The nitrogen cycle is a very important natural

by
cycle. Ho'i'ever, this cycle can be disturbed
human activity, in the following ways'
1 The artificial production of ammonia for
making nitrogen-based fertilisers requires the
the
use ofitmospheric nitrogen' This reduces
nitrogen'
amount of atmosPheric
2 Inappropriate application of nitrogen-rich
fertliiseis has led to leaching, causing water
to be loaded with excess nitrates' thus

,yrr"*,

accelerating eutroPhication'

Repeated planting ofcrops that absorb.large

of nittog.n from the soil can iead to

"*orrrrrc
depletion of nitrogen in the soil'

Pesticides can destroy soil microbes' which.are

flxatlon'
essential for the processes of nitrogen
nitrification and denitrification'

Broants
A biome is a specialised and very large ecosystem
that has its own typical and distinctive climate
and soil conditions and its own distinctive
Uiotogi."t community that has evolved or adapted
to live there.
These include tropical rainforests, temperate
and
deciduous forests, tundra, tropical grasslands
on
life
for
variables
important
deserts. The most

land are the amount of rain and the temperature'

These include oceans' rivers, lakes, coral reefs

and shores or coasdines. The most important
the
variables for life in water are the salinity of
pressure)'
water
(which
affects
watet its depth
how permanlnt the water is and the availability

of nutrients.

any
factors determine the survival and growth of

in
organism and the productivity of the ecosy-stem
both
includes
habitat
A
*til.t-t the organism lives.
biotic and abiotic factors.

An ecosystem comprises many different plants

and animals, all living together' In the study
of ecology, these living things are referred to
pop.tl"tion or community of organisms'
"
"t
a populatlon consists of living things of the
s"-" ,p".l.s (such as ants' bees, schools of
fish, wasps), while a community comprises
all the populations of all the different species
pr"r"ni, such as allthe different organisms living
i.r pond. Their interaction with each other
"
contiibutes to the success of the ecosystem'

Within an ecosystem, physical (abiotic) factors

influence the living organisms' The important
abiotic factors are climatic factors (such as
light, temperature, wind, water availability)
factors, which relate to soil and
"d"ptti.
"ia
its textr-rle, its nutrient status, its acidity and
moisture content.

Abiotic factors play an important part in

determining *hl.h organisms can survive in a
habitat. An-organism that survives and persists
in a particular habitat within the ecosystem is
likely to be well adapted to the environmental
conditions exPerienced there'

Topographic factors include the angle and

of a slope, for exampie, whetherit faces
"ti".i
north o, south, and its altitude' These factors
influence local climatic and edaphic conditions'
Topographic factors, local climate and edaphic
.o.tdition, interact with each other and with the
living organisms.

TOLERANCE RANGES AND

LIIV\ITI NG FACTORS

BIOTIC AND ABIOTIC

ENVI RONMENTs
of
Ecosystems are influenced by a combination
biological and physical factors' The biological
influences on organisms within an ecosystem
are called biotic factors' Physical or nonliving factors that shape ecosystems. are. called
abioiic factors. Together, biotic and abiotic
8

To a1low organisms in an ecosystem to survive

and to function at their best, or optimally' the

conditions must fall within specific tolerance
ranges. These conditions are water' temperature'

lighi, wind, availability of nutrients, pH' moisture

aid humidity' They are mainly abiotic factors'
A condition or factor that causes the greatest
change to the ecosystem by the smaliest variation
from its tolerance range is a limiting factor'

EcoLoctcAL Nl(HEs
is
-. -.rganism's habitat is its address, its niche
physical
of
full
range
:i :.::upation. A niche is the

-:

:-.: ::ological conditions in which an organism

.,:s :nd the waythat it uses those conditions.
* Fundamental niche - a niche that a species

,i':uid occupy in the absence of any competitor,

:::jaror

or parasite
Realistic niche - the niche that the species

.::ualiv occupies
l -: imost all species, the realistic niche is smaller
i- r rlore restricted than the fundamental niche.

DECO,!\PO'ER'

secondary consumers.

These are organisms, such as bacteria and fungi

(saprophytes), or detritus feeders (earthworms,
crabs and ants) that feed on and break down
organic substances such as dead plants and
animals. The substances they generate can be used
as nutrients by producers.

Human activity can greatly affect decomposers and

PRODUCER', CONSUMERS AND

--

Carnivores are animals that eat other animals, and

are secondary consumers. Smali carnivores are the
food or prey of larger carnivores. An animal that
eats another animal is called a predator. Those
carnivores that are not prey for any other animals,
which means they have no predators, are called
top carnivores or top Predators.
Omnivores are animals that eat plants as well
as other animals, so may also be considered as

ecosystem, the biotic factors are:

* producerS, which

are plants
+ consumers, which feed on the producers
* decomposers, which break down dead animal
plant materials.

detritus feeders in an ecosystem by:

* removing organic litter from the ecosystem,
which means there is littie or no material on
which decomposers can act or detritus feeders
can feed. This leads to a fewer nutrients being
released to soil and water bodies for producers.

the improper disposal of non-biodegradable

materials, which results in the release of toxic
substances into the ecosystem. Some organisms
may be killed; others may accumulate these
substances in their bodies with long-lasting
effects on their metabolic processes. It can affect
nutrient cycling and decomposition processes.

pollution from agricultural and industrial

activities, which can kill decomposers and
detritus feeders, leading to a build-up of organic
matter and a reduction in nutrient release.
the reclamation of land, construction of roads
and concreting areas, which all destroy habitats
of micro-organisms and detritus feeders and
may kill them. This leads to a slowing of
decomposition and release in an entire habitat.

=d

l:.ese are organisms, usually plants or algae, that

-;e '-he energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide from
-:-: armosphere and the nutrients they draw from
."::- io produce food for themselves. The process is
:i.ed photosynthesis. Producers are a source of
::",'c for other organisms.
-t autotroph is an organism that produces
:s 3\vn food from inorganic compounds and a
5"r irce of energy. Trophic means feeding. Therefore,
::--.iucers are also known as autotrophs.
l:xiucers are the only organisms that can
.-r;Jrpordt energy from sunlight into organic
:i::rer that can be used by other organisms within
-.:e ecosystem.

l:ese are organisms that cannot produce their

:-,i: food, so they feed on other living organisms.
Jcnsumers that feed only on producers are called
primary consumers, those that feed on other
:--:']sumers are called secondary consumers.
F{erbivores are animals that eat only plant
:.aterial, and are primary consumers.

PRODUCERS AN D ECOSYSTEM'
Green plants, the primary producers, supply
chemical energy for almost all other living things,
directly to herbivores and indirectly to carnivores.
At each stage in a food chain, materials taken in
are used for many purposes, but only a tiny part is
retained for building up new tissues.
Energy is incorporated into an ecosystem by the
process ofphotosynthesis, in which producers
absorb energy from the sun to make food.
CHAPTER

1 THE sTUDYOF

ECOLOcY

FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEB'

a,*.r,..i

t:hgjl,ls

The sequence of nutrition rhat leads from the

producers to the top carnivores is called a food
chain.
A food chain consists of a series of organisms
through which the organic compounds initially
produced by plants or other autotrophs are
transferred.
Each organism in the series feeds on and

therefore derives its energy and nutrients from

the preceding one, one after another.
The levels in a food chain are referred to as
trophic levels.
A trophic level is a stage in a food chain at which
the organisms all obtain their food in the same
general manner.

The sequence of a typical food chain is:

producers (mainly plants), eaten by herbivores
(primary consumers) , eaten by carnivores
(secondary consumers).

There may be several carnivores in a series, with

first-level carnivores (secondary consumers)

being eaten by second-level carnivores (tertiary
consumers).
l

Food chains show which organisms feed on which

other organisms.

Food webs
Rather than feeding on only one species of plant,
a herbivore usually feeds on several. In the same
way, herbivores are generally eaten by a number
of different predators; a diagram showing such
feeding relationships in a community is referred
to as a food web, (food webs show interrelated
food chains).

nCV TRAN'FE R BETWEEN

TROPH IC IEVE t'
EN T

Energy transfer between trophic levels in a food

web is inefficient, as only about ten per cent of
the available energy is transferred at each stage.
This means that much of the total energy from
the original plant or animal material, called the
biomass, is lost.

At each trophic level, some energy is lost as heat

and some is consumed or used by organisms to
maintain their functions. These functions include
r epr o duc t ion, grow th and rep air s. Consequ ently,
the amount of available energy is reduced
significantly through ascending trophic levels.
There will not be as much food resource or
energy available to support organisms at the
higher trophic levels as at lower levels. Most of
the energy at each trophic level is not consumed
at the next level, while that which is consumed is
not all converted to biomass.

Grass hopper

(Primary consumer)

Ecot ocIcAt PYRA/v\t Ds

Drawings called ecological pyramids can be used
to show the relative proportions ofenergy or
biomass at each level in a food chain. They show
the energy and nutrients in ecosystems in general.
The three types of ecological pyramid are:
rTe*a.y

:-'=

consumer)

,---

dll

.::
-L

* pyramid of numbers
* pyramid of biomass
* pyramid of energy.

t0
]L

English ecologist Charles Elton was the first

jescribe
.:
the characteristic shape of food webs as
- pyramid of numbers. He observed that most
=
i u,ebs have many organisms on the bottom
::hic levels and successively fewer on the higher
:.s. This pyramid, often called the Eltonian
anid, is the basic model used to describe all
.:

The primary producers outnumber the primary

consumers which, in turn, outnumber the
secondary consumers. The result is a pyramidshaped bar chart.

',i'ebs.

pvramid of numbers is similar to a bar diagram

:ating the relative numbers of organisms in
:d chain. Elton's r:riginal observations of the
:dance of animals noted that:
:csvstems are populated by very large numbers

::

small animals and progressively smaller

-:mbers of larger animals
::eCators are larger than prey and are able to
::.rch or overpower the prey relatively easily
-.

:..ause the prey is small, it takes the predator a

::q time to collect sufficient food
::,al1 creatures reproduce much faster than
.:rer creatures do, hence there is a surplus of
.:::all organisms to power a food chain.

Figure

l.l4 A pyramid of numbers

The problem with a pyramid of numbers is that

each organism counts as one, irrespective ofits
size, and this leads to pyramids with strange
shapes. The problem can be overcome by using
an alternative approach, called the pyramid
of biomass. The estimation of the dry mass
(biomass) is more likely to produce the pyramidshaped chart expected and to permit comparisons
between ecosystems.
Top carnivores
l

Carnivore

l5 A pyramid of biomass
The fieldwork involves estimating the popuiation

'

,--'= I l3 Charles Elton setting off to place nnouse

- 1.. : ' Wood, near Oxiord, UK, in 1925

traps

l:.anisms within an ecosystem were counted

:: :stimated and then the number within

each

was represented by a rectangle rvith an area

-.: rup
'-r:.: \vas directly proportional to the number of
::_.anisms in that group.

Figure

|.

size for each member of the food chain, weighing

representative samples (wet mass) and
determining the dry mass by destructive analysis
to find the percentage of water.
The dry matter estimated is the biomass at one
particular moment only; it is called the standing
crop. The problem arises with organisms with
short life cycles, as they may be outlived by
their predators, for example, phytoplankton, zoo
plankton. Therefore, at some time the biomass for
predators will be larger than that for prey. This is
so because no account is being taken ofthe rate at
which biomass is produced.
CHAPTER

THE STUDY OF

ECOLOcY

; "'1'

24'i.7,3.

{:! tfteYg

.1t

The problem associated with the pyramid of

biomass can be avoided by producing a pyramid

of energy,

as ProPosed bY Lindeman'

Lindeman proposed that organisms of the

thould each be identified as belonging
".oryrt"to a particular trophic level, and then the energy
.ontlnt of the orginisms at each trophic level
should be estimated. This is a more laborious
approach since all the samples previously dried
an^d weighed (to find a mass) must also be
combusted to estimate their energy content'

CoanprrlrloN

.;

Resources of every sort are generally in limited

supply and so organisms must compete for them;

,{

for example:
plants may compete for
mineral ions

sPace,

u
u

light and

"l
!
I

animals may comPete for food, shelter and

mates.
When a resource is in short supply and prevents
ultimate growth, it is known as a limiting factor'

mt

Competition among individuals of the same

species is known as intraspecific-competition'
c^ompetition among individuals of different
species is interspecific competition'
Intraspecific competition - members of the

ri.ll

qd

-T

same species compete among themselves

because they have the same needs for habitat'
space, light, food and reproductive partners'

Interspecific competition - members of

different species may compete for habitat,
space and iight bnt not necessarily for food and
reproductive Partners.
Interspecific competition is less intense than
intraspecific competition because different species
require different resources and may need different
types of habitat and food. Both can occur within
tle same ecological community and can influence
the carrying capacity of the ecological community'
Figure

l.l6

Raymond Lindeman

Competition puts intense pressure on the

limited resources available in the environment'
However, competition is important for
maintaining ecosystem balance, controlling
populationiize, promoting natural selection of
itr" fitt.tt individuals in the population and most
importantly, determining the carrying capacity of
the ecosYstem.

: '1'1i
- 1-

;"-e

i{l
-f:

Sv nslosls

Figure L

l7 Pyramid of energY

Symbiosis occurs when fwo or more organisms

or different species live in intimate association
rvirh each other. The nature ofthe association of
the symbiotic relationship is further defined as:
parasitism

*d\^^euNFTY ECOLOGY
The organisms within an ecosystem take part in
interactions such as:

competition
symbiosis
predator and PreY.
l2

commensalism

mutualism.

P,;i.isiri,ttt:
Parasitism is an association in which one
organism. the parasite, lives on or in another
organism. the host, for all or much of its life

/-

L_

:..:

]_l

{:

:.:. The parasite usuaily attacks single hosts of

-.-; same species, or a very narrow range of close
from
':=::es. The harm to the host may come
::i:.age to body tissues, because the parasite takes
. -,:': needed by the host and may secrete toxins
--.:a: poison the host.
l"=:asires that live within the host's body are called
:.:d.o-parasites. Examples include hookworms
'-,: :apeworms in mammals, and fungal parasites
.:, :,ants. Parasites that live on the surface or skin
- - :re host are cailed endo-parasites. Examples
-:.:.;de ticks on animals, headlice on humans,
::.:nies of aphids and mealy bugs that live on the
: -:--ace of green plant stems.
-{dapration of parasites
..:= ;ommon adaptations in parasites include:
+ :3-.-ices to gain entry to host tissue
+ ::-,'ices to keep the parasite attached to the host
.- :.echanisms to resist counterattacks by the
:.:sr's immune system
+ :rechanisms to overcome the problem of
::arsfer to a new host.
:. .;:e 1, 18 shows a strangler vine around the bark
:: .:l evergreen tree. Eventually the host tree will
--: and the vine will develop into a tree itself.
,

Figure L

Figure L

l9

Figure 1.20 These owers are pollinated by bees

8A

strangler vine clingrng on to a host tree

),tiit:i,,-et,-:t<

l"::s is the relationship in which two different

r::cies live in close association and in which one
:::anism, the commensal (usually the smaller)
:,erefits. The other organism, the host, is neither
.ra:ned nor helped. Small marine animals called
:rnacles, for example, often attach themselves to
.',''haie's skin. The barnacles perform no service to
::e ri'hale, nor do they harm it. Yet the barnacles
:"erefit from the constant movement of water past
:he swimming whale, because the water carries
:ood particles to them.

)Iutualixn

Barnacles clinging

to

a whale

Tnis is a form of symbiosis in which two

rrganisms of different species live in an intimate
a,ssociation that offers some benefit to both. Many
iorvers, for example, depend on certain species of
rnsects to pollinate them. The flowers provide the
insect with food in the form of nectar, pollen or
other substances, and the insects help the flower
rvith pollination.

CHAPTER

THE STUDY oF EcoLocY

t3

PREDATOR AND PREY

'

..r8

.tilii:rl

A predator is an organism that feeds on living

their
species. Predators ire normally larger than
it'
eat
they
before
tend to kill prey
p.ey
"nd
prey
The term predator usually implies that the
by
plants
of
eating
The
organisms are animals.
predation'
of
form
h""rbivorous animals is also a
as
although it is more commonly referred to
grazing or browsing.
The availability of prey is a factor that limits
the number of predators within a food chain'
The predator-prey relationship causes both
populations to oscillate' When there are large
predators will
ir'"tlti"t of prey, the numberisofavailable
for growth
increase because more food
of
numbers
in
increase
r"proa,rction. The
"nJ
numbers
in
decrease
p."a"tort can lead to the
tf pr.y because prey are being consumed faster
ifr"",ft"y are reproducing' This is an example
oi tt"g"ai"" feedback, which is a natural and
autori"tic regulatory process that maintains the
levels
numbers of olganismi in the food chain at
that the environment can supPort'
Note: The maximum amount of organisms the
environment can sustain is called the environment
climox.

Feedback occurs when the output ofthe

also serves as an input and leads to further
changes in the sYstem.

system

Negative feedback is self-regulating, or

stabilising; it usually keeps a system ln a

in
Positive feedback occurs when an increase
outPtlt.
the
output leads to a further increase in
This is sometimes called a vicious cYcle.

r;,..f,- qp

Frgure L2

Predator and ts PreY

EcoLoclcAL SuccEssloN AN D

CLIMAX COMMUNITIES

Ecological succession is the process by which

org"nir*, occupv a site and gradually change the

conditions so that other species

"n"uironrn"ntal
can replace the original inhabitants'

relatively constant condition'

Lichens, mosses
small annual

and

Plants

Penennial

plants

Shrubs

and grasses

.ilr"*

Figure

l4

27

-'e

de,eioPmenr of success'ors

Softwood trees, e.g 3 ^e:

Har-dwood trees

',i.'.renever

new land is formed from volcanoes,

:-'.:: deltas and sand dunes, there is no soil. The
l:': plants to appear are known as the pioneer
:opulation. These include algae, lichens, mosses
--.: some specialised plants. Since lichens can

' .::stand desiccation (extreme dryness, lack of

, a:er) , extreme temperatures and very low levels
:: :.itrient ions, they are ideal early colonisers.
,i'.:i the appearance of the first plant life, organic
--a::er is added to the mineral particles, cushions
:: :ross appear and then tiny herbaceous plants
:::-.-,.. As the levels of organic matter and mineral
:-:icles buiid up, larger plants are supported as

Figure ,23 Primary succession

Figure 1,24 Secondary successlon

lrchen

:. sture is retained.

l:l

erowth of larger plants - and the activities

'.te
-.
fauna based upon it - all help in the buildEventually the land is able to support
cf
soi1.
-:
:re:ure woodland. This sequence is called primary
;uccession.
--:-::rary succession is an example of living things,
::''rly the plants, altering the abiotic factors.
i::rary succession lays the foundation for future
:.ner plant life as the process leads to the
:-:::ration of the first layer of soil, which supports
:.1rlt growth by capturing moisture and nutrients
provides a support structure for roots.

":.:

Tlpes of primary succession

-'-::nary successions are named according to the
: ::Cirions in which they start.
. succession beginning on a very dry substratum,
=-:h as bare rock, sand dune or cool volcanic
-::-.'ae, is called xerosere. The pioneer plants are
:a:-ed xerophites.

that begins with water is a hydrosere

its pioneer plants are called hydrophites.
-: :cological succession, the roles ofthe pioneer
:::rmunity may be described as foilows.

.r- succession

.::j

+ The pioneer community is the first community

:o become established in a once barren
:rvironment and it gradually changes the
:tvironment.
+ ' ichens capture windblown dirt particles,
:romoting further soil development.
+ Dead lichens crumble and become part of the
soil, along with remains of insects and fungi.
+ Over time, enough soil deveiops for mosses to
:ake root.

Secondary succession occurs on soils that have

already been formed but which have suddenly
lost their community. One example is the series
of changes that follows a fire in woodlands and
forests. A succession ofplants appears on the fire
site, mosses and seed from herbaceous and woody
piants germinate quickly. The burnt patch is well
on its way to becoming natural woodland.

CHAPTER

THE sTUDY oF

ECOLOcY I5