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A Hindu temple (Sanskrit: - Mandir, Prasada) is a house of god(s).[1] It is a space and structure designed to bring human beings and gods together,
infused with symbolism to express the ideas and beliefs
of Hinduism.[2] A Hindu temple, states George Michell,
functions as a place of transcendence, where man may
cross over (do tirtha) from the world of illusion to one of
knowledge and truth.[1]
Space
East
Brahma Padas
Devika Padas
Manusha Padas
Paisachika Padas
The 9x9 (81) grid Parama Sayika layout plan (above) found
in large ceremonial Hindu Temples. It is one of many grids used
to build Hindu temples. In this structure of symmetry, each concentric layer has signicance. The outermost layer, Paisachika
padas, signify aspects of Asuras and evil; while inner Devika
padas signify aspects of Devas and good. In between the good
and evil is the concentric layer of Manusha padas signifying human life; All these layers surround Brahma padas, which signies creative energy and the site for temples primary idol for
darsana. Finally at the very center of Brahma padas is Grabhgriya (Purusa Space), signifying Universal Principle present in
everything and everyone.[2]
In ancient Indian texts, a temple is a place for Tirtha pilgrimage.[2] It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of
Hindu way of life.[14] All the cosmic elements that create and sustain life are present in a Hindu temple - from
re to water, from images of nature to deities, from the
feminine to the masculine, from the eeting sounds and
incense smells to the eternal nothingness yet universality
at the core of the temple.[2]
Susan Lewandowski states[5] that the underlying principle
in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things
1
2
are one, everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and
statues that display and celebrate the four important and
necessary principles of human life - the pursuit of artha
(prosperity, wealth), the pursuit of kama (pleasure, sex),
the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit
of moksha (release, self-knowledge).[15][16] At the center
of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or
next to the deity, is mere hollow space with no decoration,
symbolically representing Purusa, the Supreme Principle,
the sacred Universal, one without form, which is present
everywhere, connects everything, and is the essence of
everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reection, facilitate purication of ones mind, and trigger
the process of inner realization within the devotee.[2] The
specic process is left to the devotees school of belief.
The primary deity of dierent Hindu temples varies to
reect this spiritual spectrum.
2.3
The plan
preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by
design, water is symbolically present at the consecration
of temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93,[20] inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops aording peaceful views, mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys,
inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at the
head of a town street.
2.2
The manuals
3
temples prevalent in eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles,
suggesting that dierent parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example,
in Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western
states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared
to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa.[29] Silpa Prakasa
provides brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith[30] and Silpa Ratnakara
compiled by Narmada Sankara[31] provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types.
Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India,
include Sutradhara Mandanas Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning and building a temple).[32] Manasara, a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century AD, is a guidebook on South
Indian temple design and construction.[5][33] Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south
and central India.[34][35] In north India, Brihat-samhita by
Varhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual
from 6th century describing the design and construction
of Nagara style of Hindu temples.[28][36][37]
The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara sometime in ninth or tenth
century CE, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple
Architecture.[29] Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric
principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism
such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types
of female gures. These styles were perfected in Hindu
Naga
Mukhya
Bhalata
Soma
Argala
Adithi
Roga
Dithi
Isana
Shosha
pJanya
RJith
Asura
Bhubrat
Bhubrat
Aapa
Rudra
Mithra
Varuna
Jayanth
AValsa
Aaryaka
Indra
East
Mithra
pDhantan
Indra
Devika Padas
Vivaswa
Vivaswa
Sathya
SThran
Manusha Padas
dPalakan
Bhrusa
pKKal
Mriga
Brimga
Savitha
IJith
Surgiva
Surya
Paisachika Padas
gTharva
Yama
gKshatha Vithada
Antarikshan
Poosavu
Agni
The 49 grid design is called Sthandila and of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in
South India, particularly in Prakaras.[40] The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined
to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares.[41] The temples face sunrise, and the entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya deity (Sun).
The Surya pada is anked by the padas of Satya (Truth)
deity on one side and Indra (king of gods) deity on other.
The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of
gods and demi-gods; while west and south feature demons
and demi-gods related to the underworld.[42] This vastu
purusha mandala plan and symbolism is systematically
seen in ancient Hindu temples on Indian subcontinent as
well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity
and variations.[43][44]
2.4
The symbolism
(left), and a concentric layering design (right) that ows various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for
from one to the other as it rises towards the sky.[2][47]
home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature.[2][25]
In larger temples, the central space typically is surrounded
by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence.[2]
Often this space is visually decorated with carvings,
paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some
temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics,
in others they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong
or virtues and vice, in some they may be idols of minor or
regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically
also have highly ornate carvings or images of the four just
and necessary pursuits of life - kama, artha, dharma and
moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.[38]
Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no
prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose
to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monistic, or atheistic.[53]
Within this diuse and open structure, spirituality in
Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as kaitraja (Sanskrit: [54] ). It denes spiritual practice as ones journey towards moksha,
awareness of self, the discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and
content.[55][56] A Hindu temple reects these core beliefs.
The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large
communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family - a small, private space where he
or she experiences darsana.
Darsana is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu
scripts, darsana is the name of six methods or alternate
[57]
An illustration of Hindu temple Spires (Sikhara, Vi- viewpoints of understanding Truth. These are Nyaya,
mana) built using concentric circle and rotating-squares Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta - each
principle. The left is from Vijayanagar in Karnataka, the of which owered into their own schools of Hinduism,
each of which are considered valid, alternate paths to unright is from Pushkar in Rajasthan.
derstanding Truth and realizing Self in the Hindu way of
life.
The ancient texts on Hindu temple design, the Vastupurusamandala and Vastu Sastras, do not limit themselves From names to forms, from images to stories carved into
to the design of a Hindu temple.[49] They describe the the walls of a temple, symbolism is everywhere in a Hindu
temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, sex,
connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into
7
sciences and mathematics, painting and geography.[22]
Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have
their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do.[34]
Step well temple compounds such as the Mata Bhavani, Ankol Mata and Huccimallugudi.[76]
Forest[74] temples such as Kasaun and Kusama[77]
Styles
Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incor- The Indian rock-cut architecture evolved in Maharashtran
porating dierent methods of construction and styles:
temple style in the 1st millennium AD. The temples are
carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple
[73]
or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple.
Mountain temples such as Masrur
Ellora Temple is an example of the former, while The
Cave[74] temples such as Chandrabhaga, Elephanta Caves are representative of the latter style. The
Chalukya[75] and Ellora
Elephanta Caves consist of two groups of cavesthe rst
A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of
mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and
cardinality.
Ancient Sanskrit texts classify idols and images in number
of ways. For example, one method of classication is the
dimensionality of completion:[80]
raudra or ugra - are images that were meant to terrify, induce fear. These typically have wide, circular
eyes, carry weapons, have skulls and bones as adornment. These idols were worshipped by soldiers before going to war, or by people in times of distress
or errors. Raudra deity temples were not set up inside villages or towns, but invariably outside and in
remote areas of a kingdom.[80]
shanta and saumya - are images that were pacic,
peaceful and expressive of love, compassion, kindness and other virtues in Hindu pantheon. These
images would carry symbolic icons of peace, knowledge, music, wealth, owers, sensuality among other
things. In ancient India, these temples were predominant inside villages and towns.[80]
A Hindu temple may or may not include an idol or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu tem chitra - images that are 3-dimensional and com- ples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or
meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic represenpletely formed,
tations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him
or her. To a Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao,[80] one
chitrardha - images that are engraved in half relief,
who has realised Self and the Universal Principle within
himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image
chitrabhasa - images that are 2-dimensional such as for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach
paintings on walls and cloths.
this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations
9
through images, idols and icons as well as mental modes
of worship are oered as one of the spiritual paths in
the Hindu way of life. This belief is repeated in ancient
Hindu scriptures. For example, the Jabaladarshana Upanishad states:[80]
|
|| ||
-
A yogin perceives god (Siva) within himself,
images are for those who have not reached this
knowledge. (Verse 59)
Jabaladarsana Upanishad, [81]
From the 1st century BC through 3rd Century AD, the evidence and details about ancient temples increases. The
ancient literature refers to these temples as Pasada (or
Prasada), stana, mahasthana, devalaya, devagrha, devakula, devakulika, ayatana and harmya.[82] The entrance of the temple is referred to as dvarakosthaka in
these ancient texts notes Meister,[82] the temple hall is described as sabha or ayagasabha, pillars were called kumbhaka, while vedika referred to the structures at the boundary of a temple.
Early Jainism and Buddhism literature, along with Kautilyas Arthasastra, describe structures, embellishments
and designs of these temples - all with motifs and deities
currently prevalent in Hinduism. Bas-reliefs and idols
have been found from 2nd to 3rd Century, but none of
the temple structures have survived. Scholars[82] theorize that those ancient temples of India, later referred to
as Hindu temples, were modeled after domestic structure - a house or a palace. Beyond shrines, nature was
revered, in forms such as trees, rivers, stupas before the
time of Buddha and Vardhamana Mahavira. As Jainism A 7th century Chalukyan style temple ceiling in Karnataka
10
With the start of Gupta dynasty in the 4th century, Hindu
temples ourished in innovation, design, scope, form,
use of stone and new materials as well as symbolic synthesis of culture and dharmic principles with artistic
expression.[85][86] It is this period that is credited with the
ideas of garbhagrha for Purusa, mandapa for sheltering
the devotees and rituals in progress, as well as symbolic
motifs relating to dharma, karma, kama, artha and moksha. Temple superstructures were built from stone, brick
and wide range of materials. Entrance ways, walls and
pillars were intricately carved, while parts of temple were
decorated with gold, silver and jewels. Visnu, Siva and
other deities were placed in Hindu temples, while Buddhists and Jains built their own temples, often side by side
with Hindus.[87]
The 4th through 6th century marked the owering of Vidharbha style, whose accomplishments survive in central
India as Ajanta caves, Pavnar, Mandhal and Mahesvar. In
South India, this period is credited with some of the earliest stone temples of the region, with Chalukya temples
dated to be from the 5th century by some scholars,[88] and
the 6th by some others.[89] Over 6th and 7th century, tem- The destruction of Hindu temple sites was comparatively
ple designs were further rened during Maurya dynasty, less in the southern parts of India, such as in Tamil
evidence of which survives today at Ellora and Elephanta. Nadu. Cave style Hindu temples that were carved inside
a rock, hidden and rediscovered centuries later, such as
the Kailasha Temple, have also survived. These are now
UNESCO world heritage sites.[95]
Many Hindu temples were destroyed and the remains used to rebuild Islamic mosques between 12th and 18th century AD. Above
drawing by James Prinsep (1832) shows an overlay of a mosque
built over the ancient Hindu Vishveshvur temple.
Jagannath Puri Temple Puri, one of Char Dham four Main spiritual center of Hindu
8.2
and mankind, and the threshold between the transcendental and the phenomenal worlds.[96] It is in this inner shrine
that devotees seek a darsana of, where they oer prayers.
Devotees may or may not be able to personally present
their oerings at the feet of the deity. In most large Indian temples, only the pujaris (priest) are allowed to enter
into the main sanctum.[97]
Temple management sta typically announce the hours
of operation, including timings for special pujas. These
timings and nature of special puja vary from temple
to temple. Additionally, there may be specially allotted times for devotees to perform circumambulations (or
pradakshina) around the temple.[97]
Visitors and worshipers to large Hindu temples may be
required to deposit their shoes and other footwear before
entering. Where this is expected, the temples provide an
area and help sta to store footwear. Dress codes vary.
It is customary in temples in Kerala, for men to remove
shirts and to cover pants and shorts with a traditional cloth
known as a Vasthiram.[98] In Java and Bali (Indonesia),
before one enters the most sacred parts of a Hindu temple, shirts are required as well as Sarong around ones
waist.[99] At many other locations, this formality is unnecessary.
11
South Indian temples have a large gopuram, a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of the temple. This forms a prominent feature of Koils, Hindu
temples of the Dravidian style.[100] They are topped by
the kalasam, a bulbous stone nial. They function as
gateways through the walls that surround the temple
complex.[101] The gopurams origins can be traced back
to early structures of the Tamil kings Pallavas; and by
the twelfth century, under the Pandya rulers, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temples outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary
which became obscured from view by the gopurams
colossal size.[102] It also dominated the inner sanctum in
amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than
one gopuram.[103] They also appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor
Wat. A koil may have multiple gopurams, typically
constructed into multiple walls in tiers around the main
shrine. The temples walls are typically square with the
outer most wall having gopuras. The sanctum sanctorium
and its towering roof (the central deitys shrine) are also
called the vimanam.[104] The inner sanctum has restricted
access with only priests allowed beyond a certain point.
8.1
12
The north India Nagara style of temple designs often deploy fractal-theme, where smaller parts of the temple are
themselves images or geometric re-arrangement of the
large temple, a concept found in French and Russian architecture such as the matryoshka principle. One difference is the scope and cardinality, where Hindu temple structures deploy this principle in every dimension
with garbhgriya as the primary locus, and each pada as
well as zones serving as additional centers of loci. This
makes a Nagara Hindu temple architecture symbolically a
perennial expression of movement and time, of centrifugal growth fused with the idea of unity in everything.[105]
8.3
Deula and Khakhara Deula houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula style includes space for outer
dancing and oering halls.
8.4
Temples in Odisha
Odisha temple architecture is known as Kalinga architecture, classies the spire into three parts, the Ba (lower
limb), the Gani (body) and the Cua/Mastaka (head).
Each part is decorated in a dierent manner. Kalinga architecture is a style which ourished in Kalinga, the name
for kingdom that included ancient Odisha. It includes
three styles: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara
Deula.[109] The former two are associated with Vishnu,
Surya and Shiva temples while the third is mainly associated with Chamunda and Durga temples. The Rekha
The temple architecture of Goa is quite unique. As Portuguese colonial hegemony increased, Goan Hindu temples became the rallying point to local resistance.[110]
Many these temples are not more than 500 years old,
and are a unique blend of original Goan temple architecture, Dravidian, Nagar and Hemadpanthi temple styles
with some British and Portuguese architectural inuences. Goan temples were built using sedimentary rocks,
wood, limestone and clay tiles, and copper sheets were
used for the roofs. These temples were decorated with
mural art called as Kavi kala or ocher art. The interiors
have murals and wood carvings depicting scenes from the
Hindu mythology.
8.8
Temples in Vietnam
13
Angkor Wat is just one of numerous Hindu temples in
Cambodia, most of them in ruins. Hundreds of Hindu
temples are scattered from Siem Reap to Sambor Prei
Kuk in central Cambodian region.[113]
8.7
Temples in Cambodia
Hindu temples of ancient Java, Indonesia, bear resemblances with temples of South Indian style. The largest
of these is the 9th century Javanese Hindu temple,
Prambanan in Yogyakarta, now a UNESCO world heritage site. It was designed as three concentric squares
and has 224 temples. The inner square contains 16 temples dedicated to major Hindu deities, of which Siva temple is the largest. The temple has extensive wall reliefs
and carvings illustrating the stories from the Hindu Epic
Ramayana.[116]
In Bali, Pura (Balinese temple) is designed as an openair worship place in a walled compound. The compound
walls have a series of intricately decorated gates without
doors for the devotee to enter. The design, plan and layout
of the holy pura follows a square layout.[117][118]
14
10
Varanasi
Temple Management
Badrinath
Puri
15
Candi in Indonesia, especially in Javanese, Malay
and Indonesian, used both for Hindu or Buddhist
temples.
Pura in Hindu majority island of Bali, Indonesia.
Wat in Cambodia and Thailand, also applied to both
Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Temple sites
Amarnath
) in Kannada
Deul/Doul/Dewaaloy in Assamese
Deval/Raul/Mandir(
Deula (
)/Mandira(
Kosali Oriya
) in Marathi
) in Oriya and Gudi in
11 See also
Gudi (
), Devalayam (
), Devasthanam Media related to Hindu temples at Wikimedia Commons
(
),
Kovela (
),
Kshetralayam
(
), Punyakshetram (
),
Hindu temple architecture
or Punyakshetralayam (
) in Telugu
Kovil, or k-vill () and occasionally
Aalayam () in Tamil; the Tamil word
Kovil means residence of the king and is used
to refer to a distinct style of Hindu temple with
Dravidian architecture
Wat
),[121]
Mondir () in Bengali
In Southeast Asia temples known as:
Dharma
Moksa
Kama
Artha
Tirtha, Jyotirlinga, Char Dham
16
12
12
References
[1] George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago
Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, Chapter 4, pp 61-65
[2] Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3
[3] Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Vol 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0222-3, pp 346-357 and
423-424
[4] Klaus Klostermaier, The Divine Presence in Space and
Time - Murti, Tirtha, Kala; in A Survey of Hinduism,
ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4, State University of New York
Press, pp 268-277
[5] Susan Lewandowski, The Hindu Temple in South India,
in Buildings and Society: Essays on the Social Development of the Built Environment, Anthony D. King (Editor),
ISBN 978-0710202345, Routledge, Chapter 4
[6] MR Bhat (1996), Brhat Samhita of Varahamihira, ISBN
978-8120810600, Motilal Banarsidass
[7] Burton Stein, The Economic Function of a Medieval
South Indian Temple, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol.
19 (February, 1960), pp 163-76
[8] George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago
Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, pp 58-65
[9] Alice Boner (1990), Principles of Composition in Hindu
Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, ISBN 978-8120807051,
see Introduction and pp 36-37
[10] Francis Ching et al., A Global History of Architecture,
Wiley, ISBN 978-0470402573, pp 227-302
[11] Brad Olsen (2004), Sacred Places Around the World: 108
Destinations, ISBN 978-1888729108, pp 117-119
[12] Paul Younger, New Homelands: Hindu Communities,
ISBN 978-0195391640, Oxford University Press
[13] For the eect on Hindu temples of Islams arrival in South
Asia and Southeast Asia, see:
Marc Gaborieau (1985), From Al-Beruni to Jinnah:
idiom, ritual and ideology of the Hindu-Muslim
confrontation in South Asia, Anthropology Today,
1(3), pp 7-14;
REFERENCES
Annemarie Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN 978-9004061170, Brill Academic,
Chapter 1
Robert W. Hefner, Civil Islam: Muslims and Democratization in Indonesia, Princeton University
Press, ISBN 978-0691050461, pp 28-29
[14] George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago
Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, Chapter 1
[30] H. Daniel Smith (1963), Ed. Pncartra prasda prasdhapam, A Pancaratra Text on Temple-Building, Syracuse:
University of Rochester, OCLC 68138877
17
[49] S Bafna, On the Idea of the Mandala as a Governing Device in Indian Architectural Tradition, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 59, No. 1 (Mar.,
2000), pp. 26-49
[50] Michael W. Meister, Maala and Practice in Ngara Architecture in North India, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 99, No. 2 (Apr. - Jun., 1979), pp. 204219
[51] George Michell (1988), The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to Its Meaning and Forms, University of Chicago
Press, ISBN 978-0226532301, pp 21-22
[52] Edmund Leach, .The Gatekeepers of Heaven: Anthropological Aspects of Grandiose Architecture, Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 39, No. 3 (Autumn, 1983),
pp 243-264
[53] See:
Julius J. Lipner, Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs
and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 9780-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: (...) one need not
be religious in the minimal sense described to be
accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself
perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an
agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered
a Hindu.;
Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence,
Peace and Conict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008;
MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB
Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According
to Gandhi, a man may not believe in God and still
call himself a Hindu.
[54] Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary,
Jim Funderburk and Peter Scharf (2012); Quote:
[ kaitraja ] [ kaitraja ] n. ( fr. [
ketra-j ] g. [ yuvdi ], spirituality, nature of the
soul Lit. W.; the knowledge of the soul Lit. W.
[55] See the following two in Ewert Cousins series on World
Spirituality:
18
12
Bhavasar and Kiem, Spirituality and Health, in
Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert Cousins (1989),
ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads Publishing New
York, pp 319-337;
John Arapura, Spirit and Spiritual Knowledge in the
Upanishads, in Hindu Spirituality, Editor: Ewert
Cousins (1989), ISBN 0-8245-0755-X, Crossroads
Publishing New York, pp 64-85
REFERENCES
[72] See:
Diana L. Eck (2000), Negotiating Hindu Identities
in the US, in Harold Coward, John R. Hinnells,
and Raymond Brady Williams (Editors) - The South
Asian Religious Diaspora in Britain, Canada, and
the United States, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-79144509-9, 219237
Marion O'Callaghan (1998), Hinduism in the Indian Diaspora in Trinidad, Journal of HinduChristian Studies, Vol.
11, Article 5, doi
10.7825/2164-6279.1178
Chandra Jayawardena, Religious Belief and Social
Change: Aspects of the Development of Hinduism
in British Guiana, Comparative Studies in Society
and History, Vol. 8, No. 2 (Jan., 1966), pp 211240
[73] Meister, .Mountain Temples and Temple-Mountains:
Masrur, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 65, No. 1 (Mar., 2006), pp. 26- 49
[74] Michael W. Meister, Forest and Cave: Temples at Candrabhg and Kansun, Archives of Asian Art, Vol. 34
(1981), pp. 56-73
[75] Gary Tarr, Chronology and Development of the Chukya
Cave Temples, Ars Orientalis, Vol. 8 (1970), pp 155-184
[76] Jutta Neubauer (1981), The Stepwells of Gujarat: in arthistorical perspective, ISBN 978-0391022843, see Introduction, Chapters 1 and 2
[77] Meister, A Field Report on Temples at Kusuma, Archives
of Asian Art, Vol. 29 (1975/1976), pp. 23-46
[78] Jutta Neubauer, The stepwells of Gujarat, India International Centre Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 2 (SUMMER
1999), pp 75-80
[79] Rani-ki-vav at Patan, Gujarat, UNESCO World Heritage
Site
[80] Gopinath Rao (1914), Elements of Hindu Iconography
Madras, Cornell University Archives, pp 17-39
[81] Jabaladarsana Upanishad 1.59
[82] Michael Meister (1988), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple
Architecture, Oxford University Press, 0-691-04053-2,
Chapter 1
[83] Subhash Kak, Early Indian Architecture and Art, Migration & Diusion, Vol.6/Nr.23, pages 6-27, 2005.
[84] Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple. University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1946.
[71] Burton Stein (February 4, 1961), The state, the temple and
agriculture development, The Economic Weekly Annual,
pp 179-187
19
[88] Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and In- [101] Ching, Francis D.K. (1995). A Visual Dictionary of Ardonesian Art (New York, 1965 reprint), pp 78-80
chitecture. New York: John Wiley and Sons. p. 253.
ISBN 0-471-28451-3.
[89] Gary Tartakov, The Beginning of Dravidian Temple Architecture in Stone, Artibus Asiae, Vol. 42, No. 1 (1980), [102] Michell, George (1988). The Hindu Temple. Chicago:
pp 39-99
University of Chicago Press. pp. 151153. ISBN 0-22653230-5.
[90] Michael Meister (Editor), Encyclopedia of Indian Temple
Architecture - South India 200 BC to 1324 AD, University [103] gopura. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 2008-01of Pennsylvania Press (1983), ISBN 0-8122-7840-2
20.
[91] See:
[104] Ram Raz, Henry Harkness (1834), Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus at Google Books
20
13
[121] http://www.mustseeindia.com/
Tirupati-Sri-Venkateswara-Dhyana-Vignan-Mandiram/
attraction/11357
[122] Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary,
Quote - sacred spot, place of pilgrimage.
[123] Knut A. Jacobsen (2012), Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvic Space, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415590389
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External links
EXTERNAL LINKS
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14.1
14.2
Images
File:'1'_Sun_Temple_Konark_Temple,_Kama_Love_Orissa_India_February_2014.jpg Source:
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File:A_temple_complex,_Lord_Bhaktavatsaleshwarar_Temple_Tamil_Nadu_India_March_2010.jpg
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14.3
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