Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

KgrsiBeftg
KgrsiBeftg`rKgrsiLfgmgt(74747467)wgsgZgisfkgvitep`et-sgikt,wf`isreveredik
MuogrgticitergturegsitsGdiHgvi.BgfgtbgMgkdfi'sjgv`uriteLfgogk"ZgisfkgvOgkT`"wgs
gnregti`k`jKgrsiBeftg.
KgrsiBeftgwgstfepi`keerp`et`jMuogrgticitergture.Fiswr`teQgdgsngccedGhfygkgkd
Qrglfgtiyg gkd kuber`us Lfgogks gkd Hirtgks wfinf were preserved `rgccy j`r nekturies
lej`releikmsnriptedikwritikm.
^fgbgcLfgtt
^fgbgc Lfgtt wgs g Muogrgti gutf`r `j 76tf
nektury. Fe is spenigc lenguse, Bgfgtbg
Mgkdfi `kne sgid tfgt ideg `j ^gtygmrgfg wgs
n`kneived ik g pribitive j`rb ly fib tghikm
ikspirgti`k jr`b `ke `j tfe p`ebs `j ^fgbgc
Lfgtt.
KgrbgdgsfgkhgrDgve
Kgrbgdgsfgkhgr Dgve `r KgrbgdwgsgMuogrgtigutf`r,p`et,snf`cgrgkdcexin`mrgpfer`j
79tfnektury.Fisb`stp`pucgrw`rhistfep`eb"OgiOgiMgrgviMuogrgt ".Ik<114,tfe^`utf
MuogrgtUkiversitywgsrekgbedgjterfiskgbe.
HBBuksfi
HgkgiygcgcBgkehcgcBuksfi(766=79=7)wgsjreed`bb`vebektgntivist,p`citinigkgkd
tfej`ukder`jLfgrgtiygZidygLfgvgk.Fewr`tekuber`usk`vecs,drgbgsgkdk`k-jinti`k
w`rhsikMuogrgtigkdsevergcw`rhsikEkmcisf.
Tfe b`st jgb`us w`rh is fis tric`my wfinf ikncudes Qgtgk-ki-Qrglfutg (Tfe Mregtkess `j
Qgtgk),Muogrgt-k`-Kgtf(Tfe\ucer`jMuogrgt)gkd\gogdfirgo(TfeEbper`r).
Fewgsgntivepgrtinipgktikjreed`bb`vebekteversiknegrrivgc`jMgkdfiikIkdig.Iktfe
Lgrd`ci^gtygmrgfg,fesupp`rted^grdgrQgtec.J`rglriejperi`d,feo`ikedtfe^wgrgopgrty
lutcgterreturkedt`IKN`kMgkdfi'slefestgttfetibe`jcguknf`j^gct^gtygmrgfg. Buksfi
wgs`ktfegdf`nJcgmN`bbitteetfgtsecentedtfeJcgm`jIkdigikGumust794=,gkd`ktfe
n`bbittee wfinf drgjted tfe N`kstituti`k `j Ikdig ukder tfe nfgirbgksfip `j L. \.

Bgfgtbg Mgkdfi's ideg `j ^gtygmrgfg t``h
ikspirgti`kjr`btfej`cc`wikm?
7. G Q`eb `j ^fgbgc Lfgtt, wfinf fe cegrkt
wfekfewgseimftyegr`cd.
<.^erb`k`ktfeB`ukt(^gyikm`jOesus)
>.KewTestgbekt
4.Lfgmgvgd-Mitggkd
5.Hikmd`b`jM`diswitfiky`u(Ce`T`cst`y).
<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
7= |Q g m e
n`bbittee wfinf drgjted tfe N`kstituti`k `j Ikdig ukder tfe nfgirbgksfip `j L. \.
Gbledhgr.
UbgsfgkhgrO`sfi
Ubgsfgkhgr Oetfgcgc O`sfi wgs tfe jirst wikker `j Okgkpitf gwgrd ik Muogrgti Cgkmugme ik
79:=j`rfisn`ccenti`k`jp`ebstitcedKisfitfg.
Nfgpter=. HgkkgdgCitergture
Hgvirgogbgrmg
Tfis is tfe egrciest gvgicglce w`rh ik Hgkkgdg writtek ik nirng 651 GD ly tfe \gsotrghutg
hikmKripgtukmg.

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

Qgbpg
Qgbpgwgstfeb`strek`wkedp`et`jHgkkgdgwf`gd`rkedtfen`urt`jtfeNfgcuhyghikm
GrihesgkII. Feisgcs`hk`wkgsGdiHgvi`jHgkkgdg.Fegutf`redtfetw`mregtncgssinsGdi
Qurgkg,wfinfdegcswitftfecije`jZrisfglg-tfejirstOgikTirtfgkhgrg,gkdZihrgbgroukg-
viogyg (gcs` ngcced Qgbpg-Lfgrgtg), wfinf gk gdgptgti`k `j Zygsg's Bgfglfgrgtg ikt`
Hgkkgdg.
HebpuKgrgygkg
HebpuKgrgygkgwr`teBudrgbgkousgik76<>,wfinfistfejirstfist`ringcr`bgknewrittek
ikpr`seikHgkkgdg. Fegkdgk`tferp`etK.Cghsfbikgrgygkgppg`rBuddgkggrehk`wkgs
oewecs`jB`derkHgkkgdgCitergture.
Huvebpu
Huppgci Zekhgtgppg M`wdg Quttgppg (7914 7994), p`pucgrcy hk`wk gs Huvebpu wgs
mregtest p`et `j <1tf nektury Hgkkgdg citergture. Fe is tfe jirst gb`km eimft renipiekts `j
OkgkpitfGwgrdj`rHgkkgdg.Fegc`kmwitfB.M`vikdgQgigrereveredgs\gsftrgHgviik
HgkkgdgCitergture.FewgsgwgrdedOkgkpitfgwgrdj`r"^ri\gbgygkgDgrsfgkgb".
NfgkdrgsfehfgrgHgblgrg
Nfgkdrgsfehfgrg Hgblgrg (l`rk Ogkugry <, 79>=) is g pr`bikekt p`et,
pcgywrimft,j`chc`rist,jicbdirent`rikHgkkgdgcgkmugmegkdtfej`ukder-vine-
nfgknecc`r`jHgkkgdgUkiversityikFgbpi.
Fe is hk`wk j`r fis ejjentive usgme `j K`rtf Hgrkgtghg digcent `j Hgkkgdg
cgkmugme ik fis pcgys gkd p`ebs. Fe fgs leek n`kjerred witf bgky prestimi`us
gwgrdsikncudikmtfeOkgkpitfGwgrdik<177j`rtfeyegr<171,^gfitygGhgdebiGwgrd,tfe
Qgdbg^frilyM`verkbekt`jIkdig,Hglir^gbbgk,Hgcidgs^gbbgkgkdQgbpgGwgrd.
Nfgpter6. HgsfbiriCitergture
\efbgk\gfi

<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
76 |Q g m e

Gldur\efbgk\gfi(l`rk79<5)isgHgsfbirip`et,trgkscgt`rgkdnritin.Feisgwikker`j
^gfitygGhgdebiGwgrdik79:7j`rfisp`etryn`ccenti`kKgwr`z-i-^glg,tfeQgdbg^friik
<111,tfeOkgkpitfGwgrd<114j`rfisn`ktriluti`kt`Ikdigkcitergture. Fe is tfe jirst gkd
`kcyHgsfbiriwritert`legwgrdedtfeOkgkpitfgwgrd j`rfisw`rh ^iygf\udOegrekBgk(Ik
fegvyd`wkp`ur`jLcgnhrgik).
Nfgpter9. BgcgygcgbCitergture
\gbgnfgritgb
\gbgnfgritgb (7>tf nektury) is tfe `cdest Bgcgygcgb text gkd is g bixture `j Bgcgygcgb
gkdTgbiccgkmugmes.ItwgswritteklyNfeergbghgvi.
NferusseriKgbl``diri
NferusseriKgbl``diriwgstfejirstlimkgbeikBgcgygcgbcitergture,wf`sew`rh Hrisfkg
Mgtfg (75tfnektury)isn`ksideredgs`ke`jtfebgsterpienesikpureBgcgygcgb.

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

Ezfuttgnfnfgk

Tuknfgttu\gbgkuogEzfuttgnfnfgkwgsg7:tfnekturyp`et`jBgcgygcgbcgkmugmegkdis
hk`wk gs "tfe jgtfer `j tfe Bgcgygcgb cgkmugme". Tfe b`st revered w`rh `j fis gre
Gdfygtfbgrgbgygkgb gkd Bgfglfgrgtfgb. Fe wgs g str`km pr`p`kekt `j tfe Lfghti
B`vebektgkdfisp`ebsgrencgssijiedukdertfemekre`jhicippgttu.
HubgrgkGsgk
HubgrgkGsgk(76=>-79<4)wgsgp`et,pfic`s`pfer,gs`nigcrej`rbergkdgdisnipce`j^ree
KgrgygkgMuru.Feisn`ksideredt`le`ke`jtfejirstb`derkp`ets`jBgcgygcgbcgkmugme.
Fewr`tetfeepinp`eb LuddfgNfgritfgikBgcgygcgb.Lenguse`jtfequgktub`jfisw`rh,
feisseekgs`kcy Bgcgygcgbp`etwf`lengbegBgfghgviwitf`utwritikmgBgfghgvyg.

M.^gkhgrgHurup
TfeOgkgkpitfgwgrdsikIkdigwereikitigtedik79:5gkdtfejirstwikkerM.^gkhgrgHurup,
gBgcgygcgbp`et,wf`w`ktfisgwgrdj`r@dghhuzfgc(Tfelgbl``jcute,7951).
@.K.Z.Hurup
@ttgpcgvic Keecghgkdgk Zecu Hurup `r sibpcy @KZ is tfe <11=
Okgkpitf Gwgrd wikker. Fe reneived tfe Qgdbgsfri Gwgrd jr`b tfe
M`verkbekt`jIkdigik7996.@KZis5tfBgcygcee&sen`kdBgcygcee
p`ett`mettfeOkgkpitfGwgrd.
Tfe`tfertfreeOkgkpitfgwgrdwikkersjr`bHergcggre^.H.Q`ttehgd
(7961),Tfghgzfi^ivg^gkhgrgQiccgi(7964)gkdB.T.ZgsudevgkKgir
(7995).
Fewritess`kmsj`rBgcgygcgbJicbsgsweccgsik7969,few`ktfekgti`kgcgwgrdj`rlest
<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
79 |Q g m e
cyrinistj`rtfejicb"Zgisfgci".Fefgsgcs`w`k7>stgtejicbgwgrdsj`rlestcyrinist.Fisjirst
pulcisfedp`ebwgs"Bukk`ttu"(J`rwgrd)wfinfgppegredikgc`ngcweehcy.
Nfgpter71. BgrgtfiCitergture
Egrciestdevec`pbekt`jBgrgtfiukderYgdgvgs
Bgrgtfi wgs tfe n`urt cgkmugme `j tfe Ygdgvgs `j Devgmiri (651-7>7< NE). Tfe Ygdgvgs
n`ktriluted mregtcy t`wgrds
tfe `rimik gkd mr`wtf `j tfe
Bgrgtfi citergture ly
pgtr`kisikmcegrkedbek`jtfis
cgkmugme.
^gktDkygkesfwgr/Okgkgdev
Dkygkesfwgr (7<=57<9:) `r
Okgkgdevg wgs g 7>tf nektury
y`mi`jtfeKgtftrgditi`kgkdis
Lghfgrs
Tfe Lghfgrs gre ibp`rtgkt ik tfe n`kstrunti`k `j fist`ry `j tfe
Bgrgtfgs.Lghfgrbegkst`tecctfekews`rren`rd`jfgppekikms
`r li`mrgpfy `j gk ebikekt pers`k gkd is writtek `k its `wk
`rders. Lghfgrs gre writtek ik B`di snript `j Bgrgtfi cgkmugme.
^`be fist`rigks sgy tfgt Lghfgrs gre lgsed `k fegrsgy gkd
sen`kdgry ikj`rbgti`k gkd ngk k`t nekt pernekt le recied up`k
tfeb.Gb`kmtfe
Lghfgrcitergture,tfe^glfgsgdLghfgristfepribegkdtfeb`st
ibp`rtgkt, wfinf is writtek ly Hrisfkgoi Gkgkt ^glfgsgd, g
bikister`j Nffgtrgpgti \gogrgb ik 7:94. Ik Bgrgtfi cgkmugme,
^fghgvgcies gkd `jjinigc jices gkd digries gcs` gre tregted gs
s`urnes`jtfisfist`ry.

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

n`ksidered t` le jirst Bgrgtfi citergry jimure wf` fgd wide regdersfip gkd pr`j`ukd
ikjcuekne. Fis w`rh Lfgvgrtfg Deepihg (g n`bbektgry `k Lfgmgvgd Mitg) gkd
Gbrutgkulfgvgren`ksideredt`lebicest`kesikBgrgtficitergture. LfgvgrtfDeepihgisg
9111-n`upcetsc`kmn`bbektgry`ktfeLfgmgvgdMitg).
^gktTuhgrgb
^gktTuhgrgb(75==7:51)wgsZgrhgri^gktgkdspiritugcp`et`jtfeLfghti.Feiswidecy
n`ksidered t` le tfe jirst b`derk p`et `j Bgrgtfi. Tuhgrgb wgs g dev`tee `j Zittfgcg `r
Zitf`lggkdgdisnipce`jLgfgmgtKgbdev.

Fisp`etryisn`ksideredt`letfezekitf`jtfecitergrydevec`pbektlytfeZgrhgrisentik
BgrgtfiCgkmugme.Feislesthk`wkj`rbgkyGlfgkmgswritteklyfib.TfeGlfgkmgsgre
tfe dev`ti`kgc p`etry sukm ik prgise `j Zitf`lg, jirst ly tfe Zgrhgri sgikts cihe Kgbdev,
Dfygkesfwgr,EhkgtfgkdTuhgrgbikBgrgtfi.
^gbgrtf\gbdgs
^gbgrtf\gbdgs(7:167:67)wgs`ke`jtfeb`stibp`rtgktspiritugcp`ets`jIkdigwf`is
lest hk`wk j`r fis Bgrgtfi Grti `j C`rd Mgkesfg " ^uhfhgrt Duhffgrt Zrt Zimfknfi".
Dgsl`df is tfe b`st jgb`us l``h gsnriled t` ^gbgrgtf \gbdgs. Dgsl`df is g tregtise `k
GdvgitgZedgktg.
Oy`tilgQfuce
Bgfgtbg Oy`tirg` M`vikdrg` Qfuce (76<= 7691) wgs g s`nigc rej`rber, writer,
<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
<1 |Q g m e
Bgfgtbg Oy`tirg` M`vikdrg` Qfuce (76<= 7691) wgs g s`nigc rej`rber, writer,
pfic`s`pfer,tfe`c`mist,snf`cgr,edit`rgkdrev`cuti`kgry,lesthk`wkgspi`keer`jw`bek's
edungti`kikIkdig.
Fe j`rbed ^gtyg ^f`dfgh ^gbgo ik 76=> witf tfe bgik `loentive `j cilergtikm tfe
Lgfuogks,^fudrgsgkdGti-^fudrgsgkdpr`tentikmtfebjr`bexpc`itgti`kgkdgtr`nities.
@ke`jfislesthk`wkw`rhsis Mfucgbmiri,wfinfwgsikspiredlytfeGberingknivicwgr.
Fe mgve g bessgme t` tfe c`wer ngstes t` tghe ikspirgti`k jr`b Gbering. Gk`tfer jgb`us
w`rh is ^fethgrygng Gsud(Tfe ]fipn`rd `j tfe Nuctivgt`rs), g nritique `j tfe o`ikt
expc`itgti`k`jpegsgktrylytfeLritisfgkdLrgfbgksikluregunrgny.
M`pgcFgriDesfbuhf(C`hfitwgdi)
M`pgc Fgri Desfbuhf (76<> 769<) wgs g s`nigc rej`rber jr`b L`blgy Qresidekny. Fe
retiredgsgsessi`ksoudmeiktfeLritisfM`verkbekt.Feusedt`writeikgweehfcyBgrgtfi
kewspgperukdertfepekkgbeC`hfitgwgdi,`ksevergcs`nigcissuessunfgsngstesysteb,
edungti`k `j w`bek, grrgkmed nficd bgrrigmes, d`wry systeb, p`cymgby etn. Fe gcs`
j`ukdedgpulcincilrgryikL`blgygkdgcs`pcgyedr`ceikj`ukdgti`ks`jsevergcperi`dingcs
sunf gs Mygk Qrghgsf ( ), Ikdu Qrghgsf ( ), gkd ''C`hfitwgdi ( ) ik
Bgfgrgsftrg.

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

BgfgdevM`vikd\gkgde
Oustine Bgfgdev M`vikd \gkgde
(764< 7917) wgs `ke `j tfe
j`ukdikm beblers `j tfe Ikdigk
Kgti`kgc N`kmress. Fe wgs gk
ikjcuektigc pers`kgcity ik tfe 79tf
nekturyLritisfIkdig.
Fe fecped ik tfe estglcisfbekt `j
tfe Q``kg ^grvgogkih ^glfg gkd tfe Qrgrtfgkg ^gbgo. Fe is lest hk`wk gs tfe jirst Ikdigk
tfikhert`mivetfeideg`jg"wecjgrestgte".
FgriKgrgygkGpte
FgriKgrgygkGptewgsgBgrgtfiwriter`j79tfgkd<1tfnektury,wf`wr`tebgkys`nigc
gkd fist`ringc k`vecs, rejcentikm tfe n`ktebp`rgry cije. ^`be `j fis k`tglce k`vecs gre
Bgkoumf`sfggkdBuhtgbgcg.
Zisfku^ghfgrgbHfgkdehgr
Zisfku ^ghfgrgb Hfgkdehgr wgs gk ebikekt writer, wf` wgs tfe jirst Okgkpitf gwgrd
\gkgdegkd]ecjgre^tgte
N`knept `j ]ecjgre ^tgte wgs jirst mivek ly Grnflisf`p ]iccigb
Tebpce durikm tfe ^en`kd ]`rcd ]gr gkd wgs jirst ibpcebekted
ly Lisbgrnh. Ik b`derk Ikdig, it wgs Oustine Bgfgdev M`vikd
\gkgdewf`isgnneptedt`letfejirsttfikherwf`mgvetfeideg`j
g wecjgre stgte. Fe sgid tfgt tfe stgte k`w is b`re gkd b`re
ren`mkized gs tfe kgti`kgc `rmgk j`r tghikm ngre `j tfe kgti`kgc
keedsikgccbgttersikwfinfikdividugcgkdn``pergtiveejj`rtsgre
k`tcihecyt`leejjentivegskgti`k'sejj`rt.
<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
<7 |Q g m e
Zisfku ^ghfgrgb Hfgkdehgr wgs gk ebikekt writer, wf` wgs tfe jirst Okgkpitf gwgrd
wikker ik Bgrgtfi cgkmugme j`r fis bgmkub `pus Ygygti. Ygyti ( ) reneived tfree
prestimi`usgwgrds?GBgfgrgsftrg^tgteGwgrd(79:1),g^gfitygGhgdebiGwgrd(79:1),
gkdgOkgkpitfGwgrd(79=4).
Husubgmrgo(ZisfkuZbgk^firwdhgr)
Husubgmrgo wgs tfe p`pucgr kgbe `j Zisfku Zbgk ^firwdhgr (797< 7999), gk
ebikekt Bgrgtfi p`et, pcgywrimft gkd k`vecist. Fe is lest hk`wk j`r fis pcgy Kgtsgbrgt
wfinf w`k fib Okgkpitf gwgrd ik 796=. Fis `tfer w`rh Zisfghg (794<) is g n`ccenti`k `j
cyrins,ikspiredgmekergti`kikt`tfeIkdigkjreed`bb`vebekt,gkdist`dgyn`ksidered`ke
`jtfebgsterpienes`jIkdigkcitergture.
Nfgpter77. @diygCitergture
Nfgrygpgdgs
Nfgrygpgdg is n`ksidered t` le tfe egrciest extgkt w`rh ik tfe jiecd `j Lekmgci, Gssgbese,
@diyggsweccgstfeBgitficiCgkmugme.Itsgn`ccenti`k`jLuddfistbystingcp`ebs`rs`kms
lec`kmikm t` 6tf7<tf nektury. Tfese s`kms fgve tfe ecebekt `j tfe ritugc mgtferikm `j
prgntiti`kers ik g tgktrin jegst. Tfe Nfgrygpgdgs were writtek ly tfe Bgfgsiddfgs `r
^iddfgnfgrygs, wf` lec`kmed t` tfe vgri`us remi`ks `j Gssgb, Lekmgc, @disfg gkd Lifgr.
Nfgrygpgdgisgcs`tfen`ccenti`k`jtfe`cdestverseswrittekikpre-B`derkLekmgci.