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    Nooruddin Sheik
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    EDDY CURRENT

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    EDDY CURRENT

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    Eddy 1

    Загружено:

    Nooruddin Sheik
    EDDY CURRENT

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Скачайте в формате PDF или читайте онлайн в Scribd
    Отметить как неприемлемый контент
    из 39
    CHAPTER 8 EDDY CURRENT TESTING 8.1_HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT dy caren testing ison ofthe oles nondestuctive testing (NDT) methods. However, itwas antl the ls few dead ofthe went cetuay that the edly eure! method stared oreath ts te pote in the markerlace. One reson for th ist general Puosc, user-fiendly eddy curentiatment ae a reatively recent phenomenon, Wess portable iasni instruments offering conierale versity have been v= le since the 1960s, comparable eddy caret peables only becate availble i the 190s. In adn, is onl rece ha ey eure theory Bees widely understood bby NDI professional. The early 198, in patil, produced exelent exlnatory ma teil ha made ey caren theory andertandabe Yo persons without vanced tc «al backgrounds Modem micropwcestor based strsments, ps the slaty of hh ‘ality oper training ensue the continued growls ft vert, high-performance NDT meted 8.1.1. Significant Discover Development of the eddy cuent mod was based on cern dicoveris made daring ‘hecarly nineteen century abou! the relationship betwen loc and magnets Is fac, the relevant elecromgnotiepieiples were severe inthe same sequence io ‘which they occur daring an ey eae tes 1 1820, Hans Chrstian Oxted,» Dan, discovered eectoxnagnstin—the ft that 1 clerical curest Mowing dough a coniuctor causes a magnetic fd to develop round tit conductor. Osrtead discovered elecromagoetism accidently. While ‘eronstatng that hea i developed wien an electri curet pases though a wire, Oe ‘Sead cbserved ha the needle of mapnetic compass defected pependcua tothe wire hie thecurent was passing ough Elacuomagnetam the prineiple on which ety ument coil operate, Whereas Oeste was using diet cues! deeloped ram 4 btery ‘volage when he discovered elstromagetom, an eddy cent nse employs alt ring clecvic caren owing tough the ext ec inorder to devsiop an atemating ‘ugha eld acid the co 1h 1831, an Englishman, Michel Farny, discovered lectomagnsti induction— theft tha relative motion between a magnetic field anda onda ince avo {ntht condutor, estsing an lectte suet fo flow. Consequently, when the sterat ‘ng magoatc eld ofan eddy erent incruments ci is nous in coma with 4 con cing test objec, a valge is developed, casing a caren o ow inthe fst abject “Ths, electromagnetic induction is ensiered o be the operating principle of ey cur rent esting Joseph Henry also independenly discovered clesromgnetic indvtion in about Electromagnetism 82 ‘aren ont the Unied States at about te sme time In fit, the unit of masse fr induction is med afr is. Tn 1834, Hesnich Lenz stated the principle that defines how the properties of he ts bjt are communicated bck othe test syste. Lana's aw sates tht te ietion of ‘ure ow inthe test objet wil be such haf magnetic ld wl oppose he magn i fl tat caused the current low in the test object This means tat, practic, the ‘iy ures communicate wih the tt co by developing x sconday ux tat cancels 8 potion ofthe co's fox equivalent othe magotade and phase ofthe Tx Seveloped by thecal cunts. ‘The theory describing the chin of event of an ey creo test ay thse ily do. scribe bythe discoveries of Oxted, Faraday, Henry, snd Lenz. The enitence of eddy Currents themselves, however, was not discovered until 1864 They were discovered by James Mazel, whois famous for sting the defining equations of lesromagnete tee ‘ory. The fst us fey eutent Tor ondesretive testing ooared i 1879 when DE. Hghes used these principles to conduct metalic sorting tests 8.1.2. Modern Eddy Current Testing ‘The development ofthe ey cure! method proresed sol ti telat 19405, when De Freeeh Foes: founded he Ist Dr Foerster, which made grt tide in de- ‘loping and marketing prac eddy caret txt instruret fy th ate 1960s the Ie Btu had developed a product line covering virally every pplication of the ey cu Fen test method and worked with American mantulacturers to ly esaish the method Inthe United Sates. Two mjorcotbutions of Fosse were the development of i pedace plane display, which aetly aided in consmunieton of tet infest othe Ppscitoner sod formation of te Law of Sir, which enables the practon’ fo Anplict the same edly cute prfomance unde avant of et siuaton. “The next major eontstutn othe advancement of the metbod, multitequency test ing was also developed by an eqipmeat manufatarer,Inerconrlie of race in 1974, Driving totes coi at mui reqenccs tp fo overcome what has atonal been ‘he major imitation ofthe eddy curent methed, the Tact at the various canons to ‘which the methods sensitive can vetor ito singe delayed sgl that i iit 0 Intezpet Originally developed o suppres the display of undesired tet variables, ml FRequeney testing can aso epinize am ey crete for nol sowing peo ance variables sch as sens and penton a wel a ai nSeniffing the nie (a partclr test response. Mulifeguensy testing is avery sificant novation tat has markedly advanced he stat of hea. “The development oF micopocessorbased ey current instruments sine the mide 1980s ha also enhanced the potential and uset-tnendiness ofthe metho Tt has sm proved recording capability, provided sophisticated posingpetion signal analysis std fas allowed automate miiog of mulifeqoency signal, Modem micropoceso bse fy caren instruments ee a breath of useful etre val imaginable nthe {ays of analog equipment Manufactrers such as Zeek, Hocking, Forte, Note, ETC, tnd Manse Anal hve been importa contbtors. Tn addition to mainsteam eda ures tein, more specialized techniques are en- ployed fr cenain applications. These include Mu leskage, remedy omen, end ‘modulation analsis nspoction in elssfyingnondestucie tert methods othe purpose ‘ot qualifying and ceni¥ing ex personne tne American Society fr Nondestructive Tee ing (ASNT) classifies alo these techies ner the mbretinof the Electromagnetic “Testing method (ET), 8.1.8 Material Variablos Detectable by Eddy Currents During more tan 2 contuy of development ae atest method ey cuent testing as found aplication doe is senstvity tothe lowing vanables + Condctivtyritons + Detection of eiscontinities * Spacing been est ol and test materi lof distance) ‘Material hicknese + Thickness of plating or ling ona bse meat * Spacing been conductive ayers + Penney variations dy curent esting is suible fr inspection ofthe srace and ast beneath the sa face of endive materials, volomercnaestion of thin conductive mate and i= ‘offmeasuement to determin hicknes of noneandicive tras aering tor esting ‘on the surf of eondtve mister 8.1.4 Major Application Ar ‘The vrsaliy ofthe eddy eument method hs recited in road applications usage. How ver the major apiction seas ncade te fllowing: + Inservice inspection of ting at nuclear ad fsil fel power atte, a chemical td porochomiea pls, om nclear submarine, and ini condoning fst # Inspection of seospcesrctres and engines © Prosi ting of tubing, pipe, wie ro and bar tek 8.2 THEORY AND PRINCIPLES Fy current theory is ase onthe principles of electricity and magnetism, patclaty ‘ne inductive propets of alerting current. The dieussom bepine wth & ree of See tsi pote, 8.2.1 Electricity All mater is made p of atoms he atom being the salet anit of any element hat re ‘ain the properties of that element. The cer ofa aor, the eles, ha 4 postive ‘lecreal hare. Obting the ndleus and rotting on their own axes a Mesa ‘harged particles called electrons. As shown nthe laaton ofthe copper stom Cigar {8:1 orbs of electrons around the nucleus resemble the oes of plant around the in In that dee canbe several rb, called “sells” However, mie sacar differs fon the colar sytem int given sll en conan maine elettons ‘rom the perspective of eddy curen tes, ane is concerned specifically withthe cuter shel of2 material's atoms, because the aur of leon in the ou hal eer Innes wheter the materi wil conduct elect. The oer shall can contin a ex ‘mam of eight electons, and whea the our sel contains a many ae sven ori cle. a ee FIGURES Coppers, ‘eons the material wil not conduct leita ale an insulator However, materi Is whose atoms have oly coe, two, oF he lets inthe outer sell ean cont les ‘iy and aren fc called conduc tras whose outer ll contain a iene sate umber of eectons are called semicondetrs an though important in te design bfeomputer erly, are ot significant here Tfundisturbed by oubide Fores, «contr cestrons wl rpestecy oti he mie cleus. However, when vote [lo eile elcromorive force (EMF) or pte] 2p- Plled oa eonductor ts eleetone wl advance frm abe an tothe ext. That tee 4 flow ofeleticl charges called current or elect. Vllage causes eecons 10 10 cuss it ean tract and repel them that, oltage apes polarity fo eectone Abst tery i an example ofa voltage source. Eletton, beng negatively charged wl be x ‘eavted to a btery's posite enna and repelled by its eesti fermi. Az sown the istration of a ashligh erat (gue 8-2), lcron how through the Bll’ il ‘ment fom the negative tothe pote terminal of the ater ‘Although conductor's toms wl emit cient lw hea vokagee applied, theres always some opposition flew, due the ateacton of estrone hei atoms This postion varies smong the toms of diferent materials. Willgraso est pete Tow current low isa key point in ey curent esting, deed inthe following deitons © Conivetityi the relative bility fa material's atoms to conduct eesti. toms tthe ow of elec isthe ie * Resiity she opposition of a mate ‘ere of conti. + Condirance iste ability ofa paicalar component o cond elect, Condue- ‘ance depends ona componens conductivity, nth and ross tection. 1 sesistance isthe inverse of conductance tis the opposition that a patel emp eat offers othe flow of eect. Like conducance,f depend oa 8 compones ondoctivity, length, and ross section. Conductivity is the material peopety of most interest 1 us in eddy caren esting, whereas ressance is an important element i the dapay of tet information, Material ccunnent Low ( *eLEGTRON FLOW FIGURES.2- Flashlight eet conductivities are compared ona stale ale the Intentional Annealed Copper Standard AACS). Pure ualloyed annealed copper st 20°C ithe bse value on this sale rth ‘ale of 100% Oxher materials ae assed a percentage depending om thir abit 0 Conde lect relative to copper avng now identified resistance, aswell as voltage and current, these terns can be ‘id togetier, showing thai uis, using the most Pasi forma of elec, Ohas a TR where “=caretin amperes P=olage in vols ‘Re resiatance in oie ‘Thus, curent Now increases when voltage ineeass and curent Row decreases when resistance increase. Thae ate two pe of een: direct cent (4), which ows it ‘nly oe dection; and aerating curt (ac), which ently reverses destin. 8.2.2 Magnetism Magnetism is a mechanical frce of snston or repulsion tit abe materia an exert ‘pon metic. The oppesie eas ofa magnet exhibit opposing bevelled polar, ‘Thus, the ends of magnet are called pois one north an oe south ‘A magnet as afore Fel tht can be ville suber of hosed oops that flow ‘trough the magne, dave around the ouside of he magnet and ten renter te wget athe other end (Figure 63). These magna loops ae called line of fore ola lines. ‘The word “tax” iterally means "ow" and relates to he fat thatthe lines offre os 36 couprensiont y Ir] ft }s] > FIGURES Mago play. ‘om the north othe south pole around he ouside of tne, and frm he yout othe orth pole within the magnet Unt of measurement tnd denon for magic i Sade he following Magnetic Fax (or pis the ene set of magnets owing lines of free lux density (Bis the nrber of ux ines per uit are,perpenicu tothe retin off. ‘The maxwell (Mx) tone magnetic Fld line olin offers ‘The weber CW) is 1 10 lines or maxwell, ‘Te gas (G) sone line of force per sare cette. ‘The Tesla (1) sone weber per square mete. Field inteasiy depends on flux density. Flax densi greatest within the coe of a mag- et and tthe poles Fax density desreses mith distance fom the magnet according the inverse square lw (Figure $4); tat, x density is iversely proportional othe are of th distance fom te pos o the magnet ‘When ike poles oftwo mages are brought topehe, the magnets posh apart as heir fore feds repaleach oer Wher sake poles of two magne are nought ogee ‘magnets attact ste two force els stemp to combine Thee are two types of magnets: pennant magnet and eletromagnes.Pemanent magnets are physical materials, having «propery called ferromagnets, which means thatthe can become magnczed when ther domoine have Boome aligned (igi 8) DDesmans are miniature magnets consisting of groupe of some or molecles present vil ‘narmaterls indivi! rane, Pomanen! magnets were discovered in ance tines ad ae often pred in bar and horseshoe shapes. The fat tat they retain a Magri Hel witout sotiation by ‘letra cueat i what distinguishes thon fom elesromagnets, Permeability the measure of material's ability to e magnetized thats a material's abit conceiate a8 couarren iat magnetic Nu The mere fax density ebiained fom s materi by a gven gua of ap- lied magetisng fre, th restr the permeaiity ft materi ‘Materals may be classified a8 magnets or nonmagnetic. Although there ae thee (ppes of magnetic materals—feromageets; paramagnetic nd dlamagneic—the eh “age” usualy reese frromagnetic matali have mich her pene iy than the other two types. Te ifeent magic aerial maybe characterized fl. tows Feromagneie materials become strongly magnetized inthe sine direction a the magictizng field in which hey ae plas. Ther permeability ranges fo poke mately 500 more han 100,00, Examples are on carbon se, 40 serie stuns ‘Sel, and cel 2 Paamagnete materia become slip magnetized in these dieton asthe mag seizing eld. Their peed i sghily more tan 1. Examples ar ani, ‘hromiu, plinum, and oxygen 23. Diamagnetic matrils become weakly magnetized in he opposite dreton fom the magnetizing ld Ther permeability ies lees than 1 Examples ste Seppe ol ser, and hydrogen 8.2.3 Electromagnetism "Eteciromagnatism isthe phenomenon whereby the passage of electrons trough a soni torcauses a magnet Held to develop conentaly around the sondustr, pependial ‘oiteanis. A concenvated magoetic ed snr ofa obtained from a ar magne ca be obisined by winding a conductor into aca A eal fuetoning a an elem! called a solenoid, although an ea solenoid has a ength much geste han ts ameter A Solenidconcentats a magnate el inside th col with opposing ples st each end of thecol and i ines completely encircling he loops col iret uments ppc) tothe ols magne Fld wl flowin only one dtston at sn perfor the sane ‘work of atvacting feromagne material a8 permanent magne Inadton, the clean ‘Se weound sound a fenomaghsti core fr iceused Feld stent Tribe cuventi sltemating, he electromagnetic field wil ikewise alters and the coil will exhib aqalyealledindutanee, whose ite the ben. Inductance the Billy ofa conductor induce volage in isl! or is neighboring condor when the 8.2.4 Permeability lectrmagnes are use to produce permanent magnets. A. conducting wire of cable i wound arin the fenomagnetic material to be apace. Diet cues i passed through te condor, easing it to function as an eleomagnet When the resting ‘magnetic field enters the materal to be magnesiaed, the mater's dows some lied. The higher the number of tars of wie or eble rd the stongt the applied cat Fen the gente the magnenzing force ‘At stated elie, permeability defines a matrl'sailty tobe magnetized, ability to concentate magncte fx. Numeveal permeability values for diferente tered rive pemesbiity (i) af stdin compaion to te pemesbity ofa ot ‘vacuum, Permetbity can Be quantitatively expressed asthe ao of Mx density to mng- ‘ain force Penney can be problem in eddy cuen exting basse the ate boy cunsunr esti 89 e FIGURESS Hysurs op ‘emmesbily ofa given ferromagnetic material cn vary ring testing, easing perme ‘biliy nos signals tht ean overde the i cument signals Being soup Ayers op (Figure 86) a plo ofa mater’ Mx dest (B)varton ae msgieizing ee (Gis vane. By magnetically stating the test sil, pemeblity becomes constant tnd ey curren esting ean proceod without interference from permeability vara, FIGURES Magoave sation B FIGURE SS Resin magetin, Saturation (Pig 87) ears ata point on the loop where farther increases in magnet Jang force donot nus igaicat increases hk density. “Ath completion of testing the material wil retin cotin amount frst mage nism gare 88), he aro of Max ens emainig athe strstr the mag sizing fers bas been reduced to zero. Theresia magnetism mist be elite by Alesagretizaion, o preven probes such atthe mater aang Fromage de te 8.3_ ALTERNATING CURRENT PRINCIPLES 8.3.1. Sinusoidal Variation Ateratng crest fs ney mars, behavior tat is ecurateyilstated bya Sine curve (gue 8), “he cent begis its eel at zero smpitide and as ime lapse, ise 104 pe in nection, ills back o 20, ses oa pak the epposite directo, a alle beck “2210 again to complete lie eye The end of ene eel the satng pon ofthe next cy ‘le One complete 360" cyte called a sinus Activity exibtig th bahar of ‘soi i temed sinusoid The 360 degree pons of «sins orespnd to the 360 degre points ofa complete izle Thus, bh a sinusoid ana eile exress one complete cycle, However, he Sn Sold ds dimensions of amplitas ad polanty tothe yc concept. Reval tht the d= {ance fom the cemer of ccewo the eget radu. The potion of icles ate that ‘somesponds fo the lng of Hs ads i cll Peay, which nocupie an ar of 37. FIGURES9 Sind 3 vided by 573° equals 6.28 oF 2, an important conan in aerating cen ‘tions. 32 lectromagnetic Induction Proto discussing ey cures, he induction process wil st be modeled sing a sir of cis as pimary and secondary elements of mui Induction cies Sinusoids ae inclded to ustate cine and polarity relationship. The synmety of two ol is explanation ofthe polarity relationships hat occu bm ndoton presse sh at ‘dy cunen test. Thi llartion model an eddy caret tts moet bse coi Faton, where single coils the primary cet nd the test mati sth secondary In {ly the primary cil will be examined without the infence ofa secondary. The pi ‘mary cil Will be mult to representa pl ey cre est col, The secon ‘ven introduce, wil basing ci, which vali repress any ey ce ts Specimen, It must be remembered tht the secondary coin this cussion tees Stic the est specimen nor he scond coil of various mulc eonfguration tht wll be desert ater in thi hap, The Induction Process An alerting cuent generator appli altematng voltage to a coil cru (Figue 10). portion ofthis vouge, Ys applied across the raistance ofthe col wie: The ampli ise rom zero amplitude a zoo depres (Figure 8-100). The“ ub- scrip nents this vole, sometime called “esse vllage” at & force ‘needed to ove cuet through the Tesistance of Kec wire Fy i componest oF ‘hecteuls al voltage, Fy which wl be expand ltr 2. My causes a ument,fy 10 ow throveh the coil (Figur #106), in phase with Fi (Figure #104). The "P suscep i fp enti the coil crrent a the pinay ee ea ccuarren cour Primary Primary L\ 7 8) AC Generator Apples Vote ) “Resistance Votage Snusold 9) Primary Curent Flows, 9) Primary Curent Sous (©) Primary Fx Develops 1) Panay Fx Simao SIN ene | aoa NS @) Back Votage Develops Beck Voge Sinusoia FIGURE 8:10 Satindstion proces (a) AC generar appli vos (b) “Reine olage” sisi.) Primary caren Rows. () Primary cuenta) Pay de {ip Priya in) Ha ge evap) Bask age ss) EDDY CURRENT TESTING aaa 3. Electromagnetism oeurs. The atematng cure oting trough the cil cause an iterating mapnetie eld, pte primary ux, to develop round the ol (Fie §- iin phase with nd Figure 8-10). Sefinduetion oeus. Since the coi is sanding in the Feld of ts own varying ox, Faraday nappies and elacaomaghetiendton imposed on fhe sal wie hat | induces an adtional voltage, ten elle “tack voltage” note col ge Ue 810g) The "L" sutwept denies Pas an “iadaoed volte Ths volge Is Separate om te F vole that eased /y to owe. Aseoding to Fads lathe ‘uanity of induced votage i proportional to the rte of fx variation. Since ye ‘anyng the mos through he 0 180%, and 360” pens and pot varying throug ihe 50" an 180” pois, the back voitage ie indoced A? cat of lave (gue 8-108 with ‘he col cae and Inductive reactance cus. Since the bak voltage is 90 oof phase wit he cil arent, i wll oppose changes inte cll eurent (gue 10) In that ampli ‘hangs the very ature of lemating eumen Rows, opposition to change nse fecivelyoppeston to low of a. This poston, called Inductive reactnce is Aine fom resistance, Resistance simply oppeses low of cuenta an occ in titer de ora eet Inductive reactance, which, sey speaking opposes charge ‘of erent low, can occur only in an ae cre Inductive reactance depends en col desig and et regency tthe extent ha ‘more x lines cut across ore cl urs peru ie, nducverescnnce increase, “The variables influoneing indie renctane ae dead in he fllowing eg Anda waa bom EEA a 126 108 Te indetve reactance “fe test eauansy i ~coil inductance a, —Felatve permit ofthe col one ‘= nummer of uns ‘Across seston et = coi ene [NoteThe permeability fs, 126> 10 mst be map by an appropri ale for ‘ig which wonld be Ife) fran ae cove eal o some higher vac he ese of «cll ‘witha Tevomagnetic ore. 6 Ifa secondary crest is placed in print othe primary, mtu ition wil oc rand yw induce a wage if the secondary exe (Figure 61a), This vltage 'S appropriately called Socondry vote, Fy and 180" ou of pase (Figure $110) withthe ndoingpimary Tax 17. Ve causes x curent, 0flow in he second ict (Fig 6113), with the sme plas (Figure 8114) a Pn an actus eddy cent tet whee the secondary ei Isthetestspecime, J, willbe the ey cent 8, With eurent now flowing inte secondary cru, eleewomagneim will agin occur Primary ‘Secerry Pinay Secanny © ehaoe That 9 Sacto SiN NS Ye Qs SS SS spe Nissim 2 spate vy Pecatuarton ocr bce Ses FIGURE 811 Manton proces.) Sc one sinew.) Stay ‘tags sti) Sey Stove) Seay aa sas) Scala ocd Seon ham) Head spb of a seen Re ‘sc ann Sea a Redd Stes weap seo. inonsretne seed snd secondary fo, ill develop (Figure 8-116, with its phase (igure 8-119) de- termined by the secondary cre 9. The 180" phase erence between primary and secondary actividad in Fig- ues 8-115 d and Fis the effect of Lenz's lw, which test the indton process inthe secondary ie causes a phase reversal which ress inthe secondary ux be- Ing opposite n polarity othe primary fun Due oth sat of epposton th secon sy fx wil eanel a portion ofthe primary fx, esulng nan overall decease in et ‘forthe two ells. The reduced mite ont (dashed lin in Figure 113) ress ina reduced rate of et flux variation. Les fsx vation results in reduced back vole (Fgnes 81h and 811), which ess a eduction of indie rae tance (Figue 811), ‘Observe tat the induction process occurs in a certin oder: voltage drives cure, wh develops an eleeuomagnui eld, which ten induces a voltage fo again nats the process. uring ane curent pinay cre (thet eo indies ey cue ents it secondary cic the est meter). Any ates that fle curert Now the Secondary cieut sich as eimary/ascondary eupling or comctance variations wl a ‘a the amplitude of both, and of he inducsv reactance in the primary ici ‘Variations in the test material change nt only the wat cl’ inductive estan, bt aso a quantity called effete resistance, Althoagh te resistance ofthe cil wie ial Abes not change, the ely eens ate test material encounter ction ete cca, thus disputing a porto of heirenersyax eat. That the secondary cet ots as aloo ‘onthe primary ciel wih clactea energy convering to theral ery. Ths ney los inthe eet fcounteraced hy an icreate in Po Keep eco are costnt Ts, ‘oth Fy and V7, vary with bangeo test mater properties during ney cut et 8.3.3 Signal Output Voltage Plane A sted cae, thre is 2 90° phase dference between Van Vj. These two voltages an be vectorial added 0 produce a quantity eled which the tal vltage the Primary cet he ouput ofthe instumens testing caren! generate. igus 8-12 iatates a voltage pane dgram with Vand values pled as te tase and elevation of ight tangle, and athe hypotense. ‘Thus the Pythageren theorem ene may be exprested sing volage values Veen and restated to solve for Vs by vector aon re VIER The basi iformation avilable fom an eddy cuneate i the magaitade of Fan its phase relative to Jp AS shown inthe ison of Figures 8-104 and 810, J hase wit Vy can thretee be placed slong with Von the orzo axe of ti ole {ne plane, Allnogh est ouput ould be shown as sino, inetng variation mag ste an pase of V3 pay showing jst hep ofthe veo aow at do called “vetor pit ipay provide ll necessary information in simple maar and Is ‘tl expecily wel foe curent signal nals, When the magntde and pase of > = | SURES? Voge plan, se pote onthe voltage plane the ip ofthe vector ndctes the magnitudes of and. Figure 13 summarizes hw the various volage and inpedance emponeats imo a col eet ven by allemating voltage, with he eve and ectve properties ‘separately iene, Impedance Pane Sass Fd 7, can be combined ino Vth combined effects of Radon these ‘ating cent inthe eo canbe exprested usa quay called impedance Specialy, Impedance amplitude (2) he magnitae of the vest sum of inductive earance ad resistance nd isthe cis tal opponent os. Tha i 2=VETIE FIGURE :13 Coit liven by semating og. oy cunnan esting a7 ‘angle R FIGURE S14 npn amplinde an ps ange ‘The Impedance phase angle (8), the proportional relationship between inductive rea tance ad resistance can Be called from Hh o-arctan Impedance amplitoe and pase angle are ilsratd in Figure 14. Its important o understand that tee canbe onl one caret inthe circuit, owing through oth te resigance and inductive reactance, and inluenced by both and Fs (Ohm's then shows how voltage pan ean be converted into a coesponding imped snc plane: Although ey cure sanal vations represent vollagevarstions aswel a inp anc vacations, the impedance plane ithe convention for expressing ey cet sana ‘ations. That i volage variations are used t represen impedance variations inte ‘ni However, before exploring the ifn pater of sigh variation, is ecesy to ‘examine how ey cuens behave inde est materi node fo proce sch pater, 8.4_ EDDY CURRENTS ‘When tet specimen is brought ito print othe allman fix Fld ofan ely arent coi eb fix eases electrons nthe specimen to celle aa sing ey ike pattern: hence te term “eddy curonts” By erent behavior depends on th popes tbo the as ad the specimen eal. 8.4.1. Eddy Curront Flow Characteristics édy cureatshave a nub of flow characteristics that fet her tet performance |. They flow only in close, conenrc loops Tei ow paths ae crue when unm pede bythe intsion of maternal boundaries or econ. Also the fw paths ‘xe panel theta abe bobbin col in shown Fire #15 and perpendelr Tithe axis ofthe eos fx fed. 2. The ariettion ofthe colo the test material therfore detemines he orientation of| ‘heey eet low pater he fest material Oretstion fte cot the test ma ‘eri ean be consoled and vid for optim ests by selection the ope oil configuration. Several options ne shown Seca 85.2 ofthis ehapter. 5. Discomiitesare detectable by the eddy eurent method in proportion othe degree tovhich they distur the Nw pater, Ths disontinay eat detectable when is lenges eimension is paallel o eddy curent flow paths (ce Figire #1) and st etcable when the longest dimensions perpeadicalr tothe flow pts (se Figure 16d) iscominutis with aller volume ny ot be dtl when ont l= lel the flow pus” Ensurag that dicots of all Hely oetatons fe d= ‘evable an iporant pat of test cll desan sn selection. Moreover, ly cares slivay follow the path of least esisunce around noncondacing sacle, Newing = ‘es Tog, shallow dscotoutis and owing sound shor, dsp daconinatis, FIGURE 8:15. Botbinype coisas ad ty cures, « > FIGURE 5-16. Discominues i ety caret flow patems (6) Discostinty paral to ‘ow pats (0) Discotinuty perpen ow pu, 4, Eddy cuents behave like compresible Mids Although he low pats re cca | longs the eddy cutets ae undaturbed by noneandatng material boundaries td “scones (ove Figure 8170, the ow pate wl distr and compres fo seam mote intrusions it thai Now (se Figure 170). 5, Since an aerating tux Bld develops ey cores, thie ow in the tet msi likewise alternates clockwise and couscclackwine The Frequency of alteration of ‘heey curtents depends om the eqieney of maton of he ax fil. FIGURE 817_EMet of mati foundries. a) ty cents anid by esti Sondre () Edd cue sorpresed by mara bodes 820 ‘uae Bait 6, Eady current density varies in he est tri follows: ‘A. day currents exhibit sin effet. That i curentdensity is maximum tthe ma teil surface and decreases exponentially with dep Ths, in cher materia, ‘dy curen esting operate oly om the ote stn” of the et teil od est senstvity decreases idly wis depth, Vohaner estar posible only thin ‘Skin det (also called standard dept of ponent defined asthe depth st which eddy current density (ihe porion of eecrons ative aa patil depth 2 compared the materal surface) ba decreased to Ue, where "ei the 2o- ‘alld natural logit, the numbes 271828, advice representing the tra rte oF decay for many phones. Ey cent dena for one, two and thee sn eps calles a ©” assay "POPS SO Beyond te skin dep edly current density foo smal to provide spay signal (See effective dept of peuevation x praraph SC helo: Standart ofp ‘station n English nd metric is fr a parla materi nts Freqveney an be cae Calsted a follows ines eam) hee “= slandaed depth of penetration resistivity JF tequeney relative pemesbilty 'B The in dep formula isl valid aly inthe ease of nfl hick tet mate land lrg coils: Hostver, ota mater tikness of lest five skin dopis where eddy curent density onl 067% of surface density, the eet of ee Stition in thickness sso sight ta the ters may be considered tobe “ee. ‘vel init," endring the fermulaacarte enough for patel purposes, pro ‘viding that cod sizes adequate Conversely, i cil ie i deque but materia ‘hikes isrestited,cument density a the oppo srface wil enced th ae lated values This is @fonunatecreamstanee eancing the possi of vo mere inspection on thin-walled specimens . The extent ofa coils Mux Fld varies with coil dimer such ht effective ely ‘urea petition is appoxintelyTiited tothe dinmetr ofthe ool. Conse- ‘quently, f te oli foe smal, euteat density a particular deth sil be les ‘han that ndeate by te skin depth equation. ‘fetve depth of pencration dt a the degth at which ey cuteat den- sity decreases fo 5% of surface density. Thi the minim eddy current density necesary fo develop sient secondary Hux te change cl mpedanes by a is EDO CURRENT TSENG oa FIGURE S-18 Vottags cane cent flow layable amour. This etve dep wil qu tree skin depths only where coil, ‘imeter is at east 8 great a herein dep Cal dame, however, a dow ble-edged sword a lametar incase, snr to sal defects drat. 7. Bay curents exhibit linear phase lag with depth. To visulize the phase ag phe- nomenon, on a ane al gle of water filled wid snl ie cubes il he way tothe btm ofthe lass. Ione dpe a fenspoon a shor dance in te glass be ins to sti the ce cabs onthe surface cele fst an thse at geste eh go Inv motion progesively ltr as the energy introduced bythe spoon proceeds toward the botom of dhe gas In simi fashion, as depth ineeases, ely cuenta = ‘ronesively delayed. Phase lg lathe te mater proceed a the ree of ne ean (5739) por standard depth of penetration. The phase lg sie nce contin dep and mater thiknes in ey curen teting. 2 Eddy Current Test Sequence ‘The induction process was previously modsod using 8 pi of cis ax primary and see- ondary cieuts Th ey euren et process no surarzed wih stl est pe smn tthe secondary circu C ca L__] FIGURE S:19. Blesrormention FIGURE 8-20 Varying Tax inuces bak volgs, hi cause indie recta, 1. Thotestinsraments AC generator applies an alemating voltage of a eran fequen- ¢y tothe text col easing a aerating caret ow tough he ol Pig #18) 2. The caret inthe eo develops a primary magnetic eld around the cel (Figure & 19). The primary magnetic He iit the lowing indton presses! The cil's tho induces a back volge isto the col, casing indtive restance Figure 820, . Thecoi's fx induces a votge it the et mater easing eddy cents ocr cate Figure 2). 3. The eddy currents generat a secondary magnetic fel which reacts wit the rary Sel hat the coi gonersing Figure #22) Any changes inthe flow of ey cureats will case changes in the magnetic ld that ‘he eddy cares rem tote test col Any changes i the tage Hild wil ete anges in te indetve reactance and effective ressanee of the co, reauting i ‘lange i curren New trough the eo 4 Finally, any hanges in curent flow though he ol wil pedace a change inthe im oiane indeation oa the stamens spn FIGURE 8:21. dy urea inet mei. FIGURE 822 Second ox ners with pinay fax 8.4.3 Tost Performance ‘Test performance eters donot sem to be as formally defined fred cent esting os forumsonie testing and radiography. However the same perfonnanee-eated terminal ony can be useflly employed as flows: ' Sensitvis The minimum sizeof discontinuity that canbe dsplayed rom a given ma teil depth, Surface sent i especialy important wih the el caren method ‘Penetration: Tho maxima depth fom which awe sgl ea be dplayed for a ‘tcl application, + Resoluion: The degree to which separation between signals can be dipayod. ‘Test perfomance depends primarily on material condutvity, permeability, text f= quency, coll design and io Tes fequeey and ol Sui an edly eet and tie theteore the primary conrls ove test perfonnance. Guidlines fer reizing op num results or specifi aplistion are sven in Seton 86, The following pacts ‘Samarize how major es aribls effet perfomance, T. Conductivity The greater he comtiy ofthe est teri the greater the sensi tivity to surice discontinuities, but the less the penetration of ey came ot them {willy his reduced penevation may sem conraitory, bt still aut og fea. As he ei’ Mux eld expands, voltages nde fist the srlace a then st incrensing dps in the est mater igh-ondactity materials considerable ey ‘ret flow an this a song secondary Mac are developed a the face, This resus 1 substantial cancellation of primary flux. Bocase the primary fun his been greatly ‘weakened, ess primary Tux avaible to develop ely currents a restr dah, 2. Permeabli. Tis variable applies only 1 feromagneic mei. As mail permeability increases, pose signal esting ftom permet varitions increasingly Ihask eddy cuvent signal variations This effect becomes more pronounced wit in eased deph. Permeability thus lms elfecive penetration of eddy cunt The oat Tem canbe eliminated by magically saturating Te material Howes the oppor ‘osuturate is Lined by cote mater] geomet 5. Froqunes. Eddy current esting is performed within a fequeney rnge of aprox imately 50 Fiz to 10 Mz, although most appiations are performed wel within he ex tremes ofthat ange. As test requency i inreased, senity to seve dscontintes inereass,pesmting increasingly smal surface dscotimitis tobe deste. As fe 224 ‘xpre Bair TABLE 8-1 Typical Depths of Penetration Conic ery Migniim te Sis tog ot acres quency is decreased, eddy curtent pensation nto the materia nereases, In adton | frequency i deceased, the spect of coll motion must be dcreased norco bain il coverage. “The est equency for obtaining adequate pentraion in a given mater can be et= nated using th indepth equation or by usin a penettion cart pote from he skin

    ‘ened fra parti catogry of appliction, 8.5.1. Eddy Current Instruments | trod variety ofedy current instruments is avaible for se fom spl 0 complas Alinough hese instant vary grea sn applications Neb ae wel size, st of thom operate on sina pine. In adton toa power supply al ey current nstrumens rue at est iri ements: AC generator col ici, and processing pny creity. The lve! of ex bility designed in each ofthese elements generally determines how ey curen inst ent life foun each ee, 1+ AC generators prove the voltage that dives the cil. Tey can operate at 2 single Axed frequency, provide a selection of switchable frequent, be continu Yar able or even provide mlpleequencics simultaneous. In some instrument, he isadjusent for amplitude ofthe vole aplied othe coi. * ait circuits range fom designs intended t work with ony a singe spi oo «| limited ange of speed eo or with viwally any col onigurain vasble {Displays can ange fon single LED ae meter readouts to anliftequeney preseta- tions on multicolor psy secs Delisted lsiramens, Desc instruments are designed for a specific aplication and are uly ale to perform that application more efiety than generl-parpse instruments. Exszples of Aedes insuments are crack detectors, costing thickness Bniges, and conductivity meters. Conductivity meter, fo example can give det readout of condtvty in TACS values. In ation, some ersck detection insruments provide if supresion to prevent pose signal caused by vations inci test mantel sping, When there is sufficient work na given application justly investment na snge-pumpae inst ‘ment tis ely be the best oie. Hovrever, one mist be cael ing ey cnet ‘met ype insets, Becese they do act provide the guniy of information ava fle rom an impedance pla slay, meteraye insrunnts ean mislead lee Fic users. Since meter instruments can dspiay only sce or dwnseale deletions, they mst be operated so that onl ene material variable i dipayed. Howeven, Wi Impedance plane dipayinsremens, each pe of tara cndton defects the dis play dot in characteristic maner Tnciating separation of arial an nepettion or sigale Standard Impedance Plane Displey Instruments The AC generator ofa standard impedance plane dipy instrument divs tet col at only one fequeney, which i usualy sleeable rom a wide range of frequencies. These cneral-puposeinstumeis ean perform an exesive vai of eddy erent splc {tons The abit view ctl pedance pane signals provide the knowledges user ' grat dal of valable infomation. Some never panes pane istaments ave fet spay, afering enhanced petit, sch ete unt shown a Figure 8-5. However, testsyte-ype stunts (Figure 8.24) donot provide portability be expe ft operate 24 houts a day to accommodate continuous proton at ohn pie od, orviemil. Iipedance plane display instruments show variation of both inductive reactance and resistance daring testing Convo functions oF ypedance plane iran cn include, ‘tare nos mtd te following ‘+ Prequeny: Adjusts the equeney a wich the AC generator dives the est oi © Gain (Sensvin, dB): Adjusts ampliestion ofthe bridge ouput signal for display (Goe Mode of Operation + HortzomalVertcal Do Pasion: Aja dot postion an the display Phase Rotation: Rote the destin of do deflection ' Bolonc ul, ero): Adjust impedance to be identi on bah sides of the bridge FIGURE 8:23 Porablimpadaos plane play instrument (Clear: Eases te dpa Fitters: Prevent cela of signal above andor below a eran frequency range Drive: Adjuts vole atplitde appli to the es ol expanded relative the ake or lifetion: A Mutirequency Insruments Development of multfrequency insrunents was av ofthe most signifian od the evolution of ey current testing rdware: These instrament acl lina Wat had been obe ofthe most severe imitations ofthe mod, the ic hat snl FIGURES26 Proton line syste intranet. ‘sed by diferent material variables can vector nto combined signal that become i Fal to itrpret. In ation they offer potential for substan enancemen of poe fmance. Driving the tes col at more than one Requeney, multequeney ssramente «an no ony spay th test activa each frequency septs bt ab alzo sh 0° fale “nixed ouput of diferent fequency signals stated fom each other. These “xprbitceresut athe following our nvaniges ‘Sippresion of Undvied Variables. The ably to subract signal hm each oer and splay the diffeeace a mid ouput permits eliminnton of uodesed sigh he capa. This etree the reason why mutequencyisruments wer nally developed: to suppres signals fom steel suppats dung inspoctin of noaterrmag. ei oes, as wel as veduce i aie da to probe wobble, A two-freueney it Strument can eliminate one source of unwanted signal Each atonal feqeny les theming ot of ah addional ype of sina Optimisation of Normally Contradictory Test Variables. Use of multiple rguonces allows more than ane feqbeney-depensent performance variable be opined Inulneousy, For example, during irservize be inspection using internal ei, 4 higher requncy provides seni to nner diameter contin, while & lower ffequeey provides the penceation needed to detest outer diameter icons. 4. Signa Idenificaion by Patern Recognition. A given signal defection coud be ‘uted by a number of detecuble candiens. However, each condition exhibits 8 ‘nige pte of behavior when viewed over a wide range of fequenees Mule: ‘quency Instumeats display this bavi, entancing the ikekinood of ening the {Tue tie of he sina SimitaneousAtsole/Diferendal Operation. Some mulifequeeyisiraments have ‘he advange of lowing 2 ingle dat coi asembly to be opted snukaneosly botabslute and citeensia mode (ae Mode of Operation, below) cig in al the required testing ine when te Inspection is vege Yo be prfored sing bath of thas ectmiques 828 coupren scr ‘Two types of multiequecy instrument ar availble: mulplexed and muiichanne “Mutpiexed equipment operates at only ane fequeny at veh insta, rapsly sich: ing among the svalabeequencies Ths the fests not beng performed simalanoosy tall frequencies, although tbe display gives the illson tht hiss the ese, Mala ‘ns equipent is he equivalent of baving me than one ed crrentstamentshting 2 Single display screen ary moltequeney instruments reed ta signal mixing be Pefarmod manually by the ehniin. Recent designs, sich athe ni shown in igi $55, perform the mining atomataly 85.2 Test Coi édy curent techniques are often lasied according tthe made of peritian and asi ‘configuration ofthe est col esenly. Made of operation Seteineshew the name inertaces with th tes specimen, sch as weber ts comparing ol np om the est specie toa reference cil absolte operation) or ether is comparing el pat tom tw ajacent potions ofthe est specimen 1 ach oe (ferential operation), a {ie configuration determines how’ clear pissy packaged to fit" the et obec ‘hats whether the ell spproaches portion of the est surface in a probelive fishin (sarface coi, whee fly ences the outer cicimfrece ofthe test obs (en ling oi, or whether it passes tough the inside of tubule produc itera oi Cot Assign, aswell 5 mapitade and frequency of te applied caren al afc the eleto- Imagroi field developed by the cl More of Operation ‘With most dy came instrumeats, the coil asemby is connected tothe instuent via bridge ciety as usted in Figure 6-26. Badges are capable of deecting ery sl FIGURES25 Malifeqency istrunen. Do CURRENT TESTING, 229 ac Display FIGURE S26. Bridgecieie Impedance vations. At the start of the et the instrament operator alin the bridge to provide reference sgl During esting, the dpay provides a readout of tidge Talc eased hy intercon ofthe col wh the tet mae, “Absolute si onfgrations (Figure #27) pace single coil on th est material and ‘mpl a second col ealed Balance fad remote fom te ts materi to balance he Fridge: Absolute cols detect any condition Ut afects ey crn lw. Alou this ans tha they are capable of detecting any type of endon to which the ey ciret ‘ethod is sensitive aso means that they ae seat to potently unwanted signals Such as lif-of abd material emperaure varaons Diferenia oil contigs (Piguie £28) use a matched pai of eis a perform 8 comparison. Both oil ate coupled to the test materi, with one porn of the fx mate ‘il being compared to ance, Cnitens sensed by tah ols oe not deteved, wheres onions sensed by only one coll are detected, This hs the advantage of suppressing temperate ad lio varitons, Suppression of i-off lg stall dicoatinutes be ‘istngised fom lit-off noise The dorsi to diffrent cols i tat they provide no ‘Signal when a deec condition s simultaneously tse ty bot cols, Ths, aren ails wl only display the ends of long somtimes they ate no setive to gad ‘iscontiulty variations and could ignore long discon etiey send ate vy ‘arom, Diflerenial col signals ar also dfcl to sept the digplayed signal repee- Sent the dference between two eos” mpesanes, rater han he inipednce of single i's interaction with th est stil, x) Dapp FIGURE #27 Absit ol onigutin 830 counrrensronr FIGURE 828 Dien ci cotguation Exierna Reference coil coniguations (Figure 8:2) combine etre of ot he ab Selue and fret modes, placing one col n contact with he txt material andthe ‘ter ol coupled oa reference standard. This einige provides ah ndicetion what the test material ifr fom the stad Basie Configurations Surface Coils. Surface cul are usally designe tobe hand-held and are enesed in proberype housings for sang material suraces Surface cls ae svi in ee {ut shapes and ses to meet different aplication nods There eval rove variety Surface col design than with enccing and nema coil, Some of ther re asta Iy Smal, wound ith wire ner han human ha Some surface col san perform 9 fy of applications, whereas eters have bee configured to it specie size std shape of {est specinen. Fr example, surace probes hve ben fied with guides fo cable ting the coi along the edge of turbine lads Most surface cis ae “tobbin wound” like «spool oF dhead (Figue 8308) an are FIGURE 839 Extemal ference coi coafguation

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