Adaptations of Resistance

exercise

Different types of adaptations

2 groups
Neurological most important change over
time in response to the sensory system due
to a constant stimulus or a sudden change
in that stimulus
Structural physical features of an organism
in relation to the body which can be adapted

List of adaptations
-More efficient motor unit recruitment and
synchronisation
-Bone density
-Synchronisation of agonist and antagonist muscles
-Co-firing pattern
-Rate coding
-Autogenic inhibition
-Hormonal
-Strength, power or muscular endurance gains
-Hypertrophy functional and non-functional
-DOMS

Strength gains graph

-Initial increases mostly due
to neural adaptations
-Following this the neural
adaptation markedly
slows down and
additional strength gains
come mainly as a result
of hypertrophy or
increased muscle size
-Additional benefits due to
the use of steroids
-There is scientific evidence
which shows that
hypertrophy is only fully
switched on when
neural adaptations to
strength training begin to
tail off.

Motor units

Originates from CNS and consists of

a motor neuron and the muscle
fibres within which are innervated by
the axon
When activated by electrical impulse
all the fibres contract simultaneously
Number of muscle fibres within a
motor unit will vary from each muscle
Resistance training can increase
these numbers and elicit greater
productions of force

Increased training
Greater level of
MU
Increased force

-Increased motor
unit
firing
-Increase in number of motor
units effecting a muscular
contraction
-Enhanced ability to recruit
greater numbers of motor
units
-Increase in synchronisation
leading to a greater
production of force

MU synchronization

Changes may occur in the connections between motor neurons

located in the spinal cord due to resistance training. The change may
result in the recruitment of motor units at the same time which in turn
is a great contributor to increases in strength. As a novice trainer
makes progress, his ability to utilize multiple motor units increases
significantly. This increased synchronization results in this elevation
of strength compared to those attainable in an untrained muscle.

Why?
The synapses that the motor neurons make may become enhanced.
The characteristics of the these synapses are able to change as a
result of physical activity. The axon of the motor neuron may become
hypertrophic and as a result conduct impulses to the muscle fibres at
a greater speed.
Gabriel D.A et al. (2006)

Rate coding

the tension of a given motor unit can

vary from that of a twitch to that of
tetanus by increasing the frequency of
stimulation of that motor unit.

Single motor unit

can exert varying
levels of force
dependent on
frequency of
stimulation
Twitch smallest
contractile response
of a motor unit to a
electrical stimulus
Greater series
Summation
force/tension
of 3 stimuli
in rapid
sequence
Tetanus continued
Peak at higher
stimulation
force/tension
frequencies

MU recruitment and coactivation

Improved co-firing pattern firing of other muscles
around major working muscles

Increased inhibition of antagonist muscles

preserve joint integrity

Increased synchronization of agonist and

antagonist muscles

Better recruitment of synergist muscles during

exercise - branchioradialis and biceps in the
elbow for flexion and extension

MU recruitment
Hennamans size principle law states that the
order in which muscle fibres contract is small
and size principle
slow twitch fibres followed by the larger fast
twitch ones

Benefits

1) Minimizes fatigue by
recruiting the fatigue
resistant fibres first and
only using fatigable fibres
when high forces are
required
2) Permits fine levels of
control over force at all
level of output

Adaptation
Light load Type 1 fibres
(slow-oxidative)
Heavier load Type 2a fibres
(fast-oxidative)
Heaviest laod Type 2x fibres
(fast-glycolytic)

Resistance training will

increase the number of
these motor units resulting
in being able to activate
the type 2a and type 2x
fibres quicker enable
greater force and power
output

Studies
1. An

experiment by Conwit, RA et al. (1999) backs up the theory of MU recruitment in which they found that
motor units are in fact recruited in an orderly manner according the size principle. The study looked at
average motor unit size and firing rate in relationships with force productions of the quadriceps femoris by
using EMG. Results showed the size of motor units increased linearly with increased force production and
firing rate remained constant to 30% maximum force, increasing with greater generation of force.

2. Evidence

from Van Cutsem, Duchateau, and Hainaut (1998) provides substantial evidence for a neural
effect of training. In their study, they asked subjects to train their ankle dorsiflexors for 12 weeks (5 times
per week) by moving a load representing 30% to 40% of 1RM as quickly as possible. At the end of the
study, recruitment of motor units during ballistic contractions was examined using intramuscular
electrodes. The researchers found that ballistic contractions after the training program were faster, with a
more rapid onset of EMG. They also found that maximal instantaneous firing rates of motor units during
ballistic contractions were higher and showed less decrease in frequency after training. In addition, the
percentage of motor units showing incidents of doublets (two spikes of the same motor unit separated by
5 milliseconds or less) increased from 5.2% of the control units to 32.7% of the trained units. The authors
suggested that ballistic training causes increased motoneuron excitability that leads to the previously
described changes.

http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/strength-training-results-in-measurable-changes-in-motor-unit-recruitment
3.

Autogenic inhibition
A sudden relaxation of muscle in response to high-magnitude tension
Controlled by GTO (Golgi-tendon organ) whereby a sudden stretch in a muscle
causes a reflexive activation of the antagonist muscle and relaxation of the agonist
Protects muscles against tearing

Dampen GTO train to tolerate greater loads = fo

The increase in size or

growth of a muscle and its
component cells enabling
them to become stronger
and adapt to a stimulus
Myofibrils - small structures with a
basic functional contractile unit that
allows a muscle to contract creating
force and producing movement Transient hypertrophy
Sarcoplasm - is a non-contractile semifluid gelatine like substance which fills
the space around the myofibrils. It
contains primarily dissolved proteins,
minerals, fats & a large quantity of
stored glycogen Chronic hypertrophy

Muscle hypertrophy

Muscle hypertrophy
Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy (Transient)
Growth of sarcoplasm
Accumulation of fluid called Oedema
between the space of the muscle resulting
in temporary swelling
Non-contractile proteins that do not directly contribute to muscle force production
Non-functional
Fluid returns to blood circulation within couple of hours
More commonly known within typical bodybuilding athletes 60%+ 1RM, 8-12 reps,
30 seconds 2 minute rest
Myofibrillar hypertrophy (Chronic)
Muscle fibre grows more myofibrils and additional contractile protein units
Increased connective tissue as well as number of actin and myosin causing greater
strength
Functional
Higher number of active proteins within the muscle
Associated with Olympic weightlifting athletes due to more contractile protein gains
and therefore strength gains 80%+ 1RM, 1-5 reps and 2-3 minutes rest

Hyperplasia
The increase in the number of muscle fibres present
Studies evidencing the theory in animals however inconclusive for humans
There are two primary mechanism in which new fibres can be formed
1) Satellite cells can be activated cells generated to fuse with each other
after the damaging of muscles to form new fibres
2) Longitudinal splitting - large fibres can split into two or more smaller
fibres

Satellite Cell Proliferation

A - Signals trigger dormant satellite

cell to go into action
B These replicate forming anew cell
and one that proliferates
C The proliferating satellite cell can
now form a cell called a myoblastic
cell
These myoblastic cells being formed
across multiple regions can now form

Longitudinal splitting
-Suggested to occur
most frequently
during heavy weight
training
-Muscle fibres
divide and split into
two daughter cells
-These then can
each develop and
grow into a
functional muscle
fibre the same as
that of the parent
fibre

DOMS
Structural

damage to muscle, membrane and connective

tissue
Cell damage disruption of calcium homeostasis and
cellular respiration
This accumulation of calcium will break down and
degenerate muscle protein lead to inflammation and
pain due to accumulating histamines and potassium
outside the cell
Mostly caused by eccentric exercise
Gullick, DT et al. (1996) this type of exercise causes
the actin and myosin cross-bridges to separate prior to
relaxation, ultimately causing greater tension on the
remaining active motor units. This increases the risk of
broadening, smearing, and damage to the sarcomere
Microscopic ruptures in the muscle at the z-line of the
muscle sarcomere contractile units which make up the
muscle fibres and join them
These ruptures (microtraumas) enhance
Pre (left) normal muscle with regular repeating
the nociceptors within the connective
pattern of sarcomere
tissue to stimulate the sensation of pain
Post(right) severe disruption to the thick and
thin filaments within parallel group

Additional adaptations
Energy

system adaptations

Connective

tissue

Increased ATP + CP stores via super

compensation effect reducing ATP + CP
concentrations due to high intensity
exercise
Poortmans et al. (1997)

-Increases in ligament/tendon strength

-Increase in connective tissue surrounding muscle fibres

Endocrine

system

The stimulus of resistance exercise has been demonstrated to elicit acute,

post exercise responses in blood borne hormone levels and changes in
basal, or resting, concentrations of hormones after prolonged, long-term
training. (Deschenes, M andWilliam J. Kraeme, 2002)
Increased

stimulation of endocrine glands leading to greater release of

hormones into the blood

Enhancement

hormones

of further physiological actions through this increase of

Increased anaerobic glycolysis

in numbers of glycolytic
enzymes
in amount of lactic acid
produced, improved cori-cycle
resulting in LA tolerance

Bone density
In

response to loading of the bone through muscular

contractions or other methods of mechanical forces the
bone begins a process of bone modelling
The application of weight-bearing force cause the bone to
bend
This causes osteoblasts to manufacture and secrete
proteins (primarily collagen fibers)
Deposits itself in spaces between the bone cells abd results
in the bone acquiring its rigid structure and strength
This new bone formation occurs chiefly on the outer surface
of the bone, known as the periosteum.
Baechle, T and Earle, R (2008)

Reference list
Journals

Gabriel, D. A., Kamen, G., & Frost, G. (2006). Neural Adaptations to Resistive Exercise: Mechanisms and
Recommendations for Training Practices. Sports Medicine, 36(2), 133-149.

Conwit RA, Stashuk D, Tracy B, McHugh M, Brown WF & Metter EJ (1999). The relationship of motor unit
size, firing rate and force. Clinical Neurophysiology, 1270-1275.

Henneman, E., Wuerker, R. & McPhedran, A. (1965). Properties of motor units in a heterogeneous pale
muscle (m. gastrocnemius) of the cat. J. Neurophysiol. 28, 85-99

Cardinale, M., Newton, R., & Nosaka, K. (2011) Strength and conditioning biological principles and
practical applications. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Chapter 1.1, p.11.

Wilmore, J., Costill, D. & Kenney, W. (2008) Physiology of Sport and Exercise 4 th Edition. Champaign,
USA: Human Kinetics.

Poortmans et al. (1997) Long term effects of creatine monohydrate on strength and power. J strength
Cond Res 13: 187-192. 1999

Baechle, T and Earle, R (2008) Essentials of strength training and conditioning. Third edition. National
Strength and Conditioning Association, pg 103.

Gulick, DT; Kimura, IF; Sitler, M; Paolone, A; Kelly, JD (April 1996). "Various treatment techniques on
signs and symptoms of delayed onset muscle soreness.". Journal of athletic training 31 (2): 14552.
Internet

Motorneuron mapping (no date). Available at:

http://www.eng.mu.edu/wintersj/muscmod/nms-func-physiology/nm-map.htm [Accessed online on: 19th
February 2014]

Freeborn, S (2012) Available at: http://intellectualfitness.org/?p=308 [Accessed online on: 21st February
2014)

Larry Kenney, W (no date) Physology of sport and exercise, Firth edition. Available at:
http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/recent-research-provides-insight-into-muscle-soreness
[Accessed online on: 26th February 2014]