techsolutions 5

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly

Brett J. Ingold
AMMTIAC
Rome, NY

Selecting
a Nondestructive
Testing
Method, Part IV: Radiography
A
Brief Introduction
to Precious
Metals

This edition of TechSolutions is the fourth installment in a series dedicated to the subject of nondestructive testing.
TechSolutions 1, published in Vol. 1, No. 2 of the AMMTIAC Quarterly, introduced the concept of nondestructive
testing and provided brief descriptions of the various techniques currently available. TechSolutions 2 and 3, published
in subsequent issues of the AMMTIAC Quarterly, focused on visual inspection and eddy current testing. The current
article continues the series and provides a general and informative overview of the radiography nondestructive testing
method. In addition, this article will highlight some of the physical principles, inspection requirements, and implementation considerations involved in an effective radiographic inspection process.1 Once the series on nondestructive testing
methods is complete, we will combine all of the articles into a valuable desk reference on nondestructive testing and place
it on our website. Editor
INTRODUCTION
After visual and optical testing (VT), the next method of nondestructive testing (NDT) most commonly employed in industry is
radiographic testing. Also simply referred to as radiography, it is
perhaps the most versatile of the nondestructive testing methods.[1] The basic radiographic process in use today is in large part
still the same as it was when it was introduced in the late 1800s.
Radiography uses radiation energy to penetrate solid objects in
order to assess variations in thickness or density. The second part
of the process involves capturing a shadow image of the component being inspected on film using procedures similar to those that
technicians used when the technology was first
developed. Identifying density differences on an
X-ray, which indicate flaws or cracks, is still the
Beam
foundation of radiographic analysis.
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES
Radiography basically involves the projection
and penetration of radiation energy through the
sample being inspected. The radiation energy is
absorbed uniformly by the material or component being inspected except where variations in
thickness or density occur. The energy not
absorbed is passed through to a sensing medium
that captures an image of the radiation pattern.
The uniform absorption and any deviations in
uniformity are subsequently captured on the
sensing material and indicate the potential presence of a discontinuity.

a developing solution. The degree of darkening that occurs during

this process depends on the amount of exposure that occurred. The
next step is to place the film into a special bath and rinse it to stop
the development process. Lastly, the film is put into a fixing bath
and then washed to remove the fixer solution. At this point the
film is fully developed, the process is complete and the radiograph
is ready to be handled and analyzed.[1]
As the digital world has evolved, a quicker and much more
efficient alternative to the meticulous film development process
has also emerged to benefit the radiography NDT community.
Computed radiography, which is described in
the related article entitled Computed Radiography in the Pacific Northwest: Benefits, DrawRadiation Source
backs and Requirements, makes use of an
alternative image capturing media and development
process.
Test Piece
(Object)

Electromagnetic Radiation
Two types of electromagnetic radiation are used
to perform radiographic inspection: X-rays and
Medium for
gamma rays (see Figure 2). The primary distinConverting
the Radiation
guishing characteristic between these two types
of radiation is the different wavelengths of the
electromagnetic energy. Compared to other
types of radiation both X-rays and gamma rays
Image of Flaw
have relatively short wavelengths which allows
Figure 1. Diagram of Typical
them to penetrate opaque materials. This
Radiography Test Setup.[2]
inherent capability is what enables their use
for nondestructive testing, as they can reveal
Image Capturing Media
flaws embedded in visually non-transparent materials. The advent
In simple terms, a radiograph is a photographic record produced by
of radiography came quickly after the discovery of X-rays because
the passage of X-rays or gamma rays through an object onto a film
of the penetration properties of this electromagnetic energy.[3]
or other recording medium (see Figure 1). The developing, fixing
and washing of the film after exposure can be performed manualTypes of Discontinuities
ly or by automated processing equipment. The development
A number of different types of discontinuities can be detected
process begins after the film is exposed to the radiation and an
with radiographic NDT. Table 1 lists the suitability of traditional
invisible change called a latent image develops on the film emulradiographic NDT methods for identifying various types of
sion. These exposed areas become dark when the film is placed in
discontinuities in several applications.
Flaw

The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 2

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly

techsolutions 5

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly

X-Rays

10-2

Visible

100
Gamma Rays

102

104
Ultraviolet

106

Figure 2. Electromagnetic
Spectrum Showing X-ray and
Gamma Ray Regions.[1]

Infrared

Wavelengths in angstrom units (A), where 1 A = 10-8 cm = 3.937x10 -9 in.

INSPECTION REQUIREMENTS
Several critical elements are required to successfully analyze the
results of radiographic testing. Because of differences in density
and variations in composition, different test pieces can absorb
varying amounts of radiation and therefore present a range of
results. Technicians and radiologists each require several years of
training to properly set up and administer tests and inspections
and to learn how to evaluate
and interpret the results.
Also, as the industry continues to develop, some forecasts suggest that in the
future X-rays will be read
almost exclusively by computers. This specific advancement, however, would not
A non-destructive inspection technician
necessarily eliminate the
(NDI) evaluates an X-ray image of
high costs associated with
an A-10 Thunderbolt II aircraft nose
set up tasks, which conlanding gear door for cracks. NDI
sumes a significant portion
technicians are tasked with finding
of the total radiographic
and confirming discontinuities on the
airframe and its parts using methods
inspection time.
such as Eddy Current, Fluorescent
Penetrant, Magnetic Particles, Ultra
Sound and X-ray. (Photo taken by
Airman 1st Class Alesia Goosic and
provided courtesy of US Air Force)

Safety
Safety is an important issue
to consider when evaluating
a new process for implementation, especially one such as radiography that requires the
use of radiation. Several governing bodies, including local and
state governments, work together to closely monitor anyone who
works with radiography equipment to ensure that the highest
levels of safety are consistently met.
The licensing and certification process for individuals working
with radiography equipment, which emits radiation, requires
both a written examination and an assessment of specific skills
while using the equipment. The primary governing body that
administers the written examination is the American Society of
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT). The practical skills evaluation
can be conducted by a variety of institutions that have approval
from ASNT. With successful completion of these safety requirements, the applicant will be certified as an Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel (IRRSP) member. ASNT
offers more detailed information on the entire certification
process, including a more specific list of requirements.[4]

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
There are several factors to take into account when considering
the implementation of a radiographic inspection program. Some
of the most important factors include: cost, density, facility size
and logistics. Compared to other nondestructive testing methods, radiography is expensive. Relatively large costs can be
reduced considerably when portable X-ray or gamma-ray sources
are used in film radiography because this setup only requires
space for film processing and analysis. With real-time radiography, operating costs are usually much lower, because setup times
are shorter and there are no extra costs for processing or interpretation of film.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Like all other NDT methods, there are several advantages
and disadvantages that factor into deciding where and when
radiography is typically applied. In relation to other commonly used NDT methods, the well-proven method of radiography
has three main advantages: the ability to detect internal
flaws, the ability to detect significant variations in composition, and the ability to establish a
permanent record
of raw inspection
data. Radiography also presents
test results pictorially which can be
much more readily
interpreted than
numerical data. A review of radiographs from an F-15 Eagle to
In addition, real- check for foreign object debris and cracks
time radiography in the aircraft's structure. (Photo taken by
Staff Sgt. Shelley Gill and provided courtesy
offers the ability of US Air Force)
to rotate a test
object during inspection, which improves detection of both
internal and external flaws due to the ability to find the optimum orientation.
On the negative side, orientation of the sample to be
inspected is a key to successful radiographic inspection and
therefore can pose difficulties if the proper orientation is not
found. For example, radiography is not as effective at detecting
flaws that are oriented in a planar direction with respect to the
radiation source. Thick inspection samples are also problemat-

The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 2

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly
A D VA N C E D M AT E R I A L S , M A N U FA C T U R I N G

A MMTIAC

AND

TESTING

Table 1. Suitability of Traditional Radiographic NDT Methods for Various Types of Discontinuities in Light and Heavy Metals.[3]
Inspection Application

Film
with X-rays

Suitability for Light Metals

Real-Time
Radiography

3
3
4
3
3

Film
with X-rays

3
3
4
4
3

3
3
4
3
3

3
3
4
3
3

3
3
4
4
3

3
3
4
3
3

4
1
4

4
1
4

4
1
4

4
1
4

4
1
4

4
1
4

2
4
4
3

2
4
4
3

2
4
4
3

2
4
4
3

2
4
4
3

2
3
3
3

4
3
4
4
4

4
3
4
4
4

4
3
4
4
4

4
3
4
4
4

4
3
4
4
4

4
3
4
4
4

2
3
4
2
3

2
3
4
2
3

2
3
4
1
3

2
3
3
2
3

2
3
3
2
3

1
1
4
1
3

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

4
4
4
4
4

1
1

1
1

1
1

2
1

1
1

1
1

3
3
2
3
3

3
3
2
3
3

2
2
2
3
2

2
3
2
3
4

2
3
2
3
4

2
2
2
3
2

General

Surface cracks*
Internal cracks
Voids
Thickness
Metallurgical variations
Sheet and plate
Thickness
Laminations
Voids
Bars and tubes
Seams
Pipe
Cupping
Inclusions
Castings
Cold shuts
Surface cracks
Internal shrinkage
Voids, pores
Core shift
Forgings
Laps
Inclusions
Internal bursts
Internal flakes
Cracks and tears
Welds
Shrinkage cracks
Slag inclusions
Incomplete fusion
Pores
Incomplete penetration
Processing
Heat-treat cracks
Grinding cracks
Service
Fatigue and heat cracks
Stress corrosion
Blistering
Thinning
Corrosion pits

Suitability for Heavy Metals

Real-Time
Film
Radiography
with -rays

Film
with -rays

4 - Good, 3 - Average, 2 - Fair, 1 - Poor

ic for radiography methods. Radiation sources can pose health

and safety risks which is another disadvantage of the method.
The tedious film processing requirement of radiography and
associated special facility requirements have traditionally been
a distinct disadvantage; however, with the advent of digital
imaging and computed radiography many of these limitations
have been overcome.

CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE ADVANCEMENTS

In order to meet the constantly changing demands of industry,
various new sources of radiation, such as neutron generators
and radioactive isotopes, are continually being developed.
Other ongoing advances also include improved X-ray films and
automatic film processors, as well as improved or specialized
radiographic techniques.

The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 2

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly

techsolutions 5

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly

However, with todays technology it is now possible to generate images of higher quality and sensitivity. The higher quality of
radiographic images is primarily due to improved films that have
a wider variety of available grain sizes. Also, with the addition of
computers and other advanced electronic systems to the process,
the advent of digital radiography has proved to be a large
advancement within the industry.
With the use of digital radiography, a radiographic image captured today can theoretically be preserved forever and sent anywhere in the world almost instantly. In earlier cases, there had to
be concerns with deterioration of the image that no longer have
to be taken into account today. This ability to continually
improve the process has led to growth of radiography into
numerous industries. Radiography has seen expanded use in
industry to inspect welds and castings, airbags and canned foods,
to name a few. The area of metallurgical material identification
and security systems has also employed radiography NDT at airports and other facilities with security needs.[1, 5]
CONCLUSION
Radiography is a mature NDT method that can be used to effectively detect several types of discontinuities embedded within a
variety of types of materials and components. Since the method

has been in use for many years, the drawbacks and shortcomings
are well-known. Some of these limitations have been overcome
with the rapid advancement of digital technology. Radiography
has continued to evolve by embracing certain aspects of the
digital era, and consequently it has become a more flexible and
viable method for nondestructive evaluation.
REFERENCES
[1] Radiography in Modern Industry, 4th Edition, R.A. Quinn
and C.C. Sigl, Editors, Eastman Kodak Company, 1980, http://
www.kodak.com/eknec/documents/87/0900688a802b3c87/Radiogra
phy-in-Modern-Industry.pdf
[2] Radiography Testing, Engineers Handbook, http://www.engi
neershandbook.com/MfgMethods/ndtrt.htm
[3] Radiographic Inspection, ASM Metals Handbook, Ninth
Edition, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control,
ASM International Metals Park, OH, pp. 296-357.
[4] Industrial Radiography Radiation Safety Personnel, ASNT
Practice No. ASNT-CP-IRRSP-1A, 2001 Edition, American Society
for Nondestructive Testing, http://www.asnt.org/certification/irrsp/
cp-irrsp-1a.pdf.
[5] Introduction to Radiographic Testing, NDT Resource Center,
http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radio
graphy/Introduction/presentstate.htm.

Table 1. Radiography Summary

Discontinuity types
(e.g. what types the method can detect)

Size of discontinuities
Limitations

Advantages

Inspector training (level and/or availability)

Inspector certification required
Equipment
Relative cost of inspection

10

Voids
Inclusions
Cracks
Non-uniformity of material
Density changes
Weld defects
Discontinuities that exhibit 1% or more absorption difference relative to surrounding region
Advanced systems can detect flaws as small as 0.001 inches
Orientation of inspection sample
Not suitable for surface defects
As thickness increases, detection effectiveness decreases
Large amounts of equipment required for non-portable setup
Film limitations
Manual image interpretation
Can be used to detect defects in a variety of materials
Can detect internal defects
Permanent inspection record
Objects radiographed range in size from micro-miniature electronic parts to
large missile components
Makes it easier to maintain a defect-free and uniform product line
Variety of programs available nationally to study the science of radiology
Radiation safety training is critically important
ASNT offers certification for radiography safety
Portable or fixed setups depending on industry/company requirements and desired function
Traditional radiography requires film development facilities and equipment
Depends on setup, but cost can be greatly reduced with the use of portable equipment
that requires less space

The AMMTIAC Quarterly, Volume 2, Number 2

http://ammtiac.alionscience.com/quarterly