RATES OF REACTION

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Rates of reaction
Reactions can be very fast, like fireworks
or explosives, but they can also be very
slow such as an apple turning brown.

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Rates of reaction
Chemical reactions occur when particles of
reactant collide with enough energy to react.

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Speeding up reactions
Anything that increases the chance of effective
collision increases the rate (speed) of reaction.
Factors include:
Increased surface Area
Increased concentration
Increased temperature
Use of a catalyst
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Surface area
The reactions of solids can clearly only take place at the
surface of the solid.
If we break a solid into smaller pieces we get more area and a
faster reaction.

Molecules collide with the

surface of the solid

Extra surface for molecules to

collide with.
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Surface area
If we grind up a solid to a powder we massively increase
the surface area.
We therefore massively increase the rate of any reaction

Slow

Very fast

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An indigestion tablet fizzes in water but fizzes much

faster if it is crushed.
Which glass has the crushed tablet?

olid

Cru
she
d

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Concentration
Reactions in solution involve dissolved paticles that must
collide before reaction is possible.
The more crowded (concentrated) the solution, the faster
the reaction.

Collisions infrequent

Collisions frequent
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Pressure
Reactions involving gases are affected by the
pressure of the gases present.
If we cover one end of a bicycle pump and push
in the plunger we increase the pressure.
Low
pressure
High pressure

What we are doing is squeezing the gas

molecules closer together or making them
more concentrated.
And so - pressure speeds up gas reactions
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 The Haber Process, in which nitrogen reacts

with hydrogen to form ammonia, is carried out at
200 atmospheres pressure.
How and why will this affect the rate of reaction?
The particles will be 200 times
closer together and so will collide
much more often.
The reaction will be much faster.
compress

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Temperature
At higher temperatures molecules move faster. As a
result there are more collisions per second and so a
faster reaction occurs. Slow molecules are also less
likely to lead to a reaction than fast ones.

Fewer collisions per second

More collisions per second

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 Food spoils because

of chemical reactions
that occur.
Why does food
remain usable for so
much longer if it is
kept in a freezer?
The reactions that cause the food to go off will be slower
because there will be fewer and softer collisions
between molecules at a reduced temperature.

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 Before microwave ovens were

common many people used
pressure cookers.
It was a pan that stopped the
water boiling until it reached
about 115oC.
How would this help cooking?
The molecules move faster and collide more
often and with more energy.
Cooking times were greatly reduced.

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Activation energy
Chemical reactions involve the formation of
Energy is
Activation
bonds between atoms
often before
new
given but
out as
energy
bonds can be formed
ones have to
be
newold
bonds
needed to
broken.
form
break existing
This means that there has to be enough
energy
bonds
(activation energy)to
energy start breaking the old
bonds before a reaction can occur.

Reactants

Old bonds
start to break

New bonds
form

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Activation energy

Energy in chemicals

Most reactions are exothermic (give out heat) overall but

there is still a need for energy to get the reaction started.

Activation energy

Break old bonds

Energy taken in

Form new bonds

Energy given out

Reaction
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1. Why doesnt petrol catch fire when it is poured

through air?
2. Why is just one spark enough to create a major
explosion?

1. Energy is needed to break the bonds in petrol before new

bonds can be formed by a reaction with oxygen.
2. Once some of the bonds in one petrol molecule have been
broken the subsequent reaction with oxygen gives out
enough energy to break the bonds in several other petrol
molecules - and so on.

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Catalysts
For chemical reactions to occur:
Existing bonds have to begin breaking so that new ones
can be formed.
The molecules have to collide in such a way that the
reacting parts of the molecules are brought together.

Catalysts can help with either or both of these processes.

A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a
reaction without getting used up in the process.

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Catalysts
In the presence of a nickel catalyst vegetable oil and
hydrogen react to form margarine.
Nickel adsorbs hydrogen gas onto its surface in such a
way that the bond holding the hydrogen molecule
together becomes stretched.
This partial breaking of the bond lowers the activation
energy making hydrogen more reactive.

H H
H H
H HH
H HHH
H

ched
Bond stret

Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni Ni
catalyst

The stretching of the H-H

bond lowers the
activation energy and
helps hydrogen react with
the oil
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Catalysts
Other catalysts, especially enzymes, absorb molecules in a
way that not only stretches bonds but also brings the
reacting parts of reactants right next to each other.

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Catalysts
Catalysts are used in the manufacture or
application of a huge number of products.
Biological soap
powder uses
biological catalysts
(enzymes)
Enzymes in
pineapple help
cooked ham to
be more tender.

Manufacture of
fertiliser via the
Haber Process
involves use of an
iron catalyst.
Synthetic
materials like
polyester are
made using a
catalyst.

Plastics are
made using
catalysts.
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Inside car engines some of the

nitrogen and oxygen from the air
combine to form poisonous nitrogen
oxide. Inside the exhaust system a
catalyst encourages decomposition
back into nitrogen and oxygen.
1.

Copy the energy profile for the

uncatalysed reaction and draw in
new lines showing how the presence
of a catalyst will alter the profile.

2NO2

N2 + 2O2

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Measuring reaction rates

Rate implies we are measuring how things
change over a period of time.
To measure the rate of a reaction we have to
track the manner in which the amount of
product (or reactant) changes over time.

Rate of gas formation can be

measured using a syringe.

For a reaction
in which sulfur
is precipitated
we can time
how long the
solution takes
to go cloudy.

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Slower and slower

Reactions do not proceed at a steady rate.
They start fast and get slower and slower.

slower

fast

25

very slow

75

stopped

product

reactants

This is not surprising because the reactant

concentration (and the chance of collision) gets lower
and lower as time progresses.

100

Percentage completion of reaction

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Rates and Graphs

Shallow gradient
Slow reaction

Steep gradient
Fast reaction

Time

Amount of reactant

Amount of product

These show the increasing amount of product or

the decreasing amount of reactant.

Steep gradient
Fast reaction

Shallow gradient
Slow reaction

Time
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Rate graphs and reactant concentrations

Amount of product

All product

Mix of reactant
And product
Reactant Concentration falls

reactants

Rate of Reaction falls

product
Gradient of graph decreases
All reactant

Time
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Some Reaction Rates

Experiments

The following slides describe the four

chemical reactions that are commonly used
as examples.

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Acid and marble

Marble chips are calcium carbonate.
They react with acid to evolve a gas.
calcium
carbonate

+ hydrochloric
acid

calcium
chloride

+ water

+ carbon
dioxide

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

The gas given off can
be collected in a
syringe and readings
taken every 30
seconds or so.

Glass tube
Gas syringe
Hydrochloric acid
Marble chips
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Acid and marble

1. Measure the agreed
mass of marble chips
2. Set up the syringe, flask
and connector
3. Measure the acid /
water.
4. Add the marble chips
and quickly insert the
bung and start stop
clock.
5. Take syringe readings
at 30 second intervals.

Time
0s

Reading
0 cm3

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Acid and marble

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Acid and metal

Reactive metals (eg. Magnesium) react with
acid to evolve hydrogen gas.
magnesium + hydrochloric
acid

Mg(s)

+ 2HCl(aq)

magnesium

chloride

MgCl2(aq)

+ hydrogen

+ H2(g)

As the gas given off leaves the flask

the total mass of the flask and its
contents decreases slightly.
Readings of the mass(g) can be
taken. Typically at 1 minute intervals.

HCl
Mg
11.73
11.71
11.80
11.72
11.74
11.77

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Acid and metal

1. Measure the agreed volume
of acid / water into the
conical flask.
2. Have a loose plug of cotton
wool to prevent spitting of
droplets of liquid.
3. Have a piece of magnesium
of known mass ready.
4. Add the magnesium, place
the cotton wool in the neck
and start taking mass
readings immediately.

Cotton
wool
HCl
Mg
11.71
11.73
11.80
11.72
11.74
11.77

Time
0s

Reading
0 cm3

60
120

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Acid and metal

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Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide decomposes into water and
oxygen.
Hydrogen peroxide

2H2O2(aq)

water

2H2O(l)

+ oxygen

+ O2(g)

Oxygen gas is given off and can be measured using

a gas syringe or a balance.
The reaction is catalysed by a wide range of solids.
Remember the catalyst NEVER produces more
product - just quicker
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Acid and Sodium Thiosulphate

In this reaction sulphur is precipitated which
makes the solution turn cloudy.
+ hydrochloric sodium
Sodium
acid
thiosulphate
chloride
Na2S2O3(aq)

+ 2HCl(aq)

+ water + sulphur + sulphur

dioxide

2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) + S(s)

The effect of changing conditions such as

temperature or concentrations can be studied
by measuring how long it takes to produce
enough sulphur to make the solution opaque
(non see-through).

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Measure the agreed volume

of thiosulphate / water into
the conical flask.
Prepare a piece of paper
with a cross drawn on it.
Measure the required
volume of acid in a
measuring cylinder.
Add the acid to the flask,
start the clock, swirl the
flask.
Look down through the flask
until the cross disappears.
Note the time.

Look down here

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2.

Time(s) vs Temp(oC)

120
100

Temp
(oC)

Time taken
(s)

80

25

100

30

60

35

40

40

25

Time

1.

Imran studied the effect

of temperature upon the
time it took for the flask
to go cloudy.
Sketch a graph of the
results.
Using the reactions at
25oC and 40oC, explain
how the time taken lets
you work out the relative
rate of reaction.

60
40
20

45

0
20

5030

Temp

40

15
10
50

60

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Some Rates Questions

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A pupil performed an investigation into the rate of reaction between a

metal and an acid. The results below where obtained.
Time
/seconds

10

20

30

40

Volume of
gas (cm3)

25

80

179 245

50

60

70

80

273

282

282

282

i) Plot a graph of gas volume (y-axis) against time (x-axis)

ii) When was the rate of reaction fastest?
iii) Use the graph to find the volume of gas produced after 35
seconds.
iv) Use the graph to tell after how long the reaction stopped.
v) On the graph sketch a line showing the experiment repeated
at a higher temperature.

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Volume / cm3

Answer

Experimental Results
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Time / seconds

ii) The reaction was fastest at about 25 seconds as the gradient of

the line is highest at this point.
iii) About 175 cm3
iv) About 55 seconds.
v) Higher temperature reaction is in red.

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A flask was connected to a gas syringe by a glass delivery

tube. 30cm3 of water and 0.5g of manganese dioxide were
added to the flask. Then 5cm3 of hydrogen peroxide was
added and the stopper quickly fitted. Readings of the volume
of gas produced were taken every 10 seconds.
Time
/seconds
Volume
/cm3

10

20 30 40 50 60 70 80

18

30 40 48 53 57 58 58

i) Plot a graph of volume of gas (y-axis) against time (x-axis).

Label this curve A.
ii) Without emptying the flask another 10cm3 of water and a
further 5cm3 of hydrogen peroxide were added. Sketch the
shape of the second experiment and label it B.
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Answer

Volume of gas / cm3

70
60

50
40

30
20
10

Time (s)

0
0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Notes: Curve B is an experiment with half the

concentration of hydrogen peroxide. This should
produce about half the rate as shown by a line with half the
gradient of A. However, the same amount was added so
58cm3 of gas will still be produced.
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Time /seconds

0 15

30

45

60

75

90

120

Mass loss /g

0 0.21 0.45 0.67 0.85 1.01 1.13 1.31

Time /seconds 150 180 210 240 300 360 420

Mass loss /g

1.41 1.48 1.51 1.54 1.56 1.58 1.59

i) The results above were obtained from an experiment

where the loss in mass was recorded as lumps of
zinc reacted with hydrochloric acid. Plot a graph of
mass loss (y-axis) against time (x-axis).
ii) On the graph sketch the lines you would expect if
a) the concentration of acid was reduced,
b) the temperature was increased.
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Answer

loss in mass /g

(b)
(a)

1.5
1
0.5
0
0

200

400

600

Time / seconds

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Which of these would speed up the rate at

which magnesium dissolves in acid?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Cool the acid.

Cut up the magnesium.
Add water.
Coat the magnesium in oil.

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Why does breaking up solids increase the rate

of reaction?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Makes more solid.

Creates more energy.
Increases surface area.
Increases the concentration.

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Why does temperature increase the rate of

reaction?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Acts as a catalyst.
Increases the concentration.
Increases number of molecules.
Makes collisions more frequent and harder.

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Why does a catalyst increase the rate of reaction?

A. Provides a route with a lower activation energy.
B. Helps provide energy for the reaction.
C.Increases the speed of reactant molecules.
D. Reduces the number of molecular collisions.

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Why do most reactions start fast and get slower

and slower?
A. They run out of energy.
B. They run out of catalyst.
C. The concentration of reactant molecules gets
less and less.
D. The surface area increases.

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