slightly below the water surface. The depth to the water is determined by subtracting the depth of penetration of the line {nto water, as measured by the waterline inthe chalked section, from the (otal depth from the ground surface. In the second, ‘method a tape with a float attached to its end is lowered until, the float hits the water surface and the tape goes slack. The tapers then lifted until the float is felt to touch the water surface and it is just taut; the depth is then measured. Some floats are equipped with a whistle that sounds when the float hits the ‘water surface. The electric depth indicator consists of a ‘weighted probe attached to the lower end ofa length of electrical, cable that is marked at intervals to indicate the depth. When. the probe reaches the water a circuit is completed and this is, rogistered by a meter mounted on the cable reel. The electric indicator has the advantage that it may be used in extremely, small holes. Observation Wells The term “observation well” is applied to any wel or drilled hole used for the purpose of long-term studies, ‘of groundwater levels and pressures. Existing wells and bore~ holes in which casing is left in place are often used t0 observe ‘groundwater levels. These, however, are not considered t0 be 43s satisfactory as wells constructed specifically forthe purpose. ‘The latter may consist ofa standpipe or a piczometer installed ina previously drilled exploratory hole or a hole drilled solely for use as an observation well. Details of typical installations, are shown in Figure 1.18. In cases where pressures in specific, zones ate required, bentonite or a similar material is used 10 seal the piezometer within the zone. Itis also customary to use ‘seal at the surface and to slope the fll at the top of the hole away from the pipe in order to prevent the entrance of surface water. The top of the pipe should also be capped to prevent the entrance of foreign material ‘The piezometer shown in Figure 1184 is @ wellpoint piezometer; hydraulic and diaphragm type piezometers may be used, The reader is directed to Hvorslev (1949), US. Army ‘Corps of Engineers (1969), U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1968), and Dunnicliff (1988) for detailed discussions of various types, of piezometers. 1.10.3 Seepage Tests for Estimation of Field Permeability General Diseussion Seepage tess in boreholes constitute one means of determining the permeability of overburden in situ ‘They are particularly valuable in the case of materials such as, sands or gravels, undisturbed samples of which are difficult or impossible to obtain. Three types of test are in common use; namely the falling, the rising, and the constant water level methods. In general, cither the rising or the falling level methods should be used if the permeability is low enough to permit accurate determination of the water level. In the falling level, test, the flow is from the hole to the surrounding soil and there is danger of clogging of the soil pores by sediment in the test ‘water used. This danger does not exist in the rising level test, where water flows from the surrounding soil to the hole, but there is the danger ofthe soil atthe bottom of the hole becoming loosened or quick if too great a gradient is imposed at the bottom of the hole. Ifthe rising level is used, the test should be followed by sounding of the base ofthe hole with drill rods to determine whether heaving of the bottom has occurred. The rising level testis the preferred test. In those cases where the permeability is so high as to preclude accurate measurement (ofthe rising or falling water level, the constant level testis used. Holes in which seepage tess are to be performed should be riled using only clear water as the drilling uid. Ths precludes the forming of a mud cake on the walls of the hole or clogeing ‘Subsurface Explorations and Sampling 31 of the pores ofthe soil by dilling mud. The tests are performed intermittently as the borehole is advanced, When the hole reaches the level at which a test is desired, the hole is cleaned and flushed using clear water pumped through a drill tol wi shielded or upward-deflected jets. Flushing is continued until a clean surface of undisturbed material exists at the bottom of the hole. The permeability is then determined by one of the procedures given below. Specifications sometimes require @ limited advancement of the borehole without casing upon completion of the first test at a given level, followed by cleaning, flushing, and repeat testing. The dificulty of obtaining, satisfactory in situ permeability measurements makes this requirement a desirable feature since it permits verification of, test results, Data that must be recorded for each test regardless of the type of test performed include(1) the depth from ground surface to the groundwater surface both before and upon completion of the test; (2) the inside diameter of the casing; (3) the height of the casing above ground surface; (4) the length ofthe casing uring the test; (5) the diameter of the borehole below the casing; (6) the depth to the bottom of the boring from the top of the casing; (7) the depth to the standing sater level from the top of the easing; and (8) a description ofthe material tested. Falling Water Level Method In this test, the casing is filled with water, which is then allowed to seep into the soil. The rate ‘of drop ofthe water level inthe casing is observed by measuring the depth of the water surface below the top of the casing at 1, 2, and 5 minutes after the start of the test and at S-minute intervals thereafter. These observations are made until the rate ‘of drop becomes negligible or until sufficient readings have been ‘obtained to satisfactorily determine the permeability. Other required observations are listed in the general paragraph above. Formulas for the computation of the permeability are shown, in Figure 1.19. Rising Water Level Method This method, most commonly referred to as the time lag method (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1951), consists of bailing the water out ofthe casing, and observing the rate of rise of the water level in the casing at intervals until the rise in water level becomes negligible. The rate is observed by measuring the elapsed time and the depth of the water surface below the top of the casing. The intervals at which the readings are required will vary somewhat with the permeability ofthe soil, The readings should be frequent enough, to establish the equalization diagram shown in Figure 1.19. In, ‘no case should the total elapsed time for the readings be less than 5 minutes, A plot of the observations such as the diagram shown in Figure 1.19 should be made during the test to insure that sufficient readings have been taken and that the test results, are valid. Formulas for the determination of the permeability by this method also are given in Figure 1.19. As noted above, a rising level test should always be followed by sounding of the bottom of the holes to determine whether the test created quick condition. Constant Water Level Method In this method water is added to the casing at a rate sufficient to maintain a constant water level at or near the top of the casing for a period of not less than 10 minutes. The water may be added by pouring from calibrated containers or by pumping through a water meter. In addition to the data lised in the above general discussion, the data recorded should consist of the amount of water added to the casing at 1, 2, and 5 minutes after the start of the test and at Seminute intervals thereafter until an adequate determination of the permeability has been made. Formulas for the determination of the permeability by this method are given in Figure 1.19,‘32. Foundation Engineering Handbook Slope to Drain 20" Minimum, 3-0" Minimum Cop or Plug with Pent hele Bockfill (upper 3° impervious) — Impervious Seal (dry cloy batts) —1'/4" 1.0. Black Stee! or Plastic Pipe Coupling r}— Brass Jacket Wellpoint, 1a" 1D. | concrete Sond Watertight Cop Impervious Seal (ary clay bells) Slope to Oroin— 7} ps va Backfill (upper 3! impervious) Sond Conere 178" Minimum = 1.0. Black Stee = or Plastic Pipe Peo Gravel 5! Perforated Sec- tion. (Approx. 25 178" g holes uni~ formly staggered) Threaded Plug Impervious Sea (ary clay Bells) LEGEND Bocksin ERED impervious Seo! (EEE Concrete Sond Pea Gravel Fig. 1.18 Observation wells: (a) wellpoint piezometer; (b) standpipe.‘Subsurface Explorations and Sampling 33 GY “ad PY |Z 1g 1G Mf It led enbel aes Yoon. vcanne ato. nv caso Ca er eer (eee eene ee mee See | see P ' o| [- Soe CP, « - vl. es | age CP ag " _ i f Hh. . [cE SER og eee [WA LRE ow oe [Sete — Assuwe ri = a Fig. 1.19. Formulas for determination of permeability from seepage tests. (After Hvorslev, 1949.)34 Foundetion Engineering Handbook 1.10.4 Pressure Tests for Estimation of Field Permeability Tests in which water under pressure is forced into rock in situ through the walls of boreholes provide a means of determining the apparent permeability of the rocks and yield information regarding its soundness. The information thus ‘obiuined is used primarily in seepage studies. Its also frequently used as a qualitative measure of the grouting required for impermeabilzation or strengthening of the rock. Pressure tests should be performed only in holes that have been drilled with clear water. The reasons for this are detailed in the general ‘paragraph on seepage tests. ‘The apparatus used for pressure tests in rock is illustrated schematically in Figure 1.20a. It comprises a water pump, @ manually-adjusted automatic pressure relief valve, pressure Air Ar Pressure “ry { Goge (a) ‘gauges, a water meter, and a packer assembly. The packer assembly, shown in Figure 1.20b, consists ofa system of piping to which two expandable cylindrical rubber sleeves, called packers, ae attached. The packers, which provide a means of sealing off limited section of borehole for testing, should have a length five times the diameter of the hole. They may be of the pneumatically or mechanically expandable type. The former are preferred since they adapt to an oversized hole whereas the latter may not. However, when pneumatic packers are used, the test apparatus must also include an air or water supply ‘connected, through a pressure gauge, to the packers by means of a high-pressure hose as shown in Figure 1.20a, The pi of the packer assembly is designed to permit testing of either the portion of the hole between the packers or the portion below the lower packer. Flow to the section below the lower packer is through the interior pipe; flow to the section between ToCompressed ‘ir Supply Jowate ‘Supply Air Hose( Wrapped ‘round of Tapeo to Outer Woter ‘Supply Pipe) Upper Packer Length 1] &5xDia of Boring 4 Expondable Rubber Sleeve ir Hose for Expanding Lower Packer Perforations ~ Alternate Rows Stoggered Pertorated Pipe for Testing between Packers Unperforated Pipe for Testing below Packer Assembly Lower Packer Length 5x Dio of Boring—~ expandable Rubber Sleeve () Fig. 1.20 Packer-type pressure-test apparatus for determining the permeability of rock (a) schematic diagram: (b) detail of packer unitthe packers is provided by perforations in the outer pipe, which hhave an outlet area two or more times the cross-sectional area of the pipe. The packers are normally set 2,5, oF 10 feet apart and it is common to provide flexibility in testing by having. ‘assemblies with different packer spacings available, thereby permitting the testing of different lengths ofthe hole. The wider Spacings are used for rock that is more uniform; the short spacing is used to test individual joints that may be the cause ‘of high water loss in otherwise tight strata, ‘The test procedure used depends upon the condition of the rock. In rock that is not subject to cave-in, the following method, is in general use. After the borehole has been completed it is, filled with clear water, surged, and washed out. The test apparatus is then inserted into the hole until the top packer is a the top of the rock. Both packers are then expanded and ‘water under pressure is introduced into the hole, first between the packers and then below the lower packer. Observations of the elapsed time and the volume of water pumped at different pressures are recorded as detailed in the section on pumping. below. Upon completion of the test, the apparatus is lowered a distance equal to the space between the packers and the test, is repeated. This procedure is continued until the entire length, of the hole has been tested or until there is no measurable loss, ‘of water in the hole below the lower packer. If the rock in which the hole is being drilled is subject to cave-in, the pressure test is conducted after each advance of the hole for a length, ‘equal to the maximum permissible unsupported length of hole ‘oF the distance between the packers, whichever is les. In this case, the test is limited, of course, to the zone between the packers, Regardless of which procedure is used, a minimum of three pressures should be used for each section tested. The magnitude ‘of these pressures are commonly 15, 30, and 45 psi above the ‘natural piezometric level. However, in no case should the excess pressure above the natural piezometric level be greater than 1 psi per foot of soil and rock overburden above the upper packer. This limitation is imposed to insure against possible heaving and damage to the foundation. In general, cach of the above pressures should be maintained for 10 minutes or until, ‘uniform rate of flow is attained, whichever is longer. If a uniform rate of low is not reached in a reasonable time, the engineer must use his diseretion in terminating the test. The ‘quantity of flow for each pressure should be recorded at 1, 2, ‘and 5 minutes and for each S-minute interval thereafter. Upon ‘completion ofthe tests at 15, 30, and 45 psi the pressure should, be reduced to 30 and 15 psi, respectively, and the rate of low ‘and elapsed time should once more be recorded in a similar Observation ofthe water take with increasing and decreasing pressure permits evaluation of the nature of the openings in the rock. For example, linear variation of flow with pressure indicates an opening that neither increases or decreases in size. the curve of flow versus pressure is concave upward it indicates ‘that the openings are enlarging; if convex, the openings are ‘becoming plugged. The reader is directed to Cambefort (1964), for a detailed discussion of the interpretation of pressure tests Additional data required for each test are as follows: (1) depth ‘of hole at time of each test; (2) depth to bottom of top packer; {3) depth to top of bottom packer; (4) depth to water level in borehole at frequent intervals; (5) elevation of piezometrc level; (o)length of test section; (7) radius of hole; (8) length of packer; (9) height of pressure gauge above ground surface; (10) height, fof water swivel above ground surface; and (11) description of ‘material teste. Item (4) is importance since arise in water level in the borehole may indicate leakage around the top packer. Leakage around the bottom packer would be indicated by water rising in the inner pipe. "The formulas used to compute the permeability from pressure ‘Subsurface Explorations and Sampling 36 test data are (from U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1968): km 2 int Lot aL k sik £ top> Lar ae where k= permeability ‘These formulas provide only approximate values of k since they are based on several simplifying assumptions and do not take into account the flow of water from the test section back to the borehole. However, they give values of the correct ‘magnitude and are suitable for practical purposes. A graphical solution of the more commonly used upper equation is given in Figure 1.21 1.10.5 Pumping Tests for Estimation of Field Permeability ‘Continuous pumping tess are used to determine the water yield of individual wells and the permeability of subsurface materials, in situ, The data provided by such tests are used to determine the potential for leakage through the foundations of water- retaining structures and the requirements for construction of, dewatering systems during excavation. The test consists of pumping water from a well or borehole and observing the effect ‘on the water table by observations of the water levels in the hhole being pumped and in adjacent observation wells. The observation wells should be of the piezometer type. The depth of the test well will depend on the location, in profile, of the strata to be tested, The number, location, and depth of the ‘observation wells will depend on the estimated shape of the ‘groundwater surface after drawdown. The reader is referred 10 Leonards (1962, chapter 3), for formulas that will permit an estimate of the drawdown curve under various boundary ‘conditions. The number of wells used and their location should be selected so at to provide a clear picture of the drawdown ‘curve in various directions from the test well. As a minimum, ‘observation wells should be located on two perpendicular lines passing through the center of the test well. Along cach of the four radial lines thus created there should be a minimum of four wells, the innermost of which should be within 25 feet of the test well. The outermost should be located near the limits ofthe effect of drawdown and the middle wells should be located to give the best definition of the drawdown curve based on its estimated shape. ‘The pump used for the test should have a capacity 1. to 2 times the maximum anticipated flow and should have a Gischarge line suficiently long to obviate the possibility of the discharge water recharging the strata being tested. Auxiliary equipment required includes an air line to measure the water level in the test well, a low meter, and measuring devices 10 determine the depth to water in the observation wells. The air line, complete with pressure gauge, hand pump, and check valve, should be securely fastened to the pumping unit with is lower end at the deepest planned pumping level but in no case closer than 2 feet to the end of the suction line. The flow meter should bbe of the visual type, such as an orifice. The depth-measuring devices for the observation wells may be any of the types described in Section 1.102.38 Foundation Engineering Handbook ‘a 6961 WBuhdoo “uosuar0s “3 °Y pUE SEC 'A 'D "P2 PE ‘SOIREIPAY pa|dey jo YOCGPUOH] W014) FEL eEAI-IeyDed UiOH ANjqeoUuOd ByRuZE (Auedwon yoog IWH- eID 2Y4 0 WORSE Yam Pas AIN OA MeN AuedlWOD YOOS MH-mEDIW Jo} vonnyos (ese 424 “Bia 0; MILE 2 vononbs oy 4 uoynyos oorydeib anb sys049 ar0g0 94, sueees asic 0 bso? @) prin socuts(3) 02 On 20) 069 080 a0 080 060 by eves HANI 1 09 OF Ob OF oe ODO ne PAIGE TERRS woyaas 4884- o Yomsad 37 | LLL a 2 : | (eto anscud 9 to Na preonsl ERE, tg NPN | og a | send: oe “LI oe £: Fe Fd. 606 aurssady mMyfe 10 9 £0601 2 @ ve we’ 512120) woysasi09 woo seryon wand By wos, soso 09 sy BeOS 180; 02"7 2u0 'suou +14 hysenp hiygeaused seb {iso 340N voy Ayrgoowas (oP) 6 nos suey e 26 now 9 L050 ——sr— 1010 79, 29, ——er— 0/3 09 ir 1 220 Hor € £0 +90 \ VUNG los ¢ 60 AAMC +++ Hos 9 90 lac 2 a0 108 @ 80 At 1 los 6 60 wiie9‘The test procedure is as follows. Upon completion of the well or borehole, the hole is cleaned and flushed, the depth of the well is accurately measured, the pump is installed, and the well is developed. The well is then tested at 4, 4, and full capacity. Full capacity is defined as the maximum discharge attainable with the water levels in the test and observation wells stabilized. Bach of the discharge rates is maintained for 4 hours after further drawdown in the test and observation wells bas ceased or for a maximum of 48 hours, whichever occurs first ‘The discharge must be maintained constant during each of the three stages of the test and interruptions of pumping are not, permitted. If pumping should accidentally be interrupted, the water level should be permitted to return to its full nonpumping, level before pumping is resumed. Upon completion of the drawdown test, the pump is shut off and the rate of recovery is observed “The basic test-well data that must be recorded are: (1) location, top elevation, and depth of well; (2) size and length, ‘ofall blank casing inthe well; (3) diameter, length, and location, ofall screen casing used; also type and size of screen opening, and material of which screen is made; (4) type of filter pack used, if any; (5) water elevation in well prior to testing; and (6) location of bottom of airline. Basic data required for each observation well are: (1) location, top elevation, and depth of well; (2)size and elevation of bottom of casing (after instalation ‘of piezometer): (3) location of all blank casing. sections: (4) manufacturer, type, and size of piezometer; (5) depth and elevation of piezometer; and (6) water level in well prior to testing. Pump data required are the manufacturer's model designation, pump type, maximum capacity, and capacity at 1800 rpm. ‘The drawdown test data required for each discharge rate consist of the discharge and drawdown of the test well and the drawdown of each observation well at the time intervals shown below for the various ranges of elapsed time. Time Interval Elapsed Time for Readings 0-10min OS min 10-60 min 20min 16h 150min 69h 300 min 9-24 th 24-48 3h S48h oh ‘The required recovery curve data consist of readings of depth to water in the test and observation wells at the same time intervals given above, Readings are continued until the water level returns to the prepumping level or until adequate data has been obtained, 1.41 TEST GROUTING 1.11.1. General Description This type of field investigation is used (1) to assess the groutabjlity of a given foundation material; (2) to obtain a Quantitative measure of the amount of work required to grout a given material: or (3) to prove that the use of a grouting procedure other than that specified will produce an end product equivalent to or better than that obtained by the use of the specified procedure, The latter frequently occurs in connection withthe desire 1 use percussion-drilled holes in lieu of specified rotary-drilled holes. Test grouting consists of injecting grout into a limited area utilizing either the same procedure as will bbe used in the final construction in the case of (1) and (2) or ‘Subsurface Explorations and Sampling 37 «somewhat modified procedure in the case of (3). The records kept are similar to those in a full-scale grouting program and include information pertaining to the driling and washing of the grout holes and the pressures, grout mixes, and amount of grout used in injecting individual sections of each hole. The teader is referred to U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1963) for details of these records. The results of these investigations are generally evaluated on the basis of the amount of grout consumed, the extent of grout penetration from a given hole as revealed by core borings and split spacing procedure, the impermeabilizing eect of the grouting as revealed by pressure tests, or a combination of all three. The cost of this type of investigation is high and it is not used im design stages unless particular grouting problems are suspected. Normally comparison of use of percussion versus rotary grout hole drilling would be done at the beginning of the construction stage. 1.12 REPRESENTATIVE BUT DISTURBED ‘SAMPLES. 1.12.1 General Description Samplers may be divided into two broad categories based on the degree of disturbance suffered by the samples that are retrieved. In general, samples are categorized as disturbed and undisturbed. There is no truly undisturbed sample since the Penetration ofthe sampling tube, no matter how thin the tube ‘oF refined the sampling technique, results in some disturbance to the in situ material ‘A disturbed sample may be defined as one that contains all of the constituents of the in situ material in proper proportions but that has suffered sufficient disturbance to ils structure so that the results of laboratory tests to determine engineering properties such as compressibility, shear strength, land permeability would not be properly representative of the ‘material in situ. Disturbed samples generally are used for identification tests such as visual classification, water content, Grain size analyses and Atterberg limit tests, and for specific gravity and compaction tess, Disturbed samples are also used ‘or the preparation of compacted specimens for permeability, shear, and compressibility tests on materials proposed for use jn earth structures. Included in this category are samples obtained by driving a sampler into the ground, by auger boring, or by normal test pit excavation, ‘An undisturbed sample is one obtained with samplers and sampling techniques designed to preserve as closely as possible the natural structure of the material. These samples are suitable for shear, consolidation, and permeability tests of foundation materials. They may be used, also, for all tests for which disturbed samples are used. Undisturbed samples include those ‘obtained by thin-wall tube samplers with and without stationary Pistons, Denison-type double-tube core barrel samplers, and careful excavation of soil from test pits The characteristics of some of the more popular samplers and sampling techniques in use today are presented in the paragraphs that follow. 142.2. Split-Barrel Sampler ‘This sampler, also referred to as the split-tube or split-spoon ‘sampler, isthe most commonly used soil-sampling device. It is { modification of the solid-tube drive sampler, which was one of the first samplers developed. It differs from the solid-tube ‘sampler in that it has a sample retainer located immediately38 Foundetion Engineering Handbook above the barrel shoe and that the barrel in which the sample is retained is split longitudinally, thereby facilitating removal of the sample. As illustrated in Figure 1.22, the split-barrel sampler consists of a barrel shoe, a spit barrel or tube, a solid sleeve, and a sampler head. In some models the solid sleeve is ‘omitted and the head is so designed that it threads directly ‘onto the barrel. Other modified versions of the sampler provide forthe inclusion of a single long liner or a series of I-inch high sectional liners that extend for the full length of the sampler. Still another version, referred to as the Lynac sampler, has heavier walls than the regular split-barrel sampler and is better adapted to hard driving conditions, As indicated by Figure 1.22, when the shoe and the sleeve (of this type of sampler are unscrewed from the split barrel, the two halves of the barrel may be separated and the sample may be extracted easily. A ball valve incorporated in the samplet Inca facilitates the recovery of cohesionless materials. This valve seats when the sampler is being withdrawn from the borehole, thereby preventing water pressure on the top of the sample from pushing it out. If the sample tends to slide out because ofits weight, vacuum tends to develop at the top of the sample to retain it. Provisions for retention ofthe sample also are made at the bottom of the sampler, where a retaining device may be used if necessary. The device shown in Figure 1.22 is @ fap. type retainer. This retainer permits the soil to enter during. [= [Terzooni (1973) 140] 30]2.000] 1.375] 4.185x10-% side Dic. Sampler hearing Strength, 22 = ———J 0 ot He L 5 I 5 10 50 100 500 1000 Driving Resistance, 8, Blows/ft Fig. 1.24 Sampler driving resistance vs. consistoncy—cohesve sols.40 Foundation Engineering Handbook eseibes the use of blow counts ftem split-barrel sampling to ae Reeccton poral of sa: Praca Subsurface explorations are initiated with this type of samy And frequenty design canbe made onthe basis othe splitbarrl sample data. Ths is particularly the case where a minor type structure is involved and where foundation conditions are good. In other instances the spli-barrel borings are supplemented with sampling by one or more ofthe undisturbed type samplers. ‘The primary advantages of split-barrel sampling ate that itis simple, quick, and evonomical 1.12.3 One-Inch Retractable Plug Sampler This sampler was developed by O. J. Porter about 1930. As shown by Figure 1.25a, the sampler consists of a retractable piston rod and plug inside a easing and master tube; a cutting shoe; and a driving mechanism, The master tube, which forms the lower portion ofthe sampler, i usually made to accommodate from four to seven 6-inch-long brass liners into which the soil [penetrates as the sampler is driven into the ground. The steps, in the operation of the sampler are shown in Figure 1.25, Initially, the sampler, with the piston rod and plug locked to special coupling between the master tube and the casing (Fig. 1.25a), is driven into the ground by lifting the 30-1b drive weight by hand and letting it fall upon the drive head. When Driveesd 1 eeaat_A [ coving: the sampler reaches the depth at which sampling i desired, the piston rod is rotated to unlock it from the coupling. raised, and rotated once more to lock it to the coupling in aa elevated Position (Fig. .25b). The unit is then driven a distance equal to the length ofthe Brass liners to obtain a sample (Fig. 1.25). {At the end of the sampling operation (Fig. 125d) the plug is rotated further to develop a tight seal atthe top of the sample. ‘Then the entire unit i jacked out ofthe ground or “bumped” cut by liting the drive hammer to strike a pull cap attached to the top of the guide. The next sample is taken by driving the unit down the same hole to the next depth of sampling and repeating the operation. Thesamples obtained by this procedure are disturbed but are representative. The fact that they are retrieved in brass liner that ean be capped, sealed, and shipped to the laboratory makes them convenient for determination of ‘water content. sampler is used for both reconnaissance investigations and. for mapping strata between borings in which ‘more sophisticated. sampling is done. It is used. primarily for determining the thickness of surficial deposits of soil silts and clays as occur in swamps and estuaries but it is also useful in the finer-grained cohesionless materials. The unit can be ‘operated to depths of 60 fet of more depending on the nature ofthe deposits penetrated and the location ofthe groundwater table. One ofits main advantages is that it can be hand-carred into areas dificult for access by conventional equipment. It is Fig. 1.25 Schematic drawing of 1-inch retractable plug sampler, illustrating principal parts of sampler and sequence of operations in sampling: (a) sampler driven to sampling depth with retractable plug locked in diving position; (b) sampler at sampling depth with plug locked in retracted positon; (c) sampling drive in progress; (d) drive completed; (e) sampler and sample being withdrawn from hole.economical and provides an inexpensive form of obtaining information between larger-diameter borings. 1.12.4 Hand Augers Manually operated augers may be classified into three general ‘groups as follows: (1) those commonly referred to as “post-hole diggers"; (2) small-diameter helical or screw-type augers; and (3) spiral augers. One of the better known of the first group is the Iwan auger illustrated in Figure |.26d. Similar augers, which ‘are not illustrated, include the Vicksburg hinged auger and the spoon auger. The Vicksburg auger, which also may be used as ‘8 power auger, is hinged so that one side of the auger may be ‘dropped for ease of removal of the material sampled. ‘The postchole type augers are available in diameters ranging from 3109 inches, Augers ofthis type, in general, retain the sampled ‘material better than the other hand-operated augers. In general, they are useful for sampling all types of soils except cohesionless ‘materials below the water table and hard or cemented soils. ‘The lack of rigidity of the Vicksburg sampler also makes it unsuited for sampling of soils containing gravel. ‘The second group of augers includes those consisting of a helical fight on a solid stem and the ship- and worm-type ‘augers, which resmeble wood augers. The ship auger, shown in Figure 1.260, and the worm augers are best suited to use in ‘cohesive materials. The helical auger may be used in either ‘cohesive or cohesionless materials above the water table. These augers are available for hand operation in diameters from approximately 2 to 3.5 inches, Spiral augers were developed for use in those cases where helical and screw augers do not work well. The closed spiral auger (Fig. 1.26b) is used in dry clay and gravelly soils. The Jamaica open spiral auger is most useful in loosely consolidated. Seposits. These augers are available in the same size range as the preceding group. For additional information concerning augers, the reader is directed to Section 1.8.6 where the uses, the limitations, the ae oY Vy i w Fig. 1.28 Hand augers: (a) ship auger: (b) closed spiral auger: (c) open spi ‘Subsurface Explorations and Sampling 41 ‘sampling techniques, and the advantages and disadvantages of auger borings are discussed, 112.8 Power Augers Motor-driven augers maybe classified as ight augers or bucket augers. The former are available in sizes ranging ftom 2 to 48'inches in diameter; the latter range feom 1210.96 inches in diameter. The flight augers are available in several types depending on thir intended use. Figute 1.27a shows a single- flight auger designed for us in clays and other unconsolidated deposits Its equipped with a pilot bit that makes the initial penetration prior (0 the ripping ofthe material by the cutter teeth. Figures 1.27b and e show double-fight augers designed for use in both earth and rock. The former is capable of penetrating most soils including those containing large gravel and boulders and may also be used in soft rock. The later is éapable of penetrating hard rock as well a sail In operation all ofthe above augers are attached to a drilling rod referred to as the “Kelly” tod, which i rotated and pressed downward to achieve penetration. The sampling procedure consists of advancing the Kelly withthe auger fr the height ofthe ight ‘or until the light has become filled with soi The Kell is then raised until the auger is clear ofthe hole andthe soil is thrown free from the cutter head owing to rotation ofthe Kelly. The hole is advanced by repeating this process until the required depth is reached. Obviously, the shorter the fight the more time is used in raising and lowering the auger to remove the soil. Therefore, itis common to attach an additional height of Spiral to a cutie head s0 as to form a high spial auger such 48 the one shown in Figure 1.274. ‘The maximum depth of penetration that can be achieved conveniently with the above augers is limited By the length of the Kelly rod that can be accommodated by the drilling rig used. In general, the depth is limited to 10 to 20 feet. The use of contimious of conveyor fight augers, such as the one shown in Figure 28a, overcomes this disadvantage and permits holes = ee le a 1uger: (4) lwan auger. (Courtesy of Acker Dil Co. Ine)42. Foundation Engineering Handbook Cc) » @ @ Fig. 1.27. Power augers: (a) single-ight earth augor; (b) double: fight earth-rock auger (c) double-fight rock auger: (d) high spr ‘suger. (Courtesy of Mobile Dring, In. and Acker DillCo. Inc) to depths of 100 feet or more. In this type of auger, the soil rises to the top of the hole on the spiral fight and is sampled as it emerges. As the hole is advanced additional sections of spiral fight ure added, Both finger-type cutter heads (Fig. 1.284) and fishtail bits are used in conjunction with continuous flight augers. Although this type of auger has the advantage of greater maximum depth of hole compared to augers with shorter lights, it has the disadvantage of a greater possibilty of the mixing of soil from a given level with soils from strata above, Thi disndvantage has been overcome by the hollow-stem auger ‘hich isshown in Figure |28b and is described in Section 1.12.6 In addition to flight augers, which have been described above, bucket augers similar to the one shown in Figure 1.28b are frequently used for explorations. These buckets are basically ‘an open-top metal cylinder having one or more slots cut in their bases to permit the entrance of soil and rock as the bucket is rotated. At the slots the metal of the base is reinforced and teeth or a sharpened cutting edge are provided to break up the ‘material being sampled. The buckets can be designed to sample ‘any material except solid rock. They are available in nominal ‘diameters ranging from 10 to 96 inches. The larger buckets are used for excavating shafts for large caisson piles. Holes about 30iinches in diameter are sufficiently large to permit the entrance of a man for in situ inspection and sampling. of foundation material. When such holes are used, care must be exercised to ‘see that they are well ventilated and that there are no poisonous, ‘gases present when personnel enter for inspection or sampling, In operation the bucket auger is attached to a Kelly rod driven by a rotary table similar to the one shown on the rig. in Figure 1.14. The bucket is rotated and hydraulic pressure is exerted downward to cause penetration of the bucket until it has been filled. Then rotation is stopped, the Kelly is raised, the bucket is tipped to the side of the hole, and a tripping ‘mechanism is activated to open the base of the bucket and drop the retrieved soil. The process is repeated until the desired depth is reached. ‘The major advantages ofthe bucket auger are that it permits rapid excavation of deep holes of small to large diameter. ‘A disadvantage is that it cannot be used in cohesionless ‘materials below the water table, 1.12.6 Hollow-Stem Auger ‘The hollow-stem auger consists of (1) section of seals tel tube with a-spical fight to which are attached a finger-ype cutter head at the lower end and an adapter cap at the top: and (2).a center dil stem composed of drill rods to which are attached a center plug with a drag bt at the lower end and an Adapter at the top. The adapters atthe top of the drill stem and auger fight are designed to permit advancement of the Auger with the plugin place. As the holes advanced, additional lengths of hollow-stem flights and center stem are added as ured, The center stem and plug may be removed at any time during the drilling to permit disturbed, undisturbed, and core sampling helow the bottom of the cutter head by utilizing the hollow-stem flights as casing. This also permits the use of augering in loose deposits below the groundwater table. It has been stated by some that undisturbed samples taken in this ‘manner are beter than those taken from a cased hole since the disturbance caused by advancing the auger is much less than that eaused by driving the casing. Augers of this type are available with hollow stems having inside diameters from 22 {o 6 inches. Hollow-stem augers are also particularly useful for drilling vertical holes in existing earthfil dams since they do not require the use of drilling Hui. In many instances if boring methods requiring water or driling mud were used, hydraulic fracturing of the material surrounding the borehole would oeeur, 1.12.7 Bulk Sampling in Test Pits ‘This method of sampling consists merely of hand or machine ion of sols from the wall or base of a tes pit without regard for the disturbance of the soil structure, It may be accomplished by hand shovel, dragline, clamshell bucket, backhoe, or other devices. The method is used primarily when a large volume of soil is requited for laboratory testing. A typical example is the case of borrow materials 10 be used in the construction of a dam or the base course of a highway. If the material is relatively homogeneous, these samples may be taken equally well by hand or by machine. However, in stratified materials, hand excavation may be required. In the sampling ‘of such materials it is necessary to consider the manner in whic the material will be excavated for construction. If itis likely that the material will be removed layer by layer through the tse of scrapers, samples of each individual material will be required and hand excavation from the base or wall of the pit may be a necessity to prevent unwanted mixing of the soils. 1, ‘on the other hand, the material is to be excavated from a vertical face, then the sampling must be done ina manner that wil produce a mixture having the same relative amounts of each layer as will be obtained during the borrow area excavation. ‘This can usually be accomplished by hand-excavating a shallow