ECE 3364 Circuits II Power Formulas (front)

Instantaneous power p (t ) = v(t ) * i (t )

In AC-circuits
v(t ) = v m cos( 0 t + v ) and i (t ) = i m cos( 0 t + i )

Inductors: v i = / 2 . Capacitors: v i = / 2

vm im
v i
cos( v i )[1 + cos(20 t )] m m sin( v i ) sin( 20 t ) v a where i (t ) is the 0 reference
2
2
v i
p (t ) = m m cos( v i )[1 + cos(20 t + v + i )] v a where v & i can be referenced with respect to any 0 reference
2
p(t ) =

v i
Average power P = m m cos( v i )
2
Power factor angle pfa = v i

v i
Reactive power Q = m m sin( v i )

watts

var s

Power factor pf = cos( v i )

Reactive factor rf = sin( v i )
Lagging (current-phase lags voltage-phase) v > i
leading (current-phase leads voltage-phase) v < i

v
i
RMS values v rms = m and i rms = m so that P = v rms i rms cos( v i )
2

watts

Note: "rms" and "effective" are synonymous, so you often see v eff instead of v rms , etc.
Complex power S = P + jQ

va

Apparent power S =

P2 + Q2

2
2
~
~
~
~
S = Vrms I rms * = Vrms / Z * = I rms Z

va

v i
v i
S = m m e (v i ) = m m ( v i ) v a
P = S cos( v i ) watts Q = S sin( v i ) var s
2
2
Given S , a lagging pf , P =| S | pf watts and Q = S sin( + cos 1 ( pf )) var s
Given S , a leading pf , P =| S | pf

watts and Q = S sin( cos 1 ( pf )) var s

In phasor notation (AC-circuits)

v
i
~
~
~
~
V = v m v and I = i m i or in RMS units V rms = m v = v rms v and I rms = m i = i rms i
2
2
~ ~*
~
*
v m im
V I
| V rms | 2
~
~
~
S=
( v i ) =
= V rms I rms
va =
= | I rms | 2 Z Load
*
2
2
( Z Load )
Balanced 3-phase circuits (AC)
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
Pos phase seq: V BN = (1.0 120) V AN ; VCN = (1.0 + 120) V AN and V BC = [1.0 120]V AB ; VCA = [1.0 + 120]V AB
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
Neg phase seq: V BN = (1.0 + 120) V AN ; VCN = (1.0 120) V AN and V BC = [1.0 + 120]V AB ; VCA = [1.0 120]V AB

( )

~
3 + 30 V AN

~
3 30 V AN

Pos phase seq: V AB =

Neg phase seq: V AB =

~ rms
PAY load = V AN
~ rms
Q YA load = V AN

~
I AB =

~
I AB =

~
+ 30 I aA
3

~
1
30 I aA
3

~ rms
I aA
cos( VAN I aA ) = PBY load = PCY load
~ rms
I aA
sin( VAN I aA ) = Q BY load = QCY load

note: I AN = I aA

watts

PTTL = 3 PA

var s

QTTL = 3 Q A

~ rms ~ rms * ~ rms ~ rms

S A = V AN
I aA
= V AN I aA ( VAN I aA ) = S B = S C
Voltage source transformation: Y and Y
a

Y :

ZY
a

+
-

van +
-

vca

vbn
b

a
c

+
-

+-

+
-

vcn

+
-

vab

vbc
c

Z
b

v ab' =

( 3 + 30o )va'n

Z = 3 ZY

1
30 o v ab'
Y : v a 'n =
ZY = Z
3
3

For Y load transformation, just let voltages =0

For Y load transformation, just let voltages=0

ECE 3364 Circuits II Power Formulas (back)

Currents/Voltages at the load

VCA

VCN

I cC

VAB

30
30

I CA
VAN

I bB

VBC
VBN

30

30

30

VAN

30

VBC

I BC

30

30

I aA

VCA

VAB

VCN

I AB

I CA

30

30

I bB

I aA

30

I AB

30

VBN

I BC

I cC

Negative phase sequence

Positive phase sequence

Design of a load impedance Z L = RL + jX L for maximum power transfer to the load.

Case 1: Both R L and X L can be chosen without any constraints. Choose Z L = ( Z th ) * .

Case 2: Constrained. a R L b and c X L d . Step 1: Choose X L as near to

X L = ( X th ) * as c X L d permits. Step 2: choose R L as near to

Z th=R th+jX th

Vth +
-

ZL =R L+jX L

(Rth )2 + ( X th + X L )2

as a R L b permits.
Case 3: Z L = Z L Z L where Z L is specified and cannot be changed, and Z L can be chosen by the circuit
RL =

designer. Choose Z L = Z th
Design of a series-impedance Z d = R d + jX d for maximum power transfer to the load.

Zd =R d +jX d

Z th=R th+jX th

Case 1: Both Rd and X d can be chosen without any constraints.

Choose Rd = 0 . Choose X d so that (X th + X d + X L ) = 0
Case 2: Constrained. a Rd b and c X d d . Step 1: choose Rd as near to 0
as a Rd b permits. Step 2: Choose X d so that (X th + X d + X L ) is as near to 0

Vth +
-

ZL =R L+jX L

as c X d d permits.
Case 3: Z d = Z d Z d where Z d is specified and cannot be changed, and Z d can be chosen by the circuit
designer. Choose Z d = ( Rth + R L ) cos Z d + ( X th+ X L ) sin Z d if it yields a value Z d > 0 , else choose

Rd = X d = 0
Wattmeters

+ cc1

+ cc2

~ rms ~ rms

wattmeter reading = V
I cos v i

+ A
pc1
B
pc2
+ C

3
phase
load

PTTL = W1 + W2

+ cc1

A
B

+
pc1

3
phase
load

QTTL = 3 W1

ECE 3364 Circuits II Formula Sheet: Inductance and Transformers

Self-inductance: v L (t ) =

d (t )
where (t ) = N L (t ) = PN i L (t )
dt

vL (t ) =

d (t )
d i (t )
d i (t )
= N 2P L = L L
dt
dt
dt

(t ) : flux-linkage; L (t ) : magnetic flux; P : permeance of space occupied by the flux; N : number of wire turns
Mutual inductance
dot convention for windings: Current into dots causes flux that adds. Use right-hand-rule for flux-direction.
dot convention for transformer circuit: current into the dot of a transformer coil causes a voltage drop across the other
coils with positive polarity at the dot in the other coils.

M
i1(t)

i2(t)

v1(t)

v2(t)

N1
=
N2

M = k L1 L2 coefficient of coupling 0 k 1.0 ;

L1
L2

coils not magnetically linked -> k=0; all flux from each coil links other coil -> k=1.0
L1 = ( N1 ) 2 ( P1,1 + P2,1 )
L2 = ( N 2 ) 2 ( P2,2 + P1,2 ) For non-magnetic core: P1,2 = P2,1

1 (t ) = ( P1,1 + P2,1 ) N1i1 (t ) 2 (t ) = ( P2,2 + P1,2 ) N 2 i 2 (t )

d1 (t )
d i (t )
= ( N1 ) 2 ( P1,1 + P2,1 ) 1 ;
dt
dt

v1 (t ) = N1

v 2 (t ) = N 2

d 2 (t )
d i (t )
= ( N 2 ) 2 ( P2,2 + P1,2 ) 2
dt
dt

Phasor domain: Linear transformer model

Zline 1

jwM

R1

Zs

R2

jwL 1

+
V1 I 1

Zline 2

I2

I1

+
- Vs

+- Vs

Z 2ndary =
reflected

ZL reflected

V2 = ( jM )(I1 ) + (R2 + jL2 )(I 2 )

jwL2 R 2
Zreflected

Zline 2

I2

+
- Vreflected

2 M 2 ( R2 + jL2 + Z line 2 )*
( R2 + R L + Rline 2 ) 2 + (L2 + X line 2 + X L ) 2

Z L reflected =

Reflect to primary side

Vreflected =

ZL

Z refl =

jwL2

+
V2
-

V1 = (R1 + jL1 )(I1 ) + ( jM )(I 2 )

ZL

jwL2

Is Z2ndary reflected

I2
jwL 1

Zline 1 R 1 jwL 1
Zs

R2

jwM

R1

2 M 2 ( RL jX L )
( R2 + RL + Rline 2 ) 2 + (L2 + X line 2 + X L ) 2

j M V s
;
Z s + Z line1 + R1 + jL1

2 M 2 [( Rs + Rline1 + R1 ) j ( X s + X line1 + L1 )]
( Rs + Rline1 + R1 ) 2 + ( X s + X line1 + L1 ) 2

Reflect to secondary side

Phasor domain: Ideal transformers

i 1(t)

v1 (t)

i2 (t ) =

N1

L1

N2

L2

i 2(t)

+
v 2 (t)

N1
N
i1 (t ) ; v2 (t ) = 2 v1 (t )
N2
N1

Zs

+- Vs

N1

Zs

N2

ZL

+
- Vs

N1
N2

2
ZL

Reflect to primary side:

N2
N1

Vs +
-

N2 N
1

2
Zs

Reflect to secondary side

ZL

Phasor domain: 3-phase ideal transformers

a
~
vS-Y ++
-

~v
cn

N2

Z line

Z S-Y

+
-

N1

~
vbn Z S-Y
Z S-Y c

Z line
Z line

Ideal
three-phase
transformer
Y-Y
Y-
-Y

Z L-Y

Z L-Y

Reflected to secondary

Reflected to primary

N2

Y-Y
and

Z S-Y

+
- ~
vS-Y

Z line

Y-

+
- ~
vS-Y

N1
N2

Z L-Y

N2

N1
N2

-Y

+
- ~
vS-Y

1
3

Z line

N1
N2

N2
N1

Z L-Y

Z S-Y

1
3

N2

Z line

N1

Z L-Y
1
3

Z line

N1

~
vS-Y +-

1
3

Z line

N2

-30

N2
N1

+
~
vS-Y-

3
Z S-Y

Z S-Y

N1

N1

Z S-Y

Z L-Y

N2
N1

Z L-Y
2

Z S-Y

N2

N1

Z L-Y
3 +30

N2
N1

+
~
vS-Y-

Z L-Y

Z line

Phasor domain: 3-phase linear transformers

a
~
vS-Y +-

a
+
-

+
-

~v
cn

Z line 2

Z line 1

Z S-Y
b

Z line 1

~
vbn Z S-Y
Z S-Y c

Linear
three-phase
transformer
Y-Y
Y-
-Y

Z line 1

Reflect to primary side:

Y-Y transformer

+- Vs
Z 2ndary =
reflected

jwL1

~
I aA

Zrefl 1

a Z line2

A
Z L-Y

~
-30 Vrefl
o

+
-

Z refl =

2 M 2[( Rs + Rline1 + R1) j ( X s + X line1 + L1)]

( Rs + Rline1 + R1) 2 + ( X s + X line1 + L1) 2

~
j M VS Y
Vreflected =
Z S Y + Z line1 + R1 + jL1

-Y transformer

Zline 1 3 R 1 3 jwL1

Z refl 1 =

( Rs + Rline1 + R1 ) 2 + ( X s + X line1 + L1 ) 2

3Z line 2 + 3Z L Y + R2 + jL2

+- ~
van
n

2 M 2 [( Rs + Rline1 + R1 ) j ( X s + X line1 + L1 )]

Z refl R 2 jwL 2

(M )2

Zs

ZL

Y- transformer

-Y transformer

Z refl =

Zline 2

j M V s
Z s + Z line1 + R1 + jL1

Vreflected =

( R2 + RL + Rline 2 ) 2 + (L2 + X line 2 + X L ) 2

Zline 1 R 1

Z refl 1 =

I2

+
- Vreflected

ZL reflected

2 M 2 ( RL jX L )

+- ~
van
n

jwL2 R 2
Zreflected

( R2 + RL + Rline 2 ) 2 + (L2 + X line 2 + X L ) 2

Zs

Z L-Y

Z line 2 C

I s Z2ndary reflected

Y- transformer

Z L-Y

Y-Y transformer

2 M 2 ( R2 + jL2 + Z line 2 )*

Z L reflected =

Z L-Y

Z line 2 B

Reflect to secondary side:

Zline 1 R 1 jwL 1
Zs

jwM

Z refl 2 R 2 jwL 2 a Z line2

~
I aA

Zrefl 1

(M )2
3 ( Z line 2 + Z L Y + R2 + jL2 )

A
Z L-Y

~
+ V
refl
~
Vrefl =

j M

( 3 30o )Va'n

3 Z s + 3 Z line 1 + R1 + jL1
(M )2

Z refl 2 =

3 Z s + 3 Z line 1 + R1 + jL1 )

Table of 1-sided Laplace Transforms X ( s ) = L{x(t )} = x(t )e st dt .

0

x(t )

X (s )

d n [(t )] / dt n
u (t )

sn
s 1
1

t n e t u (t )
n!

(s + )n +1
s

cos(0 t )u (t )

s + 02
0

sin(0 t )u (t )

s 2 + 02
s+

exp( t )cos(0 t )u (t )

(s + )2 + 02
0

exp( t )sin(0 t )u (t )

(s + )2 + 02
230

[sin(0 t ) 0 t cos(0 t )]u (t )

(s 2 + 02 )2
202 s

0 t sin(0 t )u (t )

(s 2 + 02 )2
202 (s + )

0 t exp( t )sin(0 t )u (t )

[(s + )

230

exp( t )[sin(0 t ) 0 t cos(0 t )]u (t )

[(s + )

(r 1)!

exp( at ) cos(b t + K ) u (t )

+ 02

As + B

B aA
exp( at ) A cos(b t )
sin(b t ) u (t )
b

2 K t r 1

+ 02

( s + a) 2 + b 2

K
( s + a jb) r

K*
( s + a + jb) r

b0
K
K= K

Properties of 1-sided Laplace Transforms

1. Linearity L[ax(t ) + by (t )] = aX ( s ) + bY ( s )
2. Laplace transform of the derivative
d n x(t )

dx
d 2x
d ( n 2) x
d ( n 1) x
L
u (t ) = s n X ( s ) s n1 x(0) s n 2
( 0) s n 3
(0) ... s
(0)
( 0)
dt
dt 2
dt ( n 2)
dt ( n 1)
dt n

t
X ( s ) dx(t )
+
|
3. Integration L x( )d =
s
dt t =0

4. s-shift L[e at x(t )] = X ( s + a ) and L1[ X ( s + a)] = e at L1[ X ( s )]

5. Delay L[ x(t a)u (t a )] = e as X ( s )

a>0

6. Convolution theorem: L{x(t ) * y (t )} = L x(t u ) y (u )du = L x(u ) y (t u )du = X ( s ) Y ( s )

0

1 s
8. Time scaling L{x(at )} = X for a > 0
7. Product L{x(t ) y (t )} = X ( s ) * Y ( s) .
a a
9. Initial value theorem (provided the limit exists)
10. Final value theorem (provided the limit exists)
lim x(t ) = lim [ sX ( s )]
lim x(t ) = lim [ sX ( s )] if and only if all poles
t 0+

s +

t +

s 0

of sX ( s ) lie in the left half closed s-plane.

Circuit Response
Impulse response: circuit output when all initial conditions equal to zero and input equals a Dirac delta function.
Step response: circuit output when all initial conditions equal to zero and input equals a step function.
Natural response: due only to initial conditions, voltage/current sources are cancelled.
Transient response: portion of the output that goes to zero as time tends to infinity.
Steady-state response: portion of the output that does not go to zero as time tends to infinity.
Complete response: circuit output due to input and any non-zero initial conditions.
LaPlace-domain Circuit Analysis
Damping of 2nd-order Circuits

2 poles: s 2 + a1s + a0 = 0 yields poles s1,2 = a1 / 2 0.5 (a1 ) 2 4a0 )

2nd-order RLC circuit: the parameters a1 , a0 are functions of RLC, can be designed to have either of three dampings.

Two real and equal poles s1,2 : critically damped

Two real and distinct poles s1,2 : over-damped
Two complex conjugate poles s1,2 : under-damped
s-domain inductor and capacitor

L
L i(0 )

+-

C
vC(0 ) +
-

Transfer Function s-domain

Change the circuit to the s-domain. R R , L sL , , C 1 /( sC ) set all initial conditions set to 0.
Set the s-domain source to value 1.0, label the s-domain output as H(s) and use KVL or KCL to compute H(s).
Impulse Response

The impulse response h(t ) of the circuit is h(t ) = ILT {H ( s )}.

Frequency Response

The frequency response H ( ) of the circuit is H ( ) = H ( s ) | s = j .

LaPlace domain solutions: Linear Transformers with non-zero initial conditions

C th R 1

R th L th
time-domain
Linear transformer model
Note:
possible non-zero initial conditions

i 1(t)

vC th(t)

L1

L2

vth(t)

Z 1 (s)

I 1 (s)

+
- Vs (s)

sM

LL

CL

R2
I 2 (s)

sL1

RL

i 2(t)

vC L(t)

R1

S-domain Linear transformer model

R2

+
-

sL 2

1
sCth
1
Z L ( s) = R L + sLL +
sC L

Z1 ( s ) = Rth + sLth +
ZL (s)

- IC1 (s) + + IC2 (s)

vcth (0 )

IC1 ( s) = L1 i 1 (0 ) + M i 2 (0 ) + Lth i 1 (0 )
s

v c L (0 )

IC 2 ( s) = L2 i 2 (0 ) + M i 1 (0 ) + LL i 2 (0 ) +
s

R 1 sL1

s2 M 2
Reflect to primary side: Z refl ( s ) =
R2 + sL2 + Z L ( s )

Z 1 (s)

+
- Vs (s)

s M IC 2 ( s )
Vrefl ( s ) =
R2 + sL2 + Z L ( s )

s M [Vs ( s ) + IC1 ( s )]
Vrefl ( s ) =
R1 + sL1 + Z1 ( s )

s2 M 2
R1 + sL1 + Z1 ( s )

Z refl (s)

+
- Vrefl (s)

IC1 (s)

IC2 (s) sL2 R 2

Reflect to secondary side: ; Z refl ( s ) =

I 1 (s)

Z refl (s)

Vrefl (s) +
-

ZL (s)

A Brief Table of Integrals

u ( x)dv( x) = u ( x)v( x) v( x)du ( x)
n
x dx =

dx =

x n+1
n +1

x ( n1)
n 1

x sin( x) dx = sin( x) x cos( x)

for n > 1

(a + bx ) dx =

1
ln ax + b
a
(a + bx) ( n1)
n
for n > 1
(a + bx ) dx =
b(n 1)
1

2x

ax 1

ax
2 ax
x e dx = 2 + 3 e
a
a a

2
x

1
ln sec(ax) + tan(ax)
a
cot( x)dx = ln csc( x) = ln sin( x)

sec(ax)dx =

e ax
a real or complex
e ax

cos(bx) e dx = [a cos(bx) + b sin(ax)] 2

a + b2
ax

[ ]
cos( x) dx = 2 x cos( x) + [x 2]sin( x)

2
2
x sin( x) dx = 2 x sin( x) x 2 cos( x)

tan x.dx = ln cos x = ln sec x

ax
a dx =
ln a
ax
ax
e dx = ( 1 a )e
x

ax
xe dx =

x sin(2ax)

2
4a
x cos( x) dx = cos( x) + x sin( x)
2
sin (ax) dx =

2
sec (ax) dx =

1
tan(ax)
a

sec( x) tan( x)dx = sec( x)

csc( x) cot( x)dx = csc( x)

Some Trigonometric Identities:

Reciprocal
1
sin =
csc

cos =

1
sec

tan =

1
cot

1
sin

sec =

1
cos

cot =

1
tan

csc =

Quotient
tan =

sin
cos

cot =

cos
sin

Pythagorean

sin2a + cos2a = 1
Even-Odd Identities

tan2a + 1 = sec2a

1 + cot2a = csc2a

sin() = sin()

cos() = cos()

tan() = tan()

csc() = csc()

sec() = sec()

cot() = cot()

Sum & Difference

sin( ) = sin cos sin cos
tan( ) =

cos( ) = cos cos m sin sin

tan tan
1 m tan tan

Double-Angle
sin 2 = 2 sin cos

tan(2) =

2 tan
1 tan

cos(2) = cos 2 () sin 2 () = 2 cos 2 () 1 = 1 2 sin 2 ()

Half-Angle

sin( / 2) cos( / 2) = 0.5 sin()

1 cos

sin =
2
2

1 + cos

cos =
2
2

Function-Product
sin sin = 0.5 cos( ) 0.5 cos( + )
cos cos = 0.5 cos( ) + 0.5 cos( + )
sin cos = 0.5 sin( ) + 0.5 sin( + )
cos sin = 0.5 sin( + ) 0.5 cos( )

1 cos

tan =
1 + cos
2