Publisher: Joseph Opiela tor: Donna Campion ‘Media Supplements Editor: Jenna Egan Senior Marketing Manager: Alexandra Rivas-Smith ager: Eric Jorgensen ‘Text Design, and Electronic Page Makeup: ces Cover Design Manager: Wendy Ann Fredericks Cover Photo: Copyright © Corbis Royalty-Free Senior Man ‘Buyer: Dennis J, Para Donnelley & Sons Company mr] UU Tee era Body and Culture ‘rial, grateful acknowledg- on page 248, which is hereby ade part ofthis copy Library of Congress Catal ig-in-Publication Data Body and culture / (edited by} Greg Lyons. .cm.—{A Longman topics reader) ISBN 0-321-31742-4 1, Body, Human—Social aspecti. J. Lyons, Greg, 1950- Tl. Longman topics. GREG LYONS Central Oregon Community College GN298.B615 2006 306.4 ie? 2005080973 Copyright © 2006 by Pearson Educat All rights reserved. No part of this publicat stored in a retrieval sys means, electronic, mecha wise, witho nay be reproduced, cay form or by any recording, or other~ erimission of the publisher. Printed Visit us at htupyiwewablongman.com ISBN 0-321.31742-4 123456789 10-DOH—08 07 ew York San Franclaco. Boston Landon Torosto ‘Sydaey Tokyo Singapore Madrid Mexico City Munich Paris Cape Town” Hong Kang cure94 Philippe Lotard art historical record, suchas the print by Kuniyoshi showing ichiren quelling the storm by writing the Buddhist invocation, i yn a wave. In Nepal, there are tra~ could cause or stop earthquakes, ditional examples in- ground-paintings by Australian aborigines f the universe. ‘The diversity, apparent antiq- tity, wide geographical distribution, and artistic potency of irre- versible modes of body art as a vehicle of human expression Would seem to merit more attention than has previously been paid by students of art and culture. | Discussion Questions : 41. Explain what the title "Marks of C ” suggests to you. 2. Why do you tnt wider expose to diferent eure nthe nreteenth century tended “to reinforce the European/Euro-American sense of cultura superiority” (paragraph 3)? Briely descbe what you know about the Peace Corps. Then, do quick inter~ on this volunteer group. Based on what you lean and vhat you can Jes toward the body? ops around the world protect against sease vent of acomplstent,spcic to communicate satus (peragaphs 7 aply to contemporary Europeans or he choose o et tatoos or pitcngs? xan nse of potency associsted with body atta might 1 scity [paragraph 13). What ower do you find in the pla of tatoos or bay piercings in our cure? The Body Jigsaw PHILIPPE LIOTARD. A professor of the sociology of sports at the Un in southern France, Philippe Liotard is also cofounder of the avai garde journal Quasimodo. Researching sports as spectacle, he has tive that Liotard assumes as # Imagine the body as a canvas, a space to mix and mat jand cultural elements in defining wi paradox. The scarring and the rage in rich countries, whil ‘western ideals are coveted by a monied few: ‘ho or what you w clear energy, tlie ect image. They spat on staid Bj ‘against all the cat ir hair into crests, horns and other shapes, plas- id make-up and wore chains. They cov- cred their arms, faces, necks and heads with tattoos, rc i Safety-pins, studs and rings in ips and cheeks, and went so far as 10 tered themselves with sned, rebel bodies, the punks age. Their very own prom The Body Jigsaw 95 ey tapped ventions by donning a re- arance, A skirt could no longer rm, stained and .ons of good wed ickly gave birth srs conspired with96 Philippe Lotard the media they despised and turned them into symbols of deca- dence, before exporting their bodily aesthetics.throughout Europe, North America and Japan. Now, a quarter of a century | isplay or piercings. In rich countries, teenage counting on the fashion scene. Young westerners have appropri- ated once “underground” practices to gain entry into the trendy but ultimately mainstream club. a paradox in all this, One would expect originality and inno’ Jn fact, what we are witnessing is a sweeping trend of cultural mix and match, drawing on body- altering techniques long used by non-western cultures for pur- ‘poses of religion, aesthetics or ide ican artist Fakir s eiving rise toa There is, howeve jose who go for such adornments know nothing about these distant practices. Moreover, the bodies now being uused as models were those that were stigmatized and displayed during colonial exhibitions in Europe and the United States right up to the early 20th century. They were curiosity objects and more significantly, living symbols of the supposed “backward- ness” of the colonized peoples. Seen through European eyes, piercing, body scars and elongated lips, necks and ears were evi- dence of “barbarism,” justifying the Wests self-appo! ‘Such practices incarnated the opposite of ized” body, By way of homage to the seemingly sought to stamp out, the vanguard primitives” set out to investigate these body 1 tes” of Maria Tashjian, who owns a chain of body-alteration in the United States, is vaunted as a way to educate people by preserving the memory of idea of beauty: Through i scarring, we can thus est Others such as Musafar see these practices as the chance to work on one’s own profound sense of Self. “Body play.” in his words, consists of experimenting with every known body-al technique. By willingly going through the ini traditional societies, one act has long been forgotien in the towards rediscovering an ori FORGET ABOUT THOSE BLONDE SURFERS. What’ important is not the marl Instead, what matters Such discourse, lions of people wi vast majority are merely fulfilling the modern-day desire for self-knowledge recognition from oth: might invoke aesthetics, spiri- 188 or the desire to belong io a group, but whatever ing it to the test comes down to playing cultural shift, ‘The urge to assert oneself goes hand in hand with a desire to llenge social norms and values, advocate different ways mne’s body. Many fai h identity. This reflects and muscular bronzed body have to go. In ig one’s body becomes a battle against conventi appearance, a quest to give meaning to a life deetned otherwise insignific is end, its not enough to go shopping fo Piecing together a body can also be done using mode knowledge and techniques. By inserting foreign objects under th skin, some body artists are creating protuberances on foreheads,98 Philippe Litard breastbones and forearms to radically challenge age-old percep- tions of the physical self A BATTLE AGAINST CREEPING STANDARDIZATION All these interventions can be seen as 8 q spelt out in f sex, age and social origi fons. By shattering model to escape a destiny do, wear and display wi up the body as one of the last bastions where individual freedom can be expressed. Faced with the pressure to conform, to discipline one’s bod in order to meet econ id social demands, constructing appearance becomes the royal road to upsetting normality. Every- fone becomes an actor, capable of displaying their body in a they spark a mand fascina- he refusal to comply with social norms, the awareness that looking different has an impact, is all part of a battle against creeping standardization, In this light, such a philosophy stands at opposite ends from the promise of cosmetic surgery, diets and ich depictions remind us # ‘anatomy, and that there is more than one way to ership to a group, They also remind us that culture is the move, What is exotic one day is undesirable the ion of images hes body, breaking with DRESSED TO KILL IN KINSHASA In developing countries, however, those with money go to no ends to cling to the most common western model, plucked straight out The Body Jigsaw 99 uthern Africa and among African Americans, skin- tenets and hair-straigh! famed sapeurs of Kinshasa, make enormous sacrifices latest ia Parisian chic. Cos or real context of political ai hide their specific features? reads like a strategy to fit in with globaliza For now, creating a inority is going about remov- ically borue, But popularizing By hijacking appearance codes ing techatiques signed for medical purposes, people are carving ‘of a new game. Their efforts will werald an all-round confu- sion over what norms, if any, govern the human body. Discussion Questions 1._ Besides the examples of body piercing and tattooing, describe oth ground” fashions or behaviors is accomparied by a ance. Then explain the meaning ofthat new “loak’ or fashion fas Lotard states, some body art expresses freedom and identity, compare {and contrast such expressions to the bodybulder’s goals in Ewen's article “Hard Bodies" in Chapter 2 4. Uotard cefers to body mod “the pressure to confoxm, ns as expressions of rebellion against discipline one’s body in order to meet eco- iscipline over the body and body piercing may be a way dn the mass media” On the other hi “rejecting stronger rebelion or conform100 shannon Bell Tattooed: A Participant Observer’s Exploration of Meaning ‘SHANNON Bet she served as ac Georgio Armani designer: explore ihure of tattooed people and the relationship of tattoos to ity. Although the scope of this paper can only scratch the the meaning associated with tattoos, [ hope to be able to shed some light on these interpretations through my fifteen years 0 s and tattooed people. I am pri- concerned with American and Western tattoo culture, since aboriginal tattooing has been covered extensively in the an- thropological literature and for other reasons which will become clear through the course of this essay. [ will begin my discussion \with a brief history and overview of tattooing in different cultures to put this intriguing and complex American subculture into context. Tattooed: A Participant Observers Exploration of Meaning 101 CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND from Brazil to Africa to Japan, The done by hand, and not ma or id ;oos cover a large part of the body and are receive ‘of passage to manhood, marriage, or as marks of alli and wisdom (S: ion, age, lers 8). In New Zealand's Maori ‘wibes the representation of ide ial moko that was further p dividual family members. In this way, their moko was used when signing docu. sad of signing their names they drew their he Japanese culture, For hundreds of years the practice ing has been passed down from Hori (tattoo mentor) 10 student, Japanese use Japanese mythology as subject mat: done as entire body suits (covering ly). Images are chosen from a prescribed set of im- agery although artistic interpretation of the mythological charac- ters may vary. There was a time when warriors and elites were tattooed in Japan, but currently only Yakuuea (gangsters) and the Japanese youth, who emulate a more American style to be dis- sed later, take part in this practice. There is an incredible ttoos in Japan today, tooed are segregated fro ‘own bath houses, broth personal communica American tattooing has been evol America to speak of, Its Anglo-Sax ight rived from the ancient tribes of the British Isles and hhave been practiced at various times throughout history by aristocracy. As folklore has it, Captain Cook coined the term " during his voyage to the South Pacific in 1769; he derived from the Tahitian word “ta-tu,” meaning “t ated with the sound made by the Tahit102. shannon Bell (Sanders 14), American tattooing has always been unique, which needs a separate discourse from ancient or aboriginal that is all-encompassing and ofa single theme. AAs a consumer society, itis not surprising that we are attracted to images of things and have tattooed ourselves accordingly. Con- temporary Japanese youth also tend to have this collage-like, image-oriented type of American tattoos, as opposed to the is, circus people have histor although the current bikers, and other tattooing mi the chosen 10t be analyzed alone. SUBCULTURE ‘Tattoos have long been associated wi therefore fodder for imagination and use by subcultures of all types. American greasers, bikers, hippies, and punks have all used, tattoos as part of their anti-mainstream adornment. Tattoos, as a visual means to s be thought of as to oneself i jebdige 101). Although Dick Hebdige refers to specific images, clothing, and hairstyles as signs, I be- lieve that the appearance of any permanent mark on the body is ¢ ‘eam culture of one’s separation, whether one not, regardless of the chosen image. Imagery Inere specific and personal identity is concerned, ‘0 normalization, a tattoo is enough to separate jety at large. ion from society is an essential factor in my theory about tattoos people get them. Despite one’ alfliati with a parti , tattoos are a sure way to dis cone from the rest of society; a dissociation tattooees themselves sometimes do not fully realize the impact of, A common theme in Tattooed: A Participant Observer's Exploration the literature (Demello, “Not Just for Bikers”; Sanders; Hi that tattooing is a strugele for individualizat ily impersonal, (This dissoc used against you, as in television sh s America’s Most Wanted, where a tattoo is used to identify a fugitive.) Tattoos are Seen as a physical, visual resistance to the virtual thanent) and conservative world that we are now living in. although I did not appreciate it until well into my 20s, I mow enjoy the idea that by having tattoos T assure myself that T will never be part of the ‘straight” world, To use Vaclav Havel’ terminology, being tattooed a one's personal truth, my ways be resistance-oriented, ther subcultures because IDENTITY As we have seen, aboriginal cultures have used tat themselves with their identity. Japanese Yak: 8s can also be thought of as identity markers since one is most likely a gang. adorned with a body suit, Just as clothes and hairs es according to personal aesthetics and we wil be perceived by others, so does the of t lost young people's lives ally full of expres- common experierice of ing key to identity formation and tattoos, professionally or on the st under the age of eighteen or t Young or old, symbolic cr ident concerning the crucial. For some, tattoos are part 198 can be symbolic of many things. honor their family members and lovers by name, play their religious beliefs (ironically, and importantly, despite scriptures 0104 Shannon Bell words against marking the body) or their association with the ry, patriotism being a common theme of tattoos especially 10s and '40s, Increasingly, tattoos have become more perso the advent of custom designs discussed above. (An example of extreme personal identity associat cally creative act and subsequent choice of image varies from person to person, but, to begin my discussion of meaning, can be categorized and In terms of gender, tattoos, which have been traditionally as- sociated with men, can be seen as a resistance to the common ideals of female beauty. Tattooing has Iong been associated with maleness because of the stereotyped imagery of tattooed people ers and softer, more personal images and put them the lower back, shoulder, or ankle. Men, on the other hand, choose more ebvious places, of these the most popular being the upper arm. Men often adorn themselves with macho imagery that associates them with a group, such as the Hell’s Angels, or they choose decorative but ‘strong imagery such as dragons and ike. A discussion of class brings us to the inclusion of the most stereotypical, macho, tattooed person, the convict: *(A) person so lo class he is almost unclassifiak Body clearly stipulates prison tattoos as identity claimers that in- clude group and/or gang associations. The difference between an ‘inmate and convict, according to Demello, is based on how covered with tattoos one is, this being a direct reiection of the acceptance of the convict lifestyle and lifelong marginalization. Demello points rison tattoos are technically different from other types of ing because of the makeshift technology used while incarcer , done in tattoo parlors or shops, use color, prison, and are not done with single nee- tattoo technique and imagery set up visi- ble class markers between prison/street and professional tattooing. Professional tattooers are thought of as having some sort of artistic talent and are legitimized by the costliness of their time {about $80-$125/hr), These differences make professional tattoo- ing a pastime of the middle class, Because tattooing has had historic association with the lower class and deviant subculture, Demelio Tastooed: A Participant Observer's Exploration of Mes ng 105 suggests, in her 1995 article “Not Just for Bikers Anymore” that the media and middle class have worked together to tam Image of tattoos. Before tattoos became trendy, there was an up- che number of regular, “normal,” people sage and as a key to spi 27), Although these associations may be apy meaning- ful for tattooed people of all classes, it is primarily the middle the need to emphasize this never be fully accepted into the mainstream, point, T would like to further differentiate between two types of tattooed people. Corresponding with the level of dedication to the ple. People who “have tattoos” often have only they are usually personal images in places ¢¢ view: These people avoid the label of “tarooed hidden from srson’ due to tary brit or bld tatoos in covous places, loser tothe tien of a Japanese body s of body coverage. These people ho. ‘coed people within merous questions of o1 the recent co-option by the media and trendiness of tattoos as fashion bas driven some people who “nave taitoos" to the act, These people may not have become tat- tooed if they did not believe that it was fully accepted by the main- stream, Although I am pleased by the open mindedness of new recruits, and their recognition of tattoos as i clothing, Tam concerned that they are og that tattoos have lost their stigma. F perience of trav106 Shannon Bel \s is still very strong and differs takes a strong will and fant and piercing stares. trend are not always ‘way, or may not have wces long enough before- from true, The response to t from culture to culture and sense of self (identity) to wit thought about its meaning and conse hand (this may explain the rise of tattoo removal services). Being heavily tattooed, even during this trend, is cause for prying ques- tions and mistreatment from curious and overzealous onlookers, Being tattooed is still a "Freak Show.” DISCUSSION 1 product of this surface-oriented society: ing time, where (Surface) is a characteristic of our f everything has to communicate fast and move on, .,. Depth is @ category that pretends to penetrate surface... Fist impressions iduated by apparel... . The b coinpared to a cheetah, that’s ‘The search for interiority merely cre- why we have fashion. .. ates more surface. (Blonsh Although Marshall Blons far leap to the permanent ad sets up a unique dichotomy of surface-permanence un by other forms of adornment and decoration. Clothes allow change their mind, Follow the fashion trends, and recre- ter a while. All attempts at this is why we decorate ou Tastooed: A Parte jereasing popularity of temporary ta (Indian tattoos that wear off). Together, these observations give credence to my disbelief that re be accepted by the ‘mainstream in the long term, since it was quickly figured o to solve the permanence problem. "How much did that cost?” is another frequent question which, although it makes sense in our consumer-based society, boggles me when asked something that is a permanen y , lasting a life- 1c, These various questions exemplify the fear of permanence, which is the most com jon to tattoos. This says much to me about society a i commit to identity and accept the consequ 503 permanent is t0 Works Cited Blonsky, Marshall. American Mythologies. New York: Oxford UP. 1992, Demello, Margo. "The Convict Body: Tattooing among Male American Prisoners.” Anthropology Taday 9.6 (Dec. 1993): 10. “Not Just for Bikers re: Popular Representations of American Tattooing.” Journal of Popular Culture 29.3 (Winter Tattoo Time: New Tibalisea, Honolulu: Hardy Marks ed. Living in Truth, London: Faber of Siyle. New York: Routledge, wills, Everyday Cultures of the 1993. Young.108 Joe Woodaid Discussion Questions 1 the motivations fr “body moc Lota article and fer from 2. Uotard seems to journal phenomenon, wi from the viewpoint of a “partici pant” in tattooing Analyze the difference in the two wri Ward their subject. Quote short phrases fom-each article 1 difference. ion Bell makes between people who have tattoos and y's this difference important? oing impacts gender difference, according to Bell Do you agree or disagree? Explain, 5. Bell suggests that, for women, tattoos may express 2 macho tolerance of pain (paragraph 1), However, she also advances the theory that pain is, fo" two interpretations of the pain of tattooing Incompatible? Why or why not? Pumped, Pierced, Painted and Pagan Jot Wooparo losophy from Claremont Grad- Joe Woodard worked for both the anid taught at ies. Currently religion e foodard writes book reviews and news si ies and armed forces, as well as ventions, as in Kosovo anit East ler the four elements of th the article to be about? As you read, 16S the author refers 10 body raodification as “sm Pumped, Pierced Painted and Pagan 109 not including the three uses qu term convey his attitude about ted from interviews. How does this topic? See lastic surgeon Benjamin Shore was a little flustered last year when a 30-something female patient returned to his office, re- questing that her breast implants be redone. A year earlier, he had given her a large set of “double-D cup” saline implants, 500 cubic ‘centimetres or hal ie. Now she was back, wanting 800 ce implants, “She wasn't an exotic dancer," says the Brampton, On- tario, physician. “She was just a woman who wanted to feel good about herself, and she thought this would do it,” But her case also proved to be the last time he cooperated in such an extravagance. “Six months later, she was back, wanting the smaller implants,” he recounts, "With all that weight on her chest, whenever she lay on her back, she couldn't breathe.” ‘Though plastic surgeons are voicing some discomfort with the trend, unnaturally large and clearly attificial breasts repre sent the cutting edge of feminine fashion. The August edition of the fashion magazine Allure surveyed American plastic surgeons, asking the age-old question, “what do women want?” And accord: ing to the doctors, “women today don't want to look natural but supernatural,” The size of the average implant has gro 210 four times, and more telling yet, women are voicing a preference for high, round implants, over more anatonticelly-correct teardrop- shapes. The new ideal has become the gravity-defying “half grape- breast, popularized by the chiselled and sculpted former f Baywatch, Pamela Anderson: absurdly large, firm as football, and plainly artificial ‘The growth of the breast augmentation industry has clearly outstripped the needs of mastectomy patients and women g¢ uinely short-changed by nature, During the Dow-Cor Basco, culminating in the 1992 bam against market briefly sagged. But the consumer horror stories about scarring and supposed links to diseases like fibromyalgia had less effect than might have been expected. Consumer confidence was restored by the ion of alternative saline implants, and the procedure’s ty again began to soar. In