EXCERPTS FROM

THE NOTEBOOKS OF LEONARDO DA VINCI

VOLUME 1
TRANSLATED BY
JEAN PAUL RICHTER
1888
FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/17921, Project
Gutenberg

FORMATTED BY
Jeff Wiggett

Preface
The author's intention to publish his MSS.
Howbyacertainmachinemanymaystaysometimeunderwater.
And how and wherefore I do not describe my method of
remaining under water and how long I can remain without
eating.AndIdonotpublishnordivulgethese,byreasonof
theevilnatureofmen,whowouldusethemforassassinations
at the bottom of the sea by destroying ships, and sinking
them, together with the men in them. Nevertheless I will
impartothers,whicharenotdangerousbecausethemouthof
the tube through which you breathe is above the water,
supportedonairsacksorcork.1

The preparation of the MSS. for publication.

Whenyouputtogetherthescienceofthemotionsofwater,
remember to include under each proposition its application
anduse,inorderthatthissciencemaynotbeuseless.2

Admonition to readers.
LetnomanwhoisnotaMathematicianreadtheelementsofmy
work.
...

1Theleafonwhichthispassageiswritten,isheadedwiththewordsCasi39,andmost
ofthesecasesbeginwiththeword'Come',likethetwoheregiven,whicharethe26th
and27th.7.Sughero.IntheCodexAntlanticus377a;1170athereisasketch,drawn
withthepen,representingamanwithatubeinhismouth,andatthefartherendof
thetubeadisk.Bythetubetheword'Channa'iswritten,andbythedisktheword
'sughero'.

2AcomparativelysmallportionofLeonardo'snotesonwaterpowerwaspublishedat
Bolognain1828,underthetitle:"Delmotoemisuradell'Acqua,diL.daVinci".

Painting
General introductions to the book on Painting.
Seeing that I can find no subject specially useful or
pleasingsincethemenwhohavecomebeforemehavetakenfor
theirowneveryusefulornecessarythemeImustdolikeone
who, being poor, comes last to the fair, and can find no
otherwayofprovidinghimselfthanbytakingallthethings
alreadyseenbyotherbuyers,andnottakenbutrefusedby
reasonoftheirlesservalue.I,then,willloadmyhumble
packwiththisdespisedandrejectedmerchandise,therefuse
ofsomanybuyers;andwillgoabouttodistributeit,not
indeedingreatcities,butinthepoorertowns,takingsuch
apriceasthewaresIoffermaybeworth.3
Iknowthatmanywillcallthisuselesswork 4;andtheywill
be those of whom Demetrius5 declared that he took no more
accountofthewindthatcameouttheirmouthinwords,than
ofthattheyexpelledfromtheirlowerparts:menwhodesire
nothingbutmaterialrichesandareabsolutelydevoidofthat
ofwisdom,whichisthefoodandtheonlytruerichesofthe
mind.Forsomuchmoreworthyasthesoulisthanthebody,
3

Itneedhardlybepointedoutthatthereisinthis'Proemio'acovertirony.Inthe
secondandthirdprefaces,Leonardocharacteriseshisrivalsandopponentsmore
closely.HisprotestisdirectedagainstNeolatinismasprofessedbymostofthe
humanistsofhistime;itsfutilityisnownolongerquestioned.

questaessereoperainutile.Byoperawemusthereunderstandlibrodipitturaand
particularlythetreatiseonPerspective.]

5Demetrio."WithregardtothepassageattributedtoDemetrius",Dr.H.MULLER
STRUBINGwrites,"Iknownotwhattomakeofit.ItiscertainlynotDemetrius
PhalereusthatismeantanditcanhardlybeDemetriusPoliorcetes.Whothencanitbe
forthenameisaverycommonone?ItmaybeaclericalerrorforDemadesandthe
maximisquiteinthespiritofhiswritingsIhavenothoweverbeenabletofindany
correspondingpassageeitherinthe'Fragments'(C.MULLER,Orat.Att.,II.441)nor
intheSupplementscollectedbyDIETZ(Rhein.Mus.,vol.29,p.108)."Thesame
passageoccursasasimpleMemorandumintheMS.Tr.57,apparentlyasanoteforthis
'Proemio'thusaffordingsomedataastothetimewheretheseintroductionswere
written.

somuchmorenoblearethepossessionsofthesoulthanthose
ofthebody.Andoften,whenIseeoneofthesementakethis
workinhishand,Iwonderthathedoesnotputittohis
nose,likeamonkey,oraskmeifitissomethinggoodto
eat.6
...
ThoughImaynot,likethem,beabletoquoteotherauthors,
Ishallrelyonthatwhichismuchgreaterandmoreworthy:
onexperience,themistressoftheirMasters.Theygoabout
puffed up and pompous, dressed and decorated with [the
fruits],notoftheirownlabours,butofthoseofothers.
Andtheywillnotallowmemyown.Theywillscornmeasan
inventor;buthowmuchmoremighttheywhoarenotinventors
butvauntersanddeclaimersoftheworksofothersbeblamed.
And those men who are inventors and interpreters between
NatureandMan,ascomparedwithboastersanddeclaimersof
the works of others, must be regarded and not otherwise
esteemed than as the object in front of a mirror, when
comparedwithitsimageseeninthemirror.Forthefirstis
somethinginitself,andtheothernothingness.Folkslittle
indebtedtoNature,sinceitisonlybychancethattheywear
the human form and without it I might class them with the
herdsofbeasts.
...

Intheoriginal,theProemiodiprospettivacioedell'uffitiodell'occhio(seeNo.
21)standsbetweenthisandtheprecedingone,No.9.

The plan of the book on Painting.

ON THE THREE BRANCHES OF PERSPECTIVE.
Therearethreebranchesofperspective;thefirstdealswith
thereasonsofthe(apparent)diminutionofobjectsasthey
recedefromtheeye,andisknownasDiminishingPerspective.
Thesecondcontainsthewayinwhichcoloursvaryasthey
recedefromtheeye.Thethirdandlastisconcernedwiththe
explanation of how the objects [in a picture] ought to be
lessfinishedinproportionastheyareremote(andthenames
areasfollows):

LinearPerspective.
ThePerspectiveofColour.
ThePerspectiveofDisappearance.7

ON PAINTING AND PERSPECTIVE.

ThedivisionsofPerspectiveare3,asusedindrawing;of
these, thefirst includesthe diminutionin sizeof opaque
objects; the second treats of the diminution and loss of
outlineinsuchopaqueobjects;thethird,ofthediminution
andlossofcolouratlongdistances.8
THE DISCOURSE ON PAINTING.
Perspective, as bearing on drawing, is divided into three
principal sections; of which the first treats of the
diminutioninthesizeofbodiesatdifferentdistances.The
secondpartisthatwhichtreatsofthediminutionincolour
7FromthecharacterofthehandwritingIinferthatthispassagewaswrittenbefore
theyear1490.

ThedivisionisherethesameasinthepreviouschapterNo.14,andthisisworthy
ofnotewhenweconnectitwiththefactthataspaceofabout20yearsmusthave
intervenedbetweenthewritingofthetwopassages.

in these objects. The third [deals with] the diminished

distinctness of the forms and outlines displayed by the
objectsatvariousdistances.
ON THE SECTIONS OF THE BOOK ON PAINTING.
Thefirstthinginpaintingisthattheobjectsitrepresents
should appear in relief, and that the grounds surrounding
thematdifferentdistancesshallappearwithinthevertical
plane of the foreground of the picture by means of the 3
branches of Perspective, which are: the diminution in the
distinctnessoftheformsoftheobjects,thediminutionin
theirmagnitude;andthediminutionintheircolour.Andof
these 3classes ofPerspective thefirst resultsfrom [the
structureof]theeye,whiletheothertwoarecausedbythe
atmospherewhichintervenesbetweentheeyeandtheobjects
seenbyit.Thesecondessentialinpaintingisappropriate
actionandaduevarietyinthefigures,sothatthemenmay
notalllooklikebrothers,&c.9

The use of the book on Painting.

Theserulesareofuseonlyincorrectingthefigures;since
everymanmakessomemistakesinhisfirstcompositionsand
hewhoknowsthemnot,cannotamendthem.Butyou,knowing
your errors, will correct your works and where you find
mistakes amend them, and remember never to fall into them
9

Thisandthetwoforegoingchaptersmusthavebeenwrittenin1513to1516.They
undoubtedlyindicatetheschemewhichLeonardowishedtocarryoutinarranginghis
researchesonPerspectiveasappliedtoPainting.Thisisimportantbecauseitisan
evidenceagainstthesuppositionofH.LUDWIGandothers,thatLeonardohadcollected
hisprinciplesofPerspectiveinonebooksoearlyasbefore1500;aBookwhich,
accordingtothehypothesis,musthavebeenlostataveryearlyperiod,ordestroyed
possibly,bytheFrench(!)in1500(seeH.LUDWIG.L.daVinci:DasBuchvander
Malerei.Vienna1882III,7and8).

again.Butifyoutrytoapplytheserulesincompositionyou
willnevermakeanend,andwillproduceconfusioninyour
works.
...

The function of the eye.

INTRODUCTION TO PERSPECTIVE:THAT IS OF THE FUNCTION OF THE EYE.
...
Insosmallaspaceitcanbereproducedandrearrangedin
itswholeexpanse.Describeinyouranatomywhatproportion
thereisbetweenthediametersofalltheimagesintheeye
andthedistancefromthemofthecrystallinelens.
OF THE 10 ATTRIBUTES OF THE EYE, ALL CONCERNED IN PAINTING.
Painting isconcerned withall the10 attributesof sight;
which are:Darkness, Light, Solidity and Colour, Form and
Position, Distance and Propinquity, Motion and Rest. This
little work of mine will be a tissue [of the studies] of
these attributes, reminding the painter of the rules and
methods by which he should use his art to imitate all the
worksofNaturewhichadorntheworld.
ON PAINTING.
Variabilityoftheeye.
1st. The pupil of the eye contracts, in proportion to the
increaseoflightwhichisreflectedinit.

2nd. The pupil of the eye expands in proportion to the

diminution in the day light, or any other light, that is
reflectedinit.
3rd.10 The eye perceives and recognises the objects of its
visionwithgreaterintensityinproportionasthepupilis
morewidelydilated;andthiscanbeprovedbythecaseof
nocturnalanimals,suchascats,andcertainbirdsastheowl
andothersinwhichthepupilvariesinahighdegreefrom
largetosmall,&c.,wheninthedarkorinthelight.
4th.Theeye[outofdoors]inanilluminatedatmospheresees
darkness behind the windows of houses which [nevertheless]
arelight.
5th.Allcolourswhenplacedintheshadeappearofanequal
degreeofdarkness,amongthemselves.
6th.Butallcolourswhenplacedinafulllight,nevervary
fromtheirtrueandessentialhue.
OF THE EYE.
Focusofsight.
Iftheeyeisrequiredtolookatanobjectplacedtoonear
toit,itcannotjudgeofitwellashappenstoamanwho
triestoseethetipofhisnose.Hence,asageneralrule,
Natureteachesusthatanobjectcanneverbeseenperfectly
unlessthespacebetweenitandtheeyeisequal,atleast,
tothelengthoftheface.

10

ThesubjectofthisthirdpropositionwefindfullydiscussedinMS.G.44a.

Differences of perception by one eye and by both eyes.

OF THE EYE.
Whenbotheyesdirectthepyramidofsighttoanobject,that
objectbecomesclearlyseenandcomprehendedbytheeyes.
Objectsseenbyoneandthesameeyeappearsometimeslarge,
andsometimessmall.
Themotionofaspectatorwhoseesanobjectatrestoften
makesitseemasthoughtheobjectatresthadacquiredthe
motionofthemovingbody,whilethemovingpersonappearsto
beatrest.
ON PAINTING.
Objectsinrelief,whenseenfromashortdistancewithone
eye,looklikeaperfectpicture.Ifyoulookwiththeeyea,
batthespotc,thispointcwillappeartobeatd,f,and
ifyoulookatitwiththeeyeg,hwillappeartobeatm.A
picturecannevercontaininitselfbothaspects.
Lettheobjectinrelieftbeseenbybotheyes;ifyouwill
lookattheobjectwiththerighteyem,keepingthelefteye
nshut,theobjectwillappear,orfillupthespace,ata;
andifyoushuttherighteyeandopentheleft,theobject
(will occupy the) space b; and if you open both eyes, the
objectwillnolongerappearataorb,butate,r,f.Why
willnotapictureseenbybotheyesproducetheeffectof
relief,as[real]reliefdoeswhenseenbybotheyes;andwhy
shouldapictureseenwithoneeyegivethesameeffectof

relief as real relief would under the same conditions of

lightandshade?11

The comparative size of the image depends on the amount of light.

The eye will hold and retain in itself the image of a
luminousbodybetterthanthatofashadedobject.Thereason
is that the eye is in itself perfectly dark and since two
thingsthatarealikecannotbedistinguished,thereforethe
night,andotherdarkobjectscannotbeseenorrecognisedby
the eye. Light is totally contrary and gives more
distinctness, and counteracts and differs from the usual
darknessoftheeye,henceitleavestheimpressionofits
image.
Everyobjectweseewillappearlargeratmidnightthanat
midday,andlargerinthemorningthanatmidday.
Thishappensbecausethepupiloftheeyeismuchsmallerat
middaythanatanyothertime.
...
ON PAINTING.
Iftheeye,when[outofdoors]intheluminousatmosphere,
seesaplaceinshadow,thiswilllookverymuchdarkerthan
itreallyis.Thishappensonlybecausetheeyewhenoutin
theaircontractsthepupilinproportionastheatmosphere
reflected in it is more luminous. And the more the pupil
contracts, theless luminousdo theobjects appearthat it
sees.Butassoonastheeyeentersintoashadyplacethe
11

Inthesketch,misthelefteyeandntheright,whilethetextreversesthis
lettering.Wemustthereforesupposethatthefaceinwhichtheeyesmandnare
placedisoppositetothespectator.

darkness of the shadow suddenly seems to diminish. This

occursbecausethegreaterthedarknessintowhichthepupil
goesthemoreitssizeincreases,andthisincreasemakesthe
darknessseemless.12
ON PERSPECTIVE.
...
Thepupiloftheeye,intheopenair,changesinsizewith
everydegreeofmotionfromthesun;andateverydegreeof
itschangesoneandthesameobjectseenbyitwillappearof
adifferentsize;althoughmostfrequentlytherelativescale
of surrounding objects does not allow us to detect these
variationsinanysingleobjectwemaylookat.
The eyewhich sees all objects reversedretains the images
for some time. This conclusion is proved by the results;
because, the eye having gazed at light retains some
impressionofit.Afterlooking(atit)thereremaininthe
eye images of intense brightness, that make any less
brilliant spot seem dark until the eye has lost the last
traceoftheimpressionofthestrongerlight.

12

Laluceentrera.Luceoccurshereinthesenseofpupiloftheeyeasinno51:C.
A.84b;245a;I5;andinmanyotherplaces.