Reinforced Concrete StructuresReinforced Concrete Structures R. PARK and T, PAULAY Depariment of Civil Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand ‘A WILEY-INTERSCIENCE PUBLICATION JOHN WILEY & SONS New York + Chichester» Brisbane Toon Singapore‘ANOTE TO THE READER: ‘The took bas een elacronlelly reprogced from digial ‘Tasena.r25 ISBN 0-471-65917-7 Printed Un States of America 16 15 2 19 18 LD - DOCUMENTS Preface ent and the treatment of the subject of reinforced s, teachers, and practi- ccing members of the structural engineering profession. ‘The book has grown from two editions of seminar notes entitled Ultimate Strength Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures (Vol. University of Canterbury for extension study seminars: cing structural engineers in New Zealand. Those early editions of semina in teaching theory and design, and in design and research, have helped to form ideas and to provide background material for the book. “The text emphasize the basic behavior of reinforced conereteelementsand trength and deformation characteristics give the reader a thorough knowledge of uch a background js essential to a 1g codes and design procedures. should be executed. Itis jonally assessing designtorsion are then presented in some depth, and anchorage. The service load behavior of reinforced concrete members is then examined, with emphasis on deflection and crack control. This material is followed by a treatment of frames and shear walls. Because we believe that correct proportioning of components is insufficient to ensure a successful design, the book ends with a discussion on the detailing of structural com- llowed by a discussion of bond We have not attempted to treat the design of specific types of structures. ‘Thorough understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete components and of structural analysis should enab jo undertake the design of the common range of structures and to find solutions to special problems. ‘An aspect of the book that distinguishes it from most other texts on rein- the treatment of the effects of ea Seismic design is assuming more importance with the realizat‘on that seismic zones may be more extensive than has heretofore been ass sign involves more than a cons the structure. Proper attent failure mechanisms, are essenti: earthquakes are to be designed. Con: seismic loading inv a the development of strength, and these areas are given due regard in the text. A detailed discussion of slabs has been omitted because a book-length ‘treatment is in preparation. We hope that the book will serve as a useful text to teachers preparing a syllabus for undergraduate courses in reinforced concrete. Each major topic has been treated in enough depth to permit the book to be used by graduate students in advanced courses in reinforced concrete. It is hoped that many rac the formidable task of having to design earthquake-re find this book a useful reference. We would be grateful for any constructive comments or criticisms that readers may have and for notification of any errors that they will inevitably detect. ‘The authors have received a great deal of assistance, encouragement, and inspiration from numerous sources. Thanks are due to our many colleagues at the University of Canterbury, particularly to Prof. H. J. Hopkins, who initiated a strong interest in concrete at this University, to Dr. A. J. Carr, who read part of the manuscript, and to Mrs. Alice Watt, whose patience when appreciation. To many professional engineering colleagues in New Zealand, including O. A. Glogau, G. F. McKenzie, and 1. C. Arm- strong of the New ry of Works, and consulting engineers A.L. Andrews, J. F, Hollings, R. J.P. Garden, and K, Williamson, we owea great deal for constructive comment and discussions. To our many coll in North America, Europe, and Australia, including M. P. Furlong, W. L. Gambl J. MacGregor, and G. Bas part of the manuser ero, F. Leonhardt, and H. Risch, we are grateful. Also our the Por is undertaking could never have been achieved without the patience, encouragement, and understanding of our wives. R. Park T. PAULAY Christchurch, New Zealand August 1974Contents 1 THE DESIGN APPROACH 1.1 Development of Working Stress and Ultimate Strength Design Procedures 1.2. Design for Strength and Serviceability 1.3. ACI Strength and Serviceability Design Method 1.3.1 Strength Provisions, 4 1.3.2 Serviceability Provisions, 6 1.3.3 Ductility Provisions, 7 1.4 Considerations of Member Strength 1.4.1 Development of Member Strength, 7 1.4.2 Ideal Strength, 8 Dependable Strength, & Probable Strength, 8 Overstrength, 9 Relationships Between Different Strengths, 9 15 References 2. STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONSHIPS FOR CONCRETE AND STEEL Concrete 2-1 Uniaxial Stress Behavior, 1 2.1.2 Combined Stress Behavior, 1.3 Conerete Confinement by Reinforcement, 21 2.1.4 Creep of Concrete, 30 2.1.5 Shrinkage of Concrete, 33 2.2 Steel Reinforcement 2.2.1 Bar Shape and Sizes, 36 u u 36x Contents 2.2.2. Monotonic Stress Behavior, 37 2.23. Repeated Stress Behavior, 40 2.2.4 Reversed Stress Behavior, 40 2.3, References o 3. BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF THEORY FOR FLEXURAL STRENGTH 48 3.1 Basic Behavior Assumptions 48 3.2. Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block 32 3.3 Concrete Strain at the Flexural St 54 3.4 Nonrectangular Compressed Areas 56 3.5. Effects of Slow Rates of Loading and of Sustained Load 38 346 Summary of Recommendations for the Determination of the Strength of Sections with Flexure and Axial Load 58 3.7 References 59 4. STRENGTH OF MEMBERS WITH FLEXURE, a 4.1 Rectangular Sections 6 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Sect Design of Doubly Reinforced Sections, 83 42 Tand I Sections 2 4.2.1 Analysis of T and f Sections, 92 422. Design of Tand J Sections, 95 423 Effective Width of T Beams, 99 43. Sections Having Bars at Various Levels or Steel Lacking a Well-Defined Yield Strength 4.4 Biaxial Bending of Sections 4S Lateral Instability of Beams 46 References 16 5. STRENGTH OF MEMBERS WITH FLEXURE AND AXIAL LOAD — 118 S.1 Introduction 5.2 Axially Loaded Short Columns 5.3 Eccentrically Loaded Short Columns with Uniaxial Bending 123, 5.3.1 Introduction, 123 Contents x 5.3.2 Analysis of Rectangular Sections with Bars at One or ‘Two Faces, 125 5.33. Design of Rectangular Sections with Bars at One or Two Faces, 135 5.3.44 Rectangular Sections with Bars at Four Faces, 143 5.3.5. Sections with Bars in Circular Array, 148, 5.3.6 Design Charts and Tables, 152 5.4 Eccentrically Loaded Short Columns with Biaxial Bending 154 5.4.1 General Theory, 154 5.42 343 5.5. Slender Columns im 5.5.1 Behavior of Slender Columns, 172 5.5.2 “Exact Design Approach for Slender Columns, 179 5.5.3. Approximate Design Approach for Slender Columns: ‘The Moment Magnifier Method, 180 5.6 References 192 6 ULTIMATE DEFORMATION AND DUCTILITY OF MEMBERS WITH FLEXURE 198 6.1 Introduction 195 62 Moment-Curvature Relationships 196 62.1 Curvature of a Member, 196 62.2 Theoretical Moment-Curvature Determi 63, Ductility of Unconfined Beam Sections 203 63.1 Yield and Ultimate Moment and Curvature, 203 63.2 Code-Specified Ductlity Requirements for Beams, 216 64 Ductiity of Unconfined Column Sections 217 65. Members with Confined Conerete 221 6.5.1 Bffect of Confining the Conerete, 22: 6.5.2 Compressive Stress Block Parameters for Concrete Confined by Rectangular Hoops, 224 6.5.3 Theoretical Moment-Curvature Curves for Sections with Confined Concrete, 229 6.6 Flexural Deformations of Members 23667 68 69 Contents 6.6.1 Calculation of Deformations from Curvatures, 236 6.6.2 Additional Effects on the Deformations of Members Calculated from Curvatures, 237 6.6.3, Idealized Ultimate Defor Curvatures, 242 6.6.4 Empirical Expressions for Ultimate Plastic Rotation Calculated from Curvatures, 245 6.6.5 Alternative Approach to the Calculation of Defor- mations Based on the Summation of Discrete Rotations at Cracks, 250 Deformations of Members With Cyclic Loading 6.7.1 Moment-Curvature Relationships, 254 6.7.2 Load-Deformation Behavior, 264 Application of Theory References ns Calcul ed from 7 STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION OF MEMBERS WITH SHEAR 1 12 13 14 15 Introduction The Concept of Shear Stresses ‘The Mechanism of Shear Resistance in Reinforced Concrete Beams Without Shear Reinforcement 7.3.1 The Formation of Diagonal Cracks, 276 7.3.2 Equilibrium in the Shear Span of a Beam, 276 7.3.3 The Principal Mechanisms of Shear Resistance, 278, 734 Size Effects, 287 7.3.5 Shear Failure Mechanisms, 288 7.36 The Design for Shear of Beams Without Web Rein- forcement, 291 ‘The Mechanism of Shear Resistance in Reinforced Concrete Beams with Web Reinforcement 7.4.1. The Role of Web Reinforcement, 293 7.4.2 The Truss Mechanism, 294 74.3 The Design for Shear of Beams with Web Rein- forcement, 299 ‘The Interaction of Flexure and Shear 7.5.1 The Effect of Shear on Flexural Stee! Requirements, 304 75.2 Shear at Plastic Hinges, 307 7.5.3 Interaction Effects in Deep Beams, 310 254 268, 268 20 270 2m 216 293 301 7.6 The Interaction of Shear, Flexure, and Axial Forces 310 7.6.1 Shear and Axial Compression, 310 7.6.2 Shear and Axial Tension, 312 7.7 Shear Deformations 31s 7.7.1 Uncracked Members, 315 7.1.2, Shear Deformations in Cracked Members, 316 7.8 Interface Shear 319 7.8.1 Shear Transfer Across Uncracked Conerete Interfaces, 320 7.8.2. Shear Transfer Across Precracked Concrete Interfaces, 321 7.8.3. Shear Transfer Across Construction Joints, 325 7.9. The Effects of Repeated and Cyclic Loading on Shear Strength 332 7.9.1 Effects on the Web Reinforcement, 332 7.9.2 Effects on Interface Shear Transfer, 335 7.10 Special Members and Loadings 338 7.11 References 343 8 STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION OF MEMBERS WITH TORSION 346 8.1 Introduction 346 8.2. Plain Concrete Subject to Torsion 348 8.2.1 Elastic Behar 8.22 Plastic Behavior, 351 8.2.3 Tubular Sections, 354 8.3 Beams Without Web Reinforcement Subject to Flexure and Torsion 357 8.4 Torsion and Shear in Beams Without Web Reinforcement 359 8.5 Torsion Members Requiring Web Reinforcement 361 8.6 Combined Shear and Torsion in Beams with Web Reinforce- ment 370 8.7 Combined Flexure and Torsion 377 88. Torsional Stiffnes: 383 8.9. Torsion in Statically Indeterminate Structures 389 8.10 References 390, 9 BOND AND ANCHORAGE 302 9.1 Introduction 392 9.1.1 Basic Consid jons, 3929.1.2 Anchorage or Development Bond, 393 9.1.3 Flexural Bond, 394 9.2. The Nature of Bond Resistance Basic Features of Bond Resistance, 394 ‘The Position of Bars with Respect to the Placing of the Surrounding Concrete, 397 Bat Profiles and Surface Conditions, 398 The State of Stress in the Surrounding Concrete, 401 The Splitting Failure, 403, Confinement, 404 Repeated and Cyclic Reversed Loading, 404 9.3. The Determination of Usable Bond Strength 9.4 The Anchorage of Bars 9.4.1 Straight Anchorages for Bars with Tension, 410 9.4.2 Hook Anchorages for Bars with Tension, 9.4.3 Anchorage for Bars with Compression, 416 9.5 Anchorage Requirements for Flexural Bond 9.6 Splices 9.6.1 Introduction, 418 9.6.2. Tension Splices, 419 9.6.3 Compression Splices, 421 9.6.4 Mechanical or Contact Splices, 423 9.7 References 10 SERVICE LOAD BEHAVIOR 1 Service Load Performance 10.2 Elastic Theory for Stresses in Members due to Flexure 10.2.1. Effective Modulus of Elasticity, 427 10.22 Theory Assumptions, 428 10.23 Analysis of Beams Using the Internal Couple Approach, 429 10.2.4 Analysis of Beams Using the Transformed Section Approach, 436 10.2.5 Design of Beams Using the Alternative (El Theory) Method, 441 10.26 Analysis of Short Columns, 450 10.2.7 Shrinkage Stresses, 457 Contents 304 407 410 47 418 424 416 26 ar seams Contents ~ 10.3 Control of Deflections 461 10.3.1 The Need for Deflection Control, 461 10.3.2. Method of Deflection Control, 463 10.3.3 Calculation of Deflections, 465 10.3.4 More Accurate Methods for Calculating Deflections, 470 10.4 Control of Cracking 416 14.1 The Need for Crack Control, 476 14.2 Causes of Cracking, 477 10.4.3 Mechanism of Flexural Cracking, 479 10.4.4 Control of Flexural Cracks in Design, 490 10.5 References 494 I STRENGTH AND DUCTILITY OF FRAMES 496 41.1 Introduction . 496 11.2. Moment Redistribution and Plastic Hinge Rotation 496 11.3 Compiete Analysis of Frames 502, Methods for Determining Bending Moment, Shear Force, and Axial Force Distributions at the Ultimate Load for Use in Design 505 4.1 The Elastic Bending Moment Diagram, 50S 4.2 The Elastic Bending Moment Diagram Modified for Moment Redistribution, 507 11.4.3 Limit Design, $12 11S Limit Design Methods sis 11.5.1 ACI-ASCE Committee 428 Report, 515 5.2 Available Limit Design Methods, 518 5.3. General Method for Calculating Required Plastic Hinge Rotations, 521 54 Calculation of Service Load Moments and Stresses, 529 5.5 Comments on Limit Design, 544 11.6. Design for Seismic Loading 545 11.6.1 Basic Concepts, 54 11.62 Displacement Ductlity Requirements, 547 11.63 Curvature Ductility Requirements, 552 11.6.4 Determining Curvature Ductlity Demand of Mi story Frames Using Static Collapse Mechanisms, $54x Contents Contents ait 11.65 Determining Curvature Ductility Demand of Mul- 133 Directional Changes of Internal Forces 665 tory Frames Using Nonlinear Dynamic Analyses, 563 13.4 The Detailing of Beams 669 11.66 Additional Factors in Analysis for Ductilty, 568 11.6.7 ACI Code Special Provisions for Seismic Design of Ductile Frames, 580 11.68 Discussion of ACI Code Special Provisions for Seismic Design of Ductile Frames, 584 11.69 An Alternative Procedure for Calculating Special 13.5. The Detailing of Compression Members 686 Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement in the 13.6 Brackets and Corbels 690 Plastic Hinge Zones of Columns, 591 10 Earthquake Energy Dissipation by Special Devices, 599 Capacity Design for Seismic Loading of Frames, 600 11.7 References 607 136.44 Other Types of Bracket, 697 12, SHEAR WALLS OF MULTISTORY BUILDINGS 610 13.7 Deep Beams 700 610 ou : ‘ Continuous Deep Beams, 705 Web Reinforcement in Deep Beams, 707 Introduction of Concentrated Loads, 714 138 Beam-Columa Joints 16 Sections, 629 I ory Plane Frames, 126 Plane Frames, 736 633 64 1386 637 13.9 Conclusions 758 13.10 References 758 Response, 638 INDEX 763 Behiavior of Coupled Shear Walls, 641 5.4 th Coupled Shear Walls, 657 125.5 Summary of Design Principles, 658 126. References, 660 13. THE ART OF DETAILING 663 13.1. Introduction 663 13.2 The Purpose of Reinforcement 664Reinforced Concrete StructuresThe Design Approach LL DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING STRESS AND ULTIMATE, GTH DESIGN PROCEDURES lowable working stresses led factory behavior at the service loads and having an adequate margin of safety against collapse. Thus elastic theory has been the basis of reinforced ‘concrete design for many years. Recently there has been renewed interest in ultimate strength theory as a basis of ‘After more than half a century of practical experience and behavior of structural concrete has apparent properties of the concrete and ste accepted as an alternative to working stress desi reinforced concrete of the American Concrete Institute (ACI) in 1956 and of the United Kingdom in 1957. These two design approaches may be sum- ‘marized as follows. Working Stress Design (Elastic Theory) “The sections of the members of the structure are designed assuming straight tine stress-strain relationships ensuring that at service loads the stresses in— : “The Design Approwch for example, for compression in bending 0.45 of the ‘may be assumed. The bending moments and ly indeterminate structures are calculated assuming Ultimate Strength Design ‘The sections of the members ofthe structures are designed taking inelastic strains into account to reach ultimate (maximum) strengt at maximum strength and usual ‘equal to the sum of each service load m . Typical load factors used in live load, The ben rend towards ultimate strength design are predi the members because inelastic strains are not taken stress method, therefore, the exact unknown and varies from structure to ‘may be used for loading known more such as dead load, and a higher load factor for less certain loads, such may reach the yield strength during the sustained application of service e modular ratio. Utimatestrength sign dors not sequie a knowledge of the modular ength design makes more efficent use of high strength. and smaller beam depths can be used without compression ements alone, there is a danger th adequate, the cracking and the deflect ie USSR and in some ot ean countries for many years. It is likely that the trend toward the use ofple of the European Concrete lowed and the working stress method disappears from building codes for reinforced concrete. The 1956 and 1963 ate strength design. The 1971 ACI code'* emphasizes design based on strength with serviceability checks. However, the 1971 code also allows an alternative design method in which the working stress method is used to design beams for flexure and factored-down ultimate strength equations are used to design members for all other actions. Its evident that i nly in an attempt to keep what ha Future ACI codes may om code provisions are supplemented in the light of new research evidence that has become available, and some comparison with other codes is given. 13. ACI STRENGTH AND SERVICEABILITY DESIGN METHOD Strength Provisions The 1971 ACI code' separates the strength provisions for structural safety into two parts, load factors and capacity reduction factors. Load Factors Load factors are intended to ensure adequate s. service loads beyond loads specified in design so unlikely. Load factors also help to ensure that the deformations at the service load are not excessive. The load factors used for dead load, live load, lateral arth and fluid pressure, and wind and earthquake loading differ in magni- tude. The load factors are different for various types of loading because, for instance, the dead load of a structure is less likely to be exceeded than prescribed live load. The ultimate load of the structure should at least equal the sum of each service load multiplied by its respective ctor. The 1971 ACI code recommends that the required strength U provided to resist an’ increase in [ACI Strength and Servcability Design Method dead load D and live load L be atleast equal to Us 14D +17L When wind load W is to be considered in the design the required strength U provided should also be at least equal to U = 0.75(L.4D + 1.7L + LW) 2) where the case of L having its full value or zero should be checked, and U =090 +13W when actions resulting from D and W are of opposi sign. earthquake load The load factors as prescribed do not vary wi consequence of failure. For example, one the seriousness of the failure, Nevertheless, the load factors prescribed should bbe regarded as minimum values. Some increases may be appropriate if the consequences of failure are especially serious or if a reasonable estimate of the service load cannot be made. Capacity Reduetion Factors ns and variations in the material strengths, workmanship, and iensions. Each one ofthese may be within tolerable limits, but in combina ion they may result in undercapacity. The basic strength equation for a section may be said to give the ideal strength, assuming that the equation is Aexure, with or without axial tension, of axial tension @ = 0.90 flexure with axial compression, or axial compression: ifspirally reinforced 9 = 075 otherwise | = 070 (@ may be increased linearly to 0.9 for sections with small shear and torsion, = 085‘ "The Design Approuch Additional variables that have been considered in prescribing caps reduction factors include the seriousness of the consequence of fail the members with respect to the whole structure, and the degree of war Beams have the highest g valve because they are designed to fail in a ductile manner with yielding of the tension steel. ‘Warning of such a failure would normally be given by considerable cracking, and large deflections, and since the variability of steel strength is less than that for concrete, the flexural strength can be accurately predicted. Columns have the lowest g values because they can le way when the concrete strength is the critical factor. Also, failure of a column can mean collapse of the whole structure, and repair of columns is difficult to carry out. Spirally reinforced columns are more ductile than tied columns, hence they have been allocated a higher @ value. The @ value for sheat and torsion is intermediate because the concrete contribution to strength is less critical than in the case ‘of compression members, and the theory predicting the strength is less accurate than that for flexure. In design the ultimate load is calculated on the basis of the dependable ‘On the basis of the ideal strength, the overall safety factor for a structure loaded by dead and live load is 14D + 1.7L 1 y Ea between O and 4, thus giving greater overall safety to a more critical building element. trength is calculated using the specified strengths of the con- cerete and the steel. Because these strength values ar. normally exceeded in a reserve of strength is avilable. 1.3.2. Serviceability Provisions ‘The assessment of the performance of the structure at the ser extremely important consideration when members are propo basis ofthe required strength. This is because members with smal sec le compression steel, can satisfy the strength re ‘must be verified that deflections at service load are within acceptable he control of cracking is also very important for the sake of appear- ance and durability. Therefore, the crack widths at the service load should aoe tions and crack specify, but recommendations for these are given in the 1971 ACI code 1.3.3 Ductility Provisions A significant con ability is ductility. structure being loaded to failure, means ensuring that the structure will not fa warning but jeration that may have to be added to strength and service- in the extreme event of a es saved. Also, ductile behavior ‘ons of bending moments th the redistribution possible from the elastic bending moi In areas requiring design for seismic loading, du extremely important consideration. This is because the present philosophy ly after yielding to enable Hence the recommendation structure has sufficient duc elastic deformations when subjected to several cycles of loading well into the yield range. for the first time, the code includes an appendix giving special provisions for seismic design. 14 CONSIDERATIONS OF MEMBER STRENGTH 1.4.1. Development of Member Strength ften necessary to evaluate the possible upper and lower bounds. cely strength of structural components. This is the case when a desired sequence of strengtt ent in the members of a structure loadedq 8 ‘The Design Approach to failure is to be ensured. For example 4 column failure possible catastrophic consequences it is always desirable to develop the strength of the beam before the strength of the column. The avoidance of all types of nonductile failure mode isa particular feature of seismic design. Thus itis important to know the possible variation of the likely strengths of structural members. Real structures contain variations inthe strengths of the concrete and steel from the specified values, and there are unavoidable deviations from the specified dimensions because of constructional tolerances. Also, assump- tions have been made in the derivation of the strength equations. Hence itis difficult to calculate exactly the real strength ofa structure; but itis possible to define levels of possible strength of members, which can be used in various types of design calculations. The levels of ideal strength, dependable strength, probable strength and overstrength will be defined in the following sections. 1.4.2. Ideal Strength S, jominal strength of a section of a member S, is obtained from jon and on assumed section 1.43 Dependable Strength S, Inthe strength provisions described in Section 1.3.1 the purpose of thecapacity reduction factor @ was outlined. The capacity reduction factor allows the dependable or reliable strength S, to be related to the ideal strength by 5.= 05, where g, the capacity reduction factor, is less than 1. (5) 1.4.4 Probable Strength S, The probable strength S, takes strengths are generally greater tha specified concrete strength, or even higher at a greater age or ifthe matei compressed. The probable strengths of the materials can be obtained from routine testing, normally conducte i during construction of the structure. If the information is required at te design stage, it must be based on previous experience with the materials. The probable strength can Seeenaiaebenine enn —e Caer Mente Sent ° be related to the ideal strength by 5, = 0,5, 6 where g, is the probable strength factor allowing for materials being stronger than specified and is greater than 1. 145 Overstrength 5, The overstrength S, takes cause a strength increase. The 1¢ possible factors that may steel strength higher than the due to strain hardening large deformations, a concrete strength higher than specified, section sizes ion purposes or jeune fr in alultions, The ovrsrength can be related to he el ngth by S,=9, an fength factor allowing for all sources of strength in- than 1 where 9, is the 0% crease and is great 1.4.6 Relationships Between Different Strengths ‘The highest level of protection to ensure that component A which receives load from component B does not fail before the strength of component B is developed is found when the dependable strength of component 4 exceeds the overstrength of component B, S,, 2 S,p. A lower level of protection is given by 5,4 > Sig» and an even lower level of protection is given by S,4 > Sy. ‘The degree of protection afforded by these cases may best be expressed by the ratio of probable strengths, $,4/S,», of the two components: For the foregoing levels of protection, high to I be found from Eqs. 15 to 17 that Sus. PSpl Qo Sea 5 na. = PSM 5 Seu y Yraen 0 PaaS Ppa” Spe ena Seales 5 Spa 5 PoaPon (1.80) O50! pn Sy Ops Sua eo — Sg, | Sus Ga 2 GoaSpalPpa > Sy” Op a) For example, if @4=09, Oy4= Gp = Ll, and yy = 1.3, the ratios of the probable strength of component A to the probable strength of0 “The Design Ap component B necessary to ensure that component B does not fail are (LL x L3Y(LL x 09) = 1.44, LL x L3/L1 = 130, and 1.3/1.1 = 1.18, according to Eq ‘and 8c, respectively g the different levels of protection for component B. ternational Code of Practice for Reinforeed Concrete.” 964, (English translation available from Cement snd Concrete Assocation, London, 156 pp.) ‘Commitee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concreie (ACI ‘American Conerete Institue, Detroit, 1971, 78 pp. 13. Ict form Building Code,” 1970 edition, Vol 7 International Conference of Building Ofcials, Pasadena, Cal, 651 p. Stress-Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steel 2.4. CONCRETE 2.1.1 Uniaxial Stress Behavior ion only ions the concrete is st ions, Nevertheless, an assumed uniaxial n can be justified in many cases. Compressive Stress Be ‘The compressive strength of concrete is usually obtained from cylinder of 2. The cylinders are loaded longitudinal days usually ranges between 2000 and size cylinders, or cubes, are also used, ted over several the compressivea ‘Stress Strain Relationships for Concrete ané Steel, e401 L oo E 1201 | 0101 Fig. 21. Stresteain curves for concrete inders loaded in uniaxial compression cannot absorb the release in strain energy from the t load decreases after maximum stress. A stiff te trace the full extent of the descendi machine when the (1 psi = 0.00689 N/mm?), where w is the density of concrete in pounds per cubic foot (1 Ib/ft* = 16.02 kg/m*) and f: is the compressive cylinder te, E, may be considered to be 57,0007 ‘Riisch?? have indicatec tress depends on ess is a second-degree often quoted suesesrain curve dus to Hognestad** is show where f? is the maximum stress reach« branch apters 3 and 6 with regard ate deformations of members he concrete of a flexural mem- ber f? may differ fron inder strength f because of the difference in size calculat 078 Seeslsverath 1 Ton? = 0.00688 Nm? 0 (00005 oe01—ogots 0007 0.0028, Ses, Fig. 2.3. Idelized stresesrain curve for concrete in uniaial compression?and shape of the compressed concrete, The strength of c with flexure is treated at greater length in Chapter 3. ‘When the load is applied ata fast strain rate, both the modulus ofe: and the strength of the concrete increase. For example, it has been reported? * that for a strain rate of 0.01/sec the concrete strength may be increased as much as 17%, Repeated high-intensity compressive loading produces a pronounced hysteresis effect stress-strain curve. Figure 2.4 gives test data obtained or a, Se, kpwin# Nim) by Sinha, Ger Karsan and Jirs to the curve obtained from a single continuous load apy Riisch,?* who has conducted long-term loading tests on unconfined ‘concrete, has found that the sustained load compressive strength is approx- imately 80% ofthe short-term strength, where the sh rength at greater ages. Al capacity reduction factor ois low when the compressive strength of concrete Creep strains due to long-term loading cause modification in the Shape ofthe stress-strain curve, Some curves obained by sch" for various rates of loading (Fig. 2.5) indicate that with a decreasing rate of strain, the Concrete 1s Fes. loading * decreases but the descending in at which the maximum stress rength of concrete may be measured indirect ‘computed tensile stress at which a cylinder placed horizontally in a testing machine and loaded along a diameter will split. The method of test and the stresses induced along the theory of , ate represented in Fig, 2.6. The tensile stress across the diameter ng is found from the relationship 2P/(xhd), where P is the applied terms of the ie beams normally have a 6 in le strength in flexure, known rom the flexural formula M/Z, ilure of the specimen and Z is the16 ‘Sues dination on loaed diameter — hoa Fig. 26, Splitopinder test for tensile strength section modulus of the cross section. The split cylinder tensile strength usually ranges from 50 to 75% of the modulus of rupture. The difference is mainly due to the stress di flexural member being nonlinear when failure is imminent, An approximate relationship for the modulus of rupture is, = KF psi 2 where f1 isthe cylinder strength in psi (I psi = 0.00689 For sand and gravel concrete K can range between 7 and 13;a lower bound of K = 7.5 is often assumed. It is evident that an increase in compressive strength is not accompanied by a proportionate increase in the modulus of rupture Because of the low tensile strength of concrete, concrete in tension is usual ns of reinforced concrete members. ‘When its taken into account, however, the stress-srain curve in tension may At high compressive stresses the transverse ternal cracking parallel to the direction of loading ted to failure are plotted in Fig, 2.7. During volume of the specimen decreases; but at high become 60 increase, Seniors LigStress-Stain Rl onsips for Concrete and Stee! acting on an element of the concrete, it can be shown (eg, see Popov?) that any combined stress situation can be reduced to thre normal stresses acting on three mutually perpendicular planes, These ther normal stresses are the ese planes are zero. been developed for no reliable theory sngth of concrete for the general case of complex three- compression may be as mucl equal biaxial compressive stresses, the strength increase ,. The strength under biaxial tension is approxim: ile strength. Note, however, that combined tension and compres- ings reduce both the tensile and the compressive stresses at failure. 22 ee 12/10 08 os o4 on | faz A> ft toa Hoff Los Fit toe. 19 124 4 i Fig. 28. strength of concrete, f, = uniaxial strength ?"° to this envelope or intersects it can be regarded as a failure condition. A failure curve for elements with direct stress in one direction éombined with shear stress, as found by Bresler and Pister,”"? appears in Fig. 2.10. sree» ‘tres Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steet, ‘The curve indicates that the compressive stren the presence of shear stress. Th strength of concrete in the compressi shear is present h of concrete is reduced in may, for e Triaxial Compressive Stress Behavior ‘The strength and ductility of concrete are greatly iacreased under conditions of triaxial compression. Richart, Brandtzaeg, and Brown?'? found the following relationship for the strength of concrete cylinders loaded axially to failure while subjected to confining uid pressure ae AN 23) where f,, = axial compressive strength of confined specimen Fi = uniaxial compressive strength of unconfined specimen °f, = lateral confining pressure Other tests by Balmer? have given ¥ which range between 4 and 70 with an average 4.1 found by Richart et al. The high values for lateral pressures. Figure 211 gives the axial stressstrain curves obtained by Richart et al? for triaxial compression tests conducted on concrete cylinders. The cylinders were confined laterally by fluid pressure. For each curve the fluid pressure of 5.6, rather t coefficient occurred at low Ee 4090 ps 18! (28.2 Nimen? | j dant 2" T =|. My oso ng Mud promire | i te 5 = ss00s i ore Traninnderee area |] torn acs 00s — 008 — 00S — Or iene Fig. 24, restrain curves fom trianal compression tests on concrete cylinders"? Concrete ul the axial st periods. It is evident that an increase in lateral pressure brings very sig Increases in ductility, as well as strength. This effect is due to the lateral pressure that confines the concrete and reduces the tendency for internal facking and volume increase just prior to failure. 2.1.3 Conerete Confinement by Reinforcement In practice, concrete may be confined by transverse reinforcement, commonly in the form of closely spaced steel spirals or hoops. In this case, at ow levels, ofstress in the concrete, the transverse reinforcement is hardly stressed; hence eco fined, The concrete becomes confined when at stresses approa xxial strength, the transverse strains become very high because of progressive internal cracking and the concrete bears out against the transverse reinforcement, which then applies a confining reaction to the rete. Thus the transverse reinforcement provides passive confinement. tors have shown that confinement by transverse reinforcement ly improve the stress-strain characteristics of concrete at high strains. Richart et al?'5 found, for example, that Eq. 23, for the strength of concrete confined by fluid pressure, applies approximately to conerete confined by circular spirals. Figure 2.12 shows stress-strain curves obtained from three sets of concrete cylinders confined by circular spirals tested by Iyengar et al? Bach set was for a diflerent unconfined strength of concrete. The increase in strength and ductility with content of confining steel is very significant. Tests have demonstrated that circular spirals confine concrete much more effectively than rectangular or square hoops. In Fig, 2.13 we have load-strain curves from conerete prisms tested by Bertero and Felippa®'? which contained various amounts of square tes. ‘The effect of the different transverse steel contents on the ductility is quite appreciable, but the effect on strength is much smaller. id in Fig. 2.14, Circular spirals, because of their shape, are in axial hoop tension and provide 2 continuous confining pressure around the circumference, which at large transverse strains approximates fluid confine- ment. As a rule, however, square hoops can apply only confining reactions near the corners of the hoops because the pressure of the concrete against the sides of the hoops tends to bend the sides outwards, as in Fig, 2.14 Therefore a considerable portion of the concrete cross section may be ‘unconfined. Because of internal arching between the corners, the concrete is confined effectively only in the corners and the central region of the section.n ‘Sures-Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steet 5 a , — ‘ok AO 00 Pe 20 mn a 5 ¥e Ew aa re y E t ” 2 {_ Fig. 2.14, Confinement by square hoops and circular spirals, (a) Square hoop, (6) Circular i f =| sl U > e| 2 e ~ Pe S | 201 5 \ Nevertheless, square confining steel does produce a significant increase in 3 soll pitch eve en, rs \ ductility, and some enhancement of strength has been observed by many tim” 804 ! It is evident from Figs. 2.12 and 2.13 that confinement by transverse ° oo ear 00 8 a reinforcement has litle effect on the stress-strain curve until the uniaxial Average sain over #200 mi 7.) $s strength of the concrete is approached. The shape of the stress-strain curve at high strains is a function of many variables, the major ones being the diameter by 300 mm lowing: eter mild stool bar" 1. The ratio of the volume of transverse steel to the volume of the concrete core, because a high transverse steel content will mean a high transverse confining pressure, an 2. The yield strength of the transverse stecl, because this gives an upper ico { limit to the confining pressure. 3. The ratio of the spacing of the transverse steel to the dimensions of the -" concrete core, because a smaller spacing leads to more effective confinement, z (600) as illustrated in Fig. 2.15. The concrete is confined by arching of the concrete é between the transverse bars and ifthe spacing is large itis evident that a large a volume of the conerete cannot be confined and may spall away. : 4, The ratio of the diameter of the transverse bar to the unsupported a length of transverse bars in the case of rectangular stirrups or hoops, because 2 0 a larger bar diameter leads to more effective confinement. This effect is (ed in Fig. 2.14, Transverse bars of small diameter will act merely as in (678 mm) tween the comers because the flexural stiffness of the hoop bar is OU Ce a small and the hoops bow outward rather than effectively confining the concrete in the regions between the corners. With a larger transverse bar diameter to unsupported length rato, the area of concrete effectively confined be larger because ofthe greater flexural stiffness ofthe hoop side. In the case ofa circular spiral this variable has no significance: given its shape, the 2 mm) gauge lathConcrete and Stee, i “oR t yess itudinal reinforcemen will also confine the concrete. Longitudinal bars are usual and the ratio of bar diameter to unsupported length is generally such that the bars can effectively confine the concrete. However, the longitudinal bars must be placed tightly against the transverse steel because the transverse steel provides the confining reac ‘use this steel large diameter, 7. The rate of loading, because the stress-strain character are time dependent, Ou fe the transverse steel the concrete is not confined, ge number of transverse bars creates a plane or surface of weakness between the core and the cover concrete and precipitates spalling. Thus for high transverse stecl contents the contribution of the cover concrete at high strains should be ignored. The cover con characteristics of unconfined concrete up to an assumed spalling st ly and will tend taken of the cover concrete of concrete confined by reinforcement are discussed below. Concrete Confined by Circular Spirals Assuming that the spirals are sufficiently close to apply @ near-uniform ing pressure may be calculated from the hoop developed by the spiral steel, Figure 2.16 shows a free body of half a s The lateral pressure on the reaches a maximum wher ‘cement reaches strength J, the area of the spiral bar, and sis the that An 24) ini compressive strength as) > 5Ae Fig.2.16. Confinement of concrete by spiral reinforcement.The incr Iyengar et , have proposed stres concrete confined by circular spirals based on empirical data obtained from tests, Concrete Confined by Rectangular Hoops Various investigators have proposed str confined by rectangular hoops. Some of the proposed curves appear in Fig. 2.17. In Chan's? year curve OAB approximated the curve unconfined concrete and the shape of BC depended on the transverse reinforcement, Blume et al"? also adopted a trilinear curve in which OA approximated the curve for unconfined concrete up to O8Sf, and ABC 1s replaced by a single straight line) depended on the content and yield stress ofthe transverse confinement, Baker? recommended a parabola um stress dependent on the strain g adient across the section, branch to a strain dependent o testrain gradient and the strain r of a parabola and two strai points related to transverse steel content and spacing and the confi Sargin et al? have proposed a general equation that gives a continuous stress-strain curve related to the content, spacing, and transverse steel, the strain gradient across the section, and concrete stren (On the basis of the existing experimental evidence, Kent and Park * have proposed the stress-strain curve in Fig, 2.18 for concrete confined by rectangular hoops. This suggested relationship combines many ofthe features jously proposed curves. The charac of the suggested curve region AB: e, < 0.002 2, ‘This ascending part of the curve is represented by a second-degree parabola ‘and assumes that the confining steel has no effect on the shape of this part of the curve or maxi maximum stress reached by the confined ct ‘There is evidence that see for example, Refs. 2.16, 2.17, 2.18, 2.22, and 2.23. However, this increase2 ‘Stress Straln Relatlonships for Conrste and Stee! curve for concrete confined b gular hoops, Kent and Park.?* may be small, and in Roy and Sozen’s tests?" no incr found. The assumed maximum stress off: will be conservative in most cases. region BC: 0.002 < & < exo, S= Sl — Ze, ~ 0.002)] en where 28) 29) 2.10) where f; = concrete cylinder strength in psi (1 psi = 0.00689 N/mm), p, = ratio of volume of transverse reinforcement to volume of concrete ‘core measured to outside of hoops, b" = width of confitied core measured to outside of hoops, and s, = spacing of hoops. The parameter Z defines the slope of the assumed linear falling branch. The slope of the falling branch is ss obtained?** from account the branch of unconfined low-strength concrete. Equation 2.10 for eso, gives the adi angular hoops and was derived from the experimental resul » uding the effect loaded specimens), but since the effect was not marked it does not appear in the equations, When analyzing the rest jons it was assumed that the cover concrete had spalled away by the time the stress had fallen to 0.5 of the maxi- ‘mum stress. The confined core was assumed to be inside the center of the hoop in the outside of the hoops. This lowance for the presence of some cover conerete at high region CD: , > ta9¢ f= 0%, This equation accounts for the abil very large strains Figure 2.19 shows the influence of rectangular steel hoops on the stress- strain curve given by Eqs. 26 to 2.11 when the concrete cylinder strength is of concrete to sustain some stresses at ° Doo 000g Gor a0re for concrete when 50" = 0. isa great improvement rectangular hoops, but the improvement becomes progressively less significant as more hoops are added. Eq) 27 to 2.10 were derived from results from specimens with the variables in the following ranges: 5/6 = 0351020, p, = 0.35t02.4%and f’»” ‘mainly in the range 3000 to 4000 psi (20.7 to 27.6 N/mm?), although some psi (53.8 to 59.3 N/mm?), ion of more variables. In particular, tests on various arrangements of se steel including overlapping hoops, and hoops with supplementary 8, are badly needed. the proposed equations for concrete confined by rectangular hoops can be regarded only as approxima- tions, but itis believed that they will give reasonable results. 214 Creep of Concrete Figure 2.5 indicates that the stress-strain relation: ‘time. Concrete under stress undergoes a gradu: time because of creep deformations be several times as large as the inital elastic strain. Generally creep has little effect on the strength of a structure, but it will cause a redistribution o! in reinforced concrete members at the service loads, and lead to an increase in the service load deflections. Creep deformations are benefici cases. For example, concrete stresses due to differential settlement of structures are reduced by creep. Creep in tension also delays shrinkage ‘cracking in concrete. The method of calculation of stresses and deformations duc to creep is examined in Chapter 1 The creep deformation of concrete under con: stress is illustrated in Fig. 220. As axial compressive creep proceeds at a Specimen loided com etormation compressive stress, | Concrete a strain is im- is recovered elastic strain is less than the in because the elastic modulus increases with age. The wed by a creep recovery, whi ial elastic st elastic recovery is ship between creep load stresses used s in acceptable accuracy. ‘The magnitude of creep strain depends on the composition of the concrete, the environment, and the stress-time history. ‘The composition of concrete may be described in terms of aggregate type and proportions, cement type and content, water/cement ratio, and ad Aggregate type can have a marked effect on creep because of different absorption and elastic properties of the aggregates. For example, use of sandstone aggregates may result in twice the creep strain than for a limestone aggregate??? Aggregates are volumetrically more stable than the ceme paste; therefore an increase in aggregate content leads to a decrease in creep strains. An increase in the water/cement ratio and an increase in the cement content, increases creep, as does high ai The environment may be des of the member, creep is reduced in large members. The influence of size and shape of concrete may be represented by the ratio of volume to surface area, or by an effective thickness, The stress-time history may be described in terms of age at the stage of first loading and the time under an early age causes hi creep strains. With increase in age in creep strain. The creep strains increase with dui empirical methods e bles, where C, isthe ratio of ereep st strain, No allowance is made for the type of aggregate ineRelationships fr Conerete and Steel initial elastic strain) at any time may be written as C= CK KK Ky KK Ky (2.12) ‘The coefficients for Eq, 2.12 are defined below. Ultimate creep coefficient, C, “The value of C, can vary widely. In the ACI Committee 209 review, , was found t6 be in the range 1.30 to 4.15, with an average value of 2535, This average value should be assumed only in the absence of ‘more exact data for the concrete to be used. Time under load coefficient, K, t Kgs oy) where t = time in days after application of load (K, = 0.44, 0.60, 0.69, 0.78, and 090 for 1 = 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and 5 years, respectively) (2.14a) (2.146) (K, = 1.00, 095, 0.83, and 0.74 for moist-cured conerete loaded at 1, 10, 30, and 90 days, respectively; 0.90, 0.82, and 0.74 for steam-cured concrete loaded at I to 3, 10, 30, and 90 days, respectively) coefficient, K, K, = 1.27 0.0067H for H > 40% Qs) where H = relative humi yy in percent 160, for < 40, 60, 80, and 100% re im thickness of member coefficient, Ky, Ky, = 1.00 for 6 in or less, and 0.82 for 12 in (I in = 25.4 mm) 1.09 for 4 in, and Fines coefficient, K y K,, = 0.95 for 30%, 1.00 for 50%, and 1,05 for 70% fines by weight Air content coefficient, K, K, = 1.00 up to 6%, 1.09 for 7% and 1.17 for 8% ait ‘The cement content need not be taken into account for concrete with cement contents between 470 and 750 Ib/yd® (1 Ib/yd? = 0.593 kg/m). Example 2.1 Estimat can be expected to occur in a 12 in (304 mi loaded at age 10 days for a period at a relative hut 3 in (76 mm),a fines content of and is moist cured. The appl service load. Solution has stress is constant and is due to From Eq. 2.12 we have C, = 235 x 09 x 0.95 x 087 x 0.91 x 102 x 0.96 x 1.00 = 1.56 Hence the probable creep strain is 1.56 times the i elastics 24.5 Shrinkage of Concrete but sometimes as much as 0.0010.u ‘Strese-Strain Relationships for Concrete and Steel Shrinkage sin Fig. 2.21. Typical shrinkage curve for concrete Shrinkage is to a large extent a revers saturated lume changes of concrete. This phenomenon is partly responsible for the fluctuating deflections of structures (e.g, concrete bridges) exposed to seasonal changes each year. Asa rule, concrete that exhibits a high creep also displays high shrinkage. ‘Thus the magnitude ofthe shrinkage strain depends on the composition of the concrete and on the environment in much the same way as discussed previously for creep. © ACI Committee 20976 and the CEB-FIP2*" have proposed methods for ion of shrinkage strains. The former tee 209,2** for normal weight, sand lightweight, {using both moist and steam curing and types 1 lined shrinkage strain at any time ¢ is given by where the coefficients are given below. Ultimate shrinkage strain, ty, The value of ey, can vary widely. In the ACI Committee 209 review, fy Was found to be in the range 0.000415 to 0.00107, with mean values of 0.00080 for moist-cured concrete or 0,00073 for steam- cured concrete. These average values should be assumed on! absence of more exact data for the concrete to be used. rkage coefficient, S, after age 7 days, for moist-cured concrete, Sate (2.178) where ¢ = time in days from age 7 days (S, = 0.46, 0.72, 0.84, 0.91, and 0.98 for t= 1 month, 3 months, is, | year, and 5 years, respectively) after age | to 3 days for steam-cured conerete, 176) where ¢ = time in days from age 1 to 3 days (S, = 0.35, 0.62, 0.77, 0.87, and 0.97 for t= 1 month, 3 months, months, 1 year, and 5 years, respectively) For shrinkage considered from greater ages than given above, the difference may be determined using Eq. 2.17a or 2.17b for any period after that time. That is, shrinkage for moist say, Id be equal to the 7-day to I-year shrinkage minus the 7-day to I-month shrinkage. The foregoing procedure assumes that the moist-cured concrete has been cured {for3to 7 days. For the shrinkage of moist-cured conerete from | day, the shrinkage needs to be multiplied by 1.2; a linear interpolation between 1.2 at 1 day and 1.0 at 7 days may be used. ry coefficient, Sy Sy=14-001H — for401 a constant strain rate, whereas in ‘a member with slowly applied external load, the strain rate varies across the compression zone, being a maximum at the estreme compression fiber and zero at the neutral axis. However, compressive stress block parameters for slow rates of loading can be calculated from stress-strain curves for various strain rates, The biggest difference from the shor ad paramet arise in the case of sustained loading. Risch? has reported the resul tests on concrete prisms indi ‘compressive stress block parat of the flexural strength in the discussion to Riisch’s paper,>? Hognestad used Riisch’s sustained load stress block parameters to demon- strate that the strength of columns could be up to 10% less than that given using the short-term loading rectangular stress block parameters, although the influence of sustained loading on the strength of beams was not signifi- cant. Since itis not unreasonable to have a slightly smaller load factor for the case of a sustained overload, and because the capacity reduction factor g used for column design is low, itis apparent e stress block parameter found from short-term loading tests are satisfactory for design under all loading conditions. 3.6 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE STRENGTH OF SECTIONS WITH FLEXURE AND AXIAL LOAD assumptions made for the determination of the strength of sections flexure and axial load may be summarized as follows: 1. Plane sections before bending remain plane after bending. 2. The distribution of concrete stress may be taken to be a rectangle with a mean stress of 0.85; and a depth from the compressed edge of ‘ye, where cis the neutral axis depth. The value of f, is 0.85 for f? < 4000 psi References 2” 6 N/mm’) and is reduced continuously at a rate of 005 for each 1000 psi (689 N/mm?) of strength in excess of 4000 psi (27.6 N/mm:), 3. Tensile strength of concrete may be neglected. 4. The concrete strain at the extreme compression fiber at the flexural strength of the member may be taken as 0,003, 5. The stress in the fength may be taken as the yy of 29 x 108 psi(0.20 x 10° the yield strength, the steel stress may at the yield strength, 6. The above concrete compressive strain and stress distribution may be Used for beams with nonrectangular compressed areas; for columns with Bonrectangular compressed areas, however, the use of more accurate parameters based on the concrete stress-strain curve may be necessary. 7. The effect of sustained loading may be neglected. The distribution of compressive stress any shape that results in a on of the flexu! member. Some alternative relationships previously employed between con- ‘rete compressive stress and strain are bi parabolic, and combined of a second-degree parabola up in of 0.002 followed by a straight horizontal branch to a strain of 0.0035 is recommended by the CEB-FI id is common in Europe. However n recommended by (see assumption 2 above) makes allowance for the effect of on the shape of stress block and leads to a simple derivation of the flexural strength equations. Another difference between ACI and common European pract maximum usable steel strain recommended. For example, the recommendations® the maximum tensile strain in the Aexural strength of the member to 0.01, whereas the ACI cot place any the concrete may also be taken as is in the 1¢ calculated flexural strength but does ble ultimate deformation of a member. Since the ultimate strain of steel reinforcement is much higher than 0.0, itis difficult to see the need for such a restrot « Basic Assumptions of Theory for Flexural Strength ‘oneete Stress Distribution in Ulte "Journal ACI, Vo. $2, No. 6, Decentber 1955, pp. 455-479. Festgheit der Biegedruckzone,” Bulletin No. 120, Deutscher 955, 94 pp. S. P, Shah, and G. Winter, “EMect of Flexural Stain Gradients on Microcracking and Stres-Stain Behaviour of Concrete," Journal ACI, Vol 62, No.7, uly 1965, pp. 805-822, 35. S. Whitney, "Plastic Theory of Reinforced Concrete Design,” Proceedings ASCE, ions ASCE, Vol. 107, 1942, pp. 251-326, “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318-71)" American Conerete Institute, Detroit, 1971, 78 pp, Stress Distribution spp. §75-926. Design of Mulistorey Reinforced Portland Cement Association, Chicago 1961, Flexural Theory for Structural Conere 87. No. 1, July 1960, pp. 1-28. Discussion in Journal ACT, Vol. 37, No. 9, cK! “Versuche zur Festigheit der Biegedruckzone Finfasse der in No, 207, Deutscher Ausschuse fir Stahlbeton, Berlin, 1965, p. 27-68 lock and L. t Strength of Nonrectangular Structural Con national Recommendations for the Design and Construction of Comité Européen du Beton~Fédération Internationale de fa Prévon- tent, Paris, 170. (English wansaton availble from Cement and Concrete Assocation, London, 88 pp.) 4 Strength of Members with Flexure Beams are structural elements carrying transverse external loads that cause bending moments and shear forces along their length. The flexural (bending) strength of sections of beams is considered in this chapter. 4.1 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS 4.1.1 Analysis of Singly Reinforced Sections A singly reinforced concrete section when the flexural strength is reached at the section appears in Fig. 4.1. The resultant internal tensile force is Taf (a) where A, = area of steel and /, = steel stress. ‘Since the thickness ofthe steel is small compared with the depth ofthe section, the stress over the entire steel area is assumed to be uniform and to equal the stress at the centroid of the steel area. ‘The resultant internal compressive force is C= 085 fab (42) where a = depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block b = width of section Je = compressive cylinder strength of the concrete. The distance between the resultant internal forces, known as the internal lever arm, is given by Jd =d—05a (43) ‘where d, the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the steel area, is known as the effective depth. “e Strength of Members with Fexure Set a stin Fig 4.1. Singly reinforced conc M, = Tid = Cid (44) sion, compression, and balanced) section are discussed next, Tension Failure Wthe steel content ofthe section is small, the stel will reach the yield strength J, before the concrete reaches its maximum capacity. The st constant at A, irther loading. A slight plas cracking and a large inet he concrete. With n of compressive ing in an increase ipressive stress block and, because eq of the internal forces must be maintained, a reduction in the neutral axis depth. The red increase Rectangular Seclons 6 inforced concrete beam, lever arm, hence in the 2c. The flexural strength of the reached when the strain in the the concrete is approximately 0.003, as discussed increase in strain, the moment of resi reduces, and crushing commences in the compressed concrete. Figure 3.2 showed the changes in shape of the concrete stress block during the loading up to the flexural strength; Figure 4.2 required to cause frac axis depths, Ja = J, where Jf, is the yield strength of the steel; for im, C = T. 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O=ELIy — PELE + (cus 42) = 281 < sB0— mai + 0 POO X 201% GE O= 81 x S80 - P81 + ¢! oneRiorn anny om gp bg Woy sungoo aunjtej woyssaidioo 8 “210j9194 10 ool ‘4 < so = XO ag we ="h (uN g92) E-qI OL x LET = xy am B9'> “bg Word ‘sang90 aanyej Uorsuay &‘240}2304 1 SLNAWND04 - 117 o> app = BAM Bao o00'Or + 501 x 62 x £000 901 X 62 X £000 $80 * O00E * S80 and ups am pry “bg word, ra ane Poourjeg ye onyen ays (@) pue {uur 1915) ,wH 8 (@) {eum 1852) Ul y ({) s18918 ay) Jo seare Suymo4fo} ay) 40} yuan yeIRray Yeopr aur aengzeD “(,uMU/N §'S4Z) 18d OOO'OF Jo WIBuans plat WU) OT X 0210) 84 Ol * 62 J0 4 8 aN ef qo0¢ Jo syBuanis sopuijéo aassoid <0 & sey a1aiotioo at4f (WL L¢p) Ut gf JO Widap aatioays we puE (wu ps2) ut 01 Jo unpis ® sey uortoas sejndueisax pans0yuras AIBuls y Vp aydurexg ‘pouinsse sv aye sozis 24) 10q) puv ‘paytoads se uous sv axe syerovew oy} yey) ‘qpausoo Ayjeayniuatss aze suoryenbo ayy rey Suwnsse *uoriz9s oy Jo yruDNIS Teanxay JBapt ay aAff 01 pres 9q Leu suoneNbs yBuons asa4 124) 210N, ssimoo0 aanyiej woyssosdwoo vd < J oy pur ‘sanaoo aanyiej uo}suay v1 > J uay ‘sumo90 aunt18j UoIs eaouay 'a/'f < yey Seanad 'p BI Jo w is ay uo spusdap yidap sixe yeainou oy “sIuDIUOD ooIs TU.OKHP sosyR‘un|fe] P2OUB]EG w 20) wasE ay1 JO SLO Padox9 YOU SUE, poooyuyas A(Bus us jars wo|sua) Jo vase yp eM ;.,PIPudLILIODDA Sta ‘2un]!e) asnitaaq. 30 ‘uon}29g Ur passnosip sea Arajes [eaMIoNs 1b 0% C02) 8d OH 63 o00e, 2Bues ay) I puE (~UIL/N pry 01 912) I84 O9O'O9 ©F OOO'OP =RURs ‘yt ut / 40) ey) UMOYS 99 Wed Ht pI'p PUC‘OL'b “6 'sba Auispy oyesNDd" Age woseas 226 4d < d uot" pute #d 20) Sones 8 COUN irae wr) 3 95r0 uty ore) shpacco="Wo cd 20 (sr) (Gfss0 ~ 1) erat =e “I> ‘Suumofioy yp posodoud ,.,KOuNYAY LE6] UE IeUD 21 « ‘sunqtey poouvyeg & 405 yey) 240qe (wun con), ‘00 = 3 wotay 49n9] at) UL uoHaNpad e st 9101 ‘Deme99q St SIH "Bale fo91S YALA ou! 94) worsas auny uur eq) yUDpIAd StI] WorRas au tod 24) o}ur [fom seaze [oars Jo 9Buws v 40) |p ajdurexy ut se Sujsn poutunaiap sem aan ay 2 ‘ya pSuauis jesnxoy 247 ur UO! sumo staquayy Jo 2420s‘60 = 4 &q payrpou aq ysmut onyea "py a4 990: luouis [vap! 404 HorNYOs a4 S1Z'p ‘puvd pu paunsse 2g 1p pu q ‘Kyaaneussye tp pue q 40) SulAjos pur © 40 d 205 anyea e AUNUNSSE {q paystidurooe aq Aew yiBuasis feanxoy.uoA!d v 0) uoN}Ias sHjnSUEID9 1 Jo uBis9p auf ‘Z'p 2I4EL, BUISN "2 /,Pa/IW 40) sonjea Burpuodsaisod ay) soit Jo apt SAI MOE ISA OYE pu ‘saoejd eustsap oan OF» JO aNTEA YI SOAK Zp HIE, 2 18aY UL “APY (zr) (65:0 - D0 = o9'p ‘bat Jo uso} But -woqio} 341 Jo wor njos v sani ,., 9UUR pul paLIOAG] Woy} OsTe Z' IAE, ‘ipuans ayrou09 snoues 10} uiSuans pla [oors ayy sue ponoyd axe “Meo pur “Md 404 «-y2UUEL Due piesa wos} S2ana "9s"p PUB nG'p “BIA UT “AsOLoNjsNWS $1 iuoIUOD wun) wre) sseo coro esz00——og'08 0005 (ou) re) Myo oscoeevo'o yor 0005 19) ow Lcd 120 Izo 0070 (12) ow Leyo ue LLEO——00'OF our wiv) wo) Luca te 90D 0009 OWE (o12) (woo) Lovo ue LODO aE pr mo “™d——(gutljny) (IN) isd isd i u swopaag aponu0 prio AHS 39y sIU!IY!OD UP ATE ypors ayy "yifuanis ojo1ouoo pur [201s ul ‘uinturxeu 94) Ueqy $9] st UBisop wt pasn pj 10° 2 2 SL SunBUaNS asoi09 pe pYoik (201 pasn {uowin0d jo z8ues B40) 17> PUR $3by ‘wos ptm pue "doy sanjun sont Ip a1GP. “POUSt np 99 AE SEHD PUR S}gE) JO WHO} 24 UH SPIE UBTsap Jo 49qU poisy anyey uw sag ‘sa]quisen asoup Jo 10u! 40 au 40) anea aq) aUNssE YSnU J9UEIsep au) pouTEIgo aq WED uoHIN|OS ‘wa1ojoq pu “yiBuasis owes aup Suxaey suottoas xoyoUystWws Jo aBuEs Bt 330y) yeyy iuapina st af “pur ‘p °q 9q uro zz'p sby UI SaiqelzeA oup “uBISap UT af Pq ew me fee ary cou) (650 — WFP = (azz) ( oO — 1) nade a S v (eee) 650 r\yve ="" st yuswour Sunstsos uBisop youn auy‘9'p pue cp ‘Sdq Woy ‘10Ja194J, sOIDEy wonaMpar AuDEdeD oy) 1.6 9104 ‘posh st wpBuans jwopt x 4 Jo yFuans ojqupuadap w “U|sOp UL “f+ ‘ac000 ac tg Lt PHE000 9 = ogy =O v) Pd 8S 0 st yoo|q ssons anissoudusos seynBuE201 up Jo undap ayqemoyqe winwurxnus au vey suvow stu, Z1"p "ba Aq UAArd st SD ‘anjrey paotepeq 40} 49019 $S0.18 AwjNRUeIO—x amp Jo MAdap ayy ax9yN “SLO Sv se payloads om fjyenba 9q uv> “Ugg 5 J yey quowarinbor oy. oz) iia st © 10} anjea ajgemoj[e wunuXeUL 9Xp “OsTy ‘azenbs sad suoMMau UT Sssans YIM, G+ 009 Fw, ) L409 Fang a oo 78690 4d wy sos0298 qm + ots a ‘T+ voor Samy cu) woes THE son (tus) OL * O70) 84 OL * 62 = “Y BuNMINSGns Ho YoXA ee (rr) + "at000 Fy avn ‘qeov0 Wssvo s1°%d ones [aars aiqemoyje wawsrxeur 247 210j9104, "pf 'p “bal Aq uantd st td sian “dL > ¢ TYR OS paudisap om suwaq paosojutoa AyduIs 9OU9H 1g a IDG J ptuons oL680" 8890" L080" 8640 L140 8040" $290" 9190" zeso" e250" ‘8Cr0" 6240" ozo" 9620 6rl0" 6E10" ‘0s00" 0F00" Pes 600° 800° 400" 900° $00" 00 creo" ce60" aseaseese|es 6480 eau 6690) 1030" 150 070" $200 9t20 6zl0" coo" £00" 20g seyntunis9y poosoyEY AiBuyg # Jo yiSuD 00" 00'0 00.0 @ wufwyisd %y 000'0 _00'ar _o00'0e jobs? 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From Eq, 5.16 we can write OKs 25 20 BIS 289 t= an g99? 2p f= 0.003 ing the above mentioned value for f' instead we have 2225 — 4 x 40,000 0 = 085 x 3000 x 20a + 4 x 87,0002 O= a? + 3.690 — 14,51 Si = 87,000 222 = 2125 9650 oi From Eq. 510, substituting the. above mentioned value for f; instead of the yield strength, we have M, = Pye = 085 x 3000 x 2.39 x 20(10 — 0.5 x 2.39) +4 x 9,650 x 75 +4 x 40,000 x 7.5 = 2.56 x 10° Ib - in (289 kN - m) This gives point C in Fig 5.13 Compression failure UPL> Pah < fy For example, let P, = 800,000 Ib (3560 kN) > P, The compression steel was yielding when P, = Py; hence it will be yielding for any Fig. 5.10), However, the tension steel 14 gives froma AS 5 0 «yan 48 ‘And from Eq. 5.7 we find 800,000 = 0.85 x 3000 x 20a + 4 x 40,000 ~ 4 x 87,000 488 = @ Hence Eq, 0 = a? — 5.7250 — 101.5 ‘Loaded Short Columas with Unitxial Bending 13s quadratic eq F procedure, gives @ = 13.34 in Jf, = 87.000 M488 From Eq. 5.10 w Pye = OBS x 3000 x 1334 x 20(10 - 0.5 x'13.34) + 4 x 40,000 x 75 +4 x 10.040 x 7.5 = 3.77 x 10° Ib in (426 kN m) ‘This gives point F in Fig, 5.13. In the limit, P, becomes a maximum when e is zero, ‘Then from Eq, 5.1, ignoring the area of concrete displaced by the steel, we have P= P, = 0.85 x 3000 x 20 x 20 +8 x 40,000 = 1,340,000 Ib (5960 kN) This gives point A in Fig, 5.13, Tensile loading P= -Agf, = —8 x 40,000 1000 Ib (— 1420 kN) corresponding 1d ~ 320,000 Ib can are plotted in Fig. 5.13. If sufficient points been calculated, the curve ABCD could be obtained. The faction curve ABCD shows the possible combinat ‘and eccentricity that would cause the sect 5.3.3 Design of Rectangular Sections with Bars at One or Two Faces mins are subjected to some bending moment du to unsymmetrical loading. Hence an axially loaded.idered to be less than some ‘minimum value (cg, 0.1h for a tied column or 0.05h for a spiral column* Indeed, one could justify adding to all columns an additional eccent d columns, to 0.9 as the ultimate load decreases from approximately .1f7A, to zero, where A, is the gross area of the column section. ‘The design equations for the section of Fig. 5.14 can be written using Eqs. 5.7, 58, and 5.10 as follows: Py = gO8Sftab + ALS, ~ Af) (5.17) and Pye = @lO8Sfiabld — 0.5a)+ A; fd ~ ay] (5:18) Fig. $14. Rectangular conerete seetion with bars in Aucenticly Loaded Short Columns wih Uniaial Bending or Pee = ofO8SS, ‘Ava balanced fa ~ 05a) + ALS{d =a J. = Syyand from Eq, 5.13 we have 0.0038, “= 7 008, Pt (520) Sul 1B = a, from Eq.5.20and f, = J, into Eqs. 5.17 and 5.19 gives, P, and Pye,. The type of failure then can be determined. Note that the ‘equations assume that the compression steel is yielding (f’, = J), and this should be checked. From Eq. 5.15, the compression steel is yielding if 6. the compression steel is not fo= eB, = 00032= fof g, (522) ORsf; Hess ICP, < Py, tension govern block 4 may be found from Eq. 5.17 and substituted into Eq, 5.138 to give P, = o0 85s yn ~pm+i-£ “0-9 fee where138 Strength of Members with Flexre and Axia Laat For the case of symmetrical reinforcement (p = p'), of no compression re- inforcement (p’ = 0), Eq, 5.23 becomes more simplified. This equation takes into account the area of concrete displaced by the compression sted. (COMPRESSION FAILURE If P, > P,, compression governs (f, < J,). Then from Eq. 5.14 f= o003 P= Substituting this value of f, into Eqs. 5.17 and 5.18 or 5.19 enables a to be found and the section solved. This is not an easy solution, however, becaust of the lengthy calculation necessary to determine a, Two approximate ‘methods are available when compression governs: 1. A linear relationship between F, and Pye may be assumed. This amounts to assuming (conservatively as far as strength is concerned) that the line AB in Fig, 5.11 is straight. This approximation is illustrated in Fig. 5 Fig. $.18. Straight tine compresion Lh. me sis sia re approximation — Pres forced concrete column. Fora point on the assumed failure line AB of Fig. 5.15, from similar triang! we find Pow P= Pet Pr Pe“ TEP = Dele ae where from Eq. 5.1 P, = glO85(4A, — Ay) + Au SI (5.2 cceatraly Loaded Short Columns with Un ending 19 and P, and e, may be found by substituting Eq, 5.20 into Eqs. 5.17 and 5.19, ‘Thus P, corresponding to a given e, or vice versa, may be found from Eq, 5.25. Ins evident that the form of Eq. 5.25 makes the expression more useful for analysis than for design, 2. For sjfimetrical reinforcement (p = p'), a strength equation developed empirically by Whitney®* can be used. The maximum moment carrying ‘capacity of the concrete is taken to be that found for beams failing in com- pression, piven by Eq. 4.16. This means that at the flexural strength ment of the concrete force about the tension steel is given by 0.333f; bd On this basis, for large eccentricities, equilibrium of the moments of the forces taken about the tension steel requires fe tae ) = AL Sd = d) + 0.333f cb AS, Sih * + She, bh — 3h (27) SGt0S ta Although this equation has no real meaning for small eccentricities, it can be used under these conditions if P, is adjusted to approach the proper value {or an axially loaded column when e -+ 0. When e = 0, the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 5.27 gives 24, f, for the steel force as required, since 4, = A,. If the second term is to give 0.85/2bh for the concrete force when he following condition must be satisfied 6 <3 Ww O88 Hence the design equation becomes A, b be * She os qigtos Fre us R=9 (5.28) ‘The strain diagram should be checked to ensure that the compression steel yielding. A plot of Whitney's design equation appears in Fig. 5.16. It is obviously inapplicable below the tension failure curve, When compared with the curve given by the moreexact Eqs. 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, and 5.24, Whitney's expression does not je exactly. However, Eq. 5.28 is a good design approximation and is convenient to use because the steel area is given by the solution of a linear equation.Fig. 5.16. Whitney's compress forced canerete column with symm Example 5.2 (20.7 N/mm?). The steel (0.20 x 10° N/m red for the support the following ultimate loads: (1) 250,000 Ib ( ¢ = 15 in (381 mm), and (2) 400,000 Ib (1780 KN) at e = 1 (305 mm). 8.37 ~ 085 x 25 «, = 0.003 "4 * 2° = 0.00224 > 0.00172 437 acd Short Colas with Bending MI ‘Therefore, compression steel is yielding, f= f,, at balanced to Eq, 5.17, and noting that Jf, = f, and 4 P, = 0.10.85 x 4000 x 8.37 x 18) = 358,600 Ib (1594 KN) 1 P, = 250,000 Ib < 358,600 Ib; efore, P< Py governs, Also 0. o=07 Assume that f= f,. From Eq, 5.17 we have 250,000 = 0.7(0.85 x 4000 x 18a) a = 584in = 0.1 x 4000 x 18? = 129,600 Ib < 250,000 Ib, From Eq. 5.21 we write = 01003 584 OBS 25 _ gooi91 > 000172 ‘compression steel is yielding as assumed, From Eq, 5.19 we find 250,000 x 15 O.T{O.8S x 4000 x 5.84 x 18(9 — 2.92) + A, 50,000(9 = 2.5) + 4, 30,0009 ~ 2.5)] Al = A, = 490in® ‘Aq = 9.80 in? (6323 mm?) 2 P, = 400,0001b > 358,600 I heh) Also 0.1/2.4, = 129,600 Ib < 400,000 Ib; therefore, » = 0.7, Using the “exact theory”: From Eqs. 5.17 and 5.24 we have refore, P, > compression governs, simon = 0085 sam x1a ‘Strength of Members with Flexure and Axial Load From Eqs. 5.19 and 5.24 we have 400000 x 12 = 07085 « 4tO0 18 + 49 — 056) + 0.5A,, x 50,0009 ~ 2.5) + 0.54, x oons(85# 155= bs x 1059-2. 9] _408a° ~ 84.744? + 105490 4, Equating Eqs. i and ii to equation 0 = a? — 29,8760" + 516.19a — 2890.1 = 0 from which a = 8.7 ing this val 9161 mm?) iminate A,, gives the following cubic for a into Eq. i gives id the strain diagram shows that the compression areas for a compression failure dire because of the lengthy expressions and the sol Hence the much more simple Whitney equat calculations, although the solution is not exact. es that the calculation of steel areas may be -ompression steel not yielding. For instance, 9 would have to be solved simultaneous! ieading to a much more complicated calculation. Thus the yield strength high-strength bars in compression may not be reached in some colum particularly when column eross section is small. Similarly, the tension st f, means that Eqs. $17 and {enteally Loaded Short Columns wth Uniaxial Bending 43 ‘may not reach yield for a large range of axial load levels ifthe yield strain is high. It must be remembered that a rather conservative value of ¢, = 0.003, ain has been assumed (5 lure, however development of higher st the actual strength of column sections with hi ‘eater than that calcul = 0.003.*? There is a good case for increasing ¢, to a more realistic value, for example 0.0035, if high-strength load. Hence Eq. 4.48 should be satisfied. also recommended* that the longitudinal steel area be not less than 0.01 not more than 0.08 times the gross area of the section. 5.3.4 Rectangular Sections with Bars at Four Faces When a section design and au faces, the derivation of eq It because the bars may be at 1. The analysis of such a section ori (530) or if‘Strength of Members with Flexure and Axial Load section ews [eee aL Ve ee rt amps 7 then given by ns for a section where 4,; is the area of bar i. hn bars may be written as P, = O85ftab + Pex oasat( 3 - 3) 5s In Eqs. 5.31 and 5.32 due regard must be given to the sign of the stress when steel forces over the section, and 5.32 are the same. ss in the compressed reinforcement bars should the area of compressed concrete displaced by the steel is to be accounted for. Example 5.3 y for the symmetrically reinforced column section presented in Fig, 5.18 if the neutral axis 2 (659 mm >} } T I} svt bo i | a a_|_.-M_ = ) . : A 76 | to | “| Tie Fig. 5.18 loaded column section of Example 536 embers wi ure and Axial Lod 10S from the compressed face as in Fig S _60900 = By x To ~ 000207 = 0.0015 x 29 x 10° = 43,500 psi 2X4 = 1) po00643 = ~0.000214 x 29 x 10° = —6210 psi (tension) _ 0.003(14 = 19) ie = ~0.001071 Sis = ~0.001071 x 29 x 10° = ~31,060 psi for the displaced concrete. Now a = pyc = 085 90 in, ‘Therefore, from Eq. 531, and using the reduced compression stee! stresses, we have P, = (085 x 3000 x 11.9 x 22) + (57450 x 5) + (40,950 x 2) 100 x 2) ~ (6210 x 2) ~ (31,060 x 5) = 667,590 + 287,250 + 81,900 + 32,200 ~ 12,420 ~ 155,300 = 901,200 Ib (4008 kN) ect 7 And from Eq, 5.32 wi M, = Pye = 667,590{11 ~ 5.95) + (287,250 x 8) + (81,900 x 4) + (82,200 x 0) + (12420 x 4) + (155,300 x 8) = 7.289 x 10° th -in (823.0 KN m) and ¢ = M,/P, = 7.289 x 10°/901,200 = 8.09 in (205 mm) reduction factor @. Note that by assuming various lo lating the combinations ions of the neutral axis and by calcu- ’.and M, that cause failure for each neutral axis diagram of the type represented by Fig. 5.11 can be for the column sect there are several layers of st teraction diagrams by d ing the combinations of P, and M,at failure for various neutral ax ‘an also be used for columns of shapes other than rectangular and for walls However, when the neutral axis depth is small, such as in flanged walls, and the dimensions of the et n are large, very large tensile strains can ength of the section is to be calc >| Fig. 534, Column section with biaxial bending. y for the equivalent square section and the y-direction axis from K. ine the steel requirements for the K values lying each side of the K value by ts for the O” values. ing between the loading inforced by bars ind the tequired170 ‘Strength of Members with Flexare and Axia Laad : al ; arg a A ZS _ oa os oa 3 ets | \Y uk 7 si os te res. be tec Soluion Design values of P= 400006 = 400600107 = 57,8008 ?, 571,400 a SAO aa 4000 x 16 x 24 a Sx m4\" py = AO TO fe (2 aor iene |! * (lois, 0138 «125 coisa ecentriclly Londed Short Columns wth Baxlal Bending m Sx ee 0” = tan”! 0.75 = 36.87" ioe 07 0 = tan™! 0.75 = 368 Assume g = f = 0.7. Therefore, Fig, 5.35 may be used. The steel content for K = 0.75 may be obtained by interp curves for K = 0.577 and K = 10. Interpolating for 6” = 3687° gives 36.87 — 30 pum = 0.19 + (083 — 0.79) “FP = 0.808 * But =f . 80,000_ ™ = ORs; ~ Os x 4000 1765 0.808 Am Bhp, = 16 x 24 x 2808 = 176 in? (11,350 mm?) The steel content found in Example 58 using Row and Paulay’s chart is greater than the steel content determined for the same section and loading in Example 5.7 using Weber's method, This difference is mainly due to the concrete compressive stress distribution assumed and the method polation. Weber found the re nerete force and its p rectangular compressed areas using the equivalent rectangular stress block derived for rectangular compressed areas, a procedure which may lead to some error as discussed in Section 3.4. Row and Paulay used an assumed stress-strain curve for the concrete to derive the resultant concrete n, Which is a more accurate approach. Note however curve adopted by Row and Paulay is conservative he concrete compressive force given by it fo s fess than that for the equi rectangular stress block for J, < 4000 1d Paulay assumed a maximum concrete strain 34. n between diagon in the assumed concrete stress distribution are responsible for the 19) difference in the steel areas fed in Examples 5.7 and 58. Sit reworking Example 5.6 using Row and Paulay’s charts indicates that 20°m rength of Members with Flexure and Axial Load ‘more steel is required than by Wel Paulay’s method lead to errors on ’s method. It is evident that Row and ‘whereas Weber’s method may 5.5 SLENDER COLUMNS 5.5.1 Behavior of Slender Columns ‘The slenderness of a column may result in the jimate load being reduced by nding. This effect ight column with equal eccentricity e at each in Fig. 5.36 for th in single curvature caused by load P appl Fig. $36, Bece ly loaded end. The bending deformation of the column causes the eccent load at the critical section to become e + A, where A is the ad eccentricity due to lateral deflection at that section. Hence the maximum bending moment increases to P(e + PAeffect. The importance of lateral def fading on the column at This is commonly referred to as the jons due to bending depends on the ions. The PA moment, ‘Seder Cotumas mm secondary moment, but secondary impo! significance. ‘A short colurnn is defined as one in which the ultimate load is not reduced by the bending deformations because the additional eccentri ‘eather negligible or occur away from the critical section. A slend defined as one in which the ‘moment caused by ad hat term tends to imply that the moment is of ce, whereas in some cases it may be of considerable iustrated on the interaction diagram for sven in Fig. 5.37: Ifthe additional eccentricity A is neg! le, the maximum, , s. This type o at are braced against sway. Second, ‘column is very slender it may become unstable before reaching the action line. This instability failure may occur in unbraced columns.4 Slender column behavior for particular loading and end condit illustrated further by the use of mn diagrams. Figure 5.38 reveals the construction of such a diagram as illustrated by MacGregor et al° Figure 5.384 is the interaction diagram for the critical section of column of the type shown in Fig. 5.36. Short and slender column behaviors are illustrated. The slender column has an unsupported length to section thickness ratio of lh = 30. Failure of the slender column occurs at the B under the load and amplified moment. The load and primary moment Pe at failure are given by the point A. The point A can be determined for a range of efh and IJh values, and the family of curves in Fig. 5380 may be traced, giving the load P and primary moment Pe which cause failure of the column. Such diagrams are useful in indicating the reduction in strength due to slenderness for various loading cases ” wi irams.?# (a) Slender columa 5.38, Consiraction of slender column interac ior, () Slender column interaction diagrams Hinged end columns braced against sidesway with loading causing single and double curvature ace illustrated in Fig. $39. For both cases of loading, the bending deformations cause additional moments, but the addition moments do not amplify the maximum primary moments that occur at the ends of the columns, However, ifthe additional moments are large, the maxi mum moments may move from the ends to within the height of the columns. It is evident that there is more likelihood of the maximum bending momes increased by additional moment in the single curvature case than inthe double curvature case, because in the former the lateral deflections will be greater and the primary moments are near maximum over a larger part of the ‘Stender Columns vs Lon nd enn setected ace vrement Loading ad aticted shape o Fe. $39. Amplified moments in columns braced against sidesway. (a) Single curvature ouble curvature. column. This is illustrated in the slender column interaction diagrams by MacGregor et al°?° (Fig, $40); we can see that the greatest reduc yy, the maximum add moments will be induced at the ends of the columns, and the increase in16 ated in Fig. 541 column are not fully restrained against ined at the ends, some end rotation wi sway displace! etectes ape Loading Bending moment Fig. S41. Amplified moment in column with sidesway ‘The end moments in columns of frames depend on the ‘relative stifinesses ‘and the beams. During loading the stiffness of beams and caused by lateral deflection. N occur during loading due: and due to the changes increase in moment due to deflections, and the crease, resulting in an increase in the load capacity. For a the moments due to defi 42a shows a braced io of 20 and were loaded in xd at section A at the midheigl ‘ction diagram for the column section with the P-M paths178 Ste of Members wth Flare and Axial Load Atsecion & Fig. S42, Behavior of column ina feame aa tested by Furlong and Ferguson. (a) Tea specimen. (b) Measured load-moment re wi sponte, measured during the loading at sections A and B. Although the loads P and aP were proportionally applied, the variation of moment at B with increasing load is nonlinear, the moment eventually decreasing with in- creasing load because the column stiffness decreased more quickly than the beam stiffness. The moment at A included the additional moment due to column deflection, and as was expected for this section, there was an increase of moment at all stages with loading. It is evident that increasing the degree of rotational restraint at the ends of columns in braced frames by increasing the beam stiffness increases the strength of the columns, Ina frame in which sidesway can occur, if the beams are quite flexible the column tends to act as a rigid body, and the frame deflects laterally due primarily to bending in the beams. Ifthe beams are stiff the amount of sway 09 mes free to sway, ns by in- increase the strength of the columns. However, creasing the beam stiffness ¢ cannot restrain the columns the beams tenstable me The foregoing brief review of column behavior indicat sariables affecting the strength of slender columns are as 1, The ratio of unsupported height to section depth ay ratio e/h, and the ratio and signs of the end eccentricities, The effect of, these variables on columns with pinned ends i illustrated in Fig. 5.40, 2. The degree of rotational end restraint. The stiffer the connecting beam system, the greater the column strength, 3. The degree of lateral restraint. A column unbraced against end displace- ‘ment is significantly weaker than a braced column, 4. The content of steel reinforcement and the strength of the materials. These affect the strength and flexural rigidity of the column section. § The duration of loading. Creep of c twcreases the column deflections, hence of slender columns, 5.5.2 “Exact” Design Approach for Slender Columns, The design of compression members can be based on the moments and. forces found from a second-order analysis ofthe structure, taking into account the actual stiffnesses of members, the effects of deflections on moments and forces, and the effects of duration of loading. The sections may be propor- tioned to resist these actions without modification because the effect of column slenderness has been taken into account in the determination of the actions. ‘The main factor to be included in this second-order analysis is the PA moment due to lateral deflections of the columns of the structure, Methods for carrying out such analyses have been summarized by ’MacGregor.>?? ‘The structure may be idealized as a plane frame with linear elements. Real- sic moment-curvature relationships must be used to provide accurate values for deflections and additional moments, and the effect of axial load 00 the rotational stiffness of compression members should be considered The maximum moments determined will include the effect of frame de- fictions and rotations. Use of such an analysis to determine column actions for section design is the most rational approach, but because of its complexity the analysis ‘depends on the availability of suitably written computer programs.1 180 Strength of Members with Flexare and Axial Laat 5.5.3 Approximate Design Approach for Slender Columns: The Moment Magnifier Method If conventional first-order structural analysis, based on approximate relative stffnesses and on ignoring the effect of lateral deflections of members, ‘moments and forces in a frame, the actions so found llow for second-order effects. The sections are then modified actions, The design procedure given in ‘ACI 318-715" for this purpose is the moment lar to that used in the American Institute of Steel Constr The Method ‘The moment magnifier method is illustrated on the interaction diagram Fig. 543. Let the ultimate column load and moment to be resisted, found using a first-order elastic frame analysis, be P, and M, = P,e. Then the load ‘and moment used in the design of the section are P, and 5M,, where 6 is the ‘moment magi ‘The moment magnification factor 6 is given by the following relation- ship*? zt 6 1 oad and meen jr fod ant moment sesame Fig. 543, Moment magnifier design method, ‘Seater Columas 181 where C, = end effect factor to be taken as 0.6 + 0.4(M ,/M,) 2 04 for columns braced against sidesway and without transverse loads between supports, of C, = L0 for other cases M, = smaller of the ultimate moments at the ends of the column, found in the first-order analysis, positive if member is bent in ingle curvature, negative if bent in double curvature ger of the ultimate moments at the ends of the column, found, in the first-order analysis, always positive P, = ultimate load on column 6 = capacity reduction factor po EEL <* F = theoretical Euler elas I buckling load k = effective length factor for columns, varying between 0.5 and 1.0 for frames braced against sidesway and being greater than 1.0 for unbraced frames unsupported length of column My = (545) (5.46) (47) ity of conerete, given by Eq. 2.1 < = moment of inertia of gross concrete section of the column about centroidal axis, ignoring the reinforcement clulus of el 1, = moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of column cross section fiz = concrete creep factor equal to ratio of maximum design dead Toad moment to maximum design total load moment O< fy <1. There ar n of fig breaks down (for exampl minimum eccentricity, moments of different sign, ete) and ‘would appear that a more satisfactory definition would be to take fi, as the ratio of maximum design dead load to maximum design total load. The equations for the moment magnifier factor 6 and the flexural rigidity El, and methods for calculating the effective length factor k, are briefly discussed in the following sections.we Strength of Members mith Flexure and Axiat Land The Moment Magnification and End Effect Factors, 5 and Cy, In the elastic range, an approximation for the maximum bending moment in columns with equal end moments bent in single curvature is given by M, Mow = | —(P/P) awn (548) where M, is the maximum moment from first-order analysis (M, = Pe in load for buckling in the plane of the applied nad, TI this case the maximum moment and the maximum column deflection occur at midheight. The exact value for Mr for this case is given by the sec: strength of materials*** is x [P =i a 5: Moo see (5 i (545) Equations 5.48 and 5.49 are compared for various P/P, ratios in Table 31 ‘The approximate Eq. 5.48 gives maximum s 1oments that are somewhat on Table 5.1 Comparison of Mya PIP, 143 167 2.00 250 5.00 TSR 18} 225 288 605 co the low side, but the agreement is better in the usual range of low PIP, values, being within 11% for P/P, < 0.5. Thus the simple approximate Eq, 548 has been recommended for columns bent in single curvature by equal end moments. If the end moments are unequal, Eq. 5.48 becomes overconservative, especially when the end moments are not of the same sign. For the case of ‘unequal end moments, the maximum column moment can be estimated by replacing M, by an “equivalent uniform moment” C,,M,, which leads to the same slender column strength as that obtained from the actual moment pattern. Thus Eq. 548 becomes. Maus = (—P/P} (5.50) Sender Columns fe jon for Cy adopied,*? 0.6 + 0.4(M ,/M,) > 0.4 is from the Ameri- 1°29 and its accuracy may be seen compared with other relevant equations in the Column Research Council Guide.*#* Equation 5.44 for 5 is the design form of Muyu/M, from Ey. 5.50. The Flexural Rigidity El ion of the critical buckling load of the column P, for Eq. 5.44, | rigidity / of the section is required. The value of EZ used should ie effects of cracking, creep, and nonlineatity of the concrete stress-strain curve. The values of EI given by Eqs. 5.46 and 5.47 may be used when more accurate values are not available, These equations were obtained from theoretical considerations and test results by MacGregor et al;*2° they represent lower limits to EI for practical cross sections. Hence these El salues are conservative for calculation of additional moments. In Fig. 5.44 Eqs. $46 and 5.47 are compared.with El values derived theoretically from moment-curvature diagrams for the case of short-term loading. The simpler Eq, 546 is reasonable for lightly reinforced columns, but it greatly under- ‘estimates the effect of the reinforcement in heavily reinforced columns. Equation 5.47 is more accurate but requires prior knowledge of the steel ‘content, Creep due to sustained load reduces the EY value and is accounted for approximately by the term (1 + fi) in Eqs. 5.46 and 5.47. The Effective Length of Compression Members kl that can sway. Because the behaviors of braced and unbraced frames are so diferent, values of k are normally given for frames in these two categor and the designer must decide whether his frame is braced or unbraced. F braced or unbraced frames seldom occur in practice, The Commentary® ‘on AC] 318-71 recommends that columns be regarded as being braced against sidesway if that story contains shear walls or other types of lateral bracing having a total stiffness resisting lateral movement in the story of atleast six times the sum of the stiffness of all the columns resisting lateral movements i the story. Thus the designer must exercise his judgment.Ce Ee Ca ey ts! va 28 OF 08 0 wi ie. S4, Comparison of equations fr flexural stffoess wih theoreti values fom moment-curvature diagrams" (a) Equation S46 o Equation $47 suumnjos jo qnfust saroayss 9's a powansid Kensopis quis suumnjos jo wiSua} 2nnd249 SHS AL pond Soysaps to apso86 ‘Strength of Members w Vout amsteoet nett) Flexute and As o modes for braced and unbraced frames. (q) Braced against sidesany sidesmay, The value of & for braced restrai nd unbraced frames depends on the rotational at the joints as expressed by the parameter y, where 6. where El, = flexural rigidity of column section, El, = flexural ri of beam section, |, = clear span of beam, |, = unsupported length of columa, and ummation for all the members rigidly connected atthe joint and lying in the plane in which buckling of the column is being com sidered, Values for k can be computed if the values for y are known at each Joint® 5 and can be obtained by use of the Jackson and Moreland alignment charts (Fig, $48). These charts allow the graphical determination of k fora column of constant cross section in a braced or unbraced multibay frame The subscripts 4 and B refer to the joints at the two ends of the column. In determining 4 and yy, the EY values used should into acco discussed by Breen et al accuracy moment magnifier method, calculations for y should be based ona column El computed from 02E,1, + E,1, and a beam El computed for the cracked transformed wary design, Fl, beams may be used, where J, is the momer section about the centroidall axis, igno of the moment of Chapter 10. + 20 15 0s s00' 20 bos p08 or pos Wn vena————— T. DOCIMENTS Dera eo wr Fig. 548 Jackson and Moreland alignment charts for effective length factors of column. (a) Braced frames. (b) Unbraced frames,‘Strength of Members with Fleur and Ax ackson and Moreland charts, Cranston’ = 07 + 005, + vq) < 1.0 (5.53 k = 085 + 0.05Y,,, < 10 (5.5) Furlong*?° has proposed that the effective length of unbraced columns be taken as for va<2 ik (5.54) for wy 22 k= 09/14 (55) should exceed 1.2. Use of the Moment Magnifier Equations MacGregor et al*#° have checked the ultimate loads computed using the moment magnifier method equations of ACI 318- ‘against the measured ultimate loads from 101 col years, The test columns had a range of end eccent ditions. isa histogram com, loads for the columns. I most cases. ACI 318-715 requires columns to be treated as slender in braced frames when kl/r > 34 — 12M,/M;, or in unbraced frames when kly/r > 22, where 7 is the radius of gyration of the section, For columns with kl,/r > 100, an analysis of the type described in Section 5.5.2 should be made. For tec- angular sections, r may be taken a5 0.3 of the section dimension in the diree- tion of possible buckling. Jn frames not braced against sidesway, the value of 5 from Eq, 5.44 should be computed for the er , assuming all columns to be loaded, by jummation, EP, and EP, for all columns in the designing each individual column in the story, 6 should be taken larger of the above-mentioned value computed for the whole story or the value computed for the individual column, assuming its ends to be sured and comput ‘evident that the design method is conservative in Saket Columns 9 Mean= 1.19 a5) ol Po braced against sidesway. In structures not braced against sidesway, beams should be designed for the magnified end moments of tl ints. When columns are subjected to bie each axis should be amy ‘moment ugh the c is-based on ion factor approach for slender column icludes design aids for the moment magnifier wandbook*? contains some examples of 1agnifier method, Some useful design also given by Furlong??? Example 5.9 One bay of braced agai The actions on the the ends of the unsupported length, at the ultimate load calculated by first-order structural analysis are M, = 289 kip-ft (392 kN-m) and P, = 200 kips (890 KN), The concretet t i 7 i { " } i { f 190 Strength of Members with Flexure and Axial Laad 20 010 (6.10 m)-——> a i “T =a a i 08 Er Loo Fig. 550. Frame of Example 59. dead load moment to maximum design be taken to be 0.2, Determine for the column, using a capaci bh? = yx 20 x 20° = 13,330 int for the beams and E, I, for the columns Forcolumn ly = Calculate y using 0.5, From Eq, 5.51 we have 2x 13,330 20 x 12 = 330, 10x 12 “x05 x 24610 *. from Eg. 555 k= 09/1 FU, = 09/1 + 217 = 1.59 Hd, = 159 x 10 = 1598. Stender Columns 191 b= 8 er * T= 200/07 x 4333) ~ The design actions for the column are P, = 200 kips, and M, = 289 x 1.07 = 309 kip-ft12 ‘Strength of Members with Flexore and Axial Lond ing Fig. 5.22, which P, 200000 _ Fibk * WO x 20% 3H = 9175 = 209.000 x12 ote 000 x 30 30 = 9.52 in? (6140 mm?) The steel is uniformly distributed around the column perimeter. Note: The design could now be reworked more accurately using more exact El v. late y, P,,ZP,/EP_ and 8, hence to obtain a more accurate value for Ay. However, the procedure would not be warranted in this case because the moment magnification was only 7%, and any change in this value would result in negligible change in the required steel area, It should also be checked that a larger value of 8 is not ob tained for the individual column with its ends braced agai sway. $6 REFERENCES 54 FB. Richart and R. L. Brown, “A University of lino Enginecring Experiment 52. E, Hognestad, “A Study of Combined Members” Univets 1951, 128 pp. 53 ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACT in Concrete Institue, Det The Ultimate Strength and Deforma Concrete Frameworks," Magazin of Concrete Re earch, Vol. 7, No, 21, November 1955p. Load in Reinforced Coneree Station, Bulletin No, 399, June ofthe Inernaions ‘Miami, November 5, Novernber 1956, pp. 455-450, re Strength Design Honabook, Vol. 2, ACL Special Publication 1970, 226 pp, SPI), ‘oneete Ins te Strength of Square Columas Under Biaxilly Eocentrie Loads.” Journal ACI, Vol. $7, No.9, March 1961, pp. 1129-1140, $12. F. Moran, "Design of Reinforeed Concrete Sections Under Normal Loads and Sieeses sa the Usimate Limit State” Bulletin d Information No, 83, Comite Européen du Béton, ia for Reinforced Concrete Columns Under Axial Load and 57, November 1960, pp. 481-450. A. Gouwens, "Capacity of Reinforced Rectangular Bending.” Journal ACT, Vol. 63, No, 9, September 1966, pp. 9 1M. Nieves, Ban Coturns Subject ” 413 FN. Pannell, “Failure Surfaces for Members in Compression and Biaxial Bending, dene! ACT, Vol. 66, No.1, January 1963, pp. 129-180, S16 JL. Meck, “Ultimate Strength of Columns with Bia ACINol 80, No.8, Aug 1963, py S17 BSI, "Cod ossh Sundar S16 DC. Weber,” 1s for Columns with Bias Anema! ACI,Vol.63, No. 11, November 1966, pp, 1205-1230, 419. DG. Row and T. Paula, sagoat Rei Eccentric Loads,” Journal won, Rect 1.67, No. 1 January 1970, pp. 6-28, 321 RW. Furlong and P.M, Ferguson, “Tests on Frames wi tere” Simposivm om Reinforced Concrete Cola Detton, 1966, pp. 17-536, $2 1G. Macc Paper S al Design po 19.35 forthe Design, Fabri ion of Struetuel Stel for Buildings." 1, New York, 1963, 97 pp. the Mechanics of Sods, Pre Englewood Clits, $25. BC. Johnston (Ed), The Column Research Council Guide 10 Design Criteria for Metal Compression Members, 2nd ed, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1966, $2 ACI Committee 318, "Commentary on Building Cole Regu Coneeete (ACI Ith of Members with Flext ‘Axial Land Determination of Elective Length ‘November 6 Ultimate Deformation ity of Members with Flexure and Duct INTRODUCTION members is necessary for the following reasons: Id not occur. In the extreme event of a ndergoing large ‘This may save lives by ‘could be used in design o the members. al analysis can be achieved if moment redi ion can take place. That is, ate load is approached, some sections may reach their ultimate 1g moments before others; but bution of moments in design, depending on the duct Use of moment redistribution can convey advantages because it may reduce the congestion of reinforcement at the supports of continuous members, and it enables reduction in the peak bending moments in bending moment eavelopes. 195196 ty of Members with leary Detection Fig. 61. Load-deflection behavior ofa flexural member. quakes. Thus structures incapal ‘must be designed for much higher seismic forces if collapse isto be avoided 3s of flexun are mainly members at yield and at dependent moment-curvature characteristics of sec of the deformations of members of normal proportions aris associated with flexure. Additional deformations due to shear of torsion when important, are discussed in Chapters 7 and 8, 62 MOMENT-CURVATURE RELATIONSHIPS 6.2.1 Curvature of a Member Figure 6.2 shows an initially straight element ofa reinforced concrete member with equal end moments and axial forces. The radius of curvature R ‘measured to the neutral axis. The radius of curvature R, neutral axis depth kd, conerete strain in the extreme compression fiber ¢,, and tension sted rary along the member because between the cracks the concrete ying some tension, Considering only a small element of length Meat -Corvatare R 7 4c of the member, and mn of Fig. 6.2, the rotation between eH rember Sivan ie 62. Deformation ofa Aexural member 1¢ rotation per unit member) and is given the symbol @. Thus we have ae ce ar gradient of the strain profile at198 ‘Ultimate Deformation and Duciity of Members with Flexare “The curvature will actually vary along the length of the member because of xis depth and the strains between the cracks ind over a crack, the curvature is given by ‘of a reinforced conerete beam are he bending moment is increased to curvature relat obtained from me and compression appear in Fig. 63. B Moment where EI is the flexural rigidity of the set cracking of the concrete reduces the flexur ty of the sections, the vature occurs at nearly constant bending moment, the moment rising slowly to a maximum due to an cease inthe internal lever arm, then decreasing, In heavily reinforced sections (Fig. 63h), on the other hand, the M-o curve becomes nor en the fe enters the c ross-strain rel 8 alaay The moment tension steel m Fig. 64a, The ynship for a practical beam, in which ized to the trilinear relationship presented (0 cracking, the second to yield of the tension of useful strain in the concrete. In many othe curve even further to either of the ‘ionships shown in Fig, 6.4b and 6.4¢, which give successive f approximation. Figure 6.4a is an idealizedembers with Fleas ccan be determined from similar triangles ofthe st for bar ‘at depth d, + may be found for bar i, the force equation is Si= Saw (64) ‘The distribution of concrete stress over the compressed part of the section of Fig, 6.5c may be found from the strain diagram and the stress-strain curve Memeat-Curnature Relationships 201 ‘Swaine for the concrete. For any given concrete strain ¢,y in the extreme compression ‘ber, the concrete compressive force C, and its position may be defined in terms of parameters « and y, where C, = af tbkd (6) acting at distance yk from the extreme compression fiber. The mean stress202 ‘Ubimate Deformation and Ductity of Members with Flex Decay of Uncontined Beam Sections : 203 first moment of arca about origin of area under stress-strain curve sf = shed + wna =i)= Epa(ta) ‘The curvature is given by similarity to Eq. 6.1 as in at the extreme compression fiber, é,.. For each value of fj, the neutral axis depth kd tha -s force equilibrium is found by adjusting kd until the internal forees .d using Eqs, 6.3 10 6.6 satisly Eq. 6.8. Note that in the case of flexure depth so found are thea (9 from Eqs. 6.7, 69 ra Fe66._ Theoretical moment-curvata ionships. just described, The assumed stress-strain curves for the steel and the cow crete and the section propert figure. Most of the momer fe curves have been computed only for the region commencing jut Id of the tension steel. The moment-curvature curves exhibit 6.3.1 Yield and Ultimate Moment and Curvature 63. DUCTILITY OF UNCONFINED BEAM SECTIONS curves show that for a given maximum cor reinforced sections decreases as the tension steel presence of compression stec! increases the du and the concrete reaches ultimate strain are considered below. The com- pressed concrete of the members will be considered to be unconfined.hot y oa I i Section west sees, inforced beam section with Nexste eld. (6) At ultima The stress-strain curve for concrete is approximately linear up to 0. (0 the neutral axis may be calculated using the elastic aight line) theory formula, derived in Chapter 10. Once the neutral axis depth factor k has been determined, the magnitude of the forces and the centroid of the compressive forces in Hence from Section 10.2.3 and Eq and curvature at first yield are k= [ + pn ( ‘confined Beam Sections ‘see! should be calculated using the actual curved stress-strain curve for the arabola is a good approximation). However, an estimate may be obtained from the strai te of and ly reinforced section (see the compression stec! is yielding may be found asing Eqs. 4.27, 4.32, and 6.1. These equations give a Ah = Ah oe 08H a me ossea(e-)s an is (6.16) The strain in the compression steel, icated by the strain diagram of Fig. 6.7, ss given byt if { ' i f t 4 206, v Substituting Eq. 6.1 is yielding when imate Detormath and Duct of Members th Flew (0 Ey. 6.17 demonstrates that the compression sted assed "\), fe) : n 618 must be shown to be saised for Eqs, 14 to 6.16 tobe applicable. Tra check shows that Eq, 6.188 not satse, the compression tel is ot yielding and the actual value for compressive steel stress given by Eg. 4.4 stead of the yield stren aT, Lif from which a is obtained. Also, from Eqs. 4.36 and 4.34 we have abe =0 (19) M, om 0857 $) + a (620) and 9, is given by Eq. 6.16. The value of c, used in flexural strength calculations is discussed in Section 3.3. tis evident that a value of¢, = 02004 could be used in ultimate curvature calculations because a value of ¢, = 0.003 is conservative. ‘A measure of the increase in bending moment after yielding is given by the ratio M,/M,. This ratio may be obtained from Eqs. 6.14 and 6.15, ot 6.19 and 6.20, and 6.12. For singly reinforced sections with p < 0.02, 5000 psi (34.5 N/mm?), and f, = 60,000 psi (414 N/mm?) or 40,000 psi (276 N/mm?),these equations indicate that M,/M, < 1.06, Hence the increase in moment after first yield is small. The increase may be more significant for doubly reinforced sections. The ratio 94/9, gives a measure of the curvature ductility of the section, From Eqs. 6.16 and 6.13 the ratio may be written as ©,” WE. afb Equation 6.21 may be used to determine the curvature ductility factor in the general case of a doubly reinforced section. If Eq. 6.18 is satisfied, the compres- sion stel is yielding, and on substituting Eqs. 6.11 and 6.14 into Eq, 6 the curvature ductility factor is given as ee) 1 Be OBESE ST ap + pn — nt 4p 4 PAN, % Go-P) { em [ven 7 ( “a (621) (62) ions or satisfied, the compression steel is not yielding, 1g Eg. 6.11 and a from Eq, 6.19 into Eq, 6.21, the curvature di factor is given as don Equations 6.22 and 6.23 are plotted in Figs. 69 and 6.10 for a range of practical combinations of f, and f; for normal weight concrete and for 4, = 0.003 and 0,004, For small values of p ~ p* itis possible for the neutral axis al ultimate moment to be above the top (“compression”) steel, hence {for both top and bottom steel (o be in tension, Equation 6.23 can handle this satuation wi the expression is inapy shen the top steel yields n, Also, for large values of p — p' the con crete compressive stress at first yield of the tension steel becomes high, and the assumed elastic behavior at this stage may result in a maximum concrete stress that exceeds the cylinder strength. Strictly a nonlinear stress-strain curve for the concrete should be used when p — p’ is high. The curves in Figs. 69 and 6.10 have been plotted only plotted where the maximum concrete compressive stress a tension stcel exceeds for where the top stee smoment, In the fist case the curve is ten and in the second the curve is terminated at its high left-hand end. The effects of the section properties on the ¢,/9, ratio appear clearly in Figs. 69 and 6.10. Reference to those figures and to Eq. 6.21 shows that with the other variables held constant 1. An increase in the tension steel content decreases the ductility, because and aare increased, therefore @, is increased and gis decreased. 2. An increase in the compression steel content increases the duct because both k and a are decreased, therefore g, is decreased and @, increased. 3. An increase in the steel yield strength decreases the ductility because both /,/E, and a are increased, therefore @, is increased and 9, is decreased. 4. An increase in the concrete strength increases the ductility because both k and a are decreased, therefore @, is decreased and 9, is increased, 5. An inerease in the extreme fiber concrete strain at ultimate increases the ductility because g, is increased.So RE NRL Ae RIN ENCEPe. 610. Variation o* psi (200,000 N/mm2). Calculate the moment ust prior to cracking of the concret first yield of the tension steel, and (3) when the concrete reaches an of 0.004. Construct the approxk curve fo Steel prop. A, = 3.16 in? (2039mm*) Moment, bin 108 AN) sseese Fores 00 086 09 a0) 80 20 % 10-8 Wadi x 1 a324 fe Deformation and Ducity of Members with lear ‘The modular rat A= bh4(n— = (10 x 25) + (8.06 « 3.16) + (8.06 x 1.58) = 280 + 25.5 + 127 = 288.2 in? = EJE, = 29/32 = 9.06, Centroid of the transformed section is given by taking moments af the areas about the top edge of the section. (250 x 12.5) + (255 x 23) + (12.7 x 2) 288.2 p= = 1297 in Hence the moment of inertia is given by 1 (i x 10 x 254) + (250 x 0.47) + (255 x 10034) + (127 x 10977) = 17,170 int Cracking will occur when the modulus of rupture f, = 410 pi reached in the bottom fiber, n 17.370 2 FL nao x! Freon 1° * 12.05 = 585,200 Ib - in (66.1 kN - m) Posi = 107 x 10°$ radjin (0.419 x 10-? rad/m) 2. After cracking, at first yield (see 6.6) ‘Assuming the concrete is behaving elastically, from Eq, 6.11 we write ke [oor + 0.00687}? 9,06? + foorn «288 *2)yo] 10019 +009 06 = 0386 *) = 0.00138, Dactity of Uncontined Beam Sections ais J, = 0.000763 x 3.2 x 10° = 2440 psi = O81f; Thetefore, the triangular stress block is an approximation, From the strain diagram we find 819-2 = 0.000763“ -~ = 0.000577 SF; = 0.000577 x 29 x 10° = 16,730 psi Co = Lfibkd = $x 2440 x 10 x 8.19 = 99,920 tb 1 = A, f = 158 x 16,730 = 26,30 1b Therefore, total compressive force is 126,350 Ib acting at from the top edge, where = (2 x 2630) + (99920 x 8.19/3) _ Fe i650 SB in id= d— j= 23 ~ 258 = 20420 From Eq, 6.12 M, = 416 x 40,000 x 2042 = 258 x 10° Ib-in 291 KN-m) and from Eq, 6.13 090138 or B89 = 9.32 x 10°* rad/in (3.67 x 10-2 3. Afier cracking, at ultimate load (see Fig, 6.1 1d) id/mm) Assume that the compression steel is also yielding; from Eq, 6.14 we have 16 ~ 1.58) ‘085 « 3000 x 10 ~ 248 in ¢ = 2.48/0.85 = 292 in From the strain diagram, we find 292-2 6, = 0.004 = = 0.00126216 © = 255/085 = 3.00 1 4-000 «252 «goo f= 0.00133 x 29 x 10 = 38¥ which checks sat ly with My = osscah(—$) + 4,sd~ dy = 085 x 3000 « 255 x 123 - =) 2 + 1.58 x 38,600(23 ~ 2) = 269 x 10% Ib- in (304 KN-m) And from Eg, 6.16 we write 0.004 ea = 1333 x 10°* radyin (52.5 x 10°? rad/m) ‘The moment-curvature diagram appears in Fig. 6.11 63.2 Code-Specitied Duct ne Requirements for Beams ACI3 s the following requirements affecting curvature duct imes, if the compression steel is y (see Eq, 4.49), O85f:8, 0.0036, _ S, 00036, + 7, p ~0.15p' < 0.75 2. In flexural membe 658) _a00ne < 058th 0 Sy 0003E, +f, O85f:A, _ 0.0038, Fe O003E, + F 18 allowed by Eqs. 62410 6.26 p-05p' < 05 (6.26) 40,000 (276) 3000-4000 $000 207 276 G45) 0.0278 0.0371 00437 0.0160 0.0214 0.0252 from Bq. 6.24 Maxty~p') 0.0186 0.0247 0.0291 0.0107 0.0143 0.0168 from Eq. 6.25. Maxie 0.0186 0.0247 0.0291 o.0107 “0.0143 0.0168 from Eq, 6.26 “From Reference 6.1 s the values of g,/o, that 24 to 6.26 for the steel and concrete strengths given i ions without compression steel, Eqs, 6.25 and 626 wil ,, > 3 for c, = 0.003 = 0.004. For s cdl by > 4 for ¢ = 0,003 e the case of a giv possible to plot the combinat and moment M which cause the se7 t { i i t t " n st reaches the yield stre balance point because the tet cl strength above that point. Below the balance point in the P-M diagram, curves and 2 lie close together, in rnge in the load capacity yielding, Below the. balance poi P-gh diagram, curves 1 and 2 separate, and indicate the amount of inelastic bending deformation that ‘occurs once yielding has started. The ratio @,/g, obtained from these presence column load is 15% ad capacity, the @./p, value is reduced to about 4, and is smaller at higher load levels. results of an inves tion into the inelastic deformations of reinforced concrete column s Of particular interest are the moment-curvature curves obtained for columa sections with various levels of constant held constant at a p: strain was 0,0038. The curves illustrate again that at axial load levels greater than the balanced failure load, the ductility is negligible, being due only to the inelastic deformation of the concrete. At levels of increases as the load lev le behavior of unconfined columns at even moderate id, ACI 318-71" recommends that the ends of balanced load P,. A fe -008 Ff = 2000 120.7 0154-2 orn 7.000 049 O0T O02 G03 boa vA ociity 219eames setion oa 4 80 feo on 30 Ninn? 026 15.0002 1310 Winn?) aa ioe 00 Tor Oo 7 Doe eh o 20 Members wit ma rw os 1.29 oso oa os aaa “wo ™ Ay 2 R708 7 45,000 psi (210 Nin?) ol 08 oor oor 008 “ Re 613, Moment-curvature curves for column sections at 65 MEMBERS WITH CONFINED CONCRETE 6.5.1 Effect of Confining the Concrete Ifthe compression zone of a member is confined by closely spaced t teinforcement in the form of closed stirrups, ductility ance of the member at because of progressive internal the transverse reinforcement. 1 ind the concrete expands aga jing pressure applied by the proves the stress finsm te Deformation and Ductity of Members with Femme confining stee! in the shape of a circle applies a uniform radial pressure to the concrete, whereas a rectangle tends to confine the concrete mainly at the corners. ‘A number of test that have been reported illustrate the effect of confine. 6 in (152. mm) wide by 11 in (279 mm) deep and were loaded by a single poit load at midspan over a simply supported span of 120 in (3.05 m). Figure 6.14a gives the moment-rotation curves obtained for beams having a tension steel content of approximately one-half the balanced failure value. The drop in moment occurred when the steel changed from the upper tothe I beams can be seen to have a large rotation capaci o| te OR Oe 19 oa 02 oo aig 0s 0 ation between support points, ra Manters with Confined Concrete ms (2) Beams hout significant decrease in ultimate moment. Figure 6.14b shows woment-rotation curves obtained for beams designed for @ balanced hilure, The helices and/or the closely spaced stirrups are shown to give a on this type ly the beneficial effect of ductility of reinforced flexural members. The effect on lightly reinforced beams is less ecause such members already have adequate ductility. The ductility reinforced beams, and of columns, can be substantially increased by confinement Concrete in the compression zone of members often receives some con- Gnement fro iding or support conditions. Examples can be foTable 6.2 Stress Mack Parameters a and y a5 a Function of ¢, and 2° _ «© We a we a Vala ofa member or a small neutral axis depth, the 0.002 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.667 0.667 wil rere some conbnement Hom the eden Om O76 tm Om Uwe Mel aor on Oey Boe ly stressed concrete. 0.004 0.828 0818 0.808 0.798 0.783 0.763 0733 0.483 0.633 oous as aan am Con ory tant gee CMS Be ' 00m ome Oho Om Om OI tant va Oey USS 65.: pressive Stress Block Parameters for Concrete 652, Compressive Stes Blo ower oss? OAs! sls Om One aoe eae Cae OSS v ‘et Ps 0.008 0.894 0.849 0.804 0.759 0.692 0.602 0.517 0.450 0.417 To develop tery for the monentcuralure cates of mente 00 089 asa O70 Os vast ase oan CRD Ow with confined concrete, the stress-strain relationship for the concrete is 0010 0.901 0837 0.773 0.709 0.613 0.522 0.453 0.400 0373 Fequired. Stress-strain relationships for confined concrete (discussed in O11 0.903 0.829 0.755 0.682 0.576 0.493 0.430 0.382 0.358 Section 2.1.3) may be assumed to indicate the distribution of compressive 012 0.903 819 0.736 0.653 0.544 0.468 0.411 0.367 0.344 Stes inthe compression tone ofa member wih sonfed Gonaee Fane Oai3 0502 om O76 O633 Ost 0384 033 oot eget om ous to be 38 aa given strain in the extreme compression fiber, and a given concrete strest strain curve, the compressive stress block parameters can be determined by the method presented in Section 62.2. For a rectangular s concrete compressive force may be written as C.= aftbkd a from the extreme compression fiber, where b = section width, axis depth, af; = mean stress in the stress block, and ykd = distance from the centroid of the stress block to the extreme compression fiber. For any m in the extreme compression fiber, a and y may be determined for rectangular sections from the stress.strain relationship of the concrete using Eqs. 6.6 and 62 0015 0899 0.787 0.674 0.567 0.476 0415 0.369 0333 0316 Values of y 0375 0375 0.375 0375 0375 0375 0375 0375 0375 0.405 0.407 0.408 0409 O11 0414 0418 0425 00432 0427 0430 0.433 0.436 0441 0.449 0.460 0.482 0.507 0481 0.446 0.452 0.457 0.466 0479 0.501 0.543 0.568 0451 0.459 0.466 0474 0.488 0508 0.545 0586 0.602 0.459 0.469 0.479 0.490 0.508 0338 0.582 0611 0.622 0466 0.477 0.490 0.504 0.529 0.570 0.607 0.627 0.633 As an example, for the stress-strain curve for concrete confined by rec- oan 0518 0350 0595 0623 0636 0.638 tangular hoops proposed by Kent and Park® (Fig. 2.18), there are three 0.475 0531 0573 0613 0.636 o6at O44 Possible shapes for the compressive stress block, Fig. 6.15 indicates. The 0479 0586 0394 0626 0.641 0.648 regions of the curve are defined by Eqs. 2.6 to 2.11, Table 6.2 shows values of 0.482 0560 0610 0635 O.645 0.645 oaks, 0.488 0.490 057% 0.392 0.606 0.648 0.685 0.640 0649 0.684 0.638, 0.649 0.642 0.635, a and y computed rm > 0.002) and cma and the parameter ing Eqs. 6.6 and 6.7 for where f; = concrete cylinder strength in psi (I psi = 0.00689 N/mm? ns6 ‘UWimate Deformation and Ductity of Members with Flexae ratio of volume of hoops to outside of hoops, b” = width of confined core measured and s, = hoop spacing. Values of Z from Eq. 6.27 are Note that the values of a = 0.728 and = 0.425 given by Tables 6.2 and 63 when = (0, Z = 300) and ¢,, = 0.003, compare well with the values of «= 0.85 x 0,85 = 0.723 and 9 = 05 x 0.85 = 0.425 given by the rectangular stress block of the ACI code.*? The improved characteristics of flexural members with confined concrete is evident from the tables. Tables 6.2 and 6.3 may be used to determine the flexural capacity and curvature of confined members at far advanced fed in Table 63, ionship for confined concrete was obtained specimens with hoops enclosing only co ionship based on such test to determine the compressive stress block when part of the section isin tension (sce Fig. 6.165) may be questioned because part of the hoop is in the tension region. However, in this case the low-stressed concrete neat the neutral axis will help to confine the highly stressed concrete; hence it not of great significance that the hoop terminates in the tensi suggested conserve for this case volume of hoop st jolume of concrete enclosed by her than by any new definition considering an effective hoop volume and compressed concrete volume. In practice, various arrangements of olving overlapping hoops, or hoops with supplementary eross ties, may be required to provide ‘Members wlth Confined Concrete a7 Table 63 Parameter Z as « Function of df, from Bq. 6.27 Kes 3000 4000-5000 207) 276 G45) 001 0.02 0.03, 030 0 0.005 0.01 002 0.03 07s 0 0.005 001 0.02 003, 10 0 0.005 oor 50 00 oo 2 lateral support to . These addi Uransverse bars across the sect Ip confine the concrete, and they must be taken into account. To include the effect of such addit bars, the parameter Z in the stress-strain re be calculated for fe section. As consider To deter- is sect io of volume of one hoop to of the side of one boop, and s, is the spacing of sets of overlapping hoops. This definition of +,i8 more conservative than the alternative of taking p, as the ratio of total volume of hoops to total volume of concrete core, but given the lack of test data on the efficiency of overlapping hoops, it is probably wise to useSection i 1 ) AZZ Gan_gSS ‘raion Seabers with Confined Concrete 2 that more experi work is rangements of transverse steel supplementary cross ties and overlapping hoops. sayolving hoops 65.3 Theoretical Moment-Curvature Curves for Sections with Confined Concrete Theoretical moment-curvature curves for confined reinforced concrete sections can be derived using the procedure outlined in Section 6.2.2 and sd conerete and steel use the stress-strain curve for confined concrete shown in Fig. 218, which gave the stress block parameters derived in Section 6.5.2. At cly that the unconfit fe the hoops (the spall away. This is particularly true for sections con- ‘transverse hooping, since the transverse steel creates a plane cover concrete tends to act more with to determine the strain at which spalling of the cover concrete commences because the spalling process occurs gradually. ‘can be assumed that the cover concrete follows the same stress- confined core up to a strain of 0.004, but carries no stress ins. This assumption of the ineffectiveness of the cover concrete bas also been made by Baker and Amarakone®® at strains greater than 00035, and by Blume et al®? at strains greater than 0.004. Yet others (c.g, Corley*”) have ignored spalling of cover concrete at higher strains. The region BC region CD: ty <4 for the transverse steel arrangement with 3 in diameter Sa, = 52,000 psi hhoops at 2 in centers, Z = 5.6. The Z values for ane transverse bar diameters and spacing may also be ealculat epee The moment-curvature relationships are be fed using a ‘Therefore the steel the yield streng Now T= C Therefore, the correct neutral axis depth has bees digital computer, To determine the moment-curvature curves chosen. associated with different axial lo: ‘moment M = (178,000 x 13.16) + (29,200 x 11.76) = 209 x 0.008 curvature g = "== KN-m) fc ~19" (483 mm) ———>} spalling but the curvature is 2 Example 6.3 Determine the postyield moment-curvature curves for square 12 reinforced concrete column sect the following fixed properties: 6 = E, = 29 x 0.031 and 0.055, iformly around the perimeter of the section; transverse steel: a rang of transverse steel cot in (12.7 mm) diameter ove:k pping rectangular hoops a (152mm) centers to} 30" 782 mm) Fig. 618 Te arrangement, Example 63.Members wth Confined Concrete 2s reas of concrete and steel laminae, Then M corresponding to that rmined by taking the moments of the Sug dy ~ PS (634) ns. The stress-strain relations for the concrete 27 with z ted, ofthe he is given by @ = f,q/kd, where d, = dis from extreme compressi 03, f= 0055 Ss 256 lo. =00at sian c & Fe. 620. Momentcurvature ductility curves for column section with P= 0.4;bh 5, Example 63. Empl 63, Fig. 6.19, Section with st3 me 26 Deformation and Duct ‘of Members with Fem section in dimensionless form for the given level of load, the two longitudinal steel contents, and a range of Z values correspondingte jOus transverse steel contents. ‘The curves display a sudden reduction in the moment the assumed onset of erushing of the concrete cover at an e-tiome fiber strain of 0.004. With further curvature the contribution of the concrete to the momes carrying capacity comes from such-cover concrete, which is ata id the confined core. At curvatures high ardening of the tension st compression steel does not buckle, The curves of Fig. 6.20 illustrate that good confinement (low Z valueslis essential for the column of Example 6.3 if reasonable moment capacity isto bbe maintained ing of the cover concrete has commenced. If load levels hi ‘onsidered, the amount of confining ted ‘would have been even more important. In general, the higher the load leve, the greater the amount of confining steel required to maintain a reasonable moment-carrying capacity at high curvatures after crushing commences ACI 318-715 requires special transverse steel if the design load of the column exceeds 0.4P,, where P, is the balanced failure load. A load of 04, corresponds to a P/f;bh value for the section studied in Example 63 af approximately 0,20 to 0.23, thus special transverse steel would be required in the column of the example. The amount of special transverse steel recom ‘mended by the code for the arrangement of hoops used in the example eas be obtained from j in (15.9 mm) diameter hoops at 2.8 in (71 mm) center, which isequivalent 0 Z = 13.Ttisevident from Fig. 6.20 that for this partion Jar column the quantity of transverse steel specified by the code will ensue that the moment capacity after crushing of concrete has commenced is fit Well maintained at higher curvatures. The amount of transverse steel required in more general cases is examined in Chapter 11 66 FLEXURAL DEFORMATIONS OF MEMBERS. 6.6.1 Calculation of Deformations from Curvatures The rotation and deflection of a member may be calculated by integrating the curvatures along the member. Since the curvatuce is defined as the rote tion per unit length of member, the rotation between any two points A and B of the member is given by (639 where dx is an element of length of the member. Mevaral Deformations of Members a ion to ods, where @ ws the The transverse deflection dA at point {rom the tangent to the axis of the member at the fixed end B, due to rotation 442 between the ends of the element, is x d@ or x dx. Hence the transverse a FFe-6.21, Deflection due to Mexural deformation ofan clement deflection of point A from the tangent to the axis of the member at point B due to curvature along the whole length of member between those points is given by dae fi ds (636) re generalizations of the moment-area theorems, ic or plastic curvatures are involved. These two ns and deflection of members and they apply whether ela: ms may be used to is Sections, and the distribu using Eqs. 6.35 and 6.36 ignores effect of ess of ‘members due to tension carried by the concrete between the cracks, as well 4s the additional deformations caused by diagonal tension cracks due to shear and by bond slip of the reinforcement. These additional effects are discussed in the next section, 6.6.2 Additional Effects on the Deformations of Members Calculated from Curvatures Effects of Concrete Tension Between Flexural Cracks Figure 6.224 represents part of a reinforced concrete flexural member. The member has cracked at discrete intervals because the tensile strength ‘of the concrete has been exceeded. At the cracked section all the tensionee 28 srmines steel between ks at higher is exceeded. The final crack ce of sufficient magnitude to form an cracks can no longer be transferred by stresses in the concrete and the cracks, Additional cracks can form between the i moments if the tensile strength of the concre spacing is carrying some tension between cracks, the flexural rigidity clearly ‘peater between the cracks than at the cracks, as indicated in Fig. 6.22f Tass variation in flexural rigidity between cracks makes the accurate deter- mination of deformations from moment-curvature relationships inthe elastic range because the M-g relationships derived in Sections 6.2 10 6.5, do not apply strictly to sections between the cracks. Deformations in the ela relationship @ = M, ‘etween cracks has much less significance, and the cracked section valueirements, It is tracks are present in a member inforcement at sect often possible onable agreement between computed and experiment from the bermation and Ductlty of Merabers with Fexm Fig, 628. Eifet of bond slip of reinforcement ow giving a conservative indi 6.6.3 Idealized Curvatures sate Deformations Calculated from Figure 6.26 shows part of a re forced concrete flexural member that has and ber the member, for exampl ature fluctuates because of the increased ri of the member between the cracks, as previously described. Each of the peak hhas occurred when the tion of the member in the curvature distribut regions (see Fig ion may be calculated the ‘member (the unshaded area of the curva: given by (638, ever Deformations of Members aaa ELis given by a is assumed along the Id be given by can occur at the shaded areaus Fig. 6.27. Actual and idealized moment curvature curves at cracked sections. ic rotation plastic rotation that occurs in addition to the ate stage of the member. The inelastic area at the ultimate stage and width |, represent at the can be replaced by an equivalent r having the same area as the Fig. 626c. The with , is the equivalent length ofthe plastic hinge over which the plastic curvature is considered to be constant. Hence the plastic hinge rotation to one side of the critical section may be written as 8, = (9. - Oy (63) Example 6.4 For the cantilever AB of Fig. 6.282 with the point load, determine the rotation between the ends and the vertical end deflection when the ultimate moment is reached at the critical section. An idealized inelastic curvature distribution and a fully cracked section in the clastic region may be assumed. The effects of shear and bond slip. may be ignored. Solution Figures 6.28b and 6.28c represent the bending moment diagram and the distribution of curvature assumed at the ultimate moment, respectively. The rotation between A and B is given by Eq. 6.35 or Eqs. 6.38 and 6.39. Oy = 0, +0, ! : = ol 5+ (.— Oy Note that 0,9 is the area of the curvature diagram. as Fig. 628 Example 6.4. (a) Camilever Bending moment distribution. (c) Curv The vertical deflection at 4 is given by Eq. 6.36 as the moment of the curvature diagram about 4 = (2120 S 4 da=($ 3) +. ont -3) 6.464 Empirical Expressions for Ul culated from Curvatures ate Plastic Rotation The Significant Variables Equation 6.39 gives the plastic rot sod yield and the equivalent plastic hinge length, The strain diagrams when there is tension over part of the section at these stages appear in Fig. 6.29. From Eqs. 6.1 and 6.39 the plastic hinge rotation to one side of the critical section is fe hs (6.40) iate moment, g, is the concrete ‘imate curvature, kd is the curvature is reached, and ¢,, is the xtreme compression fiber when the yield curvature Fis the conerete st