Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

^grgcgDgs
^grgcgDgswgsg75tf-nekturyp`etgkdsnf`cgr`j@diygcitergture,lesthk`wkj`rgtric`my
Bgfglfgrgtg,Zicgkhg\gbgygkggkdNfgkdiQurgkg.Feisn`ksideredt`letfejirst@diyg
writer.
Qgknfgsghfg
Qgknfgsghfgs were tfe jive p`ets `j @diyg Cgkmugme ik 75tf gkd 7:tf nektury. Tfese were
LgcgrgbDgs,OgmgkkgtfDgs,GnfyutgkgkdgDgs,GkgktgDgsgkdOgs`lgktgDgs.Gcc`jwere
jr`btfeUthgciygvgsifkgvisb.
UpekdrgLfgkog
Upekdrg Lfgkog wgs g @diyg Q`et `j 7=tf nektury wf` wr`te Lidefisfg Licgsg, H`ti
Lrgfbgkdg ^ukdgri gkd Cgvgkyglgti. Tfese gre n`ksidrered t` le tfe cgkdbgrhs `j @diyg
Citergture.Gcs`s`btibesrejerredgsHgli^gbrgtgb`km@diygp`ets.
\gdfgkgtf\gy
<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
<< |Q g m e
\gdfgkgtf\gy
\gdfgkgtf\gy(76497916)wgstfeb`stwecc-hk`wk@diygp`et`jtfis79tfnektury.Fe
wr`teiktigccyikLekmgcigsweccgs@diyglutcgtersfijtedektirecyt`@diygcgkmugme.Feis
f`k`uredik@diygcitergturewitftfetitceHglilgrg.
JghirB`fgk^ekgpgti
Jghir B`fgk ^ekgpgti (764>7976) wgs g pr`cijin @diyg jinti`k writer gkd is hk`wk gs
jgtfer `j b`derk @diyg pr`se jinti`k. Fis \elgti (7696) is widecy ren`mkized gs tfe jirst
@riygsf`rtst`ry.
M`pglgkdfuDgs
M`pglgkdfu Dgsf (76==79<6), j`kdcy ngcced gs Uthgcgbgkiwgsgs`nigcw`rher,rej`rber,
p`citingc gntivist, o`urkgcist, p`et gkd essgyist. Fe wgs ikstrubektgc ik bghikm @riyg
o`urkgcisbsuitglcej`rtfen`bb`kbgk.Fepulcisfedgb`ktfcybgmgzikengcced^gtyglgdi
ik7974.Fegcs`stgrtedtfep`pucgr@diygkewspgper^gbgo.
M`pgcgNfgkdrgQrgfgrgo
Tfe Qurkgnfgkdrg@riygLfgsfgh`sfgisgb`kubektgc=-v`cubew`rh`jgl`ut9,511pgmes
pulcisfedletweek79>1gkd7941.Itwgsgresuct`jtfevisi`kgkddedingtedw`rh`jM`pgc
NfgkdrgQrgfgrgo(76=47945)`verkegrcytfreedengdes.
M`pikgtfB`fgkty
M`pikgtfB`fgkty(79747997)wgstfejirstwikker`jtfeprestimi`usOkgkpitfgwgrdj`r
@diyg Cgkmugme gkd is n`ksidered t` le tfe b`st ebikekt @diyg writer gjter Jghir B`fgk
^ekgpgti. Fe reneived Okgkpitf gwgrd j`r Bgtibgtgcg (79:4), g k`vec `j epin dibeksi`k
lgsed`kcijeikrurgc@disfg.

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

^itghgktBgfgpgtrg
^itghgkt Bgfgpgtrg (l`rk 79>=) is g j`rber IG^ `jjiner gkd is g k`tglce p`et gkd citergry
nritinik@diyggkdEkmcisfcgkmugme.Fewgsgwgrdedtfe79=4^gfitygGhgdebiGwgrdik
@riyg j`r fis p`etry n`ccenti`k, ^gldgr Ghgsf (Tfe ^hy `j ]`rds) gkd wgs gwgrded tfe
OkgkpitfGwgrdik799>j`r`utstgkdikmn`ktriluti`kt`Ikdigkcitergture.
Qrgtilfg\gy

Qrgtilfg\gyisgcegdikm@riygk`vecistgkdgngdebinigk,wf`fgswrittek`ver41
k`vecs,trgvec`muesgkdsf`rtst`ries.^feiswikker`jtfeOkgkpitfGwgrdj`rtfe
yegr<177.^fewgstfejirstw`bgkt`wiktfeB``rtideviGwgrdik7997.

<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
<> |Q g m e
Nfgpter7<. QukogliCitergture
Tfe Gdi Mrgktfg `r Muru Mrgktf ^gfil is `ke `j tfe egrciest texts ik Qukogli. It wgs writtek k`t
strintcyikQukoglilutiktfeMurubuhfisnript.
LglgJgrid
Lglg Jgrid `r Fgzrgt
JgrduddkMgkosfghgrwgs
g 7<tf-nektury ^uji sgkt `j
tfe Nfisfti @rder. Qukogl's
Jgridh`ttghesitkgbejr`b
LglgJgrid.
Feisren`mkizedgstfejirst
bgo`r p`et `j tfe Qukogli
Cgkmugme.LglgJgridisgcs``ketfejijteek^ihflfgmgts.

^`bepgrts`jtfep`ebs`jLglgJgridfgveleekikncudediktfeMuruMrgktf^gfil.
^fgfFussgik
^fgf Fussgik wgs g Qukogli
^uji p`et `j 7:tf nektury,
wf`, gc`km witf Luccef
^fgf gkd Lglg Jgrid, is
n`ksidered g pi`keer `j tfe
Hgji j`rb `j Qukogli p`etry.
^fgf Fussgik's c`ve j`r g
Lrgfbikl`yngcced"Bgdf`"
`r "Bgdf` Cgc" is jgb`us, gkd tfey gre `jtek rejerred t` gs g sikmce pers`k witf tfe
n`bp`sitekgbe`j"Bgdf`CgcFussgik".
Luccef^fgf
LglgJgrid?N`ktriluti`kt`Citergture
@ke `j Jgrd's b`st ibp`rtgkt n`ktriluti`ks t` Qukogli citergture wgs fis
devec`pbekt `j tfe cgkmugme j`r citergry purp`ses. ]feregs ^gkshrit,
Grglin,TurhisfgkdQersigkfgdfist`ringccyleekn`ksideredtfecgkmugmes
`j tfe cegrked gkd tfe ecite, gkd used ik b`kgstin nektres, Qukogli wgs
mekergccy n`ksidered g cess rejiked j`ch cgkmugme. Gctf`umf egrcier p`ets
fgdwrittekikgpribitiveQukogli,lej`reJgrdtferewgscittceikQukogli
citergturegpgrtjr`btrgditi`kgcgkdgk`kyb`uslgccgds.LyusikmQukogli
gs tfe cgkmugme `j p`etry, Jgrd cgid tfe lgsis j`r g verkgnucgr Qukogli
citergturetfgtw`ucdledevec`pedcgter.
(wihipedig).
HgjiversusWgwwgci
Hgjiisgcyringcn`bp`siti`k,b`stcyikQukogligkd^ikdfi,begktj`rsikmikm
ik nertgik styce. Tfe suloent bgtter is essektigccy bystin`-etfingc ik kgture.
@ke `j tfe verses n`bprises tfe nektrgc tfebe wfinf is ebpfgsised ly
repititi`k. Hikdcy k`te tfgt prgntingccy Hgji gkd Wgwwgci gre sgbe gs jgr gs
sikmikmisn`knerkedluttfebgo`rdijjerekneistfgtHgjiisusedt`express
tferecimi`usseiksilicitywficeWgwwgcisfgvegwidergkme`jtfebes.Lglg
Jgrid,Luccef^fgfgkd^fgfFussgikgretfeb`stibp`rtgktpi`keers`jHgji
mekre`jp`etrygkdsikmikm.Tfeb`stibp`rtgktn`ktebp`rgrysikmers`jHgji
gkdWgwwgcigreKusrgtJgtefGciHfgk,GlidgQgrveeketn.

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

Luccef ^fgf (7:617=5=) wgs `ke `j tfe b`st ebikekt Qukogli ^uji p`et gkd pfic`s`pfer
wf`islesthk`wkj`rfisHgjiverses.
]gris^fgf
]gris ^fgf (7=<<7=96) wgs `ke `j
tfe pi`keers `j tfe Wissg (st`ry)
trgditi`k`jtfeQukoglij`chcitergture.
WissgTrgditi`k?Feer\gkofggkd^`fkiBgfiwgc
Qukogli ^uji p`etry gcs` ikjcuekned `tfer Qukogli citergry
trgditi`ks pgrtinucgrcy tfe Qukogli Wissg, g mekre `j r`bgktin
trgmedywfinfgcs`derivedikspirgti`kjr`bIkdin,Qersigkgkd
Wurgkin s`urnes. Tfe Wissg `j Feer \gkofg ly ]gris ^fgf
(7=1:7=96) is gb`km tfe b`st p`pucgr `j Qukogli qisse.
@tfer p`pucgr st`ries ikncude ^`fki Bgfiwgc ly Jgzgc ^fgf,
<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
<4 |Q g m e
Fe is lest hk`wk j`r fis bgmkub`pus
Feer \gkofg, lgsed `k tfe trgditi`kgc
j`chtgce`jFeergkdferc`ver\gkofg.
Kgkgh^ikmf
Kgkgh^ikmf(769=79=7)wgsgp`et,s`kmwritergkdk`vecistiktfeQukoglicgkmugme,wf`
fecpedcikhtfek`vect`tfest`ryteccikmtrgditi`ks`jWissggkd`rgctrgditi`k.
Fe wr`te tfe k`vec Qgvitgr Qggpi ik 794<. Tfe k`vec lengbe ibbeksecy p`pucgr gkd w`k
fibcitergrygnncgib.Itwgstrgkscgtedikt`Fikdigkdsevergc`tferIkdigkcgkmugmesgkdwgs
gdgpted ikt` g sunnessjuc b`ti`k pinture (Qgvitrg Qggpi) ik 79:6 ly fis grdekt gdbirer,
Lgcrgo^gfgki.
GbritgQritgb
Gbritg Qritgb (7979 <115) wgs tfe jirst pr`bikekt w`bgk Qukogli p`et, k`vecist, gkd
essgyist. Ik fer citergry cije `j `ver : dengdes, sfe pr`duned `ver 711 l``hs, `j p`etry,
jinti`k,li`mrgpfies,essgys,gn`ccenti`k`jQukoglij`chs`kmsgkdgkgut`li`mrgpfy.
Ferb`stjgb`usp`eb isGoGghfggk]gris^fgfKu(T`dgyIikv`he]gris
^fgf), ik wfinf sfe expresses fer gkmuisf `ver bgssgnres durikm tfe
pgrtiti`k`jIkdig.
Ferb`stk`tedk`vecwgsQikogr(7951)ikwfinfsfevividcydepinted
tfevi`ceknegmgikstw`bek,c`ss`jfubgkitygkductibgtesurrekdert`
existektigcjgte.Tfek`vecwgsbgdeikt`gkgwgrd-wikkikmjicb,Qikogr
ik<11>.
Ik 795:, sfe lengbe tfe jirst w`bgk t` wik tfe ^gfityg Ghgdebi Gwgrd j`r fer bgmkub
`pus,gc`kmp`eb,^ukefe(Bessgmes),cgtersfereneivedOkgkpitfGwgrdik796<j`rHgmgz
TeNgkvgs(TfeQgpergkdtfeNgkvgs).Qgdbg^fringbeferwgyik79:9gkdjikgccy,Qgdbg
Zilfusfgk, ik <114, gkd ik tfe sgbe yegr sfe wgs f`k`ured witf ^gfityg Ghgdebi
Jecc`wsfip.
^uroitQgtgr
^uroitQgtgrisgQukoglicgkmugmewritergkdp`et.Fewgsf`k`uredwitf^grgswgti^gbbgk
gwgrd <119 j`r fis l``h 'Cgjzgk Di Dgrmgf'. Fe is tfe sen`kd Qukogli p`et t` reneive tfis
Birzg ^gfilg ly Fgjiz Lgrhfudgr (7:567=1=), ^gssi Qukkuk
ly Fgsfib ^fgf (7=>50764>0), gkd Wissg Qurgk Lfgmgt ly
Wgdgrygr(761<769<).(]ihipedig)

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

f`k`r gjter ebikekt Qukogli ]riter Dgcip Hgur ik <117. Ik <17<, fe wgs gwgrded Qgdbg
^fri.
Nfgpter7>. TgbicCitergture
<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
<5 |Q g m e
Nfgpter7>. TgbicCitergture
TfeegrciestTgbiccitergturem`eslgnht`tfe^gkmgbperi`dgl`utwfinfy`ungkregdfere
Gcvgr^gikts

TfetwecveGcvgrswereTgbicp`et-sgikts,wf`civedletweek:tfgkd9tfnekturiesGDgkd
esp`used eb`ti`kgc dev`ti`k `r lfghti t` Zisku-Hrisfkg ik tfeir s`kms. Tfe dev`ti`kgc
s`kms`jtfeGcvgrswerenregteddurikmtfeEgrcybedievgcperi`d`jTgbicfist`rygkdtfey
fecpedngklengccedtfepi`keers`jtfeLfghtiB`vebektikIkdig.
Tfen`ccenti`k`jtfeirfybksishk`wkgs DivygQrglgkdfg.Gcctfesgiktswerebgceexnept
`kekgbedGkdgc.
Kgygkgr^gikts
Tfe :> Kgygkgr sgikts were tfe ^fivg dev`ti`kgc p`ets, wf` cived letweek 5tf gkd 71tf
nekturies. Tfese :> Kgygkgr sgikts, gc`km witf tfe 7< Gcvgrs gre hk`wk gs ^`utf Ikdig's =5
Gp`stces`jLfghtib`vebekt.
Hgblgk
Hgblgr `r Hgblgk wgs g 7<tf nektury Tgbic p`et, wf` wr`te \gbgvgtfgrgb,p`pucgrcy
hk`wk gs Hgblgrgbgygkgb, tfe Tgbic versi`k `j \gbgygkg. Hgblg \gbgygkgb `j
Hgblgkisgkepin`jgl`ut77,111stgkzgsgs`pp`sedt`Zgcbihi's<4111n`upcetsgkdistfe
`rimikgcreteccikm`jtfeepinst`ryrgtfertfgkgtrgkscgti`k`jtfecgter.
^ulrgbgkygLfgrgtfi

^ulrgbgkyg Lfgrgtfi (766<-

79<7) wgs g Tgbic writer, p`et,
o`urkgcist, Ikdigk ikdepekdekne
gntivist gkd s`nigc rej`rber,
p`pucgrcy hk`wk gs Bgfghgvi
Lfgrgtfiygr.
Fe is g pi`keer `j b`derk Tgbic
p`etry.@kDenebler77,<17<fis
7>1tf lirtf gkkiversgry wgs
necelrgted.
^ulrgbgkygLfgrgti'ss`kmsgreg
pgrt `j n`ktebp`rgry p`pucgr
nucturegkdfgvejegturedikTgbic
nikebg ik cgst bgky dengdes gkd
gcs`leeksett`businlyjgb`usn`bp`sersciheIccgygrgoggkdsukmlynecelrgtedgrtistes
ciheB.^.^ullucghsfbi.
LriejLi`mrgpfy?^ulrgbgkygLfgrgtfi
^ulrgbgkygLfgrgtiwgsl`rkgtEttgygpurgb,gsbgccpriknecystgte
ik tfe Tirukecveci distrint ik Bgdrgs stgte. Fe wgs gk ikteccentugccy
pren`ni`us nficd gkd gt ecevek yegrs wgs mivek tfe titce 'Lfgrgti',
wfek fe mgve gk ibpressive exfiliti`k `j p`etin mijts gt g n`urt
juknti`k.Fespektj`uryegrsikLgkgrgsjr`b7696t`791<,wferefe
cegrkt ^gkshrit, Fikdi gkd Ekmcisf, gkd gttekded centures ly Gkkie
Lesgkt.
Gjterreturkikmt`Etcgygpurgbik791<,few`rhedgsgsul-edit`r`j
tfe Tgbic dgicy ^wegdesbitrgb gkd gs tfe edit`r `j Ikdig j`r s`be
yegrs. Fe wgs gntivecy ikv`cved ik p`citins. Fis beetikm witf ^ister
Kiveditg ik Ngcnuttg wgs g cgkdbgrh evekt. Fe pcedmed fibsecj j`r
tfe jreed`b `j Ikdig gkd ergdingti`k `j tfe ngsteisb gkd
ebgknipgti`k`jtfew`bek.
Tfe sen`kd bicest`ke ik Lfgrgti's cije wgs fis beetikm witf ^ri
Gur`likd` ik Q`kdinferry ik 7971. Jr`b fib Lfgrgti ibliled tfe
tegnfikm `j tfe Zedgs gkd tfe idegs `j vedgktin fubgkisb. Lfgrgti
wgs ik p`citingc exice ik Q`kdinferry j`r tek yegrs lenguse `j fis
pr`v`ngtivewritikmgmgikstLritisfrucegkdreturkedt`LritisfIkdig
ik7976.Fespekttferest`jfiscijeikBgdrgsukticgtrgmingnnidekt
ik 79<7, wfek fe wgs ngst t` tfe mr`ukd ly tfe Tripcingke tebpce
ecepfgkt,ncgibedfiscije.

Mekergc^tudiesBgkugcj`rUQ^Ngkd^tgteQulcin^ervineExgbikgti`ks

<17>^uresf^`ki|Gcc\imfts\eserved|Ebgic?suresfAmht`dgy.ik
<: |Q g m e
Fepulcisfedfisjirsttw`n`ccenti`ks`jp`ebs ^wgdesgMitgkmgc gkdOgkbglf``biik7916.
Fis ektire Tgbic Citergture ngk le divided ikt` severgc pgrts `j wfinf tfe b`st pr`bikekt
gretfepgtri`tinp`ebsgkdtfedev`ti`kgcp`ebsviz.tfe HgkkgkQgttu(n`ccenti`k`js`kms
dev`ted t` Hrisfkg) gkd Huyic Qgttu (^`kms `j Huyic). It wgs `kcy gjter fis degtf ik 79<7,
tfgtfiscitergrymregtkessngbet`leb`regkdb`regpprenigtedgkdtfevgcue`jfisw`rhs
Hgkkgk-pgttugkdHuyic-pgttuwgsjuccyren`mkised.
T`dgy,Lfgrgtfigrisgf`usef`cdkgbeikTgbicKgdugkdgreveredp`etikrest`jIkdig.
Lfgrgtfidgsgk
Lfgrgtfidgsgk (7697-79:4) wgs g disnipce `j Lfgrgtfigr. Fe wgs g p`et gkd rgti`kgcist
wf`secitergryw`rhsfgkdcedb`stcys`ni`-p`citingcissues.Fiswritikmsservedgsgngtgcyst
j`rtfemr`wtf`jtfeDrgvidigkb`vebektikTgbicKgdu.
M`pgcghrisfkgLfgrgtfi

M`pgcghrisfkgLfgrgtficiveddurikmtfeegrcy79tfnektury.Fewr`tekuber`usp`ebsgkd
cyrinssett`tukeikNgrkgtinbusin.Fisb`stjgb`usw`rhistfeKgkdgkNfgritgb`ktfecije
`jKgkdgkgrwf`fgvikmleekl`rkikgs`ni`c`mingccyc`werngste,jgnesgkd`vern`bestfe
s`nigc`lstgncesikgnfievikmfisdregb`jvisitikmtfeNfidgblgrgbtebpce.
Nfgpter74. TecumuCitergture
Kgkkgyg,TihhgkggkdYerrgprgmgdg
KgkkgygLfgttgrghgistfeegrciesthk`wk(77tfnektury)Tecumugutf`r.Fewgs`ke`jtfe
tfreegutf`rswf`trgkscgtedtfe^gkshritBgfglfgrgtt`GkdfrgBgfglfgrgtgbu,gTecumu
reteccikm `j tfe epin st`ry. Fe is gcs` hk`wk gs Gdi Hgvi ik ren`mkiti`k `j fis mregt citergry
w`rh.
Fe gcs` wr`te tfe jirst Mrgbbgr w`rh ik Tecumu ngcced Gkdfrg^fgldfg Nfiktgbgki.Gttfe
sgbetibe,itistf`umfttfgttfeweccdevec`pedcgkmugme`jKgkkgygsummeststfgtTecumu
citergture bgy fgve devec`ped egrcier t` fib, f`wever, k` citergture is gvgicglce t` pr`ve
tfgt.
Kgkkgyg gc`km witf Tihhgkg gkd Yerrgprgmgdg gre hk`wk gs Hgvitrgygb `j Tecumu
Cgkmugme,wf`trgkscgtedtfemregtepinBgfglfgrgtgikt`Tecumu.
HrisfkgDevg\gyg/Gstgdimmgog
Hrisfkg Devg \gyg (reimk 751975<9 ) wgs gk Ebper`r `j tfe Ziogygkgmgrg Ebpire. Fis
tibesgrehk`wkgstfem`cdekgme`jTecumucitergture.Tfeperi`d`jtfeEbpireishk`wk
gsQrglgkdfgQeri`d,lenguse`jtfequgcity`jtfeprglgkdfgcitergturepr`duneddurikm
tfistibe.Eimftp`etshk`wkgsGstgdimmgogwerepgrt`jfisn`urt.Tfeseeimftp`etswere
tfeeimftpiccgrs`jfiscitergrygsseblcy.
Gb`kmtfeseeimftp`etsGccgsgkiQeddgkgisn`ksideredt`letfemregtestgkdismivektfe
titce`jGkdfrgHgvitg Qitgbgfg(tfejgtfer`jTecumup`etry).Gk`tfer`ke, Tekgci\gbgis