ZP BIOLOGY Up 30 - UNIT1 - NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEMSUNIT 1 SYSTEMS REGULATING CHANGE IN HUMAN ORGANISMS Unit 1 examines the biological processes that mediate the interactions between, humans and the environment,to maintain equilibrium, The nervous system contributes to homeostasis through its responses to internal and external stimuli Endocrine glands help to maintain homeostasis through the hormones they release in the blood. A study of the interaction between the neural and endocrine systems lead to an examination of the functioning of the central and peripheral nervous systems and their ability to sense the environment and Fespond to it This unit builds on Science 8, Unit B: Cells and Systems; Science 10, Unit C: Flow of Matter in Living Systems; and Biology 20, Unit D: Human Systems, by ‘examining the biological processes that mediate the interactions between organisms and their environment to maintain a desirable equilibrium. This unit leads to a further study of control systems in Biology 30 Unit 2 and to post- secondary studies. This unit will require approximately 25% of the time allotted for Biology 30. ‘The two major outcomes in this unit are: - explain how the human organism regulates physiological processes, using electrochemical control systems; - explain how the human organism maintains homeostasis, through the use of chemical control systems. ‘The key concepts developed in this unit are neuron + sensory receptors + nerve impulse transmission + endocrine system and hormones. + central and peripheral + homeostasis and feedback systems nervous systems + endocrine and nervous system, + reflex are interactionsSECTION THE REGULATORY PROCESS CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM INTRODUCTIO! ‘The functioning of a true nervous eystom involves three basic types of structures - receptors, newve eels and Gtlecors. Receptors or sense organs, are specialized evvctures that are sensitive to certain changes, physical forces oF chemicals In te intemal and extemal envronrent. ‘Simulation ofa receptor causes "messages" or impulses. to be vansmitted over a pathway of nerve cals. These impulses eventually reach an effector, whichis ‘her a gland or muscle, Ifthe effector sa gland, wil respond to the impulses by ether dacreasing or increasing fis actly, depencing on the nerve pathways iqvowved. However the effector ia muscle, a nerve impulse can only causs iti contract. . [Any factor that causes @ receptor to trigger of nate impulses in 2 nerve pathway is called @ stimulus. The ‘Stimulus causes electrical and chemical changes in the receptor, and these, in tun, tigger the nerve impulses. ‘Thus, te basic sequence of evens in regulation by the nervous System Invcives (1) a stimulus that activates a feceptor, (2) the tragering of impulses in nerve patways, and tal, (3) @ response by an effector (muscle ‘draland), Each necve pathway crosses and interconnects with many other pathways. Impulses arsing from @ Single receptor ae usually transmitted toa numberof diferent pathways, lmpulses reaching an effector are the fesult of the combination and interaction of merous impulses from many diferent pathways. “The human body is very sensitive to conditions ins surroundings in both its extemal and internal environment, It ‘Constantly monitors things such 2 the extemal temperature, amount of oxygen inthe blood, the amount of ight in the room or the amount of pressure on an internal organ, This ocours even thaugh you many not be ful awa of it The newous system collects information wth a wae variety of receptors located throughout the body. These Teceptors are’ sonsive. to various stimuli including. eound vbrotons (mechanorocoptos), temperature (thormoreceptors), pressure (baroreceptors), chemicals ichemreceptors), body fd levels (osmoreceptors), and Tight (photoreceptors). aes Inquiry Into Biology: Pages 366-372. OBJECTIVES ‘When you have completed this section you will be required to: Explain the functions of the nervous system. Outline the organization of the nervous system. Describe the roles of receptors, nerve cells and effectors in a nerve pathway. Name several different types of receptors. Name the two types of structures that are effectors. Draw and label a diagram of a neuron, describe its structure and function of each part including the myelin sheath and Schwenn cells. 7. Deseribe the function of sensory neurons, motor neurons and interneurons in @ simple reflex arc and the organization of neurons into nerves. opaene Page t Biology 20 - Unit 4Page 2 REFERENCE BOX ‘THE NEURON: THE FUNCTIONAL UNIT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Although the human brain and nervous system contain nore than 1000 diferent types of calls, lof them can be Classified as either neurons, tho nerve cals that accomplish the actual communication tasks, or glial calls, the ‘suppart cli that suround, protect and provide nutrients toneurons and may ifuence tei function inways Dologlsts ‘so not yet fully understand. Neurons are charactrized by three key structural features as shown in Figure 1 -@ call body, dendies and an axon "Neurons gather Information by a set of fe cell structures called dendites. Dendtes pick up signals from the environment or from other nerve cols and pass these impulses tothe eel body (or soma). The cel body houses the Usual complement of inracelular organelles - nucleus, rdosomes, milochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and Golg| apparatus. It praduces the proteins that make up the rest of the nerve cell 2s well s the enzymes that determing is ecily. The signals next passthrough the call body to@ lon, tubular cell sucture called the axon. The axon of ‘some neurons extends ftom your spinal cord to your toe muscles, wile the nerve cals cell body and dendrites are located inthe spinal cord isl. Each neuron has many éenerites, but usually ust one axon, though it may branch \osupply nervous impulses to several target als. Remember, dencites ganeraly conduct mpulses towards the cell body and axons carry signals away fom tne cell body tomarvs the target calls Some axons are covered by a sheath, formed by special gla cols. Inthe Peripheral Nervous System (nerves outside ‘he brain and spinal cord), glial cel called Schwann cells compietely encircles the axon and may play arte inthe nutiton of neurons and in their regeneration folowing damage. Those cals farm a spiral envelope rich In fay materiale whion produces an effective insulating layer calla the myelin sheath which ies betcen the oytoplasm of ‘the Schwann coll and the axon (Figure 1). Axons having such a sheath are sai to be myelinated. The myelin sheath hips to increase the speed of transmission of signals akong the axon it surounds. ‘When myelinated axons group together (e9. inthe brain and spinal cord) they are referred to as white matter. The white appearance is due tothe fatty myelin sheatne that surround these axons, Clusters of call bodies and unmyelinated neurone make up grey “The Central Nervous System (brain and spina ced) do not have Schwana cells. Instead they have special lal cals called oligadendrocytes, Extensions of these cll wrap around axons and produce myelin which increases the speed of neural impulse transmission. Unike Schwann cells, hese oligodendrocytes co nol function tor regeneration of cut or damaged neurons, Dondritos Synaptic FIGURE 4: Structure of a motor neuron, The insulating sheath is formed by the spiral {growth ofa series of Schwann calls. Spacesbetween the Schwann calls are called nodes (nodes of Ranvier). (Farish, Introduction to Bilopy, 1986) “The outer surface ofthe Schwann cell's refered to as the neurolemma sheath, The neurolemma, alongwith the ‘Schwann cell, works to regenerate damaged neurons. At intervals along the sxon's length the myelin sheath is Interrupted; te interuptions (called nodes of Ranvier) represent points where one encicing cell ends and another besins: Biology 20 - Unit 4Eales BOX NEURONS AND NERVES ‘There are three diferent functional classes of neurons: sensory neurons, which receive stimuli from the nvirenment (detected by special receptors) and transmit iniormation tothe central nervous system (spinal core ‘nd brain motor neurons, which eondust messages frm the braln and spinal cod tothe effectors (muscles or ‘lands); and Inferneurons (association neurons), which actin an integrative capac and shulle signals rom one fouron io another. The intereurons, the most abundart type Inthe nervous system, are confines tothe central nervous system {ENS}, Over 99% of tre neurons of the body an brain ar interneurons. The sensory and motor eurens form the peripheral nervous sysiom (PNS) which functions as a communication network between the ‘central nervous system and the rest ofthe body. ‘Sensory neurons conduct signals from receptors to the CNS: FY © @ - Pace y SENSORY INPUT INTEGRATION Interneurons Peripheral Nervous are confined System (PNS) to the CNS MOTOR OUTPUT — f ® Central Nervous Motor neurons conduct ‘System (CNS) signals from the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands “The activities of the nervous system can be grouped tegether as three general overiapping functions: Sensauy, Integrative and Motor. Mions of sensory receptors detect change, called stinul, which occur inside and outside the boty. All ofthis, {Gathered information scaled sensory input. Sensor inputs converted Into electrical signals called nerve impulses that are tranamiteg tothe bran. ‘There the skgnals are brought gether to create sensations, to produce thoughts, ‘orto aad to memory. Decisions are made based on the sensory input, This in itegration. Based on the sensory input and integration, the nervous system responds by sending signals to muscles, causing them to contract, of 0 lands, causing them fo produce secretions. Muscles and glands are called effector: because they eaise an effect in cesponse to directions om the nervous system. This fs motor output response. ‘Nerves are bundles of neurons that are bound together by connective issue. Nerves are sensory nerves i they ‘Conduct impulses from receptors toward the spinal cord and Bain; motor nerves If they conduct impulses form the brain and spinal cod lowerd effectors, and mixed nerves if thay are composed of both sensory and motor fibres, Page 3 Blology 30 - UnitSECTION THE ELECTROCHEMICAL IMPULSE TRANSMISSION ALONG NEURONS ) ITRODUCTION Neurons ke al els, are bathed in entraceluar ful thet has a high concentration of sodium (Ns) and a relatively low concentration of potassium ions (K). In contrat the fu Insige the neuron is relatively rch in potassium ions andiow in sodiumions. Besides these dferencos, thereare more postvely charged ions on he outside of the cll ‘anc many more negatively chargedions on he inside. Also, Inside the cel there area varity of negatively charged ‘organic eubstances made by the calls, ech as proteins, amino acids and clic acd Since there are more positive charges outse the neuron than inde oft, the inside is less positively charged and hence more negatively chargod. AS a result, thre is an electrical potential diference across the membrane. In ‘anouron at est (not conducting impulses), measurements reveal fat the resting potentials about -70 miivolts (nV). (Amilivotis one-thousandth ofa vol. For comparison atypical fashight battery has a potential of 7500 nV}. Since the inside ofthe neuron is negative with respect to the outside, we eay that the ces esting potential “TO mW. ‘There ae three types of proteins emboxided inthe cal membrane which are responsible for maintaining a neuron's resting poteniil. Two ofthese proteins function 2s channels or gatos whereas the other functions as a pump. The ppolassium channel isa protein tha allows potassium ins fo pass thvaugh the membrane and t flow relatively ‘unhindered down their concentration gradient rom the inside of tie cal othe outside, In contrast, asacond protein, the Sodium channel, closes tighly and allows almost nene of the sodium fons ouside the cel to leak inward. The ‘exodus of potassium ions leaves behind a collection ofnegatively charged proteins which gives theinterlora sghly negative charge. Ine tira protein tat helps maintain te neurons resting potential isthe sodium -potassium pump. The pump ( ‘aves sogium ions out ofthe cell ane potassium ions nat a ratio of 3 sodium aut for every 2 potassium In. This unequal pumping resuils in an excess of positive charge (due to the high concentration of sodium) outsise the membrane relative to the inside. The pump uses ATP lo pase potassium and sodium lons against thelr ‘concentration gradients. ‘The actions of he thee kinds of proteins inthe neuron membrane maintain a steady electrical potential of-70 mV bbotwoan the cals outside and it inside. In ls resting sate, the cal Is sak to be polarized: ithes an imbalance of electrical charges. This polarization is caused by an unequal distbuion of fons on the two sides of the ‘membrane, There are more positive ons outside the cal than inside, aaanenes Inquiry Into Biology: Pages 372-382. Ewes When you have completed this section you will be required to: 4. Describe the electrical state of the resting neuron and the function of the sodium-potassium pump, 2. Describe the sequence of changes associated with he passage of an impulse along an axon. 3. Explain the all-or-none theory as it relates to neurons in terms of stimulus strength (threshold), strength of impulse, number of impulses and rate of impulse travel. 4, Explain what is meant by the refractory period and ty the nerve threshold, 5. Desoribe the transmission of an impulse across @ synapse and a neuromuscular junction, 6. Name two common neurotransmitters. Page + Biology 30- Unitaun abe oF A808 (1961, 7Somq vend u ebeyoeg soinosoy sJs4oe01 “fuog) ‘enuoiod uonoe ue Jo uonesaUa8 24) Ul J PUE EN Jo iueWoRON iz SUNOI ent Ul senow 4 eN body ay uosnou s191ue-81 Huee 008 (pezpej0d) ares Buse: one} pioyseuyp > os uounau jo ou 6unow yno senow! ns, N os + onezuejodep (sions) wnuspreus oot + _ [Pxusiod ae eueiquiew (260d uo y ans pue mojea z aint (095) sno00 ue> (Bu 20 ans8u) ogse UOKYN J fenUE}Od 24) - enUBIod UOATE aly Se sUOHOUNY PUE ALL OGe INoge JO 320d @ soypeat mou [eqUayOd feauFD9}6 SUL “9PsINO Bo} Yodss1 yn pooiE\D AjaaisOd Sowoo0g VOsNeU BU JO ‘Spisul ou “ovesquiew egeeuuad nou oy YBnoy 0 ay) YENI suo] Wns UoUN AlepHN Uado SeUUELD LnjpOS ‘21g Jo yeow (qu 99- ynoge) plousans oyeds e se4peal [eyusied u e2UaIe|NP sip LEY "LO OS PUE ‘AU! ¥9- OFA! 2-01 Au 99-0 S9buEYD Au OZ-ZouesRUIOW ai sBarDe eqUE}Od eoUIORa aU DeIa Saye} @BUeND fenpesB e pue ‘Gaveardep apisio pu spfsu ai usanjoq $96s2U9 Ut Secualo}p at 38}09 0} snunL Suo| wiNpos Sy “90 oXp OIL! feo] 01 surg tunipos eq 08 “uaco sous Linas patop ApuS Jo auN0S “paTeAUNS 6 o> BuRSeL a4 LAY ‘TOREAIRTOISG poyeo 81 enysod so a49 J opis ayy Supyeus Jo sson0id su, “(EHTBTOT VORDE ou Jo) asincwy onvou out | esvono1 eBveyo sey. “paduewn AaneBou sowcoeg ‘p1g|NO 24 ‘PaBueUD fIang\sod SowoONG Jao aNeU oXp Jo OPI) eu PUE BUEIAWALL Gyeogen (rel increase —— f Glucose Levels Ingulin Stimulates | Decrease Glucose Uptake emery tion reer) earth ioe Glucose Blood Glucose Levels Levels Decrease Increase Low Blood Glucose | innivits insulin and __. Giver J Pancreas |-> Stimulates Release a ‘of Glucagon Glucagon Stimulates Glycogen > Glucose Figure 21: The Pancreas Regulates Blood Glucose Levels. ‘The receptors inthe pancreas are responsibie for monitoring the glucase levels inthe blood. Two types of eels in the pancreas release Iwo aiferentharmanes. When the eval of glucote inthe blood increasse, the beta colle of ‘he panoreas are stimulated to release insulin, Insulin promotes the uptake of glucose by body cals and the ‘conversion of glucose into glycogen bythe lver. When te glucose concentration inthe blood falls belw a certain ‘evel, alpha cells of the pancreas release glucagon. Gluzagon promotes the conversion of yeogen to glucose in the liver This glucose quickly aflses out ofthe iver ino the Bloodstream, Damasio Fier GENETIC ENGINEERING OF INSULIN In treating dabetes the pancreases of slaughtered animals such as bovine, swine or sheep were used ae a source of insulin, Although these forms of insulin are similar human insulin, ther composition ls slighty diferent Consequently, a number of patients immune systems produced antbodies that neuraizd thelr effect. There was ‘aso fears of lang term complications ensuing ftom the regular injection of a foreign protein, 2s well as a projected Sectine n the production of animal drivedinsuin. These factors led researchers to cansksee synthesizing human Insulin by inserting the Insulin gene info baciria (E cal). When the bacterium is grown inthe fa it qulex'y multiplies and each new os gets a copy of the gane for human Insulln. And because te cele have a copy of the {genetic "recipe card” for instin, they can make the Insulin protein that is chemically identical to Is naturally Produced counterpart. This method is a more rable and sustainable method than extracting and puriying the animal by-product Blology 30 - Unit 1ma | REFERENCE BOX | NCE BO: ‘THE ADRENAL GLANDS ‘The paired adrenal glands (‘ad means near, “renal” means kidney) ston top ofthe kidneys. The inner porton of cach gland is the adrenal medulla, and the outer portion s the adrenal cortex. These sections aifer in structure ‘and function and can be considered separate by physcall attached glands. ‘The adrenal medulla hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine help the body respond to and survive ‘emergencies by increasing heart and breathing rates andblood flow. These hormones are under the contol ofthe sympathetle nervous eystem (Figur 22). Stressful Situations __, ryan Identified by the Brain a Adrenal i ron Petes Hormone sympathetic |, Eig) <~—— Nerve Signals Y oO ACTH Kidney Epinephrine Aldosterone Cortisol Initiates the fight-or-flight _Increases__ Stimulates the response by increasing reabsorption conversion of heart rate, blood flow, of sodium and _ fats and amino breathing rate, and water by the acids to glucose blood glucose levels. kidneys. by the liver. Figure 22: Secretions and Control of the Adrenal Glands. ‘The adrenal cortex secretes two types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticolds and glucocorticoids which work {ogether duting prolonged stress fo mobilze energy reserves while stabllzng blood volume and pressure. The ‘major mineralocoricold, aldosterone, maintain blood valume by stimulating the Kidneys toreabsorb more sodium ions. ‘Since water reabsorption folove sodium lon reabsorption, the volume of blood is increased. This is paricularly important In compensating for fid loss from. severe bieeding. The rate of aldosterone secretion is ‘enhanced by te ptullary hormone ACTH (adrenocortcoropi hormone) “The most important glucocorticoid is cortisol which promotes the use of fats and excess amino acids for energy and decreases the use of glucose. By enabling ater cels to use alternative energy sources, cortisol ensures that whatever glucose Is present wil be avalabe othe brah (the brain does not use altemative energy sources and ‘must have glucose). Cortisol s released in any type of physiological stress sitiation (disease, physical injury, fear, ‘anger, exercise and hunger) ‘The direc stimulus for corteo secretions ACTH fom the pituitary gland. Stressful situations identified bythe brain ‘Simulates the hypothalamus a secrete a releasing factor (normons) which promotes the release of ACTH fom the pituitary gland. ACTH le carried tothe adrenal cortox vnee it stimulates te release of corso. As the tevels of Eortso increase, the hypothalamus and plutary decrease ther production of regulary hormones (negative feedback) Page 31 Blology 30 - UnitGeese BOX HORMONES OF THE POSTERIOR & ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND Neurosecretory cals In the hypothalamus synthesize oxytocin and ADH, peptide hormones that are transported ‘dow the axons to the post ( 5 pitultary where they are stored. The pituitary gland releases the hormones ito the blood, where they eeulate and bind to trget cals in he kidneys (ADH).and mammary glanés and uterus (oxytacn). ADH Oxytocin 4 Kidney Tubules Mammary Glands ” Uterine Muscles Contots Water Simulate ik secretion ‘Rocorton ‘and Figure 23: Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary (Campbel, Biology, 2007) Endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary manufacture a aumber of protein hormones and secrete them ino the circulation, but their release is controled by the hypothaamus. Various releasing factors (nomones) stimulate Grintubit the relewou of hormones By the pity cals, Neurons of the Hypothalamus N Releasing Factors. Posterior, Lobe Endocrine Hormones: Cells of the ‘Anterior Lobe Groth prolactin FSH LH 1 wabey 1 t ones MERMY Testes orovares Toyota send xe Figure 24: Hormones ofthe Anterlr Pituitary (Campbell, Biology, 2007) Cy) Page s2 Blology 30 Unit 4= TABLE 2: MAJOR ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES: GLAND | HORMONE | REPRESENTATIVE ACTIONS | REGULATION DISORDERS ‘Oversecration: giantam Growth | stimulates gonral growh, Hormone | partculary the skeleton: simulates | ,{Pcmaamic | in eden and GH metabolism, eee eee | eee Undersoraon: doris Developmontofmanmary glands, | _ Rrpotalamic Prolactin | stimulates mik productn, releasing factors Face | Stindates dovetopmentofega | Estogenin he Stinuting | ovaryin females and perm in Blood Hormone’ | tetas mats; also cortels typothalamic FSH | seereton of estrogen in emates, | releasing factors Tinsialang Progesterone ie Hormone’ | Causes release of 99 tom ovaries | "the boos ua andthe release of pregestrone. | Hypobalomic anrerion |__ female) releasing factors PITURTARY. ‘Luteinizing . Testosterone In Lope ‘Hormone ‘Stimulates interstitial cets of the the blood; (ale). | testes t sects tstostrone, Hypethaiamic LHlortos reeasing factors cams | Siri te mrs eee hormones; growth and development ormene Hypathaimio crmone | cfiryrid gana, uptake ated. | fvPemovomic Adreno- Growth and developmert of adrenal | Siwcpeertone contcotepin | cortex stimulates secreton of lay ‘ACTH | stesshomones (gucocorcads). | geomet Sma) Conia the brain perception of Endowivne | and response to, exterre pain and pod Enkephains "| stress; the body's natural opiates. vt ‘Stimulates conection the tore muscles during elit; Nenous Onytocin ‘Stimulates the secretion of milk ‘System POSTERIOR from mammary dnd. PITUITARY LOBE Antdiurtc | Promotes water reabsorption n the eee eee eae alt Homone | dita convoluted tubules and Hnee licensee Coe ne ae ee releasing factors_| of ure being produced Oversecroion: weight Increase cxygen consumption and Tryrcid | toss igh temperature ‘Tyoxine | het production, simultos and simulating | snd boos pressure: malnane metabole prosesses. | Hormone (TSH) | Underseorton: gle, THYROID cretnim and myrecora Dood | Oversecreton: Tetany: ‘Lowers blood calcium by inhibiting a Undersecretion: loss of Calcitonin | calclum release from benes, carton | calcium cause Bone to cl become bile PARA. | Parana | Heteases Bod elu by Doo | Overscreton: bones PARA, | Paty | stimulating eadum release fom Eee | become brite: eeROr amore | Fonae andy promaing calcu | CMC" | Undersecreton: etany “ake fom gasontestial vac. ‘ve ow eataum. Lowers blood sugar by stimulating Blood eee aes Insulin | olucose uptake by ea nese ucose | ROCK luce lowered: yengen storage in he er conconivaion | Urderscreton, dabotes PANCREAS Stimulates glucose release in ver loos —_| Oversee: high blood Glucagon cells by breaking down glycogen: glucose a sceccorctin Inoreages blood sugar Iv, concentration Undersecretion: low ood glucose level, Page 33 Biology 90 Unit §GLAND WORMONE | _REPRESENTATIVEACTIONS | REGULATION DISORDERS ‘obs body for emergency Epinephrine | Ieeazes blood sugar hoa rao | ‘NONOUS ADRENAL (adrenalin) | and blood transport. aoe MEDULLA repinephane | Ineeases hear rate ard Boos Nero (Goradrenain) | pressure. System Cuca. | Repultes carbohyerat ondipi Cortona deelonay mmolabolsm; promos cases Adcisons dsease: corse | eoconeton Pts acta | (tec ater bw ood AORENAL infarmtor eapense pressure, weight oss, CoRTex Minerato- | Promotes eabsorponf sodium | Potassium | Coico oversecreton Cortcads | and exeeton of pote nthe inthe | results in Cushing's (eléosterane) | Kidneys; (salt and water balance), Biood ae Suppor sperm pode estes | Testosterone | Smee devopmertand | itn Characters (mee). Tats buildup of tee ing estrogen | Seconlay sorcharcamnics | | FSM and ovary toma) Help regulate uw dung Progesterone | menstrual cycle and pregnancy FH eng LH Hels establish immu dung ct THYMUS: ‘Thymosin childhood (T-lymphocytes). established eteasig and ‘hemical signals kyPO- Regulates atari lutary THALAMUS. enioting, | hormones. ae Page 34 Biology 20 - Unit 1