Running Head: RHETORIC IN THE ROMAN ERA

Rhetoric in the Roman Era and its Influence Today

Cynthia James
Arizona State University at Lake Havasu

Roman Era 2
Abstract
The following paper will provide a brief history of the Roman era, including three very
influential rhetors and orators, and their prominent ideas concerning the subject of rhetoric. The
paper will then go into the importance that education played in Rome and how the Roman
republic influenced the citizenry. The three key men to come out of the Roman era are Cicero,
Quintilian, and Longinus. The paper will conclude with the influence on American law and
government.

Roman Era 3

According to James A. Herrick (2013), author of The History and Theory of Rhetoric,
when we discuss the Roman era, we are really talking about a society that existed in various
political forms over a very long period of time, at least seven hundred years from approximately
300 BCE to about AD 400 (p. 90). Romans studied rhetoric for three main reasons; it was
considered a means to achieving personal success in politics, it provided a method for debate,
holding trials, and informing citizens, and it helped to develop verbal skills that signaled
wisdom, refinement, and accomplishment. Some of the influential rhetoricians from the Roman
era were Marcus Tullius Cicero, Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, and Cassius Longinus.
Rhetoricians from the Roman era had a major effect on many different aspects of current
rhetoric. David W. Purdie (2003), defined rhetoric as, that discipline which deploys the spoken
or the written word to effect an evolution in the knowledge, opinion or attitude of an audience
(p. 1142). This paper will address the history of Roman rhetoric, Roman education, three key
men from the Roman era, and how various ideas are still influential today.
History
The Roman era lasted approximately 700 years from 300 BCE to AD 400 during which
many new aspects of rhetoric were born. The rhetoric of Rome was based on Greek rhetoric,
Rhetoric writes classicist Manfred Fuhrmann, like all subjects of instruction in the ancient
world, was created by the Greeks; the Romans dutifully adopted both its forms and its subjectmatter (Herrick, 2013, p. 89). Although Romans adopted Greek rhetorical styles, there was
tension between Greece and Rome, so the Romans adopted Greek rhetoric, but they controlled it
and conveyed its various uses as they felt were appropriate. Rhetoric served three main roles in

Roman Era 4
Roman society; it was a means of achieving personal success in the political stage, it provided a
method for guiding political debates, and developed verbal skills that indicated sophistication.
Rome started as a republic but it grew very large so it had to find a new way to govern
the vast amount of people. The Roman Empire quickly expanded over large amounts of land and
in order to keep the citizens unified and the lines of communication open, rhetoric was taught.
Rhetoric played a very important role in the political life of Rome including; disciplining of
speech, cultivating of reason, and capacity to bring about cooperative action(Herrick, 2013, p.
90). Rome was divided into the rulers and the ruled and the gens or clan that you belonged to
determined societies perception of you. Societies perception of a person was based on the gens
one belonged to but gens and character were also very closely linked. Character was an
extraordinarily important element in the social and political milieu of Republican Rome, writes
one authority, and exerted a considerable amount of influence on native Roman oratory
(Herrick, 2013, p. 91). These gens were families of no more than 20 members that were very
powerful and it was very difficult for outsiders to break into a gens.
Another faction of Roman society was the value they placed on the res publica or the
republic over the individual. The response of the citizenry was much more valued than the
opinion of an individual. Also, in order to give public speeches or be involved in politics, one
had to be in the elite class of citizens, which further divided the rulers and the ruled. This idea
was not something the Romans adopted from Greek rhetoric because in Greece, they employed
the use of isegoria, or a guarantee of the opportunity to speak freely in public assemblies
(Herrick, 2013, p. 29). The Romans used a system similar to the United States checks and
balances system of government. They had representative assemblies of commoners, assemblies
of the ruling elite, as well as various powerful individuals in Roman society.

Roman Era 5

Roman Education
Education was very important to the advancement of Roman culture and society. Roman
education was highly influenced by Greek education in two distinct stages according to Augustus
Samuel Wilkins in his 1905 book, Roman Education:
During the earlier the Romans were gradually learning what treasures of beauty
and wisdom were stored in the literature of Greece, and were coming to feel that
some knowledge of these, either directly or through the medium of translations,
was essential to culture. At a later stage they were no longer content with this;
they accepted Greek ideals of culture and adopted Greek method of training,
and these not only for general mental development, but with direct reference to
the demands of public life. (p. 3)
Romans used Greek educational tactics and philosophies when figuring out the basis of their
educational practices. Students in Rome received instruction in Greek for all of their subjects
originally until eventually instruction was taught in Italian. Roman citizens learned Greek
because at the time the great literary works as well as the teachers of rhetoric were written in
Greek or spoke Greek. Young men and boys studied basic education as well as rhetoric and
philosophy for years in order to become prominent members of society. Also, the main method
of teaching these young men and boys was through oral expression, which Herrick (2013) points
out by saying, the spoken word was crucial to education just as it was to politics. For this
reason, eloquence, or skill with the spoken word, was the key to influence and success (p. 93).

Roman Era 6
Although teachers did have access to written texts, they were not easily accessible, and it was
much easier to orally teach the students.
Many subject areas were taught to the students such as, history, mathematics, law,
philosophy, but rhetorical training in the schools in Rome was of the utmost importance. The
main aspects of rhetoric taught in the Roman schools included, eloquence, diction, style, speech,
and debate. The young men and boys in Rome were taught to speak eloquently and expected to
memorize two types of speeches during their education. The first type of speech was called
controversia, or a mock judicial speech presented by the advanced student of rhetoric(Herrick,
2013, p. 93), where as the other type of speech was known as the suasoria, or a practice speech
for the younger student of rhetoric (Herrick, 2013, p.93). The suasoria style speech was for the
younger, elementary students of rhetoric. Another aspect of Roman rhetorical education was the
emphasis on style and diction and in general the aesthetics of speech fundamental to an effective
speaker. However, there was also another motive for Romans learning rhetoric, which Herrick
(2013) states, The practice of a common rhetoric, rooted in Roman values, was as crucial to the
Roman Empires expansion and maintenance as was the Latin language and the famed Roman
roads (p. 93). Basically, rhetoric was necessary to the expansion of the Roman Empire and the
cultivation of influential Roman rhetors and orators.
Three Key Men
Out of the Roman era came three very influential men; Cicero, Quintilianus (Quintilian),
and Longinus. Each of these three men wrote multiple works and published many of their ideas
relating to rhetoric and their individual theories regarding it. All three of these men were
prominent in Roman society however; Cicero was the only one of the three that was a native of

Roman Era 7
Rome. Quintilian was a native of Spain and Longinus was a native of Syria. These three men
were essential to the effect that Roman rhetoric had on the rest of the world for years to come.
Cicero
Cicero was born January 106 BC and died December 43 BCE, at the age of 63. When
Cicero was a young boy, his father moved his family to the capital of Rome and Cicero tells us in
his work, De oratore that, he and his brother, along with two of their cousins, were received
into the famous house of the famous orator and statesman, Lucius Licinius Crassus, who took an
active role in their education (May, 2002, p. 2). Cicero was the author of 106 major public
addresses, as well as more than 800 letters, 6 books on rhetoric and parts of 7 books on
philosophy. He unapologetically promoted himself and hired a scribe to follow him around to
record everything he said. His scribe had to create shorthand to write everything he said down
because he spoke so much and so fast. He was known as the greatest orator in Rome and placed a
lot of emphasis on style. Cicero was known for his idea of memory relata and the loci method.
The loci method is when a rhetor would associate an argument in a speech with a place in a
familiar building, putting each argument, literally, in its place. Recalling the arguments, then,
involved a mental stroll through the building (Herrick, 2013, p. 97). The loci method is very
useful when giving speeches and instead of memorizing a speech, which is not advised by public
speakers.
Cicero wrote many famous works including; De oratore and De inventione. He finished
De oratore in 55 BCE and it focused on character being revealed through actions. According to
Cicero, character was comprised of dignity (dignitas), worthy achievements (res gestae), and
a solid reputation (existimatio) (Herrick, 2013, p. 99). De inventione was finished around 85
BCE. De inventione contains Ciceros most important contribution to the subject of rhetoric, his

Roman Era 8
five canons of rhetoric. The five canons of rhetoric are inventio (invention), dispositio
(arrangement), elocutio (expression), memoria (memorization), and pronuntiatio (delivery).
Invention is the discovery of a valid argument, arrangement is the organization and support of an
argument, expression is the ornamentation and orchestration of an argument, memorization is the
use of pneumonic devices, and delivery includes the physical and vocal traits of the delivery of
the speech.
Quintilian
Another very famous rhetor and orator in Rome was Quintilian. He was born in 35 AD
and died in 100 AD, at the age of 65. Quintilian was the author of many famous works during his
lifetime including Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory). He also had many influential ideas
such as the 4 Sources of Proof, 3 Judicial Bases, the Good Man Philosophy, and the Indefinite
and Definite Questions. He was known as the most famous and successful teacher of rhetoric in
Rome. Before he was a teacher he was a judicial advocate, which caused him to be concerned
with his appearance, especially the proper way of wearing a toga. It was so well known how
Quintilian felt about the toga that, A. Wallace-Hadrill writes, The reader [of Quintilians
Institutes] becomes increasingly conscious of the sheer awkwardness of the garment, the
difficulty of speaking in public with a minimum of animation without throwing the clothing into
disarray . . . (as cited in Herrick, 2013, p. 103). Unlike Cicero, Quintilian did not promote
himself instead he was humble, which may be the reason that he was followed around by many
people. It is quite possible that he was the first victim of the paparazzi.
The Institutes of Oratory was a multivolume work made up of 12 books and was a guide
to an orators education. He concerned himself with educating the citizen-orator and defined
rhetoric as the art of the good citizen speaking well (Herrick, 2013, p. 103), also known as the

Roman Era 9
Good Man Philosophy. Most of Quintilians ideas were fixated on the judicial system including;
the 4 Sources of Proof, the 3 Judicial Bases, and the 5 parts of a Judicial Speech.
The 4 Sources of Proof are derived; from senses, from common belief, from laws,
contracts, and agreements, and from admission. The 3 Judicial Bases are existence, definition,
and quality. Existence is determining whether an act occurred, definition is defining what
occurred, and quality is determining how severe the act was that was committed. The 5 parts of a
Judicial Speech are exordium (introduction), narratio (statement of facts), confirmatorio (proof),
confutatio (refutation), and peroratio (conclusion). Quintilian says that rhetoric addresses two
types of questions, Indefinite and the Definite Questions. Indefinite Questions do not have
specifics regarding people, time, place, or any other facts, whereas Definite Questions include
specifics. In addition to his many famous ideas and works, Quintilian believed strongly in moral
propriety and believed in supporting the values of the state. He believed that emotional appeal
was an art that when used correctly, could influence in the courtroom when factual evidence was
not enough. The rules of an emotional appeal can be divided into 6 basic parts:
The advocate must know the emotions The advocate must imagine and feel the
emotion himself The advocate must describe the scene as his client experienced
it The advocate must awaken, as Quintilian puts it, emotions which either
do not naturally arise from the case or are stronger than the case would
suggest The advocates client must mimic his lawyers emotions In his
training the advocate should speak, not in his own voice, but in the voice of his
client. (Katula, 2003, pp. 9-10)
Many of Quintilians ideas have remained prominent throughout history including, how a
person arranges a speech as well as how to use emotional appeal effectively.

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Longinus
Not as much is known about Longinus, but he was born in 213 AD and died in 273 AD,
at the age of 60. He is thought to be the author of On the Sublime, but no one knows for sure.
Longinus is also known for the 5 Sources of Great Writing and could possibly be the first
documented critic of poetry. He also advanced the use of figure of speech and examples.
According to Herrick, On the Sublime is a rhetorical treatise that is mainly concerned
with the arousing power of language. Casper C. de Jonge states, Longinus presents sublimity as
something superhuman, which he frequently characterizes by means of religious vocabulary
(2012, p. 273). Longinus main focus of On the Sublime is what is good writing and in turn how
can it be achieved. By focusing on the written word, Longinus strays away from Ciceros
teaching on the importance of the spoken word. Within the text, he provides the 5 Sources of
Great Writing, which are; vigor and mental conception, strong and inspired emotion, artistic
training, appropriate fashioning of figures, and dignified and distinguished word arrangement.
He promoted the use of examples and figures of speech to enhance both writing and speaking.
Herrick insightfully analyzes Longinus 5 Sources of Great Writing:
The rhetorical art, then, can assist you to become a great writer by teaching you
the various devices that enhance expression, the ability to choose words
appropriate to your ideas, and the most effective arrangement of those words, that
is, composition. (2013, p. 108)
The 5 Sources of Great Writing are the most important contribution from Longinus.
Longinus is also viewed by many as the inventor of literary criticism, the careful
analysis of texts and how they achieve their effects on an audience (Herrick, 2013, p.

Roman Era 11
109). Longinus is extremely concerned with aesthetics of language, which is essential to
the effectiveness of a speech.
Influence Today
Quintilian said that there are three central aims of rhetoric, docere, delectare, and
flectere. Purdie defines these aims; docere (to teach), delectare (to delight), and flectere (the
flexion or swaying the opinion). Quintilian was perhaps ranking them sequentially into, as we
would say today, two process objectives followed by an outcome objective (Purdie, 2003, p.
1142). These three aims are still being taught today along with the influences from Greece,
Christian Europe, and the Renaissance. The art of rhetoric is taught in many disciplines including
law and government and can be identified in multiple modern works. Lawyers use rhetorical
devices taught by Quintilian to win cases for their clients and politicians study Cicero as an
example of a great speaker and writer.
Law and Government
Franklin R. Weiss, author of the article, How the Lawyer Uses Rhetoric, (1959) makes
the argument that lawyers use rhetoric from not only Plato and Aristotle, but also from Cicero
and Quintilian. Weiss states:
An important part of a trial is the work of preparation. Not the science, not the art,
but the work of preparation. Preparation of a case for a trial, or what would be
equivalent to the Roman inventio and dispositio in preparation for a forensic
speech, is important (p. 7).
Inventio and dispositio are two of the five canons of rhetoric, that Cicero wrote about in
his book, De inventione. Although inventio and dispositio were originally taught with
speech writing, they were also found useful for lawyers when writing their opening and

Roman Era 12
closing statements for a trial. Lawyers can also be thought of, as good men speaking well,
like Quintilians Good Man Philosophy. Weiss also believes, Not only the substance of
the art of rhetoric, but the very discipline of its study is invaluable to the lawyer (1959,
p. 15). Without the influences of Roman rhetoric, court trials would be conducted very
differently.
Quintilian and the Law is an edited collection of essays about Quintilians Institutio
oratoria. Some of the topics discussed in the collection include; the ideal orator, education of the
orator, rhetoric and communication, argumentation, Roman law, and emotions in the courtroom.
Olga Tellegen-Couperus edited Quintilian and the Law in 2003 and reviewed by Kathleen
Suzanne Lamp in 2005. According to Tellegen-Couperus, this collection of essays attempts to
reintroduce Quintilian's Institutio oratoria to modern readers, and to show that the topics
discussed in it are still very much alive today (as cited in Lamp, 2005, P. 522). This collection
of essays is proof that Quintilians many ideas from the era of Roman rhetoric are still very
prominent and applicable for modern day law students. One of the essayists, Maarrten Henket,
argues that status and loci as described by Quintilian offer a valuable source of invention for
judges in explaining their legal decisions (as cited in Lamp, 2005, p. 524). Henket then goes on
to describe the importance of status and loci in the way that judges make their decisions and that
the use of rhetoric should remain relevant in legal verdicts.
Quintilian is not the only famous man from the Roman era that had an influence on law.
In fact, in a 1927 publication of The Classical Journal, Mary Bradford Peaks confirms that,
Problems of legal education interested Cicero throughout his life, and the subject matter on his
writings of such topics, still has value (p. 563). Cicero was also known for assisting many
young lawyers with preparation of their cases. Peaks also notes that Cicero is not thought of

Roman Era 13
today as having much influence on law because most people that read his work were Latinists. In
order to have law students read Ciceronian work, law schools should have the students study
Cicero along with Quintilian.
The Romans established a new form of government, known as a republic. Many
governments including the United States have copied the Roman style republic. Two of
Americas founding presidents, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were extremely influenced
by Cicero. According to The Hauenstein Center located at Grand Valley State University, The
Founders political ideas were largely informed by Roman republican and imperial ideas. They
sought to create a mixed constitution that balanced monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy
(2011). Since our founders attempted to mix ideas of governments based on monarchy,
aristocracy, and democracy, our country is not technically a democracy. Also, Rome placed a lot
of emphasis on citizens abiding by the laws, which America does as well.
Final / Concluding Thoughts
The Roman era was a major and influential time period for rhetoric. Three influential
men came out of this era; Cicero, Quintilian, and Longinus. Romans adopted many of their
rhetorical styles from Greek rhetoric but because there was tension between Rome and Greece,
the Romans changed many aspects of it. Romans placed a great deal of importance on education
but they only offered educational instruction for the male citizens, not the women. The males
received instruction in Greek for all of their subjects and the main method of teaching was oral.
The three very influential men that came from Roman rhetoric are Cicero, Quintilian, and
Longinus. Cicero was known as the greatest orator of the time and authored many influential
works. Quintilian was known as the most successful teacher of rhetoric in Rome and had a large
number of ideas that are still prominent today. Longinus was quite probably the first documented

Roman Era 14
critic based on the many aesthetic critiques he did during his lifetime. Many Roman influences
have been found in American history, especially concerning law and government. Without the
Romans, we would have missed out on many important and life changing ideas and events. I
found the Roman era and influence on rhetoric to be the most fascinating. Studying Longinus has
given me a new appreciation for aesthetics and I find myself critiquing various works with his
ideas. Quintilian also struck me as exciting because he was so involved with law and I now find
many correlations between real life courtroom proceedings and his ideas pertaining to it. It was
also very intellectually stimulating to research Cicero because of these three men, he has had the
most written about him by others. Overall, I have learned many new aspects about rhetoric and
can see why Rome was such a popular place to learn about rhetoric.

Roman Era 15
References

admin. (2011). American founding (10): Roman influence. Retrieved 12/3, 2013, from
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Herrick, J. A. (2013). The history and theory of rhetoric: An introduction. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Jonge, C. C. (2012). Dionysius and longinus on the sublime: Rhetoric and religious language.
American Journal of Philology 133(2), 271-300. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Retrieved December 2, 2013, from Project MUSE database.
Katula, R. A. (2003). Quintilian on the art of emotional appeal. Rhetoric Review, 22(1), 5.
Lamp, K. S.(2005). Quintilian and the law: The art of persuasion in law and politics (review).
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