MICROTURBINES

INTRODUCTION
MICROTURBINES WORK LIKE JET ENGINES BUT PRODUCE ELECTRICITY INSTEAD OF THRUST.
MICROTURBINES ARE A RELATIVELY NEW DISTRIBUTED GENERATION TECHNOLOGY BEING
USED FOR STATIONARY ENERGY GENERATION APPLICATIONS. THEY ARE A TYPE OF
COMBUSTION TURBINE THAT PRODUCES BOTH HEAT AND ELECTRICITY ON A RELATIVELY
SMALL SCALE. MICROTURBINES OFFER SEVERAL POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES COMPARED TO
OTHER TECHNOLOGIES FOR SMALL-SCALE POWER GENERATION, INCLUDING: A SMALL
NUMBER OF MOVING PARTS, COMPACT SIZE, LIGHTWEIGHT, GREATER EFFICIENCY, LOWER
EMISSIONS, LOWER ELECTRICITY COSTS, AND OPPORTUNITIES TO UTILIZE WASTE FUELS. WASTE
HEAT RECOVERY CAN ALSO BE USED WITH THESE SYSTEMS TO ACHIEVE EFFICIENCIES
GREATER THAN 80%.
BECAUSE OF THEIR SMALL SIZE, RELATIVELY LOW CAPITAL COSTS, EXPECTED LOW
OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE COSTS, AND AUTOMATIC ELECTRONIC CONTROL,
MICROTURBINES ARE EXPECTED TO CAPTURE A SIGNIFICANT SHARE OF THE DISTRIBUTED
GENERATION MARKET. IN ADDITION, MICROTURBINES OFFER AN EFFICIENT AND CLEAN
SOLUTION TO DIRECT MECHANICAL DRIVE MARKETS SUCH AS COMPRESSION AND AIRCONDITIONING.

PHOTOVOLTAICS
INTRODUCTION
COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE SINCE THE 1970S, PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) TECHNOLOGY
CONVERTS ENERGY FROM SOLAR RADIATION DIRECTLY INTO ELECTRICITY USING
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS. IT HAS NO MECHANICAL MOVING PARTS, SO IT LASTS FOR
DECADES AND REQUIRES ONLY MINIMAL MAINTENANCE. PHOTOVOLTAIC PROJECTS RANGE
FROM SMALL-SCALE PROJECTS FOR LIGHTING AND PUMPING TO LARGE-SCALE PROJECTS
FOR WHOLE BUILDINGS AND EVEN UTILITY-SCALE PHOTOVOLTAIC "FARMS."
IN GENERAL, SOLAR ELECTRICITY IS MORE EXPENSIVE PER KILOWATT (KW) THAN MANY OTHER
SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY, BUT IT HAS A NUMBER OF ADVANTAGES. BECAUSE A
PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEM CAN BE LOCATED AT THE USER SITE, IT CAN OFTEN OFFSET THE FULL
RETAIL ELECTRICITY RATE OF THE FACILITY, RATHER THAN THE WHOLESALE POWER PRICE. IN
ADDITION, PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRICITY OFTEN MATCHES PEAK DEMAND VERY WELL,
ESPECIALLY IN WARMER CLIMATES, AND CAN OFFSET PEAK ELECTRICITY RATES. IT IS
MODULAR AND CAN BE INSTALLED IN ANY SIZE NECESSARY, WITH THE ONLY LIMITATION
BEING THE AVAILABILITY OF A SUNNY ROOF OR GROUND SPACE. ADDITIONALLY,
PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGY OFTEN QUALIFIES FOR MORE INCENTIVES THAN OTHER
RENEWABLE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES. FOR EXAMPLE, IN STATES THAT HAVE A "SOLAR SETASIDE" IN THEIR RENEWABLE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS, THE RENEWABLE ENERGY CERTIFICATES
CAN BE MUCH HIGHER THAN THOSE PROVIDED FOR OTHER TECHNOLOGIES.
THIS OVERVIEW IS INTENDED TO PROVIDE SPECIFIC DETAILS FOR FEDERAL AGENCIES
CONSIDERING PHOTOVOLTAIC TECHNOLOGIES AS PART OF A NEW CONSTRUCTION
PROJECT OR MAJOR RENOVATION. FURTHER GENERAL INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE ON THE
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY (DOE) OFFICE OF ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE
ENERGY (EERE) PHOTOVOLTAICS ENERGY BASICS WEBSITE.

HOW A PHOTOVOLTAIC WORKS

WHEN LIGHT ENERGY, OR PHOTONS, STRIKES A PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL, ELECTRONS ARE
"KNOCKED" LOOSE FROM A LAYER IN THE CELL DESIGNED TO GIVE UP ELECTRONS EASILY.
THE CHARGE DIFFERENCE THAT IS BUILT INTO THE CELL PULLS THE LOOSE ELECTRONS TO
ANOTHER CELL LAYER BEFORE THEY CAN RECOMBINE IN THEIR ORIGINATING LAYER. THIS
MIGRATION OF ELECTRONS CREATES A CHARGE BETWEEN LAYERS IN THE PHOTOVOLTAIC
CELL. ELECTRICALLY CONNECTING THE POSITIVELY AND NEGATIVELY CHARGED LAYERS OF A
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL THROUGH A LOAD (E.G. A LIGHT BULB) WILL PRODUCE ELECTRICITY AS
THE ELECTRONS FLOW THROUGH THE CIRCUIT, THUS, LIGHTING THE LIGHT BULB AS THEY ARE
ATTRACTED BACK TO THE POSITIVE LAYER OF THE CELL.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS INTEGRATED INTO A SYSTEM, OR PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE, CREATE
ELECTRICITY. THIS ENERGY IS THEN CONVERTED THROUGH THE INVERTER TO BE USED BY
ELECTRIC MACHINES, APPLIANCES, LIGHTS, AND SO ON.

NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS

INTRODUCTION
AMID GROWING CONCERNS ABOUT RISING ENERGY PRICES, ENERGY INDEPENDENCE, AND
THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE, STATISTICS SHOW BUILDINGS TO BE THE PRIMARY ENERGY
CONSUMER IN THE U.S. THIS FACT UNDERSCORES THE IMPORTANCE OF TARGETING BUILDING
ENERGY USE AS A KEY TO DECREASING THE NATION'S ENERGY CONSUMPTION. THE BUILDING
SECTOR CAN SIGNIFICANTLY REDUCE ENERGY USE BY INCORPORATING ENERGY-EFFICIENT
STRATEGIES INTO THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND OPERATION OF NEW BUILDINGS AND
UNDERTAKING RETROFITS TO IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF EXISTING BUILDINGS. IT CAN
FURTHER REDUCE DEPENDENCE ON FOSSIL FUEL DERIVED ENERGY BY INCREASING USE OF
ON-SITE AND OFF-SITE RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES.

THE CONCEPT OF A NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDING (NZEB), ONE WHICH PRODUCES AS MUCH
ENERGY AS IT USES OVER THE COURSE OF A YEAR, RECENTLY HAS BEEN EVOLVING FROM
RESEARCH TO REALITY. CURRENTLY, THERE ARE ONLY A SMALL NUMBER OF HIGHLY EFFICIENT
BUILDINGS THAT MEET THE CRITERIA TO BE CALLED "NET ZERO". AS A RESULT OF ADVANCES IN
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGIES, RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS, AND ACADEMIC
RESEARCH, CREATING NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS IS BECOMING MORE AND MORE
FEASIBLE.
WHILE THE EXACT DEFINITIONS OF METRICS FOR "NET ZERO ENERGY" VARY (THIS IS DISCUSSED
BELOW), MOST AGREE THAT NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS COMBINE:
EXEMPLARY BUILDING DESIGN TO MINIMIZE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS THAT MEET THESE REDUCED ENERGY NEEDS.
DESCRIPTION
DEFINITIONS
AS THE "ZERO ENERGY" AND "NET ZERO ENERGY" CONCEPTS ARE RELATIVELY NEW, THERE ARE
NOT YET DEFINITIVE, WIDELY ACCEPTED ZERO-ENERGY METRICS. THE DEPARTMENT OF
ENERGY (DOE) AND THE NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY (NREL) HAVE
SPEARHEADED MUCH OF THE WORK ON NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS TO DATE. NREL
PRESENTS SEVERAL DEFINITIONS FOR "NET ZERO ENERGY", AND THEY ENCOURAGE BUILDING
DESIGNERS, OWNERS, AND OPERATORS TO SELECT THE METRIC THAT BEST FITS THEIR PROJECT.
THE NREL PUBLICATION ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS: A CRITICAL LOOK AT THE DEFINITION (PDF
477 KB) EXPLORES DEFINITIONS IN DETAIL, AND IT SUGGESTS FOUR WAYS IN WHICH NET ZERO
ENERGY MAY BE DEFINED:

NET ZERO SITE ENERGY

NET ZERO SOURCE ENERGY
NET ZERO ENERGY COSTS
NET ZERO ENERGY EMISSIONS.

SITE ENERGY REFERS TO THE ENERGY CONSUMED AND GENERATED AT A SITE (E.G. A
BUILDING), REGARDLESS OF WHERE OR HOW THAT ENERGY ORIGINATED. IN A NET
ZERO SITE ENERGY BUILDING, FOR EVERY UNIT OF ENERGY THE BUILDING CONSUMES
OVER A YEAR, IT MUST GENERATE A UNIT OF ENERGY.
SOURCE ENERGY REFERS TO PRIMARY ENERGY NEEDED TO EXTRACT AND DELIVER
ENERGY TO A SITE, INCLUDING THE ENERGY THAT MAY BE LOST OR WASTED IN THE
PROCESS OF GENERATION, TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION. FOR EXAMPLE, A
COAL-BURNING POWER PLANT MAY GENERATE 1 JOULE OF ELECTRICITY FOR EVERY 3
JOULES OF ENERGY IN THE COAL CONSUMED. IF NATURAL GAS IS USED AT A SITE,
FOR EVERY 20 JOULES CONSUMED, 1 JOULE MAY BE NEEDED TO EXTRACT AND
DISTRIBUTE THE GAS TO THE SITE. METRICS FOR NET ZERO SOURCE ENERGY BUILDINGS
ACCOUNT FOR THESE FACTORS, THOUGH EXACT METRICS CAN VARY DEPENDING
ON SITE AND UTILITY FACTORS.
NET ZERO ENERGY COST IS PERHAPS THE SIMPLEST METRIC TO USE: IT MEANS THAT THE
BUILDING HAS AN ENERGY UTILITY BILL OF $0 OVER THE COURSE OF A YEAR. IN SOME
CASES, BUILDING OWNERS OR OPERATORS MAY TAKE ADVANTAGE OF SELLING
RENEWABLE ENERGY CREDITS (RECS) FROM ON-SITE RENEWABLE GENERATION.
MANY CONVENTIONAL ENERGY SOURCES RESULT IN EMISSIONS OF CARBON
DIOXIDE, NITROGEN OXIDES, SULFUR DIOXIDE, ETC. A NET ZERO ENERGY EMISSIONS
BUILDING EITHER USES NO ENERGY WHICH RESULTS IN EMISSIONS OR OFFSETS THE
EMISSIONS BY EXPORTING EMISSIONS-FREE ENERGY (TYPICALLY FROM ON-SITE
RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS).

BIOMASS FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION

INTRODUCTION
BIOMASS IS USED FOR FACILITY HEATING, ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION, AND COMBINED
HEAT AND POWER. THE TERM BIOMASS ENCOMPASSES A LARGE VARIETY OF MATERIALS,
INCLUDING WOOD FROM VARIOUS SOURCES, AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES, AND ANIMAL AND
HUMAN WASTE.
BIOMASS CAN BE CONVERTED INTO ELECTRIC POWER THROUGH SEVERAL METHODS. THE
MOST COMMON IS DIRECT COMBUSTION OF BIOMASS MATERIAL, SUCH AS AGRICULTURAL
WASTE OR WOODY MATERIALS. OTHER OPTIONS INCLUDE GASIFICATION, PYROLYSIS, AND
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION. GASIFICATION PRODUCES A SYNTHESIS GAS WITH USABLE ENERGY
CONTENT BY HEATING THE BIOMASS WITH LESS OXYGEN THAN NEEDED FOR COMPLETE
COMBUSTION. PYROLYSIS YIELDS BIO-OIL BY RAPIDLY HEATING THE BIOMASS IN THE ABSENCE
OF OXYGEN. ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PRODUCES A RENEWABLE NATURAL GAS WHEN
ORGANIC MATTER IS DECOMPOSED BY BACTERIA IN THE ABSENCE OF OXYGEN.
DIFFERENT METHODS WORK BET WITH DIFFERENT TYPES OF BIOMASS. TYPICALLY, WOODY
BIOMASS SUCH AS WOOD CHIPS, PELLETS, AND SAWDUST ARE COMBUSTED OR GASIFIED TO
GENERATE ELECTRICITY. CORN STOVER AND WHEAT STRAW RESIDUES ARE BALED FOR
COMBUSTION OR CONVERTED INTO A GAS USING AN ANAEROBIC DIGESTER. VERY WET
WASTES, LIKE ANIMAL AND HUMAN WASTES, ARE CONVERTED INTO A MEDIUM-ENERGY
CONTENT GAS IN AN ANAEROBIC DIGESTER. IN ADDITION, MOST OTHER TYPES OF BIOMASS
CAN BE CONVERTED INTO BIO-OIL THROUGH PYROLYSIS, WHICH CAN THEN BE USED IN
BOILERS AND FURNACES.

THIS OVERVIEW FOCUSES ON WOODY BIOMASS USED FOR GENERATING ELECTRICITY AT A

COMMERCIAL-SCALE FACILITY RATHER THAN A UTILITY-SCALE PROJECT. BIOMASS HEAT AND
BIOGAS, INCLUDING ANAEROBIC DIGESTION AND LANDFILL GAS, ARE COVERED IN OTHER
TECHNOLOGY RESOURCE PAGES IN THIS GUIDE:

BIOMASS HEAT
BIOGAS
COMPARED TO MANY OTHER RENEWABLE ENERGY OPTIONS, BIOMASS HAS THE
ADVANTAGE OF DISPATCHABILITY, MEANING IT IS CONTROLLABLE AND AVAILABLE WHEN
NEEDED, SIMILAR TO FOSSIL FUEL ELECTRIC GENERATION SYSTEMS. THE DISADVANTAGE OF
BIOMASS FOR ELECTRICITY GENERATION, HOWEVER, IS THAT THE FUEL NEEDS TO BE
PROCURED, DELIVERED, STORED, AND PAID FOR. ALSO, BIOMASS COMBUSTION PRODUCES
EMISSIONS, WHICH MUST BE CAREFULLY MONITORED AND CONTROLLED TO COMPLY WITH
REGULATIONS.
THIS OVERVIEW PROVIDES SPECIFIC DETAILS FOR THOSE CONSIDERING BIOMASS ELECTRIC
GENERATION SYSTEMS AS PART OF A MAJOR CONSTRUCTION PROJECT. FURTHER GENERAL
INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE ON THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY (DOE) OFFICE OF ENERGY
EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGY (EERE) BIOMASS ENERGY BASICS WEBSITE. DETAILS ON
BIOMASS USE FOR COMBINED HEAT AND POWER IS AVAILABLE AT THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY'S (EPA) COMBINED HEAT AND POWER PARTNERSHIP WEBSITE.