Vehicle Dynamics

Outline
1. Resistance
a. Aerodynamic
b. Rolling
c. Grade

2.
3.
4.
5.

Tractive Effort
Acceleration
Braking Force
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

Main Concepts

Resistance
Tractive effort
Vehicle acceleration
Braking
Stopping distance

F ma Ra Rrl Rg

Resistance
Resistance is defined as the force impeding vehicle
motion
1.
2.
3.
4.

What is this force?

Aerodynamic resistance
Rolling resistance
Grade resistance

F ma Ra Rrl Rg

Aerodynamic Resistance
Ra
Composed of:

1. Turbulent air flow around vehicle body (85%)

2. Friction of air over vehicle body (12%)
3. Vehicle component resistance, from radiators and
air vents (3%)

Ra C D A f V 2
2

3
PRa C D A f V
2
from National Research Council Canada

1 hp 550

ft lb
sec

Rolling Resistance Rrl

Composed primarily of
1. Resistance from tire deformation (90%)
2. Tire penetration and surface compression ( 4%)
3. Tire slippage and air circulation around wheel (
6%)
4. Wide range of factors affect total rolling resistance
5. Simplifying approximation:
rl
rl

R f W

PR rl f rlWV
1 hp 550

ft lb
sec

f rl 0.01 1

147

Grade Resistance Rg
Composed of
Gravitational force acting on the vehicle

Rg W sin g
For small angles,

sin g tan g

Rg W tan g
tan g G

Rg WG

g
Rg
g

Available Tractive Effort

The minimum of:
1. Force generated by the engine, Fe
2. Maximum value that is a function of the vehicles
weight distribution and road-tire interaction, Fmax

Available tractive effort min Fe , Fmax

Tractive Effort
Relationships

Engine-Generated Tractive
Effort
Fe = Engine generated tractive effort
reaching wheels (lb)

Force

M e 0 d
Fe
r

Me = Engine torque (ft-lb)

0 = Gear reduction ratio
d = Driveline efficiency
r = Wheel radius (ft)

Power

ft lb torque ft lb engine rpm

hp 550

2

sec
550
sec

60

min

Vehicle Speed vs. Engine

Speed
2rne 1 i
V
0
V = velocity (ft/s)
r = wheel radius (ft)
ne = crankshaft rps
i = driveline slippage
0 = gear reduction ratio

Typical Torque-Power
Curves

Maximum Tractive Effort

Front Wheel Drive Vehicle

Fmax
Rear Wheel Drive Vehicle

What about 4WD?

Fmax

lr f rl h
W
L
h
1
L

l
W

f rl h
L
h
1
L
f

Diagram
R

ma

rlf

bf

lf

W
g
R

rlr

lr

br

Vehicle Acceleration
Governing Equation

Mass Factor

F R m ma

(accounts for inertia of vehicles rotating parts)

m 1.04 0.0025 02

Example
A 1989 Ford 5.0L Mustang Convertible starts on a flat grade from a dead
stop as fast as possible. Whats the maximum acceleration it can
achieve before spinning its wheels? = 0.40 (wet, bad pavement)
1989 Ford 5.0L Mustang Convertible
Torque 300 @ 3200 rpm
Curb Weight 3640
Weight Distribution Front 57%

Rear 43%

Wheelbase 100.5 in
Tire Size P225/60R15
Gear Reduction Ratio 3.8
Driveline efficiency 90%
Center of Gravity 20 inches high

Braking Force
Front axle

Fbf

max

Rear axle

Fbr max

W lr h f rl

L
W l f h f rl

Braking Force
Ratio

l r h f rl
front
BFR

l f h f rl rear

Efficiency

g max
b

Braking Distance
Theoretical
ignoring air resistance

Practical

Perception
Total

b V12 V22
S
2 g b f rl sin g

V12 V22
d
a

2 g G
g

d p V1t p

ds d d p

For grade = 0

V12 V22
d
2a

Stopping Sight Distance

(SSD)
Worst-case conditions

Poor driver skills

Low braking efficiency
Wet pavement

Perception-reaction time = 2.5 seconds

Equation

SSD
2 g

V12
V1t r

a
G
g

Stopping Sight Distance

(SSD)

from ASSHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 2001

Note: this table assumes level grade (G = 0)

SSD Quick and Dirty

1. Acceleration due to gravity, g = 32.2 ft/sec2
2. There are 1.47 ft/sec per mph
3. Assume G = 0 (flat grade)

V12 V22
1.47 V12 0
1.47 2
1
V2
V2
2
d

V 1.075
1.075
2 g a g G 2 32.211.2 32.2 0
2
11.2
11.2
a
d p 1.47 V1 t p 1.47Vt p

V2
d s 1.075
1.47Vt p
a

V = V1 in mph
a = deceleration, 11.2 ft/s2 in US customary units
tp = Conservative perception / reaction time = 2.5 seconds

Primary References
Mannering, F.L.; Kilareski, W.P. and Washburn, S.S. (2005).
Principles of Highway Engineering and Traffic Analysis,
Third Edition). Chapter 2
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officals (AASHTO). (2001). A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets, Fourth Edition. Washington,
D.C.