ELEMENTS OF

RESEARCH DESIGN
(STEP-6)

The Research Process
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS RELEVANT TO DESIGNING A RESEARCH STUDY.

IDENTIFY THE SCOPE/PURPOSE OF ANY GIVEN STUDY.
DESCRIBE THE TYPE OF INVESTIGATION NEEDED, THE STUDY SETTING, THE EXTENT OF
RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE, THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS, AND THE TIME HORIZON OF THE STUDY.
IDENTIFY WHICH OF THE TWO, A CAUSAL OR A CORRELATION STUDY, WOULD BE MORE
APPROPRIATE IN A GIVEN SITUATION.

Chapter Objectives
The Research Process
IN THIS STEP WE NEED TO DESI GN THE RESEARCH IN A WAY THAT THE
REQUISITE (NECESSARY/VITAL) DATA CAN BE GATHERED AND ANALYZED TO ARRIVE AT
A SOLUTION.

The Research Design
Is the drawing for collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
The plan and structure of investigation is conceived (visualized/ pictured) as to
obtain answers to research questions.
Express both the structure of the research problem & the plan of investigation used
to obtain empirical evidence on those relationships.




The Research Design
THE ESSENTIALS OF RESEARCH DESIGN


An activity- and time-based plan.
A guide for selecting sources and type of information.
A procedural outline for every research activity.
The Research Design
INCLUDES ISSUES RELATING TO DECISIONS REGARDING

The purpose for the study
Type of investigation
Extent of researcher interference
Time horizon
Sampling design
Data collection methods
Measurement
Data analysis


The Research Design
The Various Issues Involved in the Research Design
THE NATURE OF STUDIES
EXPLORATORY STUDY
DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
HYPOTHESIS TESTING (ANALYTICAL AND PREDICTIVE)
CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

Purpose of The Study
EXPLORATORY STUDY IS UNDERTAKEN WHEN NOT MUCH IS KNOWN ABOUT
THE SITUATION AT HAND, OR NO INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE ON HOW
SIMILAR PROBLEMS OR RESEARCH ISSUES HAVE BEEN SOLVED IN THE PAST.

Exploratory Study
THE MANAGER OF A MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION IS CURIOUS TO KNOW IF THE WORK
ETHIC VALUES OF EMPLOYEES WORKING IN PRINCE HASSAN INDUSTRIAL CITY WOULD BE
DIFFERENT FROM THOSE OF AMERICANS.

THAT CITY IS A SMALL CITY, AND NO INFORMATION ABOUT THE ETHIC VALUES OF ITS
WORKERS IS AVAILABLE.

ALSO, THE WORK ETHIC VALUES OF DIFFERENT CULTURES ARE DIFFERENT.

THE BEST WAY TO STUDY THE ABOVE SITUATION IS BY CONDUCTING AN EXPLORATORY
STUDY, BY INTERVIEWING THE EMPLOYEES IN ORGANIZATIONS IN PARTICULAR AREA.


Example (Exploratory Study)
IS UNDERTAKEN IN ORDER TO ASCERTAIN (CONFIRM/PROVE) AND BE ABLE TO DESCRIBE
THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIABLES OF INTEREST (DV) IN A SITUATION.

IN ADDITION, DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES ARE UNDERTAKEN IN ORGANIZATIONS TO
LEARN ABOUT AND DESCRIBE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP OF
EMPLOYEES, AS FOR EXAMPLE, THE AGE, EDUCATION LEVEL, JOB STATUS, AND
LENGTH OF SERVICE.

Descriptive Study
A BANK MANAGER WANTS TO HAVE A PROFILE OF THE INDIVIDUALS WHO HAVE
LOAN PAYMENTS OUTSTANDING FOR 6 MONTHS AND MORE. THIS PROFILE WOULD
INCLUDE DETAILS OF THEIR AVERAGE AGE, EARNINGS, NATURE OF OCCUPATION,
FULL-TIME/ PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT STATUS, AND ALIKE.



THE ABOVE INFORMATION MIGHT HELP THE MANAGER TO DECIDE RIGHT AWAY
ON THE TYPES OF INDIVIDUALS WHO SHOULD BE MADE INELIGIBLE FOR LOANS
IN THE FUTURE.

Example (Descriptive Study)
Example (Descriptive Study)
A marketing manager might want to develop a pricing, sales, distribution, and
advertising strategy for his product.


The manager might ask for information regarding the competitors, with respect to the
following:

1. The percentage of companies who have prices higher and lower than the industry
norm (Average/Standard).
2.The percentage of competitors hiring in-house staff to handle sales and those who use
independent agents.
3. Percentage of sales groups organized by product line, by accounts, and by region.
4. The types of distribution channels used and the percentage of customers using each.
5. Percentage of competitors spending more dollars on advertising/promotion than the
firm and those spending less.
6. Percentage of those using the web to sell the product.


STUDIES THAT ENGAGE IN HYPOTHESES TESTING USUALLY EXPLAIN THE NATURE
OF CERTAIN RELATIONSHIPS, OR ESTABLI SH THE DI FFERENCES AMONG GROUPS
OR THE I NDEPENDENCE OF TWO OR MORE FACTORS IN A SITUATION.

HYPOTHESES TESTING IS UNDERTAKEN TO EXPLAIN THE VARI ANCE IN THE
DEPENDENT VARI ABLE OR TO PREDICT ORGANIZATIONAL OUTCOMES (VARIABLE OF
INTEREST).

Hypotheses Testing
A MARKETING MANAGER WANTS TO KNOW IF THE SALES OF THE COMPANY WI LL
I NCREASE I F HE DOUBLES THE ADVERTI SI NG DOLLARS.

HERE, THE MANAGER WOULD LI KE TO KNOW THE NATURE OF THE RELATI ONSHI P
BETWEEN ADVERTI SI NG AND SALES BY TESTI NG THE HYPOTHESI S:
IF ADVERTISING IS INCREASED, THEN
SALES WILL ALSO GO UP.

Example (Hypotheses Testing)
CASE STUDIES INVOLVE IN-DEPTH, CONTEXTUAL ANALYSES OF
MATTERS RELATING TO SIMILAR SITUATIONS IN OTHER
ORGANIZATIONS.

CASE STUDIES, AS A PROBLEM SOLVI NG TECHNI QUE, ARE NOT FREQUENTLY
RESORTED TO IN ORGANIZATIONS BECAUSE FINDINGS THE SAME TYPE OF
PROBLEM IN ANOTHER COMPARABLE SETTING IS DIFFICULT DUE TO THE
RELUCTANCE (UNWILLINGNESS/DISINCLINATION) OF THE COMPANIES TO REVEAL THEIR
PROBLEMS.

Case Study Analysis

Case studies that are qualitative in nature are, however, useful in
applying solutions to current problems based on past problem-
solving experiences.

Also, case studies are useful in understanding certain phenomena,
and generating further theories for empirical (Experiential/observed) testing.

Case Study Analysis
A CAUSAL STUDY

IS AN INQUIRY TO KNOW THE CAUSE OF ONE OR MORE PROBLEMS.
EMPHASIS IS ON IDENTIFICATION OF RIGHT VARIABLES.
A CORRELATIONAL STUDY
IS AN INQUIRY TO KNOW THE IMPORTANCE OF VARIABLES AND THEIR
RELATIONSHIP/CONNECTION WITH THE PROBLEM.

Type of Investigation: Causal versus
Correlational
A CAUSAL STUDY QUESTION:

DOES SMOKING CAUSE CANCER?

A CORRELATIONAL STUDY QUESTION:

HOW SMOKING AND CANCER RELATED?
OR
SMOKING, DRINKING, AND CHEWING TOBACCO
ASSOCIATED WITH CANCER. WHICH OF THESE
CONTRIBUTES MOST TO THE VARIANCE IN THE DEPENDENT
VARIABLE?

Examples
FEARS OF AN EARTHQUAKE PREDICTED RECENTLY IN AN AREA. INSURANCE
COMPANY IS INTERESTED TO KNOW WEATHER IT IS THE SOLE TRIGGER OF
TAKING OUT THE POLICY BY CUSTOMERS IN LAST MONTH. (LOCKER IN BANKS)



CAUSAL OR CORRELATIONAL



IS IT FACTUAL THAT, INCREASES IN INTEREST RATES, PROPERTY TAXES, THE
RECESSION, AND PREDICTED EARTHQUAKE CONSIDERABLY SLOWED DOWN
THE BUSINESS OF REAL STATE AGENTS IN THE REGION. WHICH ONE IS
EFFECTING MORE?

CAUSAL OR CORRELATIONAL

Exercise ? (Causal Or Correlational)
ANSWERS:


THE FIRST EXAMPLE INDICATE A CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EARTHQUAKE
PREDICTION AND INSURANCE POLICIES SOLD IN RECENT TIME.


THE SECOND EXAMPLE INDICATES THAT SEVERAL FACTORS, INCLUDING THE PREDICTED
EARTHQUAKE, INFLUENCED (NOT CAUSAL) THE SLOWDOWN OF REAL-ESTATE AGENTS
BUSINESS. THIS IS A CORRELATIONAL STUDY, WHICH WAS NOT INTENDED TO ESTABLISHED
A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP.

Answers ... Causal Or Correlational
THE EXTENT OF INTERFERENCE (INTERVENTION) BY THE RESEARCHER WITH THE
NORMAL FLOW OF WORK AT THE WORKPLACE HAS A DIRECT BEARING
(INFLUENCE/IMPACT) ON WHETHER THE STUDY UNDERTAKEN IS CAUSAL OR
CORRELATIONAL.

A CORRELATIONAL STUDY IS CONDUCTED IN THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF
THE ORGANIZATION WITH MINIMUM INTERFERENCE BY THE RESEARCHER WITH
THE NORMAL FLOW OF WORK.


Extent of Researcher Interference With the Study
STUDIES CONDUCTED TO ESTABLISH CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS, THE
RESEARCHER TRIES TO MANIPULATE CERTAIN VARIABLES SO AS TO STUDY THE
EFFECTS OF SUCH MANIPULATION ON THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE OF INTEREST.
IN OTHER WORDS, THE RESEARCHER DELIBERATELY CHANGES CERTAIN
VARIABLES IN THE SETTING AND INTERFERES WITH THE EVENTS AS THEY
NORMALLY OCCUR IN THE ORGANIZATION.

Extent of Researcher Interference With the Study
EXAMPLE:
A HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATOR WANTS TO EXAMINE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PERCEIVED
EMOTIONAL SUPPORT IN THE SYSTEM AND THE STRESS EXPERIENCED BY THE NURSING STAFF. IN
OTHER WORDS, SHE WANTS TO DO A (?????), (CAUSAL/CORRELATIONAL) STUDY?

THE RESEARCHER WILL COLLECT DATA FROM THE NURSES ( THROUGH A QUESTIONNAIRE) TO
INDICATE HOW MUCH EMOTIONAL SUPPORT THEY GET IN THE HOSPITAL AND TO WHAT EXTENT
THEY EXPERIENCE STRESS. BY CORRELATING THE TWO VARIABLES, THE ANSWER IS FOUND.
IN THIS CASE, BEYOND ADMINISTERING A QUESTIONNAIRE TO THE NURSES, THE RESEARCHER HAS
NOT INTERFERED WITH THE NORMAL ACTIVITIES IN THE HOSPITAL.

Minimal Interference
IF THE RESEARCHER WANTS TO ESTABLISH A CAUSAL CONNECTION BETWEEN
THE EMOTIONAL SUPPORT IN THE HOSPITAL AND STRESS, OR, WANTS TO
DEMONSTRATE THAT IF THE NURSES HAD EMOTIONAL SUPPORT, THIS INDEED
WOULD CAUSE THEM TO EXPERIENCE LESS STRESS.

TO TEST THE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP, THE RESEARCHER WILL
MEASURE THE STRESS CURRENTLY EXPERIENCED BY THE NURSES IN THREE
WARDS IN THE HOSPITAL, AND THEN DELIBERATELY MANIPULATE THE EXTENT
OF EMOTIONAL SUPPORT GIVEN TO THE THREE GROUPS OF NURSES IN THE
THREE WARDS FOR PERHAPS A WEEK, AND MEASURE THE AMOUNT OF STRESS AT
THE END OF THAT PERIOD.

Moderate Interference
FOR GROUP ONE, THE RESEARCHER WILL ENSURE THAT A NUMBER OF LAB
TECHNICIANS AND DOCTORS HELP AND COMFORT THE NURSES WHEN THEY FACE
STRESSFUL EVENTS.


FOR A SECOND GROUP OF NURSES IN ANOTHER WARD, THE RESEARCHER MIGHT
ARRANGE FOR THEM ONLY A MODERATE AMOUNT OF EMOTIONAL SUPPORT AND
EMPLOYING ONLY THE LAB TECHNICIANS AND EXCLUDING DOCTORS.


THE THIRD WARD MIGHT OPERATE WITHOUT ANY EMOTIONAL SUPPORT.


Moderate Interference
IF THE EXPERIMENTERS THEORY IS CORRECT, THEN THE REDUCTION IN THE
STRESS LEVELS BEFORE AND AFTER THE 1-WEEK PERIOD SHOULD BE GREATER
FOR THE NURSES IN THE FIRST WARD, MODERATE FOR THOSE IN THE SECOND
WARD, AND NIL FOR THE NURSES IN THE THIRD WARD.

WE FIND THAT NOT ONLY DOES THE RESEARCHER COLLECT DATA FROM NURSES
ON THEIR EXPERIENCED STRESS AT TWO DIFFERENT POINTS IN TIME, BUT ALSO
MANIPULATED THE NORMAL COURSE OF EVENTS BY DELIBERATELY CHANGING
THE AMOUNT OF EMOTIONAL SUPPORT RECEIVED BY THE NURSES IN TWO
WARDS, WHILE LEAVING THINGS IN THE THIRD WARD UNCHANGED.

HERE, THE RESEARCHER HAS INTERFERED MORE THAN MINIMALLY.


Moderate Interference
IF THE RESEARCHER FEELS, AFTER CONDUCTING THE PREVIOUS
EXPERIMENTS, THAT THE RESULTS MAY NOT BE VALID SINCE OTHER EXTERNAL
FACTORS MIGHT HAVE INFLUENCED THE STRESS LEVELS EXPERIENCE BY THE
NURSES.

FOR EXAMPLE, DURING THAT PARTICULAR EXPERIMENTAL WEEK, THE NURSES
IN ONE OR MORE WARDS MAY NOT HAVE EXPERIENCED HIGH LEVELS OF STRESS
BECAUSE THERE WERE NO SERIOUS ILLNESSES OR DEATHS IN THE WARD. HENCE
THE EMOTIONAL SUPPORT RECEIVED MIGHT NOT BE RELATED TO THE LEVEL OF
STRESSES EXPERIENCED.

Excessive Interference
THE RESEARCHER WANT TO MAKE SURE THAT SUCH EXTERNAL
FACTORS THAT MIGHT AFFECT THE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
RELATIONSHIP ARE CONTROLLED.
CONTROLLING THE EXTERNAL FACTORS
THE RESEARCHER MIGHT TAKE THREE GROUPS OF MEDICAL STUDENTS, PUT THEM IN DIFFERENT
ROOMS, AND CONFRONT ALL OF THEM WITH THE SAME STRESSFUL TASK.

FOR EXAMPLE, HE MIGHT ASK THEM TO DESCRIBE IN DETAIL, THE SURGICAL PROCEDURES IN
PERFORMING SURGERY ON A PATIENT WHO HAS NOT RESPONDED TO CHEMOTHERAPY AND KEEP
ASKING THEM WITH MORE AND MORE QUESTIONS.

Excessive Interference
ALTHOUGH ALL ARE EXPOSED TO THE SAME INTENSIVE QUESTIONING, ONE GROUP MIGHT GET
HELP FROM A DOCTOR WHO VOLUNTARILY OFFERS CLARIFICATIONS AND HELP WHEN STUDENTS
STUMBLE.

IN THE SECOND GROUP, A DOCTOR MIGHT BE NEARBY, BUT MIGHT OFFER CLARIFICATIONS AND
HELP ONLY IF THE GROUP SEEKS IT.

IN THE THIRD GROUP, THERE IS NO DOCTOR PRESENT AND NO HELP IS AVAILABLE.

IN THIS EXAMPLE, NOT ONLY IS THE SUPPORT MANIPULATED, BUT EVEN THE SETTING IN WHICH THIS
EXPERIMENT IS CONDUCTED IS ARTIFICIAL IN AS MUCH AS THE RESEARCHER HAS TAKEN THE
SUBJECT AWAY FROM THEIR NORMAL ENVIRONMENT AND PUT THEM IN A TOTALLY DIFFERENT
SETTING.

THE RESEARCHER HAS INTERVENED MAXIMALLY WITH THE NORMAL SETTING, THE PARTICIPANTS,
AND THEIR DUTIES.

Excessive Interference
SO THE EXTENT OF RESEARCHER INTERFERENCE WOULD DEPEND ON WHETHER THE
STUDY IS CORRELATIONAL OR CAUSAL.

MOST ORGANIZATIONAL PROBLEMS SELDOM CALL FOR A CAUSAL STUDY, EXCEPT IN
SOME MARKET RESEARCH AREAS.

Excessive Interference
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES ARE CONDUCTED IN NONCONTRIVED SETTINGS
(NORMAL SETTINGS), WHEREAS MOST CAUSAL STUDIES ARE DONE IN
CONTRIVED SETTINGS.
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES DONE IN ORGANIZATIONS ARE ALSO CALLED
FIELD STUDIES.
STUDIES CONDUCTED TO ESTABLISH CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP
USING THE SAME NATURAL ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH EMPLOYEES
NORMALLY FUNCTION ARE CALLED FIELD EXPERIMENTS.
EXPERIMENTS DONE TO ESTABLISH CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP IN A
CONTRIVED ENVIRONMENT AND STRICTLY CONTROLLED ARE CALLED LAB
EXPERIMENTS.

Study Setting Contrived (Artificial) and Noncontrived
(Usual)
BRING IN NEXT CLASS AN EXAMPLE OF, (WRITTEN-BOOK ALLOWED)
Field study
Field Experiment
Lab Experiment
Assignment-Study Setting Contrived &
Noncontrived
A BANK MANAGER WANTS TO ANALYZE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTEREST RATES
AND BANK DEPOSIT PATTERNS OF CLIENTS.

THE RESEARCHER TRIES TO CORRELATE THE TWO BY LOOKING AT DEPOSITS INTO
DIFFERENT KINDS OF ACCOUNTS (SUCH AS SAVINGS, CERTIFICATES OF DEPOSIT, AND
INTEREST-BEARING CHECKING ACCOUNTS) AS INTEREST RATES CHANGED.

THIS IS A FIELD STUDY WHERE THE BANK MANAGER HAS TAKEN THE BALANCES IN
VARIOUS TYPES OF ACCOUNTS AND CORRELATED (LINKED) THEM TO THE CHANGES IN
INTEREST RATES.

RESEARCH HERE IS DONE IN A NONCONTRIVED (USUAL) SETTING WITH NO INTERFERENCE
WITH THE NORMAL WORK ROUTINE.

Field study - Example
THE BANK MANAGER NOW WANTS TO DETERMINE THE CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN INTEREST RATE AND THE INDUCEMENTS (INCENTIVES) IT OFFERS TO CLIENTS TO
SAVE AND DEPOSIT MONEY IN THE BANK. THE RESEARCHER SELECTS FOUR BRANCHES
WITHIN 60/KM RADIUS FOR THE EXPERIMENT.

FOR 1 WEEK ONLY, HE ADVERTISES THE ANNUAL RATE FOR NEW CERTIFICATES OF
DEPOSIT RECEIVED DURING THAT WEEK. THE INTEREST RATE WOULD BE 9% IN ONE
BRANCH, 8% IN ANOTHER, AND 10% IN THE THIRD. IN THE FOURTH BRANCH, THE
INTEREST RATE REMAINS UNCHANGED AT 5%. WITHIN THE WEEK, THE RESEARCHER
WOULD BE ABLE TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTS, IF ANY, OF INTEREST RATES ON DEPOSIT
MOBILIZATION.


Field Experiment- Example
THIS EXAMPLE WOULD BE A FIELD EXPERIMENT SINCE NOTHING BUT THE INTEREST RATE
IS MANIPULATED, WITH ALL ACTIVITIES OCCURRING IN THE NORMAL AND NATURAL
WORK ENVIRONMENT.

HOPEFULLY, ALL FOUR BRANCHES CHOSEN WOULD BE COMPATIBLE IN SIZE, NUMBER OF
DEPOSITORS, DEPOSIT PATTERNS, AND THE LIKE, SO THAT THE INTEREST-SAVINGS
RELATIONSHIPS ARE INFLUENCED BY SOME THIRD FACTOR.

Field Experiment- Example
TO BE SURE ABOUT THE TRUE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE INTEREST RATE AND
DEPOSITS, THE RESEARCHER COULD CREATE AN ARTIFICIAL ENVIRONMENT (CONTRIVE)
BY CHOOSING, FOR INSTANCE, 40 STUDENTS WHO ARE ALL BUSINESS MAJORS IN THEIR
FINAL YEAR OF STUDY AND IN THE SAME AGE. THE RESEARCHER SPLITS THE STUDENTS
INTO FOUR GROUPS AND GIVE EACH ONE OF THEM $1000, WHICH THEY ARE TOLD THEY
MIGHT BUY THEIR NEEDS OR SAVE FOR THE FUTURE, OR BOTH.

Lab Experiment- Example
THE RESEARCHER OFFERS THEM INTEREST ON WHAT THEY SAVE AS FOLLOWINGS:
6% on savings for group 1.
8% for group 2.
9% for group 3.
1% for group 4 ( the old rate of interest).
HERE, THE RESEARCHER HAS CREATED AN ARTIFICIAL LABORATORY ENVIRONMENT AND
HAS MANIPULATED THE INTEREST RATES FOR SAVINGS. HE ALSO CHOSEN SUBJECTS WITH
SIMILAR BACKGROUNDS.

Lab Experiment- Example
THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS REFERS TO THE LEVEL OF AGGREGATION (CUMULATIVE/TOTAL)
OF THE DATA COLLECTED DURING THE SUBSEQUENT (NEXT/LATER/SUCCESSIVE) DATA
ANALYSIS.

Individual
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Cultures






Unit of Analysis
If the researcher focuses on how to raise the
motivational levels of employees, then we are
interested in individual employees in the
organization. Here the unit of analysis is the
individual (the data will be gathered from each
individual).

Unit of Analysis: Individual
If the researcher is interested in studying two-person
interaction, then several two-person groups also
known as dyads, will become the unit of analysis.
Analysis of husband-wife, and supervisor-subordinate
relationships at the work place.


Unit of Analysis: Dyads

Groups as a unit of analysis
Organizations as a unit of analysis
Cultures as a unit of analysis

Unit of Analysis
THE CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER OF A MANUFACTURING COMPANY WANTS TO
KNOW HOW MANY OF THE STAFF WOULD BE INTERESTED IN ATTENDING A 3-DAY
SEMINAR ON MAKING APPROPRIATE INVESTMENT DECISIONS.

DATA WILL HAVE TO BE COLLECTED FROM EACH INDIVIDUAL STAFF MEMBER AND
THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS IS INDIVIDUAL.

Individuals as The Unit of Analysis
A HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGER WANTS TO FIRST IDENTIFY THE NUMBER OF EMPLOYEES IN THREE
DEPARTMENTS OF THE ORGANIZATION WHO ARE IN MENTORING (ADVISER/COUNSELOR) RELATIONSHIPS,
AND THEN FIND OUT WHAT THE JOINTLY PERCEIVED BENEFITS OF SUCH A RELATIONSHIP ARE.


ONCE THE MENTOR AND THE MENTORED PAIRS ARE IDENTIFIED, THEIR JOINT PERCEPTIONS CAN BE
OBTAINED BY TREATING EACH PAIR AS ONE UNIT.

IF THE MANAGER WANTS DATA FROM A SAMPLE OF 10 PAIRS, HE WILL HAVE TO DEAL WITH 20
INDIVIDUALS, A PAIR AT A TIME. THE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM EACH PAIR WILL BE A DATA POINT
FOR SUBSEQUENT ANALYSIS.
THUS, THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS IS THE DYAD.

Dyads as the Unit of Analysis
A MANAGER WANTS TO SEE THE PATTERNS OF USAGE OF THE NEWLY INSTALLED
INFORMATION SYSTEM (IS) BY THE PRODUCTION, SALES, AND OPERATIONS
PERSONNEL.
HERE THREE GROUPS OF PERSONNEL ARE INVOLVED AND INFORMATION ON THE
NUMBER OF TIMES THE IS IS USED BY EACH MEMBER IN EACH OF THE THREE
GROUPS AS WELL AS OTHER RELEVANT ISSUES WILL BE COLLECTED AND
ANALYZED.
HERE THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS IS THE GROUP.

Groups as Unit of Analysis
JOHNSON & JOHNSON COMPANY WANTS TO SEE WHICH OF ITS VARIOUS
DIVISIONS (SEPARATION/SPLIT) (E.G. SOAP, SHAMPOO, BODY OIL, ETC.) HAVE MADE
PROFITS OF OVER 12% DURING THE CURRENT YEAR.
HERE, THE PROFITS OF EACH OF THE DIVISIONS WILL BE EXAMINED AND THE
INFORMATION AGGREGATED ACROSS THE VARIOUS GEOGRAPHICAL UNITS OF
THE DIVISION.
THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS WILL BE THE DIVISION, AT WHICH LEVEL THE DATA
WILL BE AGGREGATED.

Divisions/Group as the Unit of Analysis
AN EMPLOYMENT SURVEY SPECIALIST WANTS TO SEE THE PROPORTION OF THE
WORKFORCE EMPLOYED BY THE HEALTH CARE, TRANSPORTATION, AND
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES.

THE RESEARCHER HAS TO AGGREGATE THE DATA RELATING TO EACH OF THE
SUBUNITS COMPRISED IN EACH OF THE INDUSTRIES AND REPORT THE
PROPORTIONS OF THE WORKFORCE EMPLOYED AT THE INDUSTRY LEVEL.

Industry as the Unit of Analysis
THE HEALTH CARE INDUSTRY, FOR INSTANCE, INCLUDES HOSPITALS, NURSING
HOMES, SMALL AND LARGE CLINICS, AND OTHER HEALTH CARE PROVIDING
FACILITIES.


THE DATA FROM THESE SUBUNITS WILL HAVE TO BE AGGREGATED TO SEE HOW
MANY EMPLOYEES ARE EMPLOYED BY THE HEATH CARE INDUSTRY.

THIS WILL NEED TO BE DONE FOR EACH OF THE OTHER INDUSTRIES.
EACH INDUSTRY DATA IN COLLECTIVE TERMS IS UNIT OF ANALYSES.

Industry as the Unit of Analysis

THE CHIEF FINANCIAL OFFICER (CFO) OF A MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION
(MNC) WANTS TO KNOW THE PROFITS MADE DURING THE PAST 5 YEARS BY EACH
OF THE SUBSIDIARIES IN ENGLAND, GERMANY, AND FRANCE. IT IS POSSIBLE
THAT THERE ARE MANY REGIONAL OFFICES OF THESE SUBSIDIARIES IN EACH OF
THESE COUNTRIES.

THE PROFITS OF THE VARIOUS REGIONAL CENTERS FOR EACH COUNTRY HAVE TO
BE AGGREGATED AND THE PROFITS FOR EACH COUNTRY FOR THE PAST 5 YEARS
PROVIDED TO THE CFO.

THE DATA WILL NOW HAVE TO BE AGGREGATED AT THE COUNTRY LEVEL.

Countries as the Unit of Analysis
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES

A STUDY CAN BE DONE IN WHICH DATA ARE GATHERED JUST ONCE, PERHAPS OVER A
PERIOD OF DAYS OR WEEKS OR MONTHS, IN ORDER TO ANSWER A RESEARCH QUESTION.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
STUDYING PEOPLE OR PHENOMENA AT MORE THAN ONE POINT IN TIME IN ORDER TO
ANSWER THE RESEARCH QUESTION.
BECAUSE DATA ARE GATHERED AT TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT POINTS IN TIME, THE STUDY IS
NOT CROSS-SECTIONAL KIND, BUT IS CARRIED LONGITUDINALLY ACROSS A PERIOD OF TIME.

Time Horizon Cross-Sectional Vs
Longitudinal Studies
DATA WERE COLLECTED FROM STOCK BROKERS BETWEEN APRIL & JUNE OF LAST YEAR
TO STUDY THEIR CONCERNS IN A TURBULENT STOCK MARKET.
DATA HAS TO BE COLLECTED AT ONE POINT IN TIME. IT IS A CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN.

A DRUG COMPANY DESIROUS OF INVESTING IN RESEARCH FOR A NEW HEADACHE PILL. A
SURVEY AMONG HEADACHY PEOPLE TO SEE HOW MANY OF THEM WOULD BE INTERESTED
IN TRYING THE NEW PILL.
THIS IS A ONE-SHOT OR CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY TO ASSESS THE LIKELY DEMAND FOR
THE NEW PRODUCT.



Time Horizon
Example: Cross-Sectional
A MARKETING MANAGER IS INTERESTED IN TRACING THE PATTERN OF SALES OF A
PARTICULAR PRODUCT IN FOUR DIFFERENT REGIONS OF THE COUNTRY ON A QUARTERLY
BASIS FOR THE NEXT 2 YEARS.

SINCE THE DATA ARE COLLECTED SEVERAL TIMES TO ANSWER THE SAME ISSUE, THE STUDY
FALLS UNDER THE LONGITUDINAL CATEGORY.

LONGITUDINAL STUDIES TAKE MORE TIME AND EFFORT AND COST MORE THAN CROSS-
SECTIONAL STUDIES. HOWEVER, WILL-PLANNED LONGITUDINAL STUDIES COULD HELP TO
IDENTIFY CAUSE-AND-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS.

FOR EXAMPLE, ONE COULD STUDY THE SALES VOLUME OF A PRODUCT BEFORE AND AFTER
AN ADVERTISEMENT, AND PROVIDED OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES HAVE NOT
IMPACTED ON THE RESULTS, ONE COULD ATTRIBUTE THE INCREASE IN THE SALES VOLUME,
IF ANY, TO THE ADVERTISEMENT.


Time Horizon
Example: Longitudinal Studies
A SUPERVISOR THINKS THAT THE LOW EFFICIENCY OF THE MACHINE TOOL OPERATORS IS
DIRECTLY LINKED TO THE HIGH LEVEL OF FUMES EMITTED IN THE WORKSHOP. HE WOULD
LIKE TO PROVE THIS TO HIS SUPERVISOR THROUGH A RESEARCH STUDY.




1.WOULD THIS BE A CAUSAL OR A CORRELATIONAL STUDY?
2.WHAT KIND OF STUDY WOULD THIS BE: FIELD STUDY, LAB EXPERIMENT, OR FIELD
EXPERIMENT?
3.WHAT WOULD BE THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS?
4.WOULD THIS BE A CROSS-SECTION OR A LONGITUDINAL STUDY?



Test
1. THIS WOULD BE CAUSAL STUDY BECAUSE THE OPERATOR WANTS TO PROVE TO THE
SUPERVISOR THAT THE FUMES ARE CAUSING OPERATORS TO BE LOW IN THEIR
EFFICIENCY.
2. THIS WOULD BE A FIELD EXPERIMENT.
3. THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS WOULD BE THE INDIVIDUAL OPERATORS.
4. THIS WOULD BE A CROSS- SECTIONAL STUDY BECAUSE DATA WILL BE GATHERED AT
ONE POINT.

IN BOOK THIS EXAMPLE IS SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT.



Answers