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Evaluation
Dr. Paul W.J. Glover
MSc Petroleum
Geology
Department of Geology
and Petroleum Geology
University of Aberdeen
UK
Contents
Copyright
Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
Reservoir Fluids
3.
Reservoir Drives
19
4.
33
5.
Porosity
43
6.
54
7.
Wettability
76
8.
Capillary Pressure
84
9.
Electrical Properties
95
104
131
Abbreviations
References
Page i
Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1
Introduction
This course aims to provide an understanding of the behaviour of fluids in reservoirs, and the
use of core analysis in the evaluation of reservoir potential. It is intended to give the end user
of special core analysis data an insight into the experimental techniques used to generate such
data and an indication of its validity when applied to reservoir assessment. It has been written
from the standpoint of a major oil industry operational support group, and is based upon the
substantial experience of working in such an environment.
1.2
Special core analysis (SCAL) is one of the main sources of data available to guide the
reservoir engineer in assessing the economic potential of a hydrocarbon accumulation. The
data sources can be divided into field and laboratory measurements as shown in Figure 1.1.
Laboratory data are used to support
field measurements which can be
subject to certain limitations, e.g.:
(i)
(ii)
Page 1
Introduction
This report is intended as a guide to the reliability and usefulness of the various RCAL and
SCAL techniques generally available, and the ways which these techniques have, and will
continue to be, refined in the light of current research. Maximum benefit will only be
obtained from core analysis by full consultation between the reservoir engineer and the
laboratory core analyst; taking all available data into account.
1.3
Hydrocarbon reservoirs may contain any or all of three fluid phases. These are;
The distribution of these in a reservoir depends upon the reservoir conditions, the fluid
properties, and the rock properties. The fluid properties are of fundamental importance, and
will be studied in the first part of this course.
The natural energy of a reservoir can be used to facilitate the production of hydrocarbon and
non-hydrocarbon fluids from reservoirs. These sources of energy are called natural drive
mechanisms. However, there may still be producible oil in a reservoir when natural drive
mechanisms are exhausted. There exist artificial drive mechanisms that can then be used to
produce some of the remaining oil. The type of drive currently operating in a reservoir has a
strong control on the evaluation and management of the reservoir. Consequently, drive
mechanisms will also be reviewed as part of the course.
1.4
Routine core analysis attempts to give only the very basic properties of unpreserved core.
These are basic rock dimensions, core porosity, grain density, gas permeability, and water
saturation. Taken in context routine data can provide a useful guide to well and reservoir
performance, provided its limitations are appreciated. These limitations arise because routine
porosity and permeability measurements are always made with gases on cleaned, dried core at
room conditions. Such conditions are distinctly different from the actual reservoir situation.
Thus routine data should be applied to the reservoir state with caution. This is especially true
for permeability measurements. Routine core analysis data is cheap, and often form the great
majority of the dataset representing reservoir core data. A schematic diagram of common
RCAL measurements is given as Figure 1.2.
Routine porosity data are generally reliable, being little affected by interactions between
minerals and reservoir fluids. Correction for overburden loading is usually all that is required.
Routine permeability results can misrepresent the reservoir situation as reservoir fluids often
interact with the minerals forming the pore walls. This is frequently the case because these
interactions cannot be allowed for in routine measurements. Correction can be only made for
the compressibility of gases used. Thus the Klinkenberg correction converts gas permeability
to equivalent liquid permeability (KL) but still assumes no fluid-rock interaction. An actual
liquid, brine or oil, usually gives a lower permeability than KL. If interface sensitive clays are
Page 2
Introduction
present in the reservoir, drying can destroy them and KL may be one or two orders of
magnitude greater than an actual brine permeability measured on preserved, undried, core.
An example of this effect is seen in the Magnus field and was demonstrated by Heaviside,
Langley and Pallatt [1]. Permeability is affected by overburden loading to a greater extent than
porosity. This must be allowed for when applying routine data to the reservoir situation.
Each of the RCAL measurements made is discussed in detail, covering; the theory, test
methods, and limitations of alternative methods. The topics covered will include:
Chapter 4.
Chapter 5.
Chapter 6.
1.5
Special Core Analysis attempts to extend the data provided by routine measurements to
situations more representative of reservoir conditions. SCAL data is used to support log and
well test data in gaining an understanding of individual well and overall reservoir
performance. However, SCAL measurements are more expensive, and are commonly only
done on a small selected group of samples, or if a difficult strategic reservoir management
decision has to be made (e.g. to gasflood, or not to gasflood).
Tests are carried out to measure fluid distribution, electrical properties and fluid flow
characteristics in the two and occasionally three phase situation, and are made on preserved
core. A schematic diagram of common SCAL measurements is given as Figure 1.3.
Page 3
Introduction
Porosity and single phase gas or liquid permeabilities are measured at overburden loadings so
that the room condition data can be corrected.
Wettability and capillary pressure data are generated by controlled displacement of a wetting
phase by a non wetting phase e.g., brine by air, brine by oil or air by mercury. These systems
usually have known interfacial tension (IFT) and wetting (contact) angle properties.
Conversion to the required reservoir values of IFT and contact angle can then be attempted to
give data for predicting saturation at a given height within a reservoir. Electrical properties are
measured at formation brine saturations of unity and less than unity, to obtain the cementation
exponent, resistivity index, and excess conductivity of samples. These are used to provide
data for interpretation of down-hole logs.
Relative permeability attempts to provide data on the relative flow rates of phases present (e.g.
oil and water or gas and water). Fluid flow is strongly influenced by fluid viscosities, and
wetting characteristics. Care has to be taken that measurements are made under appropriate
conditions, which allow some understanding of the wetting characteristics. The data
generated allows relative flow rates and recovery efficiency to be assessed.
Each of the SCAL measurements made is discussed in detail in the relevant chapter, covering
the theory, test methods, and limitations of alternative methods. The topics covered will
include:
Page 4
Chapter 4.
Chapter 5.
Chapter 6.
Chapter 7.
Chapter 8.
Chapter 9.
Chapter 10.
Chapter 11.
1.6
Introduction
Page 5
Chapter 2:
Reservoir Fluids
Reservoir Fluids
2.1 Introduction
Reservoir fluids fall into three broad categories; (i) aqueous solutions with dissolved salts, (ii)
liquid hydrocarbons, and (iii) gases (hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon). In all cases their
compositions depend upon their source, history, and present thermodynamic conditions. Their
distribution within a given reservoir depends upon the thermodynamic conditions of the
reservoir as well as the petrophysical properties of the rocks and the physical and chemical
properties of the fluids themselves. This chapter briefly examines these reservoir fluid
properties.
Gravity (e.g. causing separation of gas, oil and water in the reservoir column)
Capillary (e.g. responsible for the retention of water in micro-porosity)
Molecular diffusion (e.g. small scale flow acting to homogenise fluid compositions within
a given phase)
Thermal convection (convective movement of all mobile fluids, especially gases)
Fluid pressure gradients (the major force operating during primary production)
Page 6
Reservoir Fluids
Although each of these forces and factors vary from reservoir to reservoir, and between
lithologies within a reservoir, certain forces are of seminal importance. For example, it is
gravity that ensures, that when all three basic fluids types are present in an
uncompartmentalised reservoir, the order of fluids with increasing depth is
GAS:OIL:WATER, in exact analogy to a bottle of french dressing that has been left to settle.
Concentration, g dm-3
Pure water
NaCl
CaCl2.6H2O
MgCl2.6H2O
KCl
NaHCO3
SrCl2.6H2O
BaCl2.6H2O
Solvent
34.70
4.90
2.70
0.40
0.40
0.12
0.06
Final pH = 7
Why a connate water phase is invariably present in hydrocarbon bearing reservoir rock is
easily explained. The reservoir rocks were initially fully or partially saturated with aqueous
fluids before the migration of the oil from source rocks below them. The oil migrates
upwards from the source rocks, driven by the differential buoyancy of the oil and the water. In
this process most of the water swaps places with the oil since no fluids can escape from the
cap rock above the reservoir. However, the water is not completely displaced as the initial
reservoir rock is invariably water-wet, leaving the water-wet grains covered in a thin layer of
water, with the remainder of the pore space full of oil. Water also remains in the microporosity where gravity segregation forces are insufficient to overcome the water-rock capillary
forces.
The aqueous fluids, whether as connate water or in aquifers, commonly contain dissolved
gases at reservoir temperatures and pressures. Different gases dissolve in aqueous fluids to
different extents, and this gas solubility also varies with temperature and pressure. Table 2.2
shows a selection of gases. If gas saturated water at reservoir pressure is subjected to lower
Page 7
Reservoir Fluids
pressures, the gas will be liberated, in exactly the same way that a lemonade bottle fizzes
when opened. In reservoirs the dissolved gas is mainly methane (from 10 SCF/STB at 1000
psi to 35 SCF/STB at 10 000 psi for gas-water systems, and slightly less for water-oil
systems). Higher salinity formation waters tend to contain less dissolved gas.
Table 2.2 Dissolution of Gases in Water (dissolved mole fraction) at 1 bar
104 Xgas @ 1 bar
Gas
Helium
Argon
Radon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Methane
Ethane
Ammonium
25 C
55oC
0.06983
0.2516
1.675
0.1413
0.1173
0.2298
6.111
0.2507
0.3345
1876
0.07179
0.1760
0.8911
0.1313
0.08991
0.0164
3.235
0.1684
0.01896
1066
Page 8
Reservoir Fluids
Table 2.3 Densities and Viscosities for a Typical Formation Water and a Refined Oil
Brine Component
Composition, g/l
Pure water
NaCl
CaCl2.6H2O
MgCl2.6H2O
Na2SO4
NaHCO3
Solvent
150.16
101.32
13.97
0.55
0.21
Fluid
Temperature, oC
Density, g/cm3
Brine
Brine
Brine
20
25
30
1.1250
1.1237
1.1208
1.509
1.347
1.219
Kerosene
Kerosene
Kerosene
20
25
30
0.7957
0.7923
0.7886
1.830
1.661
1.514
Dynamic Viscosity, cP
Page 9
Reservoir Fluids
We can examine the curve in Figure 2.1 for a range of fluid temperatures. If this is done, the
pressure-volume relationships obtained can be plotted on a pressure-volume diagram with the
bubble point and dew point locus also included (Figure 2.2). Note that the bubble point and
dew point curves join together at a point (shown by a dot in Figure 2.2). This is the critical
point. The region under the bubble point/dew point envelope is the region where the vapour
phase and liquid phase can coexist, and hence have an interface (the surface of a liquid drop or
of a vapour bubble). The region above this envelope represents the region where the
Dr. Paul Glover
Page 10
Reservoir Fluids
Page 11
Reservoir Fluids
vapour phase and liquid phase do not coexist. Thus at any given constant low fluid pressure,
reduction of fluid volume will involve the vapour condensing to a liquid via the two phase
region, where both liquid and vapour coexist. But at a given constant high fluid pressure
(higher than the critical point), a reduction of fluid volume will involve the vapour phase
turning into a liquid phase without any fluid interface being generated (i.e. the vapour
becomes denser and denser until it can be considered as a light liquid). Thus the critical point
can also be viewed as the point at which the properties of the liquid and the gas become
indistinguishable (i.e. the gas is so dense that it looks like a low density liquid and vice versa).
Suppose that we find the bubble points and dew points for a range of different temperatures,
and plot the data on a graph of pressure against temperature. Figure 2.3 shows such a plot.
Note that the dew point and bubble points are always the same for a pure component, so they
plot as a single line until the peak of Figure 2.2 is reached, which is the critical point.
Page 12
Reservoir Fluids
not occur at constant pressure but is accompanied by a decrease in pressure (vapour pressure)
due to changes in the relative fractional amounts of liquid to gas for each hydrocarbon in the
vaporising mixture. In this case the bubble points and dew points differ, and the resulting
pressure-temperature plot is no longer a straight line but a phase envelope composed of the
bubble point and dew point curves, which now meet at the critical point (Figure 2.5). There
are also two other points on this diagram that are of interest. The cricondenbar, which defines
the pressure above which the two phases cannot exist together whatever the temperature, and
the cricondentherm, which defines the temperature above which the two phases cannot exist
together whatever the pressure. A fluid that exists above the bubble point curve is classified
as undersaturated as it contains no free gas, while a fluid at the bubble point curve or below it
is classified as saturated, and contains free gas.
Figure 2.6 shows the PT diagram for a reservoir fluid, together with a production path from
the pressure and temperature existing in the reservoir to that existing in the separator at the
Page 13
Reservoir Fluids
surface. Note that the original fluid was an undersaturated liquid at reservoir conditions. On
production the fluid pressure drops fast with some temperature reduction occurring as the
fluid travels up the borehole. All reservoirs are predominantly isothermal because of their
large thermal inertia. This results in the production path of all hydrocarbons initially
undergoing a fluid pressure reduction. Figure 2.6 shows that the ratio of vapour to liquid at
separator conditions is approximately 55:45. If we analyse the PT characteristics of the
separator gas and separator fluid separately then we would find that the separator pressuretemperature point representing the separator conditions falls on the dew point line of the
separator gas PT diagram, and on the bubble point line of the separator oil PT diagram. This
indicates that the shape of the PT diagram for various mixtures of hydrocarbon gases and
liquids varies greatly. Clearly, therefore it is extremely important to understand the PT phase
envelope as it can be used to classify and understand major hydrocarbon reservoirs.
Dry gas
Wet gas
Gas condensate
Volatile oil
Black oil
Page 14
Reservoir Fluids
Each of these
reservoirs can be
understood
in
terms of its phase
envelope.
The
typical
components
of
production from
each
of
these
reservoirs is shown
in Table 2.4, and a
schematic diagram
of their PT phase
envelopes
is
shown in Figure
2.7.
Table 2.4 Typical Mol% Compositions of Fluids Produced from Cronquist Reservoir
Types
Component or
Property
CO2
N2
C1
C2
C3
iC4
nC4
iC5
nC5
C6 s
C7+
GOR (SCF/STB)
OGR
(STB/MMSCF)
API Specific
Gravity, API
,oAPI
C7+ Specific
Gravity, o
Dry Gas
Wet Gas
Gas
Volatile Oil
Condensate
Black Oil
0.10
2.07
86.12
5.91
3.58
1.72
0.50
-
1.41
0.25
92.46
3.18
1.01
0.28
0.24
0.13
0.08
0.14
0.82
2.37
0.31
73.19
7.80
3.55
0.71
1.45
0.64
0.68
1.09
8.21
1.82
0.24
57.60
7.35
4.21
0.74
2.07
0.53
0.95
1.92
22.57
0.02
0.34
34.62
4.11
1.01
0.76
0.49
0.43
0.21
1.16
56.40
69000
15
5965
165
1465
680
320
3125
65.0
48.5
36.7
23.6
0.750
0.816
0.864
0.920
Note: Fundamental specific gravity o is equal to the density of the fluid divided by the
density of pure water, and that for C7+ is for the bulked C7+ fraction. The API specific gravity
API is defined as; API = (141.5/o) - 131.5.
Dr. Paul Glover
Page 15
Reservoir Fluids
Page 16
Reservoir Fluids
Page 17
Reservoir Fluids
A typical gas condensate reservoir is shown in Figure 2.12. The reservoir temperature is
much lower than the temperature of the critical point of the system, and at pressures above the
cricondenbar. Thus, the hydrocarbon in the reservoir exists as a liquid at depth. The
production path first involves a reduction in pressure with only small amounts of expansion in
the liquid phase. Once the bubble point line is reached, gas begins to come out of solution and
continues to do so until the stock tank is reached. The composition of this gas changes very
little along the production path, is relatively lean, and is not usually of economic importance
when produced. Table 2.4 shows a produced hydrocarbon fluid that is now dominated by
heavy hydrocarbon liquids, with most of the produced gas present as methane. The GOR,
OGR and specific gravities mirror the fluid composition.
Page 18
Reservoir Drives
Primary recovery
Secondary recovery
Tertiary recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery, EOR)
Infill recovery
Primary recovery This is the recovery of hydrocarbons from the reservoir using the natural
energy of the reservoir as a drive.
Secondary recovery This is recovery aided or driven by the injection of water or gas from
the surface.
Tertiary recovery (EOR) There are a range of techniques broadly labelled Enhanced Oil
Recovery that are applied to reservoirs in order to improve flagging production.
Infill recovery Is carried out when recovery from the previous three phases have been
completed. It involves drilling cheap production holes between existing boreholes to ensure
that the whole reservoir has been fully depleted of its oil.
This chapter discusses primary, secondary and EOR drive mechanisms and techniques.
Table 3.1 shows the recovery ranges for each individual drive mechanism.
Page 19
Reservoir Drives
Energy Source
Recovery, % OOIP
20-30
Evolved gas
18-25
Gas expansion
2-5
20-40
Water drive
Aquifer expansion
20-60
Bottom
20-40
Edge
35-60
Gravity drainage
Gravity
50-70
A combination or mixed drive
occurs when any of the first
three drives operate together,
or when any of the first three
drives operate with the aid of
gravity drainage.
The reservoir pressure and
GOR trends for each of the
main (first) three drive
mechanisms is shown as
Figures 3.1 and 3.2. Note
particularly that water drive
maintains
the
reservoir
pressure much higher than the
gas drives, and has a uniformly
low GOR.
Page 20
Reservoir Drives
expanding from the water phase. The process is shown schematically in Figure 3.3.
A solution gas drive reservoir is initially either considered to be undersaturated or saturated
depending on its pressure:
For an undersaturated reservoir no free gas exists until the reservoir pressure falls below the
bubblepoint. In this regime reservoir drive energy is provided only by the bulk expansion of
the reservoir rock and liquids (water and oil).
For a saturated reservoir,
any oil production results in
a drop in reservoir pressure
that causes bubbles of gas
to exsolve and expand.
When the gas comes out of
solution the oil (and water)
shrink slightly. However,
the volume of the exsolved
gas, and its subsequent
expansion more than makes
up for this.
Thus gas
expansion is the primary
reservoir
drive
for
reservoirs below the bubble
point.
Solution
gas
drive
reservoirs show a particular
characteristic
pressure,
GOR and fluid production
history. If the reservoir is
initially undersaturated, the
reservoir pressure can drop
by a great deal (several
hundred psi over a few
months), see Figures 3.1
and 3.2.
This is because of the small
compressibilities of the
rock water and oil,
compared to that of gas. In
this undersaturated phase, gas is only exsolved from the fluids in the well bore, and
consequently the GOR is low and constant. When the reservoir reaches the bubble point
pressure, the pressure declines less quickly due to the formation of gas bubbles in the reservoir
that expand taking up the volume exited by produced oil and hence protecting against pressure
drops. When this happens, the GOR rises dramatically (up to 10 times). Further fall in
Dr. Paul Glover
Page 21
Reservoir Drives
reservoir pressure, as production continues, can, however, lead to a decrease in GOR again
when reservoir pressures are such that the gas expands less in the borehole. When the GOR
initially rises, the oil production falls and artificial lift systems are then instituted.
Oil recovery from this type of reservoir is typically between 20% and 30% of original oil in
place (i.e. low). Of this only 0% to 5% of oil is recovered above the bubblepoint. There is
usually no production of water during oil recovery unless the reservoir pressure drops
sufficiently for the connate water to expand sufficiently to be mobile. Even in this scenario
little water is produced.
Page 22
Reservoir Drives
If the production rate is low, and the size and permeability of the aquifer is high, then the
reservoir pressure will remain high because all produced oil is replaced efficiently with water.
If the production rate is too high then the extracted oil may not be able to be replaced by water
in the same timescale, especially if the aquifer is small or low permeability. In this case the
reservoir pressure will fall (Figure 3.1).
The GOR remains very constant in a strongly water driven reservoir (Figure 3.2), as the
pressure decrease is small and constant, whereas if the pressure decrease is higher (weakly
water driven reservoir) the GOR increases due to gas exsolving from the oil and water in the
reservoir. Likewise the oil production from a strongly water driven reservoir remains fairly
constant until water breakthrough occurs.
Page 23
Reservoir Drives
Page 24
Reservoir Drives
The rate of production engendered by gravity drainage is very low compared with the other
drive mechanisms examined so far. However, it is extremely efficient over long periods and
can give rise to extremely high recoveries (50-70% OOIP, Table 3.1). Consequently, it is
often used in addition to the other drive mechanisms.
Page 25
Reservoir Drives
Waterflooding
Gasflooding
Page 26
Reservoir Drives
3.3.1 Waterflooding
This method involves the injection of water at the base of a reservoir to;
(i)
(ii)
The detailed treatment of waterflood recovery estimation, mathematical modelling, and design
are beyond the scope of these notes. However, it should be noted that the successful outcome
of a waterflood process depends on designs based on accurate relative permeability data in
both horizontal directions, on the choice of a good injector/producer array, and with full
account taken of the local crustal stress directions in the reservoir.
Page 27
Reservoir Drives
Page 28
Reservoir Drives
Page 29
Reservoir Drives
Page 30
Reservoir Drives
Page 31
Reservoir Drives
All of these are relatively cheap to obtain either from the atmosphere or from evolved
reservoir gases. The high mobility of gases can cause a problem in the reservoir flooding
process, since gas breakthrough may be early due to fingering, leading to low sweep
efficiencies. Effort is then concentrated on trying to improve the sweep efficiency. One such
approach is called a miscible WAG (water alternating gas). In this approach water slugs and
CO2 slugs are alternately injected into the reservoir; the idea being that the water slugs will
lower the mobility of the CO2 and lead to a more piston-like displacement with higher flood
efficiencies. An additional important advantage of miscible gasflooding is that the gas
dissolves in the oil, and this process reduces the oil viscosity, giving it higher mobilities and
easier recovery. A WAG flood is shown in Figure 3.14.
Page 32
Page 33
Drilling of the core is invariably carried out at very high bottom hole pressure differentials,
thus the core is effectively water-flooded with mud filtrate, and the original contents partly
displaced. The outer surface of the core will be invaded by mud particles; the depth of
invasion being dependent upon permeability. This zone should be avoided when sampling.
The rest of the core will have had its original hydrocarbon content, and formation water
displaced by mud filtrate; the extent depending upon the core permeability and original fluid
saturations. These changes are not always harmful as the core can usually be restored in the
laboratory. More important changes can occur if the rock contains minerals sensitive to water
salinity. For example, contact with low salinity water can mobilise poorly adhered clay
particles, giving a small possibility that core can arrive in the laboratory with mobilised fines,
which are not significantly mobile in the reservoir. In a similar fashion the wetting
characteristics of the rock may be altered by surfactant mud additives. These changes are
usually unavoidable but if formations are known to be particularly sensitive, it may be
possible to modify mud composition and reduce overpressure to minimise damage. For
complete preservation of wettability on cores above the transition zone, coring with lease
crude is necessary. Water saturation may then also be retained intact, allowing better
estimation of initial reservoir oil saturation. For transition and water zone a bland mud
formulation will do the least harm to original rock properties.
Drying can be the worst that can happen to core after removal from the barrel. If interface
sensitive clays, e.g., fibrous illite are present they can be irreparably damaged by drying
(Figure 4.2) and any permeability measurements made on such core will be valueless. Thus it
Dr. Paul Glover
Page 34
is necessary to preserve some core in the state that it leaves the barrel either by immersion in
simulated formation brine or by wrapping in foil and wax. The latter technique is the
minimum required for samples intended for wettability measurements, but for straightforward
assessment of water zone permeabilities immersion in brine is adequate. The necessity for
preserved core will be more fully covered under relevant sections below.
Page 35
flushing the core with alternate miscible solvents (e.g. toluene (for the oil phase) and
methanol (for the water phase)) done hot or cold in a Hassler coreholder (Figure 4.4a; also see
section 4.5). Both the aqueous (methanol) and oleic (toluene) cleaning phases exiting the rock
can be bulked and submitted for analysis of the amount of water and individual hydrocarbons
present.
Page 36
Plugs are then dried to constant weight in a humidity controlled oven at 60C, 40% relative
humidity. Humidity controlled drying assists in restoring clays to nearer their reservoir state,
and may assist in preventing any further damage. However, the Klinkenberg corrected
equivalent liquid permeability from this type of drying process may still be larger than the
actual brine permeability due to the destruction of the clay texture.
If samples of plugs containing clays that are sensitive to drying are required for SEM analysis
(e.g. Figure 4.2), then a sample of the core with the original fluid contents must be critical
point dried. Ordinary drying destroys fine clay minerals because the interfacial forces
associated with the retreating liquid-vapour interface are high enough to mash the clay
structure. Critical point drying involves keeping a small sample of the core at pressure and
temperature conditions of the critical point of the fluids. The fluids will then be evaporated
from the sample without a liquid-vapour interface, which avoids destroying the fine clay
structure. This is an expensive operation because it can take many days to perform on even the
smallest sample chip. Consequently, it is almost never carried out for core plugs.
Page 37
Page 38
Wettability determinations.
Prevention of drying of interface sensitive clays.
Maintenance of fluid saturations as received at surface.
Other SCAL where drying is not desirable.
Unconsolidated or relatively uncompacted samples that exhibit strong porosity and
permeability reductions with overburden stress.
Several methods of preservation are currently available and a choice can be made if the
requirement for preserved core is specified. The methods are:
Under simulated formation brine or kerosene, for water and oil zone cores respectively.
Cores are either kept under simulated formation brine in polymer containers with an airtight
seal at ambient pressure (certain types of spaghetti jars are good for this); see Figure 4.5.
Wax coated, for all SCAL purposes and especially wettability and residual oil
saturations. This technique, also called seal-peel, is widely used, and involves wrapping the
core in layers of plastic and aluminium foil before being dipped in wax. Cores preserved in
this way at the well site can be safely stored for moderately long periods and then be used for
almost all SCAL purposes (Figure 4.5).
In deoxygenated formation
brine or kerosene, for
wettability
measurements.
Samples are kept in anaerobic
jars which can be pressurised
to 30 psi (Figure 4.5). The
freshly cut core pieces are
placed in the jars under
deaerated simulated formation
brine or kerosene, and the jars
are then sealed. The remaining
air is then purged with
nitrogen, which is then raised
to 30 psi pressure. The samples
are then preserved under
reservoir fluid and a blanket of
inert gas. Providing that the
pressure is maintained, the
samples may be stored in this
state for long periods.
Wrapped in cling film and
frozen in solid CO2 for fluid
saturation
measurements.
This is used for unconsolidated
Dr. Paul Glover
Page 39
core. The samples are cooled using liquid nitrogen and are loaded into special containers. The
containers can be transported packed in solid CO2, and stored in special freezers. Plugs can be
cut from the core using liquid nitrogen as the cutting fluid, and the plugs are then immediately
loaded into special coreholders again, and stored frozen. The sample is thawed out and tested
without being removed from the special coreholders in which they were initially loaded.
Core description
Core lithology
Assessment of consolidation
SEM analysis of mineralogy and pore structure
Petrographic analysis of mineralogy and pore structure
XRD/XRF analysis for bulk and clay mineralogies
CT scanning to assess core heterogeneities, Figure 4.6 (cross-bedding, and fractures)
Page 40
This information is designed to identify possible problems with; (i) unconsolidated core, (ii)
clay sensitivity, (iii) stress sensitivity, (iv) core mineralogical hetereogeneity, (v) core
structural heterogeneity (e.g. fractures, vugs, fossils, and cross-bedding).
The commoner specialist cleaning methods include:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Core cleaning, where appropriate, is most often carried out using miscible solvent flushing
techniques. The core if confined in a Hassler holder (Figure 4.4a) and cold solvent flowed
through it. Cleaning is usually complete after flowing three 200 ml alternating portions each
of methanol and toluene. Under certain circumstances only one portion of each solvent will
be used, although it is commoner to use at least three portions of each. This is applied to
cores known to contain mobile fines or where it is necessary to retain wettability modifying
crude oil components in their existing state. In some circumstances the evolved solvents need
to be quantitatively tested using chemical techniques for the water content, and the oil content
and composition. In this case special dry methanol is used, and the toluene is replaced with a
more efficient solvent such as CS2 (very dangerous) or dichloromethane.
Page 41
Page 42
Porosity
Chapter 5: Porosity
5.1 Introduction and Definition
Total porosity is defined as the fraction of the bulk rock volume V that is not occupied by
solid matter. If the volume of solids is denoted by Vs, and the pore volume as Vp = V - Vs, we
can write the porosity as:
V - Vs Vp
Pore Volume
=
=
=
V
V Total Bulk Volume
(5.1)
The porosity can be expressed either as a fraction or as a percentage. Two out of the three
terms are required to calculate porosity.
It should be noted that the porosity does not give any information concerning pore sizes, their
distribution, and their degree of connectivity. Thus, rocks of the same porosity can have
widely different physical properties. An example of this might be a carbonate rock and a
sandstone. Each could have a porosity of 0.2, but carbonate pores are often very unconnected
resulting in its permeability being much lower than that of the sandstone.
A range of differently defined porosities are recognised and used within the hydrocarbon
industry. For rocks these are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Total porosity
Connected porosity
Effective porosity
Primary porosity
Defined above.
The ratio of the connected pore volume to the total volume.
The same as the connected porosity.
The porosity of the rock resulting from its original depositional
structure.
The porosity resulting from diagenesis.
The porosity resident in small pores (< 2 m) commonly
associated with detrital and authigenic clays.
The porosity due to pore volume between the rock grains.
The porosity due to voids within the rock grains.
The porosity resulting from dissolution of rock grains.
The porosity resulting from fractures in the rock at all scales.
Microporosity existing along intercrystalline boundaries usually
in carbonate rocks.
A type of dissolution porosity in carbonate rocks resulting in
molds of original grains or fossil remains.
A holey (birds-eye) porosity in carbonate rocks usually
associated with algal mats.
Porosity associated with vugs, commonly in carbonate rocks.
It should be noted that if the bulk volume and dry weight, or the bulk volume, saturated
weight and porosity of a rock sample is known, then the grain density can be calculated. This
parameter is commonly calculated from the data to compare the results with the known grain
Page 43
Porosity
densities of minerals as a QA check. For example the density of quartz is 2.65 g cm-3, and a
clean sandstone should have a mean grain density close to this value.
5.2.2
Grain Packing
The theoretical porosities for various grain packing arrangements can be calculated. The
theoretical maximum porosity for a cubic packed rock made of spherical grains of a uniform
Page 44
Porosity
size is 0.476, and is independent of grain size. The maximum porosity of other packing
arrangements is shown in Table 5.1 and Figure 5.2.
Table 5.1 Maximum porosity for different packing arrangements
Packing
Random
Cubic
Orthorhombic
Rhombohedral
Tetragonal
5.2.3
Grain Shape
This parameter is not widely understood. Several studies have been carried out on random
packings of non-spherical grains, and in all cases the resulting porosities are larger than those
for spheres. Table 5.2 shows data for various shapes, where the porosity is for the frictionless
limit. Figure 5.1 shows data comparing rounded and angular grains, again showing that the
porosity for more angular grains is larger than those that are sub-spherical.
Table 5.2 The effect of grain shape on porosity
Grain Shape
Sphere
Cube
Cylinder
Disk
Page 45
5.2.4
Porosity
Real rocks contain a distribution of grain sizes, and often the grain size distribution is multimodal. The best way of understanding the effect is to consider the variable admixture of
grains of two sizes (Figure 5.3).
Figure 5.3 The behaviour of mixing grain sizes. Note that a mixture of two sizes has
porosities less than either pure phase.
The porosity of the mixture of grain sizes is reduced below that for 100% of each size. There
are two mechanisms at work here. First imagine a rock with two grain sizes, one of which has
1/100th the diameter of the other. The first mechanism applies when there are sufficient of the
larger grains to make up the broad skeleton of the rock matrix. Here, the addition of the
smaller particles reduces the porosity of the rock because they can fit into the interstices
between the larger particles. The second mechanism is valid when the broad skeleton of the
rock matrix is composed of the smaller grains. There small grains will have a pore space
between them. Clearly, if some volume of these grains are removed and replaced with a single
solid larger grain, the porosity will be reduced because both the small grains and their
associated porosity have been replaced with solid material. The solid lines GR and RF or RM
in Figure 5.3 represent the theoretical curves for both processes. Note that as the disparity
between the grain sizes increases from 6:3 to 50:5 the actual porosity approaches the
theoretical lines. Note also that the position of the minimum porosity is not sensitive to the
grain diameter ratio. This minimum occurs at approximately 20 to 30% of the smaller particle
diameter. In real rocks we have a continuous spectrum of grain sizes, and these can give rise
to a complex scenario, where fractal concepts become useful.
Page 46
Porosity
compaction, plastic deformation, brittle deformation, fracture evolution etc., and (ii)
geochemical processes, such as dissolution, repreciptation, volume reductions concomitant
upon mineralogical changes etc. The effect of stress mediated compaction on porosity will be
discussed in section 5.4. The effect of chemical diagenesis is more complex, and is better
assessed for any given rock by examination of SEM or optical photomicrographs.
5.3.1
Direct Measurement
Here the two volumes V and Vs are determined directly and used in Eq. (1). This method
measures the total porosity, but is rarely used on rocks because Vs can only be measured if
the rock is totally disaggregated, and cannot, therefore, be used in any further petrophysical
studies. This measurement is the closest laboratory measurement to density log derived
porosities.
5.3.2
Imbibition Method
The rock sample is immersed in a wetting fluid until it is fully saturated. The sample is
weighed before and after the imbibition, and if the density of the fluid is known, then the
difference in weight is Vp , and the pore volume Vp can be calculated. The bulk volume V
is measured using either vernier callipers and assuming that the sample is perfectly cylindrical,
or by Archimedes Method (discussed later), or by fluid displacement using the saturated
sample. Vp and V can then be used to calculate the connected porosity. This is an accurate
method, that leaves the sample fully saturated and ready for further petrophysical tests. The
time required for saturation depends upon the rock permeability.
5.3.3
Mercury Injection
The rock is evacuated, and then immersed in mercury. At laboratory pressures mercury will
not enter the pores of most rocks. The displacement of the mercury can therefore be used to
calculate the bulk volume of the rock. The pressure on the mercury is then raised in a stepwise
fashion, forcing the mercury into the pores of the rock (Figure 5.4). If the pressure is
sufficiently high, the mercury will invade all the pores. A measurement of the amount of
mercury lost into the rock provides the pore volume directly. The porosity can then be
calculated from the bulk volume and the pore volume. Clearly this method also measures the
connected porosity. In practice there is always a small pore volume that is not accessed by the
mercury even at the highest pressures. This is pore volume that is in the form of the minutest
pores. So the mercury injection method will give a lower porosity than the two methods
described above. This is a moderately accurate method that has the advantage that it can be
done on small irregular samples of rock, and the disadvantage that the sample must be
disposed of safely after the test.
Page 47
Porosity
The mercury method also has the advantage that the grain size and pore throat size
distribution of the rock can be calculated from the mercury intrusion pressure and mercury
intrusion volume data. This will be discussed at further length in the section on capillary
pressure.
Page 48
5.3.4
Porosity
Gas Expansion
This method relies on the ideal gas law, or rather Boyles law. The rock is sealed in a
container of known volume V1 at atmospheric pressure P1 (Figure 5.5). This container is
attached by a valve to another container of known volume, V2, containing gas at a known
pressure, P2. When the valve that connects the two volumes is opened slowly so that the
system remains isothermal, the gas pressure in the two volume equalises to P3. The value of
the equilibrium pressure can be used to calculate the volume of grains in the rock Vs.. Boyles
Law states that the pressure times the volume for a system is constant. Thus we ca write the
PV for the system before the valve is opened (left hand side of Eq. (5.2)) and set it equal to the
PV for the equilibrated system (right hand side of Eq. (5.2)):
P1 ( V1 Vs ) + P2 V2 = P3 ( V1 + V2 Vs )
(5.2)
P V + P2 V2 P3 (V1 V2 )
Vs = 1 1
( P1 P2 )
(5.3)
Page 49
Porosity
method gives higher porosities than either the imbibition or mercury injection methods. The
method itself is very accurate, insensitive to mineralogy, and leaves the sample available for
further petrophysical tests. It is also a rapid technique and can be used on irregularly shaped
samples. Inaccuracies can arise with samples with very low. Low permeability samples can
require long equilibration times in the helium porosimeter to allow diffusion of helium into
the narrow pore structures. Failure to allow adequate time will result in excessively high grain
volumes and low porosities.
5.3.5
Density Methods
If the rock is monomineralic, and the density of the mineral it is composed of is known, then
the pore volume and porosity can be calculated directly from the mineral density and the dry
weight of the sample. This method gives the total porosity of the rock, but is of no practical
use in petrophysics.
5.3.6
Petrographic Methods
This method is used to calculate the two dimensional porosity of a sample, either by point
counting under an optical microscope or SEM, or image analysis of the images produced from
these microscopes. Commonly a high contrast medium is injected into the pores to improve
the contract between pores and solid grains. This method can provide the total porosity, but is
wildly inaccurate in all rocks except those that have an extremely isotropic pore structure.
However, it has the advantage that pore types and the microtextural properties of the rock can
be determined during the process.
5.3.7
Other Techniques
Other techniques include porosity by (i) analysing all evolved fluids (gas+water+oil) and
assuming that their volume is equal to that of the pore space, (ii) CT scanning, and (iii) NMR
techniques.
5.3.8
Most of the methods reviewed above require the knowledge of the bulk volume of the rock
sample. Three ways are commonly used. These are (i) by using callipers, (ii) using fluid
displacement, and (iii) using Archimedes method.
Vernier Callipers If the rock is a perfect right cylinder with smooth surfaces, then calliper
measurements of length and diameter can give quite an accurate bulk volume. In this case
several measurements (approx. 10) are made of the length and the diameter, and the arithmetic
mean of each is used. Repeatability and accuracy then depend mainly upon surface texture of
the sample. Repeat helium expansion determinations of porosity on samples with smooth
surface textures where the calliper bulk volume is used should fall within 0.3 porosity
percent regardless of actual porosity. Inaccuracies can arise with samples with very high
permeability. High permeability sandstone samples are frequently friable, have large grain and
pore sizes, and do not produce smooth surfaced right cylinders when plugs are drilled and
accurate bulk volume determination becomes difficult. Straightforward measurement with
Page 50
Porosity
vernier callipers is not possible and Archimedes method or other liquid displacement methods
have to be used.
Fluid Displacement This method notes the displacement of fluid on a graduated scale when
the rock sample is placed in a container containing the fluid. If the fluid automatically enters
the pores errors will result. The method is commonly carried out with a non-wetting fluid such
as mercury, or with other fluids with a sample that has already been saturated. Mercury
displacement is carried out in a pyknometer fitted with a calibrated pump (Kobe method Figure 5.4). The sample is immersed in mercury during this test and will give erroneous
results where mercury enters samples with very large pores. There is also a tendency to give
high bulk volumes if air is trapped where the sample touches the top of the chamber. The
Kobe method is used as the first part of the mercury injection method (Section 5.3.3).
Archimedes Method The sample is weighed dry, fully saturated with formation brine whose
density is accurately known. The saturated sample is then weighed suspended under a balance
in air, and again while suspended in the fluid in which it is saturated. The various weight
readings, and the density of the fluid allow the bulk volume of any irregular sample to be
found accurately. The difference in the weight between the saturated sample suspended in air
and that when suspended in the fluid is equal to Vsf, where f is the density of the fluid.
There are few sources of significant error in this method, provided no fluid drains from the
plug whilst it is weighed in air. The most difficult part is judging how much excess fluid to
remove from the surface of the plug. Vuggy limestones present particular problems which
may only be overcome by whole core measurements. The contents of vugs exposed on the
plug surface may have been disturbed during drilling. Internal vugs may be partially filled
with solids from the drilling fluid during the coring process. If exposed vugs are genuinely
part of the pore volume, then bulk volume must be obtained by calipering since these will not
be taken account of by liquid immersion techniques.
Page 51
Porosity
It should be noted that these are all laboratory methods. Well logging utilises several other
different techniques, which all have larger errors associated with them. These are based on
acoustic, electromagnetic, NMR, and radioactive processes.
Page 52
Porosity
Page 53
q=KA
(P Pout )
h
= K A in
L
L
(6.1)
Page 54
The units of permeability used in the oil industry are the darcy, D, and the millidarcy, mD.
It is worth noting that the S.I. unit of permeability is in per metres squared (m-2), and shows
that there is an implicit spatial scaling of permeability in the measurement itself. This fact is
often overlooked when we use core measurements made at core plug scale (core volume
approximately 40 cm3), and then happily (and naively) compare it directly with logging
measurements, whose scale volume (volume of sensitivity) is 15000 cm3, and model reservoir
wide processes, whose scale volume may be approximately 1015 cm3! A permeability of 1 D
allows the flow of 1 cm3 per second of water with 1 centipoise, cP, viscosity, through a crosssectional area of 1 cm2, when a pressure gradient of 1 atmosphere pressure per centimetre is
applied. (1 D ~ 10-12 m-2.)
It should be understood that Darcys law, Eq. (6.1), was derived for unconsolidated sand
packs, assumes unreactive aqueous fluids with constant properties, and requires correction for
the different viscosity of different fluids, and correction for gas slippage (Klinkenberg effect)
Page 55
and inertial effects (Forchheimer effect) if used with gaseous fluids. In practice it is applied to
all rocks even though it is not clear that this is a valid extrapolation. One should, therefore,
always question the accuracy of a core permeability measurement. The law, Eq. (6.1), has
been extended for practical use in the following ways:
Inclusion of a fluid dynamic viscosity so that unreactive fluids other than brines can be
used.
Rewriting the h term in terms of absolute pressures.
Writing the flow rate, q, as volume flow per time (q=V/t).
Inclusion of a constant to take account of the units commonly used in measurement.
Thus the working equation for measuring single phase liquid permeabilities in the
hydrocarbon industry is:
K( mD) = 1000
L V
1
A t P P
1
2
(6.2)
If gas is used we must take account of the compressibility of the gas giving the working
equation for measuring single phase gas permeability in hydrocarbon industry RCAL:
K( mD) = 2000
where:
K
L
A
V
t
q
P1
P2
Patm
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Patm
L V
A t P2 P2
2
1
(6.3)
Gas permeability measurements are the most common RCAL permeability measurements.
These measurements suffer from two problems that are not encountered with liquid
permeabilities. These are the Klinkenberg and Forchheimer effects.
Page 56
K app = K L 1 +
(6.4)
Here the apparent or measured permeability Kapp is dependent on the so-called Klinkenberg
permeability KL, the gas pressure P and a constant known as the slip factor, . The standard
solution to the problem involves the following steps:
Repeating the measurement of gas permeability, Kapp, at four or five different gas inlet
pressures, P1 and gas outlet pressures, P2.
Calculating the mean gas pressure in the core for each determination; Pmean = (P1 + P2)/2.
Plotting Kapp against 1/Pm.
Page 57
The resulting plot is a straight line with a positive gradient (Figure 6.2b). The intersection of
the curve with the x-axis at 1/Pm = 0 gives KL . The Klinkenberg permeability is independent
of gas pressure, and is effectively the permeability of the gas as P, i.e. the permeability for
a near perfect liquid (an infinitely compressed near perfect gas). The values of apparent
permeability depend on the type of gas used even though their different viscosities are taken
into account in the calculation of apparent permeability. However, the Klinkenberg
permeability is independent on the type of gas used as all gases have the same properties in
the P limit (Figure 6.2c). This makes the Klinkenberg permeability very useful, for it can
be compared for different samples that had their gas permeabilities measured with different
gases at different gas pressures. The Klinkenberg permeability should be approximately the
same as the permeability of the rock when 100% saturated with a single phase reservoir liquid
such as water or oil. The gradient of the Klinkenberg plot gives the slip factor, which can be
used to characterise the rock microstructure.
The Klinkenberg correction should be applied to all core analysis measurements without fail.
Page 58
K g = n K1 K 2 K 3 K n
(6.5)
The analysis is extremely complex. However, it is possible to analyse two simple systems of
different permeabilities that occur within core analysis and reservoir systems. These are (i)
flow through linear beds in series, and (ii) flow through linear beds in parallel.
Linear Beds in Series. The system is shown in Figure 6.3a. The beds have a cross-sectional
area A that is constant. Each bed has a thickness, Ti , and a uniform permeability Ki. The
pressures at the contact between each of the beds, Pi. can be analysed thus:
(6.6)
Now using Eq. (6.1) with h replaced by the pressure difference, and noting that the thickness
of the total unit T is equal to the sum of the individual beds T1 etc., we get:
q T3
q T1
q T2
qT
=
+
+
K A K1 A K 2 A K 3 A
(6.7)
Rearranging we find that the mean permeability is the harmonic average of the individual
permeabilities:
Kh = n
{Ti K i }
(6.8)
i =1
For example analysing Figure 6.3b, where three layers of equal thickness T=1 m have
permeabilities 1000 mD, 200 mD, and 1 mD, we get the mean permeability equals 2.98 mD!
Page 59
Page 60
Page 61
Clearly the permeability is controlled by the smallest permeability because all the fluids that
pass easily through the higher permeability layers are held up by the low permeability layer.
Linear Beds in Parallel. The system is shown in Figure 6.3c. The beds have a thickness T
that is constant. Each bed has a cross-sectional area to flow, Ai , and a uniform permeability,
Ki. The pressures at the inlet P1 and outlet P2 of the complete unit will be the same for all
layers, but each layer will transport a different fraction qi of the total flow rate qt thus:
q t = q1 + q 2 + q 3
(6.9)
Now using Eq. (6.1), with h replaced by the pressure difference and noting that the total area
A = A1+A2+A3, we get:
(6.10)
Rearranging we find that the mean permeability is the arithmetic average of the individual
permeabilities:
Ki Ai
K a = i=1
(6.11)
For example, analysing Figure 6.3d, where three layers of equal area A = 1 m2 have
permeabilities 1000 mD, 200 mD, and 1 mD, we get the mean permeability equals 400 mD!
The mean permeability falls much more into the mid range because the fluids partition for
flow into each of the layers depending on its permeability. In this case, the layer with the
highest permeability conducts 83.3% of the flow.
For comparison, the geometric mean of equal volumes of 1000 mD, 200 mD, and 1 mD is
10.6 mD, which falls between the two extreme cases analysed above, and represents random
arrangement of equal volumes of material with these three permeabilities.
Page 62
measurements, such that the quality and relevance to the problem of any permeability dataset
can be assessed.
The factors affecting core permeability measurements fall into three broad categories; (i)
planning errors, (ii) sample errors, (iii) measurement errors, and (iv) analysis errors. Planning
errors are the fault of the person who commissions the permeability study. It is very tempting
to order a standard routine core analysis study. However, resources and time can be saved by
the commissioning manager thinking carefully about the purpose that the data is required for.
Klinkenberg permeabilities should not be used to estimate the efficiency of a waterflood, yet
some companies do so by correcting them to effective relative permeabilities using rules of
thumb that do not take account of the fluids and reservoir wettability adequately. Sample
errors are associated with; (i) sampling frequency, location, orientation, type and size; all of
which affect how representative the 40 cm3 sample is of the properties of the 1015 cm3 sized
reservoir, (ii) the type of drilling fluids, and (iii) the state of preservation and the process of
cleaning and drying, which can affect permeability greatly in shaly sandstones. Measurement
problems are related to the accurate measurement of pressure and flow, and are dependent
both on the initial experimental rig design as well as the permeameter operator. Finally,
Analysis problems involve the relevant use of the derived data and close the circle to the
planning stage. The indiscriminate lumping together of permeability data from different
measurement techniques, bad poroperm cross-plot analysis, and inefficient core-log
correlation of poroperm data, all contribute to inaccurate analysis, and almost always are the
result of either ignorance of the meaning and limitations of permeability data, or an effort to
make do with irrelevant data resulting from poor permeability study planning.
Porosity
There have been several attempts to derive a general relationship between porosity and
permeability. In many ways, however, all attempts are bound to fail at a fundamental level
since porosity is a scalar measurement and permeability is a vector measurement. Clearly
though it is reasonable to assume that permeability should increase with porosity in
unfractured reservoirs without significant diagenetic. One of the most well known models
linking porosity and permeability is known as the Kozeny-Carman model that considers the
porous media to be made up of bundles of capillary tubes. The basic equation is:
K KC =
where:
KKC
c
d
=
=
=
=
c d2 3
(1 )
(6.12)
Despite the obvious invalid capillary tube assumptions, this model remains one of the best
predictors of permeability, and is often used in the hydrocarbon industry.
Dr. Paul Glover
Page 63
K B = d 2 5.1
(6.13)
where KB is the predicted permeability. Although this empirical model has been concocted
from a range of rocks and it is clear that the equation may not work on samples from other
locations.
Recently, a new model has been proposed by Revil, Glover, Pezard and Zamora (RGPZ). This
is a non-empirical model that is derived from the fundamental understanding of the electrokinetic properties of rocks, and hold the potential for improved permeability prediction for
rocks of different porosities, grain sizes, and pore tortuosities. It is expressed as:
K RGPZ =
where:
KRGPZ
m
d
a
=
=
=
=
=
d 2 3m
4am
(6.14)
Page 64
Note that all of these models use a grain size diameter to scale the predicted permeability to
the size of rock microstructure, and to ensure that the models are dimensionally correct.
Figure 6.4 compares the three models described above for a range of clean sandstone, shaly
sandstone, and carbonate samples. Lines are placed at 1 mD in Figure 6.4; rocks with
permeabilities less than this value are considered to be non-reservoir rock (i.e. unproducible
economically).
6.2.2
Bedding
6.2.3
Pore Geometry
Permeability is highly dependent on the tortuosity of the pore fluid flow paths. Tortuosity can
be affected by many rock characteristics, including:
The detailed relationships are known only qualitatively, and the relative importance of each
vary from rock type to rock type. For example, the permeability of carbonates is primarily
controlled by; (i) dissolution porosity, (ii) dolomitization, and (iii) fractures.
6.2.4
Permeability is very sensitive to stresses that compact the rock. This compaction can occur in
any direction not just vertically. However, vertical compaction is usually the most important.
Indeed the local stress state may be such that dilatancy occurs (formation of fractures)
increasing the permeability of the rock. In all cases it is poorly consolidated rocks that are
affected to the greatest extent. Figure 6.5a and b show the effect of increasing the hydrostatic
confining pressure on the permeability of a rock. Figure 6.5c compares the effect of
overburden stress on permeability compared to the effect upon porosity. It can be seen that
overburden stress affects permeability much more than porosity. This is because permeability
Page 65
is very sensitive to the tortuosity of fluid flow paths through the rock, and such changes are
associated with very small changes to the rock porosity Overburden stress compacts the rock
pressing the grains together. The size of the pores reduces little, but the pore throats that
control the passage of gas between the pores undergo much greater closure, effecting the
permeability to a greater extent.
The large decreases
observed indicate that it
is very important to
apply corrections to
permeabilities measured
at
low
confining
pressures before they are
considered
to
be
representative of the
reservoir, or measure the
permeability at reservoir
stress conditions in the
first place (SCAL). It
should also be noted that
fracturing
(both
macroscopic and microfractures), that increases
the permeability of the
rock samples when
measured
in
the
laboratory,
can
be
caused by drilling and
concomitant upon the
sudden reduction in
stress experienced by the
rock upon extraction of
the core from the well.
These fractures can be
closed
again
by
measuring the rock at
reservoir conditions, but
it is very difficult to
know how to correct low
pressure
Klinkenberg
permeability
determinations for such
fracturing.
Page 66
Routine permeability measurements are made by confining plugs in Hassler core holders,
Figure 6.6, applying nitrogen pressure to one end and measuring flow rate and pressure
differential. Figure 6.7 shows a steady state gas permeability rig that is equipped to measure a
large range of permeabilities (i.e. gas flow rates). Standard hydrocarbon industry rigs look
similar, but have fewer options for measuring upstream pressure and flow rate.
Page 67
For plugs having moderate permeabilities, 5-500 mD, repeat determinations at given
confining, inlet and outlet pressures should fall within a few percent. Normally four or five
consecutive measurements are made at various mean pressures (Pm) to enable a Klinkenberg
plot (Figure 6.2b) of permeability vs. 1/Pm to be made. Extrapolation to infinite mean
pressure gives the equivalent liquid permeability, KL. Permeabilities above about 500 mD
become less precise as the measured pressure differential falls leading to higher experimental
errors. High permeabilities also imply large pores, large grains and rough surface texture.
Page 68
Very rough surfaces may need wrapping in soft PTFE tape or repair with epoxy to ensure
proper sealing by the Hassler sleeve. The sleeve pressure used will depend upon plug surface
texture and the hardness of the rubber sleeve. Low permeabilities (less than 5 mD) do not
normally present any problems; but for normal reservoir applications, a cut off value of 0.01
mD is applied. Values below this are simply reported as less than 0.01 mD, and are not
interesting as a reservoir. In practice rocks with permeabilities less than 1 mD are considered
to be non-reservoir rock (i.e. unproducible economically). If cap rocks are being investigated,
the actual permeability values will be reported, whatever their permeability. Caution is needed
in the handling of friable, poorly cemented samples. Gradual compaction can occur even with
sleeve pressures as low as 400 psi. Consequently long equilibration times may be necessary
for this type of sample. The first indication of this type of behaviour occurs when carrying out
the normal repeat timings of gas flow, when steadily decreasing flow rates are observed.
6.3.2
This is not as standard as the steady state method. It applied a volume of gas at a high initial
pressure to one end of the sample and then measures the decay of the pressure as the gas leaks
away through the core. One advantage of this method is that it can be used to determine the
permeability of very low permeability rocks. It has therefore been used to measure the
permeability of cap rocks. It must be said, however, that leakage through cap rocks is now
recognised to depend primarily on fractures through the cap rock rather than the permeability
of the bulk rock itself, and so these measurements are being done less and less.
6.3.3
Permeabilities to oil and water at 100% saturation of each fluid, or of oil in the presence of Swi
can also be easily carried out. The saturated samples are placed in a core holder. The required
fluid is flowed through the sample, while measuring the steady state volume flow and pressure
differential (see Figure 6.8 for a schematic diagram of a typical permeameter set-up). All
fluids used should be degassed prior to use. The permeability is calculated from Eq. (6.2).
There is no need to institute a Klinkenberg correction, but the data is carefully examined to
ensure that the flow is laminar by carrying the test out at various flow rates and checking
whether they all give approximately the same permeability. Those high flow rates that are
suspected to contain turbulent (Forchheimer) effects are discarded.
Page 69
The values of permeability Kw at Sw=1 or Ko at So=1 should be approximately the same as the
Klinkenberg permeability, KL. Ko at Sw=Swi and So=1-Sw will be less that that at So=1.
6.4.1
Core-Log Comparison
The comparison of porosity and permeability data from core measurements and log methods is
important to ensure that there is good agreement between them, allowing the measurements to
be used in reservoir modelling with confidence. The process should compare the log and core
data on the same log-type display (Figure 6.9). It is usually clear whether one of the curves
needs to be depth shifted relative to the other. If a shift is necessary it is usually implemented
for the core data, as uncertainties in core depth occur when there is not 100% core recovery
Page 70
form the hole. Corrections of 10 to 20 m are not uncommon. When comparing the depth
corrected core and log data it is usually clear whether there is a good match between the two.
The degree of match is an average determination made by eye as the two measurements will
rarely be in very close agreement. This is because the measurements are made by widely
varying techniques, with varying scales of measurement. For example, a standard core plug
will have a volume of investigation of about 40 cm3, compared to approximately 15000 cm3
for a wireline tool. Additionally, the various methods measure different properties. For
example core porosities are usually measurements of effective porosities (with non-connected
porosity and clay bound water excluded, and usually avoiding fractures), whereas log derived
porosities are generally measurements of total porosity. This results in the log porosities being
generally a little higher than the log-derived porosities.
6.4.2
Poroperm Cross-plots
Page 71
To estimate permeability where only porosity data is available (e.g. In Figure 6.10, a
conglomerate with a porosity of 13.3% has a permeability of 100 mD).
To establish a porosity cut-off below which the reservoir is unproductive (e.g. the
data in Figure 6.10 has porosity cut-offs of 5.3% in the conglomerate and 10.7% in the
sandstone, corresponding to a permeability of 1 mD..
This method is very powerful if used in an homogeneous formation, but can produce
remarkably erroneous results if carried out badly. There are a few points to bear in mind when
using cross-plots:
Some positive correlation between porosity and permeability exists for non-fractured, nonvuggy rocks with the same degree of diagenesis (Figure 6.11).
The estimation method is based on a mathematical correlation that only takes account of
porosity and permeability.
No other factors are taken account of (e.g. diagenesis, fractures, vugs).
The log permeability scale can generate large permeability errors.
The cross-plot should be done for each individual rock unit if the relationship is to be
valid. Doing a cross-plot for the whole reservoir is a waste of time. Individual cross-plots
for each mineralogy/lithology and/or based upon grain and pore size information from
mercury porosimetry. Individual permeability zones can also be delineated by plotting the
distribution of permeabilities on a lin-log plot. This results in a log-normal distribution for
well controlled permeability data (see section 6.1.4). If the distribution is unimodal
(Figure 6.12a) then a cross-plot for all the data will be valid. If the distribution is multimodal (Figure 6.12b) then a cross-plot must be done for the data belonging to each of the
Page 72
unimodal populations making up the multi-modal dataset (3 in the case of Figure 6.12b).
There are statistical tests that can distinguish which population a sample belongs to, e.g.
the Kolmogorov-Smirnoff test.
Some rocks do not produce a clear relationship (e.g. commonly carbonates).
There is no physical basis for this type of plot. In fact reference to Eqs. (6.12) to (6.13)
indicates that a log-log plot would be more appropriate, and Eq. (6.14) indicates that a linlin plot of permeability against 3m/m2 would provide the best results.
There are two other important points to bear in mind. First, for the cross-plot to be the most
valid, it should be done with permeabilities and porosities that are representative of the
reservoir. This means that the permeabilities should be Klinkenberg corrected, and both
permeabilities and porosities should be corrected to reservoir stress conditions. Any derived
permeabilities are then the permeabilities for complete saturation of the rock with the test
fluid, and will need to be reduced to relative permeabilities if required. If drill stem test
permeabilities are used, then these will have been made in the presence of multi-phase fluids,
and it is important to know more about the fractions of each fluid present and the wettability
of the rock before valid deductions can be made. The second point is that the porosities from
core measurements are effective porosities, whereas those from log measurements are
commonly total porosities. If data from both sets are to be used, then they must be reconciled
Dr. Paul Glover
Page 73
before use. Figure 6.13 shows the typical ranges of poroperm relationships for various
lithologies and rock microstructure.
Page 74
Page 75
Wettability
Chapter 7: Wettability
7.1 Introduction and Definition
There exists a surface tension between a fluid and a solid, in the same way that a surface
tension exists between an interface between two immiscible fluids (cf. the surface tension on
water under air that is sufficient to support the weight of a needle.). When two fluids are in
contact with a solid surface, the equilibrium configuration of the two fluid phases (say air and
water) depends on the relative values of the surface tension between each pair of the three
phases (Figure 7.1). Let us denote surface tension as , and solid, liquid and gas as s, l, and g
respectively. Each surface tension acts upon its respective interface, and define the angle at
which the liquid contacts the surface. This is known as the wetting (or dihedral) angle of the
liquid to the solid in the presence of the gas. Equilibrium considerations allow us to calculate
the wetting angle from the surface tensions:
lg cos = sg sl
(7.1)
This is known as Youngs equation (1805). Table 7.1 shows some contact angles and surface
tensions for common fluids in the hydrocarbon industry.
Table 7.1 Contact angles and interfacial tension for common fluid-fluid interfaces
Interface
Air-Water
Oil-Water
Air-Oil
Air-Mercury
Contact Angle, ,
degrees
cos
Interfacial Tension,
dynes/cm
0
30
0
140
1.0
0.866
1.0
-0.765
72
48
24
480
Page 76
Wettability
Note that:
When one fluid preferentially covers the surface, it is called the wetting fluid, and the other
fluid is called the non-wetting fluid. The origin of these surface tensions arises in the different
strengths of molecular level interactions taking place between the pairs of fluids. For example
a quartz sandstone grain generally develops greater molecular forces between itself and water
than between itself and oils. Clean sandstones are therefore commonly water wet. However,
should that same grain have been baked at high temperatures in the presence of oil at depth,
then (i) its surface chemical structure can be altered, or (ii) the surface itself can become
coated, in such a way that results in the grain having greater molecular interaction with oils
than water, and hence become oil wet. IMPORTANT NOTE Properly measured wettabilities
on well preserved core and core plugs should form the initial step in choosing relative
permeability test methods.
Page 77
Wettability
Physical Observation
The first two methods are the commonest within the oil industry and are described in greater
detail in the next two sections.
Page 78
7.2.1
Wettability
Wettability measurements by the Amott method give a guide to the relative oil or brine
wetting tendencies of reservoir rocks. This can be crucial in the selection of relative
permeability test methods to generate data relevant to the reservoir situation. It is not always
possible to reproduce reservoir wettabilities in room condition relative permeability tests.
However, an appreciation of the difference between reservoir and laboratory wettabilities can
assist in interpretation of laboratory waterfloods.
The Amott method (Figure 7.3) involves four basic measurements. Figure 7.4 shows the data
produced with the water wetting index given by AB/AC and the oil wetting index by CD/CA.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Figure 7.4 shows the initial conditions of the sample (point X) to be oil saturated at Swi. The
spontaneous measurements are carried out by placing the sample in a container containing a
known volume of the fluid to be imbibed such that it is completely submerged (steps 1 and 3
in Figure 7.3 for water and oil respectively), and measuring the volume of the fluid displaced
by the imbibing fluid (e.g. oil in step 1 of Figure 7.3). The forced measurements are carried
out by flowing the imbibing fluid through the rock sample and measuring the amount of the
displaced fluid (steps 2 and 4 in Figure 7.3), or by the use of a centrifuge. The important
measurements are the spontaneous imbibitions of oil and water, and the total (spontaneous
and forced) imbibitions of oil and water. Water-wet samples only spontaneously imbibe water,
Page 79
Wettability
oil-wet samples only spontaneously imbibe oil, and those that spontaneously imbibe neither
are called neutrally-wet. The wettability ratios for oil (AB/AC) or water (CD/CA) are the
ratios of the spontaneous imbibition to the total imbibition of the each fluid.
Page 80
Wettability
In general use the samples to be measured are centrifuged or flooded with brine, and then
flooding or centrifuging in oil to obtain Swi. The standard Amott method is then followed. At
the end of the experiment the so called Amott-Harvey wettability index is calculated:
SpontaneousWaterImbibition SpontaneousOilImbibition
TotalWaterImbibition
TotalOilImbibition
AB CD
=
AC CA
Index=
(7.2)
Wettability indices are usually quoted to the nearest 0.1 and are often further reduced to
weakly, moderately or strongly wetting. The closer to unity the stronger the tendency.
7.2.2
This method is very similar to the Amott method, but measures the work required to do the
imbibitions. It is usually done by centrifuge, and the wettability index W is calculated from
the areas under the capillary pressure curves A1 and A2:
W=log
A1
A2
(7.3)
where, A1 and A2 are defined in Figure 7.5. Note that in this case the initial conditions of the
rock are Sw=100%, and an initial flood down to Swi is required (shown as step 1 in Figure 7.5),
although either case may be necessary for either the Amott or USBM methods. Figure 7.6
shows typical USBM test curves for water wet, oil wet and neutrally wet cores.
7.2.3
Warning. While both methods are common within the oil industry, they show remarkable
differences especially near the neutral wettability region. In general, the Amott method is
probably the most reliable and accurate especially in the neutral wettability region. A
comparison of the two methods, together with contact angles, is given in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3 Comparison of the Amott and USBM Wettability Methods
Oil Wet
Neutral Wet
Water Wet
0
>0
-1.0 to -0.3
about -1
105o to 120o
180o
0
0
-0.3 to 0.3
about 0
60o to 75o
105o to 120o
>0
0
0.3 to 1.0
about 1
0o
60o to 75o
Page 81
7.3
Wettability
Sample preservation, preparation, storage and test conditions are important since wettability is
sensitive to oxidation of crude oil and to temperature. Preservation of samples at the well-site
is generally by wrapping in foil and wax coating. The process should be carried out as soon
as possible after removal of the core from the barrel. Samples are drilled and trimmed with
deaerated, simulated depolarised kerosene prior to testing. Tests carried out to assess
reservoir wettability must be made on preserved core at a temperature high enough to ensure
that any wax present in the residual core remains in solution. If the wax precipitates, it will
tend to increase the oil wetting tendency of the core. Room condition wettabilities may only
apply to reservoirs containing wax free crude or cleaned cores from laboratory tests.
Page 82
Wettability
Page 83
Capillary Pressure
Capillary pressures are generated where interfaces between two immiscible fluids exist in the
pores (capillaries) of the reservoir rock. It is usual to consider one phase as a wetting phase
and the other as a non-wetting phase. However, intermediate cases occur which can greatly
complicate the picture. The drainage case, i.e. a non-wetting phase displacing a wetting phase
applies to hydrocarbon migrating into a previously brine saturated rock. Imbibition data is the
opposite to drainage, i.e. the displacement of a non-wetting phase by a wetting phase. Thus,
the drainage data can usually be used to predict non-wetting fluid saturation at various points
in a reservoir, and the imbibition data can be useful in assessing the relative contributions of
capillary and viscous forces in dynamic systems.
The basic relationship (Figure 8.1) between capillary pressure, interfacial tension, contact
angle and pore radius is given by
Cp =
2 cos
.A
a
(8.1)
where;
Cp
a
A
=
=
=
=
=
Applying this to a water wet rock having a broad spectrum of pore entrance radii, oil
migrating into water filled pores under a given pressure differential will only enter pores
larger than those indicated by a in Equation (8.1). Thus for oil introduced at 2 psi into a
system having = 40 dynes/cm and = 0 (water wet), oil will only enter pores larger than
2 =
2 x 40 x 1
x 145 x 10 3
a
(8.2)
giving a = 5.8 m.
If capillary pressure data are available for a given system, it should be possible to convert to
another system of known and . This is expanded in Section 8.2.
Page 84
Capillary Pressure
72 cos 0o
480 cos 130
(8.3)
Page 85
Capillary Pressure
25 cos 30o
480 cos 130
(8.4)
C p = hg ( w - o )
(8.5)
Displacement pressures for the assessment of cap rock seal capacity can be assessed from the
capillary pressure curves. Care has to be used and allowance made for the effect of surface
irregularities. This is especially true of samples with small total pore volumes, i.e. less than 1
ml that are typically the case with cap rock samples.
Approximate permeabilities can also be calculated from pore size distribution data; but care
has to be taken to exclude the contribution of surface irregularities, since a small number of
large pores disproportionately increases the calculated permeability. The data presented in
Figure 8.4 shows the effect of surface irregularities at pore throat diameters greater than 10
microns.
Page 86
Capillary Pressure
Page 87
Capillary Pressure
Gas-Brine Systems
This technique is generally applied in the drainage mode to air-brine systems starting with test
plugs which are initially brine saturated. The capillary pressure is applied across the test plug
and a brine saturated porous plate. The high displacement pressure of the porous plate allows
brine from the plug to pass through, but prevents flow of the displacing fluid (normally air).
The apparatus is shown in Figure 8.5. Plugs are removed at intervals and weighed until
weight (and therefore fluid) equilibrium is attained. The pressure applied is then increased
and the process repeated until a full curve of about six points is obtained.
In this method care has to be taken to maintain good capillary contact between the test plug
and the porous plate. This is assisted by using a paste of filter-aid and brine between the plate
and a filter paper. The test plug is positioned on the paper and a lead weight placed on the
plug to keep it solidly in place. There is also the danger that the water in the sample will be
Page 88
Capillary Pressure
evaporated by the gas pressure. To avoid this the input gas can be saturated with water by
bubbling it through a reservoir of water prior to use, and keeping a beaker of water inside the
porous plate pressure vessel.
The resulting data is presented as (i) air-brine capillary pressure versus brine saturation
(Figure 8.6), (ii) converted to oil-brine data (Figure 8.7), or (iii) as saturation versus height
above oil (or gas) - water contact.
Page 89
Capillary Pressure
The disadvantages of the porous plate method are that it is time consuming, needing up to
twenty days for equilibration at each pressure. Also, capillary contact with the porous plate
may be lost at high pressures. This causes erroneously high connate water saturations to be
implied. Imbibition measurements are not generally attempted.
The advantage of the method is that the test plug has at least one representative fluid in place,
i.e. the brine. This ensures that brine mineral interactions e.g. clay swelling, which affect pore
size and surface states, are taken account of. This is a large advantage over the mercury
method, which cannot take account of clay-water interactions.
Page 90
Capillary Pressure
The advantages of the method are that, if the wetting characteristics are as in the reservoir,
then representative data should be obtained for both mixed and oil wet systems.
8.3.3
Other Methods
There are several other more advanced methods of measuring capillary pressure that are
currently being investigated by the hydrocarbon industry. All use a core in a Hassler or similar
coreholder under confining pressure. The major ones are:
(i) The Dynamic Method This involves injecting the two fluids into a rock core
simultaneously, and producing one behind a semi-permeable membrane.
(ii) The Semi-Dynamic Method This involves injecting a single fluid, while a membrane
at the far end of the rock is washed with the other fluid. This method can be used to measure
the complete drainage and imbibition parts of the capillary pressure curve.
(iii) The Transient Method This method is technologically complex, and involves the
measurement of saturation and pore fluid pressures simultaneously during fluid injection into
the sample.
Page 91
Capillary Pressure
Cp = h g ( w - o ) ,
(8.6)
by spinning the core plug at a known radius and rpm. The average capillary pressure is then
given by:
(8.7)
where 1 and 2 are the densities of the two phases present and rb and rt are the radii of
rotation of the bottom and top of the core respectively.
For the oil-brine drainage cycle, brine saturated test plugs are immersed in oil in specially
designed holders. Starting at a low rpm setting, the amount of brine expelled from the plug is
noted for a given rate of rotation. The volumes are measured in the following manner. A
calibrated glass vial is attached to the end of the sample. The volume of fluid being deposited
in this vial can be read while the centrifuge is spinning fast using a stroboscope. The rate is
then increased in stages and produced brine volumes are recorded for each rotation speed to
give the drainage curve. The imbibition curve can then be followed by stopping the centrifuge
allowing spontaneous imbibition to occur to point A at Cp = 0 (Figure 8.3). The fluid in the
imbibition cell is then changed from brine to oil, and the portion of the curve from A (Cp) = 0
to Sor (Figure 8.3) can then be followed by recording the volume of oil produced at several
increasing rates of rotation.
The main disadvantage of the centrifuge method is that a capillary pressure gradient is applied
which must inevitably give rise to a saturation gradient. This will be more exaggerated at low
pressures.
The advantages of the centrifuge method are that it is rapid, a full drainage and imbibition
cycle being complete in a matter of days, and that oil-brine data can be obtained, hopefully,
under representative wetting conditions. Centrifuges can also be operated at elevated
temperatures (up to 150).
Differences in wetting characteristics should be taken into account when applying laboratory
data to the field. Thus air-brine and mercury-air data obtained on cleaned core will represent a
fully water wet system for the drainage case. They may not adequately describe a mixed or oil
wet system. The closest one can get to this situation, on a routine basis, is with an actual oilbrine system when one would expect to find lower Swi values than a water wet system.
Page 92
Capillary Pressure
Method
Mercury
Hg - Air
Drainage
Imbibition
Porous Plate
Air - Brine
Oil - Brine
Sw = 1 to Swi
Swi to Cp=0, Cp=0 to Sor
Cp=0 to Sor
As sample
Swi to Cp=0
Sample wetting
state
Sw precision
Pressure limit, psi
Elapsed time
Centrifuge
Air - Brine
Oil - Brine
Water wet
tends low
1150
1-2 days
tends high
70-100
3 months
tends high
70-100
3 months
not known
1000-2000
1-3 days
Cp=0 to Sor
not known
1-3 days
Cp =
2 Cos
.
a
(8.8)
For a simple capillary model, the mean hydraulic radius, a, is given by:
K
a=2 2
12
(8.9)
12
K
Cp
cos
1
2
(8.10)
Page 93
Capillary Pressure
12
K
Cp
J=
cos
(8.11)
or;
K
J = 0.217 C p
12
(8.12)
Page 94
Electrical Properties
F =
Ro
a
= m
Rw
(9.1)
where;
F
Ro
Rw
a
=
=
=
=
=
=
Formation factor
Resistivity of brine saturated rock
Resistivity of brine
Constant
Porosity
Cementation exponent
and,
I=
Rt
1
=
R o S nw
(9.2)
where;
I
Rt
n
=
=
=
Resistivity index
Resistivity of rock at Sw < 100%
Saturation exponent
Page 95
Electrical Properties
Page 96
Electrical Properties
The actual electrical measurements of resistance in themselves are very precise (better than
0.1%), but care has to be exercised in setting up the plug for the measurements. The most
important thing is that the electrodes at each end of the sample do not have any electrical
connection except through the rock. This may seem obvious and trivial to arrange, but this one
proviso causes the greatest difficulty when setting up a plug to be measured either at high
overburden pressures, during rare triaxial deformation experiments, or using high electrical
frequencies. The first and second of these situations arises from the need to electrically isolate
the electrodes at each end of the sample from each other and the pressure vessel. Insulation is
shown schematically in Figure 9.3, but in reality it is not always easy to arrange a robust
electrically insulating and pressure-proof leadthrough. In the last situation, it is the
capacitance of the leadthroughs and the pressure vessel itself that causes the problems. Even
though there is no direct conductive connection, high frequency current can leak from one
electrode to the other through the body of the pressure vessel by charge induction, even
though there is an insulator in between.
Page 97
Electrical Properties
Page 98
Electrical Properties
less pronounced in the overburden cell as brine is flowed through the system before
measurements are taken, and good electrical contact is assisted by the hydrostatic load on the
end pieces. Plug surface conduction is removed by placing the plug in a rubber sleeve, which
is squeezed tightly onto the plug by the confining pressure.
The main measurement is sample resistance, r. This is clearly dependent upon the length, L,
and the cross sectional area, A, of the sample. In order to compare samples, the resistance,
length and cross sectional area of the sample are used to calculate the resistance per unit
length and per unit cross sectional area of the sample rock; this is called the resistivity, R:
R = r
A
L
(9.3)
Note from Eq. (9.1) that the resistivity of the pore fluid is also required. This can be done in a
standard dip cell, but this method is prone to large systematic errors. More commonly a
specially designed fluid cell is used (Figure 9.4). This cell is connected to the same impedance
analyser as used for the main measurements, and at the same frequencies. The fluid resistance
obtained in this way is converted to a fluid resistivity by multiplication by a cell constant, that
varies from cell to cell, and with temperature and pressure. The cell constant is obtained by
calibrating the cell with fluids of accurately known composition and resistivity.
The precision of measurement is dependent upon operator skills and sample permeability. For
lower permeability samples (with small pores) repeat determinations should fall within a few
percent. For friable, high permeability samples repeatability is poorer, and in extreme cases
room condition tests may be impossible due to too rapid drainage of fluid from the sample.
Page 99
Electrical Properties
Cementation exponent, m, for a particular sample can be calculated directly from Eq. (9.1) if
it is assumed that a=1. More commonly, cementation exponent for a group of samples is
calculated graphically using a minimum of 10 samples covering a wide a permeability range
as possible. A typical data set is shown in Figure 9.5. Equation (9.1) can be rewritten as:
(9.4)
A log-log plot of formation factor against porosity gives a straight line, with a gradient equal
to the negation of the cementation exponent, and with a y-intercept at =1 equal to log (a). It
is common to see cementation data from a best fit through the data giving both m and a, but
most commonly the linear regression is forced through (=1, F=1) corresponding to a=1.
Page 100
Electrical Properties
log I = 1 - n log Sw
(9.5)
So the saturation exponent, n, is the negation of the gradient of the log I versus log Sw plot
(Figure 9.7 shows typical data), and that the line should always pass through (Sw=1, I=1).
The practical considerations for these electrical measurements are similar to those for
formation factor, except that the tendency for brine to drain from the plug is essentially
removed because of the lower saturations. The electrical measurements can be performed to
better than 0.1% and saturation changes determined to 0.5 Sw%.
Care has to be taken to avoid evaporation losses during desaturation and measurement of
resistance. Plugs are stored in closed weighing bottles and only removed for the minimum
possible period.
Page 101
Electrical Properties
Page 102
Electrical Properties
This topic requires deeper discussion than can be covered here, but it should be borne in mind
that the relationships between electrical properties and saturations are empirical; linear
relationships cannot always be expected.
A more comprehensive discussion on the accuracy of electrical measurements are given in
Page 103
Relative Permeability
Routine permeability measurements are made with a single fluid filling the pore space. This
is seldom the case in the reservoir situation except in water zones. Generally, two and
sometimes three phases are present, i.e. oil, water, and occasionally gas as well.
Here one would expect the permeability to either fluid to be lower than that for the single fluid
since it occupies only part of the pore space and may also be affected by interaction with other
phases. The concept used to address this situation is called relative permeability. The relative
permeability to oil, Kro, is defined as:
K ro =
(10.1)
(10.2)
K rw =
K rg =
K eg
K
(10.3)
The choice of base permeability is not, in itself, critical provided it is consistently applied.
Conversion from one base to another is a matter of simple arithmetic. However,
experimentally, the base permeability is usually chosen as that measured at the beginning of
an experiment. For example, an experiment may start by measuring the permeability to oil in
the presence of an irreducible water saturation in the core. Water is then injected into the core,
and the oil permeability and water permeabilities measured as water replaces oil within the
core. The base permeability chosen here, would most commonly be the initial permeability to
oil at Swi.
Laboratory measurements are made by displacing one phase with another (unsteady state tests
see Figure 10.1) or simultaneous flow of two phases (steady state tests Figure 10.2). The
effective permeabilities thus measured over a range of fluid saturations enable relative
permeability curves to be constructed. Figure 10.3 shows an example of such a curve from an
unsteady state waterflood experiment. At the beginning of the experiment, the core is
saturated with 80% oil, and there is an irreducible water saturation of 20% due to the water
wet nature of this particular example. Point A represents the permeability of oil under these
conditions. Note that it is equal to unity, because this measurement has been taken as the base
permeability. Point B represents the beginning water permeability. Note that it is equal to zero
because irreducible water is, by definition, immobile. Water is then injected into the core at
one end at a constant rate. The volume of the emerging fluids (oil and water) are measured at
Page 104
Relative Permeability
the other end of the core, and the differential pressure across the core is also measured. During
this process the permeability to oil reduces to zero along the curve ACD, and the permeability
to water increases along the curve BCE. Note that there is no further production of oil from
the sample after Kro=0 at point D, and so point D occurs at the irreducible oil saturation, Sor.
Note also that Kro + Krw 1 always.
Page 105
Relative Permeability
Page 106
Relative Permeability
Page 107
Relative Permeability
It must be stressed, however, that these curves are not a unique function of saturation, but are
also dependent upon fluid distribution. Thus the data obtained can be influenced by saturation
history and flow rate. The choice of test method should be made with due regard for reservoir
saturation history, rock and fluid properties. The wetting characteristics are particularly
important. Test plugs should either, be of similar wetting characteristics to the reservoir state,
or their wetting characteristics be known so that data can be assessed properly.
Rigs for relperm measurement are often varied in design depending upon the exact
circumstances. Figure 10.4 shows an example of a typical rig piping diagram. The fluid flow
lines would be nylon or PTFE tube for ambient condition measurements (fluid pressures up to
a few hundred psi, and confining pressures up to 1500 psi), and stainless steel for reservoir
condition measurements (fluid pressures of thousands of psi, confining pressures up to 10,000
psi, and temperatures up to 200oC). These latter experiments are extremely complex, timeconsuming, and expensive especially if live fluids are to be used. The mean saturation in the
core is measured by collecting and measuring the volume of time-spaced aliquots of the
evolving fluids. However, there are various successful methods of monitoring the saturation
of the various fluids inside the core during the experiments. These are:
Page 108
Relative Permeability
(i) GASM (Gamma Attenuation Saturation Monitoring). Commonly used by BP, this uses
doped oil or water phases to attenuate the energy of gamma rays that travel through the core
perpendicular to the flood front. Each gamma source/detector pair measures the instantaneous
water and oil, or gas and oil saturation averaged over a thin cross section of the core. Up to 8
pairs are used to track the fluid saturations in the core during an experiment, giving a limited
resolution. Modern techniques use a single automated motorised source/detector pair.
(ii) X-Radiometry. Commonly used by US companies. It is similar to GASM, but uses xrays instead of gamma rays.
(iii) CT Scanning. Uses x-rays and tomographic techniques to give a full 3D image of the
fluid saturations in the core during an experiment. The spatial resolution is about 0.5 mm, but
is extremely expensive, and measurements can be made only every 5 minutes or so.
(iv) NMR Scanning. A very new application that is similar to the CT scanning. It has an
increased resolution, but is even more expensive.
The first two methods are commonly used, whereas the last two are rarely used due to their
cost.
10.2
Page 109
Relative Permeability
Page 110
Relative Permeability
(i)
Figure 10.5. Initially at Swi, water is the wetting phase and will not flow. Kro = 1 and
Krw = 0.
(ii)
Figure 10.6. Water migrates in a piston like fashion, tending to displace most of the oil
ahead of it.
(iii) Figure 10.7. As water saturation increases oil flow tends to cease abruptly, and Sor is
reached.
(iv) Figure 10.8. Dramatically increasing the water flow rate (bump) has very little effect on
oil production or Krw. This is because capillary forces provide most of the energy
required for displacement of the oil.
If floods are carried out at too high a flow rate on water-wet cores the trapping mechanisms
present in the reservoir are not allowed to occur. Instead of entering small pores preferentially
by capillary forces, the water flows at a relatively higher velocity through larger pores, thus
tending to bypass groups of smaller pores containing oil. The Sor value obtained may then
differ from the true reservoir situation.
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Relative Permeability
Water wet systems are usually adequately described by low rate floods, and do not exhibit end
effects to any significant extent. Water wet data are characterised by:
(i) Limited oil production after water breakthrough.
(ii) Generally good recoveries.
(iii) Low Krw values at Sor.
Some typical data are presented in Figures 10.9 and 10.10. Points to take note of are the
limited amount of incremental data obtained (although this may be extended by using viscous
oils). This is caused by the rapid rise in water cut and the very short period of two phase flow
typical of water wet systems.
Page 112
Relative Permeability
Page 113
Relative Permeability
(i)
(ii)
Figure 10.12. Water flows through the largest flow channels first, Kro falls and Krw rises
rapidly.
(iii) Figure 10.13. After large volumes of water have flowed through the system, Sor is
reached. This equilibrium is attained slowly giving the characteristic prolonged slow
production of oil after early water breakthrough.
If waterfloods on oil wet core are carried out at too low a flow rate there may be inappropriate
retention of oil at the outlet face of the test plug. This is illustrated in Figure 10.14. At the
end of a low rate flood, Krw and the amount of oil produced are relatively low. If the flow rate
(and hence the pressure differential) are increased at this stage, substantial further oil
production occurs and Krw increases significantly. This situation does not model processes
occurring in the reservoir and should be avoided by appropriate choice of waterflood rate at
the beginning of the experiment.
Typical high rate valid oil wet data are shown in Figure 10.15 and 10.16.
Page 114
Relative Permeability
Page 115
Relative Permeability
Figure 10.19 shows steady state data obtained from a core containing mobile kaolinite fines.
These were mobilised during the prolonged simultaneous flow of oil and brine during the
steady state test sequence. They have caused the water relative permeability to be suppressed.
Figures 10.17, 10.18 and 10.19 contain data obtained on the same test plug and illustrate the
need for more than one test made in obtaining valid relative permeability data. Note also that
Page 116
Relative Permeability
the data points are more reasonably spaced and are less scattered for the steady state test, but
there are fewer of them. The steady state test is more controlled because it takes much longer
to carry out, but the length of time required to come to equilibrium at each flow rate ratio (at
least a few days compared to less than one day for a whole unsteady state test) results in fewer
data points being taken.
Page 117
Relative Permeability
Calculation of relative permeability from laboratory waterflood data and the basic
equations from Johnson Bossler & Nauman (JBN).
(ii) Prediction of fractional flow from relperm curves and capillary pressure data.
(iii) Fractional flow from transition zones.
(iv) Variation of fractional flow with viscosity ratio.
I.
=
=
=
=
=
Page 118
Relative Permeability
These data are analysed by the technique described by Johnson, Bossler and Nauman (see
reference list [4]), which is summarised below. Three calculation stages are involved:
(a)
(b)
(c)
The method is aimed at giving the required values at the outlet face of the core which is
essentially where volumetric flow observations are made.
(a)
It can be shown that the fractional flow of oil, at the core outlet is given by:
fout =
d S wav
d Qi
(10.4)
Together with:
fout =
(b)
1
K
1 + rw o
K ro w
(10.5)
Kro A plot of p/pi against Qi is used to obtain the injectivity ratio IR:
Page 119
IR =
p i 1
p Q i
Relative Permeability
(10.6)
Page 120
Relative Permeability
1
K ro = fout
d (1 / Q i I R )
d (1 / Q i )
(10.7)
(10.8)
Thus Kro and Krw can be plotted against Swout to give the normal relative permeability curves.
II.
Fractional flow can be predicted from capillary pressure data and relperm curves. Capillary
pressure data gives the saturations expected, and the relperm curves provide the values for Krw
and Kro at that saturation. Water cut can then be calculated.
Water and oil cuts are defined as follows:
Water Cut % =
Water production
x 100%
Total production
(10.9)
and
OilCut % =
Oil production
x 100%
Total production
(10.10)
Qo =
2 K eo H t Pd
R
o ln e
Rw
(10.11)
and;
Page 121
Qw =
where;
Ht
Pd
=
=
2 K ew H t Pd
R
w ln e
Rw
Relative Permeability
(10.12)
K eo = K ro K
(10.13)
K ew = K rw K
(10.14)
and
fw =
Qw
Qo + Q w
(10.15)
we can say:
fw =
III.
1
K
1 + w ro
o K rw
(10.16)
Transition zones or zones with Sw at some value greater than Swi may present problems with
unsteady state tests. It may not be possible to perform an unsteady state waterflood starting at
Sw values greater than Swi, i.e. where the initial oil saturation is lower than the irreducible
saturation attained at infinite capillary pressure. The steady state test may be more
applicable in such cases. This situation frequently exists in transition zones before production
is started. When production commences the oil/water flow ratio should correlate with steady
state water drainage test data, i.e. carried out with Sw increasing. This is the most probable
direction in which saturation last changed to place the reservoir in its discovery state.
IV. Variation of Fractional Flow with Viscosity Ratio
For cases where capillary forces are negligible, it can be shown that the fractional flow of
water increases as the viscosity of water decreases relative to the oil viscosity. Using the term
mobility, defined as:
(10.17)
Page 122
Relative Permeability
(10.18)
(10.19)
fw =
1
1+
(10.20)
Page 123
Relative Permeability
Mode
Sw
So
Sg
Steady state
Steady state
Unsteady state
Unsteady state
Unsteady state
Unsteady state
Unsteady state
Unsteady state
Unsteady state
Unsteady state
Increasing
Decreasing
Increasing
Decreasing
Decreasing
Increasing
Sw=0
Sw=0
Sw=Swi
Sw=Swi
Decreasing
Increasing
Decreasing
Increasing
So=0
So=0
Decreasing
Increasing
Decreasing
Increasing
Sg=0
Sg=0
Sg=0
Sg=0
Increasing
Decreasing
Increasing
Decreasing
Increasing
Decreasing
The most representative and costly test is the reservoir condition waterflood. This is carried
out on core which has been restored to full reservoir conditions of temperature, overburden
loading, fluid contents (live crude) and wettability. Limited numbers of these tests are
performed to assess more economical room condition waterflood data.
In view of the large number of possibilities, detailed discussion here will be limited to those
most frequently studied, i.e. water-floods, steady and unsteady state, gas/brine drainage and
imbibition, and gas/oil drainage and imbibition.
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Relative Permeability
Miscibly clean core by flushing alternately with toluene and methanol; measure weight
saturated with methanol.
(ii) Saturate with formation brine without drying; measure weight saturated with brine.
(iii) Measure Kew at Sw=1.
(iv) Flood down to Swi at a suitable differential pressure.
(v) Measure Keo at Swi.
(vi) Carry out waterflood, recording pressure differential, incremental oil and water
production, etc. (data required for JBN analysis).
(vii) Use JBN analysis to calculate Keo, Kew, Kro, and Krw for various Swout and Swav.
(viii) Measure Kew , and calculate Krw at Sor before and after bump.
(ix) Clean, dry, measure KL and .
Flooding down to Swi is carried out in a Hassler or other type of core holder fitted with a
capillary pressure disc. This process may take several weeks, but has the advantage over
centrifuge techniques that even saturation distributions are obtained. Oil wet and intermediate
systems tend to flood to typically low values of Swi more rapidly, and at lower pressure
differentials than water wet systems. Figures 10.9, 10.15 and 10.17 show example data for
water-, oil- and intermediate wet cores.
Page 125
Relative Permeability
The drainage test is performed by flowing gas (saturated with water vapour to ensure that the
gas does not evaporate the brine) into a brine saturated plug. Incremental gas and brine
production and pressure differential are recorded. Relative permeability curves can then be
calculated using JBN analysis.
Page 126
Relative Permeability
3
5
12
KL,
mD
12.8
411
103
Drainage
Imbibition
Kew at
Sw=100
% mD
Keo at
Swi,
mD
Kro at
Swi,
mD
Sw at
End of
Test
Sg at
end of
Test
Kew at
Sgi, mD
Krw at
Sgi, mD
Sg at end
of test
Sw at
end of
test
4.3
165
50
5.2
87
44
1.21
0.53
0.88
0.38
0.42
0.21
0.62
0.58
0.79
0.21
1.48
1.05
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.53
0.19
0.48
0.47
0.81
0.52
Imbibition data are obtained by recording the pressure differential across the core as brine is
flowed into the test plug initially at S=Swi+Sg. As the initially dominant gas phase is replaced
by more viscous water, the pressure differential rapidly increases to a maximum. It then falls
slowly as gas dissolves in the flowing brine. This dissolution is unavoidable to some extent,
but can be reduced by equilibrating the injected brine with the gas at pressure prior to
injection. It should be noted that the injected brine will not completely displace the gas, and a
trapped gas saturation will always remain. The maximum pressure differential is recorded and
used to calculate Krw at residual (trapped) gas saturation. Krw at trapped gas saturation can be
surprisingly low, values of 0.02 to 0.1 being frequently recorded.
It is interesting to consider the reservoir situation which is slightly, but significantly, different
from the laboratory technique. In the reservoir water migrates into the gas zone as pressure
declines, but unlike the core test, the gas saturation does not necessary decline. It tends to
remain high or increase slightly, since the trapped gas expands as pressure falls. This
maintenance or even increase in Sg tends to keep Krw low or reduce it even further. This
scenario operates in many reservoirs even if some of the gas migrates onwards and upwards.
Referring to Figure 10.23. Initially gas forms in discrete, immobile bubbles, which
reduces Kro very significantly.
(ii) Figure 10.24. As pressure falls further, the gas saturation increases. The bubbles
eventually become connected and give rise to a significant gas permeability. The
saturation at which gas becomes mobile is termed the critical gas saturation. Krg rapidly
increases and Kro further declines. The relative flow rate of oil is further reduced by the
lower viscosity and higher mobility of the gas.
(iii) Figure 10.25. Eventually the oil droplets become discontinuous and only gas is
produced.
Page 127
Relative Permeability
Page 128
Relative Permeability
Page 129
Relative Permeability
Laboratory gas-oil relative permeability tests are performed in a similar manner to the gasbrine tests. If required, the tests can be performed with connate water present, but this
requires that brine saturated cores be flooded to Swi with oil prior to gas flooding. The relative
merits of tests with and without connate water have not yet been fully investigated. It can be
argued that the connate water will be immobile and this has been found to be true in some
experiments. However, where connate water is present we have noticed that Krg tends to
show a more concave upwards curve than when it is absent. The situation is very complex,
but could possibly be affected by the wetting characteristics of the rock. The effect is shown
in Figures 10.26 & 10.27.
Page 130
Commissioning Studies
Page 131
Commissioning Studies
8. Have you commissioned sufficient cores of each type of test to provide a reliable and
representative coverage of the well section of interest? If you do not know how to judge
this, get advice!
9. Does the data you have flag any possible problems with the particular rock to be analysed?
If there are problems you must talk to the people carrying out the tests. They should be
warned of problems, and in most cases will be able to advise you on the best technical
approach to either overcome, avoid or minimise the problem.
10. Does the service company know your needs sufficiently well to provide good and
informed service? Good communications leads to better data!
11. Have you asked the service company managers and technical staff for their expert advice?
12. Do you know the timescale for the scheduled work, and is it fixed? If not fix it SCAL
tests are of known duration and can be scheduled well.
13. Have you specified the errors that are acceptable on the measurements? To do this you
will need to communicate with the service company. Ensure that measurement errors,
which always occur, are sufficiently small or manageable that the data is fit for purpose.
14. Have you specified the data to be provided in a format that will the of best use to you, i.e.,
on CD-ROM in Excel format as well as a written report?
A little time spent planning can save an enormous amount of money.
Page 132
Commissioning Studies
Figure 11.1 Basic SCAL Programme for a Dry Gas Reservoir 100
Thick with a Single Facies Type
Test Sequence
1
2
4
5
6
Number of
Tests
Proposed
Typical
Charge per
Test (Manhours)
As required
10-20
15
10-20
12
10
30
As required
As required
700-1000 man-hours
(approximately 800,000)
Transition zones are usually from a more significant portion of the reservoir.
Flow characteristics and relative permeabilities are strongly influenced by wettability.
The static tests, i.e. capillary pressure, resistivity index, formation factors etc., are basically
straightforward, (Figure 11.2). However, dynamic tests, i.e. relative permeability, are more
complicated, and choice of type and test mode depends upon wettability. Wettability
measurements should be considered as an essential preliminary to choice of relative
permeability test. If waterflooding is envisaged then wettability is extremely important, as
will be water zone brine permeabilities on preserved core.
Page 133
Commissioning Studies
Figure 11.2 Basic SCAL Programme for an Oil Reservoir 100 Thick
with a Single Facies Type
1
2
4
5
6
Test Sequence
Number of
Tests
Proposed
Typical
Charge per
Test (Manhours)
As required
10-20
15
10-20
12
6
10-15
15
30
Up to 6
120
10
As required
As required
700-1700 man-hours
(approximately 1,400,000)
Page 134
Commissioning Studies
11.5 Gas-Condensate
The flow regimes and saturation changes which occur in condensate reservoirs are among the
most difficult to model in the laboratory, and are extremely rare.
Movement of fines.
Introduction of particulate matter.
Introduction of incompatible fluids.
Introduction of fluids upsetting desired relative permeability behaviour.
It is especially difficult to specify a general scheme of formation damage tests. The particular
reservoir fluids, minerals, saturation change directions, and introduced fluid compositions
should be considered when defining a programme. Two situations will therefore be briefly
covered which illustrate the means of damage detection and the applicability of single and two
phase tests. The cases considered here are poor and declining injectivity in a water injection
well, and formation damage caused by drilling muds.
The problem of particulate matter in injection water should be taken care of by proper
filtration but could be tested for with on site core tests. The tests however tend to be
pessimistic and indicate greater permeability decline rates than are encountered
downhole.
(ii)
The presence of mobile fines can be detected fairly readily in the laboratory.
Permeability to liquids (brines) are observed and plotted against throughput. Changes
occur with throughput and flow direction when fines move to block pore throats, Figure
11.3.
(iii) The sensitivity of a formation to brine composition can be assessed by core throughput
tests with changing brine compositions, Figure 11.3. Simple clay swelling effects are
observed as reversible permeability changes. However, it is possible that some particles
become dislodged during the tests and then behave as mobile fines.
Page 135
Commissioning Studies
Page 136
Abbreviations
Abbreviations
A
B
Cp
FF,F
E
Ht
Kbrine
Kg
KL
Ko
Keo
Kr
Kro
Krw
KSFW
Kw
Kew
l ,L
m
m*
Mr
n
n*
P, p
Pc
Pd
Pm
Qo
Qi
Qv
Qw
Re
RCAL
Relperm
Ro
Rw
Rt
SCAL
So
Sor
Sgt
Sw
Swi
t
Page i
Abbreviations
Abbreviations continued
V, v
Volume
Interfacial tension
Mobility ratio
Contact angle
Porosity
Oil density
Brine density
Oil viscosity
Water (brine) viscosity
Page ii
Selected References
Selected References
[1]
Permeability Characteristics of Magnus Reservoir Rock. Heaviside, Langley and Pallatt, 8th Formation
Evaluation Symposium Trans. Mar. 1983. London.
[2]
[3]
Comments on obtaining Accurate Electrical Properties of Cores, by Hoyer, S Spann. S.P.W.L.A. 16th
Annual Logging Symposium 4-7, June 1975.
[4]
Calculation of Relative Permeability from Displacement Experiments, Johnson, Bossler and Nauman, Pet.
Trans. AIME (1959), 216, p.370.
[5]
EHRLICH, R., CRABTREE, S.J., HORKOWITZ, K.O. & HORKOWITZ, J.P. 1991. Petrography and
reservoir physics 1: objective classification of reservoir porosity. The American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, 75, 1547-1562.
Abstract: Porosity observed in thin section can be objectively classified using a combination of digital
acquisition procedures and pattern recognition algorithms. Pore types are derived from the frequency
distributions of sizes and shapes of patches of porosity exposed in thin section. Each pore type is
represented by a characteristic distribution of sizes and shapes found in thin section. Most sandstone
reservoirs contain fewer than six pore types. Much of the variability in reservoir physics is associated with
changes in pore type abundance. The advantages of this approach to porosity classification are (1) the
criteria for classification are objectively defined, (2) classification procedure is rapid, accurate, and
precise, (3) pore types are understood easily in terms of conventional genetic classification schemes, and
(4) pore type data are related strongly to petrophysical properties.
[6]
MCCREESH, C.A., EHRLICH, R. & CRABTREE, S.J. 1991. Petrography and reservoir physics 2:
relating thin section porosity to capillary pressure, the association between pore types and throat size. The
American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 75, 1563-1578.
Abstract: Porosity in reservoir rocks is configured into a few types of pores whose size and shape are
controlled by depositional fabric and processes. The size, shape, and abundance of each pore type can be
objectively determined from thin section using image analysis and pattern recognition procedures. Each
pore type tends to be associated with a limited range of throat sizes. The association between pore type
and throat size can be determined using regression procedures linking pore type data obtained from thin
section with capillary pressure data. To do so, a set of samples is required wherein the association between
pore type and throat size is fixed, but where pore type proportions vary between samples. This condition
is met by a sample suite representing reservoir facies from a single core or, in many cases, from a single
field. The relationship between pore type and throat size is an effective means to relate reservoirs in terms
of the efficiency of the porous to multiphase flow. Parameters derived from the relationship can be used to
construct accurate physical models that subdivide physical response in terms of the contributions of each
pore type.
[7]
EHRLICH, R., ETRIS, E.L., BRUMFIELD, D., YUAN, L.P. & CRABTREE, S.J. 1991. Petrography
and reservoir physics 3: physical models for permeability and formation factor. The American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 75, 1579-1592.
Abstract: Permeability and formation factor are physical properties of porous rocks useful for assessing
reservoirs. Neither property varies consistently as porosity varies. The relationship of both properties to
porosity is complex, being sensitive to the structure of the porous microstructure, i.e., the sizes of pore
throats, the numbers and sizes of pores, and the relationships between pores and throats. Physical models
to account for these factors require parameters that describe physically relevant properties of the
microstructure. A partial characterization of the relationship between pores and throats is embodied in the
relationship between pore type and throat size. This relationship is derived by combining data obtained
from thin sections, from which pore types are derived via image analysis, and mercury injection
porosimetry, which quantifies throat size information. Parameters derived from such a combination are
Page iii
Selected References
sufficient to construct simple physical models for permeability and electrical conductivity (inverse
formation factor). These models assume a porous medium that has large numbers of flow paths parallel to
the potential gradient, such that flow has little tortuosity (i.e., flow parallel to bedding). The contributions
of each pore type to permeability and electrical conductivity are computed. Calculated values are close to
measurement values. A constant of proportionality is the same for all samples from a reservoir, but can
vary between reservoirs, is required, and must have values ranging (for sandstones) from about 2.5 to 3.5
for permeability and 5.0 to 7.0 for conductivity. These values are consistent for an efficiently packed
fabric. One result of such modeling is a physical model of Archie's cementation exponent m as the ratio of
the logarithms of the cross sectional throat area to pore area (per unit area).
[8]
WARDLAW, N.C. & TAYLOR, R.P. 1976. Mercury capillary pressure curves and the interpretation of
pore structure and capillary behaviour in reservoir rocks. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, 24,
225-262.
Notes: A classic on this subject. Explains the reasons behind various aspects of injection and withdrawal
curves, by looking at SEM of rocks studied.
[9]
VAVRA, C.L., KALDI, J.G. & SNEIDER, R.M. 1992. Geological applications of capillary pressure: a
review. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 76, 840-850.
Notes: Important discussion of interpreting mercury injection porosimetry results.
[10]
PITTMAN, E.D. 1992. Relationship of porosity and permeability to various parameters derived from
mercury injection-capillary pressure curves for sandstones. The American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Bulletin, 76, 191-198.
Notes: As mercury injection tests are expensive and not abundant, derives relationships using multiple
regression on large database of samples. Empirical equations make it possible to construct pore aperture
radius distribution curves from core analysis porosity and permeability.
[11]
BLIEFNICK, D.M. & KALDI, J.G. 1996. Pore geometry: control on reservoir properties, Walker Field,
Columbia and Lafayette counties, Arkansas. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
80, 1027-1044.
Notes: An oolite carbonates sequence. Useful discussion on interpreting mercury injection porosimetery
results.
[12]
RINGROSE, P.S., SORBIE, K.S., FEGHI, F., PICKUP, G.E. & JENSEN, J.L. 1993. Relevant reservoir
characterisation: recovery process, geometry and scale. In Situ, 17, 55-82.
Notes: With miscible-gas flood, large-scale geometry may be more important than the internal small-scale
structure. With waterflood, small-scale structure likely to be dominant. Emphasises must think not only
about the rock but also the fluids and the recovery process.
[13]
CORBETT, P.W. & JENSEN, J.L. 1993. Quantification of variability in laminated sediments: a role for
the probe permeameter in improved reservoir characterization. In: NORTH, C.P. & PROSSER, D.J. (eds)
Characterization of fluvial and aeolian reservoirs. Geological Society special publication 73, London,
433-442.
[14]
HUANG, Y., RINGROSE, P.S. & SORBIE, K.S. 1995. Capillary trapping mechanisms in water-wet
laminated rocks. SPE Reservoir Engineering, 10, 287-292.
Abstract: Most floods in sandstone cores are performed either in almost homogeneous samples or else in
core samples of uncertain heterogeneity. As a result, the interaction of small-scale sedimentary
heterogeneity with the fluid mechanics of water-oil displacement cannot be adequately understood or
quantified. The results are reported from low-rate, drainage-imbibition floods in a 20 x 10 x 1 cm slab or
cross-laminated heterogeneous sandstone. The laminated aeolian sandstone was characterized by detailed
Page iv
Selected References
probe permeameter mapping prior to setting it in a resin cast. The distribution of porosity, permeability,
irreducible water, and residual oil saturation were subsequently monitored using CT scanning techniques.
The low-rate imbibition floods show that between 30 and 55% of original oil may be trapped in isolated
high permeability lamina. This work shows the importance of recognizing the role of core-scale
heterogeneity in the laboratory measurement of waterflood behavior, i.e., the interaction of capillary
forces with rock structure. The practice of performing high-rate floods on rock samples assumed to be
heterogeneous is unwise and can lead to erroneous conclusions. The work has major implications for (1)
2-phase petrophysical measurements, (2) the assessment of residual/remaining oil, and (3) multiphase flow
scaleup.
[15]
MCDOUGALL, S.R. & SORBIE, K.S. 1992. Network simulations of flow processes in strongly wetting
and mixed-wet porous media. In: CHRISTIE, M.A., DA SILVA, F.V., FARMER, C.L., GUILLON, O.,
HEINEMANN, Z.E., LEMONNIER, P., REGTIEN, J.M.M. & VAN SPRONSEN, E. (eds) ECMOR III:
Proceedings of the third European conference on the mathematics of oil recovery. Delft University Press,
Delft, Netherlands, 169-181.
Notes: Deriving 2-phase flow parameters such as relative permeability and capillary pressure from
microscopic considerations.
[16]
MCDOUGALL, S.R. & SORBIE, K.S. 1995. The impact of wettability on waterflooding: pore-scale
simulation. SPE Reservoir Engineering, 10, 208-213.
[17]
PICKUP, G.E., RINGROSE, P.S., JENSEN, J.L. & SORBIE, K.S. 1994.
sedimentary structures. Mathematical Geology, 26, 227-250.
Abstract: Accurate modeling of fluid flow through sedimentary units is of great importance in assessing
the performance of both hydrocarbon reservoirs and aquifers. Most sedimentary rocks display structure
from the millimeter or centimeter scale upward. Flow simulation should therefore begin with grid blocks
of this size in order to calculate effective permeabilities for larger structures. Several flow models for
sandstones are investigated, and their impact on the calculation of effective permeability for single phase
flow is examined. Crossflow arises in some structures, in which case it may be necessary to use a tensor
representation of the effective permeability. Conditions are established under which tensors are required,
e.g., in crossbedded structures with a high bedding angle, high permeability contrast, and laminae of
comparable thickness. Cases where the off-diagonal terms can be neglected, such as in symmetrical
systems, are also illustrated. The method of calculating tensor permeabilities may be extended to model
multiphase flow in sedimentary structures.
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