , , , . ,
- , - .
, , .
4.8.
369
, , ,
, .4.42,. ,
, .
: - ,
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,
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500 2500.
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.
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370 4.
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, .
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,
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.
, ,
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, .
, 10-, 100- 1000-/ Ethernet.
,
. , , .
, Gigabit Ethernet 10-/ Ethernet
, , . , ,
.
,
, Ethernet Token Ring. -
. , ,
- . .
. .
, ,
. , 802.11, , Ethernet, . , ,
802.11, , Ethernet, . ,
, ,
, , . ,
, .
. , ,
4.8.
371
. , Ethernet,
,
, , .
. , , , ,
,
. ,
. . ,
Ethernet , , .
, ,
, , .
, . ,
( .4.42),
. .
IP-, 32- (IPv4) 128-
(IPv6), 48- IEEE802 .
, (
, ).
5.
, .
, , . ,
, , TCP, , SCTP.
, .
, ,
. , e-mail
SMS-
. , .
, .
4.8.5.
. ,
. , .
, , .
.
1990- . , ,
372 4.
, ,
( ) ,
.4.43. , , , 5;
, () 3,
Fast Ethernet.
. 4.43.
, ,
. ,
. k , k . ( ),
,
.
, , ?
. ,
.
,
. . -
. ,
.
4.8.
373
- .
, .
. , . , - ,
,
, . ,
.
. ,
,
. , IP-x,
, MAC- ?
5, : : , MAC IP- x? .
, .
,
, .
,
.
: ,
, . , ,
. (broadcast storm),
, , -,
, , -,
.
,
. (
- ),
.
,
, . ,
, ,
. ,
,
, .
,
, , , .
, ,
.
374 4.
, , , ,
; , ,
. ,
.
,
.
- , (
) .
,
( VLAN, Virtual LAN),
. - IEEE802.
. . (Seifert Edwards, 2008).
- .
, , , ,
. ()
, , . ,
, .. ,
.
, .4.44.
(), (). , , .
Hub
. 4.44. , ,
, . ,
4.8.
375
. , , , , .
( ) ,
, . ,
.
, ,
1, , . B1
, .
( , ), . ,
B1, B1 c B2. B2
, .
( ).
( ), .
, , ,
.
1 2, 2. , 2,
1, . ,
2 1. , 1 .
IEEE 802.1Q
, - ,
. , , 2
1 (. .4.44), ,
. ,
. Ethernet
, ,
?
IEEE802 1995.
Ethernet! 802.1Q 1998.
, . , , Ethernet, -
. , , :
1. , Ethernet?
2. , ?
3. , ?
, 802 , ,
, .
376 4.
,
, . , , , .4.44, - ,
, . ,
, -. .
Ethernet
, . 802.3 .
, ,
Ethernet ? 802.1Q-
.
( )
, - , .
.4.45. -
( 802.1Q) , . -, .
802.1Q, , .
, . , .4.44 , ,
, B2.
, ,
. , , ,
, IP- PPP.
. 4.45. , .
- .
, 802.1Q. ,
MAC-.
802.11 , , . MAC-
, , .
4.8.
377
, 1518,
802.1Q 1522. , .
802.1Q. .4.46. , , 2- .
(VLAN protocol ID).
08100. 1500,
Ethernet , . ,
, 802.1Q, , ,
.
.
(VLAN identifier), 12 . , - , ,
: , .
.
Ethernet
- , - .
,
?
, , .
Ethernet. Ethernet (
IP ).
, CFI (Canonical Format Indicator
), (CEI Corporate
ego indicator). ,
MAC- ( ), - . , 802.5, 802.5 Ethernet
. , , Ethernet
. , ,
.
378 4.
:
, .
,
- ,
, , .
? ,
: . ,
. .
, . ,
. , 4, 3, , ,
, , 4. 802.1Q , .
802.1D.
, . Ethernet
,
.
- . ,
, ,
, . .
, .
, , .
5.
4.9.
.
.
.
. , ,
.
, .
.
ALOHA ( ) , RFID. -
4.9.
379
, , , .
CSMA ,
.
Ethernet 802.11.
,
, , . , , ,
.
, , ; ,
, , .
. , IEEE 802.11, , ,
CSMA/CA, , .
RTS/CTS, , - . IEEE 802.11
, ,
. , FDM
, .
802.11, RFID
, .
. Bluetooth
. IEEE 802.16
.
, Bluetooth
WiMAX , . 802.16
, ,
, -. Bluetooth
.
Ethernet . Ethernet
CSMA/CD ,
. , 10/
1/ . -, , .
,
.
, - .
plug-and-play .
.
380 4.
.
, . IEEE 802.1Q,
Ethernet .
1. , ,
. 100-/ . , . , 10000/
.
( ) .
1) 90/.
2) 900/.
3) 9000/.
2. N ALOHA,
56/. 1000- 100,
(,
). N?
3. ALOHA .
? .
4. ALOHA 50 ,
. 40.
1) ?
2) , k ?
3) ?
5. ALOHA 4 . .
6. CSMA/CD :
1) 2- (
82% )?
2) 40- (
65% )?
7. s, ?
8. ,
9. , 1 16,
, .
, , , ?
381
10. , A, B, C, D E.
. B A, C E. C A, B D. D
A, C E. E A, D B.
1) A B, ?
2) B A, ?
3) B C, ?
11. , AF,
MACA. ? .
12. 15 .
,
4 , , . ,
, , , ,
:
1) ;
2) 802.3.
13. Ethernet 10/?
14. Ethernet : 0001110101?
15. CSMA/CD ( 802.3) 1
10/ 200/.
. 256, 32 ,
. 32- .
, ?
16. CSMA/CD (
) .
. ,
k- , ?
17. IP- Ethernet. 60, . LLC, Ethernet-?
, ?
18. Ethernet 64 ,
. Fast
Ethernet 64,
, Ethernet.
?
19. , Ethernet
1522 ( 1500). ? .
20. Gigabit Ethernet?
, . : , Gigabit Ethernet.
21. , . ?
22. .4.24 : A, B, C D. ,
A ?
382 4.
23. , , 802.11 RTS/CTS
RTS/CTS MACA.
24. 10 . 6/, 18/
54 /. ,
1) TXOP ?
2) TXOP ?
25. 11/c 802.11b
64- 107 .
?
26. 802.16 20.
?
27. ,
.
28. WiMAX 802.11.
29. .4.31 , Bluetooth
.
?
30. Bluetooth
? .
31. .4.21 .
Bluetooth? ?
32. 4.6.6,
13% .
, 5- ?
33. - 802.11 . , - Bluetooth
? .
34. , RFID- 10 . Q?
, ?
35. RFID.
36. , Fast Ethernet, ,
10/.
?
37. (
store
-
and
-
forward
) (cut-through) .
38. , B1 B2, .4.38,. ,
- . ,
:
1) C.
2) E F.
3) F E.
4) E.
383
5) D A.
6) B F.
39.
. , .
40. 4.8.3,
. , .
41. ,
. , .4.44, ? ?
.
42. .4.45 () -
. ? .
43. , CSMA/CD Ethernet
N , .
, . (51,2),
, ,
. .
. ,
. ,
,
,
. ,
,
.
( )
, .
,
, , . , , ,
.
IP.
5.1.
,
. ,
, .
5.1.1.
, , .
.5.1. - (, ), , , .
H1 -
5.1.
385
(, , , DSL-).
H
2, , (, Ethernet) F,
, .
- . F ,
-.
-,
, -
( ).
.5.1. ,
. , ,
, -. ,
,
. ,
.
(store-and-forward), .
5.1.2. ,
. ,
.
:
.
,
.
, ,
, ..
386 5.
,
,
.
.
,
.
( -) , ,
. (
), , , .
( ), .
, ,
SEND PACKET (
) RECEIVE PACKET ( ). ,
. ,
. (endto-end argument),
(Saltzer ., 1984). , , .
, , ,
, .
, 100
. , ,
- ,
, .
.
(
X
.25, 70-, 80- Frame Relay) .
ARPANET
. IP .
ATM, 80-
IP: ATM
, IP .
, .
MPLS
(
MultiProtocol
Label
Switching
, ), , VLAN,
4. .
5.1.
387
5.1.3.
,
, . .
, ,
. . (datagrams),
, (datagram network).
, , - -
- .
(VC, Virtual Circuit), , .
(virtual-circuit network). ; .
. P1 (.5.2)
2.
, , 2, 2. 1; ,
.
, .
.
, ,
(1,2, 3 4) , PPP.
-. ,
. : () .
, . , , .5.2
, -
, .
.
A 1, 2 3, , .
. 1 ,
, F. F,
2. 2 3 .
388 5.
.5.2.
4 .
, F,
. -
4 . , -
ACE, , ( ).
, , (routing algorithm). . ,
.
IP (Internet Protocol, ),
,
. IP- ,
. IPv4 32, IPv6 128. IP
.
5.1.
389
5.1.4.
.
.
, .5.2.
, .
, . . ,
. , ,
.
, .5.3. 1
2.
. , , 1 1, 1.
1.
. 5.3.
, , 3 2.
1 ( ,
)
. , .
, , , ,
390 5.
1, 1, 1,
3, .
. ,
. (label
switching). , ,
MPLS (MultiProtocol Label Switching,
). -; IP-
MPLS-, 20-
. -
, MPLS .
,
, ,
. MPLS .
5.1.5.
, .
. .5.1,
.
5.1.
,
,
5.1.
391
. ,
.
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( , , ,
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, . ,
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392 5.
5.2.
.
. , ,
.
.
,
. ,
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,
.
. (session routing),
(, , VPN).
, , ,
.
, . .
(forwarding).
. .
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,
.
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. , ,
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.
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.
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5.2.
393
.5.4.
, , .
.
,
. , ,
. , .
:
. .
, ,
.
(static routing). , , ,
, . , F .5.3
, , E
.
, ,
.
(dynamic routing algorithms)
( , , , , ,
394 5.
), (,
) , (,
).
. .
, .
, ,
;
5.3.
5.2.1.
, , , ,
. (, 1957). , J
I K,
J K
. , I J r1, r2.
J K,
r2, r1, I K, ,
r1r2 .
, . (sink tree). .5.5,. .
.
.5.5. (); B ()
5.2.
395
, ;
. ,
,
(directed acyclic graph, DAG). .
.
, (
, ,
).
,
,
. .
,
. , ,
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, .
,
.
, , .
.
(shortest path) .
. ABC ABE .5.6 .
. , ABC ABE (,
).
,
, . ,
, .
, .
, , , ,
. ,
.
396 5.
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. (Dijkstra) 1959.
. ( )
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.
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, , .5.6,, , ,
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A .
, A.
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397
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B, .
B B ( A B)
, (
A), , ,
.
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, , .5.6,.
E . ,
, ABE, AXYZE ( X Y).
Z , . ,
, E , Z , ,
. AXYZE .
, Z .
Z E, AXYZE ,
ABE. Z E, Z
E, E Z.
5.1. n dist
, shortest_path. ,
- s, t.
t s ,
s t, , . , ,
. path, . , .
5.1.
#define MAX_NODES 1024
/* */
#define INFINITY 1000000000
/* , */
int n, dist[MAX_NODES][MAX_NODES]; /* dist[i][j] i j */
void shortest_path(int s, int t, int path[])
{ struct state {
/* */
int predecessor;
/* */
int length;
/* */
enum {permanent, tentative} label; /* */
} state[MAX_NODES];
int i, k, min;
398 5.
3.7 ()
struct state *p;
for (p = &state[0]; p < &state[n]; p++) { /* */
p->predecessor = -1;
p->length = INFINITY;
p->label = tentative;
}
state[t].length = 0; state[t].label = permanent;
k = t;
/* k */
do {
/* k? */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
/* n */
if (dist[k][i] != 0 && state[i].label == tentative) {
if (state[k].length + dist[k][i] < state[i].length) {
state[i].predecessor = k;
state[i].length = state[k].length + dist[k][i];
}
}
/* , */
k = 0; min = INFINITY;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (state[i].label == tentative && state[i].length < min) {
min = state[i].length;
k =i;
}
state[k].label = permanent;
} while (k != s);
/* */
i = 0; k = s;
do {path[i++] = k; k = state[k].predecessor; } while (k >= 0);
}
5.2.3.
, .
(flooding), , , .
,
, , .
,
. , . .
,
() .
,
, .
5.2.
399
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. -,
, .
,
.
,
k, , k
. , ,
, k;
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.
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.
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(,
), . ,
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,
, , , .
:
.
, .
(distance vector routing)
, ( ),
, .
400 5.
.
.
(BellmanFord) (Bellman,
1957; Ford Filkerson, 1962). ARPANET
RIP.
, , .
:
.
(
).
, .
, .
, ECHO (),
.
,
.
T . , ,
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, X i Xi. , X
m, i X
Xi+m. , .
, .
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. .5.7, ,
J . A ,
B 12, 25 C, 40 D ..
, J
A, I, H K 8, 10, 12 6 .
, J G. , A 8 A ,
G 18. , J ,
G A, 26. , G,
(I, H K), 41 (31+10), 18 (6+12) 37 (31+6).
18, G. 18 ,
5.2.
401
G, H.
, ,
.
. 5.7. (); A, I, H K J ()
, ,
(convergence).
,
. :
, .
,
. , X
. A ,
X , X , .
, .
, , , .5.8, . , A
, . ,
A .
402 5.
.5.8.
A,
. , - , ,
. B , A, B , A
.
, A . A
.5.8,.
C , B A 1, ,
A, 2, D E . ,
. N ,
N
.
.5.8,,
. B, C, D E 1, 2, 3 4 A .
A , A B ( B
).
B A. , C :
. A 2. B , C A
B. B , C 10
A, 2.
B , A C 3.
D E A.
C , A 3.
A 4, .5.8,.
.
, ,
5.2.
403
,
. ,
.
,
1.
, (count-toinfinity). , ,
,
RFC 1058. .
, Y , - , Y
, .
5.2.5.
ARPANET
1979,
. ,
( ).
,
(link state routing).
IS-IS OSPF.
,
. :
1) ;
2) ;
3) , ;
4) ,
;
5) .
.
. .
, . , HELLO
-.
, .
, ,
404 5.
F, , F
.
(, , Ethernet
), . .5.9, ,
: A, C F. ,
,
.
.5.9. :
;
.
. , , .
.5.9,. N,
A, C F. N
, (designated router).
A C ANC.
,
, .
. . , Ethernet 1/
1,
Ethernet
100/ 10.
.
5.2.
405
, .
.
ECHO, .
, .
, , , , , ,
. ,
( ), . .
.5.10,, .
.5.10,.
. 5.10. (); ()
.
.
. ,
- , , , , ,
.
406 5.
. .
, , , ,
.
. .
.
, , .
(, ), .
,
. ,
, , . , .
,
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, .
, . , ,
, , . 32-
. , 4- 137.
-, ,
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.
-, ,
4 65540 ( );
5- 65540- .
.
, . , , 10; ,
,
( , ).
, , .
. ,
.
.
, . -
5.2.
407
. , .
.
, B , .5.10,, .5.11.
, .
, , . ,
B ( A, C F, ). ,
. ,
.
. 5.11. B c 5.10
.5.11, A , C F,
A,
. , F A C, F
.
, E, . , EAB EFB. ,
C, A F, .
, , , . , C F, ,
100011, ,
F, F.
,
, . ,
, . .
A B B A .
408 5.
. , ,
. , .
, . ,
n , k , , , kn, , .
, ,
, , kn.
.
,
.
, .
- IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System
) (Oran, 1990).
DECnet ISO OSI.
, , IP.
OSPF
(Open Shortest Path First ). -
(IETF) IS-IS ,
IS-IS.
, ,
. , IS-IS OSPF
. ,
IS-IS
(, IP, IPX AppleTalk). OSPF ,
.
OSPF 5.6.6.
.
,
,
.
. ,
, , ,
, .
,
. ,
, , -
5.2.
409
.
. , , ,
.
(Perlman, 1988).
5.2.6.
, , .
,
. , ,
, .
,
.
, .
(regions).
, .
, .
.
, ,
.., .
,
(Berkeley),
(Malindi) . , , ,
-. -
, , ,
-. -
, - . , , . ,
, .
.5.12
. 1A,
.5.12,, 17 . ,
.5.12,, , , ,
, -
1B2A, 1C3B. 17 7 .
, .
410 5.
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, .
. , 1A 5C
2, 5 3,
5.
, :
? 720 . , 720 . 24 30
, 30
23 , 53 .
, 8 9 10 ,
10 ,
8 , 7
, 25 . (Kamoun) (Kleinrock)
1979 , , N , lnN. elnN
. ,
, ,
.
5.2.
411
5.2.7.
. , , ,
.
, .
, (broadcasting)
. .
,
.
, ,
. ,
.
(multidestination routing),
, , . , ,
, ,
. ( ,
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. , . ,
.
,
. ,
, ,
, . .
, , , , , ,
.
: . ,
,
.
, . , ,
.
(reverse path forwarding)
(Dadal, Metcalfe, 1978). ,
, , , . -
412 5.
,
, , , .
, ,
.
, .
.5.13. : ; ;
,
.5.13.
, I .
I F, H, J N, .
I ( , ),
.5.13,.
,
. , , .
, ,
( C, E K). .
, 23,
4 14 .
.
,
, ,
,
( , )
.
.
, . (spanning tree) ,
, .
5.2.
413
, ,
, ,
.
, , . , .5.13 (.5.13,), ,
, 14. ,
.
(,
), (
).
5.2.8.
(
, ) . ,
. ,
, , , 1000
, (, , , ,
). ,
, , .
(multicasting), (multicast routing).
,
. , ,
. ,
, .
,
5.6.
, : ,
, ,
.
,
( ) ( ). .
,
, .
, , . ,
(Deering, Cheriton, 1990), , ,
414 5.
.
.
, 1 2, , .5.14,.
, , .
.5.14,.
, ( ,
) .
.5.14, , , 1.
,
1. ,
: 7 10. .5.14,
2. 5,
. ,
.
.5.14. : ;
; 1;
2
.
,
,
.
, ,
5.2.
415
, ()
. ,
, MOSPF (Multicast OSPPF OSPF) (Moy, 1994).
. .
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, ,
, . ,
,
. , . ,
5.5.
467
, ,
- . ,
.
. ,
.
, .5.37,.
.
, . IP.
,
. IP (
), ( ) ,
, . .5.38. ,
.
. ,
MTU
.
.5.38,. ( )
-. ,
, .
:
, .
.5.38. 1: ,
10 ; 8;
5
468 5.
, . -,
, , , .
. Kent Mogul (1987) ,
, ( ). , .
,
, .
Path MTU discovery ( MTU) (Mogul
Deering, 1990). . IP-
, .
,
(.5.39). ,
, ,
. - , .
.5.39. MTU
MTU
discovery
, .
,
( ), . ,
: ? , . , , , .
MTU ,
( ),
.
5.6.
469
5.6.
.
, ,
, , . . ,
RFC1958,
( , ). ,
(Clark, 1988; Saltzer ., 1984). 10 ,
.
1. . ( ) , .
, , , . 1.1 . , .
2. . , . (William Occam) XIV
( ). : . - ,
,
.
3. .
, .
. ,
. ? ,
, . .
.
4. . , .
, ,
, .
5. . , .
, ,
.
6. . -
(, ), ,
.
7. , .
, -
470 5.
. , .
,
.
8. ,
. , ,
.
, .
9. .
, .
.
10. . .
. (), .
, . . (
, ) Tier1. -,
,
,
( ). , .
-, ,
. .5.40.
, IP
(Internet Protocol ).
, IP . :
( )
, ,
.
. .
64,
1500 ( Ethernet). IP-
,
. ,
. , .
.
5.6.
471
.5.40 , , IP-,
, -.
,
. :
- . . IP ,
.
.5.40.
5.6.1. IP 4
IPv4-. IPv4 .
20- , .
.5.41. ,
. ( big-endian c .
little-endian , Intelx86,
, , .) ,
IP little-endian,
.
, .
4, IP.
472 5.
. - IPv
6, IP, ,
. .
IPv6 , 231
, IP-. , ,
IPv5.
,
IHL ( 32- ).
( ) 5. 4- 15, 60; , 40. ,
, , 40
. .
, . .
(, ) .
.
. , ,
. 3
, 3 , : , . ,
, .
, IETF
. 6 ;
.
;
, .
5.6.
473
, ,
. 65535.
,
.
- ,
.
.
, ,
IP .
(2003) . :
, , .
, .
, . DF Dont Fragment ( ). ,
. ,
, .
MTU,
, . DF,
, , .
MF More Fragments ( ).
, .
.
.
, ,
8. 13,
8192,
. , MF
, 5.5.5.
,
. , , ,
255.
.
. ,
, . ,
, ,
- .
, , .
,
.
TCP
,
UDP
- . .
RFC1700, -
, www.iana.org.
474 5.
( , ),
. 16- , . ,
( )
. ,
. ,
, (
). .
IP- . -
.
, ,
. ,
. , .
. .
,
. ,
4. , .5.5.
5.5. IP-
IP-
IP-
. , ,
.
,
.
IP-.
.
,
5.6.
475
, , .
,
,
.
. ,
, , , ,
IP- -, -
. ,
.
,
, IP- .
( , ,
?). ARPANET,
, 40
. ,
.
,
, 32- IP-,
32- . .
. , ,
. , .
5.6.2. IP-
IPv4 32- .
IP-,
IP-. , IP-,
, . ,
, , IP-.
, ,
. , , , , IP-.
Ethernet- IP- .
32- ,
. (,
Ethernet). ,
IP-. (prefix).
476 5.
IP- ( ), (
dotted
decimal
notation
). , 80D00297 128.208.2.151.
IP- .
; .
, .
IP- .
28 24.
: 128.208.2.0/24.
IP-,
.
(, /16). , .
(subnet mask). IP-
. (.5.42) : 255.255.255.0.
.5.42. IP-
.
, , ,
. , , .
,
. .
, , .
300000 .
, . -, IP- .
Ethernet
,
IP
- , ,
, .
, IP-, ,
IP.
,
. (-
5.6.
477
) , ,
. , .
,
. IPv
6 , , ,
.
,
, ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers). , ICANN
,
IP- .
IP-.
, IP-. , ,
. IP-
. , ,
/16 , Ethernet.
, . IP-
? , ,
; , .
, /16 60000 . ,
, . , .
.
. (subnetting). , (,
Ethernet), (subnets). 1, , .
.5.43 ,
. /16 . ,
.
(/17) , (/18)
, (/19) .
. ,
, .
10000000
11010000
1|xxxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
10000000
11010000
00|xxxxxx
xxxxxxxx
10000000
11010000
011|xxxxx
xxxxxxxx
478 5.
(|)
.
.5.43. IP-
, ? .
65536 ,
,
. ,
. ,
.
, , .
, . 128.208.2.151.
, , (
) 255.255.128.0, 17 (
128.208.0.0). (128.208.128.0).
.
18 128.208.0.0. ,
, .
. .
,
ICANN - .
CIDR
IP
- .
- (, ), , ,
.
5.6.
479
: , . , , .
-
. ,
.
, (default-free
zone) . , , , , .
. ,
, , ,
.
;
.
, .
, .
.
, ( ) ,
.
, . ,
IP- , , ,
. , ,
, ,
. , 32 ,
( ,
).
, .
, :
IP- .
,
. (route aggregation).
, , (supernet),
.
IP- .
IP- /22 ( 210 ), /20 (
212 ). , .
CIDR (Classless InterDomain
Routing ).
RFC4632 (Fuller Li, 2006).
480 5.
, ,
.
, . ,
8192 , 194.24.0.0. , 2048 194.24.0.0
194.24.7.255, 255.255.248.0. /21.
4096 . 4096 , 4096, ,
194.24.8.0. 194.24.16.0 194.24.31.255
255.255.240.0. ,
1024 194.24.8.0 194.24.11.255 255.255.252.0.
.5.6.
5.6. IP-
194.24.0.0
194.24.7.255
2048
194.24.0.0/21
194.24.8.0
194.24.11.255
1024
194.24.8.0/22
()
194.24.12.0
194.24.15.255
1024
194.24.12.0/22
194.24.16.0
194.24.16.255
4096
194.24.16.0/20
, ,
IP
- . , (, .5.44), ,
.
.
.5.44. IP-
-. IP-, , - ( ) .
5.6.
481
194.24.0.0/19 -. 8
1024 .
, , -,
.
, .
, , ,
. ,
200000 .
: .
, ,
(longest matching prefix), IP-. - (.5.45)
, .
-
. , ,
, -? , -
: -
.
(..5.45). ,
, , . -.
, ,
IP- -, , . , ,
.
CIDR . , , ;
. , .
.
/20 /24, ,
/24. ,
.
(Ruiz-Sanchez
., 2001). , , VLSI, .
.5.45.
-
482 5.
CIDR, ,
. 1993 IP- 5
(.5.46). (classful
addressing).
.5.46. IP-
A, B, C D 128 16
, 16384 64536 2 (, ) 256
( ).
, . , 1111,
. ,
IPv4 .
,
.
. CIDR
. 2 ,
. , .
16 ,
256 . 65536 , . - .
, ,
. , 50 . ,
, - ,
,
8- . , , , 10- (
5.6.
483
1022 ). , , ,
, .
, 16384, .
,
( ) .
, , - (
, ).
,
, . - ,
: 2000 .
, 16000, .
, (
). ,
- , : !
? ,
, .
, .
, CIDR.
, (A, B C), ,
.
. , , .
IP-,
28 , 4- . 16- A, B, C ( D E):
, , .
8-, 16- 32- , 32- .
, , ,
-. ,
. , ,
, IP- .
D .
- ,
, .
(.5.47).
IP
- 0.0.0.0 .
. IP- .
, (
484 5.
, ). ,
, 255.255.255.255
.
( ) . , ,
,
, .
. , 127.xx.yy.
zz
(loopback).
, .
, ( )
, .
.5.47. IP-
NAT
IP- . /16-
( ), 65534 .
, .
IP
-. , IP- , ;
, .
/16- 65534 .
, , ,
. , , , . , ,
.
, ,
-
. ,
.
,
ADSL ,
5.6.
485
( ). (,
) ,
. : ()
.
. ,
.
Jones
,
Inc
! , IP- . -
(
, )
, IP- . IP-
.
.
IPv6 128-
. ,
, . , ,
- .
: ,
NAT (Network Address Translation), RFC3022.
, (Dutcher, 2001).
IP- (, , ) -.
IP-, . ,
,
, IP-
IP-.
IP-. . ,
. :
10.0.0.0
172.16.0.0
192.168.0.0
10.255.255.255/8
172.31.255.255/12
192.168.255.255/16
(16777216 )
(1048576 )
(65536 )
, 16777216 ( 0
1, ), ,
.
.5.48.
10.x.y.z. , ,
NAT- (NAT box),
IP
- (10.0.0.1 ) IP-,
(198.60.42.12 ). NAT-
,
486 5.
. 8. NAT-
ADSL.
.5.48. NAT-
:
(, -), 198.60.42.12. NAT- ,
?
. IP ,
, . .
, ,
IP- .
, IP-.
, . NAT ,
IP- TCP, UDP.
6 TCP UDP, , ,
. ,
TCP, , UDP .
16- , ,
TCP-.
, NAT.
TCP- ,
TCP- . (source port), TCP-
, .
(destination port). ,
. 0 1023 . , 80- -, ,
. TCP
.
, .
, .
, . ,
5.6.
487
, , , .
IP- ,
. 16-
, , .
. NAT-, 10.x.y.z
IP-. , TCP
NAT-, 65536 .
IP- . ,
TCP IP.
, 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.2
(5000-, ).
.
NAT- ,
TCP.
NAT-. IP- TCP.
. TCP IP.
10.x.y.z.
IP-,
IP- NAT , . .-,
IP, ,
IP- .
.
, (
) 10.0.0.1.
-, NAT ,
. NAT- , , .
, NAT TCP/IP-
, . ,
NAT Traversal.
-, NAT , . , NAT-
,
. , , . NAT-
, TCP-,
, .
TCP-.
488 5.
. NAT
, .
-, NAT : k , k+1 .
. -
-2, (, 32-
), . ,
. NAT .
-, TCP
UDP.
( , ,
- ), -
, NAT- TCP.
-, TCP/IP- UDP-. , FTP, (File Transfer Protocol), IP- ,
. NAT ,
- . , FTP , - H.323 (
7), ,
.
NAT , , .
, 16-,
IP- 65536 . , : 4096
. , IP-,
61440 .
, ,
RFC2993. , NAT IP-. , . NAT
,
.
, IPv6.
5.6.3. IP 6
IP .
,
. , IP :
. -
5.6.
489
490 5.
7. .
8. .
9.
.
IPv6 IPv4 . ,
, IETF RFC1550 .
. ,
. 1992 .
IP
.
IP CLNP, 160-
, ( 25 ). ,
. ,
, - OSI
, -.
CLNP, , IP.
, IP ,
CLNP. CLNP ,
.
IEEE Network Magazine
(Deering, 1993; Francis, 1993; Katz Ford, 1993). ,
(Deering) (Francis), SIPP (Simple Internet Protocol Plus - ).
IPv6.
IPv6 .
IP (
), .
, IPv6 IPv4,
, TCP, UDP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF, BGP
DNS,
. IPv6 .
RFC 2460 2466.
, IPv6 , IPv4.
128, , , -.
.
IPv6 IPv4
. 7 ( 13 IPv4).
, ,
. .
5.6.
491
. ,
( ). ,
,
.
-, IPv6 . IETF
, 12-
.
, - . IP-.
IPv4 .
, .
,
.
IPv6
IPv6 .5.49. 6 IPv6 ( 4
IPv4). IPv4 IPv6, , , ,
. , , ,
. , Ethernet
, IPv4- IPv6-.
,
, , .
( ) ,
. ( ,
IPv4). , IPv4, 2
.
, ;
. ,
, . .
, ,
, . , :
.
492 5.
.5.49. IPv6 ( )
, . , IP- 220 . ,
, . ,
,
1, .
, 40- , .5.49. IPv4
. 40
. ,
65535 65515.
. , 40-
() . ,
( ) . IP- ,
( TCP UDP) .
. ,
IPv4. .
, IPv4
, ,
.
. ( SIPP) 8- , -
5.6.
493
, 8-
, 16- .
, 16 ,
20- OSI.
. , , , 16- .
16- . IPv6
, , :
8000:0000:0000:0000:0123:4567:89AB:CDEF
, . -,
, 0123 123. -,
, , . , :
8000::123:4567:89AB:CDEF
, IPv
4 , , :
::192.31.20.46
, ,
16- 2128,
3 1023 IP- . , ,
.
IP- ,
.
, , , . ,
( 212) ,
( 307) . RFC 3194 (Durand) (Huitema) . ,
, 1000 IP-
( , ). . , ,
.
IPv4 (. . 5.41) IPv6 (. 5.49),
, . IHL ,
IPv6 . ,
, IP- ( UDP
TCP-).
494 5.
, , IPv6
. -, ,
IPv6, .
Path MTU discovery, 5.5.5.
, IPv6-,
, , ,
. ,
. , .
, 576 1280,
1024 , .
, ,
.
,
,
, .
,
.
,
IPv6 () . ,
. 5.7. ,
, .
5.7. IPv6
, .
(, , ). ,
. , , , .
5.6.
495
: , ,
ICMP-, , ,
ICMP
- ( ICMP-).
1. ,
( 0 255).
255.
,
.
: ,
64. .5.50.
0.
.5.50.
, ,
.
, 8 , .
.
, ( 194) 4- . 65536 ,
,
ICMP- . ,
, (jumbograms, jumbo, ).
, .
, -. IPv6
8 , . , , - .
, . IPv4 ,
,
. .5.51.
.
.
. 0, , 32- , IPv
6. -
496 5.
, , - .
, ,
. .
,
.
, .
.5.51.
, IPv4. , ,
, . IPv4
IPv
6 -. .
IP,
IPv4. .
, , ICMP-, -
, .
. , ,
: ,
.
, 8.
, IPv6,
,
.
. RFC.
. : 16- .
- . , 255 (
8- ) . , 32 , 10 -
5.6.
497
. ,
,
. , , ,
, -
.
, , . ,
,
, 65535
. ,
,
. 125
, , , - .
8- .
.
, 64. , ,
64.
, 1 1 1,5/, 5,
, .
: 64, .
IPv4. .
, - , .
, , ,
, ( ,
). , ,
IPv4.
, IPv6, ,
.
. , IPv6, ?
IPv6
. ,
.
, .
, . , . -, .
498 5.
, ,
.
, -
,
, .
, ,
, .
, IP .
, , ,
,
, .
,
( ) , . , ,
,
. IP,
, ( ). ,
,
.
, , ,
, IPv4- ,
IPv6-. IPv6,
(. 5.5.3). ,
IPv6 . , ,
.
, , . IPv6
. , . , IPv6
, - ,
IP-. ,
.
,
IPv
6-
IPv
4, , .
IPv4, IPv6
. IPv6,
. (Davies,
2008).
5.6.4.
IP, , , ,
ICMP, ARP DHCP.
5.6.
499
, , IPv4 (
). ICMP DHCP
IPv6; APR NDP (Neighbor Discovery Protocol
).
ICMP
. - ,
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol
), . ICMP
. ICMP-
IP-. .5.8.
5.8. ICMP-
, ,
(DESTINATION UNREACHABLE) , , DF (
) , .
(TIME EXCEEDED) , ,
.
,
.
, 1987 , traceroute. ,
.
. 1, 2, 3 .. ,
, , .
.
IP- . , , . ,
.
500 5.
(PARAMETER PROBLEM) , .
, ,
.
(SOURCE QUENCH)
, . , , .
,
, . , ,
.
; .
6.
(REDIRECT) , ,
, .
.
(ECHO) (ECHO REPLY) , ,
.
, . ping, ,
.
(TIMESTAMP REQUEST)
(TIMESTAMP REPLY) ,
.
.
(ROUTER ADVERTISEMENT)
(ROUTER SOLICITATION) .
IP- ,
.
. www.iana.org/assignments/icmp-parameters.
ARP
IP-,
. , Ethernet-,
-. , -
Ethernet 48- Ethernet-. Ethernet
IEEE , Ethernet-
(
). , 48-
Ethernet-. 32- IP- .
, : IP-
, Ethernet-? ,
, .5.52 , /24.
Ethernet: (CS) , 192.31.65.0/24,
5.6.
501
(EE) 192.31.63.0/24 .
IP-. Ethernet
Ethernet- ( E1
E6), IP- CS EE.
, 1 2
CS. , , eagle.cs.uni.
edu. IP- 2.
DNS (Domain Name System), 7.
, DNS IP-
2 (192.31.65.5).
1 192.31.65.5 IP- .
IP ,
CS ( ), -
Ethernet- . ,
,
IP- Ethernet-. , , ,
.
.5.52. Ethernet,
1
Ethernet
: IP
502 5.
ARP
.
IP- . ARP.
IP 1 Ethernet-
E2, IP-, 192.31.65.5, Ethernet. IP- Ethernet- .5.52.
Ethernet 2 , , ,
. Ethernet- IP-
IP-, , ,
, .
ARP. , , ARP, , .
, , ,
. , 2 , ARP
. ,
ARP IP- Ethernet-. ARP-
2, (192.31.65.7, E1) 2 ARP-
. ,
Ethernet.
, ,
IP- ( Ethernet- ), ARP-
. , . ,
.
ARP-,
IP-. ,
. ARP-
(gratuitous ARP). () , ,
IP-.
, .
.5.52. 1 4
(192.31.63.8) EE. 1 , IP- CS.
, ,
(default gateway). , (198.31.65.1).
, 1 Ethernet-
CS.
ARP- 198.31.65.1 E3. .
.
Ethernet ,
IP. ,
4 EE. Ethernet-
5.6.
503
4, ARP. .5.52
Ethernet- IP- CS EE. ,
Ethernet- , IP- (
).
1 4 ,
, . ,
ARP- CS 4, Ethernet-
E3. 4 , ( Ethernet-).
192.32.63.8 EE.
ARP- (ARP-proxy). ,
- . ,
,
, .
DHCP
ARP ( -) ,
, , IP-.
? , ,
. : DHCP
(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ).
DHCP-, .
Ethernet-
, IP-. IP-
DHCP DISCOVER.
DHCP-. ,
DHCP- , .
, IP- DHCP OFFER ( ).
, IP-,
Ethernet- ( DHCP DISCOVER).
: IP ? ,
. .
IP- , . (leasing).
DHCP-
IP-.
, .
DHCP RFC2131 2132.
IP-. , DHCP -.
-,
.
504 5.
DHCP , IP- , IP- DNS
. DHCP (RARP
BOOTP), .
5.6.5. MPLS
, ,
, IP
-. ( ) ,
- . MPLS (MultiProtocol Label
Switching ) . -
, , , . , . ,
, ,
. , .
MPLS ,
, . , .
. MPLS,
, ,
(tag switching). , IETF . RFC3031 . , ,
, .
: ? IP-
,
. ,
MPLS
IP
-. , , PPP, MPLS, IP TCP, .5.53.
MPLS ,
, . . S (
5.6.
505
). ,
. ; 0,
.
.
MPLS IP
PPP. ,
IP- . ,
, MPLS
, . 2.5. ,
.
MPLS
,
MPLS
, . , ,
MPLS, IP-,
-IP-, , .
, .
MPLS IP- -IP-.
, MPLS,
(LSR, Label Switched Router) ,
.
. ,
,
. ,
, . .5.3. MPLS
.
-, (forwarding) (switching).
, , , , . IP .
,
. . , - .
MPLS,
, .
, MPLS-.
(LER, Label Edge Router) IP- , ,
MPLS- ,
. MPLS. MPLS-
, , IP- .
.5.54.
. , ,
MPLS-, . ,
506 5.
,
. , , ,
(FEC Forwarding
Equivalence Class). ,
, ( ). .
, . MPLS
, ,
,
.
MPLS .
, . (, - ),
.
. , , , .
. .
, ( ) . S (.
.5.53) , , ,
. , ,
.
, , .
MPLS
. , ,
.
MPLS
, (
).
, , , .
, .
5.6.
507
. . , (, ).
FEC
, , . , ,
. ,
. , . (,
, )
, .
MPLS ,
, ,
. (Davie Farrel,
2008; Davie Rekhter, 2000).
5.6.6. OSPF
, .
. ,
(), , , . ,
, (intradomain routing).
- .
OSPF.
(interior gateway protocol). ,
(interdomain routing).
(exterior gateway protocol).
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol
).
, (BellmanFord) ARPANET.
RIP (Routing Information Protocol ),
. ,
,
, 1979 . 1988
(IETF, Internet Engineering Task Force) ,
, .
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First ) 1990.
508 5.
IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System
), ISO. , . .RFC2328.
. OSPF
, IS-IS -.
OSPF.
,
,
. -,
, (Open ) OSPF. ,
, , . -,
,
, .. -,
,
.
- ( OSPF),
, .
-
. IP- ,
.
OSPF, . .
, , , .
-, .
.
, . . ,
.
-, . 1988
,
. , .
-, , -,
. , ,
.
.
OSPF (, SONET) ( ). ,
( multi-access networks),
.
.
.5.55, . ,
OSPF; (
5.6.
509
) .
, , . R3, R4 R5
, Ethernet.
.5.55. : ; ()
OSPF
, ,
( , , ..).
, .
. , .
, , .
, .
, , , ,
. , .
.5.55, , .5.55, , .
, OSPF. , , . ,
. OSPF .
ECMP (Equal Cost MultiPath ).
. OSPF
, . -
510 5.
, ,
. - , (internal router).
. ,
. .
(backbone area), 0. , ,
(backbone routers).
, , ,
.
. ,
.
, , (area border router).
.
. ,
. , ,
.
,
.
, . , , : .
(stub area).
(AS boundary router).
. ,
;
.
. ,
.5.56.
,
, .
.5.56. , OSPF
5.6.
511
, ,
. . ,
, .
.
( ). ,
, .
,
, .
,
. .
, , ,
. , ( )
( ).
(HELLO)
,
, . .
.
OSPF
, , . ,
.
(designated router DR). (adjacent)
.
, ,
.
(backup
designated router BDR).
(LINK STATE UPDATE)
.
, .
, . , ,
: , .
,
.
(DATABASE DESCRIPTION)
, . -
512 5.
, ,
. .
(LINK STATE REQUEST). ,
, , , .
IP-.
.5.9.
5.9. OSPF
.
.
. . ,
,
.
, .
, ,
, .
5.6.7. BGP
OSPF IS-IS.
, BGP (Border Gateway Protocol
).
,
. .
.
, , (Metz, 2001).
,
5.6.
513
.
, , ,
( , ). ,
, , ,
. ,
, .
BGP
.
,
, .
.
1. .
2. , .
3. TeliaSonera Verizon, .
4. AT&T , .
5. , Apple,
Google.
, , ,
. . ,
. .
, ,
, .
: -
. , -
. ,
. ,
, . ,
. ,
.
, - .
.5.57.
, . - (IXP, Internet eXchange Point),
, -, -. AS2, AS3 AS4 AS1. AS1 . , , A
C, AS2 AS1. AS4.
. C AS1,
514 5.
AS4 C (AS1).
AS1 C , AS2,
C AS1.
.5.57.
.5.57 AS1. .
. AS2 AS3 .
,
. , AS1
, . (peering).
. AS2 AS3 A B, . , . .5.57
AS3 AS4 , C B
AS4. C A? AS3 AS4 B, A.
AS4 AS3, AS2, .
AS3. AS4, , AS4
. AS4
AS1, , , C A.
, ,
A, B C. , A AS2. A
, .
A BGP,
(stub network), . .
. A, B C
.
, . ,
.
(multihoming). ,
5.6.
515
, (,
BGP), , .
, ,
. ,
BGP-
.
BGP , ,
RIP (Routing Information Protocol ).
, . ,
, BGP-
. (Path Vector Protocol). (
: ) , (AS path), ( ). BGP- ,
TCP-.
, .
.5.58 , . ,
-.
C AS3. R2c (),
AS3 R3a. ,
, . AS1. R1a
() AS2 AS3, R2a.
.5.58. BGP-
516 5.
.
: ,
, . (
.) , ,
. ,
; .
, 1990- , BGP (Labovitz ., 2001).
, -
.
- .
, .
. BGP ,
,
. , :
.
.
, -. BGP
, . . BGP
, .
BGP (iBGP internal BGP), ,
BGP (eBGP external BGP).
: , , ,
( ).
- IP
128.208.0.0/16, . , ,
.
.5.58. : R2b ,
C R2c (), R2d (). , .
,
.
, ,
, .
: BGP-
? BGP-
, (
5.6.
517
). , .
, -.
,
.
, , , , .
, . :
.
, .
: ,
. ,
, .
, .
, ,
.
.5.58. A C AS1 R1a.
B R1b. , A B
AS1.
, .
, AS2. AS3
B .
(hot-potato routing). ,
. , C B.
AS3 . AS2 AS1 , AS1.
B C.
, BGP-
. , , BGP , OSPF . BGP .
, , BGP
, . , BGP-
. ,
, .
, BGP.
. BGP 4 RFC4271
RFC. , , BGP.
518 5.
5.6.8.
IP- .
.
, , ,
(
).
IP
D. D . 28,
250 . D, ,
. .
IP- 224.0.0.0/24
. .
.
, .
. :
224.0.0.1 ;
224.0.0.2 ;
224.0.0.5 OSPF- ;
224.0.0.251 DNS- .
. . , , , .
- .
,
. ,
.
( )
( 224.0.0.1) ,
. , .
D. IGMP (Internet Group Management
Protocol ). RFC3376.
,
, . 5.2.8.
- (PIM, Protocol Independent Multicast).
PIM. PIM (Dense Mode PIM)
, . -
5.6.
519
, ,
. PIM
(
Sparse
Mode
PIM
) , . , ,
- IP-.
Source
-
Specific
Multicast
PIM
. , ,
BGP
.
5.6.9. IP
,
. , IP ,
, ( ). ,
(IETF, Internet Engineering Task Force)
. ,
, .
.
1.
IP- .
2. .
3. .
4. , ,
.
5. , .
, 5.2.10. , , , , , (home agent). , IP- (
).
.
, ,
, , .
,
. .
, DHCP
. , IP
- , , IP- .
, ICMP-,
520 5.
. IP- ,
.
,
, . ARP. IP- Ethernet, Ethernet- . ARP-,
- Ethernet- 160.80.40.20?
, ,
IP-, Ethernet-. ,
, Ethernet-.
160.80.40.20 . , , , ARP-.
, , ARP
(gratuitous ARP). ,
ARP- IP-,
.
IP- .
, IP- .
-, ,
, . . -, NAT- TCPUDP, IP-. IP
NAT-. , UDP-.
, , IP- , ,
, .
(ingress filtering) ,
, , .
, IP- , , .
, . , , . , .
.
, , IP-,
, , , - . , 8.
IPv6 IPv4.
, , . IPv6
5.7.
521
, IP- , .
IPv6 RFC3775.
.
,
. ,
. ( ,
?) ,
. , , , , . , .
IP,
, .
IPv6 RFC3963.
5.7.
.
, .
.
. .
. .
.
. .
, ,
, .
,
.
, ,
, ,
.
. , .
, , ,
, . , , IETF ( RSVP) .
, . , -
522 5.
. ,
.
,
,
.
, . IP
.
BGP
.
IP
-, IP, IPv6,
, .
1. , , ,
. ,
.
2.
.
. , .
.
3. ,
.
4. ,
, , ,
?
5. , (
). ,
.
6. .5.10,. -
. C : B: (5,
0, 8, 12, 6, 2); D: (16, 12, 6, 0, 9, 10); E: (7, 6, 3, 9, 0, 4). B, D E
6, 3 5 . C?
.
7. , 50 , 8-
, .
()
? ,
.
8. .5.11 ACF- 111 . ?
523
9. , 4800? , k
k k . , k
4800 (16).
, 16.
10. , , , , .
IP- 802.3?
11. B .5.5 :
1) ?
2) ?
12. .5.13,. , F G,
, .5.13,, .
.5.13,?
13. C ,
, , A, B, C, D, E, F, I K.
14. , .5.18
.
H. TTL 1, 2, 3 ..
?
15. , , ,
, -, , , , -, . ,
, .
( ) . n . ? ,
, .
16. . , , p. ,
524 5.
.
, -, , , . (- ) ,
1) , ?
2) ?
3) , ?
17. ECN RED?
18. . 5.
48. ( )?
19. , , 6/, . 1/.
8.
6/?
20. .5.30 RSVP 1 2. , 3 2/
1 1/ 2.
4 2/
1, 5 1/
2.
A, B, C, E, H, J, K L?
21. 2 . 1,5 . , 10?
22. , .
, ,
? .
23. , R1. , ,
, R2, R2 B. TCP, 900
20 TCP-, IP-, ,
. , , DF, MF
IP- , . ,
R1 1024, 14-
, R1R2 512 , 8- , R2B
512, 12- .
24. IP-, ( ) 1024. , 10, ,
IP-.
25. IP-, ,
. ,
? .
525
26. , 16 B
20. B?
27. IP-, C22F1582,
, .
28. 255.255.240.0.
?
29. IP- , Ethernet- . ,
?
30. , IP- 198.16.0.0. , A, B, C D 4000, 2000, 4000 8000 .
, w.x.y.z/s.
31. IP-: 57.6.96.0/21,
57.6.112.0/21 57.6.120.0/21. ,
? , ? , ?
32. IP- 29.18.0.0 19.18.128.255 29.18.0.0/17. 1024 29.18.60.0 29.18.63.255,
, .
, ,
, - ? , ?
33. (CIDR) :
/
135.46.56.0/22
135.46.60.0/22
192.53.40.0/23
IP-?
1) 135.46.63.10
2) 135.46.57.14
3) 135.46.52.2
4) 192.53.40.7
5) 192.53.56.7
34. ,
,
, .
NAT? .
35. ARP. , :
. ARP , ,
. ?
36. .
37. IP- ,
- , ,
. ,
526 5.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
. , . , ,
, .
. ?
IP , . , , ?
, , . ,
IP, . ,
, ,
?
IPv6 16- . ,
1 ?
, IPv4,
IPv6. ?
ARP IP?
, ?
, .
, .
, . ,
. :
; , ; k
( ).
(k=1) .
, .
. . ,
, .
- , , , -.
.
, IP-.
IP-. , .
: IP-c, . IP- ,
CIDR, .
traceroute (UNIX) tracert (Windows),
.
. :
www.berkeley.edu ()
www.mit.edu ()
www.vu.nl ()
www.ucl.ac.uk ()
www.usyd.edu.au ()
www.u-tokyo.ac.jp ()
www.uct.ac.za ()
. .
-
-,
. , .
.
,
API, , ,
( TCP UDP) .
6.1.
.
, .
, . ( ) , , .
6.1.1. ,
,
() ,
.
, .
/ , , (transport entity).
, , ,
.
. , .6.1.
528 6.
.6.1. ,
, ,
.
.
: ,
.
. , . ,
,
.
: , ?
? , . ,
,
( , ). ,
,
? ? , ?
. , ,
( , ).
, .
6.1.
529
, .
,
, - ,
,
.
,
, , , , ,
.
,
, . , ,
,
(, Ethernet
WiMAX ).
,
, , c
.
.
.
,
, , , .
, .
. (transport service provider),
(transport service user).
,
. .
6.1.2.
,
, .
. (
) ,
.
.
530 6.
, . ,
, .
, .
, , .
, ,
.
, , UNIX ( ,
). ,
. , , .. .
A , B .
,
, , .
, () , ( ),
. , -
,
, .
,
. . ,
.
, , ,
, .
.
, , .6.1. ,
. ,
, .
, , , . LISTEN ,
. ,
. , CONNECT.
,
. , .
6.1.
531
. ,
,
, (segment).
TCP, UDP -.
TPDU (Transport Protocol Data Unit
). ,
.
6.1.
LISTEN ()
()
, -
CONNECT
()
CONNECTION REQUEST
( )
SEND ()
RECEIVE
()
()
DISCONNECT
()
DISCONNECTION REQUEST
( )
, ,
( ). , ,
, . , ,
,
. .
.6.2.
.6.2. ,
532 6.
). , ,
LISTEN ( ).
CONNECTION ACCEPTED
( ). , , .
SEND RECEIVE. RECEIVE ,
SEND. ,
.
. , , ,
.
,
, .
, , . ,
, , .
. .
, . ,
.
,
.
, , .
: .
DISCONNECT,
DISCONNECTION REQUEST ( ).
.
, . DISCONNECT, ,
,
. ,
DISCONNECT.
.6.3.
- , , .
, . , ,
. . ,
TCP, .
6.1.
533
.6.3. . ,
, .
.
6.1.3.
( ), TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol ).
1983 Berkeley UNIX 4.2BSD.
- , UNIX
; , API,
Windows winsock.
.6.2.
, . , ,
.
. SOCKET . ,
(, ) .
534 6.
SOCKET ,
, , OPEN .
6.2. TCP
SOCKET ()
( )
BIND ()
LISTEN ()
ACCEPT ()
CONNECT
()
SEND ()
RECEIVE
()
CLOSE ()
. BIND. ,
. SOCKET , (,
, ),
.
LISTEN, , .
LISTEN , LISTEN .
,
ACCEPT. ,
, ,
. ,
.
. SOCKET , BIND
, . CONNECT .
( , , ),
, .
SEND RECIEVE
. UNIX-
READ WRITE, SEND RECIEVE.
.
, CLOSE.
6.1.
535
, -
. -API
TCP- ,
( ,
). API ,
.
-API ,
. , .
CONNECT , SEND RECEIVE . ( ,
SENDTO RECEIVEFROM,
.) ,
. , DCCP (Datagram
Congestion Control Protocol ) UDP, (Rohler .,
2006).
.
, ,
. , ,
. ,
,
( ),
, , ,
. ,
. SCTP
(Stream Control Transmission Protocol ), RFC4960, SST (Structured Stream Transport
) (Ford, 2007).
-
API
, , ( )
. , ,
.
6.1.4. :
-
, , ,
, 6.1.
-, .
536 6.
( ),
, ,
UNIX-, . , ,
. ,
. , , , - .
6.1.
/* ,
, . */
/* .*/
#include
#include
#include
#include
<sys/types.h>
<sys/socket.h>
<netinet/in.h>
<netdb.h>
*/
*/
*/
*/
6.1.
exit(1);
}
/* */
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/fcntl.h>
#include <sys/socket.h>
#include <netinet/in.h>
#include <netdb.h>
#define SERVER_PORT 12345 /* */
#define BUF_SIZE 4096
/* */
#define QUEUE_SIZE 10
int main(int argc, char *argv[]);
{
int s, b, l, fd, sa, bytes, on = 1;
char buf[BUF_SIZE];
/* */
struct sockaddr_in channel;
/* IP- */
/* */
memset(&channel, 0, sizeof(channel));
/* channel */
channel.sin_family = AF_INET;
channel.sin_addr.s_addr = htonl(INADDR_ANY);
channel.sin_port = htons(SERVER_PORT);
/* . */
s = socket(AF_INET, SOCK_STREAM, IPPROTO_TCP); /* */
if (s<0) fatal(" ");
setsockopt(s, SOL_SOCKET, SO_REUSEADDR, (char *) &on, sizeof(on));
b = bind(s, (struct sockaddr *) &channel, sizeof(channel));
if (b<0) fatal(" ");
l = listen(s, QUEUE_SIZE);
/* */
if (l<0) fatal(" ");
/* . */
while (1) {
sa = accept(s, 0, 0);
/* */
if (sa<0) fatal(" ");
read(sa, buf, BUF_SIZE);
/* */
/* */
fd = open(buf, O_RDONLY);
/* */
if (fd < 0) fatal(" ");
while (1) {
bytes = read(fd, buf, BUF_SIZE);
if (bytes <= 0) break;
write(sa, buf, bytes);
}
close(fd);
close(sa);
}
}
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */
537
538 6.
, .
, , . SERVER_PORT
12345. . 1024
65535 , -
; 1023 .
.
( ).
,
.
.
, IP-
. . memset
.
. . htonl htons ,
littleendian (, Intelx86), big-endian (, SPARC).
.
( s<0)
.
. setsockopt , , , . IP
bind.
listen, ,
QUEUE_SIZE , .
.
, . . accept ,
. , accept
() ,
, , () . , ,
, ( )
sa ( ). , .
. , , . ,
, .
, .
, .
.
6.1.
539
, . ,
, , .
client, :
client flits.csvu.nl /usr/tom/filename >f
, flits.
cs.vu.nl, /usr/tom/filename
. , f, .
, .
.
(argc = 3 , ). ,
argv[1] (, flits.cs.vu.nl) IP-
gethostbyname. DNS.
DNS 7.
,
TCP- connect. ,
, SERVER_PORT ,
listen ( ),
. ,
.
, -, , .
, .
.
fatal . ,
.
, fatal .
( , )
- http://www.prenhall.com/tanenbaum.
, .
, . ,
(
). , , UNIX
.
. , ,
. , -
540 6.
-
. (Donahoo Calvert,
2008, 2009).
6.2.
,
. , 3.
, , , .
, , , .6.4.
(
),
. .
.6.4. : ;
-,
,
, .
.
-, (.6.4,) : ( ).
, . . ,
. ( ), .
, , .
, . ,
, - - ,
, ,
, . , -
6.2.
541
,
, -
, , ; ,
.
, .
, . ,
, , ,
. ,
3, , ,
, .
.
.
6.2.1.
, , . (
: ?)
, .
.
TSAP (Transport Service Access Point
)
. ( ) NSAP (Network Service Access Point
). NSAP IP-.
6.5 NSAP, TSAP
. , , ,
TSAP TSAP.
NSAP , . TSAP
, , NSAP, ,
NSAP.
:
1. TSAP1522 2
. , TSAP
,
. , , LISTEN.
542 6.
2. 1 ,
TSAP1208 CONNECT,
TSAP1208 1 TSAP1522 2 . .
3. .
4. , .
5. .
.6.5.
, 2 ,
TSAP
, NSAP.
, : 1 , TSAP1522? , TSAP1522
, .
TSAP-, ,
. , , /etc/services UNIX
- , , ,
, TCP 25.
TSAP- (, -),
-
6.2.
543
, TSAP-
.
, .
,
(portmapper). TSAP-, ,
BitTorrent,
(TSAP- ).
, TSAP .
.
, ,
, ( ASCII) TSAP. ,
.
. , ,
TSAP- ( ) . , . ,
, , .
.6.6. 1
2
, ,
,
544 6.
TSAP-. .6.6.
(initial connection protocol).
TSAP-, ,
,
(process server), () . UNIX- inetd.
, .
, CONNECT, TSAP-
. , , .6.6,.
, , .
, , .6.6,.
, .
6.2.2.
, , . , CONNECTION REQUEST
CONNECTION ACCEPTED ( ). ,
, , .
,
,
- . ,
.
, , .
.
. ,
,
. .
,
.
: ,
() . , . , , .
,
: .
, ,
, .
6.2.
545
,
.
, , . , .
. ,
.
,
, , . , , . ,
, . , .
, , .
.
, ( , ),
, , . , (
, ).
,
( ).
, : ,
,
, . ,
, , , .
,
. ,
. .
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
, ,
,
. , , , .
546 6.
. , .
, ,
. ,
.
.
, ,
. T,
.
, ;
120. , , T.
T ,
,
.
. (Tomlinson, 1975);
(Sunshine) (Dalal).
, TCP.
,
, T . , T,
. , . , . ,
.
(
), ,
T .
, ,
. ,
T .
.
. ,
, .
,
( ).
, , .
k k-
. , ,
3, .
6.2.
547
, ,
, . .6.7. ,
.
, . , 70,
;
.
.6.7. (); ()
,
. ,
. (
) , ,
. , .
, .
. ,
,
. ,
.
, , ,
, , ,
. , (1 ).
( ).
548 6.
C, S, S/C>T
,
.
,
. .6.7,, , ,
, .
, . ,
( ).
.
.
,
, CONNECTION REQUEST, -
, .
,
.
(1975)
(three-way handshake). , , . .6.8,.
1 , x,
CONNECTION REQUEST, , 2. 2 ACK, x y.
, 1 2
.
. .6.8,
CONNECTION REQUEST .
2 1. 2
1 ACK, , 1 ,
. 1
, 2 , ,
. , .
CONNECTION REQUEST ACK
. .6.8,. , 2 CONNECTION REQUEST .
, 2 y
2 1, , , y, .
2 , , ,
y, z. ,
,
, .
6.2.
549
.6.8. (CR
CONNECTION REQUEST): ; CR;
CR ACK
TCP . 32- ,
,
.
TCP , .
RFC1323 PAWS (Protection Against Wrapped Sequence
numbers ).
, ,
PAWS TCP ,
(. ). .
550 6.
, ,
. . ,
, - , .
.
6.2.3.
, . . , : .
: , .
, .
. , .6.9. 1 , 2. 1
. , 2 DISCONNECTION REQUEST (
DR) , .
, .
.6.9.
, ,
. ,
. ,
.
,
,
6.2.
551
, . , , .
, 1 : . ? 2
: . ,
.
, . ,
. ,
, .6.10.
. , ,
. , , ,
.
.6.10.
. ,
, (
). : , ?
, :
29, . . , 2- , 1- .
? , , 2- , .
, 1- , .
. .
, . .
, , , ,
. , . -
552 6.
, .
, ( ), , . ,
? , , , .
,
. .
, , .
, ,
, .
, , ,
,
. . .6.11
, . , .
.6.11, ,
DR (DISCONNECTION REQUEST), . ,
DR , .
, ACK . , ACK, . ,
( ).
DISCONNECT.
(.6.11,), . , .
DR
. , , ,
. .6.11, ,
, .
(.6.11,) : ,
DR , .
N , , .
, .
,
, DR N
. ,
.
.
6.2.
553
.6.11. :
; ; ;
,
N , , . , ,
,
. , , .6.11,.
, , ,
554 6.
, . ,
, .
, ,
.
, .
, ,
. , ,
, .
,
, ,
. ,
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570 6.
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575
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577
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587
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TSAP-. TCP
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588 6.
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25
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80
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110
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143
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443
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543
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589
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590 6.
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1500 ( Ethernet),
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, (Kent Mogul, 1987).
TCP MTU .
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591
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592 6.
(cumulative acknowledgement),
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593
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595
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TCP .
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TCP- , , (, ).
CONNECT TCP- SYN
ACK .
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596 6.
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( IP- , - ).
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. RFC4987 (Lemon, 2002).
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TCP- , ,
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, TCP
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TCP- , .
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TCP-:
FIN ACK . ACK
FIN
TCP
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597
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6.5. , TCP-
CLOSED
LISTEN
SYN RCVD
SYN SENT
ESTABLISHED
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TIME WAIT
CLOSING
CLOSE WAIT
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598 6.
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RST). , ,
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599
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ACK- ESTABLISHED. .
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,
TCP
. ,
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2048 (
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600 6.
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2048, , 0.
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.
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601
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TCP (delayed acknowledgements). ,
500
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TCP, , . ,
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602 6.
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1982). , TCP-
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605
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, (Allman Paxson, 1999).
606 6.
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Karn). TCP/IP-
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. . ,
, .
AIMD.
, , , . : ,
, . ,
, , , . . TCP ,
. :
64 , , 32 , , 32 . ,
, 128 , ,
( 64 ). , .
TCP (Van Jacobson, 1988).
. 1986
, - (congestion
collapse), , ( 100 ) - . (
) .
,
AIMD . , TCP
, .
.
, ,
, ( ). , ,
. .
, , ,
.
. ,
,
608 6.
. (, 802.11) ,
. -
, , . ,
, , , .
TCP ,
- . - ,
. , . ,
TCP
.
.
, TCP- ,
.
.
. , ,
( ) , AIMD. , ,
. ,
( )
. .
64, Ethernet 1 /.
,
ADSL- (1 /). ,
, ,
, VoIP. ,
, .
.
.6.37 , , -,
(1 /), (4) , (1 /),
. 4 ,
. ,
,
. , , , . , , , ,
, .
, , .
.
, , .
.
6.5. : TCP
...
...
...
...
...
609
...
. 6.37. , ,
: ,
. .
, ,
, . (ack
clock) TCP. TCP
.
,
AIMD ,
. ,
10 / 100 .
, , 1 100 1250 .
, , 100 , 10 .
. , 50. . 50 .
, , .
. (
,
.) RFC 3390.
.
, . , ,
( ). ,
, .
. , ,
.
(slow start),
, -
610 6.
,
. . 6.38.
(RTT) ( ).
, .
. 6.38.
. , . ,
(. 6.38). ,
. ( ,
,
. .) , . , ,
Ethernet 100 /.
1250- 100 .
, 100. ,
ADSL 1 /. 10 . , ,
, 100 . , .
. 6.38 , .
, , . ,
( , ).
, ( ,
). , .
,
- ( , )
6.5. : TCP
611
. .
, . ,
-, . . 6.38 ,
.
. , ,
. , . ,
,
. , ,
. , .
, , , .
.
,
.
(slow start threshold).
, , . , TCP , -
( ).
(, -) , . , ,
, .
, , :
,
. . 6.38
, .
,
.
TCP
.
, .
, , . cwnd ,
MSS . (MSS MSS)/cwnd cwnd/MSS ,
. .
, TCP- ,
, ,
, , .
. 6.39. , . ,
612 6.
.
.
, , , ,
100 .
. 6.39.
- , .
, -.
, .
, ,
.
, .
, . .
, . , ,
, , . (duplicate acknowledgements). ,
, , ,
.
, .
. . , . TCP ,
. ,
. . , , .
6.5. : TCP
613
(fast retransmisson).
, , -.
, .
, ,
, .
,
. 6.40. TCP Tahoe 4.2BSD
Tahoe, 1988 , .
1 .
64 , -,
32 , 1 ( 0).
, (32 ). , , ,
.
.
13 ( ),
.
. , (40
, 20 ), .
,
, ,
.
, 20 .
.
,
- ( ).
614 6.
TCP Tahoe ( , ,
) , - . , .
, . ,
, ,
.
.
, , (fast recovery). ,
,
(
). ( ,
) ,
.
. .
. ,
.
.
,
. , , .
,
( ) (
), . AIMD,
.
. 6.41.
TCP Reno, 1990 4.3BSD Reno. ,
TCP Reno TCP Tahoe . ,
, .
, , ,
. ,
, 1. .
.
, TCP Reno,
TCP.
,
6.5. : TCP
615
, . .
, TCP RenoNew , ,
(Hoe, 1996) (. RFC 3782). 1990- ,
. , Linux CUBIC TCP (Ha ., 2008),
Windows Compound TCP (Tan ., 2006).
TCP. -, , , , .
. (SACK, Selective ACKnowledgement),
. ,
, .
SACK permitted, ,
. , , . 6.42.
. 3 ( 2 ), SACK option
() 1. SACK option
, . , . , , .
. 6
616 6.
:
3 4, 6 ( ,
1). SACK option, ,
. 2 5.
. 6.42.
.
,
, . ,
, ,
.
. RFC 2883, TCP RFC 3517.
(ECN, Explicit Congestion Notification)
. IP-,
(. 5.3.4). TCP IP.
TCP-, ,
, ECE CWR.
TCP- ,
. , ,
, , ,
.
- ,
TCP- ECE (ECN-) .
CWR ( ).
, . : , .
RFC 3168.
, , .
TCP
RFC 5681.
6.5. : TCP
617
6.5.11. TCP
TCP ; ,
.
, -
, ; . , TCP
. .
-, TCP ,
. , ,
.
, , -, .
. TCP .
,
TCP.
. SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol,
), RFC 4960, SST (Structured Stream
Transport, ) (Ford, 2007). ,
, , - ,
: , .
.
. . ,
, .
Padhye
(1998) ,
. 1 /
100 1500 ,
10 . 2108,
. ,
; ,
(, 10 7),
, .
,
, .
,
. 6.2.
, , ,
, FAST TCP (Wei ., 2006). ;
.
618 6.
6.6.
.
,
. ,
. , ,
.
, ,
. , - ,
. , , , ,
.
, TCP,
TCP.
.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. (long fat
networks).
,
, .
6.6.1.
. ,
, , .
.
, . ,
,
, .
,
,
.
6.6.
619
. , (, ),
. ,
,
10000. . (broadcast storm)
. UDP
, ICMP ,
UDP.
, .
. ,
.
- DHCP- ( ), , ,
. ,
.
- .
, , .
.
TCP-, ,
(64).
. , ,
. .
,
.
.
, ,
(, ), . . .
,
.
6.6.2.
, , .
, ,
620 6.
. ,
.
. (Mogul, 1993).
(
, ).
- . ,
, .
, (,
). , ,
, .
. .
.
,
- , , . ,
, . ,
, 802.16 NIC
,
, .
, .
.
,
,
,
. ,
, , .
, , ,
10, 11, 13 14 , (
).
- . , ,
, ,
, - .
. ,
(Mahajan .,
2006).
6.6.
621
, . , -
DNS ( IP-)
, , , ,
.
( ).
. TCP/IP- , ,
UDP ,
. ?
UDP ,
.
1000 UDP ,
.
.
, , .
,
, , -
, , . ,
. .
, 3 , ,
. ,
,
, ,
-.
,
, .
,
, - , 802.11 .
, .
,
,
. ,
1. -
622 6.
, 1, , . , ,
, , .
,
.
, , ,
(, )
. ,
, 300, 0,
1, . ,
,
1.
, - (, ),
0 () 0,4 (40% ). VoIP- 802.11 ,
.6.43.
().
1/(1), , , , .
, , .
.6.43.
6.6.
623
6.6.3.
, . .
.
,
. , ,
, ,
. . , (NIC) ,
. , . -, ,
. ,
, .
- .
,
, .
. (Mogul, 1993). .
(Metcalfe, 1993).
,
. ,
(RPC, Remote Procedure Call) Ethernet 1/ 1,
(512), (512-) .
- ,
. .
, , ,
, .
.
, .
,
(,
) (, ).
624 6.
. (,
). 1
.
128-
32 , 4. .
.
,
.
, , ,
. , n
n .
, , , .
MTU
- , .
.
. , (, , ). ,
,
. ,
, , .
, .
,
, . , 20%
( ),
,
2,8 (0,8 1 + 0,2 10). . , .
, . , TCP IP
(TCP/IP), ,
, .
, .
,
( ), .
6.6.
625
(, )
, .
.
,
, . ,
, .
,
,
. ,
. ,
, , ,
, , .
. 6.44.
.
. 6.44. ,
,
, , ,
. , , , . .
.
. , , .
626 6.
-
, -. ,
- . , ,
.
, . , ,
() . , , , .
6.6.4.
, , , .
. (Clark ., 1989; Chase ., 2001).
:
.
.
( )
. ,
(, ). ,
,
. .
ESTABLISHED , , ,
, . ,
ESTABLISHED, . ,
,
, , , . .6.45
, SEND,
. , , , ,
ESTABLISHED, , ( URGENT) .
, ,
.
.
.
, . , ,
6.6.
627
. .
,
.
.
( . 6.45 ). ,
.
. 6.45. .
, , TCP/
IP. . 6.46, TCP-. , , . ,
, - , (
), ,
.
IP-, , . IP- -
(. 6.46, ) ,
. .
.6.45. . TCP -,
- IP- .
,
, .
,
.
, 1989 , ,
90%.
628 6.
: ESTABLISHED,
, ,
, . ,
, . ,
TCP-.
. ,
. ,
. , , ,
, , , (header prediction).
TCP. , , TCP 90% , , .
, , . ,
.
, .
, ,
.
,
.
, ( ticks), .
, ,
. ,
3, 10 12 , 3, 7 2
.
. ,
6.6.
629
, .
, , .
,
. , (. 6.47) (timing wheel).
. , , T = 4.
3, 10 12 .
7 , , , 11
. , , T + 10,
, 14.
, . 6.47 T + 15.
. 6.47.
. , , ,
, .
(Varghese Lauck, 1989).
6.6.5.
. .
,
. ,
, ,
,
.
,
.
630 6.
, JPEG, ,
, PDF.
( -),
.
?
,
. , 802.16
.
( IP, TCP UDP) , . ,
,
(, IPv6
, IPv4).
.
, , VoIP- IP, UDP RTP.
40 (20 IPv4, 8 UDP, 12
RTP). IPv6 : 60 , 40-
IPv6. , .
,
, (header compression). , . ,
( ),
, . - .
, . (1990)
TCP/IP- . 40- TCP/IP-
3 . . 6.46, , .
, . ,
TCP- .
.
. ,
, TCP
. , .
, .
, , ,
.
, ,
.
6.6.
631
6.6.6.
, ,
90- . (long fat networks).
, .
,
.
, 32- . ,
56 /, ,
,
, .
TCP232 ,
. Ethernet
632 6.
10 / 57 . ,
, , .
Ethernet 1 /,
34 . ,
120 . , 232
, ,
, , , ,
.
, ,
. ,
,
- , .
. ,
, ,
TCP-
.
(PAWS, Protection Against Wrapped Sequence numbers).
RFC 1323.
. , , 64 64 .
1 /, ,
, 20 . (t = 0),
. 6.48, , . 500
(. 6.48, ). - ,
. ,
.
20 , . 6.48, , , . , 40
,
. 0,5 40 , 1,25%.
.
(bandwidth-delay product). ( )
( ). .
. 6.48
40 . ,
40 , .
, . ,
1,25% ,
1,25% .
6.6.
633
. 6.48. - : t = 0;
500 ; 20 ; 40
, , ,
, ,
. , , 5 .
, , , , N ,
.
, 1 /. 40 .
5 . , 40 ,
. N ,
5 , . ,
. , .
,
, . . 6.49
, 1
4000 , . 1 /
634 6.
. 1 /
40 1 (,
).
.
. 6.49. 1 4000
. 6.49
. , ,
(RPC, Remote Procedure Call),
. .
(
). , ,
,
, .
,
, . (
: ! .)
70- ARPANET 56 /
1 MIPS (1 ).
, 1000 MIPS .
, .
, :
,
.
.
,
, :
6.6.
635
, ,
.
, ,
.
: . ,
. IPv6,
, .
, ,
. ,
,
. ,
, .
,
. ,
. ,
, . ,
,
.
.
.
, () . , ,
.
,
,
- . .
,
, , . 1500
, Ethernet
9 , IPv6 64 .
. :
.
.
,
, , . ,
, .
636 6.
,
. ,
. -
. ,
. ,
(). ,
(
) .
.
.
6.7. ,
, , , . TCP
,
; ,
. . , LEO (Low-Earth Orbit,
)
.
,
,
.
, , ,
, -
.
:
, . . ,
, , (DTN, DelayTolerant Network), (Disruption-Tolerant Network,
DTN).
DTN 2002 , IETF . , , : .
. , , , ,
(Fall, 2003). , .
6.7. ,
637
, 1.
2002 DTN , DTN
. , , ,
, -, , .
, , , ,
. ,
, .
, ,
.
, , ,
( , ).
DTN .
(
6). ,
, . (Laoutaris ., 2009) ,
,
.
DTN, IETF.
6.7.1. DTN
DTN , . :
. , - . , , ,
(. 6.50). ,
. RFC 4838.
DTN . DTN , (, -
. .). , ;
. . .6.50
1
, ,
(, , DTN), .
FidoNet ( 1980- )
FTN (Fidonet technology network). , .
( ) (,
, , ) . . .
638 6.
, ,
. . . 6.50
, DTN, .
.
. 6.50. DTN
, .
.
, . DTN , ,
, ,
, . .
: ( ) ,
; .
,
(storecarryforward).
, . 6.51.
DTN (Wood ., 2008).
LEO , . .
.
, . , ,
DTN. (
) .
. .
DTN ,
,
, .
DTN . -,
, . :
. -,
,
. ,
6.7. ,
639
. . ,
.
. 6.51. DTN
DTN :
DTN. ,
, (). . ,
.
DTN , ,
5 14
8,134 /. .
. , (
), ; ,
, . ,
. ,
, ,
. , ,
.
6.7.2. Bundle
, DTN, IETF. DTN
. DTN
640 6.
.
IETF. .
DTN . 6.52.
Bundle; RFC 5050.
DTN. . 6.52,
TCP/IP. , TCP/IP
. , ,
Bundle . RTP,
, , ,
Bundle ,
DTN .
. 6.52. DTN
. 6.52 , Bundle
, UDP . , .
20 ( ). ,
, ! .
, .
, , TCP
.
Bundle , ,
. (convergence layer), . 6.52.
, .
. ,
, .
Bundle . 6.53.
, .
6.7. ,
641
. 6.53. Bundle
, , ( ) (,
). ( 6), . ,
(
)
(, ).
. - . , . , ,
. ,
,
. DTN - , ,
, . DTN
- (custody transfer), ,
,
. ,
, .
, IP-. Bundle , .
, URL -,
(IP). DTN
, .
, ,
, .
.
,
.
, ,
642 6.
. ,
, .
, ,
; ,
, . ,
DTN , , .
.
. .
, , ,
, .
, . ,
, .
, , . ,
.
. DTN
, .
.
, ,
.
DTN, !
6.8.
.
, ,
, . ,
, .
.
. , .
.
- .
, . ,
, ,
.
.
643
AIMD .
TCP UDP. UDP
, IP-
IP-. UDP - , (RPC).
, , RTP.
TCP. .
20- . TCP .
(Nagle), (Clark), (Jacobson), (Karn) .
,
. ,
. .
, ,
. , , ,
.
1. , .6.1, LISTEN . ? , ,
. ,
?
2. ,
: ()
LISTEN, () CONNECT. (, , BitTorrent)
. .
, ?
3. , .6.3, ,
. , 100%
. - , .6.3,
, ?
4. 6.1 SERVER_PORT . ?
5. , 6.1. connect() ,
? , .
644 6.
6. , ,
,
: .
?
7. ,
15- . 100, 60. :
1) ?
2) 240 ?
8. T ,
, , ?
9. , ( ).
? , .
10. n ,
. , ?
11. (.6.15).
( )
, , ?
12. , , .6.17, E, R1, R2 R6.
?
13. ( , )
.
14. , :
(AIAD),
(MIAD),
(MIMD). ?
15.
UDP
? IP-?
16. , UDP,
, . , ,
.
.
, ?
.
17. 128- , 100, 1/.
?
18. , .
1/
1/. , ?
645
646 6.
120? , . TCP, IP Ethernet. , Ethernet
.
35. IPv4, IETF IPv6, .
TCP . , .
36. , 128, 30
8- ?
37. , , . , .
.
0 270000 1 730000 .
?
38. 1000 (1000MIPS).
64- .
10. , ? , , , , 1000MIPS.
39. ,
, 64- .
75/. ,
75/ 64- ? , , TCP.
40. , 80000, 6250 . , 1500. ARPANET (128).
, .
41. 4000
, .
20.
1?
42. :
1) T1 (1,5/);
2) Ethernet (10/);
3) 3 (45/);
4) STS-3 (155/).
, RTT=100. , TCP
16- . ?
43. 50/?
1500 ( ), ?
647
44. , 6.1, .
. :
1) , .
2) w , .
45. . ,
/ .
,
. ,
, / ,
,
. ,
. , ,
, .
46. (),
.
, UDP, -
-.
. TCP. ,
.
, .
, ,
. , , ,
.
.
, ,
. , ,
. , DNS,
. :
, , , .
, (
peer-to-peer p2p) .
7.1. DNS
-,
(,
IP
), , .
, - 128.111.24.41 ,
IP
.
.
- www.cs.washington.edu. ,
,
. , .
- ARPANET hosts.txt,
IP-.
, . ,
, ,
.
7.1. DNS
649
, ,
, . -,
. , ,
, .
.
1983 (DNS, Domain
Name System). .
DNS , , , .
IP-,
. DNS RFC1034, 1035,
2181 .
DNS . IP- ,
(resolver), .
gethostbyname 6.1.
, , DNS-,
IP- , , ,
. UDP-. IP-, TCP-
UDP-.
7.1.1. DNS
. (
) , , , , ,
. , - -,
-, - , .
DNS .
ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers - ). ICANN
1998 , .
250 (toplevel domains). ,
.
(subdomains), , , ..
, .7.1.
, ( ,
). .
650 7.
.7.1.
:
. , 7.1, , 1980- , , ICANN.
.
7.1.
com
1985
edu
1985
gov
1985
int
1985
mil
1985
net
1985
org
1985
aero
2001
biz
2001
coop
2001
info
2002
museum
2002
name
2002
pro
2002
cat
2005
jobs
2005
mobi
2005
tel
2005
travel
2005
xxx
2010
7.1. DNS
651
ISO3166 . ,
, , 2010.
, , , .
, _.com, . (registrars), ICANN.
, ( com) ,
- . ,
.
, .
ICANN. , ,
. -
? (
,
, .) ,
( .7.1).
? pro. . , ? ,
, .
, , , , , , , ?
pro? ?
, . tv $50 ,
.
com, . - , ,
, , ..
(cybersquatting). ,
, ,
, .
,
,
.
.
, ,
() . . , Cisco
eng.cisco.com, , UNIX (/com/cisco/eng). C
, - eng.cisco.com -
652 7.
eng eng.washington.edu,
.
. (, eng.cisco.com.),
.
, .
.
. , ,
edu, Edu EDU .
63, 255 .
, , , . , cs.wasington.edu
us cs.wasington.wa.us. , ,
,
.
- , . (, sony.com, sony.net sony.nl).
, .
, ac.jp co.jp edu
com. ,
nl.
( computer science)
.
1. cs.wasington.edu ( , )
2. cs.vu.nl ( , )
3. cs.keio.ac.jp ( , )
,
. , VLSI,
vlsi.cs.wasington.edu,
, cs.wasington.edu. , , , ,
edu unsd.edu ( ).
, ,
. ,
, cs.unsd.edu,
.
,
. ,
, .
, , ,
,
.
7.1. DNS
653
7.1.2.
, , ,
(resource records). DNS.
IP-,
.
DNS
-, , , , . , DNS
.
. , ASCII-, .
:
Domain_name
Time_to_live
Class
Type
Value
Domain_name ( ) ,
. ,
. , .
.
.
Time_to_live ( ) , . , ,
86400 ( ).
, , 60 (1). ,
.
Class (). IN.
, .
Type () DNS-. .
.7.2.
SOA (Start Of Authority )
( ),
, ,
-.
A (Address ). 32-
IPv4- . AAAA (quad A
A) 128- IPv6-.
IP-, .
. A AAAA. , DNS .
MX . , . , . - , bill@
654 7.
microsoft.com,
microsoft.com. MX .
7.2. DNS
SOA
IPv4-
, 32
AAAA
IPv6-
, 128
MX
NS
CNAME
PTR
IP-
SPF
SRV
TXT
ASCII-
NS. NS . ,
. ,
.
CNAME . , ,
, paul
(M.I.T.). ,
paul@cs.mit.edu. ,
csail.mit.edu. , ,
, M.I.T. CNAME, . :
cs.mit.edu
86400
IN
CNAME
csail.mit.edu
CNAME, PTR .
CNAME, , , (
), PTR DNS,
. PTR
IP-, IP- . (reverse lookups).
SRV , . , - cs.wasington.edu
cockatoo.cs.wasington.edu. MX,
.
7.1. DNS
655
SPF .
, .
, .
, dodgy, ,
smtp,
, .
, TXT- ,
. , ,
SPF-.
, Value ()
, ASCII-.
. Value
.7.2.
, DN
S
, 7.1. () cs.vu.nl, .7.1.
.
7.1. cs.vu.nl
;
cs.vu.nl.
cs.vu.nl.
cs.vu.nl.
cs.vu.nl.
86400 IN
86400 IN
86400 IN
86400 IN
SOA
MX
MX
NS
cs.vu.nl
star boss (9527,7200,7200,241920,86400)
1 zephyr
2 top
star
star
zephyr
top
www
ftp
86400
86400
86400
86400
86400
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
A 130.37.56.205
A 130.37.20.10
A 130.37.20.11
CNAME star.cs.vu.nl
CNAME zephyr.cs.vu.nl
flits
flits
flits
flits
flits
86400
86400
86400
86400
86400
IN
IN
IN
IN
IN
A 130.37.16.112
A 192.31.231.165
MX 1 flits
MX 2 zephyr
MX 3 top
rowboat
IN
IN
IN
A 130.37.56.201
MX 1 rowboat
MX 2 zephyr
little-sister
IN
130.37.62.23
laserjet
IN
192.31.231.216
7.1
, .
656 7.
,
, person@cs.vu.nl.
zephyr ( ) .
top.
star.
, , , IP- star, zephyr top. www.cs.vu.nl, - .
cs.vu.nl WWW-, ,
.
ftp.cs.vu.nl FTP-.
, flits, IP- , flits.cs.vu.nl.
, , flits.
, , zephyr top.
, rowboat.cs.vu.nl. IP-,
.
, . , ,
, .
7.1.3.
DNS
. ,
. , - - , .
, ,
DNS (zones). , .7.1,
.7.2. .
.
, . , .7.2 washington.edu, eng.washington.edu, cs.washington.edu,
. ,
,
.
. ,
.
, ,
,
.
.
7.1. DNS
657
.7.2. DNS,
(name resolution).
.
, , , top.cs.vu.nl cs.vu.nl,
DNS- ,
(authoritative record) . ,
,
. ,
(cached records), .
, , , , ,
flits.cs.vu.nl IP- robot.cs.washington.edu
? , ,
, . , .7.3. ( 1)
. ,
(A) (IN).
.7.3.
658 7.
(root
name servers), .
. 2
.7.3. ,
.
, DNS,
DNS. NS .
13 DNS,
a-root-servers.net m.root-servers.net.
. ,
, , ,
. ,
,
(
).
.
, . ,
, edu,
cs.washington.edu. IP- .
. edu (a.edu-servers.net),
. 4 5.
. (6).
, , .
. IP-
(7).
, (8). cs.washington.edu, .
(9), flits.cs.vu.nl (10).
.
, dig,
UNIX-. ,
dig @a.edu-servers.net robot.cs.washington.edu
robot.cs.washington.edu a.edu-servers.net
. , , IP-
.
, .
-, .7.3 . flits.
cs.vu.nl ,
7.1. DNS
659
flits, , .
. , .
(recursive query).
, ( )
.
.
, . (iterative query).
,
. , ( ) .
.
, .
, .
,
, .
, , . ,
, . ,
cs.vu.nl robot.cs.washington.edu, .
, , galah.
cs.washington.edu, , . washington.edu
washington.edu. ,
, . , , ,
, .
, , , cs.washington.edu ,
.
. Time_to_live.
, .
- , , .
, ,
1.
, ,
, , UDP. DNS1
, , , ,
, - DNS . . .
, ,
,
(
, IP- ). . .
660 7.
UDP-, , ,
. .
() , DNS- .
, ,
.
16- ; , , , ,
.
DNS , ,
, . DNS
IP- .
, , , .
, , ,
,
. DNS , , DNSSEC. .
,
, IP- ,
. , , . , ,
, IP- ,
. ,
(CDN). DNS, ,
7.5.
7.2.
, e-mail,
.
. 1990
. ,
. , ,
, (snail mail),
.
, IP-,
- .
, . ,
7.2.
661
, 9 10
(spam) (McAfee, 2010).
, ,
. ,
. , ,
-
(VIP),
. e-mail ,
, , . ,
- ,
, - .
, BTW (By The Way ), ROTFL (Rolling On The Floor
Laughing ), IMHO (In My Humble Opinion
) .. , (smileys), :-). ,
90 .
. ,
.
.
( ).
, . ,
.
,
, ,
. ,
.
,
,
. ,
, ,
, .
7.2.1.
. .7.4.
( e-mail) : (user agents),
, -
662 7.
(message transfer agents),
. (mail servers).
.7.4. e-mail
, , ,
.
,
,
.
(mail submission).
. , ,
, . ,
( , ). ,
. ,
.
, , .
.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
). , .
SMTP RFC821.
RFC5321. .
,
( ,
, , - ).
(mailing lists),
,
. -
7.2.
663
:
(Carbon copy), (Blind carbon
copy), , ( ) ,
,
, .
. (mailboxes)
, .
. . ,
, , ..
(3 .7.4).
,
.
.7.5. : ;
.
, RFC822, .
RFC5322; -
664 7.
. MIME, .
RFC822.
(envelope) .
. , ,
, , ..
. , , .
: (header)
(body). . -.
.7.5.
, ,
, .
.
7.2.2.
( email editor email reader),
, . ,
gmail Google, Microsoft Outlook, Mozilla Thunderbird Apple Mail.
.
,
, .
, Elm, mh Pine, ,
, . , , .
.7.6.
, , , ,
, , .
, .
, - , . ,
.7.6 .
, , ,
, . ; , . , ,
, , .
. (..7.6) , , (),
7.2.
665
(), , ,
( ).
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. , , ,
.
.
, . (. .7.6), ,
.
, .
, , , (, ).
, , .
(message disposition). , ,
.
.
, - .
, . ,
, , .
- ,
666 7.
,
. -
, .
, , , .
,
.
?
, (botnet, ),
, .
, .
. , , .
,
. . ,
, , ,
,
, .
.7.6 . Inbox (),
, , Spam
(), .
.
.7.6. . , , where
to buy Vegemite, .
,
.
,
. ,
. , , .
.
, ,
, , , .
(autoresponders) ,
, . -
. .
7.2.
667
(vacation agent).
, , : , . 24- .
. ,
, ,
.. ,
, .
. ,
.
. ,
, .
,
. , .
. ,
.
(signature block) ,
, , .
, ,
,
. ,
. ,
.
user@dns-address.
DNS ,
. , . , X.400
DNS-.
X.400 ISO ,
SMTP. SMTP , X.400
( , ). X
.400 DNS- =,
, :
/C=US/ST=MASSACHUSETTS/L=CAMBRIDGE/PA=360 MEMORIAL DR./CN=KEN SMITH/
, , ,
(Ken Smith). , ,
, (,
). X.400
, DNS, ,
(aliases,
668 7.
nicknames),
.
, , .
, ,
,
. ,
. .
.
. , .
, , birders
(), meadowlark.arizona.edu.
, birders@meadowlark.arizona.edu,
,
, .
. , birders ,
,
Gabriel O.Birders.
7.2.3.
. ,
, , .
ASCII
-
RFC
5322, -, RFC822.
.
RFC5322 -
( SMTP
RFC5321), , , , .
() ASCII-, , ( ) .
RFC822
. RFC
5322, , RFC822
.
,
,
.
7.2.
669
, ,
.7.3. To: DNS- .
. Cc: . ,
. , ,
, . Cc: (carbon
copy , ) ,
- ,
. Bcc: (Blind carbon copy ) , ,
, ,
.
, ,
- .
7.3. RFC5322,
To:
() ()
Cc:
() ()
Bcc:
()
From:
()
Sender:
Received:
Return-Path:
, From: Sender:, , . . ,
, .
From:, Sender:. From:
, Sender: ,
From:. ,
. ,
, , .
, Received:, . ,
, ,
.
Return-Path: . , , . ,
Received: (
),
.
670 7.
, .7.3, RFC5322
,
.
.7.4. , , .
7.4. ,
RFC5322
Date:
Reply-to:
Message-Id:
In-Reply-To:
Message-Id ,
References:
( Message-Id)
Keywords:
Subject:
Reply-to: , ,
. ,
, . , Reply-to: ,
.
, ,
, .
Message-Id: , , (, )
.
RFC5322 , . RFC822,
X-. , ,
. -
X-Fruit-of-the-Day: ( ) X-Disease-of-the-Week: (), , .
.
, .
, ,
(, . ,
).
7.2.
671
MIME
ARPANET
, ASCII. RFC822
: ,
. 1990-
, ,
. (, ),
, , (,
), (, ).
, (,
, ).
MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions ).
, , , -. MIME RFC20452047,
4288, 4289 2049.
MIME RFC822
( RFC5322, , MIME),
-ASCII-.
RFC822, MIME-
( RFC821, RFC5321). ,
, ,
.
MIME , .7.5. (MIME-Version:) , , MIME,
MIME, .
,
(, , , ASCII) .
7.5. , MIME
MIME-Version:
MIME
Content-Description:
. ,
Content-Id:
Content-Transfer-Encoding:
Content-Type:
672 7.
Content-Description: ASCII-,
, .
, . :
, , , , ,
.
Content-Id: .
, Message-Id:.
Content-Transfer-Encoding:
. MIME
(SMTP), , ASCII, 1000 .
ASCII 7 . ,
, 8 , . ,
.
, ASCII.
SMTP, MIME,
,
.
MIME , ( , ; ).
ASCII.
ASCII 7
, , 1000.
, 8-
, 0 255 . , 8- ,
.
.
, 8 , 1000 .
.
, ( ) , ,
ASCII.
ASCII base64 (64-
). 24 6,
ASCII-. 6- 0 ASCII-
A, 1 ASCII- B .. 26 , 10
, , + / 62 63 . == =
, 8 16 .
,
,
7.2.
673
.
, . ,
,
.
, ASCII,
-ASCII-, .
quoted-printable ( ). 7- ASCII, ,
ASCII- 127, , ASCII- .
,
.
, , Content-Transfer-Encoding: .
.7.5 .
.
, , , MIME,
. , , ,
IP (VoIP).
RFC1521 , .
, Content-Type: video/mpeg.
. .
IANA, www.iana.org/assignments/media-types.
.7.6.
, text. text/plain ,
.
.
MIME
. - , text/html
( RFC2854), - RFC822.
RFC3023 (eXtensible Markup
Language XML), text/xml. XML
. , 7.3, HTML XML.
MIME image. .
, ,
. , GIF, JPEG TIFF,
,
.
audio video , , . , video
674 7.
, .
, , ,
. .
, MIME,
MPEG (Motion Pictures Experts Group
).
. ,
MP3, RFC3003 audio/basic
audio/mpeg. video/mp4 audio/mp4 - MPEG4.
7.6. MIME
text
image
audio
video
model
vrml
3D-
application
message
http, rfc822
multipart
model , .
3D-. .
application () , .
pdf, javascript zip PDF-,
Java-Script Zip . , ,
.
, .
MIME, . .
, , . ,
,
, .
, ,
.
, .
, PDF -
7.2.
675
.
, .
, ,
. , , octet-stream ( )
.
( ,
). , , , .
, , , ,
.
, ,
. message .
.
RFC822, rfc822.
HTML.
partial (,
, ).
.
, multipart ,
. mixed
.
. multipart.
alternative, ,
, . ,
ASCII-, HTML PDF. , , , .
, PDF, . -
, HTML.
, ASCII-.
, ( MIME) , ASCII-.
alternative ,
. ,
,
multipart/alternative.
, parallel ,
. ,
- . , , . digest ,
. , - -
676 7.
,
multipart/digest.
, MIME
, 7.2.
: HTML
. ,
. message/external-body ,
birthday.snd FTP.
.
, ( )
, boundary ().
7.2. multipart, HTML
From: alice@cs.washington.edu
To: bob@ee.uwa.edu.au
MIME-Version: 1.0
Message-Id: <0704760941.AA00747@cs.washington.edu>
Content-Type: multipart/alternative; boundary=qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
Subject:
. . -.
--qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
Content-Type: text/html
<p>Happy birthday to you<br>
Happy birthday to you<br>
Happy birthday to you</p>
--qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
Content-Type: message/external-body;
access-type="anon-ftp";
site="bicycle.cs.washington.edu";
directory="pub";
name="birthday.snd"
content-type: audio/basic
content-transfer-encoding: base64
--qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
: Content-Type . ,
. . ,
.
, ,
.
, 7- ASCII, contenttransfer-encoding.
7.2.
677
7.2.4.
, ,
,
. SMTP.
-
-, .
SMTP.
SMTP. (mail submission,
e-mail .7.4). .
(2
.7.4).
. . .
SMTP . ,
.
SMTP
- TCP 25 -.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol ).
, . ,
, .
SMTP ASCII-. ,
. ASCII , . , .
- (, HTTP).
,
. TCP- 25, , , ,
. , ,
( ) . , .
, ,
. ,
. , . ,
678 7.
TCP .
, . .
7.2 7.3. , ( ), C:, ( ) S:.
, , . ,
HELO,
HELLO .
, .
,
RCPT ( recipient
).
. .
(, - ),
,
.
, ,
. . ,
,
.
SMTP , . . , FROM
, .
. , SMTP ASCII, . base64
MIME. , ,
. , SMTP
. .
, , SMTP .
RFC5321. SMTP
ESMTP (Extended SMTP SMTP).
7.3. alice@cs.washington.edu bob@ee.uwa.edu.au
S:
C:
S:
C:
S:
C:
S:
C:
S:
C:
C:
7.2.
679
C: MIME-Version: 1.0
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
C:
S:
C:
S:
Message-Id: <0704760941.AA00747@ee.uwa.edu.au>
Content-Type: multipart/alternative; boundary=qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
Subject:
. . -.
--qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
Content-Type: text/richtext
Happy
Happy
Happy
Happy
birthday
birthday
birthday
birthday
to you
to you
dear <bold> Carolyn </bold>
to you
--qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
Content-Type: message/external-body;
access-type="anon-ftp";
site="bicycle.cs.washington.edu";
directory="pub";
name="birthday.snd"
content-type: audio/basic
content-transfer-encoding: base64
--qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm
.
250
QUIT
221 ee.uwa.edu.au
, , EHLO
HELO. , SMTP, . EHLO , ,
.
. .7.7.
, ,
, .
.
7.7. SMTP
AUTH
BINARYMIME
CHUNKING
SIZE
STARTTLS
(TLS; . 8)
UTF8SMTP
680 7.
, SMTP
, . ,
, . UNIX
( Linux) :
telnet mail.isp.com 25
mail.isp.com DNS- .
WindowsXP ,
. Vista Windows7 , ,
te
lnet ( ) . telnet- (
TCP) 25 . .6.4, 25
SMTP- (. .6.4 ).
- :
Trying 192.30.200.66
Connected to mail.isp.com
Escape character is ^].
220 mail.isp.com Smail #74 ready at Thu, 25 Sept 2002 13:26 +0200
telnet
. SMTP
. ,
HELP
, , 7.3, .
,
, . , ,
, .
.
,
, .
,
. ,
, , .
.
TCP/IP. ,
-
. . ,
7.2.
681
() , ,
SMTP. , . .7.2, bob@ee.uwa.edu.au.
?
, DNS.
, DNS ,
MX (mail exchanger ).
DNS MX ee.uwa.edu.au.
IP-
.
TCP- IP-
25,
. SMTP.
bob ,
.
, .
. .
. (
). .
.
:
, ,
bob@alum.mit.edu.
, , , , bob@ee.uwa.edu. , bob@alum.
682 7.
mit.edu, .
alum.mit.edu. ee.uwa.edu.au.
,
.
.
(
McAfee
, 2010). , ,
. ,
.
alice@cs.washington.edu.
, , DNS. , IP- TCP- DNS-.
, DNS ,
.
TXT- SPF-. , . , , cs.washington.edu,
june.cs.washington.edu.
june, .
, ,
. .
, , .
, , , ,
. ,
.
, .
7.2.5.
. .
,
. 3 .7.4.
, .
,
.
, , , ,
. , . ,
, -, .
,
.
,
, .
.
7.2.
683
.
, SMTP. SMTP ,
. . , : - ,
, - ,
, SMTP .
IMAP
, , IMAP
(Internet Mail Access Protocol ). RFC3501.
IMAP, IMAP-, 143. IMAP-.
.7.8.
, ( ),
. , ,
.
,
(folder), ,
. IMAP
mailbox ( ). , ,
IMAP, .
IMAP , , , , (, ).
, ,
, .
IMAP
POP3 (Post Office Protocol, version3 ,
3), RFC1939. POP3 ,
.
,
. , .
, ,
, . POP3 .
, ,
, .
Microsoft Exchange.
684 7.
7.8. IMAP (4)
CAPABILITY
STARTTLS
(TLS, . 8)
LOGIN
AUTHENTICATE
SELECT
EXAMINE
CREATE
DELETE
RENAME
SUBSCRIBE
UNSUBSCRIBE
LIST
LSUB
STATUS
APPEND
CHECK
(
, ).
FETCH
SEARCH
STORE
COPY
EXPUNGE
UID
NOOP
CLOSE
LOGOUT
-
IMAP SMTP ,
, - . - (Webmail)
Google Mail, Microsoft Hotmail Yahoo! Mail1. - 1
, , - . , .
Mail.Ru , , ,
. . .
7.3. (WWW)
685
( ),
, -.
,
SMTP 25.
. ,
, -.
, ,
.
- ,
: - , ,
. , .
, -,
. -
.
,
, , ..
, - JavaScript.
(, )
, .
- URL.
- ,
. -.
-, , .
7.3. (WWW)
(WWW, World Wide Web, )
, , . 10
,
, . ,
. ,
, .
1989 CERN (Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire) .
, .
686 7.
, , ,
,
.
CERN - (Tim BernersLee). 1991 Hypertext91 -
.
. (Marc Andreessen)
, Mosaic. 1993.
, , . Mosaic ,
Netscape Communications Corp., ( ).
Netscape Navigator Internet Explorer Microsoft
. ,
( , ),
.
1990- 2000- - -,
-, ,
, .
. , .
: (Amazon, 1994 ,
$50), (eBay, 1995, $30), (Google, 1998,
$150) (Facebook, 2004, ,
$15). 2000-, - , , ( ,
), . (dot com era).
. .
, ,
Facebook, ,
Google. , .
1994 CERN (M.I.T., Massa
chusetts Institute of Technologies) WWW-
(World Wide Web Consortium, W3C)
, ,
.
- .
, ,
, .
http://www.w3.org.
, .
7.3. (WWW)
687
7.3.1.
- (Web pages), (pages) . ()
. (, ), ,
, .
. , , (hypertext), 1945,
, (Vannevar Bush),
, . ,
, , , ,
.
,
(browser). Firefox, Internet
Explorer Chrome. ,
. ,
,
.
- .7.7.
.
(, ,
). . , , ..,
, (hyperlink).
, ,
, . , . , ,
. -
, , , .
.
,
, .
.
( .7.7) . . ,
, , , .
. .
688 7.
, ,
.
.7.7.
, , .7.7.
- . , ,
. -
, TCP,
SMTP. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol
). , , ,
. (static page),
, . , , - ,
(dynamic page).
. ,
. ,
, ,
, , , . , -
7.3. (WWW)
689
, . ,
cookie ( , )1.
, ,
cs.washington.edu, youtube.com google-analytics.com. . ,
. , ,
,
. cs.washington.edu ,
youtube.com , google-analytics.com
, ; .
.
-,
.7.7. , , .
.
, , . ,
, :
1. ?
2. ?
3. ?
,
. . .
, ,
. ,
- ,
, ,
, , .
.
,
. URL (Uniform Resource
Locator ),
. URL : ( scheme), DNS- ,
, , (
1
cookie . . .
690 7.
, ).
, .
.
.
URL , .7.7:
http://www.cs.washington.edu/index.html
URL : (http), DNS- (www.cs.wa
shington.edu) (index.html).
,
, , .
, .
1. URL ( ).
2. DNS IP- www.cs.washington.edu.
3. DNS 128.208.3.88.
4. TCP- 80- (
HTTP-) 128.208.3.88.
5. HTTP- /index.html.
6. www.cs.washington.edu , HTTP-, , /index.html.
7. URL, ,
URL, . URL
, www.cs.washington.edu,
youtube.com google-analitics.com.
8. /index.html ,
.7.7.
9. ,
TCP- .
. : , DNS
.
URL- ,
, .
, URL .
URL .7.9.
. http
, , -. HTTP HyperText Transfer Protocol ( ).
.
ftp FTP,
. FTP . . -
7.3. (WWW)
691
, FTP- ,
, , ,
.
.
7.9. URL
http
(HTML)
http://www.ee.uwa.edu/~rob/
https
https://www.blank.com./accounts/
ftp
FTP
ftp://ftp.cs.vu.nl/pub/minix/README
file
file:///usr/suzanne/prog.c
mailto
mailto:JohnUser@acm.org
rtsp
rtsp://youtube.com/montypython.mpg
sip
sip:eve@adversary.com
about
about:plugins
-, file . .
, , .
mailto, , -,
. -.
mailto ,
.
rtsp sip , - .
, about . ,
about:plugins, ,
MIME,
( ).
, URL ,
, , FTP
, , , ,
.
,
, : -. ,
,
, , , , .
, , URL.
692 7.
URL , ,
, . , , ,
, ,
. : xyz
, .
, URL URI (Uniform Resource
Identifier ). URI ,
. URL. URI ,
. URI URN (Uniform Resource Name
). URI RFC3986,
URI IANA.
URI, .7.9; ,
.
MIME
( ) .
, HTML. .
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, .
, ,
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(caching). , ,
, ,
. HTTP ,
, . , .
, ,
, . , , .
HTTP
, , ,
732 7.
. URL.
, URL
, . , URL .
,
. .
HTTP .
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(2). ,
( ) URL,
.
.
, Expires.
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.
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, .
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, .
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Expires , ,
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.
.
conditionalGET (GET ). .7.17 3.
, , -
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733
, (4).
(4).
, ,
, . ,
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.
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, . (
, 8.) , , If-None-Match,
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. , , ,
. ,
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, . , ,
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-, ,
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, (, ).
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(Breslau ., 1999).
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HTTP
, (
) .
TCP
- 80 . -
734 7.
.
UNIX Windows ( telnet). ,
:
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Host: www.ietf.org
7.3.5.
, .
. ,
. , ,
(mobile Web).
, .
:
1) , ;
2) ,
URL ;
3) , ,
3G, , ;
4) , ;
5) - , .
, , , , ,
.
, .
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol )
. WAP
1997 , Nokia,
Ericsson Motorola. . 10
7.3. (WWW)
735
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,
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, , ,
, .
,
, ,
. - , -
, . User-Agent
, . , - ,
,
iPhone .
W3C . ,
-. 60
( , 2008).
, ,
, . , , , ,
. , , () .
HTML, XHTML Basic. XHTML,
, , , , , ,
. ,
, .
11. , .
XML. .7.15.
,
. , (content transformation) (transcoding).
, , ,
,
.
. , .
(., , Fox . 1996).
, . , -
736 7.
,
.
7.15. XHTML Basic.
Structure ()
Text ()
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List ()
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img
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, ..
object, param
Meta-information
()
meta
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link
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URL
base
, , .
. HTTP, TCP IP, ,
, ,
, , . , WAP . , ,
. , ROHC (RObust Header
Compression), 6,
. ,
(HTTP, TCP, IP) , .
.
7.3.6. -
, ,
- -.
1998 , ,
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, . ,
, ,
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737
, , ,
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Cisco , , , .
. , .
Google . 2004
$23. 2010
. .
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, ,
. , , , , , , ,
.
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, (, , ) - . ,
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. .
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, .
-.
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. ,
Google . . .
738 7.
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. - ?
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(deep Web).
, (., , . 2008).
,
( robots.txt), ,
.
. , -
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,
. 320. ,
20 21016. ,
( . 2006). ,
20 , 2104 $400000,
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.
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- , - URL. , ,
URL, .
, - ,
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, , ,
. (Edelman ., 2007).
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739
, ,
(click fraud), , ,
, .
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- , , , .
.
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,
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. -
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-. , , ,
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, ,
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(multimedia)
.
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,
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. , ,
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, , , , --
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-. , .
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. , ,
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,
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748 7.
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, , (fileds) .
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, 50 100
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(combing).
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. 320 240 , 640 480.
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(aspect ratio) 4:3
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.
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, ,
.
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.
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( ).
. MPEG JPEG
,
.
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JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group
)
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, ITU, ISO, IEC ,
. (
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. , ,
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. 7.20. 1 . , , JPEG
RGB 640 480, 24 , . 7.21, . RGB
.
(luminance), (chrominance), . , , Y, , Cb Cr, R, G B.
8- ( 0 255):
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. 7.20. JPEG
750 7.
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4 , 320 240. , ,
.
2 . 128, . , 8 8.
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, JPEG 3, (quantization).
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.
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. , ,
38.
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752 7.
. 7.24. , .
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.
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: .
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, : MPEG (Motion Picture Experts
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, .
1993 . , MPEG , . ,
.
MPEG-1 ( MP3-)
1993, . ,
40 , 1 /.
-. ,
, MPEG-1 CD. CD,
MPEG-2. 1996 .
. , DVD (
) (DVB). DVD
48 /.
MPEG-4 . ,
1999, - .
,
7.4.
753
, , , .
. ,
2003 , H.264 AVC (Advanced Video Coding ). 2
, , ,
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.
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754 7.
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(macroblocks), , , 1616
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.
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.
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(, ).
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756 7.
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RTP HTTP TCP. RTSP .7.16.
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D, 4 .
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766 7.
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768 7.
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3-
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(product cipher).
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, -
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S-. ,
S- (
S- 256- ), S- (, S-
212 = 4096 ).
, . ,
.
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k- , . k
64 256.
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1977
, IBM, . , DES (Data Encryption Standard
), . ,
. .
DES . 8.6, .
64 , 64-
. , 56- , 19 . 64
. .
32 . 16
, .
, , .
.
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, , . 8.6,.
32
32 .
. 32 2
Ki.
.
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32 Ri 1 48- E. E Ki 2. ,
S- 4- .
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16 .
56- .
8.2.
827
28 ,
, . Ki
56 .
56 48 , .
. 8.6. DES: ;
DES , (whitening). ,
2 64- ,
DES, 2 64- .
( ,
). ,
.
:
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DES
. (Lucifer), IBM, , IBM 128-
, 56-.
- ,
828 8.
IBM NSA (National Security Agency, ),
.
,
:
: NSA?
: No Such Agency .
IBM 128
56 DES.
, , , NSA
DES,
. , ,
DES. (IEEE) , .
.
1977 ,
, (Diffie) (Hellman),
DES $20 .
256 56- .
, $10 000
(Kumar et al., 2006).
. -, ,
? -, EDE(Encrypt
8.2.
829
8.2.2. AES
- , DES ( )
.
(NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology)
,
, ,
. NIST , DES, , , ,
- , , ,
.
- , ,
, .
, NIST : . 1997
, , AES
(Advanced Encryption Standard ). ,
, :
1. .
2. .
3. 128, 192 256.
4. , .
5. .
830 8.
15 .
,
.
1998 .
, ,
, , , (
). ,
.
2000 NIST , Rijndael
. Rijndael ( -)
: + .
2001 Rijndael ,
, FIPS197. , Rijndael ,
( NSA, - ),
Rijndael . AES
(, Intel).
Rhindael 128256
32. .
AES , 128,
128, 192 256. -
192- , AES :
128- 128- , 128-
256- .
, 128/128, , ,
. 128- ,
21283 1038.
,
,
1010. ,
.
Rijndael
, Rijndael ,
, .
, .
DES, Rijndael . , ,
10 128- 128- ;
14. , DES,
8.2.
831
, .
Rijndael 8.1. ,
. , ,
,
. , . Ferguson . (2010).
8.1. Rijndael
#define
#define
#define
#define
typedef
LENGTH 16
/*
NROWS 4
/*
NCOLS 4
/*
ROUNDS 10
/*
unsigned char byte
*/
state */
state */
*/
/8- */
832 8.
, 10 10 (
).
, .
,
2 . (Daemen
Rijmen, 2002).
state ,
.
4 : 4 0, 1 . . , , .
12 4 4 . 8.8.
. 8.8. state rk
: rk[0]
2 state. ,
16 state 2 rk[0].
. 10 , state .
() . 1 state
. S-,
S-. . DES, S-, Rijndael S- .
2 . 0 0 ( ), 1 1 , 2 2 ,
3 3 . .
, . 8.5.
3 . ,
.
, GF(28).
, , -
8.2.
833
2 (Daemen Rijmen, 2002, Appendix E).
, 4 2
state .
, . ,
, ,
.
,
. 2
700 /.
MPEG-2 .
.
8.2.3.
, AES ( DES, )
, , ( AES 128- , DES 64-).
. ,
100 abcdefgh,
DES, 100 .
.
,
, () DES , 64-
, 128-. , AES
.
8 (64 )
.
64 . (Electronic Code Book mode ECB mode),
,
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32- , , : 16 ,
8 8 . 8-
( 0 15) DES.
.
, , , .
834 8.
, , , .
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. , ,
12 ( ) 4 ( ). 12,
. ( 8
, , , ; , , , .)
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) .
(cipher block chaining). , . 8.10,
2
.
. ,
.
2 , IV (Initialization
Vector), .
. 8.10. C0 = E(P0 XOR IV). C1 = E(P1 XOR C0) . .
P0 = IV XOR D(C0) . . ,
i 0 i 1,
. ,
, , .
.
, , . .
8.2.
835
. 8.10. : ;
, ,
,
64- . , , .
(cipher feedback mode) () DES,
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, 0 9 . , . 8.11, , DES
64- , 64-
.
2 P10. .
8 . C2 , C10
C9. , ,
-. ,
.
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, 2 10 10.
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8 , , .
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(stream cipher mode). , . ,
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2
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: .
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8.2.
837
.
, . ,
.
. 8.12. : ;
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, .
(keystream reuse attack). , 0 , 2 0 0. , Q0,
( Q0 XOR K0). ,
,
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2 .
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. ( ,
AES , , ,
, ). ,
8.2.
839
. - .
. 8.2. , , AES Twofish,
.
8.2.
DES
IBM
56
RC4
(Ronald Rivest)
12048
RC5
(Ronald Rivest)
128256
128256
Serpent
(Anderson),
(Biham) (Knudsen)
128256
DES
IBM
168
Twofish
(Bruce Schneier)
128256
8.2.5.
, .
(Biha Shamir,
1997). .
,
. . ,
,
, .
, , (Matsui, 1994). DES 243
.
2
. ,
, .
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, .
(Matsui).
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840 8.
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(, 100)
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,
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,
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:
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.
1976 , (Diffie)
(Hellman), ,
,
. E D ( )
.
1. D(E(P))=P.
2. D E.
3. E .
, D
E(P), P.
8.3.
841
. . , ,
, ,
. ,
.
. , , , ,
. , (public-key
cryptography). , , ,
. , , EA. ()
, ,
DA. , EB, DB.
,
, . , EA EB, . (,
, , .)
P, EB(P) .
DB,
DB(EB(P))=P. EB(P),
, ,
DB EB . , EA(R). , .
. , ,
, ,
.
(public) (private), (secret) , .
8.3.1. RSA
, ,
.
, , .
(Rivest ., 1978).
: RSA (Rivest, Shamir,
Adleman).
. .
Rivest
, Shamir
Adleman
2002
ACM
(Turing Award). RSA ,
,
842 8.
, 1024 ( 128 ). -
.
RSA .
, .
.
1. p q ( 1024).
2. n=p q z = (p1) (q1).
3. d, z.
4. e, e d z 1.
, .
( ) ,
, P, 0 P < n. ,
k , k ,
2k < n.
P, C = Pe (mod n). C, P = Cd (mod n). , P .
, e n. d n.
, (e, n), (d, n).
. () n,
p q, , z. e d
. , , , 300 ,
, .
(Rivest) ,
500 1025 , . ,
, 1 .
, 1016 . ,
500 ,
p q.
RSA . 8.14.
p =3, q = 11, n = 33, z = 20. d
7, 20 7 .
e , 7e = 1 (mod 20), ,
e = 3. C P
C=P3 (mod 33). P = C7 (mod
33). SUZANNE.
, P
33,
. ,
. p q 2512, n
8.3.
843
21024. 1024
128 8 DES 16 AES.
. 8.14. RSA
, RSA
ECB (Electronic
Code Book ),
. , - .
RSA
, -
AES DES. RSA ,
, .
8.3.2.
RSA ,
.
(Merkle Hellman, 1978).
, . , .
, . , ,
.
, , .
.
(Ralph Merkle) , $100 , .
(Adi Shamir), S RSA, .
. $1000.
(Ron Rivest), R RSA,
844 8.
. $10 000 ,
A, (Leonard Adleman), .
,
.
. , , (El Gamal, 1985) (Schnorr, 1991).
, ,
(Menezes Vanstone, 1993). , . ,
.
8.4.
(, .)
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.
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,
, :
1) ;
2) ;
3) .
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, , ,
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( ).
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. , , . , (nonrepudiation).
, , .
,
, ,
, . , , .
8.4.
845
8.4.1.
, , , ,
(Big Brother, BB).
. , , , KA, .
P, , KA ( ),
KA(B,RA,t,P), B , RA ,
, t , . , .8.15. ,
, . ,
, KBB(A,
t, P). , .
8.15.
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, .
, ,
KA,
.
A: KBB(A, t, P).
, , ,
P . ( ) . ,
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. .
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RA. . , ,
.
846 8.
RA, , , .
, , .
8.4.2.
,
, , . ,
.
, . . , ,
.
, . ,
,
D(E(P))=P, E(D(P))=P. , ,
RSA, .
P, EB(DA(P)). , () DA, EB, .
, ,
DB DA(P), .8.16. ,
EA, .
. 8.16. ,
, , ,
, P.
, P DA(P). ,
, DA,
EA. , ,
.
,
.
8.4.
847
, , , ,
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. ,
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, , . ,
, ,
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, .
,
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, ,
DA(P) EA , P. .
. RSA .
, .
1991 NIST
DSS (Digital Signature Standard)
-, ,
.
, ,
. DSS , :
c (, -, );
c ( 10 40 RSA );
c ( - );
c ( 512).
,
1024.
.
8.4.3.
,
: .
. , ,
848 8.
, ,
. ,
.
-,
. -,
(message digest, MD), .
1. P - MD(P).
2. MD(P) P.
3. P P',
MD(P')=MD(P).
4. .
3, - ,
, 128, .
4, - .
, .
,
.
. , ,
, .8.15.
P KBB(A, t, P), MD(P), MD P.
KBB(A, t, MD(P)) ,
KB, KBB(A, t, P).
P, KBB(A, t, MD(P)).
KBB(A,t,MD(P)),
MD(P), ,
P, . , ,
, .
.
,
.8.17.
. .
P, , MD(P).
8.4.
849
.8.17.
SHA-1
, . SHA-1 (Secure Hash
Algorithm1 ) (NIST, 1993).
, ,
. SHA-1
NIST ( FIPS180-1). SHA-1
512 160.
,
.8.18. SHA-1,
160- SHA-1. (
RSA) .
- SHA-1 ,
, H. , .
, , ,
H , ,
. , , , , .8.18. , ,
, .
850 8.
, SHA-1.
SHA-1 ,
( 64),
, 512. 64- , ( ), ( ) 64 . .8.19, ,
, (
, ).
( , ).
, , SPARC IBM360 . ,
, SHA-1
.
SHA
-1 32- (H0 H4), -.
.8.19,. ,
.
M0 Mn1. 16
W 80, .8.19,. 64
:
Wi=S1(Wi3 XOR Wi8 XOR Wi14 XOR Wi16) (16<i<79),
Sb(W) 32- W b.
H0 H4 A E.
- :
for(i=0;i<80;i++){
temp = S5(A) +fi(B, C, D) + E + Wi + Ki;
E=D; D=C; C=S30(B); B=A; A=temp;
}
Ki . fi
:
8.4.
851
(0<i<19)
(20<i<39)
(40<i<59)
(60<i<79)
80 A E H0H4 .
512- .
W , H
. , ..,
512- . 32- H 160-
-. SHA-1 RFC3174.
SHA-1 224, 256-, 384512- -. SHA-2.
, SHA-1, ,
SHA-1. SHA-2
, .
MD5
. MD5
(Message Digest 5 5) , (Ronald Rivest).
448 512.
, 64- , 512.
128- ,
.
. 512-
128- .
. , , (
),
, ( ) . , . 128-
.
MD5 , (Sotirov et al., 2008).
, , . ,
MD5 ; ,
, .
, .
852 8.
8.4.4.
, .
, , , , m , 2m . , 2m/2 , ,
(birthday attack),
(Yuval, 1979).
,
. : , 1/2? , 100. ,
, 23. ,
: 23
(2322)/2 = 253 ,
1/365. .
, n (,
. .) k ( , . .), n(n1)/2 . n(n1)/2 > k,
, ,
. ,
n > k , 64- (
), 232 .
. , .
,
. , , .
, ,
,
. .
, ,
. ,
, 64- .
.
, , .
32 .
,
[ | ] [ | ] .
, [ | ] [ | ]. [ | ] .
[ | ] . [ | ] , [ | ]
8.4.
853
[ | ] [ | ]
[ | ] [ | ] .
[ | ] [ | ] [ |
]. [ | ] [ | ]
. [ | ] [ | ] [
| ].
[ | ] , [ | ] . [ | ] [ | ] . [ |
] [ | ] [ | ]
[ | ] [ | ] , [ | ], 2000 .
, [ | ] .
.
, ,
:
,
[ | ] [ | ] [ | ] . , [ | ] [ | ]. [ | ] .
[ | ] . [ |
] [ | ], ,
. [
| ] [ | ] .
[ | ] , - [ | ]
[ | ]. [ | ] [
| ] . [ | ]
, [ | ] [ | ]
[ | ] ,
[ | ].
[ | ] , [ | ] . [ | ]
[ | ] .
, [ | ] [ | ] [ | ] [ | ] , [ |
] 2000 . , [ |
] [ | ] .
232
, . ,
. ,
. , .
A, B.
A . ,
, , 64- , . B ( A, ).
854 8.
,
B, , ,
, . ,
, . ( -: . , .
. . , .) SHA-1
,
1 , 32 00,
280 , 100%-
. , 1 , 32 000
2 .
8.5.
, , , . ,
.
- :
, ? , , : -.
, : , -. ? URL
. DNS- GET,
. 8.20. , . , ,
,
. ET,
, , , . ,
. ,
.
. 8.20.
8.5.
855
8.5.1.
- .
,
, .
, - .
, ,
. -, ,
() .
,
, . ,
, (CA
Certification Authority).
:
, , . ,
.
, , . 8.21,
SHA-1 .
.
. 8.21.
( ).
. ,
:
. , , ( SHA-1 ).
, . 8.20.
, , ?
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, . ,
856 8.
SHA-1, -,
,
.
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. , . ,
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.
,
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. , .
8.5.2. X.509
- ,
. ITU . X.509 . , 1988 , ,
.
X.509 OSI,
, , ,
. , , IETF,
, ,
8.5.
857
,
, IETF OSI
- . IETF- X.509 RFC 5280.
, X.509 .
. 8.3. , ,
, . RFC
2459.
, Money Bank, X.500-
:
/C=US/O=MoneyBank/OU=Loan/CN=Bob/
C , O , OU , CN . .
X.500 ,
bob@moneybank.com ,
, ,
. , , DNS
X.500, .
OSI ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax
Notation1 1).
, ,
. X.509 (Ford
Baum, 2000).
8.3. X.509
Version
X.509
Serial number
Signature algorithm
Issuer
X.500-
Validity period
Subject name
Public key
Issuer ID
,
()
Subject ID
Extensions
Signature
(
)
858 8.
8.5.3.
, .
- , , . ,
,
, . , , ,
. ,
, , - .
,
. , .
, ? - . , -
, - , ,
.
. PKI (Public Key Infrastructure ).
PKI;
.
PKI , ,
, , . , .
PKI ,
.8.22. ,
, . (root)
().
( Regional
Authorities, RA), , . .
. ,
, (),
X.509 .
, .
.
: ,
.
8.5.
859
, PKI . ,
, .
, 5. 5.
, , .
5 .
, 2
5. , 5, , 5, ,
.
2 .
,
2. ,
2. ,
, - .
? ? . , . ,
.
, . ,
5 2, . ,
, .
. , . ,
, (chain of trust)
(certification path).
.
, .
, ,
. ,
100
860 8.
, (trust anchors).
, ,
.
,
, . , , ,
, ,
.
( ,
) .
.
( , -
). . ( ), .
DNS. , , ,
(DNS) IP-.
DNS
IP
- ?
- , ,
X.509.
X.500 .
, ,
, .
, , , ,
. (, ). : ,
, -
. ,
, , , . , -
. .
(CRL Certificate Revocation
List). .
, CRL
, .
8.6.
861
, .
, .
, ,
, , ,
. .
. ,
.
, ,
.
,
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5 .
.
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.
.
.
,
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, , .
,
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862 8.
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IETF
. ,
, , ,
. ,
(
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( ).
,
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,
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, .
, , ,
, , .
IPsec (IP security
IP-), RFC2401, 2402, 2406 .
(
). ,
, . RFC2410
, , .
IPsec , . ,
, .
: , , ( ).
,
.
? ,
. IPsec
, .
8.6.
863
?
TCP-, , ..
, IPsec ,
IP. , , .
- . , , .
. IPsec (Security
Aconnection SA).
, .
,
. ,
,
.
IPsec .
, , . , ISAKMP
(Internet Security and Key Management Protocol - ), . ISAKMP
. IKE (Internet Key
Exchange ). 2 IKE,
, Perlman Kaufmn,
(2000).
IPsec . IPsec
IP. Protocol IP , , IPsec ( TCP).
IPsec , , ,
, , ,
.
IP-
IP- . ,
- .
, , ,
. VPN (Virtual Private Network
).
, .
IPsec. : .
, TCP- , , ,
. , ,
. ,
864 8.
- ,
.
. ,
. ,
IP-,
. .
(AH
Authentication Header). .
( ). AH
.8.23. IPv4 IP
( ) TCP. IPv6
. .
IPv6.
, ,
, . 8.23.
. ,
IP 51, ,
. TCP (6). 32- 2.
.
. . ITU, IETF, , ,
.
,
. ,
. ,
, (
TCP ).
8.6.
865
. .
232 , .
, , . .
,
,
. IPsec
, ,
. . , , .
HMAC (Hashed Message Authentication Code
).
, SHA-1 RSA.
AH . ,
, . ,
AH IP,
, , . , , , .
IP- ,
.
IPsec ESP (Encapsulating Security
Payload ).
.8.24, , .
866 8.
ESP, , HMAC,
, ,
. .8.24.
. , HMAC . Ethernet
, .
,
. ,
.
, ESP , , ,
, ?
.
, ESP . ESP
, ,
, . , IP,
ESP. .
, , , ESP
, , ,
. ,
- .
8.6.2.
, , , .
.
. ,
, , ,
, , ..
.
,
, , ,
, ,
. , .
, , , .
IPsec. . , .
, .
8.6.
867
(firewalls, )
.
, . ,
, / .
: ,
,
( ), . 8.25.
.
.8.25. ,
(packet filter).
. , ,
. .
,
, ,
.
TCP/IP IP- . .
, 25 , 80 HTTP.
. ,
IP-, TCP 79.
Finger ,
.
. , , . ,
. ,
DMZ (DeMilitarized Zone ),
. 8.25. DMZ , .
. - DMZ,
, . , TCP 80,
868 8.
, , ,
. -
,
-. .
, ,
,
. (statefull firewalls) TCP/IP, .
, , , -
,
.
,
.
(application-level gateway). TCP, ,
. HTTP-, ,
HTTP-,
. ,
, ,
.
, , , , .
,
.
, ,
. . ,
, ,
. ,
.
, ( ).
IPSEC . ,
, , .
. .
.
, , , .
, . ,
(,
), , ,
. ,
8.6.
869
,
. , 75%
, ,
(, ), (Verizon, 2009).
,
. .
. , ,
. , ,
- , , .
, . , ,
, ,
. , ,
, .
,
- . , SYN .
SYN + ACK. ,
-. , ,
. ,
, ,
DoS (Denial of Service ()). , .
DoS .
.
, ,
.
, , ,
. DDoS (Distributed Denial of
Service ). .
,
, , .
8.6.3.
,
, .
870 8.
.
. , ,
, ,
.
.
, ,
, , . ,
T1 ( !), T3
. , ,
( , ). , ,
, .
(VPN Virtual Private Networks), , ,
. , ;
, ,
.
VPN .
, ,
, . 8.26, . ,
, , ,
, .
, , VPN , . 8.26, .
, , , . IPsec
,
,
,
. .
,
, ,
. ,
, IPsec ESP .
.
, , , VPN,
. , , IPsec IP.
, IPsec.
8.6.
871
.8.26. . . . ,
, , VPN
-. MPLS (
5), VPN
-. VPN
.
VPN ,
. . , , ,
, -,
MPLS.
. VPN
(Lewis, 2006).
8.6.4.
, ,
, VPN , , . ,
, , . 802.11
, , ,
,
802.11, , , . .
. ,
.
( ),
. ,
, ,
, .
872 8.
Ethernet, , , , .
, : ,
. , ,
. ,
- .
(Nichols Lekkas, 2002).
802.11
802.11, 802.11i, , , .
WPA2 (WiFi Protected Access 2 WiFi,
2). WPA , 802.11i. WPA2. 802.11i,
, WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy ,
), 802.11.
WEP , , , , NIST AES. .
? , .
, WEP XOR . , ,
. , . ,
32- CRC.
,
.
WEP . , WEP , ,
AT&T (Stubblefield .,
2002). , Fluhrer . (2001)
,
WiFi . ,
WEP , , WEP
. ,
. 802.11i , , WEP
. 2004 .
802.11i, ,
. ,
WPA2. ,
,
, , ,
. ,
. 802.1X,
8.6.
873
874 8.
. 8.27. 802.11i
AP KG,
.
, AP , .
802.11 LAN.
, ,
AP ; .
,
.
, .
, ,
. 802.11i
, . WPA, ,
TKIP (Temporary Key Integrity Protocol )
. ,
802.11, , , ,
WEP. ,
CCMP. CCMP?
Counter mode with Cipher block chaining message authentification code protocol
.
CCMP. .
CCMP . AES 128 . .
, AES
. 8.2.3.
. .
, , ,
, 128 MIC.
8.6.
875
( ) MIC . , AP
.
.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth , 802.11,
,
, . , ,
Bluetooth.
, , , ,
, , .
, , ( ). ,
Bluetooth ,
. .
Bluetooth ( 2.1 )
, . 802.11,
( ), -
. ,
. :
.
Bluetooth .
,
, ,
, , , . ,
. Bluetooth 2.1 ,
.
(, ,
). (, ) ,
(, )
.
(passkeys). ,
1234 , , 104 . Bluetooth 2.1
, ,
.
, .
, : ,
876 8.
, . 128 ,
.
,
, ,
.
E0, SAFER+.
. SAFER+ AES,
,
. Bluetooth , AES;
, , Rijndael.
()
. 8.12. , 2
. . , E0,
RC4, (Jacobsson Wetzel, 2001).
, A5/1, GSM-, (Biryukov .,
2000). ( ) ,
.
, Bluetooth, , , . ,
, Bluetooth,
. Bluetooth
,
,
PIN- - .
8.7.
( ) ,
, , .
, . , .
, .
.
. ,
: , cookbook.old. .
1. ()?
2. cookbook.old ()?
8.7.
877
, , .
. , ,
.
.
, ,
.
(KDC
Key Distribution Center).
. ,
,
.
, , ,
, . , (session
key), .
(AES DES), .
.
,
,
,
, , , , .
. .
8.7.1. ,
,
KAB.
, () .
,
: ,
. - (challenge-response).
:
A B ;
Ri , ;
Ki , ;
KS .
878 8.
. 8.28. , A, , . , , ,
,
RB ( 2). ,
, KAB(RB) 3.
, , ,
KAB, .
, RB
(, 128- ), ,
.
. 8.28. -
, , . 1 RB.
, . : , . ,
, . KS,
, KAB.
, , .8.29.
. ,
. , .
. 8.29.
8.7.
879
, ? , : . ,
, .
, (reflection attack). ,
,
. , , , , .
. 8.30. , ,
, RT. , , RB. , , . ?
KAB(RB).
. 8.30.
3
, . KAB(RB) 4.
, .
, ,
- .
:
,
.
, .
1. ,
.
, .
2. : , , KAB KAB.
3. . , ,
.
880 8.
4. ,
,
( ).
, .
, .
, .8.28. ,
? .
. ,
,
, . , , , ,
? , .
, , .8.31.
1. , 2 . , ,
. 2, 3 :
? . :
, .
.8.31. , .8.28
? ,
. RA,
3. 5,
, 6 2.
,
8.7.
881
. 1 , 2 -
.
, . -
2, , 7 ( 1). , , , , RA2 8.
RA2 9. 1
, , 10. ? ,
9, . ,
.
, , .8.30.
. . , , .
(Bird ., 1993).
,
. ,
( ) .
, .8.32 (Bird ., 1993).
HMAC, IPsec.
nonce RA 1. nonce, RB, HMAC. HMAC
, nonce , , KAB.
- (, SHA-1) HMAC. 2
RA ( ), RB,
, KAB,
. , HMAC .
HMAC
, , , , KAB , , HMAC,
. HMAC,
nonce.
.8.32. HMAC
882 8.
: - ? ,
-, .8.30. HMAC
, . - .
HMAC
, . , ,
.
8.7.2. :
, , . , (
PKI ).
? ,
, , : , , ?
, ,
, , ,
, , . , ,
.
, , (Diffie
Hellman key exchange) (Diffie Hellman, 1976) .
, n g, (n1)/2
, , g . ,
n g . (, 1024-) x . ,
y.
, ,
(n, g, gx mod n), . 8.33. ,
gy mod n. , ,
x, (gy mod n)x mod n. ,
(gx mod n)y mod n.
gxy mod n. , , gxy mod n.
, . n g
. x y,
. , , gxmodn n, x
. .
( ) n=47 g=3.
x=8, y
=
10. . -
8.7.
883
. 8.33.
, : (47, 3, 28), ,
, ()?
. , ,
, . 8.34. , x y,
z. 1.
2,
n g ( ), z
x. 3.
4, .
8.34.
. : gxz mod n. (
). gyz mod n, (
). , , , , , , (
884 8.
) . .
,
, .
(man-inthe-middle attack). (bucket
brigade attack), ,
.
8.7.3.
, .
, , . n ,
n . , ,
, .
(KDC, key distribution center).
, KDC.
KDC.
, KDC, . 8.35.
. 8.35. KDC-
8.7.
885
, . ,
,
. .
, ,
. ,
.
.
. 2 (. . 8.35) , . . : ,
. , .
.
, ,
, .
(replay attack).
. . . ,
, -
. ,
.
,
(. nonce 8.6.4.). , . ,
. ,
, . ,
, , .
-.
(NeedhamSchroeder authentication
protocol) (Needham-Schroeder, 1978), . 8.36.
. 8.36.
886 8.
, KDC,
.
RA. 2,
, ,
. RA , ,
2 , .
2, , ()
1, KDC 2 KT ( ), KB. ,
KB, ,
- , 2
.
RA2, KS. 4 KS(RA21),
, .
KS(RA2) ,
3.
4, ,
. RA2 KS(RA2 1)
. 5 , , .
,
.
, , ,
. - KS, ,
3 ,
(Denning Sacco, 1981).
, .
,
(Needham Shroeder, 1987). (Otway)
(Rees) , .
. 8.37 .
. 8.37. ( )
8.7.
887
: R, , RA,
. ,
. , KA KB,
, .
, R
. , R
1 2. R
, KDC , , .
KS ,
. , , KDC, .
. ,
KS,
.
8.7.4.
Kerberos
( Windows 2000 )
Kerberos, .
1, . ,
. Kerberos
.
.
. V5
RFC 4120.
, V4, ,
(Yu ., 2004). V5 V4
, , DES.
. (Neumann Ts'o (1994).
Kerberos, () , :
1. (AS, Authentication Server): .
2. (TGS, Ticket Granting Server): , .
3. , , .
1
. . .
888 8.
AS KDC
, .
TGS ,
, , .
, TGS. ,
1 . 8.38. AS
KTGS(A, KS, t) TGS. ,
. 2
, . KA,
2 .
.
, , ,
2 .
.8.38. Kerberos V5
,
, .
3
. KTGS(A, KS,t),
TGS-
. KAB,
.
. KS, . ,
KB, .
3
, t, .
8.7.
889
,
KS,
. 3, ,
, , 4, .
KAB
. . 6, ( ), ,
, .
,
, KAB. ,
, (Carol, C), , , B C (
). TGS ,
, KC. ,
.
, , . ,
. ,
. ,
.
, .
Kerberos , - ,
(realms), (AS) (TGS).
, ,
TG , TG .
TG TG ( , ), TG , TG.
TG
. , , , , ,
TG .
.
8.7.5.
. . PKI ,
, ,
1 .8.39. , 2, X.509
890 8.
. ,
.
. 8.39.
, ,
(), , ( 4).
( 5). 6,
RA, RB KS. 6 .
RA : ,
, .
, RA . , 7.
RB, , , , 6 RA. .
- ? 3 ,
RA, , .
7,
RB KS, , . .
8.8.
.
. ,
.
, ,
8.8.
891
, : , . .
PGP, S/MIME.
. (Kaufman ., 2002; Schneier, 1995).
8.8.1. PGP
, PGP (Pretty Good Privacy
), , (Phil
Zimmermann, 1995a, 1995b).
: , , . 1991 PGP
, , , . .
, , ,
. , () , UNIX, Linux, Windows Mac OS,
PGP .
PGP IDEA (International Data
Encryption Algorithm ), 128 . , DES
, AES . IDEA
DES/AES: ,
DES AES.
RSA, MD5.
.
PGP (Levy, 1993). , , , .
, . -,
PGP , ,
( ,
, ). -,
, , -, , ,
, , ,
.
, , , .
, - , 5 .
, - PGP -
892 8.
( , ,
) ,
: .
, PGP,
. RSA RSA
Security , RSA PGP . 2.6. , PGP
, IDEA,
.
PGP ,
,
. -
, , PGP
. (
, AES,
), RSA 2000 ,
PGP, . PGP,
. , Open PGP,
RFC 2440. GNU Privacy Guard.
PGP
, . ,
- , . ,
.
PGP , ,
. ,
. ,
, base64. ,
.
,
.
, PGP, . 8.40.
P.
(DX) (EX) RSA-. ,
.
.
, PGP. PGP P MD5,
RSA- DA. ,
. - (, ) -
8.8.
893
,
MD5
(- ).
. 8.40. PGP
-
P1, ZIP,
(Ziv Lempel, 1977). P1.Z.
PGP .
128- KM IDEA , . ( PGP
, ,
.) P1.Z IDEA KM
. , KM
, EB. base64,
7, MIME. , +, *=,
RFC 822
, .
, base64 IDEA- RSA-. IDEA-
P1.Z. zip-, -
. MD5
-, , P .
, RSA :
128- MD5- 128- IDEA-.
RSA , 256 , .
, 256 ,
, . -
894 8.
IDEA, , RSA. ,
PGP ,
, , . 8.16.
PGP RSA. . .
1. (384 ):
.
2. (512 ): ,
.
3. (1024 ): .
4. (2048 ): .
RSA ,
, 2048 .
PGP- . 8.41.
. : ,
. , IDEA-,
,
.
.8.41. PGP-
, . , ,
-, .
( , , MD6 RSA2,
). -.
8.8.
895
, , ,
,
, , .
PGP , .
: (
). (private key ring)
, .
, , , .
-
. ,
,
.
64 . .
( ), .
(public key ring) . ,
.
, 64- ,
.
, , . , (BBS).
.
, .
,
, , . ,
. ,
, PGP PKI.
, . X.509 PGP PGP
. PGP X.509.
8.8.2. S/MIME
IETF S/MIME (Secure/MIME
MIME). RFC 2632 2643. ,
, .
, .
896 8.
, S/MIME MIME ,
. MIME, , .
S/MIME , , PEM (Privacy Enhanced
Mail ).
.
, . S/MIME
, ,
. RFC.
8.9.
, , . ,
. :
. WWW ,
. ,
.
.
. .
, , - .
.
8.9.1.
. . , . -, ,
. (
(hacker) ,
,
. , . (cracker).) , , Yahoo!,
, , , New York Times.
- (
) , .
.
( , DoS), .
,
8.9.
897
(
DoS, DDoS). , . .
1999 Hotmail ( Microsoft)
,
.
19- , , 300 000 . , 100 000 ,
. ,
,
.
-,
Emulex . Emulex 60%, $2 .
, .
, ,
, , .
,
. . , , . (Anderson,
2008a; Stuttard Pinto, 2007; Schneier, 2000).
.
8.9.2.
- . , - .
URL, .
? , , , . , . ,
. GET , , .
. ,
,
. ,
( - ),
.
,
.
, ( ). , , , , .
.
898 8.
DNS
, DNS (, , DNS - ) IP- (, 36.1.2.3) IP- (, 42.9.9.9). . ,
, . 8.42, : (1)
DNS IP- (2) . (3)
(4) . IP-
, , . 8.42, .
IP- , IP- ,
, , , , .
, .
DNS. , , .
DNS? .
, :
DNS- .
, DNS UDP, ,
. , IP- DNS. ,
- , bob.com. , , , (
).
, IP- bob.com. , ,
8.9.
899
, (.com).
, , IP- bob.com
42.9.9.9. , . , , ,
, . IP- DNS
(DNS spoofing). , IP-,
(poisoned cache).
, . -,
- .
. , ,
.
-, DNS- ,
, .
, . , trudy-the-intruder.com.
, IP- 42.9.9.9. DNS-
: dns.trudy-the-intruder.com. IP- (42.9.9.9),
. DNS- . . , , foobar.trudy-the-intruder.com,
, .com, ,
.
, dns.trudy-the-intruder.com , . www.
trudy-the-intruder.com, DNS-
. -
. : , :
bob.com: 42.9.9.9. ,
.
, , ,
. .
, .
; ,
, , .
IP- bob.com , 42.9.9.9. ,
, ,
. , , . 8.43. , DNS-
, .
, , . , ID
, ,
.
900 8.
. 8.43.
DNS
, DNS , , , , , .
;
. ,
, , 1994 IETF ,
DNS. ()
DNSsec (DNS Security DNS);
RFC 2535. , DNSsec
, DNS- .
DNSsec . . DNS ( . 7.2) ,
. , DNS-, ,
.
DNSsec .
1. .
2. .
3. .
, , . .
. :
, , DNS
. DNSsec , ,
, -
8.9.
901
, . ,
. .
DNS , RRSet (Resource Record
Set ). ,
. , A, DNS
IP-.
( ). RRSet
(, SHA-1).
(, RSA).
RRSet. , ,
.
, . RRSet
, , ,
.
DNSec .
KEY. , ,
, , . .
X
.509 - . , MD5/RSA, 1,
.
IPsec ( ).
SIG. ,
, KEY. RRSet, KEY, .
,
.
DNSsec
, .
(, -) ,
. , SIG
- . ,
-, ,
RR
Set. ,
- .
, .
, .
,
DNS
. - .
RRSet,
, .
902 8.
.
.
(, IPsec).
,
. ,
DNS RRSet bob.com, IP
- KEY . RRSet
(com), . RRSet .8.4.
8.4. RRSet bob.com. KEY
. SIG A KEY,
(com)
bob.com.
86400
IN
36.1.2.3
bob.com.
86400
IN
KEY
3682793A7B73F731029CE2737D
bob.com.
86400
IN
SIG
86947503A8B848F5272E53930C
8.9.3. SSL
, , , .
. , . ,
, , .
8.9.
903
- , . -
, , , . . 1995
, Netscape Communications,
SSL (Secure Sockets Layer
). ,
, (
Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer), SSL .
, SSL , :
1) ;
2) ;
3) ;
4) .
, .
SSL .8.44.
, , TCP
. SSL
. SSL HTTP, HTTPS (Secure HTTP HTTP),
HTTP. , : ,
(443) (80). ,
SSL -,
.
.
SSL.
3, . SSL
, ,
, , . ,
, ,
. 40 , .
Netscape ,
.
SSL
, , .
. ,
, .8.44. 1,
. SSL,
904 8.
.
RA, .
8.44. ( ), SSL
. 2 ,
, RB. 3
. -
, ,
, . , , ,
, ,
. (,
).
4, ,
.
384- (premaster key)
, (5).
. .
5 , .
(6), ,
(7). (89).
, , ,
( ,
). ,
. ,
SSL. , -
.
8.9.
905
. 8.45. SSL
, SSL . DES
SHA-1 .
, ,
.
RC4 128- , MD5. RC4 128- ,
.
. 2 , , . 8.12.
RC4 128-
, 88 ,
.
,
. 8.46. , , 16 . ,
.
, , ( MD5).
MAC (Message Authetication Code ).
MAC
( 2 RC4). ,
, TCP-.
906 8.
. 8.46. SSL
: ,
RC4 , ,
SSL RC4 (Fluhrer ., 2001). ,
, DES 168- SHA-1,
, , RC4+MD5. , SSL, .
SSL : ,
,
.
1996 Netscape Communications SSL IETF. TLS (Transport Layer Security
). RFC5246.
TLS SSL, 3. SSL TLS
, ,
SSL 3 TLS . ,
.
- , TLS
SSL, . SSL/TLS.
TLS 1999 , 1.2 2008 . ( AES). SSL
, , , TLS .
8.9.4.
, , ,
. ,
8.9.
907
, . - HTML-
. - :
Java, ActiveX, JavaScript. (mobile code), ,
. ,
. ,
, - ,
.
Java-
Java
-
Java
, JVM (Java Virtual Machine
Java). -
. JVM , .8.47.
. 8.47. -
,
. . ,
. , . , (,
),
. (,
),
(sandbox),
.
,
, .
. ,
908 8.
( ) . ,
, .
ActiveX
ActiveX , x86, -.
, ,
.
, , , .
, ,
. ,
.
Microsoft , (code signing). , ActiveX
, , ,
. ,
, ,
. , ,
. ,
, , -
. , ,
. , Microsoft ActiveX, Authenticode.
Java ActiveX.
.
,
. ,
, , .
, . .
,
- , (
ActiveX).
, . ,
,
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,
. , ,
: IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking IEEE Journal
on Selected Areas in Communications.
ACM Special Interest Groups on Data Communications
(
SIGCOMM
)
Mobility
of
Systems
, Users
, Data
, and
Computing
(
SIGMOBILE
) , , .
Computer Communication Review Mobile Computing and Communications Review.
,
IEEE
: IEEE Internet Computing, IEEE Network Magazine IEEE
Communications Magazine ,
, . , ,
IEEE Communications Magazine (, ..).
, , .
9.1.
929
9.1.1.
Baran
), (
Lawrence
Roberts
), (
Leonard
930 9.
9.1.2.
Bellamy, Digital Telephony, 3- .
, - , . , , ,
, DSL.
Hu and Li, Sattelite-Based Internet: A Tutorial
. , ,
.
.
Joel, Telecommunications and the IEEE Communications Society
, , 802.11.
, , , , , , , ,
, , , , ARPANET , , .
Palais, Fiber Optic Communications, 5- .
,
. , , , , , .
Su, The UMTS Air Interface in RF Engineering
3G. ,
, .
Want, RFID Explained
, RFID.
RFID
, . RFID .
9.1.3.
Kasim, Delivering Carrier Ethernet
Ethernet .
Ethernet
Ethernet. ,
.
Lin and Costello, Error Control Coding, 2- .
, , . ,
9.1.
931
,
. , .
Stallings, Data and Computer Communications, 9- .
,
,
.
9.1.4.
Andrews ., Fundamentals of WiMAX
WiMAX,
OFDM , .
.
Gast, 802.11 Wireless Networks, 2- .
802.11.
MAC
, , . , ,
802.11n.
Perlman, Interconnections, 2- .
, .
,
IEEE802, , ,
.
9.1.5.
Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP, 1, 5- .
TCP/IP.
IP
. , ,
.
Grayson ., IP Design for Mobile Networks
, IP.
, ,
, IP-.
Huitema, Routing in the Internet, 2- .
,
. (, RIP CIDR), (OSPF, IGRP BGP).
932 9.
, ,
, .
Koodli and Perkins, Mobile Inter-networking with IPv6
:
IPv
6
MobileIP. . MobileIP.
Nucci and Papagiannaki, Design, Measurement and Management of Large-Scale IP
Networks
, , ,
, , -.
,
, - , .
Perlman, Interconnections, 2- .
12 15 ,
.
18, . , ,
.
Stevens, TCP/IP Illustrated, 1
3 10 IP
(ARP, RARP ICMP), .
Varghese, Network Algorithmics
, ,
. : ,
.
. ,
.
9.1.6.
Comer, Internetworking with TCP/IP, 1, 5- .
, TCP/IP. UDP TCP.
Farrell and Cahill, Delay- and Disruption-Tolerant Networking
,
, ,
. DTN
IETF DTN Research Group.
Stevens, TCP/IP Illustrated, 1
17 24
TCP
, .
9.1.
933
9.1.7.
Berners-Lee ., The World Wide Web
, , CERN.
, (URL), HTTP,
HTML
, . .
Held, A Practical Guide to Content Delivery Networks, 2- .
, CDN,
CDN,
.
Hunter ., Beginning XML, 4- .
, HTML, XML -. 1000-
, , , .
, XML XHTML, , -,
XML, Ajax, SOAP
.
Krishnamurthy Redfox, Web Protocols and Practice
,
. , , , ,
. , , ,
web.
Simpson, Video Over IP, 2- .
, IP-,
,
. , , , .
Wittenburg, Understanding Voice Over IP Technology
IP-,
IP
- (
QoS
),
SIP
H.323. ,
.
9.1.8.
Anderson, Security Engineering, 2- .
,
, ( ). , Secrets and Lies, ,
Network Security (. ). , , ,
934 9.
, , ,
, , , ,
.
Ferguson ., Cryptography Engineering
, .
,
,
. ,
, , .
Fridrich, Steganography in Digital Media
,
, . ,
.
.
Kaufman ., Network Security, 2- .
,
.
, ,
, Kerberos
, PKI
, IPsec
, SSL
/
TLS
. . 26,
, . .
,
.
Schneier, Secrets and Lies
Cryptography Engineering , .
Secrets and Lies ( ), ,
.
, .
, .
Skoudis and Liston, Counter Hack Reloaded, 2- .
? , .
; ,
,
. ,
,
.
9.2.
935
9.2.
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