Running head: COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR SPECIAL

EDUCATION INSTRUCTION










Cognitive Information Processing Theory for Special Education Instruction
Griselle Arrieta-Rose
California State University Monterey Bay




IST520 Learning Theories
Professor Nancy Lockwood
Spring 2014
COGNITIVE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION
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Table of Contents
I. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 3
II. Description of Training ........................................................................................................... 4
III. Descriptions of Applicable Theories ..................................................................................... 4
IV. Illustrations and Examples of Theories ................................................................................ 8
V. Target Audience ....................................................................................................................... 9
VI. Constraints ............................................................................................................................ 10
VII. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 11
References .................................................................................................................................... 12
Appendix A .................................................................................................................................. 14
Appendix B .................................................................................................................................. 15














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I. Introduction
The capstone project entitled Special Education Instruction for General Education Teachers
will utilize specific components of $%&'()(*+ ,'-%./0)(%' 1.%2+33('& 4+0.'('& )5+%.6 03 0
703(3 -%. ('3).82)(%'9 This project stems from a current need for training of general education
(GE) teachers on special education topics that will support them in complying with federal
legislation, including Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 2004, which mandates
that students with disabilities be provided with a free appropriate public education in a least
restrictive environment with the support of systematic identification procedures, an
individualized education plan (IEP) and access to the general education curriculum (Smith,
2007). Currently, students with a specific learning disability constitute a total of 2.4 million
students and 41% of all students receiving special education services (California Department of
Education, 2014). Therefore, students with a specific learning disability comprise the majority of
students receiving special education services under IDEA.
Federal law mandates that general education teachers instruct students with special needs
in the least restrictive environment with appropriate instructional support and lesson
differentiation. According to Jung, Cho, and Ambrosetti (2011), the inclusion of special
education topics in teacher preparation courses is insufficient for providing teachers with the
confidence needed to successfully educate students with special needs. Furthermore, research
conducted by Minke, Bear, Deemer, and Griffin (1996) indicates that GE teachers make
inadequate classroom accommodations for students with special needs and generally feel
unprepared to teach this population of students. Therefore, this capstone project seeks to provide
training and support for GE teachers in relation to students with specific learning disabilities to
address this gap in learning.

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II. Description of Training
The goal of this project is to train general education teachers on the basic elements of
special education, including federal legislation affecting people with disabilities and the
Individualized Special Education Plan (IEP). The goal is also to train general education teachers
on specific learning disabilities, including basic characteristics, causes, assessment, and
classroom modifications. This capstone project will include an e-learning module that will
provide general education teachers with the specialized skills necessary to effectively instruct
students with learning disabilities and thus, offer the least restrictive environment in the
classroom. The skills presented in this e-learning module will include identification of the basic
elements of IDEA 2004, the Individualized Education Plan (IEP), characteristics, prevention, and
interventions for a learning disability, as well as assessment practices, and instructional
accommodations/modifications.
III. Descriptions of Applicable Theories
According to Gredler (2005), cognitive information process (CIP) theorists originated as
a result of communications and computer research conducted during the mid-20
th
century.
Cognitive information theorists included researchers developing learning theory based on
information gained from the digital computer age. Thus, their research compared the human
memory structure to computer-related models, thereby addressing the ways in which people
attend to their environmental surroundings, encode and relate information, store knowledge and
retrieve it as necessary (Schunk, 1996). Moreover, this theory focuses on the organization of
information, the learners prior knowledge, and finally, the process of perceiving,
comprehending and storing information (Gredler 2005).
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Central to cognitive information processing theory are the assumptions that information
is actively organized in the human memory system and that a learners prior knowledge is
especially significant in the learning process (Gredler, 2005). According to cognitive
information processing theorists, the human memory system is a structural system with the
following components: sensory registers/input, sensory memory, short-term working memory
and long-term memory. Table 1 exemplifies Broadbents (1958) basic structures of CIPs
multistage model, the first of four conceptions on the nature of human memory. The processes,
which connect the three basic structures, include attention to the information, encoding of the
information from short-term working memory into long-term memory and retrieval from long-
term into working memory (Gredler, 2005).
Table 1

According to CIP, the second conception about human memory includes the state concept,
which differentiates between working memory as active information and long-term memory as
dormant information. Furthermore, long-term memory includes personal episodic memory,
semantic general information memory and procedural memory, which allow the learner to adapt
to their environment (Tulving, 1985). According to Craik and Lockhart (1972), the third
conception of human memory involves levels of processing which include sensory analysis,
pattern recognition, and semantic association. Thus, memory occurs in sequential, hierarchal
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levels of processing (Gredler, 2005). Finally, the connectionist conception, developed by
McClelland and Rumelhart (1986) state that knowledge is processed in connection links and the
strength of this information is found in its connections much like a Frisbee or a rubber band
(Gredler, 2005).
Along with the multistage model of cognitive information processing, the theory
stipulates that learning occurs within a learning framework that includes internal and external
factors. Internal factors are comprised of the learners cognitive framework in relation to tacit,
conceptual and metacognitive knowledge. External factors are comprised of the nature and
organization of the information presented to the learner (Gredler, 2005). Therefore, according to
CIP theory, the multistage model explains the processing of information within the learning
framework of the individual. The multistage model explains how the human brain processes
learning and the learning framework serves to describe how the learner processes the information
since it corresponds to the learners specific prior knowledge and to the specific nature of the
information presented.
Cognitive information processing theory explains that the learners prior tacit and content
knowledge form the framework through which new incoming information will be processed.
This prior knowledge may include a learners recognition of familiar objects, symbols, faces and
events as well as inferences about the new information (Gredler, 2005). According to Bors and
McLeod (1996), a learners prior knowledge influences an individuals rate of learning and
retention of information. In addition, the amount of prior knowledge held by a learner influences
his or her short-term memory capacity as well as the speed of processing the information
(Gredler, 2005). Therefore, a consideration of a learners prior knowledge is an essential
component of cognitive information processing theory.
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With these considerations in place, the instructors role is to provide instruction that both
enhances the learners prior knowledge and effectively organizes the information into
meaningful structures and chunks of information for the learner. In addition, instruction must
facilitate learner attention and enhance encoding of new information. The instructor must
therefore, effectively analyze the learners prior knowledge and create instruction that
specifically links to this knowledge base in order to support comprehension of the information
presented. The instructor must also organize the information in a meaningful way through the
use of advance organizers to facilitate the information presented. Another strategy involves
organizing information into general categories, which the learner may be familiar with, thus
chunking the presented information into meaningful pieces. The instructor must also facilitate
learner attention and encoding of information by clearly presenting the instructional objectives
and pre-teaching important information needed for successful completion of the lesson.
Strengths of cognitive information processing theory include its explanation of human
memory as a complex and active system that processes, stores and retrieves information as
needed. Its explanation of the learning framework and the important role of prior knowledge are
significant contributions to the field of learning theory. Furthermore, the theory provides crucial
information pertaining to the role of learning strategies, organization of information and a
learners metacognitive decisions. According to Gredler (2005), the theorys disadvantage lies in
its lack of cohesion, for it lacks a comprehensive framework that would bridge the various
components of the theory together.
David LaBerges (1973) research on information processing in reading integrates CIP
theory as a framework for investigating the processing of visual information through various
stages including visual, phonological and episodic memory system until it is finally grasped by
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the semantic system in the brain. Likewise, LaBerges research contributes important
information regarding the brains processing of print and how this relates to a learners accuracy
and automaticity in reading. Furthermore, Simons (1976) application of CIP in his research
contributes important information regarding the role of the brains processes in problem solving
situations. Indiana University (2014) provides online course notes covering general information
on the theory including a basic introduction, the theorys major components, implications for
instruction, learning activities and additional web resources to research the theory.
IV. Illustrations and Examples of Theories
Application of the theory into this capstone project will include the following examples.
The project will take into account the theorys learning framework, which consists of both
internal and external factors. Internal factors include a consideration of the learners prior tacit,
conceptual and metacognitive knowledge. When presenting information regarding special
education law and classroom practices, the project will take into account a general education
teachers prior tacit knowledge regarding lesson plan design and instructional modifications. For
example, the project will consider the learners knowledge of scripts regarding classroom
differentiation by gearing the instructional objectives to match the level of prior knowledge,
which a general education teacher will most likely have. Moreover, the project will consider the
level of content and conceptual knowledge, which a general education has regarding special
education topics. Since every credentialing program in the state of California mandates a course
in special education topics, all general education teachers are assumed to have basic knowledge
of learning disabilities and special education law. The project will present information from this
knowledge base in order to support the learners attention, perception and encoding of new
information.
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To facilitate attention, the project will provide the learner with clear instructional
objectives and focus questions that will connect the new learning to prior knowledge.
Information will also be sequentially organized through lectures, presentations and modeling of
special education practices in order to successfully interact with the learners tacit and content
knowledge, thereby supporting the processing of information from short-term encoding into long
term memory. The project will also support active retrieval of information from long-term
memory by reviewing pertinent information throughout the modules through external and
internal cues. External cues may include focus questions that are tied to a prior topic, images
pertaining to the topic and mnemonic devices, which the learner may later utilize as internal cues
for retrieving previously learning information.
V. Target Audience
The target audience for this training includes general education in grades K-5. The entry
skills of the GE teachers intended for this training include general knowledge of teaching
practice and classroom modifications at the K-5 grade level. Learners may include pre-service
teachers, new probationary teachers and permanent teachers that may need a review of learning
disabilities. Therefore, while learners may have varying degrees of general background
knowledge, all learners will need additional training regarding special education students and
learning disabilities. The learners attitudes toward the content will be determined from a survey
completed by a sample of tryout learners (Appendix A). Learner attitudes in relation to interest in
special education professional development and providing appropriate classroom modifications
will range from very important to not important (Appendix B). In order to account for learner
interest, this training will consider the ARCS model (attention, relevance, confidence, and
satisfaction). By surveying teachers in relation to their motivation, background and interest
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levels, the training will strive to provide relevant instruction for that meets the interests and
satisfaction of GE teachers.
Cognitive information processing theory is appropriate and applicable to this population
of learners since the theory clearly delineates the importance of considering the learning
framework of the target audience. Since all teacher-credentialing programs incorporate at least
one course on special education topics designed for general education teachers, the project must
incorporate a learning theory, which accounts for tacit, content and conceptual prior knowledge.
Furthermore, according to a survey conducted on general education teachers at the Alisal Union
School District in Salinas, California (Appendix B), teacher preparation time is limited to only 4
to 5 hours per week, which thereby necessitates a learning theory that incorporates an emphasis
on effective structuring and organizing information so it may be meaningful and directly aligned
learner needs. CIP theorys emphasis on short term working memory, chunking and encoding
information as well as retrieval of information from long term memory therefore fits this
population of learners.
VI. Constraints
Real-world constraints for this project include the following. According to the
aforementioned Alisal teacher survey (Appendix B), general education teachers hold a limited
time for preparation of lesson plan design and reflection. A constraint would include time
limitations for general education teachers to complete the modules in the project and incorporate
the topics in their everyday teaching practice. A further constraint in this issue would include full
support and backing of the importance of special education modifications in the classroom, since
teachers also reported only moderate interest (3 points out of 5) in special education topics and
modifications. This is likely attributed to the vast amounts of responsibility under the purview of
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a K-5 teacher and to the likelihood that not all general education teachers have a students with
special needs in their classroom and thereby may not be implementing special education
considerations into their everyday teaching practice.
VII. Conclusion
The capstone project entitled Special Education Instruction for General Education
Teachers will employ components of cognitive information processing theory in order to
facilitate instruction of special education topics and classroom modifications pertaining to
students with specific learning disabilities. As the basis for instruction, the theorys multistage
model will provide the necessary components to successfully structure the learning framework
with both internal and external factors as well as facilitate learner perception and encoding of
information in both short term and long-term memory. The theory will also support the chunking
of information into small amounts, thereby assisting the learners working memory, attention and
encoding. The theory will also allow for successfully constructing instruction that is both
meaningful and organized along with retrieval of information as necessary.








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References
Bors, D.A. & McLeod, C.M. (1996). Individual differences in memory. Memory: Handbook of
perception and cognition. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Broadbent, D.E. (1958). Perception and communication. London: Pergamon.
California Department of Education. (2014). Retrieved from
http://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/se/sr/
Craik, F.I, & Lockhart, R.S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Expert Learners (2011) [How information flows according to CIP theory]. Expert learners.
Retrieved from http://expertlearners.com/cip_theory.php
Gredler, M. (2005). Learning and Instruction: Theory and Practice. Columbus, Ohio: Pearson.
Indiana University. (2014). Unit 3: Cognitive information processing [online course notes].
Retrieved from http://www.indiana.edu/~p540alex/unit3.html
Jung, W., Cho, G., & Ambrosetti, D., (2011). Preservice teachers confidence levels in
working with students with special needs: Improving preservice teacher
training programs. Electronic Journal for Inclusive Education, 2 (7).
http://corescholar.libraries.wright.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1129&context=ejie
LaBerge, D., Samuels, S. J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information. Cognitive
Psychology. Volume 6 (Issue 2), 293-323. Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0010028574900152
McClelland, J.L. & Rumelhart, D.E. (1986). A distributed model of human learning and memory.
Parallel distributed processing: Explanations in the microstructure of cognition, Vol. 2:
Psychological and biological models. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Minke, K. M., Bear, G. G., Deemer, S. A., & Griffin, S. M. (1996). Teachers
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experiences with inclusion classrooms: Implications for SPED reform. The
Journal of Special Education, 30, 152-186.
Schunk, D. H. (1996). Learning Theories (2
nd
ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Merrill.
Simon, H. A. (1976). Information processing theory of human problem solving. Carnegie Mellon
University- Complex Information Processing, Paper #324. Retrieved from
http://ptfs.library.cmu.edu/awweb/main.jsp?flag=collection&identifier=Simon+box0001
2+fld00830+bdl0001+doc0003&smd=1&cl=all_lib&tm=1411936341592&itype=advs
&menu=on
Smith, D.D. (2007). Introduction to special education: Making a difference. Boston, MA:
Pearson.
Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist, 40, 385-398.






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Appendix A
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Appendix B
Special Education Interest Survey for General Education Teachers

Question #1:
How many years of teaching experience do you have? (Note: after completing a teacher-
credentialing program)
a) 0-2
b) 3-5
c) 5-10
d) 11 or more

Question #2:
On average, how many hours of paid teacher planning preparation time does your school district
provide per workweek?
a) 0-1 hours
b) 2-3 hours
c) 4-5 hours
d) 6-7 hours
e) 8 or more hours

Question #3:
Special education training is important for my professional development.
a) very important
b) important
c) undecided
d) not important

Question #4
Rate the quality of special education instruction provided by your teacher-credentialing program.
0N very good
7N good
2N average
EN poor
+N very poor

Question #5:
Rate the quality of special education professional development provided by your school site.
0N very good
7N good
2N average
EN poor
+N very poor