CHAPTER 17 Synchronous Motors 17.0 Introduction he synchronous generators described inthe pre= vious chapter can operate either as generators ‘oF a8 motors. When operating as motors (by con necting them to a 3-phase source), they are called synchronous motors. As the name implies, synchro. nous motors run in synchronism with the revolving field. The speed of rotation is therefore tied to the frequency of the source, Because the frequency is 369 fixed, the motor speed stays constant, irrespective of the load or voltage ofthe 3-phase line. However, synchronous motors are used not so much because they run at constant speed but because they possess other unique electrical properties, We will study these features in this chapter. ‘Most synchronous motors are rated between 150 KW (200 ip) and 15 MW (20-000 bp) and tar at speeds ranging from 150 to 1800 s/min, Consequently, these machines are mainly used in heavy industry Figure 17.1 ‘Three-phaso, unity power factor synchro ‘nous motor rated 3000 hp (2200 KW), 927 ‘min, 4000 V, 60 He driving @ comprosear Used in a pumping station on the Trans ‘Canada pipetne. Brushless exctatlon is provided by 221 kW, 250 V aternatonrect- fier, which is mounted on the shaft between the bearing pedestal and the main rotor. (Courtesy of General Elect)310 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS (Fig, 17.1). At the other end of the power spectrum, We find tiny single-phase synchronous motors used in control devices and electsic clocks. They are dis cussed in Chapter 18, 17.1 Construction Synchronous motors are identical in coastruction to salient-pole ac generators. The stator is composed of a slotted magnetic core, which carries a 3-phase Jap winding. Consequently, the winding is also identical to that of a 3-phase induction motor ‘The rotor has asetof salient poles that are excited by a de current (Fig. 17.2). The exciting coils are ‘connected in series to two slip-rings, and the de cur- Figure 17.3 rent is fed into the winding from an external exciter Slots are also punched out along the circumference of the salient poles. They carry a squirel-cage wind ing similar to that in 8 3-phase induction motor. This damper winding serves to start the motor, ‘Moder synchronous motors often employ brush less excitation, similar to that used in synchronous generators. Referring to Fig, 17.3, a relatively small Jephase generator, called exciter, anda 3-phase ret fier are mounted at one end of the motor shaft. The de current /, from the rectifier is ed dinectly into the salient-pole windings, without going through brushes and slip-rings. The current can be varied by controling the sina exciting current F. that flows in the stationary field winding of the exciter, Fig. 174 Figure 17.2 Rotor ofa 50 Hz to 16 2/8 He frequency ‘converter used to power an elect railuay. ‘The 4pole rotor ai the lets associated with a single-phase alternator rated 7000 KA, 16 2/3Hz, PF 85%, The rotor onthe fight for a 900 XVA, 50 He, 903% PF synchronous motor which crves tha sin- gle-phase atlornatcr. Bot rotors aro ‘equipped with squirel-eage windings. (Courtesy of ABB) siesta (Sanase cer Shsn connsetion lage ecitier stator of synetronous tor Diagram showing the main components ofa brushless exciter fora synchronous motor. tis similar to that of a syn- chronous generatorshows how the excite, rectifier, and salient poles are ‘mounted in 2 3000 kW synehronous motor. ‘The rotor and stator always have the same num- her of poles, AS in the case of an induction motor, the number of poles determines the synchronous speed of the motor 5 amy where n, = motor speed [v/main} f= frequency of the umber of poles SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS Example 17-1 - Calculate the number of salient poles on the rotor of the synchronous motor shown in Fig. 17.4a, Solution The motor operates 60 Hz consequently, nd runs at 200 r/min; 1 = 120 Np 200 = (120 x 60¥%p p= 36 poles ‘The rotor possesses 18 north poles and 18 south poles Figure 17.44 ‘Synchronous motor rated 4000 hp (8009 KW), 200 rimin, 6.9 KV, 60 H2, 60% power factor designed to drive an ore ‘rusher. The brushless excier(aterna- {ov/rectife) is mounted on the averhung shaft and is rated 50 KW, 250 V. (Courtesy of General Electric) Figure 17.4 Close-up ofthe 50 KW exciter, showing the armature winging and 5 ofthe 6 sfodes used to eetty tne ae currant. (Courtesy of General Elecric)m ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS 17.2 Starting a synchronous motor A gynehroneus motor eannot start by itself; conse quently, the rotors usually equipped with asquirrel- cage winding so that it can start up as an induction ‘motor. When the stator is connected f the 3-phase Tine, the motor aecelerates until it reaches a speed slightly below synchronous speed, The de excitation is suppressed during this starting period. ‘While the rotor accelerates, the rotating fu ere- ated by the stator sweeps across the slower moving salient poles. Because the coils on the rotor possess relatively large number of turns, a high voltage is Induced in the rotor winding when it turns at low speeds. This voltage appears between the slip-rings and it decreases as the rotor accelerates, eventually becoming nepligible when the rotor approaches synchronous speed. To limit the voltage, and to im- prove the starting torque, we either short-circuit the slip-rings or connect them to an auxiliary resistor during the starting period. If the power capacity of the supply line is fim ited, we sometimes have to apply reduced voliage {0 the stator. AS in the ease of induction motors, we use either autotransformers or series reactors to limit the starting current (sce Chapter 20). Very large synchronous motors (20 MW and more) are sometimes brought up to speed by an auxiliary mo- tor, called a pony motor Finally. in some big instal- lations the motor may be brought up to speed by & varlable-frequency electronic source, 17.3 Pull-in torque [As soon as the motor is running at close t0 syn- chronous speed, the rotoris excited with de current. ‘This produces alternate N and S$ poles around the cireumference of the rotor (Fig. 17.5). Ifthe poles ‘at this moment happen to be facing poles of appo- site polarity on the stator, @ strong magnetic altrac~ tion is set up between them. The mutual straction locks the rotor and stator poles together, and the ro- tor is literally yanked into step with the revolving, field. The torque developed at this moment is ap- propriately called the pull-in torque. 905 ole amrisotMpole_f_exnots otrowr Figure 17.5 The poles of the rotor are attracted to the opposite poles on the stator At nooad the axes of the poles coincide. "The pull-in torgue of a synchronous motor is powerful, but the de current must be applied atthe right moment, For example, if it should happen that the emerging N, S poles ofthe rotor are opposite the IN, $ poles of the stator, the resulting magnetic re- pulsion produces a violent mechanical shock. The ‘motor will immediately slow down and the eitcuit breakers will trip. In practice, starters for synchto= ‘nous motors are designed to detect the precise mo- ‘ment when excitation shoutd be applied. The motor then pulls automatically and smoothly into step ‘with the revolving field. Once the motor tums at synchronous speed, 10 voltage is induced inthe squirel-cage winding and s0 it caries no current. Consequently, the behavior of synchronous motor is entirely different from that of an induction motor. Basically, a synchronous motor rotates because of the magnetic attraction between the [poles ofthe rotor and the opposite poles ofthe stator ‘To reverse the direction of rotation, we simply interchange any two lines connected to the stator. 17.4 Motor under toad— general description ‘When a synchronous motor runs at n0-load, the ro- or poles are directly opposite the stator poles and their axes coincide (Fig. 17.5). However, if we ap- ply a mechanical load, the rotor poles fall slightlyss of pole maotnom jig trtatSonte Figure 17.6 ‘The rotor poles are displaced with respect othe axes ofthe stator poles when: the motor delivers mechani- cal power behind the stator poles, but the rotor continues (6 tum at synchronous speed. The mechanical angle ‘a between the poles increases progressively as we inerease the load (Fig. 17.6). Nevertheless. the ‘magnetic attraction keeps the rotor locked to the revolving field, and the motor develops an ever more powerful torque as the angle inereases. ‘But there is a limit, If the mechanical load ex ceeds the pull-out torque of the motor, the rotor poles suddenly pull away from the stator poles and the motor comes to a halt. A motor that pulls out of step creates a major disturbance on the fine, and the cient breakers immediately trip. This protects the motor because both the squimrel-cage and stator windings overheat rapidly when the machine ceases ‘oun at synchronous speed ‘The pull-out torque depends upon the magneto~ ‘motive force developed by the rotor and the stator ‘poles. The mmf of the rotor poles depends upon the de excitation J,, while that of the stator depends ‘upon the ae current flowing in the windings. The pull-out torque is usually 1.5 10 2.5 times the nom= inal full-load torque. ‘The mechanical angle a between the rotor and stator poles has a direct besring on the stator current. As the angle increases, the current increases. This is tobe expected because a larger angle corresponds to SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 373 a bigger mechanical load, and the increased power ‘can only come from the 3-phase ae source. 17.5 Motor under load— simple calculations We can get a better understanding of the operation of a synchroaous motor by referring fo the equiva lent circuit shown in Fig, 17.7a, It represents one phase of a wye-conneeted motor It is identical 10 the equivalent circuit of an ac generator. because both machines are built the same way. Thus, the flux ¢ created by the rotor induces a voltage Ein the stator. This flux depends on the de exeiting cur rent /,. Consequently, E, varies with the excitation. [As already mentioned, the rotor and stator poles are lined up at no-load. Under these conditions, in- duced voltage E, is in phase withthe line-to-neutral voltage £ (Fig, 17.7b). in addition, we adjust the excitation so that £, = , the motor “floats” on the Tine and the line current / is preetically zero. In ef- fect, the only current needed is to supply the small windage and friction losses in the motor, and so itis negligible ‘What happens if we apply a mechanical load 10 the shaft? The motor will begin to slow down, causing the rotor poles to fall behind the stator poles by an angle @, Due to this mechanical shift, E, reaches its maximum value a fttle later than before. Thus, referring (0 Fig. 17.7e, Ey is now 5 electrical degrees behind E. The mechanical dis- placement « produces an electrical phase shift 8 between , and &. ‘The phase shift produces a difference af poten- tial £, across the synchronous reactance X, given by Es B~ By Consequently, a current [ must flow in the cireuit, given by from which378 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS. Figure 17.7 ‘Equivalent eit of a synchronous motor, showing ‘one phase. EE, glazistestpeoeeineentsoasceaae Figure 17.7b Motor at no-load, with E, adjusted 19 equal E. Ex= E~Eo 8 = pal2 Figure 17.76 ‘Motor under load E, has the same value as in Fig 17-7, butt lage behind E. “The current fags 90° behind £, becanse X, isin ductive. The phasor diagram under toad is shown in Fig, 17-7e. Because /is nenrly in phase with E, the motor absorbs active power. This power is entirely transformed into mechanical power, except for the relatively small copper and iron Josses in the stator. In practice, the excitation voltage E, is adjusted to be greater or Tess than the supply voltage , Its value depends upon the power output of the motor and the desired power factor. Example 17-2a.—_—_________— 'A.500 bp, 720 rfmin synchronous motor connected to ‘4 3980 V, 3-phase line generates an excitation vott- lage £,, of 1790 V (line-o-neutral) when the de excit- ing current is 25 A. The syachronous reactance is 22 ‘Qand the torque angle between E, and E is 30°, Caleulate ‘The value of E, 1 The ac line current cc. The power factor of the motor {d. The approximate horsepower developed by the motor ce, The approximate torque developed at the shat Solution ‘This problem can best be solved by using vector no- tation. a. The voltage F (line-to-neutral) applied to the motor has a value E= BIV3 = 3980/3 2300 V Let us select £ as the reference phasor, whose angle with respect to the horizontal axis is as- ymed to be zero. The, B= 230020" Ik follows that B, is given by the phasor 17902. ~30" ‘The equivalent circuit per phase is given in Fig. 1784 Moving clockivise around the cirevit and ap- plying Kirchhoft’s voltage law we can write 300.0% = 17902 ~30" "300 (eos O° + J sin O°) ~ 1790 (cos ~30° + j sia ~30°) — 1850 +895 150 + J 895 1168250"Figure 17.8 Equivalent cteut of a synchronous motor connected toa source E, ‘Thus, phasor , has a value of 1168 V and it Teads phasor E by 50°. b. The Fine current Fis given by PIUHB, ‘Thus, phasor I has a value of 53 A and it lags 40° behind phasor E, ©, The power factor of the motor is given by the cosine of the angle between the line-to-neutral voltage E across the motor terminals and the current J Hence, power factor = cos 0 = eos 40° = 0.766, 016.6% “The power factor is lagging because the eurent lags behind the voltage. “The complete phasor diagram is shown in Fi. 1780. 4, Total active poser input tothe stator: Pr= 3X Byuhicos 0 = 3 x 2300 X 53 X cos 40" = 280 142 W = 280.1kW Neglecting the FR losses andl iron fosses i the Stator, the electrical power transmitted across he airgap to the rotor is 280.1 kW. “Approximate horsepower developed: P= 280.1 X 10°746 = 375 hp SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 375 Figure 17.80 Son bsampe 172 Approximate tome: 1 9:95. 28010" 70 Example 17-26 ‘The motor in Example 17-2a has a stator resistance of 0.64 © per phase and possesses the following losses: PR losses in the rotor 32kW ‘Stator core loss: 33kW ‘Windage and friction loss: 1.5 KW Cateulate a, The actual horsepower developed >. The actual torque developed at the shaft cc. The efficiency of the motor Solution ‘a, Power input to the stator is 280.1 kW Stator PR losses = 3 X 53” x 0.64 Q = 5.4 KW. “Total stator losses Power transmitted to the rotor = 1A kW 54+ 3.3=87kW 80.1 — 8.7 ‘The power atthe shaft is the power to the rotor ‘minus the windage and friction tosses. ‘The rotor316 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS PR tosses ate supplied by an external de source and so they do not affect the mechanical power. Power available atthe shatt: P, an4-15 269.9 x 10° 269.9 kW = 3618p ‘This power is very close to the approximate vvalue calculated in Example 17-22. », The corresponding torque is: 935 xP _ 9.58 x 269.9 x 10 a 70 = 3980. N-m_ ce, Total losses = 54 +33 +32+15= 134 kW ‘Total power input = 280.1 + 3.2 = 283.3 kW ‘Total power output = 269.9 kW Efficiency = 269.9/283.3 = 0.9527 = 95.3 % Note thatthe stator resistance of 0.64 Gis very small compared to the reactance of 22 2 Consequently, the true phasor diagram is very close tothe phasor diagram of Fig. 17.86. 17.6 Power and torque When a synchronous motor operates under load, it draws active power from the line. The power is given by the same equation we previously used for the synchronous generator in Chapter 16 P= (EEIX) sind (165) [As in the case of a generator, the active power absorbed by the motor depends upon the supply voltage F, the excitation voltage E,, and the phase angle 6 between them. If we neglect the relatively small FR and iron Tosses in the stator, all the power is transmitted across the air gap tothe rotor. ‘This is analogous to the power P, transmitted cross the air gap of an induetion motor (Section 13.13). However, in a synchronous motor, the ro tor FR losses are entirely supplied by the de source. Consequently, all the power transmitted across the air gap is available in the form of me- chanical power. The mechanical power developed by a synchronous motor is therefore expressed by the equation aay where P= mechanical power of the motor, per phase (W] = line-to-neutral voltage induced by /,{V] E = line-o-neutral voltage of the source [V] 1X, = synchronous reactance per phase [0} 8 = torque angle between E, and E {electrical degrees} ‘This equation shows that the mechanical power increases with the torque angle, and its maximum value is reached when 8 is 90°, The poles of the rotor are then midway between the N ‘and § poles of the stator. The peak power Pry (per-phase) is given by mers Pras =X [As fot us torque is concerned, itis directly propor- tional to the mechanical power because the rotor speed is fixed. The tongue is derived from Eq 3.5: a3) ata) where T= torque, per phase [Nom] P= mechanical power, per phase {WI synchronous speed {s/min} ‘constant [exact value = 60/21] 9.95 “The maximum torque the motor ean develop is called the pull-out torque, mentioned previously. It ‘occurs when 8 = 90° (Fig. 17.9).* +The remarks in thie section apy © mots having sot rotors. Most synchronous mots have salient poles inthis ase tie polo torque occurs a ap ange of about 70".SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 377 we New 8 Pp Tr reel ee es 90 100 800 « 00 120 866 653, aa 150 so 400 { 180 0 ° we ‘These values are plotted in Fig. 17.9. bo. The torque curve can be found by applying Bq, i800 * 174 pamiaat beceat T= 9.55 Pin, Figure 17.9 = 9.55 P/1200 Power and torque per phase as a function ofthe torque oe ‘angi 8. Synchronous motor rated 150 KW (200 hp, +200 min, 3-phase, 60 Hz. See Example 17-8 ce, The pullout torque Try coivedes with the ‘maximum power obtput Example 17-3 Tyas = 800 Nom ‘4.150 KW, 1200 wimin, 460 V, 3-phase synchronous motor has a synchronous reactance of 0.8 0, per phase. Ifthe excitation voltage F, is fixed at 300 ¥. per phase, determine the following: a. The power versus 6 curve b. The torque versus 6 curve . The pull out torque of the motor Solution ‘8, The Line-to-neutral voltage is B= BIV3 = 460/V3 266V "The mechanical power per phase is EEIX,) sin 266 x 300/0.8) sin = 99750 sin 6 [W] = 100 sin 5 [KW] By sclecting different values for 8, we ean calcu late the cortesponding Values of P and T, per phase. 72) 8 P T el (kw) (Nem 0 0 0 30 so 400 oo 366 683 (consnaca “The actus pull-out torque is 3 times as great 2400 Nem) because this isa 3-phase machine. Similarly, the power and torque values given in Fig. 17.9 must also be multiplied by 3. Consequently, this 150 kW motor can develop a maximum output of 300 kW. for about 400 hp, 17.7 Mechanical and electrical angles As inthe case of synchronous generators, there is @ precise relationship between the mechanical angle tee woxque angle Ban the numberof poles pI is given by palt «75) Example 17-4 A 3-phase, 6000 kW, 4 KY, 180 r/min, 60 Hz mo- tor has a’synehtonous reactance of 1.2 9. At full-load the rotor poles are displaced by a me- chanical angle of 1° from theit no-load position. IF the Hine-to-neutral excitation B, = 2.4 kN, calew. late the mechanical power developed Solution "The number of poles is p= 120,fn, = 120 x 60/180 = 40378 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS ‘The electrical torque angle is pal? = (40 % 12 = 20° Assuming a wye connection, the voltage £ applied to the motor is B= BIVE = 4kViVS =23KV = 2309 and the excitation voltage is F, = 2400 ‘The mechanical power developed per phase is P= (ESEIX,) sind 72) (2400 % 2309/1 2) sin 20° = 1573300 = 1573 KW ‘Total power = 3 x 1573 = 4719 KW (~6300 bp) 17.8 Reluctance torque If we gradually reduce the excitation of a synchro- nous motor when itis running at no-load, we find that the motor continues to run at synchronous speed even when the exciting current is zero. The season is that the flax produced by the stator prefers to cross the short gap between the salient poles and the stator rather than the much longer ait gap be- ‘ween the poles. In other words, because the reluc~ {ance ofthe magnetic circuit is less in the axis of the salient potes, the flux is concentrated as shown in Fig. 17.10a. On account of this phenomenon, the motor develops a reluctance tongue. If a mechanical load is applied to the shalt, the rotor poles will fall behind the stator poles, and the siator flux will have the shape shown in Fig. 17,10b. ‘Thus, a considerable reluctance torque can be de- veloped without any de excitation at all, ‘The reluctance torque becomes zero when the sotor poles are midway between the stator poles ‘The reason is that the N and S poles on the stator at- Foe aie ng Figure 17.100 The flux produced by the setor flows across the air gp through the salient poles erisofN pole ‘ [--aisor Sole Figure 17.105 ‘The salient poles are attracted to the stator poles, ‘thus producing a reluctance torque. ‘act the salient poles in opposite directions (Fig. 17.10c). Consequently, the reluctance tongue is 2er0 precisely at that angle where the regular torque Tat- ‘ains its maximum value, namely at 5 = 90° Fig. 17.11 shows the reluctance torque as tion of the angle 8. The torque reaches a maximum positive value at B = 45°. For larger angles it attains 2 maximum negative value at 8 = 135°, Obviously, {0 mum as a reluctanee-torque motor, the angle must lie between zero and 45°. Although a positive torque is sill developed between 45° and 90°, this isan un- stable region of operation, The reason is that asthe angle increases the power decreases,SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 319 Figure 17.106 ‘The reluctance torque is zara when the salent poles are micway between the stator poles. ic Figure 17.11 Reluctance torque versus the torque angle AS in the case of a conventional synchronous ‘motor, the mechanical power curve has exactly the same shape as the torque curve. ‘Thus, in the ab- serice of dc excitation, the mechanical power reaches a peak at 8 = 45° Does the saliency of the poles modify the power and torque curves shown in Fig. 17.97 The answer is yes. In effect, the curves shown in Fig. 17.9 are those. ‘of a smooth-rotor synchronous moter. The torque of a salient-pole motor is equal tothe sum of the smodth- olor component and the reluctance-torque compo- pent of Fig. 17.11. Thus, the irae tongue curve of asyn- cchvonous motor has the shape (3) given in Fig, 17.12. ‘The peak reluctance torque is about 25 percent of the peal smooth-rotor torque. AS a result, the peak torque of a salient-pole motor is about 8 per= cent greater than that of a smooth-rotor motor, as Figure 17.12 Ina synchronous motor the reluctance torque (1) plus the smooth-rotor torque 2) produce the resultant torque (@). Torque (2) due to the de exstation ofthe rotor can be seen in Fig. 17.12. However, the difference is not very great, and for this reason we shall con- tinue to use Eqs. 17.2 and 17.5 to describe synchro nous motor behavior. 17.9 Losses and efficiency of a synchronous motor In order to give the reader a sense of the order of magnitude of the putl-out torque, resistance, reac- {ance, and losses ofa synehronous motor, we have drawn up Table 17. I¢shows the characteristics of 8.2000 hp and 2 200 hp synchronous motor, respec- tively labeled Motor A and Motor B. ‘The following points should be noted: 1. The torque angle at full-Ioad ranges between 27° and 37°. It corresponds tothe electrical an- gle 8 mentioned previously. ‘The power needed to excite the 2000 lp moter (4.2 kW) is only about twice that needed for the 200 hp motor @2.1 kW). In general, the Jasger the synchronous motor the smaller is the per-unit power needed to excite it 3. The total losses of Motor A (38 KW) are only four times those of Motor B (9.5 kW} despite the380 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS TABLE 17A CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS, NAMEPLATERATING -MOTORA _ MOTORD. power [hp] 2008 bp 200 hp power kW] 192k 49 KW Tine volage +4000. 40 line curent 2208 208 A. speed 1800:/min 900 min frequency 6H: 0 He phases 3 3 LOAD CHARACTERISTICS, power factor 10 10 pull-out torque (pu) 14 22 torque angle at full-load ——36.7° a conection wye we dcexciter power 42kW 24 kW dcexciter volage 125 5 sir gap 10mm 6mm Losses \windage and friction a5KW nw Stator core Toss TW ou stray Tosses 4kW LAW stator PR 1o3kW 35k revo PR 42kW 2RW ‘oul losses 38. 9sKw efficiency 975) 940% IMPEDANCES AND VOLTAGES (ine-o-eural ves} stator X, 1779 0.0.0 stator resistance 00638 0.0262 0 ratio XU, m2 B phase voltage E 2309V 254 phase voltage 2e73V 285 fact that Motor A is ten times as powerful. This is another property of large motors: the more horsepower they develop, the smaller the rela- tive losses are. As a result the efficiencies im- prove with increase in power. Compare the effi- ciencies of the two motors: 97.5% versus 94.0%. 4, The synchronous reactance X, per phase ruck larger than the resistance of the stator winding, Note that forthe 2000 hp motor X, is 122 times larger than R,. As a result, we can al- ‘ways neglect the effect of R, as far as motor performance is concerned 17.10 Excitation and reactive power Consider a wye-connected synchronous motor con- nected to a 3-phase source whose line voltage Eis fixed (Fig, 17.13). It follows thatthe line-to-neutal voltage Eis also fixed. The lino currents I produce ‘Amagnetomotive free U, inthe stator. On the other hand, che rotor produces a de magnetomoive force U,. The total flux is therefore created by the comm bined action of U, and Uy Pursuing our reasoning, flux ® induces fine-to- neural vollage E, in the stator. If we neglect the very small IR crop inthe stator, it follows that E, E However, because Eis fixed, ® is also fixed, us in the case ofa transformer (see Section 9.2). ‘The mmf needed 0 create the constant flux & may be produced ether by the stator othe rotor ot by both, Ifthe rotor exciting curent is eto al the Figure 17.13 ‘The total lux is due tothe mm produced by the .o- tor (U)) plus the mmt produced by the stator (U,). For given &,, tho xP is essentially fxd,flux has to be produced by the stator. The stator must then absorb considerable reactive power from the ‘phase line (see Scetion 7.9). But if we excite the rotor with a de current f, the rotor mmf helps pro- ‘duce patt ofthe flux 4, Consequently, less reactive power is drawn from the ac line. Iv we gradually raise the exvitation, the rotor will eventually pro- duce all the required flux by itself, ‘The stator then. draws no more reactive power, with the result that the power factor of the motor becomes unity (1.0) What happens if we excite the motor above this critical level? The stator, instead of absorbing reac tive power, actually delivers reactive power to the 3:phase line. The motor then behaves like a source of reactive power, just as if it were a capacitor "Thus, by varying the de excitation we ean cause the motor to either absorb or deliver reactive power Because of this important property, synchronous motors are sometimes used! to correct the power fac- tor of plant at the same time as they fornish me: chanical power to the load they are driving. 17.41 Power factor rating ‘Most synchronous motors are designed to operate at ity power factor. However, if they also have to de- Tiver reactive power they are usually designed 10 0p- ‘erate at a full-load power factor of O.8 (leading). A rotor designed for a povier factor of 08 can deliver reactive power equal co 75 percent ofits rated me ‘chanical load. Thus, the 3000 KW motor showa in Fig, 17.4 can supply 75% X 3000 = 2250 kvar to the line at the same time as it develops is rated ine Cranial output of 3000 kW, Motors designed to op crate at leading power factors are bigger and more ‘costly than unity power factor motors are, The rea son is that fora given horsepower rating, both the de exciting current and the stator current are higher. ‘This cum be explained as follows. Fig. 17-14 is the schematic diagram of a unity power factor motor operating at full-oad. The line- fo-neutral voltage is Egy and the fine current i8 fp ‘The active power absorbed per phase is, therefore, P= Ely 76) SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 381 “The active power absorbed is equal to the mechan- ical power of the motor. Figure 17.14 {Unity poner factor synchronous motor and phasor ci _ageam at fullioad, Fig. 17.15 shows an 80% power factor motor also operating at full-oad. It develops the same me ‘hanical power as the motor in Fig, 17.14, The fine ‘current /, leads Byy By arcos 0.8 = 36.87°, This eur. font can be broken up into two components Jp and Ty, and itis clear that 8, amy 1= 061, (178) ‘The active power P is given by P= Eyl O8 Eh 079 The reactive power delivered by the motor is = Early = 06 Eards 17.10) ' Figure 17.15 ‘20 percent power factor synchronous motor and pha 0% diagram at ful-oat. It follows from Bgs. 17.9 and 17.10 that Q=0.15P = 15% of rated mechanical ovtpat as was stated previously. If we compare f, with 1, we find that J, ~ 1.25 Ie “Thus, for the same mechanical power output, a mo~ tor designed for a leading power factor of 80% basSN ELEC IRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSPORMERS to carry a Jine current that is 25% greater than one that operates at unity power factor. 17.12 V-curves Suppose a synchronous motor is operating at its rated mechanical load. We wish to examine its be havior as the excitation is varied. Because a change inexctation does not affect the speed, the mechan- ical power remains fixed. Let us begin by adjusting the excitation f, $0 that the power factor is unity, thus yielding the phasor diagram showa in Fig. 17.16. We assume f, = 100 A and P = 800 KW. If we reduce the exeitation to 70 A, the motor will draw reactive powser from th line in addition {0 the active power. We assunie tht increases 10 (000 KVA. As a result, the Hine current will in- = bb “ y= abom aw ‘8 = 600 kVA @ o Figure 17.16 1. Synchronous motor operating at unity power factor ‘with a mechanical load of 800 kW. Feld exetation is 1008 ». Fhasor diagram shows current in phase with the voltage . be. z he » fan | NG P= s00 KW. $= rooxva a @ ® Figure 17.17 2, Field excitation reduced to 70 A but with seme me- ‘chanical load. Motor absorbs reactive power fom the line '. Phasor agram shows current lagging behind the votiage. QO [Yass Les P= ewoKw 3 = 1000 hVA « © Figure 17.18 8, Field excitation raised to 200 A bust with same ma- ‘chanteal load. Motor delvars reactive power to the tne. ’. Phasor diagram shows current leasing the voltage, ‘ease from I, tol, (Fig. 17-17). Note that the com- Ponent of J, in phase with E,. i the same as before because the motor is still developing the same me- chanical power. Current Jy, lags behind E,,, and so the power factor of the motoris legging. The field current J, in the rotor is smaller than before, but the apparent power S absorbed by the stator is greater. If we inerease the excitation to f, = 200 A, the motor delivers reactive power tothe line which it is connected (Fig, 17.18). The apparent power is ‘again greater than in the unity power factor case We assume § = 1000 KVA. The line current be- comes {> and jt leads Ey. However, the in-phase ‘component of fy is still equal tof, because the me- chanical power is the same. By varying the excitation this way, we can plot the apparent power of the synchronous motor as function of the de exciting current, This yields a V-shaped curve (Fig. 17.19). The V-curve is always displayed for a fixed mechanical load, In our ease, the V-curve corresponds to full-load, The no-load Ve-curve is also shown, to illustrate the large reae- tive power that can be absorbed or delivered by simply changing the excitation, Example 17-5 4000 hp (3000 kW), 6600 V, 60 Hz, 200 rime sysichronous motor operates at full-lond ata leading power factor of 08, Ifthe synchronous reactance is 11.0, calculate the following:pian futoae 8 wo 200 Figure 17.19 Nosdoad an ful-load V-curves of a 1000 hp syncs nous motor “The apparent power ofthe motor, per phase ‘The ac line current ‘The value and phase of E, Draw the phasor diagram Determine the torque angle 8 Sotuion ‘We shall immediately change the given values to corepond sone pis ofa uye-comected motor, a. Thactive power por phase is P= 30008 = 1000. ‘Th apparent power per pase is 5 Ploosd = 100008 11) = 30 kVA b. Thetneto- neutral voltage is BINS = 6600/3 = 3811V “The tne cstentin 1= Si = 1250 x 10003811 28 A Heads Eby an angle of arcos 08 ~ 369° ¢. To determine the alve and phase of he exita- ton oliage Ey we draw tz equivalent cuit tf ene phase Pig. 17.20), This wll emble sto ‘write the circuit equations. Furthermore, we se- lect Eas the reference phasor and so SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 383, Figure 17.20 (Clout of a synchronous motor connected to a soures E. Note the arbitrary (+) polarty marks and arbitrary direction of current flow. See Example 17-5, = 381520" Ic follows that /is given by 1 3282369° Writing the equation for the eireuit we find E+ IX, + B= 0 thus Ey 7 3811 20° — j 3282369") 11 8112.0" ~ 3608.(36.9° + 90°) = 3811 (cos 0° + jsin 0%) ~ 3608 (cos 126.9" + j sin 126.9") B11 + 2166 ~ j 2885 1977 — j 2885 = 66372 -26° 4. Consequently, &, tags 26° behind B, and the complete phasor diagram is shown in Fig. 17.21 . The torque angle & is 26°, 17.13 Stopping synchronous motors Owing to the inertia of the rotor and its load, large synchronous motor may take several hours 10 stop after being disconnected from the line, To reduce the time, we use the following braking methods; 1. Maintain full de excitation with the armature in short-circuit384 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS. Figure 17.21 ‘See Example 17-5. 2. Maintain full de excitation with the armacure ‘vonnected to three extemal resistors. 3. Apply mechanical braking. In methods | and 2, the motor slows down because it fanctions as a generator, dissipating its energy in the resistive elements of the circuit. Mechanicat braking is usually applied only after the motor has reached half-speed or less. A lower speed prevents undue wear of the braks shoes, Example 17-6 — 8.1500 kW, 4600 V, 600 rimin, 6 He synchro- ous motor possesses a synchronous reactance of 16 © and a stator resistance of 0.2 0, pee phase, The excitation voltage , is 2400 V, and the mo- tment of inertia of the motor and its load is 275 kegm?. We wish to stop the motor by short suiting the armature while Keeping the de rotor urrent fixed Cateutate 4. The power dissipated in the armature at 600 imin ». The power dissipated in the armature at 150 vimin ‘The kinetic energy at 600 r/min |, The kinetic energy at 150 r/min ce. The time required for the speed to fall from £600 r/min to 150 x/min Solution a, In Fig. 17.22a the motor has just been discon- rccted from the Fine and is now operating as @ generator in short-circuit. The speed is still 600 ‘nin, and the frequency is 60 Hz, Consequently, the impedance per phase is Z=VR TR 2x12) ‘The current per phase is EZ 1504 ‘The power dissipated in the 3 phases at 600 min is P= 3PR=3 x 150° x 0.2 = 135 kW 2400/16 bb. Because the exciting curent is fixed, the in- duced voltage £, is proportional to the speed. ‘Consequently, when the speed has dropped to 150 rnin, E, = 2400 x (150/600) = 600 V ‘The frequency is also proportional to the speed, ‘and so f= 60 x (15/60) = 15 He Te steams racine open intone comernen aco 500 rimin Motor turning at 600 rimin (Example 47-6) sea Figure 17.2284a woo 180 cin Figure 17.220 Motor turning at 150 vmin (Example 17-6), X, = 16 x (15160) = 40 Referring to Fig. 17.220 the new impedance per phase at 150 s/min is Z=VOr+#=40 ‘The current phase is EsZ = 6004 150A ‘Thus, the short-citeuit current remains un- changed as the motor decelerates from 600 ‘min to 150 rnin, The power dissipated in the 3 phases is therefore the same as before: P=13SkW cc. The Kinetic energy at 600 r/min is Eq, = 548 X 1079 Jn? G8) 5.48 x 10°? x 275 x 600" 942.5 KF 4. The kinetic energy at 150 r/min is Eqq = SAB x 107? x 275 x 150? 33.9 & . ‘The loss in kinetic energy in decelerating from £600 r/min to 150 r/min is WH Bu ~ Bo 542.5 ~ 33.9 508.6 KI ‘This energy is lost as heat in the armature resis- tance, The time for the speed to drop from 600 smn to 150 r/min is given by SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 385 Pa Wi G4) 135 whence Note that the motor would stop much sooner if external resistors were connected across the sta- tor terminals. 17.14 The synchronous motor versus the induction motor We have alteady seen that induction motors have excellent properties for speeds above 600 r/min, But at lower speeds they become heavy, costly, and hhave relatively low power factors and efficiencies. Synchronous motors are particularly attractive for low-speed drives because the power factor can always be adjusted to 1.0 and the efficiency is high. Although more complex to build, their weight and ccost are often less than those of induction motors of equal power and speed. This is particularly true for speeds befow 300 r/min. ‘A synchronous motor can improve the power fac- tor of a plant while carying its rated load. Furthermore, is starting torque can be made consid- erably greater than that of an indvetion motor. ‘The reason is thatthe resistance of the squirrel-cage wind- ing can be high without affecting the speed or eff ciency at synchronous speed, Figure 17.73 compares the properties ofa squirel-cage induction mocor and ‘asynehironous motor having the same nominal rating. ‘The biggest difference isin the starting torque High-power electronic converters generating very low frequencies enable us to run synchronous motors at ultra-low speeds. Thus, huge motors in the 10 MW range drive crushers, rotary kilns, and variable-speed ball mills. 17.15 Synchronous capacitor Asynchronous capacitor is essentially a synehronous ‘motor running at no-load. ts only purpose is to ab- ‘orb or deliver reactive power on a 3-pihase system, in order to stabilize the voltage (see Chapter 25). The machine acts as an enormous 3-phase capacitor (or386 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS (in| hates) 6 25 o % a 2 Naso 95 T0025 + mechanics power 250 T aynevonous moter Figure 17.28 Comparison between the efficiency (a) and starting ‘torque (b) ofa squiret-cage induction motor and a synctvonous moter, both rated at 4000 np, 1800, rimin, 69 4V, 6D Hz inductor) whose reactive power can be varied by changing the de excitation. Most synchronous capacitors have ratings that range from 20 Mvar to 200 Mar and many are hydrogen-cooled (Fig. 17.24). They are started up like synchronous motors. However, if the system ccannot furnish the required starting power, a pony ‘motor jg used to bring them up to synchronous speed. For example, in one instalation, a 160 Mvar Figure 17.24@ ‘Thvee-phase, 16 kV, 900 min synchronous capacitor rated ~200 Muar (suppving reactive powar) 10 +800 Hvar (absorbing reactive power). It's used 1oreguiate the voltage of a 735 KV transmission line. Cther char- actoritios: mass of rotor: 143; otorciameter: 2670, ‘ir; axial length of stator iron: 8200 mm; air gap length: 39.7 mm, Figure 17.24 Synchronous capacitor enclosed inte steel housing ‘containing hydrogen under pressuro (200 KPa, or about 44 Ibn) (Courtesy of Hycro-Québec)synchronous capacitor is started and brought up to speed by means of a 1270 KW wound-rotor motor. Example 17-7 poet A synchronous capacitor is rated at 160 Mvar 16 KV, 1200 r/min, 60 He, It has a synchronous re- aactance of 0,8 pu and is connected t0 a 16 KV fine, Calculate the value of £, so that the machine fa, Absorbs 160 Mvar b. Delivers 120 Mvar Solution ‘8, The nominal impedance of the machine is 25 BIS, 163) 16 000160 X 10°) = 162 The syachronous reactance per phase is X, = Xslpu) Z, = 0.8 X 16 = 1280 ‘The line current for a reactive load of 160 Mar SM V3E,) 160 x 101.73 16.000) STBOA ‘The drop across the synchronous reactance is IK, = 5780 X 1.28 7400 ‘The line-to-neutral voltage is b= nV3 = 16000/1.73 9250 Selecting F as the reference phasor, we have E = 925020" ‘The current Flags 90° behind f because the machine is absorbing reactive power; conse- quently. T= 57802-90" SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 387 14.000 = E % 5550 vasov aatov Figure 17.256 Overexcited syrehvonous capacitor delivers reactive power (Example 17-7) From Fig. 17.25a we can write HEI, + E,=0 hence B-iIK, = 9250.0" ~ S780 X 1.28290" ~ 90°) = 185020" Note that the excitation voltage (1850 V) is snc less than the line voltage (9250 V). b, The load current when the machine is deliver- ing 120 Mvaris I, = OUNIE) = 120 x 101.73 x 16 000) = 43354 ‘This time Fleads E by 90° and so 1 = 4335290" From Fig, 17.25b we ean write Ey Bik, 25020 — 4335 x 1.282 180" 9250 + $550)20° = 14 80020° E,388 ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS. 5780 Figure 17.254 Under-excited synchronous capacitor absorbs reac tive power (Example 17-7). ‘The excitation voltage (14 800 V} is now con- siderably greater than the line voltage (9250 V). Questions and Problems Practical level 17-1 Compare the construction of a synchro ‘ous generator, a synchronous motos, and a squirrel-cage induction motor. 17-2 Explain how a synchronous motor starts up. ‘When should the de excitation be applied? 17-3. Why does the speed ofa synchronons motor remain constant even under variable load? 17-4 Name some of the advantages of a gyn- cchronous motor compared to a squierel- cage induction motor 17-5 What is meant by a synchronous capacitor and what is it used for’? 17-6 a, What is meant by an underexcited sm ehranous motor? bi, Ifwe overexcite a synchronous motor, does its mechanical power ouput increase? 17-7 Asynchronous motor draws 2000 kVA at 4 power factor of 90% leading. Caleulate the approximate power developed by the 17-8 17-9 ‘motor [hp] knowing it has an efficiency of 955, A synchronous motor driving a pump ‘operates at a power Factor of 100%. What happens if the de excitation isin creased? ‘A 3:phase, 225 r/min synchronous motor connected to a 4 KV, 60 He. line draws a ‘current of 320 A and absorbs 2000 kW. Calewtate 17-10 The apparent power supplied to the motor », The power factor . The reactive power absorbed 4. The number of poles on the rotor Asynchronous motor draws 150 A from a Jephase line. Ifthe exciting current is, raised, the current drops to 140 A, Was the ‘motor over- or under-excited before the excitation was changed? Intermediate level 1-H wae 713 Weld ‘4, Calculate the spproximte full load earrent ‘ofthe 3000 ip motor in Fig. 171, if ichas an efficiency of 978, 1b, What isthe value ofthe fel resistence? Referring to Fig. 17.2, at what speed must the rotor turn to generate the indicated fre- ‘quencies? A 3:phase synchronous motor rated 800 hp, 2.4 KV, 60 Hz operates st unity power factor. The line voltage suddenly drops to 1.8 KY, but the exciting current remains unchanged. Explain how the following ‘quantities are affected: a, Motor speed and mechanical power out 1b Torque engle 8 €. Position ofthe roto poles 4. Power factor fe. Stator current A synchronous motor has the following parameters, per phase (Fig. 17.73)17-16 17-48 Draw the phasor diagram and determine: Torque angle 8 Active power, per phase Power factor ofthe motor I. Reactive power abcorbed (or delivered), por phase eere 17-15 a, fn Problem 17-14 caleulate the line euerent and the new torgue angle & if the mecheni- cal load is suddenly removed, bh, Calculate the now reactive power absorbed {or delivered by the motor, pr phase A.500 hp synchronous motor drives a ‘compressor and its excitation is adjusted so thatthe power factor is unity. Ifthe ex citation is increased without making any other change, what is the effect upon the following: a The setive power absorbed hy the motor 1b The line current The reactive power absorbed (or elivered) by the motor 4. The torque angle Advanced level 17-17 ‘The $000 hp, 6.9 KV motor shown in Fig. 17.4 possesses a synchronous reactance of 10.9, per phase, ‘The stator is connected in wye, and the motor operates at foll-load (4000 hp) with a leading power factor of 0.89. Ifthe efficiency is 97%, calculate the following: ‘The apparent power 1, The Hine current The valve of E, per phase 4. The mechanical displacement ofthe poles from their no-losd position © The total reactive power supplied 0 the electrical system The approximate maximum power the ‘motor can develop, without poling ou of step the In Problem 17-17 we wish to adjust the power factor to unity. Cateutare a. The exciting voltage &, ‘a, The new vorque angle quired, per phase 17-19 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS 389 A S-phase, unity power factor syneiro- ‘ous motor rated 400 hp, 2300 V, 450 r/min, 80 A, 60 Hz, drives a compressor. “The stator has a synchronous reactance of (0.88 pu, and the excitation £, is adjusted to 1.2 pu. Calewlate 17.20 a, The value of Xan of F,. per phase B. The pull-out torque [fbf] 6 The Tine cureat when the motor is about te pull oat of synchroaisnt ‘The synchronous capacitor in Fig, 17.24 possesses a synchronous reactance of 0.6 £2, per phase. ‘The resistance per phase is 0.007 0. Ifthe machine coasts to a stop, it will run for about 3 b.In or der to shorten the stopping time, the sta- tor is connected to three large 0.6 0. braking resistors connected in wye. The de excitation is fixed at 250 A s0 that the initial Line voltage across the resistors is one-tenth of its rated value, or 1600 V, at 900 r/min. Cateulate The total braking power ard braking torque at 900 vin 1. The braking power and braking torque at 480 min The average broking orgue between 900 wmin and 450 sin 4. The time forthe speed to fll fot 900 renin 0450 rfmin, knowing thatthe moment of Jnrta ofthe rotor is 1.7 10°F Industrial application q7.21 ‘A500 hp, S-phase, 2200 V, anity power factor synchronous motor has arated cur rent of 103 A Itcan deliver its rated out- pput 50 long as the air intet temperature is 40°C or less, The manufacturer states that the output ofthe motor must be decreased by 1 percent for each degree Celsius above 40°C. Ifthe air inlet temperature is 46°C, calculate the maximum allowable ‘motor eurrent.390 17.22 [BLECTRICAL MACHINES AND TRANSFORMERS ‘An 8800 KW, 6.0 KY, 1500 r/min, 3-phase, 50 Ha, 0.9 power factor synchronous mo- ‘or manufactured by Siemens has the fol- Jowing properties: 4. Rated current: 962.4 2 Rated torque: 56.0kN'm 3. Pullout tergue: 145 po 4. Locked-ro1or current: 4.9 pu ‘5. Excitation voluge: 160 V 6, Excitation curent: 387A 7. Full-load efficiency, excluding excitation system losses: 97.8% 8, Moment of inertia of rotor: $20? 9, Temperature rise of cooling water: 25°C 032°C 10, Flow of cooling water: 465 Lin 11, Maximum permissle extemal moment of ineria: 1370Kg: 12, Mass of rotor: 6.10 (t= metric ton) 13, Mass of stator: 7.50 14, Mass of enclosure: 3.97 ¢ Using the above information, caleutate the fok lowing: A The total mass of the motor including its enclosure, in metric tons ', The flow of cooling water in gallons (US) per minute . The maximum total momen of inertia (in Ibs), which the motor can pul nto syn ehronism 4. The total losses of the motor at ful-oad The total efficiency ofthe motor at full load f The reactive power delivered hy the motor at full-load Ifthe iron losses are equal othe stor eop- per losses, calculate the approximate resis- lance between wo terminals ofthe staer 1, Caleulat te resistance ofthe fel circu