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RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

Sexuality and Gender Theories

Sociology 101 Research Paper
Courtney Nelson
Mid-Michigan Community College

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

Abstract
There are many various theories that involve defining sexuality and gender and how it is
developed and displayed among people. Many people including Sigmund Freud and Judith
Butler have contributed theories to the sociological world regarding these subjects. Through
closely analyzing these theories and some of the criticisms of them I will address the complex
characteristics of gender and sexuality in particular. In order to do so, I will focus on describing
the accepted difference between gender and sex and various gender expectations in our society
from a sociological perspective.

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

I.

Introduction
In every society, there are major gender differences. Everything from the clothes you

wear as a child to how you are treated is predetermined by whether you are male or female.
However, some feel that they were born in the wrong body and associate as the opposite person.
This is why sociologists make a clear distinction between gender and sex. Sex refers to ones
biological identity of being male or female while gender refers to the socially learned
expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female. Sex is biologically assigned
while gender is culturally learned. Because of this, sexuality and gender provide an interesting
essay topic to discuss (3).
The Social and Biological Views
From a sociological stance I had to view gender and sexuality as a mix of socialization
and biological makeup. There is however, a lot of debate about how much of each side really
affects gender. Gender socialization for example involves the social part of learning expectations
associated with the different sexes (5). It affects all aspects of someones daily life and society,
including their self-concept, social and political attitudes, and observations and interactions
about other people. Family, friends, mass media, and popular culture are just a few of the
mediators through which gender socialization happens (2). Exposure to different elements of
these can make a person change opinions of their gender as time goes on and those opinions are
reinforced whenever gender-linked behaviors receive approval or disapproval from these
influences. Gender socialization allows people to form gender identity and determine whether
they associate themselves as men or women. Gender identity shapes how we think about our life
and others lives as well as influences our behaviors (3). Disapproval of a persons gender identity

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

can cause negative consequences with body image and feelings about ones self, just as
acceptance can create an overall better feeling within. There is also the biological factor
involved.
Biologically it is believed that when a person is in the womb, hormonal and brain
development is linked to the formation of sexuality and gender. Exposure to a different set of
neurochemicals can cause different formations within the male and female genes causing brain
associations with the opposite sex (4).
The Other Belief
There are some people who refuse to believe the biological side is possible. It was once
believed that any differences in sexuality of gender association other than that of ones sex was
considered a mental disease and many religious organizations came to resent people with a
different sexuality than heterosexual. It is still a common believe that sexuality is a choice and
the wrong choice can lead to discrimination and even violence (4). Historically, this was not
always the case. Up until more modern times, exploring sexually was regarded as normal. An
example of this is in ancient Greek literature, where it was common to read about men with men
and women with women. The Greeks were living before either a sin or medical model of
homosexuality and while aware of differing inclinations did not consider these important enough
to establish a separate social category (6).
The Social Perspective
There are three different ways to look at gender and sexuality sociologically: The conflict
perspective, functionalist perspective, and symbolic interactionist perspective. The conflict
perspective focuses on the negative, conflicted, and everchanging nature of society. When it

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

comes to gender it would argue that the only reason people become gay would be in order to
shift the power of society into their own hands and control the masses. This perspective would
not see it as a separate identity matter but as a way to shift order. The functionalist perspective
sees that each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society's functioning as a
whole. This perspective would not take in consideration a social change such as homosexuality
being expected because it discourages any change, even if it were for the better because it would
mess with the established societal order. The symbolic interactionist perspective lets sociologists
to consider the symbols and details of everyday life, what these symbols mean, and how people
interact with each other. This perspective would allow a sociologist see which environmental
factors have an effect on gender identity and the behaviors people display in while discovering it.
It would also let them look at the specific details of gender and sex.
In order to best explain and discover the various beliefs of the topic the social perspective
symbolic interactionism would be the best fit. This is because it focuses on the details of society
and gender and sexuality is part of the smaller details. It also allows for a very in depth look at
finding meanings in gender and sexuality symbols.
II.

Research Design

Steps and Application

Step 1: Identify and Develop Your Topic
What causes gender and sexuality?
Keywords: Gender, Sexuality, Causes
Step 2: Find Background Information (Reviewing Literature)

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

Websites

http://sociology.about.com/od/Disciplines/a/Sociology-Of-Gender.htm

http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/greekeros.asp

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender

http://www.unfpa.org/gender/

https://www.apa.org/research/action/difference.aspx

http://educationnext.org/gender-gap/

http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=uspa&c=parent&id=14504

http://thesocietypages.org/sexuality/

Books and Media

Middle Sex by Jeffrey Eugenides

Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference
by Cordelia Fine

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-VqsbvG40Ww

Journal Articles

Gender, Gender Role, and Creativity by Stoltzfus, Geniffer Nibbelink, Brady Leigh
Vredenburg, Debra Thyrum, Elizabeth

Endorsement of Masculine and Feminine Gender Roles: Differences between

Participation in and Identification with the Athletic Role by Lantz, Christopher D.
Schroeder, and Peter J.

Gender, Gender Roles and Attitudes towards Violence: Are Viewpoints Changing?
By Smith, Stephen C. Ellis, Jon B. Benson, Trisha A.

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

Step 3: Formulate Hypothesis
I hypothesize gender and sexuality is based on a combination of social and environmental
factors.
Step 4: Measuring Variables and Gathering Data
In order to accurately measure how people feel they discovered their sexual identity, a
questionnaire, which is a qualitative for of gathering data, would be given asking them questions
such as:
Do you feel you were born with the gender associated with your sex?
How did you discover your sexual preference?
How do you feel about other sexual preferences?
Is your belief a common belief in your community?
Is different sexual preferences common in your community?
What do you believe affected your sexuality?
What is the sexuality of your close family members?
Did you have a one or two parent household?
From the answer to these I could gather data from various people of all different sexualities,
races, religions, and community types. I would use this data to form an analysis of what factors
seem to have the most effect of sexuality and gender.
Step 5: Analyzing Data

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

In order to analyze the data gathered, I would have to find common threads between the people
selected. Intense interviewing could have also led to untrue answers from the interviewees and
that is another factor to take into consideration. From this I should be able to tell which factors
most effect sexuality according to different individuals.
Step 6: Drawing a Conclusion
Tests have shown that the sociological belief that sexuality and gender is based on a combination
of social and biological factors is inconclusive without further testing. The tests shown above
show a trend in social factors of people discovering their sexual identity however, it does not
give conclusive evidence biological factors are involved because the test was based off ones
personal feelings about the subject. In order to discover if biological factors play a role, an in
depth look of the brain and chemicals during pregnancy would be necessary and very extensive.
Breakdown of Research Articles
Article 1: Gender, Gender Role, and Creativity (8)
Author(s): Stoltzfus, Geniffer Nibbelink, Brady Leigh Vredenburg, Debra Thyrum, Elizabeth
Research Question: Is there a creativity difference between men and women?
Population Used: People who fit into five stereotypical gender categories (androgynous,
stereotypic, retrotypic, undifferentiated, and midmost).
Research Methods Used: Secondary Analysis

RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

Theoretical Perspective: People who associated as females were more creative than those who
did not. This means that on gender role people may associate more with a woman if they are
creative because of societal expectations of them.
Article 2: Endorsement of Masculine and Feminine Gender Roles; Differences between
Participation in and Identification with the Athletic Role (7)
Author(s): Lantz, Christopher D. Schroeder, Peter J.
Research Question: What is the relationship of masculinity and femininity in athletics?
Population Used: 409 students at a small Midwestern school
Research Methods Used: AIMS and BSRI test administered
Theoretical Perspective: Athletics correlated positively with masculinity and negatively with
femininity. This associates with my research because it shows that socially the more feminine
you are the less you athletically adept you are, also showing that this can affect your social
surroundings as well as your gender role if as man you are considered more feminine than that of
others in a small school.
Questions: What was the sexual orientation of the individuals?
Article 3: Gender, Gender Roles and Attitudes towards Violence: Are Viewpoints Changing?(1)
Author(s): Smith, Stephen C. Ellis, Jon B. Benson, Trisha A.
Research Question: Does gender effect violent attitudes?
Population Used: 161 random individuals male and female

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RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

Research Methods Used: BSRI and violence questionnaire
Theoretical Perspective: The mean score for violence was higher for men than for women. This
relates to my gender and sexuality hypothesis because it shows that men are expected to behave
much differently than women are in society and this fact could contribute to gender roles and
identity.
Questions: What is the cause of the higher rate of violence in men?
III.

Application

Social expectations of men and women have an effect on where they are placed in society. If
an individual does not fit into these carefully defined categories, problems may begin to arise.
This topic is a social problem yes, but not in the means where we should punish or treat
individuals of diverse sexualities differently. Instead it should be resolved by being educated
about individuals different from what is considered normal and better help each other understand
their gender identity and sexuality. Education and tolerance of this is the only way it is really
going to get resolved. However, this could also lead to social chaos with some members of
society firmly believing that different sexuality than theirs is wrong and could lead to violence.
Currently solutions are not possible and carefully maintaining social order on that subject is
really the only thing people can do. This does have to be done by communicating though, and
slowly through communication those people who are so against these individuals may not be so
against them and social justice will prevail.
Drawing in the articles discussed above, my research would have been a great base for
the last two articles. An understanding of gender role, identity and sexuality would have helped
give a better understanding of the background of gender differences they were studying. The

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RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

articles that administered the BSRI test did exactly what I would do in order to correlate
something to gender role and identity. I do not believe that the research in those articles are
helpful for real life circumstances however. In the end even with the knowledge they have gained
on gender and social roles it would not change anything in society, so even though interesting
and allows you to know more information it was not productive. Unanswered questions I have
should be addressed by contacting the people who did the experiment.
IV.

Conclusion

In conclusion, sexuality and gender identity are determined by environmental factors. Social
roles can harm or help the development of gender identity along with other various elements of
society. There are problems with acceptance of this topic though and problems sometimes arise
with it. Lastly, through research I was able to do and through other articles I have discovered that
with the current findings I was only able to really conclude that gender and sexuality is
determined by social surroundings. More testing would be need to prove the biological factors
but with articles found it is a possibility.

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RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

V.

References

1. A, T., Benson., Smith., B, J., Ellis., & C, S. (2001). Gender, Gender Roles and Attitudes
towards Violence: Are Viewpoints Changing?. Social Behavior and Personality:
An International Journal, Vol. 29(No. 1). Retrieved April 27, 2014, from
http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3-64386366/gender-gender-roles-andattitudes-towards-violence
2. Allen, E., & Felluga, D. (2002). General Introduction to Theories of Gender and
Sex. Gender and Sex,Vol. 1. Retrieved April 27, 2014, from
http://www.cla.purdue.edu/academic/english/theory/genderandsex/modules/introd
uction.html
3. Crossman, A. (n.d.). Sociology of Gender. About.com Sociology. Retrieved April 27,
2014, from http://sociology.about.com/od/Disciplines/a/Sociology-Of-Gender.htm
4. Deem, R. (n.d.). Genetics and Homosexuality: Are People Born Gay? The Biological
Basis for Sexual Orientationby Rich Deem. Are People Born Gay? Genetics and
Homosexuality. Retrieved April 27, 2014, from
http://www.godandscience.org/evolution/genetics_of_homosexuality.html
5. Dworkin, S., & Lerum, K. (n.d.). Sexuality and Society. Sexuality and Society RSS.
Retrieved April 27, 2014, from http://thesocietypages.org/sexuality/
6. Halsall, P. (n.d.). Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Internet History Sourcebooks
Project. Retrieved April 27, 2014, from
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/greekeros.asp

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RUNNING HEAD: Sexuality and Gender Theories

7. Lantz, C. D., & Schroeder, P. J. (1999). Endorsement of Masculine and Feminine Gender
Roles: Differences between Participation in and Identification with the Athletic
Role. Journal of Sport Behavior ,Vol. 22(No. 4). Retrieved April 27, 2014, from
http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-58517920/endorsement-ofmasculine-and-feminine-gender-roles
8. Stoltzfus, G., Nibbelink, B. L., Vredenburg, D., & Thyrum, E. (2011). Gender, Gender
Role, and Creativity. Social Behavior and Personality: An International
Journal, Vol. 39(No. 1). Retrieved April 27, 2014, from
http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-256778721/gender-gender-role-andcreativity