METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATE

Harliansyah, PhD

Department of
Biochemistry
Faculty of Medicine
University of YARSI
Jakarta,

Tibtech. 28(1). 2008

Metabolism
Metabolism is all the biochemical reactions by which food is
transformed into energy store (ATP) and by which our bodies
require to function, including anabolism and catabolism.
Catabolic reactions breakdown complex organic compounds:
- providing energy (exergonic)
- Glycolysis, Krebs cycle and Electron transport
Anabolic reactions synthesize complex molecules from small
molecules:
- requiring energy (endergonic)
Exchange of energy requires use of ATP molecule.

Integration of metabolism is essential on both

short-term and long-term bases

Short-term : maintenance of a stable blood glucose level ( 2.5-3

mmol/s for brain function)

Blood sugar, Glucose is not an inert and gentle

component of our diet.
Glucose is Toxic !

Long-term : High blood levels of glucose lead to protein

denaturation and the development
of blindness, neuropathy and the kidney damage seen
in diabetes.

General Features of Metabolism

Occurs in specific cellular (tissue and organ) locations as a
series of enzyme-catalyzed linear, branched or circular
reactions, or pathways.
Highly coupled and interconnected (Every road leads to
Rome).
Highly regulated (often reciprocally) to achieve the best
economy (Balanced supply and demand).
The number of reactions is large (over 1000), however, the
number of types of reactions is relatively small (what
happens in animal respiration happens in plant
photosynthesis).
Well conserved during evolution: reflecting the unity of the
life phenomena (what happens in bacteria happens in
human being).

How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

Introduction to Cell Metabolism

Glycolysis

Aerobic Cell Respiration

Anaerobic Cell Respiration

Breathing and Cell Respiration are related

O2

BREATHING

CO2

Lungs

CO2

Bloodstream

Muscle cells
O carrying out
2

CELLULAR
RESPIRATION
Sugar + O2 ATP + CO2 + H2O

Cellular Respiration uses oxygen and glucose to produce

Carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

Glucose

Oxygen gas

Carbon
dioxide

Water

Energy

How efficient is cell respiration?

Energy released
from glucose
(as heat and light)

Energy released
from glucose
banked in ATP

Gasoline energy
converted to
movement

About
40%

25%

100%

Burning glucose
in an experiment

Burning glucose
in cellular respiration

Burning gasoline
in an auto engine

Reduction and Oxidation

OILRIG
Oxidation is losing electrons
Reduction is gaining electrons
Loss of hydrogen atoms

Energy
Glucose
Gain of hydrogen atoms

Glucose gives off energy as is is oxidized

Reduction and Oxidation

OILRIG
Gain or loss of electrons is often in the form of hydrogen.
The hydrogen is then passed to a coenzyme such as NAD+

Reduction and Oxidation

What are some common co-enzymes?

NAD+ and FAD
NAD+ + 2 H

FAD

+ 2H

Remember that H = 2

NADH

H+

FADH2

electrons

and

2H+

Reduction and Oxidation

These co-enzymes are very important for cell
respiration because they transfer high-energy
electrons to electron transport systems (ETS).

Reduction and Oxidation

As the electrons move from carrier to carrier,
energy is released in small quantities.

Electron transport system

(ETS)

Generation of ATP
There are two ways to generate ATP
Chemiosmosis
Substrate-Level Phosphorylation

Generation of ATP
Chemiosmosis
Cells use the energy
released by falling
electrons in the ETS to
pump H+ ions across a
membrane

Uses the enzyme ATP

synthase.

Generation of ATP
Chemiosmosis

Generation of ATP
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Enzyme
ATP can also be
made by transferring
phosphate groups
from organic
molecules to ADP

Adenosine

substrate
Adenosine

product
Figure 6.7B

Generation of ATP
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
Enzyme
ATP can also be
made by transferring
phosphate groups
from organic
molecules to ADP

Adenosine

substrate
Adenosine

product
Figure 6.7B

Classification of organisms based on trophic

(feed) strategies
Autotrophssynthesize all cellular
components from simple inorganic
molecules (e.g, H2O, CO2, NH3, H2S).
HeterotrophsDerive energy from
oxidation
of organic compounds (made
by
autotrophs).

Metabolism allows the cycling of C/O

and the flow of energy in the biosphere

glucose

Producers

Consumers
H2O

Metabolism also
allows the cycling
of N in the biosphere

(NH4+)

NO3NO2-

(Fuels)

Exergonic Oxidation
Biodegradation
Output of energy

Simpler
Metabolites

Complex
Metabolites

Input of energy
Endergonic Reduction
Biosynthesis

(Fuels)

The role of Metabolism

Extract energy and reducing power

ATP: Energy currency

Also for mobility,
transport of nutrients
and so on.

Generate all biomolecules

Coenzymes (vitamines)

carbohydrate

Amino acids

hormone

nucleotid

Amino aci
lipids

22nd edition designed by Dr. Donald E. Nicholson

General Outline

Glucose

Glycolysis
Oxygen
Aerobic
Transition Reaction

Krebs Cycle
ETS
36 ATP

Pyruvic Acid

No Oxygen
Anaerobic

Fermentation

Glycolysis
Where? The cytosol

What? Breaks down glucose to pyruvic acid

Anabolism

Catabolism

GLYCOLYSIS
The specific pathway by which the body gets
energy from monosaccharides
First stage is ACTIVATION
At the expense of 2ATPs glucose is
phosphorylated
Step #1
formation of glucose-6-phosphate
Step # 2
isomerization to fructose-6-phosphate

Step # 3
Second phosphate group is attached to yield fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

Second stage is C6 to 2 molecules of C3

Step # 4
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is broken down into two C3 fragments
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G-3-P) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate
(DHAP)
Only G-3-P is oxidized in glycolysis. DHAP is converted to G-3-P as the
latter diminishes.

ATP-YIELDING Third stage

Step # 5
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is oxidized to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate; hydrogen of
aldehyde is removed by NAD+

Step # 6
Phosphate from the carboxyl group is transferred to the ADP yielding ATP and 3phosphoglycerate

Step # 7
Isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate to 2-phosphoglycerate

Step # 8
Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)

Step # 9
Removal of the remaining phosphate to yield ATP and pyruvate

Step # 10
Reductive decarboxylation of pyruvate to produce ethanol and CO2

REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS
STEP

REACTION

Glucose + ATP
G-6-P + ADP + H+

G-6-P

F-6-P + ATP
F-1,6-BP + ADP + H+

F-6-P

ENZYME

REACTION
TYPE

G in
kJ/mol

Hexokinase

Phosphoryl
transfer

-33.5

Phosphoglucose
isomerase

Isomerization

-2.5

Phosphofructokinase

Phosphoryl
transfer

-22.2

STEP

REACTION

REACTION TYPE

G in
kJ/
mol

Aldolase

Aldol cleavage

-1.3

Triose
phosphate
isomerase

Isomerization

+2.5

ENZYME

F-1,6-BP

DHAP

GAP + Pi + NAD+
1,3-BPG + NADH + H+

Glyceraldehyde
-3-Phosphate
Dehydrogenase

Phosphorylation
coupled to
oxidation

+2.5

1,3-BPG + ADP
3-phosphoglycerate +ATP

Phosphoglycerate kinase

Phosphoryl
transfer

+1.3

3-phosphoglycerate
2-phosphoglycerate

Phosphoglycerate mutase

Phosphoryl shift

+0.8

2-phosphoglycerate
PEP + HOH

Enolase

Dehydration

-3.3

10

PEP + ADP + H+ pyruvate + ATP

Pyruvate kinase

Phosphoryl
transfer

-16.7

DHAP + GAP

GAP

Glycolysis

Steps 1 3 A fuel
molecule is energized,
using ATP.

Glucose
Step
1

Glucose-6-phosphate
2

Fructose-6-phosphate
3

Energy In: 2 ATP

Fructose-1,6-diphosphate

Step 4 A six-carbon
intermediate splits into
two three-carbon
intermediates.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
(G3P)
5

Step 5 A redox
reaction generates
NADH.
6

Energy Out: 4 ATP

Steps 6 9 ATP
and pyruvic acid
are produced.

1,3-Diphosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)

3-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)

2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)
2-Phosphoglyceric acid
(2 molecules)

NET 2 ATP

Pyruvic acid
(2 molecules
per glucose molecule)

Maintenance of glucose homeostasis

Body cells
take up more
glucose.

Insulin
Beta cells of
pancreas are stimulated
to release insulin
into the blood.

STIMULUS:
Rising blood glucose
level (for instance, after
eating a carbohydraterich meal)

Liver takes
up glucose
and stores it
as glycogen.
Blood glucose level
declines to set point;
stimulus for insulin
release diminishes.

Homeostasis:
Blood glucose level
(about 90 mg/100 mL)
Blood glucose level
rises to set point;
stimulus for glucagon
release diminishes.

Liver breaks
down glycogen
and releases
glucose into
blood.

STIMULUS:
Dropping blood glucose
level (for instance, after
skipping a meal)

Alpha cells of pancreas

are stimulated to release
glucagon into the blood.

Glucagon

General Outline

Glucose

Glycolysis
Oxygen
Aerobic
Transition Reaction

Krebs Cycle
ETS
36 ATP

Pyruvic Acid

No Oxygen
Anaerobic

Fermentation

General Outline of Aerobic Respiration

Glycolysis
Transition Reaction
Krebs Cycle

Electron Transport System

Transition Reaction
Each pyruvic acid molecule is broken down to form
CO2 and a two-carbon acetyl group, which enters the
Krebs cycle

Pyruvic Acid

Acetyl CoA

General Outline of Aerobic Respiration

Glycolysis
Transition Reaction
Krebs Cycle

Electron Transport System

Krebs Cycle
Where? In the Mitochondria

What? Uses Acetyl Co-A to generate ATP, NADH,

FADH2, and CO2.

Krebs Cycle

General Outline of Aerobic Respiration

Glycolysis

Krebs Cycle

Electron Transport System

Electron Transport System

Protein
complex
Intermembrane
Electron
space

carrier

Inner
mitochondrial
membrane

Electron
flow
Mitochondrial
matrix

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

Figure 6.12

ATP
SYNTHASE

Electron Transport System

Electron Transport System

For each glucose molecule that enters cellular
respiration, chemiosmosis produces up to 38 ATP
molecules

Overview of Aerobic Respiration

General Outline

Glucose

Glycolysis
Oxygen
Aerobic
Transition Reaction

Krebs Cycle
ETS
36 ATP

Pyruvic Acid

No Oxygen
Anaerobic

Fermentation

Fermentation
Requires NADH generated by glycolysis.

Where do you suppose these reactions take place?

Yeast produce carbon dioxide and ethanol

Muscle cells produce lactic acid

Only a few ATP are produced per glucose

Fermentation

Thanks for you

attention