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Power
A. Definition
or group to exercise control over another person or group. One of the important
potential; sometimes just having the potential is enough to influence other people
under certain circumstances. It is also explained how power may reside in each
influence (385).
reasons for choosing one alternative over another. Second, she views power as
and inventions, and will stimulate creative work and effort in other people. Third,
she explains power as a “personal influence” that will give strength to the
These are classified by the bases of power, and into positional or personal
power.
1. Bases of power
John R.P. French, Jr, and Bertram Raven, in their study " The Basis of
Social Power", identified five major types of power: reward power, coercive
punishment or sanctions.”
an organization.”
e. Expert power " is obtained through the exercise of specialized skills and
knowledge” (262-268).
In keeping with Moorhead and Griffin, another way to classify power is into
types of power would be on the first place, a supervisor, who has the
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power of making decisions based on his/her position. At the same time the
of these two powers will be, on the first place, when employee in a
power, when he/she possess skills that are needed by others. Referent
two-force power that could be positive or negative. The author claims, destruction
bulldozers, to build dams, hospitals, humanity is getting benefits from it. Though,
among others.
Productive Power, in line with Boulding, is found in creation, ideas, “in the
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Finally, Integrative Power, as Boulding explains, is the capacity of bringing
people together, create organizations, groups, and inspire others. But at the
same time, says Boulding, this power could be used in a negative way by
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II. Leadership
A. Types
1. Transactional Leadership
leaders tend to focus on task completion and employee compliance, and these
Den Harton, Van Muijen, and Koopman confirm that leadership has been
proposed by Bass. The authors note how the relationship established between
leaders and followers are based on a series of exchanges. They also suggest
how the behavior of the leaders will clarify what is expected from the
2. Transformational Leadership
abilities that allow the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision
to guide that change, and to execute the change effectively. Only a leader with
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motivates followers by appealing to higher ideals and moral values.
Transformational leaders must be able to define and articulate a vision for their
organizations, and the followers must accept the credibility of the leader” (qtd. in
Den Hartog, Van Muijen, and Koopman think that the transformational
A. Dimensions
admiration, respect and trust. Idealized influence involves risk sharing on the part
that provides meaning and challenge to the follower’s work. It includes behaviors
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optimism.
this type of transformational leadership solicit new ideas and creative problem
solutions from their followers, and encourage novel and new approaches for
performing work.
leaders who listen attentively and pay special attention to follower achievement
(4).
Credibility, in line with the authors, is based on six criteria that are called
trust);
c. care (concern for the personal and professional well being of others);
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d. courage (willingness to stand up for one's beliefs, challenge others,
The degree to which leaders are seen as credible is the degree to which
C. Characteristics of Leaders
define;
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elements;
In agreement with John W. Work, there are two general causes for
leadership. The first one, named perceived-inequity, arises from the perception
differences among groups in different settings. The second cause, named the
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III. Historic and Business Figures as examples of Power and Leadership
There are three possible major combinations that can emerge from the
Leadership
It has been written in this paper how power can be classified in two types,
most beneficial type of transaction for the person embracing this two
characteristics.
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• Individuals with Personal Power and Leadership characteristics, lacking of
positional power. In this case individuals may accomplish many goals, but
establish the differences and similarities between these two concepts. First
Power has been defined in this paper as the potential ability to exercise control;
on the contrary, leadership has been defined as the ability to influence people.
is the use of personal abilities and qualities to pursue a vision. Third, Power
however, credibility is not always linked with power. Fifth, a link can be
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C. Historic and Business Figures
1. Power/Leadership
a. Margaret Thatcher
experiencing difficult economic and politic times, and the country was perceived
This was the country Margaret Thatcher received when she became
Britain’s Prime Minister. But Margaret’s last name was not always Thatcher.
She was the daughter of Alfred Roberts a man that marked her life. He
taught Margaret Roberts to win, to have work ethic, and to be willing to succeed.
Alfred gave her two important lessons for life. The first one was: “You must make
your own decisions. You don’t do something because your friends are doing it.
You do it because you think is the best thing to do.” The second lesson was:
“Don’t follow the crowd; don’t be afraid of being different. You decide what you
ought to do, and if necessary you lead the crowd. But you never just follow” (qtd.
in Genovese 181).
University Conservative Association. In 1949, at the age of 24, she was elected
as candidate for the Conservative Party in Dartford. During her political campaign
Margaret met Denis Thatcher, her future husband. In 1951, they were married
and with the pass of two years she gave birth to her twins Carol and Mark
(Genovese 182-183).
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Margaret started to feel tired and unfulfilled with her home life, and
decided to fight for a seat in the Parliament. Thatcher’s political view was to
eliminate from Britain the power of the state, the centralization of authority, and
Genovese writes, “as Margaret Thatcher prepared herself for the exercise
of power, she seemed quite ready to lead” (185). In 1975 Thatcher defeated her
opponent 130 to 119, becoming the leader of the Conservative Party. Although in
the 1979 election the Conservative’s won a majority of 43 seats and Margaret
Thatcher was pronounced Prime Minister, she was not having control over the
Thatcher was a different type of British political leader. She was a bold,
conviction (…) she had a strong sense of moral rigidity and mission (…)
It can be inferred from Thatcher’s life that she was a woman with Power
and with characteristics of Leader. Her position as Prime Minister gave her
leader through her entire life. She was a motivated woman, with skills, following a
vision, and she had enough credibility to be elected three times as Prime
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Minister. She had the ideal combination of Power and Leadership to engage and
b. Golda Meir
Golda Meir was born in Russia in May 1898. Two major issues drove her
life. The first was her sense of Jewish identity; the second, her commitment to
public service, political life, and her gender. Her conviction of public service was
so elevated, that most of her difficult moments were the result of choosing it over
identification with the rectification of wrong, her focus on fundraising, and her
In 1917, explains the author, she married Morris Myerson and become
actively involved in the Zionist movement. From this moment Golda started to
develop her political career. In 1921, she left for Palestine, leaving behind her life
in the US.
creation of the Jewish State in Palestine. It was the sense of identity and
purpose that gave meaning and direction to her life and career, and she
The author explains how Golda was admired for her sincerity, her
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identification with communal and collective life, her capacity to solve problems,
her determination, and her ability to speak to large groups and meet with
period of poverty and isolation. During this time she gave birth to two children
and accepted to live away from the Kibbutz in order to avoid problems with her
husband. The author explains the separation of Golda from her husband Morris
role and behavior from his wife, a person that was deeply committed with a public
life (140-141).
the Histadrut. This position made her go back to her ideals, the birth of the
Jewish State and the creation of a new society. She succeeded at this position
and gained reputation, due to the institution’s need of her skills. According to
At the same time Golda was taking part in the formation of the Mapai
Political Party. Her political career continued with a series of designations. First
she was elected head of the Political Bureau of the Jewish Agency in Jerusalem,
then she was named Minister of Labor, and in 1965 Foreign Minister. She was
well known for her confrontational style, her willingness to establish better
relations with third world countries, and her firm position when dealing with the
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arab-israeli conflict (Thompson 142-146).
the political arena. But this didn’t last longer, in 1970, Levi Eshkol Israel’s Prime
Minister suffered a fatal heart attack. Golda became again Prime Minister. In
1975, Golda announced her definitely retirement from Politics. She died three
As Margaret Thatcher, Golda Meir played a critical role in the political life
She dedicated her entire life to pursue her vision, her dream: the birth of the
Jewish State and the creation of a new society. Her conviction, and character
were two of the drivers that helped her to successfully survive politics.
C. Simon Bolivar
up in a period where revolutions and reforms were taking place all over the world
than a way Simon Bolivar grew to represent the ideals and trends of this era
(Johnson 9).
dream of liberty and many found in his figure the inspiration, becoming “El
individual with special characteristics and many talents that liberated Bolivia,
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Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela from Spain. “Bolivar was a change-
marker. By keeping faith with his ideals and exhibiting rare qualities of
personality are his generosity (he donated all his fortune to the liberation cause),
his trust in men and in personal creative action (the loyalty shown by his
subordinates and their commitment to the liberation cause), his courage, and his
ability to work, fight, and communicate with all types of men (Johnson 12-14).
His personal charm disarmed his critics. His readiness to attempt the
cause. A consummate orator, actor, and writer, Bolivar was able to divert
Simon Bolivar was a figure that possessed the Positional and Personal
Power, combined with characteristics of Leadership. This ideal mix allowed him
to liberate five countries from Spain, and to commit thousands of people to his
cause. He had the skills, the preparation, the vision, the resources, and the
Power/ No Leadership
a. Jefferson Davis
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Jefferson Davis was born on June 3rd 1808 in Kentucky, US. He came
from a family where military service and patriotism were highly valued. Davis
entered the Military Academy of West Point in New York, where he hold a good
academic record but his resistance to attend church and avoid prohibited
History 2).
Davis enjoyed military life and soon was promoted to first lieutenant.
According to the author, his military career showed him “the habit of command
courtship since Sallie’s father didn’t want for his daughter a husband related with
the military career. In 1835 Davis resigned from the army with the idea of a
promising civil career and decided to marry Sallie Knox Taylor. But Sallie dyed
three months later from Malaria (Gale Research- Discovering US History 2).
According to the author, this was a devastating time for Davis, but in 1845
Jefferson married Varina Howell. From the six children they had only two
survived the couple. After a few years and putting effort into a Plantation, Davis
decided to enter the political arena, winning in 1845 a seat in the congress (Gale
In 1846 claims the author, Davis resigned his position in the Congress and
plundering in Mexico” (3). Davis became a hero during this period, and was
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appointed as senator in 1847. He was elected for the rest of the term remaining
Davis always hoped for a military career and when he thought he could be
with many basic needs. He did not inspire politicians, or the people, to set aside
parochial interests until independence was achieved; he was not able to bring
together all the limited resources of the embattled country; slaves were not
effectively used by the Confederacy; and financial instability and the lack of such
basics as food caused great suffering (…) In military affairs, the president’s
competence did not live up to his expectations. His insistence on protocol and his
inability to see errors led him astray” (Gale Research-Discovering US History 5).
Lincoln. He was indicted for treason in 1866. His wife raised funds for a $100,000
bail and a “writ of habeas corpus” was entered. On December 6 1889 he died in
skills, he was inspired by military life, but he didn’t hold any of the characteristics
of Leaders. Jefferson was not fighting for a vision, motivating others, or sharing
his power. Davis just desired a military career and he reflected this aspiration in
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b. Isabel Peron
According to Sara Weir, on 1974 Isabel Peron became the first woman to
moths before. She was the widow of Juan Domingo Peron. Her year and a half
presidency were a catastrophe. Finally she was removed by military forces form
her position. She was lacked the charisma and leadership qualities of Eva Peron.
“Isabelita, the understudy, lacked Evita’s brains, charisma and raw, driving
energy” (161-164).
written information about her past, there wasn’t found any information of her
interest for politics. In 1961 she married Juan Domingo Peron in Madrid in a
performance as president has been seen as poor, and has even been held
responsible for the disappearance of more than six thousand Argentineans (Weir
164,166,172,173).
Isabel Peron is one of the best examples of a figure with Positional Power,
have the skills, the vision, the willingness to involve others, and these factors
c. Corazon Aquino
Maria Corazon Simulong Cojuangco was borne in 1933. She was raised in
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when both were 21 years old. She dedicated the first years of her married life
in those early days thought of her as a potential leader. Nor did she
envisioned such a role for herself. She was never the political
neophyte that some of the pros took her for- at their peril. However,
With the pass of time she gained experience and became more
comfortable with her position. Her main goal was to revenge the death of her
husband, and to save her country from the men that did it (21). But comments
started to shadow her presidential period. People started to notice she was more
for the people of Philippines. Due to her lack of skills, her programmed plan of
action failed.
Corazon Aquino a woman with the legal power, but lacking the skills and
the character needed to be a leader. One of the reasons for her failure was the
absence of vision. Apparently, her only goal was to revenge the death of her
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husband. After the death of “the dictator” responsible for it, Aquino was left with
d. Benazir Bhutto
1953. She graduated from Harvard University as cum laude in 1973. Even
though she was a woman, her parents raised her in a relatively free environment.
Benazir’s father was executed by General Mohammed Zia, when she was 25
In 1986 Benazir went back to Pakistan and decided to run for Prime
Minister defying her father’s executor. She knew a lot of her popularity came from
her father’s sad ending and it was her strategy to emphasize her role as the
Benazir Bhutto received a series of critics related with the way she
conducted herself. She was seen as arrogant and as a person that didn’t take
criticism. She was accused of not having an agenda, and that her only goal was
people. However, it is important to point out that Bhutto was pursuing power in a
She was dedicated to her cause and government, but she was
inexperience, and she was not able to gain the sympathy of the military sector of
her country, after Zias death. After becoming Prime Minister she made promises
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to the people, she was not able to keep. She was accused of nepotism and seen
Despite the fact Benazir Bhutto was a Prime Minister in a Muslim country,
she didn’t have the characteristics of a leader. She had the Positional Power, but
missing the necessary skills, character, and vision made her failed in her journey.
national plan, and didn’t work to have a vision that embraced the majority of the
2. No Power / Leadership
a. Jane Addams
She was born in 1860 in Cedarville, Illinois and was the daughter of John
Huy Addams. A man that implanted on Jane the ideas of democracy, equality,
was “a pioneer in the settlement house movement, social worker, and peace
advocate, was among America’s most influential reformers” (8). In 1889 she
founded her Hull House settlement in Chicago, which major role was to serve the
poor people of the neighborhood and also served as a center for social reforms.
women became the target of Addams, who trhough her writing and speaking,
encouraged them to quit their domestic duties and started to be involved with
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social activism. After a while Addams reunited around the Hull House many
reformers, the majority women, who felt identify with her ideas and moral issues.
for women, for elimination of child labor, for factory inspection laws, and
During the times of World War I, Addams became a pacifist, position that
diminished her popularity during these years. She believed in the “harmony of
relationship based on cooperation. In 1915 with the help of other women she
In 1931 she was awarded the Nobel Peace Price in recognition of “fifty
her life, but the society in which she lived placed on women a role of submission,
familiar life, and sanctity. She was a woman with characteristics of leadership,
committed to a vision, but who lacked the legal power to transform into reality
b. Susan Anthony
She was born in 1820 in Massachusetts and grew under Quaker education.
Her father transmitted the values of discipline and self-confidence. Her family
supported the abolitionist and women’s rights movements. She started a career
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as a teacher, not because she wanted, but for the limited choice women had at
that moment of time. After teacher for more than a decade she finally found her
north, reform. At the end of the civil war she started to fight for women’s right to
suffrage, this became her lifetime goal. Politics became a major part of her life,
History 31).
When she became part of the Woman’s Suffrage Movement, she worked
hard and continuously. She organized state and national conventions, collected
signatures for a petition to give women the right to vote and own property. In
1860 women had their first victory. They were allowed to “control their own
earnings and property, to enter into contracts, and to serve as the guardians of
their children” (Gale Research- Discovering US History 3). But women still had to
wait to be given the right to vote. However, Anthony’s strategy became a model
During 1868 and 1870, Susan was the editor of the Revolution as feminist
weekly, where issues such as prostitution and divorce were discussed. In 1872
after reading an editorial Anthony claimed the right to register in order to vote.
Almost three weeks later, she was arrested and taken to trial (Gale Research-
Susan Anthony didn’t live to see her dream come true, but at least she
was pleased with the number of changes that took place during her journey. She
died in 1906 in Rochester, New York (Gale Research- Discovering US History 5).
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As many other women in World’s History, Susan Anthony had the desired
to accomplish a better and more equal life for women in the United States. She
had two reasons for being a leader “perceived-inequity”, and the desired of being
better. Her gender impeded her achieving powerful formal positions. She was the
leader of a movement, with a long-term vision, the skills, and the motivation to
keep working for years. Even though she didn’t have Positional Power (she was
fighting for the opportunity to have it), her personality and expertise allowed her
c. Walt Disney
Walter Ellias Disney was born in 1901 in Chicago, Illinois. The memories of
his childhood were not immensely happy, especially those related to his difficult
relationship with his father. Walter loved the country life, being in contact with
1).
When was fifteen and his family moved back to Chicago, he decided to
stay alone in Kansas City, where he worked and took art lessons. When the war
started Walter was anxious with the idea of going and wearing a uniform, but due
to his age the army rejected him. With false documentation, he finally got
accepted in the Red Cross and was send overseas, being an experience that
While living in Kansas City the young Disney try a variety of jobs as
commercial artist and cartoonist, and his curiosity for filmed cartons was borne.
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At this point he met Ub Iwerks with whom Disney established a long relationship.
They “started a long and interesting, often troubling, relationship between the
consummate artist Iwerks and the consummate organizer and visionary Disney”
Disney was married to Lillian Bounds in 1925, and started working on his
next project a mouse called Mickey. He wrote different stories around this
character and finally tried the incorporation of sound in one of his adventures. His
experiment revolutionized the film industry and was acclaimed as one of the
1933,1935,1937, and 1939, while his studio was growing (Gale Research-
World War II and a labor union strike affected Disney’s studio during the
decade of the 40’s. Despite the negative environment of this period, the studio
still had success with characters such as Dumbo, The Three Caballeros, and
using controversial topics. But his most important work was the creation of
Disneyland. “The fantastic success of Disneyland and the later Walt Disney
World (1971) in Florida stood as final testimony to Disney’s courage and vision”
Disney continued to have a successful career with his projects and even
wining more Academy Awards, but his life came to an end in 1966. He died from
lung cancer. He was a man that was not afraid of expressing his thoughts, giving
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ideas, and putting his best effort on his work. He wanted to create smiles, and
US History 5).
Walter Ellias Disney was a Business Leader, a visionary, who had skills,
perception, conviction, and character. He was an artist that didn’t need Positional
Power in order to achieve his goals; his Personal Power and Leadership
d. Gabrielle Chanel
She was borne in August 19, 1883 in Saumur-France. She started making
hats in Paris in 1910 taking her first steps into fashion. Gabrielle, better known as
“Coco” revolutionized women fashion with her “straight, simple, uncorseted, and
comfortable Chanel look”, she introduced the use of short hair for women, short
skirts, and created her famous perfume Chanel No.5. Coco challenged an
industry dominated by men, and took advantage of her own gender in order to
1).
her, jersey, the war: all these circumstances Coco exploited to the
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to perceive the tendencies of an epoch and the underlying trends of
According to Galante, Coco owed her triumph to her skills, talent, sense of
timing, and courage to fight prejudices in taste (64). She was friend of artists and
poets, Coco was in contact with the outside world an its changes. She dedicated
her entire life to a define goal and no one could take her away from it (172-173).
industry of her time. She imposed a style of dressing and looking that was not
consonant with the ideal of a feminine figure. She was a leader, with motivation,
skills, and perception; possessing the character and the conviction necessary to
fight for her ideals. Gabrielle was an expert in fashion, and in visualizing the
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IV. Conclusions and Recommendations
Leadership in more than one way. The interactions that can emerge from these
two variables are mainly three: individuals with Power and Leadership
In order to verify if these combinations were real, the lives of historic and
business figures were analyzed. Evidence was searched in order to verify if the
historic and two business figures were analyzed. The historic performance of
each of these individuals resulted as expected. Leaders with Power had better
Thatcher, Golda Meir, Simon Bolivar, had the power, resources, ideas, and the
study. They had a vision that was well founded, and shared by others.
Corazon Aquino, and Benazir Bhutto as not very successful governors. They had
the required Positional Power, but they didn’t have the characteristics of
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Leadership required to be successful in their positions. Isabel Peron, Corazon
Aquino, and Benazir Bhutto didn’t have a vision. They had goals, and desires of
revenge, but they didn’t have a vision shared by those that surrounded them or
the people they were governing. To be a Leader is necessary to have more than
the power given by title. Jefferson Davis was a different case. His dream was to
be a military and this was reflected in his authoritative style. Davis just wasn’t
as Jane Addams, Susan Anthony, Walt Disney, and Gabrielle Chanel, are going
to be fighting for the realization of their vision. The cases of Addams and
Anthony, would probably be the best examples. Prepared women that wanted to
have a more active role in society, but it was denied just because of their gender.
Many women identified themselves with the cause of Addams and Anthony,
becoming their individual fights a common one. They were striving to achieve
Positional Power. They were productive leaders, but probably had been more if
they had had in their hands the required Positional Power to make things change
a little bit faster. Walt Disney and Coco Chanel were business leaders. Each
made an impact in the respective area, the film and fashion industry. Both were
visionaries, people ahead of their time, who convinced others to follow their
dream. They had skills, motivations, and courage, to accept criticism and still
stand for their beliefs. They held Personal Power, and learned to deal with the
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After analyzing each figure a number of issues became evident. First, in
many cases external conditions such as wars, difficult economic times, death,
make leaders bloom. Of course internal characteristics and qualities would have
triggered the development of the future leader. Second, having a general vision
failure of the leader. Third, the characteristics admired in leaders could change
according to culture. Factors such as gender, marital status can influence the
creative environment)?
All individuals have a relevant skill, something they do at their best, and one
and Leadership are defined in other cultures, and if gender, marital status, and
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