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2002
681.3
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R .
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aRb.
.
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x A.
x A, x A.
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. A = B, A B , A B .
, .. A B
, A B.
A B, B A. A
B A B, A B,
A B.
, ,
.
(, ) A B
A B = {x / x A x B}.
() A B
A B = {x / x A x B}.
A B
A |\ B = {x / x A x B}.
A B
A B = (A \ B) (B \ A).
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,
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A .
, A B
R A B.
a A, b B (a, b) R, R(a, b) aRb. R =
, , R = A B,
.
. ..
R A B. Dom R
a A, b B
, aRb. , , Im R R
b B,
a A , aRb. R
, Dom R = A, , Im R = B.
a A bB , aRb,
R im R a. b B
R a A , aRb;
coim R b. ,
Im R = a A im R a, Dom R = b B coim R b.
a () im R a,
A B. ,
f A B
R(f): aR(f)b , b f(a).
,
.
A B
. A = {a1, a2, ..., an}, B = {b1, b2, ...,
bm} R A B. R n m,
A, B ,
ai bj 1, ai R bj , 0 .
,
A = {a, b, c}, B = {x, y},
R = {(a, x), (a, y), (b, y), (c, x)}.
R
A B.
A B
.
, .
a b a
b, aRb. , R = {(a, x),
(a, y), (b, y), (c, x)}
:
. ..
10
R A B
A
B. , X A, (X) a
-1
X im R a; , Y B (Y)= b Y coim R b.
X* = -1 ( (X)), Y* = ( -1(Y)),
X X*, Y Y*;
X1 X2
(X1) (X2);
-1
Y1 Y2
(Y1) -1(Y2); X** = X*; Y** = Y*.
X A (Y B) , X = X* (Y = Y*).
A B.
: {, , , , , }
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) ..
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); (, ).
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: {, }.
im R : {, }, im R :
{, , }.
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() = im R im R : {}
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* = -1(()) = -1({}) = coim R : {,
, }.
A B
A B, ,
. , A B
, B A.
,
: R A B, R# (b, a),
(a, b) R. R# R-1. , R## = R.
-
. R A B, S B C, RS
(a, c), b B , (a, b) R,
. ..
11
(b, c) S.
: R1 R2, R1S R2S; (RS)# = R#S#. ,
, , A,
(a, a), a A, . ,
R A B, AR = R = R B.
R R RR#R.
. R A B ,
RR# A R#R B.
A B. R R = F#G, F, G
.
R A A. C R : a) , R
A; b) , R = R#; c) , R R# A; d)
, R R# = ; e) , R2 R.
R : a) , ;
b) , , ;
c) ,
;
d) , , .
R , A
,
.
A R.
R A B
, .
A B
,
, R
A B.
, , ..
2.,
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) ,
, , , .,
.
S S / , S
Fk (x1, x2, ...), k=1, 2, ..., n, S /
F /k (x /1, x /2, ...), k=1, 2, ..., n. S S /
,
. ..
12
x /= (x), x = (x /),
x S, x / S
/
, Fk (x1, x2, ...) F /k (x /1, x /2, ...), .
S S /,
S /, S. S S /
: S S /.
XIX .;
1918
() (Noether Amalie Emmy,
23.3.1882 . , 14.4.1935 . -, ).
,
,
.
XVII
(Descartes Ren,
31.3.1596 ., , , 11.2.1650 ., , ,
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S
. Aut S.
,
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V.
.
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(x)=g-1xg , g G. ,
, .
G Aut G.
. ..
13
(). Aut S
S.
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( . . )
, ( , ).
(
,
, ; , ,
).
, G H ,
g G
h= (g)H ( g, g
h), g1 g2 G
: (g1*g2)=(g1)* (g2).
(.., ,
: 1 0 ), ,
,
.
XIX .
() (Frobenius Ferdinand
Georg), 1929 .
.
.
.
( )
() ()
,
.
Ob C.
Mor C C.
: St ( Ens).
( , , , ) ,
, () A
B f , A B, .. f(A)=B. f
f A
B. , : ,
, , , , :
, , ,
. ..
14
. ,
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B A.
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A ] (, ) A
A B (-)
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15
A A(-)
()
A ] () B
(, )
A ] (, ) B (-)
() = +
A
96001
---
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96004
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75
96007
---
88
96010
---
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96013
---
44
96016
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12
96019
---
90
96022
---
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96025
---
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96031
---
87
96034
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21
96037
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96043
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66
96046
64
96049
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65
96052
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14
96061
59
96064
---
: A Z B; A Z F; { } Z {
}.
: A ] F; F ] A; B ] { }.
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: G] H
G. ( congruentia ,
. ..
16
) A
A, .
, n- , A,
ai ai' , i = 1, ... , n, ai,ai' A,
(a1, ... , an) (ai', ... , an').
,
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A). A/ , A
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a A A/ ,
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B.
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17
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4.
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FX ;
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: 1) (ab) = a (bc) a, b c G; 2) G
e ( , - ), a e =
ea = a a G; 3) a G a-1
1
1
( a ), a a = a a = e, G
.
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G, . ,
(.1, ) (
:
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. 1, .
. ..
21
Z , Z
, Z . e 0, z
1
z . H Z, ,
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Z. Z H
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n = 3 . ( )
n!.
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A .
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a, b A a () b = b() a.
.
- ,
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. ..
22
G A B,
g G g = a b, a A
b B, a A b B a b = b a, G
A B : G= A B. G.
. A G, |G|
|A|.
,
.
, .
(p-) ,
p.
,
, , .
, p-.
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G, x G
N x = {nx | n N} x N = {xn |n N}.
N > G.
. c G
, G, ..
c x = x c, x G.
. G
Z(G), .
. ,
, .
. a b G
, g, a g = g b, ..,
g-1 a g = b. , a
b g. g-1a g = a, a
g.
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g G, A g = g B, .. g-1A g = B, B
A G. , B
A g. g-1A g = A, A
g.
,
.
,
. ( P
. ..
23
, t , X ,
)
. X
t, P
t X
P, P t.
.
P . , 2 = 1, .. = -1.
, t , ,
2 = 1, -1 = .
:
= -1 . ,
P, t , , P
t, t
P. : = -1 .
X
, , P
t = . ,
, -1 = P
P, -1 = t
t.
,
. :
P : ( x, y )
P :
P t : y mx b,
P t :
t : [m, b]
t:
. pr
p, pr.
. G = pk s s p,
pk G p-.
. ..
24
1. p,
p.
2. p-
p.
.
,
; ,
,
.
: G p1y1 p2y 2 Kpky s , A1, A2, . . ., Ak p1y1 , p2y 2 , K, pky s ,
, G A1 A 2 K A k . ,
.
H = {1, 2, . . . , n}
. x H
:
x = { x = x}.
x
x = {x }. x ,
x.
H ,
x H x = 1.
.
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25
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XIX-XX .
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. 1771 .
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. . (1799 ),
5- ,
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.
. (1824)
. (1830). .
:
,
. ..
26
n 5 .;
(le groupe), .
. (1870)
.
,
XIX .
.
,
.
.
. . .
(1854 ), ,
, ,
.
. (1872),
:
,
,
. (. ).
. . (1761),
, ,
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(1801),
, . ,
, . , ,
,
.
XIX ,
,
(. , . .). , 1895 . .
, ,
1), 2), 3).
. . (1916).
. ..
27
5. , ,
.
, ,
.
.
R,
( +
; ),
(a, b, c R):
I. : a + b = b + a.
II. : a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c.
III. ( ): a + x = b
x = b R.
IV. : a (b + c) =
a b + a c (b + c) a = b a + c a.
(Z, +, ) ,
ab= ba ab = 0
,
a 0 b 0.
I III ,
: . 0
,
.. a 0 = 0 a = 0 a . , ,
, ..
a b, 0.
1 R, a 1 = 1 a = a a R.
, , .
:
1) ;
2) ,
m;
3) ;
4) ;
5) ;
6) , .. a + bi
a b;
. ..
28
7)
,
;
8) ,
;
9) n (
) ;
10) ;
11) ;
12) n
a
b = (ab + ba),
;
13)
.
. , a(bc) = (ab)c,
( 1 10);
(aa)b = a(ab), (ab)b = a(bb), (, 11);
ab = ba (ab)(aa)=((aa)b)a,
(, 12);
a2=0, a(bc) + b(ca) + c(ab) = 0, (
13); ab=ba, ( 1 8, 12).
-
( 1 7). ,
a <> 0 ax = b xa = b,
( 3 5, 10); .
.
(A, + , ), (A, +)
, (A, ), A A
(.. ),
+ . (A, )
, (
).
. ,
ax = b xa = b,
a, b A, a 0.
(Q, + , ) ,
.
. .
. ..
29
(A, + , ), (A, +)
, (A, ) (..
), , ..
a, b, c A a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c).
,
.
, .
,
:
Q
a (a x) = x , a 0 aa = 1;
D
(x a )a = x , a 0 a a = 1.
. - G
.
A
.
T
: G , Q ,
D , A K
, T , K .
6.
,
7 9.
. ,
.
. A (
)
,
A, A, , ,
a, bA
(? + ?)a = ?a + ?a, ?(a + b) = ?a + ?b,
?(?a) = (??)a, 1a = a, ?(ab) = (?a)b.
,
:
? (ab) = (?a)b = a(?b)
,
na ( n ), n
a: a + a + . . . + .
A ( ), ,
, A ,
. ..
30
. ,
.
,
.
. , C 2
R , 4
R, n
n2 .
.
, .. .
A A ',
a, b A
(a + b)? = a? + b?, (ab)? = (a?)(b?),
. . . (
) , (?a)? = ?(a?) ?? .
(..
A'), , () A A' .
M () A
(), M ()
, A; M ( )
, , , m M a A
am (, ma am, ma) M.
a, b A M, b a M. A
.
, A
,
, (
) M
.
(),
() A/M. :
A ,
A A/M; , A
A', M A,
() A', A A/M A'.
.
. ,
(
. ..
31
) .
,
. .
,
,
, ,
, .. a, b, c :
a + b = b + a , ab = ba ,
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c), (ab) c= a (bc),
(a + b) c = ac + bc.
, 0 (),
0 + a = a , a
a, , a + (a) = 0,
e (), ae = a,
a a-1, .. , aa-1 = e.
, ,
. ,
( ),
( ).
(
) : Q,
R, C,
a + b?2, a b ,
,
(
).
. .
.
, na -
a. p,
p- . ,
p ( p).
na 0 n a,
. .
, .. , .
, -
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.. ,
. F G, G
F.
. ..
32
. 0
, p
p.
- ,
,
.
, . ,
F ,
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F,
) , , F
F f(x) ,
F.
G
F. , ,
, .
, ..
,
F. :
(
, ), .
,
(
). , , C (
). .
Q, .
, , ,
, , .
, , ,
(sup),
(inf) .
.
:
1) ,
;
2) ; a ? b,
sup{a,b} = b, inf{a,b} = a;
. ..
3)
33
,
, inf , sup
;
4) ,
: a ? b, b = ac c. sup
, inf
;
5) , [0, 1],
f g, f(t) g(t) t [0, 1].
. ..
34
7.,
R ,
:
: (a M) ((a,a)R);
: (a,b M) (((a,b)R) (b,a)R)Z a=b);
: (a,b,c M) (((a,b)R) (b,c)R)() (a,c)R)
: .
R , :
: (a M) ((a,a) R);
: (a,b M) (((a,b)R) (b,a)R)Z a=b);
: (a,b,c M) (((a,b)R) (b,c)R)() (a,c)R)
: <.
R ,
:
: (a M) ((a,a)R);
: (a,b,c M) (((a,b)R) (b,c)R)() (a,c)R)
.
1=(, , )
(, )
()
(, )
()
(, )
()
.
.
. .
A () A ()
()()
. ..
(),
35
a a=a, a a = a;
a b = b a, a b = b a;
a (b c) = (a b) c, a (b c) = (a b) c;
a (b c) = a b a c; a b c = (a b) (a c);
a = a;
- a b = (a b), a b = (a b);
a b a b = a, (a b) (a b) = a;
a a b = a, a (a b) = a;
() a 0 = a, a 0 = 0, a a = 0;
() a 1 = 1, a 1 = a, a a = 1.
0 0 1 f0(x1, x2) = 0
0 0 0 ( , false, )
1 0 0 0000
0 1 f1(x1, x2) = x1&x2 = x1x2 = x1*x2 = x1x2 = x1 x2
0 0 0 (, and, )
1 0 1 0001
x1 0 1 f3(x1, x2) = x1
0 0 0 ( )
1 1 1 0011
[| 0 1 f4(x1, x2) = x1 x2 = x1[| x2
0 0 1 ( )
1 0 0 (. conversus = ) 0100
. ..
36
x2 0 1 f5(x1, x2) = x2
0 0 1 ( )
1 0 1 0101
0 1 f6(x1, x2) = x1 x2x1x2 = x1 x2
0 0 1 (,
1 1 0 , xor, 2) 0110
. ..
37
: f8
: 12.
= 0; = 1.
1=0 0=1.
, ( ,
) (, , )
, , . ,
( ):
x
(, , , )
:
0 = 0 0, ;
1() = {0, 1} ,
;
2() = ;
3()=1 1, .
. ..
38
,
. ,
:
x
f0
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
f7
f8
f9
fA
fB
fC
fD
fE
fF
, , ,
, ,
, ,
,
( , , ).
f1, ..., fm f,
, ,
.
( )
= {f1, ..., fm}. 1, ..., n, ... 0 1
0. k+1,
fi(F1, ..., Fnl), ft S, ni fi, F1, ..., Fnl ,
k.
()
( ).
. ,
( ) ,
.
, .
:
1) and(x, or(y, z));
2) x(y z) x and (y or z);
3) xy z .
. ..
39
8.
.
() T ,
:
1) , .. ,
1, 2, ... T.
T.
2) T,
T (
). , ,
;
3) ,
T;
4) R1, R2, ..., Rn
, . Ri
j , , j ,
F , j
Ri F , F
j Ri.
T F1, F2, ..., Fm
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- .
F T T,
T, F;
F.
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.
1. T , , (,) mi
: m1, m2, ... . , , ,
mi .
2. ) ;
) A B , (A B) (A) ;
. ..
40
) ,
. ) ).
,
,
.
3. A, B C T,
T:
A A A, A B B A,
A A B, (B C) (A B A C),
.
4. :
(
,
);
( ,
) modus ponens.
: (, )/.
, A A (q A) , qA
.
:
A = ,;
A = ,;
A = ,,0;
A = ,,1;
A = ,,,1.
.
f x1 , x2 ,..., xn ,
n-
k-
1 , 2 ,..., n , i 0,1,..., k 1, i 1,2,..., n , {0, 1, ..., k 1},
k- . k-
f x1 , x2 ,..., xn (- ),
kn, ,
k2.
,
:
. ..
xa
xa
xb
41
xb
0
y xa xb max xa xb 1mod k
. ,
AB M , o , M 0,1,2,..., k 1
k- .
k- ,
:
A M ,, ~ , M 0,1,2,..., k 1,
x x max x , x ; ~
x x 1mod k ;
a
;
APT M ,,&, ji , i , M 0,1,2,..., k 1,0 i k 1,
xa & xb max xa , xb ,
. ..
42
k 1, x i
, i 0,1,..., k 1.
ji x
0 , x i
() S A, O, R ,
A , O , R
A. A ;
O R .
= O R S.
S ,
R
, O .
,
. ,
.
, ,
.
, F,
F .
.
, M ,, ~ M ,, .
.
xai , 1 x = i 0
i
a
i-
k 1
i
xa
xaj .
j 0, j i
, xa0 x1a K xak 1 1.
(
.
raedicatum
, M, ..
n- P,
a1 , K , an M ,
. ..
43
Pa1 , K , an ; P n- M.
0- .
1 () 0 ().
, : n-
M n- ,
M 0 1.
a1 , K , an
P 1,
Pa1 , K , an 1 , ,
P, P a1 , K , an .
,
, ,
. ,
.
,
, . P
n- M,
n- M. , n-
M n- M.
.
. ,
,
.
xi P x1 , K , xn ,
1 i n (n 1) xi P x1 , K , xn ,
a1 , K , ai 1 , ai 1 , K , an ,
, a xi
Pa1 , K , ai 1 , a, ai 1 , K , an .
xi P x1 , K , xn
1 i n (n1) xi P x1 , K , xn ,
a1 , K , ai 1 , ai 1 , K , an ,
, a xi
Pa1 , K , ai 1 , a, ai 1 , K , an .
,
, .
,
.
. ..
44
,
,
(
),
- , (
) ( ).
, , , , ,
, , -
.
, ,
, ,
,
:
1) Pnm , m n
;
2) x1 , x2 , x3 K ;
3) & ( ), (),
(), ~ (), (), ( ),
( );
4) (,) () , ().
Pnm m- ; 0
.
, P y1 , K , ym , P - m (m > 0), y1 , K , ym
.
:
1) ;
2) , ( & ), ( ), ( ),
( ~), ;
3) , x , x x
.
, P10 , P01 x1 , x1P12 x1 , x3 ,
P x & x P x , x .
1
0
2
1 1
, ,
.
. ..
45
y y
, y y .
y ,
y y,
.
y, ,
. , x1P01 x1 & P11 x1
x1 , .
y ,
.
,
M,
M, m-
m- M.
.
P y1 , K , ym , ,
P,
y1 , K , ym . , = ,
= . ,
(),
(), (), () . ,
, , = = .
y , =
, y.
y , = ,
y. = ,
, .
M,
M. ,
x1P01 x1 x2 P01 x2
, ,
M, M .
, ,
. ,
, : .
.
, ,
.
. ..
46
,
.
:
,
,
-
,
. , A B A
x2 P01 x2 P30 x2 P01 x2 .
:
xx y y xx ,
(x) , x
y y, (y)
(x) x y.
:
, ()
( x ), ,
x;
,
, x ()
(x) .
( ,
) , A ( )
A B ( ) B.
1, . . ., m , i
,
, m .
, ,
. ,
.
,
, -
(, ,
)
. ..
47
9.
,
.
.
,
. ,
.
. ,
, .
,
.
, .
, ,
{0, 1}. .
. ,
,
{0, 1}.
.
, ,
, .
, .
(m, n) :
E: {0, 1}m {0, 1}n D: {0, 1} n {0, 1}m , m n {0, 1} n
n. E
, D .
:
T ; E D ,
D T E ,
. (m, n) 2m .
: ,
. ..
48
, ,
.
m d(a, b)
a b , :
a = 01101 b = 00111 2.
. :
1) d(a, b) 0 d(a, b) = 0 , a = b;
2) d(a, b) = d(b, a);
3) d(a, b) + d(b, c) d(a, c) ( ).
w(a) a .
a b a b: d(a, b) = w(a b),
2.
,
, .
.
, k (
) , ,
k + 1.
.
, k (
) , ,
2k + 1.
. a = a1a2 ...am
b = b1b2...bn.
e = e1e2...en, c = c1c2...cn,
ci = bi + ei. , , c1c2...cn
b1b2 ...bn. , ,
, .
, .
(m, n) 2m
, .
.
. ..
49
G g ij m n gij, 0 1.
+ 2.
m
b j a1 g1 j a2 g 2 j ... am g mj ai g ij ,
j 1,...., n,
i 1
b = aG, a = a1a2...am ,
; b = b1b2...bn ,
; G .
.
- .
, , m G
.
2m m ,
G.
(m, n) ,
.
, m
2,
a a = 0. , a m .
G m n.
b = aG , b1 = a1G, b2 = a2G, b1 + b2 =
a1G+ a2G = (a1+ a2)G, .. .
,
d(bi, bj) = w(bi + bj).
G
b = aG.
,
c1c2...cn, c= b + e e = e1e2 ...en () .
, ,
D(aG) a, .
C , .
n. .
B C.
C B, .. - C/B.
, .
, , c C
. ..
50
c = e + b e b.
c b
a, b = E(a).
,
, ..
0 + B, 0, b1 , ..., b 2 1 ,
B,
.
, :
1) , ;
2) , ,
.
:
1) b , e , c = b + e
c, ,
b, .. .
2) c , , bi.
c = bi + e, e . d(c, bi) = w(e).
bj , c = bj + eP , bi bj B, e = bi bj + e
, e. , d(c, bj) = w(e) w(e).
m
,
,
3. (m, n)-, m = 2r 1, n = (2r 1 r)
r = m-n.
:
1. 2r 1 r, r 2;
2r 1.
2. b = b1.. b2 r 1 . ,
, .. b2 0 , b21 , K , b2 r 1 ,
, . , r = 4 b1,
b2 , b4 , b8 - , b3, b5 , b6 , b7 , b9, b10 , b11 , b12 , b13 , b14 , b15
.
3. M r (2r - 1) , i-
i. M
r = 2, 3, 4
. ..
51
0 0 0 0 0 0 01 1 1 1 1 1 11
0 0 01 1 11
011
0 0 01 1 1 1 0 0 0 01 1 11
M2,3
; M3,7 0 1 1 0 1 1 1; M4,15
1 01
01 1 0 01 1 0 01 1 0 011
1 01 0 0 01
1 01 01 01 01 01 01 01
T
4. bM 0 .
M
b2i , .
5.
b2 0 , b21 , K , b2 r 1 ( 4).
.
c = b + e, b , e .
T
bM 0 , , , b e M T bM T eM T eM T .
eM T 0 , , .
e = 0.
, .. e
i- , eM T 0 ,
i- M,
i. c = b + e i-
.
.
,
. , e ,
b e M T 0 , ,
.
10.
( ) V E
;
G(V, E).
,
.
, , ; ,
( ).
(,
, ), ( )
.
( )
, ( ) .
. ..
52
, , .
, , .
( ) .
, (u, v) u v, (u, v)
u v.
,
, , (
)
.
, 3-
, , ()
. 2- ,
, . 2-
, .
. v1, v2, ... vn
G(V, E), e1, e2, ... em ().
G A=||aij||, i=1,...,n; j =
1, ..., n, aij ( ),
vi vj (, vi vj).
G B=||bij||, i=1, ..,
n; j = 1, ..., m, bij 1, vi
() ej 0, .
, . ,
1: , ( );
2:
. 0-
1) A ; 2) A B; 3) A B C;
4) A B; 5) A B C D C D E;
(!)
A
2)
A B
A
. ..
53
(!)
1)
AA
2)
AA AB BA BB
A
.
()
1) 2) .
( )
1) A ( ) 2) A ( ), B ( ) .
1-
( , , , ..)
1)
2) )
4) )
.
5)
1)
2) )
A 1
2) )
A B
A 2) )
A 0
B 0
AA
A 1
2)
A 1
1)
AA AB BA BB
A 1
B 0
. ..
54
1) (A? A) 2) a) (A? A) 2) ,) (A? D) b nfr lfktt.
1) A (A) 2) ) A (A) 2) ) A (B) 2) ) B (B) .
G(V, E) H(W, I) ,
- V, W
E, I, .
G(V, E) G(V, E)
VV () E E, ,
() E () V.
(v0, v1), (v1, v2), ..., (vi-1, vi), (vi, vi+1), ..., (vr-1, vr)
, v0 vr. ,
v0 = vr.
, ,
, .
() () .
,
.
( ,
) G .
, , .
( )
.
k (k ),
k () .
,
, .
(, )
. , vi
vj G, d (vi, vj) vi vj.
.
,
, ..
:
, (
), (.. (u, v) (u,
w), (w, v), w ) .
: , ,
.
.
. ..
55
10.1.
,
, .. v1, ..., vm+1,
e E v1, ..., vm+1
e = {vi, vi+1} i.
v1 = vm+1, .
1736
,
.
. ,
.
.
,
. , v,
v1 vm+1, k ,
, 2k. ,
, ,
. ,
. , v
d(v),
d v 2m ,
vV
{u, v} : d(u)
d(v). , .
,
, ,
, .
, u v
G =V, E, G*
t {u, t} {v, t} ( {u, v}, {u, v}E ). G*
, G
G*.
.
: G = V, E
, [v], v V.
: ,
.
. ..
56
begin
CTEK := ; := ;
v:= ;
CTEK v;
while CTEK do
begin v:= top (CTEK); {v = }
if [v] then
begin u:= [v];
CTEK u;
{ {v, u} }
[v] := [v] \ {u};
[u] := [u] \ {v};
v := u
end
else { [v] = }
begin v CTEK ; v;
end
end
end
: v0 , .
v0, CTEK,
.
,
, , .. [v] =.
, v =v0,
, v .
, ,
CTEK.
, , ,
.
v = v0 CTEK CE,
v CTEK.
, ( [v] ),
CTEK , v.
, CTEK .
, , CE,
, v CE , [v]
=, .. , , (
. ..
57
) . ,
CE .
.
,
CTEK , CTEK
CE. , (m).
. ,
[v], v V,
,
, u [v]
v [u].
{u, v} , .
,
(m). , ,
(m) .
, :
( ),
;
,
.
I .
,
.
XIX ., ,
.
, .
, ,
,
.
. ,
, ,
, .
. , ,
, , , , , ..,
, , , ,
, .
.
.
, , , , , ,
.
. ..
58
,
.
, ,
,
.
() , , ,
, ,
.
( v , v):
0 d1 d2 ... dn, ,
,
r, 1 r n 1,
r
n
i 1 di r r 1 i r 1 minr , di
() .
n
n .
, .
: ,
,
,
.
. , , 4-
.
: ,
, 5
.
, ,
. ,
,
. , ,
, . ,
, ,
. ..
59
,
, .
k .
, ,
(), , ,
()
( ). ,
, ,
, / ,
+ 1 .
.
( , ) ,
. ,
,
.
(..
). ,
() .
: ,
; ,
; ,
.
. , ,
vi vj pij (
qij = 1 pij ).
, .. pij = 1/2.
10.2.
, , ,
,
( ) .
.
(
).
, , . (), ()
.
. ..
60
)
, -
.
,
, ,
n ( ).
,
, ,
, ,
.
NP- . ,
, , ,
,
(.. ,
),
.
NP- , ,
,
,
, .
.
, ,
: n!
, .
n! n , n
, , ,
an, a > 1,
n / 2
n!nn / 2
a n / 2 log a n / 2 .
,
.
. ..
61
,
x1, ..., xn .
,
, ( 0). ,
x1, ..., xi,
xi+1,
, x1, ..., xi, xi+1 (
x1, ..., xi, xi+1 ).
, xi+1
,
x1, ..., xi, xi+1. ,
x1, ..., xi1
, , xi
(.: backtracking).
, , k > 0
Ak, k-
.
, Ak ,
x1, ..., xn
k n Ak xk (
, Ak
, k-
). , ,
x1, ..., xi
P(x1, ..., xi) ( ) , P(x1, ..., xi) =
, x1, ..., xi
. P(x1, ..., xi) = , , xi
( x1, . . ., xi-1), , x1, . . .,
xi-1 .
:
begin
k:= 1;
while k > 0 do
if y Ak
, P(X[1], ..., X[k - 1], y) then
begin X[k] := y; { y }
if X[1], . . ., X[k] then
write(X[1], . . ., X[k]);
k:= k +1;
end
. ..
62
else { ;
Ak }
k:= k - 1
end
, Ak
n, P(x1, . . ., xn) = x1 A1, ...,
xn An ( , n).
:
s > 0, x1, ..., xs 1 ,
. ,
k = s, X[i] = xi, 1 i s. ,
, x1, ...,
xs -1 , k = s - 1.
, s = 1
.
s. s = n,
x1, ..., xs1
( else), .. k
s 1.
s > 1.
s 1. x1, ..., xs2
, ;
, k = s 1, X[i] = xi, 1 i s 1.
y, x1, ..., xs2 ,
x1, ..., xs 2, y k s.
,
x1, ..., xs2, y , ,
k = s 1, y, x1, ..., xs2 ,
( ).
k 1 s 2.
,
, x1, ..., xs 2,
.
: procedure
AP(k)
{ ,
. ..
63
64
(2);
end
,
, .
x1, ..., xk, ,
x1, ..., xk, y
( ).
D, x1, ..., xk,
0 k n xi Ai 1 i k, , y
Ak x1, ..., xk 1, k n,
x1, ..., xk 1, k > n; , P(x1, ...,
xk 1, xk) , k n, P(x1, ..., xk 1, xk) = , k n (xi Ai
1 i k). , AP(1)
D ( ).
P, ,
, .. ,
x1, ..., xk, P(x1, ..., xk) ). , ,
.
,
, ,
. , ,
(
; , ,
).
10.3.
G = V, E,
. , u, v E
a (u, v),
.
, , a (u, v) = , u -a v.
v0, v1,..., vp G,
p
avi 1, vi .
i 1
. ..
65
(,
,
; 0 p = 0).
s, t V.
d (s, t) s t (,
, ).
s t, d (s, t) = .
, ,
.. v1,..., vp .
, ,
,
, ,
,
. ,
, , ,
, , ,
.
. , ,
, .
.
( ) .
( )
. , u, v
p(u, v) .
, ,
.
, p(u, v) a (u, v) = log
p(u, v).
, . , ,
.
, s, t V (s t)
v, d (s, t) = d (s, v) + a (v, t).
,
s t.
u, d (s, v) = d (s, u) + a (u, v),
..
. ..
66
,
t, v, u, ...
s.
, ( )
s t.
, :
: D[v] s
v V, t, , A[u,
v], u, v V.
:
,
s t.
begin
CTEK := ; CTEK t; v:= t;
while v s do
begin
u := , D[v] = D[u] + A[u, v];
CTEK u;
v:= u
end
end.
V, E , V = n, E = m.
u ,
O(n2). [v],
u, uv,
O(m).
,
.
{u, v} u, v v, u, , {u, v}.
.
, G = V, E
, V = n, E = m.
, .
, A[u, v],
u, v V (A[u, v] a (u, v)).
. ..
67
s t ,
:
A[u, v], u, v V, D[v] s v V. , ,
D[u] + A[u, v] < D[v],
D[v] : D[v] = D[u] + A[u, v].
,
.
, D[v]
d (s, v) s v.
, s t,
s .
,
,
.
,
, u v
. , ,
. , , s, .
10.4.
,
.
.. .. .
: V, E n
s V, A[u, v], u, v V (
).
: : D[v]=d(s,
v), v V.
1 begin
2 for v V do D [v] := A[s, v]; D [s]:= 0;
3 for k := 1 to n - 2 do
4 for v V \ {s} do
. ..
68
. ..
69
,
: .
.
: V, E s V,
A [u, v], u, v V ( ).
: D[v] = d(s,
v), v V.
1 begin
2 for v V do D [v] := A[s, v]; D [s]:= 0;
3 T := V \ {s};
4 while T do
5 begin
6 u := r T, D[r] = min(D[p]: p T};
7 T := T \ {u};
8 for v T do D [v] := min(D[v], D[u] + A [u, v])
9 end
10 end.
, ,
4: v V \ T D[v] = d(s, v),
v T D[v] = s v,
V \ T. (4).
. ..
70
, 6 u T ,
D[u] ( ) D[t], t T.
, D[u] = d(s, u). ,
s u D[u], (4)
T.
t , T.
s t s t,
T.
(4) D[t] = d(s, t). ,
71
,
u v, D[u] D[v]
end.
, v,
, O(log n) .
v , .
, ,
, O(log n)
,
T. O(m log n) .
O(n log n) ,
n 1 . O(m log n).
, O(m) . , C,
k > 0 Ck(m + n1+1/k).
(V = {1,..., 6},
, D[v], v T, (*),
.
D [1] D[2] D[3] D[4] D[5] D[6]
1*
6*
3*
8*
4**
7*
8*
7*
5**
6**
** = min
,
O(n2) ,
( ).
.
.
, vi, vj, i < j.
.
. ..
72
,
.
: V, E,
[v], v V.
: v V NR[v], ,
u, v E NR[u] < NR[v].
begin
for v V do [v] := 0;
{ [v] = , v }
for u V do
for v [u] do [v] := [v] + 1;
:= ;
for v V do
if [v]= 0 then v;
num := 0;
while do
begin u ;
num := num + 1; NR[u] := num;
for v [u] do
begin [v]:= [v] -1;
if [v]= 0 then v;
end
end
end.
:
() ,
. , w1 ,
w2, w2 w1, w3,
w3 w2, ..
wi, ,
w1, w2, w3 , ... .
. ..
73
, ,
. 10 u (
),
. ,
, , ,
. u
. ,
v, u v;
[v]. - v , v
.
, (.
9), , .
,
4 12. , O(m)
( m = (n),
O(m + n)).
:
f(n) g(n) (c
) , ,
:
f(n) = O(g(n)) , N > 0, f(n) g(n)
n N
f(n) = (g(n)) , N > 0, f(n) g(n)
n N.
. ., , f(n) = (g(n)) , g(n) = O(f(n)).
,
.
: V, E , V = {v1, ..., vn},
vi, vj E i < j.
[v], v V.
: v1 :
D[vi] = d(v1, vi), i = 1, ..., n.
begin
D[v1] := 0;
for j := 2 to n do D[vj] := ;
for j := 2 to n do
. ..
74
,
i
(m+1)
dij
= min{dik(m) + akj : 1<k<n}
(2)
. ..
75
,
. min
, + ,
[dij(m+1)] [dij(m)] A = [aij].
A B A*B ,
0
0
L
M
M
M
M
L
0
(1) (2) , [dij(0) = U]
dij(m) = ((...((A*A)*A)...)*A) (m 1).
(3)
:
(1) dij(n-1) = dij(n) dij(m) = dij(n-1) m n.
dij(n-1) = d(vi, vj).
(2) dij(n-1) dij(n). ,
.
A*B n n
O(n3) (n n 1 n2
A*B). , [dij(n-1)]
O(n4).
, n-
. ,
, * (.. (A * B) * C = A * (B * C)).
(3), A
(n 1)
(log n) . ,
O(n3 log n),
.
. . dij(m)
vi vj {v1,
..., vm}.
:
dij(0) = aij,
(4)
(m+1)
(m)
(m)
(m)
dij
= min(dij ,dim +dmj ).
(5)
.
vi vj {v1, ...,
vm, vm+1}. vm+1, dij(m+1) = dij(m)
. ..
76
vm+1, vi vm+1
vm+1 vj, dij(m+1) = dim(m) +dmj(m).
(4) (5) d(vi,
vj) = dij(n),
1 i, j n.
: A[i, j], 1 i, j n,
.
: D[i, j] = d(vi, vj).
1 begin
2 for i := 1 to n do
3 for j := 1 to n do D[i, j] := A[i, j];
4 for i := 1 to n do D[i, i] := 0;
5 for m := 1 to n do
6 for i := 1 to n do
7 for j := 1 to n do
8 D[i, j] := min(D[i, j], D[i, m] + D[m, j];
9 end
, O(n3). ,
. ,
(..
)
,
.
. ,
V
E V V. ,
x, y E y, z E, x, z E x, y, z E. ,
E V V G = V, E .
E* = { x, y: V, E x y}.
, E* V E
E*. , E* ,
E, .. F E
E* F. E*
E.
E V, E,
1, E*
O(n3);
. ..
77
i
j
8
D[i, j]:= D[i, j] (D[i, m] D[m, j] ),
.
,
( ), ,
0, vi , v j E ,
Di, j
1, vi , v j E
,
, .
, , A,
(6),
cij aik b jg
n
k 1
O(nlog 7),
, O(nlog 7 log n).
,
O(nlog 7) ,
,
n.
,
.
E
( ) V, E.
, E ; ,
, ,
E, O(m + n).
10.5. ,
,
,
.
.
. ..
78
( )
D = (V, A)
D
u1, a1, u2, a2,..., ut, at,
ut+1, t 0,
ui V, ai A,
ai - (ui, ui+1).
u1, u2,
..., ut, ut+1
G = (V, E)
G
u1, e1, u2, e2,..., ut, et, ut+1, t
0, ui V, ei E, ei (ui, ui+1). u1, u2,
..., ut, ut+1. =
D
u1, a1, u2, a2,..., ut, at,
(. )
ut+1, t 0,
ui V, ai A,
ai (ui,
ui+1), (ui+1, ui).
u1, u2, ..., ut,
ut+1
G
D , ,
D
G
G
D
G
D u1, u1, u2, ..., ut, ut+1, ut+1=u1
a1, u2, a2,..., ut, at, ut+1,
ut+1=u1
G
D ,
,
D G
u1, u2, ..., ut, u1, u1, e1, u2, e2,..., ut, et, u1 ,
. ..
79
D
, u1, a1, u2, a2,...,
(. )
ut, at, u1, u1,
u2, ..., ut a1, a2,..., at
ui, - ui,
uj, ui uj uj,
ui uj , ui uj ,
ui
uj uj
ui
, , ,
, ,
,
,
d(ui, uj) ui
uj D
ui uj
, ui uj
( )
d(ui, uj) ui
uj G
ui uj
,
,
( )
D=(V, A)
G=(V, E)
G ,
(,
ui uj G
3),
ui uj Dui uj
ui ui
D
(, 1),
ui uj D
()
. ..
80
D
(, 2),
ui uj D ui uj, uj ui
D G (W, F),
(W, B), W V, B A
W V, F E
D
(W, B),
B A,
W
G
(W, F), F
E,
W
D
()
G
()
()
, (),
.
, (),
.
, , , , ,
.. ,
+1, -1. , , ..
, , , ,
.
(Heider
F. Attitudes and Cognitive Organization.- J. of Phych.., 21, 1946. P. 107-112).
-
/
.
. ..
81
(Cartwright D.
and Harary F. Structural Balance: A Generalization of Heider's Theory. Psych.
Rev., 63, 1956. P. 277-293) :
,
.
,
.
( )
G=(V,E) :
a.
G .
b.
G .
c.
ui uj
.
d.
V A B
,
.
.
d
, -
( ,
).
.
.
u v , u
v. , ,
, (
u v u
v), , (
u v
u v).
,
,
, , ,
.
,
.
. ..
82
,
()
(). ,
!
, , , ,
, , -
,
, , , ...
, , ,
, ,
, , ,
, .
.
,
, .
,
.
V(t),
. ..
83
() P(t), ,
, .
,
, .
11.
, .
.
,
, ,
.
a A;
b
B, b s S a;
s'
s a . ,
b = ( a, s), s' = ( a, s).
; A,
.
A, S, B.
, (A, S, B, , ),
.
.
. ,
,
,
,
.
( )
,
,
.
. ..
84
20
,
.
,
.
,
. (A, S, B, , )
.
, A (), S () B
() ,
. ,
. , ,
.
. , ,
. ,
.
, , .
,
. ,
, , , ;
,
.
,
,
.
(
, , ..),
(, , ..).
.
. ,
, ,
. ,
.
.
, M' M
. ..
85
, .. M ,
M'.
,
( ) ,
(
, .
,
.
, ,
, , .)
,
, . ,
,
.
,
.
.
.
(..
). ,
. ,
,
, .
, .
.
.
, . ,
.
( ,
. ..
86
.)
,
.
1. M =
[A, S, B, , ]. A = {0, 1}; B = {0, 1};
S = {s0, s1, s2};
: (s0, 0) a s1 : (s0, 0) a 0
(s0, 1) a s0 (s0, 1) a 1
(s1, 0) a s2 (s1, 0) a 1
(s1, 1) a s1 (s1, 1) a 0
(s2, 0) a s0 (s2, 0) a 1
(s2, 1) a s2 (s2, 1) a 0
0, 1, 0, 1.
s0, , 0, s1
0. 1, s1 0.
0, s2 1. ,
1, s2,
0, 0, 1, 0. ,
0, 1, 0, 1 (, , 0101) 0, 0, 1, 0 ( 0010).
. ,
,
.
. ..
87
,
. a, b, a
, ,
; b , .
,
.
s0
s1
s1
s2
s0
s2
s1
s0
s2
.
, . ,
, .
, s1
, s0 s2.
. ..
88
2. ,
.
,
, , s0,
, s1,
. .
,
3. , ,
EVEN () ODD () ,
Q.
Q, EVEN,
, ODD . ,
0110Q1110Q 0110 EVEN1110 ODD.
,
1936 . .
, S
. ..
89
, ,
.
A.
,
. (
.)
, :
1) ;
2) ( )
.
,
. ,
.
. .
. [A, S, ,
, ] . A ,
: A = {a0,
a1, . . ., an}. S S = {s0, s1, . . ., sr};
S A S; S A A; S A {, ,
}, .
. ,
s0.
, ,
, ,
(), (),
() .
- .
. ..
90
, :
, ,
, ( , ),
.
, (, , )
.
. , ,
, ,
, , .
, #.
. , ,
A = {#, 0, 1, , }.
: S = {s0, s1, s2}; s0 .
.
: (s0, 0) a s1 : (s0, 0) a 0 : (s0, 0) a
(s0, 1) a s2 (s0, 1) a 1 (s0, 1) a
(s1, 0) a s1 (s1, 0) a 0 (s1, 0) a
(s1, 1) a s2 (s1, 1) a 1 (s1, 1) a
(s2, 0) a s2 (s2, 0) a 0 (s2, 0) a
(s2, 1) a s1 (s2, 1) a 1 (s2, 1) a
(s0,#) a s0 (s0, #) a # (s0, #) a
(s1,#) a s1 (s1, #) a (s1, #) a
(s2,#) a s2 (s2, #) a (s2, #) a .
, , , .
[si, aj,
sr, zl, tn].
si ;
aj , ;
sr , sr = (si, aj);
zl , , zl = (si, aj);
tn , , .
. ..
91
:
s0 # s0 #
s0 0
s1
s0 1
s2
s1 0
s1
s1 1
s2
s2 0
s2
s2 1
s1
s1 #
s1
s2 # s2
. M = [A, S, Z, , ] .
A A Z
( )
si , ak si , ak si si
si , ak si , ak si ,
si , ak si ,
si , ak S A . T A , S , , ,
, M.
12.
,
,
.
,
.
,
.
(
) .
(),
(),
,
. ..
92
.
: = (V, W,
J, R), V W ,
( );
( )
( ) ; J
, ; R
, , ,
.
,
,
(.. , ).
.
, ,
( ,
).
,
- .
. ,
, ,
- , .
. {a, b, c},
{a, b}, a {a aab, a bc,
b b} a, aab, abcb, abcb, abcb;
abcb .
.
( , ),
a , a , ,
.
(- ), a.
(
) aab aa, a
, a b . ,
-
( ) - (, ).
,
. ..
93
. .
, ,
, .
, ,
.. ,
, .
.
, ,
.
, ,
.
,
.
, ,
( ),
(
)
.
. ,
:
1) ;
2) ;
3) ;
4) ;
5) ;
6) ;
7) .
,
.
, , .
,
,
.
.
,
.
. ..
94
, ,
,
,
.
, ( )
.
. , , 20
. (1912) . (1921).
1936 ,
.
, , . .
(
, ),
,
.
. , . , .. , .. .
, ..
.
.. :
,
.
.
, , ..
.
,
1) f,
f, x
f(x);
2) A X,
x X, x X A ,
x X \ A - ;
3) B,
, B.
,
. X,
X .
, ,
.
. ..
95
,
I)
. ,
II)
,
, .
:
III) f ,
, .. x, f(x).
IV) A X
X, A X \ A .
V) A B , A B A B .
VI) X
( (IV)
X).
VII) X
,
, X.
(VI) (II)
.
(
) ,
.
,
, ..
.
()
().
; , , ,
, .
,
, ..
. ,
,
.
.
,
.
.
. ..
96
(
);
1936
,
. ,
. .
:
( , , ;
1947 . .. . ,
1952 .
.. );
( ,
1958 . .. );
( ,
1970 .. );
.
:
1) ,
- ( , ,
);
2) ,
( , ,
); 1965 . ..
;
3) ,
;
4)
.
1.
. ..
97
_______________________________________________________________
(1)
:
A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
_______________________________________________________________
(2)
:
(A B) (C D) = (A C) (B C) (A D) (B D)
________________________________________________________________
(3)
:
A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C)
_______________________________________________________________
(4)
:
A \ (B C) = (A \ B) (A \ C)
_______________________________________________________________
(5)
:
A (B \C) = (A B) \ (A C) = (A B) \ C
_______________________________________________________________
(6)
:
(A \ B) \ C)= (A \ C) \ (B \ C)
_______________________________________________________________
(7)
:
(A B) [ A (B)] = (A B) [ A (B)] = A
_______________________________________________________________
(8)
:
A \ (B \ C) = (A \ B) (A C)
_______________________________________________________________
(9)
:
A \ (B C) = (A \ B) \ C
_______________________________________________________________
(10)
:
. ..
98
A B = A B (A B)
_______________________________________________________________
(11)
:
A B = (A B) (A B)
_______________________________________________________________
(12)
:
(A B) \ C = (A \ C) (B C)
_______________________________________________________________
(13)
:
(A B) \ C = (A \ C) (B \ C)
_______________________________________________________________
(14)
:
(A B) C = (A C) (B C)
2.
, ,
, :
1. - (
)
2.
.
3. 5- .
4. (
)
5. (QN, +) (Q2N, +): n 2n.
(QN , Q2N
)
6. (QN, +) (QN, +): n n.
(QN )
7. (QN, *) (QN, *): n n.
(QN )
8. (QN, *) (Q2N, *): n 2n.
(QN , Q2N
)
. ..
99
9. (N; +, *) (N7; , ): n n
mod 7. ( 7, 7,
N , N7 {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}).
10. .
11. (({1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}),,,)
(({a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i}),,,), () (
)
I.
1. ?
2. ?
3. ?
4.
?
5. ,
?
6. ?
7.
5 ?
8.
?
9.
?
II.
1. .
2. .
3. .
4. .
5. .
6. .
7. .
8. .
III. N n.
M,
N.
3. . .
1
. ..
100
1. ,
.
2. ,
n- .
3. n 4.
_____________________________________________________________
2
1. ,
.
2. , a b 5 , a,
b , ,
.
3. n 4.
_____________________________________________________________
3
1. ,
.
2. , n .
3. n 4.
____________________________________________________________
4
1. , ,
k, .
2. , a b 5 , a,
b , ,
.
3. n 4.
_____________________________________________________________
5
1. , a b 5 , a,
b
.
2. ,
.
3. n 4.
_____________________________________________________________
6
. ..
101
1. , a b 5 , a,
b
.
2. ,
n-
.
3. n 4.
____________________________________________________________
7
1. ,
.
2. , n .
3. n 4.
_____________________________________________________________
8
1. ,
.
2. , a b 5 , a,
b , ,
.
3. n 4.
_____________________________________________________________
9
1. ,
.
2. ,
n- .
3. n 4.
_____________________________________________________________
10
1. ,
.
2. ,
n-
.
3. n 4.
4. . ,
. ..
102
1
1)
:
((P Q) (P (Q P)))
2) :
((P Q) (Q P))
3) :
((A B) ((A B) (A B))) (A B)
4) , , ,
.
_________________________________________________________
2
1) :
( (P (Q P)) (P R))
2) :
((P Q) (P Q))
3) :
((A B) (A B)) A
4) , , ,
.
__________________________________________________________
3
1) :
((P (Q P)) P )
2) :
(P (Q (P Q)))
3) :
(A (A B)) (A B)
4) , , ,
.
__________________________________________________________
4
1) :
(((P Q) Q) (P Q))
2) :
((P Q) ((Q R) (P R)))
3) :
(A (B B)) A
4) , , ,
.
_________________________________________________________
5
. ..
1)
103
:
((P (Q R)) ((P Q) (P R)))
2) :
((P Q) (Q P))
3) :
(A (B B)) A
4) , , ,
.
__________________________________________________________
6
1) :
((P (Q P)) ((Q P) Q))
2) :
(( P Q) ((P Q) P))
3) :
((A B) (B C) (C A)) ((A B) (B C) (C A))
4) , , ,
.
__________________________________________________________
7
1) :
((P Q) (P (Q P)))
2) :
((Q P ) (Q P) Q)
3) :
(A B) (A B)
4) , , ,
.
__________________________________________________________
8
1) :
( (P (Q P)) (P R))
2) :
((Q R) ((P Q) (P R)
3) :
(A B) (A B)
4) , , ,
.
_________________________________________________________
9
. ..
104
1)
:
((P (Q P)) P )
2) :
((P Q) ((P (Q R)) (P R)))
3) :
(A B) (A B)
4) , , ,
.
_________________________________________________________
10
1) :
(((P Q)) Q) (P Q)
2) :
(((P Q) P) P)
3) :
(A (B B)) A
4) , , ,
.
__________________________________________________________
11
1) :
((P (Q P)) P )
2) :
(P (P Q))
3) :
((A B) (B C) (C A)) ((A B) (B C) (C A))
4) , , ,
.
__________________________________________________________
12
1) :
(((P Q)) Q) (P Q)
2) :
((P Q) Q)
3) :
((A B) ((A B) (A B))) (A B)
4) , , ,
.
1. , ,
. ..
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
105
;
, m;
;
;
;
n;
3-
?
2. ( ) , n 5.
_______________________________________________________________
5. . ,
1
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 0 1 0 0 1
B 0 1 1 1 1 1
C 1 0 0 1 0 0
D 0 0 1 0 0 1
E 0 0 1 0 0 1
F
1 0 0 1 1 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
_______________________________________________________________
2
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 1 1 1 0 1 1
B 1 1 0 1 1 0
C 1 1 0 1 0 0
D 1 1 0 1 0 0
E 0 0 0 1 1 1
F 1 0 1 1 0 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
_______________________________________________________________
3
. ..
106
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 1 0 1 0 1
B 0 0 1 1 0 1
C 1 1 0 0 1 0
D 0 1 0 0 0 1
E 1 1 0 0 1 1
F 0 0 0 0 0 1
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
4
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 1 1 1 0 1 1
B 1 0 0 1 1 0
C 0 1 0 1 1 0
D 1 0 1 1 1 1
E 0 1 1 0 1 1
F 1 1 1 0 0 1
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
_______________________________________________________________
5
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 1 1 0 0 0
B 1 1 0 0 0 1
C 0 1 1 0 0 0
D 0 1 1 0 1 0
E 0 1 0 1 0 0
F 0 1 0 0 0 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
6
. ..
107
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 1 0 0 1 0 0
B 1 1 0 0 1 0
C 0 0 0 0 1 0
D 0 0 1 0 0 0
E 0 1 0 1 0 0
F 0 1 0 0 0 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
7
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 1 0 1 0 1
B 1 1 1 1 0 0
C 1 1 1 0 1 1
D 1 1 1 1 0 0
E 0 0 1 0 0 1
F 1 1 1 1 1 1
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
8
1. , :
A B C D E F
A
0 0 0 0 0 0
B
0 0 0 0 1 1
C
1 0 0 1 1 1
D
0 0 1 1 0 0
E
1 0 0 1 0 1
F
0 0 1 0 0 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
9
. ..
108
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 1 1 1 1 1
B 1 1 0 0 1 0
C 0 1 0 1 1 0
D 0 1 0 0 1 0
E 0 0 1 0 1 0
F 0 1 0 0 0 1
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
10
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 1 0 1 1 1
B 1 0 1 0 1 1
C 1 0 0 1 0 1
D 1 0 1 0 0 1
E 0 1 0 0 0 0
F 1 1 0 0 0 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
11
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 0 1 0 1 1
B 0 1 1 0 0 0
C 1 1 0 1 0 0
D 0 1 1 1 0 0
E 1 0 0 0 0 0
F 1 1 0 1 0 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
_______________________________________________________________
12
. ..
109
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 1 0 0 0 1 1
B 0 0 0 0 0 1
C 0 0 1 0 1 0
D 0 0 1 0 1 0
E 1 0 1 1 0 1
F 1 1 1 1 1 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
_______________________________________________________________
13
1. , :
A B C D E F
A 0 1 1 1 0 1
B 1 0 1 0 1 1
C 1 0 1 1 1 0
D 0 0 0 1 1 1
E 1 0 0 0 1 0
F 0 1 1 1 0 0
2. , ,
, .
3. ,
, .
_______________________________________________________________
6. . (, )
:
) ? , ,
, , ;
) ? , , ,
, ;
) ? , ;
) ? , ;
. ..
110
9.
1. G
, G.
.
_______________________________________________________________
2. G
, G. G
,
.
.
_______________________________________________________________
3. G
, G. G
, (
) .
.
_______________________________________________________________
4. ,
.
.
_______________________________________________________________
5. ( ) G , V
V1 V2 ,
G .
, , .
_______________________________________________________________
. ..
111
6. G ,
( , )
.
, .
_______________________________________________________________
7. G
, (
, ) .
, .
_______________________________________________________________
8. v0v1vn , . . .
G G ( ).
, G .
, .
_______________________________________________________________
9. v0v1vn , . . .
G G
( ). , G .
, .
_______________________________________________________________
10. v0v1vn , . . .
d(u, v) v G
, ; v ,
d(u, v) = .
(u-v)- .
d(G) G .
, .
_______________________________________________________________
11. G
, G. G
, (
) .
, , .
.
.
_______________________________________________________________
12. ( ) .
, , .
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120
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