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History of France

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History of France

Prehistory[show]

Palaeolithic

Mesolithic

Neolithic

Copper Age

Bronze Age

Iron Age

Ancient[show]

Greek colonies
Celtic Gaul
Roman Gaul

50 BC 486 AD

Early Middle Ages[show]

Franks
Merovingians
Carolingians

481751
751987

Middle Ages[show]

Direct Capetians
Valois

9871328
13281498

Early modern[show]

Valois-Orlans

14981515

Valois-Angoulme
House of Bourbon
Kingdom of France

15151589
15891792
14921791

19th century[show]

French Revolution
Kingdom of the French
First Republic
National Convention
Directory
Consulate
First Empire
Restoration
July Revolution
July Monarchy
1848 Revolution
Second Republic
Second Empire
Third Republic
Paris Commune

1789
17911792
17921804
17921795
17951799
17991804
18041814
18141830
1830
18301848
1848
18481852
18521870
18701940
1871

20th century[show]

Free France Vichy France


Provisional Republic
Fourth Republic
Fifth Republic

19401944
19441946
19461958
1958present

Stone tools indicate that early humans were present in France at least 1.8
million years ago.[1] The first modern humans appeared in the area 40,000 years
ago. The first written records for the history of France appear in the Iron Age.
What is now France made up the bulk of the region known to the Romans as
Gaul. Roman writers noted the presence of three main ethno-linguistic groups in
the area: the Gauls, the Aquitani, and the Belgae. The Gauls, the largest and best
attested group, were a Celtic people speaking what is known as the Gaulish
language.
Over the course of the 1st millennium BC the Greeks, Romans, and
Carthaginians established colonies on the Mediterranean coast and the offshore
islands. The Roman Republic annexed southern Gaul as the province of Gallia
Narbonensis in the late 2nd century BC, and Roman forces under Julius Caesar
conquered the rest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of 5851 BC. Afterwards a GalloRoman culture emerged and Gaul was increasingly integrated into the Roman
Empire.

In the later stages of the Roman Empire, Gaul was subject to barbarian raids and
migration, most importantly by the Germanic Franks. The Frankish king Clovis
I united most of Gaul under his rule in the late 5th century, setting the stage for
Frankish dominance in the region for hundreds of years. Frankish power
reached its fullest extent under Charlemagne. The medieval Kingdom of France
emerged from the western part of Charlemagne's Carolingian Empire, known as
West Francia, and achieved increasing prominence under the rule of the House
of Capet, founded by Hugh Capet in 987.
A succession crisis following the death of the last direct Capetian monarch in
1328 led to the series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years' War between the
House of Valois and the House of Plantagenet. The war formally began in 1337
following Philip VI's attempt to seize the Duchy of Aquitaine from its hereditary
holder, Edward III of England, the Plantagenet claimant to the French throne.
Despite early Plantagenet victories, including the capture and ransom of John II
of France, fortunes turned in favor of the Valois later in the war. Among the
notable figures of the war was Joan of Arc, a French peasant girl who led
French forces against the English, establishing herself as a national heroine. The
war ended with a Valois victory in 1453.
Victory in the Hundred Years' War had the effect of strengthening French
nationalism and vastly increasing the power and reach of the French monarchy.
During the period known as the Ancien Rgime, France transformed into a
centralized absolute monarchy. During the next centuries, France experienced
the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation. At the height of the French
Wars of Religion, France became embroiled in another succession crisis, as the
last Valois king, Henry III, fought against rival factions the House of Bourbon
and the House of Guise. Henry, King of Navarre, scion of the Bourbon family,
would be victorious in the conflict and establish the French Bourbon dynasty. A
burgeoning worldwide colonial empire was established in the 16th century.
French political power reached a zenith under the rule of Louis XIV, "The Sun
King", builder of Versailles Palace.
In the late 18th century the monarchy and associated institutions were
overthrown in the French Revolution. The country was governed for a period as
a Republic, until the French Empire was declared by Napoleon Bonaparte.
Following Napoleon's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars France went through
several further regime changes, being ruled as a monarchy, then briefly as a
Second Republic, and then as a Second Empire, until a more lasting French
Third Republic was established in 1870.

France was one of the Triple Entente powers in World War I, fighting alongside
the United Kingdom, Russia, Italy, Japan, the United States and smaller allies
against Germany and the Central Powers.
France was one of the Allied Powers in World War II, but was conquered by
Nazi Germany in 1940. The Third Republic was dismantled, and most of the
country was controlled directly by the Axis Powers, while the south was
controlled by the collaborationist Vichy government. Following liberation in
1944, a Fourth Republic was established, but lasted less than a decade and a
half. In the wake of the Algerian Crisis of 1958, the Fourth Republic collapsed
and was succeeded by the Charles de Gaulle-led French Fifth Republic. Into the
1960s decolonization saw most of the French colonial empire become
independent, while smaller parts were incorporated into the French state as
overseas departments and collectivities. Since World War II France has been a
permanent member in the UN Security Council and NATO. It played a central
role in the unification process after 1945 that led to the European Union.
Despite slow economic growth in recent years and issues of ethnic minorities, it
remains a strong economic, cultural, military and political factor in the 21st
century.

Prehistory[edit]
Main article: Prehistory of France

Cave painting in Lascaux


Stone tools discovered at Chilhac (1968) and Lzignan-la-Cbe
in 2009 indicate that early humans were present in France at
least 1.8 million years ago.[1]
Neanderthals were present in Europe from about 200,000 BC,
but died out about 30,000 years ago, possibly out-competed by
the modern humans during a period of cold weather. The

earliest modern humans Homo sapiens entered Europe by


43,000 years ago (the Upper Palaeolithic).[2] The cave
paintings of Lascaux and Gargas (Gargas in the HautesPyrnes) as well as the Carnac stones are remains of the local
prehistoric activity.

Prehistory of France
Prehistoric France is the period in the human occupation (including early
hominins) of the geographical area covered by present-day France which
extended through prehistory and ended in the Iron Age with the Celtic "La Tne
culture".
Stone tools indicate that early humans were present in France at least 1.57
million years ago.[1]

The Palaeolithic[edit]
Lower Palaeolithic[edit]
Stone tools discovered at Lzignan-la-Cbe in 2009 indicate
that early humans were present in France at least 1.57 million
years ago.[1]
France includes Olduwan (Abbevillian) and Acheulean sites from
early or non-modern (transitional) Hominini species, most
notably Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis. The Grotte
du Vallonnet near Menton contained simple stone tools dating
to 1 million to 1.05 million years BC.[2] Cave sites were exploited
for habitation, but the hunter-gatherers of the Palaeolithic era
also possibly built shelters such as those identified in
connection with Acheulean tools at Grotte du Lazaret and Terra
Amata near Nice in France. Excavations at Terra Amata found

traces of the earliest known domestication of fire in Europe,


from 400,000 BC.[2]

Middle Palaeolithic[edit]
The Neanderthals, the earliest human species to occupy
Europe, are thought to have arrived there around 300,000 BC,
but seem to have died out by about by 30,000 BC, presumably
unable to compete with modern humans during a period of cold
weather. Numerous Neanderthal, or "Mousterian", artifacts
(named after the type site of Le Moustier, a rock shelter in the
Dordogne region of France) have been found from this period,
some using the "Levallois technique", a distinctive type of flint
knapping developed by hominids during the Lower Palaeolithic
but most commonly associated with the Neanderthal industries
of the Middle Palaeolithic. Importantly, recent findings suggest
that Neandertals and modern humans may have interbred
("The date of interbreeding between Neandertals and modern
humans" http://arxiv.org/abs/1208.2238).

Upper Palaeolithic[edit]
The earliest modern humans Cro-Magnons were present in
Europe by 43,000 years ago during a long interglacial period of
particularly mild climate, when Europe was relatively warm, and
food was plentiful.[3] When they arrived in Europe, they brought
with them sculpture, engraving, painting, body ornamentation,
music and the painstaking decoration of utilitarian objects.
Some of the oldest works of art in the world, such as the cave
paintings at Lascaux in southern France, are datable to shortly
after this migration.
European Palaeolithic cultures are divided into several
chronological subgroups (the names are all based on French
type sites, principally in the Dordogne region):

Aurignacian (c. 38,000 - 23,000 BP) responsible for


Venus figurines, cave paintings at the Chauvet Cave
(continued during the Gravettian period).
Prigordian (c. 35,000 - 20,000 BP) use of this term is
debated (the term implies that the following subperiods
represent a continuous tradition).
o Chtelperronian (c. 39,000 - 29,000 BP) culture
derived from the earlier, Neanderthal, Mousterian
industry as it made use of Levallois cores and
represents the period when Neanderthals and
modern humans occupied Europe together.
o Gravettian (c. 28,000 - 22,000 BP) responsible for
Venus figurines, cave paintings at the Cosquer Cave.
Solutrean (c. 22,000 - 17,000 BP)
Magdalenian (c. 17,000 - 10,000 BP) thought to be
responsible for the cave paintings at Pech Merle (in the Lot
in Languedoc, dating back to 16,000 BC), Lascaux (located
near the village of Montignac, in the Dordogne, dating
back to somewhere between 13,000 and 15,000 BC, and
perhaps as far back as 25,000 BC), the Trois-Frres cave
and the Rouffignac Cave also known as The Cave of the
hundred mammoths. It possesses the most extensive cave
system of the Prigord in France with more than 8
kilometers of underground passage ways.
Experts sometimes refer to the "Franco-Cantabrian region" to
describe this densely populated region of southern France and
northern Spain in the late Palaeolithic.

The Mesolithic[edit]
From the Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, the Magdalenian culture
evolved. In South-West France and Spain, one finds the Azilian
culture of the Late Glacial Maximum which co-existed with
similar early Mesolithic European cultures such as the

Tjongerian of North-Western, the Ahrensburgian of Northern


and the Swiderian of North-Eastern Europe, all succeeding the
Federmesser complex. The Azilian culture was followed by the
Sauveterrian in Southern France and Switzerland, the
Tardenoisian in Northern France, the Maglemosian in Northern
Europe.
Archeologists are unsure whether Western Europe saw a
Mesolithic immigration. If Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic
immigrants to Europe were indeed Indo-European, then
populations speaking non-Indo-European languages are obvious
candidates for Paleolithic remnants. The Vascons (Basques) of
the Pyrenees present the strongest case, since their language
is related to none other in the world, and the Basque population
has a unique genetic profile[citation needed]. Some archeologists
however situate the arrival of Vascons in the Mesolithic or the
Neolithic[citation needed]. The Ligures is another possible substrate
people of an early recolonization. The disappearance of the
Doggerland had an impact on the surrounding territories. The
most part of the Doggerland population had to go as far as
northern France and eastern Ireland to escape from the floods.

The Neolithic[edit]

The Menec alignments, the most well-known megalithic site


amongst the Carnac stones.
The Neolithic period lasted in northern Europe for
approximately 3,000 years (c. 4500 BC1700 BC). It is
characterised by the so-called Neolithic Revolution, a

transitional period that included the adoption of agriculture, the


development of tools and pottery (Cardium Pottery, LBK), and
the growth of larger, more complex settlements. There was an
expansion of peoples from southwest Asia into Europe; this
diffusion across Europe, from the Aegean to Britain, took about
2,500 years (6500 BC4000 BC). Some archaeologists believe
that this expansion, marking the eclipse of Mesolithic culture,
coincided with the introduction of Indo-European speakers,
whereas linguists prefer to see Indo-European languages
introduced during the succeeding Bronze Age. Within the
framework of this latter theory (the Kurgan hypothesis), which
remains the most commonly accepted model of Indo-European
expansion, Neolithic peoples in Europe are called "Pre-IndoEuropeans" or "Old Europe".
Many European Neolithic groups share basic characteristics,
such as living in small-scale family-based communities,
subsisting on domestic plants and animals supplemented with
the collection of wild plant foods and with hunting, and
producing hand-made pottery (that is made without the potter's
wheel). Archeological sites from the Neolithic in France include
artifacts from the Linear Pottery culture (c. 5500-4500 BC), the
Rssen culture (c. 45004000 BC), and the Chassen culture
(4,500 - 2500 BC; named after Chassey-le-Camp in Sane-etLoire), the name given to the late Neolithic pre-Beaker culture
that spread throughout the plains and plateaux of France,
including the Seine basin and the upper Loire valleys.
"Armorican" (Brittany) and Northern French neolithic culture is
based on traditions of the Linear Pottery culture or "Limburg
pottery" in association with the La Hoguette culture.
It is most likely from the Neolithic that date the megalithic
(large stone) monuments, such as the dolmens, menhirs, stone
circles and chamber tombs, found throughout France, the
largest selection of which are in the Brittany and Auvergne
regions. The most famous of these are the Carnac stones (c.

3300 BC, but may date to as old as 4500 BC) and the stones at
Saint-Sulpice-de-Faleyrens.

The Copper Age[edit]


During the Chalcolithic or Copper Age, a transitional age from
the Neolithic to the Bronze Age, France shows evidence of the
Seine-Oise-Marne culture and the Beaker culture.
The Seine-Oise-Marne culture or "SOM culture" (c. 3100 to 2400
BC) is the name given by archaeologists to the final culture of
the Neolithic in Northern France around the Oise River and
Marne River. It is most famous for its gallery grave megalithic
tombs which incorporate a port-hole slab separating the
entrance from the main burial chamber. In the chalk valley of
the Marne River rock-cut tombs were dug to a similar design.
Beginning about 2600 BC, the Artenacian culture, a part of the
larger European Megalithic Culture, developed in Dordogne,
possibly as a reaction to the advance of Danubian peoples
(such as SOM) over Western France. Armed with typical arrows,
they took over all Atlantic France and Belgium by 2400 BC,
establishing a stable border with the Indo-Europeans (Corded
Ware) near the Rhine that would remain stable for more than a
millennium.
In the Southeast, several groups whose culture had evolved
from Chassen culture also built megaliths.
The Beaker culture (c. 28001900 BC) is a wide phenomenon
that expanded over most of France, excluding the Massif
Central, without significatively altering the pre-existing
cultures.

Europe in c. 4500-4000 BC

Europe in c. 4000-3500 BC

Extent of the Beaker culture (c. 28001900 BC)

The Bronze Age[edit]


The early Bronze Age archeological cultures in France include
the transitional Beaker culture (c. 28001900 BC), the Tumulus
culture (c. 1600-1200 BC) and Urnfield culture (c. 1300-800
BC). Bronze Age sites in Brittany are believed to have grown
out of Beaker roots, with some Wessex culture and Unetice
culture influence. Some scholars think that the Urnfield culture
represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of
the Indo-European family (see Proto-Celtic). This culture was

preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age; the


Urnfield period saw a dramatic increase in population in the
region, probably due to innovations in technology and
agricultural practices.

A simplified map, ca 1200 BC, showing the central Urnfield


culture (red), the northern Urnfield culture (orange), the Knoviz
culture (blue-gray), the Lusatian culture (purple), the Danubian
culture (brown), the Terramare culture (blue), the West
European Bronze Age (green) and the Nordic Bronze Age
(yellow).
Some archeologists date the arrival of several non-IndoEuropean peoples to this period, including the Iberians in
southern France and Spain, the Ligures on the Mediterranean
coast, and the Vascons (Basques) in southwest France and
Spain.

The Iron Age[edit]


The spread of iron-working led to the development of the
Hallstatt culture (c. 700 to 500 BC) directly from the Urnfield.
Proto-Celtic, the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic
languages, is generally considered to have been spoken at the
time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures, in the early
1st millennium BC.
The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the La Tne culture,
which developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any

definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable


Mediterranean influence from Greek, and later Etruscan
civilizations. The La Tne culture developed and flourished
during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the Roman conquest in
the 1st century BC) in eastern France, Switzerland, Austria,
southwest Germany, the Czech Republic, and Hungary. Farther
to the north extended the contemporary Pre-Roman Iron Age
culture of Northern Germany and Scandinavia.

The green area suggests a possible extent of (proto-)Celtic


influence around 1000 BC. The orange area shows the region of
birth of the La Tne style. The red area indicates an idea of the
possible region of Celtic influence around 400 BC.
In addition, Greeks and Phoenicians settled outposts like
Marseille in this period (c. 600 BC).
By the 2nd century BC, Celtic France was called Gaul by the
Romans, and its people were called Gauls. The people to the
north (in what is present-day Belgium) were called Belgae
(scholars believe this may represent a mixture of Celtic and
Germanic elements) and the peoples of the south-west of
France were called the Aquitani by the Romans, and may have
been Celtiberians or Vascons.

Timeline[edit]
Prehistoric and Iron Age France - all dates are BC

1,800,000 (Date not considered secure) : Appearance of


stone tools (possibly by Homo erectus) in France (Chilhac,
Haute-Loire).
1,570,000:Stone tools at Lzignan-la-Cbe.
1,050,000 to 1,000,000: stone tools at Grotte du
Vallonnet, near Menton.
900,000: Beginning of Gnz glaciation.
700,000: Oldest shaped tools in Brittany.
600,000: Beginning of Gnz-Mindel interglacial.
Appearance of Homo heidelbergensis in Europe.
450,000: "Tautavel man" (possibly Homo heidelbergensis).
410,000: Beginning of Mindel glaciation (Mindel I).
Abbevillian culture, taming of fire.
400,000: Mindel II. Shards of "proto-Levallois" tools.
400,000 to 380,000: Traces of first domestication of fire at
Terra Amata (Nice).
300,000: Beginning of Mindel-Riss interglacial.
300,000: Appearance of Neanderthals in Europe.
200,000: Beginning of Riss glaciation (Riss I).
190,000: Riss II.
140,000: Riss III.
130,000: Beginning of Riss-Wrm interglacial.
70,000: Beginning of Wrm glaciation.
62,000: Wrm I/II interglacial.
57,000: Brorup interglacial.

55,000: Wrm II.


40,000: Laufen interglacial. Arrival of first modern humans
(Cro-Magnons) in Europe.
35,000: Wrm IIIa. Chtelperronian culture.
33,000: Mask of la Roche-Cotard, a Mousterian artefact.
32,000: Aurignacian culture.
30,000: First statuettes and engravings in France.
Disappearance of Neanderthals.
28,000: Arcy interglacial.
27,500: Wrm IIIb.
25,000: Paudorf interglacial.
23,000: Wrm IIIc.
18,000: End of Wrm glaciation.
18,692: Beginning of Solutrean culture.
16,000: Cold spell (Oldest Dryas).
15,000: Magdalenian culture.
15,300: Lascaux.
14,500: Middle Magdalenian. Blling Oscillation.
14,100: Cold spell (Older Dryas).
14,000: Allerd Oscillation.
13,500: Upper Magdalenian.
13,000: Hamburg culture
10,300: Cold spell (Younger Dryas).

9500: Beginning of Holocene.


7000: Domestication of the sheep.
6900: Domestication of the dog.
4800: Appearance of Linear Pottery culture in France.
4650: Oldest neolithic village in France, Courthzon in the
Vaucluse.
4000: Neolithic Chassen culture village of Bercy.
3610: Appearance of first megaliths in France.
3430: Chassen culture village of Saint-Michel du Touch
near Toulouse.
3430: Appearance of Rssen culture at Baume de Gonvilla
in Haute-Sane.
3250: Expansion of Chassen culture in the south of
France, from the Lot to the Vaucluse.
3190: Chassen culture in Calvados.
2530: Chassen culture in Pas-de-Calais.
2450: End of Chassen culture in Eure-et-Loir.
2400: End of Chassen culture in Saint-Mitre (in Reillanne,
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence).
2300: Village at Ponteau (in Martigues, Provence) of the
Beaker culture.
1800: Beginning of Bronze Age in France.
800: Appearance in France, via the Rhine and the Moselle,
and expanding into Champagne and Bourgogne of the
Urnfield culture.
725: Beginning of Hallstatt culture.

680: Founding of Antibes, the first Greek colony in France.


600: Founding of Massalia (future Marseille) by the Greeks
from the Ionian city of Phocaea[1].
450: The Celts of la Tne appear in Champagne. They
expand to the Garonne, forming what will come to be
called the Gaul civilization.
390: The Celtic chief Brennus sacks Rome.
121: Roman occupation of Gallia Narbonensis.
118: Founding of the Roman colony Narbo Martius (future
Narbonne).
58-51: Conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar.

See also[edit]
Timeline of glaciation
Neolithic Europe
Old European culture
Proto-Indo-Europeans
Proto-Celtic language
Prehistory of Brittany
Prehistoric Britain
Prehistoric Iberia
Prehistoric Romania
Archaeological sites in France

BFH: Ancient history[edit]


Greek colonies[edit]
Main article: Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul

Massalia (modern Marseille) silver coin with Greek legend, a


testimony to Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul, 5th1st century BC.
In 600 BC, Ionian Greeks from Phocaea founded the colony of
Massalia (present-day Marseille) on the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea, making it the oldest city of France. [3][4] At
the same time, some Celtic tribes penetrated the eastern parts
(Germania superior) of the current territory of France, but this
occupation spread in the rest of France only between the 5th
and 3rd century BC.[5]

Greeks in pre-Roman
Gaul

Location of the Greek colony of Marseille.


The Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul have a significant history of
settlement, trade, cultural influence, and armed conflict in the
Celtic territory of Gaul (modern France), starting from the 6th
century BCE during the Greek Archaic period. Following the
founding of the major trading post of Massalia in 600 BCE by
the Phocaeans at present day Marseille, Massalians had a
complex history of interaction with peoples of the region.

Settlement at Marseille (600


BCE) [edit]

Remains of the Greek harbour in the Jardin des Vestiges in


central Marseille, the most extensive Greek settlement in preRoman Gaul

The oldest city within modern France, Marseille, was founded


around 600 BCE by Greeks from the Asia Minor city of Phocaea
(as mentioned by Thucydides Bk1,13, Strabo, Athenaeus and
Justin) as a trading post or emporion under the name
(Massalia).[1][2]
A foundation myth reported by Aristotle in the 4th century BCE
as well as by Latin authors, recounts how the Phocaean Protis
(or Euxenus) married Gyptis (or Petta), the daughter of a local
Segobriges king called Nannus, thus giving him the right to
receive a piece of land where he was able to found a city. [2][3][4]
The contours of the Greek city have been partially excavated in
several neighborhoods.[5][6] The Phocaean Greeks introduced the
cult of Artemis, as in their other colonies.[7]
It is thought that contacts started even earlier however, as
Ionian Greeks traded in the Western Mediterranean and Spain,
but only very little remains from that earlier period. [1] Contacts
developed undisputedly from 600 BCE, between the Celts and
Celto-Ligurans and the Greeks in the city of Marseille and their
other colonies such as Agde, Nice, Antibes, Monaco, Emporiae
and Rhoda.[1][8] The Greeks from Phocaea also founded
settlements in the island of Corsica, such as at Alalia.[9] From
Massalia, the Phocaean Greeks also founded cities in
northeastern Spain such as Emporiae and Rhoda.

In legend, Gyptis, daughter of the king of the Segobriges, chose


the Greek Protis, who then received a site for founding
Massalia.

Before the Greeks came to pre-eminence in the Gulf of Lion,


trade was mainly handled by Etruscans and Carthaginians.[9]
The Greeks of Massalia had recurrent conflicts with Gauls and
Ligurians of the region,[10] and engaged in naval battles against
Carthaginians in the late 6th century (Thucydides 1.13) and
probably in 490 BCE, and soon entered into a treaty with Rome.
[7]

According to Charles Ebel, writing in the 1960s, "Massalia was


not an isolated Greek city, but had developed an Empire of its
own along the coast of southern Gaul by the fourth century". [11]
But the idea of a Massalian "empire" is no longer credible in the
light of recent archaeological evidence, which shows that
Massalia never even had a very large chora (agricultural
territory under its direct control).[12] However further
archaeological evidence since shows Massalia had over twelve
cities in its network in France, Spain, Monaco and Corsica. Cities
Massalia founded that still exist today are Nice, Antibes,
Monaco, Le Brusc, Agde, and Aleria. There is evidence of direct
rule of at least two of their cities with a flexible system of
autonomy as suggested by Emporion and Rhodus' own coin
minting. Massalia's empire was not the same as the monolithic
of the ancient world or of the nineteenth century being a
scattered group of cities connected by the sea and rivers. The
Delian League was also a scattered group of cities spread far
across the sea and became known as the Athenian Empire. [13]
Greek Marseille eventually became a centre of culture which
drew some Roman parents to send their children there to be
educated. According to earlier views, a purported hellenization
of Southern France prior to the Roman Conquest of Transalpine
Gaul is thought to have been largely due to the influence of
Massalia.[14][15] However, more recent scholarship has shown
that the idea of Hellenization was illusory (and that the concept
itself is seriously flawed). The power and cultural influence of
Massalia have been called into question by demonstrating the
limited territorial control of the city and showing the distinctive

cultures of indigenous societies. Local Gauls were not


Grecophiles who wanted to imitate Greek culture, but peoples
who selectively consumed a very limited range of Greek objects
(mostly wine and drinking ceramics) that they incorporated into
their own cultural practices according to their own systems of
value.[16][17]

Hellenization
Hellenization (or Hellenisation) is the historical spread of
ancient Greek culture and, to a lesser extent, language, over
foreign peoples conquered by Greece or brought into its sphere
of influence, particularly during the Hellenistic period following
the campaigns of Alexander the Great of Macedon. The result of
Hellenization was that elements of Greek origin combined in
various forms and degrees with local elements. In modern
times, Hellenization has been associated with the adoption of
modern Greek culture and the ethnic and cultural
homogenization of Greece.[1][2]

Historic usage
Classical period[edit]

A map showing the Greek territories and colonies during the


Archaic period.

The concept applies to a number of other ancient historical


contexts, starting with the Hellenization of the earliest
inhabitants of Greece such as the Pelasgians, the Leleges, the
Lemnians, the Eteocypriots in Cyprus, Eteocretans and Minoans
in Crete (prior to Classical antiquity), as well as the Sicels,
Elymians, Sicani in Sicily and the Oenotrians, Brutii, Lucani,
Messapii and many others in territories constituting Magna
Graecia.

Hellenistic period[edit]

Map of the Macedonian Empire, circa 323 BC

Main article: Hellenistic civilization


See also: Hellenistic Judaism
During the Hellenistic period, following the death of Alexander
the Great, considerable numbers of Assyrians, Jews, Egyptians,
Persians, Parthians, Armenians, and a number of other ethnic
groups along the Balkans, Black Sea, South-Eastern
Mediterranean, Anatolia, Middle East and Central Asia were
Hellenized. The Bactrians, an Iranian ethnic group who lived in
Bactria (northern Afghanistan), were Hellenized during the
Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and soon after various tribes in

northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent (modern


Pakistan) during the Indo-Greek Kingdom. There also was
Hellenization of Thracians, Dardanians, Paeonians, and
Illyrians[3][4][5][6] south of the Jireek Line and even Getae.[7]
Hellenization during the Hellenistic period, however, had its
limitations. For example, areas of southern Syria that were
affected by Greek culture mostly entailed Seleucid urban
centers where Greek was commonly spoken. The countryside,
on the other hand, was largely unaffected since most of its
inhabitants spoke Syriac and continued to maintain their native
traditions.[8] Moreover, Hellenization did not necessarily involve
assimilation of non-Greek ethnic groups since Hellenistic
Greeks in regions such as Asia Minor were conscious of their
ancestral lineages.[9]

Middle Ages[edit]
Main article: Byzantine Greeks
Hellenization can also refer to the medieval Byzantine Empire
and Constantine's founding of Constantinople (Eastern Roman
Empire that was Hellenized). Moreover, it can refer to the
primacy of Greek culture and the Greek language after the
reign of Emperor Heraclius (r. 610641) in the 7th century.

Ottoman rule[edit]
Main article: Rum millet
Hellenization is also the result of the higher status which the
Greek culture and the Greek Orthodox Church enjoyed among
the Christian Orthodox population of the Balkans during
Ottoman rule.

Modern usage[edit]
Main article: Geographical name changes in Greece
See also: Grecomans

In 1909, a commission appointed by the Greek government


reported that one third of the villages of Greece should have
their names changed, often because of their non-Greek origin. [1]
In other instances names were changed from a contemporary
name of Greek origin, to the ancient Greek toponym. Some
village names were formed from a Greek root word with a
foreign suffix, or vice-versa. The majority of the name changes
took place in areas populated by ethnic Greeks, where a strata
of foreign, or divergent, toponyms had accumulated over the
centuries. However, in some parts of Northern Greece the
population was not Greek Speaking and many of the former
toponyms reflect the diverse ethnic, and linguistic, origins of
their inhabitants.
The process of the change of toponyms in modern Greece has
been described as a process of Hellenization. [1] A modern use is
in connection with policies pursuing "cultural harmonization
and education of the linguistic minorities resident within the
modern Greek state" (the Hellenic Republic), i.e. the
Hellenization of minority groups in modern Greece. [2]
The word nowadays has a strong negative meaning in certain
circles in Greece as it means (possibly illegally) giving
citizenship to non-Greek immigrants.[10]

Modern scholarship[edit]
The twentieth century witnessed a lively debate over the extent
of Hellenization in the Levant and particularly among the
ancient Palestinian Jews that has continued until today. History
of Religions interpretations of the rise of early Christianity
(applied most famously by Rudolf Bultmann) were wont to see
Palestinian Judaism as largely unaffected by Hellenism, while
the Judaism of the diaspora was thought to have succumbed
thoroughly to its influences. Bultmann thus argued that
Christianity arose almost completely within those Hellenistic
confines and should be read against that background as
opposed to a more traditional (Palestinian) Jewish background.

With the publication of Martin Hengel's two volume study


Hellenism and Judaism (1974, German original 1972) and
subsequent studies Jews, Greeks and Barbarians: Aspects of
the Hellenization of Judaism in the pre-Christian Period (1980,
German original 1976), and The 'Hellenization' of Judaea in the
First Century after Christ (1989, German original 1989) the tide
began to turn decisively. Hengel argued that virtually all of
Judaism, whether Palestinian or otherwise, was highly
Hellenized well before the beginning of the Christian era, and
even the Greek language was well known throughout the cities
and even smaller towns of Jewish Palestine. Scholars have
continued to nuance Hengel's views, but very few continue to
doubt the strong Hellenistic influences throughout the Levant,
even among the conservative Jewish communities who were
most nationalistic.

See also[edit]
Dehellenization

Greek trade in Gaul[edit]


Further information: Tin sources and trade in ancient times

The Vix krater, an imported Greek wine-mixing vessel from 500


BCE attests to the trade exchanges of the period
These eastern Greeks, established on the shores of southern
France, were in close relations with the Celtic inhabitants of the
region, and during the late 6th and 5th centuries BCE Greek
artifacts penetrated northwards alongs the Rhne and Sane
valleys as well as the Isre.[1][2] Massalian grey monochrome
pottery has been discovered in the Hautes Alpes and as far
north as Lons-le-Saunier, as well as three-winged bronze
arrowheads as far as northern France, and amphorae from
Marseille and Attic pottery at Mont Lassois.[1][18] The site of Vix
in northern Burgundy is a well-known example of a Hallstatt
settlement where such Mediterranean objects were consumed,
albeit in small quantities. Some, like the famous Vix krater,
were spectacular in nature.[19]

Detail from Vix krater: frieze of hoplites and four-horse chariots


on the rim

From Marseille, maritime trade also developed with Languedoc


and Etruria, and with the Greek city of Emporiae on the coast of
Spain.[2] Massalia traded as least as far as Gades and Tartessus
on the western coast of the Iberian peninsula, as described in
the Massaliote Periplus, although this trade was probably
blocked by the Carthaginians at the Pillars of Hercules after 500
BCE.[20][21]
The mother city of Phocaea would ultimately be destroyed by
the Persians in 545, further reinforcing the exodus of the

Phocaeans to their settlements of the Western Mediterranean. [9]


[22]
Trading links were extensive, in iron, spices, wheat and
slaves.[23] It has been claimed frequently that a trade in tin,
indispensable for the manufacture of bronze, seems to have
been established at that time between Cornwall in modern
England, through the Channel, and along the Seine valley,
Burgundy and the Rhne-Sane valleys to Marseille.[23]
However, the evidence for this is weak, at best. [24]

Legacy[edit]

Statue of Greek explorer, Pytheas of Massilia, located on the


exterior of the Palais de la Bourse. He explored northern Europe
from Marseille c. 325 BCE
Overland trade with Celtic countries beyond the Mediterranean
region declined around 500 BCE, in conjunction with the
troubles following the end of the Halstatt civilization.[2] The site
of Mont Lassois was abandoned around that time.[2]
The Greek colony of Massalia remained active in the following
centuries. Around 325 BCE, Pytheas (Ancient Greek
) made a voyage of exploration to northwestern
Europe as far as the Arctic Circle from his city of Marseilles.[25][26]
His discoveries contributed to the elaboration of the ancient

world maps of Dicaearchus, Timaeus and Eratosthenes, and to


the development of the parallels of latitude.[26][27]

Tablet with Gallo-Greek inscription found south of Nmes (Muse


Calvet, Avignon)
The La Tne style, based on floral ornamentation, in contrast to
the geometric styles of Early Iron Age Europe, can be traced to
an imaginative re-interpretation of motifs on imported objects
of Greek or Etruscan origin.[28][29]
During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar reported that the Helvetii
were in possession of documents in the Greek script, and all
Gaulish coins used the Greek script until about 50 BCE. [14]

Numismatics[edit]
Coins in pre-Roman Gaul

Massalian silver drachma 375-200 BC. Obv. head of Artemis,


rev. lion, Greek inscription (), "Massalia".

A coin of the Veneti, with head in profile and horse, derived


from Greek coin designs, 5th1st century BCE
Celtic coinage emerged in the 4th century BCE, and, influenced
by trade with the Greeks and the supply of mercenaries to
them, initially copied Greek designs.[14][30] Celtic coinage was
influenced by Greek designs,[31] and Greek letters can be found
on various Celtic coins, especially those of Southern France. [32]
Greek coinage occurred in the three Greek cities of Massalia,
Emporiae and Rhoda, and was copied throughout southern
Gaul.[30]
Coins in northern Gaul were especially influenced by the
coinage of Philip II of Macedon and his famous son Alexander
the Great.[30]
Celtic coins often retained Greek subjects, such as the head of
Apollo on the obverse and two-horse chariot on the reverse of
the gold stater of Philip II, but developed their own style from
that basis, thus establishing a Graeco-Celtic synthesis. [14][30]
After this first period in which Celtic coins rather faithfully
reproduced Greek types, designs started to become more
symbolic, as exemplified by the coinage of the Parisii in the
Belgic region of northern France.[30] By the 2nd century BCE, the
Greek chariot was only represented by a symbolic wheel. [14]
The Armorican Celtic style in northwestern Gaul also developed
from Celtic designs from the Rhine valley, themselves derived
from earlier Greek prototypes such as the wine scroll and split
palmette.[30]

With the Roman invasion of Gaul, Greek-inspired Celtic coinage


started to incorporate Roman influence instead, until it
disappeared to be completely replaced by Roman coinage. [30]
By the 1st century BCE, the coinage of the Greeks of Marseille
circulated freely in Gaul,[14] also influencing coinage as far afield
as Great Britain. The coins of the Sunbury hoard, thought to
have been manufactured in Kent, show designs derived from
Greek coins from Marseille with the stylised head of Apollo and
a butting bull.[33] Recently original bronze coins 3rd-2nd century
BC from Greek Marseille have been found in several locations
around Kent, UK.[34]

Coins from the 5th to 1st century BCE[edit]


Celtic coin designs progressively became more abstract, as
exemplified by the coins of the Parisii

Massalia

Rhoda

Emporiae


Parisii

Sunbury-on-Thames, Britain, 10050 BCE[35]

Gold coin of the Sequani


(based in present-day Franche-Comt)

Biga and driver on a Sequanian coin

Santones (based in present-day Charente-Maritime)


More abstract chariot and driver on Santonian coin

See also[edit]
Pytheas

BHFH: Gaul[edit]
Main article: Gaul

Brennus and the sack of Rome as imagined in the 19th century


Covering large parts of modern-day France, Belgium, northwest
Germany and northern Italy, Gaul was inhabited by many Celtic
and Belgae tribes whom the Romans referred to as Gauls and
who spoke the Gaulish language roughly between the Seine
and the Garonne (Gallia Celtica). On the lower Garonne the
people spoke Aquitanian, an archaic language related to

Basque whereas a Belgian language was spoken north of


Lutecia. The Celts founded cities such as Lutetia Parisiorum
(Paris) and Burdigala (Bordeaux) while the Aquitanians founded
Tolosa (Toulouse).
Long before any Roman settlements, Greek navigators settled
in what would become Provence. The Phoceans founded
important cities such as Massalia (Marseille) and Nikaia (Nice),
bringing them in to conflict with the neighboring Celts and
Ligurians. Some Phocean great navigators, such as Pytheas,
were born in Marseille. The Celts themselves often fought with
Aquitanians and Germans, and a Gaulish war band led by
Brennus invaded Rome c. 393 or 388 BC following the Battle of
the Allia.
However, the tribal society of the Gauls did not change fast
enough for the centralized Roman state, who would learn to
counter them. The Gaulish tribal confederacies were then
defeated by the Romans in battles such as Sentinum and
Telamon during the 3rd century BC. In the early 3rd century BC,
the Belgae conquered the surrounding territories of the Somme
in northern Gaul after a battle supposedly against the
Armoricani near Ribemont-sur-Ancre and Gournay-sur-Aronde,
where sanctuaries were found.
When Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barca fought the
Romans, he recruited several Gaulish mercenaries who fought
on his side at Cannae. It was this Gaulish participation that
caused Provence to be annexed in 122 BC by the Roman
Republic.[citation needed] Later, the Consul of Gaul Julius Caesar
conquered all of Gaul. Despite Gaulish opposition led by
Vercingetorix, the Overking of the Warriors, the Gauls
succumbed to the Roman onslaught. The Gauls had some
success at first at Gergovia, but were ultimately defeated at
Alesia in 52 BC. The Romans founded cities such as Lugdunum
(Lyon), Narbonensis (Narbonne) and allow in a correspondence
between Lucius Munatius Plancus and Cicero to formalize the
existence of Cularo (Grenoble).[6]

BTFH: Gaul

Gaul on the eve of the Gallic Wars. Roman ethnography divides


Gaul into five parts: Gallia Belgica, Gallia Celtica (largely
corresponding to the later province Gallia Lugdunensis), Gallia
Cisalpina, Gallia Narbonensis and Gallia Aquitania.

Gaul (Latin: Gallia) was a region of Western Europe during the


Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France,
Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern
Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on
the west bank of the Rhine. According to the testimony of Julius
Caesar, Gaul was divided into three parts: Gallia Celtica,
Belgica and Aquitania. Archaeologically, the Gauls were bearers
of the La Tne culture, which extended across all of Gaul, as
well as east to Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia and southwestern
Germania during the 5th to 1st centuries BC.[citation needed] During
the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule: Gallia
Cisalpina was conquered in 203 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in
123 BC. Gaul was invaded by the Cimbri and the Teutons after
120 BC, who were in turn defeated by the Romans by 103 BC.

Julius Caesar finally subdued the remaining parts of Gaul in his


campaigns of 58 to 51 BC.
Roman control of Gaul lasted for five centuries, until the last
Roman rump state, the Domain of Soissons, fell to the Franks in
AD 486. While the Celts Gauls had lost their original identities
and language during Late Antiquity, becoming amalgamated
into a Gallo-Roman culture, Gallia remained the conventional
name of the territory throughout the Early Middle Ages, until it
acquired a new identity as the Capetian Kingdom of France in
the high medieval period. Gallia remains a name of France in
modern Latin (besides the alternatives Francia and
Francogallia).

Name
Further information: Names of the Celts
The Greek and Latin names Galatia (first attested by Timaeus of
Tauromenion in the 4th century BC), and Gallia are ultimately
derived from a Celtic ethnic term or clan Gal(a)-to-.[1] The Galli
of Gallia Celtica were reported to refer to themselves as Celtae
by Caesar. This name, from a stem *kel-to has been suggested
as ultimately derived from a common origin with the names in
Gal- by certain linguists.[who?] Hellenistic folk etymology
connected the name of the Galatians (, Galtai) to the
supposedly "milk-white" skin (, gla "milk") of the Gauls.
[citation needed]

The English Gaul is from French Gaule and is unrelated to Latin


Gallia, despite superficial similarity (Latin Gallia would have
regularly been turned to *Jaille in French). As adjectives, English
has the two variants Gaulish and Gallic. The two adjectives are
used synonymously, as "pertaining to Gaul or the Gauls",
although the Celtic language or languages spoken in Gaul is
predominantly known as Gaulish.

The name Gaul is derived from the Germanic term walha,


"foreigner, Romanized person", an exonym applied by
Germanic speakers to Celts and Latin-speaking people
indiscriminately, making it partially cognate with the names
Wales and Wallachia.[2] The Germanic w- is regularly rendered
as gu- / g- in French (cf. guerre = war, garder = ward), and the
diphthong au is the regular outcome of al before a following
consonant (cf. cheval ~ chevaux). Gaule or Gaulle can hardly
be derived from Latin Gallia, since g would become j before a
(cf. gamba > jambe), and the diphthong au would be
unexplained; the regular outcome of Latin Gallia is Jaille in
French which is found in several western placenames. [3][4]
Also unrelated in spite of superficial similarity, are the nams
Galli and Gael.[5] The Irish word gall did originally mean "a
Gaul", i.e. an inhabitant of Gaul, but its meaning was later
widened to "foreigner", to describe the Vikings, and later still
the Normans.[6] The dichotomic words gael and gall are
sometimes used together for contrast, for instance in the 12thcentury book Cogad Gedel re Gallaib.

History[edit]
Pre-Roman Gaul[edit]
Further information: Prehistoric France, Celts, La Tne culture and Greeks in
pre-Roman Gaul

Map of Roman Gaul (Droysens Allgemeiner historischer Handatlas, 1886)


The early history of the Gauls is predominantly a work in archaeologythere
being little written information (save perhaps what can be gleaned from coins)
concerning the peoples that inhabited these regionsand the relationships
between their material culture, genetic relationships (the study of which has
been aided, in recent years, through the field of archaeogenetics), and linguistic
divisions rarely coincide.
Before the rapid spread of the La Tne culture in the 5th to 4th centuries BC, the
territory of eastern and southern France already participated in the Late Bronze
Age Urnfield culture (c. 12th to 8th centuries BC.) out of which the early ironworking Hallstatt culture (7th to 6th centuries BC) would develop. By 500 BC,
there is strong Hallstatt influence throughout most of France (except for the
Alps and the extreme north-west).
Out of this Hallstatt background, during the 7th and 6th century presumably
representing an early form of Continental Celtic culture, the La Tne culture
arises, presumably under Mediterranean influence from the Greek, Phoenician,
and Etruscan civilizations, spread out in a number of early centers along the
Seine, the Middle Rhine and the upper Elbe. By the late 5th century BC, La
Tne influence spreads rapidly across the entire territory of Gaul. The La Tne
culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BC to the
Roman conquest in the 1st century BC) in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria,
southwest Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and Hungary. Farther north
extended the contemporary pre-Roman Iron Age culture of northern Germany
and Scandinavia.

The major source of materials on the Celts of Gaul was Poseidonios of Apamea,
whose writings were quoted by Timagenes, Julius Caesar, the Sicilian Greek
Diodorus Siculus, and the Greek geographer Strabo.[7]
In the 4th and early 3rd century BC, Gallic clan confederations expanded far
beyond the territory of what would become Roman Gaul (which defines usage
of the term "Gaul" today), into Pannonia, Illyria, northern Italy, Transylvania
and even Asia Minor. By the 2nd century BC, the Romans described Gallia
Transalpina as distinct from Gallia Cisalpina. In his Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar
distinguishes among three ethnic groups in Gaul: the Belgae in the north
(roughly between Rhine and Seine), the Celtae in the center and in Armorica,
and the Aquitani in the southwest, the southeast being already colonized by the
Romans. While some scholars believe the Belgae south of the Somme were a
mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements, their ethnic affiliations have not been
definitively resolved. One of the reasons is political interference upon the
French historical interpretation during the 19th century.
In addition to the Gauls, there were other peoples living in Gaul, such as the
Greeks and Phoenicians who had established outposts such as Massilia (presentday Marseille) along the Mediterranean coast.[8] Also, along the southeastern
Mediterranean coast, the Ligures had merged with the Celts to form a CeltoLigurian culture.
In the 2nd century BC, Mediterranean Gaul had an extensive urban fabric and
was prosperous, while the best known cities in northern Gaul include the
Biturigian capital of Avaricum (Bourges), Cenabum (Orlans), Autricum
(Chartres) and the excavated site of Bibracte near Autun in Sane-et-Loire,
along with a number of hillforts (or oppida) used in times of war. The prosperity
of Mediterranean Gaul encouraged Rome to respond to pleas for assistance
from the inhabitants of Massilia, who were under attack by a coalition of
Ligures and Gauls. The Romans intervened in Gaul in 125 BC, and by 121 BC
they had conquered the Mediterranean region called Provincia (later named
Gallia Narbonensis). This conquest upset the ascendancy of the Gaulish Arverni
peoples.

*La Tne culture

Reconstruction of a late La Tne period (1st century BCE) settlement in Altburg near Bundenbach.

Reconstruction of a late La Tne period (2nd/1st century BCE) settlement


in Havranok, Slovakia.

Celtic costumes pair in przeworsk culture (3rd century BCE,La Tne


period), Archaeological Museum of Krakw.

A 1st-century BCE mirror found in Desborough,Northants, showing the spiral


and trumpet theme.

Vix krater

The La Tne culture was a European Iron Age culture named after
the archaeological site of La Tne on the north side
ofNeuenburgersee in Switzerland, where a rich cache of artifacts was
discovered by Hansli Kopp in 1857.
La Tne culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450
BCE to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BCE) inBelgium,
eastern France, Switzerland, Austria, Southern Germany, the Czech
Republic, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Hungary andRomania. To the north
extended the contemporary Jastorf culture of Northern Germany.[1]
La Tne culture developed out of the early Iron Age Hallstatt culturewithout any
definite cultural break, under the impetus of
considerableMediterranean influence from the Culture of Golasecca,
[2]
the Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul and later Etruscan civilizations.[3] Barry
Cunliffenotes localization of La Tne culture during the 5th century when there
arose "two zones of power and innovation: a Marne Moselle zone in the west
with trading links to the Po Valley via the central Alpine passes and
the Golasecca culture, and a Bohemian zone in the east with separate links to
the Adriatic via the eastern Alpine routes and the Veneticculture".[4] A shift of
settlement centres took place in the 4th century.

La Tne cultural material appeared over a large area, including parts


ofIreland[citation needed] and Great Britain,[citation needed] northern Spain, Burgundy,
andAustria. Elaborate burials also reveal a wide network of trade. In Vix,
France, an elite woman of the 6th century BCE was buried with a very
large bronze cauldron made in Greece. Exports from La Tne cultural areas to
the Mediterranean cultures were based
on salt, tin and copper, amber, wool and leather, furs and gold.

La Tne "homeland"[edit]

The Hallstatt and La Tne Cultures.


Though there is no agreement on the precise region in which La Tne culture
first developed, there is a broad consensus that the center of the culture lay on
the northwest edges of Hallstatt culture, north of the Alps, within the region
between the valleys of theMarne and Moselle in the west and modern Bavaria
and Austria in the east. In 1994 a prototypical ensemble of elite grave sites of
the early 5th century BCE was excavated atGlauberg in Hesse, northeast
of Frankfurt-am-Main, in a region that had formerly been considered peripheral
to the La Tne sphere.[5]

From their homeland, La Tne groups expanded in the 4th century to Hispania,
the Po Valley, the Balkans, and even as far as Asia Minor, in the course of
several major migrations. In the 4th century BCE, a Gallic army led
by Brennus reached Rome and took the city. In the 3rd century BCE, Gallic
bands entered Greece and threatened the oracle of Delphi, while another band
settled Galatia in Asia Minor.

Periodization[edit]
Extensive contacts through trade are recognized in foreign objects deposited in
elite burials; stylistic influences on La Tne material culture can be recognized
in Etruscan, Italic,Greek, Dacian and Scythian sources. Dateable Greek pottery
at La Tne sites and dendrochronology and thermoluminescence help provide
date ranges in an absolute chronology at some La Tne sites.
As with many archaeological periods, La Tne history was originally divided
into "early" (6th century BCE), "middle" (c. 450100 BCE), and "late" (1st
century BCE) stages, with the Roman occupation effectively driving the culture
underground and ending its development. A broad cultural unity was not
paralleled by overarching social-political unifying structures, and the extent to
which the material culture can be linguistically linked is debated.

Ethnology[edit]
Our knowledge of this cultural area derives from three sources: from
archaeological evidence, from Greek and Latin literary evidence, and more
controversially, from ethnographical evidence suggesting some La Tne artistic
and cultural survivals in traditionally Celtic regions of far western Europe.
Some of the societies that are archaeologically identified with La Tne material
culture were identified by Greek and Roman authors from the 5th century
onwards as Keltoi ("Celts") andGalli ("Gauls"). Herodotus (iv.49) correctly
placed Keltoi at the source of the Ister/Danube, in the heartland of La Tne
material culture: "The Ister flows right across Europe, rising in the country of
the Celts", whom however, apparently misunderstanding his source,[6] he places
"farthest to the west of any people of Europe"[7]

Whether the usage of classical sources means that the whole of La Tne culture
can be attributed to a unified Celtic people is difficult to assess; archaeologists
have repeatedly concluded that language, material culture, and political
affiliation do not necessarily run parallel. Frey notes (Frey 2004) that in the 5th
century, "burial customs in the Celtic world were not uniform; rather, localised
groups had their own beliefs, which, in consequence, also gave rise to distinct
artistic expressions".

Material culture[edit]
Main article: Celtic art
La Tne metalwork in bronze, iron and gold, developing technologically out
of Hallstatt culture, is stylistically characterized by inscribed and inlaid intricate
spirals and interlace, on fine bronze vessels, helmets and shields, horse
trappings and elite jewelry, especially the neck rings calledtorcs and elaborate
clasps called fibulae. It is characterized by elegant, stylized curvilinear animal
and vegetal forms, allied with the Hallstatt traditions of geometric patterning.
The Early Style of La Tne art and culture mainly featured static, geometric
decoration, while the transition to the Developed Style constituted a shift to
movement-based forms, such astriskeles. Some subsets within the Developed
Style contain more specific design trends, such as the recurrent serpentine scroll
of the Waldalgesheim Style [8]
Initially La Tne folk lived in open settlements that were dominated by the
chieftains towering hill forts.[9] The development of townsoppidaappears
in mid-La Tne culture. La Tne dwellings were carpenter-built rather than of
masonry. La Tne peoples also dug ritual shafts, in which votive offerings and
even human sacrifices were cast. Severed heads appear to have held great power
and were often represented in carvings. Burial sites included weapons, carts,
and both elite and household goods, evoking a strong continuity with
an afterlife.

Discovery[edit]
La Tne is a village on the northern shore of Lake Neuchtel, Switzerland. It is
both an archaeological site and the eponymous site for the late Iron Age La
Tne culture, also spelt "Latne" or "La-Tne".

In 1857, prolonged drought lowered the waters of the lake by about 2 m. On the
northernmost tip of the lake, between the river Thielle and a point south of the
village of Marin-Epagnier, Hansli Kopp, looking for antiquities for Colonel
Frdric Schwab, discovered several rows of wooden piles that still reached
about 50 cm into the water. From among these, Kopp collected about forty iron
swords.
The Swiss archaeologist Ferdinand Keller published his findings in 1868 in his
influential first report on the Swiss pile dwellings (Pfahlbaubericht). In 1863 he
interpreted the remains as a Celtic village built on piles. Eduard Desor,
a geologistfrom Neuchtel, started excavations on the lakeshore soon
afterwards. He interpreted the site as an armory, erected on piles over the lake
and later destroyed by enemy action. Another interpretation accounting for the
presence of cast iron swords that had not been sharpened, was of a site of
sacrifices.
With the first systematic lowering of the Swiss lakes from 1868 to 1883, the site
fell completely dry. In 1880, Emile Vouga, a teacher from Marin-Epagnier,
uncovered the wooden remains of two bridges (designated "Pont Desor" and
"Pont Vouga") originally over 100 m long, that crossed the little Thielle River
(today a nature reserve) and the remains of five houses on the shore. After
Vouga had finished, F. Borel, curator of the Marin museum, began to excavate
as well. In 1885 the cantonasked the Socit d'Histoire of Neuchtel to continue
the excavations, the results of which were published by Vouga in the same year.
All in all, over 2500 objects, mainly made from metal, have been excavated in
La Tne. Weapons predominate, there being 166 swords (most without traces of
wear), 270 lanceheads, and 22 shield bosses, along with 385 brooches, tools,
and parts of chariots. Numerous human and animal bones were found as well.
Interpretations of the site vary. Some scholars believe the bridge was destroyed
by high water, while others see it as a place of sacrifice after a successful battle
(there are almost no female ornaments).
An exhibition marking the 150th anniversary of the discovery of the La Tne
site was launched in June 2007 at the Muse Schwab in Bienne, Switzerland. It
is scheduled to move to Zrich in 2008 and the Mont Beuvray in Burgundy in
2009.

Sites[edit]
Some sites are:

La Tne, Marin-Epagnier
Bern, Engehalbinsel:
oppidum

Jolimont

Manching: oppidum

Mormont

Mnsingen, burial field

Petinesca

Basel oppidum

Bibracte, oppidum of
the Aedui at Mont Beuvray in
Burgundy

Erstfeld hoard

Hochdorf Chieftain's Grave

Fellbach-Schmiden, near
Stuttgart: Viereckschanze; ritual objects
recovered from a well

Kleinaspergle: elite graves of La


Tne I

Waldalgesheim: an elite chariot


burial, 4th century

Glauberg, oppidum and elite graves

Drrnberg near Hallein: Burial field


and earthworks of late Hallstattearly
La Tne

Donnersberg: oppidum

Vill near Innsbruck: remains of


dwellings

Sandberg Celtic
city near Platt and Roseldorf in Lower
Austria

Vix/Mont Lassois: oppidum and


Bopfingen: Viereckschanze,
elaborate graves
a characteristic rectangular
enclosure

Titelberg: oppidum in Luxembourg

Reinheim: Tomb of a
princess/priestess with burial gifts

Artifacts[edit]
Some outstanding La Tne artifacts are:

The Strettweg Cart (7th century BCE), found in southeast Austria, a fourwheeled cart with a goddess, riders with axes and shields, attendants and
stags. (Landesmuseum Johanneum, Graz, Austria)

A woman in Vix (Chtillon-sur-Seine, Burgundy) buried with an 1100


litre (290 gallon) bronze krater, the largest ever found.

The silver "Gundestrup cauldron" (3rd or 2nd century BCE), found


ritually broken in a peat bog near Gundestrup,Denmark, but probably made
near the Black Sea, perhaps in Thrace. (National Museum of
Denmark, Copenhagen)

"Battersea Shield" (35050 BCE), found in the Thames, made of bronze


with red enamel. (British Museum, London)

"Witham Shield" (4th century BCE). (British Museum, London) [10][11]

"Chertsey Shield (400200 BCE). (British Museum, London) [12]

"Turoe stone" in Galway, Ireland

Chariot burial found at Waldalgesheim, Bad Kreuznach, Germany, late


4th century BCE. (Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn)

Chariot burial found at La Gorge Meillet (St-Germain-en-Laye: Muse


des Antiquits Nationales).

A life-sized sculpture of a warrior that accompanied the Glauberg burials.


A gold-and-bronze model of an oak tree (3rd century BCE) found at
the Oppidum of Manching.
Noric steel

Conquest by Rome[edit]

Gauls in Rome

Main article: Gallic Wars


The Roman proconsul and general Julius Caesar pushed his army into Gaul in
58 BC, on the pretext of assisting Rome's Gaullish allies against the migrating
Helvetii. With the help of various Gallic clans (for example, the Aedui) he
managed to conquer nearly all of Gaul. But the Arverni, under their Chieftain
Vercingetorix, still defied Roman rule. Julius Caesar was checked by
Vercingetorix at a siege of Gergorvia, a fortified town in the center of Gaul.
Caesar's alliances with many Gallic clans broke. Even the Aedui, their most
faithful supporters, threw in their lot with the Arverni, but the ever loyal Remi
(best known for its cavalry) and Lingones sent troops to support Caesar. The
Germani of the Ubii also sent cavalry, which Caesar equipped with Remi
horses. Caesar captured Vercingetorix in the Battle of Alesia, which ended the
majority of Gallic resistance to Rome.
As many as a million people (probably 1 in 5 of the Gauls) died, another million
were enslaved, 300 clans were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed during
the Gallic Wars.[citation needed] The entire population of the city of Avaricum

(Bourges) (40,000 in all)[citation needed] were slaughtered.[9] During Julius Caesar's


campaign against the Helvetii (present-day Switzerland) approximately 60% of
that nation was destroyed, and another 20% was taken into slavery.[citation needed]

Gallic Wars
This article is about Caesar's military campaign. For Julius Caesar's writings,
see Commentarii de Bello Gallico.
This article is about the war of 58 to 50 BC. For earlier Romano-Gallic
conflicts, see Roman-Gallic wars.
Gallic Wars

"Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of


Julius Caesar", 1899, by Lionel Noel Royer
Date
Location
Result

5850 BC
Gaul, Germania,
and Britannia
Roman victory

Territorial Roman Republic annexes


changes
Gaul
The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by
theRoman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. Rome's war
against the Gallic tribes lasted from 58 BC to 50 BC and culminated in the
decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted
in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul (mainly present
day France andBelgium). The wars paved the way for Julius Caesar to become
the sole ruler of the Roman Republic.
Although Caesar portrayed this invasion as being a preemptive and defensive
action, most historians agree that the wars were fought primarily to boost
Caesar's political career and to pay off his massive debts. Still, Gaul was of
significant military importance to the Romans, as they had been attacked several
times by native tribes both indigenous to Gaul and farther to the north.
Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the natural border of the
river Rhine.The Gallic Wars are described by Julius Caesar in his
book Commentarii de Bello Gallico, which is the most important historical
source regarding the conflict.[1]

Political background[edit]
As a result of the financial burdens of his consulship in 59 BC, Caesar incurred
significant debt. However, through his membership in theFirst Triumviratethe
political alliance which comprised Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Pompey, and
himself Caesar had secured theproconsulship of two provinces, Cisalpine
Gaul and Illyricum. When the Governor of Transalpine Gaul, Metellus Celer,
died unexpectedly, this province was also awarded to Caesar. Caesar's
governorships were extended to a five-year period, a new idea at the time.
Caesar had initially four veteran legions under his direct command:Legio
VII, Legio VIII, Legio IX Hispana, and Legio X. As he had been Governor
of Hispania Ulterior in 61 BC and had campaigned successfully with them
against the Lusitanians, Caesar knew personally most (perhaps even all) of these

legions. Caesar also had the legal authority to levy additional legions
and auxiliary units as he saw fit.
His ambition was to conquer and plunder some territories to get himself out of
debt, and it is possible that Gaul was not his initial target. It is more likely that
he was planning a campaign against the Kingdom of Dacia,[2] located in the
Balkans.
The countries of Gaul were civilized and wealthy. Most had contact with
Roman merchants and some, particularly those that were governed by republics
such as the Aedui and Helvetii, had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome
in the past.
The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. Only fifty years before, in
109 BC, Italy had been invaded from the north and saved only after several
bloody and costly battles by Gaius Marius. Around 62 BC, when a Roman client
state, the Arverni, conspired with the Sequani and the Suebi nations east of the
Rhine, to attack the Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. The
Sequani and Arverni sought Ariovistus aid and defeated the Aedui in 63 BC at
the Battle of Magetobriga. The Sequani rewarded Ariovistus with land
following his victory.[3][4][5] Ariovistus settled the land with 120,000 of his
people. When 24,000 Harudes joined his cause, Ariovistus demanded that the
Sequani give him more land to accommodate the Harudes people.[6][7] This
demand concerned Romebecause if the Sequani conceded, Ariovistus would be
in a position to take all of the Sequani land and attack the rest of Gaul.[6] They
did not appear to be concerned about a conflict between non-client, client and
allied states. By the end of the campaign, the non-client Suebi under the
leadership of the belligerent Ariovistus, stood triumphant over both the Aedui
and their coconspirators. Fearing another mass migration akin to the
devastating Cimbrian War, Rome, now keenly invested in the defense of Gaul,
was irrevocably drawn into war.

Course[edit]

A map of Gaul in the first century BC, showing the relative positions of
the Helvetii and theSequani

Beginning of the warcampaign against the Helvetii[edit]


The Helvetii was a confederation of about five related Gallic tribes that lived on
the Swiss plateau, hemmed in by the mountains, and the Rhine and Rhone
rivers. They began to come under increased pressure from German tribes to the
north and east.[8]
By 58 BC, the Helvetii were well on their way in the planning and provisioning
for a mass migration under the leadership of Orgetorix. Caesar mentions as an
additional reason their not being able to in turn raid for plunder themselves due
to their location. (De Bello Gallico, I, 2) They planned to travel across Gaul to
the west coast, a route that would have taken them through lands of the Aedui, a
Roman ally, and the Roman province of Transalpine Gaul.[8]
The Helvetii sent emissaries to neighboring tribes to negotiate peaceful transit.
Orgetorix made an alliance with the Sequani chieftain Casticus and arranged the
marriage of his daughter to an Aedui chieftain, Dumnorix. The three secretly
planned to become kings of their respective tribes, and masters of the whole of
Gaul (De Bello Gallico, I, 3). Orgetorix's personal ambitions were discovered
and he committed suicide to avoid trial by his own people. A version "not
without suspicion", as Caesar put it (De Bello Gallico, I, 4).
Caesar dated their departure to the 28th of March, and mentions that they
burned all their towns and villages so as to discourage thoughts among

undecided client tribes and enemies of occupying their vacated realm. (De Bello
Gallico, I, 5 and 6).
Caesar was across the Alps in Italy when he received the news. With only a
single legion in Transalpine Gaul, the endangered province, he immediately
hurried to Geneva and ordered a levy of several auxiliary units and the
destruction of the Rhone bridge. The Helvetii sent an embassy to negotiate a
peaceful passage, promising to do no harm. Caesar stalled the negotiations for
fifteen days, and used the time to fortify his position with a rampart nineteen
miles long and a paralleltrench.(De Bello Gallico, I, 7 and 8).

Map of the Gallic Wars


When the embassy returned, Caesar refused their request and warned them that
any forceful attempt to cross the river would be opposed. Several attempts were
quickly beaten off. The Helvetii turned back and entered negotiations with the
Sequani, and with Dumnorix of the Aeduans, for an alternate route.(De Bello
Gallico, I, 8 and 9).
Leaving his single legion under the command of his second-in-command Titus
Labienus, Caesar hurried to Cisalpine Gaul. Upon arrival, he took command of

the three legions which were in Aquileia and enrolled two new legions,
the Legio XI and the Legio XII. At the head of these five legions, he went the
quickest way through the Alps, crossing territories of several hostile tribes and
fighting severalskirmishes en route (De Bello Gallico, I, 10).
Meanwhile, the Helvetii had already crossed the territories of the Sequani, and
were busy pillaging the lands of the Aedui, Ambarri, and Allobroges. These
tribes were unable to oppose them, and as Roman allies asked for Caesar's help.
Caesar obliged them and surprised the Helvetii as they were crossing the river
Arar (modern Sane River). Three quarters of the Helvetii had already crossed,
but one quarter, the Tigurine (a Helvetian clan), was still on the east bank. Three
legions, under Caesar's command, surprised and defeated the Tigurine in
the Battle of the Arar. The remaining Tigurini fled to neighboring woods (De
Bello Gallico, I, 11 and 12).
After the battle, the Romans built a bridge over the Sane to pursue the
remaining Helvetii. The Helvetii sent an embassy led by Divico, but the
negotiations failed. For a fortnight, the Romans maintained their pursuit until
they ran into supply troubles. Caesar, in the meantime, sent 4,000 Roman and
allied Aedui cavalry to track the Helvetii, which suffered some casualties from
only 500 Helvetii cavalry ("pauci de nostris cadunt"). Apparently Dumnorix
was doing everything in his power to delay the supplies. Accordingly, the
Romans stopped their pursuit and headed for the Aedui town of Bibracte. The
tables were turned, and the Helvetii began to pursue the Romans, harassing their
rear guard. Caesar chose a nearby hill to offer battle and the Roman legions
stood to face their enemies (De Bello Gallico, I, 13 to 24).
In the ensuing Battle of Bibracte, the Celts and Romans fought for the better
part of the day in a hotly contested battle with the Romans eventually gaining
victory. Caesar writes that "the contest long and vigorously carried on with
doubtful success." The defeated Helvetii offered their surrender, which Caesar
accepted. However, 6,000 men of the Helvetian clan of the Verbigeni fled to
avoid capture. Upon Caesar's orders, other Gallic tribes captured and returned
these fugitives, who were executed. Those who had surrendered were ordered
back to their homeland to rebuild it, and the necessary supplies were organized
to feed them, as they were useful as a buffer between the Romans and the
northern tribes. In the captured Helvetian camp, Caesar claims that a census
written in Greek was found and studied: of a grand total of 368,000 Helvetii, of

which 92,000 were able-bodied men, only 110,000 survivors were left to return
home (De Bello Gallico, I, 25 to 29).
Tribe

Supposed population census

Helvetii

263,000

Tulingi

36,000

Latobrigi

14,000

Rauraci

23,000

Boii

32,000

Supposed total

368,000

Supposed combatants

92,000

Campaign against the Suebi[edit]


In 61 BC, Ariovistus, chieftain of the Suebi tribe and a king from the Germanic
peoples, resumed the tribes migration from eastern Germania to the Marne and
Rhine region.[9] Despite the fact that this migration encroached on Sequani land,
the Sequani sought Ariovistus allegiance against the Aedui and, in 61 BC, the
Sequani rewarded Ariovistus with land following his victory in the Battle of
Magetobriga.[3][4][5] Ariovistus settled the land with 120,000 of his people. When
24,000 Harudes joined his cause, Ariovistus demanded that the Sequani give
him more land to accommodate the Harudes people.[6][7] This demand
'concerned' Rome because if the Sequani conceded, Ariovistus would be in a
position to take all of the Sequani land and attack the rest of Gaul.[6]
Following Caesars victory over the Helvetii, the majority of the Gallic tribes
congratulated Caesar and sought to meet with him in a general assembly.

[10]

Diviciacus, the head of the Aeduan government and spokesmen for the Gallic
delegation, expressed concern over Ariovistus conquests and the hostages he
had taken.[11][12] Diviciacus demanded that Caesar defeat Ariovistus and remove
the threat of a Germanic invasion otherwise they would have to seek refuge in a
new land.[13]Not only did Caesar have a responsibility to protect the
longstanding allegiance of the Aedui, but this proposition presented an
opportunity to expand Romes borders, strengthen the loyalty within Caesars
army and establish him as the commander of Romes troops abroad.[12][14]
The senate had declared Ariovistus a "king and friend of the Roman people" in
59 BC, so Caesar could not declare war on the Suebi tribe.[15] Caesar said that he
could not ignore the pain the Aedui had suffered and delivered an ultimatum to
Ariovistus demanding that no German cross the Rhine, the return of Aedui
hostages and the protection of the Aedui and other friends of Rome.[16] Although
Ariovistus assured Caesar that the Aedui hostages would be safe as long as they
continued their yearly tribute, he took the position that he and the Romans were
both conquerors and that Rome had no jurisdiction over his actions.[17] With the
attack of the Harudes on the Aedui and the report that a hundred clans of Suebi
were trying to cross the Rhine into Gaul, Caesar had the justification he needed
to wage war against Ariovistus in 58 BC.[18]
Caesar, learning that Ariovistus intended to seize Vesontio, the largest town of
the Sequani, commenced marching his troops toward Vesontio. Some of
Caesars officers held their posts for political reasons only and had no war
experience. Consequently, they suffered from poor morale which threatened
Caesars campaign. Caesar challenged the officers and their legions, saying that
the only legion he could trust was the 10th. With their pride on the line, the
other legions followed the 10ths lead, determined not to be outdone.
Consequently, Caesar arrived in Vesontio before Ariovistus.[19][20]
Ariovistus sent emissaries to Caesar requesting a meeting. They met under a
truce at a knoll on the plain. The truce was violated when Caesar learned that
German horsemen were edging towards the knoll and throwing stones at his
mounted escort.[21] Two days later, Ariovistus requested another meeting.
Hesitant to send senior officials, Caesar dispatched Valerius Procillus, his
trusted friend, and Caius Mettius, a merchant who had successfully traded with
Ariovistus. Insulted, Ariovistus threw the envoys in chains.[22][23] Ariovistus
marched for two days and made camp two miles behind Caesar, thus cutting off

Caesars communication and supply lines with the allied tribes. Unable to entice
Ariovistus into battle, Caesar ordered a second smaller camp to be built near
Ariovistus position.[24] After the camp was completed, Caesar again challenged
Ariovistus and was rewarded when Ariovistus attacked the smaller camp and
was repulsed.
The next morning Caesar assembled his allied troops in front of the second
camp and advanced his legions in triplex acies(three lines of troops) towards
Ariovistus. Each of Caesars five legates and his quaestor were given command
of a legion. Caesar lined up on the right flank.[25] Ariovistus countered by lining
up his seven tribal formations. Caesar was victorious in the battle that ensued
due in large part to the charge made by Publius Crassus. As the Germans began
to drive back the Roman left flank, Crassus led his cavalry in a charge to restore
balance and ordered up the cohorts of the third line. As a result, the whole
German line broke and began to flee.[26][27] Most of Ariovistus one-hundred and
twenty thousand men were killed. He and what remained of his troops escaped
and crossed the Rhine, never to engage Rome in battle again. The Suebi camped
near the Rhine returned home. Caesar was victorious.[28][29]

Campaign against the Belgae[edit]


In 57 BC Caesar once again intervened in an intra-Gallic conflict, marching
against the Belgae, who inhabited the area roughly bounded by modernday Belgium. The Belgae had recently attacked a tribe allied with Rome and
before marching out with his army to meet them, Caesar ordered the Remi and
other neighbouring Gauls to investigate the Belgae's actions.[30] His army
suffered a surprise attack in the battle of the Sabis while it was making camp
near the river Sambre.
The Nervii advanced so quickly that Caesar didn't have the time to organise his
forces and nearly suffered a humiliating defeat. Caesar admits to losing all of
his standards and most his centurions dead or felled by wounds. He himself was
forced to take up a shield and personally rally his forces which were then
threatened with envelopment and massacre. The strong stand by the X legion
and the prompt arrival of reinforcements enabled Caesar to regroup, redeploy
and eventually repulse the Nervii once the Atrebates and Viromandui were put
to flight.[8]

Caesar remarked that the warlike Nervii refused to yield their ground even after
the Atrebates and Virumandui had been put into disarray. When finally
surrounded by Roman reinforcements the Nerviians continued fighting as a
pitiless hail of missiles rained down on them from the many archers and peltasts
Caesar had brought from overseas. The peltasts, slingers and archers were
brought for the specific purpose of confounding the Gallic proclivity for shield
wall tactics, mass attack and individual close combat.
The Nervii were especially renowned for skills at warfare. They ruled and
subsisted by warfare and by taxing their dependent and client tribes while
adhering to a heroic hoplitic tradition. These Gallic conventions were something
Caesar exploited as often as he could.
Together with Caesar's prudent and unabashed use of fixed projectile weapons
like the "scorpion" and light ballista, the archers and peltasts took a heavy toll
on the densely packed Nervii, who themselves shunned all projectile weapons
but the lance. It is recorded in Caesar's war commentaries that as the battle
raged, the Nervii caught Roman javelins in flight and hurled them back at
legionnaires and that although all were eventually slain, not one of the Nervii
was seen to flee. As the grim fighting wore on, the Nervii refused to yield and
mounds of the fallen formed ramparts and Boduognatus' fighters fought from
atop these hills of dead, clashing with the pressing Roman ranks again and
again.
The skill with which the veteran Roman legions executed their well practiced
pilum barrage and gladius and scutum counter-attacks together with the prudent
use of missile weapons was instrumental in defeating the skillful and daring
Nervii and associated Belgae.
The Belgae suffered heavy losses and eventually surrendered when faced with
the destruction of their towns. The Nervii were severely mauled and forced to
flee; thereby all former client tribes surrendered to Caesar or likewise fled.
Their absence gave Caesar control of most of what is now Belgium.

Punitive expeditions[edit]

A map of Gaul showing all the tribes and cities mentioned in the Gallic Wars.

See also: Caesar's invasions of Britain and Caesar's Rhine bridges


The following year, 56 BC, Caesar turned his attention to the tribes of
theAtlantic seaboard, notably the Veneti tribe in Armorica (modern Brittany),
who had assembled a confederacy of anti-Roman tribes. The Veneti were a
seafaring people and had built a sailing fleet in the Gulf of Morbihan, requiring
the Romans to build galleys and undertake an unconventional land and sea
campaign. Eventually Caesar was able to subdue these tribes after a protracted
land and sea campaign.
Caesar took his forces across the Rhine in 55 BC in a punitive expeditionagainst
the Germans, though the Suebi, against whom the expedition was mounted,
were never engaged in battle. That same year, he then crossed theEnglish
Channel with two legions on his ships to mount a similar expedition against
the Britons. The British adventure nearly ended in defeat when bad weather
wrecked much of their fleet and the unfamiliar sight of massedchariots caused
confusion among their forces. Caesar did manage to secure a promise of
hostages, though only two of them were actually sent. He withdrew, but
returned in 54 BC with a much larger force that successfully defeated the

powerful Catuvellauni, and forced them to pay tribute to Rome. The expeditions
had little lasting effect, but were great propaganda victories for Caesar, keeping
him in the public eye at home.
The campaigns of 55 BC and early 54 BC have caused controversy for many
centuries. They were controversial even at the time among Caesar's
contemporaries, and especially among his political opponents, who decried
them as a costly exercise in personal aggrandizement. In modern times,
commentators have been sharply divided between critics of Caesar's nakedly
imperialist agenda and defenders of the benefits that the expansion of Roman
power subsequently wrought in Gaul.

Consolidation and Gallic offensives[edit]


See also: Ambiorix's revolt

Roman silver denarius with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the
campaigns of Caesar.
Discontent among the subjugated Gauls prompted a major uprising in the winter
of 5453 BC, when the Eburones of north-eastern Gaul rose in arms under their
leader Ambiorix. Fifteen Roman cohorts were wiped out at Atuatuca Tungrorum
(modern Tongeren in Belgium) and a garrison commanded by Quintus Tullius
Cicero narrowly survived after being relieved by Caesar in the nick of time. The
rest of 53 BC was occupied with a punitive campaign against the Eburones and
their allies, who were said to have been all but exterminated by the Romans.

The uprising was, however, merely the prelude to a much bigger campaign led
byVercingetorix, chief of the Arverni tribe of central Gaul, who successfully
united many Gallic tribes and states under his leadership. Recognizing that the
Romans had an upper hand on the battlefield due to their panoply and training,
he declined to give battle against them and instead fought a "scorched earth"
campaign to deprive them of supplies. Caesar hurriedly returned from Italy to
take charge of the campaign, pursuing the Gauls and capturing the town
of Avaricum (modern city of Bourges) but suffering a defeat at Gergovia.
Vercingetorix, instead of staying mobile and in the open, chose to hold out
atAlesia (see Battle of Alesia). Caesar successfully besieged him and beat off a
huge Gallic relief force who ran out of food and had to disperse. This effectively
marked the end of the Gallic Wars, although mopping-up actions took place
throughout 51 BC. A number of lesser rebellions took place subsequently, but
Roman control of Gaul was not seriously challenged again until the second
century AD.

The Gallic Wars in literature and culture[edit]


The primary historical source for the Gallic Wars is Caesar's Commentarii de
Bello Gallico in Latin, which is one of the best surviving examples of
unadorned Latin prose. It has consequently been a subject of intense study for
Latinists, and is one of the classic prose sources traditionally used as a standard
teaching text in modern Latin education.
The Gallic Wars have become a popular setting in modern historical fiction,
especially that of France and Italy. Claude Cueni wrote a semi-historical
novel, The Caesar's Druid, about a fictional Celtic druid, servant of Caesar and
recorder of Caesar's campaigns. Morgan Llewelyn also wrote a book, Druids,
about a Celtic druid who assisted Vercingetorix in his campaign against Julius
Caesar. Similarly, Norman Spinrad's, The Druid King, follows the campaigns
from Vercingetorix's perspective.[31] In addition, the comic Astrix is set shortly
after the Gallic Wars, where the titular character's village is the last holdout in
Gaul against Caesar's legions.
A well received series by Conn Iggulden called, The Emperor, depicts the Gallic
Wars in its third book, The Field of Swords.

The TV series, Rome, begins during the conquest of Gaul, and lead
protagonists, Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, are based on two historical
centurions who fought during the Gallic Wars in Caesar's Legio XI Claudia[citation
needed]
and are mentioned in Commentarii de Bello Gallico.
The historical novel Caesar by Colleen McCullough gives a thorough, popular
account of the Gallic Wars.
S.J.A. Turney's series Marius' Mules[citation needed] tells the story of the Gallic Wars
with a fictional protagonist, Marcus Falerius Fronto. Each volume is based on a
volume of 'Commentarii de Bello Gallico'.
The concept album Helvetios by Swiss folk metal band, Eluveitie, tells the story
of the Gallic Wars through the eyes of the Helvetii.
The 2001 film, Druids, starring Christopher Lambert as Vercingetorix, depicts
the Gallic Wars from the Gallic perspective.

Roman Gallia[edit]

Soldiers of Gaul, as imagined by a late 19th-century illustrator for the Larousse


dictionary, 1898
Main articles: Roman Gaul, Gallo-Roman culture and History of France
The Gaulish culture then was massively submerged by Roman culture, Latin
was adopted by the Gauls; Gaul, or Gallia, was absorbed into the Roman
Empire, all the administration changed, and Gauls eventually became Roman
citizens.[10] From the third to 5th centuries, Gaul was exposed to raids by the
Franks. The Gallic Empire, consisting of the provinces of Gaul, Britannia, and
Hispania, including the peaceful Baetica in the south, broke away from Rome
from 260 to 273.

Following the Frankish victory at the Battle of Soissons in 486 AD, Gaul
(except for Septimania) came under the rule of the Merovingians, the first kings
of France. Gallo-Roman culture, the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule
of the Roman Empire, persisted particularly in the areas of Gallia Narbonensis
that developed into Occitania, Gallia Cisalpina and to a lesser degree,
Aquitania. The formerly Romanized north of Gaul, once it had been occupied
by the Franks, would develop into Merovingian culture instead. Roman life,
centered on the public events and cultural responsibilities of urban life in the res
publica and the sometimes luxurious life of the self-sufficient rural villa system,
took longer to collapse in the Gallo-Roman regions, where the Visigoths largely
inherited the status quo in the early 5th century. Gallo-Roman language
persisted in the northeast into the Silva Carbonaria that formed an effective
cultural barrier, with the Franks to the north and east, and in the northwest to the
lower valley of the Loire, where Gallo-Roman culture interfaced with Frankish
culture in a city like Tours and in the person of that Gallo-Roman bishop
confronted with Merovingian royals, Gregory of Tours.

Massalia (modern Marseille) silver coin with Greek legend, 5th1st


century BC.

Gold coins of the Gaul Parisii, 1st century BC, (Cabinet des Mdailles,
Paris).


Roman silver Denarius with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following
the campaigns of Julius Caesar.

Back to Gaul The Gauls[edit]

A map of Gaul in the 1st century BCE, showing the relative positions of the
Celtic ethnicites: Celtae, Belgae and Aquitani.

Expansion of the Celtic culture in the 3rd century BC.


Main article: Gauls

Social structure, indigenous nation and clans[edit]


The Druids were not the only political force in Gaul, however, and the early
political system was complex, if ultimately fatal to the society as a whole. The
fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the clan, which itself consisted of one or
more of what Caesar called pagi. Each clan had a council of elders, and initially
a king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate. Among the
Aedui, a clan of Gaul, the executive held the title of Vergobret, a position much
like a king, but his powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council.
The regional ethnic groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus;
the French word pays, "region", comes from this term), were organized into
larger multi-clan groups the Romans called civitates. These administrative
groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control,
and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into
ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in placewith
slight changesuntil the French Revolution.
Although the individual clans were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as
a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among
the various clans. Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of
Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even
then, however, the faction lines were clear.
The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around
the Mediterranean), and the northern Gallia Comata ("free Gaul" or "long
haired Gaul"). Caesar divided the people of Gallia Comata into three broad
groups: the Aquitani; Galli (who in their own language were called Celtae); and
Belgae. In the modern sense, Gaulish peoples are defined linguistically, as
speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably
Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be a mixture of Celtic and Germanic
elements.
Julius Caesar, in his book, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, comments:

All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inha
All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws.

The River Garonne separates the Gauls from the Aquitani; the riv

Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are furthest
territories, or themselves wage war on their frontiers. One part of

The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the

Aquitania extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees and to that p

Religion[edit]
Main article: Celtic polytheism
The Gauls practiced a form of animism, ascribing human characteristics to
lakes, streams, mountains, and other natural features and granting them a quasidivine status. Also, worship of animals was not uncommon; the animal most
sacred to the Gauls was the boar, which can be found on many Gallic military
standards, much like the Roman eagle.
Their system of gods and goddesses was loose, there being certain deities which
virtually every Gallic person worshipped, as well as clan and household gods.
Many of the major gods were related to Greek gods; the primary god
worshipped at the time of the arrival of Caesar was Teutates, the Gallic
equivalent of Mercury. The "ancestor god" of the Gauls was identified by Julius
Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico with the Roman god Dis Pater.
Perhaps the most intriguing facet of Gallic religion is the practice of the Druids.
The druids presided over human or animal sacrifices that were made in wooded
groves or crude temples. They also appear to have held the responsibility for
preserving the annual agricultural calendar and instigating seasonal festivals
which corresponded to key points of the lunar-solar calendar. The religious
practices of druids were syncretic and borrowed from earlier pagan traditions,
with probably indo-European roots. Julius Caesar mentions in his Gallic Wars
that those Celts who wanted to make a close study of druidism went to Britain
to do so. In a little over a century later, Gnaeus Julius Agricola mentions Roman

armies attacking a large druid sanctuary in Anglesey, also known as Holyhead,


Wales. There is no certainty concerning the origin of the druids, but it is clear
that they vehemently guarded the secrets of their order and held sway over the
people of Gaul. Indeed they claimed the right to determine questions of war and
peace, and thereby held an "international" status. In addition, the Druids
monitored the religion of ordinary Gauls and were in charge of educating the
aristocracy. They also practiced a form of excommunication from the assembly
of worshipers, which in ancient Gaul meant a separation from secular society as
well. Thus the Druids were an important part of Gallic society. The nearly
complete and mysterious disappearance of the Celtic language from most of the
territorial lands of ancient Gaul, with the exception of Brittany, France, can be
attributed to the fact that Celtic druids refused to allow the Celtic oral literature
or traditional wisdom to be committed to the written letter.[citation needed]
The Celts practiced headhunting as the head was believed to house a person's
soul. Ancient Romans and Greeks recorded the Celts' habits of nailing heads of
personal enemies to walls or dangling them from the necks of horses.[11]

See also[edit]
Ambiorix
Asterixa French comic about Gaul and Rome set in 50 BC
Bog body
Braccaetrousers, typical Gallic dress
Cisalpine Gaul
Galatia
Lugdunum
Roman Republic
Roman Villas in Northwestern Gaul

Gauls
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the relative positions of its three
tribes:Celtae (Galli), Belgae and Aquitani. The region corresponds to what is
now Belgium, France,Switzerland, Netherlands, Western Germanyand Northern Italy.

Overview of the Hallstatt and La Tnecultures:


The core Hallstatt territory (HaC, 800 BC) is shown in solid yellow,
the eventual area of Hallstatt influence (by 500 BC, HaD) in light yellow.
The core territory of the La Tne culture (450 BC) is shown in solid green,

the eventual area of La Tne influence (by 250 BC) in light green.
The territories of some major Celtic tribes of the late La Tne period are labelled.
The Gauls were Celtic peoples inhabiting Gaul in the Iron Age and theRoman period (roughly from the 5th
century BC to the 3rd century AD). Their Gaulish language forms the main branch of the Continental Celtic
languages.
The Gauls emerged around the 5th century BC as the bearers of the La Tne culture north of the Alps (spread
across the lands between the Seine,Middle Rhine and upper Elbe). By the 4th century BC, they spread over
much of what is now France, Switzerland, Southern Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic by virtue of
controlling the trade routes along the river systems of the Rhne, Seine, Rhine, and Danube, and they quickly
expanded into Northern Italy, the Balkans, Transylvania and Anatolia.[1]Gaul was never united under a single ruler
or government, but the Gallic tribes were capable of uniting their forces in large-scale military operations. They
reached the peak of their power in the early 3rd century BC. The rising Roman Republic after the end of the First
Punic War increasingly put pressure on the Gallic sphere of influence; the Battle of Telamon of 225 BC heralded a
gradual decline of Gallic power over the 2nd century, until the eventual conquest of Gaul in the Gallic Wars of the
50s BC. After this, Gaul became a province of the Roman Empire, and the Gauls were culturally assimilated into
a Gallo-Roman culture, losing their tribal identities by the end of the 1st century AD.

Name[edit]
The Gauls of Gallia Celtica according to the testimony of Caesar called themselves Celtae in their own language
(as distinct from Belgae and Aquitani), and Galli in Latin.[2] As is not unusual with ancient ethnonyms, these
names came to be applied more widely than their original sense, Celtae being the origin of the term Celts itself (in
its modern meaning referring to all populations speaking a language of the "Celtic" branch of Indo-European),
while Galli is the origin of the adjective Gallic, now referring to all of Gaul. The name Gaul itself is not derived
from Galli; it is, much rather, from Old French Gaule, a word used to translate Latin Gallia, but itself from an Old
Frankish *Walholant, from the Germanic walha "a foreigner, a Celt, a Gallo-Roman".

History[edit]
Further information: Gaul

Origins and early history[edit]


Main articles: Hallstatt culture and La Tne culture

Bronze cuirass, weighing 2.9kg, Grenoble, end of 7th century early 6th century BCE
Gaulish culture developed out of the Celtic cultures over the first millennia BC. TheUrnfield culture (c. 1300 BC
c. 750 BC) represents the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European-speaking people. The spread
of iron working led to the Hallstatt culture in the 8th century BC; the Proto-Celtic (Liguro-Venetic) may have been
spoken around this time. The Hallstatt culture evolved into the La Tne culture in around the 5th century BC.
The Greek and Etruscan civilizations and colonies began to influence the Gauls especially in
the Mediterranean area. Gauls under Brennus invaded Rome circa 390 BC.
Following the climate deterioration in the late Nordic Bronze Age, Celtic Gaul was invaded in the 5th century BC
by tribes later called Gauls originating in the Rhine valley.[1] Gallic invaders settled the Po Valley in the 4th century
BC, defeated Roman forces in a battleunder Brennus in 390 BC and raided Italy as far as Sicily.[1] The peak of
Gaulish expansion was reached in the 3rd century BC, in the wake of their eastward expansion in 281-279 BC, in
which the Gauls led by Cerethrius, Brennus and Bolgios invaded Thrace,Macedon and Illyria, sacked Delphi, and
killed the Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos. The invading Gauls later settled as far afield as Anatolia, where
they created widespread havoc until checked through the use of war elephants by the Seleucid king Antiochus I in
275 BC, after which they served as mercenaries across the wholeHellenistic Eastern Mediterranean,
including Ptolemaic Egypt, where they under Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285-246 BC) attempted to seize control of
the kingdom.[3]

Balkans wars[edit]
Main article: Gallic invasion of the Balkans
In the Aegean world, an invasion of Eastern Gauls appeared in Thrace, north of Greece, in 281 BC. The Gaulish
chieftainsBrennus and Acichorius, at the head of a large army, was according to Greek sources only turned back
from desecrating the Temple of Apollo at Delphi in Greece at the last minute he was alarmed, it was said, by
portents of thunder and lightning. However, according to the Roman legend of the cursed gold of Delphi, he did
sack the city. One king Cerethriusinvaded the Thracians, while another Gallic
king Bolgios invaded Macedonia and Illyria where he killed the Macedonian king Ptolemy Keraunos.

BTG: Galatian war[edit]


Main article: Galatian War
In 278 BC, Gauls settlers in Balkans were invited by Nicomedes I of Bithynia to help him in a dynastic struggle
against his brother. They numbered about 10,000 fighting men and about the same number of women and
children, divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and Tectosages. They were eventually defeated by
the Seleucid king Antiochus I (275 BC), in a battle where the Seleucid war elephants shocked the Galatians.
While the momentum of the invasion was broken, the Galatians were by no means exterminated and continued to
demand tribute from the Hellenistic states of Anatolia to avoid war. 4,000 Galatians were hired as mercenaries by
the Ptolemaic Egyptian king Ptolemy II Philadelphus in the 270 BC. According to Pausanias, soon after arrival the
Celts plotted to seize Egypt, and so Ptolemy marooned them on a deserted island in the Nile River.[3]

Celtic sword andscabbard circa 60 BC


Galatians also participated at the victorious in 217 BC Battle of Raphia under Ptolemy IV Philopator, and
continued to serve as mercenaries for the Ptolemaic Dynasty until its demise in 30 BC. They sided with the
renegade Seleucid prince Antiochus Hierax, who reigned in Asia Minor. Hierax tried to defeat king Attalus I of
Pergamum (241197 BC), but instead, the Hellenized cities united under Attalus's banner, and his armies inflicted
a severe defeat upon the Galatians at theBattle of the Caecus River in 241 BC. After the defeat, the Galatians
continued to be a serious threat to the states of Asia Minor. In fact, they continued to be a threat even after their
defeat byGnaeus Manlius Vulso in the Galatian War (189 BC). Galatia declined and fell at times

under Ponticascendancy. They were finally freed by the Mithridatic Wars, during which they supported Rome. In
the settlement of 64 BC, Galatia became a client-state of the Roman empire, the old constitution disappeared,
and three chiefs (wrongly styled "tetrarchs") were appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave
way before the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and Julius Caesar, who
made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and was finally recognized by the Romans as 'king' of Galatia.
The Galatian language continued to be spoken in central Anatolia until the 6th century.[4]

Galatian War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Galatian War

A map showing the location of Galatia.

Date

189 BC

Locatio
n

Galatia, Asia Minor, present


day Turkey

Result

Roman Allied victory

Belligerents
Galatians

Roman Republic,
Pergamum

Commanders and leaders


Eposognatus

Gnaeus Manlius Vulso,

Orgiagon

Attalus

Chiomara

Strength
Over 50,000 men

Unknown number of
Romans,
2,800 Pergamese
troops

The Galatian War was a war between the Galatian Gauls and theRoman Republic supported by their
allies Pergamum in 189 BC. The war was fought in Galatia in central Asia Minor, in present day Turkey.
The Romans had just defeated the Seleucids in the Roman-Syrian War and had forced them to thereby sue for
peace. Following their recently successful operation in Syria, the Romans then turned their attention towards the
Gallic tribes of Galatia who had emigrated to Asia Minor almost 100 years prior to the ensuing military
engagement.Gnaeus Manlius Vulso, the consul, excused the invasion by saying that it was in retaliation for the
Galatians supplying troops to the Seleucids during the war. Vulso embarked on this campaign without the
permission of the Roman Senate. Joined by Pergamum, the Romans marched inland and attacked the Galatians.
They defeated the Galatians in a battle on Mount Olympus and followed up the victory by defeating a larger army
near Ankara.
These defeats forced the Galatians to sue for peace and the Romans returned to the coast of Asia Minor.
However, when Manlius Vulso returned to Rome, he was charged with threatening the peace between the
Seleucids and Rome. He was cleared and was granted a triumph by the Senate.

Prelude[edit]
In 191 BC, Antiochus the Great, the Emperor of the Seleucid Empire of Asia invaded Greece.[1] The Romans
decided to intervene and they defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Thermopylae.[2] The defeat by Rome forced
the Seleucids to retreat back to Asia Minor.[3] The Romans followed them across the Aegean Sea and together
with their allies, Pergamum, they decisively defeated the Seleucids at the Battle of Magnesia.[4]
The Seleucids sued for peace and began settling it with Scipio Asiaticus.[5] In spring, the new consul, Gnaeus
Manlius Vulso arrived to take control of the army from Scipio Asiaticus.[6][7] He was sent to conclude the treaty that
Scipio was arranging.[6] However, he was not content with the task given to him and he started to plan a new war.
He addressed the soldiers and congratulated them on their victory and then proposed a new war, against
the Galatian Gauls of Asia Minor.[7]The pretext he used for the invasion was that the Galatians had supplied
soldiers to the Seleucid army at the Battle of Magnesia.[6][7][8] The principal reason for the invasion was Manlius'
desire to seize the wealth of the Galatians who had become rich from plundering their neighbours and to gain
glory for himself.[8]
This war was the first occasion that a Roman general had started a war without the permission of the senate or
the people.[6] This was a dangerous precedent and this became an example for the future.[6]

Manlius started his war preparation by summoning the Pergamese to help.[7] However, the King of
Pergamum, Eumenes IIwas in Rome so his brother, Attalus who was the regent took command of the Pergamese
army.[7] He joined the Roman army a few days later with 1,000 infantry and 500 cavalry.[7]

March inland[edit]
The combined Roman-Pergamese army started their march from Ephesus.[9] They advanced inland
passing Magnesia on the Maeander and into the territory of Alabanda where they were met by 1,000 infantry and
300 cavalry led by Attalus' brother.[10] They then marched to Antiochia where they were met by Antiochus'
son, Seleucus who offered corn as part of the treaty that was being concluded.[10]
As they marched inland through the upper Maeander valley and Pamphylia gathering levies from local princes
and tyrants without much opposition.[9] However, they advanced into the territory of Cibrya, ruled by
the tyrant Moagetes, known for his cruelty.[11] When the Roman envoys reached the city, the tyrant begged them
not to ravage the territory because he was a Roman ally and promised to give them fifteen talents.[11] The envoys
asked Moagetes to send envoys to Vulso's camp. Vulso met them as they approached the camp and addressed
them as Polybius writes:
"Not only had Moagtes shown himself the most determined enemy of Rome, of all the princes in Asia, but had
done his very best to overthrow their empire, and deserved punishment rather than friendship."[11]

An old map showing the regions of Asia Minor.


The envoys were terrified by his angry response and asked the consul to meet the tyrant for an interview to which
Vulso agreed.[11] The next day the tyrant emerged from the city and pleaded with Vulso to accept the fifteen
talents. Vulso replied:
"If he did not pay five hundred talents, and be thankful that he was allowed to do so, he would not loot the
country, but he would storm and sack the city."[11]
The tyrant however, was able to persuade Vulso to reduce the price to 100 talents and promised to provide him
with 1,000 medimni of wheat.[11] Thus Moagtes managed to save his city.[11] When the consul crossed the River

Colobatus he was met by ambassadors from the town of Sinda in Pisidia.[12]The ambassadors asked for
assistance against the city of Termessus who had taken over all their country except for the capitol.[12]
The consul agreed to the offer. He entered Termessian territory, allowing them to enter his alliance for fifty talents
and for their withdrawal from Sindian territory.[12] Vulso proceeded to seize the city of Cyrmasa in Pisidia and with
it a large booty.[13] He then took the city of Lysinoe before accepting a tribute of fifty talents and 20,000 medimni of
barley and wheat from the city of Sagalassus.[13]
The consul reached the Rhotrine Springs and he was once again met by Seleucus. Seleucus took the injured and
sick Romans with him to Apamea as well as supplying the Romans some guides.[14] They marched for three days
after departing from the springs and on the third day they arrived on the border with the Tolistobogii, one of the
three Galatian tribes.[15] The consul held an assembly and addressed his troops about the upcoming war. He then
sent envoys toEposognatus, chieftain of the Tectosagi, the only chieftain who was friendly with Pergamum.[15] The
envoys returned and replied that the chieftain of the Tectosagi begged the Romans not to invade his territory. He
also claimed that he would attempt to force the submission of the other chieftains.[15]
The army marched deeper inland and pitched camp near a Galatian stronghold called Cuballum.[15] While they
were there, the Galatian cavalry attacked the army's advance guard and caused significant casualties before the
Roman cavalry counter-attacked and drove back the Galatians with heavy losses.[15] The consul knowing that he
was in reach of the enemy decided to move forward more cautiously.[15]

Battle of Mount Olympus[edit]


Main article: Battle of Mount Olympus

Hellenistic Greek impression of a Galatian soldier.


The Romans and the Pergamese arrived at the city of Gordium and found it deserted.[15] As they camped there
they were met by a messenger sent by Eposognatus. The messenger reported that Eposognatus had not been
successful in persuading the Galatians not to attack and that they were mustering nearby in the mountains.[15]
The Tolostobogii occupied Mount Olympus, while the Tectosagi and the Trocmi went to another mountain.[16] On
Mount Olympus, the Galatians had fortified themselves with a ditch and other defensive works.[17] For the first two

days, the Romans scouted the mountains. On the third day, the Romans attacked the Galatian position with
their skirmishers.[18] At first the battle was evenly matched but when the fighting came to close range, the superior
Roman weapons and armour won them the battle.[18] The battle turned to a massacre for the Galatians when the
Romans stormed their camp.[19] The Galatians lost some 10,000 men and had around 40,000 captured during the
aftermath.[20]

Battle of Ancyra[edit]
After the Roman victory at Mount Olympus, the Tectosagi begged them not to attack them and asked to meet him
for a conference half way between their camp and Ancyra.[21] The main aim of the conference was for the
Tectosagi to delay the Roman attack so that they could allow the women and children to retreat across the Halys
River.[21] Their other aim was toassassinate Manlius while he was at the conference.[21] While they were going to
the conference the Romans saw the Galatian cavalry charging at them.[21] In the skirmish that followed the
Galatians overpowered Manlius' bodyguard due to their numbers but were driven back when the escort that had
been accompanying the Roman foragers arrived and forced the Galatians to retreat.[21]
The Romans spent the next two days scouting the surrounding area and on the third day they met
the Galatian army consisting of 50,000 men.[22] The Romans started the battle by attacking with their skirmishers.
The Galatian centre shattered at the first attack and fled in the direction of the camp.[22] The flanks stood their
grounds for longer but were eventually forced to retreat.[22] The Romans chased them, plundered the Galatian
camp as the surviving Galatians fled across the river to join the women, children and the Trocmi.[9][23]

Aftermath[edit]
These two crushing military defeats forced the Galatians to sue for peace.[6][23] This campaign greatly enriched
Vulso and his legions as the Galatians had gathered great wealth through their many conquests in Asia Minor.[6]
[23]

The Galatians sent envoys to Vulso asking for peace but Vulso who at the time was hurrying back

to Ephesus because winter was approaching bade them to come to Ephesus.[23]


Vulso remained in Asia Minor for another year.[6] During that time he concluded the Treaty of Apamea with
Antiochus[24]and divided the lands of the Asia Minor coast between Pergamum and Rhodes.[6][25] When the
Galatian envoys came, Vulso told them that King Eumenes II of Pergamum would give them the terms of the
peace when he arrived back from Rome.[26]
Vulso began his return journey to Rome in 188 BC and arrived in 187 BC.[6] When he returned to Rome, he
received much of criticism because of his unauthorised war against the Galatians.[27] However, he eventually
overcame the arguments and was awarded a triumph by the senate.[28]

BTG: Roman wars[edit]


Main article: Gallic Wars
During the Second Punic War the famous Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca utilized Gallic mercenaries in his
famous invasion of Italy. They played a part in some of his most spectacular victories including the battle of

Cannae. The Gauls were prosperous enough by the 2nd century that the powerful Greek colony of Massilia had
to appeal to the Roman Republic for defense against them. The Romans intervened in southern Gaul in 125 BC,
and conquered the area eventually known as Gallia Narbonensis by 121.

The Gallic Empire (in green), under Tetricus I by 271 AD, included the territories
of Germania,Gaul and Britannia.
In 58 BC Julius Caesar launched the Gallic Wars and conquered the whole of Gaul by 51 BC. At this time Caesar
noted that the Gauls (Celtae) were one of the three primary peoples in the area at the time, along with
theAquitanians and the Belgae. Caesar's motivation for the invasion seems to have been his need for gold to pay
off his debts and a successful military expedition to boost his political career. The people of Gaul could provide
him with both. So much gold was looted from Gaul that after the war the price of gold fell by as much as 20%.
After the annexation of Gaul a mixedGallo-Roman culture began to emerge.

BTG: Roman Gaul[edit]


Main article: Roman Gaul
After more than a century of warfare, the Cisalpine Gauls were subdued by the Romans in the early 2nd century
BC. TheTransalpine Gauls continued to thrive for another century, and joined
the Germanic Cimbri and Teutones in the Cimbrian War, where they defeated and killed a Roman
consul at Burdigala in 107 BC, and later became prominent among the rebelling gladiators in the Third Servile
War.[5] The Gauls were finally conquered by Julius Caesar in the 50s BC despite a formidable rebellion by
the Arvernian chieftain Vercingetorix. During the Roman period the Gauls became assimilated intoGallo-Roman
culture and by expanding Germanic tribes. During the crisis of the third century, there was briefly a
breakaway Gallic Empire founded by the Batavian general Postumus.

BTG: Gallic Empire[edit]


Main article: Gallic Empire

A century before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and during the Crisis of the Third Century, Postumus
founded theGallic Empire which included the territories of Germania, Gaul and Britannia.

Physical appearance[edit]
The fourth-century Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus wrote that the Gauls were tall and light-blue eyed:
Nearly all the Gauls are of a lofty stature, fair and ruddy complexion: terrible from the sternness of their eyes, very
quarrelsome, and of great pride and insolence. A whole troop of foreigners would not be able to withstand a
single Gaul if he called his wife to his assistance who is usually very strong and with blue eyes...[6]

Culture[edit]
All over Gaul, archeology has uncovered numerous pre-Roman gold mines (at least 200 in the Pyrenees)
suggesting that they were very rich also evidenced by large finds of gold coins and artefacts. Also there existed
highly developed population centers called oppida by Caesar such
as Bibracte, Gergovia, Avaricum, Alesia, Bibrax, Manching and others. Modern archeology strongly suggests that
the countries of Gaul were quite civilized and very wealthy. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some,
particularly those that were governed by Republics such as the Aedui, Helvetii and others had enjoyed stable
political alliances with Rome. They imported Mediterranean wine on an industrial scale evidenced by large finds
of wine vessels in digs all over Gaul the largest and most famous of such vessels being the one discovered in Vix
Grave which stands 1.63 m (5'4") in height.

Gold parade helmet. Discovered inAgris, Charente, France. 350 BC

A 24 carat Celtic "torc", discovered in the grave of the "Lady of Vix",Burgundy,


France. 480 BC

A belt made of 2.8 kilograms (6.2 lb) of pure gold, discovered inGunes, France.
1200-1000 BC

Celtic gold bracelet found inCantal, France

Celtic helmet decorated with gold "triskeles", found in Amfreville-sous-les-Monts,


France. 400 BC

Celtic war trumpet named "carnyx" found in the Gallic sanctuary of


Tintignac, Corrze, France.

Celtic bronze helmet in the shape of swan found in Tintignac,Corrze, France.

The Vix krater, discovered in the grave of the "Lady of Vix", in northern Burgundy,
France. 500 BC
Social structure[edit]
Gaulish society was dominated by the druid priestly class. The druids were not the only political force, however,
and the early political system was complex. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the tribe, which itself
consisted of one or more of what Caesar called "pagi".[citation needed] Each tribe had a council of elders, and initially a
king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate.[citation needed] Among the Aedui tribe the executive held
the title of "Vergobret", a position much like a king, but its powers were held in check by rules laid down by the
council.[citation needed]
The tribal groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, "region", comes
from this term) were organised into larger super-tribal groups that the Romans called civitates. These
administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and
these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses,
which would remain in place with slight changes until theFrench Revolution.
Although the tribes were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there
being virtually no unity among the various tribes. Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of
Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even then, however, the faction lines were
clear.
The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the
northern Gallia Comata ("free Gaul" or "wooded Gaul"). Caesar divided the people of Gaulia Comata into three
broad groups: the Aquitani;Galli (who in their own language were called Celtae); and Belgae. In the modern
sense, Gaulish tribes are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While
the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be counted among the Gaulish tribes,
perhaps with Germanic elements.
Julius Caesar, in his book, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, comments:

All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own
language are called Celts, in ours Gauls, the third.
All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws.
The Garonne River separates the Gauls from the Aquitani; the River Marne and the River Seine separate them
from the Belgae.
Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are furthest from the civilisation and refinement of (our)
Province, and merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the
mind; and they are the nearest to the Germani, who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually
waging war; for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in valour, as they contend with the
Germani in almost daily battles, when they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage war
on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the
River Rhne; it is bounded by the River Garonne, the Atlantic Ocean, and the territories of the Belgae; it borders,
too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the River Rhine, and stretches toward the north.
The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the River Rhine; and look toward
the north and the rising sun.
Aquitania extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees and to that part of the Atlantic (Bay of Biscay) which is
nearSpain: it looks between the setting of the sun, and the north star.

Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, Book I, chapter 1

Language[edit]
Main article: Gaulish language
Gaulish or Gallic is the name given to the Celtic language that was spoken in Gaul before the Latin of the
late Roman Empire became dominant in Roman Gaul. According to Julius Caesar in his Gallic Wars it was one of
three languages in Gaul, the others being Aquitanian and Belgic.[7] In Gallia Transalpina, a Roman province by the
time of Caesar, Latin was the language spoken since at least the previous century. Gaulish
is paraphyletically grouped with Celtiberian, Lepontic, andGalatian as Continental Celtic. The Lepontic language
and the Galatian language are sometimes considered to be dialects of Gaulish. Gaulish is a P-Celtic language
and (like Lepontic in Cisalpine Gaul) was already[citation needed] spoken in Gaul long before the arrival of the Gallic
tribes in the 6th century BC.

Taranis (with Celtic wheeland thunderbolt), Le Chatelet, Gourzon, Haute-Marne,France.

Religion[edit]
Main article: Celtic polytheism
The Gauls practiced a form of animism, ascribing human characteristics to lakes, streams, mountains, and other
natural features and granting them a quasi-divine status. Also, worship of animals was not uncommon; the animal
most sacred to the Gauls was the boar, which can be found on many Gallic military standards, much like the
Roman eagle.
Their system of gods and goddesses was loose, there being certain deities which virtually every Gallic
person[citation needed] worshiped, as well as tribal and household gods. Many of the major gods were related to Greek
gods; the primary god worshiped at the time of the arrival of Caesar was Teutates, the Gallic equivalent
of Mercury. The "father god" in Gallic worship was "Dis Pater". However there was no real theology[citation needed], just
a set of related and evolving traditions of worship.
Perhaps the most intriguing facet of Gallic religion is the practice of the Druids. There is no certainty concerning
their origin, but it is clear that they vehemently guarded the secrets of their order and held sway over the people
of Gaul. Indeed they claimed the right to determine questions of war and peace, and thereby held an
"international" status. In addition, the Druids monitored the religion of ordinary Gauls and were in charge of
educating the aristocracy. They also practiced a form of excommunication from the assembly of worshippers,
which in ancient Gaul meant a separation from secular society as well. Thus the Druids were an important part of
Gallic society.

List of Gaulish tribes[edit]


See also: List of Celtic tribes

After completing the conquest of Gaul, Rome converted most of these tribes into civitates, making for the
administrative map of the Roman provinces of Gaul. This was then perpetuated by the early church, whose
geographical subdivisions were based on those of late Roman Gaul, and lasted into the areas of French
dioceses prior to the French Revolution.

Sculpture of an armoured torc-wearing Gaul warrior,Vachres, France.

Celtic cross, in Chambon-sur-Lac, Auvergne, France.

Vercingtorix Memorial inAlesia, near the village of Alise-Sainte-Reine, France.

Tribe

Capital

Aedui

Bibracte

Allobroges

Vienne

Ambarri

near junction of Rhne & Sane rivers

Ambiani

Amiens

Andecavi

Angers

Aquitani

Bordeaux

Arverni

Gergovia (La Roche-Blanche)

Atrebates

Arras

Baiocasses

Bayeux

Belgae

Gallia Belgica

Boii

Boii (Boui near Entrain)

Boii Boates

Boates (La Tte de Buch)

Boii

Bologna

Bellovaci

Beauvais

Bituriges

Bourges

Brannovices

near Mcon?

Cadurci

Cahors (Uxellodunum - Puy d'Issolud, Saint-Denis-lsMartel/Vayrac)

Carnutes

Chartres

Catalauni

Chlons-en-Champagne

Caturiges

Chorges

Cenomani

Le Mans

Cenomani

Brescia

Ceutrones

Motiers

Curiosolitae

Corseul

Diablintes

Jublains

Eburones

Tongeren

Eburovices

vreux

Helvetii

La Tne

Insubres

Milan

Lemovices

Limoges

Lexovii

Lisieux

Lingones

Langres

Mediomatrici

Metz

Medulli

Mdoc

Medulli

Vienne

Menapii

Cassel

Morini

Boulogne-sur-Mer

Namnetes

Nantes

Nervii

Bavay

Orobii

Bergamo

Osismii

Vorgium

Parisii

Paris

Petrocorii

Prigueux

Pictones

Poitiers

Raurici

Kaiseraugst (Augusta Raurica)

Redones

Rennes

Remi

Reims

Ruteni

Rodez

Salassi

Aosta

Santones

Saintes

Senones

Sens

Sequani

Besanon

Suessiones

Soissons

Tigurini

Yverdon

Tolosates

Toulouse

Treveri

Trier

Tricastini

[8]

Aoust-en-Diois (Augusta Tricastinorum)

Tungri

Tongeren

Turones

Tours

Unelli

Coutances

Vangiones

Worms

Veliocasses

Rouen

Vellavi

Ruessium

Veneti

Vannes

Viducasses

Vieux

Vindelici

Augusta Vindelicorum

Vocontii

Vaison-la-Romaine

Volcae
Arecomici

Languedoc

Modern reception[edit]
The Gauls play a certain role in the national historiography and national identity of modern France. Attention
given to the Gauls as founding population of the French nation was traditionally second to that enjoyed by
the Franks, out of whosekingdom of the Franks the historical kingdom of France arose under the Capetian
dynasty; for example, Charles de Gaulleis on record as stating his opinion that "For me, the history of France
begins with Clovis, elected as king of France by the tribe of the Franks, who gave their name to France. Before
Clovis, we have Gallo-Roman and Gaulish prehistory. The decisive element, for me, is that Clovis was the first
king to have been baptized a Christian. My country is a Christian country and I reckon the history of France
beginning with the accession of a Christian king who bore the name of the Franks." [9]

But the dismissal of "Gaulish prehistory" as irrelevant for French national identity has been far from universal.
Pre-Roman Gaul has been evoked as a template for French independence especially during the Third French
Republic. An iconic phrase summarizing this view is that of "our ancestors the Gauls" (nos anctres les Gaulois),
associated with the history textbook for schools by Ernest Lavisse (1842-1922), who taught that "the Romans
established themselves in small numbers; the Franks were not numerous either, Clovis having but a few thousand
men with him. The basis of our population has thus remained Gaulish. The Gauls are our ancestors."[10] Astrix,
the popular series of French comic booksfollowing the exploits of a village of "indomitable Gauls", satirizes this
view by combining scenes set in classical antiquity with modern-day ethnic clichs of the French and other
nations.
Similarly, in Swiss national historiography of the 19th century, the Gaulish Helvetii were chosen as representing
the ancestral Swiss population (c.f. Helvetia as national allegory), as the Helvetii had settled in both the French
and the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, and their Gaulish language set them apart from Latin and
German speaking populations in equal measure.

See also[edit]
Celts portal

List of Celtic tribes

BFH : Roman Gaul[edit]


Main article: Roman Gaul

Vercingetorix surrenders to Julius Caesar after Alesia. Painting


by Lionel-Nol Royer, 1899.
Gaul was divided into several different provinces. The Romans
displaced populations to prevent local identities from becoming
a threat to Roman control. Thus, many Celts were displaced in
Aquitania or were enslaved and moved out of Gaul. There was a

strong cultural evolution in Gaul under the Roman Empire, the


most obvious one being the replacement of the Gaulish
language by Vulgar Latin. It has been argued the similarities
between the Gaulish and Latin languages favoured the
transition. Gaul remained under Roman control for centuries
and Celtic culture was then gradually replaced by Gallo-Roman
culture.
The Gauls became better integrated with the Empire with the
passage of time. For instance, generals Marcus Antonius Primus
and Gnaeus Julius Agricola were both born in Gaul, as were
emperors Claudius and Caracalla. Emperor Antoninus Pius also
came from a Gaulish family. In the decade following Valerian's
capture by the Persians in 260, Postumus established a shortlived Gallic Empire, which included the Iberian Peninsula and
Britannia, in addition to Gaul itself. Germanic tribes, the Franks
and the Alamanni, entered Gaul at this time. The Gallic Empire
ended with Emperor Aurelian's victory at Chlons in 274.
A migration of Celts appeared in the 4th century in Armorica.
They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came
from Britain. They spoke the now extinct British language,
which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages.
In 418 the Aquitanian province was given to the Goths in
exchange for their support against the Vandals. Those same
Goths had previously sacked Rome in 410 and established a
capital in Toulouse.

Gaulish soldiers

The Roman Empire had difficulty responding to all the barbarian


raids, and Flavius Atius had to use these tribes against each
other in order to maintain some Roman control. He first used
the Huns against the Burgundians, and these mercenaries
destroyed Worms, killed king Gunther, and pushed the
Burgundians westward. The Burgundians were resettled by
Atius near Lugdunum in 443. The Huns, united by Attila,
became a greater threat, and Atius used the Visigoths against
the Huns. The conflict climaxed in 451 at the Battle of Chlons,
in which the Romans and Goths defeated Attila.
The Roman Empire was on the verge of collapsing. Aquitania
was definitely abandoned to the Visigoths, who would soon
conquer a significant part of southern Gaul as well as most of
the Iberian Peninsula. The Burgundians claimed their own
kingdom, and northern Gaul was practically abandoned to the
Franks. Aside from the Germanic peoples, the Vascones entered
Wasconia from the Pyrenees and the Bretons formed three
kingdoms in Armorica: Domnonia, Cornouaille and Brorec.[7]

Roman Gaul
For Gallia or Gaul before the Roman conquest, see Gaul.
Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in
modern-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, western Switzerland and
westernGermany. Roman control of the area lasted for more than approximately
500 years.
The Roman Republic began its takeover of Celtic Gaul in 121 BC, when it
conquered and annexed the southern reaches of the area. Julius
Caesarcompleted the task by defeating the Celtic tribes in the Gallic Wars of 5851 BC. The Gaulish language became extinct from the fifth century AD
onwards.

The last vestige of Roman rule was effaced by the Franks at the Battle of
Soissons (486); displacing the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in 507 A.D.
The city of Lugdunum (now Lyon) had long been the capital of Gaul.

Geographical divisions[edit]
Gaul had three geographical divisions, one of which was divided into multiple
Roman provinces:
1. Gallia Cisalpina or "Gaul this side of the Alps", covered most of presentday northern Italy.
2. Gallia Narbonensis, formerly Gallia Transalpina or "Gaul across
the Alps" was originally conquered and annexed in 121 BC in an attempt
to solidify communications between Rome and the Iberian peninsula. It
comprised the present-day region of Provence-Alpes-Cte d'Azur, most
of Languedoc-Roussillon, and roughly the southeastern half of RhneAlpes.
3. Gallia Comata, or "long haired Gaul", encompassed the remainder of
present-day France, Belgium, and westernmost Germany, which the
Romans gained through the victory over the Celts in the Gallic Wars. The
Romans divided Gallia Comata into three provinces:
Gallia Aquitania
Gallia Belgica
Gallia Lugdunensis
The Romans divided these huge provinces into civitates corresponding more
or less with the pre-Conquest communities or polities sometimes described
misleadingly as "tribes," such as the Aedui, Allobroges, Bellovaci,
and Sequani (see List of Celtic tribes) but the civitates were too large and in
turn were divided into smaller units, pagi, a term that eventually became the
modern French word "pays".[1] These administrative groupings would be
taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and
these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division
into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place
with slight changesuntil the French revolution.

Gaul in the Roman Empire

Map of Gaul circa 58 BC

Language and culture[edit]


Main article: Gallo-Roman culture

Northern Gaul "sou", 440-450, 4240mg.


In the five centuries between Caesar's conquest and the collapse of the
Western Roman Empire, the Gaulish language and cultural identity
underwent a syncretism with the Roman culture of the new governing class,
and evolved into a hybrid Gallo-Roman culture that eventually permeated all
levels of society. Gauls continued writing some inscriptions in the Gaulish
language, but switched from the Greek alphabet to the Latin alphabet during
the Roman period. Current historical research suggests that Roman Gaul was
"Roman" only in certain (albeit major) social contexts, the prominence of
which in material culture has hindered a better historical understanding of
the permanence of many Celtic elements. The Roman influence was most
apparent in the areas of civic religion and administration.
TheDruidic religion was suppressed by Emperor Claudius I, and in later
centuries Christianitywas introduced. The prohibition of Druids and the
syncretic nature of the Roman religion led to disappearance of the Celtic
religion. It remains to this day poorly understood: current knowledge of the

Celtic religion is based on archeology and via literary sources from several
isolated areas such as Ireland and Wales.
The Romans easily imposed their administrative, economic, artistic
(especially in terms of monumental art and architecture) and literary culture.
They wore the Roman tunic instead of their traditional clothing.[citation
needed]
The Romano-Gauls generally lived in the vici, small villages similar to
those in Italy, or in villae, for the richest.

The Vachres warrior, a statue of a Gaulish warrior wearing Roman clothing


(ca. 1st century BC)
Surviving Celtic influences also infiltrated back into the Roman Imperial
culture in the 3rd century. For example, the Gaulish tunicwhich gave
Emperor Caracalla his surnamehad not been replaced by Roman fashion.
Similarly, certain Gaulish artisan techniques, such as the barrel (more
durable than the Romanamphora) and chain mail were adopted by the
Romans.
The Celtic heritage also continued in the spoken language (see History of
French). Gaulish spelling and pronunciation of Latin are apparent in several
5th century poets and transcribers of popular farces.[2] The last pockets of
Gaulish speakers appear to have lingered until the 6th or 7th century.[citation
needed]

Germanic placenames were first attested in border areas settled by Germanic


colonizers (with Roman approval). From the 4th to 5th centuries,
the Franks settled in northern France and Belgium,
the Alemanni in Alsace and Switzerland, and the Burgundians in Savoie.

After the fall of Rome[edit]


The Roman administration finally collapsed as remaining troops were
withdrawn southeast to protect Italy. Between 455 and 476 the Visigoths, the
Burgundians, and the Franks assumed power in Gaul. However, certain
aspects of the ancient Celtic culture continued after the fall of Roman
administration and there was a remnant of theEmpire for ten more years.
In 486, Gaul ceased to be a Roman state by the Franks at the Battle of
Soissons. Almost immediately afterwards, Gaul came under the rule of
the Merovingians, the first kings of France.
Certain Gallo-Roman aristocratic families continued to exert power in
episcopal cities (as in the cases of the Mauronitus family in Marseilles and
Bishop Gregory of Tours). The appearance of Germanic given and family
names becomes noticeable in France from the middle of the 7th century on,
most notably in powerful families, thus indicating that the centre of gravity
had definitely shifted.
The Gallo-Roman, or Vulgar Latin, dialect of the late Roman period evolved
into the dialects of the Ol languages and Old French in the north,
and Occitan in the south.
Gallia and its equivalents continued to be used, at least in writing, until the
end of the Merovingian period. Slowly, during the Carolingian period, the
expression Francia, then Francia occidentalis spread to describe the
political reality of the kingdom of the Franks (regnum francorum).
See also[edit]
Asterix, French comic set in 50 BC Gaul
Roman Britain's continental trade

BTHF: Frankish kingdoms (486987)[edit]


Main article: Francia
See also: List of Frankish kings, Merovingian, Carolingian
Renaissance and Early Middle Ages

The Battle of Tours (732). This battle is often considered of macro-importance


in European and Islamic history.

In 486, Clovis I, leader of the Salian Franks, defeated Syagrius at Soissons and
subsequently united most of northern and central Gaul under his rule. Clovis
then recorded a succession of victories against other Germanic tribes such as the
Alamanni at Tolbiac. In 496, pagan Clovis adopted Catholicism. This gave him
greater legitimacy and power over his Christian subjects and granted him
clerical support against the Arian Visigoths. He defeated Alaric II at Vouill in
507 and annexed Aquitaine, and thus Toulouse, into his Frankish kingdom.[8]
The Goths retired to Toledo in what would become Spain. Clovis made Paris his
capital and established the Merovingian Dynasty but his kingdom would not
survive his death in 511. Under Frankish inheritance traditions, all sons inherit
part of the land, so four kingdoms emerged: centered
on Paris, Orlans, Soissons, andRheims. Over time, the borders and numbers of
Frankish kingdoms were fluid and changed frequently. Also during this time,
the Mayors of the Palace, originally the chief advisor to the kings, would
become the real power in the Frankish lands; the Merovingian kings themselves
would be reduced to little more than figureheads.[8]

By this time Muslim invaders had conquered Hispania and were threatening the
Frankish kingdoms. Duke Odo the Great defeated a major invading force
at Toulouse in 721 but failed to repel a raiding party in 732. The mayor of the
palace, Charles Martel, defeated that raiding party at the Battle of
Tours (although the battle took place between Tours and Poitiers) and earned
respect and power within the Frankish Kingdom. The assumption of the crown
in 751 by Pepin the Short (son of Charles Martel) established the Carolingian
dynasty as the Kings of the Franks.

The coronation of Charlemagne

Carolingian power reached its fullest extent under Pepin's son, Charlemagne. In
771, Charlemagne reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of
division, subsequently conquering the Lombards under Desiderius in what is
now northern Italy (774), incorporating Bavaria (788) into his realm, defeating
the Avars of theDanubian plain (796), advancing the frontier with Islamic
Spain as far south asBarcelona (801), and subjugating Lower Saxony after a
prolonged campaign (804).
In recognition of his successes and his political support for
the Papacy,Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans, or Roman
Emperor in the West, by Pope Leo III in 800. Charlemagne's son Louis the
Pious (emperor 814840) kept the empire united; however, this Carolingian
Empire would not survive Louis I's death. Two of his sons Charles the
Bald and Louis the German swore allegiance to each other against their
brother Lothair I in the Oaths of Strasbourg, and the empire was divided
among Louis's three sons (Treaty of Verdun, 843). After a last brief reunification
(884887), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western realm, which was

to form the basis of the future French kingdom. The eastern realm, which would
become Germany, elected the Saxon dynasty of Henry the Fowler.[9]
Under the Carolingians, the kingdom was ravaged by Viking raiders. In this
struggle some important figures such as Count Odo of Paris and his
brother King Robert rose to fame and became kings. This emerging dynasty,
whose members were called the Robertines, were the predecessors of
the Capetian Dynasty. Led by Rollo, some Vikings had settled in Normandy and
were granted the land, first as counts and then as dukes, by King Charles the
Simple, in order to protect the land from other raiders. The people that emerged
from the interactions between the new Viking aristocracy and the already mixed
Franks and Gallo-Romans became known as the Normans.[10]

Francia

Frankish Empire
Francia

481843

Frankish Empire, early 9th century

Capital

Tournai (431
508)
Paris (508
768)

Languages

Old
Franconian,La
tin

Religion

Roman
Catholic

Government

Monarchy

King of the Franks


481511

Clovis I

613629

Clotaire II

629639

Dagobert I

751768

Pepin the

Short
768814

Charlemagne

Historical era

Middle Ages

Established
-

481
Clovis I crowned

-firstKing of the Franks


Charlemagne crownedH
-oly Roman Emperor

496
December 25,
800

Treaty of Verdun
-

843

Currency

Denier

Today part of

Andorra
Austria
Belgium
Croatia
Czech
Republic
France
German
y
Hungary
Liechten
stein
Luxemb
ourg
Monaco
Netherla
nds
Italy
San
Marino
Slovenia
Spain
Switzerla
nd
Vatican
City

Francia or Frankia, also called the Kingdom of the Franks or Frankish Kingdom (Latin: Regnum
Francorum), Frankish Empire, Frankish Realm or occasionally Frankland, was the territory inhabited and ruled
by the Franks, a confederation of Germanic tribes, during Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages.
The kingdom was founded by Clovis I, crowned first King of the Franks in 496. Under the nearly continuous
campaigns of Pepin of Herstal, Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, Charlemagne, and Louis the Piousfather, son,
grandson, great-grandson and great-great-grandsonthe greatest expansion of the Frankish empire was
secured by the early 9th century.
The tradition of dividing patrimonies among brothers meant that the Frankish realm was ruled, nominally, as one
polity subdivided into severalregna (kingdoms or subkingdoms). The geography and number of subkingdoms

varied over time, but the particular term Francia came generally to refer to just one regnum, that of Austrasia,
centred on theRhine and Meuse rivers in northern Europe. Even so, sometimes the term was used as well to
encompass Neustria north of the Loire and west of theSeine.
Eventually, the singular use of the name Francia shifted towards Paris, and settled on the region of the Seine
basin surrounding Paris, which still today bears the name le-de-France and gave its name to the entireKingdom
of France. Most of Frankish Kings were buried in the Basilica of Saint Denis, near Paris. Modern France is still
named Francia in Spanish and Italian as well as Frankreich in German.

History[edit]

The partition of the Frankish kingdom among the four sons of Clovis with Clotildepresiding, Grandes
Chroniques de Saint-Denis (Bibliothque municipale de Toulouse).

Origins[edit]
The Franks emerged in the 3rd century as a confederation of smaller tribes, such as
the Sicambri, Bructeri, Ampsivarii, Chamavi and Chattuarii, in the area north and east of the Rhine. Some of
these peoples, such as the Sicambri andSalians, already had lands in the Roman Empire and delivered troops to
Roman forces at the border. In 357 the Salian king entered the Roman Empire and made a permanent foothold
there by a treaty granted by Julian the Apostate, who forced back the Chamavi to Hamaland.
As Frankish territory expanded, the meaning of "Francia" expanded with it. Some of the early Frankish leaders,
such as Bauto and Arbogastes, were committed to the cause of the Romans, but other Frankish rulers, such
asMallobaudes, were active on Roman soil for other reasons. After the fall of Arbogastes, his son Arigius
succeeded in establishing a hereditary countship at Trier and after the fall of the usurper Constantine III some
Franks supported the usurper Jovinus (411). Jovinus was dead by 413, but the Romans found it increasingly
difficult to manage the Franks within their borders. The Frankish king Theudemer was executed by the sword, in
c. 422. Around 428 the Salian king Chlodio, whose kingdom included Toxandria and the civitatus
Tungrorum (Tongeren), launched an attack on Roman territory and extended his realm as far
as Camaracum (Cambrai) and the Somme. ThoughSidonius Apollinaris relates that Flavius Atius fought the

Franks and temporarily drove them back (c. 431), this period marks the beginning of a situation that would endure
for many centuries: the Germanic Franks ruled over an increasing number of Gallo-Roman subjects.
The kingdom of Chlodio changed the borders and the meaning of the word "Francia" permanently. Francia was
no longerbarbaricum trans Rhenum (barbarians across the Rhine), but a landed political power on both sides of
the river, deeply involved in Roman politics. Chlodio's family, the Merovingians, extended Francia even further
south. Due to pressure from the Saxons, the northeastern borders of Francia were pressed southwest so that
most of the original Frankish people came to live more southwesterly, roughly between the Somme and Mnster.
The core territory of the Frankish kingdom later came to be known as Austrasia (the "eastern lands").

Merovingian rise and decline, 481687[edit]


See also: Merovingians

The political divisions of Gaul at the inception of Clovis's career (481). Note that only the Burgundian
kingdom and the province of Septimania remained unconquered at his death (511).
Chlodio's successors are obscure figures, but what can be certain is thatChilderic I, possibly his grandson, ruled
a Salian kingdom from Tournai as afoederatus of the Romans. Childeric is chiefly important to history for
bequeathing the Franks to his son Clovis, who began an effort to extend his authority over the other Frankish
tribes and to expand their territorium south and west into Gaul. Clovis converted to Christianity and put himself on
good terms with the powerful Church and with his Gallo-Roman subjects.
In a thirty-year reign (481511) Clovis defeated the Roman general Syagriusand conquered the Roman exclave
of Soissons, defeated the Alemanni(Tolbiac, 504) and established Frankish hegemony over them. Clovis defeated
the Visigoths (Vouill, 507) and conquered their entire kingdom (saveSeptimania) with its capital at Toulouse, and
conquered the Bretons(according to Gregory of Tours) and made them vassals of Francia. He conquered most or
all of the neighbouring Frankish tribes along the Rhine and incorporated them into his kingdom.
He also incorporated the various Roman military settlements (laeti) scattered over Gaul: the Saxons of Bessin,
the Britons and the Alans of Armorica and Loire valley or the Taifals of Poitou to name a few prominent ones. By

the end of his life, Clovis ruled all of Gaul save the Gothic province of Septimania and theBurgundian kingdom in
the southeast.
The Merovingians were a hereditary monarchy. The Frankish kings adhered to the practice of partible inheritance:
dividing their lands among their sons. Even when multiple Merovingian kings ruled, the kingdomnot unlike the
late Roman Empirewas conceived of as a single realm ruled collectively by several kings and the turn of events
could result in the reunification of the whole realm under a single king. The Merovingian kings ruled by divine right
and their kingship was symbolised daily by their long hair and initially by their acclamation, which was carried out
by raising the king on a shield in accordance with the ancient Germanic practice of electing a war-leader at an
assembly of the warriors.

Clovis's sons[edit]
At the death of Clovis, his kingdom was divided territorially by his four adult sons in such a way that each son was
granted a comparable portion of fiscal land, which was probably land once part of the Roman fisc, now seized by
the Frankish government.

The division of Francia on Clovis's death (511). The kingdoms were not geographic unities because they
were formed in an attempt to create equal-sized fiscs. The discrepancy in size reveals the concentration of
Roman fiscal lands.
Clovis's sons made their capitals near the Frankish heartland in northeastern Gaul. Theuderic I made his capital
at Reims, Chlodomer at Orlans,Childebert I at Paris, and Chlothar I at Soissons. During their reigns,
theThuringii (532), Burgundes (534), and Saxons and Frisians (c. 560) were incorporated into the Frankish
kingdom. The outlying trans-Rhenish tribes were loosely attached to Frankish sovereignty, and though they could
be forced to contribute to Frankish military efforts, in times of weak kings they were uncontrollable and liable to
attempt independence. The Romanised Burgundian kingdom, however, was preserved in its territoriality by the
Franks and converted into one of their primary divisions, incorporating the central Gallic heartland of Chlodomer's
realm with its capital at Orlans.

The fraternal kings showed only intermittent signs of friendship and were often in rivalry. On the early death of
Chlodomer, his brother Chlothar had his young sons murdered in order to take a share of his kingdom, which
was, in accordance with custom, divided between the surviving brothers. Theuderic died in 534, but his adult
son Theudebert I was capable of defending his inheritance, which formed the largest of the Frankish
subkingdoms and the kernel of the later kingdom of Austrasia.
Theudebert was the first Frankish king to formally sever his ties to the Byzantine Empire by striking gold coins
with his own image on them and calling himself magnus rex (great king) because of his supposed suzerainty over
peoples as far away as Pannonia. Theudebert interfered in the Gothic War on the side of
the Gepids and Lombards against the Ostrogoths, receiving the provinces of Rhaetia, Noricum, and part
of Venetia.

Chlothar[edit]
His son and successor, Theudebald, was unable to retain them and on his death all of his vast kingdom passed to
Chlothar, under whom, with the death of Childebert in 558, the entire Frankish realm was reunited under the rule
of one king.

The division of Gaul on Chlothar I's death (561). Though more geographically unified realms were created
out of the second fourfold division of Francia, the complex division of Provence created many problems for
the rulers of Burgundy and Austrasia.
In 561 Chlothar died and his realm was divided, in a replay of the events of fifty years prior, between his four
sons, with the chief cities remaining the same. The eldest son, Charibert I, inherited the kingdom with its capital at
Paris and ruled all of western Gaul. The second eldest, Guntram, inherited the old kingdom of the Burgundians,
augmented by the lands of central France around the old capital of Orlans, which became his chief city, and
most ofProvence.
The rest of Provence, the Auvergne, and eastern Aquitaine were assigned to the third son, Sigebert I, who also
inherited Austrasia with its chief cities of Reims and Metz. The smallest kingdom was that of Soissons, which

went to the youngest son, Chilperic I. The kingdom Chilperic ruled at his death (584) became the nucleus of
later Neustria.
This second fourfold division was quickly ruined by fratricidal wars, waged largely over the murder of Galswintha,
the wife of Chilperic, allegedly by his mistress (and second wife) Fredegund. Galswintha's sister, the wife of
Sigebert, Brunhilda, incited her husband to war and the conflict between the two queens continued to plague
relations until the next century. Guntram sought to keep the peace, though he also attempted twice (585 and 589)
to conquer Septimania from the Goths, but was defeated both times.
All the surviving brothers benefited at the death of Charibert, but Chilperic was also able to extend his authority
during the period of war by bringing the Bretons to heel again. After his death, Guntram had to again force the
Bretons to submit. In 587, the Treaty of Andelotthe text of which explicitly refers to the entire Frankish realm
as Franciabetween Brunhilda and Guntram secured his protection of her young son Childebert II, who had
succeeded the assassinated Sigebert (575). Together the territory of Guntram and Childebert was well over thrice
as large as the small realm of Chilperic's successor,Chlothar II. During this period Francia took on the tripartite
character it was to have throughout the rest of its history, being composed of Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy.

Gaul as a result of the Treaty of Andelot(587). The treaty followed the division ofCharibert's kingdom
between the three surviving brothers. It gave Guntram's portion with Poitou and Touraine to Childebert in
exchange for extensive lands in southern and central Aquitaine.

Francia split into Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy[edit]


When Guntram died in 592, Burgundy went to Childebert in its entirety, but he died in 595. His two sons divided
the kingdom, with the elder Theudebert IItaking Austrasia plus Childebert's portion of Aquitaine, while his younger
brother Theuderic II inherited Burgundy and Guntram's Aquitaine. United, the brothers sought to remove their
father's cousin Chlothar II from power and they did succeed in conquering most of his kingdom, reducing him to
only a few cities, but they failed to capture him.

In 599 they routed his forces at Dormelles and seized the Dentelin, but they then fell foul of each other and the
remainder of their time on the thrones was spent in infighting, often incited by their grandmother Brunhilda, who,
angered over her expulsion from Theudebert's court, convinced Theuderic to unseat him and kill him. In 612 he
did and the whole realm of his father Childebert was once again ruled by one man. This was short-lived, however,
as he died on the eve of preparing an expedition against Chlothar in 613, leaving a young son named Sigebert II.
During their reigns, Theudebert and Theuderic campaigned successfully inGascony, where they had established
the Duchy of Vasconia and brought the Basques to submission (602). This original Gascon conquest included
lands south of the Pyrenees, namely Biscay and Guipzcoa, but these were lost to the Visigoths in 612.
On the opposite end of his realm, the Alemanni had defeated Theuderic in a rebellion and the Franks were losing
their hold on the trans-Rhenish tribes. In 610 Theudebert had extorted the Duchy of Alsace from Theuderic,
beginning a long period of conflict over which kingdom was to have the region of Alsace, Burgundy or Austrasia,
which was only terminated in the late seventh century.
During the brief minority of Sigebert II, the office of the Mayor of the Palace, which had for sometime been visible
in the kingdoms of the Franks, came to the fore in its internal politics, with a faction of nobles coalescing around
the persons ofWarnachar, Rado, and Pepin of Landen, to give the kingdom over to Chlothar in order to remove
Brunhilda, the young king's regent, from power. Warnachar was himself already the mayor of the palace of
Austrasia, while Rado and Pepin were to find themselves rewarded with mayoral offices after Chlothar's coup
succeeded and Brunhilda and the ten-year old king were killed.

The rule of Chlothar II[edit]


Immediately after his victory, Chlothar II promulgated the Edict of Paris (614), which has generally been viewed
as a concession to the nobility, though this view has come under recent criticism. The Edict primarily sought to
guarantee justice and end corruption in government, but it also entrenched the regional differences between the
three kingdoms of Francia and probably granted the nobles more control over judicial appointments.
By 623 the Austrasians had begun to clamour for a king of their own, since Chlothar was so often absent from the
kingdom and, because of his upbringing and previous rule in the Seine basin, was more or less an outsider there.
Chlothar thus granted that his son Dagobert I would be their king and he was duly acclaimed by the Austrasian
warriors in the traditional fashion. Nonetheless, though Dagobert exercised true authority in his realm, Chlothar
maintained ultimate control over the whole Frankish kingdom.

The Frankish Kingdom of Aquitaine(628). The capital of Aquitaine wasToulouse. It included Gascony and
was the basis of the later Duchy of Aquitaine.
During the joint reign of Chlothar and Dagobert, who have been called "the last ruling Merovingians", the Saxons,
who had been loosely attached to Francia since the late 550s, rebelled under Duke Berthoald and were defeated
and reincorporated into the kingdom by the joint action of father and son. When Chlothar died in 628, Dagobert,
in accordance with his father's wishes, granted a subkingdom to his younger brother Charibert II. This
subkingdom, commonly called Aquitaine, was a new creation.

Dagobert I[edit]

Francia and neighbouring Slavic peoples ca. 650


Dagobert, in his dealings with the Saxons, Alemans, and Thuringii, as well as the Slavic peoples beyond the
borders of Francia, upon whom he tried to force tribute but who instead defeated him under their king Samo at

the Battle of Wogastisburg in 631, made all the far eastern peoples subject to the court of Neustria and not of
Austrasia. This, first and foremost, incited the Austrasians to request a king of their own from the royal household.
The subkingdom of Aquitaine corresponded to the southern half of the old Roman province of Aquitaine and its
capital was at Toulouse. The other cities of his kingdom were Cahors,Agen, Prigueux, Bordeaux, and Saintes;
the duchy of Vasconia was also part of his allotment. Charibert campaigned successfully against the Basques,
but after his death they revolted again (632). At the same time the Bretons rose up against Frankish suzerainty.
The Breton leaderJudicael relented and made peace with the Franks and paid tribute after Dagobert threatened
to lead an army against him (635). That same year Dagobert sent an army to subdue the Basques, which it did.
Meanwhile, Dagobert had Charibert's infant successorChilperic assassinated and reunited the entire Frankish
realm again (632), though he was forced by the strong Austrasian aristocracy to grant his own son Sigebert III to
them as a subking in 633. This act was precipitated largely by the Austrasians desire to be self-governing at a
time when Neustrians dominated at the royal court. Chlothar had been the king at Paris for decades before
becoming the king at Metz as well and the Merovingian monarchy was ever after him to be a Neustrian monarchy
first and foremost.
Indeed, it is in the 640s that "Neustria" first appears in writing, its late appearance relative to "Austrasia" probably
due to the fact that Neustrians (who formed the bulk of the authors of the time) called their region simply
"Francia". Burgundia too defined itself in opposition to Neustria at about this time. However, it was the
Austrasians, who had been seen as a distinct people within the realm since the time of Gregory of Tours, who
were to make the most strident moves for independence.
The young Sigebert was dominated during his minority by the mayor Grimoald I, who convinced the childless king
to adopt his own Merovingian-named son Childebert as his son and heir. After Dagobert's death in 639, the duke
of Thuringia,Radulf, rebelled and tried to make himself king. He defeated Sigebert in what was a serious reversal
for the ruling dynasty (640).
The king lost the support of many magnates while on campaign and the weakness of the monarchic institutions
by that time are evident in his inability to effectively make war without the support of the magnates; in fact, he
could not even provide his own bodyguard without the loyal aid of Grimoald and Adalgisel. He is often regarded
as the first roi fainant: "do-nothing king", not insofar as he "did nothing", but insofar as he accomplished little.
Clovis II, Dagobert's successor in Neustria and Burgundy, which were thereafter attached yet ruled separately,
was a minor for almost the whole of his reign. He was dominated by his mother Nanthild and the mayor of the
Neustrian palace,Erchinoald. Erchinoald's successor, Ebroin, dominated the kingdom for the next fifteen years of
near-constant civil war. On his death (656), Sigbert's son was shipped off to Ireland, while Grimoald's son
Childebert reigned in Austrasia.
Ebroin eventually reunited the entire Frankish kingdom for Clovis's successor Chlothar III by killing Grimoald and
removing Childebert in 661. However, the Austrasians demanded a king of their own again and Chlothar installed
his younger brotherChilderic II. During Chlothar's reign, the Franks had made an attack on northwestern Italy, but
were driven off by theLombard king Grimoald near Rivoli.

Dominance of the mayors of the palace, 687751[edit]

Gaul at the death of Pepin of Heristal(714). At this time the vast duchy of Aquitaine (yellow) was not a part
of the Frankish kingdom.
In 673, Chlothar III died and some Neustrian and Burgundian magnates invited Childeric to become king of the
whole realm, but he soon upset some Neustrian magnates and he was assassinated (675). The reign
of Theuderic III was to prove the end of the Merovingian dynasty's power. Thoroughly Neustrian in outlook, he
allied with his mayor Berthar and made war on the Austrasian who had installed Dagobert II, Sigebert III's son, in
their kingdom (briefly in opposition to Clovis III).
In 687 he was defeated by Pepin of Heristal, the Arnulfing mayor of Austrasia and the real power in that kingdom,
at the Battle of Tertry and was forced to accept Pepin as sole mayor and dux et princeps Francorum: "Duke and
Prince of the Franks", a title which signifies, to the author of the Liber Historiae Francorum, the beginning of
Pepin's "reign". Thereafter the Merovingian monarchs showed only sporadically, in our surviving records, any
activities of a non-symbolic and self-willed nature.
During the period of confusion in the 670s and 680s, attempts had been made to re-assert Frankish suzerainty
over the Frisians, but to no avail. In 689, however, Pepin launched a campaign of conquest in Western
Frisia (Frisia Citerior) and defeated the Frisian king Radbod near Dorestad, an important trading centre. All the
land between the Scheldt and the Vlie was incorporated into Francia.
Then, circa 690, Pepin attacked central Frisia and took Utrecht. In 695 Pepin could even sponsor the foundation
of theArchdiocese of Utrecht and the beginning of the conversion of the Frisians under Willibrord.
However, Eastern Frisia (Frisia Ulterior) remained outside of Frankish suzerainty.
Having achieved great successes against the Frisians, Pepin turned towards the Alemanni. In 709 he launched a
war against Willehari, duke of the Ortenau, probably in an effort to force the succession of the young sons of the
deceasedGotfrid on the ducal throne. This outside interference led to another war in 712 and the Alemanni were,
for the time being, restored to the Frankish fold.

However, in southern Gaul, which was not under Arnulfing influence, the regions were pulling away from the royal
court under leaders such as Savaric of Auxerre, Antenor of Provence, and Odo of Aquitaine. The reigns of Clovis
IV andChildebert III from 691 until 711 have all the hallmarks of those of rois fainants, though Childebert is
founding making royal judgements against the interests of his supposed masters, the Arnulfings.

Death of Pepin[edit]
When Pepin died in 714, however, the Frankish realm plunged into civil war and the dukes of the outlying
provinces became de facto independent. Pepin's appointed successor, Theudoald, under his widow, Plectrude,
initially opposed an attempt by the king, Dagobert III, to appoint Ragenfrid as mayor of the palace in all the
realms, but soon there was a third candidate for the mayoralty of Austrasia in Pepin's illegitimate adult
son, Charles Martel.
After the defeat of Plectrude and Theudoald by the king (now Chilperic II) and Ragenfrid, Charles briefly raised a
king of his own, Chlothar IV, in opposition to Chilperic. Finally, at a battle near Soisson, Charles definitively
defeated his rivals and forced them into hiding, eventually accepting the king back on the condition that he
receive his father's positions (718). There were no more active Merovingian kings after that point and Charles and
his Carolingian heirs ruled the Franks.
After 718 Charles Martel embarked on a series of wars intended to strengthen the Franks' hegemony in western
Europe. In 718 he defeated the rebellious Saxons, in 719 he overran Western Frisia, in 723 he suppressed the
Saxons again, and in 724 he defeated Ragenfrid and the rebellious Neustrians, ending the civil war phase of his
rule. In 720, when Chilperic II died, he had appointed Theuderic IV king, but this last was a mere puppet of his. In
724 he forced his choice of Hugbert for the ducal succession upon the Bavarians of Hugbert and forced the
Alemanni to assist him in his campaigns in Bavaria (725 and 726), where laws were promulgated in Theuderic's
name. In 730 Alemannia had to be subjugated by the sword and its duke, Lantfrid, was killed. In 734 Charles
fought against Eastern Frisia and finally subdued it.

Islamic invasion[edit]
In the 730s the Arab conquerors of Spain, who had also subjugated Septimania, began advancing northwards
into central Francia and the Loire valley. It was at this time (circa 736) that Maurontus, the dux of Provence, called
in the Arabs to aid him in resisting the expanding influence of the Carolingians. However, Charles invaded
the Rhne Valley with his brotherChildebrand and a Lombard army and devastated the region. It was because of
the alliance against the Arabs that Charles was unable to support Pope Gregory III against the Lombards.
In 732 or 737modern scholars have debated over the dateCharles marched against an Arab army
between Poitiersand Tours and defeated it in a watershed battle that turned back the tide of the Arab advance
north of the Pyrenees. But Charles's real interests lay in the northeast, primarily with the Saxons, from whom he
had to extort the tribute which for centuries they had paid to the Merovingians.
Shortly before his death in October 741, Charles divided the realm as if he were king between his two sons by his
first wife, marginalising his younger son Grifo, who did receive a small portion (it is unknown exactly what).
Though there had been no king since Theuderic's death in 737, Charles's sons Pepin the
Short and Carloman were still only mayors of the palaces. The Carolingians had assumed the regal status and
practice, though not the regal title, of the Merovingians. The division of the kingdom gave Austrasia, Alemannia,
and Thuringia to Carloman and Neustria, Provence, and Burgundy to Pepin. It is indicative of the de

facto autonomy of the duchies of Aquitaine (under Hunoald) and Bavaria (under Odilo) that they were not
included in the division of the regnum.
After Charles Martel was buried, in the Abbey of Saint-Denis alongside the Merovingian kings, conflict
immediately erupted between Pepin and Carloman on one side and Grifo their younger brother on the other.
Though Carloman captured and imprisoned Grifo, it may have been enmity between the elder brothers that
caused Pepin to release Grifo while Carloman was on a pilgrimage to Rome. Perhaps in an effort to neutralise his
brother ambitions, Carloman initiated the appointment of a new king, Childeric III, drawn from a monastery, in
743. Others have suggested that perhaps the position of the two brothers was weak or challenged, or perhaps
there Carloman was merely acting for a loyalist or legitimist party in the kingdom.
In 743 Pepin campaigned against Odilo and forced him to submit to Frankish suzerainty. Carloman also
campaigned against the Saxons and the two together defeated a rebellion led by Hunoald at the head of
the Basques and another led by Alemanni, in which Liutfrid of Alsatia probably died, either fighting for or against
the brothers. In 746, however, the Frankish armies were still, as Carloman was preparing to retire from politics
and enter the monastery of Mount Soracte. Pepin's position was further stabilised and the path was laid for his
assumption of the crown in 751.

Carolingian empire, 751840[edit]

The growth of Frankish power, 481814, showing Francia as it originally was after the crumbling of
the Western Roman Empire. It was located northeasterly of that during the time of Constantine the Great.

Frankish expansion from the early Clovis I' kingdom (481) to the divisions ofCharlemagne's
Empire (843/870).
Main article: Carolingian Empire
Pepin reigned as an elected king. Although such elections happened infrequently, a general rule in Germanic law
stated that the king relied on the support of his leading men. These men reserved the right to choose a new
"kingworthy" leader out of the ruling clan if they felt that the old one could not lead them in profitable battle. While
in later France the kingdom became hereditary, the kings of the later Holy Roman Empire proved unable to
abolish the elective tradition and continued as elected rulers until the empire's formal end in 1806.
Pepin solidified his position in 754 by entering into an alliance with Pope Stephen II, who presented the king of
the Franks a copy of the forged "Donation of Constantine" at Paris and in a magnificent ceremony at SaintDenis anointed the king and his family and declared him patricius Romanorum("protector of the Romans"). The
following year Pepin fulfilled his promise to the pope and retrieved the Exarchate of Ravenna, recently fallen to
theLombards, and returned it to the Papacy.
Pepin donated the re-conquered areas around Rome to the Pope, laying the foundation for the Papal States in the
"Donation of Pepin" which he laid on the tomb of St Peter. The papacy had good cause to expect that the remade
Frankish monarchy would provide a deferential power base (potestas) in the creation of a new world order,
centred on the Pope.
Upon Pepin's death in 768, his sons, Charles and Carloman, once again divided the kingdom between
themselves. However, Carloman withdrew to a monastery and died shortly thereafter, leaving sole rule to his
brother, who would later become known as Charlemagne or Charles the Great, a powerful, intelligent, and
modestly literate figure who became a legend for the later history of both France and Germany. Charlemagne
restored an equal balance between emperor and pope.
From 772 onwards, Charles conquered and eventually defeated the Saxons to incorporate their realm into the
Frankish kingdom. This campaign expanded the practice of non-Roman Christian rulers undertaking the
conversion of their neighbours by armed force; Frankish Catholic missionaries, along with others from Ireland
and Anglo-Saxon England, had entered Saxon lands since the mid-8th century, resulting in increasing conflict
with the Saxons, who resisted the missionary efforts and parallel military incursions.
Charles's main Saxon opponent, Widukind, accepted baptism in 785 as part of a peace agreement, but other
Saxon leaders continued to fight. Upon his victory in 787 at Verden, Charles ordered the wholesale killing of
thousands of paganSaxon prisoners. After several more uprisings, the Saxons suffered definitive defeat in 804.
This expanded the Frankish kingdom eastwards as far as the Elbe river, something the Roman empire had only
attempted once, and at which it failed in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (9 AD). In order to more effectively
Christianize the Saxons, Charles founded severalbishoprics, among them Bremen, Mnster, Paderborn,
and Osnabrck.
At the same time (773774), Charles conquered the Lombards and thus included northern Italy in his sphere of
influence. He renewed the Vatican donation and the promise to the papacy of continued Frankish protection.
In 788, Tassilo, dux (duke) of Bavaria rebelled against Charles. Crushing the rebellion incorporated Bavaria into
Charles's kingdom. This not only added to the royal fisc, but also drastically reduced the power and influence of

the Agilolfings(Tassilo's family), another leading family among the Franks and potential rivals. Until 796, Charles
continued to expand the kingdom even farther southeast, into today's Austria and parts of Croatia.
Charles thus created a realm that reached from the Pyrenees in the southwest (actually, including an area in
Northern Spain (Marca Hispanica) after 795) over almost all of today's France (except Brittany, which the Franks
never conquered) eastwards to most of today's Germany, including northern Italy and today's Austria. In the
hierarchy of the church, bishops and abbots looked to the patronage of the king's palace, where the sources of
patronage and security lay. Charles had fully emerged as the leader of Western Christendom, and his patronage
of monastic centres of learning gave rise to the "Carolingian Renaissance" of literate culture. Charles also created
a large palace at Aachen, a series of roads, and a canal.
On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as "Emperor of the Romans" in Rome in a ceremony
presented as a surprise (Charlemagne did not wish to be indebted to the bishop of Rome), a further papal move
in the series of symbolic gestures that had been defining the mutual roles of papal auctoritas and
imperial potestas. Though Charlemagne, in deference to Byzantine outrage, preferred the title "Emperor, king of
the Franks and Lombards", the ceremony formally acknowledged the Frankish Empire as the successor of the
(Western) Roman one (although only the forged "Donation" gave the pope political authority to do this), thus
triggering a series of disputes with the Byzantines around the Roman name. After an initial protest at the
usurpation, in 812, the Byzantine Emperor Michael I Rhangabes acknowledged Charlemagne as co-Emperor.
The coronation gave permanent legitimacy to Carolingian primacy among the Franks. TheOttonians later
resurrected this connection in 962.
Upon Charlemagne's death on 28 January 814 in Aachen, he was buried in his own Palace Chapel at Aachen.

Divided empire, after 840[edit]

The Carolingian Empire at its greatest extent, with borders displaying the three territorial divisions of 843,
from left to right:

West Francia or the West Frankish Kingdom:Charles the Bald, King of the West Franks.
Middle Francia or the Middle Frankish Kingdom:Lothair I, King of the Middle Franks, nominally
titled Emperor. This kingdom lasted only until 869.
East Francia or the East Frankish Kingdom: Louis the German, King of the East Franks.

Charlemagne had several sons, but only one survived him. This son,Louis the Pious, followed his father as the
ruler of a united empire. But sole inheritance remained a matter of chance, rather than intent. When Louis died in
840, the Carolingians adhered to the custom ofpartible inheritance, and after a brief civil war between the three
sons, they made an agreement in 843, the Treaty of Verdun, which divided the empire in three:
1. Louis's eldest surviving son Lothair I became Emperor in name but de facto only the ruler of the Middle
Frankish Kingdom, or Middle Francia, known as King of the Central or Middle Franks. His three sons in
turn divided this kingdom between them intoLotharingia (centered on Lorraine), Burgundy, and
(Northern) Italy Lombardy. These areas with different cultures, peoples and traditions would later vanish
as separate kingdoms, which would eventually become Belgium,
the Netherlands,Luxembourg, Lorraine, Switzerland, Lombardy and the variousdepartments of
France along the Rhne drainage basin andJura massif.
2. Louis's second son, Louis the German, became King of theEast Frankish Kingdom or East Francia. This
area formed the kernel of the later Holy Roman Empire by way of the Kingdom of Germany enlarged
with some additional territories from Lothair's Middle Frankish Realm: much of these territories
eventually evolved into modern Austria, Switzerland and Germany. For a list of successors, see the List
of German monarchs.
3. His third son Charles the Bald became King of the West Franks, of the West Frankish Kingdom or West
Francia. This area, most of today's southern and western France, became the foundation for the later
France under theHouse of Capet. For his successors, see the List of French monarchs.
Subsequently, at the Treaty of Mersen (870) the partitions were recast, to the detriment of Lotharingia. On 12
December 884, Charles the Fat (son of Louis the German) reunited most of the Carolingian Empire, aside
from Burgundy. In late 887, his nephew, Arnulf of Carinthia revolted and assumed the title as King of the East
Franks. Charles retired and soon died on 13 January 888.
Odo, Count of Paris was chosen to rule in the west, and was crowned the next month. At this point, West Francia
was composed of Neustria in the west and in the east by Francia proper, the region between the Meuse and
the Seine. The Carolingians were restored ten years later in West Francia, and ruled until 987, when the last
Frankish King, Louis V, died.
West Francia was the land under the control of Charles the Bald. It is the precursor of modern France. It was
divided into the following great fiefs: Aquitaine, Brittany, Burgundy, Catalonia, Flanders, Gascony, Gothia, the lede-France, andToulouse. After 987, the kingdom came to be known as France, because the new ruling dynasty
(the Capetians) were originally dukes of the le-de-France.
Middle Francia was the territory ruled by Lothair I, wedged between East and West Francia. The kingdom, which
included the Kingdom of Italy, Burgundy, the Provence, and the west of Austrasia, was an unnatural creation of
the Treaty of Verdun, with no historical or ethnic identity. The kingdom was split on the death of Lothair II in 869
into those of Lotharingia, Provence (with Burgundy divided between it and Lotharingia), and north Italy.

East Francia was the land of Louis the German. It was divided into four
duchies: Swabia (Alamannia), Franconia, Saxonyand Bavaria; to which after the death of Lothair II were added
the eastern parts of Lotharingia. This division persisted until 1268, the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty. Otto
I was crowned on 2 February 962, marking the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire (translatio imperii). From the
10th century, East Francia became also known as regnum Teutonicum("Teutonic kingdom" or "Kingdom of
Germany"), a term that became prevalent in Salian times. The title of Holy Roman Emperor was used from that
time, beginning with Conrad II.

Life in Francia[edit]
Law[edit]
The different Frankish tribes, such as the Salii, Ripuarii, and Chamavi, had different legal traditions, which were
only lately codified, largely under Charlemagne. The Leges Salica, Ribuaria, and Chamavorum were Carolingian
creations, their basis in earlier Frankish reality being difficult for scholars to discern at the present distance. Under
Charlemagne codifications were also made of the Saxon law and the Frisian law.
It was also under Frankish hegemony that the other Germanic societies east of the Rhine began to codify their
tribal law, in such compilations as the Lex Alamannorum and Lex Bajuvariorum for the Alemanni and Bavarii
respectively. Throughout the Frankish kingdoms there continued to be Gallo-Romans subject to Roman law and
clergy subject to canon law. After the Frankish conquest of Septimania and Catalonia, those regions which had
formerly been under Gothic control continued to utilise the Visigothic law code.
During the early period Frankish law was preserved by the rachimburgs, officials trained to remember it and pass
it on. The Merovingians adopted the capitulary as a tool for the promulgation and preservation of royal
ordinances. Its usage was to continue under the Carolingians and even the
later Spoletan emperors Guy and Lambert under a programme of renovation regni Francorum ("renewal of the
Frankish kingdom").
The last Merovingian capitulary was one of the most significant: the edict of Paris, issued by Chlothar II in 614 in
the presence of his magnates, had been likened to a Frankish Magna Carta entrenching the rights of the nobility,
but in actuality it sought to remove corruption from the judiciary and protect local and regional interests. Even
after the last Merovingian capitulary, kings of the dynasty continued to independently exercise some legal powers.
Childebert III even found cases against the powerful Arnulfings and became renowned among the people for his
justness. But law in Francia was to experience a renaissance under the Carolingians.
Among the legal reforms adopted by Charlemagne were the codifications of traditional law mentioned above. He
also sought to place checks on the power of local and regional judiciaries by the method of appointing missi
dominici in pairs to oversee specific regions for short periods of time. Usually missi were selected from outside
their respective regions in order to prevent conflicts of interest. A capitulary of 802 gives insight into their duties.
They were to execute justice, enforce respect for the royal rights, control the administration of
the counts and dukes (then still royal appointees), receive the oath of allegiance, and supervise the clergy.

Church[edit]
Further information: Christianity in Merovingian Gaul, Christianity in France and Gregory of Tours

Further information: Christianity in the 6th century, Christianity in the 7th century, Christianity in the 8th
century and Christianity in the 9th century
The Frankish Church grew out of the Church in Gaul in the Merovingian period, which was given a
particularly Germanic development in a number of "Frankish synods" throughout the 6th and 7th centuries, and
with the Carolingian Renaissance, the Frankish Church became a substantial influence of the medieval Western
Church.
In the 7th century, the territory of the Frankish realm was (re-)Christianized with the help of Irish and Scottish
missionaries. The result was the establishment of numerous monasteries, which would become the nucleus
of Old High German literacy in the Carolingian Empire. Columbanus was active in the Frankish Empire from 590,
establishing monasteries until his death at Bobbio in 615. He arrived on the continent with twelve companions
and founded Annegray, Luxeuil, and Fontaines in France and Bobbio in Italy. During the 7th century the disciples
of Columbanus and other Scottish and Irish missionaries founded several monasteries or Schottenklster in what
are now France, Germany, Belgium, and Switzerland. The Irish influence in these monasteries is reflected in the
adoption of Insular style in book production, visible in 8th-century works such as the Gelasian Sacramentary.
The Insular influence on the uncial script of the later Merovingian period eventually gave way to the development
of the Carolingian minuscule in the 9th century.

Society[edit]
The most dramatic change in medieval Gaul was the collapse of trade and town life. While many "towns" existed
in theDark Ages, they were usually only the fortified villages or market-centers surrounding government or
religious buildings; many of these towns were descended from Roman cities. There were, however, improvements
in agriculture, notably the adoption of a new heavy plough and the growing use of the three-field system.

Currency[edit]
Byzantine coinage was in use in Francia before Theudebert I began minting his own money at the start of his
reign. Thesolidus and triens were minted in Francia between 534 and 679. The denarius (or denier) appeared
later, in the name ofChilderic II and various non-royals around 673675. A Carolingian denarius replaced the
Merovingian one, and the Frisianpenning, in Gaul from 755 to the eleventh century.
The denarius subsequently appeared in Italy issued in the name of Carolingian monarchs after 794, later by socalled "native" kings in the tenth century, and later still by the German Emperors from Otto I (962). Finally, denarii
were issued in Rome in the names of pope and emperor from Leo III and Charlemagne onwards to the late tenth
century.[1]

See also[edit]

List of modern countries within the Frankish Empire

List of Frankish kings

Salian Franks
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Salic" redirects here. For the body of Frankish law, see Salic law.
"Salians" redirects here. For the eleventh-century dynasty, see Salian dynasty. For the Roman priests, see Salii.

Signet ring of Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks from 457 to 481. Inscription CHILDIRICI REGIS ("of
Childeric the king").[1] Found in his tomb at Tournai, now in the Monnaie de Paris

Toxandria, original acquired homeland of the Salian Franks, within the Western Roman Empire, labelled
"Franks"
The Salian Franks (Latin: Salii) were a subgroup of the early Franks who first appear in the historical records in
the 3rd century AD. At that time, they lived north of the Rhine delta and therefore north of the limes ofRoman
Gaul, which ran along the Rhine. They were characterised as both warlike Germanic people and pirates, and
as Laeti (allies of the Romans). Shortly thereafter, they became the first Germanic tribe from beyond thelimes to
settle permanently on Roman land. After moving into Batavia, a border island in the Rhine, in 358, they came to
some form of agreement with the Romans who allowed them to settle south of the Rhine inToxandria (roughly the
area of the current Dutch and Belgian provinces ofNoord-Brabant, Antwerpen and the northern "Kempen"
(French Campine) part of Belgian Limburg).
Over time, the Salians fully adopted the Frankish identity and ceased to appear by their original name from the
7th century onward, when they evolved into the Franks par excellence.[2] The Lex Ripuaria originated about 630
around Cologne and has been described as a later development of the Frankish laws known from Lex Salica.
TheMerovingian kings responsible for the conquest of Gaul are thought to have had Salian ancestry.

Etymology[edit]
From the early 6th century on, the name Salian Franks (Salii in Latin)[3] is used to contrast with the Ripuarian
Franks. Salii may have derived from the name of the IJssel river, formerly called Hisloa or Hisla, and in ancient
times, Sala, which may be the Salians' original residence.[4] Today this area is called Salland. Alternatively, the
name may derive from a proposed Germanic word *saljon meaning friend or comrade, indicating that the term
initially implied an alliance.[5]

Culture[edit]
The Salian Franks are one of the peoples who formed the foundation for early (both Northern- and Southern)
Dutch culture and society since the fall of the Roman empire. After settling within Roman territory, they developed

an organized society that developed the agriculture in regions that had become underpopulated. The Salian
Frankish language is ancestral to the modern family of Low Franconian dialects (including Dutch).
The Salian tribes constituted a loose confederacy that banded together to negotiate with Roman authority. Each
tribe consisted of extended family groups centered around a particularly renowned or noble family. The
importance of the family bond was made clear by the Salic Law, which ordained that an individual had no right to
protection if not part of a family.

Mythology and religion[edit]


Main article: Frankish mythology
While the Goths or the Vandals had been at least partly Christianised since the mid-4th century, polytheistic
beliefs are thought to have flourished among the Salian Franks until the conversion of Clovis to Christianity
shortly before or after 500,[6] after which paganism withered slowly.

History[edit]
The Salian Franks' original proximity to the sea is attested in the first historical records. In about
286 Carausius was put in charge of defending the coasts of the Straits of Dover against Saxon and Frankish
pirates.[7] This changed when theSaxons drove them south into Roman territory. Their history is attested
by Ammianus Marcellinus and Zosimus, who described their migrations toward the southern Netherlands
and Belgium. They first crossed the Rhine during the Roman upheavals and subsequent Germanic breakthrough
in 260 AD.
When peace had returned, Roman Emperor Constantius I Chlorus allowed the Salians to settle in 297 AD
amongst theBatavians, where they soon came to dominate the Batavian island in the Rhine delta. The
backgrounds of the seafaring Franks whose story was written down during the reign of emperor Probus (276282), are not clear: it is not known whether this people were unwillingly obliged to serve the Roman army as had
the Batavians before them, or if they were assigned another territory close to the Black Sea. The story tells of a
large group who decided to hijack some Roman ships and return with them from Eastern Europe reaching their
homes in the Rhine estuaries without large losses through Greece, Sicily and Gibraltar, although not without
causing mayhem.[8] Franks ceased to be associated with seafaring when other Germanic tribes, probably Saxons,
drove them to the south. The Salians received protection from the Romans and in return were recruited
by Constantius Gallus together with the other inhabitants of the Batavian isle. This did not prevent the onslaught
of the Germanic tribes to the north, especially by the Frankish Chamavi. The subsequent "insolent" settlement of
the Salians within Roman territory in Toxandria (between the Meuse and the Scheldt rivers in
the Netherlands and Belgium) was rejected by the future Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate, who attacked
them. The Salians surrendered to him in 358 AD and accepted Roman terms.[9] According to Zosimus, when the
Salians in Batavia came under attack from Saxons, who were this time raiding Roman (and the Salians) from the
sea, Julian took the opportunity to peacefully allow the Salii to settle in Toxandria, where they had previously been
expelled:
"[Julian] commanded his army to attack them briskly; but not to kill any of the Salii, or prevent them from entering
the Roman territories, because they came not as enemies, but were forced there [...] As soon as the Salii heard of
the kindness of Caesar, some of them went with their king into the Roman territory, and others fled to the

extremity of their country, but all humbly committed their lives and fortunes to Caesar's gracious protection." The
Salians were then brought into Roman units defending the empire from other Frankish raiders.[10]
One particular Salian family comes to light of Frankish history in the early fifth century, in time to become
theMerovingians Salian kings named after Childeric's mythical father Merovech, whose birth was attributed with
supernatural elements.
From the 420s onwards, headed by a certain Chlodio, they expanded their territory to the Somme into
northern France. They formed a kingdom in that area with the Belgian city of Tournai becoming the center of their
domain. This kingdom was extended further by Childeric and especially Clovis, who gained control over Roman
Gaul, i.e. France, whose current name was derived from the Franks.
In 451, Flavius Atius, de facto ruler of the Western Roman Empire, called upon his Germanic allies on Roman
soil to help fight off an invasion by Attila's Huns. The Salian Franks answered the call and fought in the battle of
the Catalaunian Fieldsin a temporary alliance with Romans and Visigoths, which de facto ended the Hunnic threat
to Western Europe.
Clovis, king of the Salian Franks, became the absolute ruler of a Germanic kingdom of mixed Roman-Germanic
population in 486. He consolidated his rule with victories over the Gallo-Romans and all the other Frankish tribes
and established his capital in Paris. After he had beaten the Visigoths and the Alemanni, his sons drove the
Visigoths to Spain and subdued theBurgundians, Alemanni and Thuringians. After 250 years of this dynasty,
however, marked by internecine struggles, a gradual decline occurred. The position in society of the Merovingians
was taken over by Carolingians, who came from a northern area around the river Maas in what is now Belgium
and southern Netherlands.
In Gaul, a fusion of Roman and Germanic societies was occurring. During the period of Merovingian rule, the
Franks reluctantly began to adopt Christianity following the baptism of Clovis I in 496, an event that inaugurated
the alliance between the Frankish kingdom and the Roman Catholic Church. Unlike
their Goth and Lombard counterparts, who adoptedArianism, the Salians adopted Catholic Christianity early on;
they had an intimate relationship with their ecclesiastical hierarchy, subjects, and conquered territories.
The division of the Frankish kingdom among Cloviss four sons (511) was a precedent that would influence
Frankish history for more than four centuries. By then the Salic Law had established the exclusive right to
succession of male descendants. However, this principle turned out to be an exercise in interpretation, rather than
the simple implementation of a new model of succession. No trace of an established practice of territorial division
can in fact be discovered among Germanic peoples other than the Franks.
By the 9th century, if not earlier, the division between Salian and Ripuarian Franks had in practice become
virtually non-existent, but continued for some time to have implications for the legal system under which a person
could go on trial. The adjective Salian, as applied to the Frankish people, is the origin of the name of the Salic
Law.

See also[edit]

Ripuarian Franks

Salic law

Sicambri

Chamavi

Carolingian Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Carolingian Empire at its greatest extent, with the three main divisions of 843 and tributary nations to
the east.
The Carolingian Empire (800888) was the final stage in the history of the early medieval realm of the Franks,
ruled by the Carolingian dynasty. The size of the empire at its zenith around 800 AD was 1,112,000 km2, with a
population of between 10 and 20 million people.[1]
With its division in 843, it also represents the earliest stage in the history of the kingdom of France and
the kingdom of Germany, which in the High Middle Ages would emerge as the powerful monarchies of continental
Europe, Capetian France and the Holy Roman Empire, and by extension the predecessor of the modern nations
of Franceand Germany. The beginning of the Carolingian era is marked by the coronation of Charlemagne, or
Charles the Great by Pope Leo III at Christmas of the year 800, and its end with the death of Charles the Fat.
[2]

Because Charlemagne and his ancestors had been rulers of the Frankish realm earlier (his grandfather Charles

Martel had essentially founded the empire during his lifetime, and his father,Pepin the Short, was the first King of
the Franks), the coronation did not actually constitute a new empire. Most historians prefer to use the term
"Frankish Kingdoms" or "Frankish Realm" to refer to the area covering parts of today's Germany and France from
the 5th to the 9th century.
According to the American Heritage Dictionary, the term "Carolingian" comes from the French terms "Carolingien"
and "Carlovingien", probably a blend of Carolus (Latin for Charles) and "Mrovingien".

Buildup and defense of the Frankish Realm[edit]

Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours, where he stopped an Umayyadinvasion force.


Though Charles Martel chose not to take the title King, as his son Pepin III the Short would, or Emperor, as his
grandson Charlemagne would become titled, he was absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental Western
Europe north of thePyrenees. Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered,Lombardy, and the
Marca Hispanica north of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death.
Martel was also the founder of all the feudal systems and merit system that marked the Carolingian Empire, and
Europe in general during the Middle Ages, though his son and grandson would gain credit for his innovations.
Further, Martel cemented his place in history with his defense of Christian Europe against a Muslim army at
the Battle of Tours in 732. The Iberian Saracens had incorporated Berber lighthorse cavalry with the heavy Arab
cavalry to create a formidable army that had almost never been defeated. Christian European forces, meanwhile,
lacked the powerful tool of the stirrup. In this victory, Charles earned the surname Martel ("the Hammer"). Edward
Gibbon, the historian of Rome and its aftermath, called Charles Martel "the paramount prince of his age."
Pepin III accepted the nomination as king by Pope Zachary in about 751. Charlemagne's rule began in 768 at
Pepin's death. He proceeded to take control over the kingdom upon the death of his brother, a co-inheritor of
Pepin. Charlemagne was crowned Roman Emperor in the year 800.[3]

AbbasidCarolingian alliance

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Harun al-Rashid receiving a delegation ofCharlemagne in Baghdad, by Julius Kckert.


An AbbasidCarolingian alliance[1][2][3] was attempted and partially formed during the 8th to 9th century through
a series of embassies, rapprochements and combined military operations between theFrankish Carolingian
Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate or the pro-Abbasid Muslim rulers in Spain. These contacts followed the intense
conflict between the Carolingians and the Umayyads, marked by theBattle of Tours in 732, and were aimed at
establishing a counter-alliance with the faraway Abbasid Empire. Slightly later, another Carolingian-Abbasid
alliance was attempted in a conflict against theByzantine Empire.

Background[edit]
Main article: Islamic invasion of Gaul

Muslim troops leaving Narbonne toPpin le Bref, in 759, after 40 years of occupation.
The Islamic invasion of Gaul from 719 to 759 was a period of intense conflict between the Carolingians and
the Umayyads, marked by the Battle of Toursin 732. Umayyad forces were finally expelled from Gaul with the
recovery ofNarbonne in 759 by Pepin the Short, but the Umayyad presence in Spain continued to represent a
strong threat to the Carolingians.

Contacts under Pepin the Short[edit]


Embassies[edit]

Abbasid Caliphate (green) at its greatest extent, c. 850.


Contacts between the Carolingians and the Abbasids started soon after the establishment of the Abbasid
Caliphate and the concommital fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in 751. The Carolingian rulerPepin the Short had a
powerful enough position in Europe to "make his alliance valuable to the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad,al-Mansur".
[4]

Former supporters of the Umayyad Caliphate were established firmly in southern Spain under Abd ar-Rahman

I, and constituted a strategic threat both to the Carolingian on their southern border, and to the Abbasid at the
western end of their dominion.

A mancus or gold dinar of the English king Offa of Mercia (757796), a copy of the dinars of the Abbasid
Caliphate (774). It combines the Latin legend OFFA REX with Arabic legends. British Museum.
Embassies were exchanged both ways, with the apparent objective of cooperating against the Umayyads of
Spain: a Frank embassy went to Baghdad in 765 which returned to Europe after three years with numerous
presents, and an Abbasid embassy from Al-Mansur visited France in 768.[4]

Commercial exchanges[edit]
Commercial exchanges occurred between the Carolingian and Abassid realms, and Arabic coins are known to
have spread in Carolingian Europe in that period.[5]Arab gold is reported to have circulated in Europe during the
9th century, apparently in payment of the export of slaves, timber, iron and weapons from Europe to Eastern
lands.[6] As a famous example, the 8th century English king Offa of Mercia is known to have minted copies
of Abbasid dinars struck in 774 by CaliphAl-Mansur with "Offa Rex" centered on the reverse amid inscriptions
in Pseudo-Kufic script.[7][8]

The Umayyad invasion of Gaul followed the Umayyad conquest of Hispania spearheaded by
the North African commander Tariq ibn Ziyad in 711. During the 8th century, Muslim Umayyad
armies conquered the region of Septimania, the last remnant of the Visigothic Kingdom.[1]
The Umayyad advance was stopped at the Battle of Toulouse in 721, but they sporadically raided
Southern Gaul as far as Avignon, Lyon, and Autun.[2] After the 732 Battle of Tours-Poitiers, the
Franks checked Aquitanian sovereignty, and reasserted their authority over Burgundy, but only
later in 759 did they manage to take the Mediterranean region of Septimania, due to Andalusi
neglect and local Gothic disaffection.[3]
Contents
[hide]

1 Ummayad conquest of Septimania

2 Raid into Aquitaine and Poitou


o

2.1 Uthman ibn Naissa's revolt

2.2 Umayyad expedition over Aquitaine

2.3 Battle of Tours (732)

3 Expansion to Provence and Charles Martel

4 Loss of Septimania

5 See also

6 Notes

Ummayad conquest of Septimania[edit]


By 716, under the pressure of the Muslims from the south, theKingdom of the Visigoths had been
rapidly reduced to the province ofSeptimania, a region which corresponds approximately to the

modernLanguedoc-Roussillon, and present-day Catalonia. By 717, the Umayyads under al-Hurr


ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Thaqafi started to cross the eastern Pyrenees into Aquitanian territory and
Septimania as a continuation to their Iberian conquest, but the commander failed to advance
further.
After being replaced by al-Samh, Arab-Berber forces seized Barcelona and the Septimanian city
of Narbonne (Arbouna for the Arabs) in 719 despite local resistance. A sizable number of the
town defenders and inhabitants were killed in the aftermath by the victorious Umayyad forces.
From 720 on, Narbonne became the capital city of Muslim Septimania, and used as a base
for razzias. A mosque was established in Narbonne, inside the church of Sainte-Rustique.
However, the Umayyad tide was temporarily halted in the large-scaleBattle of Toulouse (721),
when Emir al-Samh (the "Zama" of Christian chronicles) was killed by Odo of Aquitaine. In
general terms the Gothic Septimania surrendered to the Muslims in favourable conditions for
them, allowing the Umayyads to rule the region with the conditioned support of the local
population and the Gothic nobles.
In 725, his successor, Anbasa ibn Suhaym Al-Kalbi, besieged the city of Carcassonne, which had
to agree to give half of its territory, pay tribute, and make an offensive and defensive alliance with
Muslim forces. Nimes and all the other main Septimanian cities fell too under the sway of the
Umayyads. In the 720s the savage fighting, the massacres and destruction particularly affecting
the Ebro valley and Septimania unleashed a flow of refugees who mainly found shelter in
southern Aquitaine across the Pyrenees, and Provence.[4]
Later, Munuza became governor of the Cerdanya (also including a large swathe of present-day
Catalonia), but rebelled against Cordovan central rule. The Berber leader allied with the
Aquitanian duke Odo, who was eager to stabilize his borders, and married his daughter.
Arabic words were borrowed, such as qamis for "chemise" (shirt); quffa ("couffin" in Provence
language); tordjman(translator) which became drogoman in Provenal, and is still in use in the
expression "par le truchement de"; charaha (to discuss), which became "charabia".

Raid into Aquitaine and Poitou[edit]

Muslim Hispania in 732, Septimania is to the northeast, aroundCarcassonne

Uthman ibn Naissa's revolt[edit]


By 725, all of Septimania was under Umayyad rule. Uthman ibn Naissa, the Pyrenean Berber
lord ruler of the eastern Pyrenees, detached from Cordova, establishing a principality based on a
Berber power base (731). He went on to kill Nambaudus, the bishop of Urgell,[5] an official acting
on the orders of the Church of Toledo. The new Umayyad governor in Cordova, Abdul Rahman Al
Ghafiqi, mustered an expedition to punish the Berber commander's insubordination, surrounding
and putting him to death in Cerdanya, according to the Mozarabic Chronicler, a just retribution for
killing the Gothic bishop.

Umayyad expedition over Aquitaine[edit]


Emboldened by his success, he attacked Uthman ibn Naissa's Aquitanian ally Duke Odo, who
had just encountered Charles Martel's devastating offensive onBourges and northern Aquitaine
(731). Still managing to recruit the necessary number of soldiers, the independent Odo
confronted al-Ghafiqi's forces that had broken north by the western Pyrenees, but could not hold
back the Arab commander's thrust against Bordeaux. The Aquitanian leader was beaten at
the Battle of the River Garonne in 732. The Umayyad force then moved north to invade Poitou in
order to plunder the Basilica of Saint-Martin-de-Tours.

Battle of Tours (732)[edit]


Odo still found the opportunity to save his grip on Aquitaine by warning the rising Frankish
commander Charles of the impending danger against the Frankish sacred city of
Tours. Umayyad forces were defeated in the Battle of Tours in 732, considered by many the
turning point of Muslim expansion in Gaul. With the death of Odo in 735 and after putting down
the Aquitanian detachment attempt led by duke Hunald, Charles Martel went on to deal with
Burgundy (734, 736) and the Mediterranean south of Gaul (736, 737).

Expansion to Provence and Charles Martel[edit]

Muslim troops leaving Narbonne toPpin le Bref, in 759, after 40 years of occupation.

Still, in 734, Umayyad forces (called "Saracens" at the time) under Abd el-Malik el Fihri, Abd alRahman's successor, received without a fight the submission of the cities of Avignon, Arles, and
probably Marseille, ruled by count Maurontus. The patrician of Provence had called Andalusi
forces in to protect his strongholds from the Carolingian thrust, maybe estimating his own
garrisons too weak to fend off Charles Martel's well-organised, strong army made up
of vassi enriched with Church lands.
Charles faced the opposition of various regional actors. To begin with the Gothic and GalloRoman nobility of the region, who feared his aggressive and overbearing policy. [6] Charles
decided to ally with the Lombard King Liutprand in order to repel the Umayyads and the regional
nobility of Gothic and Gallo-Roman stock. He also underwent the hostility of the dukes of
Aquitaine, who jeopardized Charles' and his successor Pepin's rearguard (737, 752) during their
military operations in Septimania and Provence. The dukes of Aquitaine in turn largely relied on
the strength of the Basque troops, acting on a strategic alliance with the Aquitanians since mid7th century.
In 737, Charles captured and reduced Avignon to rubble, besides destroying the Umayyad fleet.
The brother of Charles,Childebrand failed however in the siege of Narbonne. Charles attacked
several other cities which had collaborated with the Umayyads, and destroyed their
fortifications: Beziers, Agde, Maguelone, Montpellier, Nimes. Before his return to the northern
Francia, Charles had managed to crush all opposition in Provence and Lower Rhone. Count
Maurontus of Marseille fled to the Alps.

Loss of Septimania[edit]
Muslims reasserted their authority over Septimania for another 15 years. However, in 752, the
newly proclaimed king Pepin, led a new campaign into Septimania, when regional Gothic
allegiances were shifting in favour of the Frankish king. That year, Pepin conquered Nimes and
went on to subdue most of Septimania up to the gates of Narbonne. In his quest to subdue the
Muslim Gothic Septimania, Charles found the opposition of another actor, the Duke of Aquitaine.

The Duke Waiffer, aware of the expansionist ambitions of Charles' heir Ppin le Bref, is recorded
attacking him on the rearguard with an army of Basques on his siege of Narbonne (752).
It was ultimately the Frankish king who managed to take Narbonne in 759, after vowing to
respect the Gothic law and earning the allegiance of the Gothic nobility and population, thus
marking the end of the Muslim presence in southern Gaul. Furthermore, Ppin directed all his
war effort against the Duchy of Aquitaine immediately after subduing Roussillon.
Ppin's son, Charlemagne, fulfilled the Frankish goal of extending the defensive boundaries of
the empire beyond Septimania and the Pyrenees, creating a strong barrier state between the
Umayyad Emirate and Francia. This buffer zoneknown as the "Spanish March" would become a
focus for the Reconquista.

Back to Alliance: Charlemagne's alliance [edit]


Military alliance in Spain (777-778)[edit]
In 777, pro-Abbasid rulers of northern Spain contacted the Carolingian to request help against the
powerful Umayyad Caliphate in southern Spain, still led by Abd ar-Rahman I.[9] The "Spanish Abbasids sought
support for their cause in Pepin's Francia; he was content to oblige because the Cordoban dynasty posed a
constant military threat to southwestern France".[10]
Sulayman al-Arabi the pro-Abbasid Wali (governor) of Barcelona and Girona sent a delegation
to Charlemagne inPaderborn, offering his submission, together with the allegiance of Husayn of
Zaragoza and Abu Taur of Huesca in return for military aid.[9] The three pro-Abbasid rulers also conveyed that the
caliph of Baghdad, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was preparing an invasion force against the Umayyad ruler Abd alRhaman I.[9]

The Battle of Roncevaux Passended Charlemagne's 777-778 campaign against the Umayyads in Spain.
Following the sealing of this alliance at Paderborn,[11] Charlemagne marched across the Pyrenees in 778 "at the
head of all the forces he could muster".[12] His troops were welcomed in Barcelona and Girona by Sulayman al-

Arabi.[13] As he moved towards Zaragoza, the troops of Charlemagne were joined by troops led by Sulayman.
[12]

Husayn of Zaragoza, however, refused to surrender the city, claiming that he had never promised

Charlemagne his allegiance. Meanwhile, the force sent by the Baghdad caliphate seems to have been stopped
nearBarcelona.[14] After a month of siege at Zaragoza, Charlemagne decided to return to his kingdom.[14] On his
retreat, Charlemagne suffered an attack from theBasques in central Navarra. As a reprisal he attacked Pamplona,
destroying it.[14]However on his retreat north his baggage train was ambushed by the Basques at the Battle of
Roncevaux Pass August 15, 778.[15]
Carolingian presence remained south of the Pyrenees however, and the city ofGirona was captured in 785, and
they then concentrated on expanding their rule to Vich, Caserras and Cardona.[16]
The Muslims made their last incursion in Gaul in 793, where they sacked the suburbs of Narbonne, and
defeated William of Gellone, count of Toulouse near Carcassonne.[17]

Later contacts[edit]

Charlemagne and Harun Al-Rashid exchanged numerous embassies and lavish presents.
Left image: A coin of Charlemagne with the inscription KAROLVS IMP AVG (Karolus imperator augustus).
Right image: Persian miniature representing Harun Al-Rashid.
After these campaigns, there were again numerous embassies between Charlemagne and the Abbasid
caliphHarun al-Rashid from 797,[18] apparently in view of a Carolingian-Abbasid alliance against Byzantium,[19] or
with a view to gaining an alliance against the Umayyads of Spain.[17]

Strategic interest[edit]
Indeed, "Charles's conflict with the Umayyad Emir of Cordova made him an ally of the Abbasid emir of Baghdad,
the celebrated Harun al-Rashid",[20] and they were "forming a pact against a common enemy - namely the Muslim
rulers in Umayyad Spain".[21]
For Charlemagne, the alliance may also have functioned as a counterweight against the Byzantine Empire, which
was opposed to his role in Italy and his claim to the title of Roman Emperor. For Harun al-Rashid, there was an
advantage in having a partner against his rivals in Umayyad Spain.[22]

Embassies[edit]

Automatic clock of al-Jazari, with birds dropping balls every hour andautomata of musicians, 14th century
copy.
Three embassies were sent by Charlemagne to Harun al-Rashid's court and the latter sent at least two
embassies to the Charlemagne.[19] Harun al-Rashid is reported to have sent numerous presents to Charlemagne,
such as aromatics, fabrics, a clock, a chessboard, and an elephant named Abu 'Abbas.[19] The automatic clock

was a water-clock made of brass, described in the 807 Royal Frankish Annals. It marked the 12 hours with balls
of brass falling on a plate every hour, and also had twelve horsemen who appeared in turn at each hour.[23][24]

A white war elephant from 11th century Spain.


The 797 embassy, the first one from Charlemagne, was composed of three men, the Jew Isaac (Isaac Judaeus,
probably as interpreter),[25] Lantfrid and Sigimud, and Harun al-Rashid was described as "Aaron, king of the
Persians".[26] Four years later in 801, an Abassid embassy arrived in Pisa, composed of "a Persian from the East"
and one envoy "Emir Abraham, probably Harun al-Rashid's governor in North Africa,Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab, with
news about Jew Isaac that he was returning with numerous presents. They met with Charlemagne who was
present in Italy at that time.[27]
In 799, Charlemagne sent another mission to the Patriarch of Jerusalem.[28]
Apparently led by encouragements from Spain, Louis the Pious, king of Aquitaine, captured Barcelona in 801, but
failed to extend his conquests to Tortosa, which would remain Muslim for the next 300 years.[17]
In 802, a second embassy was sent by Charlemagne, which returned in 806.[29]
In 807, Rodbertus, Charlemagne's ambassador died as he returned from Persia.[27] Harun al-Rashid is also
reported to have offered the custody of the Holy places in Jerusalem to Charlemagne.[19] In 807, Abdallah, "sent
by the king of the Persian", reached Charlemagne in Aachen accompanied by two monks from Jerusalem,
George (a German named Egilbaldus, prior of the Monastery of the Mount of Olives) and Felix, envoys of the
Patriarch Thomas. They also brought many gifts, including a clock ("Horologium").[27]

The third and final embassy was sent by Charlemagne in 809, but it arrived after Harun al-Rashid had died.
[19]

The embassy returned in 813 with messages of friendship, but little concrete results.[29]

Artistic influences[edit]
Various Islamic influences seem to appear in Christian religious architecture such as the multi-colored tile designs
which may have been inspired by Islamic polychromy in the 800 CE gatehouse at Lorsch Abbey.[30]
Early Carolingian architecture generally combines Roman, Early Christian, Byzantine, Islamic and Northern
Europeandesigns.[31]

Louis the Pious received an embassy from Harun al-Rashid's son al Ma'mun in 831.
In the Byzantine Empire from 723 to 842, Islam and Judaism influenced a Christian movement towards the
destruction of images this time, an event known as "Iconoclasm".[32] According to Arnold Toynbee, it is the prestige
of Islamic military successes in the 7-8th centuries that motivated Byzantine Christians into evaluating and
adopting the Islamic precept of the destruction of idolatric images.[33] Charlemagne himself attempted to follow the
iconoclastic precepts of the East Roman Emperor Leo Syrus, but this was stopped by Pope Hadrian I.[33]

Aftermath[edit]
It seems that in 831, Harun al-Rashid's son al Ma'mun also sent an embassy toLouis the Pious.[34] These
embassies also seem to have had the objective of promoting commerce between the two realms.[34]
After 814 and the accession of Louis the Pious to the throne, internal dissensions prevented the Carolingians
from further ventures into Spain.[17]
Almost a century later Bertha, daughter of Lothar II and mother of several tenth-century Italian kings, is reported
to have sent an embassy to the Abbasid caliph Al-Muktafi, requesting friendship and a marital alliance.[35]

See also[edit]
Foreign alliances of France

BTCE: The Empire during the reign of Charlemagne (768814) [edit]


See also: Carolingian Renaissance

A coin depicting Charlemagne with the inscription KAROLVS IMP AVG (Karolus imperator augustus)
The Carolingian Empire during the reign of Charlemagne covered most of Western Europe, as the Roman
Empire once had. Unlike the Romans, who ventured beyond the Rhine only for vengeance after the disaster
at Teutoburg Forest (9 AD), Charlemagne decisively crushed all Germanic resistance and extended his realm to
the Elbe, influencing events almost to the Russian Steppes.
Prior to the death of Charlemagne, the Empire was divided among various members of the Carolingian dynasty.
These included King Charles the Younger, son of Charlemagne, who received Neustria; King Louis the Pious,
who receivedAquitaine; and King Pepin, who received Italy. Pepin died with an illegitimate son,Bernard, in 810,
and Charles died without heirs in 811. Although Bernard succeeded Pepin as King of Italy, Louis was made coEmperor in 813, and the entire Empire passed to him with Charlemagne's death in the winter of 814.[4]

Carolingian Renaissance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Carolingian minuscule, one of the products of the Carolingian Renaissance.

Lorsch Abbey gatehouse, c. 800, an example of the Carolingian architectural style - a first, albeit
isolated classical movement in architecture.
The Carolingian Renaissance, the first of three medieval renaissances, was a period of cultural activity in
the Carolingian Empire occurring from the late eighth century to the ninth century, taking inspiration from the
Christian Roman Empire of the 4th century. During this period there was an increase of literature, writing,
thearts, architecture, jurisprudence, liturgical reforms, and scriptural studies.
The Carolingian Renaissance occurred mostly during the reigns of the Carolingianrulers Charlemagne and Louis
the Pious. It was supported by the scholars of theCarolingian court, notably Alcuin of York.
[1]

Charlemagne's Admonitio generalis(789) and his Epistola de litteris colendis served as manifestos.

The effects of this cultural revival were largely limited to a small group of courtliterati: "it had a spectacular effect
on education and culture in Francia, a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an unmeasurable effect on
what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society," John Contreni observes.[2]Beyond
their efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts, and to develop a more legible,
classicizing script, the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed
ashumanist minuscule, from which has developed early modern Italic script, the secular and ecclesiastical
leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance for the first time in centuries applied rational ideas to social issues,
providing a common language and writing style that allowed for communication across most of Europe.

3Import[edit]
Kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived by the
skin of its teeth.[3] However, the use of the term renaissance to describe this period is contested[4] due to the
majority of changes brought about by this period being confined almost entirely to the clergy, and due to the
period lacking the wide-ranging social movements of the later Italian Renaissance.[5] Instead of being a rebirth of
new cultural movements, the period was more an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the Roman Empire.
[6]

The Carolingian Renaissance in retrospect also has some of the character of a false dawn, in that its cultural

gains were largely dissipated within a couple of generations, a perception voiced by Walahfrid Strabo (died 849),
in his introduction to Einhard's Life of Charlemagne,[7] summing up the generation of renewal:
Charlemagne was able to offer the cultureless and, I might say, almost completely unenlightened territory of the
realm which God had entrusted to him, a new enthusiasm for all human knowledge. In its earlier state of
barbarousness, his kingdom had been hardly touched at all by any such zeal, but now it opened its eyes to God's
illumination. In our own time the thirst for knowledge is disappearing again: the light of wisdom is less and less
sought after and is now becoming rare again in most men's minds.[8]

Scholarly efforts[edit]
See also: Carolingian minuscule and Medieval Latin
A lack of Latin literacy in eighth century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severely
limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where Latin was valued. Of even
greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read the Vulgate
Bible. An additional problem was that the vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge
into the regional dialects, the precursors to today's Romance languages, that were becoming mutually
unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of Europe being able to communicate with persons from
another part of Europe.

Alcuin (pictured center), was one of the leading scholars of the Carolingian Renaissance.
To address these problems, Charlemagne ordered the creation of schools in acapitulary known as the Charter of
Modern Thought, issued in 787.[9] A major part of his program of reform was to attract many of the leading
scholars of the Christiandom of his day to his court. Among the first called to court were Italians:Peter of Pisa,
who from 776 to about 790 instructed Charlemagne in Latin, and from 776 to 787 Paulinus of Aquileia, whom
Charlemagne nominated as patriarch of Aquileia in 787. The Lombard Paul the Deacon was brought to court in
782 and remained until 787, when Charles nominated him abbot of Montecassino. Theodulf of Orlans was
a Spanish Goth who served at court from 782 to 797 when nominated as bishop of Orlans. Theodulf had been
in friendly competition over the standardization of the Vulgate with the chief among the Charlemagne's
scholars,Alcuin of York. Alcuin was a Northumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of the Palace School
from 782 to 796, except for the years 790 to 793 when he returned to England. After 796, he continued his
scholarly work as abbot of St. Martin's Monastery in Tours.[5] Among those to follow Alcuin across the Channel to
the Frankish court was Joseph Scottus, an Irishman who left some original biblical commentary and acrostic
experiments. After this first generation of non-Frankish scholars, their Frankish pupils, such as Angilbert, would
make their own mark.
The later courts of Louis the Pious and Charles the Bald had similar groups of scholars. Among the most
important wasJohn Scotus Eriugena.
One of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools.
Alcuin led this effort and was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, and establishing
the trivium andquadrivium as the basis for education.[10]
Another contribution from this period was the development of Carolingian minuscule, a "book-hand" first used at
the monasteries of Corbie and Tours that introduced the use of lower case letters. A standardized version of Latin
was also developed that allowed for the coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of Classical
Latin. This Medieval Latin became a common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travelers
to make themselves understood in various regions of Europe.[11]

Carolingian art[edit]

Aachen Gospels (c. 820), an example of Carolingian illumination.


Main article: Carolingian art
Carolingian art spans the roughly hundred-year period from about 800900. Although brief, it was an influential
period. Northern Europe embraced classical Mediterranean Roman art forms for the first time, setting the stage
for the rise ofRomanesque art and eventually Gothic art in the West. Illuminated manuscripts,metalwork, smallscale sculpture, mosaics, and frescos survive from the period.

A copy of the Plan of Saint Gall

Carolingian architecture[edit]
Main article: Carolingian architecture
Carolingian architecture is the style of North European architecture promoted by Charlemagne. The period of
architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuries until the reign of Otto I in 936, and was a conscious attempt
to create a RomanRenaissance, emulating Roman, Early Christianand Byzantine architecture, with its own
innovation, resulting in having a unique character. Its architecture was the most salient Carolingian art to a society
that never saw an illuminated manuscript and rarely handled one of the new coins. "The little more than eight
decades between 768 to 855 alone saw the construction of 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal
residences", John Contreni calculates.[12]

Carolingian music[edit]
Main article: Charlemagne and church music
The advent of scholarly reforms by Charlemagne, who was particularly interested in music, began a period of
intense activity in the monasteries of the writing and copying of treatises in music theory the Musica
enchiriadis is one of the earliest of these. Charlemagne sought to eliminate regional stylistic differences. There is
evidence that the earliest Westernmusical notation, in the form of neumes in camp aperto (without staff-lines),
was created at Metz around 800, as a result of Charlemagne's desire for Frankish church musicians to retain the
performance nuances used by the Roman singers.[13]

Economic and legal reforms[edit]


Charlemagne was faced with a variety of currencies at the start of his reign. He standardized a system based on
a pound ofsilver (Livre tournois). Deniers were minted with a value of 240 deniers to a pound of silver. A second
value, the solidus, was also created as an accounting device with a value of twelve deniers or one twentieth of a
pound of silver. The solidus was not minted but was instead used to record values such as a "solidus of grain"
which was equal to the amount of grain that twelve deniers could purchase.[14]

BTCE: The Empire until the Treaty of Verdun (814840) [edit]

Louis the Pious on a sesquisolidus


Louis the Pious often had to struggle to maintain control of the Empire. King Bernard of Italy died in 818 in
imprisonment after rebelling a year earlier, and Italy was brought back into Imperial control. Louis' show of
penance for Bernard's death in 822 greatly reduced his prestige as Emperor to the nobility. Meanwhile in 817,
Louis had established three new Carolingian Kingships for his sons from his first marriage: Lothar was made King
of Italy and co-Emperor, Pepin was made King of Aquitaine, and Louis the German was made King of Bavaria.
His attempts in 823 to bring his fourth son (from his second marriage), Charles the Bald into the will was marked
by the resistance of his eldest sons, and the last years of his reign were plagued by civil war.
Lothar was stripped of his co-Emperorship in 829 and was banished to Italy, but the following year his sons
attacked Louis' empire and dethroned him in favour of Lothar. The following year Louis attacked his sons'
Kingdoms, stripped Lothar of his Imperial title and granted the Kingdom of Italy to Charles. Pepin and Louis the
German revolted in 832, followed by Lothar in 833, and together they imprisoned Louis the Pious and Charles. In
835, peace was made within the family, and Louis was restored to the Imperial throne. When Pepin died in 838,
Louis crowned Charles king of Aquitaine, whilst the nobility elected Pepin's son Pepin II, a conflict which was not
resolved until 860 with Pepin's death. When Louis the Pious finally died in 840, Lothar claimed the entire empire
irrespective of the partitions.
As a result, Charles and Louis the German went to war against Lothar. After losing the Battle of Fontenay, Lothar
fled to his capital at Aachen and raised a new army, which was inferior to that of the younger brothers. In
the Oaths of Strasbourg, in 842, Charles and Louis agreed to declare Lothar unfit for the imperial throne. This
marked the East-West division of the Empire between Louis and Charles until the Verdun Treaty. Considered a
milestone in European history, the Oaths of Strasbourg symbolize the birth of both France and Germany.[5] The
partition of Carolingian Empire was finally settled in 843 by and between Louis the Pious' three sons in the Treaty
of Verdun.[6]

The Empire after the Treaty of Verdun (843877) [edit]

Carolingian Empire after the Treaty of Verdun partition of 843.


Main article: Treaty of Verdun
Lothar received the Imperial title, the Kingship of Italy, and the territory between theRhine and Rhone Rivers,
collectively called the Central Frankish Realm. Louis was guaranteed the Kingship of all lands to the east of the
Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which was called the Eastern Frankish Realm which was the precursor to
modern Germany. Charles received all lands west of the Rhone, which was called the Western Frankish Realm.
Lothar retired Italy to his eldest son Louis II in 844, making him co-Emperor in 850. Lothar died in 855, dividing
his kingdom into three parts: the territory already held by Louis remained his, the territory of the former Kingdom
of Burgundy was granted to his third son Charles of Burgundy, and the remaining territory for which there was no
traditional name was granted to his second son Lothar II, whose realm was named Lotharingia.

Carolingian Empire after the Treaty of Meerssen


Louis II, dissatisfied with having received no additional territory upon his father's death, allied with his uncle Louis
the German against his brother Lothar and his uncle Charles the Bald in 858. Lothar was reconciled with his
brother and uncle shortly after. Charles was so unpopular that he could not raise an army to fight the invasion and
instead fled to Burgundy. He was only saved when the bishops refused to crown Louis the German King. In 860,

Charles the Bald invaded Charles of Burgundy's Kingdom but was repulsed. Lothar II ceded lands to Louis II in
862 for support of a divorce from his wife, which caused repeated conflicts with the Pope and his uncles. Charles
of Burgundy died in 863, and his Kingdom was inherited by Louis II.
Lothar II died in 869 with no legitimate heirs, and his Kingdom was divided between Charles the Bald and Louis
the German in 870 by the Treaty of Meerssen. Meanwhile, Louis the German was involved with disputes with his
three sons. Louis II died in 875, and named Carloman, the eldest son of Louis the German, his heir. Charles the
Bald, supported by the Pope, was crowned both King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. The following year, Louis
the German died. Charles tried to annex his realm too, but was defeated decisively at Andernach, and the
Kingdom of the eastern Franks was divided between Louis the Younger, Carloman of Bavaria and Charles the
Fat.

Treaty of Verdun
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Treaty of Verdun

The Carolingian Empire at its greatest extent, with the three main
divisions of 843.

Pink area indicates West Francia.


Green area indicates Middle Francia.
Yellow area indicates East Francia.
Date

August 843

Location

Verdun-sur-Meuse

Participants Lothair I, Louis the German,Charles the Bald


Outcome

Divided territories of the Carolingian Empire into


three kingdoms; Influenced inheritances and
conflicts in Western Europe as late as the 20th
century.

Civilizations of Greater Europe before the Carolingian's Frankish Civil War (840-843): Western Europe and
outlier civilizations at the time of the death of Charles the Great (or Charlemagne-814) and Emperor Louis
the Pious (d. 840).

The Treaty of Verdun, signed in August 843, was the first of the treaties that divided
the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms among the three surviving sons of Louis the Pious,
the son and successor of Charlemagne. The treaty signed in Verdun-sur-Meuse ended the threeyear Carolingian Civil War.

Background[edit]
When Louis the Pious died in 840, his eldest son, Lothair I, claimed overlordship over the whole
of his father's kingdom and supported the claim of his nephew Pepin II to Aquitaine, a large
province in the west of the Frankish realm. Lothair's brother Louis the German and his halfbrotherCharles the Bald refused to acknowledge Lothair's suzerainty and went to war against
him. They defeated Lothair at the Battle of Fontenay in 841 and sealed their alliance in 842 with
the Oaths of Strasbourg which declared Lothair unfit for the imperial throne, after which Lothair
became willing to negotiate a settlement.

Provisions[edit]
Each of the three brothers was already established in one kingdom: Lothair in Italy, Louis the
German in Bavaria, and Charles the Bald in Aquitaine. In the settlement, Lothair (who had been
named co-emperor in 817) retained his title as emperor and:

Lothar received the central portion of the empire which later became, from north to south:
the Low Countries, Lorraine, Alsace, Burgundy, Provence, and the Kingdom of Italy (which
covered only the northern half of the Italian Peninsula), collectively called Middle Francia. He
also received the two imperial cities, Aachen and Rome. In addition, he received the imperial
title, but it conferred only nominal overlordship of his brothers' lands. [1]

Louis the German received the eastern portion. Louis was guaranteed the kingship of all
lands to the east of the Rhine and to the north and east of Italy, which was called East
Francia which eventually became the high medievalkingdom of Germany, the largest
component of the Holy Roman Empire.

Charles the Bald received the western portion, which later became France. Pepin II was
granted the kingdom of Aquitaine, but only under the authority of Charles. Charles received
all lands west of the Rhne, which was called West Francia.

After the death of Lothair in 855, Upper and Lower Burgundy (Arles and Provence) passed to his
third son Charles of Provence, and the remaining territory north of the Alps to his second
son Lothair II, after whom the hitherto nameless territory was called Lotharingia, which name
eventually evolved into the modern Lorraine. Lothair's eldest son, Louis IIinherited Italy and his
father's claim to the Imperial title.

Legacy[edit]
The division reflected an adherence to the old Frankish custom of partible or divisible
inheritance amongst a ruler's sons, rather than primogeniture (i.e., inheritance by the eldest son)
which would soon be adopted by both Frankish kingdoms.
The division of the Frankish realm by the Treaty of Verdun, carried out without any regard to
linguistic and cultural continuities, resulted in conflicts in Western Europe until the 20th century.
Since the Middle Frankish Kingdom combined lengthy and vulnerable land borders with poor
internal communications as it was severed by the Alps, it was not a viable entity and soon
fragmented. This made it difficult for a single ruler to reassemble Charlemagne's empire.
Only Charles the Fat achieved this briefly.
In 855, the northern section became fragile Lotharingia, which became disputed by the more
powerful states that evolved out of West Francia (i.e., France) and East Francia (i.e., Germany).
Generations of kings of France and Germany were unable to establish a firm rule over Lothairs
kingdom. While the north of Lotharingia now comprises independent countries, the southern third
of Lotharingia ended up a French, rather than German, territory in 1918, more than a thousand
years after the Treaty of Verdun. The collapse of the Middle Frankish Kingdom also compounded
the disunity of the Italian Peninsula, which persisted into the 19th century.

Oaths of Strasbourg
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Oaths of Strasbourg
(multiple texts)
Also known

Sacramenta Argentariae (Latin), les

as

serments de Strasbourg (Modern


French), die Straburger Eide(Modern
German)

Language

medieval Latin, Old French, Old High


German

Manuscript(s) include BNF, Cod. Lat. 9768


(Nithard's De dissensionibus filiorum
Ludovici pii)
Subject

pledges of allegiance and cooperation


between Louis the
German and Charles the Bald, rulers
of East and West Francia respectively

Text of the Oaths

The Oaths of Strasbourg, were mutual pledges of allegiance betweenLouis the German (876),
ruler of East Francia, and his half-brotherCharles the Bald (877), ruler of West Francia made on
12 February 842.[1] They are written in three different languages: Medieval Latin, Old
French and Old High German. The Old French passages are generally considered to be the
earliest texts in a language that is distinctly French.
Contents
[hide]

1 Historical context

2 Sources and contents

3 Historical and linguistic significance

4 Text

5 See also

6 Notes

7 References

8 External links

9 Further reading

Historical context[edit]
The several pledges were spoken at a strategic meeting on 12 February 842 atStrasbourg, with
the brothers' assembled armies in attendance and participating in the ceremonies. In addition to
their promised allegiance to the other, Louis and Charles pledged their solidarity to oppose their
eldest brother Lothair, ruler ofMiddle Francia and, nominally, emperor of all the Carolingian
Empire Frankish kingdoms as well as Holy Roman Emperor. Louis spoke his oath in the
"Romance" language, while Charles spoke his oath in lingua teudisca, "Germanic".[2]
The historical nature of the meeting is made more remarkable by the additional, separate
pledges that were scripted for the monarchs' armies in their respective vernaculars to the
effect that, for each "soldier": should their own lord-king unilaterally break the oath just pledged
(to the other king), then, each "soldier of the oath" promises not to help his master against the
abused other monarch.

Sources and contents[edit]


The sole source for the wording of the oaths is Nithard's Historiae or De dissensionibus filiorum
Ludovici pii (On the Dissensions of the Sons of Louis the Pious), where it is found in Chapter V of
Book III. Nithard's work is preserved in a manuscript from the 10th or 11th century (Cod. Lat.
9768 in the Bibliothque nationale in Paris) and the text of the oaths is on folios 12v-13r. (A later,
14th-century manuscript is a copy of Cod. Lat. 9768 and therefore of no independent value as a
source.)
Both kings first made the same preamble speech, which was a detailed complaint against
Lothair. Each king then swore his individual oath in front of their assembled armies, not in Latin
nor in his own language, but in the vernacular of the other's kingdom. Finally, the armies swore
separate pledges in their respective languages.
One version of the pledges was written in the Rhenish Franconian dialect of Old High German.
The second version is in a form of Proto-French. The preamble was also written in Latin, as were
sections to report the ceremonies.

Historical and linguistic significance[edit]


The text is significant to both linguists and historians. Linguistically, the text is the oldest
document written in a Romance language, and specifically in a form of French. The documents
also shed light on a significant period in the history of the Carolingian-Frankish empire. Historians
have long used the coexistence of these bilingual documents to illustrate their theory that, by
842, the empire had begun splitting into separate proto-countries and developing with different
languages and customs.
However, others of late have come to favour a different hypothesis: that the Frankish Kingdom
comprised several regna(loosely translated as kingdoms) that since ancient times had
maintained different customs and dialects. Supporting this theory they note that
both Charlemagne and Louis the Pious sent their sons to be raised in the respective regna which
they were designated to inherit, in order to better enlist the support of the local populus by
becoming familiar with them and their customs.

Text[edit]
The transcriptions are edited, with abbreviations written out and some punctuation and word
boundaries inserted.[3]
The image to the right is a scan of the original text. In the transcription below, two asterisks mark
the beginning and end of the text visible in this scan.

Original text

English translation

[Latin:] Ergo xvi kal. marcii Lodhuvicus et


Karolus in civitate que olim Argentaria
vocabatur, nunc autem Strazburg vulgo dicitur,
convenerunt et sacramenta que subter notata
sunt, Lodhuvicus romana, Karolus vero
teudisca lingua, juraverunt. Ac sic, ante
sacramentum circumfusam plebem, alter
teudisca, alter romana lingua, alloquuti sunt.
Lodhuvicus autem, quia major natu, prior
exorsus sic coepit:

So, Louis and Charles met on the 16th day


before thecalends of March (14 February) in
the town that used to be called Argentaria but
which is now commonly known as Strasbourg,
and they swore the oaths given below, Louis in
Romance and Charles in German. But before
swearing the oaths, they made speeches in
German and Romance. Louis, being the elder,
began as follows:

Let it be known how many times Lothair has


Quotiens Lodharius me et hunc fratrum meum, since our father died attempted to destroy
post obitum patris nostri, insectando usque ad me and this brother of mine, committing
massacres in his pursuit of us. But since
internecionem delere conatus sit nostis. Cum
neither brotherhood nor Christianity nor any
autem nec fraternitas nec christianitas nec
quodlibet ingenium, salva justicia, ut pax inter natural inclination, save justice, has been able
nos esset, adjuvare posset, tandem coacti rem to bring peace between us, we have been

ad juditium omnipotentis Dei detulimus, ut suo


nutu quid cuique deberetur contenti essemus.
In quo nos, sicut nostis, per misericordiam Dei
victores extitimus, is autem victus una cum suis
quo valuit secessit. Hinc vero, fraterno amore
correpti nec non et super populum christianum
conpassi, persequi atque delere illos noluimus,
sed hactenus, sicut et antea, ut saltem deinde
cuique sua justicia cederetur mandavimus.
At ille post haec non contentus judicio divino,
sed hostili manu iterum et me et hunc fratrem
meum persequi non cessat, insuper et
populum nostrum incendiis, rapinis cedibusque
devastat. Quamobrem nunc, necessitate
coacti, convenimus et, quoniam vos de nostra
stabili fide ac firma fraternitate dubitare
credimus, hoc sacramentum inter nos in
conspectu vestro jurare decrevimus.
Non qualibet iniqua cupiditate illecti hoc
agimus, sed ut certiores, si Deus nobis vestro
adjutorio quietem dederit, de communi profectu
simus. Si autem, quod absit, sacramentum
quod fratri meo juravero violare praesumpsero,
a subditione mea necnon et a juramento quod
mihi jurastis *unumquemque vestrum absolvo
Cumque Karolus haec eadem verba romana
lingua perorasset, Lodhuvicus, quoniam major
natu erat, prior haec deinde se servaturum
testatus est:

forced to take the matter to the judgement of


almighty God, so that we may accept whatever
His will is.
The result was, as you all know, that by the
Grace of God we came out as victors, and that
he, defeated, went back to his people where he
was stronger. But then, motivated by brotherly
love and compassion for Christendom, we
decided not to pursue and destroy them;
instead, until now, we have asked him at least
to submit to justice as in the past.
But he, despite this, not content with God's
judgement, does not cease to come after me
and this brother of mine with his armies.
Moreover, he is devastating our people by
burning, pillaging and murdering. That is why
we now, driven by necessity, are having this
meeting, and, since we believe that you doubt
our firm faith and brotherhood, we shall swear
this oath between us before all of you.
This act is not in bad faith, but simply so that,
if God gives us peace thanks to your help, we
may be certain that a common benefit will
come of it. Should I God forbid break the
oath which I am about to swear to my brother, I
release you from my sovereignty over you and
from the oath that you have all sworn to me.
Once Charles had finished off the speech with
the same words in Romance, Louis, since he
was the elder, then swore allegiance first:

[Old French:] Pro Deo amur et pro christian


poblo et nostro commun saluament, d'ist di in
auant, in quant Deus sauir et podir me dunat, si
saluarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo, et in
adiudha et in cadhuna cosa si cum om per dreit
son fradra saluar dift, in o quid il mi altresi
fazet. Et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai
qui meon uol cist meon fradre Karle in damno
sit.

For the love of God and for Christendom and


our common salvation, from this day onwards,
as God will give me the wisdom and power, I
shall protect this brother of mine Charles, with
aid or anything else, as one ought to protect
one's brother, so that he may do the same for
me, and I shall never knowingly make any
covenant with Lothair that would harm this
brother of mine Charles.

[Latin:] Quod cum Lodhuvicus explesset,


Karolus teudisca lingua sic hec eadem verba
testatus est:

When Louis had finished, Charles swore with


the very same words in the German vernacular:

[Old High German:]In godes minna ind in


thes christines folches ind unsr bdhero
gehaltniss, fon thesemo dage frammordes, s
fram s mir got gewizci indi mahd furgibit, s
haldih thesan mnan bruodher, sso man mit
rehtu snan bruodher scal, in thiu thaz er mig
s sama duo, indi mit Ludheren in nohheiniu
thing ne gegango, the mnan willon imo ce
scadhen werdhn.

For the love of God and Christendom and the


salvation of us both, from this day on, as God
will give me the wisdom and power, I shall
protect this brother of mine, as one ought to
protect one's brother, so that he may do the
same for me, and I shall never go along with
Lothair in anything that, by my will, would harm
him [Louis].

[Latin:] Sacramentum autem quod utrorumque The oath that each of the two peoples (i.e. the
assembled armies) then swore in their
populus, quique propria lingua, testatus est,
respective languages is, in Romance, as
romana lingua sic se habet:
follows:

[Old French:] Si Lodhuuigs sagrament qu


son fradre Karlo iurat, conseruat, et Carlus
meos sendra, de suo part, non lostanit, si io
returnar non l'int pois, ne io, ne neuls cui eo
returnar int pois, in nulla aiudha contra
Lodhuuuig nun li iu er.

If Louis keeps the oath that he has sworn to


his brother Charles, and Charles, my lord, on
the other hand breaks it, and if I cannot
dissuade him from it neither I nor anyone
that I can dissuade from it then I shall not
help him in any way against Louis.

[Latin:] Teudisca autem lingua:*

And in the German vernacular:

[Old High German:] "Oba Karl then eid, then


er snemo bruodher Ludhuwge gesuor,
geleistit, indi Ludhuwg mn hrro then er imo
gesuor forbrihchit, ob ih inan es irwenden ne
mag: noh ih noh thero nohhein, then ih es
irwenden mag, widhar Karlo imo ce follusti ne
wirdhit."

If Charles keeps the oath that he has sworn to


his brother Louis, and Louis, my lord, on the
other hand breaks the oath he has sworn to
him, and if I cannot dissuade him from it
neither I nor anyone that I can dissuade from it
then I shall not follow him against Charles.

[Latin:] Quibus peractis Lodhuwicus Reno


tenus per Spiram et Karolus iuxta Vuasagum
per Vuzznburg Vuarmatiam iter direxit.

With this completed, Louis left for Worms along


the Rhine via Speyer; and Charles, along
the Vosges viaWissembourg.

The following is the Romance vernacular part in its original manuscript form and a close
transcription (with minimal editing):

Scan of the text

Close transcription

Pro d amur & pian poblo & nr


cmun
aluament. dit di e/in auant. inquantdd
auir & podir medunat. ialuaraieo.
cit meonfradre karlo. & in a iudha.
& in cad huna coa. ic om p dreit son
fradra aluar dift. Ino quid il mialtre
i faz&. Et abludher nul plaid nqu
prindrai qui meon uol cit meon fradre
karle indamnoit.

Treaty of Meerssen
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Division after the treaties of Verdun and Prm (855)

Division after the Treaty of Mersen (870)


The Treaty of Meerssen or Mersen, concluded on 8 August 870, was a treaty of partition of the realm of Lothair
II by his uncles Louis the German of East Franciaand Charles the Bald of West Francia, the two surviving sons of
Emperor Louis I the Pious. The empire of Louis the Pious, son of Charlemagne, had originally split in three parts
by the 843 Treaty of Verdun, whereas his eldest son Lothair Ireceived the Imperial crown and the personal realm
of Middle Francia, while:
Louis ( 876), the second born son, received East Francia (which would evolve into the Kingdom of Germany)
Charles the Bald ( 877), his half-brother, received West Francia (which would evolve into the Kingdom of
France)
Upon the death of Lothair I in 855, his realm of Middle Francia was partitioned between his sons by the Treaty of
Prm:

Louis II ( 875), the eldest son, received the imperial crown and Italy
Charles ( 863) became King of Provence (Lower Burgundy and Provenceproper)
Lothair II ( 869) received Austrasia (the central part still controlled by his father after
Verdun), Frisia and Upper Burgundy - this realm came to be named Lotharii Regnum (Lotharingia)

Lothair II ceded the southeastern parts of Upper Burgundy to his brothers, whereasCharles of Provence received
the bishoprics of Belley and Tarentaise in 859, andLouis II of Italy the bishoprics of Geneva, Lausanne and Sion a
year later. Charles of Provence suffered from epilepsy and died heirless in 863, and his kingdom was partitioned
between his brothers. Lothair II, his heir, received only the western Lower Burgundian parts (bishoprics
of Lyon, Vienne, Vivarais and Uzs) which were bordering his western Upper Burgundy (remnants of his original
Burgundian possessions), while Louis II received the whole rest of the Kingdom of Provence.

Map of the Carolingian Empire showing lower levels of administrative division


Lothair II died in 869 without legitimate children so his heir was his brother, Emperor Louis II of Italy. As Louis was
at that time campaigning against theEmirate of Bari, his uncles, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, took his
inheritance. Charles had himself crowned in Metz the same year, but was forced by his brother to partition the
short-lived Lotharingia, together with the lands Lothair II acquired after the death of Charles of Provence, as they
had agreed at Metz in 868.

The Carolingian Empire 843-888


Their contract of 870 at Meerssen replaced the 843 Treaty of Verdun, after which the Carolingian Empire was
also split into three parts, by dividing the northern half of Middle Francia stretching from the Rhone valley to the
North Sea, in effect recombining sundered territories of Francia into two larger east and west divisions. However,
at this time large parts of the Frisian coast were under Viking control and therefore only divided on paper. The
borderline ran roughly along the rivers Meuse,Ourthe, Moselle, Saone and Rhone. In the north, Louis received
most of Lothair's Austrasia, with his eastern part including both Aachen and Metz, and most of Frisia. But in the
south, while Louis received most of Upper Burgundy that was left to Lothair (after ceding the southern half to
Italy), Charles received Lothair's inheritance in Lower Burgundy (including Lyon) and a small western part of
Upper Burgundy (parts of Portois and Varais (including Besancon)) - this opened him the way to Italy. Louis
joined the newly acquired parts of central Austrasia to the subkingdom of his son Louis the Younger in eastern
Austrasia, while the illegitimate son of Lothair II, Hugh, was granted the Duchy of Alsace.
The arrangement did not endure more than ten years. Upon the death of Louis the German in 876, Charles the
Bald, by then King of Italy and Emperor, attacked eastern Lotharingia, but was rejected by Louis the Younger in
the Battle of Andernach (876). In turn, after Charles the Bald had died and his successors struggled to
consolidate their rule over West Francia, Louis the Younger campaigned in western Lotharingia in 879. Charles'
grandsons were forced to cede the whole Lotharingia to him, sealed by the 880 Treaty of Ribemont, according to
which it finally became part of East Francia.

Treaty of Prm
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lothair I dividing his realm between his sons (copper engraving 1698)
The Treaty of Prm was the partition treaty signed as the Carolingian emperorLothair I was approaching death in
855. Twelve years prior, in 843, he concluded his fighting of the Carolingian Civil War against his two
brothers, Louis the Germanand Charles the Bald, and signed the Treaty of Verdun. As a result of this treaty,Louis
the Pious' Francia was officially divided between his three surviving sons, with Lothair I, the eldest son, retaining
the title of emperor and the lands of Middle Francia. This Lotharii Regnum was further partitioned between

Lothair's sons on 19 September at his estate of Sconilare, ten days before he died of severe illness inPrm
Abbey in the Eifel:

Lothair II ( 869) was granted Frisiaand the parts of Austrasia that remained his father's after Verdun
(containing the original area of the Roman Empire settled by the Franks and the capital of Aachen) - this kingdom
became known asLotharingia, after its ruler, and was the shortest lived of the three successor kingdoms
Charles ( 863), the youngest of the three sons, became King of Provence, being granted Provence and
most of Burgundy (the north-western part of which was given to East Francia at Verdun and would later become
the Duchy of Burgundy in France) - this kingdom would later evolve into the Second Kingdom of Burgundy
Louis II ( 875), the eldest son, was granted the imperial crown and the medieval Kingdom of Italy (then only
comprising the northern half of the Italian peninsula)
Due to the deaths of Charles in 863 and Lothair II in 869, the two northernmost kingdoms lasted no more than 15
years, and were divided between East Francia, West Francia and the Kingdom of Italy. The effects of the Treaty of
Prm came to a complete end in 962, when Otto I, king of Germany, invaded and conquered Italy during a period
of political unrest caused by the ascension of a woman to the throne, Adelaide of Italy. The Treaty of Prm is
regarded as one of the last

Treaty of Ribemont
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the treaty dividing the Duchy of Lorraine, see Treaty of Ribemont (1179).

Borders after the treaty of Ribemont; fromAllgemeiner Historischer Handatlas by Gustav Droysen, 1886
The Treaty of Ribemont in 880 was the last treaty on the partitions of the Frankish Empire. It was signed by the
German king Louis the Youngerand the kings of Western Francia, Louis III and Carloman.
After the death of Charles the Bald, Louis the Younger secured the friendship of Charles' successor Louis the
Stammerer with the Treaty of Fourons in November 878. The two nephews promised to accept the successions of
their respective sons. The treaty was put to the test when Louis the Stammerer died in April 879. A western
delegation led byGauzlin, bishop of Paris and later protector of the city during the Vikingraids, invited Louis the
Younger to take control of West Francia. Because his wife Luitgard also supported this idea, Louis the Younger
invaded West Francia. He reached as far as Verdun, but he retreated after his nephews, the kings Louis III of
France and Carloman of France, gave up their share of Lotharingia to him.
Meanwhile Boso of Provence, a noble of Carolingian descent, proclaimed himself king of the Provence. Moreover,
the Vikings resumed their attacks. To deal with these threats, the Carolingian kings decided to put aside their
differences so as to deal with the threats together. They met at Ribemont, in present day Aisne. In return for Louis
the Younger's neutrality, the kings of France confirmed Louis' possession of the parts of Lotharingia that had been
given to him since the Treaty of Meerssen. This left them free to deal with Boso.
The border between France and the Holy Roman Empire remained largely the same until the Late Medieval.
Earlier Frankish partitions were:

Treaty of Verdun (843)

Treaty of Prm (855)

Treaty of Meerssen (870)

BTCE: The Empire in decline (877888) [edit]

Charles the Bald, denier, Bourges, after 848


The Empire, after the death of Charles the Bald, was under attack in the north and west by the Vikings, and was
facing internal struggles from Italy to the Baltic, from Hungary in the east to Aquitaine in the west. Charles the
Bald died in 877 crossing the Pass of Mont Cenis, and was succeeded by his son, Louis the Stammerer as King
of the Western Franks, but the title of Holy Roman Emperor lapsed. Louis the Stammerer was physically weak
and died two years later, his realm being divided between his eldest two sons: Louis
III gaining Neustria and Francia, and Carlomangaining Aquitaine and Burgundy. The Kingdom of Italy was finally
granted to King Carloman of Bavaria, but a stroke forced him to abdicate Italy to his brotherCharles the Fat and
Bavaria to Louis of Saxony. Also in 879, Boso, Count of Arlesfounded the Kingdom of Lower
Burgundy in Provence.
In 881, Charles the Fat was crowned the Holy Roman Emperor while Louis III of Saxony and Louis III of Francia
died the following year. Saxony and Bavaria were united with Charles the Fat's Kingdom, and Francia and
Neustria were granted to Carloman of Aquitaine who also conquered Lower Burgundy. Carloman died in a
hunting accident in 884 after a tumultuous and ineffective reign, and his lands were inherited by Charles the Fat,
effectively recreating the Empire of Charlemagne.
Charles, suffering what is believed to be epilepsy, could not secure the kingdom against Viking raiders, and after
buying their withdrawal from Paris in 886 was perceived by the court as being cowardly and incompetent. The
following year his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia, the illegitimate son of King Carloman of Bavaria, raised the
standard of rebellion. Instead of fighting the insurrection, Charles fled to Neidingen and died the following year in
888, leaving a divided entity and a succession mess.

Divisions of the Empire in 887[edit]


The Empire of the Carolingians was divided: Arnulf maintained Carinthia, Bavaria, Lorraine and
modern Germany; CountOdo of Paris was elected King of Western Francia (France), Ranulf II became King
of Aquitaine, Italy went to CountBerengar of Friuli, Upper Burgundy to Rudolph I, and Lower Burgundy to Louis
the Blind, the son of Boso of Arles, King of Lower Burgundy and maternal grandson of Emperor Louis II. The
other part of Lotharingia became the duchy of Burgundy.[7]

Military[edit]
It has long been held that the dominance of the Carolingian military was based on a "cavalry revolution" led
by Charles Martel in 730s. However, the stirrup, which made the 'shock cavalry' lance charge possible, was not
introduced to the Frankish kingdom until the late eighth century.[8] Instead, the Carolingian military success rested
primarily on novel siegetechnologies and excellent logistics.[9] However, large numbers of horses were used by
the Frankish military during the age of Charlemagne. This was because horses provided a quick, long-distance
method of transporting troops, which was critical to building and maintaining such a large empire.[8]

Demographics[edit]
The largest cities in the Empire of Charlemagne around 800 AD were.
Rome 50,000. Paris 25,000. Regensburg 25,000. Metz 25,000. Mainz 20,000. Speyer 20,000. Tours 20,000. Trier
15,000.Cologne 15,000. Lyon 12,000. Worms 10,000. Poitiers 10,000. Provins 10,000. Rennes 10,000. Rouen 10
,000.[10][11][12]

Government[edit]
Main article: Government of the Carolingian Empire

Government of the Carolingian Empire


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The government, administration, and organisation of the Carolingian Empire were forged in
the court of Charlemagnein the decades around the year 800. In this year, Charlemagne was
crowned emperor and adapted his existing royal administration to live up to the expectations of
his new title. The political reforms wrought in his capital Aachen were to have an immense impact
on the political definition of Western Europe for the rest of the Middle Ages. The Carolingian
improvements on the old Merovingian mechanisms of governance have been lauded by
historians for the increased central control, efficient bureaucracy, accountability, and cultural
renaissance.

The Carolingian Empire was the largest western territory since the fall of Rome, but historians
have come to suspect the depth of the emperor's influence and control. Legally, the Carolingian
emperor exercised the bannum, the right to rule and command, over all of his territories. Also, he
had supreme jurisdiction in judicial matters, made legislation, led the army, and protected both
the Church and the poor. His administration was an attempt to organise the kingdom, church and
nobility around him, however, its efficacy was directly dependent upon the efficiency, loyalty and
support of his subjects.

Capital[edit]
In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to Aachen (French: Aix-laChapelle; Italian: Aquisgrana) for the first time. He began to build a palace twenty years later
(788) after the death of his father. He made it to dedicate his father and hoped that someday he
would be a great ruler like him. The palace chapel, constructed in 796, later became Aachen
Cathedral. Charlemagne spent most winters between 800 and his death (814) at Aachen, which
he made the joint capital with Rome, in order to enjoy the hot springs. Charlemagne organised
his empire into 350 counties, each led by an appointed count. Counts served as judges,
administrators, and enforcers of capitularies. To enforce loyalty, he set up the system of missi
dominici, meaning "envoys of the lord". In this system, one representative of the Church and one
representative of the Emperor would head to the different counties every year and report back to
Charlemagne on their status.

Household[edit]
The royal household was an itinerant body (until c. 802) which moved round the kingdom making
sure good government was upheld in the localities. The most important positions were the
chaplain (who was responsible for all ecclesiastical affairs in the kingdom), and the count of the
palace (court palatine) who had supreme control over the household. It also included more minor
officials e.g. chamberlain, seneschal and marshal. The household sometimes led the army (e.g.
Seneschal Andorf against the Bretons in 786).
Possibly associated with the chaplain and the royal chapel was the office of the chancellor, head
of the chancery, a non-permanent writing office. The charters produced were rudimentary and
mostly to do with land deeds. There are 262 surviving from Charles reign as opposed to 40
from Pepins and 350 from Louis the Pious.

Officials[edit]
There are 3 main offices which enforced Carolingian authority in the localities:
The Comes (Latin: count). Appointed by Charles to administer a county. The Carolingian Empire
(except Bavaria) was divided up into between 110 and 600 counties, each divided
into centenae which were under the control of a vicar. At first they were royal agents sent out by
Charles but after c. 802 they were important local magnates. They were responsible for justice,
enforcing capitularies, levying soldiers, receiving tolls and dues and maintaining roads and

bridges. They could technically be dismissed by the king but many offices became hereditary.
They were also sometimes corrupt although many were exemplary e.g. Count Eric of Friuli.
Provincial governors eventually evolved who supervised several counts.
The Missi Dominici (Latin: dominical emissaries). Originally appointed ad hoc, a reform in 802 led
to the office of missus dominicus becoming a permanent one. The missi dominici were sent out in
pairs. One was an ecclesiastic and one secular. Their status as high officials was thought to
safeguard them from the temptation of taking bribes. They made 4 journeys a year in their
local missaticum, each lasting a month, and were responsible for making the royal will and
capitularies known, judging cases and occasionally raising armies.
The Vassi Dominici. These were the kings vassals and were usually the sons of powerful men,
holding benefices and forming a contingent in the royal army. They also went on ad hoc
missions.

Legal system[edit]
Around 780 Charlemagne reformed the local system of administering justice and created
the scabini, professional experts on law. Every count had the help of seven of these scabini, who
were supposed to know every national law so that all men could be judged according to it.
Judges were also banned from taking bribes and were supposed to use sworn inquests to
establish facts.
In 802, all law was written down and amended (the Salic law was also amended in both 798 and
802, although even Einhard admits in section 29 that this was imperfect). Judges were supposed
to have a copy of both the Salic law code and the Ripuarian law code.

Coinage[edit]
Coinage had a strong association with the Roman Empire, and Charlemagne took up its
regulation with his other imperial duties. The Carolingians exercised controls over the silver
coinage of the realm, controlling its composition and value. The name of the emperor, not of the
minter, appeared on the coins. Charlemagne worked to suppress mints in northern Germany on
the Baltic sea.

Subdivision[edit]
The Frankish kingdom was subdivided by Charlemagne into three separate areas to make
administration easier. These were the inner "core" of the kingdom (Austrasia, Neustria and
Burgundy) which were supervised directly by the missatica system and the itinerant household.
Outside this was the regna where Frankish administration rested upon the counts, and outside
this was the marcher areas where ruled powerful governors. These marcher lordships were
present in Brittany, Spain and Avaria.

Charles also created two sub-kingdoms in Aquitaine and Italy, ruled by his sons Louis and Pepin
respectively. Bavaria was also under the command of an autonomous governor, Gerold, until his
death in 796. While Charles still had overall authority in these areas they were fairly autonomous
with their own chancery and minting facilities.

Placitum Generalis[edit]
The annual meeting, the Placitum Generalis or Marchfield, was held every year (between March
and May) at a place appointed by the king. It was called for three reasons: to gather the Frankish
host to go on campaign, to discuss political and ecclesiastical matters affecting the kingdom and
to legislate for them, and to make judgements. All important men had to go the meeting and so it
was an important way for Charles to make his will known. Originally the meeting worked
effectively however later it merely became a forum for discussion and for nobles to express their
dissatisfaction.

Oaths[edit]
The oath of fidelity was a way for Charles to ensure loyalty from all his subjects. As early as 779
he banned sworn guilds between other men so that everyone took an oath of loyalty only to him.
In 789 (in response to the 786 rebellion) he began legislating that everyone should swear fidelity
to him as king, however in 802 he expanded to oath greatly and made it so that all men over age
12 swore it to him.

Capitularies[edit]
Capitularies are the black hole of Charles' government as no-one really knows what their purpose
was or how effective they were. Indeed, most of the controversy surrounding Charles government
comes from the fact that the capitularies are the only main evidence, and there is no case law to
see if they were implemented or followed.
The four greatest capitularies of Charlemagnes reign are:

The Capitulary of Herstal of 779. This is a short capitulary and launched according to
Ganshof in response to a crisis in Aquitaine, Italy and Spain. It is concerned a lot with ordo,
making sure that the church is working correctly, also with reinforcing the wergild and
Frankish ideals. Notably forced the usage of tithes.

Admonitio Generalis of 789. Blueprint for a new society mentioning social issues for the
first time. The first 58 clauses (of 82) reiterate decisions made by previous church councils
and much is also to do with ordo.

The Capitulary of Frankfurt of 794. This is mainly to do with theology and speaks out
against adoptionism and iconoclasm.

The Programmatic Capitulary of 802. This shows an increasing sense of vision in society.

BTCE: List of modern countries within the Frankish Empire [edit]


This is a list of modern countries that are fully or partly situated on the territory of the Frankish Empire at its
height, just before the treaty of Verdun in 843.

Completely incorporated
into the Empire

Partially incorporated into


the Empire

Andorra

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Austria

Croatia

Belgium

Czech Republic

Metropolitan France

Germany

Guernsey

Hungary

Jersey

Italy

Liechtenstein

Spain

Luxembourg

Monaco

The Netherlands

San Marino

Slovenia

Switzerland

Vatican City

BTHF: State building into the


Kingdom of France (9871453)
Capetian dynasty
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the "Direct Capetians", who ruled France from 987 to 1328, see House of Capet.

Capetian dynasty

Capetian Armorial

Country

France

Parent house

Robertians

Titles

Latin Emperor of
Constantinople,

Emperor of Brazil,

King of France,

King of Spain,

King of Portugal,

King of Navarre,

King of the Two Sicilies,

King of Naples,

King of Sicily,

King of Hungary,

King of Poland,

King of Albania,

King of Etruria,

Grand Duke of Luxembourg,

Dauphin of Viennois,

Duke of Alenon,

Duke of Angoulme,

Duke of Anjou,

Duke of Aquitaine,

Duke of Berry,

Duke of Bourbon,

Duke of Brabant,

Duke of Brittany,

Duke of Braganza,

Duke of Burgundy,

Duke of Calabria,

Duke of Chtellerault,

Duke of Durazzo,

Duke of Enghien,

Duke of Lorraine,

Duke of Lucca,

Duke of Luxembourg,

Duke of Milan,

Duke of Montpensier,

Duke of Nemours,

Duke of Normandy,

Duke of Orlans,

Duke of Parma,

Duke of Slavonia,

Duke of Touraine,

Duke of Vendme,

Prince of Achaea,

Prince of Cond,

Prince of Conti,

Prince of La Roche-sur-Yon,

Prince of Taranto,

Prince of Viana,

Despot of Romania,

Margrave of Namur,

Count Palatine of Burgundy,

Count of Alenon,

Count of Angoulme,

Count of Anjou,

Count of Artois,

Count of Champagne,

Count of Charolais,

Count of Chartres,

Count of Clermont,

Count of Dreux,

Count of tampes,

Count of Eu,

Count of vreux,

Count of Flanders,

Count of Gravina,

Count of Hainaut,

Count of Holland,

Count of La Marche,

Count of Longueville,

Count of Montpensier,

Count of Mortain,

Count of Nevers,

Count of Perche,

Count of Poitiers,

Count of Portugal,

Count of Provence,

Count of Soissons,

Count of Toulouse,

Count of Valois,

Count of Vendme,

Count of Vermandois,

Count of Vertus,

Count of Zeeland,

Earl of Richmond,

Lord of Courtenay

Founded

987

Founder

Hugh Capet

Current head

Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou

Cadet

See below

branches

The Capetian dynasty /kpi(i)n/, also known as the House of France, is a dynasty of Frankish origin, founded
by Hugh Capet. It is among the largest and oldest European royal houses, consisting of Hugh Capet's male-line
descendants. It ruled in France as the House of Capet from the ascension of Hugh Capet in 987 until the death
of Charles IV in 1328.
The dynasty had a crucial role in the formation of the French state. Initially obeyed only in their own demesne,
the le-de-France, the Capetian kings slowly, but steadily, increased their power and influence until it grew to
cover the entirety of their realm. For a detailed narration on the growth of French royal power, see Crown lands of
France.
Members of the dynasty were traditionally Catholic. The early Capetians had an alliance with the church. The
French were also the most active participants in the Crusades, culminating in a series of five Crusader Kings
- Louis VII,Philip Augustus, Louis VIII, Saint Louis, and Philip III. The Capetian alliance with the papacy suffered a
severe blow after the disaster of the Aragonese Crusade. Philip III's son and successor, Philip IV, humiliated a
pope and brought the papacy under French control. The later Valois, starting withFrancis I, ignored religious
differences and allied with the Ottoman Sultan to counter the growing power of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry
IV was a Protestant at the time of his accession, but realized the necessity of conversion after four years of
religious warfare.
The Capetians generally enjoyed a harmonious family relationship. By tradition, younger sons and brothers of the
King of France are givenappanages for them to maintain their rank and to dissuade them from claiming the
French crown itself. When Capetian cadets did aspire for kingship, their ambitions were directed not at the French
throne, but at foreign thrones. Through this, the Capetians spread widely over Europe.
In modern times, both King Felipe VI of Spain and Grand Duke Henri ofLuxembourg are members of this family,
both through the Bourbon branch of the dynasty. Along with the House of Habsburg, it is one of the two most
powerful continental European royal families, dominating European politics for nearly five centuries.

Name origins and usage[edit]


The name of the dynasty derives from its founder, Hugh, who was known as "Hugh Capet". The meaning of
"Capet" (a nickname rather than a surname of the modern sort) is unknown. While folk etymology identifies it with
"cape", other suggestions suggest it to be connected to the Latin word caput ("head"), and thus explain it as
meaning "chief" or "head".[citation needed]
Historians came to apply the name "Capetian" to both the ruling house of France and to the wider-spread maleline descendants of Hugh Capet. It was not a contemporary practice. The name "Capet" has also been used as a
surname for French royals, particularly but not exclusively those of the House of Capet. One notable use was
during the French Revolution, when the dethroned King Louis XVI (a member of the House of Bourbon and a
direct male-line descendant of Hugh Capet) and Queen Marie Antoinette (a member of the House of HabsburgLorraine) were referred to as "Louis and Antoinette Capet" (the queen being addressed as "the Widow Capet"
after the execution of her husband).

The Robertians and before[edit]


Capetian
dynastyCadets

Direct Capetians
House of Burgundy

House of Dreux
House of Courtenay

House of Artois
Capetian House of Anjou

House of Bourbon

House of Valois

House of vreux

Main article: Robertians


The dynastic surname now used to describe Hugh Capet's family prior to his election as King of France is
"Robertians" or "Robertines." The name is derived from the family's first certain ancestor, Robert the Strong (b.
820), the count of Paris. Robert was probably son of Robert III of Worms (b. 800) and grandson of Robert of
Hesbaye (b. 770). The Robertians probably originated in the county Hesbaye, around Tongeren in modern-day
Belgium.

The sons of Robert the Strong were Odo and Robert, who both ruled as king of Western Francia. The family
became Counts of Paris under Odo and Dukes of the Franks under Robert, possessing large parts of Neustria.
The Carolingian dynasty ceased to rule France upon the death of Louis V. After the death of Louis V, the son of
Hugh the Great, Hugh Capet, was elected by the nobility as king of France. Hugh was crowned at Noyon on 3
July 987 with the full support from Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. With Hugh's coronation, a new era began for
France, and his descendants came to be named theCapetians, with the Capetian dynasty ruling France for more
than 800 years (9871848, with some interruptions[1]).

Robertian Family Branches[edit]


Rodbert

Ingerman of Hesbaye

Ermengarde of Hesbaye, wife of Louis the Pious

Cancor, founder of the Lorsch Abbey

Heimrich (795), count in the Lahngau

Poppo of Grapfeld (839/41), ancestor of the Frankish House of Babenberg

Landrada

Saint Chrodogang, Archbishop of Metz, Abbot of the Lorsch Abbey

Robert of Hesbaye

Robert III of Worms

Robert the Strong

Odo, king of Western Francia

Richildis, married to a count of Troyes

Robert, king of Western Francia

Emma, married Rudolph of Burgundy

Adela, married Herbert II, Count of Vermandois

Hugh the Great


Hugh Capet, founder House of Capet

Hadwig, married Reginar IV, Count of

Mons

Robert II

Otto-Henry

Odo

Beatrix, married Frederick of Bar

Emma, married Richard I of Normandy

Herbert, bishop of Auxerre

Capetians through history[edit]


Over the succeeding centuries, Capetians spread throughout Europe, ruling every form of provincial unit
from kingdoms tomanors.

Salic Law[edit]
Salic Law, reestablished during the Hundred Years' War from an ancient Frankish tradition, caused the French
monarchy to permit only male (agnatic) descendants of Hugh to succeed to the throne of France.
Without Salic Law, upon the death of John I, the crown would have passed to his half-sister, Joan (later Joan II of
Navarre). However, Joan's paternity was suspect due to her mother's adultery; the French magnates adopted
Salic Law to avoid the succession of a possible bastard.
In 1328, King Charles IV of France died without male heirs, as his brothers did before him. Philip of Valois, the
late king's first cousin acted as regent, pending the birth of the king's posthumous child, which proved to be a
girl. Isabella of France, sister of Charles IV, claimed the throne for her son, Edward III of England. The English
king did not find support among the French lords, who made Philip of Valois their king. From then on the French
succession not only excluded females, but also rejected claims based on the female line of descent.
Thus the French crown passed from the House of Capet after the death of Charles IV to Philip VI of France of
the House of Valois, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty,

then to Louis II, Duke of Orlans, of the Orlans branch of the Valois, who became Louis XII of France,

then to Francis, Duke of Valois, Count of Angoulme, who became Francis I of France, and his
descendants, of the Orlans-Angoulme,

then to Henry III of Navarre, who became Henry IV of France, of the House of Bourbon, a cadet branch
of the Capetian dynasty.

This did not affect monarchies not under that law such as Portugal, Spain, Navarre, and various smaller duchies
and counties. Therefore, many royal families appear and disappear in the French succession or become cadet
branches upon marriage. A complete list of the senior-most line of Capetians is available below.

Capetian Cadet Branches[edit]


The Capetian Dynasty has been broken many times into (sometimes rival) cadet branches. A cadet branch is a
line of descent from another line than the senior-most. This list of cadet branches shows most of the Capetian
cadet lines and designating their royal French progenitor, although some sub-branches are not shown.

Descendants of Philip III of France[edit]


House of Valois (12931498)

House of Valois-Orlans (13921515)

House of Orlans-Angoulme (14071589)

House of Valois-Anjou (13561481)

House of Valois-Burgundy (13641477)

House of Burgundy-Brabant (14041430)

House of Burgundy-Nevers (14041491)


House of Valois-Alenon (13251525)

House of vreux (13031400)

House of vreux-Navarre (13281425)

Descendants of Louis IX of France[edit]


House of Bourbon (12681503)

House of Bourbon-Montpensier, counts (14431527)

House of Bourbon-La Marche (13561438)


House of Bourbon-Vendme (became Royal House of France in 1589)

House of Artois (17751883)

House of Bourbon, Spanish branch (1700present)

Carlists (18191936)

Alfonsines (1819present)

House of Bourbon-Anjou (1933)

House of Bourbon, Spanish royal family (1933)

House of Bourbon-Seville

House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies (1751present)

House of Bourbon-Braganza (17521979), also called Borbn y


Braganza or Branch of the Infant Gabriel

House of Bourbon-Parma (1748present)


Parma-Luxembourg, called House of Nassau-

Weilburg (1919present)

House of Orlans (1661)

Orlans-Nemours, then (1891) House of Orlans-Braganza (1814

present)

Orlans-Alenon (18441970)

Orlans-Aumale (18221872)

Orlans-Montpensier, then House of Orlans-Galliera (1824

present)

House of Bourbon-Cond (15571830)

House of Bourbon-Conti (16291814)

House of Bourbon-Soissons (15691641)


House of Bourbon-Montpensier, dukes (14771608)

House of Bourbon-Preaux (13851429)

House of Bourbon-Carency (13931515)

Descendants of Louis VIII of France[edit]


House of Artois (12371472)

House of Anjou (initially ruling house of Sicily, then of Naples, became ruling house of Hungary) (1247
1382)

House of Anjou-Naples (13091343)

House of AnjouTaranto (12941374)

House of AnjouDurazzo (13091414)

Descendants of Louis VI of France[edit]

House of Dreux (11371345)

Breton House of Dreux (12131341)

House of Montfort (13221488)

Capetian House of Courtenay (11501727)

Capetian House of Courtenay Latin Emperors of Constantinople (12171283)

Descendants of Henry I of France[edit]


Capetian House of Vermandois (10851212)

Descendants of Robert II of France[edit]


House of Burgundy (10321361)

Portuguese House of Burgundy (11091383)

House of Aviz (13851580) illegitimate male-line descent from the Capetian dynasty

House of Braganza (1442present) illegitimate male-line descent from the


Capetian dynasty

Capetians and their domains[edit]


3 Latin Emperors (12161217, 12191261)

Peter (12161217)

Robert (12191228)

Baldwin II (12281261)
36 Kings of France (9871792, 18141815, 18151848)

Hugh Capet (987996)

Robert II (9961031)

Henry I (10311060)

Philip I (10601108)

Louis VI (11081137)

Louis VII (11371180)

Philip II (11801223)

Louis VIII (12231226)

St. Louis IX (12261270)

Philip III (12711285)

Philip IV (12851314)

Louis X (13141316)

John I (1316)

Philip V (13161322)

Charles IV (13221328)

Philip VI (13281350)

John II (13501364)

Charles V (13641380)

Charles VI (13801422)

Charles VII (14221461)

Louis XI (14611483)

Charles VIII (14831498)

Louis XII (14981515)

Francis I (15151547)

Henry II (15471559)

Francis II (15591560)

Charles IX (15601574)

Henry III (15741589)

Henry IV (15891610)

Louis XIII (16101643)

Louis XIV (16431715)

Louis XV (17151774)

Louis XVI (17741792)

Louis XVIII (18141815, 18151824)

Charles X (18241830)

Louis-Philippe (18301848)
9 Kings of Portugal (legitimate agnatic line, 11391383)

Alphonse I (11391185)

Sancho I (11851211)

Alphonse II (12111223)

Sancho II (12231247)

Alphonse III (12471279)

Denis (12791325)

Alphonse IV (13251357)

Peter I (13571367)

Ferdinand I (13671383)
11 Kings and Queens of Naples (12661442, 17001707, 17351806)

Charles I (12661285)

Charles II (12851309)

Robert (13091343)

Joanna I (13431382)

Charles III (13821386)

Ladislas (13861414)

Joanna II (14141435)

Ren I (14351442)

Philip (17001707)

Charles VII (17351759)

Ferdinand IV (17591806)
4 Kings of Sicily (12661282, 17001713, 17351815)

Charles I (12661285)

Philip (17001713)

Charles VII (17351759)

Ferdinand III (17591815)


4 Kings of the Two Sicilies (18151860)

Ferdinand I (18151825)

Francis I (18251830)

Ferdinand II (18301859)

Francis II (18591860)
2 Kings of Albania (12721285, 12851294)

Charles I (12721285)

Charles II (12851294)
12 Kings and Queens of Navarre (13051441, 15721792)

Louis I (13051316)

Philip II (13161322)

Charles I (13221328)

Joanna II (13281349)

Charles II (13491387)

Charles III (13871425)

Blanche I (14251441)

Henry III (15721610)

Louis II (16101643)

Louis III (16431715)

Louis IV (17151774)

Louis V (17741792)
4 Kings and Queen of Poland (13701399, 15731574, 1697)

Louis (13701382)

Hedwig (13841399)

Henry (15731574)
11 Kings and Queen of Spain (17001808, 18131868, 18741931, 1975present)

Philip V (17001724, 17241746)

Louis (1724)

Ferdinand VI (17461759)

Charles III (17591788)

Charles IV (17881808, 1808)

Ferdinand VII (1808, 1813-1833)

Isabella II (18331868)

Alphonse XII (18741885)

Alphonse XIII (18861931)

Juan Carlos (19752014)

Felipe VI (2014present)
2 Kings of Etruria (18011807)

Louis (18011803)

Charles Louis (18031807)


4 Kings and Queen of Hungary (13101386)

Charles I (13101342)

Louis I (13421382)

Mary (13821385, 13861395)

Charles II (13851386)
2 Lords of the Kingdom of Albania (12941332, 1332)

Philip 12941332

Robert 1332

9 Prince and Princesses of Achaea (12781289, 13131322, 13331381, 13831386)

Charles I (12781285)

Charles II (12851289)

Louis (13131316)

Robert (13181322)

Robert (13331364)

Catherine (13331346)

Philip (13641373)

Joanna I (13731381)

Charles III (13831386)


2 Grand Dukes of Luxembourg (1964 present)

Jean (19642000)

Henri (2000 present)


21 Dukes and Duchess of Burgundy (9561002, 10261361, 13631482)

Otto of Paris (956965)

Odo-Henry (9651002)

Henry I (10261032)

Robert I (10321076)

Hugh I (10761079)

Odo I (10791103)

Hugh II (11031143)

Odo II (11431162)

Hugh III (11621192)

Odo III (11921218)

Hugh IV (12181272)

Robert II (12721306)

Hugh V (13061315)

Odo IV (13151349)

Philip I (13491361)

John I, also John II of France (13611363)

Philip II (13631404)

John II (14041419)

Philip III (14191467)

Charles the Bold (14671477)

Mary (14771482)
15 Dukes and Duchess of Brittany (12121345, 13641532)

Peter I (12131237)

John I (12371286)

John II (12861305)

Arthur II (13051316)

John III (13121341)

John IV (13411345)

John V (13641399)

John VI (13991442)

Francis I (14421450)

Peter II (14501457)

Arthur III (14571458)

Francis II (14581488)

Anne (14881514)

Claude (15141524)

Francis IV (15241532)
6 Dukes and Duchess of Brabant (14051482)

Anthony (14061415)

John IV (14151427)

Philip I (14271430)

Philip II (14301467)

Charles (14671477)

Mary (14771482)

6 Dukes and Duchess of Luxembourg (14121415, 14191482, 17001713)

3 Dukes of Lorraine (14311473)

Ren I (14311453)

John II (14531470)

Nicholas I (14701473)
3 Dukes and Duchess of Durazzo (13321336, 13361348, 13481368, 13661368, 1376)

John (13321336)

Charles (13361348)

Joanna (13481368)

Louis (13661368 and 1376, in right of his wife)

1 Duchess of Guelders (14771482)

1 Duchess of Limburg (14771482)

1 Duke of Milan (17001713)

7 Dukes and Duchess of Parma (17311735, 17481802, 18141859)

2 Duchess and Duke of Lucca (18171847)

7 Margraves and Marchionesses of Namur (12171237, 14291482, 17001713)

9 Counts and Countesses of Provence (12451481)

1 Count of Portugal (10931112)

Henry (10931112)
8 Counts and Countesses of Burgundy (Franche-Comt) (13291382, 13831482)

6 Counts and Countesses of Hainaut (12531256, 14171482, 17001713)

6 Counts and Countesses of Flanders (13831482, 17001713)

3 Counts and Countesses of Holland (14331482)

3 Counts and Countesses of Zeeland (14331482)

Illegitimate Descent[edit]
2 Emperors of Brazil

Pedro I 18221831

Pedro II 18311889
20 Monarchs of Portugal

John I, The Good or The One of Happy Memory 1385 - 1433

Edward, The Philosopher or The Eloquent 1433 - 1438

Afonso V, The African 1438 - 1481

John II, The Perfect Prince 1481 - 1495

Manuel I, The Fortunate 1495 - 1521

John III, the Pious 1521 - 1557

Sebastian, the Desired 1557 - 1578

Henry, The Chaste 1578 - 1580

Anthony, Prior of Crato 1580 (disputed)

Joo IV (16401656)

Afonso VI (16561683)

Pedro II (16831706)

Joo V (17061750)

Jos I (17501777)

Pedro III (17771786)

Maria I (17771816)

Joo VI (18161826)

Pedro IV (1826)

Miguel I (18281834)

Maria II (18261853)
8 Dukes of Braganza

Afonso, 8th Count of Barcelos, 1st Duke of Braganza (1442).

Ferdinand I, 2nd Duke of Braganza.

Ferdinand II, 3rd Duke of Braganza and 1st Duke of Guimares (1475).

James (Jaime), 4th Duke of Braganza and 2nd Duke of Guimares.

Teodosius I, 5th Duke of Braganza and 3rd Duke of Guimares.

John I, 6th Duke of Braganza and 1st Duke of Barcelos (1562).

Teodosius II, 7th Duke of Braganza and 2nd Duke of Barcelos

John II, 8th Duke of Braganza and 3rd Duke of Barcelos.

Senior Capets[edit]
Throughout most of history, the Senior Capet and the King of France were synonymous terms. Only in the time
beforeHugh Capet took the crown for himself and after the reign of Charles X is the term necessary to identify
which. However, since primogeniture and the Salic Law provided for the succession of the French throne for most
of French history, here is a list of all the predecessors of the French monarchy, all the French kings from Hugh
until Charles, and all the Legitimistpretenders thereafter. All dates are for seniority, not reign. It is important to
note that historians class the predecessors of Hugh Capet as Robertians, not Capetians.
Noblemen in Neustria and their descendants (dates uncertain):

Cheribert (Until 636)

Chrodobertus (From 636)

Lambert I (Until 650)

Chrodobertus (650653)

Lambert II (653741)

Count in the Upper Rhine Valley and Wormgau:

Rutpert I (741757)

Thuringbert (757770)

Rutpert II (770807)

Rutpert III (807 -834)

Rutpert IV (834866)

King of France:

Odo (866898)

Robert I (898923)

Count of Paris:

Hugh (923956)

King of France:

Hugh (956996)

Robert II (9961031)

Henry I (10311060)

Philip I (10601108)

Louis VI (11081137)

Louis VII (11371180)

Philip II (11801223)

Louis VIII (12231226)

Louis IX (12261270)

Philip III (12711285)

Philip IV (12851314)

Louis X (13141316)

John I (1316)

Philip V (13161322)

Charles IV (13221328)

Philip VI (13281350)

John II (13501364)

Charles V (13641380)

Charles VI (13801422)

Charles VII (14221461)

Louis XI (14611483)

Charles VIII (14831498)

Louis XII (14981515)

Francis I (15151547)

Henry II (15471559)

Francis II (15591560)

Charles IX (15601574)

Henry III (15741589)

Henry IV (15891610)

Louis XIII (16101643)

Louis XIV (16431715)

Louis XV (17151774)

Louis XVI (17741793)

Louis XVII (17931795)

Louis XVIII (17951824)

Charles X (18241836)

Duke of Angoulme:

Louis XIX (18361844)

Count of Chambord:

Henri (18441883)

Count of Montizn:

Juan (18831887)

Duke of Madrid:

Carlos (18871909)

Duke of Anjou and Madrid:

Jacques (19091931)

Duke of San Jaime:

Alfonso Carlos (19311936)

King of Spain:

Alfonso XIII (19361941)

Duke of Anjou and Segovia:

Jacques Henri (19411975)

Duke of Anjou and Cdiz:

Alphonse (19751989)

Duke of Anjou:

Louis (1989present)

The Capetian dynasty today[edit]


Many years have passed since the Capetian monarchs ruled a large part of Europe; however, they still remain as
kings, as well as other titles. Currently two Capetian monarchs still rule in Spain and Luxembourg. In addition,
seven pretendersrepresent exiled dynastic monarchies in Brazil, France, Spain, Portugal, Parma and Two Sicilies.
The current legitimate, senior family member is Louis-Alphonse de Bourbon, known by his supporters as Duke of
Anjou, who also holds theLegitimist (Blancs d'Espagne) claim to the French throne. Overall, dozens of branches
of the Capetian dynasty still exist throughout Europe.
Except for the House of Braganza (founded by an illegitimate son of King John I of Portugal, who was himself
illegitimate), all current major Capetian branches are of the Bourbon cadet branch. Within the House of Bourbon,
many of these lines are themselves well-defined cadet lines of the House.

Current Capetian rulers[edit]

Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg (since 2000)

Felipe VI, King of Spain (since 2014)

Current Capetian pretenders[edit]

Louis Alphonse, Duke of Anjou, Legitimist (Blancs d'Espagne) pretender to France since 1989.

Infante Carlos, Duke of Calabria, Calabrian pretender to the Two Sicilies since 1964.

Prince Carlo, Duke of Castro, Castroist pretender to the Two Sicilies since 2008.

Carlos, Duke of Parma, pretender to Parma since 2010.

Prince Sixtus Henry of Bourbon-Parma, Carlist pretender to Spain since 1979.

Henri, Count of Paris, Legitimist (Blancs d'Eu) and Orlanist pretender to France since 1999.

Prince Pedro Carlos of Orlans-Braganza, Petrpolis pretender to Brazil since 2007.

Prince Luiz of Orlans-Braganza, Vassouras pretender to Brazil since 1981.

Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza, pretender to Portugal since 1976.

See also[edit]

Genealogiae scriptoris Fusniacensis

List of living legitimate male Capetians

Capetian Armorial

House of Capet

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The House of Capet, or The Direct Capetian Dynasty, (French: Les Captiens, la Maison
captienne), also called The House of France (la maison de France), or simply the Capets,
which ruled the Kingdom of Francefrom 987 to 1328, was the most senior line of the Capetian
dynasty itself a derivative dynasty from the Robertians. They were sometimes called "the third
race of kings", the Merovingians being the first, and the Carolingiansbeing the second. The
name is derived from the nickname of Hugh, the first Capetian King, who was known as Hugh
Capet. The direct succession of French kings, father to son, from 987 to 1316, of thirteen
generations in almost 330 years, was unparallelled in recorded history.
The direct House of Capet came to an end in 1328, when the three sons ofPhilip IV all failed to
produce surviving male heirs to the French throne. With the death of Charles IV, the throne
passed to the House of Valois, the direct descendants of Charles of Valois, a younger son
of Philip III. It would later pass again, to the House of Bourbon descended from Louis IX, and to
its cadet branch, the House of Orlans, always remaining in the hands of agnaticdescendants of
Hugh Capet.

History[edit]
Early Capetian kings[edit]
The first Capetian monarch was Hugh Capet (c.940996), a Frankish nobleman from the le-deFrance, who, following the death of Louis V of France (c.967987) the last Carolingian King
secured the throne of France by election. He then proceeded to make it hereditary in his family,
by securing the election and coronation of his son, Robert II (9721031), as co-King. The throne
thus passed securely to Robert on his father's death, who followed the same custom as did
many of his early successors.

The Capetian Kings were initially weak rulers of the Kingdom they directly ruled only small
holdings in the le-de-France and the Orlanais, all of which were plagued with disorder; the rest
of France was controlled by potentates such as theDuke of Normandy, the Count of Blois,
the Duke of Burgundy (himself a member of the Capetian Dynasty after 1032) and the Duke of
Aquitaine (all of whom faced to a greater or lesser extent the same problems of controlling their
subordinates). The House of Capet was, however, fortunate enough to have the support of
the Church, and with the exception of Philip I(10521108), Louis IX (12151270) and the shortlived John the Posthumous (1316) were able to avoid the problems of underaged kingship.
Capetian and Plantagenet[edit]
Briefly, under Louis VII 'the Young' (11201180), the House of Capet rose in their power in
France Louis married Alinor(11221204), the heiress of the Duchy of Aquitaine, and so
became Duke an advantage which had been eagerly grasped by Louis VI 'the Fat' (1081
1137), Louis the Young's father, when Alinor's father had asked of the King in his Will to secure
a good marriage for the young Duchess. However, the marriage and thus one avenue of
Capetian aggrandisement failed: the couple produced only two daughters, and suffered marital
discord; driven to secure the future of the House, Louis thus divorced Alinor (who went on to
marry Henry II of England (11331189), and be known to English history as Eleanor of
Aquitaine), and married twice more before finally securing a son, Philippe Dieu-donn ("The GodGiven"), who would continue the House as Philip II Augustus (11651223), and break the power
of the Angevins the family of Alinor and Henry II in France.

Coat of Arms of the House of Capet Azure, sem-de-lys Or, a blue field strewn with golden Lilies

Louis VIII (11871226) the eldest son and heir of Philip Augustus married Blanche of
Castile (11881252), a granddaughter of Alinor of Aquitaine and Henry II of England. In her
name, he claimed the crown of England, invading at the invitation of the English Barons, and

briefly being acclaimed though, it would later be stressed, not crowned asKing of England.
However, the Capetians failed to establish themselves in England Louis was forced to sign
the Treaty of Lambeth, which legally decreed that he had never been King of England, and the
Prince reluctantly returned to his wife and father in France. More importantly for his dynasty, he
would during his brief reign (12231226) conquer Poitou, and some of the lands of the Pays
d'Oc, declared forfeit from their former owners by the Pope as part of the Albigensian Crusade.
These lands were added to the French crown, further empowering the Capetian family.
Louis IX (12151270) Saint Louis succeeded Louis VIII as a child; unable to rule for several
years, the government of the realm was undertaken by his mother, the formidable Queen
Blanche. She had originally been chosen by her grandmother, Alinor, to marry the French heir,
considered a more suitable a Queen of the Franks than her sister Urraca; asregent, she proved
this to be so, being associated in the Kingship not only during her son's minority, but even after
he came into his own. Louis, too, proved a largely acclaimed King though he expended much
money and effort on the Crusades, only for it to go to waste, as a King of the Franks he was
admired for his austerity, strength, bravery, justice, and his devotion to France. Dynastically, he
established two notable Capetian Houses:the House of Anjou (which he created by bestowing
the County of Anjou upon his brother, Charles(12271285)), and the House of Bourbon (which he
established by bestowing Clermont on his son Robert (12561317) in 1268, before marrying the
young man to the heiress of Bourbon, Beatrix (12571310)); the first House would go on to
ruleSicily, Naples, and Hungary, suffering many tragedies and disasters on the way; the second
would eventually succeed to the French thone, collecting Navarre along the way.
French Monarchy

Direct Capetians
Hugh Capet

Gisle, Countess of Ponthieu


Hedwig, Countess of Mons
Robert II
Robert II

Hedwig, Countess of Nevers


Hugh Magnus, Rex Filius
Henry I
Adela, Countess of Flanders
Robert I, Duke of Burgundy
Henry I

Philip I
Hugh, Count of Vermandois
Philip I

Constance, Princess of Antioch


Louis VI
Cecile, Countess of Tripoli
Louis VI

Philip, Rex Filius


Louis VII
Henry, Archbishop of Reims
Robert I, Count of Dreux
Constance, Countess of Toulouse
Philip, Archdeacon of Paris
Peter I, Lord of Courtenay
Louis VII

Marie, Countess of Champagne


Alix, Countess of Blois
Marguerite, Queen of England
and Hungary
Alys, Countess of the Vexin
Philip II
Agnes, Byzantine Empress
Philip II

Louis VIII

Marie, Duchess of Brabant


Philip I, Count of Boulogne
Louis VIII

Louis IX
Robert I, Count of Artois
Alphonse, Count of Poitou and
Toulouse
Saint Isabelle
Charles I of Naples and Sicily
Louis IX

Isabella, Queen of Navarre


Louis of France
Philip III
John Tristan, Count of Valois
Peter, Count of Perche and
Alenon
Blanche, Infanta of Castile
Marguerite, Duchess of Brabant
Robert, Count of Clermont
Agnes, Duchess of Burgundy
Philip III

Louis of France
Philip IV
Charles, Count of Valois
Louis, Count of vreux

Blanche, Duchess of Austria


Margaret of France, Queen of
England
Philip IV

Louis X
Philip V
Charles IV
Isabella, Queen of England
Grandchildren
Edward III of England
Louis X

Joan II of Navarre
John I
John I
Philip V

Joan III, Countess of Burgundy


Margaret I, Countess of
Burgundy
Isabella, Dauphine of Viennois
Charles IV

Marie of France
Blanche, Duchess of Orlans
Apogee of royal power[edit]
At the death of Louis IX (who shortly after was set upon the road to beatification), France under
the Capetians stood as the pre-eminent power in Western Europe. This stance was largely
continued, if not furthered, by his son Philip III (12451285), and his son Philip IV (12681314),
both of whom ruled with the aid of advisors committed to the future of the House of Capet and of

France, and both of whom made notable for different reasons dynastic marriages. Philip III
married as his first wife Isabel (12471271), a daughter of King James I of Aragon (12081276);
long after her death, he claimed the throne of Aragon for his second son,Charles (12701325),
by virtue of Charles' descent via Isabel from the Kings of Aragon. Unfortunately for the
Capetians, the endeavour proved a failure, and the King himself died of dysentery at Perpignan,
succeeded by his son, Philip IV.
Philip IV had married Jeanne (12711305), the heiress of Navarre andChampagne. By this
marriage, he added these domains to the French crown. He engaged in conflicts with
the Papacy, eventually kidnapping Pope Boniface VIII(c.12351303), and securing the
appointment of the more sympathetic Frenchman, Bertrand de Goth (12641314), as Pope
Clement V; and he boosted the power and wealth of the crown by abolishing the Order of the
Temple, seizing its assets in 1307. More importantly to French history, he summoned the
first Estates General in 1302 and in 1295 established the so-called "Auld Alliance" with
the Scots, at the time resisting English domination. He died in 1314, less than a year after the
execution of the Templar leaders it was said that he had been summoned to appear before God
by Jacques de Molay (died 1314), the Grand Master of the Templars, as the latter was burnt at
the stake as a heretic; it was also said that de Molay had cursed the King and his family.
The succession crisis[edit]
It was Philip IV who presided over the beginning of his House's end. The first quarter of the
century saw each of Philip's sons reign in rapid succession: Louis X(13141316), Philip V (1316
1322) and Charles IV (13221328).
Having been informed that his daughters-in-law were engaging in adultery with twoknights
according to some sources, he was told this by his own daughter, Isabella he allegedly caught
two of them in the act in 1313, and had all three shut up in royal prisons. Margaret (12901315),
the wife of his eldest son and heir apparent,King Louis I of Navarre (12891316), had borne her
husband only a daughter at this time, and the paternity of this girl, Joan, was with her mother's
adultery now suspect. Accordingly, Louis unwilling to release his wife and return to their
marriage needed to remarry. He arranged a marriage with his cousin, Clementia of
Hungary (12931328), and after Queen Margaret conveniently died in 1315 (strangled by order
of the King, some claimed), he swiftly remarried to Clementia. She was pregnant when he died a
year later, after an unremarkable reign; uncertain of how to arrange the succession (the two main
claimants being Louis' daughter Joan the suspected bastard and Louis' younger
brother Philip (12931322), Count of Poitiers), the French set up a regency under the Count of
Poitiers, and hoped that the child would be a boy. This proved the case, but the boy King John
I (1316), known as the Posthumous died after only 5 days, leaving a succession crisis.
Eventually, it was decided based on several legal reasons (later reinterpreted as Salic Law) that
Joan was ineligible to inherit the throne, which passed to the Count of Poitiers, who became
Philip V. He, however, produced no surviving sons with his wife, Joan II, Countess of
Burgundy (12911330), who had been cleared of her charges of adultery; thus, when he died in
1322, the crown passed to his brother, Charles (12941328), Count of La Marche, who became
Charles IV; the County of Burgundy, brought to the Capetians by the marriage of Joan and Philip
V, remained with Joan, and ceased to be part of the royal domains.

Charles IV swiftly divorced his adulterous wife, Blanche of Burgundy (c.12961326) (sister of
Countess Joan), who had given him no surviving children, and who had been locked up since
1313; in her place, he married Marie of Luxembourg (13041324), a daughter of Emperor Henry
VII (c.12751313). Marie died in 1324, giving birth to a stillborn son. He then remarried to his
cousin, Jeanne d'vreux (13101371), who however bore him only daughters; when he died in
1328, his only child was Marie, a daughter by Jeanne, and the unborn child his wife was
pregnant with.Philip of Valois (12931350), Count of Anjou and Valois, Charles' cousin, was set
up as regent; when the Queen produced a daughter, Blanche, Philip by assent of the great
magnates became Philip VI, of the House of Valois, cadet branch of the Capetian Dynasty.
Last heirs[edit]
The last of the direct Capetians were the daughters of Philip IV's three sons, and Philip IV's
daughter, Isabella. Since they were female, they could not transmit their Capetian status to their
descendants. The wife of Edward II of England (12841327), Isabella (c.12951358) overthrew
her husband in favour of her son (Edward III, 13121377) and her co-hort (Roger Mortimer, 1st
Earl of March, 12871330), only for Edward III to execute Mortimer and have Isabella removed
from power. On the death of her brother, Charles IV, she claimed to be her father's heiress, and
demanded the throne pass to her son (who as a male, an heir to Philip IV, and of adult age, was
considered to have a good claim to the throne); however, her claim was refused, eventually
providing a cause for the Hundred Years' War.
Joan (13121349), the daughter of Louis X, succeeded on the death of Charles IV to the throne
of Navarre, she now being questions of paternity aside the unquestioned heiress. She was
the last direct Capetian ruler of that kingdom, being succeeded by her son, Charles II of
Navarre (13321387); his father, Philip of vreux (13061343) had been a member of the
Capetian House of vreux. Mother and son both claimed on several occasions the throne of
France, and later the Duchy of Burgundy.
Of the daughters of Philip V and Joan II of Burgundy, the elder two had surviving issue. Joan III,
Countess of Burgundy (13081349), married Odo IV, Duke of Burgundy (12951350), uniting the
Duchy and County of Burgundy. Her line became extinct with the death of her sole
grandchild, Philip I, Duke of Burgundy(13461361), whose death also served to break the union
between the Burgundys once more. Her sister, Margaret (13101382), married Louis I, Count of
Flanders(13041346), and inherited the County of Burgundy after the death of Philip I; their
granddaughter and heiress, Margaret III, Countess of Flanders (13501405), married the son
of John II of France (13191364), Philip II, Duke of Burgundy(13421404), uniting the two
domains once more.
Of Charles IV's children, only Blanche (13281392) the youngest, the baby whose birth marked
the end of the House of Capet survived childhood. She married Philip of Valois, Duke of
Orlans (13361376), the son of Philip VI, but they produced no children. With her death in 1392,
the House of Capet finally came to an end.

List of direct Capetian kings of France[edit]

987996, Hugh Capet (Hugues Capet), Count of Paris, crowned King of the Franks

9961031, Robert II, the Pious (Robert II le Pieux)

10311060, Henry I (Henri Ier)

10601108, Philip I (Philippe Ier)

11081137, Louis VI, the Fat (Louis VI le Gros)

11371180, Louis VII, the Young (Louis VII le Jeune)

11801223, Philip II Augustus, the God-Given (Philippe II Auguste Dieudonn)

12231226, Louis VIII, the Lion (Louis VIII le Lion)

12261270, Louis IX, the Saint, ("Saint Louis") (Louis IX le Saint, Saint Louis)

12701285, Philip III, the Bold (Philippe III le Hardi)

12851314, Philip IV, the Fair (Philippe IV le Bel)

13141316, Louis X, the Quarrelsome (Louis X le Hutin)

13161316, John I, the Posthumous (Jean Ier le Posthume)

13161322, Philip V, the Tall (Philippe V le Long)

13221328, Charles IV, the Fair (Charles IV le Bel)

List of direct Capetian Kings and Queens of Navarre [edit]

12851314, Philip I, the Fair (Philip IV of France), husband of Queen Joan I of Navarre

13141316, Louis I, the Quarrelsome (Louis X of France)

13161316, John I, the Posthumous (John I of France)

13161322, Philip II, the Tall (Philip V of France)

13221328, Charles I, the Fair (Charles IV of France)

13281349, Joan II

Sources[edit]

MacLagan, Michael and Louda, Jiri (1984). Lines of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal
Families of Europe. London: Orbis. ISBN 978-0-85613-672-6.

Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. (ed) et al. (1926) The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume
III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hallam, Elizabeth M. and Everard, Judith (2001). Capetian France, 9871328 (second
ed.). Harlow, UK: Longman.ISBN 978-0-582-40428-1.

See also[edit]

France in the Middle Ages

French monarchs family tree

List of French monarchs

Cape

Main article: France in the Middle Ages


Kings during this period[edit]

Capetian Dynasty (House of Capet):

Hugh Capet, 940-996

Hugh Capet[a][b] (c. 941 24 October 996) was the first "King of the Franks"of the House of
Capet from his election in 987 until his death. He succeeded the last Carolingian king, Louis V.

Descent and inheritance[edit]


The son of Hugh the Great, Duke of the Franks, and Hedwige of Saxony, daughter of
the German king Henry the Fowler, Hugh was born in 941.[1]
Through his mother, Hugh was the nephew of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor;Henry I, Duke of
Bavaria; Bruno the Great, Archbishop of Cologne; andGerberga of Saxony, Queen of France,

wife of Louis IV, King of France, and mother of Lothair of France and Charles, Duke of Lower
Lorraine.
His paternal family, the Robertians, were powerful landowners in the le-de-France.[2] His
grandfather had been King Robert I.[2] King Odo was his granduncle and King Rudolph was his
uncle by affinity.[3]
Hugh is a seventh-generation descendant of Charlemagne:[1][4]

Hugh Capet, son of

Hugh the Great, son of

Batrice of Vermandois, daughter of

Herbert I, Count of Vermandois, son of

Pepin, Count of Vermandois, son of

Bernard of Italy, King of the Lombards, son of

Pepin of Italy, King of the Lombards, son of

Charlemagne.

Hugh Capet was born into a well-connected and powerful family with many ties to the royal
houses of France and Germany.[c]

Rise of the Robertians[edit]


Since the end of the ninth century, the descendants of Robert the Strong have become
indispensable in carrying out royal policies. Whenever Carolingian power failed, the greatest
families of West Francia argued that the monarchy was elective, and chose two Robertians, Odo
I (888-898) and Robert I (922-923), as kings in their stead.
At the death of his brother-in-law, Rudolph of Burgundy, King of the Franks, in 936, Hugh the
Great had to decide whether he ought to claim the throne for himself. To claim the throne would
be to risk an election, which he would have to contest with the powerful Herbert II, Count of
Vermandois, father of Hugh, Archbishop of Reims, and allied to Henry the Fowler, King of
Germany; and with Hugh the Black, Duke of Burgundy, brother of the late king. To counter these
possibilities,[5]Hugh the Great supported the return of Louis d'Outremer, the dispossessed son
of Charles the Simple, from his exile at the court of Athelstan of England.[6]
This maneuver, however, allowed him to become the most powerful person in France at the first
half of the tenth century. Once in power, Louis IV granted him the title of dux Francorum (Duke of
the Franks); the king officially declared him (perhaps under pressure) as "the second after us in

all our kingdoms." He also gains power when his great rival Herbert II of Vermandois died in 943,
because the powerful principality was then divided among his four sons.
Hugh the Great thus came to dominate so many territories between Orleans-Senlis and AuxerreSens, while the Carolingian ruler was rather confined to the northeast of Paris (Compigne,
Laon, Soissons). Finally, the Duke of the Franks is the head of bishoprics and abbeys as those
Marmoutier (near Tours), Fleury-sur-Loire (near Orleans) and Saint-Denis. It is also as lay abbot
of the collegiate church of Saint Martin of Tours in which Hugh the Great and especially his son
Hugues "Capet" take perhaps their nickname in reference to cappa (the cloak of St. Martin) kept
as a relic in this place.

French monarchy in the 10th century[edit]

A denier of Hugh Capet when he was Duke of France, calling him "dukeby the grace of God" (Dux Dei
Gratia). Minted at Paris (Parisi Civita)

The realm in which Hugh grew up, and of which he would one day be king, bore no resemblance
to modern France. Hugh's predecessors did not call themselves kings of France, and that title
was not used by his successors until the time of his descendant, Philip II. Kings ruled as rex
Francorum ("King of the Franks") and the lands they ruled comprised only a small part of the
former Carolingian Empire. Theeastern Frankish lands, the Holy Roman Empire, were ruled by
the Ottoniandynasty, represented by Hugh's first cousin Otto II and then by Otto's son, Otto III.
The lands south of the river Loire had largely ceased to be part of the West Francia kingdom in
the years after Charles the Simple was deposed in 922. Both the Duchy of Normandy and
the Duchy of Burgundy were largely independent, and Brittanyentirely soalthough from 956
Burgundy was ruled by Hugh's brothers Otto and Henry.[7]

France under Ottonian influence[edit]


In 956, after the death of his father, Hugh the Great, Hugh, the eldest, is older than fifteen years
and has two brothers. Otto I, king of Germany, intends to bring western Francia under his
tutelage, which is possible since he was the maternal uncle of Hugh Capet and Lothair of France,
the new king of the Franks who succeeded at the age of 13 years to Louis IV in 954.
The kingdom of France in 954 and the Robertian principality in 956 are put under the tutelage of
Bruno, Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lorraine, brother of King Otto I. The tutelage of Hugh
is doubled by that of Lothair. With these young princes under his tutelage, Otto aimed to maintain
the balance between Robertians, Carolingians and Ottonians. In 960, the Frankish king agreed to
grant to Hugh the legacy of his father, the margraviate of Neustria and the title of Duke of the

Franks. But in return, the duke must accept the new independence gained by the counts of
Neustria during the power vacuum. His brother, Otto gets only the duchy of Burgundy (by
marriage). Andrew W. Lewis has sought to show that Hugh the Great had prepared a succession
policy to ensure his eldest son much of his legacy, as did all the great families of that time.
From 962, the West was dominated by the champion of Christendom against the Hungarians,
Otto I, who restored the imperial title and seized Italy along the way. The new emperor increased
his power over Western Francia with special attention to certain bishoprics on his border;
although elected by Lothair, the Adalberon, Archbishop of Rheims, had imperial sympathies.
Disappointed, King Lothair relied on other dioceses (Langres, Chalons, Noyon) and Arnulf I,
Count of Flanders.

Duke of the Franks[edit]


In 956, Hugh inherited his father's estates, in theory making him one of the most powerful nobles
in the much-reduced kingdom of West Francia.[8] As he was not yet an adult, his mother acted as
his guardian,[9] and young Hugh's neighbours took advantage. Theobald I of Blois, a former
vassal of Hugh's father, took the counties of Chartres and Chteaudun. Further south, on the
border of the kingdom, Fulk II of Anjou, another former client of Hugh the Great, carved out a
principality at Hugh's expense and that of the Bretons.[10]
The royal diplomas of the 960's show that the nobles are faithful not only to the Duke of the
Franks, as in the days of Hugh the Great, but also to King Lothair. Indeed, there are some in the
royal armies fighting against the Duchy of Normandy on behalf of Lothair. Finally, even Hugh's
position as second man in the kingdom seemed to slip. Two charters of the abbey of
Montierender (968 and 980) refer to Herbert III, Count of Vermandois, while Count of ChateauThierry, Vitry and lay abbot of Saint-Mdard of Soissons, bearing the title of "Count of the Franks"
and even "count of the palace" in a charter of Lothair.
For his part, Lothair also lost power with the ascendance of the Ottonian monarchy. It pales by
participating in the gathering of relatives and vassals of Otto I in 965. However, from the death of
the emperor in 973, Lothair wanted to revive the policy of his grandfather to recover Lorraine,
"cradle of Carolingians". Otto's son and successor, Otto II, appointed his cousin, Charles, brother
of Lothair, as Duke of Lower Lorraine, to the king's fury, who was at enmity with his brother.
During the summer of 978, he decided to take action.
In August 978, accompanied by the nobles of the kingdom, Lothair surprised and plundered
Aachen, residence of Otto II, forcing the imperial family to flee. After occupying Aachen for five
days, Lothair returned to France after symbolically disgracing the city. In September 978, Otto II
retaliated against Lothair by invading France with the aid of Charles. He met with little resistance
on French territory, devastating the land around Rheims, Soissons, and Laon. Otto II then had
Charles crowned as King of France by Theodoric I, Bishop of Metz. Lothair then fled to the
French capital of Paris and was there besieged by Otto II and Charles. Sickness among his
troops brought on by winter and a French relief army under Hugh Capet forced Otto II and
Charles to lift the siege on November 30, and to return to Germany. On the journey back to
Germany, Otto's rearguard, unable to cross the Aisne in flood at Soissons, is completely wiped

out, "and more died by that wave than by the sword." This victory allowed Hugues Capet to
regain his position as the first noble of the Frankish kingdom.

The Archbishop of Rheims[edit]


Until the end of the tenth century, situated in Carolingian lands, Reims is the most important of
the archiepiscopal seats of France. He claims to the primacy of Gaul and the holder has the
privilege to crown kings and direct their chancery. Therefore, the Archbishop of Reims has
traditionally supported the ruling family and has long been central to the royal policy. But the
episcopal city is headed by Adalberon of Rheims, nephew of Adalberon of Metz (a faithful prelate
to the Carolingians), elected by the King Lothair in 969, but who has family ties with the
Ottonians. The Archbishop is assisted by one of the most advanced minds of his time, the
schoolmaster and future Pope, Gerbert of Aurillac. Adalberon and Gerbert worked for the
restoration of a single dominant empire in Europe. King Lothair, 13 years old, was under the
tutelage of his uncle Otto I. But upon reaching his majority, he became independent, which
defeats the imperial project of bringing the whole of Europe under a single crown. Therefore, they
turned their support from Lothair in favor of Hugh Capet.
Indeed, for the Ottonian to make France a vassal state of the empire, it is imperative that the
Frankish king is not of the Carolingian race, and not powerful enough to break the Ottonian
tutelage. Hugh Capet becomes for them the ideal candidate, especially since he actively
supports the monastic reform in the abbeys while other contenders continue to distribute church
revenues to their own partisans. Such conduct could only appeal to Reims, very close to the
Cluniac movement.

Failure of Lothair[edit]
With the support of the Adalberon of Reims, Hugh becomes the new leader of the kingdom. In a
letter Gerbert of Aurillac wrote to the Archbishop Adalberon that "Lothair is king of France in
name alone; Hugh is, however, not in name but in effect and deed."
In 979, Lothair sought to ensure his succession by associating his eldest son to the throne. Hugh
Capet supported him and summoned the great nobles of the kingdom. The ceremony took place
at Compigne, in the presence of the king, of Arnulf (an illegitimate son of the king), and of
Archbishop Adalberon, under Hugh's blessing. The congregation acclaimed Louis V, following
the Carolingian custom, and the archbishop anointed the new king of the Franks.
The following year, Lothair, seeing the growing power of Hugh, decided to reconcile with the
Emperor Otto II by agreeing to renounce Lorraine. But Hugh did not want the king and the
emperor reconciled, so he quickly took the fortress of Montreuil, and then went to Rome. There
he met the emperor and the pope, and with his confidants Bouchard of Vendme and Arnulf of
Orlans. Tension mounts between Lothair and Hugh. The king married his son 15-year-old Louis
to Adelaide of Anjou, then more than 40 years old. She brought with her Auvergne and the
county of Toulouse, enough to pincer the Robertian territories from the south. The marriage
failed. The couple separated two years later.

At the death of Otto II in 983, Lothair took advantage of the minority of Otto III and decided to
attack Lorraine after making an alliance with the Duke of Bavaria. Hugh took care not to join this
expedition.
When the king took Verdun and imprisoned Godfrey (brother of the Archbishop of Reims),
Adalberon and Gerbert sought the aid of the duke of the Franks. But the king's enterprises came
to naught when the king died in March 986.

Election[edit]
Louis V, following Louis IV and Lothair, declared that he would take the counsels of the duke of
the Franks for his policies. It seems the new king wished to launch an offensive against Reims
and Laon because of their rapprochement with the empire. Sources are vague on Hugh's role at
this time, but it would be his interest to limit the king's excessive pretensions. Louis summoned
the archbishop of Reims at his palace at Compigne to answer for his actions. But in a hunting
party, the king was killed in a riding accident on 21 or 22 May 987 in the forest of Senlis.
In May 987, chroniclers, including Richerus and Gerbert of Aurillac, write that in Senlis, "died the
race of Charles." However, even if Louis died childless, there remained a Carolingian who could
ascend the throne. This is Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, brother of Lothair, uncle of Louis V,
first cousin of Hugh Capet through their mothers.
It was nothing extraordinary; it was not the first time that a Robertian would be competing with a
Carolingian. In the time of Hugh the Great, the Robertians found it expedient to support the claim
of a Carolingian. By 987, times have changed. For ten years, Hugh Capet had been openly
competing against his king, and appeared to have subjected the great vassals. But his opponent
Charles of Lorraine is accused of all evils: he wanted to usurp the crown (978), allied himself with
the emperor against his brother, and had defamed Queen Emma of Italy, his brother's wife. The
archbishop of Reims convened the greatest lords of France at Senlis and denounced Charles of
Lorraine for not maintaining his dignity, having made himself a vassal of the emperor Otto II and
marrying a woman from a lower class of nobility. After this he promoted the candidacy of Hugh
Capet:
Crown the Duke. He is most illustrious by his exploits, his nobility, his forces. The throne is not
acquired by hereditary right; no one should be raised to it unless distinguished not only for
nobility of birth, but for the goodness of his soul.[11]
He was elected and crowned rex Francorum at Noyon in Picardy on 3 July 987, by the prelate of
Reims, the first of the Capetian house. Immediately after his coronation, Hugh began to push for
the coronation of his son Robert. The archbishop, wary of establishing hereditary kingship in the
Capetian line, said that two kings cannot be created in the same year. Hugh claimed, however,
that he was planning an expedition against the Moorish armies harassing Borrel II, Count of
Barcelona (a vassal of the French crown), and that the stability of the country necessitated two
kings should he die while on expedition.[12] Ralph Glaber, however, attributes Hugh's request to
his old age and inability to control the nobility.[13]Modern scholarship has largely imputed to Hugh
the motive of establishing a dynasty against the pretension of electoral power on the part of the

aristocracy, but this is not the typical view of contemporaries and even some modern scholars
have been less sceptical of Hugh's "plan" to campaign in Spain.[13] Robert was eventually
crowned on 25 December that same year.

Charles of Lorraine[edit]
Charles of Lorraine, the Carolingian heir, contested the succession. He drew support from the
Count of Vermandois, a cadet of the Carolingian dynasty; and from the Count of Flanders, loyal
to the Carolingian cause. Charles took Laon, the seat of Carolingian royalty. Hugh Capet and his
son Robert besieged the city twice, but were compelled to withdraw each time. Hugh decided to
make an alliance with Theopano (regent for her son Otto III), but she never replied.
When Adalberon, Archbishop of Reims, died, the archbishopric was contested by his right-hand
man, Gerbert of Aurillac, and Arnulf, illegitimate son of King Lothair of France (and nephew of
Charles of Lorraine). Choosing Arnulf to replace Adalberon seemed a great gamble, but Hugh
made it anyway, and chose him as archbishop instead of Gerbert, in order to appease
Carolingian symphatizers and the local populace. Following the customs of those times, he was
made to invoke a curse upon himself if he should break his of oath of fidelity to Hugh. Arnulf was
duly installed, and was confirmed by the pope.
Yet to Arnulf the ties of blood with his uncle Charles was the stronger than the oath he had given
Hugh. Gathering the nobles in his castle, Arnulf sent one of his agents and opened the gates of
the city to Charles. Arnulf acted as if terrified, and took the nobles with him to a tower, which he
had emptied out of supplies beforehand. Thus was the city of Reims compelled to surrender; to
keep up appearances, Arnulf and Charles denounced each other, until Arnulf swore fealty to
Charles.
Great was the predicament of Hugh, and he began doubting whether he could win the contest by
force. Adalberon, bishop of Laon, whom Charles expelled when he took the city, had sought the
protection of Hugh Capet. The bishop made overtures to Arnulf and Charles, to mediate a peace
between them and Hugh Capet. Adalberon was received by Charles favorably, but was made to
swear oaths that would bring curses upon himself if broken. Adalberon swore to them all, "I will
observe my oaths, and if not, may I die the death of Judas." That very night the bishop seized
Charles and Arnulf in their sleep, and delivered them to Hugh. Charles was imprisoned in
Orlans until his death. His sons, born in prison, were released.

Reaction in the South[edit]


This betrayal, which occurs in the very movement of the Peace of God (the council of Charroux,
989), strongly strikes the imagination in the southern half of the kingdom: Adalberon is totally
discredited in these provinces and the image of Hugh Capet is tarnished. The ruthless war
against Charles of Lorraine in Laon and Reims (988-991), known by the story of Richerus of
Reims and the letters of Gerbert, made the king hostile in the eyes of some of the churchmen.
For a long time it was stated that the southern subjects had consistently rejected the first
Capetian. Recently, studies have issued nuances. It seems that the rejection is political (the

capture of Charles of Lorraine) rather than dynastic. The Duke of Aquitaine refuses to submit to
his king, "condemning the crime of the Franks [the capture of Charles]" and the Bishop of Laon is
compared to Judas the "traitor." Finally, they make peace on the banks of the Loire. This remark
is even more explicit in the city of Limoges. Acts say that until 988, Hugh and his son Robert
were recognized by the date of their reign "regnante Ugo rege anno II et Rotberto filio suo anno
primo" ("signed the second year of the reign of King Hugh and the first of his son Robert"). But a
few months later, the charters are not dated by their reigns: it seems that the change is due to the
knowledge of the capture of Charles of Lorraine and the betrayal of Adalberon, bishop of Laon.
Once made aware, the southern cities would have rejected the legitimacy of Hugh and Robert.

Dispute with the papacy[edit]


After the loss of Reims by the betrayal of Arnulf, Hugh demanded his deposition by Pope John
XV. But the pope was then embroiled in a conflict with the Roman aristocracy. After the capture
of Charles and Arnulf, Hugh resorted to a domestic tribunal, and convoked a synod at Reims in
June 991. There Gerbert testified against Arnulf, which led to the archbishop's deposition and
Gerbert being chosen as replacement.
Pope John XV rejected this procedure and wished to convene a new council in Aachen, but the
French bishops refused and confirmed their decision in Chelles (winter 993-994). The pope then
called them to Rome, but they protested that the unsettled conditions en route and in Rome
made that impossible. The Pope then sent a legate with instructions to call a council of French
and German bishops at Mousson, where only the German bishops appeared, the French being
stopped on the way by Hugh and Robert.
Gerbert, supported by other bishops, advocates for the independence of the churches vis--vis
Rome (which is controlled by the German emperors). Through the exertions of the legate, the
deposition of Arnulf was finally pronounced illegal. To avoid excommunication of the bishops who
sat in the council of St. Basle, and thus a schism, Gerbert decided to let go. He abandoned the
archdiocese and went to Italy. After Hugh's death, Arnulf was released from his imprisonment
and soon restored to all his dignities. Under the auspices of the emperor, Gerbert eventually
succeeded to the papacy as Pope Sylvester II, the first French pope.

Extent of power[edit]

Denier of Hugh Capet for Beauvais

Hugh Capet possessed minor properties near Chartres and Angers. Between Paris
and Orlans he possessed towns and estates amounting to approximately 400 square miles
(1,000 km2). His authority ended there, and if he dared travel outside his small area, he risked
being captured and held for ransom, though his life would be largely safe. [citation needed] Indeed, there
was a plot in 993, masterminded byAdalberon, Bishop of Laon and Odo I of Blois, to deliver Hugh
Capet into the custody of Otto III. The plot failed, but the fact that no one was punished illustrates
how tenuous his hold on power was. Beyond his power base, in the rest of France, there were
still as many codes of law as there were fiefdoms. The "country" operated with 150 different
forms of currency and at least a dozen languages.[citation needed] Uniting all this into one cohesive unit
was a formidable task and a constant struggle between those who wore the crown of France and
its feudal lords. Therefore, Hugh Capet's reign was marked by numerous power struggles with
the vassals on the borders of the Seine and the Loire.
While Hugh Capet's military power was limited and he had to seek military aid from Richard I of
Normandy, his unanimous election as king gave him great moral authority and influence. Admar
de Chabannes records, probably apocryphally, that during an argument with the Count of
Auvergne, Hugh demanded of him: "Who made you count?" The count riposted: "Who made you
king?".[14]

Legacy[edit]
Hugh Capet died on 24 October 996 in Paris and was interred in the Saint Denis Basilica. His
son Robert continued to reign.
Most historians regard the beginnings of modern France with the coronation of Hugh Capet. This
is because, as Count of Paris, he made the city his power centre. The monarch began a long
process of exerting control of the rest of the country from there.
He is regarded as the founder of the Capetian dynasty. The direct Capetians, or the House of
Capet, ruled France from 987 to 1328; thereafter, the Kingdom was ruled by cadet branches of
the dynasty. All French kings through Louis Philippe, and all royals since then, have belonged to
the dynasty. Furthermore, cadet branches of the House continue to reign in Spain
and Luxembourg.
All monarchs of the Kingdom of France from Hugh Capet to Philip II of France were titled King of
the Franks. Philip II of France was the first to use the title of King of France. Many people are
mistaken with this minor error in writing or doing genealogy.

Marriage and issue[edit]


Hugh Capet married Adelaide, daughter of William Towhead, Count of Poitou. Their children are
as follows:

Gisela, or Gisele, who married Hugh I, Count of Ponthieu

Hedwig, or Hathui, who married Reginar IV, Count of Hainaut

Robert II, who became king after the death of his father

A number of other daughters are less reliably attested.[15]

Prophecy[edit]

Apparition of Saint Valery to Hugh Capet

According to tradtion, sometime in 981, Hugh Capet recovered the relics of St. Valery, which had
been stolen by the Flemmings, and restored it to the proper resting place. The saint appeared to
the duke in a dream, and said: "For what you have done, you and your descendants shall be
kings to the seventh generation." When he became king, Hugh refused to wear the insignia of
royalty, hoping that it would extend his descendants' reign by one generation.
By the literal interpretation, Capetian kingship would thus have ended with Philip Augustus, the
seventh king of his line. Figuratively, seven meant completeness, and would mean that the
Capetians would be kings forever. The latter proved to be the case, for Capetian kingship lasted
until the end of the monarchy.

Robert the Pious, 996-1027

Robert II (27 March 972 20 July 1031), called the Pious (French: le Pieux) or the
Wise (French: le Sage), was King of the Franks from 996 until his death. The second reigning
member of the House of Capet, he was born inOrlans to Hugh Capet and Adelaide of Aquitaine.
Contents
[hide]

1 Co-rule with father

2 Marital problems

3 Piety

4 Military career

5 Children

6 Ancestry

7 Notes

8 Sources

Co-rule with father[edit]

Denier of Robert II the Pious, struck at Soissons

Immediately after his own coronation, Robert's father Hugh began to push for the coronation of
Robert. "The essential means by which the early Capetians were seen to have kept the throne in
their family was through the association of the eldest surviving son in the royalty during the
father's lifetime," Andrew W. Lewis has observed, in tracing the phenomenon in this line of kings
who lacked dynastic legitimacy.[2] Hugh's claimed reason was that he was planning an expedition
against the Moorish armies harassing Borrel II of Barcelona, an invasion which never occurred,
and that the stability of the country necessitated a co-king, should he die while on expedition.
[3]
Ralph Glaber, however, attributes Hugh's request to his old age and inability to control the
nobility.[4] Modern scholarship has largely imputed to Hugh the motive of establishing a dynasty
against the claims of electoral power on the part of the aristocracy, but this is not the typical view
of contemporaries and even some modern scholars have been less sceptical of Hugh's "plan" to
campaign in Spain.[5] Robert was eventually crowned on 25 December 987.[6] A measure of
Hugh's success is that when Hugh died in 996, Robert continued to reign without any succession
dispute, but during his long reign actual royal power dissipated into the hands of the great
territorial magnates.
Robert had begun to take on active royal duties with his father in the early 990s. In 991, he
helped his father prevent the French bishops from trekking to Mousson in the Kingdom of
Germany for a synod called by Pope John XV, with whom Hugh was then in disagreement.

Marital problems[edit]
As early as 989, having been rebuffed in his search for a Byzantine princess, [7] Hugh Capet
arranged for Robert to marryRozala, the recently widowed daughter of Berengar II of Italy, many
years his senior, who took the name of Susanna upon becoming Queen. [8] She was the widow
of Arnulf II of Flanders, with whom she had two children. Robert divorced her within a year of his
father's death in 996. He tried instead to marry Bertha, daughter of Conrad of Burgundy, around
the time of his father's death. She was a widow of Odo I of Blois, but was also Robert's cousin.
For reasons of consanguinity, Pope Gregory V refused to sanction the marriage, and Robert
was excommunicated. After long negotiations with Gregory's successor, Sylvester II, the
marriage was annulled.

Seal of Robert II

Finally, in 1001, Robert entered into his final and longest-lasting marriage toConstance of Arles,
the daughter of William I of Provence. Her southern customs and entourage were regarded with
suspicion at court. After his companion Hugh of Beauvais urged the king to repudiate her as well,
knights of her kinsman Fulk III, Count of Anjou had Beauvais murdered. The king and Bertha
then went to Rome to ask Pope Sergius IV for an annulment so they could remarry.[9] After this
was refused, he went back to Constance and fathered several children by her. Her ambition
alienated the chroniclers of her day, who blamed her for several of the king's decisions. However,
they remained married until his death in 1031.

Piety[edit]
Despite his marital problems, Robert was a very devout Catholic, hence his sobriquet "the
Pious." He was musically inclined, being a composer, chorister, and poet, and making his palace
a place of religious seclusion, where he conducted the matins and vespers in his royal robes.

However, to contemporaries, Robert's reputation for "piety" also resulted from his lack of
toleration for heretics: he harshly punished them. Indeed, he is credited with advocating forced
conversions of local Jewry, as well as mob violence against Jews who refused. [10] Furthermore,
Robert reinstated the Roman imperial custom of burning heretics at the stake.[11]

Military career[edit]
The kingdom Robert inherited was not large, and in an effort to increase his power, he vigorously
pursued his claim to any feudal lands that became vacant, usually resulting in war with a counterclaimant. In 1003, his invasion of the Duchy of Burgundy was thwarted, and it would not be until
1016 that he was finally able to get the support of the Church to be recognized as Duke of
Burgundy.
The pious Robert made few friends and many enemies, including his own sons: Hugh, Henry,
and Robert. They turned against their father in a civil war over power and property. Hugh died in
revolt in 1025. In a conflict with Henry and the younger Robert, King Robert's army was defeated,
and he retreated to Beaugency outside Paris, his capital. He died in the middle of the war with his
sons on 20 July 1031 at Melun. He was interred with Constance in Saint Denis Basilica and
succeeded by his son Henry, in both France and Burgundy.

Children[edit]

Effigies of Robert II (middle) and Constance d'Arles (front) at Basilique Saint-Denis.

Robert had no children from his short-lived marriage to Susanna. His illegal marriage to Bertha
gave him one stillborn son in 999, but only Constance gave him surviving children: [12]

Hedwig (or Advisa), Countess of Auxerre (c. 1003 after 1063), marriedRenauld I, Count
of Nevers on 25 January 1016 and had issue.

Hugh Magnus, co-king (1007 17 September 1025)

Henry I, successor (4 May 1008 4 August 1060)

Adela, Countess of Contenance (1009 5 June 1063), married (1) Richard III of
Normandy and (2) Count Baldwin V of Flanders.

Robert (1011 21 March 1076)

Odo or Eudes (1013c.1056), who may have been intellectually disabledand died after
his brother's failed invasion of Normandy
Constance (10141052), married Count Manasses de Dammartin.

Robert also left an illegitimate son: Rudolph, Bishop of Bourges.

Henry I, 1027-1060

Henry I (4 May 1008 4 August 1060) was the King of the Franks from 1031 to his death.
The royal demesne of France reached its smallest size during his reign, and for this reason he is
often seen as emblematic of the weakness of the early Capetians. This is not entirely agreed
upon, however, as other historians regard him as a strong but realistic king, who was forced to
conduct a policy mindful of the limitations of the French monarchy.

Reign[edit]
A member of the House of Capet, Henry was born in Reims, the son of KingRobert II (9721031)
and Constance of Arles (9861034).[1] He was crowned King of France at the Cathedral in Reims
on 14 May 1027,[2] in the Capetian tradition, while his father still lived. He had little influence and
power until he became sole ruler on his father's death.
The reign of Henry I, like those of his predecessors, was marked by territorial struggles. Initially,
he joined his brother Robert, with the support of their mother, in a revolt against his father (1025).
His mother, however, supported Robert as heir to the old king, on whose death Henry was left to
deal with his rebel sibling. In 1032, he placated his brother by giving him the duchy of
Burgundy which his father had given him in 1016.
In an early strategic move, Henry came to the rescue of his very young nephew-in-law, the newly
appointed Duke William of Normandy (who would go on to become William the Conqueror), to
suppress a revolt by William's vassals. In 1047, Henry secured the dukedom for William in their
decisive victory over the vassals at the Battle of Val-s-Dunes near Caen,[3] however Henry would
later support the barons against William until the former's death in 1060.[4]
In 1051, William married Matilda, the daughter of the count of Flanders, which Henry saw as a
threat to his throne.[5] In 1054, and again in 1057, Henry invaded Normandy, but on both
occasions he was defeated.[5]

Henry had three meetings with Henry III, Holy Roman Emperorall at Ivois. In early 1043, he
met him to discuss the marriage of the emperor with Agnes of Poitou, the daughter of Henry's
vassal.[6] In October 1048, the two Henries met again and signed a treaty of friendship. [7] The final
meeting took place in May 1056 and concerned disputes over Theobald III and County of Blois.
[7]
The debate over the duchy became so heated that Henry accused the emperor of breach of
contract and subsequently left.[7] In 1058, Henry was selling bishropics and abbacies, ignoring the
accusations of simony and tyranny by the Papal legate Cardinal Humbert.[8] Despite his efforts,
Henry I's twenty-nine-year reign saw feudal power in France reach its pinnacle.
King Henry I died on 4 August 1060 in Vitry-en-Brie, France, and was interred inBasilica of St
Denis. He was succeeded by his son, Philip I of France, who was 7 at the time of his death; for
six years Henry's queen Anne of Kiev ruled as regent.
He was also Duke of Burgundy from 1016 to 1032, when he abdicated the duchy to his
brother Robert.[9]

Marriages[edit]
Henry I was betrothed to Matilda, the daughter of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, but she died
prematurely in 1034.[10]Henry then married Matilda of Frisia, but she died in 1044,[11] following
a Caesarean section. Casting further afield in search of a third wife, Henry married Anne of
Kiev on 19 May 1051.[11] They had four children:
1. Philip I (23 May 1052 30 July 1108)
2. Emma (born 1054, date of death unknown)
3. Robert (c. 1055 c. 1060)
4. Hugh "the Great" of Vermandois (10571102)

Philip I, 10601108

Philip I (23 May 1052 29 July 1108), called the Amorous,[2] was King of the Franks from 1060
to his death. His reign, like that of most of the earlyCapetians, was extraordinarily long for the
time. The monarchy began a modest recovery from the low it reached in the reign of his father
and he added to the royal demesne the Vexin[3] and Bourges.

Biography[edit]
Philip was born 23 May 1052 at Champagne-et-Fontaine, the son of Henry Iand Anne of Kiev.
Unusual at the time for Western Europe, his name was ofGreek origin, being bestowed upon him

by his mother. Although he was crowned king at the age of seven,[4] until age fourteen (1066) his
mother acted as regent, the first queen of France ever to do so. Baldwin V of Flanders also acted
as co-regent.[3]
Following the death of Baldwin VI of Flanders, Robert the Frisian seized Flanders. Baldwin's
wife, Richilda requested aid from Philip, who defeated Robert at the battle of Cassel in 1071.[3]
Philip first married Bertha in 1072.[5] Although the marriage produced the necessary heir, Philip
fell in love with Bertrade de Montfort, the wife of Fulk IV, Count of Anjou. He repudiated Bertha
(claiming she was too fat) and married Bertrade on 15 May 1092.[6] In 1094, he
was excommunicated byHugh of Die, for the first time;[6] after a long silence, Pope Urban
II repeated the excommunication at the Council of Clermont in November 1095.[7]Several times
the ban was lifted as Philip promised to part with Bertrade, but he always returned to her, but in
1104 Philip made a public penance and must have kept his involvement with Bertrade discreet.
[8]
In France, the king was opposed by Bishop Ivo of Chartres, a famous jurist.[9]
Philip appointed Alberic first Constable of France in 1060. A great part of his reign, like his
father's, was spent putting down revolts by his power-hungry vassals. In 1077, he made peace
with William the Conqueror, who gave up attempting the conquest of Brittany.[10] In 1082, Philip I
expanded his demesne with the annexation of the Vexin. Then in 1100, he took control of
Bourges.[11]

2nd type denier during Philip I

It was at the aforementioned Council of Clermont that the First Crusade was launched. Philip at
first did not personally support it because of his conflict with Urban II. Philip's brother Hugh of
Vermandois, however, was a major participant.
Philip died in the castle of Melun and was buried per request at the monastery ofSaint-Benotsur-Loire and not in St Denis among his forefathers. He was succeeded by his son, Louis VI,
whose succession was, however, not uncontested. According to Abbot Suger:

King Philip daily grew feebler. For after he had abducted the Co
[future king] Louis... They carried the body in a great procession to

Issue[edit]
Philips children with Bertha were:
1. Constance of France, Princess of Antioch
2. Louis VI of France
3. Henry (b. 1083) (died young)
4. Charles (b. 1085)
Philips children with Bertrade were:
1. Philip, Count of Mantes (fl. 1123)[12]
2. Fleury, Seigneur of Nangis (1093 July 1119)[13]
3. Cecile of France

Louis VI the Fat, 11081137

Louis VI (1 December 1081 1 August 1137), called the Fat (French: le Gros), was King of the
Franks from 1108 until his death (1137). Chronicles called him "roi de Saint-Denis".
Contents
[hide]

1 Life

2 Marriages and children

3 Ancestry

4 Notes

5 References

Life[edit]

Louis VI

Louis was born in Paris, the son of Philip I and his first wife, Bertha of Holland.[1] The first member
of the House of Capet to make a lasting contribution to the centralizing institutions of royal power.
[2]
Almost all of his twenty-nine-year reign was spent fighting either the "robber barons" who
plagued Paris[3] or the Norman kings of England for their continental possession of Normandy.
Nonetheless, Louis VI managed to reinforce his power considerably and became one of the first
strong kings of France since the division of the Carolingian Empire. The biography of Louis
prepared by his loyal advisor Abbot Suger of Saint Denis offers a fully developed portrayal of his
character, in contrast to what little is known about most of his predecessors.
In his youth, Louis fought the Duke of Normandy, Robert Curthose, and the lords of the royal
demesne, the le de France. Suger became his adviser already before Louis became king. He
succeeded his father at the age of 27 upon the death of the old King Philip on 29 July 1108.
Louis's half-brother prevented him from reaching Rheims, and so he was crowned on 3 August in
the cathedral of Orlans by Daimbert, Archbishop of Sens.[4] Ralph the Green, archbishop of
Rheims, sent envoys to challenge the validity of the coronation and anointing, but to no avail. [4]

The crowning of Louis VI in Orlans.

On Palm Sunday 1115, Louis was present in Amiens to support the bishop and inhabitants of the
city in their conflict with Enguerrand I of Coucy, one of his vassals, who refused to recognise the
granting of a charter of communal privileges.[5] Louis came with an army to help the citizens
besiege Castillon (the fortress dominating the city, from which Enguerrand was making punitive
expeditions).[5] At the siege, the king took an arrow to his hauberk, but the castle, considered
impregnable, fell after two years.[5]

Just before his death in 1137, William X, Duke of Aquitaine, appointed Louis guardian of his
daughter and future successor, Eleanor, and expressed his wish for her to marry Louis's son, the
future Louis VII.[6] The prospect of adding Aquitaine to his sons' domains was a fortiutious political
gain for Louis.[6]
Louis VI died on 1 August 1137 in Paris of dysentery.[7] He was interred in Saint Denis Basilica.
[7]
He was succeeded on the throne by his son Louis VII, called "the Younger", who had originally
wanted to be a monk.

Marriages and children[edit]

Epitaph of Louis VI, after 1137,Eglise Abbatiale de Saint Denis, today at Cluny Museum.

He married in 1104: 1) Lucienne de Rochefort the marriage was annulled on 23 May 1107 at
the Council of Troyes by Pope Paschal II.[8]
He married in 1115: 2) Adlaide de Maurienne (10921154)[8]

Their children:
1.

Philip (1116 13 October 1131), King of France (112931), not to be confused


with his brother of the same name; he died as a result of a fall from a horse.

2.

Louis VII (1120 18 September 1180), King of France

3.

Henry (112175), archbishop of Reims

4.

Hugues (born ca 1122)

5.

Robert (ca 1123 11 October 1188), count of Dreux

6.

Constance (ca 1124 16 August 1176), married first Eustace IV, count of
Boulogne, and then Raymond V of Toulouse.

7.

Philip (112561), bishop of Paris, not to be confused with his elder brother.

8.

Peter of France (ca 112583), married Elizabeth, Lady of Courtenay

With Marie de Breuillet, daughter of Renaud de Breuillet de Dourdan, Louis VI was the father of a
daughter:
Isabelle (ca 1105 before 1175), married (ca. 1119) Guillaume I of Chaumont.

Louis VII the Young, 11371180

Louis VII of France


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Louis VII

Effigy of Louis VII, denier, Bourges

King of the Franks

Junior

25 October 1131 1 August 1137

king

1 August 1137 18 September 1180

Senior
king

Coronatio

25 October 1131 in Reims Cathedral(as junior

king)

25 December 1137 inBourges(as king)

Predecess Louis VI
or

Successor Philip II Augustus

Spouse

Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine


Constance of Castile
Adle of Champagne

Issue

Marie, Countess of Champagne


Alix, Countess of Blois
Margaret, Queen of Hungary
Alys, Countess of the Vexin
Philip II of France
Agnes, Byzantine Empress

House

House of Capet

Father

Louis VI of France

Mother

Adlaide of Maurienne

Born

1120

Died

18 September 1180 (aged 5960)


Saint-Pont, Allier

Burial

Saint Denis Basilica

Religion

Roman Catholicism

Louis VII (called the Younger or the Young) (French: Louis le Jeune) (1120 18 September 1180) was
a Capetian King of the Franks from 1137 until his death. He was the son and successor of Louis VI (hence his

nickname) and he married Eleanor of Aquitaine, one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in western
Europe. Eleanor brought the vast Duchy of Aquitaine as a dowry to Louis, thus temporarily extending the
Capetian lands to thePyrenees, but their marriage was annulled in 1152 as no male heir could be produced.
Immediately after the annulment of her marriage, Eleanor married Henry Plantagenet, Duke of
Normandy and Count of Anjou, to whom she gave the Aquitaine, five sons, and three daughters. When Henry
became King of England in 1154, as Henry II, he ruled over a large empire, spanning fromScotland to the
Pyrenees, that would mark the beginning of the long rivalry between France and England.
Louis VII's reign saw the founding of the University of Paris, and the disastrous Second Crusade. Louis and his
famous counselor Abbot Sugerpushed for a greater centralization of the state and favoured the
developmentFrench Gothic architecture, notably the construction of Notre-Dame de Paris.
He died in 1180 and was succeeded by his son Philip II.

Contents
[hide]

1 Early years

2 Early reign

3 A shift in the status quo

4 Diplomacy

5 Marriages and children

6 Legacy

7 Fictional portrayals

8 Ancestors

9 Sources

10 References

Early years[edit]
Louis was born in 1120 in Paris,[citation needed] the second son of Louis VI of France and Adelaide of Maurienne. The
early education of Prince Louis anticipated an ecclesiastical career-path. He unexpectedly became the heir to the
throne after the accidental death of his older brother, Philip, in 1131. A well-learned and exceptionally devout
man, Louis VII was better suited for life as a priest than as a monarch.[citation needed]

He spent much time of his youth in Saint-Denis, where he built a friendship with the Abbot Suger (c. 1081 13
January 1151), which served him well in his early years as king.

Early reign[edit]
Following the death of William X, Duke of Aquitaine, Louis VI moved quickly to have Prince Louis married
to Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, heiress of William X, on 25 July 1137.[1] In this way, Louis VI sought to add the
large, sprawling territory of the Aquitaine to his family's holdings in France. Shortly after the marriage, Louis VI
died, on 1 August 1137, and Prince Louis became King of France, reigning as "Louis VII." The pairing of the
monkish Louis VII and the high-spirited Eleanor was doomed to failure; she reportedly once declared that she had
thought to marry a king, only to find she'd married a monk. There was a marked difference between the frosty,
reserved culture of the northern le de France court where Louis had been raised and the rich, free-wheeling
court life of the Aquitaine with which Eleanor was familiar.[2] Louis and Eleanor had two daughters, Marie and Alix.
[3]

In the first part of his reign, Louis VII was vigorous and zealous in his prerogatives, but after his Crusade,
his piety limited his ability to become an effective statesman. His accession was marked by no disturbances,
other than uprisings by theburgesses of Orlans and of Poitiers, who wished to organise communes. He soon
came into violent conflict with Pope Innocent II, however, when the archbishopric of Bourges became vacant. The
King supported as candidate the chancellorCadurc against the Pope's nominee Pierre de la Chatre, swearing
upon relics that so long as he lived Pierre should never enter Bourges. The Pope thus imposed an interdict upon
the King.
Louis VII then became involved in a war with Theobald II of Champagne by permitting Raoul I of Vermandois,
theseneschal of France, to repudiate his wife, Theobald II's niece, and to marry Petronilla of Aquitaine, sister of
the queen of France. Champagne also sided with the Pope in the dispute over Bourges. The war lasted two years
(11421144) and ended with the occupation of Champagne by the royal army. Louis VII was personally involved
in the assault and burning of the town of Vitry-le-Franois. More than a thousand people who had sought refuge
in the church died in the flames. Overcome with guilt, and humiliated by ecclesiastical contempt, Louis admitted
defeat, removed his armies from Champagne and returned them to Theobald, accepting Pierre de la Chatre and
shunning Raoul and Petronilla. Desiring to atone for his sins, he then declared on Christmas Day 1145 at
Bourges his intention of going on a crusade. Bernard of Clairvaux assured its popularity by his preaching
at Vezelay on Easter 1146.

Gza II of Hungary and Louis VII of France. Image from the HungarianChronicon Pictum (14th century).
Meanwhile in 1144, Geoffrey the Handsome, Count of Anjou, completed his conquest of Normandy. In exchange
for being recognised as Duke of Normandy by Louis, Geoffrey surrendered half of the Vexina region considered
vital to Norman securityto Louis. Considered a clever move by Louis at the time, it would later prove yet another
step towards Angevin rule.
In June 1147, in fulfilment of his vow to go on crusade, Louis VII and his queen, Eleanor, set out from the Basilica
of St Denis, first stopping in Metz,Lorraine, on the overland route to Syria. Soon they arrived to the Kingdom of
Hungary where they were welcomed by the king Gza II of Hungary, who was already waiting with the German
emperor. Due to his good relationships with Louis VII, Gza II asked the French king to be his son Stephen's
baptism godfather. After receiving provisions from the Hungarian king, the armies continued the march to the East
(the good relationships between both kingdoms continued flourishing, and decades later Louis's daughter
Margaret was taken as wife by Gza's son Bla III of Hungary). Just beyond Laodiceathe French army was
ambushed by Turks. The French were bombarded by arrows and heavy stones, the Turks swarmed down from
the mountains and the massacre began. The historian Odo of Deuil reported:
During the fighting the King Louis lost his small and famous royal guard, but he remained in good heart and
nimbly and courageously scaled the side of the mountain by gripping the tree roots The enemy climbed after
him, hoping to capture him, and the enemy in the distance continued to fire arrows at him. But God willed that his
cuirass should protect him from the arrows, and to prevent himself from being captured he defended the crag with
his bloody sword, cutting off many heads and hands.

Raymond of Poitiers welcoming Louis VII in Antioch.


Louis VII and his army finally reached the Holy Land in 1148. His queen Eleanor supported her uncle, Raymond
of Antioch, and prevailed upon Louis to help Antioch against Aleppo. But Louis VII's interest lay in Jerusalem, and
so he slipped out of Antioch in secret. He united with Conrad III of Germany and King Baldwin III of Jerusalem to
lay siege to Damascus; this ended in disaster and the project was abandoned. Louis VII decided to leave the Holy
Land, despite the protests of Eleanor, who still wanted to help her doomed uncle Raymond of Antioch. Louis VII
and the French army returned home in 1149.

A shift in the status quo[edit]


The expedition came to a great cost to the royal treasury and military. It also precipitated a conflict with Eleanor,
leading to the annulment of their marriage at the council of Beaugency in March 1152.[4] Perhaps the marriage to
Eleanor might have continued if the royal couple had produced a male heir, but this had not occurred.[3] The
Council of Beaugency declared that Louis VII and Eleanor were too closely related for their marriage to be legal.
[3]

Thus the marriage was annulled on 21 March 1152. The pretext of kinship was the basis for annulment; in fact,

it owed more to the state of hostility between the two, and to the decreasing odds that their marriage would
produce a male heir to the throne of France. On 18 May 1152, Eleanor married Henry, Count of Anjou, the future
Henry II of England, giving him the duchy of Aquitaine, three daughters, and five sons. Louis VII led an ineffective
war against Henry for having married without the authorization of his suzerain; the result was a humiliation for the
enemies of Henry and Eleanor, who saw their troops routed, their lands ravaged, and their property stolen.[5] Louis
reacted by coming down with a fever, and returned to the Ile-de France.
In 1154 Louis VII married Constance of Castile, daughter of Alfonso VII of Castile. She, too, failed to give him a
son and heir, bearing only two daughters, Marguerite of France, and Alys. Louis having produced no sons by
1157, Henry II of England began to believe that he might never do so, and that the succession of France would
consequently be left in question. Determined to secure a claim for his family, he sent the Chancellor, Thomas
Becket, to press for a marriage between Princess Marguerite and Henry's heir, also called Henry (later Henry the
Young King). Louis, surprisingly, agreed to this proposal, and by the Treaty of Gisors (1158) betrothed the young
pair, giving as a dowry the Norman Vexin andGisors.

Louis VII receiving clergymen, from a late medieval manuscript.


Constance died in childbirth on 4 October 1160, and five weeks later Louis VII married Adle of Champagne. To
counterbalance the advantage this would give the King of France, Henry II had the marriage of their children
(Henry "the Young King" and Marguerite) celebrated at once. Louis understood the danger of the
growing Angevin power; however, through indecision and lack of fiscal and military resources, compared to Henry
II, he failed to oppose Angevin hegemony effectively. One of his few successes, in 1159, was his trip to Toulouse
to aidRaymond V, Count of Toulouse, who had been attacked by Henry II: after he entered into the city with a
small escort, claiming to be visiting his sister, the Countess, Henry declared that he could not attack the city while
his liege lord was inside, and went home.

Diplomacy[edit]
At the same time the emperor Frederick I (11521190) in the east was making good the imperial claims on Arles.
When the schism broke out, Louis VII took the part of the Pope Alexander III, the enemy of Frederick I, and after
two comical failures of Frederick I to meet Louis VII at Saint Jean de Losne (on 29 August and 22 September
1162), Louis VII definitely gave himself up to the cause of Alexander III, who lived at Sens from 1163 to 1165.
Alexander III gave the King, in return for his loyal support, the golden rose.
More importantly for French and English history would be his support for Thomas Becket, Archbishop of
Canterbury, whom he tried to reconcile with Henry II. Louis sided with Becket as much to damage Henry as out of
piousness yet even he grew irritated with the stubbornness of the archbishop, asking when Becket refused
Henry's conciliations, "Do you wish to be more than a Saint?"
He also supported Henry's rebellious sons, and encouraged Plantagenet disunity by making Henry's sons, rather
than Henry himself, the feudal overlords of the Angevin territories in France; but the rivalry amongst Henry's sons
and Louis's own indecisiveness broke up the coalition (11731174) between them. Finally, in 1177, the Pope
intervened to bring the two Kings to terms at Vitry-le-Franois.
In 1165, Louis' third wife bore him a son and heir, Philip II Augustus. Louis had him crowned at Reims in 1179, in
the Capetian tradition (Philip would in fact be the last King so crowned). Already stricken with paralysis, King

Louis VII himself could not be present at the ceremony. He died on 18 September 1180 at the Abbey at SaintPont, Allier and was in the Cistercian Abbey of Barbeaux and was later moved to Saint-Denis in 1817

Marriages and children[edit]


French Monarchy

Direct Capetians

Louis VII

Marie, Countess of
Champagne
Alix, Countess of Blois
Marguerite, Queen of
England and Hungary
Alys, Countess of the Vexin
Philip II
Agnes, Byzantine Empress
Louis married three times. By Eleanor of Aquitaine,[6] he had:

Marie (1145 11 March 1198), married Henry I of Champagne[7]

Alix (11511197/1198), married Theobald V of Blois[7]

By Constance of Castile:[8]

Margaret (1158 August/September 1197), married (1) Henry the Young King; (2) King Bla III of
Hungary

Alys (4 October 1160 ca. 1220), engaged to Richard I of England; she married William IV, Count of
Ponthieu

By Adele of Champagne:[9]
Philip II Augustus (22 August 1165 1223)

Agnes (1171 after 1204), who was betrothed to Alexius II Comnenus (11801183) but married
(1) Andronicus I Comnenus (11831185); (2) Theodore Branas (1204)

Legacy[edit]
The reign of Louis VII was, from the point of view of royal territory and military power, a difficult and unfortunate
one. Yet the royal authority made progress in the parts of France distant from the royal domains: more direct and
more frequent connection was made with distant vassals, a result largely due to the alliance of the clergy with the
crown. Louis VII thus reaped the reward for services rendered the church during the least successful portion of
his reign. His greater accomplishments lie in the development of agriculture, population, commerce, the building
of stone fortresses, as well as an intellectual renaissance. Considering the significant disparity of political
leverage and financial resources between Louis VII and his Angevin rival, not to mention Henry II's superior
military skills, Louis VII should be credited with preserving the Capetian dynasty.

Fictional portrayals[edit]
Louis is a character in Jean Anouilh's play Becket. In the 1964 film adaptation he was portrayed by John Gielgud,
who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. He was also portrayed by Charles Kay in
the 1978 BBC TV drama series The Devil's Crown. He has a role in Sharon Kay Penman's novels When Christ
and His Saints Slept andDevil's Brood. The early part of Norah Lofts' biography of Eleanor of Aquitaine deals
considerably with Louis VII, seen through Eleanor's eyes and giving her side in their problem

Philip II Augustus, 11801223

Philip II of France
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Philippe Auguste" redirects here. For the Paris Mtro station, see Philippe Auguste (Paris
Mtro).

Philip II

Seal of Philip II
King of France
Junior king

1 November 1179 18 September 1180

Senior king

18 September 1180 14 July 1223

Coronation

1 November 1179

Predecessor

Louis VII

Successor

Louis VIII

Spouse

Isabella of Hainaut
Ingeborg of Denmark
Agnes of Merania

Issue

Louis VIII, King of France


Marie, Duchess of Brabant
Philip I, Count of Boulogne

House

House of Capet

Father

Louis VII, King of France

Mother

Adle of Champagne

Born

21 August 1165
Gonesse, France

Died

14 July 1223 (aged 57)


Mantes-la-Jolie, France

Burial

Saint Denis Basilica

Religion

Roman Catholicism

Philip II, called Philip Augustus (French: Philippe Auguste; 21 August 1165 14 July 1223)
was a Capetian King of France who reigned from 1180 to 1223, and the first to be called by that
title. His predecessors had been known as kings of the Franks but from 1190 onward Philip
styled himself king of France. The son of Louis VII and of his third wife,Adela of Champagne, he
was originally nicknamed "God-given" because he was the first son of Louis VII and born late in
his father's life.[1]
After a twelve years struggle with the Plantagenet dynasty, Philip broke up the great Angevin
Empire and defeated a coalition of his rivals (German, Flemish and English) at the Battle of
Bouvines in 1214. This victory would have a lasting impact on western European politics: the
authority of the French king became unchallenged, while the English king was forced by his
barons to sign the Magna Carta and faced a rebellion in which Philip intervened, the First Barons'
War.
Philip did not directly participate in the Albigensian Crusade, but he allowed his vassals and
knights to carry it out, preparing the subsequent expansion of France southward.
Philip was nicknamed "Augustus" by the chronicler Rigord for having remarkably extended
the royal demesne, the domains ruled directly by the kings of France, as opposed to the
territories ruled indirectly by vassals of the king.
He checked the power of the nobles and helped the towns to free themselves from seigniorial
authority, granting privileges and liberties to the emergent Bourgeoisie. He built a great wall
around Paris, reorganized the government and brought financial stability to the country.
Philip Augustus transformed France from a small feudal state into the most prosperous and
powerful country in Europe. He died in 1223 and was succeeded by his son, Louis VIII. Knowing

his own declining health would inevitably decrease his political strength, he was the first Capetian
king not to have his eldest son anointed to act as co-ruler during his lifetime; instead his son
acted as sole king.
Contents
[hide]

1 Early years

1.1 Consolidation of royal demesne

1.2 Wars with his vassals

1.3 War with Henry II

2 Third Crusade

3 Conflict with England, Flanders and the Holy Roman Empire


o

3.1 Conflict with King Richard the Lionheart 11921199

3.2 Conflict with King John 12001206

3.3 Alliances against Philip 12081213

3.4 Battle of Bouvines 1214

4 Marital problems

5 Issue

6 Last years

7 Portrayal in fiction

8 Ancestry

9 Notes

10 References

Early years[edit]

Isabelle, Philip's first wife.

Philip was born in Gonesse on 21 August 1165.[2] As soon as he was able, Louis planned to
associate Philip with him on the throne, but it was delayed when Philip, at the age of thirteen, was
separated from his companions during a royal hunt and became lost in the Forest of Compigne.
He spent much of the following night attempting to find his way out, but to no avail. Exhausted by
cold, hunger and fatigue, he was eventually discovered by a peasant carrying a charcoal burner,
but his exposure to the elements meant he soon contracted a dangerously high fever. [3] His father
went on pilgrimage to the Shrine of Thomas Becket to pray for Philip's recovery and was told that
his son had indeed recovered. However, on his way back to Paris, he suffered a stroke.
In declining health, Louis VII had his 14 years old son crowned and anointed at Rheims by
theArchbishop William Whitehands on 1 November in 1179. He was married on 28 April 1180
to Isabelle of Hainaut, who brought the County of Artois as her dowry. From his coronation, all
real power was transferred to Philip, as his father slowly descended into senility. [3] The great
nobles were discontented with Philip's advantageous marriage, while his mother and four uncles,
all of whom exercised enormous influence over Louis, were extremely unhappy with his
association to the throne, causing a diminution in their power.[4] Eventually, Louis died on 18
September 1180.

Consolidation of royal demesne[edit]

The coronation of Philippe II Auguste in the presence of Henry II of England

While the royal demesne had increased under Philip I and Louis VI, under Louis VII it had
diminished slightly. In April 1182, Philip expelled all Jews from the demesne and confiscated their
goods. Philip's eldest son, Louis, was born on 5 September in 1187 and inherited Artois in 1190,
when his mother Isabelle died. The main source for Philip's army was from the royal demesne. In
times of conflict, he could immediately call up 250 knights, 250 horse sergeants, 100
crossbowmen (mounted), 133 crossbowmen (foot), 2,000 foot sergeants, and 300 mercenaries.
[5]
Towards the end of his reign, the King could muster some 3,000 knights, 9,000 sergeants, 6,000
urban militiamen, and thousands of foot sergeants.[6] Using his increased revenues, Philip was
the first Capetian king to actively build a French navy. By 1215, his fleet could carry a total of
7,000 men. Within two years his fleet included 10 large ships and many smaller ones. [7]
Wars with his vassals[edit]
In 1181, Philip began a war with Philip, Count of Flanders, over the Vermandois, which King
Philip claimed as his wife's dowry and the Count was unwilling to give up. Finally the Count of
Flanders invaded France, ravaging the whole district between the Somme and the Oise before
penetrating as far as Dammartin.[8] Notified of Philip's impending approach with 2,000 knights, he
turned around and headed back to Flanders.[9] Philip chased him, and the two armies confronted
each other near Amiens. By this stage, Philip had managed to counter the ambitions of the count
by breaking his alliances withHenry I, Duke of Brabant, and Philip of Heinsberg, Archbishop of
Cologne. This, together with an uncertain outcome were he to engage the French in battle,
forced the Count to conclude a peace.[8] In July 1185, the Treaty of Boves left the disputed
territory partitioned, with Aminois, Artois, and numerous other places passing to the King, and
the remainder, with the county of Vermandois proper, left provisionally to Philip of Alsace. [10] It was
during this time that Philip II was nicknamed "Augustus" by the monk Rigord for augmenting
French lands.[11]

Meanwhile in 1184, Stephen I of Sancerre and his Brabanon mercenaries ravaged the
Orlanais. Philip defeated him with the aid of the Confrres de la Paix.
War with Henry II[edit]
Philip also began to wage war with Henry II of England, who was also Count of Anjou and Duke
of Normandy and Aquitainein France. The death of Henry's eldest son, Henry the Young King, in
June 1183 began a dispute over the dower of Philip's widowed sister Margaret. Philip insisted
that the dower should be returned to France as the marriage did not produce any children, as per
the betrothal agreement.[12] The two kings would hold conferences at the foot of an elm tree
near Gisors, which was so positioned that it would overshadow each monarch's territory, but to
no avail. Philip pushed the case further when King Bla III of Hungary asked for the widow's
hand in marriage, and thus her dowry had to be returned, to which Henry finally agreed.

Remains of the wall of Philippe Auguste built around Paris before he went to the Crusades. Today in rue
des Jardins-Saint-Paul, Paris

The death of Henry's fourth son, Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany, in 1186 began a new round of
disputes, as Henry insisted that he retain the guardianship of the duchy for his unborn
grandson Arthur I, Duke of Brittany.[12] Philip, as Henry's liege lord, objected, stating that he
should be the rightful guardian until the birth of the child. Philip then raised the issue of his other
sister, Alys, Countess of the Vexin, and her delayed betrothal to Richard the Lionheart.
With these grievances, two years of combat (11861188) followed, but the situation remained
unchanged. Philip initially allied with Henry's young sons, Richard the Lionheart and John
Lackland, who were in rebellion against their father. Philip II launched an attack on Berry in the

summer of 1187 but then in June made a truce with Henry, which left Issoudun in his hands and
also granted him Frteval, in Vendmois.[10] Though the truce was for two years, Philip found
grounds for resuming hostilities in the summer of 1188. He skilfully exploited the estrangement
between Henry and Richard, and Richard did homage to him voluntarily atBonmoulins in
November 1188.[10]
Then in 1189 Richard openly joined forces with Philip to drive Henry into abject submission. They
chased him from Le Mans to Saumur, losing Tours in the process,[12] before forcing him to
acknowledge Richard as his heir. Finally, by the Treaty of Azay-le-Rideau (4 July 1189), Henry
was forced to renew his own homage, to confirm the cession of Issoudun, with Graay also, to
Philip, and to renounce his claim to suzerainty over Auvergne.[10] Henry died two days later. His
death, and the news of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin, diverted attention from the FrancoEnglish war.
Philip befriended all of Henry's sons and used them to foment rebellion against their father, but
he turned against both Richard and John after their respective accessions to the throne. The
Angevin Kings of England, as Dukes of Normandy and Aquitaine, and Count of Anjou, were his
most powerful and dangerous vassals. Philip made it his life's work to destroy Angevin power in
France. He maintained friendships with Henry the Young King and Geoffrey II until their deaths.
Indeed, at the funeral of Geoffrey, he was so overcome with grief that he had to be forcibly
restrained from casting himself into the grave.

Third Crusade[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve
this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (September 2011)

Philip (right) and Richard accepting the keys to Acre; from the Grandes Chroniques de France.

Philip went on the Third Crusade (11891192) with King Richard I of England (The
Lionheart) and the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick I Barbarossa. His army leftVzelay on 1 July
1190. At first the French and English crusaders travelled together, but the armies split at Lyon, as
Richard decided to go by sea, and Philip took the overland route through the Alps to Genoa. The
French and English armies were reunited in Messina, where they wintered together. On 30 March
1191 the French set sail for the Holy Land and Philip arrived on 20 May. He then marched toAcre,
which was already under siege by a lesser contingent of crusaders, and he started to construct
siege equipment before Richard arrived in 8 June. By the time Acre surrendered on 12 July,
Philip was severely ill with dysentery, which reduced his zeal. Ties with Richard were further
strained after the latter acted in a haughty manner after Acre had fallen.
More importantly, the siege resulted in the death of Philip of Alsace, who held the county of
Vermandois proper, threatening to derail the Treaty of Gisors that Philip had orchestrated to
isolate the powerful Blois-Champagne faction. Philip decided to return to France to settle the
issue of succession in Flanders, a decision that displeased Richard, who said, "It is a shame and
a disgrace on my lord if he goes away without having finished the business that brought him
hither. But still, if he finds himself in bad health, or is afraid lest he should die here, his will be
done." So on 31 July 1191 the French army of 10,000 men (along with 5,000 silver marks to pay
the soldiers) remained in Outremer under the command of Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy. Philip and
his cousin Peter of Courtenay, count of Nevers, made their way to Genoa and from there
returned to France. The decision to return was also fuelled by the realisation that with Richard
campaigning in the Holy Land, English possessions in northern France (Normandy) would be
open for attack. After Richard's delayed return home, war between England and France would
ensue over possession of English-controlled territories in modern-day France.

Conflict with England, Flanders and the Holy Roman Empire [edit]
Conflict with King Richard the Lionheart 11921199[edit]
The immediate cause of the conflict with Richard the Lionheart stemmed from Richard's decision
to break his betrothal with Phillip's sister Alys at Messina in 1191.[13] Part of Alys's dowry that had
been given over to Richard during their engagement was the territory of the Vexin, which included
the strategic fortress of Gisors. This should have reverted to Philip upon the end of the betrothal,
but Philip, to prevent the collapse of the Crusade, agreed that this territory was to remain in
Richard's hands and would be inherited by his male descendents. Should Richard die without an
heir, the territory would return to Philip, and if Philip died without an heir, those lands would be
considered a part of Normandy.[13]
Returning to France in late 1191, Phillip began plotting to find a way to have those territories
restored to him. He was in a difficult situation, as he had taken an oath not to attack Richard 's
lands while he was away,[14] and as Richard was still on Crusade, his territory was under the
protection of the Church in any event. Philip had unsuccessfully asked Pope Celestine III to
release him from his oath,[15] and as a result he was forced to build a casus belli from scratch.
On 20 January 1192, Philip met with William FitzRalph, Richard's seneschal of Normandy.
Presenting some documents purporting to be from Richard, Philip claimed that Richard had

agreed at Messina to hand back the disputed lands to Philip. Not having heard anything directly
from their sovereign, FitzRalph and the Norman barons rejected Philip's claim to the Vexin.
[13]
Philip at this time also began spreading rumours about Richard's action in the east to discredit
the English king in the eyes of his subjects. Among the stories Philip invented included Richard
involved in treacherous communication withSaladin, that he had conspired to cause the fall
of Gaza, Jaffa, and Ashkelon, and that he had participated in the murder ofConrad of Montferrat.
[15]
Finally, Philip made contact with Prince John, Richard's brother, whom he convinced to join
him and overthrow his brother.[15]
At the start of 1193, John visited Philip in Paris where he paid homage for Richard's continental
lands. When word reached Philip that Richard had finished crusading and had been captured on
his way back from the Holy Land, he promptly invaded the Vexin. His first target was the fortress
of Gisors, commanded by Gilbert de Vascoeuil, which surrendered without putting up a struggle.
[16]
Philip then penetrated deep into Normandy, reaching as far as Dieppe. To keep the duplicitous
John on his side, Philip entrusted the defence of the town of vreux to him.[17] Meanwhile, Philip
was joined by Count Baldwin of Flanders, and together they laid siege to the ducal capital of
Normandy, Rouen. Here, Philip's advance was halted by a defence led by Earl Robert of
Leicester.[16] Unable to penetrate their defences, Philip moved on.
At Mantes on 9 July 1193, Philip came to terms with Richard's ministers who agreed that Philip
could keep his gains and would be given some extra territories if he ceased all further aggressive
actions in Normandy, along with the condition that Philip would hand back the captured territory if
Richard would pay homage to Philip.[16] To prevent Richard from spoiling their plans, Philip and
John attempted to bribe the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI to keep the English king captive for a
little while longer. He refused, and Richard was released from captivity on 4 February 1194. By
13 March Richard had returned to England, and by 12 May he had set sail for Normandy with
some 300 ships, eager to take the war to Philip.[16]
Philip had spent this time consolidating his territorial gains and by now controlled much of
Normandy east of the Seine, while remaining within striking distance of Rouen. His next objective
was the castle of Verneuil,[18] which had withstood an earlier siege. Once Richard arrived
at Barfleur, he soon marched towards Verneuil. As his forces neared the castle, Philip, who had
been unable to break through, decided to strike camp. Leaving a large force behind to prosecute
the siege, he moved off towards vreux, which Prince John had handed over to his brother to
prove his loyalty.[18] Philip retook the town and sacked it, but during this time, his forces at Verneuil
abandoned the siege, and Richard entered the castle unopposed on 30 May. Throughout June
while Philip's campaign ground to a halt in the north, Richard was taking a number of important
fortresses to the south. Philip, eager to relieve the pressure off his allies in the south, marched to
confront Richard's forces at Vendme. Refusing to risk everything in a major battle, Philip
retreated, only to have his rear guard caught at Frteval on 3 July, which turned into a general
encounter that Philip only managed to avoid capture as his army was put to flight. [18] Fleeing back
to Normandy, Philip avenged himself on the English by attacking the forces of Prince John and
the Earl of Arundel, seizing their baggage train.[18] By now both sides were tiring, and they agreed
to the temporary Truce of Tillires.

War continued in 1195 with Philip once again besieging Verneuil. Richard arrived to discuss the
situation face to face. During negotiations, Philip secretly continued his operations against
Verneuil; when Richard found out, he left, swearing revenge.[18] Philip now pressed his advantage
in northeastern Normandy, where he conducted a raid at Dieppe, burning the English ships in the
harbour while repulsing an attack by Richard at the same time. Philip now marched southward
into the Berry region. His primary objective was the fortress of Issoudun, which had just been
captured by Richard's mercenary commander, Mercadier. The French king took the town and
was besieging the castle when Richard stormed through French lines and made his way in to
reinforce the garrison, while at the same time another army was approaching Philip's supply
lines. Philip called off his attack, and another truce was agreed to.[18]
The war slowly turned against Philip over the course of the next three years. Though things
looked promising at the start of 1196 when Arthur of Brittany ended up in Philip's hands, and he
won the Siege of Aumale, it would not last. Richard won over a key ally, Baldwin of Flanders, in
1197. Then in 1198, Henry the Holy Roman Emperor died, and his successor was to be Otto IV,
Richard's nephew, who put additional pressure on Philip.[19] Finally, many Norman lords were
switching sides and returning to Richard's camp. This was the state of affairs when Philip
launched his 1198 campaign with an attack on the Vexin. He was pushed back and then had to
deal with the Flemish invasion of Artois.
On 27 September, Richard entered the Vexin, taking Courcelles-sur-Seine and Boury-enVexin before returning to Dangu. Philip, believing that Courcelles was still holding out, went to its
relief. Discovering what was happening, Richard decided to attack the French king's forces,
catching Philip by surprise.[19] Philip's forces fled and attempted to reach the fortress of Gisors.
Bunched together, the French knights and Philip attempted to cross the Epte River on a bridge
that promptly collapsed under their weight, almost drowning Philip in the process. He was
dragged out of the river and shut himself up in Gisors.[19]
Philip soon began a new offensive, launching raids into Normandy and again targeting vreux.
Richard countered Philip's offensive with a counterattack in the Vexin, while Mercadier led a raid
on Abbeville. The upshot was that by the fall of 1198, Richard had regained almost all that had
been lost in 1193.[19] Philip, now in desperate circumstances, offered a truce so that discussions
could begin towards a more permanent peace, with the offer that he would return all of the
territories except for Gisors.
In mid-January 1199, the two kings met for a final meeting, Richard standing on the deck of a
boat, Philip standing on the banks of the Seine River.[20] Shouting terms at each other, they could
not reach agreement on the terms of a permanent truce, but they did agree to further mediation,
which resulted in a five-year truce that held. Later in 1199, Richard was killed during a siege
involving one of his vassals.
Conflict with King John 12001206[edit]
Main articles: Normandy campaigns of 12001204 and Anglo-French War (12021214)
In May 1200, Philip signed the Treaty of Le Goulet with Richard's successor John, King of
England. The treaty was meant to bring peace to Normandy by settling the issue of its much-

reduced boundaries and the terms of John's vassalage for it,Anjou, Maine, and Touraine. John
agreed to heavy terms, including the abandonment of all the English possessions in Berry and
20,000 marks of silver, while Philip in turn recognised John as king, formally abandoning Arthur I
of Brittany, whom he had thitherto supported, and he recognised John's suzerainty over
the Duchy of Brittany. To seal the treaty, a marriage between Blanche of Castile, John's niece,
and Louis the Lion, Philip's son, was contracted.

Map of Philip's conquests

This did not stop the war, however, as John's mismanagement of Aquitaine led to the province
erupting in rebellion later in 1200, which Philip secretly encouraged. [21] To disguise his ambitions,
he invited John to a conference atAndely and then entertained him at Paris, and both times he
committed to complying with the Treaty.[21] In 1202, disaffected patrons petitioned the French king
to summon John to answer their charges in his capacity as John's feudal lord in France, and,
when the English king refused to appear, Philip again took up the claims of Arthur, to whom he
betrothed his six-year-old daughter, Marie. John crossed over into Normandy and his forces soon
captured Arthur, and in 1203, the young man disappeared, with most people believing that John
had had Arthur murdered. The outcry over Arthur's fate saw an increase in local opposition to
John, which Philip used to his advantage.[21] He took the offensive and, apart from a five-month
siege of Andely, he swept all before him. On the fall of Andely, John fled to England, and by the
end of 1204, most of Normandy and the Angevin lands, including much of Aquitaine had fallen
into Philip's hands.[21]
What Philip had gained through victory in war, he then sought to confirm by legal means. Philip,
again acting as John's liege lord over his French lands, summoned him to appear before the
Court of the Twelve Peers of France, to answer for the murder of Arthur of Brittany. [22] John
requested safe conduct, but Philip only agreed to allow him to come in peace, while providing for
his return only if it were allowed after the judgment of his peers. Not willing to risk his life on such
a guarantee, John refused to appear, so Philip summarily dispossessed him of his French lands.
[22]
Pushed by his barons, John eventually launched an invasion in 1206, disembarking with his
army at La Rochelle during one of Philip's absences, but the campaign was a disaster. [22] After
backing out of a conference that he himself had demanded, John eventually bargained
at Thouars for a two-year truce, the price of which was his agreement to the chief provisions of
the judgment of the Court of Peers, including the loss of his patrimony.[22]

Alliances against Philip 12081213[edit]

Denier tournois coin of Philip II

In 1208, Philip of Swabia, the successful candidate for becoming the next emperor of the Holy
Roman Empire, was assassinated, meaning that the imperial crown was given to his rival, Otto
IV, the nephew of King John. Otto, prior to his accession, had promised to help John to recover
his lost European possessions, but circumstances prevented them from making good their
claims.[23] By 1212, both John and Otto were engaged in power struggles against Pope Innocent
III, John over his refusal to accept the papal nomination for the Archbishop of Canterbury, and
Otto over his attempt to strip Frederick II of his Sicilian crown. Philip decided to take advantage of
this situation, firstly in Germany where he supported the rebellion of the German nobility in
support of the young Frederick.[23]John immediately threw his support behind Otto, and Philip now
saw his chance to launch a successful invasion of England.
In order to secure the cooperation of all his vassals in his plans for the invasion, Philip
denounced John as an enemy of the Church, thereby justifying his attack against him as being
solely for religious reasons. He summoned an assembly of French barons at Soissons, which
was well attended with the exception of Ferdinand, Count of Flanders. He refused to attend, still
angry over the loss of the towns of Aire and Saint-Omer which had been captured by Philip's
son, Louis the Lion, and he would not participate in any campaign until they had been restored to
him.[23]
In the meantime, Philip, eager to prove his loyalty to Rome and thus secure Papal support for his
planned invasion, announced at Soissons his reconciliation with his estranged wife Ingeborg of
Denmark which the Popes had been pushing.[23] The Barons fully supported his plan, and they all
gathered their forces and prepared to join with Philip at the agreed rendezvous. In all this, Philip
remained in constant communication with Pandolfo, the Papal Legate, who was encouraging
Philip to pursue his objective. Pandolfo however was also holding secret discussions with King
John. Advising the English King of his precarious predicament, he persuaded John to abandon
his opposition to Papal investiture and agreed to accept the Papal Legate's decision in any
ecclesiastical disputes as final.[24] In return, the Pope agreed to accept the Kingdom of
England and the Lordship of Ireland as Papal fiefs, which John would rule as the Pope's vassal,
and for which John would do homage to the Pope.[24]
No sooner had the treaty been ratified in May 1213 than Pandolfo announced to Philip that he
would have to abandon his expedition against John, since to attack a faithful vassal of the Holy
See would constitute a mortal sin. In vain did Philip argue that his plans had been drawn up with
the consent of Rome, that his expedition was in support of papal authority which he only

undertook on the understanding that he would gain a Plenary Indulgence, or that he had spent a
fortune preparing for the expedition. The Papal Legate remained unmoved,[24] but Pandolfo did
suggest an alternative. The Count of Flanders had denied Philip's right to declare war on
England while King John was still excommunicated, and that his disobedience needed to be
punished.[24] Philip eagerly accepted the advice, and quickly marched at the head of his troops
into the territory of Flanders.
Battle of Bouvines 1214[edit]
The French fleet, reportedly numbering some 1,700 ships,[25] proceeded first to Gravelines and
then to the port of Dam. Meanwhile the army marched by Cassel, Ypres, and Bruges before
laying siege to Ghent.[25] Hardly had the siege begun when Philip learned that the English fleet
had captured a number of his ships at Dam and that the rest were so closely blockaded in its
harbor that it was impossible for them to escape. After having obtained 30,000 marks as a
ransom for the hostages he had taken from the Flemish cities he had captured, Philip quickly
retraced his steps to reach Dam. It took him two days, arriving in time to relieve the French
garrison,[25] but he discovered he could not rescue his fleet. He ordered it to be burned to prevent
it from falling into enemy hands, then he commanded the town of Dam to be burned to the
ground as well. Determined to make the Flemish pay for his retreat, in every district he passed
through he ordered that all towns be razed and burned, and that the peasantry be either killed or
sold as slaves.[25]
The destruction of the French fleet had once again raised John's hopes, so he began preparing
for an invasion of France and a reconquest of his lost provinces. His barons were initially
unenthusiastic about the expedition, which delayed his departure, so it was not until February
1214 that he disembarked at La Rochelle.[25] John was to advance from the Loire, while his ally
Otto IV made a simultaneous attack from Flanders, together with the Count of Flanders.
Unfortunately, the three armies could not coordinate their efforts effectively. It was not until John
had been disappointed in his hope for an easy victory after being driven from Roche-auMoine and had retreated to his transports that the Imperial Army, with Otto at its head,
assembled in the Low Countries.[25]

Philip II's victory at Bouvines.

On 27 July 1214, the opposing armies suddenly discovered they were in close proximity, on the
banks of a little tributary of the River Lys, near the Bridge of Bouvines. Philip's army numbered
some 15,000, while the allied forces possessed around 25,000 troops. The armies clashed at
the Battle of Bouvines, a tight battle. Philip was unhorsed by the Flemish pikemen in the heat of
battle, and were it not for his plate mail armor he would have probably been killed. [26] When Otto
was carried off the field by his wounded and terrified horse, [26] and Ferdinand, Count of Flanders,
was severely wounded and captured by the French, the Flemish and Imperial troops saw that the
battle was lost, turned, and fled from the field. The French troops began pursuing them, but with
night approaching, and with the prisoners they already had too numerous and, more importantly,
too valuable to risk in a pursuit, Philip ordered a recall before his troops had moved little more
than a mile from the battlefield.[26] Philip returned to Paris triumphant, marching his captive
prisoners behind him in a long procession, as his grateful subjects came out to greet the
victorious king. In the aftermath of the battle, Otto retreated to his castle of Harzburg and was
soon overthrown as Holy Roman Emperor, to be replaced by Frederick II. Count Ferdinand
remained imprisoned following his defeat, while King John obtained a five-year truce, on very
lenient terms given the circumstances.[26]
Philip's decisive victory was crucial in ordering Western European politics in both England and
France. In England, the defeated John was so weakened that he was soon required to submit to
the demands of his barons and sign the Magna Carta, limiting the power of the crown and
establishing the basis for common law. In France, the battle was instrumental in forming the
strong central monarchy that would characterise its rule until the first French Revolution. It was
also the first battle in the Middle Ages in which the full value of infantry was realised.[26]
A large scale mural of Battle of Bouvines by painter Horace Vernet is featured in the Galerie des
Batailles at Versailles. Philip is shown in the center with Henry II of England bowing, Ferdinand,
Count of Flanders next to him along with Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor of Germany.

Marital problems[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve
this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (September 2011)

After Isabelle's early death in childbirth, in 1190, Philip decided to marry again. On 15 August
1193, he married Ingeborg(11751236), daughter of King Valdemar I of Denmark (ruled 1157
82). She was renamed Isambour, and Stephan of Dornik described her as "very kind, young of
age but old of wisdom." For some unknown reason, Philip was repelled by her and he refused to
allow her to be crowned queen. Ingeborg protested at this treatment; his response was to confine
her to a convent. He then asked Pope Celestine III for an annulment on the grounds of nonconsummation. Philip had not reckoned with Isambour, however; she insisted that the
marriage had been consummated, and that she was his wife and the rightful queen of France.
The Franco-Danish churchman William of Paris intervened on the side of Ingeborg, drawing up
agenealogy of the Danish kings to disprove the alleged impediment of consanguinity.

In the meantime Philip had sought a new bride. Initially agreement had been reached for him to
marry Margaret of Geneva, daughter of William I, Count of Geneva, but the young bride's journey
to Paris was interrupted by Thomas I of Savoy, who kidnapped Philip's intended new queen and
married her instead, claiming that Philip was already bound in marriage. Philip finally achieved a
third marriage, on 7 May 1196, to Agnes of Merania from Dalmatia (c. 1180 29 July in 1201).
Their children were Marie (1198 15 October in 1224) and Philippe Hurepel (12001234), Count
of Clermont and eventually, by marriage, Count of Boulogne.
Pope Innocent III (ruled 11981216) declared Philip Augustus's marriage to Agnes of Merania
null and void, as he was still married to Isambour. He ordered the King to part from Agns; when
he did not, the Pope placed France under an interdict in 1199. This continued until 7 September
1200. Due to pressure from the Pope and from Ingeborg's brother, KingValdemar II of
Denmark (ruled 120241), Philip finally took Isambour back as his wife in 1213.

Issue[edit]
By Isabella of Hainaut:

Louis (3 September 1187 8 November 1226), King of France (1223-1226);


married Blanche of Castile and had issue.

Robert (15 March 1190 18 March 1190)

Philip (15 March 1190 18 March 1190)


By Agnes of Merania:

Marie (1198 15 August 1238); married firstly Philip I of Namur, had no issue.
Married secondly Henry I of Brabant, had issue.

Philip (July 1200 14/18 January 1234), Count of Boulogne by marriage;


married Matilda II, Countess of Boulogneand had issue.

Last years[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve
this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (September 2011)

Philip turned a deaf ear when the Pope asked him to do something about the heretics in
the Languedoc. When Pope Innocent III called for a crusade against the Albigensians,
or Cathars, in 1208, Philip did nothing to support it, though he did not stop his nobles from
joining.[27] The war against the Cathars did not end until 1244, when their last strongholds were
finally captured. The fruits of the victory, the submission of the south of France to the crown, were
to be reaped by Philip's son, Louis VIII, and grandson, Louis IX, the successive kings of France.
[28]
From 1216 to 1222 Philip also arbitrated in theWar of Succession in Champagne and finally

helped the military efforts of Eudes III, Duke of Burgundy, and Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor,
to bring it to an end.
Philip II Augustus would play a significant role in one of the greatest centuries of innovation in
construction and in education. With Paris as his capital, he had the main thoroughfares paved,
built a central market, Les Halles, continued the construction begun in 1163 of Notre-Dame de
Paris, constructed the Louvre as a fortress, and gave a charter to theUniversity of Paris in 1200.
Under his guidance, Paris became the first city of teachers the medieval world had known. In
1224, the French poet Henry d'Andeli wrote of the great wine tasting competition that Philip II
Augustus commissioned, theBattle of the Wines.
Philip II Augustus died 14 July 1223 at Mantes-la-Jolie and was interred in Saint Denis Basilica.
Philip's son by Isabelle de Hainaut, Louis VIII, was his successor.

Portrayal in fiction[edit]

A 19th-century portrait by Louis-Flix Amiel

King Philip appears in William Shakespeare's historical play The Life and Death of King
John.

King Philip also appears in James Goldman's 1966 Broadway Production ofThe Lion in
Winter and was portrayed by Christopher Walken, as well as the1968 Academy Award
winning film of the same name, with Timothy Daltonplaying the role. In the
2003 remake starring Patrick Stewart and Glenn Close, he is played by Jonathan Rhys
Meyers.

King Philip also appears in the Ridley Scott's 2010 movie Robin Hood.

King Philip appears in Sharon Kay Penman's novels The Devil's Brood andLionheart.

King Philip appears in Judith Koll Healey's novel The Rebel Princess.

King Philip appears in the game Stronghold Crusader. He is portrayed as a somewhat


weak ruler who is rather reckless in battle with his knights.

King Philip appears in the game Genghis Khan II: Clan of the Gray Wolf as the head of
the Capetian dynasty. He is the only ruler with an A in politics and a B in everything else.

Louis VIII the Lion, 12231226

Louis VIII of France


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Louis VIII the Lion

Louis VIII's seal


King of France (more)
Reign

14 July 1223 8 November 1226

Coronation

6 August 1223 in Rheims Cathedral

Predecessor

Philip II

Successor

Louis IX

Spouse

Blanche of Castile

Issue

Louis IX, King of France


Robert I, Count of Artois
Alphonse, Count of Toulouse
Saint Isabelle
Charles I, King of Sicily

House

House of Capet

Father

Philip II of France

Mother

Isabelle of Hainaut

Born

5 September 1187
Paris, France

Died

8 November 1226 (aged 39)


Chteau de Montpensier, France

Burial

Saint Denis Basilica

Religion

Roman Catholicism

Louis VIII the Lion (5 September 1187 8 November 1226) was a CapetianKing of France who
reigned from 1223 to 1226, he was also disputed King of England from 1216 to 1217. Louis VIII
was born in Paris, the son of Philip IIand Isabelle of Hainaut from whom he inherited the County
of Artois.
While Louis VIII only briefly ruled as king for three years, he was an active leader in his years as
crown prince. During his father's wars against theAngevins under John of England, his military
prowess earned him the epithetthe Lion. After his victory at the battle of Roche-au-Moine (1214),

he invaded southern England and was proclaimed "King of England" in London on the 2 June
1216, before being repelled. In 1217, Louis VIII started the conquest ofGuyenne, leaving only a
small region around Bordeaux to Henry III of England.
His short reign is marked by his intervention with royal forces into theAlbigensian Crusade in
southern France which decisively moved the conflict towards a conclusion. He died in 1226 and
was succeeded by his son Louis IX.
Contents
[hide]

1 Prince Louis

1.1 Marriage

1.2 Campaign of 1214

1.3 Pretender to the English throne


2 As King Louis VIII

2.1 Policy on Jews

2.2 The Albigensian Crusade and Conquest of Languedoc

2.3 Death

3 Ancestry

4 Marriage and Issue

5 References

Prince Louis[edit]
Marriage[edit]
In summer 1195, a marriage between Louis and Eleanor of Brittany niece ofRichard I of
England was suggested for an alliance between Philip II and Richard, but it failed. It is said that
the EmperorHenry VI opposed the marriage; and the failure was also a sign that Richard would
replace Arthur, younger brother of Eleanor, as heir to England with his only living brother, John.
This soon led to a sudden deterioration in relations between Richard and Philip. [1]
On 23 May 1200, at the age of 12, Louis was married to Blanche of Castile, following prolonged
negotiations between Philip Augustus and Blanche's uncle John of England (as represented
in William Shakespeare's historical play King John).

Campaign of 1214[edit]
In 1214 King John of England began his final campaign to reclaim Normandy from Philip II
Augustus. John was optimistic, as he had successfully built up alliances with the Emperor Otto
IV, Count Renaud of Boulogne and Count Ferdinand of Flanders.[2] John's plan was to split
Philip's forces by pushing north-east from Poitou towards Paris, whilst Otto, Renaud and
Ferdinand, supported by William Longespe, marched south-west from Flanders.[3] Whereas
Philip II Augustus took personal command of the northern front against the emperor and his
allies, he gave his son Louis the command of the front against the Plantagenet possessions in
middle France. The first part of the campaign went well for the English, with John
outmanoeuvring the forces under the command of Prince Louis and retaking the county
of Anjou by the end of June.[4][5]John besieged the castle of Roche-au-Moine, a key stronghold,
forcing Louis to give battle against John's larger army.[6]The local Angevin nobles refused to
advance with the king; left at something of a disadvantage, John retreated back to La Rochelle.
[7]
Shortly afterwards, Philip II Augustus won the hard-fought battle of Bouvines in the north
against Otto and John's other allies, bringing an end to John's hopes of retaking Normandy. [8]
Pretender to the English throne[edit]

Louis VIII

In 1215, the English barons rebelled in the First Barons' War against the unpopular King John of
England (11991216). The barons offered the throne to Prince Louis, who landed unopposed on
the Isle of Thanet in eastern Kent, England at the head of an army on 21 May 1216. There was
little resistance when the prince entered London and Louis was proclaimed King at St Paul's
Cathedral with great pomp and celebration in the presence of all of London. Even though he was
not crowned, many nobles, as well as King Alexander II of Scotland (121449) for his English
possessions, gathered to give homage.
On 14 June 1216, Louis captured Winchester and soon controlled over half of the English
kingdom.[9] But just when it seemed that England was his, King John's death in October 1216
caused many of the rebellious barons to desert Louis in favour of John's nine-year-old son, Henry
III.
With William Marshal acting as regent, a call for the English "to defend our land" against the
French led to a reversal of fortunes on the battlefield. After his army was beaten at Lincoln on 20
May 1217, and his naval forces (led by Eustace the Monk) were defeated off the coast
of Sandwich on 24 August 1217, he was forced to make peace on English terms. In 1216 and
1217 Prince Louis also tried to conquer Dover Castle but without success.

The principal provisions of the Treaty of Lambeth were an amnesty for English rebels, Louis to
undertake not to attack England again, and 10,000 marks to be given to Louis. The effect of the
treaty was that Louis agreed he had never been the legitimate King of England.

As King Louis VIII[edit]

Coronation of Louis VIII andBlanche of Castile at Reims in 1223,miniature from the Grandes Chroniques
de France, painted in the 1450s (Bibliothque nationale)

Louis VIII succeeded his father on 14 July 1223; his coronation took place on 6 August of the
same year in the cathedral at Reims. As King, he continued to seek revenge on the Angevins,
seizing Poitou and Saintonge from them.
Policy on Jews[edit]
On 1 November 1223, he issued an ordinance that prohibited his officials from recording debts
owed to Jews, thus reversing the policies set by his father Philip II Augustus. Usury (lending
money with interest) was illegal for Christians to practice; according to Church law it was seen as
a vice in which people profited from others' misfortune (like gambling) and was punishable
by excommunication, a severe punishment. Since Jews were not Christian, they could not be
excommunicated and thus fell into a legal grey area that secular rulers would sometimes exploit
by allowing (or requesting) Jews to provide usury services, often for personal gain to the secular
ruler and to the discontent of the Church. Louis VIII's prohibition was one attempt at resolving this
legal problem, which was a constant source of friction in Church and State courts.
Twenty-six barons accepted, but Theobald IV (120153), the powerful Count of Champagne, did
not, since he had an agreement with the Jews that guaranteed him extra income through
taxation. Theobald IV would become a major opposition force to Capetian dominance, and his
hostility was manifest during the reign of Louis VIII. For example, during the siege of Avignon, he
performed only the minimum service of 40 days and left for home amid charges of treachery.

The Albigensian Crusade and Conquest of Languedoc[edit]


The Albigensian Crusade had begun in 1209, ostensibly against the Cathar heretics of southern
France and Languedoc in particular, though it soon became a contest between lords of northern
France and those of Occitania in the south. The first phase from 1209 to 1215 was quite
successful for the northern forces, but this was followed by a series of local rebellions from 1215
to 1225 that undid many of these earlier gains. There followed the seizure
of Avignon and Languedoc.
In 1225, the council of Bourges excommunicated the Count of Toulouse, Raymond VII, and
declared a renewed crusade against the southern barons. Louis happily renewed the conflict in
order to enforce his royal rights. Roger Bernard the Great, Count of Foix, tried to keep the peace,
but the king rejected his embassy and the counts of Foix and Toulouse took up arms against him.
The king was largely successful, taking Avignon after a three-month siege, but he did not
complete the conquest before his death.
Death[edit]
While returning to Paris, King Louis VIII became ill with dysentery, his doctors introduced a virgin
in his bed, thinking that sexual stimulation would cure him. The king gently dismissed the girl,
saying that he had never seen such a pretty healer but that he preferred to die than to commit
a mortal sin. He died on 8 November 1226 in the Chteau de Montpensier, Auvergne.
The Saint Denis Basilica houses the tomb of Louis VIII. His son, Louis IX (122670), succeeded
him on the throne. Louis IX concluded the crusade in the south in 1229.

Ancestry[edit]
[show]Ancestors of Louis VIII of France

Marriage and Issue[edit]


French Monarchy

Direct Capetians

Louis VIII

Louis IX
Robert I, Count of Artois
Alphonse, Count of Poitou and
Toulouse
Saint Isabelle
Charles I of Naples and Sicily
On 23 May 1200, at the age of twelve, Louis married Blanche of Castile (4 March 1188 26
November 1252). They had thirteen children:
1. Unnamed daughter [Blanche?] (1205 - died soon after). [10]
2. Philip (9 September 1209 before July 1218), betrothed in July 1215 to Agnes of Donzy.
3. Alphonse (b. and d. Lorrez-le-Bocage, 26 January 1213), twin of John.
4. John (b. and d. Lorrez-le-Bocage, 26 January 1213), twin of Alphonse.
5. Louis IX (Poissy, 25 April 1214 25 August 1270, Tunis), King of France as successor to
his father.
6. Robert (25 September 1216 9 February 1250, killed in battle, Manssurah, Egypt),
Count of Artois.

7. Philip (20 February 1218 - 1220).[11]


8. John (21 July 1219 - 1232), Count of Anjou and Maine; betrothed in March 1227 to
Yolande of Brittany.
9. Alphonse (Poissy, 11 November 1220 21 August 1271, Corneto), Count of Poitou and
Auvergne, and by marriage, of Toulouse.
10.Philip Dagobert (20 February 1222 - 1232[12]).
11.Isabelle (March 1224[13] 23 February 1270).
12.Etienne (end 1225[14] - early 1227[15]).
13.Charles (posthumously 21 March 1227 7 January 1285), Count of Anjou and Maine, by
marriage Count of Provence and Folcalquier, and King of Sicily.

Saint Louis IX, 12261270

Louis IX of France
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Louis IX" redirects here. For other uses, see Louis IX (disambiguation).
"So Lus" redirects here. For the city, see So Lus, Maranho.
Louis IX (25 April 1214 25 August 1270), commonly Saint Louis, was aCapetian King of
France who reigned from 1226 until his death. Louis wascrowned in Reims at the age of 12,
following the death of his father Louis VIII the Lion, although his mother, Blanche of Castile, ruled
the kingdom until he reached majority. During Louis's minority, Blanche dealt with the opposition
of rebellious vassals and put an end to the Albigensian crusade which had started 20 years
earlier.
As an adult, Louis IX faced recurring conflicts with some of the most powerful nobles, such
as Hugh X of Lusignan and Peter of Dreux. Simultaneously,Henry III of England tried to restore
his continental possessions, but was defeated at the battle of Taillebourg. His reign saw the
annexation of several provinces, notably Normandy, Maine and Provence.
Louis's actions were inspired by Christian values, he decided to punishblasphemy, gambling,
interest-bearing loans and prostitution, he bought the relics of Christ for which he built the SainteChapelle and tried to convert theJews of France.

Louis IX was also a reformer and developed French royal justice, in which the king is the
supreme judge to whom anyone is able to appeal to seek the amendment of a judgment. He
banned trials by ordeal, tried to prevent private wars that were plaguing the country and
introduced the presumption of innocence in criminal procedure. To enforce the correct application
of this new legal system, Louis IX created provosts and bailiffs.
According to his vow made after a serious illness, and confirmed after a miraculous cure, Louis
IX took an active part in the Seventh and Eighth Crusade in which he died from dysentery. He
was succeeded by his sonPhilip III.
A devout Catholic, he is the only canonized king of France. Consequently, there are many places
named after him.

Sources[edit]
Much of what is known of Louis's life comes from Jean de Joinville's famous Life of Saint Louis.
Joinville was a close friend, confidant, and counsellor to the king, and also participated as a
witness in the papal inquest into Louis' life that ended with his canonisation in 1297 by Pope
Boniface VIII.
Two other important biographies were written by the king's confessor, Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and
his chaplain, William of Chartres. The fourth important source of information is William of SaintParthus' biography,[1] which he wrote using the papal inquest mentioned above. While several
individuals wrote biographies in the decades following the king's death, only Jean of Joinville,
Geoffrey of Beaulieu, and William of Chartres wrote from personal knowledge of the king. All
three are likely to be biased in his favor.[citation needed]

Early life[edit]

Coin of Saint Louis, Cabinet des Mdailles. The Latin inscription readsLVDOVICVS (i.e. "Louis") DEI
GRACIA(i.e. "by the Grace of God", where Latingratia was spelt gracia) FRANCOR REX (i.e. "King of the
Franks", whereFrancor. is the abbreviation ofFrancorum).

Louis was born on 25 April 1214 at Poissy, near Paris, the son of Prince Louis the
Lionand Princess Blanche, and baptised in La Collgiale Notre-Dame church. His grandfather
was King Philip II of France. Tutors of Blanche's choosing taught him most of what a king must
knowLatin, public speaking, writing, military arts, and government.[2] He was 9 years old when
his grandfather died and his father ascended as Louis VIII.[3] A member of the House of Capet,
Louis was twelve years old when his father died on 8 November 1226. He was crowned king
within the month at Reims cathedral. Because of Louis's youth, his mother ruled France
as regent during his minority.
His younger brother Charles I of Sicily (122785) was created count of Anjou, thus founding the
second Angevin dynasty.
No date is given for the beginning of Louis's personal rule. His contemporaries viewed his reign
as co-rule between the king and his mother, though historians generally view the year 1234 as
the year in which Louis began ruling personally, with his mother assuming a more advisory role.
[4]
She continued to have a strong influence on the king until her death in 1252.[5]

Marriage[edit]
On 27 May 1234, Louis married Margaret of Provence (1221 21 December 1295), whose
sister Eleanor later became the wife of Henry III of England. The new queen's religious devotion
made her a well suited partner for the king. He enjoyed her company, and was pleased to show
her the many public works he was making in Paris, both for its defense and for its health. They
enjoyed riding together, reading, and listening to music. This attention raised a certain amount of
jealousy in his mother, who tried to keep them apart as much as she could. [6]

Crusading[edit]
When Louis was 15, his mother brought an end to the Albigensian Crusade in 1229 after signing
an agreement with CountRaymond VII of Toulouse that cleared the latter's father of wrongdoing.
[7]
Raymond VI of Toulouse had been suspected of murdering a preacher on a mission to convert
the Cathars.[8]
Louis went on two crusades, in his mid-30s in 1248 (Seventh Crusade), and then again in his
mid-50s in 1270 (Eighth Crusade).

The seventh crusade[edit]

Equestrian statue of King Saint Louis at the Sacr-Cur.

Louis began his first crusade with the rapid capture of the port of Damietta in June 1249,[9] an
attack that caused some disruption in the Muslim Ayyubid empire, especially as the current
sultan, Al-Malik as-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub was on his deathbed. But the march from Damietta
toward Cairo through the Nile River Deltawent slowly. The rising of the Nile and the summer heat
made it impossible for them to advance and follow up their success. [10] During this time, the
Ayyubid sultan died, and the sultan's wife Shajar al-Durr set in motion a sudden power shift that
would make her Queen and eventually place the Egyptian army of theMamluks in power. On 6
April 1250 Louis lost his army at the Battle of Fariskur[11]and was captured by the Egyptians. His
release was eventually negotiated in return for a ransom of 400,000 livres tournois (at the time
France's annual revenue was only about 1,250,000 livres tournois) and the surrender of the city
of Damietta.[12]
Following his release from Egyptian captivity, Louis spent four years in the Crusader kingdoms
of Acre, Caesarea, andJaffa, using his wealth to assist the Crusaders in rebuilding their
defences[13] and conducting diplomacy with the Islamic powers of Syria and Egypt.
Louis exchanged multiple letters and emissaries with Mongol rulers of the period. During his first
crusade in 1248, Louis was approached by envoys from Eljigidei, the Mongol military commander
stationed in Armenia and Persia.[14] Eljigidei suggested that King Louis should land in Egypt, while
Eljigidei attacked Baghdad, to prevent the Saracens of Egypt and those of Syria from joining
forces. Louis sent Andr de Longjumeau, a Dominican priest, as an emissary to the Great
KhanGyk Khan (r. 1246-48) in Mongolia. Gyk died before the emissary arrived at his court,
however, and nothing concrete occurred. Instead his queen and now regent, Oghul Qaimish,
politely turned down the diplomatic offer.[15]
Louis dispatched another envoy to the Mongol court, the Franciscan William of Rubruck, who
went to visit the Great KhanMngke (1251-1259) in Mongolia. He spent several years at the
Mongol court. In 1259, Berke, the ruler of the Golden Horde, westernmost part of the Mongolian
Empire, demanded the submission of Louis.[16] On the contrary, Mongolian Emperors Mngke and
Khubilai's brother, the Ilkhan Hulegu, sent a letter seeking military assistance from the king of
France, but the letter did not reach France.[17]

The eighth crusade[edit]


In a parliament held at Paris, 24 March 1267, Louis and his three sons took the cross. On
hearing the reports of the missionaries, Louis resolved to land at Tunis, and he ordered his
younger brother, Charles of Anjou, to join him there. The crusaders, among whom was Prince
Edward of England, landed at Carthage 17 July 1270, but disease broke out in the camp. Many
died of dysentery,[18] and on 25 August, Louis himself died.[13]

Patron of arts and arbiter of Europe[edit]

Pope Innocent IV with Louis IX atCluny

Louis' patronage of the arts drove much innovation in Gothic art and architecture, and the style of
his court radiated throughout Europe by both the purchase of art objects from Parisian masters
for export, and by the marriage of the king's daughters and female relatives to foreign husbands
and their subsequent introduction of Parisian models elsewhere. Louis' personal chapel,
the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, was copied more than once by his descendants elsewhere. Louis
most likely ordered the production of the Morgan Bible, a masterpiece of medieval painting.
During the so-called "golden century of Saint Louis", the kingdom of France was at its height in
Europe, both politically and economically. Saint Louis was regarded as "primus inter pares", first
among equals, among the kings and rulers of the continent. He commanded the largest army
and ruled the largest and wealthiest kingdom, the European centre of arts and intellectual
thought at the time. The foundations for the famous college of theology later known as the
Sorbonne were laid in Paris about the year 1257.[10] The prestige and respect felt in Europe for
King Louis IX were due more to the attraction that his benevolent personality created rather than
to military domination. For his contemporaries, he was the quintessential example of the
Christian prince and embodied the whole of Christendom in his person. His reputation for

saintliness and fairness was already well established while he was alive, and on many occasions
he was chosen as an arbiter in quarrels among the rulers of Europe.[4]
Shortly before 1256, Enguerrand IV, Lord of Coucy, arrested and without trial hanged three
young squires of Laon whom he accused of poaching in his forest. In 1256 Louis had him
arrested and brought to the Louvre by his sergeants. Enguerrand demanded judgment by his
peers and trial by battle, which the king refused because he thought it obsolete. Enguerrand was
tried, sentenced, and ordered to pay 12,000 livres. Part of the money was to pay for masses in
perpetuity for the men he had hanged.
In 1258, Louis and James I of Aragon signed the Treaty of Corbeil, under which Louis renounced
his feudal overlordship over the County of Barcelona, which was held by the King of Aragon.
James in turn renounced his feudal overlordship over several counties in southern France.

Religious nature[edit]

Louis IX allowing himself to be whipped as penance.

The perception of Louis IX as the exemplary Christian prince was reinforced by his religious zeal.
Louis was a devout Catholic, and he built the Sainte-Chapelle ("Holy Chapel"),[4] located within
the royal palace complex (now the Paris Hall of Justice), on the le de la Cit in the centre of
Paris. The Sainte Chapelle, a perfect example of the Rayonnant style of Gothic architecture, was
erected as a shrine for theCrown of Thorns and a fragment of the True Cross, precious relics of
the Passionof Jesus. Louis purchased these in 123941 from Emperor Baldwin II of the Latin
Empire of Constantinople, for the exorbitant sum of 135,000 livres (the chapel, however, cost only
60,000 livres to build).
Louis IX took very seriously his mission as "lieutenant of God on Earth", with which he had been
invested when he was crowned in Rheims. To fulfill his duty, he conducted two crusades, and
even though they were unsuccessful, they contributed to his prestige. In 1230 the King forbade all
forms of usury, defined at the time as any taking of interest. Where the original Jewish and
Lombard borrowers could not be found, Louis exacted from the lenders a contribution towards
the crusade which Pope Gregory was then trying to launch.[10] Louis also ordered, at the urging
of Pope Gregory IX, the burning in Paris in 1243 of some 12,000 manuscript copies of
the Talmud and other Jewish books. Eventually, the edict against the Talmud was overturned by
Gregory IX's successor, Innocent IV.[19]

Hair shirt and scourge of Louis IX. Treasury of Notre-Dame de Paris.

In addition to Louis' legislation against Jews and usury, he expanded the scope of
the Inquisition in France. The area most affected by this expansion was southern France where
the Cathar heresy had been strongest. The rate of these confiscations reached its highest levels
in the years before his first crusade, and slowed upon his return to France in 1254. In all these
deeds, Louis IX tried to fulfill the duty of France, which was seen as "the eldest daughter of the
Church" (la fille ane de l'glise), a tradition of protector of the Church going back to
the Franksand Charlemagne, who had been crowned by the Pope in Rome in 800. Indeed, the
official Latin title of the kings of France was Rex Francorum, i.e. "king of the Franks" (until Louis'
grandfather's reign, Philip II whose seal reads Rex Franciae, i.e. "king of France"), and the kings
of France were also known by the title "most Christian king" (Rex Christianissimus). The
relationship between France and the papacy was at its peak in the 12th and 13th centuries, and
most of the crusades were actually called by the popes from French soil. Eventually, in
1309, Pope Clement V even left Rome and relocated to the French city of Avignon, beginning the
era known as the Avignon Papacy (or, more disparagingly, the "Babylonian captivity").
St. Louis installed a house of the Trinitarian order in his chteau of Fontainebleau. He chose
Trinitarians as his chaplains, and was accompanied by them on his crusades.

Ancestry[edit]
[show]Ancestors of Louis IX of France

Children[edit]

The remains of Jean, the third son who died young.

1. Blanche (12 July/4 December[20] 1240 29 April 1243), died young


2. Isabella (2 March 1241 28 January 1271), married Theobald II of Navarre
3. Louis of France (23 September 1243 or 24 February 1244[20] 11 January or 2 February
1260). Betrothed to Infanta doa Berenguela of Castile in Paris on 20 August 1255.[20]
4. Philip III (1 May 1245 5 October 1285), married firstly to Isabella of Aragonin 1262 and
secondly to Maria of Brabant in 1274

5. Jean (1246/1247[20]1248), died young


6. John Tristan of Valois (1250 3 August 1270), married Yolande of Burgundy
7. Peter I of Alenon (125184), married Joanne of Chtillon
8. Blanche of France, Infanta of Castile, married Ferdinand de la Cerda, Infante of Castille
9. Margaret of France (125471), married John I, Duke of Brabant
10.Robert, Count of Clermont (1256 7 February 1317), married Beatrice of
Burgundy. Henry IV of France was his direct male-line descendant.
11.Agnes of France (c. 1260 19 December 1327), married Robert II, Duke of Burgundy
Louis had his children that predeceased him buried at the Cisterian abbey of Royaumont. [21]

Death and legacy[edit]


Saint Louis

Louis IX of France was revered as a saint and painted in


portraiture well after his death (such portraits may not accurately
reflect his appearance). This portrait was painted by El Greco c.
1592 95.
King of France, Confessor

Born

25 April 1214
Poissy, France

Died

25 August 1270 (aged 56)


Tunis in what is now Tunisia

Honored in Roman Catholic Church, Anglican Communion


Canonized 1297 by Pope Boniface VIII
Feast

25 August

Attributes

Depicted as King of France, generally with a crown,


holding asceptre with a fleur-de-lys on the end,
possibly with blue clothing with a spread of white
fleur-de-lys (coat of arms of the French monarchy)

Patronage

Third Order of St. Francis, France, French


monarchy;
hairdressers;passementiers (lacemakers)

Reliquary of Saint Louis (end of the 13th century) Basilica of Saint Dominic,Bologna, Italy

During his second crusade, Louis died at Tunis, 25 August 1270. As Tunis wasMuslim territory,
his body was subject to the process known as mos Teutonicus (a postmortem funerary
custom used inmedieval Europe whereby the flesh was boiled from the body, so that the bones of
the deceased could be transported hygienically from distant lands back home) for its

transportation back to France.[22] He was succeeded by his son, Philip III. Louis was traditionally
believed to have died from the bubonic plague, but modern scholars believe he died of dysentery.
The bubonic plague did not spread until 1348, so the likelihood of his contracting and ultimately
dying from the bubonic plague was very slim.[citation needed]
Christian tradition states that some of his entrails were buried directly on the spot in Tunisia,
where a Tomb of Saint-Louis can still be visited today,[citation needed] whereas his heart and other parts
of his entrails were sealed in an urn and placed in the Basilica of Monreale, Palermo, where they
still remain.[citation needed] (Sicily was at that time ruled by his younger brother,Charles of Anjou, and the
French army returned to France through the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily.) His corpse was
taken, after a short stay at theBasilica of Saint Dominic in Bologna, to the French royal necropolis
at Saint-Denis, resting in Lyon on the way.[citation needed] His tomb at Saint-Denis was a magnificent gilt
brass monument designed in the late 14th century.[citation needed] It was melted down during the French
Wars of Religion, at which time the body of the king disappeared. Only one finger was rescued
and is kept at Saint-Denis.[citation needed]

Veneration as a saint[edit]
Pope Boniface VIII proclaimed the canonization of Louis in 1297;[23] he is the only French
monarch to be declared a saint.[citation needed] Louis IX is often considered the model of the ideal
Christian monarch.[23]
The Congregation of the Sisters of Saint Louis is a Roman Catholic religious order founded in
1842 and named in his honour.[citation needed]
He is honoured as co-patron of the Third Order of St. Francis, which claims him as a member of
the Order. Even in childhood, his compassion for the poor and suffering people had been obvious
to all who knew him and when he became king, over a hundred poor people ate in his house on
ordinary days. Often the king served these guests himself. Such acts of charity, coupled with
Louis' devout religious practices, gave rise to the legend that he joined the Third Order of St.
Francis. Though it is unlikely that Louis did join the order, his life and actions proclaimed him one
of them in spirit.[2]

Places named after Saint Louis[edit]


The cities of San Luis Potos in Mexico; St. Louis, Missouri; St. Louis, Michigan; San Luis,
Arizona; San Luis, Colorado;Saint-Louis du Sngal; Saint-Louis in Alsace; as well as Lake
Saint-Louis in Quebec, the Mission San Luis Rey de Franciain California and rue Saint Louis
of Pondicherry are among the many places named after the king and saint.
The Cathedral Saint-Louis in Versailles; the Basilica of St. Louis, King of France and
the Cathedral Basilica of St. Louis, both in St. Louis, Missouri; and the St. Louis Cathedral, New
Orleans were also named for the king. The French royal Order of Saint Louis (16931790 and
18141830), the le Saint-Louis as well as a hospital in the 10th arrondissement of Paris also
bear his name. The national church of France in Rome also carries his name: San Luigi dei
Francesi in Italian or Saint Louis of France in English.

Many places in Brazil called So Lus in Portuguese are named after the French Saint Louis.
Port-Louis, the capital city of Mauritius, as well as its cathedral are also named after St. Louis,
who is the patron saint of the island.

Notable portraits[edit]

A statue of Louis IX stands in the lower chapel of theSainte-Chapelle in Paris.

A bas-relief of St. Louis is one of the carved portraits of historic lawmakers that adorns the
chamber of the United States House of Representatives.
Saint Louis is also portrayed on a frieze depicting a timeline of important lawgivers throughout
world history in the Courtroom at the Supreme Court of the United States.
A statue of St. Louis by the sculptor John Donoghue stands on the roofline of the New York State
Appellate Division Court at 27 Madison Avenue in New York City.
The Apotheosis of St. Louis is an equestrian statue of the saint, by Charles Henry Niehaus, that
stands in front of the Saint Louis Art Museum in Forest Park.

In fiction[edit]

Davis, William Stearns, "Falaise of the Blessed Voice" aka "The White Queen". New York,
NY: Macmillan, 1904
Peter Berling, The Children of the Grail
Jules Verne, "To the Sun?/Off on a Comet!" A comet takes several bits of the Earth away
when it grazes the Earth. Some people, taken up at the same time, find the Tomb of Saint
Louis is one of the bits, as they explore the comet.

Philip III the Bold, 12701285

Philip III of France


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Philippe III redirects here. It can also refer to Philippe III de Cro and Philippe III, Duke of
Orlans.

Philip III the Bold

Coronation of King Philip III


King of France (more...)
Reign

25 August 1270 5 October 1285

Coronation

30 August 1271

Predecessor

Louis IX

Successor

Philip IV

Spouse

Isabella of Aragon
Maria of Brabant

Issue

Louis of France
Philip IV of France
Charles, Count of Valois
Louis, Count of vreux
Blanche, Duchess of Austria
Margaret, Queen of England

House

House of Capet

Father

Louis IX of France

Mother

Margaret of Provence

Born

30 April 1245
Poissy

Died

5 October 1285 (aged 40)


Perpignan

Burial

Initially Narbonne, later Saint Denis Basilica

Religion

Roman Catholicism

Philip III (30 April 1245 5 October 1285), called the Bold (French: le Hardi),[1] was
a Capetian King of France who reigned from 1270 to 1285.
Philip proved indecisive, soft in nature, and timid. The strong personalities of his parents
apparently crushed him, and policies of his father dominated him. People called him "the
Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat and on horseback and not on the basis of his
political or personal character. He waspious but not cultivated. He followed the suggestions
of others, first of Pierre de La Broce and then of his uncle King Charles I of Naples, Sicily,
and Albania.

Biography[edit]
Early life[edit]
Philip was born in Poissy to King Saint Louis IX of France[2] and Margaret of Provence, queen
consort of France. As Count of Orlans, he accompanied his father on the Eighth
Crusade to Tunisia in 1270. The plans failed when the French forces were struck by an
epidemic which, on 25 August, took the life of King Louis himself.[3] Philip immediately
acceded to the kingship at 25 years of age.
Coronation and inheritances[edit]
Philip, proclaimed king, quickly set his uncle, king Charles I of Naples, Sicily, and Albania, on
negotiations with Muhammad I al-Mustansir to conclude the crusade with a truce. Charles
signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily. The crusade
was postponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded
Philip from any further campaigning. Philip returned to France to claim his throne at the
formal coronation of the French monarch at Reims Cathedral on 30 August 1271.
Alphonse, Count of Poitiers and Toulouse, uncle of the newly crowned king Philip III,
returning from the crusade, died childless in Italy on 21 August 1271. Philip inherited
counties from his nephew and united them to the Crown lands of France, the royal demesne.
His inheritance included a portion of Auvergne, then the Terre royale d'Auvergne, later
theDuchy of Auvergne. In accordance with wishes of Alphonse, he granted the Comtat
Venaissin to Blessed Pope Gregory Xin 1274. This inheritance also included the Agenais.
Several years of negotiations yielded the Treaty of Amiens (1279) with King Edward I of
England, which restored this territory to the English.
Sicilian Vespers[edit]
King Philip III of France meanwhile supported policy of his uncle, King Charles I of Naples,
Sicily, and Albania, in Italy.
King Peter III of Aragon and Valencia in 1282 triggered the Sicilian Vespers rebellion against
King Charles I of Naples, Sicily, and Albania. The success of rebellion and invasion led to the
coronation of Peter III of Aragon as king of Sicily therefore beginning the dynasty of
the House of Barcelona in Sicily.
King Peter II of Aragon in 1205 put under his realm the suzerainty of the pope. Pope Martin
IV excommunicated king Peter III of Aragon, the conqueror, and declared his kingdom forfeit.
[4]
The pope then granted Aragon to Charles, Count of Valois, son of Philip III, king of France.

Family matters[edit]
Joan I of Navarre, daughter of the deceased king Henry I of Navarre, reigned as queen
regnant of Navarre. Philip IV of France, son of Philip III and heir to the French throne, took
her as his wife in 1284.
In 1284, Peter, Count of Perche and Alenon, died without surviving children; therefore, his
oldest living brother, Philip III, king of France, inherited his domains.

Marriage of Philip and Marie of Brabant, Queen of France

Aragonese Crusade and death[edit]


Philip III of France in 1284 responded to the Sicilian Vespers in support of his partially
dethroned uncle. With his sons, the king entered Roussillon at the head of a large army on
the ultimately unsuccessful Aragonese Crusade. The war took the name "crusade" from its
papal sanction; nevertheless, one historian labelled it "perhaps the most unjust, unnecessary
and calamitous enterprise ever undertaken by the Capetian monarchy.".[5] On 26 June 1285,
Philip III the Bold entrenched himself before Girona in an attempt to besiege the city. Despite
the strong resistance, the French took Girona on 7 September 1285.
Philip quickly experienced a reversal, however, as an epidemic of dysentery hit hard the
French camp. The disease afflicted king Philip III personally. The French retreated, and the
Aragonese enemy handily defeated the French at the Battle of the Col de Panissars on 1
October 1285.
Philip III died of dysentery in Perpignan, the capital of his ally James II of Majorca, on 5
October 1285. His son, Philip IV of France the Fair, succeeded him as king of France. The

attempt of Philip to conquer Aragon nearly bankrupted the French monarchy, causing
challenges for his successor.[6]
Following the Mos Teutonicus custom, his body was divided in several parts buried in
different places : the flesh was sent to the Narbonne Cathedral, the entrails to La No abbey
in Normandy, his heart to the dominican convent in Paris and his bones to Basilica of St
Denis, at the time north of Paris.[7]

Review from Dante[edit]


In Divine Comedy, Dante envisions the spirit of Philip outside the gates of Purgatory with a
number of other contemporaryEuropean rulers. Dante does not name Philip directly, but
refers to him as "the small-nosed"[8] and "the father of the Pest of France," a reference to
king Philip IV of France.

Marriage and children[edit]


French Monarchy

Direct Capetians

Philip III

Louis of France
Philip IV
Charles, Count of Valois
Louis, Count of vreux

Blanche, Duchess of Austria


Margaret of France, Queen of
England
On 28 May 1262, Philip married Isabella of Aragon, Queen of France, daughter of
King James I of Aragon and his second wife Yolande of Hungary.[9] They had the following
children:
1. Louis of France (12641276) (died May 1276). He was poisoned, possibly by orders
of his stepmother.
2. Philip IV of France (1268 29 November 1314), his successor, marriedJoan I of
Navarre
3. Robert (12691271)
4. Charles, Count of Valois (12 March 1270 16 December 1325), Count of Valois
from 1284, married first to Margaret of Anjou in 1290, second toCatherine I of
Courtenay in 1302, and last to Mahaut of Chatillon in 1308
5. Stillborn son (1271)
After death of queen consort Isabella, he married on 21 August 1274 Marie of Brabant,
Queen of France, daughter of the late Henry III, Duke of Brabant, andAdelaide of Burgundy,
Duchess of Brabant. Their children were:
1. Louis, Count of vreux (May 1276 19 May 1319), Count of vreux from 1298,
married Margaret of Artois
2. Blanche of France, Duchess of Austria (1278 19 March 1305, Vienna), married the
duke, the future king Rudolf I of Bohemia and Poland, on 25 May 1300.
3. Margaret of France, Queen of England (1282 14 February 1318), married
king Edward I of England on 8 September 1299

Philip IV the Fair, 12851314

Philip IV of France
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For Philip the Handsome, see Philip I of Castile.

Philip the Fair

Philip IV of France
King of France
Reign

5 October 1285 29 November 1314

Coronation

6 January 1286, Reims

Predecessor

Philip III

Successor

Louis X
King of Navarre; Count of Champagne
with Joan I

Reign

16 August 12844 April 1305

Predecessor

Joan I

Successor

Louis X

Spouse

Joan I of Navarre

Issue

Louis X, King of France


Philip V, King of France
Charles IV, King of France
Isabella, Queen of England

House

House of Capet

Father

Philip III, King of France

Mother

Isabella of Aragon

Born

AprilJune 1268
Fontainebleau, France

Died

29 November 1314 (aged 46)


Fontainebleau, France

Burial

Saint Denis Basilica

Religion

Roman Catholicism

Philip IV (AprilJune 1268 29 November 1314), called the Fair (French:Philippe le Bel) or the
Iron King (French: le Roi de fer), was King of Francefrom 1285 until his death. By virtue of his
marriage with Joan I of Navarre, he was also, as Philip I, King of Navarre and Count of
Champagne from 1284 to 1305.
Philip relied on skillful civil servants, such as Guillaume de Nogaret andEnguerrand de Marigny,
to govern the kingdom rather than on his barons. Philip and his advisors were instrumental in the
transformation of France from a feudal country to a centralized state. Philip, who sought an
uncontested monarchy, compelled his vassals by wars and restricted feudal usages. His
ambitions made him highly influential in European affairs. His goal was to place his relatives on
thrones. Princes from his house ruled in Naples and Hungary. He tried and failed to make

another relative the Holy Roman Emperor. He began the long advance of France eastward by
taking control of scattered fiefs.[1]
The most notable conflicts of Philip's reign include a dispute with Edward I of England, who was
also his vassal as the Duke of Aquitaine, and a war with the County of Flanders, which gained
temporary autonomy following Philips embarrassing defeat at the Battle of the Golden
Spurs (1302). To further strengthen the monarchy, he tried to control the French clergy and
entered in conflict with Pope Boniface VIII. This conflict led to the transfer of the papal court in
the enclave of Avignon in 1309.
In 1306, Philip the Fair expelled the Jews from France and, in 1307, he annihilated the order of
the Knights Templar. Philip was in debt to both groups and saw them as a "state within the state".
His final year saw a scandal amongst the royal family, known as the Tour de Nesle Affair, during
which the three daughters-in-law of Philip were accused of adultery. His three sons were
successively kings of France, Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV.

Franco-Flemish War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Franco-Flemish War (also called Flanders War of Liberation) was a conflict between the Kingdom of
France and the County of Flanders between 1297 and 1305.

Causes[edit]
Philip IV of France became King in 1285, and was determined to strengthen the French monarchy at any cost.
The County of Flandershad been formally part of the French Kingdom since the Treaty of Verdun in 843, but had
always de facto been largely, if not fully, independent from the French crown.
Flanders had some of the richest cities of that time, like Bruges,Ghent, Ypres, Lille and Douai. These cities tried
to keep their independence from the Count of Flanders and from the ruralaristocracy. But the cities were
themselves divided between the richpatricians and the urban tradesmen, united in guilds.
In 1288, Philip IV of France used complaints over taxes to tighten his control over Flanders. Tension built
between Guy of Dampierre, Count of Flanders and the King. In 1294, Guy turned for help to King Edward I of
England, arranging a marriage between his daughter Philippa andEdward, Prince of Wales. However, Philip
imprisoned Guy and two of his sons, forced him to call off the marriage, and imprisoned Philippa in Paris until her
death in 1306. Guy was summoned before the king again in 1296, and the principal cities of Flanders were taken
under royal protection, until Guy paid an indemnity and surrendered his territories, to hold them at the grace of the
King.

After these indignities, in 1297 Guy attempted to revenge himself on Philip by an alliance with Edward I of
England, now at war with France. Philip responded by declaring Flanders annexed to the royal domain and
sending a French army underRobert II of Artois to conquer Flanders.

12971303[edit]
Count Guy of Flanders, at that time in conflict with the Patricians of the cities, was easily defeated at the Battle of
Furnes. King Edward's expedition to help Flanders was aborted and he made peace with Philip in 1298 and left
Guy to his fate. The French invaded again in 1299 and captured both Guy and his son Robert in January 1300.
By May 1300 the whole of Flanders was under French control.
The conquest of Flanders had been relatively easy, because the Flemish cities had remained neutral up to then.
The Patricians had a long history of conflict with the Count of Flanders over the level of control the Count had
over the (financial) affairs of the cities. The Patricians had turned to the French King for support, who had
thankfully intervened in their favour, thus increasing his influence in Flanders. The Flemish supporters of the
French King were called Leliaards(supporters of the French Lily), and also included a part of the rural
aristocracy.
The urban Proletariat hoped for more justice and a better distribution of wealth under the new ruler, but Philip IV
appointedJacques de Chtillon as governor of the County, a very bad choice. Together with the Leliaards, this
undiplomatic soldier imposed a very repressive government, raising new taxes, which infuriated the Flemish.
Soon the urban Guilds forged an alliance with the Flemish nobles supporting the Count. They were
called Liebaarts or Klauwaards (after the Claws of the Flemish Lion).
On 19 May 1302, a rebellion broke out in Bruges where the Flemish populace killed every Frenchmen they could
find, including the French garrison. This event was called the Bruges Matins. De Chtillon escaped with his life.
Now the rebellion became general. William of Jlich, the grandson of Count Guy, arrived in Bruges, and became
the leader of the Flemish uprising. He was supported by his uncles John I, Marquis of Namur and Guy of Namur.
Soon, most of Flanders was under their control. Only Cassel and Kortrijk remained in French hands and the city
of Ghent remained neutral.
When the Flemish besieged Kortrijk on July 9 and 10, a powerful French army led by Count Robert II of
Artois arrived to crush the rebellion. The two forces clashed on July 11 in an open field near the city in a battle
that became known as theBattle of the Golden Spurs. The French cavalry charge was stopped by the tactically
sound position of the Flemish militia and the muddy terrain and many French knights were slaughtered.
This battle returned full independence to Flanders for the next two years. Two attempts by the French King to take
revenge for this embarrassing defeat were averted by a Flemish army under William of Jlich, the second time in
the bloody Battle of Arques (1303).

13041305[edit]
In the meantime Flanders was again at war with the Count of Holland. John II, Count of Holland also ruled over
the County of Hainaut and the County of Zeeland. This last area had been contested between the Count of
Flanders and the Count of Holland since the early 11th century and had become part of Holland by 1076. The
Flemish invaded Hainaut in 1302 and conquered Lessines. Guy of Namur, son of the Count of Flanders, formed a

fleet at Sluis and sailed on 23 April 1303 to claim Zeeland for the Flemish. After some initial successes, Guy was
defeated on 10 and 11 August 1304 in the Battle of Zierikzee by a combined Franco-Hollandic fleet under Rainier
Grimaldi, who had been sent by Philip IV of France to aid the Count of Holland. Guy of Namur was captured and
Zeeland remained firmly in the hands of the Count of Holland.
One week after this naval battle, on 18 August Philip IV himself fought the Flemish main army at the Battle of
Mons-en-Pvle. This hard fought battle was inconclusive, but the death of William of Jlich and the serious
material losses of the Flemish, made them sue for peace.
After further minor battles, eventually the Treaty of Athis-sur-Orge was signed on 23 June 1305 which recognized
Flemish independence, but at the cost of the cities of Lille, Douai and Orchies, which were transferred to France,
and the paying of exorbitant fines to King Philip IV.

See also[edit]

Oxford Chest

Battle of the Golden Spurs


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the battle in 1302. For other battles by the same name, see Battle of Courtrai.
The Battle of the Golden Spurs (Dutch: Guldensporenslag, French:Bataille des perons d'or), known also as
the Battle of Courtrai, was a battle between the forces of the Kingdom of France and the County of
Flanders fought near Kortrijk (Courtrai) in western Royal Flanderson 11 July 1302. In 1302, after several years of
unrest, the people of Flanders revolted against French rule and massacred many Frenchmen in the Flemish city
of Bruges. King Philip IV of Franceimmediately organized an expedition under Count Robert II of Artoisto put
down the rebellion. Meanwhile, the civic militias of several Flemish cities were assembled to counter the expected
French attack.
When the two armies met outside the city of Kortrijk, the mounted French knights proved unable to defeat the
well-trained Flemish foot militia on a battlefield particularly unsuited for cavalry. The result was a rout of the
French nobles, who suffered heavy losses at the hands of the Flemish. The battle was a famous early example of
an all-infantry army overcoming an army that depended on the shock attacks of mounted knights.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, the Battle of the Golden Spurs became a key part of the Flemish Movement.
In 1973, the date of the battle was chosen to be the date of the official holiday of the Flemish community in
Belgium.

Background[edit]
The reason for the battle was a French attempt to subdue the County of Flanders, which was formally part of the
French Kingdom and added to the crown lands in 1297 but resisted centralist French policies. In 1300, King Philip

IV of France appointedJacques de Chtillon as governor of Flanders and made the Count of Flanders, Guy of
Dampierre, hostage. This caused considerable unrest among the influential Flemish urban guilds. As far back as
1297, Guy had broken feudal ties with Philip in favor of forming an alliance with Edward I of England, to whom
Guy had engaged his daughter Philippina in 1294.
In 1302, the French governor of Flanders took his army and the king's lead advisor and negotiator to Bruges to
negotiate a peace with the rebellious towns of the region. Rebel leaders quickly relocated outside town, at which
point the French army harassed the townspeople (especially the families of the rebels). On the morning of 18 May
1302, the rebellious citizens of Bruges went back to the city and murdered every Frenchman they could find, an
act known as the Brugse Metten. According to legend, they identified the French by asking them to pronounce a
Flemish phrase, schilt ende vriend (shield and friend) and everyone who had a problem pronouncing
this shibboleth was killed.[3]

Forces[edit]
The French king could not let this go unpunished, so he sent a powerful force led by Count Robert II of Artois.
The Flemish response consisted of two groups, one of 3,000 men from the city militia of Bruges, was led
by William of Jlich, grandson of Count Guy and Pieter de Coninck, one of the leaders of the uprising in Bruges.
The other group of about 2,500 men from the suburbs of Bruges and the coastal areas, was headed by Guy of
Namur, son of Count Guy, with the two sons of Guy of Dampierre; the two groups met near Kortrijk. From the
East came another 2,500 men, led by Jan Borluut from Ghent and yet another 1,000 men from Ypres, led by Jan
van Renesse from Zeeland.

Depiction of the battle on the Courtrai Chest


The Flemish were primarily town militia who were well equipped and trained.[1] The militia mostly fought as
infantry and were uniformed and equipped with steel helmets and chainmail haubergeons. They were organized
by guild.[1] They were equipped with weapons such as pikes, bows, crossbows and with the goedendag.[1] The
goedendag, in particular, was a specifically Flemish weapon, made from a thick 5 feet (1.5 m)-long wooden shaft
and topped with a steel spike.[1] They were also well organized; the urban militias of the time prided themselves
on their regular training and preparation. The Flemish militia could form a line formation against cavalry with
goedendags and pikes pointed outward.[1] They numbered about 9,000, including 400 noblemen. The biggest
difference from the French and other feudal armies was that the Flemish force consisted almost solely
of infantry with only the leaders mounted, more to express their leadership than for combat.
The French, by contrast, fielded a traditional feudal army with a core of 2,500 noble cavalry, including knights and
squires. They were supported by 1,000 crossbowmen, 1,000 spearmen and up to 3,500 other light infantry,
totaling around 8,000. Contemporary military theory valued each knight as equal to roughly ten infantry.

The battle[edit]

Map of the Flemish and French positions at the start of the battle, with the Lys riverto the right, and the
castle at the top
The assorted Flemish forces met at Courtrai on 26 June and laid siege to the castle, which housed a French
garrison. While the siege was being laid, the Flemish leaders began preparing a nearby field for battle, as Philip
was unlikely to let the massacre at Bruges go unpunished. The size of the eventual French response was
impressive, with 3,000 knightsand 4,000-5,000 infantry being an accepted estimate. After the Flemish
unsuccessfully tried to take Courtrai on 9 and 10 July, the two forces clashed on the 11th in an open field near the
city.
The layout of the field near Courtrai was crossed by numerous ditches and streams dug by the Flemish as Philip
massed his army. Some drained from the river Lys, while others were concealed with dirt and branches, which
would make it difficult for the French cavalry to charge the Flemish lines. The French sent servants to place wood
in the streams but did not wait for this to be done before attacking. The large French infantry force led the initial
attack, which went well but French commander Count Robert recalled them so that the noble cavalry could claim
the victory. The cavalry were hindered by the streams and ditches (which they had however seen the infantry deal
with in the beginning of the battle), and the disciplined Flemish infantry held firm. Unable to break the Flemish line
of pikemen, the disorganized, fallen, and mud-drowned French cavalry were an easy target for the heavily armed
Flemish. A desperate charge from the French garrison in the besieged castle was thwarted by a Flemish
contingent specifically placed there for that task. When they realized the battle was lost, the surviving French fled,
only to be pursued over 10 km (6 mi) by the Flemish.
Prior to the battle, the Flemish militia had either been ordered to take no prisoners or did not care for the military
custom of asking for a ransom for captured knights or nobles;[3] modern theory is that there was a clear order that
forbade them to take prisoners as long as the battle was as yet undecided (this was to avoid the possibility of their
ranks being broken when the Flemish infantry brought their hostages behind the Flemish lines).[4] Robert II of

Artois was surrounded and killed on the field. According to some tales he begged for his life but the Flemish
refused, claiming that "they didn't understand French".[5]

Aftermath[edit]
The large numbers of golden spurs that were collected from the French knights gave the battle its name.[6] At least
a thousand French noblemen were killed, some contemporary accounts placing the total casualties at over ten
thousand dead and wounded. The French spurs were hung in the Church of Our Lady in Kortrijk to commemorate
the victory and were taken back by the French eighty years later after the Battle of Westrozebeke.

The Battle of the Golden Spurs(1836) painting by Nicaise de Keyser


Some of the notable casualties:

Robert II, Count of Artois, the French commander

Raoul of Clermont-Nesle, Lord of Nesle, Constable of France

Guy I of Clermont, Lord of Breteuil, Marshal of France

Simon de Melun, Lord of La Loupe and Marcheville, Marshal of France

John I of Ponthieu, Count of Aumale

John II of Trie, Count of Dammartin

John II of Brienne, Count of Eu

John d'Avesnes, Count of Ostrevent, son of John II, Count of Holland

Godfrey of Brabant, Lord of Aarschot

Jacques de Chtillon, Lord of Leuze

Pierre de Flotte, Chief Advisor to Philip IV the Fair

Historical significance[edit]
Effect on warfare[edit]

Flemish soldiers celebrating the 11 July during World War I


The Battle of the Golden Spurs had been called the first incidence of the gradual "Infantry Revolution" which
occurred in Medieval warfare during the 14th century.[7]In conventional military theory of the time, mounted and
heavily armoured knights were considered an essential part of military success and consequently warfare was
the preserve of an wealthy elite of bellatores (nobles specialized in warfare) serving as men-at-arms.[8] The fact
that this form of army, which was expensive to maintain, could be defeated by basic militia, drawn from the "lower
orders", led to a gradual change in the nature of warfare during the subsequent century.[9] The tactics and
composition of the Flemish army at Courtrai were later copied or adapted at the battles
of Bannockburn (1314), Crecy (1346), Aljubarrota (1385),Sempach (1386), Agincourt (1415), Grandson (1476)
and in the battles of theHussite Wars (1419 - 1434).[10] As a result, cavalry became less important and nobles
more commonly fought dismounted.[10] The comparatively low costs of militia armies allowed even small states,
such as the Swiss, to raise militarily significant armies and meant that local rebellions were more likely to achieve
military success.[11]

In Flemish culture[edit]
With a rising interest in Medieval history during the 19th century and the rise of Romanticism in art and literature,
interest in the Battle within Flanders and Belgium grew. The battle formed the subject of the classic 1838 work of
the Flemish writerHendrik Conscience, The Lion of Flanders (De Leeuw van Vlaanderen), which achieved huge
popularity. The battle was considered as the Flemish equivalent of the Six hundred Franchimontois of 1468.
Celebration of the battle became associated with the Flemish Movement, which sought further autonomy from
Belgium, during the 20th century.
In 1973, the date of the battle, 11 July, was picked as the Flemish Community's annual official holiday.

Youth[edit]
A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born at the Palace of Fontainebleau at Seine-etMarne to King Louis IX's eldest son Philip the Bold and Isabella of Aragon. Two years later, his
elder brother Louis became heir apparent when his grandfather died and his father ascended to
the throne as King Philip III. When Louis died in May 1276, Philip became heir apparent. Philip's
younger brother Robert also died in May 1276, leaving Philip and his younger brother Charles.
Their stepmother, Marie of Brabant, was suspected of poisoning the two young boys; her first
son, Louis, was born in the same month the two boys died.[2] The prince was nicknamed the
Fair (le Bel) because of his handsome appearance, but his inflexible personality gained him other
epithets, from friend and foe alike. His fierce opponent Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, said
of him, "He is neither man nor beast. He is a statue."[3]
His education was guided by Guillaume d'Ercuis, the almoner of his father.[4]
As a prince, just before his father's death, he negotiated the safe passage of the royal family out
of Aragon after the unsuccessful Aragonese Crusade.[citation needed]

Consolidation of the royal demesne[edit]


Philip ascended to the throne and became King at age 17, although according to the publication
titled "The Life And Times Of Jacques de Molay", Philip was 16. [5] As a king, Philip was
determined to strengthen the monarchy at any cost. He relied, more than any of his
predecessors, on a professional bureaucracy of legalists. Because to the public he kept aloof and
left specific policies, especially unpopular ones, to his ministers, he was called a "useless owl" by
his contemporaries, among them Bishop Saisset.[6] His reign marks the French transition from a
charismatic monarchy which could all but collapse in an incompetent reign to a bureaucratic
kingdom, a move, under a certain historical reading, towards modernity.
Philip married queen Joan I of Navarre (12711305) on 16 August 1284. The primary
administrative benefit of this was the inheritance of Joan in Champagne and Brie, which were
adjacent to the royal demesne in Ile-de-France and became thus effectively united to the king's
own lands, forming an expansive area. During the reigns of Joan herself, and her three sons
(12841328), these lands belonged to the person of the king; but by 1328 they had become so
entrenched in the royal domain that Philip VI. (who was not an heir of Joan) switched lands with
the then rightful heiress, Joan II of Navarre, granddaughter of Philip IV., with the effect that
Champagne and Brie remained part of the royal demesne and Joan received compensation with
lands in western Normandy.
The Kingdom of Navarre in the Pyrenees was not so important to contemporary interests of the
French crown. It remained in personal union 12841329, after which it went its separate way.
Philip gained Lyons for France in 1312.

War with the English[edit]

Homage of Edward I (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated). As Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was a vassal to the
French king.

As Duke of Aquitaine, the English king Edward I was a vassal to Philip, and had to pay him
homage. Following the Fall of Acre in 1291 however, the former allies started to show dissent. [7]
In 1293 following a naval incident between the Normans and the English, Philip summoned
Edward to the French court. The English King sought to negotiate the matter and sent
ambassadors to Paris but they were turned away with a blunt refusal. Negotiation was for Kings,
Edward was addressed by Philip as a Duke, a vassal and nothing more, despite the incident
having been an international one between England and France and not an internal one involving
Edward's possessions within the kingdom of France.
Attempting to use their family connections to achieve what open politics had not, Edward sent his
brother Edmund Crouchback (who was both Philip's cousin and step-father-in-law) to come
negotiate with the French Royal family and avert war. Also, Edward was at that time betrothed by
proxy to Philip's sister Blanche, and Edmund was to escort her to England for the wedding in the
event of the negotiations being successful.
An agreement was indeed reached; it stated that Edward would voluntarily relinquish his
continental lands to Philip as a sign of submission in his capacity as Duke of Aquitaine and in
return Philip would forgive him and restore his land after a grace period. In the matter of the
marriage, Philip drove a hard bargain based partially on the difference in age between Edward
and Blanche; it was agreed that the province of Gascony would be retained by Philip in return for

agreeing to the marriage. The date of the wedding was also put off until the formality of
sequestering and re-granting his French lands to Edward was completed.
But Edward, Edmund and the English were deceived. The French had no intention of returning
the land to the English monarch. Edward kept up his part of the deal and turned over his
continental estates to the French but Philip used the pretext that the English King had refused his
summons to strip Edward of all his possessions in France, thereby initiating hostilities with
England.[7]
The outbreak of hostilities with England in 1294 was the inevitable result of the competitive
expansionist monarchies, triggered by a secret Franco-Scottish pact of mutual
assistance against Edward I; inconclusive campaigns for the control ofGascony to the southwest
of France were fought in 129498 and 130003. Philip gained Guienne but was forced to return
it. The search for income to cover military expenditures set its stamp on Philip's reign and his
contemporary reputation. Pursuant to the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1303), the marriage of
Philip's daughter Isabella to the Prince of Wales, heir of Philip's enemy, celebrated at Boulogne,
25 January 1308, was meant to seal a peace; instead it would produce an eventual English
claimant to the French throne itself, and the Hundred Years' War.[citation needed]

Drive for income[edit]


See also: Coinage of Philip IV of France

Sledgehammer denier during Philip the Fair

In the shorter term, Philip arrested Jews so that he could seize their assets to accommodate the
inflated costs of modern warfare, expelling 100,000 of them from his French territories on 22 July
1306 (see The Great Exile of 1306). At this point in his reign Philip was faced with extensive
financial liabilities, partially inherited from his father's war against Aragon and partially incurred by
the cost of his own campaigns against the English and their allies in Flanders. His financial
victims also included rich abbots and the Lombard merchants who had earlier made him
extensive loans on the pledge of repayment from future taxation. Like the Jews, the Lombard
bankers were expelled from France and their property expropriated. In addition to these
measures Philip debased the French coinage by measures which by 1306 had led to a two-thirds
loss in the value of the livres, sous and denirs in circulation. This financial crisis led to rioting in
Paris which forced Philip to briefly seek refuge in the Paris Temple - headquarters of the Knights
Templar.[8]

Philip was condemned by his enemy, Pope Boniface VIII in the Catholic Church[9] for his
spendthrift lifestyle. When he also levied taxes on the French clergy of one half their annual
income, he caused an uproar within the Roman Catholic Church and the papacy, prompting Pope
Boniface VIII to issue the Bull Clericis laicos, forbidding the transference of any church property
to the French Crown. This prompted a drawn-out diplomatic battle between Church and King.
Philip convoked an assembly of bishops, nobles and grand bourgeois of Paris in order to
condemn the Pope. This precursor to the Etats Gnraux appeared for the first time during his
reign, a measure of the professionalism and order that his ministers were introducing into
government. Philip emerged victorious, after having sent his agent William Nogaret to arrest
Boniface atAnagni, when the French archbishop Bertrand de Goth was elected pope as Clement
V and the official seat of the papacy moved to Avignon, an enclave surrounded by French
territories.[citation needed]

In Flanders[edit]
Philip suffered a major embarrassment when an army of 2,500 noble men-at-arms (Knights and
Squires) and 4,000 infantry he sent to suppress an uprising in Flanders was defeated in
the Battle of the Golden Spurs near Kortrijk on 11 July 1302. Philip reacted with energy to the
humiliation and a new battle followed at Mons-en-Pvle two years later, which ended
indecisively.[10] Still, in 1305, Philip forced the Flemish to accept a harsh peace treaty, playing out
his superior diplomatic skills; the peace exacted heavy reparations and humiliating penalties, and
added to the royal territory the rich cloth cities ofLille and Douai, sites of major cloth
fairs. Bthune, first of the Flemish cities to yield, was granted to Mahaut, Countess of Artois,
whose two daughters, to secure her fidelity, were married to Philip's two sons.

Suppression of the Knights Templar[edit]

Templars burned at the stake

Philip was substantially in debt to the Knights Templar, a monastic military orderwhose original
role as protectors of Christian pilgrims in the Latin East had been largely replaced by banking
and other commercial activities by the end of the 13th century. [11] As the popularity of the
Crusades had decreased, support for the military orders had waned, and Philip used a
disgruntled complaint against the Knights Templar as an excuse to move against the entire
organization as it existed in France, in part to free himself from his debts. Other motives appear
to have included concern over perceived heresy, assertion of French control over a weakened
Papacy and finally, the substitution of royal officials for officers of the Temple in the financial
management of French government.[12] Recent studies emphasize the political and religious
motivations of Philip the Fair and his ministers (especially Guillaume de Nogaret). It seems that,
with the discovery and repression of the Templars' heresy, the Capetian monarchy claimed for
itself the mystic foundations of the papal theocracy. The Temple case was the last step of a
process of appropriating these foundations, which had begun with the Franco-papal rift at the
time of Boniface VIII. Being the ultimate defender of the Catholic faith, the Capetian king was
invested with a Christlike function that put him above the pope. What was at stake in the
Templars' trial, then, was the establishment of a "royal theocracy". [13]
At daybreak on Friday, 13 October 1307, hundreds of Templars in France were simultaneously
arrested by agents of Philip the Fair, to be later tortured into admitting heresy in the Order. [14] The
Templars were supposedly answerable to only the Pope, but Philip used his influence
over Clement V, who was largely his pawn, to disband the organization. Pope Clement did
attempt to hold proper trials, but Philip used the previously forced confessions to have many
Templars burned at the stake before they could mount a proper defense.
In March 1314, Philip had Jacques de Molay, the last Grand Master of the Temple, and Geoffroi
de Charney, Preceptor of Normandy, burned at the stake. The account goes as follows:
The cardinals dallied with their duty until March 1314, (exact day is disputed by scholars) when,
on a scaffold in front of Notre Dame, Jacques de Molay, Templar Grand Master, Geoffroi de
Charney, Master of Normandy, Hugues de Peraud, Visitor of France, and Godefroi de Gonneville,
Master of Aquitaine, were brought forth from the jail in which for nearly seven years they had lain,
to receive the sentence agreed upon by the cardinals, in conjunction with the Archbishop of Sens
and some other prelates whom they had called in. Considering the offenses, which the culprits
had confessed and confirmed, the penance imposed was in accordance with rule that of
perpetual imprisonment. The affair was supposed to be concluded when, to the dismay of the
prelates and wonderment of the assembled crowd, de Molay and Geoffroi de Charney arose.
They had been guilty, they said, not of the crimes imputed to them, but of basely betraying their
Order to save their own lives. It was pure and holy; the charges were fictitious and the
confessions false. Hastily the cardinals delivered them to the Prevot of Paris, and retired to
deliberate on this unexpected contingency, but they were saved all trouble. 'When the news was
carried to Philippe he was furious. A short consultation with his council only was required. The
canons pronounced that a relapsed heretic was to be burned without a hearing; the facts were
notorious and no formal judgment by the papal commission need be waited for. That same day,
by sunset, a stake was erected on a small island in the Seine, the Isle des Juifs, near the palace
garden. There de Molay and de Charney were slowly burned to death, refusing all offers of

pardon for retraction, and bearing their torment with a composure which won for them the
reputation of martyrs among the people, who reverently collected their ashes as relics. [15][16]
The fact that, in little more than a month, Pope Clement V died in torment of a loathsome disease
thought to be lupus, and that in eight months Philip IV of France, at the early age of forty-six,
perished by an accident while hunting, necessarily gave rise to the legend that de Molay had
cited them before the tribunal of God. Such stories were rife among the people, whose sense of
justice had been scandalized by the whole affair. Even in distant Germany, Philip's death was
spoken of as a retribution for his destruction of the Templars, and Clement was described as
shedding tears of remorse on his death-bed for three great crimes, the poisoning of Henry VI,
and the ruin of the Templars and Beguines.[17] Within 14 years the throne passed rapidly through
Philip's sons, who died relatively young, and without producing male heirs. By 1328, his male line
was extinguished, and the throne had passed to the line of his brother, the House of Valois.

Expulsion of the Jews[edit]


While King Edward ordered the Jews to leave England in 1290, Philip the Fair expelled the Jews
from France in 1306. With the Jews gone, Philip appointed royal guardians to collect the loans
made by the Jews, and the money was passed to the Crown. The scheme did not work well. The
Jews were regarded to be good businessmen who satisfied their customers, while the king's
collectors were universally unpopular. Finally, in 1315, because of the "clamour of the people",
the Jews were invited back with an offer of 12 years of guaranteed residence, free from
government interference. In 1322, the Jews were expelled again by the King's successor, who did
not honour his commitment.[18]

Tour de Nesle affair[edit]


In 1314, the daughters-in-law of Philip IV, Margaret of Burgundy (wife of Louis X) and Blanche of
Burgundy (wife of Charles IV) were accused of adultery, and their alleged lovers (Phillipe d'Aunay
and Gauthier d'Aunay) tortured, flayed and executed in what has come to be known as the Tour
de Nesle Affair (French: Affaire de la tour de Nesle). A third daughter-in-law, Joan II, Countess of
Burgundy (wife of Philip V), was accused of knowledge of the affairs.

Crusades and diplomacy with Mongols[edit]


Main article: Franco-Mongol alliance
Philip had various contacts with the Mongol power in the Middle East, including reception at the
embassy of theTurkic/Mongol monk Rabban Bar Sauma.[19] Bar Sauma presented an offer of
a Franco-Mongol alliance with Arghun of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Baghdad. Arghun was seeking
to join forces between the Mongols and the Europeans, against their common enemy the Muslim
Mamluks. In return, Arghun offered to return Jerusalem to the Christians, once it was re-captured
from the Muslims. Philip seemingly responded positively to the request of the embassy, by
sending one of his noblemen, Gobert de Helleville, to accompany Bar Sauma back to Mongol
lands.[20] There was further correspondence between Arghun and Philip in 1288 and 1289,

outlining potential military cooperation. However, Philip never actually pursued such military
plans.
[21]

In April 1305, the new Mongol ruler ljait sent letters to Philip,[22] the Pope, and Edward I of
England. He again offered a military collaboration between the Christian nations of Europe and
the Mongols against the Mamluks. European nations attempted another Crusade but were
delayed, and it never took place. In 4 April 1312, another Crusade was promulgated at
the Council of Vienne. In 1313, Philip "took the cross", making the vow to go on a Crusade in the
Levant, thus responding to Pope Clement V's call. He was, however, warned against leaving
by Enguerrand de Marigny[23] and died soon after in a hunting accident.

Death[edit]

Tomb of Philip IV in the Basilica of St Denis.

Philip IV's rule signaled the decline of the papacy's power from its near complete authority. His
palace located on the le de la Cit is represented today by surviving sections of
the Conciergerie. He suffered a cerebral ictus during a hunt at Pont-Sainte-Maxence (Forest of
Halatte) and died a few weeks later in Fontainebleau, where he was born. He is buried in
the Basilica of St Denis. He was succeeded by his son Louis X.

Issue[edit]
The children of Philip IV of France and Joan I of Navarre were:
1. Margaret (ca. 1288, Paris[24] after November 1294, Paris). Betrothed in November 1294
to Infante Ferdinand of Castile, later Ferdinand IV of Castile.[25]
2. Louis X ( 4 October 1289 5 June 1316)
3. Blanche (1290, Paris[26] after 13 April 1294, Saint Denis). Betrothed in December 1294
to Infante Ferdinand of Castile, later Ferdinand IV of Castile.[25] Blanche was buried in
the Basilica of St Denis.[25]
4. Philip V (1292/933 January 1322)
5. Charles IV (12941 February 1328)

6. Isabella (c. 129523 August 1358). Married Edward II of England and was the mother
of Edward III of England. This makes Philip IV the maternal grandfather of Edward III of
England and an ancestor of every English king after Edward II.
7. Robert (1297, Paris[27] August 1308,[27] Saint Germain-en-Laye). The Flores
historiarum of Bernard Guidonisnames "Robertum" as youngest of the four sons of Philip
IV of France, adding that he died "in flore adolescenti su" and was buried "in
monasterio sororem de Pyssiaco" in August 1308.[25] Betrothed in October 1306
toConstance of Sicily.[25]
Three of his sons reaching adulthood would become kings of France, and his surviving daughter,
as consort of Edward II, was queen of England.

Louis X the Quarreller, 13141316

Louis X (4 October 1289 5 June 1316), called the Quarreler, the Headstrong, or the
Stubborn (French: le Hutin), was a monarch of theHouse of Capet who ruled as King of
Navarre (as Louis I) and Count of Champagne from 1305 and as King of France from 1314 until
his death.
Louis was the eldest son of Philip IV of France and Joan I of Navarre. His short reign as king of
France was marked by the hostility of the nobility against fiscal and centralization reforms
initiated by Enguerrand de Marigny, the Grand Chamberlain of France, under the reign of his
father. Louis' uncleCharles of Valois, leader of the feudalist partymanaged to convince the
king to execute Enguerrand de Marigny.
Louis allowed serfs to buy their freedom (which was the first step towards the abolition of
serfdom), abolished slavery, and readmitted French Jews into the kingdom.
In 1305, Louis had married Margaret of Burgundy, with whom he had Joan II of Navarre.
Margaret was later convicted of adultery and strangled in prison. In 1315, Louis
married Clementia of Hungary, who gave birth to John I of France a few months after the king's
death. John's untimely death led to a disputed succession.
Contents
[hide]

1 Personality, marriage and coronation

2 Domestic policy

2.1 Regional leagues

2.2 Readmittance of the Jews and reform of serfdom

2.3 The challenge of Flanders

3 Death and legacy

4 References

5 Bibliography

6 Further reading

7 Ancestry

8 Fiction

9 External links

Personality, marriage and coronation[edit]

Louis being crowned with his second wife, Clementia of Hungary.

Louis was born in Paris, the eldest son of Philip IV of France and Joan I of Navarre.[1] He inherited
the crown of Navarre on the death of his mother, on 4 April 1305. On 21 September 1305, at age
16, he married Margaret of Burgundy and they had a daughter,Joan. Louis was known as "the
Quarreler" as the result of the tensions prevailing throughout his reigns.[2]

Both Louis and Margaret became involved in the Tour de Nesle affair towards the end of Philip's
reign. In 1314, Margaret, Blanche and Joanthe latter two being the wives of Louis'
brothers Charles and Philip, respectivelywere arrested on charges of infidelity.[3]Margaret and
Blanche were both tried before the French parliament later that year and found guilty. Their
alleged lovers were executed, and the women had their hair shorn and were sentenced to life
imprisonment.[4] Philip stood by his wife Joan, who was ultimately found innocent and released.
Louis, however, had not enjoyed a happy marriage to Margaret and requested that the marriage
be annulled, with Margaret being imprisoned in poor conditions in the castle of Chteau Gaillard.
[5]

On the death of his father in 1314, Louis became King of France. Margaret died under suspicious
circumstances, possibly murdered, on 14 August 1315 at Chteau-Gaillard. Louis remarried five
days later, on 19 August to Clementia of Hungary, the daughter of Charles Martel of Anjou and
the niece of Louis' own uncle and close advisor, Charles of Valois. Louis and Clementia
were crowned at Reims on 24 August 1315.

Domestic policy[edit]
Louis was king of Navarre for eleven years and king of France for less than two years. His reign
was dominated by continual feuding with the noble factions within the kingdom, and major
reforms designed to increase royal revenues, such as the freeing of the French serfs and the
readmittance of the Jews.
In 1315, Louis X published a decree proclaiming that "France signifies freedom" and that any
slave setting foot on the French ground should be freed. This prompted subsequent governments
to circumscribe slavery in the overseas colonies.[6]

Regional leagues[edit]
By the end of Philip IV's reign opposition to the fiscal reforms was growing. With Philip's death
and the accession of Louis, this opposition rapidly developed in more open revolt, some authors
citing Louis' relative youth as one of the reasons behind the timing of the rebellions. [7] Leagues of
regional nobles began to form around the country, demanding changes. [8]Charles of Valois took
advantage of this movement to turn against his old enemy, Philip IV's former minister
andchamberlain Enguerrand de Marigny and convinced Louis to bring corruption charges against
him. When these failed, Charles then convinced Louis to bring sorcery charges against him
instead, which proved more effective and led to de Marigny's execution at Vincennes in April
1315.[9] Other former ministers were similarly prosecuted.[10] This, combined with the halting of
Philip's reforms, the issuing of numerous charters of rights[11] and a reversion to more traditional
rule, largely assuaged the regional leagues.[12]

Readmittance of the Jews and reform of serfdom[edit]

Louis receiving a diploma from the Jews, whom he readmitted to France under strict terms.

Louis continued to require revenues, however, and alighted on a reform of French serfdomas a
way of achieving this. Arguing that all men are born free, Louis declared in 1315 that French serfs
would be freed, although each serf would have to pay for the privilege. [13] A body of
commissioners was established to undertake the reform, establishing the peculium, or value, of
each serf.[14] For serfs owned directly by the King, all of the peculium would be received by the
Crown for serfs owned by subjects of the King, the amount would be divided between the
Crown and the owner.[15] In the event, not all serfs were prepared to pay in this fashion and in due
course Louis declared that the goods of these serfs would be seized anyway, with the proceeds
going to pay for the war in Flanders.[16]
Louis was also responsible for a key shift in policy towards the Jews. In 1306, his father, Philip IV,
had expelled the Jewish minority from across France, a "shattering" event for most of these
communities.[17] Louis began to reconsider this policy, motivated by the additional revenues that
might be forthcoming to the Crown if the Jews were allowed to return. [18] Accordingly Louis issued
a charter in 1315, readmitting the Jews subject to various conditions. The Jews would only be
admitted back into France for twelve years, after which the agreement might be terminated; Jews
were to wear an armband at all times; Jews could only live in those areas where there had been
previously been Jewish communities; Jews were initially to be forbidden fromusury.[19] This was
the first time that French Jews had been covered by such a charter, and Louis was careful to
justify his decision with reference to the policies of his ancestor Saint Louis IX, the position
of Pope Clement V and an argument that the people of France had demanded a return of the
Jews.[20] The result was a much weakened Jewish community that depended directly upon the
King for their right of abode and protection.[21]

The challenge of Flanders[edit]

Louis campaigning in Flanders, where he sought a military solution to the ongoing problem of the
"immensely wealthy", quasi-autonomous province of France.

Louis X continued the effort of his predecessor to achieve a military solution to the vexing
problem of Flanders. The Count of Flanders ruled an "immensely wealthy state"[22] which enjoyed
a largely autonomous existence on the margins of the French realm; French kings claimed to
exercise suzerainty over Flanders, but heretofore with little success.[23] Philip IV had attempted to
assert royal overlordship, but his army, led by Robert II of Artois, had been defeated at Courtraiin
1302;[24] despite a later French victory at the Battle of Mons-en-Pvle the relationship remained
testy and unsettled.
Louis mobilised an army along the Flemish border, but the French position rapidly become
strained by the demands of maintaining a wartime footing. Louis had prohibited exports of grain
and other material to Flanders in 1315. This proved challenging to enforce, and the king had to
pressure officers of the Church officer in the borderlands,[25] as well as Edward II of England, to
support his effort to prevent Spanish merchant vessels from trading with the embargoed Flemish.
[26]
An unintended result of the embargo was the rise of smuggling activities that reduced the
advantage (and consequently the amount) of trading in compliance with royal restrictions in the
border region. Louis was also forced to directly requisition food for his forces, resulting in a series
of complaints from local lords and the Church.[27]

Death and legacy[edit]


Louis was a keen player of jeu de paume, or real tennis, and became notable as the first person
to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis out
of doors and accordingly had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris "around the end of the 13th

century".[28] In due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. [29] In June 1316
at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne and following a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a large
quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although there
was also suspicion of poisoning.[30] Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis is
history's first tennis player known by name.[31]He and his second wife Clementia are interred
in Saint Denis Basilica.
Louis' second wife Clementia was pregnant at the time of his death, leaving the succession in
doubt. A son would have primacy over Louis' daughter, Joan.[32] A daughter, however, would have
a weaker claim to the throne, and would need to compete with Joan's own claims although
suspicions hung over Joan's parentage following the scandal in 1314. [33] As a result Louis'
brother Philip was appointed regent for the five months remaining until the birth of his brother's
child. The baby, who turned out to be male, lived only five days, until 20 November 1316an
extremely short reign for Louis's posthumous son, John I. Louis' brother Philip then succeeded in
pressing his claims to the crowns of France and Navarre, being known there as Philip II of
Navarre.

John I the Posthumous, five days in


1316

John I (1520 November 1316), called the Posthumous, was a CapetianKing of


France and Navarre, and Count of Champagne, as the posthumous son and successor of Louis
the Quarreler, for the five days he lived. He thus had the shortest undisputed recognized reign of
any French king.[1] The son of Louis the Quarreler and Clementia of Hungary, sister of Charles I
of Hungary, he is the only person to be King of France since birth, and thus, the youngest King of
France and the only person to have been King of France during his entire lifetime.
John reigned for five days under the regency of his uncle Philip the Tall, until his death on 20
November 1316. The infant King was buried in Saint Denis Basilica. He was succeeded by Philip,
whose contested legitimacy led to the re-affirmation of the Salic law, which excluded women from
the line of succession to the French throne.
Contents
[hide]

1 Consequences

2 Supposed survival

3 Ancestry

4 See also

5 References

Consequences[edit]

Funerary convoy of John I.

Child mortality rate was very high in medieval Europe and John may have died from any number
of causes, but rumours of poisoning spread immediately after his death, as many people
benefited from it and as John's father died himself in strange circumstances. The cause of his
death is still not known today.[2]
The premature death of John brought the first issue of succession of the Capetian dynasty.
When Louis the Headstrong, his father, died without a son to succeed him, it was the first time
since Hugh Capet that the succession from father to son of the kings of France was interrupted. It
was then decided to wait until his pregnant widow, Clementia of Hungary, delivered the child. The
king's brother, Philip the Tall, was in charge of the regency of the kingdom against his
uncle Charles of Valois. The birth of a male child was expected to giveFrance its king. The
problem of succession remained when the infant that was proclaimed King of France, under the
name of John I, died five days after birth. It was his uncle who ascended the throne at the
expense of his four-year-old half-sister,Joan, daughter of Louis X and Margaret of Burgundy.

Supposed survival[edit]
Various legends circulated about this royal child. First, it was claimed that his uncle Philip the
Tall had him poisoned. Then a strange story a few decades later came to start the rumor that the
little King John was not dead. During the captivity ofJohn the Good (1356-1360), a man

named Giannino Baglioni claimed to be John I and thus the heir to the throne. He tried to assert
his rights, but captured in Provence, he died in captivity in 1363. A recent book provides an
update on this story. It is said that Cola di Rienzo was supposed to manufacture false evidence
that Giannino Baglioni was John the Posthumous, and who tried to place on the throne of France
to strengthen his power in Rome. Shortly after they met in 1354, Cola di Rienzo was
assassinated, and Giannino waited two years to report his claims. He went to the Hungarian
court where Louis I of Hungary, nephew of Clemence of Hungary, recognized him as the son of
Louis and Clemence. In 1360, Giannino went to Avignon, but Pope Innocent VI refused to receive
him. After several attempts to gain recognition, he was arrested and imprisoned in Naples, where
he died in 1363.

Philip V the Tall, 13161322

Philip V (c.1292/1293 3 January 1322), the Tall (French: Philippe le Long), was King of
France, King of Navarre as Philip II, and Count of Champagne. He reigned from 1316 to his
death and was the penultimate monarch of the main line of the House of Capet.
As the second son of king Philip IV, Philip the Tall was made Count of Poitiers while his elder
brother, Louis X, inherited the throne in 1314. When Louis died in 1316, his wife was pregnant
and it was decided that Philip the Tall would act as regent until she gave birth to her child. She
had a boy who was proclaimed king as John I, but the small king lived only for five days.
Philip was immediately crowned at Reims. However, his legitimacy was challenged by Louis Xs
daughter Joan, who claimed the thrones for herself. Philip V successfully contested her claims for
a number of reasons, including her youth, doubts regarding her paternity (her mother was
involved in theTour de Nesle Affair), and the Estates General's determination that women should
be excluded from the line of succession to the French throne, according to the ancient Salic law.
Philip V restored somewhat good relations with the County of Flanders, which had entered
into open rebellion during his fathers rule, but simultaneously his relations with Edward II of
England worsened as the English king, who was also Duke of Guyenne, initially refused to pay
him homage. A spontaneouspopular crusade started in Normandy in 1320 aiming to
liberate Iberia from the Moors. Instead the angry populace marched to the south attacking
castles, royal officials, priests, lepers, and Jews.
Philip V engaged in a series of domestic reforms intended to improve the management of the
kingdom. These reforms included the creation of an independent Court of Finances, the
standardization of weights and measures, and the establishment of a single currency.
Philip V died from dysentery in 1322 without a male heir and was succeeded by his younger
brother Charles IV.

Contents
[hide]

1 Personality and marriage

2 Accession and the Salic Law

3 Domestic reform

4 Resolution of the Flanders conflict and England

5 The Crusades

6 Death and legacy

7 Family

8 Ancestry

9 References

10 Bibliography

11 External links

Personality and marriage[edit]

Arms of Philip as Count of Poitiers[1]

Philip was born in Lyon, the second son of King Philip IV of France and Queen Joan I of Navarre.
His father granted to him the county of Poitiers in appanage. Modern historians have described
Philip V as a man of "considerable intelligence and sensitivity", and the "wisest and politically
most apt" of Philip IV's three sons.[2] Philip was influenced by the troubles and unrest that his
father had encountered during 1314, as well as by the difficulties his older brother,Louis X, known

as "the Quarreler", had faced during the intervening few years. [3] At the heart of the problems for
both Philip IV and Louis X were taxes and the difficulty in raising them outside of crises. [3]
Philip married Joan, the eldest daughter of Count Otto IV of Burgundy, in 1307.[4] The original
plan had been for Louis X to marry Joan, but this was altered after Louis was engaged
toMargaret of Burgundy.[5] Modern scholars have found little evidence as to whether the marriage
was a happy one, but the pair had a considerable number of children in a short space of time,
[6]
and Philip was exceptionally generous to Joan by the standards of the day.[5] Philip went to
great lengths not only to endow Joan with lands and money but to try to ensure that these gifts
were irrevocable in the event of his early death.[7] Amongst the various gifts were a palace,
villages, additional money for jewels, and her servants and the property of all the Jews in
Burgundy, which he gave to Joan in 1318.[8]
Joan was implicated in Margaret's adultery case during 1314; Margaret was accused and
convicted of adultery with twoknights, upon the testimony of their sister-in-law, Isabella.[9] Joan
was suspected of having secretly known about the adultery; placed under house arrest
at Dourdan as punishment, it was then implied that Joan was guilty of adultery herself.[10] With
Philip's support she continued to protest her innocence, and by 1315 her name had been cleared
by theParis Parlement, partially through Philip's influence, and she was allowed to return to court.
[11]
It is unclear why Philip stood by her in the way that he did. One theory has been that he was
concerned that if he were to abandon Joan, he might also lose Burgundy; another theory
suggests that his slightly "formulaic" love letters to his wife should be taken at face value, and
that he was in fact very deeply in love.[10]

Accession and the Salic Law[edit]

Philip engineered a hastycoronation after the death of his nephew, the young John I, to build support for his
bid for the French throne in 1316-17.

Philip's older brother, Louis X, died in 1316 leaving the pregnant Clementia of Hungary as his
widow.[12] There were several potential candidates for the role of regent, including Charles of
Valois and Duke Odo IV of Burgundy, but Philip successfully out-manouvred them, being

appointed regent himself.[4] Philip remained as regent for the remainder of the pregnancy and for
a few days after the birth of his nephew John I the infant only lived for five days before dying.[12]
The death of John I was unprecedented in the history of the Capetian Kings of France. For the
first time, the king of France died childless. The heir to the throne was now a subject of some
dispute. Joan, the remaining daughter of Louis X byMargaret of Burgundy,[12] was one obvious
candidate, but suspicion still hung over her as a result of the scandal in 1314, including concerns
over her actual parentage.[4] In addition, the Salic law had been reaffirmed in recent years, which
would have meant that the throne would pass over Joan in any event, but this interpretation of the
law was not necessarily accepted by all the nobility.[4]
With only his niece between himself and the throne, Philip engaged in some rapid political
negotiations and convinced Charles of Valois, who along with Odo IV was championing Joan's
rights, to switch sides and support him instead.[4] In exchange for marrying Philip's daughter, Odo
IV abandoned his niece's cause, not only her claim to the French throne but also her claim to
Navarre's. On the 9 January 1317, with Charles's support, Philip was hastily crowned at Rheims.
The majority of the nobility, however, refused to attend, there were demonstrations
in Champagne, Artois, and Burgundy,[13]and Philip called a rapid assembly of the nobility on 2
February in Paris.[4] Philip laid down the principle that Joan, as a woman, could not inherit the
throne of France, played heavily upon the fact that he was now the anointed king, and
consolidated what some authors have described as his effective "usurpation" of power. [4] Joan,
however, did accede in 1328 to the throne of Navarre, which did not hold to the Salic law.[12]
The next year, Philip continued to strengthen his position. He married his eldest daughter, Joan to
the powerful Odo IV, bringing the Duke over to his own party.[12] Philip then built his reign around
the notion of reform "reclaiming rights, revenues and territories" that had been wrongly lost to
the crown in recent years.[2]

Domestic reform[edit]

Philip took steps to reform the French currency during the course of his reign, including these
silverTournois coins.

Domestically, Philip proved a "strong and popular" king,[4] despite inheriting an uncertain situation
and an ongoing sequence of poor harvests.[2] He followed in the steps of his father, Philip IV, in
trying to place the French crown on a solid fiscal footing and revoked many of the unpopular
decisions of his predecessor and older brother, Louis X. He also instituted government reforms,
reformed the currency and worked to standardise weights and measures. [4] Amongst Philip's key

appointments was the later cardinal Pierre Bertrand, who would play a key role in successive
French royal governments in subsequent years.[14]
In 1317, Philip reissued an act first passed by his father, in 1311, condemning the alienation and
theft of royal resources and offices in the provinces.[3] By 1318, his political situation
strengthened, Philip went further, setting out in a new act a distinction between the French royal
domain the core set of lands and titles that belonged permanently to the crown and those
lands and titles that had been forfeited to the crown for one reason or another. [3] If the French
crown was to bestow or grant new lands to nobles, Philip declared, they would usually be given
only from the second source: this was a double-edged announcement, at once reinforcing the
core, unalienable powers of the crown, whilst also reassuring nobles that their lands were
sacrosanct unless they were forfeited to the crown in punishment for a crime or misdemeanour.
[3]
Philip was responsible for the creation of the cours des comptes in 1320, a court responsible
for auditing the royal accounts to ensure proper payment;[15] the courts still exist today. In practice,
Philip did not entirely keep to his self-declared principles on grants of royal lands and titles, but
he was far more conservative in such matters than his immediate predecessors. [16]

Resolution of the Flanders conflict and England[edit]

Philip pursued a successful diplomatic and dynastic solution to the long running tensions with Flanders.

Philip was able to achieve a successful resolution of the ongoing Flanders problem. The Count of
Flanders ruled an "immensely wealthy state",[17] which largely led an autonomous existence on
the edge of the French state. The French king was generally regarded as having suzerainty over
Flanders, but in recent years the relationship had become strained.[17] Philip IV had been defeated
at Courtrai in 1302 attempting to reassert French control,[17] and despite the later French victory at
the Battle of Mons-en-Pvle the relationship remained tense.
Robert III of Flanders had continued to resist France militarily, but by Philip's accession to the
throne had found himself increasingly isolated politically in Flanders itself. [18] Meanwhile, the
French position had become strained by the need to maintain a wartime footing. Louis X had
prohibited exports of grain and other material to Flanders in 1315, resulting in a profitable
smuggling industry that in turn discouraged legal trade with the French crown along the border
region; Louis was forced to directly requisition food for his forces, resulting in a string of
complaints from local lords and the Church.[19] Philip began to reinstate a proper recompensation
scheme in 1317, but the situation remained unstable. [20]
Both Philip and Robert turned away from seeking a military solution in favour of a political
compromise.[20] Accordingly Robert made an accommodation with Philip in June 1320, under
which Robert would confirm his young grandson, Louis, as his designated heir, in return for Louis
being pledged in marriage to Philip's second daughter, Margaret. This would provide Robert, and
then Louis, with strong French support within Flanders.[18] Louis was, to a great extent, already
under Philip's influence.[18] Louis had been brought up inNevers in central France, and at Philip's
court.[21] and was culturally effectively a French prince.[22] This arrangement was a considerable
success for Philip's policy, although over time Louis' clear French loyalties and lack of political
links within Flanders itself would lead to political upheaval and peasant revolt.[23]
Philip also faced difficulties with Edward II of England. Like the Count of Flanders, Edward in his
role as the ruler ofGascony owed homage to the king of France, but as a king in his own right,
and as the head of a largely autonomous Gascon province, was disinclined to do so. [13] Edward
had not given homage to Louis X, and initially declined to do so to Philip, who had a reputation as
being more favourable to the English than Louis X.[13] In 1319 Philip allowed Edward to give
homage by proxy, an honour by the standards of the day, but expected him to do so in person in
1320.[13] Edward arrived in Amiens to do so, only to find that Philip was now insisting that Edward
also give an oath of personal fealty to him an act going beyond that of normal feudal homage.
[24]
Edward gave homage but refused to swear fealty; nonetheless, this marked a period of
increased French pressure on England over Gascony.

The Crusades[edit]

Pope John XXII, initially a close ally of Philip in the late crusadingmovement in Christian Europe, joined with
him in condemning the violentShepherds' Crusade in 1320.

Philip was also to play a role in the ongoing crusade movement during the period. Pope John
XXII, the second of the Avignon popes, had been elected at a conclave assembled
in Lyonsduring 1316 by Philip himself, and set out his renewed desire to see fresh crusades.
[25]
Philip IV had agreed to a joint plan for a new French-led crusade at the Council of Vienne in
1312, with his son Philip, a "committed crusader,"[26] taking the cross himself in 1313.[26] Once king
himself, Philip was obligated to carry out these plans and asked John for and received additional
funds after 1316.[25] Both Philip and John agreed, however, that a French crusade was impossible
whilst the military situation in Flanders remained unstable. [27] Nonetheless, John continued to
assure the Armenians that Philip would shortly lead a crusade to relieve them.[27] An attempt to
send a naval vanguard from the south of France under Louis I of Clermont failed, however, with
the forces being destroyed in a battle off Genoa in 1319.[28]Over the winter of 131920 Philip
convened a number of meetings with French military leaders in preparation for a potential second
expedition,[26] that in turn informed Bishop William Durand's famous treatise on crusading.[29] By
the end of Philip's reign, however, he and John had fallen out over the issue of new monies and
commitments to how they were spent, and the attentions of both were focused on managing the
challenge of the Shepherds' Crusade.[28]
The Shepherds' Crusade, or the Pastoreaux, emerged from Normandy in 1320. One argument
for the timing of this event has been that the repeated calls for popular crusades by Philip and his
predecessors, combined with the absence of any actual large scale expeditions, ultimately boiled
over into this popular, but uncontrolled, crusade.[30]Philip's intent for a new crusade had certainly
become widely known by the spring of 1320, and the emerging peace in Flanders and the north
of France had left a large number of displaced peasants and soldiers. [20] The result was a large
and violent anti-Semitic movement threatening local Jews, royal castles,[31] the wealthier clergy,
[32]
and Paris itself.[20] The movement was ultimately condemned by Pope John, who doubted
whether the movement had any real intent to carry out a crusade.[33] Philip was forced to move

against it, crushing the movement militarily and driving the remnants south across
the Pyrenees into Aragon.[20]

Death and legacy[edit]

Effigies of Philip, his brother Charles and sister-in-law Joan

In 1321 an alleged conspiracy the "leper scare" was discovered in France; the accusation,
apparently unfounded, was that lepers had been poisoning the wells of various towns, and that
this activity had been orchestrated by the Jewish minority, [12] secretly commissioned by foreign
Muslims.[34] The scare took hold in the febrile atmosphere left by the Shepherds' crusade of the
previous year and the legacy of the poor harvests of the previous decade. [34]
The French Jews were, by 1321, closely connected to the French crown; Philip had given orders
that royal officials assist Jewish money lenders in recovering Christian debts, and some local
officials were arguing that the crown was due to inherit the estates of dead Jewish merchants.

Following the events of 1320, Philip was involved in fining those who had attacked Jews during
the Shepherds' Crusade, which in practice added further to the dislike of this minority in France.
[36]
Rumours and allegations about lepers themselves had been circulated in 1320 as well, and
some had been arrested during the Crusade.[37]
[35]

Philip was in Poitiers in June involved in a tour of the south aimed at reform of the southern fiscal
system, when word arrived of the scare. Philip issued an early edict demanding that any leper
found guilty was to be burnt; their goods would be forfeit to the crown. [38] The King's southern tour
and reform plans, although administratively sound by modern standards, had created much local
opposition and modern historians have linked the King's role in Poiters with the sudden outbreak
of violence.[39] This all put Philip in a difficult position; he could not openly side with those claiming
wrongdoing by the lepers, Jews and Muslims without encouraging further, unnecessary violence
on the other hand, if he did not ally himself to the cause, he encouraged further unsanctioned
violence, weakening his royal position.[40] In August Philip was continuing to progress his reform
plans when he fell ill from multiple illnesses.[39] After a brief respite, he died at Longchamp, Paris.
[12]
He was interred in Saint Denis Basilica. Some Jews did leave France as a result of the leper
scare, but Philip had successfully resisted signing any formal edict, which limited the impact to
some degree.[41]
By the Salic law that Philip had reaffirmed in 1316, without a living male heir Philip was
succeeded by his younger brother,Charles IV. Charles was also to die without male issue,
resulting ultimately in Edward III's claim to the French throne and the subsequent Hundred Years
War (13371453).[12]

Family[edit]
In 1307 he was married to Joan II, Countess of Burgundy (daughter and heiress of Otto IV, count
of Burgundy) and they had four daughters and one son:
1. Joan (13081349), Countess of Burgundy and Artois in her own right and wife of Odo IV,
Duke of Burgundy
2. Margaret (13101382), wife of Louis I of Flanders. Countess of Burgundy and Artois in
her own right.
3. Isabelle (c. 1312 April 1348), wife of Guigues VIII de La Tour du Pin, Dauphin de
Viennois.
4. Blanche (1311/121358), a nun.
5. Philip (1316-1317).

Charles IV the Fair, 13221328

Charles IV (Clermont 18/19 June 1294 Vincennes 1 February 1328), calledthe Fair (French: le
Bel), was Count of Champagne, King of Navarre (as Charles I), and the last "direct"
Capetian King of France from 1322 to his death. Charles was the third son of Philip IV; like his
father, he was known as "the fair" or "the handsome". [1] he was "the fair/the handsome" Charles
have a handsome appearance like his father Philip IV of France and he had the younger
sister Isabella of France have the beautiful appearance.
Beginning in 1323 Charles was confronted with a peasant revolt in Flanders, and in 1324 he
made an unsuccessful bid for the elective German monarchy. As duke of Guyenne, Edward II of
England was a vassal of Charles, but he was reluctant to pay homage to another king. In
retaliation, Charles conquered the Duchy of Guyenne in a conflict known as the War of SaintSardos (1324). In a peace agreement, Edward II accepted to swear allegiance to Charles and to
pay a fine. In exchange, Guyenne was returned to Edward but with a much-reduced territory.
When Charles IV died without male heir, the senior lineage of the House of Capet ended. He was
succeeded by his cousin Philip of Valois, but the contested legitimacy was one factor of
the Hundred Years' War.
Contents
[hide]

1 Personality and marriage

2 Domestic policy

3 Foreign policy
o

3.1 Charles and England

3.2 The revolt in Flanders

3.3 Charles and the Holy Roman Empire

3.4 Charles and the Crusades

4 Death and legacy

5 Family

6 Ancestry

7 References

8 Bibliography

9 Further reading

Personality and marriage[edit]


By virtue of the birthright of his mother, Joan I of Navarre, Charles claimed the title Charles I,
King of Navarre. From 1314 to his accession to the throne, he held the title of Count of La
Marche and was crowned King of France in 1322 at the cathedral in Reims. Unlike either Philip
IV or Philip V, Charles is usually felt to have been a relatively conservative, "strait laced"[2] king
he was "inclined to forms and stiff-necked in defence of his prerogatives",[3] but disinclined either
to manipulate them to his own ends or achieve wider reform.[3]

Marriage of Charles IV and Marie of Luxembourg, by Jean Fouquet

Charles married his first wife, Blanche of Burgundy, the daughter of Otto IV, Count of Burgundy,
in 1308, but Blanche was caught up in the Tour de Nesle scandals of 1314 and imprisoned.
[4]
After Charles assumed the throne he refused to release Blanche, their marriage was annulled,
and Blanche retreated to a nunnery.[4] His second wife, Marie of Luxembourg, the daughter
of Henry VII, the Holy Roman Emperor, died following a premature birth.[5]
Charles married again in 1325, this time to Jeanne d'vreux: Jeanne was his first cousin, and the
marriage required approval from Pope John XXII. Jeanne was crowned queen the following year,
in one of the better recorded French coronation ceremonies.[6] The ceremony represented a
combination of a political statement, social event, and an "expensive fashion statement"; [7] the
cost of food, furs, velvets, and jewellery for the event in 1326 was so expensive that negotiations
over the cost were still ongoing in 1329.[7] The coronation also saw the first appearance of the
latterly famous medieval cook, Guillaume Tirel, then only a junior servant.[7]

Charles relied heavily during the first half of his reign on his uncle, Charles of Valois, for advice
and to undertake key military tasks.[1] Charles of Valois was a powerful magnate in his own right,
a key advisor to Louis X,[8] and had made a bid for the regency in 1316, initially championing
Louis X's daughter Joan, before finally switching sides and backing Philip V. [9]Charles of Valois
would have been aware that if Charles died without male heirs, he and his male heirs would have
a good claim to the crown.[1]

Domestic policy[edit]

A Charles IV tournois coin; Charles manipulated the French coinage during his reign, creating some
unpopularity.

Charles came to power following a troublesome two years in the south of France, where local
nobles had resisted his elder brother Philip V's plans for fiscal reform, and where his brother had
fallen fatally ill during his progress of the region.[10]Charles undertook rapid steps to assert his own
control, executing the Count ofL'Isle-Jourdain, a troublesome southern noble, and making his
own royal progress.[1] Charles, a relatively well educated king, also founded a famous library
at Fontainebleau.[11]
During his six-year reign Charles' administration became increasingly unpopular. [1]He
manipulated the coinage to his own benefit, sold offices [1] and confiscated estates from enemies
or those he disliked. He was also closely involved in Jewish issues during the period. Charles'
father, Philip IV, had confiscated the estates of numerous Jews in 1306, and Charles took
vigorous, but unpopular, steps to call in Christian debts to these accounts. [1] Following the 1321
leper scare, numerous Jews had been fined for their alleged involvement in this conspiracy to
poison wells across France through local lepers, and Charles worked hard to execute these fines.
[1]
Finally, Charles at least acquiesced, or at worst actively ordered, in the expulsion of many Jews
from France following the leper scare.[12]

Foreign policy[edit]
Charles and England[edit]
Charles inherited a long running period of tension between England and France. Edward II of
England, as Duke ofAquitaine, owed homage to the King of France;[13] Edward had successfully
avoided paying homage under Charles' older brother Louis X, and had only paid homage to
Philip V under great pressure. Once Charles took up the throne, Edward attempted to avoid
doing so again.[13] One of the elements in the disputes was the border province of Agenais, part

ofGascony and in turn part of Aquitaine. Tensions rose in November 1323 after the construction
of a bastide, a type of fortified town, in Saint-Sardos, part of the Agenais, by a French vassal.
[14]
Gascon forces destroyed the bastide, and in turn Charles attacked the English-held Montpezat:
the assault was unsuccessful,[15] but in the subsequent War of Saint-SardosCharles' trusted uncle
and advisor, Charles of Valois, successfully wrested control of Aquitaine from the English;[16] by
1324, Charles had declared Edward's lands forfeit and had occupied the whole of Aquitaine apart
from the coastal areas.[17]

A near-contemporary miniatureshowing the future Edward III giving homage to Charles IV under the
guidance of Edward's mother, and Charles' sister, Isabella, in 1325.[18]

Charles's sister Isabella was married to King Edward II of England and was sent to France in
1325, with the official mission of negotiating peace with her brother; unofficially, some chroniclers
suggested that she was also evading Hugh Despenser the elder and Hugh the younger, her
political enemies in England.[19]Charles had sent a message through Pope John XXII to Edward,
suggesting that he was willing to reverse the forfeiture of the lands if Edward ceded the Agenais
and paid homage for the rest of the lands;[3] the Pope in turn had proposed Isabella as an
ambassador. Charles met with Isabella, and was said to have welcomed her to France. Isabella
was joined by the young Prince Edward later that year, who paid homage to Charles on his
father's behalf as a peace gesture.[19] Despite this, Charles refused to return the lands in Aquitaine
to the English king, resulting in a provisional agreement under which Edward resumed
administration of the remaining English territories in early 1326, whilst France continued to
occupy the rest.[20]
Meanwhile, Isabella had entered into a relationship with the exiled English nobleman Roger
Mortimer; she refused to return to England and instead travelled to Hainaut, where she betrothed
Prince Edward to Philippa, the daughter of the local Count.[21] She then used this money, plus an

earlier loan from Charles,[6] to raise a mercenary army and invade England, deposing her
husband Edward II,[21]who was then murdered in 1327. Under Isabella's instruction, Edward III
agreed to a peace treaty with Charles: Aquitaine would be returned to Edward, with Charles
receiving 50,000 livres, the territories of Limousin, Quercy, the Agenais, andPrigord, and
the Bazas country, leaving the young Edward with a much reduced territory.[22]

The revolt in Flanders[edit]


Charles faced fresh problems in Flanders. The Count of Flanders ruled an "immensely wealthy
state"[13] that had traditionally led an autonomous existence on the edge of the French state; the
French king was generally regarded as having suzerainty over Flanders, but under former
monarchs the relationship had become strained.[13] Philip V had avoided a military solution to the
Flanders problem, instead enabling the succession of Louis as count Louis was, to a great
extent, already under French influence, having been brought up at the French court. [23] Over time,
however, Louis' clear French loyalties and lack of political links within Flanders itself began to
erode his position within the county itself.[24] In 1323 a peasant revolt led by Nicolaas
Zannekin broke out, threatening the position of Louis and finally imprisoning him inBruges.[24]
At first, Charles was relatively unconcerned as in many ways this could play into the hands of the
French crown by weakening the position of the Count of Flanders over the long term. [25] By 1325,
however, the situation was becoming worse and Charles' stance shifted. Not only did the uprising
mean that Louis could not pay Charles some of the monies due to him under previous treaties,
the scale of the rebellion represented a wider threat to the feudal order in France itself and to
some it might appear that Charles was actually unable, rather than unwilling, to intervene to
protect his vassal.[26]Accordingly, France intervened.
In November 1325 Charles declared the rebels guilty of high treason and ordered
them excommunicated, mobilising an army at the same time.[27] Louis pardoned the rebels and
was then released, but once safely back in Paris he shifted his position and promised Charles not
to agree to any separate peace treaty.[28] Despite having massed forces along the border, Charles'
military attentions were distracted by the problems in Gascony, and he eventually chose to settle
the rebellion peacefully through the Peace of Arques in 1326, in which Louis was only indirectly
involved.[29]

Charles and the Holy Roman Empire[edit]

Charles gave his name to his nephew, Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, shown here givinghomage to his
patron.

Charles was also responsible for shaping the life of his nephew, Charles IV, Holy Roman
Emperor. Charles IV, originally named Wenceslaus, came to the French court in 1323, aged
seven, where he was taken under the patronage of the French king. Charles gave his nephew a
particularly advanced education by the standards of the day, arranged for his marriage
to Blanche of Valois, and also renamed him.[30]

Charles and the Crusades[edit]


The crusades remained a popular cause in France during Charles' reign. His father,Philip IV, had
committed France to a fresh crusade and his brother, Philip V, had brought plans for a fresh
invasion close to execution in 1320, their cancellation resulting in the informal and
chaotic Shepherds' Crusade.[31]
Charles entrusted Charles of Valois to negotiate with Pope John XXII over a fresh crusade.
[1]
Charles, a keen crusader who took the cross in 1323, had a history of diplomatic intrigue in
the Levant he had attempted to become the Byzantine emperor earlier in his career. [32] The
negotiations floundered, however, over the Pope's concerns whether Charles IV would actually
use any monies raised for a crusade for actual crusading, or whether they would be frittered away
on the more general activities of the French crown.[32] Charles of Valois's negotiations were also
overtaken by the conflict with England overGascony.
After the death of Charles of Valois, Charles became increasingly interested in a French
intervention in Byzantium, taking the cross in 1326.[33] Andronicus II responded by sending an
envoy to Paris in 1327, proposing peace and discussions onecclesiastical union a French
envoy sent in return with Pope John's blessing later in the year, however, found Byzantium beset
with civil war and negotiations floundered.[33] Charles' own death the next year prevented any
French intervention in Byzantium.[34]

Death and legacy[edit]


Charles IV died in 1328 at the Chteau de Vincennes, Val-de-Marne, and is interred with his third
wife, Jeanne d'vreux, inSaint Denis Basilica.
Like his brothers before him, Charles died without a male heir, thus ending the direct line of
the Capetian dynasty. Twelve years earlier, a rule against succession by females, arguably
derived from the Salic Law, had been recognised with some dissent as controlling succession
to the French throne.[9] The application of this rule barred Charles's one-year-old daughter Mary
by his third wife, Jeanne d'vreux, from succeeding as the monarch, but Jeanne was also
pregnant at the time of Charles' death. Since she might have given birth to a son, a regency was
set up under the heir presumptive Philip of Valois, Charles of Valois's son and a member of
the House of Valois, the next most senior branch of the Capetian dynasty.[35]
After two months, Jeanne gave birth to another daughter, Blanche, and thus Philip became king
and in May was consecrated and crowned Philip VI. Edward III of England argued, however, that
although the Salic law should forbid inheritance by a woman, it did not forbid inheritance through
a female line under this argument, Edward should have inherited the throne, and formed the
basis of his claim during the ensuing Hundred Years War (13371453).[35]

Family[edit]
In 1307, Charles married Blanche of Burgundy, daughter of Otto IV, Count of Burgundy. The
marriage was dissolved in 1322. They had two children: Philip (January 1314 March 1322) and
Joan (1315 17 May 1321).
In 1322 he married Marie of Luxembourg, daughter of Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor. They
had a son named Louis (March 1324).
On 5 July 1325 he married Jeanne d'vreux (131071). Their children were Joan (May 1326
January 1327), Marie (1327 6 October 1341) and Blanche (1 April 1328 8 February 1382).

After House of CAPET:

House of Valois:

Philip VI of Valois, 13281350

Philip VI (French: Philippe VI) (1293 22 August 1350), called the Fortunate (French: le
Fortun) and of Valois, was the first King of Francefrom the House of Valois. He reigned from
1328 until his death.
Philip's reign was dominated by the consequences of a succession dispute. When King Charles
IV the Fair died without a male heir in 1328, the nearest male relative was his nephew Edward III
of England, who inherited his claim through his mother Isabella of France, the sister of the dead
king. It was held in France, however, that Edward was ineligible to inherit the French throne
through the female line according to the ancient Salic Law. At first, Edward seemed to accept
Philip's accession as the nearest male relative of Charles IV descended through the male line,
however he pressed his claim to the throne of France after a series of disagreements with Philip.
The result was the beginning of the Hundred Years' War in 1337.
After initial successes at sea, Philip's navy was annihilated at the Battle of Sluys in 1340,
ensuring that the war would occur on the continent. The English took another decisive advantage
at the Battle of Crcy (1346), while the Black Death struck France, further destabilizing the
country.
In 1349, Philip VI bought the Dauphin from its ruined ruler Humbert II and entrusted the
government of this province to his grandson Charles. Philip VI died in 1350 and was succeeded
by his son John II the Good.
Contents
[hide]

1 Accession to the throne

2 Reign
o

2.1 Hundred Years' War

2.2 Final years

3 Marriages and Children

4 Ancestry

5 References

6 Sources

Accession to the throne[edit]


Little is recorded about Philip's childhood and youth, in large part because he was not of royal
birth. Philip's father Charles, Count of Valois, the younger brother of King Philip IV of France,

had striven throughout his life to gain a throne for himself, but was never successful. He died in
1325, leaving his eldest son Philip as heir to the counties of Anjou, Maine, and Valois.[2]
[1]

Philip VI of France

In 1328, Philip's first cousin Charles IV died without a son, his widow Jeanne d'vreux pregnant
at the time of his death.[2] Philip was one of the two chief claimants to the throne.[3] The other was
King Edward III of England, who was the late king's closest male relative through his mother
Isabella, the late king's sister.[3]The question arose of whether Isabella should have been able to
transmit a claim that she herself did not possess.[3] The assemblies of the French barons and
prelates and the University of Paris decided that males who derive their right to inheritance
through their mother should be excluded according to Salic Law. As Philip was the eldest
grandson of Philip III of France through the male line, he became king instead of Edward, who
was a matrilineal grandson of Philip IV of France and great-grandson of Philip III.[3]
During the period in which Charles IV's widow was waiting to deliver her child, Philip rose to the
regency with support of the French magnates,[3] following the pattern set up by Philip V's
succession over his niece Joan II of Navarre. After Jeanne d'vreux gave birth to a girl
named Blanche, Philip was crowned as king on 29 May 1328[4] at the Cathedral in Reims. After
his elevation to the throne, Philip sent the Abbot of Fcamp, Pierre Roger, to summon Edward III
of England to pay homage for the duchy of Aquitaine.[5] After a subsequent second summons
from Philip, Edward arrived at the Cathedral of Amiens on 6 June 1329, and worded his vows in
such a way, as to cause more disputes in later years.[5]

French Monarchy
Capetian Dynasty
(House of Valois)
The dynastic change had another consequence:
Charles IV had also been King of Navarre but, unlike
the crown of France, the crown of Navarre was not
subject to Salic Law. Philip VI was neither the heir nor a
descendant of Joan I of Navarre, whose inheritance
(the kingdom of Navarre, as well as the counties
of Champagne, Troyes, Meaux and Brie) had been in
personal union with the crown of France almost 50
years and had long been administered by the same
royal machinery established by Philip IV, the father of
French bureaucracy. These counties were closely
entrenched in the economic and administrative entity of
the Crown lands of France, being located adjacent
to le-de-France. Philip, however, was not entitled to
that inheritance; the rightful heiress was Louis X's
surviving daughter, the future Joan II of Navarre,
the heir general of Joan I of Navarre. Navarre thus
passed to Joan II, with whom Philip struck a deal
regarding the counties in Champagne: she received
vast lands in Normandy (adjacent to her
husband Philip's fief in vreux) in compensation, and
he kept Champagne as part of the French crown lands.

Reign[edit]
Philip's reign was plagued with crises, although it
began with a military success in Flandersat the Battle
of Cassel (August 1328), where Philip's forces reseated Louis I, Count of Flanders, who had been
unseated by a popular revolution.[6] His wife, the
able Joan the Lame, gave the first of many
demonstrations of her competence as regent in his
absence.
Philip initially enjoyed relatively amicable relations with
Edward III, and they planned a crusade together in
1332, which was never executed. However, the status
of the Duchy of Aquitaine remained a sore point, and
tension increased. Philip provided refuge for David II of
Scotland in 1334 and declared himself champion of his
interests, which enraged Edward.[7]By 1336, they were
enemies, although not yet openly at war.
Philip successfully prevented an arrangement between
the papacy in Avignon and Holy Roman Emperor Louis
IV, although in July 1337 Louis concluded an alliance

Philip VI

Children
John II
John II

Children
Charles V
Louis I of Anjou
John, Duke of Berry
Philip the Bold
Charles V

Children
Charles VI
Louis, Duke of Orlans
Charles VI

Children
Isabella of Valois
Michelle of Valois
Catherine of Valois
Charles VII
Charles VII

Children
Louis XI
Charles, Duke of Berry

with Edward III.[8] The final breach with England came when Edward offered refuge to Robert III of
Artois, formerly one of Philip's trusted advisers,[9] after Robert committed forgery to try to obtain
an inheritance. As relations between Philip and Edward worsened, Robert's standing in England
strengthened.[9] On 26 December 1336, Philip officially demanded for Robert's extradition back to
France.[9] Philip declared that Edward had forfeited Aquitaine for sheltering the "king's mortal
enemy" Robert of Artois and disobedience on 24 May 1337. [10] Thus began theHundred Years'
War, complicated by Edward's renewed claim to the throne of France in retaliation for the
forfeiture of Aquitaine.

Hundred Years' War[edit]


Philip entered the Hundred Years' War in a position of comparative strength. France was richer
and more populous than England and was then at the height of her medieval glory. The opening
stages of the war, accordingly, were largely successful for the French.
At sea, French privateers raided and burned towns and shipping all along the southern and
southeastern coasts of England.[11] The English made some retaliatory raids, including the burning
of a fleet in the harbour of Boulogne-sur-Mer,[12] but the French largely had the upper hand. With
his sea power established, Philip gave orders in 1339 to prepare an invasion of England
(the Ordinance of Normandy) and began assembling a fleet off theZeeland coast at Sluys. In
June 1340, however, in the bitterly fought Battle of Sluys, the English attacked the port and
captured or destroyed the ships there, ending the threat of an invasion.[12]
On land, Edward III largely concentrated upon Flanders and the Low Countries, where he had
gained allies through diplomacy and bribery. A raid in 1339 (the first chevauche)
intoPicardy ended ignominiously when Philip wisely refused to give battle. Edward's slender
finances would not permit him to play a waiting game, and he was forced to withdraw into
Flanders and return to England to raise more money. In July 1340, Edward returned and
mounted the Siege of Tournai.[13] By September 1340, Edward was in financial distress, hardly
able to pay or feed his troops, and was open to dialogue. [14] After being at Bouvines for a week,
Philip was finally persuaded to send Joan of Valois, Countess of Hainaut to discuss terms to end
the siege.[14] On 23 September 1340, a nine month truce was reached.[14]
So far, the war had gone quite well for Philip and the French. While often stereotyped as chivalrybesotten blockheads, Philip and his men had in fact carried out a successful Fabian
strategy against the debt-plagued Edward and resisted the chivalric blandishments of single
combat or a combat of two hundred knights that he offered. In 1341, the War of the Breton
Succession allowed the English to place permanent garrisons in Brittany. However, Philip was
still in a commanding position: during negotiations arbitrated by the pope in 1343, he refused
Edward's offer to end the war in exchange for theDuchy of Aquitaine in full sovereignty.
The next attack came in 1345, when the Earl of Derby overran the Agenais (lost twenty years
before in the War of Saint-Sardos) and took Angoulme, while the forces in Brittany under
Sir Thomas Dagworth also made gains. The French responded in the spring of 1346 with a
massive counter-attack against Aquitaine, where an army under John, Duke of Normandy,
besieged Derby at Aiguillon. On the advice of Godfrey Harcourt (like Robert III of Artois, a

banished French nobleman), Edward sailed for Normandy instead of Aquitaine. As Harcourt
predicted, the Normans were ill-prepared for war, and many of the fighting men were at Aiguillon.
Edward sacked and burned the country as he went, taking Caen and advancing as far
as Poissy before retreating before the army Philip hastily assembled at Paris. Slipping across
the Somme, Edward drew up to give battle at Crcy.
Close behind him, Philip had planned to halt for the night and reconnoitre the English position
before giving battle the next day. However, his troops were disorderly and not to be handled: the
roads were jammed by the rear of the army coming up, and by the local peasantry furiously
calling for vengeance on the English. Finding them hopeless to control, he ordered a general
attack as evening fell. Thus began the Battle of Crcy. When it was done, the French army had
been well-nigh annihilated and a wounded Philip barely escaped capture. Fortune had turned
against the French.
The English seized and held the advantage. Normandy called off the siege of Aiguillon and
retreated northward, while Sir Thomas Dagworth captured Charles of Blois in Brittany. The
English army pulled back from Crcy to mount the Siege of Calais; the town held out stubbornly,
but the English were determined, and they easily supplied across the English Channel. Philip led
out a relieving army in July 1347, but unlike the Siege of Tournai, it was now Edward who had the
upper hand. With the plunder of his Norman expedition and the reforms he had executed in his
tax system, he could hold to his siege lines and await an attack Philip dare not deliver. It was
Philip who marched away in August, and the city capitulated shortly thereafter.

Final years[edit]
After the defeat at Crcy and loss of Calais, the Estates of France refused to raise money for
Philip, halting his plans to counter-attack by invading England. In 1348 the Black Death struck
France, which in the next few years killed one-third of the population, including Queen Joan. The
resulting labour shortage caused inflation to soar, and the king attempted to fix prices, further destabilising the country. His second marriage to his son's betrothed Blanche of Navarre alienated
his son and many nobles from the king.[15]
Philip's last major achievement was the acquisition of the Dauphin[16] and the territory
of Montpellier in the Languedoc in 1349. At his death in 1350, France was very much a divided
country filled with social unrest.

Marriages and Children[edit]

Philip VI and his first wife, Joan of Burgundy

In July, 1313, Philip married Joan the Lame (French: Jeanne), daughter of Robert II, Duke of
Burgundy, and Agnes of France, the youngest daughter of Louis IX. In an ironic twist to his
"male" ascendancy to the throne, the intelligent, strong-willed Joan, an able regent of France
during the king's long military campaigns, was said to be the brains behind the throne and the
real ruler of France.
Their children were the following:

Philip (b. 1315) Died in infancy.

Joan (b. 1317) Died in infancy.

John II (26 April 1319 8 April 1364)

Marie (13261333), who married John of Brabant, the son and heir of John III, Duke of
Brabant, but died shortly afterwards.

Louis (17 January 1328 17 January 1328)

Louis (8 June 1330 23 June 1330)

John (2 October 1333)

son (28 May 1335). Presumably died the same day, or a few days later.

Philip of Valois (13361376), Duke of Orlans

Joan (November 1337)

son (summer 1343)

After Joan died in 1348, Philip married Blanche of Navarre,[17] daughter of Joan II and Philip III of
Navarre, on 11 January 1350. They had one daughter:
Joan, who was intended to marry John I of Aragon, but who died during the journey.

Philip VI died at Coulombes Abbey, Eure-et-Loir, on 22 August 1350[18] and is interred with his
second wife, Blanche of Navarre, in Saint Denis Basilica. He was succeeded by his first son by
Joan of Burgundy, who became John II.

John II the Good, 13501364

John II (16 April 1319 8 April 1364), or Jean II, also called John the Good(French: Jean le
Bon), was a monarch of the House of Valois who ruled asKing of France from 1350 until his
death.
When John II came to power, France was facing several disasters: the Black Death, which
caused the death of nearly half of its population, free companiesof routiers who plundered the
country, and English aggression that resulted in disastrous military losses, including the Battle of
Poitiers of 1356, in which John was captured.
While John was a prisoner in London, his son Charles became regent and faced several
rebellions, which he overcame. To liberate his father, he concluded the Treaty of Brtigny (1360),
by which France lost many territories and paid an enormous ransom.
In an exchange of hostages, including his son Louis, John was released from captivity to raise
funds for his ransom. Upon his return in France, he created the franc to stabilize the currency and
tried to get rid of the free companies by sending them to a crusade, but Pope Innocent VI died
shortly before their meeting in Avignon. When John was informed that Louis had escaped from
captivity, he voluntarily returned to England, where he died in 1364. He was succeeded by his
son Charles V.
Contents
[hide]

1 Early life

2 Marriage with Bonne of Bohemia

3 Duke of Normandy

4 Treaty of Mantes and Battle of Poitiers

5 Prisoner of the English

6 Personality

7 Ancestry

8 Family and children

9 References

10 External links

Early life[edit]
John was nine years old when his father had himself crowned as Philip VI of France. John's
father's ascent to the throne was unexpected, and because all female descendants of his
granduncle Philip the Fair were passed over, it was also disputed. The new king had to
consolidate his power in order to protect his throne from rival claimants. Philip therefore decided
to marry off his son John quickly at the age of thirteen to form a strong matrimonial alliance, at
the same time conferring upon him the title of Duke of Normandy.
Initially a marriage with Eleanor, sister of the King of England, was considered, but instead Philip
invited John of Luxembourg, King of Bohemia, to Fontainebleau. Bohemia had aspirations to
control Lombardy and needed French diplomatic support. A treaty was drawn up. The military
clauses stipulated that, in the event of war, Bohemia would support the French army with four
hundred infantrymen. The political clauses ensured that the Lombard crown would not be
disputed if the king of Bohemia managed to obtain it. Philip selected Bonne of Bohemia as a wife
for his son, as she was closer to child-bearing age (16 years), and the dowry was fixed at
120,000 florins.

Marriage with Bonne of Bohemia[edit]


John came of age on 26 April 1332 and received overlordship of the duchy of Normandy, as well
as the counties of Anjouand Maine. The wedding was celebrated on 28 July at the church of
Notre-Dame in Melun in the presence of six thousand guests. The festivities were prolonged by a
further two months when the young groom was finally knighted at the cathedral of Notre Dame in
Paris. As the new Duke of Normandy, John was solemnly granted the arms of a knight in front of
a prestigious assistance bringing together the kings of Bohemia and Navarre, and the dukes
of Burgundy, Lorraine and theBrabant.

Duke of Normandy[edit]
Upon his accession as Duke of Normandy in 1332, John had to deal with the reality that most of
the Norman nobility was already allied with the English camp. Effectively, Normandy depended
economically more on maritime trade across theEnglish Channel than on river trade on
the Seine. The Duchy had not been English for 150 years, but many landowners had holdings
across the Channel. Consequently, to line up behind one or other sovereign risked confiscation.
Therefore, the Norman nobility were governed as interdependent clans which allowed them to
obtain and maintain charters guaranteeing the duchy a measure of autonomy. It was split into two
key camps, the counts of Tancarville and the counts ofHarcourt, which had been in conflict for
generations.[1]

A denier d'Or aux fleurs de lys from John's reign (1351)

Tension arose again in 1341. King Philip, worried about the richest area of the kingdom breaking
into bloodshed, ordered the bailiffs of Bayeux and Cotentin to quell the dispute. Geoffroy
d'Harcourt raised troops against the king, rallying a number of nobles protective of their
autonomy and against royal interference. The rebels demanded that Geoffroy be made duke,
thus guaranteeing the autonomy granted by the charter. Royal troops took the castle at SaintSauveur-le-Vicomteand Geoffroy was exiled to Brabant. Three of his companions were
decapitated in Paris on 3 April 1344.[2]
By 1345, increasing numbers of Norman rebels had begun to pay homage toEdward III of
England, constituting a major threat to the legitimacy of the Valois kings. The defeat at the Battle
of Crcy in 1346 and the rendering of Calais further damaged royal prestige. Defections by the
nobility increased, particularly in the north and west whose land fell within the broad economic
influence of England. Consequently King Philip decided to seek a truce. Duke John met Geoffroy
d'Harcourt, to whom the king agreed to return all confiscated goods, even appointing him
sovereign captain in Normandy. John then approached the Tancarville family, whose loyalty could
ultimately ensure his authority in Normandy. The marriage of John, Viscount of Melun, to Jeanne,
the only heiress of the county of Tancarville, ensured that the Melun-Tancarville party remained

loyal to John, while Geoffroy d'Harcourt continued to act as defender for Norman freedoms and
thus of the reforming party.[3]

Treaty of Mantes and Battle of Poitiers[edit]

John II ennobling his knights, BNF

In 1354, John's son-in-law and cousin, Charles II of Navarre, who, in addition to his
small Pyrenean kingdom, also held extensive lands in Normandy, was implicated in the
assassination of the Constable of France, Charles de la Cerda. Nevertheless, to have a strategic
ally against the English in Gascony, John signed the Treaty of Manteswith Charles on
22 February 1354. The peace did not last between the two, and Charles eventually struck up an
alliance with Henry of Grosmont, the first Duke of Lancaster. The next year (1355), John signed
the Treaty of Valognes with Charles, but this second peace lasted hardly longer than the first. In
1355, the Hundred Years' Warflared up again.
In July 1356, Edward, the Black Prince, son of Edward III of England, took an army on a
great chevauche through France. John pursued him with an army of his own. In September a
few miles southeast of Poitiers, the two forces met.
John was confident of victoryhis army was probably twice the size of his opponent'sbut he
did not immediately attack. While he waited, the papal legate went back and forth, trying to
negotiate a truce between the leaders. There is some debate over whether the Black Prince
wanted to fight at all. He offered his wagon train, which was heavily loaded with loot. He also
promised not to fight against France for seven years. Some sources claim that he even offered to
return Calais to the French crown. John countered by demanding that 100 of the Prince's best
knights surrender themselves to him as hostages, along with the Prince himself. No agreement
could be reached. Negotiations broke down, and both sides prepared for combat.

On the day of the Battle of Poitiers, John and 19 knights from his personal guard dressed
identically. This was done to confuse the enemy, who would do everything possible to capture the
sovereign on the field. In spite of this precaution, John was captured. Though he fought with
valor, wielding a large battle-axe, his helmet was knocked off. Surrounded, he fought on until
Denis de Morbecque, a French exile who fought for England, approached him.
"Sire," Morbecque said. "I am a knight of Artois. Yield yourself to me and I will lead you to the
Prince of Wales."
King John surrendered by handing him his glove. That night King John dined in the red silk tent
of his enemy. The Black Prince attended to him personally. He was then taken to Bordeaux, and
from there to England. Although Poitiers is centrally located, it is not known that anyonenoble
or peasantattempted to rescue their king.
While negotiating a peace accord, John was at first held in the Savoy Palace, then at a variety of
locations, includingWindsor, Hertford, Somerton Castle in Lincolnshire, Berkhamsted Castle in
Hertfordshire, and briefly at King John's Lodge, formerly known as Shortridges, in East Sussex. A
local tradition in St Albans is that he was held in a house in that town, at the site of the 15thcentury Fleur de Lys inn, before he was moved to Hertford. There is a sign on the inn to that
effect, but apparently no evidence to confirm the tradition.[4] Eventually, John was taken to
the Tower of London.

Prisoner of the English[edit]


Main article: Ransom of King John II of France

The first Franc ever minted, the "Franc cheval", was minted upon Jean le Bon's return from captivity from
5 December 1360, and featured combative imagery. Gold, 24 karat, 3.73g. It conveniently coincided with
the account value of one livre tournois.

The funeral procession of Jean II

As a prisoner of the English, John was granted royal privileges that permitted him to travel about
and enjoy a regal lifestyle. At a time when law and order was breaking down in France and the
government was having a hard time raising money for the defence of the realm, his account
books during his captivity show that he was purchasing horses, pets, and clothes while
maintaining an astrologer and a court band.[5]
The Treaty of Brtigny (1360) set his ransom at 3 million crowns. Leaving his sonLouis of
Anjou in English-held Calais as a replacement hostage, John was allowed to return to France to
raise the funds.
But all did not go according to plan. In July 1363, King John was informed that Louis had
escaped. Troubled by the dishonour of this action, and the arrears in his ransom, John did
something that shocked and dismayed his people: he announced that he would voluntarily return
to captivity in England. His council tried to dissuade him, but he persisted, citing reasons of "good
faith and honour." He sailed for England that winter and left the impoverished citizens of France
again without a king.[citation needed]
John was greeted in London 1364 with parades and feasts. A few months after his arrival,
however, he fell ill with an unknown malady. He died at the Savoy Palace in April 1364. His body
was returned to France, where he was interred in the royal chambers at Saint Denis Basilica.

Personality[edit]

Letter of Jean le Bon during his captivity in Windsor, to his son Charlesabout Pierre de la Batut

John suffered from fragile health. He engaged little in physical activity, practised jousting rarely,
and only occasionally hunted. Contemporaries report that he was quick to get angry and resort to
violence, leading to frequent political and diplomatic confrontations. He enjoyed literature and
was patron to painters and musicians.
The image of a "warrior king" probably emerged from the courage in battle he showed at the
Battle of Poitiers and the creation of the Order of the Star. This was guided by political need, as
John was determined to prove the legitimacy of his crown, particularly as his reign, like that of his
father, was marked by continuing disputes over the Valois claim from both Charles II of
Navarre and Edward III of England. From a young age, John was called to resist the decentralising forces that impacted upon the cities and the nobility, each attracted either by English
economic influence or the reforming party. He grew up among intrigue and treason, and in
consequence he governed in secrecy only with a close circle of trusted advisers.
He took as his wife Bonne of Bohemia and fathered 10 children in eleven years. Due to his close
relationship with Charles de la Cerda, rumours were spread by Charles II of Navarre of a
romantic attachment between the two.[6] La Cerda was given various honours and appointed to
the high position of connetable when John became king; he accompanied the king on all his
official journeys to the provinces. La Cerda's rise at court excited the jealousy of the French
barons, several of whom stabbed him to death in 1354. La Cerda's fate paralleled that of Edward
II of England's Piers Gaveston and John II of Castile's Alvaro de Luna; the position of a royal
favourite was a dangerous one. John's grief on La Cerda's death was overt and public.

Ancestry[edit]
Family and children[edit]
On 28 July 1332, at the age of 13, John was married to Bonne of Bohemia (d. 1349), daughter
of John I (the Blind) of Bohemia. Their children were:
1. Charles V (21 January 1338 16 September 1380)
2. Louis I, Duke of Anjou (23 July 1339 20 September 1384)

3. John, Duke of Berry (30 November 1340 15 June 1416)


4. Philip II, Duke of Burgundy (17 January 1342 27 April 1404)
5. Joan (24 June 1343 3 November 1373), married Charles II (the Bad) of Navarre
6. Marie (12 September 1344 October 1404), married Robert I, Duke of Bar
7. Agnes (9 December 1345 April 1350)
8. Margaret (20 September 1347 25 April 1352)
9. Isabelle of Valois (1 October 1348 11 September 1372), married Gian Galeazzo I, Duke
of Milan
On 19 February 1350, at Nanterre, he married Joanna I of Auvergne (d. 1361), Countess of
Auvergne and Boulogne. She was the widow of Philip of Burgundy, the deceased heir of that
duchy, and mother of the young Philip I, Duke of Burgundy (134461) who became John's
stepson and ward. John and Joanna had three children, all of whom died young:
1. Blanche (b. November 1350)
2. Catherine (b. early 1352)
3. a son (b. early 1353)
He was succeeded by his son, Charles.

Charles V the Wise, 1364


1380

Charles V (21 January 1338 16 September 1380), called the Wise(French: "le Sage"), was a
monarch of the House of Valois who ruled as King of France from 1364 to his death.
In 1349, as a young prince, Charles received from his grandfather King Philip VI the province
of Dauphin to rule. This allowed him to bear the title "Dauphin" until his coronation, which saw
the integration of the Dauphin into the crown lands of France. From this date, all heirs
apparent of France bore the title of Dauphin until their coronation.
Charles became regent of France when his father John II was captured by the English at
the Battle of Poitiers in 1356. To pay the ransom, Charles had to raise taxes and deal with the

hostility of the nobility, led by Charles the Bad, King of Navarre; the opposition of the
French bourgeoisie, which was channeled through the Estates-General led by Etienne Marcel;
and with peasant revolts known as Jacqueries. Charles overcame all of these rebellions, but in
order to liberate his father, he had to conclude the Treaty of Brtigny in 1360, in which he
abandoned large portions of south-western France to Edward III of England and agreed to pay a
huge ransom.
Charles became king in 1364. With the help of talented advisers known as the Marmousets, his
skillful management of the kingdom allowed him to replenish the royal treasure and to restore the
prestige of the House of Valois. He established the first permanent army paid with regular wages,
which liberated the French populace from the companies of routiers who regularly plundered the
country when not employed. Led by Bertrand du Guesclin, theFrench Army was able to turn the
tide of the Hundred Years' War to Charles' advantage, and by the end of Charles' reign, they had
reconquered almost all the territories ceded to the English in 1360. Furthermore, the French
Navy, led by Jean de Vienne, managed to attack the English coast for the first time since the
beginning of the Hundred Years' War.
Charles V died in 1380. He was succeeded by his son Charles VI the Mad, whose disastrous
reign allowed the English to regain control of large parts of France.
Contents
[hide]

1 Early life

2 The Regency and the uprising of the Third Estate

3 The Treaty of Brtigny

4 King of France

5 War resumes

6 Papal schism

7 Death

8 Legacy

9 Ancestors

10 Marriage and issue

11 Sources

12 References

French Monarchy
Capetian Dynasty
(House of Valois)

Early life[edit]
Charles was born at the Chteau de Vincennes outside
of Paris, the son of Prince John and Princess Bonne of
France.[1] In 1350, his grandfather King Philip VI died
and his father ascended the throne as John II. Charles
then became Dauphin of France. He was the first
French heir to use the title, which is named for the
region of Dauphin, acquired by Charles' grandfather,
Philip VI of France, and given to him to rule in 1349.
The future king was highly intelligent, but physically
weak, with pale skin and a thin, ill-proportioned body.
This made a sharp contrast to his father, who was tall,
strong and sandy-haired.

The Regency and the uprising of the


Third Estate[edit]
King John was a brave warrior, but a poor ruler who
alienated his nobles through arbitrary justice and the
elevation of associates considered unworthy. After a
three-year break, the Hundred Years' War with England
resumed in 1355, with Edward, The Black Prince,
leading an English-Gascon army in a violent raid
across southwestern France. After checking an English
incursion into Normandy, John led an army of about
16,000 men to the south, crossing the Loire in
September 1356 with the goal of outflanking the
Prince's 8,000 soldiers at Poitiers. Rejecting advice
from one captain to surround and starve the Prince, a
tactic Edward feared, John attacked the strong enemy
position. In the subsequent Battle of Maupertuis
(Poitiers), English archery all but annihilated the French
cavalry, and John was captured.[2] Charles led a
battalion at Poitiers that withdrew early in the struggle;
whether the order came from John (as he later
claimed), or whether Charles himself ordered the
withdrawal, is unclear.[3]
The outcome of the battle left many embittered with the
nobility. Popular opinion accused the nobles of
betraying the King, but Charles and his brothers
escaped blame, and he was received with honor upon
his return to Paris. The Dauphin summoned
the Estates-General in October to seek money for the

Philip VI

Children
John II
John II

Children
Charles V
Louis I of Anjou
John, Duke of Berry
Philip the Bold
Charles V

Children
Charles VI
Louis, Duke of Orlans
Charles VI

Children
Isabella of Valois
Michelle of Valois
Catherine of Valois
Charles VII
Charles VII

Children
Louis XI
Charles, Duke of Berry

defense of the country. Furious at what they saw as poor management, many of those
assembled organized into a body led by Etienne Marcel, the Provost of Merchants (a title roughly
equivalent to Mayor of Paris today). Marcel demanded the dismissal of seven royal ministers,
their replacement by a Council of 28 made up of nobles, clergy and bourgeois, and the release of
Charles the Bad, King of Navarre, a leading Norman noble with a claim on the French throne who
had been imprisoned by John for the murder of his constable. The Dauphin refused the
demands, dismissed the Estates-General, and left Paris.
A contest of wills ensued. In an attempt to raise money, Charles tried to devalue the currency;
Marcel ordered strikes, and the Dauphin was forced to cancel his plans and recall the Estates in
February 1357. The Third Estate presented the Dauphin with a Grand Ordinance, a list of 61
articles that would have given the Estates-General the right to approve all future taxes, assemble
at their own volition, and elect a Council of 36 (with 12 members from each Estate) to advise the
king.[4] Charles eventually signed the ordinance, but his dismissed councillors took news of the
document to King John, imprisoned in Bordeaux. The King renounced the ordinance before
being taken to England by Prince Edward.
Charles made a royal progress through the country that summer, winning support from the
provinces, and won Paris back. Marcel, meanwhile, enlisted Charles of Navarre, who asserted
that his claim to the throne of France was at least as good as that of King Edward III of England,
who used his claim as the pretext for initiating the Hundred Years' War.
Marcel used the murder of a citizen seeking sanctuary in Paris to make an attack close to the
Dauphin. Summoning a group of tradesmen, the Provost marched at the head of an army of
3,000, entered the royal palace, and had the crowd murder two of the Dauphin's marshals before
his eyes. Charles, horrified, momentarily pacified the crowd, but sent his family away and left the
capital as quickly as he could. Marcel's action destroyed support for the Third Estate among the
nobles, and the Provost's subsequent backing of the Jacquerieundermined his support from the
towns. He was murdered by a mob on 31 July 1358. Charles was able to recover Paris the
following month. He later issued a general amnesty for all except close associates of Marcel.

The Treaty of Brtigny[edit]


John's capture gave the English the edge in peace negotiations following the Battle of Poitiers.
The King signed a treaty in 1359 that would have ceded most of western France to England and
imposed a ruinous ransom of 4 million cus on the country. The Dauphin (backed by his
councillors and the Estates General) rejected the treaty, and King Edward used this as an excuse
to invade France later that year. Edward reached Reims in December and Paris in March, but
Charles, trusting on improved municipal defences, forbade his soldiers from direct confrontation
with the English. Charles relied on improved fortifications made to Paris by Marcel and would
later rebuild the Left Bank (Rive gauche) wall and built a new wall on the Right Bank (Rive droite)
that extended to a new fortification called the Bastille.
Edward pillaged and raided the countryside, but could not bring the French to a decisive battle,
and so he eventually agreed to reduce his terms. This non-confrontational strategy would prove
extremely beneficial to France during Charles' reign.

The Treaty of Brtigny, signed on 8 May 1360, ceded a third of western France (mostly
in Aquitaine and Gascony) to the English and lowered the King's ransom to 3 million cus. King
John was released the following October. His second son,Louis I of Anjou, took his place as a
hostage.
Though his father had regained his freedom, Charles suffered a great personal tragedy at nearly
the same time. His three-year-old daughter Joan and infant daughter Bonne died within two
months of each other late in 1360; at their double funeral, the Dauphin was said to be "so
sorrowful as never before he had been." Charles himself had been severely ill, with his hair and
nails falling out; some suggest the symptoms are those of arsenic poisoning.[5]
John proved as ineffective at ruling upon his return to France as he had before his capture. When
Louis of Anjou escaped from English custody, John announced he had no choice but to return to
captivity himself. He arrived in London in January 1364, became ill, and died the following April.

King of France[edit]
Charles was crowned King of France in 1364 at the Cathedral of Reims. The new king was highly
intelligent, but closed-mouthed and secretive, with sharp eyes, a long nose and a pale, grave
manner. He suffered from gout in the right hand and an abscess in his left arm, possibly a sideeffect of an attempted poisoning in 1359. Doctors were able to treat the wound but told him that if
it ever dried up, he would die within 15 days. His manner may have concealed a more emotional
side; his marriage to Joan of Bourbon was considered very strong, and he made no attempt to
hide his grief at her funeral or those of his children, five of whom predeceased him.
His reign was dominated by the war with the English and two major problems: recovering the
territories ceded at Brtigny and ridding the land of the Tard-Venus (French for "latecomers"),
mercenary companies that turned to robbery and pillage after the treaty was signed. In achieving
these aims, Charles turned to a minor noble from Brittany named Bertrand du Guesclin.
Nicknamed "the Black Dog of Brocliande", du Guesclin fought the English during the Breton War
of Successionand was an expert in guerrilla warfare. Du Guesclin also defeated Charles II of
Navarre at the Battle of Cocherel in 1364 and eliminated his threat to Paris.
In order to lure the Tard-Venus out of France, Charles first hired them for an attempted crusade
into Hungary, but their reputation for brigandage preceded them, and the citizens
of Strasbourg refused to let them cross the Rhine on their journey. Charles next sent the
mercenary companies (under the leadership of du Guesclin) to fight in a civil war
in Castilebetween King Peter the Cruel and his illegitimate half-brother Henry. Peter had English
backing, while Henry was supported by the French.
Du Guesclin and his men were able to drive Peter out of Castile in 1365 after the capture of the
fortresses of Magallon andBriviesca and the capital Burgos. But the Black Prince, now serving as
his father's viceroy in southwestern France, took up Peter's cause. At the Battle of Njera in April
1367, the English defeated Henry's army. Du Guesclin was captured after a memorable
resistance and ransomed by Charles V, who considered him invaluable. The Black Prince,
affected by dysentery, soon withdrew his support from Peter. The English army suffered badly

during the retreat. Four English soldiers out of five died during the Castillan Campaign. In 1369,
du Guesclin renewed the attack against Peter, defeating him at the decisive Battle of Montiel.
Henry stabbed the captive Peter to death in du Guesclin's tent, thereby gaining the throne of
Castile. Bertrand was made Duke of Molina, and the Franco-Castillan alliance was sealed.
Charles V could now resume the war against England under favorable conditions.

War resumes[edit]
After the Castillan campaign, the Black Prince was invalid and heavily in debt. His rule
in Gascony became increasingly autocratic. Nobles from Gascony petitioned Charles for aid, and
when the Black Prince refused to answer a summons to Paris to answer the charges, Charles
judged him disloyal and declared war in May 1369. Legally, Charles had every right to do this; the
renunciation of sovereignty by Charles was never made and therefore Gascony was still legally
held by the King.
Instead of seeking a major battle, as his predecessors had done, Charles chose a strategy of
attrition, spreading the fighting at every point possible. The French and Castillan navies
destroyed an English fleet at La Rochelle in 1372. Then, du Guesclin launched destructive raids
against the coasts of England, naval reprisals to the English chevauches. Bertrand du Guesclin,
appointed Constable of France in 1370, beat back a major English offensive in northern France
with an unnerving combination of raids, sieges, and pitch battles. He notably crushed Robert
Knolles at the Battle of Pontvallain.
Most of the major English leaders were killed in a few months and the Black Prince fled to
England, where he died in 1376. By 1374, Charles recovered all of France
except Calais and Aquitaine, effectively nullifying the Treaty of Brtigny.

Papal schism[edit]
In 1376, Pope Gregory XI, fearing a loss of the Papal States, decided to move his court back to
Rome after nearly 70 years in Avignon. Charles, hoping to maintain French influence over
the papacy, tried to persuade Pope Gregory to remain in France, arguing that "Rome is wherever
the Pope happens to be." Gregory refused.
The Pope died in March 1378. When cardinals gathered to elect a successor, a Roman mob,
concerned that the predominantly French College of Cardinals would elect a French pope who
would bring the papacy back to Avignon, surrounded the Vatican and demanded the election of a
Roman. On 9 April, the cardinals elected Bartolomeo Prigamo,Archbishop of Bari, and a
commoner by birth, as Pope Urban VI. The new pope quickly alienated his cardinals by criticising
their vices, limiting the areas where they could receive income and even rising to strike one
cardinal before a second restrained him. The French cardinals left Rome that summer and
declared Urban's election invalid because of mob intimidation (a reason that had not been cited
at the time of the election) and elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII that
September.

The French cardinals quickly moved to get Charles' support. The theology faculty of
the University of Paris advised Charles not to make a hasty decision, but he recognised Clement
as Pope in November and forbade any obedience to Urban. Charles' support allowed Clement to
survive as pope and led to the Papal Schism, which would divide Europe for nearly 40 years.

Death[edit]
Charles' last years were spent in the consolidation of Normandy (and the neutralisation of
Charles of Navarre). Peace negotiations with the English continued unsuccessfully. The taxes he
had levied to support his wars against the English caused deep disaffection among the working
classes.
The abscess on the King's left arm dried up in early September 1380 and Charles prepared to
die. On his deathbed, perhaps fearful for his soul, Charles announced the abolition of the hearth
tax, the foundation of the government's finances. The ordinance would have been impossible to
carry out, but its terms were known, and the government's refusal to reduce any of the other
taxes on the people sparked the Maillotin revolt in 1381.
The King died on 16 September 1380 and was succeeded by his 12-year-old son, Charles VI. He
is buried in the Basilica of St Denis in the city of Saint-Denis, some five miles north of Paris.

Legacy[edit]

The Chteau du Louvre, shown in this early fifteenth century illumination, representing the month of
October inLes trs riches Heures du duc de Berry, was rebuilt during the reign of Charles V inaugurating
a new era of royal architecture

Charles' reputation was of great significance for posterity, especially as his conception of
governance was one that courtiers wished his successors could follow. Christine de Pizan's
biography, commissioned by Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, in 1404, is a source of most of
the intimate details of the king's life of which we are aware, but also provides a moral example for
his successors. It draws heavily on the work of Nicole Oresme (who translated Aristotle's moral
works into French) and Giles of Rome. Philippe de Mzires, in his allegorical "Songe du Vieil
Plerin," attempts to persuade the dauphin (later King Charles VI) to follow the example of his
wise father, notably in piety, though also to pursue reforming zeal in all policy considerations.
Of great importance to Charles V's cultural program was his vast library, housed in his expanded
Louvre, and described in great detail by the nineteenth-century French historian Leopold Delisle.
Containing over 1,200 volumes, it was symbolic of the authority and magnificence of the royal
person, but also of his concern with government for the common good. Charles was keen to
collect copies of works in French, in order that his counsellors had access to them. Perhaps the
most significant ones commissioned for the library were those of Nicole Oresme, who translated

Aristotle's Politics, Ethics, and Economics into eloquent French for the first time (an earlier
attempt had been made at the Politics, but the manuscript is now lost). If
the Politics and Economics served as a manual for government, then the Ethics advised the king
on how to be a good man.
Other important works commissioned for the royal library were the anonymous legal treatise
"Songe du Vergier," greatly inspired by the debates of Philip IV's jurists with Boniface VIII, the
translations of Raol de Presles, which included St. Augustine's City of God, and the Grandes
Chroniques de France edited in 1377 to emphasise the vassalage of Edward III.
Charles' kingship placed great emphasis on both royal ceremony and scientific political theory,
and to contemporaries and posterity his lifestyle at once embodied the reflective life advised by
Aristotle and the model of French kingship derived fromSt. Louis, Charlemagne, and Clovis which
he had illustrated in his Coronation Book of 1364, now in the British Library.
Charles V was also a builder king, and he created or rebuilt several significant buildings in the
late 14th century style including the Bastille, the Chteau du Louvre, Chteau de Vincennes,
and Chteau de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which were widely copied by the nobility of the day.
While he was in many ways a typical medieval king, Charles V has been praised by historians for
his pragmatism, which led to the recovery of the territories lost at Brtigny.
His successes, however, proved ephemeral. Charles' brothers, who dominated the regency
council that ruled in the king's name until 1388, quarrelled among themselves and divided the
government. Charles VI, meanwhile, preferred tournaments to the duties of kingship, and his
descent into madness in 1392 put his uncles back in power. By 1419, the country was divided
between Armagnac and Burgundian factions and Henry V was conquering the northern part of
France. The hard-won victories of Charles V had been lost through the venality of his
successors.

Ancestors[edit]
[show]Ancestors of Charles V of France

Marriage and issue[edit]


Kingdom of France portal

8 April 1350 to Joan of Bourbon (3 February 1338 4 February 1378); producing:


1.

2.

Joanna (Jeanne) of France (September 1357 21 October 1360), interred


atSaint-Antoine-des-Champs Abbey, France)
John of France (13591364)

3.

Bonne of France (1360 7 December 1360, Paris, France), interred beside her
sister, Jeanne

4.

John (Jean), Dauphin of France (Vincennes, 7 June 1366 21 December 1366)

5.

Charles VI of France, Dauphin of France (3 December 1368 22 October 1422)

6.

Mary (Marie), Princess of France (Paris, 27 February 1370 June 1377, Paris)

7.

Louis of Valois, Duke of Orleans (13 March 1372 23 November 1407)

8.

Isabella (Isabelle), Princess of France (Paris, 24 July 1373 13 February 1377,


Paris)

9.

Catherine, Princess of France (Paris, 4 February 1378 November 1388, buried


at Abbaye De Maubuisson, France), m. John of Berry, Count of Montpensier (son
of John, Duke of Berry)

It is rumored that he had a bastard son with Biette de Casinel: Jean De Montaigu (or Montague)
(13631409)[6]

Charles VI the Mad, 1380


1422

Charles VI (3 December 1368 21 October 1422), called the Beloved(French: le Bien-Aim)


and the Mad (French: le Fol or le Fou), was King of France from 1380 to his death. He was a
member of the House of Valois.
Charles VI was only 11 when he inherited the throne in the midst of theHundred Years' War. The
government was entrusted to his four uncles: Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy; John, Duke of
Berry; Louis I, Duke of Anjou; andLouis II, Duke of Bourbon. Although the royal age of
majority was fixed at 14 (the "age of accountability" under Roman Catholic canon law), the dukes
maintained their grip on Charles until he took power at the age of 21.
During the rule of his uncles, the financial resources of the kingdom, painstakingly built up by his
father Charles V, were squandered for the personal profit of the dukes, whose interests were
frequently divergent or even opposing. As royal funds drained, new taxes had to be raised, which
caused several revolts.
In 1388 Charles VI dismissed his uncles and brought back to power his father's former advisers,
known as the Marmousets. Political and economic conditions in the kingdom improved
significantly, and Charles earned the epithet "the Beloved". But in August 1392 en route to
Brittany with his army in the forest of Le Mans, Charles suddenly went mad and slew four knights
and almost killed his brother, Louis of Orlans.[1]

From then on, Charles' bouts of insanity became more frequent and of longer duration. During
these attacks, he had delusions, believing he was made of glass or denying he had a wife and
children.[1] He could also attack servants or run until exhaustion, wailing that he was threatened
by his enemies. Between crises, there were intervals of months during which Charles was
relatively sane.[1] However, unable to concentrate or make decisions, political power was taken
away from him by the princes of the blood, which would cause much chaos and conflict in
France.
A fierce struggle for power developed between Louis of Orlans, the king's brother, and John the
Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, the son of Philip the Bold. When John instigated the murder of Louis
in November 1407, the conflict degenerated into a civil war between the Armagnacs (supporters
of theHouse of Valois) and the Burgundians. John offered large parts of France to king Henry V
of England, who was still at war with the Valois monarchy, in exchange for his support. After the
assassination of John the Fearless, his son Philip the Good led Charles the Mad to sign the
infamous Treaty of Troyes (1420), which recognized Henry V as his legitimate successor on the
throne of France and disinherited his own offspring.
When Charles VI died, he was succeeded by his son Charles VII, who found the Valois cause in
a desperate situation.
Contents
[hide]

1 Early life and family

2 Regency

3 Mental illness

4 Bal des Ardents

5 Expulsion of the Jews, 1394

6 Struggles for power

7 The English invasion

8 Death

9 Ancestors

10 Marriage and issue

11 Cultural references

12 References

13 Sources

Early life and family[edit]

The coronation of Charles VI

Charles seized by madness in the forest of Le Mans

Charles was born in Paris on 3 December 1368, the son of King of France, King Charles V, of
the House of Valois, and Joan of Bourbon. As heir to the French throne, his older brothers having
died before he was born, Charles had the title Dauphin of France. In 1380, at the age of eleven,
he was crowned King of France at Reims Cathedral. Although the royal age of majority was 14
(the "age of accountability" under Roman Catholic canon law), Charles did not terminate the
regency and take personal rule until 1388, at the age of 21.
He married Isabeau of Bavaria on 17 July 1385, when he was 17 and she was 14 (and
considered an adult at the time). Isabeau had 12 children, most of whom died young.

Isabeau's first child, named Charles, was born in 1386, and was Dauphin of Viennois (heir
apparent), but survived only 3 months. Her second child, Joan, was born on 14 June 1388, but
died in 1390. Her third child, Isabella, was born in 1389. She was married to Richard II, King of
England in 1396, at the age of 6, and became Queen of England. Richard died in 1400 and they
had no children. Richard's successor, Henry IV, wanted Isabella to then marry his son, 14 yearold future king Henry V, but she refused. She married again in 1406, this time to her
cousin, Charles, Duke of Orlans, at the age of 17. She died at childbirth at the age of 19.
Isabeau's fourth child, Joan, was born in 1391, and was married to John VI, Duke of Brittany in
1396, at an age of 5; they had children. Isabeau's fifth child born in 1392 was also named
Charles, and was Dauphin. Charles VI then became insane. The young Charles was betrothed
to Margaret of Burgundy in 1396, but died at the age of 9. Isabeau's sixth child, Mary, was born
in 1393. She was never married, and had no children. Isabeau's seventh child, Michelle, was
born in 1395. She was engaged to Philip, son of John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy, in 1404
(both were then aged 8) and they were married in 1409, aged 14. She had one child who died in
infancy, before she died in 1422, aged 27.
Isabeau's eighth child, Louis, was born in 1397, and was also Dauphin. He was married to the
Margaret of Burgundy who had been betrothed to brother Charles, but they did not have any
children before he died in 1415, aged 18.
Isabeau's ninth child, John, was born in 1398, and was also Dauphin from 1415, after the death
of his brother Louis. He was married to Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut in 1415, when aged 17,
but they did not have any children before he died in 1417, aged 19. Isabeau's tenth
child, Catherine, was born in 1401. She was married firstly to Henry V, King of England in 1420,
and they had one child, who became Henry VI of England. Henry V died suddenly in 1422.
Catherine may then have secretly married Owen Tudor in 1429, and she also had children with
him. She died in 1438, aged 37.
Isabeau's eleventh child, also named Charles, was born in 1403. In 1413, Queen Isabeau
and Yolande of Aragon finalized a marriage contract between Charles and Yolande's
daughter Marie of Anjou, Charles' second cousin.[2] Dauphin Louis and then Dauphin John died
while in the care of John the Fearless, the Duke of Burgundy and regent for the insane King
Charles. Yolande became the protectress of Charles, who became the new Dauphin in 1417.
She refused Queen Isabeau's orders to return Charles to the French Court, reportedly replying,
"We have not nurtured and cherished this one for you to make him die like his brothers or to go
mad like his father, or to become English like you. I keep him for my own. Come and take him
away, if you dare." After the death of Charles VI in 1422, the English regents claimed the crown
of France for Henry VI, then aged 1, according to the terms of the Treaty of Troyes. However,
Charles, aged 19, repudiated the treaty and claimed and became King of France, as Charles VII,
sparking fresh fighting with the English. He married Marie of Anjou in 1422, and they had many
children, most of which died at a very early age. He died in 1461, the longest living descendant of
Isabeau.
Isabeau's twelfth and the last child, Philip, was born in 1407, but died shortly after.

Regency[edit]
Charles VI was only 11 years old when he was crowned King of France. Although Charles was
entitled to rule personally from the age of 14, the dukes maintained their grip on power until
Charles terminated the regency at the age of 21.
During his minority, France was ruled by Charles' uncles, as regents. The regents were Philip the
Bold, Duke of Burgundy,Louis I, Duke of Anjou, John, Duke of Berry, and Louis II, Duke of
Bourbon, Charles VI's maternal uncle. Philip took the dominant role during the regency. Louis of
Anjou was fighting for his claim to the Kingdom of Naples after 1382, dying in 1384, John of
Berry was interested mainly in the Languedoc,[3] and not particularly interested in politics; whilst
Louis of Bourbon was a largely unimportant figure, due to his personality (he showed signs of
mental instability) and his status (since he was not the son of a king).
During the rule of his uncles, the financial resources of the kingdom, painstakingly built up by his
father Charles V, were squandered for the personal profit of the dukes, whose interests were
frequently divergent or even opposing. During that time, the power of the royal administration was
strengthened and taxes re-established. The latter policy represented a reversal of the deathbed
decision of the king's father Charles V to repeal taxes, and led to tax revolts, known as
the Harelle. Increased tax revenues were needed to support the self-serving policies of the king's
uncles, whose interests were frequently in conflict with those of the crown and with each other.
The Battle of Roosebeke (1382), for example, brilliantly won by the royal troops, was prosecuted
solely for the benefit of Philip of Burgundy. The treasury surplus carefully accumulated by
Charles V was quickly squandered.
Charles VI brought the regency to an end in 1388, taking up personal rule. He restored to power
the highly-competent advisors of Charles V, known as the Marmousets,[4] who ushered in a new
period of high esteem for the crown. Charles VI was widely referred to as Charles the Beloved by
his subjects.

Mental illness[edit]

A coin of Charles VI, a "double d'or", minted in La Rochelle in 1420

The early successes of the sole rule of Charles VI quickly dissipated as a result of the bouts
of psychosis he experienced beginning in his mid-twenties. Once Charles the Beloved, he
became known as Charles the Mad later in his reign. Mental illness had been passed on for
several generations through his mother, Joanna of Bourbon.
Charles's first known episode occurred in 1392 when his friend and advisor, Olivier de Clisson,
was the victim of an attempted murder. Although Clisson survived, Charles was determined to
punish the would-be assassin, Pierre de Craon, who had taken refuge inBrittany. John V, Duke of
Brittany was unwilling to hand him over, so Charles prepared a military expedition.
Contemporaries said Charles appeared to be in a "fever" to begin the campaign and appeared
disconnected in his speech. Charles set off with an army on 1 July 1392. The progress of the
army was slow, which nearly drove Charles into a frenzy of impatience.
As the king and his escort were traveling through a forest on a hot August morning, a barefoot
leper dressed in rags rushed up to the King's horse and grabbed his bridle. "Ride no further,
noble King!" he yelled. "Turn back! You are betrayed!" The king's escorts beat the man back, but
did not arrest him, and he followed the procession for half an hour, repeating his cries. [5]
The company emerged from the forest at noon. A page who was drowsy from the sun dropped
the king's lance, which clanged loudly against a steel helmet carried by another page. Charles
shuddered, drew his sword and yelled "Forward against the traitors! They wish to deliver me to
the enemy!" The king spurred his horse and began swinging his sword at his companions,
fighting until one of his chamberlains and a group of soldiers were able to grab him from his
mount and lay him on the ground. He lay still and did not react, but fell into a coma. The king had
killed a knight known as "The Bastard of Polignac" and several other men.[6]
The king continued to suffer from periods of mental illness throughout his life. During one attack
in 1393, Charles could not remember his name and did not know he was king. When his wife
came to visit, he asked his servants who she was and ordered them to take care of what she
required so that she would leave him alone.[7] During an episode in 139596 he claimed he
was Saint George and that his coat of arms was a lion with a sword thrust through it. [8] At this
time, he recognized all the officers of his household, but did not know his wife or children.
Sometimes he ran wildly through the corridors of his Parisian residence, the Htel Saint-Pol, and
to keep him inside, the entrances were walled up. In 1405, he refused to bathe or change his
clothes for five months.[9] His later psychotic episodes were not described in detail, perhaps
because of the similarity of his behavior and delusions. Pope Pius II, who was born during the
reign of Charles VI, wrote in his Commentaries that there were times when Charles thought that
he was made of glass, and this caused him to protect himself in various ways so that he would
not break.[10] This condition has come to be known as glass delusion.
Charles VI's secretary Pierre Salmon spent much time in discussions with the king while he was
suffering from his intermittent psychosis. In an effort to find a cure for the king's illness, stabilize
the turbulent political situation, and secure his own future, Salmon supervised the production of
two distinct versions of the beautifully illuminated guidebooks to good kingship known as Pierre
Salmon's Dialogues.

Bal des Ardents[edit]

The Bal des Ardents, miniature of 145080.

Main article: Bal des Ardents


On 29 January 1393, a party was held to celebrate the wedding of one of the queen's ladies-inwaiting at the Htel Saint-Pol known as the Bal des Ardents (the "Ball of the Burning Men"). At
the suggestion of Huguet de Guisay, the king and four other lords [11] dressed up as wild men and
danced about. They were dressed "in costumes of linen cloth sewn onto their bodies and soaked
in resinous wax or pitch to hold a covering of frazzled hemp, so that they appeared shaggy &
hairy from head to foot".[12] At the suggestion of one Yvain de Foix, the king commanded that the
torch-bearers were to stand at the side of the room. Nonetheless, the king's brother Louis of
Valois, Duke of Orlans, who had arrived late, approached with a lighted torch in order to
discover the identity of the masqueraders, and he set one of them on fire. There was panic as the
fire spread. The Duchess of Berry threw the train of her gown over the king.[13] Several knights
who tried to put out the flames were severely burned. Four of the wild men perished: Charles de
Poiters, son of the Count of Valentinois; Huguet de Guisay; Yvain de Foix; and the Count
of Joigny. Another Jean, son of the Lord of Nantouillet saved himself by jumping into a
dishwater tub.[14]

Expulsion of the Jews, 1394[edit]


On 17 September 1394, Charles suddenly published an ordinance in which he declared, in
substance, that for a long time he had been taking note of the many complaints provoked by the
excesses and misdemeanors which the Jews committed against Christians, and that the
prosecutors, having made several investigations, had discovered many violations by the Jews of
the agreement they had made with him. Therefore, he decreed, as an irrevocable law and
statute, that thenceforth no Jew should dwell in his domains ("Ordonnances", vii. 675). According
to the Religieux de St. Denis, the king signed this decree at the instance of the queen ("Chron.
de Charles VI." ii. 119).[15] The decree was not immediately enforced, a respite being granted to
the Jews in order that they might sell their property and pay their debts. Those indebted to them
were enjoined to redeem their obligations within a set time, otherwise their pledges held in pawn
were to be sold by the Jews. The provost was to escort the Jews to the frontier of the kingdom.
Subsequently, the king released the Christians from their debts.

French Monarchy
Capetian Dynasty
(House of Valois)

Struggles for power[edit]


With Charles VI mentally ill, from 1393, his wife
Isabeau presided over a regency counsel, on which sat
the grandees of the kingdom. Philip the Bold, Duke of
Burgundy, who acted as regent during the king's
minority (from 1380 to 1388), was a great influence on
the queen (he had organized the royal marriage during
his regency). Influence progressively shifted toLouis I,
Duke of Orlans, the king's brother, another contender
for power, and it was suspected, the queen's lover.
[16]
Charles VI's other uncles were less influential during
the regency: Louis II of Naples was still engaged
managing the kingdom of Naples and John, Duke of
Berry, served as a mediator between the Orlans party
(what would become the Armagnacs) and the
Burgundy party. The rivalry would increase bit by bit
and in the end result in outright civil war.
The new regents dismissed the various advisers and
officials Charles had appointed. On the death of Philip
the Bold in April 1404, his son John the Fearless took
over the political aims of his father, and the feud with
Louis escalated. John, who was less linked to Isabeau,
again lost influence at court.
In 1407, Louis of Orlans was murdered in the streets
of Paris. John did not deny responsibility, claiming that
Louis was a tyrant who squandered money. Louis'
son Charles, the new Duke of Orlans, turned to his
father-in-law, Bernard VII, Count of Armagnac, for
support against John the Fearless. This resulted in
the Armagnac-Burgundian Civil Warwhich lasted from
1407 and continued until 1435, even beyond Charles'
reign, though the war with the English was still in
progress.
With the English taking over the country, John the
Fearless sought to end the feud with the royal family by
negotiating with the Dauphin Charles, the king's heir.
They met at the bridge at Montereau on 10 September
1419, but during the meeting, John was killed
by Tanneguy du Chtel, a follower of the Dauphin.
John's successor, Philip the Good, the new Duke of
Burgundy, threw in his lot with the English.

Philip VI

Children
John II
John II

Children
Charles V
Louis I of Anjou
John, Duke of Berry
Philip the Bold
Charles V

Children
Charles VI
Louis, Duke of Orlans
Charles VI

Children
Isabella of Valois
Michelle of Valois
Catherine of Valois
Charles VII
Charles VII

Children
Louis XI
Charles, Duke of Berry

The English invasion[edit]


Charles VI's reign was marked by the continuing conflict with the English known as the Hundred
Years' War. An early attempt at peace occurred in 1396 when Charles' daughter, the almost
seven-year-old Isabella of Valois, married the 29-year-old Richard II of England. By 1415,
however, the feud between the French royal family and the house of Burgundy led to chaos and
anarchy throughout France that Henry V of England was eager to take advantage of. Henry led
an invasion that culminated in the defeat of the French army at theBattle of Agincourt in October.
After the assassination of John the Fearless in 1419, the new Duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good,
threw in his lot with the English.
In 1420, the Treaty of Troyes was signed for King Charles VI, which recognized Henry of England
as his successor, disinherited his son, the Dauphin Charles, claiming in 1421 that the young
Charles was illegitimate, and betrothed his daughter Catherine of Valois to Henry V (see English
Kings of France). Many historians interpret this treaty and the disinheriting of the Dauphin
Charles as acting against the interests of France. The Dauphin sealed his fate, in the eyes of the
mad king, when he declared himself regent, seized royal authority, and refused to obey the king's
order to return to Paris.[17] It is important to remember that when the Treaty of Troyes was finalized
in May 1420, the Dauphin Charles was only 17 years old. He was then a weak figure who was
easily manipulated by his advisors.

Death[edit]
Charles VI died in 1422 in Paris and is interred with his wife Isabeau of Bavaria in Saint Denis
Basilica. Both their grandson, the one-year-old Henry VI of England, and their son, Charles VII,
were proclaimed King of France, but it was the latter who became the actual ruler. [citation needed]

Ancestors[edit]
[show]Ancestors of Charles VI of France

Marriage and issue[edit]


Charles VI married Isabeau of Bavaria (ca. 1371 24 September 1435) on 17 July 1385. She
gave birth to 12 children:

Name

Birth

Death

Notes

Charles, Dauphin of
Viennois

25 September 28 December
Died young. First Dauphin.
1386
1386

Anne

14 June 1388 1390

Died young.

Isabella

9 November
1389

Married (1) Richard II, King of England, in


13 September 1396. No issue.
1409
Married (2) Charles, Duke of Orlans, in
1406. Had issue.

Joan

24 January
1391

27 September Married John VI, Duke of Brittany, in 1396.


1433
Had issue.

Charles, Dauphin of
Viennois

6 February
1392

13 January
1401

Died young. Second Dauphin. Engaged


to Margaret of Burgundy after his birth.

Marie

22 August
1393

19 August
1438

Never married became an abbess. No


issue. Died of thePlague

Michelle

11 January
1395

8 July 1422

Married Philip the Good, Duke of


Burgundy, in 1409. Had no surviving
issue.

Louis, Dauphin

22 January
1397

18 December Married Margaret of Burgundy. No issue.


1415
Third Dauphin.

John, Dauphin

31 August
1398

5 April 1417

Married Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut,


in 1415. No issue. Fourth Dauphin.

Catherine

27 October
1401

3 January
1438

Married (1) Henry V, King of England, in


1420. Had issue.
Married (?) (2) Owen Tudor. Had issue.

Charles, Dauphin of
Viennois

22 February
1403

21 July 1461

The fifth Dauphin became Charles VII,


King of France, after his father's death.

Married Marie of Anjou in 1422. Had


issue.

10 November November
1407
1407

Philip

Died young.

He also had one illegitimate child by Odette de Champdivers: Marguerite, btarde de France (d.
ca.1458).

Cultural references[edit]

Christine de Pizan dedicates a poem to Charles VI Prire pour le roi Charles in which she
pleas for the health of her king.

The Romantic French poet Grard de Nerval wrote a poem dedicated to the king:
"Rverie de Charles VI".[18]

The novel The Notebooks of Malte Laurids Brigge by Rainer Maria Rilke describes the old
age of Charles VI at length.

King Charles VI, and his madness, are mentioned at length in the historical novel In a
Dark Wood Wandering (1949) byHella S. Haasse.

The historical novel, "Blood Royal" aka "The Queen's Lover" by Vanora Bennett, about
Charles VI's daughter, Catherine of Valois, refers to the King, his reign, family and his
madness at length.

English interlude (between


Charles VI and VII):

Henry V of England

Henry VI of England and


France

Charles VII the Well Served,


14221461

Strong princes[edit]
France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages. The authority of
the king was more religious than administrative. The 11th century in France
marked the apogee of princely power at the expense of the king when states
likeNormandy, Flanders or Languedoc enjoyed a local authority comparable to
kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians, as they were descended from
the Robertians, were formerly powerful princes themselves who had
successfully unseated the weak and unfortunate Carolingian kings.[11]
The Carolingian kings had nothing more than a royal title when
the Capetian kings added their principality to that title. The Capetians, in a way,
held a dual status of King and Prince; as king they held the Crown of
Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fiefdom, best
known as le-de-France.[11]
The fact that the Capetians held lands as both Prince and King gave them a
complicated status. They were involved in the struggle for power within France
as princes, but they also had a religious authority over Roman Catholicism in
France as King. The Capetian kings treated other princes more as enemies and
allies than as subordinates: their royal title was recognised yet frequently
disrespected. Capetian authority was so weak in some remote places that bandits
were the effective power.[11]
Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would
become some of the strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans,
the Plantagenets, the Lusignans, the Hautevilles, the Ramnulfids, and the House
of Toulousesuccessfully carved lands outside of France for themselves. The
most important of these conquests for French history was the Norman Conquest
of England by William the Conqueror, following the Battle of Hastings and
immortalised in theBayeux Tapestry, because it linked England to France
through Normandy. Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French

kings and their equals as kings of England, their zone of political activity
remained centered in France.[12]
An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades,
and French knights founded and ruled theCrusader states. An example of the
legacy left in the Middle East by these nobles is the Krak des Chevaliers'
enlargement by the Counts of Tripoli and Toulouse.
Rise of the monarchy[edit]
The monarchy overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and
established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century. A number of
factors contributed to the rise of the French monarchy. The dynasty established
by Hugh Capet continued uninterrupted until 1328, and the laws
of primogeniture ensured orderly successions of power. Secondly, the
successors of Capet came to be recognised as members of an illustrious and
ancient royal house and therefore socially superior to their politically and
economically superior rivals. Thirdly, the Capetians had the support of
the Church, which favoured a strong central government in France. This alliance
with the Church was one of the great enduring legacies of the Capetians.
The First Crusade was composed almost entirely of Frankish Princes. As time
went on the power of the King was expanded by conquests, seizures and
successful feudal political battles.[13]
The history of France starts with the election of Hugh Capet (940-996) by an
assembly summoned in Reims in 987. Capet was previously "Duke of the
Franks" and then became "King of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). Hugh's lands
extended little beyond the Paris basin; his political unimportance weighed
against the powerful barons who elected him. Many of the king's vassals (who
included for a long time the kings of England) ruled over territories far greater
than his own.[13] He was recorded to be recognised king by
the Gauls, Bretons, Danes, Aquitanians, Goths, Spanish and Gascons.[14]
Count Borell of Barcelona called for Hugh's help against Islamic raids, but even
if Hugh intended to help Borell, he was otherwise occupied in fighting Charles
of Lorraine. The loss of other Spanish principalities then followed, as the
Spanish marches grew more and more independent.[14] Hugh Capet, the first
Capetian king, is not a well documented figure, his greatest achievement being
certainly to survive as king and defeating the Carolingian claimant, thus
allowing him to establish what would become one of Europe's most powerful
house of kings.[14]

A view of the remains of the Abbey of Cluny, a Benedictine monastery, was the
centre of monastic life revival in the Middle Ages and marked an important step
in the cultural rebirth following the Dark Ages.
Hugh's son Robert the Pious was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's
demise. Hugh Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert
II, as King of the Franks, met Emperor Henry II in 1023 on the borderline. They
agreed to end all claims over each other's realm, setting a new stage of Capetian
and Ottonian relationships. Although a king weak in power, Robert II's efforts
were considerable. His surviving charters imply he relied heavily on the Church
to rule France, much like his father did. Although he lived with a mistress
Bertha of Burgundy and was excommunicated because of this, he was
regarded as a model of piety for monks (hence his nickname, Robert the Pious).
[14]
The reign of Robert II was quite important because it involved the Peace and
Truce of God(beginning in 989) and the Cluniac Reforms.[14]
Robert II crowned his son Hugh Magnus as King of the Franks at age 10
to secure the succession, but Hugh Magnus rebelled against his father and died
fighting him in 1025.
The next King of the Franks was Robert II's next son, Henry I (reigned 10271060). Like Hugh Magnus, Henry was crowned as co-ruler with his father
(1027), in the Capetian tradition, but he had little power or influence as junior
king while his father still lived. Henry I was crowned after Robert's death in

1031, which is quite exceptional for a French king of the times. Henry I was one
of the weakest kings of the Franks, and his reign saw the rise of some very
powerful nobles such as William the Conqueror.[14] Henry I's biggest source of
concerns was his brother Robert I of Burgundy who was pushed by his
mother to the conflict. Robert of Burgundy was made Duke of Burgundy by
King Henry I and had to be satisfied with that title. From Henry I onward, the
Dukes of Burgundy were relatives of the King of the Franks until the end of the
Duchy proper.

Godefroy de Bouillon, a French knight, leader of the First Crusadeand founder


of the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
King Philip I, named by his Kievan mother with a typically Eastern European
name, was no more fortunate than his predecessor[14] although the kingdom did
enjoy a modest recovery during his extraordinarily long reign (10601108). His
reign also saw the launch of the First Crusade to regain the Holy Land, which
heavily involved his family although he personally did not support the
expedition.
It is from Louis VI (reigned 11081137) onward that royal authority became
more accepted. Louis VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a
scholar. The way the king raised money from his vassals made him quite

unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious and that is corroborated


by records of the time. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the
royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the
assistance of a skilled religious statesman, Abbot Suger. The abbot was the son
of a minor family of knights, but his political advice was extremely valuable to
the king. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military and politically, many of
the robber barons. Louis VI frequently summoned his vassals to the court, and
those who did not show up often had their land possessions confiscated and
military campaigns mounted against them. This drastic policy clearly imposed
some royal authority on Paris and its surrounding areas. When Louis VI died in
1137, much progress had been made towards strengthening Capetian authority.
[14]

Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, King Louis VII (junior king 1131
1137, senior king 11371180) enjoyed greater moral authority over France than
his predecessors. Powerful vassals paid homage to the French king.[15] Abbot
Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII and Eleanor of
Aquitaine in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him
considerable power. However, the couple disagreed over the burning of more
than a thousand people in Vitry during the conflict against the Count of
Champagne.[16]
King Louis VII was deeply horrified by the event and sought penitence by going
to the Holy Land. He later involved the Kingdom of France in the Second
Crusade but his relationship with Eleanor did not improve. The marriage was
ultimately annulled by the pope under the pretext of consanguinity and Eleanor
soon married the Duke of Normandy Henry Fitzempress, who would become
King of England as Henry II two years later.[16] Louis VII was once a very
powerful monarch and was now facing a much stronger vassal, who was his
equal as King of England and his strongest prince as Duke of Normandy and
Aquitaine.
Abbot Suger's vision of construction became what is now known as Gothic
architecture. This style became standard for most European cathedrals built in
the late Middle Ages.[16]
The late Capetians (11651328)[edit]
The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential
than the earliest ones. While Philip I could hardly control his Parisian barons,
Philip IV could dictate popes and emperors. The late Capetians, although they
often ruled for a shorter time than their earlier peers, were often much more
influential. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of international

alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, Kings of France and


England and Holy Roman Emperor.
Philip II Augustus[edit]
The reign of Philip II Augustus (junior king 11791180, senior king 11801223)
marked an important step in the history of French monarchy. His reign saw the
French royal domain and influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the
rise of power to much more powerful monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the
Fair.

Philip II victorious at Bouvines thus annexing Normandy and Anjou into his
royal domains. This battle involved a complex set of alliances from three
important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and the Holy Roman
Empire.
Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-calledAngevin
Empire, which was probably the greatest threat to the King of France since the
rise of the Capetian dynasty. During the first part of his reign Philip II tried
using Henry II of England's son against him. He allied himself with the Duke of
Aquitaine and son of Henry II Richard Lionheart and together they
launched a decisive attack on Henry's castle and home of Chinon and removed
him from power.
Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then
went crusading during the Third Crusade; however, their alliance and friendship
broke down during the crusade. The two men were once again at odds and
fought each other in France until Richard was on the verge of totally defeating
Philip II.
Adding to their battles in France, the Kings of France and England were trying
to install their respective allies at the head of the Holy Roman Empire. If Philip
II Augustus supported Philip of Swabia, member of the House of Hohenstaufen,

then Richard Lionheart supported Otto IV, member of the House of Welf. Otto
IV had the upper hand and became the Holy Roman Emperor at the expense of
Philip of Swabia. The crown of France was saved by Richard's demise after a
wound he received fighting his own vassals in Limousin.
John Lackland, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a
trial against the Lusignans and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious
vassals, Philip II confiscated John's possessions in France. John's defeat was
swift and his attempts to reconquer his French possession at the decisive Battle
of Bouvines (1214) resulted in complete failure. Philip II had annexed
Normandy and Anjou, plus capturing the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders,
although Aquitaine and Gascony remained loyal to the Plantagenet King. In an
additional aftermath of the Battle of Bouvines, John's ally Holy Roman
Emperor Otto IV was overthrown by Frederick II, member of the House of
Hohenstaufen and ally of Philip. Philip II of France was crucial in ordering
Western European politics in both England and France.
Philip Augustus founded the Sorbonne and made Paris a city for scholars.
Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII, reigned 12231226) was involved in the
subsequent English civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman)
aristocracies were once one and were now split between allegiances. While the
French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets, the Church called for
the Albigensian Crusade. Southern France was then largely absorbed in the
royal domains.
Saint Louis (12261270)[edit]
France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX (reigned 1226
1270). Saint Louis has often been portrayed as a one-dimensional character, a
flawless representant of the faith and an administrative reformer who cared for
the governed ones. However, his reign was far from perfect for everyone: he
made unsuccessful crusades, his expanding administrations raised opposition,
and he burned Jewish books at the Pope's urging.[17] His judgments were not
often practical, although they seemed fair by the standards of the time. It
appears Louis had a strong sense of justice and always wanted to judge people
himself before applying any sentence. This was said about Louis and French
clergy asking for excommunications of Louis' vassals:[18]

Saint Louis. He saw France's cultural expansion in the Western Christian world.
For it would be against God and contrary to right and justice if he compelled
any man to seek absolution when the clergy were doing him wrong.
Louis IX was only twelve years old when he became King of France. His
mother Blanche of Castile was the effective power as regent (although she
did not formally use the title). Blanche's authority was strongly opposed by the
French barons yet she maintained her position until Louis was old enough to
rule by himself.
In 1229 the King had to struggle with a long lasting strike at the University of
Paris. The Quartier Latin was strongly hit by these strikes.
The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse,
and the royal army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc. Count
Raymond VII of Toulouse finally signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which
he retained much of his lands for life, but his daughter, married to Count
Alfonso of Poitou, produced him no heir and so the County of Toulouse went to
the King of France.

King Henry III of England had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship
over Aquitaine and still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the
Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230 at Saint-Malo with a massive force. Henry
III's allies in Brittany and Normandy fell down because they did not dare fight
their king, who led the counterstrike himself. This evolved into the Saintonge
War (1242).
Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognise Louis IX's
overlordship, although the King of France did not seize Aquitaine from Henry
III. Louis IX was now the most important landowner of France, adding to his
royal title. There were some opposition to his rule in Normandy, yet it proved
remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse which
had been brutally conquered. The Conseil du Roi, which would evolve into
the Parlement, was founded in these times.
After his conflict with King Henry III of England, Louis established a cordial
relation with the Plantagenet King. An amusing anecdote is about Henry III's
attending the French Parlement, as Duke of Aquitaine; however, the King of
England was always late because he liked to stop each time he met a priest to
hear the mass, so Louis made sure no priest was on the way of Henry III. Henry
III and Louis IX then started a long contest for who was the most faithful; this
evolved to the point that none ever arrived on time to the Parlement, which was
then allowed to debate in their absence.[19]
Saint Louis also supported new forms of art such as Gothic architecture;
his Sainte-Chapelle became a very famous gothic building, and he is also
credited for the Morgan Bible.
The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Saint Louis: the Seventh
Crusade and the Eighth Crusade. Both proved to be complete failures for the
French King. He died in the Eighth Crusade and Philip III became king.
Philip III and Philip IV (12701314)[edit]
Philip III became king when Saint Louis died in 1270 during the Eighth
Crusade. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of his abilities in combat
and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities. Philip III
took part in another crusading disaster: the Aragonese Crusade, which cost him
his life in 1285.
More administrative reforms were made by Philip IV, also called Philip the Fair
(reigned 12851314). This king was responsible for the end of the Knights
Templar, signed the Auld Alliance, and established the Parlement of Paris.
Philip IV was so powerful that he could name popes and emperors, unlike the

early Capetians. The papacy was moved to Avignonand all the contemporary
popes were French, such as Philip IV's puppet Bertrand de Goth, Pope Clement
V.
The early Valois Kings and the Hundred Years' War (13281453)[edit]

The capture of the French kingJohn II at Poitiers in 1356.


The tensions between the Houses of Plantagenet and Capet climaxed during the
so-called Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars over the period
1337 to 1453) when the Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the
Valois. This was also the time of the Black Death, as well as several civil wars.
The French population suffered much from these wars. In 1420 by the Treaty of
Troyes Henry V was made heir to Charles VI. Henry V failed to outlive Charles
so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the DualMonarchy of England and France.
It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered
during the Hundred Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism
represented by Joan of Arc (14121431). Although this is debatable, the
Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a Franco-English war than as a
succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically and
militarily.
Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the Battle of Baug (1421),
the humiliating defeats of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) forced the
French nobility to realise they could not stand just as armoured knights without
an organised army. Charles VII (reigned 14221461) established the first French
standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance, and defeated the Plantagenets
once at Patay (1429) and again, using cannons, at Formigny (1450). TheBattle

of Castillon (1453) was regarded as the last engagement of this "war",


yet Calais and the Channel Islands remained ruled by the Plantagenets.

BTFH: France in the Middle


Ages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Kingdom of France in the Middle Ages (roughly, from the 10th century to the middle of the
15th century; for the period before Hugh Capet's accession to the throne,
see Francia and Carolingian Empire) was marked by the expansion of royal control by the House
of Capet (9871328); their struggles with the virtually independent principalities (duchies and
counties, such as the Norman and Angevin regions) that had developed following
theViking invasions and through the piecemeal dismantling of the Carolingian Empire and West
Francia (843987); the creation and extension of administrative/state control (notably under Philip
II Augustus and Louis IX) in the 13th century; the rise of the House of Valois (13281589) and
the protracted dynastic crisis of the Hundred Years' War with the Kingdom of England (1337
1453) compounded by the catastrophic Black Death epidemic (1348), which laid the seeds for a
more centralized and expanded state in theearly modern period and the creation of a sense of
French identity.
Up to the 12th century, the period saw the elaboration and extension of theseigneurial economic
system (including the attachment of peasants to the land through serfdom); the extension of
the feudal system of rights and obligations between lords and vassals; the so-called "feudal
revolution" of the 11th century during which ever smaller lords took control of local lands in many
regions; and the appropriation by regional/local seigneurs of various administrative, fiscal and
judicial rights for themselves. From the 13th century on, the state slowly regained control of a
number of these lost powers. The crises of the 13th and 14th century led to the convening an
advisory assembly, the Estates General, and also to an effective end to serfdom.
From the 12th and 13th centuries on, France was at the center (and often originator) of a vibrant
cultural production that extended across Europe, including: the transition of Romanesque
architecture to Gothic architecture (originating in 12th-century France) and Gothic art; the
foundation of medieval universities (such as the universities of Paris (recognized in
1150), Montpellier (1220), Toulouse (1229), and Orleans (1235)) and the so-called "Renaissance
of the 12th century"; a growing body of secular vernacular literature (including the chanson de
geste, chivalric romance, troubadour and trouvrepoetry, etc.) and medieval music (such as the

flowering of the Notre Dame school of polyphony from around 1150 to 1250 which represents the
beginning of what is conventionally known as Ars antiqua).

Geography[edit]
Main articles: Territorial evolution of France and Crown lands of France
From the Middle Ages onward the French rulers believed their kingdoms had natural borders: the
Pyrenees, the Alps and the Rhine. This was used as a pretext for an aggressive policy and
repeated invasions.[1] This however had little basis in reality for not all of these territories were
part of the Kingdom and the authority of the King within his kingdom would be quite fluctuant.
The lands that composed the Kingdom of France showed great geographical diversity, the
northern and central parts enjoyed a temperate climate when the southern part were closer to the
Mediterranean climate. While there were great differences between the northern and southern
parts of the kingdom there were equally important differences depending on the distance of
mountains: mainly the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Massif Central. France had important rivers
that were used as waterways: the Loire, the Rhone, the Seine as well as the Garonne. These
rivers were settled earlier than the rest and important cities were founded on their banks but they
were separated by large forests, marsh, and other rough terrains.[1]
Before the Romans conquered Gaul, the Gauls lived in villages organised in wider tribes. The
Romans referred to the smallest of these groups as pagi and the widest ones as civitates.
[1]
These pagi and civitates were often taken as a basis for the imperial administration and would
survive up to the middle-ages when their capitals became centres of bishoprics. These religious
provinces would survive until the French revolution.[1] During the Roman Empire, southern Gaul
was more heavily populated and because of this more episcopal sees were present there at first
while in northern France they shrank greatly in size because of the barbarian invasions and
became heavily fortified to resist the invaders.[1]
Discussion of the size of France in the Middle Ages is complicated by distinctions between lands
personally held by the king (the "domaine royal") and lands held in homage by another lord. The
notion of res publica inherited from the Roman province of Gaul was not fully maintained by
the Frankish kingdom and the Carolingian Empire, and by the early years of the Direct Capetians,
the French kingdom was more or less a fiction. The "domaine royal" of the Capetians was limited
to the regions around Paris, Bourges and Sens. The great majority of French territory was part
of Aquitaine, the Duchy of Normandy, the Duchy of Brittany, the Comt of Champagne,
the Duchy of Burgundy, and other territories (for a map, seeProvinces of France). In principle, the
lords of these lands owed homage to the French king for their possession, but in reality the king
in Paris had little control over these lands, and this was to be confounded by the uniting of
Normandy, Aquitaine and England under the Plantagenet dynasty in the 12th century.

The territorial expansion of France under Philip II Augustus, 1180 to 1223

Royal domains
Capetian feefs
Angevin feefs
Ecclesiastical domains

Philip II Augustus undertook a massive French expansion in the 13th century, but most of these
acquisitions were lost both by the royal system of "apanage" (the giving of regions to members of
the royal family to be administered) and through losses in the Hundred Years' War. Only in the
15th century would Charles VII andLouis XI gain control of most of modern-day France (except
for Brittany, Navarre, and parts of eastern and northern France).
The weather in France and Europe in the Middle Ages was significantly milder than during the
periods preceding or following it. Historians refer to this as the "Medieval Warm Period", lasting
from about the 10th century to about the 14th century. Part of the French population growth in
this period (see below) is directly linked to this temperate weather and its effect on crops and
livestock.

Demographics[edit]
Main articles: Medieval demography and Demographics of France
At the end of the Middle Ages, France was the most populous region [clarification needed] in Europe
having overtaken Spain and Italy by 1340.[2] In the 14th century, before the arrival of the Black
Death, the total population of the area covered by modern-day France has been estimated at
around 17 million.[citation needed] The population of Paris is controversial.[3]Josiah Russell argued for
about 80,000 in the early 14th century, although he noted that some other scholars suggested
200,000.[3] The higher count would make it by far the largest city in western Europe; the lower
count would put it behind Venice with 100,000 and Florence with 96,000. [4] The Black Death killed
an estimated one-third of the population from its appearance in 1348. The concurrent Hundred

Years' War slowed recovery. It would be the mid-16th century before the population recovered to
mid-fourteenth century levels.[5]
In the early Middle Ages, France was a center of Jewish learning, but increasing persecution, and
a series of expulsions in the 14th century, caused considerable suffering for French
Jews; see History of the Jews in France.

Languages and literacy[edit]


Main articles: History of French, Old French and Occitan language
In the Middle Ages in France, Medieval Latin was the primary medium of scholarly exchange and
the liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church; it was also the language of
science, literature, law, and administration. From 1200 on, vernacular languages began to be
used in administrative work and the law courts,[6] but Latin would remain an administrative and
legal language until the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterts (1539) prescribed the use of French in all
judicial acts, notarized contracts and official legislation.
The vast majority of the population however spoke a variety of vernacular languages derived
from vulgar Latin, the common spoken language of the western Roman empire. The medieval
Italian poet Dante, in his Latin De vulgari eloquentia, classified the Romance languages into
three groups by their respective words for "yes": Nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil, "For some
say oc, others say si, others say ol". The ol languages from Latin hoc ille, "that is it"
occupied northern France, the oc languages from Latin hoc, "that" southern France, and
the si languages from Latin sic, "thus" theItalian and Iberian peninsulas. Modern linguists
typically add a third group within France around Lyon, the "Arpitan" or "Franco-Provenal
language", whose modern word for "yes" is ou.

The area of langues d'ol

The Gallo-Romance group in the north of France, the langue d'ol like Picard,Walloon,
and Francien, were influenced by the Germanic languages spoken by the Frankish invaders.
From the time period of Clovis I on, the Franks extended their rule over northern Gaul. Over time,
the French language developed from either the Ol language found around Paris and le-deFrance (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common
characteristics found in all Ol languages (the lingua franca theory).
Langue d'oc, the languages which use oc or c for "yes", is the language group in the south of
France and northern Spain. These languages, such as Gascon andProvenal, have relatively
little Frankish influence.
The Middle Ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects of France:
From the 4th to 7th centuries, Brythonic-speaking peoples from Cornwall, Devon,
and Wales travelled across the English Channel, both for reasons of trade and of flight from
the Anglo-Saxon invasions of England. They established themselves inArmorica. Their language
became Breton in more recent centuries.
Attested since the time of Julius Caesar, a non-Celtic people who spoke a Basque-related
language inhabited theNovempopulania (Aquitania Tertia) in southwestern France, while the
language gradually lost ground to the expandingRomance during a period spanning most of the
Early Middle Ages. This Proto-Basque influenced the emerging Latin-based language spoken in
the area between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, eventually resulting in the dialect
of Occitan calledGascon.
Scandinavian Vikings invaded France from the 9th century onwards and established themselves
mostly in what would come to be called Normandy. The Normans took up the langue d'ol spoken
there, although Norman French remained heavily influenced by Old Norse and its dialects. They
also contributed many words to French related to sailing and farming.
After the conquest of England in 1066, the Normans's language developed into Anglo-Norman.
Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the
time of the conquest until the Hundred Years' War,[7]by which time the use of French-influenced
English had spread throughout English society.
Around this time period, many words from the Arabic language entered French, mainly indirectly
through Medieval Latin, Italian and Spanish. There are words for luxury goods (lixir,
orange), spices (camphre, safran), trade goods (alcool, bougie, coton), sciences (alchimie,
hasard), and mathematics (algbre, algorithme).
While education and literacy had been important components of aristocratic service in the
Carolingian period,[8] by the eleventh century and continuing to the 13th century, the lay (secular)
public in Franceboth nobles and peasantswas largely illiterate,[9] except for (at least to the
end of the 12th century) members of the great courts and (in the south) smaller noble families.
[10]
This situation began to change in the 13th century (where we find highly literate members of
the French nobility like Guillaume de Lorris, Villehardouin and Joinville[11]). Similarly, due to the

outpouring of French vernacular literature from the 12th century on (chanson de geste, chivalric
romance, troubadour and trouvre poetry, etc.), French became the "international language of the
aristocracy".[11]

Society and government[edit]


Peasants[edit]
In the Middle Ages in France, the vast majority of the populationbetween 80 and 90 percent
were peasants.[12]
Traditional categories inherited from the Roman and Merovingian period (distinctions between
free and unfree peasants, between tenants and peasants who owned their own land, etc.)
underwent significant changes up to the 11th century. The traditional rights of "free" peasants
such as service in royal armies (they had been able to serve in the royal armies as late as
Charlemagne's reign) and participation in public assemblies and law courtswere lost through
the 9th to the 10th centuries, and they were increasingly made dependents of nobles, churches
and large landholders.[13] From the mid-8th century to 1000 also saw a steady increase of
aristocratic and monastic control of the land, at the expense of landowning peasants. [14] At the
same time, the traditional notion of "unfree" dependents and the distinction between "unfree" and
"free" tenants was eroded as the concept of serfdom (see also History of serfdom) came to
dominate.[15]
From the mid-8th century on, particularly in the north, the relationship between peasants and the
land became increasingly characterized by the extension of the new "bipartite estate" system
(manors, manorialism), in which peasants (who were bound to the land) held tenant holdings
from a lord or monastery (for which they paid rent), but were also required to work the lord's own
"demesne"; in the north, some of these estates could be quite substantial. [16] This system
remained a standard part of lord-tenant relations into the 12th century. [17]
The economic and demographic crises of the 14th-15th centuries (agricultural expansion had lost
many of the gains made in the 12th and 13th centuries[18]) reversed this trend: landlords offered
serfs their freedom in exchange for working abandoned lands, ecclesiastical and royal authorities
created new "free" cities (villefranches) or granted freedom to existing cities, etc. By the end of
the 15th century, serfdom was largely extinct;[19] henceforth "free" peasants paid rents for their
own lands, and the lord's demesne was worked by hired labor.[20] This liberated the peasantry to a
certain degree, but also made their lives more precarious in times of economic uncertainty. [20] For
lords who rented out more and more of their holdings for fixed rents, the initial benefits were
positive, but over time they found themselves increasingly cash-strapped as inflationary
pressures reduced their incomes.[21]
Cities and towns[edit]
Much of the Gallo-Roman urban network of cities survived (albeit much changed) into the Middle
Ages as regional centers and capitals: certain cities had been chosen as centers of bishoprics by
the church[22] (for example, Paris, Reims, Aix,Tours, Carcassonne and

Narbonne, Auch, Albi, Bourges, Lyon, etc.), others as seats of local (county, duchy)
administrative power (such as Angers, Blois, Poitiers, Toulouse). In many cases (such as
with Poitiers) cities were seats of both episcopal and administrative power.
From the 10th to the 11th centuries, the urban development of the country expanded (particularly
on the northern coasts): new ports appeared and dukes and counts encouraged and created new
towns.[23] In other areas, urban growth was slower and centered on the monastic houses. [24] In
many regions, market towns (burgs) with limited privileges were established by local lords. In the
late 11th century, "communes", governing assemblies, began to develop in towns.[23]Starting
sporadically in the late 10th, and increasingly in the 12th century, many towns and villages were
able to gain economic, social or judicial privileges and franchises from their lords (exemptions
from tolls and dues, rights to clear land or hold fairs, some judicial or administrative
independence, etc.).[24][25] The seigneurial reaction to expanding urbanism and enfranchisement
was mixed; some lords fought against the changes, but some lords gained financial and political
advantages from the communal movement and growing trade.[26]
The 13th to 14th centuries were a period of significant urbanization. Paris was the largest city in
the realm, and indeed one of the largest cities in Europe, with an estimated population of 200,000
or more at the end of the century. The second largest city was Rouen; the other major cities (with
populations over 10,000) were Orlans, Tours, Bordeaux, Lyon, Dijon,Reims, Metz,
and Strasbourg. In addition to these, there also existed zones with an extended urban network of
medium to small cities, as in the south and the Mediterranean coast (from Toulouse to Marseille,
including Narbonne and Montpellier) and in the north (Beauvais, Laon, Amiens, Arras, Bruges,
etc.).[27] Market towns increased in size and many were able to gain privileges and franchises
including transformation into free cities (villes franches); rural populations from the countrysides
moved to the cities and burgs.[28] This was also a period of urban building: the extension of walls
around the entirety of the urban space, the vast construction of Gothic cathedrals (starting in the
12th century), urban fortresses and castles (such as Philip II Augustus' Louvre around 1200),
bridges, etc.[29]

Aristocracy, nobles, knights[edit]


Further information: French nobility and knight
In the Carolingian period, the "aristocracy" (nobilis in the Latin documents) was by no means a
legally defined category.[30]With traditions going back to the Romans; one was "noble" if he or she
possessed significant land holdings, had access to the king and royal court, could
receive honores and benefices for service (such as being named count or duke).[30] Their access
to political power in the Carolingian period might also necessitate a need for education. [31] Their
wealth and power was also evident in their lifestyle and purchase of luxury goods, and in their
maintenance of an armed entourage of fideles(men who had sworn oaths to serve them).
From the late 9th to the late 10th century, the nature of the noble class changed significantly. First
off, the aristocracy increasingly focused on establishing strong regional bases of landholdings,
[32]
on taking hereditary control of the counties and duchies,[33] and eventually on erecting these
into veritable independent principalities[34] and privatizing various privileges and rights of the state.

(By 1025, the area north of the Loire was dominated by six or seven of these virtually
independent states.[35]) After 1000, these counties in turn began to break down into smaller
lordships, as smaller lords wrest control of local lands in the so-called "feudal revolution" [36] and
seized control over many elements of comital powers (see vassal/feudal below).
Secondly, from the 9th century on, military ability was increasingly seen as conferring special
status, and professional soldiers or milites, generally in the entourage of sworn lords, began to
establish themselves in the ranks of the aristocracy (acquiring local lands, building private
castles, seizing elements of justice), thereby transforming into the military noble class historians
refer to as "knights".[37]

French nobility
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A signet ring with coat of arms


The French nobility (French: la noblesse) was a privileged social class in France during the Middle Ages and
the Early Modern period to the French Revolution in 1790. The nobility was revived in 1805 with limited rights as a
titled elite class from the First Empire to the fall of the July Monarchy in 1848, when all privileges were abolished.
Hereditary titles, without privileges, continued to be granted until the Second Empire fell in 1870, and survive
among their descendants.
In the political system of pre-Revolutionary France, the nobility made up the Second Estateof the Estates
General (with the Catholic clergy comprising the First Estate and the bourgeoisie and peasants in the Third
Estate). Although membership in the noble class was mainly inherited, it was not a closed order. New individuals
were appointed to the nobility by the monarchy, or they could purchase rights and titles, or join by marriage.
Sources differ about the actual number of nobles in France, however, proportionally, it was among the smallest
noble classes in Europe. For the year 1789, French historian Franois Bluche gives a figure of 140,000 nobles
(9,000 noble families) and states that about 5% of nobles could claim descent from feudal nobility before the 15th
century.[1] With a total population of 28 million, this would represent merely 0.5%. Historian Gordon Wright gives a
figure of 300,000 nobles (of which 80,000 were from the traditional noblesse d'pe),[2]which agrees with the

estimation of historian Jean de Viguerie,[3] or a little over 1%. In terms of land holdings, at the time of the
revolution, noble estates comprised about one-fifth of the land.[4]

Privileges[edit]
The French nobility had specific legal and financial rights and prerogatives. The first official list of these
prerogatives was established relatively late, under Louis XI after 1440, and included the right to hunt, to wear
a sword and, in principle, to possess a seigneurie (land to which certain feudal rights and dues were attached).
Nobles were also granted an exemption from paying the taille, except for non-noble lands they might possess in
some regions of France. Furthermore, certain ecclesiastic, civic, and military positions were reserved for nobles.
These feudal privileges are often termed droits de fodalit dominante.
With the exception of a few isolated cases, serfdom had ceased to exist in France by the 15th century. In early
modern France, nobles nevertheless maintained a great number of seigneurial privileges over the free peasants
that worked lands under their control. They could, for example, levy the cens tax, an annual tax on lands leased
or held by vassals. Nobles could also charge banalits for the right to use the lord's mills, ovens, or wine presses.
Alternatively, a noble could demand a portion of vassals' harvests in return for permission to farm land he owned.
Nobles also maintained certain judicial rights over their vassals, although with the rise of the modern state many
of these privileges had passed to state control, leaving rural nobility with only local police functions and judicial
control over violation of their seigneurial rights.
In the 17th century this seigneurial system was established in France's North American possessions.

Duties[edit]
However, the nobles also had responsibilities. Nobles were required to honor, serve, and counsel their king. They
were often required to render military service (for example, the impt du sang or "blood tax").
The rank of "noble" was forfeitable: certain activities could cause drogeance (loss of nobility). Most commercial
and manual activities were strictly prohibited, although nobles could profit from their lands by
operating mines and forges.

Forms of French nobility[edit]


The nobility in France was never an entirely closed class. Nobility and hereditary titles were distinct: while all
hereditary titleholders were noble, most nobles were untitled, although many assumed titres de courtoisie.
Nobility could be granted by the king or, until 1578, acquired by a family which had occupied a government or
military post of high enough rank for three generations. Once acquired, nobility was normally hereditary in the
legitimate male-line for all male descendants. Wealthy families found ready opportunities to pass into the nobility:
although nobility itself could not, legally, be purchased, lands to which noble rights and/or title were attached
could be and often were bought by commoners who adopted use of the property's name or title and were
henceforth assumed to be noble if they could find a way to be exempted from paying thetaille to which only
commoners were subject. Moreover, non-nobles who owned noble fiefs were obliged to pay a special tax (francfief) on the property to the noble liege-lord. Properly, only those who were already noble could assume a
hereditary title attached to a noble fief (i.e. a barony, viscounty, countship, marquisate or dukedom), thereby
acquiring a title recognised but not conferred by the French crown.

The children of a French nobleman (whether a peer or not), unlike those of a British peer, were not
considered commonersbut untitled nobles.
Inheritance was recognized only in the male line, with a few exceptions (noblesse uterine) in the formerly
independent provinces of Champagne, Lorraine and Brittany.
The king could grant nobility to individuals, convert land into noble fiefs or, elevate noble fiefs into titled estates.
The king could also confer special privileges, such as peerage, on a noble fief. In general, these patents needed
to be officially registered with the regional Parlement. In the case of an unwilling Parlement, the land-owner was
termed brevet (as induc brevet or duke by certificate).

Classes of French nobility[edit]


French nobility is generally divided into the following classes:

Noblesse d'pe (nobility of the sword), also known as noblesse de race ("Nobility through breeding"):
the hereditary gentry and nobility who originally had to swear oaths of fealty and perform military service for
the King in exchange for their titles.

Noblesse uterine ("Nobility of the female line"), was for titles that were matrilineal (held
through the mother's line) and could be inherited by female heirs; this was found in some families in the
former independent territories of Champagne, Lorraine and Brittany.

Noblesse d'extraction ("Nobility of descent"): Nobility of seize-quartiers ("sixteen


Quarterings"): having a coat of arms of at least sixteen quarterings (partitions on the field of a
composite coat of arms showing each coat of arms the person is entitled to). This means that the
person has pure noble or gentle ancestry going back at least four generations (parents [2
"quarterings"], grandparents [4 quarterings], great-grandparents [8 quarterings], and great-greatgrandparents [16 quarterings]).

Noblesse de robe (nobility of the robe): person or family made noble by holding certain official charges,
like masters of requests, treasurers, or Presidents of Parlement courts.

Noblesse de chancellerie (nobility of the chancery): commoner made noble by holding certain
high offices for the king.

Noblesse de cloche ("nobility of the bell") or Noblesse chevinale/Noblesse


scabinale ("Nobility of the Aldermen"): person or family made noble by being a mayor (Bourgmestre) or
alderman (chevin) or prvt (Provost, or "municipal functionary") in certain towns (such
as Abbeville and Angers, Angoulme, Bourges, Lyon, Toulouse,Paris, Perpignan, and Poitiers). Some
towns and cities received the status temporarily or sporadically, like Cognac,Issoudun, La
Rochelle, Lyon, Nantes, Niort, Saint-Jean-d'Angly and Tours. There were only 14 such communities by
the beginning of the Revolution.

Noblesse militaire (military nobility): person or family made noble by holding military offices,
generally after two or three generations.

Nobles sometimes made the following distinctions based on the age of their status:

Noblesse chevaleresque (knightly nobility) or noblesse ancienne ("Old Nobility"): nobility from before
the year 1400, who inherited their titles from time immemorial.

Noblesse de lettres (nobility through Letters Patent): person made noble by letters patent from after the
year 1400.

Commoners were referred to as roturiers. Magistrates and men of law were sometimes called robins.
The acquisition of titles of nobility could be done in one generation or gradually over several generations:

Noblesse au premier degr (nobility in the first generation): nobility awarded in the first generation,
generally after 20 years of service or by death in one's post.

Noblesse graduelle: nobility awarded in the second generation, generally after 20 years of service by
both father and son.

The noblesse de lettres became, starting in the reign of Francis I, a handy method for the court to raise revenues;
non-nobles possessing noble fiefs would pay a year's worth of revenues from their fiefs to acquire nobility. In
1598, Henry IVundid a number of these anoblissments, but eventually resumed the practice.
The noblesse de cloche dates from 1372 (for the city of Poitiers) and was found only in certain cities with legal
and judicial freedoms; by the Revolution these cities were only a handful.
The noblesse de chancellerie first appeared during the reign of Charles VIII at the end of the 15th century. To
hold the office of chancellor required (with few exceptions) noble status, so non-nobles given the position were
raised to the nobility, generally after 20 years of service. Non-nobles paid enormous sums to hold these positions,
but this form of nobility was often derided as savonnette villain ("soap for serfs").
The noblesse de robe existed by longstanding tradition. In 1600 it gained legal status. High positions in
regionalparlements, tax boards (chambres des comptes), and other important financial and official state offices
(usually bought at high price) conferred nobility, generally in two generations, although membership in the
Parlements of Paris, Dauphin,Besanon and Flanders, as well as on the tax boards of
Paris, Dole and Grenoble elevated an official to nobility in one generation.
These state offices could be lost by a family at the unexpected death of the office holder. In an attempt to gain
more tax revenues, the king's financial advisor, financier Charles Paulet, instituted the Paulette in 1604. This was
a yearly tax of 1/60th of the price of the office that insured hereditary transmission. This annual tax solidified the
hereditary acquisition of public office in France, and by the middle of the 17th century the majority of office
holders were already noble from long possession of thereof.
Henry IV began to enforce the law against usurpation of titles of nobility, and in 16661674 Louis XIV mandated a
massive program of verification of hereditary titles. Oral testimony maintaining that parents and grandparents had
been born noble and lived as such were no longer accepted: written proofs (marriage contracts, land documents)
proving noble rank since 1560 were required to substantiate noble status. Many families were put back on the
lists of the taille and/or forced to pay fines for usurping noble titles.

Titles, peerage, and orders[edit]


There were two kinds of titles used by French nobles: some were personal ranks and others were linked to
the fiefs owned, called fiefs de dignit.
During the ancien rgime, there was no distinction of rank by title (except for the title of duke, which was often
associated with the strictly regulated privileges of the peerage, including precedence above other titled nobles).
The hierarchy within the French nobility below peers was initially based on seniority; a count whose family had
been noble since the 14th century was higher-ranked than a marquis whose title only dated to the 15th
century. Precedence at the royal court was based on the family's anciennet, its alliances (marriages),
its hommages (dignities and offices held) and, lastly, itsillustrations (record of deeds and achievements).
Titles:

Duc: possessor of a duchy (duch -- a feudal property, not an independent principality) and
recognition as duke by the king.

Prince: possessor of a lordship styled a principality (principaut); most such titles were held by
family tradition and were treated by the court as titres de courtoisie -- often borne by the eldest sons of
the more important duke-peers. This title of prince is not to be confused with the rank of prince, borne
by the princes du sang, the princes lgitimsor the princes trangers whose high precedence derived
from their kinship to actual rulers.

Marquis: possessor of a marquessate (marquisat), but often assumed by a noble family as


a titre de courtoisie

Comte: possessor of a county (comt) or self-assumed.

Vicomte: possessor of a viscounty (vicomt) or self-assumed.

Baron: possessor of a barony (baronnie) or self-assumed.


Ranks:

Fils de France: son of a king or dauphin.

Petit-fils de France: grandson of a king in the male line.


Prince du Sang ("prince of the blood"): a remote, legitimate male-line descendant of a king of

France.

[5]

Peer of France was technically a dignity of the Crown (as, e.g., marshal of France), but
became in fact the highest hereditary rank borne by the French nobility -- always in conjunction with a
title (e.g. "Duc et Pair", "Comte-Pair"). The peerage was originally awarded only to princes of the blood,
some legitimised and foreign princes, often the heads of the kingdom's most ancient and powerful
families, and a few bishops. Eventually it was almost always granted in conjunction with the title of duke.
Gradually the peerage came to be conferred more broadly as a reward for distinguished military or
diplomatic service, but also on favourites of the king (e.g. les mignons). The peers were entitled to seats
in the Parliament of Paris, the most important judicial court in the kingdom.

Prince lgitim legitimised son or male-line descendant of a king. Precise rank depended
upon the king's favour.

Prince tranger ("foreign prince"): members of foreign royal or princely families naturalized at
the French court, such as the Clves, Rohan, La Tour d'Auvergne, and Lorraine-Guise.

Chevalier an otherwise untitled nobleman who belonged to an order of chivalry; earlier, a rank
for untitled members of the oldest noble families. Later distinction was that a Knight (Sieur) went
through the dubbing ceremony (touched with a sword on the head and shoulders by the King), while the
lesser rank of Chevalier or Knight Bachelor received the rank without the ceremony.

cuyer (literally: "shield bearer") lowest specific rank in the nobility, to which the vast majority
of untitled nobles were entitled; also called valet or noble homme in certain regions.

Gentilhomme lowest non-specific rank indicating nobility

Seigneur ("Squire") term for the untitled owner of a feudal property; strictly, neither a title nor a
rank, it indicated that a landlord's property had certain noble rights attached, although properly it did not
indicate the owner was noble, especially after the 17th century.

Btard Recognized bastard son of a gentleman or nobleman. They could not usually inherit a
title (if any claimants of legitimate birth existed) but could be employed in their father's retinue. Bastard
sons and daughters were often married off to allied or subordinate families to strengthen ties or to bind
lesser families to them.

The use of the nobiliary particle de in noble names (Fr: la particule) was not officially controlled in France
(unlike von in the German states), and is not reliable evidence of the bearer's nobility. In the 18th and 19th
centuries, the de was adopted by some non-nobles (like Honor de Balzac) in an attempt to appear noble.[6]
Each rank of nobility royal prince, prince belonging to collateral lines of the royal family (prince du sang), duc,
marquis, comte, vicomte, baron, etc. conferred its own privileges; dukes for example could enter royal
residences in a carriage, duchesses could sit on a stool (tabouret) in the queen's presence. Dukes in France
the most important group after the princes were further divided into those who were also "peers" (Duc et Pair)
and those who were not. Dukes without a peerage fell into one of two groups: those never granted peerage fiefs
by the king, and those for whom the Parlement of Paris refused to register the king's lettres patentes, permanently
or temporarily, as a protest against the promotion.
Noble hierarchies were further complicated by the creation of chivalric orders the Chevaliers du SaintEsprit (Knights of the Holy Spirit) created by Henry III in 1578; the Ordre de Saint-Michel created by Louis XI in
1469; the Order of Saint Louiscreated by Louis XIV in 1696 by official posts, and by positions in the Royal
House (the Great Officers of the Crown of France), such as grand matre de la garde-robe (the grand master of
the royal wardrobe, being the royal dresser) or grand panetier (royal bread server), which had long ceased to be
actual functions and had become nominal and formal positions with their own privileges. The 17th and 18th
centuries saw nobles and the noblesse de robe battle each other for these positions and any other sign of royal
favor.
Attending the ceremony of the king's waking at Versailles (the smaller and intimate petit lever du roi and the more
formalgrand lever du roi), being asked to cross the barriers that separated the royal bed from the rest of the room,
being invited to talk to the king, or being mentioned by the king... all were signs of favor and actively sought after.

Economic status[edit]
Economic studies of nobility in France reveal great differences in financial status. At the end of the 18th century, a
well-off family could earn 100,000150,000 livres per year, although the most prestigious families could gain two
or three times that much. For provincial nobility, yearly earnings of 10,000 livres permitted a minimum of provincial
luxury, but most earned far less.[7] The ethics of noble expenditure, the financial crises of the century and the
inability of nobles to participate in most fields without losing their nobility contributed to their poverty.
In the 18th century, the Comte de Boulainvilliers, a rural noble, posited the belief that French nobility had
descended from the victorious Franks, while non-nobles descended from the conquered Gauls. The theory had
no validity, but offered a myth for an impoverished noble class.[8]

Aristocratic codes[edit]
The idea of what it meant to be noble went through a radical transformation from the 16th to the 17th centuries.
Through contact with the Italian Renaissance and their concept of the perfect courtier (Baldassare Castiglione),
the rude warrior class was remodeled into what the 17th century would come to call l'honnte homme ('the
honest or upright man'), among whose chief virtues were eloquent speech, skill at dance, refinement of manners,
appreciation of the arts, intellectual curiosity, wit, a spiritual or platonic attitude in love, and the ability to write
poetry. Most notable of noble values are the aristocratic obsession with "glory" (la gloire) and majesty (la
grandeur) and the spectacle of power, prestige, and luxury.[9]For example, Pierre Corneille's noble heroes have
been criticised by modern readers who have seen their actions as vainglorious, criminal, or hubristic; aristocratic
spectators of the period would have seen many of these same actions as representative of their noble
station[verification needed].
The chteau of Versailles, court ballets, noble portraits, triumphal arches were all representations of glory and
prestige. The notion of glory (military, artistic, etc.) was seen in the context of the Roman Imperial model; it was
not seen as vain or boastful, but as a moral imperative to the aristocratic classes. Nobles were required to be
"generous" and "magnanimous", to perform great deeds disinterestedly (i.e. because their status demanded it
whence the expression noblesse oblige and without expecting financial or political gain), and to master their
own emotions, especially fear, jealousy, and the desire for vengeance. One's status in the world demanded
appropriate externalisation (or "conspicuous consumption"). Nobles indebted themselves to build prestigious
urban mansions (htels particuliers) and to buy clothes, paintings, silverware, dishes, and other furnishings
befitting their rank. They were also required to show liberality by hosting sumptuous parties and by funding the
arts.[10]
Conversely, social parvenus who took on the external trappings of the noble classes (such as the wearing of a
sword) were severely criticised, sometimes by legal action; laws on sumptuous clothing worn by bourgeois
existed since the Middle Ages.
Traditional aristocratic values began to be criticised in the mid 17th century: Blaise Pascal, for example, offered a
ferocious analysis of the spectacle of power and Franois de La Rochefoucauld posited that no human act
however generous it pretended to becould be considered disinterested.
By relocating the French royal court to Versailles in the 1680s, Louis XIV further modified the role of the nobles.
Versailles became a gilded cage: to leave spelled disaster for a noble, for all official charges and appointments

were made there. Provincial nobles who refused to join the Versailles system were locked out of important
positions in the military or state offices, and lacking royal subsides (and unable to keep up a noble lifestyle on
seigneurial taxes), these rural nobles (hobereaux) often went into debt. A strict etiquette was imposed: a word or
glance from the king could make or destroy a career. At the same time, the relocation of the court to Versailles
was also a brilliant political move by Louis. By distracting the nobles with court life and the daily intrigue that came
with it, he neutralized a powerful threat to his authority and removed the largest obstacle to his ambition to
centralize power in France.

Power and protest[edit]


Before Louis XIV imposed his will on the nobility, the great families of France often claimed a fundamental right to
rebel against unacceptable royal abuse. The Wars of Religion, the Fronde, the civil unrest during the minority
of Charles VIII and the regencies of Anne of Austria and Marie de Medici are all linked to these perceived loss of
rights at the hand of a centralizing royal power.
Much of the power of nobles in these periods of unrest comes from their "clientle system". Like the king, nobles
granted the use of fiefs, and gave gifts and other forms of patronage to other nobles to develop a vast system of
noble clients. Lesser families would send their children to be squires and members of these noble houses, and to
learn in them the arts of court society and arms.
The elaboration of the ancien rgime state was made possible only by redirecting these clientle systems to a
new focal point (the king and the state), and by creating countervailing powers (the bourgeoisie, the noblesse de
robe).[11] By the late 17th century, any act of explicit or implicit protest was treated as a form of lse-majest and
harshly repressed.

The nobility and the Enlightenment[edit]


Many key Enlightenment figures were French nobles, such as Montesquieu, whose full name was Charles de
Secondat, baron de Montesquieu.

The abolition of privileges during the French Revolution [edit]

The abolition of privileges, relief byLopold Morice at the "Monument to the Republic", Paris

At the beginning of the French Revolution, on August 4, 1789 the dues that a peasant had to pay to the lord, such
as the banalits of Manorialism, were abolished by the National Constituent Assembly; noble lands were stripped
of their special status as fiefs; the nobility were subjected to the same taxation as their co-nationals, and lost their
privileges (the hunt, seigneurial justice, funeral honors). The nobles were, however, allowed to retain their titles.
Nevertheless, it was decided that certain annual financial payments which were owed the nobility and which were
considered "contractual" (i.e. not stemming from a usurpation of feudal power, but from a contract between a
landowner and a tenant) such as annual rents (the cens and the champart) needed to be bought back by the
tenant for the tenant to have clear title to his land. Since the feudal privileges of the nobles had been
termed droits de feodalit dominante, these were called droits de fodalit contractante. The rate set (May
3, 1790) for purchase of these contractual debts was 20 times the annual monetary amount (or 25 times the
annual amount if given in crops or goods); peasants were also required to pay back any unpaid dues over the
past thirty years. Unfortunately, no system of credit was established for small farmers, and only well-off individuals
could take advantage of the ruling. This created a massive land grab by well-off peasants and members of the
middle-class, who became absentee landowners and had their land worked by share-croppers and poor tenants.
[12]

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen had adopted by vote of the Assembly on August 26,
1789, but the abolition of nobility did not occur at that time. The Declaration declared in its first article that "Men
are born free and equal in rights; social distinctions may be based only upon general usefulness." It was not until
June 19, 1790, that hereditary titles of nobility were abolished. The notions of equality and fraternity won over
some nobles such as the Marquis de Lafayettewho supported the abolition of legal recognition of nobility, but
other liberal nobles who had happily sacrificed their fiscal privileges saw this as an attack on the culture of honor.

Nobility since the Revolution[edit]


See also: Nobles of the First French Empire
Nobility and hereditary titles were abolished by the Revolutions of 1789 and 1848, but hereditary titles were
restored by decree in 1852 and have never since been abolished in law. However, since 1875 the President of the
Republic neither confers nor confirms French titles (specific foreign titles continued to be authorised for use in
France by the office of the President as recently as 1961), but the French state still verifies them, civil courts can
protect them, and criminal courts can prosecute their abuse.
The Restoration of Louis XVIII saw the return of the old nobility to power (while ultra-royalists clamored for a
return of lost lands). The electoral laws of 1817 limited suffrage to only the wealthiest or most prestigious
members (less than 0.5%) of the population, which included many of the old nobility.
Napolon Bonaparte established his own hereditary titles during the Empire, and these new aristocrats were
confirmed in legal retention of their titles even after his overthrow. In all, about 2200 titles were created by
Napoleon I:
Princes and Dukes:

sovereign princes (3)

duchies grand fiefs (20)

victory princes (4)

victory dukedoms (10)

other dukedoms (3)

Counts (251)

Barons (1516)

Knights (385)

(There were 239 remaining families holding First Empire titles in 1975. Of those, perhaps 130140 were titled.
Only one title of prince and seven titles of duke remain.) Napoleon also established a new knightly order in 1802,
the Lgion d'honneur, which still exists.
Between 1830 and 1848 Louis Philippe, King of the French retained the House of Peers established by the
Bourbons under the Restoration (although he made the peerage non-hereditary) and granted hereditary titles (but
without "nobility").
The Second Empire of Napoleon III also conferred hereditary titles until monarchy was again abolished in 1870. If
the Third Republic returned once again to the principles of equality espoused by the Revolution (at least among
the political Radical party), in practice the upper echelons of French society maintained their notion of social
distinction well into the 20th century (for example, as attested to by the presence of nobility and noble class
distinctions in the works of Marcel Proust). The use of their titles was officially sanctioned.
French courts have, however, held that the concept of nobility is incompatible with the equality of all citizens
before the law proclaimed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man of 1789, and remains part of the Constitution of
1958. Therefore, "nobility", as legal concept and status, has been effectively abolished in France.
Nonetheless, extant titles which were hereditary under one of France's monarchical regimes are considered part
of the legal name which descend according to their original grants (insofar as they pass from and to males only),
[13]

are incapable of becoming a legal part of the name by self-assumption or prolonged usage,[14] and are entitled

to the same protections in French civil and criminal courts as the name, even though they afford neither privilege
nor precedence (cf., peerage of the United Kingdom).[15] Regulation of titles is carried out by a bureau of the
Ministry of Justice, which can verify and authorize the bearer to make legal use of the title in official documents
such as birth certificates.[16]

Symbols[edit]
In France, the signet ring (chevalire) bearing the coat of arms is traditionally worn by French noblemen on the
ring finger of their left hand, contrary to usage in most other European countries (where it is worn on the little
finger of either the right or left hand, depending on the country); French noble women however wear it on their
little finger. The chevalire may either be worn facing up (en baise-main) or facing toward the palm (en bagarre).
In contemporary usage, the inward position is increasingly common, although for some noble families the inward
position is traditionally used to indicate that the wearer is married.[citation needed]

Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: Vassalage and feudal land[edit]


Further information: Vassal and Fief
The Merovingians and Carolingians maintained relations of power with their aristocracy through
the use of clientele systems and the granting of honores and benefices, including land, a practice
which grew out of Late Antiquity. This practice would develop into the system of vassalage and
feudalism in the Middle Ages. Originally, vassalage did not imply the giving or receiving of
landholdings (which were granted only as a reward for loyalty), but by the eighth century the
giving of a landholding was becoming standard.[38] The granting of a landholding to a vassal did
not relinquish the lord's property rights, but only the use of the lands and their income; the
granting lord retained ultimate ownership of the fee and could, technically, recover the lands in
case of disloyalty or death.[38]
In the 8th-century Frankish empire, Charles Martel was the first to make large scale and
systematic use (the practice had remained until then sporadic) of the remuneration of vassals by
the concession of the usufruct of lands (a beneficatium or "benefice" in the documents) for the life
of the vassal, or, sometimes extending to the second or third generation. [39] By the middle of the
10th century, feudal land grants (fee, fiefs) had largely become hereditary. [40] The eldest son of a
deceased vassal would inherit, but first he had to do homage and fealty to the lord and pay a
"relief" for the land (a monetary recognition of the lord's continuing proprietary rights over the
property). By the 11th century, the bonds of vassalage and the granting of fiefs had spread
throughout much of French society, but it was in no ways universal in France: in the south, feudal
grants of land or of rights were unknown.[41]
In its origin, the feudal grant had been seen in terms of a personal bond between lord and vassal,
but with time and the transformation of fiefs into hereditary holdings, the nature of the system
came to be seen as a form of "politics of land" (an expression used by the historian Marc Bloch).
The 11th century in France saw what has be called by historians a "feudal revolution" or
"mutation" and a "fragmentation of powers" (Bloch) that was unlike the development
of feudalism in England or Italy or Germany in the same period or later: [42] counties and duchies
began to break down into smaller holdings ascastellans and lesser seigneurs took control of local
lands, and (as comital families had done before them) lesser lords usurped/privatized a wide
range of prerogatives and rights of the state, most importantly the highly profitable rights of
justice, but also travel dues, market dues, fees for using woodlands, obligations to use the lord's
mill, etc.[43] (what Georges Duby called collectively the "seigneurie banale"[44]). Power in this period
became more personal[45] and it would take centuries for the state to fully reimpose its control over
local justice and fiscal administration (by the 15th century, much of the seigneur's legal purview
had been given to the bailliages, leaving them only affairs concerning seigneurial dues and
duties, and small affairs of local justice)
This "fragmentation of powers" was not however systematic throughout France, and in certain
counties (such as Flanders, Normandy, Anjou, Toulouse), counts were able to maintain control of
their lands into the 12th century or later.[46] Thus, in some regions (like Normandy and Flanders),
the vassal/feudal system was an effective tool for ducal and comital control, linking vassals to
their lords; but in other regions, the system led to significant confusion, all the more so as vassals

could and frequently did pledge themselves to two or more lords. In response to this, the idea of
a "liege lord" was developed (where the obligations to one lord are regarded as superior) in the
12th century.[47]

Vassal
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Vassal (disambiguation).
A vassal or feudatory[1] is a person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context
of the feudal system in medieval Europe. The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in
exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held as afiefdom.[2] The term can be applied to
similar arrangements in other feudal societies. In contrast, a fidelity, or fidelitas, was a sworn loyalty, subject to
the king.[3]

Western vassalage[edit]
In fully developed vassalage, the lord and the vassal would take part in acommendation ceremony composed of
two parts, the homage and the fealty, including the use of Christian sacraments to show its sacred importance.
According to Eginhard's brief description, thecommendatio made to Pippin the Younger in 757 by Tassillo, Duke
of Bavaria, involved the relics of Saints Denis, Rusticus, leuthre, Martin, and Germain - apparently assembled
at Compigne for the event.[4] Such refinements were not included from the outset when it was time of crisis, war,
hunger, etc.. Under feudalism, those who were weakest needed the protection of the knights who owned the
weapons and knew how to fight. Feudal society was increasingly based on the concept of "lordship"
(French seigneur), which was one of the distinguishing features of the Early Middle Ages and had evolved from
times of Late Antiquity.[5]
In the time of Charlemagne (ruled 768-814), the connection slowly developed between vassalage and the grant of
land, the main form of wealth at that time. Contemporaneous social developments included agricultural
"manorialism" and the social and legal structures labelled but only since the 18th century "feudalism".
These developments proceeded at different rates in various regions. In Merovingian times (5th century to 752),
monarchs would reward only the greatest and most trusted vassals with lands. Even at the most extreme
devolution of any remnants of central power, in 10th-century France, the majority of vassals still had no fixed
estates.[6]
The stratification of a fighting band of vassals into distinct groups might roughly correlate with the new term "fief"
that had started to supersede "benefice" in the 9th century. An "upper" group comprised great territorial
magnates, who were strong enough to ensure the inheritance of their benefice to the heirs of their family. A
"lower" group consisted of landless knightsattached to a count or duke. This social settling process also received
impetus in fundamental changes in the conduct of warfare. As co-ordinated cavalry superseded
disorganized infantry, armies became more expensive to maintain. A vassal needed economic resources to equip
the cavalry he was bound to contribute to his lord to fight his frequent wars. Such resources, in the absence of a

money economy, came only from land and its associated assets, which included peasantsas well as wood and
water.

Difference between "vassal" and "vassal state"[edit]


Many empires have set up vassal states out of cities, kingdoms, and tribes that they wish to bring under their
auspices without having to conquer or govern them. In these cases, vassalage (or suzerainty) just means
forfeiting foreign-policy independence in exchange for full internal autonomy and perhaps a formal tribute. A
lesser state that might be called a "junior ally" would be called a "vassal" as a reference to a domestic "fiefholder"
or "trustee", simply to apply a common domestic norm to diplomatic culture. This allows different cultures to
understand formal hegemonic relationships in personal terms, even among states using non-personal forms of
rule. Imperial states that have used this terminology include Ancient Rome, the Mongol Empire, and the British
Empire.

See also[edit]

Vassal state

Feudalism

Feudalism in the Holy Roman Empire

Freeborn

Lehnsmann

Mandala (political model)

Suzerainty

Thegn

Vavasour, a type of vassal

Zamindar

Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: Peerage[edit]


Main article: Peerage of France
Medieval French kings conferred the dignity of peerage upon certain of his preminent vassals,
both clerical and lay. Some historians consider Louis VII (11371180) to have created the French
system of peers.[48]

Peerage was attached to a specific territorial jurisdiction, either an episcopal see for episcopal
peerages or a fief for secular. Peerages attached to fiefs were transmissible or inheritable with
the fief, and these fiefs are often designated aspairie-duch (for duchies) and pairie-comt (for
counties).
By 1216 there were nine peers:

Archbishop of Reims who had the distinction of anointing and crowning the king

Bishop of Langres

Bishop of Beauvais

Bishop of Chlons

Bishop of Noyon

Duke of Normandy

Duke of Burgundy

Duke of Aquitaine also called Duke of Guyenne

Count of Champagne

A few years later and before 1228 three peers were added to make the total of twelve peers:

Bishop of Laon

Count of Flanders

Count of Toulouse

These twelve peerages are known as the ancient peerage or pairie ancienne, and the number
twelve is sometimes said to have been chosen to mirror the 12 paladins of Charlemagne in
the Chanson de geste (see below). Parallels may also be seen with mythical Knights of the
Round Table under King Arthur. So popular was this notion, that for a long time people thought
peerage had originated in the reign of Charlemagne, who was considered the model king and
shining example for knighthood and nobility.
The dozen pairs played a role in the royal sacre or consecration, during the liturgy of
the coronation of the king, attested to as early as 1179, symbolically upholding his crown, and
each original peer had a specific role, often with an attribute. Since the peers were never twelve
during the coronation in early periods, due to the fact that most lay peerages were forfeited to or
merged in the crown, delegates were chosen by the king, mainly from the princes of the blood. In
later periods peers also held up by poles a baldaquin or cloth of honour over the king during
much of the ceremony.

In 1204 the Duchy of Normandy was absorbed by the French crown, and later in the 13th century
two more of the lay peerages were absorbed by the crown (Toulouse 1271, Champagne 1284),
so in 1297 three new peerages were created, the County of Artois, the Duchy of Anjou and
the Duchy of Brittany, to compensate for the three peerages that had disappeared.
Thus, beginning in 1297 the practice started of creating new peerages by letters patent,
specifying the fief to which the peerage was attached, and the conditions under which the fief
could be transmitted (e.g. only male heirs) for princes of the blood who held an apanage. By
1328 all apanagists would be peers.
The number of lay peerages increased over time from 7 in 1297 to 26 in 1400, 21 in 1505, and
24 in 1588.
Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: Monarchy and regional powers[edit]
France was a very decentralised state during the Middle Ages. In Brittany and Catalonia (now a
part of Spain) the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states
of the Holy Roman Empire and not yet a part of France. Initially, West Frankish kings were
elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of
the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of male primogeniture, which
became codified in the Salic law. The authority of the king was more religious than
administrative. The 11th century in France marked the apogee of princely power at the expense
of the king when states like Normandy, Flanders or Languedocenjoyed a local authority
comparable to kingdoms in all but name. The Capetians, as they were descended from
theRobertians, were formerly powerful princes themselves who had successfully unseated the
weak and unfortunateCarolingian kings.[49]
The Carolingian kings had nothing more than a royal title when the Capetian kings added their
principality to that title. The Capetians, in a way, held a dual status of King and Prince; as king
they held the Crown of Charlemagne and as Count of Paris they held their personal fiefdom, best
known as le-de-France.[49]
The fact that the Capetians both held lands as Prince as well as in the title of King gave them a
complicated status. Thus they were involved in the struggle for power within France as princes
but they also had a religious authority over Roman Catholicism in France as King. However, and
despite the fact that the Capetian kings often treated other princes more as enemies and allies
than as subordinates, their royal title was often recognised yet not often respected. The royal
authority was so weak in some remote places that bandits were the effective power. [49]
Some of the king's vassals would grow sufficiently powerful that they would become some of the
strongest rulers of western Europe. The Normans, the Plantagenets, the Lusignans,
the Hautevilles, the Ramnulfids, and the House of Toulousesuccessfully carved lands outside of
France for themselves. The most important of these conquests for French history was
the Norman Conquest of England by William the Conqueror, following the Battle of Hastings and
immortalised in theBayeux Tapestry, because it linked England to France through Normandy.

Although the Normans were now both vassals of the French kings and their equals as kings of
England, their zone of political activity remained centered in France.[50]
An important part of the French aristocracy also involved itself in the crusades, and French
knights founded and ruled theCrusader states. An example of the legacy left in the Middle East
by these nobles is the Krak des Chevaliers' enlargement by the Counts of Tripoli and Toulouse.
The history of the monarchy is how it overcame the powerful barons over ensuing centuries, and
established absolute sovereignty over France in the 16th century. A number of factors contributed
to the rise of the French monarchy. The dynasty established by Hugh Capet continued
uninterrupted until 1328, and the laws of primogeniture ensured orderly successions of power.
Secondly, the successors of Capet came to be recognised as members of an illustrious and
ancient royal house and therefore socially superior to their politically and economically superior
rivals. Thirdly, the Capetians had the support of the Church, which favoured a strong central
government in France. This alliance with the Church was one of the great enduring legacies of
the Capetians. The First Crusade was composed almost entirely of Frankish Princes. As time
went on the power of the King was expanded by conquests, seizures and successful feudal
political battles.[51]

Royal administration[edit]
Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: King's Council[edit]
Main article: Conseil du Roi
The kings of France traditionally always sought the advice of their entourage (vassals, clerics,
etc.) before making important decisions. In the early Middle Ages, the entourage around the king
was sometimes called the familia; later the expression "htel du roi" or the "maison du roi" (the
"royal household") was used for people attached directly to the person of the king, while (in the
12th century), those who were called upon to counsel the king in his administration of the realm
took the form of a specific (and separate) institution called the King's Court (Latin: the "Curia
Regis", later the Conseil du Roi)), although by the middle of the 13th century distinctions between
"htel du roi" and curia regis were less clear.[52]
In addition to the King's Council, the consultative governing of the country also depended on
other intermittent and permanent institutions, such as the States General, the Parlements and the
Provincial Estates. The Parliament of Paris as indeed all of the sovereign courts of the realm
was itself born out of the King's Council: originally a consultative body of the Curia Regis, later (in
the thirteenth century) endowed with judicial functions, the Parliament was separated from the
King's Council in 1254.
The King's Court functioned as an advisory body under the early Capetian kings.[53] It was
composed of a number of the king's trusted advisers but only a few traveled with the king at any
time.[53] By the later twelfth century it had become a judicial body with a few branching off to
remain the king's council.[53] By the fourteenth century the term curia regis was no longer used.

However, it had served as a predecessor to later sovereign assemblies; the Parlement which
was a judiciary body, the Chamber of Accounts which was a financial body and King's Council.[54]
[53]

The composition of the King's Council changed constantly over the centuries and according to
the needs and desires of the king. Medieval councils frequently excluded:

the queen (both as queen consort or as queen mother) the influence of the queen lost
direct political control as early as the 13th century, except in periods of regency; the queen
thus only exceptionally attended the Council.

close relations to the king, including younger sons, grandsons and princes of the royal
bloodline ("prince du sang") from junior branches of the family these individuals were often
suspected of political ambition and of plotting.

On the other hand, medieval councils generally included:

the crown prince (the "dauphin") if he was of age to attend the council

the "grands" the most powerful members of the church and of the nobility.

The feudal aristocracy would maintain great control over the king's council up until the 14th and
15th centuries. The most important positions in the court were those of the Great Officers of the
Crown of France, headed by the conntable (chief military officer of the realm; established by
King Philip I in 1060) and the chancellor. Other positions included the Grand Chambrier who
managed the Royal Treasury along with the Grand Bouteiller (Grand Butler), before being
supplanted of these functions by the Chamber of Accounts (Chambre des comptes, created by
King Philip IV) and the position ofSurintendant des finances (created in 1311). Certain kings were
unable to reduce the importance of the feudal aristocracy (Louis X, Philip VI, John II, Charles VI),
while others were more successful (Charles V, Louis XI).
Over the centuries, the number of jurists (or "lgistes"), generally educated by the universit de
Paris, steadily increased as the technical aspects of the matters studied in the council mandated
specialized counsellers. Coming from the lesser nobility or the bourgeoisie, these jurists (whose
positions sometimes gave them or their heirs nobility, as the so-called "noblesse de robe" or
chancellor nobles) helped in preparing and putting into legal form the king's decisions, and they
formed the early elements of a true civil service and royal administration which would because
of their permanence provide a sense of stability and continuity to the royal council, despite its
many reorganizations. In their attempts at greater efficiency, the kings tried to reduce the number
of counsellors or to convoke "reduced councils". Charles V had a council of 12 members.
The Council had only a consultational role: the final decision was always the king's. Although
jurists frequented praised (especially later in the 16th century) the advantages of consultative
government (with the agreement of his counsellors, the king could more easily impose the most
severe of his decisions, or he could have his most unpopular decisions blamed on his
counsellors), mainstream legal opinion never held that the king was bound by the decisions of his
council; the opposite was however put forward by the States General of 13551358.

The Council's purview concerned all matters pertaining to government and royal administration,
both in times of war and of peace. In his council, the king received ambassadors, signed treaties,
appointed administrators and gave them instructions (called, from the 12th century
on, mandements), elaborated on the laws of the realm (called ordonnances). The council also
served as a supreme court and rendered royal justice on those matters that the king reserved for
himself (so-called "justice retenue") or decided to discuss personally.
Council meetings, initially irregular, took on a regular schedule which became daily from the
middle of the 15th century.

Conseil du Roi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Conseil du Roi (French pronunciation: [k sj dy wa]) or King's Council is a general term for the administrative
and governmental apparatus around the king of France during the Ancien Rgime designed to prepare his
decisions and give him advice. It should not be confused with the role and title of a "Conseil du Roi", a type
of public prosecutor in the French legal system at the same period.
One of the established principles of the French monarchy was that the king could not act without the advice of his
council. Under Charles V, it was put forward that the king made decisions only after "good and careful
deliberation" (French: bonne et mre dlibration), and this principle was maintained by his successors; the
closing formula of royal acts "le roi en son conseil" expressed this deliberative aspect. Even during the period
of French absolutism, the expression "car tel est notre bon plaisir" ("because such is our pleasure") applied to
royal decisions made with consultation.
The administration of the French state in the early modern period went through a long evolution, as a truly
administrative apparatus relying on old nobility, newer chancellor nobility ("noblesse de robe") and
administrative professionals substituted the feudal clientel system. The exact divisions and names of these
councils varied over time.

Overview[edit]
Role[edit]
The kings of France traditionally always sought the advice of their entourage (vassals, clerics, etc.) before making
important decisions (in the early Middle Ages, this entourage was sometimes called the familia), but only in the
12th century did this deliberation take the form of a specific institution called the King's Court (Latin: the "Curia
Regis").
The Council had only a consultational role: the final decision was always the king's. Although jurists frequented
praised (especially in the 16th century) the advantages of consultative government (with the agreement of his
counsellors, the king could more easily impose the most severe of his decisions, or he could have his most

unpopular decisions blamed on his counsellors), mainstream legal opinion never held that the king was bound by
the decisions of his council. The opposite was however put forward by the States General of 13551358, and by
the Huguenots and by the Catholic League in the second half of the 16th century.
The Council's purview concerned all matters pertaining to government and royal administration, both in times of
war and of peace. In his council, the king received ambassadors, signed treaties, appointed administrators and
gave them instructions (called, from the 12th century on, mandements), elaborated on the laws of the realm
(called ordonnances). The council also served as a supreme court and rendered royal justice on those matters
that the king reserved for himself (so-called "justice retenue") or decided to discuss personally.
Council meetings, initially irregular, took on a regular schedule which became daily from the middle of the 15th
century.
In addition to the King's Council, the consultative governing of the country also depended on other intermittent
and permanent institutions, such as the States General, the Parlements and the Provincial Estates. The
Parliament of Paris as indeed all of the sovereign courts of the realm was itself born out of the King's Council:
originally a consultative body of the Curia Regis, later (in the thirteenth century) endowed with judicial functions,
the Parliament was separated from the King's Council in 1254.

Composition of the King's Council[edit]


The composition of the King's Council changed constantly over the centuries and according to the needs and
desires of the king.
Medieval councils generally included:

the crown prince (the "dauphin") if he was of age to attend the council

the "grands" the most powerful members of the church and of the nobility.

Medieval councils frequently excluded:

the queen (both as queen consort or as queen mother) the influence of the queen lost direct political
control as early as the 13th century, except in periods of regency; the queen thus only exceptionally attended
the Council.

close relations to the king, including younger sons, grandsons and princes of the royal bloodline ("prince
du sang") from junior branches of the family these individuals were often suspected of political ambition
and of plotting.

The feudal aristocracy would maintain great control over the king's council up until the 14th and 15th centuries.
The most important positions in the court were those of the Great Officers of the Crown of France, headed by
the conntable (chief military officer of the realm; position eliminated in 1627) and the chancellor. Certain kings
were unable to reduce their importance (Louis X, Philip VI, John II, Charles VI), while others were more
successful (Charles V, Louis XI, Francis I). In the 16th century, those "grands" with administrative or
governmental competencies (religious dignitaries, presidents of provincial courts, etc.) were called to the council
by a special certificate (or "brevet") and were termed "conseillers brevet".

Over the centuries, the number of jurists (or "lgistes"), generally educated by the universit de Paris, steadily
increased as the technical aspects of the matters studied in the council mandated specialized counsellers.
Coming from the lesser nobility or the bourgeoisie, these jurists (whose positions sometimes gave them or their
heirs nobility, as the so-called "noblesse de robe" or chancellor nobles) helped in preparing and putting into legal
form the king's decisions. They formed the early elements of a true civil service and royal administration which
would because of their permanence provide a sense of stability and continuity to the royal council, despite its
many reorganizations. These counsellors, called conseillers d'tat from the reign of Henry III on, were aided in
their tasks by the matre des requtes.
In their attempts at greater efficiency, the kings tried to reduce the number of counsellors or to convoke "reduced
councils".Charles V had a council of 12 members. Under Charles VIII and Louis XII the king's council was
dominated by members of twenty or so noble or rich families. Under Francis I the total number of councillors
increased to roughly 70 individuals (the old nobility was proportionally more important than in the previous
century).
The most important matters of state were discussed in a smaller council of 6 or fewer members (3 members in
1535, 4 in 1554), while the larger council was consulted for judicial or financial affairs. Francis I was sometimes
criticized for relying too heavily on a small number of advisors, while Henry II, Catherine de' Medici and their sons
found themselves frequently unable to negotiate between the opposing Guise and Montmorency families in their
council. In periods of crisis, the number of members of the Council tended to increase: 100 councillors
under Charles IX, during the worst moments of the Wars of Religion.
From 1661 to the French Revolution, royal administration was divided between the various sections of the King's
Council (roughly 130 people) and a small group of ministers and secretaries of state. The royal governmental
councils (see below) were the most important and were presided by the king personally. Despite popular opinion,
the king did in fact listen to his counsellors and often adopted the opinion of the majority: according to SaintSimon (whose distrust of Louis XIV makes this statement all the more believable), Louis XIV only went against
the advice of his council six times.

Royal Councils[edit]
Over time, the Council began progressively to divide intself into separate subcouncils according to the affairs to
be discussed. As early as the 13th century, one can distinguish a small council of a few members the Conseil
troit("narrow council") or Conseil secret and a much larger council which came thus to be called the Grand
Conseil.
Under Charles VII, a subcouncil appeared to handle particularly contentious judicial affairs. An ordinance
by Charles VIII in 1497, and reaffirmed by Louis XII in 1498, removed this body from the king's council and
established it as an autonomous court with the institutional name Grand Conseil. The Grand Conseil became
thus a superior court of justice (that the king did not attend) with its own legal and judicial personnel and with a
purview over contentious affairs submitted directly to the king (affairs of "justice retenue", or "justice reserved" for
the king). This removal of the Grand Conseil from the council apparatus permitted the remaining sections of the
council to focus on political and administrative affairs, but the need for further subsections continued.
Francis I created a Conseil des Affaires a small informal group reuniting the chancellor, a secretary of
commandements and several other close confidants to deal with political and diplomatic issues, including war.
The remaining large council (of 5060 members) took the name of "Conseil ordinaire" ("Regular Council")

or "Conseil d'tat" ("Council of State"), but lost in its prestige, all the more so given that the king no longer
regularly attended its sessions; in his absence the large council was presided by the chancellor. After 1643, the
"Conseil des Affairs" was generally known as the "Conseil d'en haut" ("Upper Council"), due to its rooms on the
second floor of Versailles.
Beginning in 1560, a separate council was created to handle financial affairs: the "Conseil des finances";
around 1600 this council was reunited with the state council as "Conseil d'tat et des finances". The "Conseil
d'tat et des finances" lost in its prestige during the reign of Louis XIII and ended as a supreme court for legal
disputes concerning royal administration and appeals on decisions from sovereign courts concerning finances
and taxation. By the late 17th century, the council's role as adjudicator in administrative disputes was subsumed
by the "Conseil d'tat priv" and its financial oversight was largely taken over by the later "Conseil royal des
finances" and by the Controller-General of Finances.
In the 16th century, with the Grand Conseil being a completely autonomous court of justice separated from the
king's council, the need was seen for certain judicial affairs to be discussed and judged within the council. These
special session trials gave rise to a new section of the Council of State overseeing legal disputes, which took the
name "Conseil d'tat priv" ("Privy Council of State") or "Conseil des parties" ("Council of Parties", i.e. the
party in a legal suit). In theory, the king exercised justice in this council with his regular counsellors, but in fact the
council was presided by the chancellor and was furnished with a corps of legal personnel who dealt with Privy
Council matters (the five presidents of the Parlement of Paris, the matres des requtes who brought affairs
before the court, lawyers and prosecutors who represented the parties).
The Privy Council acted as a supreme court, pronouncing judgements on the various sovereign courts of the
realm (including the parlements and the Grand Conseil), and provided final judicial review and interpretation of
law (the request for which was called "vocation"), oversight of the judicial corps, and judged disputes on royal
offices, church benefices and problems between Catholics and Protestants. In this way, the Conseil priv was
roughly the predecessor of the present-dayConseil d'tat.
Before the late 17th century, the "Conseil priv" was solely a judicial council, but at that time it took over affairs of
administrative disputes from the "Conseil d'tat et des finances" (which ceased to exist as such). This new
council, called the "Conseil d'tat priv, finances et direction", was divided into three sections which met
separately: the "Conseil des parties", the "Grande direction des finances" and the "Petite direction des finances."
From 1630, the "Conseil des Dpches" was created to deal with notices and administrative reports from the
provinces sent by the governors and intendants.
Despite these divisions into subcouncils, from a judicial point of view these various sections were all aspects of
the same Council, and the decisions of the various sections were all considered to reflect the king's wishes. Even
when the king was not in fact present as his councils, there were still considered to be presided over by him, and
only the closing formula of their decisions changed: the expression "le Roi en son Conseil" was used when the
king was not present at the meeting, the expression "le Roi tant en son Conseil" when he was.
The subcouncils of the King's Council can be generally grouped as "governmental councils", "financial councils"
and "judicial and administrative councils". With the names and subdivisions of the 17th 18th century, these
subcouncils were:
Governmental Councils:

Conseil d'en haut ("High Council", concerning the most important matters of state) composed of the
king, the crown prince (the "dauphin"), the chancellor, the contrleur gnral des finances, and the secretary
of state in charge of foreign affairs.

Conseil des dpches ("Council of Messages", concerning notices and administrative reports from the
provinces) composed of the king, the chancellor, the secretaries of state, the contrleur gnral des
finances, and other councillors according to the issues discussed.

Conseil de Conscience ("Council of Conscience", concerning religious affairs and episcopal


appointments) composed of the king, the "Principal Ministre de l'tat" when there was one and some other
cardinals and bishops chosen by the monarch.

Financial Councils:

Conseil royal des finances ("Royal Council of Finances") composed of the king, the "chef du conseil
des finances" (an honorary post), the chancellor, the contrleur gnral des finances and two of his
counsellors, and the intendants of finance.
Conseil royal de commerce

Judicial and Administrative Councils:

Conseil d'tat et des Finances or Conseil ordinaire des Finances by the late 17th century, its functions
were largely taken over by the three following sections.

Conseil priv or Conseil des parties' or Conseil d'tat ("Privy Council" or "Council of State", concerning
the judicial system, officially instituted in 1557) the largest of the royal councils, composed of the
chancellor, the dukes withpeerage, the ministers and secretaries of state, the contrleur gnral des
finances, the 30 councillors of state, the 80matre des requtes and the intendants of finance.

Grande Direction des Finances

Petite Direction des Finances

The King's Council also included various commissions and bureaus. In addition to the above administrative
institutions, the king was also surrounded by an extensive personal and court retinue (royal family, valets, guards,
honorific officers), regrouped under the name "Maison du Roi".
At the death of Louis XIV, the Regent Philippe II, Duke of Orlans abandoned several of the above administrative
structures, most notably the Secretaries of State, which were replaced by councils. This system of government,
called thePolysynody, lasted from 17151718.

Governmental Councils[edit]
Governmental councils were always presided by the King in person. Decisions made in these councils were
called "arrts en commandement".
These councils met in the King's Apartment, in a room called the "Cabinet du Conseil" (present in all royal
residences). Members were informed of meeting times by the king and the cabinet bailiffs, and at the beginning of
the session the doors of the cabinet were closed and were guarded from outside, to prevent any interruptions or

spies, as the meetings were secret. The meetings took place around an oval table with the king at one end,
seated in an armchair; all other members were seated on folding stools (these folding chairs were symbolic of the
council's itinerant nature, as the council was held to follow the king wherever he went).
The king opened sessions by raising questions or by giving the floor to one of the members. Each member added
to the discussion in the ascending order of their rank. Discussions concluded with a vote of the council's opinion
(in the same ascending order; the vote was called "aller aux opinions"). In the end, the king made the final
decision. Louis XIV very rarely went against the majority opinion of the council. Louis XV followed the same
general rules but frequently interrupted discussion when it seemed to be going in a direction he disagreed with,
rather than choose to go against the final opinion of the council. Meetings were typically longer than two hours
and could go far longer.

Upper or State Council[edit]


Known variously as the "Conseil des affaires", "Conseil d'en haut" ("Upper Council") or "Conseil d'tat" ("State
Council"), this was the most important of the royal councils and discussed the most important affairs of state. It
was more or less the equivalent of today's Council of Ministers. The name "Conseil d'en haut" by which it was
known from 1643 on (replacing the "Conseil des Affaires" of the 16th century) came from the fact that the council
met in the "Cabinet of Council" on the second floor of the Chteau of Versailles next to the king's chamber.
Before the reign of Louis XIV, it was an extremely small council bringing together the first minister (when one
existed), the chancellor, the superintendent of finances, one secretary of state and the ministers of state
(counsellors appointed by the king). The council's purview was very large. At the beginning of Louis XIV's reign,
the number of members was increased: in addition to the ministers of state, the council included members of the
royal family, princes of the royal bloodline ("princes du sang") and dukes with peerage ("duc et pair").
From 1661 on, Louis XIV reorganized the council and eliminated the use of regular or open membership to its
meetings. Henceforth, no one, not even the crown prince (the "dauphin") could attend without an invitation, and
attendance to the council meetings was given on a per-meeting basis with members needing to be reinvited to
attend any subsequent meetings. The most frequent members of the council were the secretaries of state. In the
beginning, Louis XIV admitted only three members regularly to the council (Michel le Tellier, Hugues de
Lionne, Jean-Baptiste Colbert), and later increased this to five members. Louis XV increased it to 7 members
and Louis XVI increased it to eight members.
During the reign of Louis XV, the council, commonly called the Conseil d'tat, was generally focused on foreign
affairs, naval and military affairs and, during times of war, military operations. At this time, the Council of
Messages ("Conseil des Dpches") took over direction of domestic politics.
The council was held on Sundays and Wednesdays, but additional meetings were frequent, especially in times of
war. In all, the council met on an average 120 to 130 times a year, and more in some years.

Council of Messages[edit]
The "Conseil des Dpches" ("Council of Messages") oversaw the notices and administrative reports from the
provinces sent by the governors and intendants, and thus dealt with domestic affairs coming under the purview of
all four Secretaries of State. Created in 1650, it was originally presided by the Chancellor, but the King began to
preside it himself from 1661 on. This council was made up of ten to twelve members: the first minister (when one

existed), the crown prince, the chancellor, the ministers of state and the secretaries of state, the contrleur
gnral des finances. Other councillors of state or matres des requtes attended according to the issues
discussed.
The council met originally twice a week. Under Louis XIV, the schedule was slowed down, as the king had gotten
into the habit of discussing these matters with his one-on-one meetings with his ministers; decisions taken were
presented as "arrts en commandement" even if they had not been officially deliberated in council.
Under Louis XV, the Conseil des Dpches was very active and became, for domestic affairs, the equivalent of
the "Conseil d'En-haut" for foreign affairs. The council met every Saturday, and sometimes on Friday, but also
came together for additional meetings, some for several days in a row, as was the case during the Fronde
parlementaire under Louis XV. In this way, the council met fifty times a year, and more than seventy times a year
during periods of crisis.

Council of Conscience[edit]
The "Conseil de Conscience" was created in 1720 by the Regent Philippe II, Duke of Orlans to oversee
implementation of the clauses of the papal bull Unigenitus. The council was kept after 1723 and met on
Thursdays. Very busy until 1730, this council saw its influence decrease with the rise to power of Cardinal de
Fleury, and the council disappeared finally in 1733. Presided by the king, it brought together the first minister
(when one existed) and several cardinals and bishops, but no other ministers.

Financial Councils[edit]
Council of Finances[edit]
The "Conseil royal des finances" was created by Louis XIV in September 1661 to help the king oversee the
functions ofSuperintendent of Finances after the removal from power of Nicolas Fouquet. Before 1661, fiscal
matters were treated in the "Conseil de direction des finances", created in 1615, under Louis XIII.
The Council of Finances' purview was large; it dealt with the royal budget, taxation, industry, commerce, money,
contracts to the Farmers General, etc. In this council, the overall size of the taille was set, and financial and
taxation disputes were judged.
The council was made up of the king, the "chef du conseil des finances" (an honorary, but well-paid, post), the
crown prince, occasionally the chancellor, the contrleur gnral des finances and (generally) two of his
consellors, and theintendants of finance.
Until 1715, the council met twice a week. After this date, financial decisions were made by the king in one-on-one
meetings with the contrleur gnral des finances, and the council merely rubber-stamped their decisions without
much debate. Under the Regent Philippe II, Duke of Orlans and then under Louis XV, the council met every
Tuesday. From around 17281730, its rhythm slowed to less than once a week, and during the years 17301740,
it met only once every two weeks.
In the early 17th century, legal disputes concerning financial matters were overseen by the "Conseil d'tat et des
finances" (see Judicial and Administrative Councils below), although from 1665 on its financial purview was
reduced as the chancellor was gradually excluded from financial decisions.

Council of Commerce[edit]
The "Conseil royal de commerce" was created in 1664 as an equivalent to the Council of Finances, but it
disappeared in 1676, and reappeared in 1730. This council was never fully able to stand out from the other
councils and its influence was minor. In 1787, it was reunited with the Council of Finances.

Judicial and Administrative Councils[edit]


The divisions of the King's Council concerning contentious legal, administrative and judicial affairs were generally
presided by the Chancellor of France, and the king himself rarely attended their meetings, although all acts of
these councils were considered to derive from him and the chancellor was considered the "king's mouthpiece" ("la
bouche du Roi").

Conseil d'tat et des finances[edit]


The Council of State and Finances ("Conseil d'tat et des finances" or "Conseil ordinaire des finances") was
created in the beginning of the 17th century with various governmental oversight functions, including over
financial matters. The council lost in its prestige during the reign of Louis XIII and ended as a supreme court for
legal disputes concerning royal administration and appeals on decisions from sovereign courts concerning
finances and taxation. The council had the same members as the "Conseil priv" (see below), but the "contrleur
gnral des finances" played a greater role.
The council began to fall out of use in 1665 and it disappeared entirely between 1680 and 1690. With the
chancellor removed from the direction of financial affairs, Colbert was able to replace the matres des requtes in
the council by his own intendants of finances, and financial decisions were de facto decided in the collegial
atmosphere at the Control General and in the "Conseil des finances", thus dispensing of debates in the "Conseil
d'tat et des finances".
By the late 17th century, the council's role as adjudicator in administrative disputes was subsumed by the
"Conseil d'tat priv" (see below).

Conseil priv or Conseil des parties[edit]


Known variously as the "Conseil priv" or "Conseil d'tat priv", or "Conseil des parties", the Privy Council was
the main body for decisions on France's judicial system, and as such it was roughly the equivalent of
today's Conseil d'tat.
It was first created in 1557. With the "Grand Conseil" being a completely autonomous court of justice separated
from the king's council, the need was seen for certain judicial affairs to be discussed and judged within the king's
council, especially those in which the impartiality of the courts was called into question. These special session
trials gave rise to a new section of the king's council overseeing contentious issues, which took the name "Conseil
priv" ("Privy Council") or "Conseil des parties" ("Council of Parties", i.e. the party in a legal suit).
The main area of jurisdiction of the "Conseil priv" was civil trials between individuals (especially in cases
involving the prestigious families and possible conflicts of interest among parlementary judges) and conflicts of
judicial or administrative jurisdiction. Like the "Grand Conseil", the Privy Council acted as a supreme court,

pronounced judgements on the various sovereign courts of the realm (including the parlements and the "Grand
Conseil"), and provided final judicial review and interpretation of law (the process of so-called "vocation),
oversight of the judicial corps, and judged disputes on royal offices, church benefices and problems between
Catholics and Protestants.
Before the late 17th century, the "Conseil priv" was the solely a judicial council, but at that time it took over
affairs of administrative disputes from the "Conseil d'tat et des finances" (which ceased to exist as such). This
new council, called the "Conseil d'tat priv, finances et direction", was divided into three sections which met
separately: the "Conseil des parties", the "Grande direction des finances" and the "Petite direction des finances."
The king rarely attended the Privy Council. Louis XIV came occasionally at the start of this reign, but Louis XV
only attended two meetings (in 1762 and 1766). The king's empty armchair symbolized his presence. The council
was presided by the chancellor seated to the right of the royal chair.
The council was the largest of the royal councils, and was composed of the chancellor, princes of the royal
bloodline ("princes du sang"), dukes with peerage ("ducs et pairs"), the ministers and secretaries of state,
the contrleur gnral des finances, the 30 councillors of state, the 80 matre des requtes and the intendants of
finance. In general however, only the counsellors of state, the matres des requtes and (at times) the intendants
of finances attended regularly. Meetings were composed of generally 40 or so members, and rarely more than 60
members.
The Privy Council met on Mondays in a special room, the "salle du Conseil" which was outside the King's
apartment. At Versailles, this room was on the ground floor of the "Old Wing" and gave out on to the Marble
Courtyard "(Cour de Marbre") and the Prince's Courtyard. Counsellors sat on armchairs of black leather, while the
matres des requtes remained standing. After each session, the chancellor dined with the counsellors (called
"Messieurs du Conseil"). The Privy Council was on vacation from October to the feast of Saint Martin. It held
roughly 40 to 45 sessions per year and issued 350 to 400 acts.
Before coming before a judicial session, affairs were submitted to the council by a matre des requtes and
studied by a group of state counsellors. Special offices were created according to the matters discussed (there
was thus a bureau of ecclesiastical affairs) or the type of judicial action requested (there was a bureau of
"cassation" or appeals). In the case of matters concerning the acts of sovereign courts, the council generally
began by asking the parlementary prosecutor or judge who had written the lower court decision to first present his
reasons before the council.

Grande and Petite Direction of Finances[edit]


These two regular commissions (commissions ordinaires) took over the purview of the "Conseil d'tat et des
finances" on fiscal legal disputes. They were composed of consellors of state and matres des requtes. The
"Grand Direction" was overseen by the chancellor and the "Petite Direction" by the "chef du conseil des finances".
The "Grande Direction" was the direct successor to the "Conseil de direction des finances" (supra), but had a
minor role and only met 6 to 12 times a year.
The "Petite Direction" consisted of roughly ten people and was created to prepare the work of the "Grand
Direction" and to reduce its case load by judging the simplest of cases. It met irregularly, and disappeared around
1767.

Committee of ministers[edit]
Meetings of the King's Council were first planned by ministerial services, and then by the king with his secretaries
and ministers. But for a time in the 18th century, agendas and meetings came to be planned in a committee
called the "Committee of ministers", consisting of the members of the "Conseil d'En-haut" or of the "Conseil des
Dpches" meeting without the king. Although there had been antecedents of this committee during the reign of
Louis XIV and the Regency, it became a regular institution in 1737 under the Cardinal de Fleury. These
committees were held every Monday until the death of Cardinal Fleury.
Louis XV knew the risk of this committee, and in 1747 he mandated that the committee could not meet without his
express permission, and generally to prepare decisions already decided on in council. In this way, meetings of the
committee of ministers became far less frequent.

Administrative Personnel[edit]
Under Henry IV and Louis XIII the administrative apparatus of the court and its councils was expanded and the
proportion of the "noblesse de robe" increased, culminating in the following positions during the 17th century:

First Minister: ministers and secretaries of state such as Sully, Concini (who was also governor of
several provinces),Richelieu, Mazarin, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Cardinal de Fleury, Turgot, etc. exerted a
powerful control over state administration in the 17th and 18th century. The title "principal ministre de l'tat"
was however only given six times in this period and Louis XIV himself refused to choose a "prime minister"
after the death of Mazarin.
Chancellor of France (also called the "garde des Scaux", or "Keeper of the Seals")

Controller-General of Finances (contrleur gnral des finances, formerly called the surintendant des
finances).

Secretaries of State: created in 1547 by Henry II but of great importance after 1588, generally 4 in
number, but occasionally 5:

Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs

Secretary of State for War, also oversaw the border provinces.

Secretary of State of the Navy

Secretary of State of the Maison du Roi (the king's royal entourage and personal military
guard), who also oversaw the clergy, the affairs of Paris and the non-border provinces.
Secretary of State for Protestant Affairs (combined with the secretary of the Maison du Roi in

1749).

Councillors of state (generally 30)

Matre des requtes (generally 80)

Intendants of finance (6)

Intendants of commerce (4 or 5)

Ministers of State (variable)

Treasurers

Farmers-General

Superintendent of the postal system

Directeur gnral of buildings

Directeur gnral of fortifications

Lieutenant General of Police of Paris (in charge of public order in the capital)

Archbishop of Paris

Royal confessor

Royal administration in the provinces had been the role of the bailliages and snchausses in the Middle Ages,
but this declined in the early modern period, and by the end of the 18th century, the bailliages served only a
judicial function. The main source of royal administrative power in the provinces in the 16th and early 17th
centuries fell to the gouverneurs (who represented "the presence of the king in his province"), positions which had
long been held by only the highest ranked families in the realm.
With the civil wars of the early modern period, the king increasing turned to more tractable and subservient
emissaries, and this was the reason for the growth of the provincial intendants under Louis XIII and Louis XIV.
Indendants were chosen from among the matre des requtes. Intendants attached to a province had jurisdiction
over finances, justice and policing.

See also[edit]

Maison du Roi

Ancien Rgime in France

Conseil d'tat

Privy council

General:

Early Modern France

Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: Royal finances[edit]


Main article: Court of Finances
The king was expected to survive on the revenues of the "domaine royal", or lands that belonged
to him directly. In times of need, the taille, an "exceptional" tax could be imposed and collected;
this resource was increasingly required during the protracted wars of the 14th-15th centuries and
the taille became permanent in 1439, when the right to collect taxes in support of a standing
army was granted to Charles VII of France during the Hundred Years' War.
To oversee the Kingdom's revenues and expenditure, the French King first relied solely on
the Curia Regis. However, by the mid-12th century, the Crown entrusted its finances to
the Knights Templar, who maintained a banking establishment in Paris. The royal Treasury was
henceforth organized like a bank and salaries and revenues were transferred between accounts.
Royal accounting officers in the field, who sent revenues to the Temple, were audited by the
King's Court, which had special clerks assigned to work at the Temple. These financial
specialists came to be called the Curia in Compotis and sat in special sessions of the King's
Court for dealing with financial business. From 1297, accounts were audited twice yearly after
Midsummer Day (June 24) and Christmas. In time, what was once a simple Exchequer of
Receipts developed into a central auditing agency, branched off, and eventually specialized into a
full-time court.
In 1256, Saint Louis issued a decree ordering all mayors, burghesses, and town councilmen to
appear before the King's sovereign auditors of the Exchequer (French gens des comptes)
in Paris to render their final accounts. The King's Court's general secretariat had members who
specialized in finance and accountancy and could receive accounts. A number ofmatres
lais were commissioned to sit as the King's Exchequer (comptes du Roi).
In or around 1303, the Paris Court of Accounts was established in the Palais de la Cit. Its
auditors were responsible for overseeing revenue from Crown estates and checking public
spending. It audited the royal household, inspectors, royal commissioners, provosts, baillifs, and
seneschals. In 1307, the Philip IV definitively removed royal funds from the Temple and placed
them in the fortress of the Louvre. Thereafter, the financial specialists received accounts for audit
in a room of the royal palace that became known as the Camera compotorum or Chambre des
comptes, and they began to be collectively identified under the same name, although still only a
subcommission of the King's Court, consisting of about sixteen people.
The Vivier-en-Brie Ordinance of 1320, issued by Philip V, required the Chambre to audit
accounts, judge cases arising from accountability, and maintain registers of financial documents;
it also laid out the basic composition of financial courts: three (later four) cleric masters of
accounts (matres-clercs) to act as chief auditors and three matres-lais familiers du
Roiempowered to hear and adjudge ("oyer and terminer") audit accounts. They were assisted by
eleven clerks (petis clercs, later clercs des comptes) who acted as auditors of the prests. This
complement grew by 50 percent in the next two decades but was reduced to seven masters and
twelve clerks in 1346. The office of prsident was created by the Ordinance of 1381, and a
second lay Chief Baron was appointed in 1400. Clerks of court were eventually added to the

court's composition. Examiners (correcteurs) were created to assist the maitres. Other court
officers (conseillers) appointed by the King were created to act alongside the matres ordinaires.
Lastly, the Ordinance of 26 February 1464 named the Court of Accounts as the "sovereign,
primary, supreme, and sole court of last resort in all things financial".[55]
While gaining in stability in the later 14th century, the court lost its central role in royal finances.
First, currency was moved to a separate body (Chambre des monnaies), then the increasingly
regular "extraordinary" taxes (aide, tallage, gabelle) became the responsibility of the gnraux of
the Cour des aides (created in 1390). The Crown's domainal revenues, still retained by the Court
of Accounts, fell in importance and value. By 1400, the Court's role had been much reduced.
However, with the gradual englargement of the realm through conquest, the need for the court
remained secure.

Court of Finances
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Court of Finances in Paris.


Under the French monarchy, the Courts of Finances (in French Chambres des comptes) were sovereign courts
specialising in financial affairs. The Court of Finances in Paris was the oldest and the forerunner of today's
French Court of Audit. They oversaw public spending, handled finances, protected crown estates, audited the
accounts of crown officials, and adjudged any related matters of law.

Contents
[hide]

1 Court in Paris

1.1 Early history


2 In the Provinces

3 Decline and Abolishment

4 Court Officers and Staff

5 Notes

6 Bibliography

Court in Paris[edit]
Early history[edit]
To oversee the Kingdom's revenues and expenditure, the French King first relied solely on his King's Court
or Curia Regis, court officials who assisted him in governing. However, by the mid-12th century, the Crown
entrusted its finances to theKnights Templar, who maintained a banking establishment in Paris. The royal
Treasury was henceforth organized like a bank and salaries and revenues were transferred between accounts.
Royal accounting officers in the field, who sent revenues to the Temple, were audited by the King's Court, which
had special clerks assigned to work at the Temple. These financial specialists came to be called the Curia in
Compotis and sat in special sessions of the King's Court for dealing with financial business. From 1297, finances
were audited twice yearly after Midsummer Day (June 24) and Christmas. In time, what was once a simple
Exchequer of Receipts developed into a central auditing agency, branched off, and eventually specialized into a
full-time court.
In 1256, Saint Louis issued a decree ordering all mayors, burghesses, and town councilmen to appear before the
King's sovereign auditors of the Exchequer (French gens des comptes) in Paris to render their final accounting.
The King's Court's general secretariat had members who specialized in finance and accountancy and could
receive statements. A number ofBarons (matres lais) were commissioned to sit as the
King's Exchequer (comptes du Roi).
In or around 1303, the Paris Court of Finances was established in the Palais de la Cit where it remained until
the French Revolution. Its auditors were responsible for overseeing revenue from Crown estates and checking
public spending. It audited the Royal Household, inspectors, royal commissioners, provosts, baillifs, and
seneschals. In 1307, the Philip IVdefinitively removed royal funds from the Temple and placed them in the fortress
of the Louvre. Thereafter, the financial specialists received accounting statements for audit in a room of the royal
palace that became known as the Camera compotorum or Chambre des comptes, and they began to be
collectively identified under the same name, although still only a subcommission of the King's Court, consisting of
about sixteen people.
The Vivier-en-Brie Ordinance of 1320, issued by Philip V, required the Chambre to audit finances, judge cases
arising from accountability, and maintain registers of financial documents; it also laid out the basic composition of
financial courts: three (later four) cleric masters of accounts (matres-clercs) to act as chief auditors and
three lay Barons (matres-lais familiers du Roi) empowered to hear and adjudge ("oyer and terminer") audit
accounts. They were assisted by eleven clerks (petis clercs, later clercs des comptes) who acted as auditors of
the prests. This complement grew by 50 percent in the next two decades but was reduced to seven masters and
twelve clerks in 1346. The office of churchman Chief Baron (prsident) was created by the Ordinance of 1381,
and a second lay Chief Baron was appointed in 1400. Clerks of court were eventually added to the Court's
composition. Examiners (correcteurs) were created to assist the Barons (maitres). Other court officers

(conseillers) appointed by the King were created to act alongside the puisne Barons (matres ordinaires). Lastly,
the Ordinance of 26 February 1464 named the Court of Finances as the "sovereign, primary, supreme, and sole
court of last resort in all things financial".[1]
While gaining in stability in the later 14th century, the Court lost its central role in royal finances. First, currency
was moved to a separate body (Chambre des monnaies), then the increasingly regular "extraordinary" taxes
(aide, tallage, gabelle) became the responsibility of the gnraux of the Cour des aides (created in 1390). The
Crown's domainal revenues, still retained by the Court of Finances, fell in importance and value. By 1400, the
Court's role had been much reduced. However, with the gradual englargement of the Realm through conquest,
the need for the Court remained secure.

In the Provinces[edit]
The oldest provincial Court of Finances was in Dauphin and established in 1368. Other courts sprang up
in Normandy(1465), Provence, Burgundy, Nantes in Britanny, Navarre, Languedoc and Roussillon, and the cities
of Nancy, Metz andBar-le-Duc.

Decline and Abolishment[edit]


Toward the end of the French monarchy and excluding the Paris Court of Finances, out of 12 other regional
courts, some (merged into the Cours des aides) continued to exercise as financial courts presiding over tax and
estate cases. Some sovereign financial courts were raised from grand feudal estates also existing in certain
provinces, and did not therefore form a cohesive whole. It was not until the French Revolution the Courts of
Finances would be abolished between 1729 September 1791.

Court Officers and Staff[edit]


At any given time, a Court of Finances may have included any of a number of officers:

premier prsident - Chief Baron

prsident (de chambre) - Presiding Baron

matre des comptes (later conseiller matre) - puisne or ordinary Baron

auditeur des comptes (later conseiller auditeur) - auditor (later Auditor of the Prests)

correcteur des comptes (later conseiller correcteur) - examiner of accounts

conseiller contrleur des restes - comptroller

conseiller scrtaire - judicial secretary

scrtaire du roi - Secretary to the King

procureur du roi (later procureur gnral) - King's attorney-general

avocat gnral - King's deputy attorney

substitut - King's solicitor-general

greffier en chef - Chief Clerk of Court

greffier au plumitif - Clerk of the Dockets

greffier la peau - Clerk of the Pipe, or Ingrosser of the Great Roll

sous-greffier - deputy clerk of court

garde des livres - Clerk of the Pells (records officer)

receveur de gages - Teller of the Receipt

receveur des amendes - Chirographer of Fines

commis doubler les comptes - Comptroller of the Pipe (copyist; made a counter-roll or "duplicates")

chevalier d'honneur - Usher

premier huissier - Constable

huissier - marshall

Court of Aids
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Cours des aides)
The Court of Aids, or Cours des aides, was one of the sovereign courts in Ancien Rgime France, primarily
concerned with customs. It exercised some control over certain aids and octroi duties, which were regarded as of
a different nature from the taille, the gabelle, and the general imposts of the kingdom.[1] This court sat in the
Palais-Vieux, of which a monumental door can still be seen in the Rue du Temple. It was set up to judge appealcases on of extraordinary (i.e. fiscal) and ordinary (i.e. "domaniale") financial matters relating to the chambre du
Trsor (treasury).
Malesherbes was the first President of the Court of Aids.[2]

Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: Parlements[edit]


The Parliament of Paris, born out of the king's council in 1307, and sitting inside the
medieval royal palace on the le de la Cit, still the site of the Paris Hall of Justice. The

jurisdiction of the Parliament of Paris covered the entire kingdom as it was in the fourteenth
century, but did not automatically advance in step with the enlarging personal dominions of the
kings. In 1443, following the turmoil of the Hundred Years' War, King Charles VII of
France granted Languedoc its own parlement by establishing the Parlement of Toulouse, the
first parlement outside of Paris; its jurisdiction extended over most of southern France.
Several other parlements were created in various provinces of France in the Middle
Ages: Dauphin (Grenoble 1453),Guyenne and Gascony (Bordeaux 1462), Burgundy (Dijon 147
7), Normandy (Rouen 1499/1515). All of them were administrative capitals of regions with strong
historical traditions of independence before they were incorporated into France.

Parlement
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the French Ancien Rgime institution. For the post-Revolutionary and present-day
institution, seeFrench Parliament. For the general governmental concept, see Parliament.
Parlements (French pronunciation: [palm ] (

listen))

were provincial appellate courts in Ancien

Rgime France. In 1789 there were 13 parlements, the most important of which was by far the Parlement of
Paris. They were not legislative bodies, but rather provincial high courts which heard appeals from the lower
courts of record. Each was composed of a dozen or more appellate judges, or about 1,100 nationwide. They
were the court of final appeal of the judicial system, and typically wielded much power over a wide range of
subject matter, especially taxation. Laws and edicts issued by the Crown were not official in their respective
jurisdictions until the parlements gave their assent by publishing them. The members were aristocrats
called nobles of the gown who had bought or inherited their office, and were independent of the King.
In 1770-4 the Chancellor, Maupeou, tried to abolish the Parlement of Paris in order to strengthen the Crown;
however, when King Louis XV died in 1774, it was reinstated. The parlements spearheaded the aristocracy's
resistance to the Crown's absolutism and centralization, but they worked primarily for the benefit of their own
class, the French nobility.Alfred Cobban argues that the parlements were the chief obstacle to any reform
before the Revolution, as well as the most intense enemies of the crown. He concludes, "The Parlement of
Paris, though no more in fact than a small, selfish, proud and venal oligarchy, regarded itself, and was
regarded by public opinion, as the guardian of the constitutional liberties of France."[1] In November 1789, at
an early stage of the French Revolution, all the parlements were suspended, and they were formally
abolished in September 1790.[2]

The political institutions of the Parlement in Ancien Rgime France developed out of the King's Council
(Fr. Conseil du roi, Lat. curia regis), and consequently enjoyed ancient, customary consultative and
deliberative prerogatives.[3] In the 13th century, the parlements acquired judicial functions. The parlement
judges were of the opinion that their role included active participation in the legislative process, which
brought them into increasing conflict with the ever increasing monarchicalabsolutism of the Ancien Rgime,

as the lit de justice evolved during the 16th century from a constitutional forum to a royal weapon, used to
force registration of edicts.[4]

Faade of the palace of Parlement of Brittany


Originally, there was only the Parlement of Paris, severed from the King's Council in 1307, with sessions held
inside the medievalroyal palace on the le de la Cit, still the site of the Paris Hall of Justice. The Paris
parlement's jurisdiction covered the entire kingdom as it was in the 14th century, but did not automatically
advance in step with the Crown's ever expanding realm. In 1443, following the turmoil of the Hundred Years'
War, King Charles VII of France grantedLanguedoc its own parlement by establishing the Parlement
of Toulouse, the first parlement outside Paris; its jurisdiction extended over most of southern France.

Fronde[edit]
Main article: Fronde
The Parlement of Paris played a major role in stimulating the nobility to resist the expansion of royal power
by military force in the Fronde, 1643-1652. In the end, the King won out and the nobility was humiliated.[5]

Louis XIV[edit]
King Louis XIV moved to centralize authority into his own hands, imposing certain restrictions on the
parlements in 1667. In 16711673, however, the parlements resisted the taxes occasioned by the Dutch
War. The King imposed additional restrictions that stripped the parlements of any influence upon new laws.
All the restrictions were ended after his death in 1715, by the Regent, although some of the judges of the
Parlement of Paris accepted royal bribes to restrain that body until the 1750s.[6]

Provinces[edit]
From 1443 until the French Revolution, several other parlements were steadily created all over France, until
at the end of the Ancien Rgime there were provincial parlements in: (clockwise from the
north) Douai, Arras, Metz, Nancy, Colmar,Dijon, Besanon, Grenoble, Aix, Perpignan, Toulouse, Pau, Borde
aux, Rennes, and Rouen. These locations were provincial capitals of those provinces with strong historical
traditions of independence before they were annexed to France. Assembled in the parlements, the largely
hereditary members, the provincial nobles of the gown were the strongest decentralizing force in a France
that was more multifarious in its legal systems, taxation, and custom than it might have seemed under the
apparent unifying rule of its kings. Nevertheless, the Parlement of Paris had the largest jurisdiction of all the
parlements, covering the major part of northern and central France, and was simply known as "the
Parlement".
In some regions provincial States-General also continued to meet and legislate with a measure of selfgovernance and control over taxation within their jurisdiction.
All the parlements could issue regulatory decrees for the application of royal edicts or of customary
practices; they could also refuse to register laws that they adjudged as either untimely or contrary to the local
customary law (and there were 300 customary law jurisdictions). Tenure on the court was generally bought
from the royal authority; and such positions could be made hereditary by payment of a tax to the King
called la Paulette.

Provincial parlements[edit]
Provincial "parlements" or "conseils souverains" (shown in
historic provinces of France) during the Ancien Rgime. Dates indicate
creation of the parlement.[7]

1. le-de-France (Paris c.12


60)

4. Normandy (Rouen 1499/


1515)

5. Languedoc (Toulouse 14
43)

7. Dauphin (Grenoble 145


3)

12. Guyenne and Gascony


(Bordeaux 1462)
13. Burgundy (Dijon 1477)

16. Provence (Aix-enProvence 1501)

20. Brittany (Rennes,


briefly at Nantes, 1553)

26. Barn (Pau 1620)

27. Alsace (capital Strasbo


urg, cons. souv.
in Colmar 1667)

28. Artois (cons provinc.


in Arras 1640)

29. Roussillon (cons


souv. Perpignan 1660)

30. Flanders (capital Lille,


Parlement first in Tournai,
then in Douai1686)

31. Franche-Comt
(Besanon 1676; formerly
at Dole (1422))

32. Lorraine (Nancy 1776)

(not
indicated) Dombes (Trvoux 1
523-1771)

(not
indicated) Corsica (cons. souv.

in Bastia 1768)

(not indicated) Troisvchs (Metz 1633)

Note: The map does not


show the jurisdictions of the
parlements. The map reflects
France's modern external
borders and does not indicate
the territorial formation of
France over time. Provinces
on this list may encompass
several other historic
provinces and counties.

Role leading to French Revolution[edit]


After 1715, during the reigns of King Louis XV of France and King Louis XVI, the parlements repeatedly
challenged the crown for control over policy, especially regarding taxes and religion.[8] The Parlement had the
duty to record all royal edicts and laws. Some, especially the Parlement of Paris, gradually acquired the habit
of refusing to register legislation with which they disagreed until the king held a lit de justice or sent a lettre
de jussion to force them to act. Furthermore, the parlements could pass arrts de rglement, which were
laws that applied within their jurisdiction. In the years immediately before the start of the French Revolution in
1789, their extreme concern to preserve Ancien Rgime institutions of noble privilege prevented France from
carrying out many simple reforms, especially in the area of taxation, even when those reforms had the
support of the king.[9]
Chancellor Ren Nicolas de Maupeou sought to reassert royal power by suppressing the parlements in
1770. A furious battle resulted and after King Louis XV died, the parlements were restored.[10]
The beginning of the proposed radical changes began with the Protests of the Parlement of Paris addressed
to Louis XVI in March 1776, in which the Second Estate, the nobility, resisted the beginning of certain
reforms that would remove their privileges, notably their exemption from taxes. The objections made to the
Parlement of Paris were in reaction to the essay,Rflexions sur la formation et la distribution des
richesses ("Reflections on the Formation and Distribution of Wealth") byAnne-Robert-Jacques Turgot. The
Second Estate reacted to the essay with anger to convince the king that the nobility still served a very
important role and still deserved the same privileges of tax exemption as well as for the preservation of the
guilds and corporations put in place to restrict trade, both of which were eliminated in the reforms proposed
by Turgot.[11]
In their Remonstrance against the Edict suppressing the Corve (March 1776), the Parlement of Paris afraid that a new tax would replace the Corve, and that this tax would apply to all, introducing equality as a
principle - dared to remind the king:
The personal service of the clergy is to fulfill all the functions relating to education and religious
observances and to contribute to the relief of the unfortunate through its alms. The noble dedicates his
blood to the defense of the state and assists to sovereign with his counsel. The last class of the nation,

which cannot render such distinguished service to the state, fulfills its obligation through taxes, industry,
and physical labor.[12]
The Second Estate (the nobility) consisted of approximately 1.5% of France's population, and was
exempt from almost all taxes, including the Corve Royale, which was a recent mandatory service in
which the roads would be repaired and built by those subject to the corve. In practice, anyone who
paid a small fee could escape the corvee, so this burden of labor fell only to the poorest in France. The
Second Estate was also exempt from the Gabelle, which was the unpopular tax on salt, and also
the Taille, the oldest form of taxation in France.[13]
The Second Estate feared they would have to pay the tax replacing the suppressed Corve. The nobles
saw this tax as especially humiliating and below them, as they took great pride in their titles and their
lineage, many of whom had died in defense of France. They saw this elimination of tax privilege as the
gateway for more attacks on their rights and urged Louis XVI throughout the Protests of the Parlement
of Paris not to enact the proposed reforms.
These exemptions, as well as the right to wear a sword and their coat of arms, encouraged the idea of a
natural superiority over the commoners that was common through the Second Estate, and as long as
any noble was in possession of a fiefdom, they could collect a tax on the Third Estate called Feudal
Dues, which would allegedly be for the Third Estate's protection (this only applied to serfs and tenants
of farmland owned by the nobility). Overall, the Second Estate had vast privileges that the Third Estate
did not possess, which in effect protected the Second Estate's wealth and property, while hindering the
Third Estate's ability to advance. The reforms proposed by Turgot and argued against in the Protests of
the Parlement of Paris conflicted with the Second Estates interests to keep their hereditary privileges,
and was the first step toward reform that seeped into the political arena. Ironically, Turgot's reforms were
unpopular among the commoners as well, who mistakenly saw the parlements as their best defense
against the power of the monarchy.

Reaction[edit]
This behavior of the parlements is one of the reasons that since the French Revolution, French courts
have been forbidden by Article 5 of the French civil code to create law and act as legislative bodies,
their only mandate being to interpret the law. France, through the Napoleonic Code, was at the origin of
the modern system of civil law in which precedents are not as powerful as in countries of common law.
The origin of the weakness of the French court system, with no rule of precedent, no single supreme
court and no constitutional review of statutes by courts, is usually traced to that hostility towards
"government by judges".[14][15][16]

Judicial proceedings[edit]
In civil trials, judges had to be paid pices (literally "spices" fees) by the parties. Civil justice was out
of reach of most of the population, except the wealthiest and best connected.
Regarding criminal justice, the proceedings were markedly archaic. Judges could order suspects to
be tortured in order to extract confessions or induce them to reveal the names of their accomplices:
there were the question ordinaire ("ordinary questioning"), the ordinary form of torture, and the question

extraordinaire ("extraordinary questioning"), with increased brutality. There was little presumption of
innocence if the suspect was a mere poor commoner. The death sentence could be pronounced for a
variety of crimes including mere theft; depending on the crime and the social class of the victim, death
could be by decapitation with a sword (for nobles), hanging (for most of the secondary crimes by
commoners), the breaking wheel (for some heinous crimes by commoners), and even burning at the
stake (for heresy, or advocacy of atheism). Some crimes, such as regicide, exacted even more horrific
punishment. With the spread of enlightenment ideas throughout France, most forms of judicial torture
had fallen out of favor, and while they remained on the books, were rarely applied after 1750.
Ultimately, judicial torture and cruel methods of executions were abolished in 1788 by King Louis XVI.[17]

Current usage[edit]
In current French language usage, parlement means parliament as in the English
expression Parliament of France. It is quite a different meaning than the role of the parlements under
the Ancien Rgime.

See also[edit]

Parlement of Brittany

Parlement of Toulouse

Nobles of the Robe

Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: Estates General[edit]


Main article: Estates General (France)
In 1302, expanding French royal power led to a general assembly consisting of the chief lords,
both lay and ecclesiastical, and the representatives of the principal privileged towns, which were
like distinct lordships. Certain precedents paved the way for this institution: representatives of
principal towns had several times been convoked by the king, and under Philip IIIthere had been
assemblies of nobles and ecclesiastics in which the two orders deliberated separately. It was the
dispute between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII which led to the States-General of 1302;
the king of France desired that, in addition to the Great Officers of the Crown of France, he
receive the counsel from the three estates in this serious crisis. The letters summoning the
assembly of 1302 are published by M. Georges Picot in his collection of Documents indits pour
servir l'histoire de France. During the same reign they were subsequently assembled several
times to give him aid by granting subsidies. Over time subsidies came to be the most frequent
motive for their convocation.

The Estates-General included representatives of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate
(the nobility), and Third Estate (commoners: all others), and monarchs always summoned them
either to grant subsidies or to advise the Crown, to give aid and counsel. In their primitive form in
the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, the Estates-General had only a limited elective
element. The lay lords and the ecclesiastical lords (bishops and other high clergy) who made up
the Estates-General were not elected by their peers, but directly chosen and summoned by the
king. In the order of the clergy, however, since certain ecclesiastical bodies,
e.g. abbeys and chapters of cathedrals, were also summoned to the assembly, and as these
bodies, being persons in the moral but not in the physical sense, could not appear in person,
their representative had to be chosen by the monks of the convent or the canons of the chapter. It
was only the representation of the Third Estate which was furnished by election. Originally,
moreover, the latter was not called upon as a whole to seek representation in the estates. It was
only the bonnes villes, the privileged towns, which were called upon. They were represented by
elected procureurs, who were frequently the municipal officials of the town, but deputies were
often elected for the purpose. The country districts, the plat pays, were not represented. Even
within the bonnes villes, the franchise was quite narrow.

Back to Farnce in the Middle Ages: Prvts, baillages[edit]


The prvts were the first-level judges created by the Capetian monarchy around the 11th
century who administered the scattered parts of the royal domain. Provosts
replaced viscounts wherever a viscounty had not been made a fief, and it is likely that the provost
position imitated and was styled after the corresponding ecclesiastical provost of cathedral
chapters. Provosts were entrusted with and carried out local royal power, including the collection
of the Crown's domainal revenues and all taxes and duties owed the King within a provostship's
jurisdiction. They were also responsible for military defense such as raising local contingents for
royal armies. The provosts also administered justice though with limited jurisdiction.
In the 11th century, the provosts tended increasingly to make their positions hereditary and thus
became more difficult to control. One of the King's great officers, the Great Seneschal, became
their supervisor. In the 12th century, the office of provost was put up for bidding, and thereafter
provosts were farmers of revenues. The provost thus received the speculative right to collect the
King's seignorial revenues within his provostship. This remained his primary role.
To monitor the performance and curtail abuses of the prvts or their equivalent
(in Normandy a vicomte, in parts of northern France a chtelain, in the south a viguier or
a bayle), Philip II Augustus, an able and ingenious administrator who founded many of the central
institutions on which the French monarchy's system of power would be based, established
itinerant justices known as baillis ("bailiff") based on medieval fiscal and tax divisions which had
been used by earlier sovereign princes (such as the Duke of Normandy).[56] The bailli was thus the
kings administrative representative in northern France responsible for the application of justice
and control of the administration and local finances in his baillage(in the south of France, the
equivalent post was is "snchal, snchauss").

Over time, the role of the baillages would be greatly extended as extensions of royal power,
administration and justice. With the office of Great Seneschal vacant after 1191, the bailies
became stationary and established themselves as powerful officials superior to provosts. A
bailie's district included about half a dozen provostships. When appeals were instituted by the
Crown, appeal of provost judgments, formerly impossible, now lay with the bailie. Moreover, in
the 14th century, provosts no longer were in charge of collecting domainal revenues, except in
farmed provostships, having instead yielded this responsibility to royal receivers (receveurs
royaux). Raising local army contingents (ban and arrire-ban) also passed to bailies. Provosts
therefore retained the sole function of inferior judges over vassals with original jurisdiction
concurrent with bailies over claims against nobles and actions reserved for royal courts (cas
royaux). This followed a precedent established in the chief feudal courts in the 13th and 14th
centuries in which summary provostship suits were distinguished from solemn bailliary sessions.

Estates General (France)


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In France under the Old Regime, the Estates General or States-General (French: tats
gnraux, IPA: [eta eneo]), was a legislative assembly (see The Estates) of the different classes
(or estates) of French subjects. It had a separate assembly for each of the three estates, which
were called and dismissed by the king. It had no true power in its own rightunlike theEnglish
parliament it was not required to approve royal taxation or legislation[1]instead it functioned as
an advisory body to the king, primarily by presenting petitions from the various estates and
consulting on fiscal policy.[2] The Estates-General met intermittently until 1614 and only once
afterwards, but was not definitively dissolved until after the French Revolution.[2]
It is comparable to similar institutions across Europe, such as the States General of the
Netherlands, the Parliament of England, the Estates of Parliament of Scotland,
the Cortes of Spain, the Imperial Diet ("Reichstag") of the Holy Roman Empire or Germanic
Empire, and the Diets (German: Landtage) of the "lands", historic states of Germany.
Contents
[hide]

1 Origin

2 Rise and fall of power

3 Revival in 1560-1614

4 1789

5 Notes and references

6 Sources

7 See also

Origin[edit]

A painting depicting the three classes

In 1302, expanding French royal power led to a general assembly consisting of the chief lords,
both lay and ecclesiastical, and the representatives of the principal privileged towns, which were
like distinct lordships. Certain precedents paved the way for this institution: representatives of
principal towns had several times been convoked by the king, and under Philip III there had been
assemblies of nobles and ecclesiastics in which the two orders deliberated separately. It was the
dispute between Philip the Fair and Pope Boniface VIII which led to the States-General of 1302;
the king of France desired that, in addition to the Great Officers of the Crown of France, he
receive the counsel from the three estates in this serious crisis. The letters summoning the
assembly of 1302 are published by M. Georges Picot in his collection of Documents indits pour
servir l'histoire de France. During the same reign they were subsequently assembled several
times to give him aid by grantingsubsidies. Over time subsidies came to be the most frequent
motive for their convocation.
In one sense, the composition and powers of the Estates-General always remained the same.
They always included representatives of the First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (the nobility),

and Third Estate (commoners: all others), and monarchs always summoned them either to grant
subsidies or to advise the Crown, to give aid and counsel. Their composition, however, as well as
their effective powers, varied greatly at different times.
In their primitive form in the 14th and the first half of the 15th centuries, the Estates-General had
only a limited elective element. The lay lords and the ecclesiastical lords (bishops and other high
clergy) who made up the Estates-General were not elected by their peers, but directly chosen
and summoned by the king. In the order of the clergy, however, since certain ecclesiastical
bodies, e.g. abbeys and chapters of cathedrals, were also summoned to the assembly, and as
these bodies, being persons in the moral but not in the physical sense, could not appear in
person, their representative had to be chosen by the monks of the convent or the canons of the
chapter.
It was only the representation of the Third Estate which was furnished by election. Originally,
moreover, the latter was not called upon as a whole to seek representation in the estates. It was
only the bonnes villes, the privileged towns, which were called upon. They were represented by
elected procureurs, who were frequently the municipal officials of the town, but deputies were
often elected for the purpose. The country districts, the plat pays, were not represented. Even
within thebonnes villes, the franchise was quite narrow.
It was during the last thirty years of the 15th century that the Estates-General became an entirely
elective body and really representative of the whole nation as divided into three parts. This came
about through various causes. On the one hand, the nobles and prelates who were summoned
were not always inclined to attend the estates, so had themselves represented by an envoy,
a procureur, as they had the right to do, and frequently the lords or prelates of the same district
chose the same procureur to represent them. On the other hand, the Crown seems at that time to
have felt the need of having the consent of representatives really expressing the will and feelings
of all the orders, and especially of the Third Estate as a whole. The letters of summons to the
Estates-General of 1484 invited the ecclesiastics, nobles, and Third Estate to meet at the chief
town of their bailliage or snchauss and elect deputies. An intermediate form had been
employed in 1468 when the prelates and lords had still been summoned personally, but the
towns had each elected three deputies, an ecclesiastic, a noble and a burgess.
At the estates of 1484 there seems to have been universal and direct suffrage for all the three
orders. But the roturiers of the country districts could not in practice avail themselves of this
power; so the country communities and small towns spontaneously elected delegates to
represent them at the electoral assembly. Thus a system of indirect election arose for the Third
Estate which became confirmed and subsequently continued to be used. To a certain extent
there were sometimes more than two degrees in the suffrage; the delegates nominated by the
country communities would gather together with the electors chosen by the neighbouring little
town, and appoint with them new delegates to represent them at the electoral assembly of
the bailliage. This ultimately became the system. For the clergy and nobles, the suffrage
remained direct; but as a rule only such ecclesiastics were admitted to the assembly of
the bailliage as possessed abenefice, and only such lords as had a fief.

Rise and fall of power[edit]


The effective powers of the Estates-General likewise varied over time. In the 14th century they
were considerable. The king could not, in theory, levy general taxation. Even in the provinces
attached to the domain of the Crown, he could only levy it where he had retained the haute
justice over the inhabitants, but not on the subjects of lords having the haute justice. The
privileged towns had generally the right of taxing themselves. To collect general taxes, the king
required consent of the lay and ecclesiastical lords, and of the towns. This amounted to needing
authorization from the Estates-General, which only granted these subsidies temporarily for fairly
short periods. As a result, they were summoned frequently and their power over the Crown
became considerable.
In the second half of the 14th century, however, certain royal taxes, levied throughout the Crown's
domain, tended to become permanent and independent of the vote of the estates. This sprang
from many causes, but from one in particular; the Crown endeavoured by transforming and
changing the nature of the "feudal aid" to levy a general tax by right, on its own authority, in such
cases as those in which a lord could demand feudal aid from his vassals. For instance, it was in
this way that the necessary taxes were raised for twenty years to pay the ransom of King John II
of France without a vote of the Estates-General, although they met several times during this
period. Custom confined this tendency. Thus during the second half of the 15th century the chief
taxes, the taille, aids and gabelle became definitely permanent for the benefit of the Crown,
sometimes by the formal consent of the Estates-General, as in 1437 in the case of the aids.
The critical periods of the Hundred Years' War favoured the Estates-General, though at the price
of great sacrifices. Under the reign of King John II they had controlled, from 1355 to 1358, not
only the voting, but through their commissaries, the administration of and jurisdiction over the
taxes. In the first half of the reign of Charles VII they had been summoned almost every year and
had dutifully voted subsidies. But when the struggle was over they renounced, through weariness
and a longing for peace, their most precious right, the power of the purse.
At the estates of 1484, however, after the death of Louis XI, the Duke of Orleans sought to obtain
the regency during the minority of Charles VIII, but the Estates sided with Charles's sister Anne
de Beaujeu and refused.[3]
Deputies of the three orders united their efforts in the hope of regaining the right of periodically
sanctioning taxation. They voted the taille for two years only, at the same time reducing it to the
amount it had reached at the end of the reign of Charles VII. They even demanded, and
obtained, the promise of the Crown that they should be summoned again before the expiration of
the two years. But the promise was not kept, and the Estates-General were not summoned again
until 1560. There was thus a 76 year interim, during which successive kings expanded the role of
the centralised state through various means.

Revival in 1560-1614[edit]
The Estates-General was revived in the second half of the 16th century because of scarcity of
money and the quarrels andWars of Religion. The estates of Orlans in 1560, followed by those

of Pontoise in 1561, and those of Blois in 1576 and 1588 were most remarkable for the wisdom,
courage and efforts of the deputies, but on the whole were lacking in effect. Those of 1588 ended
with a regular coup d'etat effected by Henry III, and the States summoned by the League, which
sat in Paris in 1593 and whose chief object was to elect a Catholic king, were not a success. The
Estates-General again met in Paris in 1614, on the occasion of the disturbances that followed the
death of Henry IV; however, though their minutes bear witness to their sentiments of
exalted patriotism, dissensions between the three orders rendered them weak. They dissolved
before completing their work and were not summoned again until 1789.
As to the question whether the Estates-General formed one or three chambers for the purposes
of their working, from theconstitutional point of view the point was never decided. What the king
required was to have the consent, the resolution of the three estates of the realm; it was in reality
of little importance to him whether their resolutions expressed themselves in common or
separately. At the Estates-General of 1484 the elections were made in common for the three
orders, and the deputies also arrived at their resolutions in common. But after 1560 the rule was
that each order deliberate separately; the royal declaration of 23 June 1789 (at the outbreak of
the French Revolution) even stated that they formed three distinct chambers. But Necker's report
to the conseil du roi according to which the convocation of 1789 was decided, said (as did the
declaration of 23 June), that on matters of common interest the deputies of the three orders could
deliberate together, if each of the others decided by a separate vote in favour of this, and if the
king consented.
The working of the Estates-General led to an almost exclusive system of deliberation
by committees. There were, it is true, solemn general sessions, called sances royales, because
the king presided; but at these there was no discussion. At the first, the king or
his chancellor announced the object of the convocation, and set forth the demands or questions
put to them by the Crown; at the other royal sessions each order made known its answers or
observations by the mouth of an orateurelected for the purpose. But almost all useful work was
done in the sections, among which the deputies of each order were divided. At the estates of
1484 they were divided into six nations or sections, corresponding to the six gnralits then
existing. Subsequently the deputies belonging to the same gouvernement formed a group
or bureau for deliberating and voting purposes. Certain questions, however, were discussed and
decided in full assembly; sometimes, too, the estates nominated commissaries in equal numbers
for each order. But in the ancient Estates-General there was never any personal vote. The unit
represented for each of the three orders was the bailliage or snchauss and each bailliage had
one vote, the majority of the deputies of the bailliage deciding in what way this vote should be
given.
At the estates of the 16th century voting was by gouvernements, each gouvernement having one
vote, but the majority of the bailliages composing the gouvernement decided how it should be
given.
The Estates-General, when they gave counsel, had in theory only a consultative faculty. They
had the power of granting subsidies, which was the chief and ordinary cause of their convocation.
But it had come to be a consent with which the king could dispense, as permanent taxation
became established. In the 16th century, however, the estates again claimed that their consent

was necessary for the establishment of new taxation, and, on the whole, the facts seemed to be
in favour of this view at the time. However, in the course of the 17th century the principle gained
recognition that the king could tax on his own sole authority. Thus were established in the second
half of the 17th century, and in the 18th, the direct taxes of thecapitation and of
the dixime or vingtime, and many indirect taxes. It was sufficient for the law creating them to be
registered by the cours des aides and the parlements. It was only in 1787 that the parlement of
Paris declared that it could not register the new taxes, the land-tax and stamp duty (subvention
territoriale and impt du timbre), as they did not know whether they would be submitted to by the
country, and that the consent of the representatives of the tax-payers must be asked.
The Estates-General had legally no share in the legislative power, which belonged to the king
alone. The Estates of Blois demanded in 1576, that the king be bound to turn into law any
proposition voted in identical terms by each of the three orders; but Henry III would not grant this
demand, which would not even have left him a right of veto. In practice; however, the EstatesGeneral contributed largely to legislation. Those who sat in them had at all times the right of
presenting complaints (dolances), requests and petitions to the king; in this, indeed, consisted
their sole initiative. They were usually answered by an ordonnance, and it is chiefly through these
that we are acquainted with the activity of the estates of the 14th and 15th centuries.
In the latest form, and from the estates of 1484 onwards, this was done by a new and special
procedure. The Estates had become an entirely elective assembly, and at the elections (at each
step of the election if there were several) the electors drew up a cahier de dolances (statement
of grievances), which they requested the deputies to present. This even appeared to be the most
important feature of an election. The deputies of each order in every bailliage also brought with
them a cahier des dolances, arrived at, for the third estate, by a combination of statements
drawn up by the primary or secondary electors. On the assembly of the estates the cahiers of
the bailliages were incorporated into a cahier for eachgouvernement, and these again into
a cahier general or general statement, which was presented to the king, and which he answered
in his council. When the three orders deliberated in common, as in 1484, there was only
one cahier gnral; when they deliberated separately, there were three, one for each order. The
drawing up of the cahier general was looked upon as the main business (le grand cause) of the
session.
By this means the Estates-General furnished the material for numerous ordonnances, though the
king did not always adopt the propositions contained in the cahiers, and often modified them in
forming them into an ordonnance. These latter were the ordonnances de reforme (reforming
ordinances), treating of the most varied subjects, according to the demands of thecahiers. They
were not, however, for the most part very well observed. The last of the type was the grande
ordonnance of 1629 (Code Michau), drawn up in accordance with the cahiers of 1614 and with
the observations of various assemblies of notables that followed them.
The peculiar power of the Estates-General was recognised, but was of a kind that could not often
be exercised. It was, essentially, a constituent power. The ancient public law of France contained
a number of rules called "the fundamental laws of the realm" (lois fondamentales du royaume),
though most of them were purely customary. Chief among these were rules that determined the
succession to the Crown and rules forbidding alienation of the domain of the Crown. The king,

supreme though his power might be, could not abrogate, modify or infringe them. But it was
admitted that he might do so by the consent of the Estates-General. The Estates could give the
king a dispensation from a fundamental law in a given instance; they could even, in agreement
with the king, make new fundamental laws. The Estates of Blois of 1576 and 1588 offer entirely
convincing precedents in this respect. It was universally recognised that in the event of the line
of Hugh Capetbecoming extinct, it would be the function of the States-General to elect a new
king.
The Estates-General of 1614 proved the last for over a century and a half. A new convocation
had indeed been announced to take place on the majority of Louis XIII, and letters were even
issued in view of the elections, but this ended in nothing. Absolute monarchy progressively
became definitely established, and appeared incompatible with the institution of the EstatesGeneral. Liberal minds, however, in the entourage of Louis, duc de Bourgogne, who were
preparing a new plan ofgovernment in view of his expected accession to the French throne in
succession to Louis XIV, thought of reviving the institution. It figures in the projects of SaintSimon and Fnelon though the latter would have preferred to begin with an assembly of nonelected notables. But though St Simon stood high in the favour of the regent Orlans, the death
of Louis XIV did not see a summoning of the Estates.

1789[edit]
Main article: Estates-General of 1789

Caricature on the Third Estate carrying the first and second estate on its back

Opening of the Estates-General on May 5, 1789 in the Grands Salles des Menus-Plaisirs in Versailles.

At the time of the revolution, the First Estate comprised 10,000 Catholic clergy and owned 510%
of the lands in Francethe highest per capita of any estate. All property of the First Estate was
tax exempt. The Second Estate comprised the nobility, which consisted of 400,000 persons at the
time, including women and children. Since the death of Louis XIV in 1715, the nobles had
enjoyed a resurgence in power. They had almost a monopoly over distinguished government
service, higher church offices, army parliaments, and most other public and semipublic honors by
the time of the revolution. Like the First Estate, they were not taxed by the principle of feudal
precedent. The Third Estate comprised about 25 million people: the bourgeoisie, the peasants,
and everyone else in France. Unlike the First and Second Estates, the Third Estate were
compelled to pay taxes, but the bourgeoisie found one way or another to be exempt from them.
The heavy burden of the French government therefore fell upon the poorest in French society
the peasantry, the working poor, and the farmers. There was much resentment from the Third
Estate towards its superiors.
In 1789, the Estates-General was summoned for the first time since 1614. As Fnelon had
wished in former days, an Assembly of Notables in 1787 (which already displayed great
independence) preceded the Estates-General session. According to the model of 1614, the
Estates-General would consist of equal numbers of representatives of each Estate. The Third
Estate demanded, and ultimately received, double representation, which they already had in the
provincial assemblies. When the Estates-General convened in Versailles on 5 May 1789,
however, it became clear that the double representation was something of a sham: voting was to
occur "by orders", which meant that the collective vote of the 578 representatives of the Third
Estate would be weighed the same as that of each of the other Estates.
Royal efforts to focus solely on taxes failed totally. The Estates-General reached an immediate
impasse, debating (with each of the three estates meeting separately) its own structure rather
than the nation's finances. On 28 May 1789, Abb Sieys moved that the Third Estate, now
meeting as the Communes (English: Commons), proceed with verification of its own powers and
invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so,
completing the process on June 17. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring
themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". They
invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear that they intended to conduct the nation's
affairs with or without them.

King Louis XVI of France tried to resist. When he shut down the Salle des tats where the
Assembly met, the Assembly moved their deliberations to a nearby tennis court, where they
proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreed not to
separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy
soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By 27 June the royal party had
overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and
Versailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities.
On 9 July the Assembly reconstituted itself as the National Constituent Assembly.

Back to France in the middle ages: Political history [edit]


Main article: Kingdom of France
Carolingian legacy[edit]
Main articles: Francia and Carolingian Empire
During the later years of the elderly Charlemagne's rule, the Vikings made advances along the
northern and western perimeters of his kingdom. After Charlemagne's death in 814 his heirs
were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of
Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire, and Charles the Bald ruled overWest Francia,
roughly corresponding to the territory of modern France.
Viking advances were allowed to escalate, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up
the Loire and Seine Rivers and other inland waterways, wreaking havoc and spreading terror. In
843 Viking invaders murdered the Bishop of Nantes, and a few years after that, they burned the
Church of Saint Martin at Tours, and in 845 the Vikings sacked Paris.[citation needed]During the reign
of Charles the Simple (898922), Normans under Rollo were settled in an area on either side of
the Seine River, downstream from Paris, that was to become Normandy.
The Carolingians were subsequently to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent
power struggle between the two families, the accession (987) of Hugh Capet, Duke of France
and Count of Paris, established on the throne theCapetian dynasty which with
its Valois and Bourbon offshoots was to rule France for more than 800 years.
The Carolingian era had seen the gradual emergence of institutions which were to condition
France's development for centuries to come: the acknowledgement by the crown of the
administrative authority of the realm's nobles within their territories in return for their (sometimes
tenuous) loyalty and military support, a phenomenon readily visible in the rise of the Capetians
and foreshadowed to some extent by the Carolingians' own rise to power.

The First Capetians (940-1108)[edit]


The history of medieval France starts with the election of Hugh Capet (940-996) by an assembly
summoned in Reims in 987. Capet was previously "Duke of the Franks" and then became "King
of the Franks" (Rex Francorum). Hugh's lands extended little beyond the Paris basin; his political
unimportance weighed against the powerful barons who elected him. Many of the king's vassals
(who included for a long time the kings of England) ruled over territories far greater than his own.
[51]
He was recorded to be recognised king by the Gauls, Bretons, Danes, Aquitanians, Goths,
Spanish andGascons.[57] The new dynasty was in immediate control of little beyond the middle
Seine and adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11thcentury counts of Blois accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through
private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support.
Count Borell of Barcelona called for Hugh's help against Islamic raids, but even if Hugh intended
to help Borell, he was otherwise occupied in fighting Charles of Lorraine. The loss of other
Spanish principalities then followed, as the Spanish marches grew more and more independent.
[57]
Hugh Capet, the first Capetian king, is not a well documented figure, his greatest achievement
being certainly to survive as king and defeating the Carolingian claimant, thus allowing him to
establish what would become one of Europe's most powerful house of kings.[57]

A view of the remains of the Abbey of Cluny, a Benedictine monastery, was the centre of monastic life
revival in the Middle Ages and marked an important step in the cultural rebirth following the Dark Ages.

Hugh's son Robert the Pious was crowned King of the Franks before Capet's demise. Hugh
Capet decided so in order to have his succession secured. Robert II, as King of the Franks,

met Emperor Henry II in 1023 on the borderline. They agreed to end all claims over each other's
realm, setting a new stage of Capetian and Ottonian relationships. Although a king weak in
power, Robert II's efforts were considerable. His surviving charters imply he relied heavily on the
Church to rule France, much like his father did. Although he lived with a mistress Bertha of
Burgundy and was excommunicated because of this, he was regarded as a model of piety for
monks (hence his nickname, Robert the Pious).[57] The reign of Robert II was quite important
because it involved the Peace and Truce of God(beginning in 989) and the Cluniac Reforms.[57]
Robert II crowned his son Hugh Magnus as King of the Franks at age 10 to secure the
succession, but Hugh Magnus rebelled against his father and died fighting him in 1025.
The next King of the Franks was Robert II's next son, Henry I (reigned 1027-1060). Like Hugh
Magnus, Henry was crowned as co-ruler with his father (1027), in the Capetian tradition, but he
had little power or influence as junior king while his father still lived. Henry I was crowned after
Robert's death in 1031, which is quite exceptional for a French king of the times. Henry I was one
of the weakest kings of the Franks, and his reign saw the rise of some very powerful nobles such
as William the Conqueror.[57] Henry I's biggest source of concerns was his brother Robert I of
Burgundy who was pushed by his mother to the conflict. Robert of Burgundy was made Duke
of Burgundy by King Henry I and had to be satisfied with that title. From Henry I onward, the
Dukes of Burgundy were relatives of the King of the Franks until the end of the Duchy proper.

Godefroy de Bouillon, a French knight, leader of the First Crusadeand founder of the Kingdom of
Jerusalem.

King Philip I, named by his Kievan mother with a typically Eastern European name, was no more
fortunate than his predecessor[57] although the kingdom did enjoy a modest recovery during his
extraordinarily long reign (10601108). His reign also saw the launch of the First Crusade to
regain the Holy Land, which heavily involved his family although he personally did not support the
expedition.
The area around the lower Seine, ceded to Scandinavian invaders as the Duchy of Normandy in
911, became a source of particular concern when Duke William took possession of the kingdom
of England in the Norman Conquest of 1066, making himself and his heirs the King's equal
outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown).
Louis VI and Louis VII (11081180)[edit]
It is from Louis VI (reigned 11081137) onward that royal authority became more accepted. Louis
VI was more a soldier and warmongering king than a scholar. The way the king raised money
from his vassals made him quite unpopular; he was described as greedy and ambitious and that
is corroborated by records of the time. His regular attacks on his vassals, although damaging the
royal image, reinforced the royal power. From 1127 onward Louis had the assistance of a skilled
religious statesman, Abbot Suger. The abbot was the son of a minor family of knights, but his
political advice was extremely valuable to the king. Louis VI successfully defeated, both military
and politically, many of the robber barons. Louis VI frequently summoned his vassals to the court,
and those who did not show up often had their land possessions confiscated and military
campaigns mounted against them. This drastic policy clearly imposed some royal authority on
Paris and its surrounding areas. When Louis VI died in 1137, much progress had been made
towards strengthening Capetian authority.[57]
Thanks to Abbot Suger's political advice, King Louis VII (junior king 11311137, senior king
11371180) enjoyed greatermoral authority over France than his predecessors. Powerful vassals
paid homage to the French king.[58] Abbot Suger arranged the 1137 marriage between Louis VII
and Eleanor of Aquitaine in Bordeaux, which made Louis VII Duke of Aquitaine and gave him
considerable power. However, the couple disagreed over the burning of more than a thousand
people in Vitry during the conflict against the Count of Champagne.[59]
King Louis VII was deeply horrified by the event and sought penitence by going to the Holy Land.
He later involved the Kingdom of France in the Second Crusade but his relationship with Eleanor
did not improve. The marriage was ultimately annulled by the pope under the pretext of
consanguinity and Eleanor soon married the Duke of Normandy Henry Fitzempress, who would
become King of England as Henry II two years later.[59] Louis VII was once a very powerful
monarch and was now facing a much stronger vassal, who was his equal as King of England and
his strongest prince as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine.
(Henry had inherited the Duchy of Normandy through his mother, Mathilda of England, and the
County of Anjou from his father, Geoffrey of Anjou, and in 1152, he had married France's newly
divorced ex-queen, Eleanor of Aquitaine, who ruled much of southwest France. After defeating
a revolt led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made the
Duke of Brittany his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater power than

the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division of his French
territories, coupled with John of England's lengthy quarrel with Philip II, allowed Philip II to
recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at the Battle of Bouvines in
1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne.)
Abbot Suger's vision of construction became what is now known as Gothic architecture. This
style became standard for most European cathedrals built in the late Middle Ages.[59]
The late direct Capetian kings were considerably more powerful and influential than the earliest
ones. While Philip I could hardly control his Parisian barons, Philip IV could dictate popes and
emperors. The late Capetians, although they often ruled for a shorter time than their earlier
peers, were often much more influential. This period also saw the rise of a complex system of
international alliances and conflicts opposing, through dynasties, Kings of France and England
and Holy Roman Emperor.
Philip II Augustus (11801223)[edit]
The reign of Philip II Augustus (junior king 11791180, senior king 11801223) marked an
important step in the history of French monarchy. His reign saw the French royal domain and
influence greatly expanded. He set the context for the rise of power to much more powerful
monarchs like Saint Louis and Philip the Fair.

Philip II victorious at Bouvines thus annexing Normandy and Anjou into his royal domains. This battle
involved a complex set of alliances from three important states, the Kingdoms of France and England and
the Holy Roman Empire.

Philip II spent an important part of his reign fighting the so-calledAngevin Empire, which was
probably the greatest threat to the King of France since the rise of the Capetian dynasty. During
the first part of his reign Philip II tried using Henry II of England's son against him. He allied
himself with the Duke of Aquitaine and son of Henry II Richard Lionheart and together they
launched a decisive attack on Henry's castle and home of Chinon and removed him from power.
Richard replaced his father as King of England afterward. The two kings then went crusading
during the Third Crusade; however, their alliance and friendship broke down during the crusade.

The two men were once again at odds and fought each other in France until Richard was on the
verge of totally defeating Philip II.
Adding to their battles in France, the Kings of France and England were trying to install their
respective allies at the head of the Holy Roman Empire. If Philip II Augustus supported Philip of
Swabia, member of the House of Hohenstaufen, then Richard Lionheart supported Otto IV,
member of the House of Welf. Otto IV had the upper hand and became the Holy Roman Emperor
at the expense of Philip of Swabia. The crown of France was saved by Richard's demise after a
wound he received fighting his own vassals in Limousin.
John Lackland, Richard's successor, refused to come to the French court for a trial against
the Lusignans and, as Louis VI had done often to his rebellious vassals, Philip II confiscated
John's possessions in France. John's defeat was swift and his attempts to reconquer his French
possession at the decisive Battle of Bouvines (1214) resulted in complete failure. Philip II had
annexed Normandy and Anjou, plus capturing the Counts of Boulogne and Flanders, although
Aquitaine and Gascony remained loyal to the Plantagenet King. In an additional aftermath of
the Battle of Bouvines, John's ally Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV was overthrown by Frederick II,
member of the House of Hohenstaufen and ally of Philip. Philip II of France was crucial in
ordering Western European politics in both England and France.
Philip Augustus founded the Sorbonne and made Paris a city for scholars.
Prince Louis (the future Louis VIII, reigned 12231226) was involved in the subsequent English
civil war as French and English (or rather Anglo-Norman) aristocracies were once one and were
now split between allegiances. While the French kings were struggling against the Plantagenets,
the Church called for the Albigensian Crusade. Southern France was then largely absorbed in the
royal domains.
Saint Louis (12261270)[edit]
Main article: Louis IX of France

Saint Louis. He saw France's cultural expansion in the Western Christian world.

France became a truly centralised kingdom under Louis IX (reigned 12261270). Saint Louis has
often been portrayed as a one-dimensional character, a flawless representant of the faith and an
administrative reformer who cared for the governed ones. However, his reign was far from perfect
for everyone: he made unsuccessful crusades, his expanding administrations raised opposition,
and he burned Jewish books at the Pope's urging.[60] His judgments were not often practical,
although they seemed fair by the standards of the time. It appears Louis had a strong sense of
justice and always wanted to judge people himself before applying any sentence. This was said
about Louis and French clergy asking for excommunications of Louis' vassals: [61]
For it would be against God and contrary to right and justice if he compelled any man to seek
absolution when the clergy were doing him wrong.
Louis IX was only twelve years old when he became King of France. His mother Blanche of
Castile was the effective power as regent (although she did not formally use the title).
Blanche's authority was strongly opposed by the French barons yet she maintained her position
until Louis was old enough to rule by himself.
In 1229 the King had to struggle with a long lasting strike at the University of Paris. The Quartier
Latin was strongly hit by these strikes.
The kingdom was vulnerable: war was still going on in the County of Toulouse, and the royal
army was occupied fighting resistance in Languedoc. Count Raymond VII of Toulouse finally
signed the Treaty of Paris in 1229, in which he retained much of his lands for life, but his
daughter, married to Count Alfonso of Poitou, produced him no heir and so the County of
Toulouse went to the King of France.

King Henry III of England had not yet recognized the Capetian overlordship over Aquitaine and
still hoped to recover Normandy and Anjou and reform the Angevin Empire. He landed in 1230
at Saint-Malo with a massive force. Henry III's allies in Brittany and Normandy fell down because
they did not dare fight their king, who led the counterstrike himself. This evolved into
the Saintonge War (1242).
Ultimately, Henry III was defeated and had to recognize Louis IX's overlordship, although the
King of France did not seize Aquitaine from Henry III. Louis IX was now the most important
landowner of France, adding to his royal title. There were some opposition to his rule in
Normandy, yet it proved remarkably easy to rule, especially compared to the County of Toulouse
which had been brutally conquered. The Conseil du Roi, which would evolve into the Parlement,
was founded in these times.
After his conflict with King Henry III of England, Louis established a cordial relation with the
Plantagenet King. An amusing anecdote is about Henry III's attending the French Parlement, as
Duke of Aquitaine; however, the King of England was always late because he liked to stop each
time he met a priest to hear the mass, so Louis made sure no priest was on the way of Henry III.
Henry III and Louis IX then started a long contest for who was the most faithful; this evolved to
the point that none ever arrived on time to the Parlement, which was then allowed to debate in
their absence.[62]
Saint Louis also supported new forms of art such as Gothic architecture; his SainteChapelle became a very famous gothic building, and he is also credited for the Morgan Bible.
The Kingdom was involved in two crusades under Saint Louis: the Seventh Crusade and
the Eighth Crusade. Both proved to be complete failures for the French King. He died in the
Eighth Crusade and Philip III became king.
The 13th century was to bring the crown important gains also in the south, where a papal-royal
crusade against the region's Albigensian or Cathar heretics (1209) led to the incorporation into
the royal domain of Lower (1229) and Upper (1271)Languedoc. Philip IV's seizure
of Flanders (1300) was less successful, ending two years later in the rout of his knights by the
forces of the Flemish cities at the Battle of the Golden Spurs near Kortrijk (Courtrai).

Philip III and Philip IV (12701314)[edit]


After Louis IX died of bubonic plague crusading in Tunisia in 1270, his son Philip III (1270-1285)
and grandson Philip IV (1285-1314) followed him. Philip III was called "the Bold" on the basis of
his abilities in combat and on horseback, and not because of his character or ruling abilities.
Philip III took part in another crusading disaster: the Aragonese Crusade, which cost him his life
in 1285.
Philip III continued the steady expansion of the royal domain, bringing in Toulouse (1271) and
marrying the heiress to the county of Burgundy to his son in 1295 (he had already married

another son to the heiress of Champagne and Navarre). Southern Flanders and Lyon were
annexed into France in 1312 along with numerous smaller territories.
After taking the throne, Philip III felt obliged to continue his father's apparently solid diplomacy
despite circumstances having changed. In 1282, the misrule of Charles of Anjou in Sicily
compelled the island's populace to rebel in favor of KingPeter III of Aragon. As Pope Martin
IV was a close ally of Philip, he immediately excommunicated Peter and offered his throne to one
of the French king's sons. Since Philip the Fair was already slated to inherit Navarre, the entire
Spanish March seemed ripe for reconquest by France. Unfortunately, Philip III's attempted
crusade against Aragon, a blatantly political affair, ended in disaster as an epidemic struck his
army, which then was soundly defeated by Aragonese forces at Col de Panissars. The humiliated
king died shortly afterwards in Perpignan, followed by Charles of Anjou and Martin IV.
Of the later Capetian rulers, Philip IV was the greatest, bringing royal power to the strongest level
it would attain in the Middle Ages, yet alienated a great many people and generally left France
exhausted. As such, his sons were obliged to follow a more restrained course without however
abandoning their father's ambitions. Philip IV for the most part ignored the Mediterranean and
instead focused his foreign policy efforts on France's northern frontiers. Some of this was done at
the expense of the Holy Roman Emperors, but the king's most aggressive actions were against
England. Disputes over Aquitaine were a bone of contention for years and finally in 1294, war
broke out. The French armies drove deep into Gascony, leading to Edward I of England joining
forces with Flanders and other allies on the northern borders of France. The allied forces were
soundly beaten in 1297 by a French army led by Robert of Artois and a truce was agreed to,
leading to preservation of the status quo ante bellum. As part of the peace arrangement, Edward
married Philip's sister and the son and daughter of both kings were slated to marry.
Flanders remained stubbornly rebellious and insubordinate. Although their count had been
imprisoned by Philip, this did not prevent the Flemish burghers from rising up against French
troops stationed there, inflicting a sensational defeat on them at the 1302 Battle of Courtrai.
Eventually however, the king began a new offensive into Flanders and a peace was finally agreed
to in 1305 which however still failed to placate the Flemish townsmen.
In addition, Philip IV extended royal jurisdiction by treaty into the ecclesiastical territories of
Vivers, Cahors, Mende, and Le Puy. With all this, the king could now assert power nearly
anywhere in France, yet there was still a great deal of work yet to be done and French rulers for
the time being continued to do without Brittany, Burgundy, and numerous lesser territories
although they legislated for the whole realm. Governmental administration in France during this
period became more bureaucratic and sophisticated along with the steady expansion of royal
power. Even so, the Capetian kings should not be taken as arbitrary tyrants since feudal custom
and tradition still acted as restraints on them.
If Philip's policies provoked hostility and complaints, it was because they favored no class in
particular. The king's policy towards the towns remained fairly traditional, but this was not the
case with the Church. When he wanted to tax French clergy to fund military campaigns, he
encountered the objection of Pope Boniface VIII. The pope had received a number of complaints
from French and English clergy over lay taxes and thus issued the bull Clericis lacios in 1296

declaring that papal consent was necessary for this. Philip however became infuriated and
issued loud arguments in defense of his actions, leaving the clergy divided over the matter.
Eventually the pope withdrew his objection.
In 1301, fresh trouble erupted when the Bishop of Pamiers was accused by the King of heresy
and treason, leading to another protest from Boniface VIII that Church property could not be
confiscated without Rome's permission and all Christian rulers were subordinate to papal
authority. The pope summoned French clergy to the Vatican to debate a reform of the kingdom.
Once again the prelates were left divided between loyalty to their country and loyalty to the
Church. Those who took the side of Philip met in a large assembly in Paris along with other
segments of French society criticizing the Pope, who responded by excommunicating the king
and all clergy who had supported him. The following year, Philip struck back with a vengeance.
Prelates loyal to the crown formed a scheme to bring Boniface to trial, and the Pope was
summarily arrested at Anagni that September. He was beaten by his jailers and threatened with
execution if he did not resign the papacy, but he refused. The 68-year old Pope was released
from captivity after only a few days and died several weeks later.
Philip ensured that he would never again have trouble with the Church by promoting Raymond
Bertrand de Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, as the next Pope. The papal concave was evenly
divided between French and Italian cardinals, but the latter acquiesced and de Got became
Pope Clement V. Thus, Philip successfully installed an obedient French puppet in the papacy
that was moved to Avignon.
More administrative reforms were made by Philip IV, also called Philip the Fair (reigned 1285
1314). This king signed theAuld Alliance, and established the Parlement of Paris.
One of the more bizarre episodes of Philip's reign, he was responsible for the destruction of
the Knights Templar. The Templars had been founded during the Crusades more than a century
earlier, but now consisted of old men who's prestige was greatly diminished after the fall of the
Holy Land and no longer seemed to serve any useful purpose worth their privileges. Unable to
find suitable evidence of misdeeds by the Templars to justify disposing of the order, Philip had to
resort to a mass meeting at Tours in 1308 to rally support. Finally in 1312, Clement V, despite his
misgivings, issued a bull ordering their dissolution. The Templars' possessions were handed over
to the Knights Hospitallers and their remaining members imprisoned or executed for heresy.
Louis X and Philip V (1314-1322)[edit]
In 1314, Philip IV died abruptly in a hunting accident at the age of 47 and the throne passed to
his son Louis X (1314-1316). Louis's brief reign saw further unsuccessful attempts to assert
control over Flanders as the king mobilized an army along the border, but supply problems
caused the effort to break down. Louis died in the summer of 1316 at only 26 of an unknown
illness (possibly gastroenteritis) after consuming a large quantity of chilled wine following a game
of tennis on an extremely hot day. The king's wife was then pregnant and gave birth to a son,
John, in November, but he died after a week and the throne passed to his brother Philip.

Philip V (1316-1322) made peace with Flanders via a marriage compact with its count Robert III
and faced continued quarrels with Edward II of England over Gascony. He made plans for a new
crusade to relieve the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, but the Flanders situation remained unstable
and an attempted French naval expedition to the Middle East was destroyed off Genoa in 1319.
At this point, peasants and soldiers originally intended to invade Flanders rose in another selfproclaimed crusade (Pastoreux) which once again turned into an assault on the nobility, tax
collectors, and Jews. PopeJohn XXII denounced the uprising and Philip was forced to send
troops to break it up.
In 1321, a rumor began spreading through the country that Jews in the employ of foreign Muslim
rulers were using lepers to poison drinking wells. With the Pastoreux still fresh in everyone's
mind, a volatile situation had formed especially as Philip V granted tolerance to Jews and even
employed a number of them in his service. With the king facing potential disaster no matter what
side he took, his health began to fail from stress and he succumbed at the start of 1322, only 29
years old.
Having failed to produce a son that survived infancy, Philip was succeeded by his brother (and
the youngest of Philip IV's sons) Charles IV (1322-1328). The new king faced much of the same
problems as his predecessors (namely the quarrels over Flanders and Gascony). Having put an
end to the chaos in southern France that his brother faced, he turned his attention to Flanders,
but then a revolt broke out in Gascony over the unwelcome construction of a fortress on the
border by a French vassal. The king's uncle Charles of Valois invaded the province, whereupon
the former declared Edward II's claims to it null and void. Although Charles IV's sister married the
English king, he still refused to return Gascony and finally came to an agreement to divide it up
among the two rulers.
Charles was also eager to begin a new crusade in the Levant and had once plotted to become
Byzantine emperor. He failed to work out an agreement with the Pope over funding the expedition
however, and his attention was distracted by the events in Gascony. But in 1327, a French
ambassador traveled to Constantinople and found the Byzantine Empire beset by civil wars. The
following year, Charles IV died, ending any plans for crusades in the region.
The Hundred Years' War (13281453)[edit]
Main article: Hundred Years' War
The death of Charles IV in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under Salic
law the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son
was Edward III of England), so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois. This, in
addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to Gascony in the south of France, and the
relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the Hundred Years' War of
13371453. The following century was to see devastating warfare and peasant revolts
(the English peasants' revolt of 1381 and theJacquerie of 1358 in France).
French losses in the first phase of the conflict (133760) were partly reversed in the second
(136996); but Henry V's shattering victory at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 against a France
now bitterly divided between rival Armagnac and Burgundian factions of the royal house was to

lead to his son Henry VI's recognition as king in Paris seven years later under the 1420 Treaty of
Troyes, reducing Valois rule to the lands south of the Loire River Valley.
France's humiliation was abruptly reversed in 1429 by the appearance of a restorationist
movement embodied by the peasant maid Joan of Arc from Domremy la Pucelle, who claimed
the guidance of divine voices for the campaign which rapidly ended the English siege
of Orlans and ended in Charles VII's coronation in the historic city of Rheims. Subsequently
captured by the Burgundians and sold to their English allies, her execution for heresy in 1431
redoubled her value as the embodiment of France's cause.

France in 1435

Reconciliation in 1435 between the king and Philippe the Good, duke of Burgundy, removed the
greatest obstacle to French recovery, leading to the recapture of Paris (1436), Normandy (1450)
and Guienne (1453), reducing England's foothold to a small area around Calais (lost also in
1558). After victory over England, France's emergence as a powerful national monarchy was
crowned by the "incorporation" of the Duchies of Burgundy (1477) and Brittany (1532), which had
previously been independent European states.
The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the Black
Death, usually considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348,
spreading rapidly up the Rhone valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that
a population of some 1820 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 hearth
tax returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50% or more.

The capture of the French kingJohn II at Poitiers in 1356.

The tensions between the Houses of Plantagenet and Capet climaxed during the socalled Hundred Years' War (actually several distinct wars over the period 1337 to 1453) when the
Plantagenets claimed the throne of France from the Valois. This was also the time of the Black
Death, as well as several civil wars. The French population suffered much from these wars. In
1420 by the Treaty of Troyes Henry V was made heir to Charles VI. Henry V failed to outlive
Charles so it was Henry VI of England and France who consolidated the Dual-Monarchy of
England and France.
It has been argued that the difficult conditions the French population suffered during the Hundred
Years' War awakened French nationalism, a nationalism represented by Joan of Arc (1412
1431). Although this is debatable, the Hundred Years' War is remembered more as a FrancoEnglish war than as a succession of feudal struggles. During this war, France evolved politically
and militarily.
Although a Franco-Scottish army was successful at the Battle of Baug (1421), the humiliating
defeats of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) forced the French nobility to realise they could
not stand just as armoured knights without an organised army. Charles VII (reigned 14221461)
established the first French standing army, the Compagnies d'ordonnance, and defeated the
Plantagenets once at Patay (1429) and again, using cannons, at Formigny (1450). TheBattle of
Castillon (1453) was regarded as the last engagement of this "war", yet Calais and the Channel
Islands remained ruled by the Plantagenets.
List of kings during this period[edit]
Capetian Dynasty (House of Capet):

Hugh Capet, 940-996

Robert the Pious, 996-1027

Henry I, 1027-1060

Philip I, 10601108

Louis VI the Fat, 11081137

Louis VII the Young, 11371180

Philip II Augustus, 11801223

Louis VIII the Lion, 12231226

Saint Louis IX, 12261270

Philip III the Bold, 12701285

Philip IV the Fair, 12851314

Louis X the Quarreller, 13141316

John I the Posthumous, five days in 1316

Philip V the Tall, 13161322

Charles IV the Fair, 13221328


House of Valois:

Philip VI of Valois, 13281350

John II the Good, 13501364

Charles V the Wise, 13641380

Charles VI the Mad, 13801422


English interlude (between Charles VI and VII):

Henry V of England

Henry VI of England and France


Charles VII the Well Served, 14221461

Religion and the Church[edit]


Main article: History of Roman Catholicism in France

List of Ancien Rgime dioceses of France

Economy and technology[edit]


Main article: Economic history of France
The period after the death of Charlemagne was marked by an economic crisis caused by political
instability; town life all but disappeared. However, this had changed by the 11th century. The
introduction of new crops, the improvements in the climate, and the introduction of new
agricultural technologies created a large agricultural surplus. This was accompanied by the
growth in town life, trade, and industry. The economy once again collapsed in the fourteenth
century because of war, bad weather, and the Black Death.
The rural economy was based on the manor; in urban areas economic activity was organized
around guilds.

Culture and art[edit]


Literature[edit]
This section requires expansion.
(March 2008)

For the literature of Northern France written in one of the Old French languages ("langues
d'ol") and (later) Middle French, see Medieval French literature.

For the literature of Southern France written in one of the Occitan languages, see Occitan
literature.

For the literature written in the "langue d'ol" Anglo-Norman language during
the Norman rule of England, see Anglo-Norman literature.

Art[edit]
Art was a large staple of the medieval France.
Main article: Medieval art

Kingdom of France
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about pre-Revolutionary France. For the first constitutional monarchy, see Kingdom
of France (17911792). For the post-Napoleonic monarchy, see Bourbon Restoration. For the
Orlanist period, see July Monarchy.

Kingdom of France
Royaume de France
8431792

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto
Montjoie Saint Denis!

The Kingdom of France in 1789.

Capital

Paris (900-1682)
Versailles (1682-1789)
Paris (1789-1792)

Languages

Official language:
Frenchb
Common languages:
Occitan, Breton,
Basque, Alsatian,
Walloon, Francique,
Franco-Provenal

Religion

Roman Catholic

Government

Absolute monarchy(843-1791)
Constitutional monarchy (17911792)

King
843877

Charles the Bald (first)

17741792

Louis XVI (last)

Chief Minister
15891611

Maximilien Bthune(first)

17901791

Armand Marc (last)

Legislature

Estates Generalc

Historical era

Medieval / Early Modern

Treaty of Verdun
-

10 August 843
Direct Capetians

9871328
House of Valois

13281589

Hundred Years'
- War

13371453

Italian Wars
-

14941559
Wars of Religion

15621598
Republic declared

3 September 1792

Currency

Livre, Franc,
cu, Louis d'or

a. France had no official flag and national identity was loyalty to the
King, as in other autocratic monarchies.
b. Official language since the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterts.
c. Retained only a limited legislative role.

The Kingdom of France (French: Royaume de France), was a medievaland early


modern monarchy in Western Europe, the predecessor of the modern French Republic. It was
one of the most powerful states in Europe, a great power since the Late Middle Ages and
the Hundred Years' War. It was also an early colonial power, with significant possessions inNorth
America.
France originated as West Francia (Francia Occidentalis), the western half of the Carolingian
empire, with the Treaty of Verdun (843). A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule
until 987, when Hugh Capet was elected king and founded the Capetian dynasty. The territory
remained known as Francia and its ruler as rex Francorum ("king of the Franks") well into
the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself roi de France("king of France") was Philip II,
in 1190. France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet lines
the Valois and Bourbonuntil the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French
Revolution.
France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal state. In Brittanyand Catalonia (now a
part of Spain) the authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states
of the Holy Roman Empireand not yet a part of France. Initially, West Frankish kings were elected
by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, but the regular coronation of the eldest son of the
reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of male primogeniture, which
became codified in the Salic law. During the late Middle Ages, the Kings of England laid claim to
the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years' War(1337
1453). Subsequently France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in
the ensuing Italian Wars (14941559).

France in the early modern era was increasingly centralised, the French language began to
displace other languages from official use, and the monarch expanded his absolute power, albeit
in an administrative system (the Ancien Rgime) complicated by historic and regional
irregularities in taxation, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic divisions, and local prerogatives.
Religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a Protestant minority,
the Huguenots. After a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion (15621598), tolerance was
granted the Huguenots in the Edict of Nantes. France laid claim to large stretches of North
America, known collectively as New France. Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of
this territory by 1763. French intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the
independence of the new United States of America.
The Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a
year later and replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the other
great powers in 1814 and lasted (except for the Hundred Days in 1815) until the French
Revolution of 1848.

Battle of Roche-au-Moine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Battle of Roche-au-Moine
Part of Anglo-French War (1202-1214)

King John of England in battle with the French (left),


Prince Louis VIII of France on the march (right).

Date
Location

2 July 1214
Savennires, Anjou, Angevin Empire

Result

French victory

Belligerents

Duchy of

Kingdom of France

Normandy
Kingdom of
England

Commanders and leaders

John of England

Prince Louis of
France

Strength
unknown

unknown

Casualties and losses


unknown

unknown
[hide]

Anglo-French War (120214)

Normandy campaigns of 12001204


Mirebeau
Chteau Gaillard
Campaign of 1214: Damme
Roche-au-Moine
Bouvines
The Battle of Roche-au-Moine was a battle between theKingdom of France and the Kingdom of England in
1214. When John besieged the castle, he retreated after he was refused support from Angevin nobles.

Battle[edit]
In 1214 John began his final campaign to reclaim Normandy from Philip. John was optimistic, as he had
successfully built up alliances with the Emperor Otto, Renaud of Boulogne and Count Ferdinand of Flanders; he
was enjoying papal favour; and he had successfully built up substantial funds to pay for the deployment of his
experienced army.[1] Nonetheless, when John left for Poitou in February 1214, many barons refused to provide
military service; mercenary knights had to fill the gaps.[2] John's plan was to split Philip's forces by pushing northeast from Poitou towards Paris, whilst Otto, Renaud and Ferdinand, supported by William Longespe, marched
south-west from Flanders.[2]
The first part of the campaign went well, with John outmanoeuvring the forces under the command of
Prince Louisand retaking the county of Anjou by the end of June.[3] John besieged the castle of Roche-au-Moine,
a key stronghold, forcing Louis to give battle against John's larger army.[4] The local Angevin nobles refused to
advance with the king; left at something of a disadvantage, John retreated back to La Rochelle.[4]

Aftermath[edit]
Shortly afterwards, Philip won the hard-fought battle of Bouvines in the east against Otto and John's other allies,
bringing an end to John's hopes of retaking Normandy.[5] A peace agreement was signed in which John returned
Anjou to Philip and paid the French king compensation; the truce was intended to last for six years.[5]John arrived
back in England in October.[5]

Auld Alliance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Auld Alliance (Scots for "Old Alliance"; Vieille Alliance in French) was the alliance between the kingdoms
of Scotland and France. The Scots wordauld meaning old has become a partly affectionate term for this periodic
alliance between the two countries before the Union of Crowns, whereby the Scottish monarch James VI,
acceded to the throne of England (as James I).
The alliance played a significant role in the relations between Scotland, France and England from its beginning in
1295 until the 1560 Treaty of Edinburgh. The alliance was renewed by all the French and Scottish monarchs of
that period except for Louis XI.[1] By the late 14th century, the renewal occurred regardless of whether either
kingdom was involved in a conflict with England.[2]
The alliance dates from the treaty signed by John Balliol and Philip IV of France in 1295 against Edward I of
England. The terms of the treaty stipulated that if either country was attacked by England, the other country would
invade English territory, as became evident at the Battle of Flodden Field, 1513. The alliance played an important
role in conflicts between both countries and England, such as the Wars of Scottish Independence, theHundred
Years' War, the War of the League of Cambrai and the Rough Wooing.

History[edit]
The dynastic turmoil caused by the death of Scotland's seven-year-old queen,Margaret, left Edward I of
England with an irresistible opportunity to assert his authority over Scotland. By 1295 it was clear that Edward
was on a course for total subjugation of Scotland. In response the Council of Twelve who had taken over the
government of Scotland temporarily, sought alliances wherever they could be found.
With France and England close to war following Philippe IV's declaration of England's possession
of Gascony forfeit in 1293, alliance with France was a clear course to take. In October 1295, a Scottish embassy
to Philippe agreed the Treaty of Paris.[3]
As with all subsequent renewals of what became the Auld Alliance, the treaty slightly favoured France more
than Scotland. The French were required to do no more than continue their struggle against the English in
Gascony. However, the cost of any outright war between Scotland and England was to be borne entirely by the
Scots. Nevertheless, Scotland, as remote and impoverished as it was, was now aligned to a major European
power. Even if more symbolic than actual, the benefits of the alliance mattered greatly to Scotland.[4]
In the short term however, the treaty proved to have no protection against Edward whose swift and devastating
invasion of Scotland in 1296 all but eradicated its independence. Furthermore the cessation of hostilities between
England and France in 1299, followed by the treaty of "perpetual peace and friendship" allowed Edward to devote
all of his attention and forces to attacking the Scots. Scotland, in the end, owed its eventual survival to the military
acumen and inspiration of Robert the Bruce and the mistakes ofEdward II rather than its Auld Alliance with
France.
In 1326, Robert the Bruce renewed the alliance, with the Treaty of Corbeil. The motive for this renewal was
precautionary more than anything: neither realm seemed to have much to fear from England at the time. This,
however, rapidly changed after 1330 when Edward III set out to complete his conquest of Scotland and to
reassert his power in France. For the first time the Franco-Scottish alliance had been given a sense of
emergency.
In 1346 Edward overwhelmed French forces at the Battle of Crcy. Two months later David II of Scotland was
captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross, in a botched invasion of Northern England. His 11 year absence as
Edward's prisoner only increased the internal turmoil and power struggles of Scotland. David II was forced to
reach a deal with Edward III to gain his freedom. Even after his release in 1357, David spent most of his
remaining reign attempting to further English interests in Scotland.[4]
The alliance was renewed between the two kingdoms in 1371, with the embassy of the Bishop of Glasgow and
the Lord of Galloway to France. The treaty was signed by Charles V at the Chteau de Vincennes on 30 June,
and at Edinburgh Castleby Robert II on 28 October.[5] The accession of pro-French Robert II led to the immediate
renewal of the alliance, however the benefits to Scotland were mixed. Plans were drawn up in 1385 for a FrancoScottish invasion of England. This included the dispatch of a small French force to Scotland for the first time.
These plans never came to any form of action after the French invasion failed to materialise. The deteriorating
relations between France and Scotland were summed up by the French Chronicler Jean Froissart who "wished
the King of France would make a truce with the English for two or three years and then march to Scotland and
utterly destroy it".[4]
Yet it was necessity that had driven the two kingdoms together and the need to resist aggressive new Lancastrian
Kings ofEngland that kept the alliance together in the 15th century. France was on the brink of surrendering to the

forces of Henry Vand in 1418 the Dauphin, Charles VII, called on his Scottish allies for help. Between 1419 and
1424 as many as 15,000 Scottish troops were sent to France.[6][7]
French and Scottish forces together won against the English at the Battle of Baug in 1421. As it marked the
turning point of the Hundred Years War, the significance of this battle was great. However, their victory was a
short-lived one: at Verneuilin 1424, the Scots army was defeated. Despite this defeat, the Scots had given France
a valuable breathing space, effectively saving the country from English domination.[4]
In addition, in 1429 Scots came to the aid of Joan of Arc in her famous relief of Orlans. Scottish soldiers also
served in theGarde cossaise, the loyal bodyguard of the French monarchy. Many Scottish mercenaries chose to
settle in France. Some were granted lands and titles in France. [1] In the 15th and 16th centuries, they became
naturalised French subjects.[1]
Through the rest of the 15th century the alliance was formally renewed four times.[4] The eventual victory
of France in theHundred Years War combined with the turmoil in England following the War of the Roses meant
that the English threat was greatly reduced thus rendering the alliance almost obsolete. The marriage in 1502
of Henry VIII's sister Margaret to James IV of Scotland appears to have finally ended the Franco-Scottish alliance
for good.
It underwent a dramatic revival in 1512 when it was formally reviewed (as it was again in 1517 and 1548). Both
soon petered out but Scotland still suffered badly following the death of James IV and most of his nobles
at Flodden in 1513. Periodic Anglo-French and Anglo-Scottish conflict throughout the 15th century continued, but
the certainties that had driven the Auld Alliance were disappearing. As Protestantism gained ground in Scotland
opinion grew there that favoured closer links with England than with France.[4]
In 1558 the alliance between the two kingdoms was finally revived with the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots to
the futureFrancis II of France. Yet with her exile in 1568 to England, Scotland was transformed by its new
king James VI who was heir to the English throne as well as Scotland's. His desire to form close links
with England meant that the alliance had outlived its usefulness. In the 1560s, after more than 250 years, formal
treaties between Scotland and France were officially ended by the Treaty of Edinburgh.[8] With the Scottish
Reformation, Scotland was declared Protestant, and allied itself with Protestant England instead. During the
Reformation, the Protestant Lords of the Congregation had rejected the Auld Alliance and brokered English
military support with their treaty of Berwick against the French Regent Mary of Guise.
Two hundred Scottish soldiers were sent to Normandy in 1562 to aid the French Huguenots in their struggle
against royal authority during the French Wars of Religion. The Garde cossaise, however, continued until 1830
when Charles X of France abdicated.

Wider influence[edit]
Although principally a military and diplomatic agreement, the alliance also extended into the lives of the Scottish
population in a number of ways: including architecture, law, the Scots language and cuisine, due in part to
Scottish soldiery within the French army. Part of the influence on law was due to Scots often going to French
universities, something which continued up until the Napoleonic Wars.[9] Other intellectual influences from France
continued into the 18th century as well.[10]Examples of architectural influence include two Scottish castles built
with French castle-building in mind: Bothwell andKildrummy[11]

At the height of the alliance, French was widely spoken in Scotland and French still has an influence on the Scots
language.
Despite all these exchanges of culture, Scottish historian J.B. Black, said of the alliance: "The Scot['s...] love for
their 'auld' ally had never been a positive sentiment nourished by community of culture, but an artificially created
affection based on the negative basis of hatred of England, and merely for the benefits brought by the
philosophical theory that "the enemy of my enemy is my friend"."[12]

Legacy[edit]
Until 1903 any Scottish person living in France could receive French nationality automatically.[citation needed]

"La plus vieille alliance du monde"


In a speech which he delivered in Edinburgh in June 1942, Charles de Gaulle described the alliance between
Scotland and France as "the oldest alliance in the world". He also declared that:[13]
"In every combat where for five centuries the destiny of France was at stake, there were always men of Scotland
to fight side by side with men of France, and what Frenchmen feel is that no people has ever been more
generous than yours with its friendship."
In 1995, celebrations were held in both countries for the 700th anniversary of the beginning of the alliance.[2]
In 2011, British historian Dr Siobhan Talbott published the result of her research on this matter and concluded
accordingly that the Auld Alliance is actually unrevoked after all.[14]

See also[edit]

Duke of Aubigny

Duke of Lennox

Foreign alliances of France

Anglo-French war of 120214

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


The Anglo-French War was a war between the Kingdom of Franceand the Kingdom of England. The war was
mainly fought inNormandy, where John, King of England fought King Philip II of France for domination. The end
of the war came at the decisive Battle of Bouvines, where Philip defeated England and its allies.
Normandy, once a site of conflict between Richard I of England andPhilip II of France, grew to be one of the hot
spots of the wars as the king of England as duke of Normandy had to defend his territory close to Paris.
When John of England rose to the throne he fought to expand his empire, launching the campaign in
Normandy to rival Philip in national territory. He lost much territory, leading up to the major battle at Chteau
Gaillard from 1203 to 1204.
The Anglo-Norman army retreated to the castle, holding their position. Though all of their relief attempts failed,
they held out for years. Soon, Philip ordered his men to climb up garderobes, or toilet chutes. The sneak attacks
resulted in the fall of the castle.
In 1214, when Pope Innocent III assembled an alliance of states against France, John registered in. The allies
met Philip near Bouvines. The Battle of Bouvines saw Philip win with the smaller amount of troops due to using
couched lances. The victory for France ended in the conquest of Flanders and the defeat of any attempt from
John to regain his lost territories.
This conflict was an episode in a longer conflict between France and England over the possessions of the English
monarchy in France, which started with Henry II of England's accession to the English throne in 1154 and his
conflict with Louis VII of France, and ended with the decisive victory of Louis IX of France over Henry III of
England at the Battle of Taillebourg in 1242.

Back to kingdom of France: Political history[edit]


West Francia[edit]
Main article: West Francia

In medieval historiography, West Francia (Latin: Francia occidentalis) or the Kingdom of the
West Franks (regnum Francorum occidentalium) forms the earliest stage of the Kingdom of
France, lasting from about 840 until 987. West Francia was formed out of the division of
the Carolingian Empire[1] after the death of Emperor Louis the Pious, but the eastwest division
"gradually hardened into the establishment of separate kingdoms". [2]

West Francia extended further south than modern France, but it did not extend as far east, and
did not include Lorraine and Provence. In Brittanyand Catalonia (now mostly a part of Spain) the
authority of the West Frankish king was barely felt. Initially, West Frankish kings were elected by
the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, and for the half-century between 888 and 936 they chose
alternatingly from the Carolingian andRobertian houses.[3]

Formation[edit]

Map of the division of Francia enacted at Verdun in 843. FromRidpath's Universal History (1895)

In August 843, after three years of civil war following the death of Louis the Pious on 20 June
840, the Treaty of Verdun was signed by his three sons and heirs. The youngest, Charles the
Bald, received the western portion. The contemporary West Frankish Annales
Bertiniani describes Charles arriving at Verdun, "where the distribution of portions" took place.
After describing the portions of his brothers, Lothair the Emperor (Middle Francia) and Louis the
German (East Francia), he notes that "the rest as far as Spain they ceded to Charles".
[4]
The Annales Fuldenses of East Francia describe Charles as holding the western part after the
kingdom was "divided in three".[5]
The last record in the Annales Bertiniani dates to 882, and so the only contemporary narrative
source for the next eighteen years in West Francia is the Annales Vedastini. The next set of
original annals from the West Frankish kingdom are those of Flodoard, who began his account
with the year 919.[6]
Since the death of King Pippin I of Aquitaine in December 838, his son had been recognised by
the Aquitainian nobility as King Pippin II, although the succession had not been recognised by
the emperor. Charles the Bald was at war with Pippin II from the start of his reign in 840, and the
Treaty of Verdun ignored the claimant and assigned Aquitaine to Charles.[7] Accordingly, in June
845, after several military defeats, Charles signed the Treaty of Benot-sur-Loire and recognised
his nephew's rule. This agreement lasted until 25 March 848, when the Aquitainian barons
recognised Charles as king. Thereafter Charles's armies had the upper hand and by 849 had
secured most of Aquitaine.[8] In May, Charles had himself crowned "King of the Franks and
Aquitainians" in Orlans. The coronation was officiated by Archbishop Wenilo of Sens, and
included the first instance of royal unction in West Francia. The idea of anointing Charles may be
owed to Archbishop Hincmar of Reims, who composed no less than four ordines describing

appropriate liturgies for a royal consecration. By the time of the Synod of Quierzy (858), Hincmar
was claiming that Charles was anointed to the entire West Frankish kingdom.[9]

Reign of Charles the Fat[edit]


After the death of Charles's grandson, Carloman II, on 12 December 884, the West Frankish
nobles elected his uncle,Charles the Fat, already king in East Francia and Italy, as their king. He
was probably crowned "King in Gaul" (rex in Gallia) on 20 May 885 at Grand.[10] His reign was the
only time after the death of Louis the Pious that all of Francia would be re-united under one ruler.
In his capacity as king of West Francia, he seems to have granted the royal title and perhaps
regalia to the semi-independent ruler of Brittany, Alan I.[11] His handling of the Viking siege of
Paris in 88586 greatly reduced his prestige and in November 887 he was deposed by some
East Frankish nobles. He died shortly after in January 888, and it is unclear if the election
of Odo as king in West Francia was a response to his deposition or death. In Aquitaine,
DukeRanulf II may have had himself recognised as king, but he only lived another two years.
[12]
Although Aquitaine did not become a separate kingdom, it was largely outside the control of
the West Frankish kings.[3]

Back to kingdom of France: Further information: Carolingian Empire


During the later years of the elderly Charlemagne's rule, the Vikings made advances along the
northern and western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks. After Charlemagne's death in 814
his heirs were incapable of maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble.
The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three parts, and Charles the
Bald ruled over West Francia, roughly corresponding to the territory of modern France. [1]
Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up
the Loire and Seine rivers and other inland waterways, wreaking havoc and spreading terror.
During the reign of Charles the Simple (898922), Normans under Rollo from Norway, were
settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream from Paris, that was to
become Normandy.[2][3]

Back to Kingdom of France: High Middle


Ages[edit]
Main articles: France in the Middle Ages and Capetian dynasty
The Carolingians were to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power
struggle between the two dynasties, the accession in 987 of Hugh Capet, Duke of France and
Count of Paris, established the Capetian dynasty on the throne. With its offshoots, the houses
of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than 800 years.[4]

The old order left the new dynasty in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and
adjacent territories, while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-century counts of
Blois accumulated large domains of their own through marriage and through private
arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support.
The area around the lower Seine became a source of particular concern when Duke William took
possession of the kingdom of England by the Norman Conquest of 1066, making himself and his
heirs the King's equal outside France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown).
Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married France's newly
divorced ex-queen,Eleanor of Aquitaine, who ruled much of southwest France, in 1152. After
defeating a revolt led by Eleanor and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned,
made the Duke of Brittany his vassal, and in effect ruled the western half of France as a greater
power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's descendants over the division
of his French territories, coupled with John of England's lengthy quarrel with Philip II,
allowed Philip II to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at
the Battle of Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern
Duchy of Guyenne.[5]

Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War[edit]

France in 1223

Main articles: France in the Middle Ages and Hundred Years' War
The death of Charles IV in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under Salic
law the crown could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son
was Edward III of England), so the throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois. This, in
addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to Gascony in the south of France, and the

relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to the Hundred Years' War of
13371453. The following century was to see devastating warfare, peasant revolts (the English
peasants' revolt of 1381 and the Jacquerie of 1358 in France) and the growth of nationalism in
both countries.[6]
The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the Black
Death, usually considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348,
spreading rapidly up the Rhone valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that
a population of some 1820 million in modern-day France at the time of the 1328 hearth
tax returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50 percent or more. [7]

Hundred Years' War


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Hundred Years' War

Clockwise, from top left: John of Bohemia at


the Battle of Crcy,
English and Franco-Castilian fleets at the Battle of La
Rochelle,
Henry V and the English army at the Battle of
Agincourt,
Joan of Arc rallies French forces at the Siege of

Orlans

Date

13371453 (116 years)

Locatio
n

France, the Low Countries, England,


Spain

Result

Edwardian War (13371360)- English


victory
Caroline War (13691389)- French victory
Lancastrian War (14151453)- French
victory
House of Valois maintains the throne of
France

Territor
ial
change
s

England gains the Pale of Calais but


loses all other continental territory

Belligerents

France

England

Scotland

Burgundy

Casualties and losses


High

High

The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 between the House of Plantagenet,
rulers of theKingdom of England, against the House of Valois for control of theKingdom of France. Each side
drew many allies into the war.
For their French possessions, the English kings since the Norman Conquest were vassals of the kings of France.
The French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to reduce the possessions of their over-mighty vassals, to
the effect that only Gascony was left to the English. The confiscation or threat of confiscating this duchy had been
part of French policy to check the growth of English power, particularly whenever the English were at war with
theKingdom of Scotland, an ally of France.
Through his mother, Isabella of France, Edward III was the grandson of Philip IV of France, and nephew
of Charles IV of France, the last king with direct lineage to the House of Capet. In 1316, a principle was
established denying women succession to the French throne. When Charles IV died in 1328, Isabella, unable to
claim the French throne for herself, claimed it for her son. The French rejected the claim, maintaining that Isabella
could not transmit a right which she did not possess. The French denial of Edward III's claim to the French throne

initiated the period of conflict between England and France now known as the Hundred Years' War. Several
overwhelming English victories in the warespecially at Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourtraised the prospects of
an ultimate English triumph. However, the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete
conquest. Starting in 1429, decisive French victories at Patay, Formigny, and Castillonconcluded the war in favor
of France, with England permanently losing most of its major possessions on the continent.
Historians commonly divide the war into three phases separated by truces: 1) the Edwardian Era War (1337
1360); 2) the Caroline War (13691389); and 3) the Lancastrian War (14151453). Contemporary conflicts in
neighbouring areas, which were directly related to this conflict, included the War of the Breton Succession (1341
1364), theCastilian Civil War (13661369), the War of the Two Peters (13561375) in Aragon, and the 138385
Crisis in Portugal. Later historians invented the term "Hundred Years' War" as a periodization to encompass all of
these events, thus constructing the longest military conflict in history.
The war owes its historical significance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armies had been largely replaced by
professional troops, and aristocratic dominance had yielded to a democratisation of the manpower and weapons
of armies. Although primarily a dynastic conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French and English nationalism.
The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated.
The firststanding armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire originated during the
war, composed largely of commoners and thus helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to the
belligerents, English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English
nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings, became a factor leading to the civil wars known
as the Wars of the Roses (14551487). In France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, and banditfreecompanies of mercenaries reduced the population drastically. Shorn of its Continental possessions, England was
left with the sense of being an island nation, which profoundly affected its outlook and development for more than
500 years.[1]

Background[edit]
See also: The Anarchy

English kings and continental dukedoms: 10661357[edit]


Further information: Peerage of France

Homage of Edward I of England(kneeling) to Philip IV of France(seated), 1286. As Duke of Aquitaine,


Edward was also a vassal to the French King.
The Anglo-Norman dynasty that had ruled England since the Norman conquest of 1066 was brought to an end
when the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Empress Matilda, Henry (great-grandson of William the Conqueror),
became the first of theAngevin Kings of England in 1154 as King Henry II.[2] The King of England, in what is now
known as the Angevin Empire, directly ruled more territory on the continent than the King of France. However, as
holders of continental duchies, English kings owed homage to the King of France. From the 11th century onward,
the dukes had autonomy, neutralising the issue.[3]
John of England inherited the Angevin domains from King Richard I. However,Philip II of France acted decisively
to exploit the weaknesses of King John, both legally and militarily, and by 1204 had succeeded in taking control of
most of the Angevin continental possessions. Following John's reign, the Battle of Bouvines(1214), the Saintonge
War (1242), and finally the War of Saint-Sardos (1324) resulted in the complete loss of Normandy and the
reduction of England's holdings on the continent to a few provinces in Gascony.[4]

Dynastic turmoil in France: 131428[edit]


See also: Absolute cognatic primogeniture and British claims to the French throne
The question of female succession was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter,
and his posthumous son lived only a few days. Philip, Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that "women
cannot succeed to the French throne". Through his political sagacity he won over his adversaries, and succeeded
to the French throne asPhilip V of France. By the same law that he procured, his daughters were denied the
succession, which passed to his younger brother, Charles IV, in 1328.[5]

Philip III
of France
r. 1270
1285

Philip IV
of France
r. 1285
1314

Charles
of Valois
d. 1325

Louis X of
France
r. 131416

Philip V of
France
r. 131622

Joan II of
Navarre
b. 1312

Joan III,
Countess of
Burgundy
b. 1308

Charles of
vreux
b. 1332

Philip of
Burgundy
b. 1323

Charles
IV of
France
r. 132228

Isabella
of
France

Edward
II of
Englan
d

Philip
VI of
France
r. 1328
50

Edward
III of
England
b. 1312

When Charles IV of France died in 1328 with only daughters as heirs, the nearest male relative was his
nephew Edward III of England. Edward had inherited his right through his mother Isabella, the sister of the dead
French king, but the question arose whether she should be able to transmit a right that she did not herself
possess because of her gender. The French nobility, moreover, balked at the prospect of being ruled by the
English king. The assemblies of the French barons and prelates and the University of Paris decided that males
who derive their right to inheritance through their mother should be excluded. Thus the nearest heir through male
ancestry was Charles IV's first cousin, Philip, Count of Valois, and it was decided that he should be crowned

Philip VI. In 1340 the Avignon papacy confirmed that under Salic law males should not be able to inherit through
their mothers.[5][6]

Beginning of the war: 133760[edit]


Main article: Hundred Years' War (13371360)

Gascony under the King of England[edit]


In the 11th century, Gascony in southwest France had been incorporated into Aquitaine (also known
as Guyenne or Guienne) and formed with it the province of Guyenne and Gascony (French: Guyenne-etGascogne). The Angevin kings of England became Dukes of Aquitaine after Henry II married the former Queen of
France, Eleanor of Aquitaine, in 1152, from which point the lands were held in vassalage to the French crown. By
the 13th century the terms Aquitaine, Guyenne and Gascony were virtually synonymous.[7][8] At the beginning of
Edward III's reign on 1 February 1327, the only part of Aquitaine that remained in his hands was the Duchy of
Gascony. The term Gascony came to be used for the territory held by the Angevin (Plantagenet) Kings of England
in southwest France, although they still used the title Duke of Aquitaine.[8][9]
For the first 10 years of Edward III's reign, Gascony had been a major point of friction. The English argued that,
as Charles IV had not acted in a proper way towards his tenant, Edward should be able to hold the duchy free of
any Frenchsuzerainty. However, this line of argument could not be maintained by the English, so in 1329 the 17year old Edward III paid homage to Philip VI. Tradition demanded that vassals should approach their liege
unarmed with heads uncovered, however Edward demonstrated his reluctance by attending the ceremony by
wearing his crown and sword.[10] Despite Edward complying, albeit reluctantly, the French continued to pressure
the English administration.[11]
Gascony was not the only sore point. One of Edward's influential advisers was Robert III of Artois. Robert was an
exile from the French court, having fallen out with Philip VI over an inheritance claim. He urged Edward to start a
war to reclaim France and was able to provide extensive intelligence on the French court.[12]

Franco-Scot alliance[edit]
See also: Auld Alliance
The Kings of England had been trying to subjugate the Scots for some time. In 1295 a treaty was signed between
France and Scotland during the reign of Philip the Fair. Charles IV formally renewed the treaty in 1326, promising
Scotland that if England invaded then France would support the Scots. Similarly, the French would find Scot
support if their own kingdom was attacked. Edward could not succeed in his plans for Scotland if they could count
on French support.[11]
Philip VI had assembled a large naval fleet off Marseilles as part of an ambitious plan for a crusade to the Holy
Land. However the plan was abandoned and the fleet, including elements of the Scottish Navy, moved to
the English Channel off Normandy in 1336, threatening England.[12] To deal with this crisis, Edward proposed that
the English raise two armies, one to deal with the Scots "at a suitable time", the other to proceed at once to
Gascony. At the same time ambassadors were to be sent to France with a proposed treaty for the French king.[13]

End of homage[edit]
At the end of April 1337, Philip of France was invited to meet the delegation from England but refused.
The arrire-ban, literally a call to arms, was proclaimed throughout France starting on 30 April 1337. Then, in May
1337, Philip met with his Great Council in Paris. It was agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony,
should be taken back into the king's hands on the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as
vassal; and also that he had sheltered the king's 'mortal enemy' Robert d'Artois and other unspecified reasons.
[14]

Edward responded to the confiscation of Aquitaine by challenging Philip's right to the French throne. When

Charles IV died, Edward had made a claim for the succession of the French throne, through the right of his
mother Isabella (Charles IV's sister), daughter of Philip IV. Any claim was considered invalidated by Edward's
homage to Philip VI in 1329. Edward revived his claim and in 1340 formally assumed the title 'King of France and
the French Royal Arms'.[15]
On 26 January 1340, Edward III formally received homage from Guy, half-brother of the Count of Flanders. The
civic authorities of Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France. Edward's purpose was to
strengthen his alliances with the Low Countries. His supporters would be able to claim that they were loyal to the
"true" King of France and were not rebels against Philip. In February 1340, Edward returned to England to try and
raise more funds and also deal with political difficulties.[16]
Relations with Flanders were also tied to the English wool trade, since Flanders' principal cities relied heavily on
textile production and England supplied much of the raw material they needed. Edward III had commanded that
his chancellor sit on the woolsack in council as a symbol of the pre-eminence of the wool trade.[17] At the time
there were about 110,000 sheep in Sussex alone.[18] The great medieval English monasteries produced large
surpluses of wool that were sold to Europe. Successive governments were able to make large amounts of money
by taxing it.[17] France's sea power led to economic disruptions, with England shrinking the wool trade
to Flanders and the wine trade from Gascony.[19][20]

Outbreak, the English Channel and Brittany[edit]

Battle of Sluys from a manuscript ofFroissart's Chronicles, Bruge, c.1470


Edward, with his fleet, sailed from England on 22 June 1340, and arrived the next day off the Zwyn estuary. The
French fleet assumed a defensive formation off the port of Sluys. The English fleet apparently tricked the French
into believing they were withdrawing. However, when the wind turned in the late afternoon, the English attacked
with the wind and sun behind them. The French fleet was almost completely destroyed in what became known as

the Battle of Sluys. England dominated the English Channel for the rest of the war, preventing Frenchinvasions.
[16]

At this point, Edward's funds ran out and the war probably would have ended were it not for the death of

the Duke of Brittany precipitating a succession dispute between the duke's half brother John of
Montfort and Charles of Blois, nephew of Philip VI.[21]
In 1341, conflict over the succession to the Duchy of Brittany began the Breton War of Succession, in which
Edward backed John of Montfort and Philip backed Charles of Blois. Action for the next few years focused around
a back and forth struggle in Brittany. The city of Vannes changed hands several times, while further campaigns in
Gascony met with mixed success for both sides.[21]

Battle of Crcy and the taking of Calais[edit]

Battle of Crcy, 1346

Edward III counting the dead on the battlefield of Crcy


In July 1346, Edward mounted a major invasion across the channel, landing in Normandy's Cotentin, at St. Vaast.
The English army captured the completely unguarded Caen in just one day, surprising the French. Philip gathered
a large army to oppose Edward, who chose to march northward toward the Low Countries, pillaging as he went,
rather than attempting to take and hold territory. He reached the river Seine to find most of the crossings
destroyed. He moved further and further south, worryingly close to Paris, until he found the crossing at Poissy.
This had only been partially destroyed, so the carpenters within his army were able to fix it. He then continued on
his way to Flanders until he reached the river Somme. The army crossed at a tidal ford at Blanchetaque, leaving
Philip's army stranded. Edward, assisted by this head start, continued on his way to Flanders once more, until,
finding himself unable to outmanoeuvre Philip, Edward positioned his forces for battle and Philip's army attacked.
The Battle of Crcy was a complete disaster for the French, largely credited to the English longbowmen and the
French king, who allowed his army to attack before it was ready.[22] Philip appealed to his Scottish allies to help
with a diversionary attack on England. King David II of Scotland responded by invading northern England, but his
army was defeated and he was captured at the Battle of Neville's Cross, on 17 October 1346. This greatly
reduced the threat from Scotland.[21][23] In France, Edward proceeded north unopposed and besieged the city
of Calais on the English Channel, capturing it in 1347. This became an important strategic asset for the English,
allowing them to safely keep troops in northern France.[22] Calais would remain under English control, even after
the end of the Hundred Years' War, until the successful French siege in 1558.[24]

Battle of Poitiers and the Treaty of Brtigny[edit]


In 1348, the Black Death, which had just arrived in Paris, began to ravage Europe.[25] In 1356, after the plague
had passed and England was able to recover financially, Edward's son and namesake, the Prince of Wales, later
known as the Black Prince, invaded France from Gascony, winning a great victory in the Battle of Poitiers.
[21]

During the battle, the Gascon noble Jean de Grailly, captal de Buch led a mounted unit that was concealed in

a forest. The French advance was contained, at which point de Grailly led a flanking movement with his
horsemen cutting off the French retreat and succeeding in capturing King John II of France (known as John the
Good) and many of his nobles.[26][27] With John held hostage, his son the Dauphin (later to become Charles V of
France) took over as regent.[28]
After the Battle of Poitiers, chaos ruled, as many French nobles and mercenaries rampaged. A contemporary
report said:
... all went ill with the kingdom and the State was undone. Thieves and robbers rose up everywhere in the land.
The Nobles despised and hated all others and took no thought for usefulness and profit of lord and men. They
subjected and despoiled the peasants and the men of the villages. In no wise did they defend their country from
its enemies; rather did they trample it underfoot, robbing and pillaging the peasants' goods...
From the Chronicles of Jean de Venette

[29]

Edward invaded France, for the third and last time, hoping to capitalise on the discontent and seize the throne.
The Dauphin's strategy was that of non-engagement with the English army in the field. However Edward wanted
the crown and chose the cathedral city of Reims for his coronation (Reims was the traditional coronation city).
[30]

However, the citizens of Reims built and reinforced the city's defences before Edward and his army arrived.

[31]

Edward besieged the city for five weeks, but the defences held and there was no coronation.[30] Edward moved

on to Paris, but retreated after a few skirmishes in the suburbs. The French made contact with him and forced him
to negotiate.[32] A conference was held at Brtigny that resulted in the Treaty of Brtigny (8 May 1360). The treaty

was ratified at Calais in October. In return for increased lands in Aquitaine, Edward renounced Normandy,
Touraine, Anjou and Maine and consented to reducing King John's ransom by a million crowns. Edward also
abandoned his claim to the crown of France.[26][28][33]

First peace: 136069[edit]


The French king, John II, had been held captive in England. The Treaty of Brtigny set his ransom at
3 million crowns and allowed for hostages to be held in lieu of John. The hostages included two of his sons,
several princes and nobles, four inhabitants of Paris, and two citizens from each of the nineteen principal towns of
France. While these hostages were held, John returned to France to try and raise funds to pay the ransom. In
1362 John's son Louis of Anjou, a hostage in English-held Calais, escaped captivity. So, with his stand-in
hostage gone, John felt honour-bound to return to captivity in England.[28][33]
The French crown had been at odds with Navarre (near southern Gascony) since 1354 and in 1363 the
Navarrese used John II's captivity in London and the political weakness of the Dauphin to try to seize power.
[34]

Although there was no formal treaty, Edward III supported the Navarrese moves particularly as there was a

prospect that he might gain control over the northern and western provinces as a consequence. With this in mind
Edward deliberately slowed the peace negotiations.[35] In 1364, John II died in London, while still in honourable
captivity.[36] Charles V succeeded him as king of France.[28][37] On 6 May 1364, one month after the dauphin's
accession and three days before his coronation as Charles V, the Navarrese suffered a crushing defeat at
the Battle of Cocherel.[38]

French ascendancy under Charles V: 136989[edit]


[show]

Hundred Years' War


Caroline phase (136989)
Main article: Hundred Years' War (13691389)
See also: Castilian Civil War

Aquitaine and Castile[edit]

Statue of Bertrand du Guesclin inDinan

The Franco-Castilian Navy, led by Admirals de Vienne and Tovar, managed to raid the English coasts for
the first time since the beginning of the Hundred Years' War.
In 1366 there was a civil war of succession in Castile (part of modern Spain). The ruler Peter of Castile's forces
were pitched against those of his half-brother Henry of Trastmara. The English crown supported Peter and the
French, Henry. French forces were led by Bertrand du Guesclin, a Breton, who rose from relatively humble
beginnings to prominence as one of France's war leaders. Charles V provided a force of 12,000, with du Guesclin
at their head, to support Trastmara in his invasion of Castile.[39]

Peter appealed to England and Aquitaine's Black Prince for help, but none was forthcoming, forcing Peter into
exile in Aquitaine. The Black Prince had previously agreed to support Peter's claims but concerns over the terms
of the treaty of Brtigny led him to assist Peter as a representative of Aquitaine, rather than England. He then led
an Anglo-Gascon army into Castille. Peter was restored to power after Trastmara's army was defeated at
the Battle of Najera.[40]
Although the Castilians had agreed to fund the Black Prince, they failed to do so. The Prince was suffering from ill
health and returned with his army to Aquitaine. To pay off debts incurred during the Castille campaign, the prince
instituted a hearth tax. Arnaud-Amanieu VIII, Lord of Albret had fought on the Black Prince's side during the war.
Albret, who already had become discontented by the influx of English administrators into the enlarged Aquitaine,
refused to allow the tax to be collected in his fief. He then joined a group of Gascon lords who appealed to
Charles V for support in their refusal to pay the tax. Charles V summoned one Gascon lord and the Black Prince
to hear the case in his parlement in Paris. The Black Prince's answer was that he would go to Paris with sixty
thousand men behind him. War broke out again and Edward III resumed the title of King of France.[41] Charles V
declared that all the English possessions in France were forfeited and before the end of 1369 all Aquitaine was in
full revolt.[41][42]
With the Black Prince gone from Castile, Henry de Trastmara led a second invasion that ended with Peter's
death at the Battle of Montiel in March, 1369. The new Castilian regime provided naval support to French
campaigns against Aquitaine and England.[40]

English turmoil[edit]
With his health continuing to deteriorate, the Black Prince returned to England in January 1371, where by now his
father Edward III was elderly and also in poor health. The prince's illness was debilitating. He died on 8 June
1376.[43] Edward III only just outlived his son and died the following year on 21 June 1377;[44] he was succeeded by
the Black Prince's second son Richard II who was still a child.[45] The treaty at Brtigny left Edward III and England
with enlarged holdings in France, however a small professional French army under the leadership of du Guesclin
pushed the English back and, by the time of Charles V's death in 1380, the English only held Calais.[46]
It was usual to appoint a regent in the case of a child monarch, but no regent was appointed for Richard II, who
nominally exercised the power of kingship from the date of his accession in 1377.[45] However, between 1377 and
1380, actual power was in the hands of a series of councils. The political community preferred this to a regency
led by the king's uncle, John of Gaunt, although Gaunt remained highly influential.[45]
Richard faced many challenges during his reign, including the Peasants' Revolt led by Wat Tyler in 1381, an
Anglo-Scottish war in 138485, and a group of noblemen known as the Lords Appellant who took over
government between 1387 and 1389. His attempts to raise taxes to pay for his Scottish adventure and for the
protection of Calais against the French made him increasingly unpopular.[45]

Second peace: 13891415[edit]


See also: Civil war between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians

Assassination of Louis I, Duke of Orlans


In 1399, after John of Gaunt died, Richard II disinherited Gaunt's son,Henry of Bolingbroke, who had previously
been exiled. Bolingbroke returned to England in June 1399 and with his supporters deposed Richard; Henry had
himself crowned Henry IV.[45] One cause of Richard's unpopularity[vague] had been his reluctance to continue the
war in France.[dubious discuss] Henry was aware of this and planned to resume hostilities. However this did not happen,
as he was plagued with financial problems, declining health and kept busy putting down rebellions.[47][48]
In Scotland, the English regime change prompted border raids that were countered by an invasion in 1402 and
the defeat of a Scottish army at the Battle of Homildon Hill.[49] A dispute over the spoils between Henry and Henry
Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland resulted in a long and bloody struggle between the two for control of northern
England, resolved only with the almost complete destruction of thePercy family by 1408.[50][51]
In Wales, Owain Glyndr was declared Prince of Wales on 16 September 1400. He was the leader of the most
serious and widespread rebellion against English authority in Wales since the conquest of 12823. The rebellion
was finally put down only in 1415 and resulted in Welsh semi-independence for a number of years.[52]
In the meantime Charles VI of France was descending into madness and an open conflict for power began
between his cousin John the Fearless and his brother, Louis of Orlans. After Louis's assassination,
the Armagnac family took political power in opposition to John. By 1410, both sides were bidding for the help of
English forces in a civil war.[48] In 1418 Paris was taken by the Burgundians, who massacred the Count of
Armagnac and about 2,500 of his followers.[53]
Throughout this period, England confronted repeated raids by pirates that heavily damaged trade and the navy.
There is some evidence that Henry IV used state-legalised piracy as a form of warfare in the English Channel. He

used suchprivateering campaigns to pressure enemies without risking open war.[54] The French responded in kind
and French pirates, under Scottish protection, raided many English coastal towns.[55]
The domestic and dynastic difficulties faced by England and France in this period quieted the war for a decade.[55]
Henry IV of England died in 1413 and was replaced by his eldest son Henry V. Charles VI of France's mental
illness allowed his power to be exercised by royal princes whose rivalries caused deep divisions in France. Henry
V was well aware of these divisions and hoped to exploit them. In 1414 while he held court at Leicester, he
received ambassadors from Burgundy.[56]
Henry accredited envoys to the French king to make clear his territorial claims in France; he also demanded the
hand of Charles VI's youngest daughter Catherine of Valois. The French rejected his demands, leading Henry to
prepare for war.[56]

Resumption of the war under Henry V: 141529[edit]


[show]

Hundred Years' War


Lancastrian phase (141553)
Main article: Hundred Years' War (14151453)

Burgundy alliance and the taking of Paris[edit]


Battle of Agincourt (1415)[edit]

Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the Battle of Agincourt.


Main article: Battle of Agincourt

Clan Carmichael crest with broken spear commemorating the unseating of the Duke of Clarence.
In August 1415, Henry V sailed from England with a force of about 10,500 and laid siege to Harfleur. The city
resisted for longer than expected, but finally surrendered on 22 September 1415. Because of the unexpected
delay, most of the campaign season was gone. Rather than march on Paris directly, he elected to make a raiding
expedition across France toward English-occupied Calais. In a campaign reminiscent of Crcy, he found himself
outmaneuvered and low on supplies and had to fight a much larger French army at the Battle of Agincourt, north
of theSomme. Despite the problems and having a smaller force, his victory was near-total; the French defeat was
catastrophic, costing many of the Armagnac leaders. About 40% of the French nobility was killed.[57] Henry was
apparently concerned that the large number of prisoners taken were a security risk (there were more French
prisoners than the entire English army) and he ordered their deaths.[56]

Treaty of Troyes (1420)[edit]


Henry retook much of Normandy, including Caen in 1417, and Rouen on 19 January 1419, turning Normandy
English for the first time in two centuries. A formal alliance was made with the Duchy of Burgundy, which had
taken Paris after the assassination of Duke John the Fearless in 1419. In 1420, Henry met with King Charles VI.
They signed the Treaty of Troyes, by which Henry finally married Charles' daughter Catherine of Valois and
Henry's heirs would inherit the throne of France. The Dauphin, Charles VII, was declared illegitimate. Henry
formally entered Paris later that year and the agreement was ratified by the Estates-General.[56]

Death of Clarence (1421)[edit]


On 22 March 1421 Henry V's progress in his French campaign experienced an unexpected reverse. Henry had
left his brother and presumptive heir Thomas, Duke of Clarence in charge while he returned to England. Clarence
engaged a Franco-Scottish force of 5000 men, led by John Stewart, Earl of Buchan at the Battle of Baug.
Clarence, against the advice of his lieutenants, before his army had been fully assembled, attacked with a force

of no more than 1500 men-at-arms. He then, during the course of the battle, led a charge of a few hundred men
into the main body of the Franco-Scottish army, who quickly enveloped the English. In the ensuing mele, the
Scot, John Carmichael of Douglasdale, broke his lance unhorsing the Duke of Clarence. Once on the ground, the
duke was slain by Alexander Buchanan.[56][58] The body of the Duke of Clarence was recovered from the field
by Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury, who conducted the English retreat.[59]

English success[edit]
Henry V returned to France and went to Paris, then visiting Chartres and Gtinais before returning to Paris. From
there he decided to attack the Dauphin-held town of Meaux. It turned out to be more difficult to overcome than
first thought. The siege began about 6 October 1421, and the town held for seven months before finally falling on
11 May 1422.[56]
At the end of May, Henry was joined by his queen and together with the French court, they went to rest at Senlis.
While there it became apparent that he was ill (possibly dysentery) and when he set out to the Upper Loire he
diverted to the royal castle at Vincennes, near Paris, where he died on 31 August 1422.[56] The elderly and insane
Charles VI of France died two months later, on 21 October 1422. Henry left an only child, his nine-month-old
son, Henry, later to become Henry VI.[60]
On his deathbed, Henry V had given the Duke of Bedford responsibility for English France (as Henry VI was only
an infant). The war in France continued under Bedford's generalship and several battles were won. The English
won an emphatic victory at the Battle of Verneuil, (17 August 1424). At the Battle of Baug, Clarence had rushed
into battle without the support of his archers. At Verneuil the archers fought to devastating effect against the
Franco-Scottish army. The effect of the battle was to virtually destroy the Dauphin's field army and to eliminate the
Scots as a significant military force for the rest of the war.[60][61]

Joan of Arc and French revival[edit]

Joan of Arc (c.14501500)


Joan of Arc's appearance sparked a revival of French spirit and the tide began to turn against the English.[60]
In 1428, the English laid siege to Orlans. Their force was insufficient to fully invest the city. In 1429 Joan
convinced the Dauphin to send her to the siege, saying she had received visions from God telling her to drive out
the English. She raised the morale of the troops and they attacked the English redoubts, forcing the English to lift
the siege. Inspired by Joan, the French took several English strongholds on the Loire.[62]
The English retreated from the Loire Valley, pursued by a French army. Near the village of Patay, French cavalry
broke through a unit of English longbowmen that had been sent to block the road, then swept through the
retreating English army. The English lost 2,200 men, and the commander John Talbot, 1st Earl of
Shrewsbury was taken prisoner. This victory opened the way for the Dauphin to march to Reims for his coronation
as Charles VII (16 July 1429).[62][63]
After the coronation, Charles VII's army fared less well. An attempted French siege of Paris was defeated on 8
September 1429, and Charles VII withdrew back to the Loire Valley.

French victory: 142953[edit]


Henry's coronations and the desertion of Burgundy[edit]
Henry VI was crowned king of England at Westminster Abbey on 5 November 1429 and king of France at NotreDame, in Paris, on 16 December 1431.[60]

The first Western image of a battle with cannon: the Siege of Orlans in 1429.
Joan was captured by the Burgundians at the siege of Compiegne on 23 May 1430. The Burgundians transferred
her to the English, who organised a trial headed by Pierre Cauchon, a pro-English clergyman. Joan was burned
at the stake on 30 May 1431.[62](She was rehabilitated 25 years later by Pope Callixtus III).
After Joan of Arc's death the fortunes of war turned dramatically against the English.[64] Most of Henry's royal
advisers were against making peace. Among the factions, the Duke of Bedford wanted to defend Normandy, the
Duke of Gloucester was committed to just Calais whereas Cardinal Beaufort was inclined to peace. Negotiations
stalled. It seems that at the congress of Arras, in the summer of 1435, where the duke of Beaufort was mediator,

the English were unrealistic in their demands. A few days after the congress ended in September, Philip III, duke
of Burgundy deserted to Charles VII, signing the Treaty of Arras that returned Paris to the King of France. This
was a major blow to English sovereignty in France.[60] The Duke of Bedford died 14 September 1435 and was
replaced by a lesser man.[64]

French resurgence[edit]

The Battle of Formigny (1450)


Burgundy's allegiance remained fickle, but the English focus on expanding their domains into the Low Countries
left them little energy to intervene in France.[65]The long truces that marked the war gave Charles time to
centralise the French state and reorganise his army and government, replacing his feudal levies with a more
modern professional army that could put its superior numbers to good use. A castle that once could only be
captured after a prolonged siege would now fall after a few days from cannon bombardment. The French artillery
developed a reputation as the best in the world.[64]
By 1449, the French had retaken Rouen and in 1450 the Count of Clermont and Arthur de Richemont, Earl of
Richmond, of the Montfort family (the future Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) caught an English army attempting to
relieve Caen at the Battle of Formigny and defeated it. The English army had been attacked from the flank and
rear by Richemont's force just as they were on the verge of beating Clermont's army.[66]

Fall of Gascony[edit]

Charles "the Victorious".


After Charles VII's successful Normandy campaign in 1450, he concentrated his efforts on Gascony, the last
province held by the English. Bordeaux, Gascony's capital, was besieged and surrendered to the French on 30
June 1451. Largely due to the English sympathies of the Gascon people this was reversed when John Talbot and
his army retook the city on 23 October 1452. However, the English were defeated at the Battle of Castillon 17 July
1453. Talbot had been persuaded to engage the French army at Castillon near Bordeaux. During the battle the
French appeared to retreat towards their camp. The French camp at Castillon had been laid out by Charles VII's
ordnance officer Jean Bureau and this was instrumental in the French success as when the French cannon
opened fire, from their positions in the camp, the English took severe casualties losing both Talbot and his son.[67]

End of the war[edit]


Although the Battle of Castillon is considered the last battle of the Hundred Years' War,[67] England and France
remained formally at war for another 20 years, but the English were in no position to carry on the war as they
faced unrest at home. Following defeat in the Hundred Years' War, English landowners complained vociferously
about the financial losses resulting from the loss of their continental holdings; this is often considered a major
cause of the War of the Roses, that started in 1455.[64][68]

The Hundred Years' War almost resumed in 1474, when the dukeCharles of Burgundy, counting on English
support, took up armsagainst Louis XI of France. Louis managed to isolate the Burgundians by buying Edward IV
of England off with a large cash sum and an annual pension, in an agreement signed at the Treaty of
Picquigny (1475). The treaty formally ended the Hundred Years' War with Edward renouncing his claim to the
throne of France. However, future Kings of England continued to keep the lilies of France (Fleur-de-lis) on their

coat of arms and even bore the title, until 1803, when they were dropped in deference to the exiled Count of
Provence, titular King Louis XVIII of France, who was living in England after the French Revolution.[69]
Charles the Bold, the last duke of Burgundy, was killed at the Battle of Nancy in 1477,[70] leaving a daughter, Mary,
who lost the provinces of Artois, Flanders, Picardy and Burgundy to Louis XI's armies.[70]

Significance[edit]

Burgundian territories (orange/yellow) and limits of France (red) after the Burgundian War.
The Hundred Years' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social
meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the war's costs, partly through advancement in technology and
partly through lessons that warfare taught.
Before the Hundred Years' War, heavy cavalry was considered the most powerful unit in an army, but by the war's
end, this belief had shifted. The heavy horse was increasingly negated by the use of the longbow (and, later,
another long-distance weapon: firearms). Edward III was famous for dismounting his men-at-arms and having
them and his archers stand in closely integrated battle lines; the horses only being used for transport or pursuit.
[71]

The English began using lightly armoured mounted troops, known as hobelars. Hobelars tactics had been

developed against the Scots, in the Anglo-Scottish wars of the 14th century. Hobelars rode smaller unarmoured
horses, enabling them to move through difficult or boggy terrain where heavier cavalry would struggle. Rather
than fight while seated on the horse, they would dismount to engage the enemy.[72][73][74]
By the end of the Hundred Years' War, these various factors caused the decline of the expensively outfitted,
highly trained heavy cavalry and the eventual end of the armoured knight as a military force and of the nobility as
a political one.[74]
The war stimulated nationalistic sentiment. It devastated France as a land, but it also awakened French
nationalism. The Hundred Years' War accelerated the process of transforming France from a feudal monarchy to
a centralised state.[75] In 1445 the first regular standing army since Roman times was organised in France partly
as a solution to marauding free companies. The mercenary companies were given a choice of either joining the

Royal army as compagnies d'ordonnanceon a permanent basis, or being hunted down and destroyed if they
refused. France gained a total standing army of around 6,000 men, and these were sent out to gradually eliminate
the remaining mercenaries who insisted on operating on their own. The new standing army had a more
disciplined and professional approach to warfare than its predecessors.[74]
The conflict developed such that it was not just between the Kings of England and France but also between their
respective peoples. There were constant rumours in England that the French meant to invade and destroy the
English language. National feeling that emerged from such rumours unified both France and England further. The
Hundred Years' War basically confirmed the fall of the French language in England, which had served as the
language of the ruling classes and commerce there from the time of the Norman conquest until 1362.[75]

The spread of the Black Death (with modern borders).


Lowe (1997) argued that opposition to the war helped to shape England's early modern political culture. Although
anti-war and pro-peace spokesmen generally failed to influence outcomes at the time, they had a long-term
impact. England showed decreasing enthusiasm for conflict deemed not in the national interest, yielding only
losses in return for high economic burdens. In comparing this English cost-benefit analysis with French attitudes,
given that both countries suffered from weak leaders and undisciplined soldiers, Lowe noted that the French
understood that warfare was necessary to expel the foreigners occupying their homeland. Furthermore French
kings found alternative ways to finance the war sales taxes, debasing the coinage and were less dependent
than the English on tax levies passed by national legislatures. English anti-war critics thus had more to work with
than the French.[76]
Bubonic plague and warfare reduced population numbers throughout Europe during this period. France lost half
its population during the Hundred Years' War.[57]Normandy lost three-quarters of its population, and Paris twothirds.[77] The population of England was reduced by 20 to 33 percent due to plague in the same period.[78]

Timeline[edit]
Battles[edit]
Further information: List of Hundred Years' War battles

Important figures[edit]
England

King Edward III

132777

Philip IV's grandson

King Richard II

137799

Edward III's grandson

King Henry IV

13991413

John of Gaunt's son

King Henry V

141322

Henry IV's son

King Henry VI

142261

Henry V's son

Edward, the Black Prince

133076

Edward III's son

John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster

134099

Edward III's son

John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford

13891435

Henry IV's son

Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster

130661

Knight

John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury

13841453

Knight

Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York

141160

Knight

Sir John Fastolf[63]

13801459

Knight

France

King Philip VI

132850

Charles of Valois' son

King John II

135064

Philip VI's son

King Charles V

136480

John II's son

Louis I, Duke of Anjou

138082

John II's son

King Charles VI

13801422

Charles V's son

King Charles VII

142261

Charles VI's son

Joan of Arc

141231

Commander

Jean de Dunois

140368

Knight

Gilles de Rais

140440

Knight

Bertrand du Guesclin

132080

Knight

Jean Bureau

13901463

Knight

La Hire

13901443

Knight

Burgundy

Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy

13631404

Son of John II of France

John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy

140419

Son of Philip the Bold

Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy

141967

Son of John the Fearless

See also[edit]

Timeline of the Hundred Years' War

French military history

British military history

Anglo-French relations

Medieval demography

Second Hundred Years' War- this is the name given by some historians to the near-continuous series of
conflicts between Britain and France from 16881815, beginning with the Glorious Revolution and ending
with the Battle of Waterloo.
List of battles involving France in the Middle Ages

Back to Kingdom of France: Renaissance and


Reformation[edit]
The Renaissance era was noted for The emergence of powerful centralized institutions, as well
as a flourishing culture ( much of it imported from Italy).[8] The kings built a strong fiscal system,
which heightened the power of the king to raise armies that overawed the local nobility. [9] In Paris
especially there emerged strong traditions in literature, art and music. The prevailing style was
classical.[10][11]

Italian Wars[edit]
Main article: Italian Wars
After the Hundred Years' War, Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties with Henry
VII of England, Maximilian I of Habsburg, and Ferdinand II of Aragon respectively
at taples (1492), Senlis (1493) and in Barcelona (1493). These three treaties cleared the way
for France to undertake the long Italian Wars (14941559), which marked the beginning of early
modern France. French efforts to gain dominance resulted only in the increased power of
the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors of Germany.

Italian Wars
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Italian War" redirects here. For other uses, see Italian War (disambiguation).
Italian Wars

The Battle of Pavia by an unknown Flemish artist (oil on


panel, 16th century).

Date
Location
Result

14941559
Southern and Western Europe
Habsburg victory

Belligerents
France, the Holy Roman Empire, the states of Italy
(notably the Republic of Venice, the Duchy of Milan,
the Kingdom of Naples, the Papal States, the Republic
of Florence, and the Duchy of
Ferrara), England,Scotland, Spain, the Ottoman
Empire, the Swiss,Saxony, and others

The Italian Wars, often referred to as the Great Italian Wars or theGreat Wars of Italy and
sometimes as the HabsburgValois Wars or the Renaissance Wars, were a series of conflicts

from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, most of the city-states of Italy, thePapal States,
most of the major states of Western Europe (France,Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England,
and Scotland) as well as theOttoman Empire. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over
theDuchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for
power and territory among their various participants, and were marked with an increasing number
of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals.

Prelude[edit]
Following the Wars in Lombardy between Venice and Milan, which ended in 1454, Northern Italy
had been largely at peace during the reigns of Cosimo de' Medici and Lorenzo de'
Medici in Florence, with the notable exception of the War of Ferrara in 1482-1484.
Spain had promised not to interfere with France's invasions into Italy in return
for Roussillon and Cerdagne, which were ceded to Spain under the Treaty of Barcelona of 1492.

The Italian Wars[edit]

Italy in 1494

The 1st Italian War of 149498 or King Charles VIII's War [edit]
For more details on this topic, see Italian War of 149498.
Ludovico Sforza of Milan, seeking an ally against the Republic of Venice, encouraged Charles
VIII of France to invade Italy, using theAngevin claim to the throne of Naples as a pretext.
When Ferdinand I of Naples died in 1494, that same year Charles VIII invaded the peninsula with
a French Army[1] of twenty-five thousand men (including 8,000 Swiss mercenaries), possibly
hoping to use Naples as a base for a crusade against the Ottoman Turks.[2] For several months,
French forces moved through Italy virtually unopposed, since the condottieri armies of the
Italian city-states were unable to resist them. Charles VIII made triumphant entries into Pisa on
November 8, 1494, Florence on November 17, 1494,[3] and Rome on December 31, 1494.[4] Upon
reaching the city of Monte San Giovanni in the Kingdom of Naples, Charles VIII sent envoys to
the town and the castle located there to seek a surrender of the Neapolitan garrison. The
garrison killed and mutilated the envoys and sent the bodies back to the French lines. This
enraged the French army so that they reduced the castle in the town with blistering artillery fire
on February 9, 1495 and stormed the fort, killing everyone inside. [5] This was the famous "sack of
Naples." News of the French Army's sack of Naples provoked a reaction among the city-states of
Northern Italy and the League of Venice was formed on March 31, 1495.
The League was specifically formed to resist French aggression. The League was established on
31 March after negotiations by Venice, Milan, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. [6] Later on the
League consisted of the Holy Roman Empire, the Duchy of Milan, Spain, the Papal States, the
Republic of Florence, the Duchy of Mantua and the Republic of Venice. This coalition, effectively,
cut Charles' army off from returning to France. After establishing a pro-French government in
Naples, Charles started to march north on his return to France. However, in the small town
of Fornovo he met the League army.
The battle of Fornovo was fought on July 6, 1495, after an hour the League's army was forced
back across the river while the French continued marching to Asti, leaving their carriages and
provisions behind.[7] Francesco Guicciardini wrote that both parties strove to present themselves
as the victors in that battle, but the eventual consensus was for a French victory, because the
French repelled their enemies across the river and succeeded in moving forward, which was their
reason for fighting in the first place.[8] In contemporary tradition, though, the battle counted as a
Holy League victory, because the French forces had to leave and lost their provisions. To the
Italian coalition, however, it was at best a Pyrrhic victory, in that its strategic outcome and longterm consequences were unfavorable. Although the League managed to force Charles VIII off the
battlefield, it suffered much higher casualties[9] and could not prevent the opposing army crossing
the Italian lands as it returned to France.
As a result of Charles VIII's expedition, the regional states of Italy were shown once and for all to
be both rich and comparatively weak, which sowed the seeds of the wars to come. In fact the
individual Italian states could not field armies comparable to those of the great feudal monarchies
of Europe in numbers and equipment.

Meanwhile in the Kingdom of Naples, after initial reverses, such as the disastrous defeat by the
French at the Battle of Seminara on June 21, 1495, Ferdinand II, King of Naples, with the able
assistance of the Spanish general Gonzalo Fernndez de Crdoba[10] eventually reduced the
French garrison in the Kingdom of Naples. Thus, Charles VIII lost all that he conquered in Italy.
King Charles VIII died on April 7, 1498 and was succeeded to the throne of France by his
nephew,Louis II, Duke of Orlans, who became Louis XII of France.[11]
The Second Italian War or King Louis XII's War (1499-1504)[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Italian War of 14991504.
Ludovico Sforza retained his throne in Milan until 1499, when Charles's successor, Louis XII of
France, invadedLombardy[12] and seized Milan on September 17, 1499.[13] Louis XII justified his
claim to the Duchy of Milan by right of his paternal grandfather, Louis duc d'Orlans having
married Valentina Visconti in 1387. Valentina Visconti was the heir to the Duchy of Milan in the
Visconti dynasty. The marriage contract between Valentina Visconti and Louis, duc d'Orlans,
guaranteed that in failure of male heirs, she would inherit the Visconti dominions. However, when
the Visconti dynasty died out in 1447, the Milanese ignored the Orleans claim to the Duchy of
Milan and re-established Milan as a republic. However, bitter factionalism arose under the new
republic which set the stage for Francisco Sforza (father of Ludovico Sforza) to seize control of
Milan in 1450.[14]
Louis XII was not the only monarch outside of Italy that had ambitions in the Italian Peninsula. In
1496, while Charles VIII was living in France trying to rebuild his army, Maximilian I of the Holy
Roman Empire invaded Italy, to resolve the ongoing war between Florence and Pisa, called the
"Pisan War".[15] Pisa had been at war almost continually since the early 14th century. In 1406 after
a long siege, Pisa fell under the control of the Florentine Republic.[16] When King Charles VIII of
France, invaded Italy in 1494, the Pisans rose up against the Floretines and ousted them from
Pisa and established Pisa as an independent republic again.[16] When the King Charles VIII and
the French Army withdrew from Italy in 1495, the Pisans were not left to fight the Florentines
alone. Much of northern Italy was suspicious of the rising power of Florence. Already during
1495, Pisa had received arms and money from the Republic of Genoa. Additionally, the republic
of Venice and Milan supported Pisa by sending them cavalry and infantry troops. [17]
This was part of the ongoing conflict between Pisa and Florence that Emperor Maximilian vowed
to resolve in 1496. Just as Ludovico Sforza had invited Charles VIII into Italy in 1494, now in
1496, he invited Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire into Italy to resolve the conflict between
Pisa and Florence.[18] In the conflict between the Florentines and the Pisans, Sforza had favored
the Pisans. In the eyes of Maximilian I and the Holy Roman Empire, the Pisan War was causing
distractions and divisions within the members of the League of Venice. This was weakening the
anti-French League and Maximilian sought to strengthen the unity of League by settling this war.
The worst thing that Maximilian feared was more French involvement in Italian affairs. However,
Ludovico Sforza invited Maximilian I and the Holy Roman Empire into Italy in order to strengthen
his own position.[18] When the Florentines heard about Maximilian's intention of coming to Italy to
"settle" Florence's war with Pisa, they were suspicious that the "settlement" would be heavily
inclined toward Pisa. Thus, the Florentines rejected any attempted settlement of the war by the
Emperor until Pisa was back under Florentine control.[19]

The Florentines knew that another option was open to them. They knew that the French, under
their new kingLouis XIIwere intent on returning to Italy. Florence chose to take their chances
with the French rather than the Holy Roman Empire. They felt that France might help them reconquer Pisa.[16]
Louis XII was in fact intending to invade Italy to establish his claim over the Duchy of Milan. Louis
was also entertaining an ambition to stake a claim to the Kingdom of Naples. This claim was
even weaker than Louis XII's claim to Milan. The claim to the Kingdom of Naples was really King
Charles VIII's claim. However, Louis demanded recognition of the claim solely because he, Louis,
was the successor to Charles VIII.[16] However, Louis was aware of the hostility that was
developing among his neighbors, in regards to French ambitions in Italy. Consequently, Louis XII
needed to neutralize some of this hostility. Accordingly, in August of 1498, Louis XII signed a
treaty with Archduke Philip, son of Maximilian I, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire which
secured the borders between the Holy Roman Empire and France. [20] In July of 1498, Louis
renewed the Treaty of taples of 1492 with Henry VII of England. In August of 1498, the Treaty of
Marcoussis was signed between Louis XII and Ferdinand and Isabel. This Treaty resolved none
of the outstanding territorial disputes between Spain and France, but agreed that both Spain and
France "have all enemies in common except the Pope."[21]
In July of 1499, the French Army left Lyon in France and invaded Italy with 27,000 men (10,000
of which were cavalry and 5,000 of which were Swiss mercenaries). Louis XII placed Gian
Giacomo Trivulzio in command of his army. In August of 1499, the French Army came across
Rocca di Arazzo the first of series of fortified towns in the western part of the Duchy of Milan.
[22]
Once the French artillery batteries were in place, it took only five hours to open a breach in the
walls of the town. After conquering the town, Louis ordered that the garrison and part of the civil
population be executed in an attempt to instill fear in his enemies, crush their morale and
encourage the quick surrender of the other Strongholds in western Milan.[22]The strategy was a
success and the campaign for the duchy of Milan ended swiftly. On September 5, 1499, terms
were negotiated for the surrender of the city of Milan and on October 6, 1499, Louis made his
triumphant entry into Milan.[23]
Once Louis XII was installed in Milan, he came under real pressure from the Florentines to assist
them in re-conquering Pisa. King Louis and his advisors were somewhat miffed at Florence. In
their recent struggle to conquer Milan, the Florentines had maintained strict neutrality despite
their long record of pro-French diplomacy.[16] However, Louis was mindful that if he were to
conquer Naples, he must cross Florentine territory on the road to Naples. Louis XII needed good
relations with Florence. So finally, on June 29, 1500, a combined French and Florentine army laid
siege to Pisa. Within a day French guns had knocked down 100 feet of the city walls Pisa. An
assault was made at the breach, but the French were surprised by the strong resistance thrown
up by the Pisans. The French Army was forced to break off the siege on July 11, 1500 and retreat
to the north.[24]
As part of Louis XII's continuing attempt to pacify or neutralize his neighbors to prevent them
from obstructing his ambitions in Italy, Louis XII opened discussions with King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella of Spain. On November 11, 1500, Louis signed the Treaty of Grenada. [25] The
Treaty of Grenada memorialized Louis XII's agreement with Ferdinand II of Aragon, King of

Spain, to divide the Kingdom of Naples between themselves. Then Louis set off marching south
from Milan towards Naples. King Louis XII's agreement with Spain was heavily criticized by
contemporariesincluding Nicolo Machiavelli in his masterpiece The Prince. Modern historians
also criticize the Treaty of Grenada by calling it "foolish" on Louis XII's part. They allege, as does
Machiavelli, that Louis XII did not need to invite Spain into Italy. Louis XII had achieved
everything he needed in the Treaty of Marcoussis, that he had signed two years earlier (see
above). The Treaty of Grenada did nothing but bind Louis XII's own hands. Once involved in
Italian affairs, Spain would work to the detriment of France in Spain. Indeed, this is just what
happened.
By 1502, a combined French and Spanish force had seized control of the Kingdom of Naples.
[26]
Louis XII appointed Louis d'Armagnac, Duke of Nemours as viceroy at Naples. On October 12,
1501,[27] the new viceroy took over administration of Naples. However, the new French viceroy
proved to be more concerned with extending the French share of the kingdom than he was in
ensuring that the Spanish received their share. This did much to aggravate relations between
France and Spain.[27] These disagreements about the terms of the partition led to a war between
Louis and Ferdinand. By 1503 Louis, having been defeated at the Battle of Cerignola on April 28,
1503[28] and Battle of Garigliano on December 29, 1503,[29]was forced to withdraw from Naples,
which was left under the control of a Spanish viceroy, General de Crdoba.
War of the League of Cambrai (1508-1516)[edit]
For more details on this topic, see War of the League of Cambrai.

After the Battle of Marignano, drawing by Urs Graf

Meanwhile, Pope Julius II, who had become pope upon the death of Alexander VI in August of
1503,[30] was extremely concerned about the territorial expansion of the Republic of Venice in
northern Italy. Pope Julius was not alone in his fear of Venitian territorial ambitions. Being from
Genoa, Pope Julius knew of the Genoese hatred of Venice for forcing the other states out of the
rich Po Valley as the Republic expanded its frontiers across northern Italy. [31] Additionally,
Emperor Maximilian was upset with the Venitian seizure of Duchy of Friuli.[31] Furthermore, King
Louis XII of France had been firmly established in Milan since 1500. Louis XII now saw Venice as
a threat to his position in Milan. Moreover, King Ferdinand of Naples resented the fact that Venice
held a number of towns in southern Italy along the Adriatic coast.

The circumstances were set for Pope Julius to form the League of Cambrai on December 10,
1508, in which France,[32] the Papacy, Spain, the Duchy of Ferrara and the Holy Roman
Empire agreed to restrain the Venetians.[33] Although the League destroyed much of the Venetian
army at the Battle of Agnadello on May 14, 1509,[34] it failed to capture Padua.[35]
By 1510, King Louis XII was regarding Pope Julius II as a greater threat than Venice.
Accordingly, France changed sides in the war and allied itself with Venice. In March of 1510,
Pope Julius brokered a deal with the Swiss Cantons which brought 6,000 more Swiss troops into
the war against the French. Following a year of fighting over the Romagna, during which the
Veneto-Papal alliance was repeatedly defeated, the Pope proclaimed a Holy League against the
French in October of 1511.[36] This league rapidly grew to include England, Spain, and the Holy
Roman Empire.
French forces under Gaston de Foix inflicted an overwhelming defeat on a Spanish army at
the Battle of Ravenna on April 11, 1512.[37] Foix was killed during the Battle of Ravenna, and the
French were forced to withdraw from Italy when theSwiss invaded and conquered Milan.[38] The
Swiss reinstated Massimiliano Sforza to the ducal throne of Milan.[39]However, the victorious Holy
League fell apart over the subject of dividing the spoils, and in March of 1513 Venice allied with
France, agreeing to partition Lombardy between them.[40]
Louis mounted another invasion of Milan, but was defeated at the battle of Novara on June 6,
1513. The battle of Novara would be the last battle in which the traditional Swiss tactic of
charging in three columns would be used with success.[41]The victory of the Holy League at
Novara was quickly followed by a series of Holy League victories against the Venetians atLa
Motta on October 7, 1513, the French at Guinegate on August 16, 1513 and the Scots at Flodden
Field on September 9, 1513.
Overshadowing all, however, was the death of Pope Julius II on February 20. 1513, [42] which left
the League without effective leadership. On January 1, 1515, Louis XII also died [43] and was
succeeded to the throne of France by his nephew,Francis I. Francis I continued Louis XII's war
against the League of Cambrai in Italy by leading a French and Venician Army against the Swiss
and routing the Swiss at Marignano on September 1314, 1515.[44] This victory over the Swiss
decisively broke the string of victories that the Swiss had enjoyed against the Venicians and the
French. Following the Battle of Marignano, the League of Cambrai or Holy League collapsed as
both Spain and the new pope-Leo Xgave up on the notion of placing Massiliano Sforza on
the ducal throne of Milan.[45] By the treaties of Noyon on August 13, 1516 and Brussels, the
entirety of northern Italy was surrendered to France and Venice.
Italian War of 152126[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Italian War of 152126.

Detail of a tapestry depicting the Battle of Pavia

After three years of relative peace, the elevation of Charles of Spain to Holy Roman Emperor on
June 28, 1519 led to a collapse of relations between France and the Habsburgs. Francis I himself
had been a candidate for election as Holy Roman Emperor before Charles V was chosen. This
led to a personal rivalry between Francis I and Charles V that was to become one of the
fundamental facts of the sixteenth century.[46] Francis' candidacy for Emperor had been supported
by Pope Leo X. Thus, Pope Leo now had a real fear of Charles V. Charles' empire included the
Kingdom of Naples, the northern border of which was just forty miles from the Vatican.
The deterioration of relations between the Habsburgs and Francis I provided Francis I with a
pretext for war with Charles. However, just when Francis I began to count on the support of Pope
Leo in a war against Charles V, Pope Leo suddenly made peace with the Emperor and sided with
the Holy Roman Empire against France. Soon Francis I was surrounded by enemies. Not only
was Charles V emperor, but he also remained King of Spain. Thus Francis I faced war from the
east (the Holy Roman Empire) and the west (Spain). Then to make matters worse, Henry VIII of
England joined the pope (Pope Leo X died in 1522 and was replaced by Adrian VI who lived a
year until 1523 and then was succeeded by Clement VII) and the emperor in their war on France.
Charles V took Milan from the French in 1521 and returned Milan in 1522 to Francesco Sforza,
the Duke of Milan.[47] The French were outmatched by the Spanish arquebusier tactics, however,
and suffered crippling defeats at Bicocca on April 27, 1522[48] and Sesia against Spanish troops
under Fernando de Avalos on April 30, 1524. With Milan in Imperial hands, Francis personally led
a French army into Lombardy in 1525, only to be utterly defeated and captured at the battle of
Paviaon February 24, 1525.[49] With Francis imprisoned in Spain, a series of diplomatic
maneuvers centered around his release ensued, including a special French mission sent by
Francis' mother Louise of Savoy to the court of Suleiman the Magnificent that would result in
an Ottoman ultimatum to Charlesan unprecedented alliance between Christian and Muslim
monarchs that would cause a scandal in the Christian world. Suleiman used the opportunity to
invade Hungary in the summer of 1526, defeating Charles' allies at the Battle of Mohcs on
August 29, 1526. Despite all these efforts, Francis was required to sign the Treaty of Madrid in
January of 1526[50] in which he surrendered his claims to Italy, Flanders, andBurgundy, in order to
be released from prison.

War of the League of Cognac (1526-1530)[edit]


For more details on this topic, see War of the League of Cognac.

The Siege of Florence, 15291530

In 1526, Pope Clement VII, alarmed at the growing power of the Empire, formed the League of
Cognac against Charles V on May 22, 1526.[51] Members of the League were the Papal
States under Pope Clement VII, France under King Francis I,[52] England under Henry VIII,
the Republic of Venice, Republic of Florence, and the Duchy of Milan.
The League planned a war against the Empire to begin in early 1526. The Imperial troops in Italy
were extremely discontented because they were owed so much back pay that was not
forthcoming. In some places in Italy, the Imperial troops were even refusing to take the field of
battle until they were paid.[53] The military commanders of the League of Cognac wished to take
advantage of this disorder and demoralization of the Imperial troops and to attack the troops in
early 1526.[53] However, the League commanders knew that they were soon to be joined by some
Swiss mercenaries they had hired. So they delayed the start of the attack until they were joined
by the Swiss.
Meanwhile, Venetian troops under the Duke of Urbino were marching westward across northern
Italy to join their alliesthe Papal troops. Along the way, they discovered that a revolt had
occurred in the town of Lodi. Lodi was a town that had been under the rule of the Visconti family.
A disaffected Italian infantry captain from Lodi was willing to open the gates of the town to the
Venetian Army. Consequently, the Venetians were able to quickly occupy Lodi on June 24, 1526.
[53]

Another revolt broke out in the city of Milan against the rule of Francesco Sforza II, Duke of Milan.
Milan had been bouncing back and forth between control by the Sforza family and control by the
Kingdom of France since 1499, when Ludovico Sforza was driven out of Milan by French
King Louis XII. Except for two months in early 1500, Milan had remained under the control of the
French for twelve years. In 1512, however, political control of Milan shifted back to the Sforza
familyunder Massimiliano Sforzafor three years until King Francis I of France was able to
drive out the Sforzas once more. Milan was again under French rule control for another six years
before Francesco Sforza kicked the French out in November of 1521. Francis I returned to Milan
and restored French control in the city in October 1524 only to lose Milan again in February of
1525 in the Treaty of Madrid, which had been forced on him by Emperor Charles V. One of
Francis's first goals in joining the League of Cognac was to repudiate the Treaty of Madrid and

regain control over Milan. However, French troops had not yet entered into the new war in Italy
and their agreement to do so remained secret.
The current uprising in Milan had begun in the summer of 1526. The uprising in Milan was
coordinated with the defenders of the "Castello" in Milan. The populace was upset over the
behavior of the troops in the garrison of the Castello while they were on leave in town. [53]
In June of 1526, Ugo de Moncada, the commander of Imperial forces in Italy was sent as an
ambassador from the Emperor to Pope Clement VII in the Vatican.[54] His message from Emperor
Charles V was that if the Papal States aligned themselves with the French in the current war, the
Holy Roman Empire would seek to use both the Italian towns of Colonnaand Siena against the
papacy. Pope Clement VII recognized the threat these two cities presented to the Papal States
should they join forces with the Imperial troops already in Italy. Accordingly, the pope withdrew
his forces at just the time the French forces entered Lombardy in northern Italy.[53]
Suddenly the League started to fall apart. Venice had suffered devastating damage in the Italian
Wars. Venice's subject landsthe "Terraferma"had been ravaged during the years from 1509
to 1516. At one time or another during the Italian Wars, every city in Venice's Terraferma, except
for the city of Treviso, had been lost to an enemy.[55] As a result, Venice refused to contribute any
more troops to the war effort. After 1529, Venice would cease all direct involvement in the Italian
Wars.[55] Realizing that their goal of reconquering Milan was not on the table anymore, the French
army left Lombardy and headed back to France. With the withdrawal of French forces from
Lombardy, Charles V proceeded to subdue Florence, and, in 1527, Rome itself was sacked by
mutinous Imperial forces. Clement was imprisoned by Imperial troops [56] and offered no further
resistance to Charles V. With the conclusion of the Treaty of Cambrai in 1529, which formally
removed Francis from the war, the League collapsed; Venice made peace with Charles V, while
Florence was placed again under the Medici.
Italian War of 153638[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Italian War of 153638.
When the Treaty of Cambrai was being signed in August of 1529, [57] thus ending the War of the
League of Cognac, Emperor Charles V was already making his way to Italy.[58] This trip to Italy
and the settlement of Italian affairs during the trip is traditionally viewed as marking the end of
Italian political liberty and independence and the beginning of a long period of oppression [58] by
the Spanish and the Holy Roman Empire. Charles V's influence and control of affairs in Italy had
grown out of King Louis XII's much criticized invitation to Spain under the Treaty of Grenada
(1500) to join in settling problems in Italy. (See, the entry on the "Second Italian War" above.) In
1500, Spain had been a separate and independent kingdom under King Ferdinand and Queen
Isabella. Now under Charles V, both Spain and the Holy Roman Empire were part of the same
political entity. Even in 1500, the influence that Spain could bring to Italian politics was significant,
but it was still minor compared to the power that Charles V could now exercise in Italy. The main
goal of that power and influence was now aimed at France, the very power that had invited the
Spanish into Italy in the first place.

Thus, this third war between Charles V and King Francis I of France [52] began with the death
of Francesco Maria Sforza, the duke of Milan during the night of November 12, 1535.[59] Upon his
death, Francesco Sforza left no heirs. Emperor Charles V was on another trip to Italy when he
heard about the death of Sforza.[60] When the representatives of Emperor Charles V took charge
of the Duchy of Milan upon the death of Sforza, there were no protests or uprisings among the
people of Milan.[61] Nor were there any objections from any other Italian states. There were,
however, objections from France. Francis I, king of France, firmly believed that Asti, Genoa and
the Duchy of Milan were all rightfully his.[62] Thus recovering Milan for France remained the
primary goal for Francis I. So when Charles bequeathed the Duchy of Milan to his son Philip,
King Francis I of France invaded Italy. At about this time, Francis told his council that he had
allowed Emperor Charles V to become too strong in Italy. This was an open admission by a
French King that Louis XII's signing of the Treaty of Grenada in November of 1500 had been a
mistake.
In late March of 1536, a French Army under the command of Philippe de Chabot, seigneur de
Brion advanced into Piedmont with 24,000 infantry and 3,000 horse. [63] The French Army under
Philippe de Chabot captured and entered Turinin early April of 1536, but failed to take Milan.
Meanwhile, the pro-French section of the population in the city of Asti rose up against and
overthrew their Imperial occupiers.[60]
In response to the capture of Turin by the French, Charles V invaded Provence, advancing to Aixen-Provence. Charles took Aix on August 13, 1536, but could go no further because the French
Army blocked all roads leading to Marseilles.[64]Consequently, Charles withdrew back to Spain
rather than attacking the heavily fortified town of Avignon.
Charles V's fruitless expedition to Provence distracted his attention from events in Italy. French
troops operating in thePiedmont were joined by 10,000 Italian infantry and a few hundred horse
on a march to Genoa.[65] These Italian troops had been raised by Guido Rangoni, Galeotto Pico
della Mirandola and other members of the military nobility of southern Lombardy. Galeotto had
gained control of Mirandola in 1533 by killing his uncle Giovanni Francesco Pico della Mirandola.
[66]
In preparation for his invasion of Italy, Francis I's ambassador to the Ottoman Empire--Jean de
La Fortobtained, in early 1536, a treaty of alliance between the Ottoman Empire and France.
By the end of 1536 an Ottoman fleet was poised off the coast of Genoa ready to strike in
coordination with the land forces marching toward Genoa. However, when the land forces arrived
before Genoa in August of 1536, they found that the garrison at Genoa had recently been
reinforced.[66] Furthermmore, an expected uprising among Fregoso partisans in Genoa did not
materialize. So the land forces moved by Genoa and marched on into the Piedmont where they
captured and occupied Carignano along with three other towns between Turin and Saluzzo-Pinerolo, Chieri and Carmagnola. The Ottomans active participation in the war was not
significant, but the very entry of them into the war had a curbing effect on the actions of Charles
V. Fighting a two front war, against the Ottomans in the east and the French in the west did not
appeal to Charles V. Consequently, by 1538, Charles was ready for peace.
The Truce of Nice, signed on June 18, 1538, ended the war, leaving Turin in French hands but
effecting no significant changes to the map of Italy.[67]

Italian War of 154246[edit]


For more details on this topic, see Italian War of 154246.
Francis I, King of France, allied himself once more with Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire and on
July 12, 1542 declared war on the Holy Roman Empire.[68] Francis I launched his final invasion of
Italy against the town of Perpignan. A Franco-Ottoman fleet under the command of Ottoman
admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa captured the city of Nice on August 22, 1543,[69] and laid siege to
the citadel. The defenders of the citadel were relieved within a month. For Christian and Islamic
troops to act in coordination to attack a Christian town was regarded as shocking. Thus, in this
attack on Nice, King Francis needed to play down the role of the Ottoman Turks. [70] However,
Francis I did something even more scandalous when he turned the French naval port
of Toulon over to Barbarossa to use as winter quarters for the Ottoman fleet.[71]
Once again Milan was the pretext for the War of 1542-1546.[52] However, the French Army
commanded by the Franois de Bourbon, Count d'Enghien was defeated in the Piedmont by an
Imperial army at the Battle of Ceresole on April 14, 1544.[72] The French failed to penetrate further
into Lombardy.
On January 6, 1537, Alessandro de Medici, the Duke of Florence, was assassinated by his
distant cousin, Lorenzino de' Medici.[73] Alessandro de Medici had the support of the Holy Roman
Empire. Indeed Alessandro was married to Charles V's daughterMargaret. With the Duke of
Florence removed some citizens of Florence attempted to establish a republic in the city, while
other pro-Medici citizens of Florence sought to install the seventeen year-old Cosimo de' Medici
as the new Duke. The republican faction raised an army under the command of Piero Strozzi.
[74]
The pro-Medici faction sought assistance from Charles V to defeat the republican faction. King
Francis I, supported the now-exiled republican faction as a means of preventing Charles V from
taking over Florence.[73] On June 4, 1544, the army of republican exiles from Florence under the
command of Piero Strozzi was defeated by an Imperial army under the command of Philippe de
Lannoy and Ferrante da Sanseverino, Principe di Salerno.
Charles V and Henry VIII of England then proceeded to invade northern France,
seizing Boulogne and Soissons.[75] At one point the English and the Imperial troop were within
sixty (60) miles of Paris.[52] A lack of cooperation between the Spanish and English armies,
coupled with increasingly aggressive Ottoman attacks, led Charles to abandon these conquests,
restoring the status quo once again.
Italian War of 155159[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Italian War of 155159.

The Battle of Marciano by Giorgio Vasari

On March 31, 1547, King Francis I died. Francis I was succeeded to the throne by his son, Henry
II of France.[52] In 1551, Henry II declared war against Charles with the intent of recapturing Italy
and ensuring French, rather than Habsburg, domination of European affairs. An early French
offensive against Lorraine was successful, but the attempted French invasion of Tuscany was
stopped in 1553. The French were decisively defeated at the Battle of Marciano on August 2,
1554. Nonetheless, as a result of this war, France obtained three French speaking cities
of Metz, Toul and Verdun.[76]
In 1556, during the course of the war Charles V abdicated the Imperial throne as well as the
throne of Spain. He abdicated the Imperial throne of the Holy Roman Empire to his brother, who
became Ferdinand I of the Holy Roman Empire. The throne of Spain went to Charles' son who
became Phillip II of Spain. The abdication of Charles V split the Habsburg empire that had
surrounded France. From this point on, Spain and The Holy Roman Empire would no longer act
in absolute coordination as they had under the personal union Charles V. Gradually, the two
Habsburg entities would drift off separately in their own directions following their own divergent
interests.
At this point the focus of the war shifted away from Italy and toward Flanders, where Philip, in
conjunction with Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, decisively defeated the French at St. Quentin on
August 10, 1557.[77] Following the defeat at St. Quentin, the French did recover and took new
some initiatives in the war. England's entry into the war in 1557 led to the French capture
of Calais in January of 1558.[78] Additionally, French armies plundered Spanish positions in
the Low Countries. Nonetheless, Henry II, was forced to accept the Peace of Cateau-Cambrsis,
which was signed on April 3, 1559. In that Treaty Henry II renounced any further claims to Italy. [79]

Aftermath and impact[edit]


In France, Henry II was fatally wounded on 10 July 1559, in a joust held during the celebrations
of the peace. His death led to the accession of his 15-year-old son Francis II, who in turn died on
December 5, 1560. The French monarchy was thrown into turmoil, which increased further with
the outbreak of the French Wars of Religion in 1562. The states of Italy were reduced to secondrate powers and Milan and Naples were annexed directly to Spain.

The Italian Wars had a number of consequences for the work and workplace of Leonardo da
Vinci; his plans for a "Gran Cavallo" big horse statue in 1495 were dropped when the seventy
tons of bronze intended for the statue were instead cast into weapons to save Milan. Later,
following a chance encounter with Francis I after the Battle of Marignano, Leonardo agreed to
move to France and bring along his masterpiece Mona Lisa which has remained in France to this
day. Leonardo spent his final years in France in a house provided by Francis I.
Additionally, the Italian Wars represented a revolution in military technology and tacticsso
much so that some historians consider these wars the dividing point between modern and
medieval times.[80] Contemporaneous historian Francesco Guicciardini wrote of the initial 1494
French invasion:
Now owing to this invasion of the French everything was turned upside down in a sudden
stormsudden and violent wars broke out, ending with the conquest of a state in less
time than it used to take to occupy a villa. The siege and taking of a city became
extremely rapid and achieved not in month but in days and hours.[81]

Arms and armies[edit]


The wars saw the introduction of many significant advances in military technology and
tactics, including field artillery,muskets, and combined arms tactics.
Infantry[edit]
Infantry underwent profound developments during the Italian Wars, evolving from a primarily
pike- and halberd-wielding force to a more flexible arrangement of arquebusiers, pikemen,
and other troops. While the early part of the wars continued to see landsknechts and Swiss
mercenaries dominate, the Italian War of 1521 demonstrated the power of massed firearms
in pike and shot formations.
A 1503 skirmish between French and Spanish forces represented the first demonstration of
arquebuses utility in battle. The Spanish general, Gonzalo de Codoba, faked a retreat, luring
a contingent of French men-at-arms between two groups of his arquebusiers. As the French
army stepped between the marksmen, volleys of bullets battered them on both flanks. Before
the French could attack the vulnerable arquebusiers, a Spanish cavalry charge broke the
French forces and forced their retreat. While the French army escaped, the Spanish inflicted
severe casualties on it.[82]
So successful was the employment of firearms in Italian Wars that Niccol Machiavelli, often
characterized as an enemy of the use of the arquebus, wrote in his treatise on The Art of
War that all citizens in a city should know how to fire a gun.[83]

Cavalry[edit]
Heavy cavalrythe final evolution of the fully armored medieval knightremained major
players on the battlefields of the Italian Wars. Here, the French gendarmes were generally
successful against mounted troops from other states, owing significantly to their excellent
horses. The Spanish used light cavalry called Jinetes for skirmishing.
Artillery[edit]
The Italian Wars saw artilleryparticularly field artillerybecome an indispensable part of
any first-rate army. Charles VIII, during his invasion of Italy, brought with him the first truly
mobile siege train: culverins and bombards mounted on wheeled carriages, which could be
deployed against an enemy stronghold immediately after arrival. The French siege arsenal
brought with it multiple technological innovations. Charles' army pulled cannons with horses
rather than the oxen typically used at the time.[84] Additionally, French cannons, made using
methods used to cast bronze church bells, achieved a lightness and mobility previously
unheard of.[85] Perhaps the most important improvement the French made to cannons,
however, was the creation of the iron cannon ball. Before the Italian Wars, artillery fired stone
balls that often shattered on impact.[86] The invention of the water mill allowed furnaces to
generate enough heat to melt iron to be smelted into cannonballs [87] With this technology,
Charles army could level, in a matter of hours, castles that had formerly resisted sieges for
months and years.[88]
Military leadership[edit]
For more details on this topic, see Military leaders of the Italian Wars.
The armies of the Italian Wars were commanded by a wide variety of different leaders, from
mercenaries and condottieri to nobles and kings.
Fortification[edit]
Much of the fighting during the Italian Wars took place during sieges. Successive invasions
forced Italy to adopt increasing levels of fortification, using such new developments as
detached bastions, that could withstand sustained artillery fire.

Historiography[edit]
The Italian Wars are one of the first major conflicts for which extensive contemporary
accounts from people involved in the wars are available, owing largely to the presence of
literateand often extremely well educatedcommanders.
Nomenclature[edit]
The naming of the component conflicts within the Italian Wars has never been standardized,
varying among historians of the period. Some wars may be split or combined differently,

causing ordinal numbering systems to be inconsistent among different sources. The wars
may be referred to by their dates, or by the monarchs fighting them.
Contemporary accounts[edit]
A major contemporary account for the early portion of the Italian Wars is Francesco
Guicciardini's Storia d'Italia (History of Italy), written during the conflict, and advantaged by
the access Guicciardini had to Papal affairs.

Back to Kingdom of France: Wars of


Religion[edit]
Main article: French Wars of Religion

Henry IV, by Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.

Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with farreaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of a Concordat between France and the Papacy
(1516), granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was
deeply affected by the Protestant Reformation's attempt to break the hegemony of Catholic

Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbed Huguenots) faced ever harsher
repression under the rule of Francis I's son King Henry II. After Henry II's death in a joust, the
country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis II,Charles
IX and Henry III. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of Guiseculminated in
a massacre of Huguenots (1562), starting the first of the French Wars of Religion, during which
English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic
forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy, the HuguenotMonarchomachs theorized during this time
the right of rebellion and the legitimacy oftyrannicide.[12]
The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys in which Henry
IIIassassinated Henry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league, and the king was
murdered in return. After the assassination of both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589),
the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king of Navarre as Henry IV (first king
of the Bourbon dynasty) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism (Expedient of 1592)
effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the Pope
(1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as the Edict of Nantes (1598), which
guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality.[13]

French Wars of Religion


From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve
this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (August 2010)
French Wars of Religion
Part of European wars of religion

Depiction of the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre byFranois


Dubois.

Date

March 1562 April 1598

Locati
on

France

Result

Uneasy truce.
The Edict of Nantes granted
theHuguenots substantial rights in
certain areas;
Paris and other defined territories
were declared permanently Catholic.
Failure of France's enemies to
weaken France and to gain
territories.

Belligerents
Protestants:

Politiques

Catholics:

Huguenots

Catholic

England

League
Spain
Duchy of
Savoy

Commanders and leaders

Princes of
Cond
Elizabeth I

Catherine
de Mdici
Charles IX
Henry III
Henry IV

House of
Guise
Philip II
Pope
Sixtus V
Charles
Emmanuel I

[hide]

French Wars of Religion

Mrindol (1545)
Amboise (1560)

1st7th wars
156263

Edict of Saint-Germain
Vassy
Rouen
Dreux
Orlans
Edict of Amboise

156768

Saint-Denis
Chartres

156870

Jarnac
La Roche-l'Abeille
Orthez
Moncontour

157273

Mons
St. Bartholomew

Sommires
Sancerre
La Rochelle

157476

Dormans
Edict of Beaulieu

157677

Treaty of Bergerac
157980

Treaty of Fleix

War of the Three Henrys

Treaty of Nemours
Coutras
Vimory
Arques
Day of the Barricades
Ivry
Paris
Rouen
Craon
Blaye
Fort Crozon
Edict of Nantes

Franco-Spanish War (159598)

Fontaine-Franaise
Ham
Le Catelet
Doullens
Cambrai
Calais
Ardres
Amiens

Huguenot rebellions
162122

Saumur
Saint-Jean-d'Angly
La Rochelle
Montauban
Royan
Saint-Foix
Ngrepelisse
Saint-Antonin
Montpellier
Saint-Martin-de-R
Treaty of Montpellier

1625

Blavet

R island
Treaty of Paris

162729

Saint-Martin-de-R
La Rochelle
Privas
Als
Montauban
Peace of Als

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)

The French Wars of Religion (156298) is the name of a period ofcivil infighting and military
operations, primarily fought between FrenchCatholics and Protestants (Huguenots). The conflict
involved the factional disputes between the aristocratic houses of France, such as the House of
Bourbon and House of Guise (Lorraine), and both sides received assistance from foreign
sources.
The exact number of wars and their respective dates are the subject of continued debate by
historians; some assert that the Edict of Nantesin 1598 concluded the wars, although a
resurgence of rebellious activity following this leads some to believe the Peace of Alais in 1629 is
the actual conclusion. However, the Massacre of Vassy in 1562 is agreed to begin the Wars of
Religion and the Edict of Nantes at least ended this series of conflicts. During this time, complex
diplomatic negotiations and agreements of peace were followed by renewed conflict and power
struggles.
Between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 people were killed[1] and at the conclusion of the conflict in
1598, Huguenots were granted substantial rights and freedoms by the Edict of Nantes, though it
did not end hostility towards them. The wars weakened the authority of themonarchy, already
fragile under the rule of Francis II and then Charles IX, though it later reaffirmed its role
under Henry IV.
Contents
[hide]

1 Background

1.1 Growth of Calvinism

1.1.1 Affair of the Placards

1.1.2 Massacre of Mrindol

1.2 Rise of factionism

1.3 The "Amboise conspiracy", or "Tumult of Amboise"

1.4 Iconoclasm and civic disturbances

1.5 Death of Francis II

1.6 Colloquy of Poissy and the Edict of Saint-Germain


2 156270

2.1 The "first" war (156263)

2.2 The "Armed Peace" (156367) and the "second" war (156768)

2.3 The "third" war (156870)


3 St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre and after (157273)

3.1 The 'fourth' war (157273)


4 157480

4.1 Death of Charles IX and the 'fifth' war (157476)

4.2 The Catholic League and the 'sixth' war (157677)

4.3 The 'seventh' war (157980) and the death of Anjou (1584)
5 158598

5.1 The "War of the Three Henries"

5.2 The Estates-General of Blois and Assassination of the Guise (1588)

5.3 The assassination of Henry III (1589)


6 Henry IV's 'Conquest of the Kingdom' (15891593)

6.1 War in Brittany

7 Toward peace (159398)

7.1 Conversion

7.2 War with Spain (159598)

7.3 Resolution of the War in Brittany (159899)

8 The Edict of Nantes (1598)

9 17th and 18th centuries

10 Chronology

11 See also

12 Notes

13 References

13.1 Historiography

13.2 Primary sources


14 External links

Background[edit]
Growth of Calvinism[edit]
Main article: Huguenot

After an initial period of tolerance,Francis I started the repression against Protestants.

Protestant ideas were first introduced to France during the reign of Francis I (151547) in the
form of Lutheranism, the teachings of Martin Luther, and circulated unimpeded for more than a
year around Paris. Although Francis firmly opposed heresy, the difficulty was initially in
recognising what constituted it; Catholic doctrine and definition of orthodox belief was unclear.
[2]
Francis I tried to steer a middle course in the developing religious schism in France. [3] Despite
this, in January 1535, Catholic authorities decided that those classified as "Lutherans" were
actually Zwinglians, followers of Huldrych Zwingli.[4]
The lower orders of society was where Protestantism made its impact in France.
[5]
However, Calvinism, a form of Protestant religion, was introduced by John Calvin, who was born
in Noyon, Picardy in 1509,[6] and had fled France in 1536 after theAffair of the Placards. Calvinism
in particular, appears to have developed with large support from the nobility. It is believed to have
started with Louis Bourbon, Prince of Cond, who while returning home to France from a military
campaign, passed through Geneva, Switzerland and heard a sermon by a Calvinist preacher.
[7]
Later, Louis Bourbon would become a major figure among the Huguenots of France. In
1560, Jeanne d'Albret, Queen regnant of Navarre, converted to Calvinism possibly due to the
influence of Theodore de Beze.[7] She later married Antoine de Bourbon, and their son Henry of
Navarre would be a leader among the Huguenots.[8]
Affair of the Placards[edit]
Francis I continued his policy of seeking a middle course in the religious rift in France until an
incident called the Affair of the Placards.[3] The affair of the Placards began in 1534 started with
protesters putting up anti-Catholic posters. The posters were not Lutheran but were Zwinglian or

"Sacramentarian" in the extreme nature of the anti-Catholic contentspecifically, the absolute


rejection of the Catholic doctrine of "Real Presence."[3] Protestantism became identified as "a
religion of rebels", helping the Catholic Church to more easily define Protestantism as heresy. In
the wake of the posters, the French monarchy took a harder stand against the protesters. [4]
[9]
Francis I had been severely criticized for his initial tolerance towards Protestants, but now was
encouraged to repress them.[10] At the same time, Francis I was working on a policy of alliance
with the Ottoman Empire.[11] The ambassadors in the 1534 Ottoman embassy to
France accompanied Francis I to Paris. They attended the execution by burning at the stake of
those caught for the Affair of the Placards, on 21 January 1535, in front of the Cathedral of NotreDame de Paris.[10]
John Calvin, a Frenchman, escaped from the persecution to Basle, Switzerland, where he
published the Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536.[3] In the same year, he visited Geneva,
but was forced out for trying to reform the church. When he returned by invitation in 1541, he
wrote the Ecclesiastical ordinances, the constitution for a Genevan church, which was passed by
the council of Geneva.
Massacre of Mrindol[edit]

Massacre of Mrindol in 1545 as imagined by Gustave Dor (1832-1883).

Execution of Anne du Bourg in 1559.

The Massacre of Mrindol took place in 1545. Francis I ordered the punishment of
the Waldensians of the city of Mrindolwho were affiliated with Protestantismfor dissident
religious activities. Historians estimate that Provenal troops killed hundreds to thousands of
residents there, and in the 22-28 nearby villages they destroyed. They captured hundreds of men
and sent them to labor in the French galleys.[12]
King Francis I died on March 31, 1547 and was succeeded to the throne by his sonHenry II.
Henry II continued the harsh religious policy that his father had followed during the last years of
his reign. Indeed, Henry II was even more severe against the Protestants than Francis I had
been. Henry II sincerely believed that the Protestants were heretics. On June 27, 1551, Henry II
issued the Edict of Chteaubriant which sharply curtailed Protestant rights to worship assemble
or even to discuss religion at work, in the fields or over a meal.
In the 1550s, the establishment of the Geneva church provided leadership to the disorganised
French Calvinist (Huguenot) church.[13] The 1540s had seen an intensification in the French fight
against heresy, which meant Protestants gathered secretly to worship.[14] But by the middle of the
century, the adherents to Protestantism in France had increased markedly in number and power,
as the nobility in particular converted to Calvinism. Historians estimate that in the 1560s, more
than half of the nobility were Calvinist (or Huguenot), and 1,2001,250 Calvinist churches had
been established, by 1562 with the outbreak of war, there were 2 million Calvinists. The
conversion of the nobility constituted a substantial threat to the monarchy.[15] Calvinism proved
attractive to people from across the social hierarchy and occupational divides; it was highly
regionalized, with no coherent pattern of geographical spread.
Rise of factionism[edit]
The accidental death of Henry II in 1559 created a political vacuum that encouraged the rise of
factions, eager to grasp power. Francis II of France, at this point only 15 years old, was weak and
lacked the qualities that allowed his predecessors to impose their will on the leading noblemen at
court. However, the House of Guise, having an advantage in the King's wife,Mary, Queen of
Scots, who was their niece, moved quickly to exploit the situation at the expense of their rivals,

the House of Montmorency.[16][17] Within days of the King's accession, the English ambassador
reported that "the house of Guise ruleth and doth all about the French King". [18]
The "Amboise conspiracy", or "Tumult of Amboise"[edit]
Main article: Amboise conspiracy

Contemporary woodcut of theexecutions of Protestants at Amboise.

On March 10, 1560, a group of disaffected nobles (led by Jean du Barry, seigneur de la
Renaudie) attempted to abduct the young Francis II and eliminate the Guise faction. [19] Their plans
were discovered before they could succeed, and the government executed hundreds of
suspected plotters.[20] The Guise brothers suspected Louis I de Bourbon, prince de Cond of
leading the plot.[19] He was arrested but eventually freed for lack of evidence, adding to the
tensions of the period. (In the polemics that followed, the term "Huguenot" for France's
Protestants came into widespread usage.[21])
Iconoclasm and civic disturbances[edit]

Looting of the Churches of Lyon by the Calvinists, in 1562. Antoine Carot.

Traces of iconoclasm at Eglise Saint Sauveur, in La Rochelle.

The first instances of Protestant iconoclasm, the destruction of images and statuesin Catholic
churches, occurred in Rouen and La Rochelle in 1560. The following year, mobs carried out
iconoclasm in more than 20 cities and towns; Catholic urban groups attacked Protestants in
bloody reprisals in Sens, Cahors, Carcassonne,Tours and other cities.[22]
Death of Francis II[edit]
On December 5, 1560 Francis II died, and his mother Catherine de' Medici became regent for her
second son, Charles IX.[23] Inexperienced and faced with the legacy of debt from the HabsburgValois conflict, Catherine felt that she had to steer the throne carefully between the powerful and
conflicting interests that surrounded it, embodied by the powerful aristocrats who led essentially
private armies. She was intent on preserving the independence of the throne. [24] Although she
was a sincere Roman Catholic, she was prepared to deal favourably with the HuguenotHouse of
Bourbon in order to have a counterweight against the overmighty Guise. She nominated a
moderate chancellor, Michel de l'Hpital, who urged a number of measures providing for civic
peace so that a religious resolution could be sought by a sacred council.[25][26]
Colloquy of Poissy and the Edict of Saint-Germain[edit]
Main articles: Colloquy of Poissy and Edict of Saint-Germain
The Regent Queen-Mother Catherine de Medici had three courses of action open to her in
solving the religious crisis in France. First she might revert to persecution of the Huguenots. This
however, had been tried and had failedwitness the fact that the Huguenots were now more

numerous than they had been ever been before.[27] Secondly, Catherine could win over the
Huguenots. This though might lead directly to civil war.[27] Thirdly, Catherine might try to heal the
religious division in the country by means of a national council or colloquy on the topic.
[27]
Catherine chose the third course to pursue. Thus, a national council of clergy gathered on the
banks of the Seine River in the town of Poissy in July of 1561. The council had been formed in
1560 during the Estates-General of Saint-Germain-en-Laye when the council of prelates
accepted the crown's request to give Huguenots a hearing. The Protestants were represented by
12 ministers and 20 laymen, led byThodore de Bze. Neither group sought toleration of
Protestants, but wanted to reach some form of concord for the basis of a new unity. The council
debated the religious issue at Poissy all summer. Meanwhile a meeting between Bze and
theCardinal of Lorraine, of the House of Guise, seemed promising; both appeared ready to
compromise on the form of worship. The King of Navarre and the Prince of Cond petitioned the
Regent for the young King Charles IXthe Queen-Mother, Catherine de Medici for the free
exercise of religion.[28] In July of 1561, the Parliament passed and the Regent signed the July
Edict which recognised Roman Catholicism as the state religion but forbade any and all "injuries
or injustices" against the citizens of France on the basis of religion.[29] However, despite this
measure, by the end of the Colloquy in Poissy in October 1561 it was clear that the divide
between Catholic and Protestant ideas was already too wide.[30]
In early 1562, the regency government attempted to quell escalating disorder in the provinces,
which had been encouraged by factional feuds at court, by instituting the Edict of Saint-Germain,
also known as the Edict of January. The legislation made concessions to the Huguenots to
dissuade them from rebelling. It allowed them to worship publicly outside of towns and privately
inside them. On March 1, however, a faction of the Guise family's retainers attacked a Calvinist
service inWassy-sur-Blaise in Champagne, massacring the worshippers and most of the
residents of the town. The Huguenot Jean de la Fontaine described the events:
"The Protestants were engaged in prayer outside the walls, in conformity with the king's edict,
when the Duke of Guise approached. Some of his suite insulted the worshippers, and from
insults they proceeded to blows, and the Duke himself was accidentally wounded in the cheek.
The sight of his blood enraged his followers, and a general massacre of the inhabitants of Vassy
ensued."[31]

156270[edit]
The "first" war (156263)[edit]

Massacre de Vassy in 1562, print by Hogenberg end of 16th century.

The Massacre of Vassy, which occurred on March 1, 1562, provoked open hostilities between the
factions supporting the two religions.[32] A group of Protestant nobles, led by the prince of
Cond and proclaiming that they were liberating the king and regent from "evil" councillors,
organised a kind of protectorate over the Protestant churches. On April 2, 1562, Cond and his
Protestant followers seized the city of Orlans.[33] Their example was soon followed by Protestant
groups around France. Protestants seized and to garrison the strategic towns
of Angers, Blois and Tours along the Loire River.[33] In theRhne River valley, Protestants under
the Franois de Beaumont, baron des Adrets attacked Valence in this attack Guise's lieutenant
was killed.[33] Later, the Protestants captured Lyon.[33]
Although the Huguenots had begun to mobilise for war before Vassy, [34] Cond used the
massacre of Vassy as evidence that the July Edict of 1561 had been broken, lending further
weight to his campaign. Hoping to turn over the town to Cond, the Huguenots of Toulouse
seized the Htel de ville but were countered by angry Catholic mobs resulting in street battles
and the killing of around 3,000 (mostly Huguenots) during the 1562 Riots of Toulouse.
Additionally, on 12 April 1562 and later in July, there were massacres of Huguenots at Sens and
at Tours, respectively.[33] As conflicts continued and open hostilities broke out, the Crown revoked
the Edict under pressure from the Guise faction.
The major engagements of the war occurred at Rouen, Dreux and Orlans. At the Siege of
Rouen (MayOctober 1562), the crown regained the city, but Antoine de Navarre died of his
wounds.[35] In the Battle of Dreux (December 1562), Condwas captured by the Guises
and Montmorency, the governor general, was captured by the Bourbons. In February 1563, at the
Siege of Orlans, Francis, Duke of Guise was shot and killed by the Huguenot Jean de Poltrot de
Mr. As he was killed outside of direct combat, the Guise considered this an assassination on
the orders of the duke's enemy, Admiral Coligny. The popular unrest caused by the
assassination, coupled with the city of Orlans' resistance to the siege, ledCatherine de'
Medici to mediate a truce, resulting in the Edict of Amboise on March 19, 1563.[36]
The "Armed Peace" (156367) and the "second" war (156768) [edit]

Print depicting Huguenot aggression against Catholics at sea.Horribles cruauts des Huguenots, 16th
century.

The Edict of Amboise was generally regarded as unsatisfactory by all concerned, and the Guise
faction was particularly opposed to what they saw as dangerous concessions to heretics. The
crown tried to re-unite the two factions in its efforts to re-capture Le Havre, which had been
occupied by the English in 1562 as part of the Treaty of Hampton Court between its Huguenot
leaders and Elizabeth I of England. That July the French expelled the English, and the next
month Charles IXdeclared his legal majority, ending Catherine de' Medici's regency. His mother
continued to play a principal role in politics, and she joined her son on a Grand Tour of the
kingdom between 1564 and 1566, designed to reinstate crown authority.
Reports of iconoclasm in Flanders led Charles IX to lend support to the Catholics there; French
Huguenots feared a Catholic re-mobilisation against them. Philip II of Spain's reinforcement of
the strategic corridor from Italy north along the Rhine added to these fears, and political
discontent grew. After Protestant troops unsuccessfully tried to capture and take control of King
Charles IX in the Surprise of Meaux, a number of cities, such as La Rochelle, declared
themselves for the Huguenot cause. Protesters attacked and massacred Catholic laymen and
clergy the following day in Nmes, in what became known as the Michelade.
This provoked the Second War, the main military engagement of which was the Battle of SaintDenis. The crown's commander-in-chief and lieutenant general, the seventy-four-year-old Anne
de Montmorency, died here. The war was brief, ending in another truce, the Peace of
Longjumeau (March 1568).[37] The Peace of Longjumeau was a reiteration of the Peace of
Amboise of 1563 and once again granted significant religious freedoms and privileges to
Protestants.[37]
The "third" war (156870)[edit]

Plate from Richard Rowlands'sTheatrum Crudelitatum haereticorum nostri temporis (1587), depicting
supposed Huguenot atrocities.

In reaction to the Peace, Catholic confraternities and leagues sprang up across the country in
defiance of the law throughout the summer of 1568. Huguenot leaders such as Cond and
Coligny fled court in fear of their lives, many of their followers were murdered, and in September
the Edict of Saint-Maur revoked the Huguenots' freedom to worship. In November William of
Orange led an army into France to support his fellow Protestants but, the army being poorly paid,
he accepted the crown's offer of money and free passage to leave the country.

The Huguenots gathered a formidable army under the command of Cond, aided by forces from
south-east France, led by Paul de Mouvans, and a contingent of fellow Protestant militias from
Germany including 14,000 mercenary reiters led by the Calvinist Duke of Zweibrcken.[38] After
the Duke was killed in action, his troops remained under the employ of the Huguenots who had
raised a loan from England against the security of the queen of Navarre's crown jewels.[39] Much
of the Huguenots' financing came from Queen Elizabeth of England, who was likely influenced in
the matter by Sir Francis Walsingham.[38] The Catholics were commanded by the Duke
d'Anjou (later King Henry III) and assisted by troops from Spain, the Papal States, and the Grand
Duchy of Tuscany.[40]

Battle of Moncontour, 1569.

The Protestant army laid siege to several cities in the Poitou and Saintonge regions (to protect La
Rochelle), and then Angoulme and Cognac. At the Battle of Jarnac(16 March 1569), the prince
of Cond was killed, forcing Admiral de Coligny to take command of the Protestant forces,
nominally on behalf of Cond's 15-year-old son,Henry, and the sixteen-year old Henry of
Navarre, who were presented by Jeanne d'Albret as the legitimate leaders of the Huguenot cause
against royal authority. The Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille was a nominal victory for the Huguenots,
but they were unable to seize control of Poitiers and were soundly defeated at the Battle of
Moncontour (30 October 1569). Coligny and his troops retreated to the south-west and regrouped
with Gabriel, comte de Montgomery, and in spring of 1570 they pillaged Toulouse, cut a path
through the south of France and went up the Rhonevalley up to La Charit-sur-Loire.[41] The
staggering royal debt and Charles IX's desire to seek a peaceful solution [42] led to the Peace of
Saint-Germain-en-Laye (8 August 1570), which once more allowed some concessions to the
Huguenots.

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre and after (157273)[edit]


Main article: St. Bartholomew's Day massacre

One morning at the gates of the Louvre, 19th-century painting bydouard Debat-Ponsan. (Catherine de'
Medici is in black.)

Anti-Protestant massacres of Huguenots at the hands of Catholic mobs continued, in cities such
as Rouen, Orange and Paris. Matters at Court were complicated as King Charles IX openly allied
with the Huguenot leaders especially AdmiralGaspard de Coligny. Meanwhile, the Queen
Mother became increasingly fearful of the unchecked power wielded by Coligny and his
supporters, especially as it became clear that Coligny was pursuing an alliance with England and
the Dutch Protestant rebels.
Coligny, along with many other Calvinist nobles, arrived in Paris for the wedding of the Catholic
princess Margaret of France to the Protestant prince Henry of Navarreon August 18. On August
22, an assassin made a failed attempt on Coligny's life, shooting him in the street from a window.
While historians have suggested Charles de Louvier, sieur de Maurevert, as the likely assailant,
historians have never determined the source of the order to kill Coligny (it is improbable that the
order came from Catherine).[43]

The Siege of La Rochelle of 1573 by the Duke of Anjou ("History of Henry III" tapestry, completed in 1623).

Amidst fears of a Huguenot coup, the Duke of Guise and his supporters acted. In the early
morning of August 24, they killed Coligny in his lodgings with several of his men. Coligny's body
was thrown from the window into the street, and was subsequently mutilated, castrated, dragged

through the mud, thrown in the river, suspended on a gallows and burned by the Parisian crowd.
[44]

This assassination began the series of events known as the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre.
For the next five days, the city erupted as Catholics massacred Calvinist men, women and
children, and looted their houses, which was neither approved of nor predicted by the king.
[45]
Over the next few weeks, the disorder spread to more than a dozen cities across France.
Historians estimate that 2,000 Huguenots were killed in Paris and thousands more in the
provinces; in all, perhaps 10,000 people were killed. [46] Henry of Navarre and his cousin, the
young Prince of Cond, managed to avoid death by agreeing to convert to Catholicism. Both
repudiated their conversions after they escaped Paris.
The massacre provoked horror and outrage among Protestants throughout Europe, but
both Philip II of Spain and Pope Gregory XIII, following the official version that a Huguenot coup
had been thwarted, celebrated the outcome. In France, Huguenot opposition to the crown was
seriously weakened by the deaths of many of the leaders. Many Huguenots emigrated to
Protestant countries. Others reconverted to Catholicism for survival, and the remainder
concentrated in a small number of cities where they formed a majority.
The 'fourth' war (157273)[edit]

Depiction of supposed Spanish atrocities in the New World, by the Protestant Theodor de Bry.[47]

The massacres provoked further military action, which included Catholic sieges of the cities
of Sommires (by troops led by Henri I de Montmorency), Sancerre andLa Rochelle (by troops
led by the duke of Anjou). The end of hostilities was brought on by the election (1115 May 1573)
of the Duke of Anjou to the throne of Poland and by the Edict of Boulogne (signed in July 1573),
which severely curtailed many of the rights previously granted to French Protestants. Based on
the terms of the treaty, all Huguenots were granted amnesty for their past actions and the
freedom of belief. But, they were permitted the freedom to worship only within the three towns of
La Rochelle, Montauban, and Nmes, and even then only within their own residences. Protestant
aristocrats with the right of high-justice were permitted to celebrate marriages and baptisms, but
only before an assembly limited to ten persons outside of their family.[48]

157480[edit]
Death of Charles IX and the 'fifth' war (157476)[edit]
In the absence of the duke of Anjou disputes between Charles and his youngest brother,
the duke of Alenon, led to many Huguenots congregating around Alenon for patronage and
support. A failed coup at Saint-Germain (February 1574), allegedly aiming to
release Cond and Navarre who had been held at court since St Bartholemew's, coincided with
rather successful Huguenot uprisings in other parts of France such as Lower
Normandy, Poitou and the Rhne valley, which reinitiated hostilities.[49]
Three months after Henry of Anjou's coronation as King of Poland, his brother Charles IX died
(May 1574) and his mother declared herself regent until his return. Henry secretly left Poland and
returned via Venice to France, where he faced the defection of Montmorency-Damville, excommander in the Midi (November 1574). Despite having failed to have established his authority
over the Midi, he was crowned King Henry III, at Rheims February 1575, marrying Louise
Vaudmont, a kinswoman of the Guise, the following day. By April the crown was already seeking
to negotiate,[50] and the escape of Alenon from court in September prompted the possibility of an
overwhelming coalition of forces against the crown, as John Casimir of the
Palatinate invaded Champagne. The crown hastily negotiated a truce of seven months with
Alenon and promised Casimir's forces 500,000 livres to stay east of the Rhine [51] but neither
action secured a peace. By May 1576 the crown was forced to accept the terms of Alenon, and
the Huguenots who supported him, in the Edict of Beaulieu, known as the Peace of Monsieur.
The Catholic League and the 'sixth' war (157677)[edit]

Armed procession of the Catholic League in Paris in 1590, Muse Carnavalet.

The Edict of Beaulieu granted many concessions to the Calvinists, but these were short-lived in
the face of the Catholic Leaguewhich the ultra-Catholic, Henry I, Duke of Guise, had formed in
opposition to it. TheHouse of Guise had long been identified with the defense of the Roman
Catholic Church and the Duke of Guise and his relations the Duke of Mayenne,Duke of
Aumale, Duke of Elboeuf, Duke of Mercurand the Duke of Lorraine controlled extensive
territories that were loyal to the League. The League also had a large following among the urban

middle class. The Estates-General of Blois (1576) failed to resolve matters, and by December the
Huguenots had already taken up arms in Poitou and Guyenne. While the Guise faction had the
unwavering support of the Spanish Crown, the Huguenots had the advantage of a strong power
base in the southwest; they were also discreetly supported by foreign Protestant governments,
but in practice, England or the German states could provide few troops in the ensuing conflict.
After much posturing and negotiations, Henry III rescinded most of the concessions that had
been made to the Protestants in the Edict of Beaulieu with the Treaty of Bergerac (September
1577), confirmed in the Edict of Poitiers passed six days later. [52]
The 'seventh' war (157980) and the death of Anjou (1584)[edit]
Despite Henri according his youngest brother Francis the title of Duke of Anjou, the prince and
his followers continued to create disorder at court through their involvement in the Dutch Revolt.
Meanwhile, the regional situation disintegrated into disorder as both Catholics and Protestants
armed themselves in 'self defence'. In November 1579, Cond seized the town of La Fre,
leading to another round of military action, which was brought to an end by the Treaty of
Fleix (November 1580), negotiated by Anjou.
The fragile compromise came to an end in 1584, when the Duke of Anjou, the King's youngest
brother and heir presumptive, died. As Henry III had no son, under Salic Law, the next heir to the
throne was the Calvinist Prince Henri of Navarre, a descendant of Louis IX whom Pope Sixtus
V had excommunicated along with his cousin, Henri Prince de Cond. When it became clear that
Henri of Navarre would not renounce his Protestantism, the Duke of Guise signed theTreaty of
Joinville (31 December 1584), on behalf of the League, with Philip II of Spain, who supplied a
considerable annual grant to the League over the following decade to maintain the civil war in
France, with the hope of destroying the French Calvinists. Under pressure from the Guise, Henri
III reluctantly issued the Treaty of Nemours (July) and an edict, suppressing Protestantism and
annulling Henri of Navarre's right to the throne.

158598[edit]
The "War of the Three Henries"[edit]
Main article: War of the Three Henrys.

The Duke of Guise during the Day of the Barricades.

King Henry III at first tried to co-opt the head of the Catholic League and steer it towards a
negotiated settlement.[53] This was anathema to the Guise leaders, who wanted to bankrupt the
Huguenots and divide their considerable assets with the King. A test of King Henry III's
leadership occurred at the meeting of the Estates-General at Blois in December 1576.[53] At the
meeting of the Estates-General, there was only one Huguenot delegate present among all of the
three estates,[53]the rest of the delegates were Catholics with the Catholic League heavily
represented. Accordingly, the Estates-General pressured Henry III into conducting a war against
the Huguenots, in response Henry said he would reopen hostilities with the Huguenots but
wanted the Estates-General to vote him the funds to carry out the war. [53] Yet, the Third Estate
refused to vote for the necessary taxes to fund this war.
The situation degenerated into open warfare even without King having the necessary funds for
the war. Henry of Navarre again sought foreign aid from the German princes and Elizabeth I of
England. Meanwhile, the solidly Catholic people of Paris, under the influence of the Committee of
Sixteen were becoming dissatisfied with Henry III and his failure to defeat the Calvinists. On 12
May 1588, the Day of the Barricades, a popular uprising raised barricades on the streets of Paris
to defend the Duke of Guise against the alleged hostility of the king, and Henry III fled the city.
The Committee of Sixteen took complete control of the government, while the Guise protected
the surrounding supply lines. The mediation of Catherine de'Medici led to the Edict of Union, in
which the crown accepted almost all the League's demands; reaffirming the Treaty of Nemours,
recognizing Cardinal de Bourbon as heir, and making the duke of Guise Lieutenant-General.

The Estates-General of Blois and Assassination of the Guise (1588) [edit]

Assassination of the Duke of Guise, leader of the Catholic League, by kingHenry III, in 1588.

Refusing to return to Paris, Henry III called for an Estates-General at Blois in September, 1588.
[54]
During the Estates-General Henry suspected that the members of the third estate were being
manipulated by the League and became convinced that Guise had encouraged the duke of
Savoy's invasion of Saluzzo in October of 1588. Viewing the House of Guise as a dangerous
threat to the power of the Crown, King Henri decided to strike first. On 23 December 1588, at
theChteau de Blois, Henry of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal de Guise, were lured into a
trap by the King's guards.[55] The Duke arrived in the council chamber where his brother the
Cardinal waited. The Duke was told that the King wished to see him in the private room adjoining
the royal chambers. There guardsmen seized the duke and stabbed him in the heart, while
others arrested the Cardinal who later died on the pikes of his escort. To make sure that no
contender for the French throne was free to act against him, the King had the Duke's son
imprisoned. The Duke of Guise had been highly popular in France, and the Catholic League
declared open war against King Henry III. The Parlement of Paris instituted criminal charges
against the King, who now joined forces with his cousin, the Huguenot,Henry of Navarre, to war
against the League.

The assassination of Henry III (1589)[edit]

Jacques Clment, a supporter of the Catholic League, assassinatingHenry III in 1589.

It thus fell upon the younger brother of the Guise, the Duke of Mayenne, to become the leader of
the Catholic League. The League presses began printing anti-royalist tracts under a variety of
pseudonyms, while the Sorbonne proclaimed on January 7, 1589, that it was just and necessary
to depose Henri III, and that any private citizen was morally free to commit regicide.[55] In July
1589, in the royal camp atSaint-Cloud, a Dominican monk named Jacques Clment gained an
audience with the King and drove a long knife into his spleen. Clment was killed on the spot,
taking with him the information of who, if anyone, had hired him. On his deathbed, Henri III called
for Henry of Navarre, and begged him, in the name of Statecraft, to become a Catholic, citing the
brutal warfare that would ensue if he refused.[56] In keeping with Salic Law, he named Henri as his
heir.

Henry IV's 'Conquest of the Kingdom' (15891593)[edit]


The situation on the ground in 1589 was that the new Henry IV of France, as Navarre had
become, held the south and west, and the Catholic League the north and east. The leadership of
the Catholic League had devolved to the Duke de Mayenne, who was appointed LieutenantGeneral of the kingdom. He and his troops controlled most of rural Normandy. However, in
September 1589, Henry inflicted a severe defeat on the Duke at the Battle of Arques. Henry's
army swept through Normandy, taking town after town throughout the winter.
The King knew that he had to take Paris if he stood any chance of ruling all of France. This,
however, was no easy task. The Catholic League's presses and supporters continued to spread
stories about atrocities committed against Catholic priests and the laity in Protestant England
(see Forty Martyrs of England and Wales). The city prepared to fight to the death rather than
accept a Calvinist king.

Henry IV at the Battle of Ivry, byPeter Paul Rubens.

The Battle of Ivry, fought on 14 March 1590, was another decisive victory for Henry against
forces led by the Duke of Mayenne. Henry's forces then went on to lay siege to Paris, but the
siege was broken by Spanish support (under the command of the Duke of Parma), by the end of
August; a situation repeated at the Siege of Rouen (November 1591 March 1592).
War in Brittany[edit]
Meanwhile Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercur, whom Henry III had madegovernor of
Brittany in 1582, was endeavouring to make himself independent in that province. A leader of
the Catholic League, he invoked the hereditary rights of his wife, Marie de Luxembourg, who was
a descendant of the dukes of Brittany and heiress of the Blois-Brosse claim to the duchy as well
as Duchess of Penthivrein Brittany, and organized a government at Nantes. Proclaiming his son
"prince and duke of Brittany", he allied with Philip II of Spain, who sought to place his own
daughter, infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, on the throne of Brittany. With the aid of the Spanish,
Mercur defeated Henry IV's forces under the Duke of Montpensier, at Craon in 1592, but the
royal troops, reinforced by English contingents, soon recovered the advantage.

Toward peace (159398)[edit]


Conversion[edit]

Entrance of Henry IV in Paris, 22 March 1594, with 1,500 cuirassiers.

Departure of Spanish troops from Paris, 22 March 1594.

Despite the campaigns between 1590 and 1592, Henry IV was "no closer to capturing Paris".
[57]
Realising that Henry III had been right and that there was no prospect of a Protestant king
succeeding in resolutely Catholic Paris, Henry agreed to convert, reputedly stating "Paris vaut
bien une messe" ("Paris is well worth aMass"). He was formally received into the Catholic Church
in 1593, and was crowned at Chartres in 1594 as League members maintained control of
theCathedral of Rheims, and, sceptical of Henry's sincerity, continued to oppose him. He was
finally received into Paris in March 1594, and 120 League members in the city who refused to
submit were banished from the capital.[58] Paris' capitulation encouraged the same of many other
towns, while others returned to support the crown after Pope Clement VIII absolved Henry,
revoking his excommunication in return for the publishing of the Tridentine Decrees, the
restoration of Catholicism inBarn, and appointing only Catholics to high office.[58] Evidently
Henry's conversion worried Protestant nobles, many of whom had, until then, hoped to win not
just concessions but a complete reformation of the French Church, and their acceptance of
Henry was by no means a foregone conclusion.
War with Spain (159598)[edit]
Henry IV, as Hercules vanquishing the Lernaean Hydra (i.e. the Catholic League), by Toussaint Dubreuil,
circa 1600. Louvre Museum.

By the end of 1594, certain League members still worked against Henry across the country, but
all relied on Spain's support. In January 1595, the king declared war on Spain to show Catholics
that Spain was using religion as a cover for an attack on the French stateand to show
Protestants that his conversion had not made him a puppet of Spain. Also, he hoped to take the
war to Spain and make territorial gain.[59] The conflict mostly consisted of military action aimed at
League members, such as the Battle of Fontaine-Franaise, though the Spanish launched a
concerted offensive in 1595, taking Doullens, Cambrai and Le Catelet and in the spring of
1596 capturing Calaisby April. Following the Spanish capture of Amiens in March 1597 the
French crown laid siege until its surrender in September. After the Siege of Amiens Henry's
concerns turned to the situation in Brittany, the king sent Bellivre and Brulart de Sillery to
negotiate a peace with Spain. The war was only drawn to an official close, however, after
the Edict of Nantes, with the Peace of Vervins in May 1598.

Resolution of the War in Brittany (159899)[edit]


In early 1598 the king marched against Mercur in person, and received his submission
at Angers on 20 March 1598. Mercur subsequently went to exile in Hungary. Mercur's
daughter and heiress was married to the Duke of Vendme, an illegitimate son of Henry IV.

The Edict of Nantes (1598)[edit]

The Edict of Nantes, April 1598.

Main article: Edict of Nantes


Henry IV was faced with the task of rebuilding a shattered and impoverished Kingdom and
uniting it under a single authority. Henry and his advisor, the Duke of Sully saw that the essential
first step in this was negotiation of the Edict of Nanteswhich, rather than being a sign of
genuine toleration, was in fact a kind of grudging truce between the religions, with guarantees for
both sides.[60] The Edict can be said to mark the end of the Wars of Religion, though its apparent
success was not assured at the time of its publication. Indeed, in January 1599, Henry had to
visit the Parliament in person to have the Edict passed. Religious tensions continued to affect
politics for many years to come, though never to the same degree, and Henry IV faced many
attempts on his life; the last a Catholic who believed the king had failed in his Christian duty
succeeding in May 1610.

17th and 18th centuries[edit]


Main article: Huguenot rebellions

The French fleet captured the Huguenot le de R in the Capture of R island.

Although the Edict of Nantes brought the conflicts to a close, the political freedoms it granted to
the Huguenots (seen by detractors as "a state within the state") became an increasing source of
trouble during the 17th century. The decision of King Louis XIII to reintroduce Catholicism in a
portion of southwestern France prompted a Huguenot revolt. By the Peace of Montpellier in 1622,
the fortified Protestant towns were reduced to two: La Rochelle and Montauban. Another war
followed, which concluded with the Siege of La Rochelle, in which royal forces led by Cardinal
Richelieu blockaded the city for fourteen months. Under the 1629 Peace of La Rochelle,
the brevets of the Edict (sections of the treaty that dealt with military and pastoral clauses and
were renewable by letters patent) were entirely withdrawn, though Protestants retained their
prewar religious freedoms.

Richelieu, at the 162728 Siege of La Rochelle, put an end to the political, military and territorial autonomy
of theHuguenots.[61] However, their Freedom of religion was maintained.

Over the remainder of Louis XIII's reign, and especially during the minority of Louis XIV, the
implementation of the Edict varied year by year. In 1661 Louis XIV, who was particularly hostile to
the Huguenots, assumed control of the French government and began to disregard some of the
provisions of the Edict.[61] In 1681 he instituted the policy of dragonnades, to intimidate Huguenot
families to convert to Roman Catholicism or emigrate. Finally, in October 1685, Louis issued
the Edict of Fontainebleau, which formally revoked the Edict and made the practice of
Protestantism illegal in France. The revocation of the Edict had very damaging results for France.
[61]
While it did not prompt renewed religious warfare, many Protestants chose to leave France
rather than convert, with most moving to Great Britain, Prussia, the Dutch Republic and
Switzerland.

Protestant engraving representing 'les dragonnades' in France under Louis XIV.

At the dawn of the 18th century, Protestants remained in significant numbers in the
remote Cvennes region of the Massif Central. This population, known as the Camisards,
revolted against the government in 1702, leading to fighting that continued intermittently until
1715, after which the Camisards were largely left in peace.

Chronology[edit]

17 January 1562 - Edict of Saint-Germain, often called the "Edict of January"

1 March 1562 - Massacre of Vassy (Wassy)

March 1562 - March 1563 First War, ended by the Edict of Amboise

19 December 1562 - Battle of Dreux


September 1567 - March 1568 Second War, ended by the Peace of Longjumeau

10 November 1567 - Battle of Saint Denis

156870 Third War, ended by the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye

March 1569 - Battle of Jarnac

June 1569 - Battle of La Roche-l'Abeille

October 1569 - Battle of Moncontour

1572 - St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

157273 Fourth War, ended by the Edict of Boulogne

November 1572 - July 1573 - Siege of La Rochelle

May 1573 - Henry d'Anjou elected King of Poland

1574 - Death of Charles IX

157476 Fifth War, ended by the Edict of Beaulieu

1576 - Formation of the first Catholic League in France

157677 Sixth War, ended by the Treaty of Bergerac (also known as the "Edict of
Poitiers")

157980 Seventh War, ended by the Treaty of Fleix

June 1584 - death of Franois, Duke of Anjou, heir presumptive

December 1584 - Treaty of Joinville

158598 Eighth War, ended by the Peace of Vervins and the Edict of Nantes

October 1587 - Battle of Coutras, Battle of Vimory

December 1588 - Assassination of the Duke of Guise and his brother

August 1589 - Assassination of Henry III

September 1589 - Battle of Arques

March 1590 - Battle of Ivry, Siege of Paris

1593 - Henry IV abjures Protestantism

1594 - Henry IV crowned in Chartres.

June 1595 - Battle of Fontaine-Franaise

April September 1597 - Siege of Amiens

April 1598 - Edict of Nantes issued by Henry IV


October 1685 - Edict of Fontainebleau issued by Louis XIV

See also[edit]

Edict of toleration

Monarchomachs

European wars of religion

Religion in France

List of wars and disasters by death toll

BTKF: Early Modern period[edit]


Main article: Early modern France

BTKF Colonial France[edit]


Main article: New France

Louis XIII, by Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.

France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise
to European hegemony. France was expansive during all but the end of the seventeenth century:
the French began trading in India and Madagascar, founded Quebec and penetrated the North
American Great Lakes and Mississippi, established plantation economies in theWest Indies and
extended their trade contacts in the Levant and enlarged their merchant marine.
Thirty Years' War[edit]
Henry IV's son Louis XIII and his minister (16241642) Cardinal Richelieu, elaborated a policy
against Spain and the German emperor during the Thirty Years' War (16181648) which had
broken out in Germany. After the death of both king and cardinal, the Peace of Westphalia(1648)
secured universal acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the
Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin experienced a civil uprising known
as the Fronde (16481653) which expanded into a Franco-Spanish War (16531659). The Treaty
of the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory
of Roussillon after the crushing of the ephemeral Catalan Republic and ushered a short period of
peace.[14]
Administrative structures[edit]
Main article: Ancien Rgime
The Ancien Rgime, a French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", or simply "Former
Regime", refers primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system of early modern France
under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties. The administrative and social structures of the
Ancien Rgime were the result of years of state-building, legislative acts (like theOrdinance of
Villers-Cotterts), internal conflicts and civil wars, but they remained a confusing patchwork of
local privilegeand historic differences until the French Revolution brought about a radical
suppression of administrative incoherence.

Louis XIV, the Sun King[edit]


Main article: Louis XIV of France

Louis XIV, byHyacinthe Rigaud, 1701.

For most of the reign of Louis XIV (16431715), ("The Sun King"), France was the dominant
power in Europe, aided by the diplomacy of Cardinal Richelieu's successor as the King's chief
minister, (16421661) Cardinal Jules Mazarin, (1602-1661). Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the
creation of a French Royal Navy that rivalled England's, expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200.
The size of the Army was also considerably increased. Renewed wars with (the War of
Devolution, 1667-1668 and the Franco-Dutch War, 1672-1678) brought further territorial gains
(Artois and western Flanders and the free county of Burgundy, previously left to the Empire in
1482), but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival royal powers, and a legacy
of increasing enormous national debt. An adherent of the theory of the "Divine Right of Kings",
which advocates the divine origin of temporal power and any lack of earthly restraint of
monarchical rule, Louis XIV continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized
stategoverned from the capital of Paris. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism still
persisting in parts of France and, by compelling the noble elite to regularly inhabit his
lavishPalace of Versailles, built on the outskirts of Paris, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy,
many members of which had participated in the earlier "Fronde" rebellion during Louis' minority
youth. By these means he consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured
150 years until the French Revolution.[15]
The king sought to impose total religious uniformity on the country, repealing the "Edict of
Nantes" in 1685. The infamous practice of "dragonnades" was adopted, whereby rough soldiers
were quartered in the homes of Protestant families and allowed to have their way with them -stealing, raping, torturing and killing adults and infants in their hovels. Scores of Protestants then
fled France, (following "Huguenots" beginning a hundred and fifty years earlier until the end of
the 18th Century) costing the country a great many intellectuals, artisans, and other valuable
people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Roman Catholics like the Jansenists, a group that
denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes. Louis was no theologian and

understood little of the complex doctrines of Jansenism, satisfying himself with the fact that they
threatened the unity of the state. In this, he garnered the friendship of the papacy, which had
previously been hostile to France because of its policy of putting all church property in the
country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than that of Rome.[16]
In November 1700, the Spanish king Charles II died, ending the Habsburg line in that country.
Louis had long waited for this moment, and now planned to put a Bourbon relative, Philip, Duke
of Anjou, (1683-1746), on the throne. Essentially, Spainwas to become a perpetual ally and even
obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king who would carry out orders from Versailles. Realizing
how this would upset the balance of power, the other European rulers were outraged. However,
most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting another Habsburg on the
throne would end up recreating the grand multi-national empire of Charles V (1500-1558), of
the Holy Roman Empire (German First Reich), Spain, and theTwo Sicilies which would also
grossly upset the power balance. After nine years of exhausting war, the last thing Louis wanted
was another conflict. However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in Spain, and
so the long War of the Spanish Succession began (1701-1714), a mere three years after the War
of the Grand Alliance, (1688-1697, aka "War of the League of Augsburg") had just concluded.[17]

Louis XV, by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1730.

Dissent and revolution[edit]


Main article: French Revolution
The reign (17151774) of Louis XV saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the
regency (17151723) of Philip II, Duke of Orlans, whose policies were largely continued (1726
1743) by Cardinal Fleury, prime minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two
major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only interrupted by minor conflicts like the War of
the Polish Succession from 1733-1735. Large-scale warfare resumed with the War of the
Austrian Succession (17401748). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy (the

"Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756) against the rising power of Britain and Prussia led to costly
failure in the Seven Years' War (17561763) and the loss of France's North American colonies.[18]
On the whole, the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established
order. Louis XV was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for
losing Canada to the British. A strong ruler like Louis XIV could enhance the position of the
monarchy, while Louis XV weakened it. The writings of the philosophes such as Voltaire were a
clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died of smallpox in 1774, and the
French people shed few tears at his passing. While France had not yet experienced the industrial
revolution that was beginning in England, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly
frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true
feudalism no longer existed in France.
Louis XVI, by Antoine-Franois Callet, 1775.

Upon Louis XV's death, his grandson Louis XVI became king. Initially popular, he too came to be
widely detested by the 1780s. He was married to an Austrian archduchess, Marie Antoinette.
French intervention in the American War of Independence was also very expensive. [19]
With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms
of Turgot andMalesherbes, but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes'
resignation in 1776. They were replaced by Jacques Necker. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be
replaced byCalonne and Brienne, before being restored in 1788. A harsh winter that year led to
widespread food shortages, and by then France was a powder keg ready to explode. [20] On the
eve of the French Revolution of July 1789, France was in a profound institutional and financial
crisis, but the ideas of the Enlightenment had begun to permeate the educated classes of society.
[21]

Limited monarchy[edit]
On September 3, 1791, the absolute monarchy which had governed France for 948 years was
forced to limit its power and become a provisional constitutional monarchy known as the Kingdom
of the French. However, this too would not last very long and on September 21, 1792 the French
monarchy was effectively abolished by the proclamation of the French First Republic. The role of
the King in France in a Revolution gone berserk, was finally brought to a shattering end with
the"guillotined" execution (beheading) in the public square of the "Place de la Revolution"
of Louis XVI on Monday, January 21, 1793, which was followed by the infamous "Reign of
Terror", mass executions and the provisional "Directory" form ofrepublican government, and the
eventual beginnings of twenty-five years of reform, upheaval, dictatorship, wars and renewal, with
the various Napoleonic Wars.
Restoration and aftermath[edit]
Main articles: Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy

Louis XVIII by Franois Grard c.1815

The monarchy was briefly restored following the successive events of the French
Revolution(17891799), and the First French Empire under Napoleon (18041814/1815) when
acoalition of European powers restored by arms the monarchy to the heirs of the House of
Bourbon in 1814. However the deposed Emperor Napoleon I returned triumphantly to Paris from
his exile in Elba and ruled France for a short period known as the Hundred Days.
When a Seventh European Coalition deposed Napoleon after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the
Bourbon monarchy was once again restored. However, the monarchy had made itself unpopular
and by 1830 the popular uprisings of the Revolutions of 1830 and especially the "July Revolution"
brought to an end the Bourbon monarchy which was replaced by a semi-constitutional monarchy
under Louis-Philippe of Orleans, (1773-1851) who ruled with the title of "King of the French",
(1830-1848).[22]
Louis-Philippe I was himself ousted from power by the Revolution of 1848 when a Second French
Republic was proclaimed with Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's nephew, as president.
Louis-Napoleon initiated a coup d'tat and declared himself Emperor as Napoleon III.
When Napoleon III was deposed, following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the French
national assembly was largely in favour of a monarchical restoration, but disagreement between
the Legitimists (supporters of the House of Bourbon), theOrleanists (supporters of the House of
Orleans) and the Bonapartists (supporters of the House of Bonaparte), led to the constitution of
the Third French Republic.

Territories and provinces[edit]


Further information: Territorial evolution of France

Western Francia during the time of Hugh Capet. The royal domain is shown in blue

The kingdom of France in 1030 (royal domain in light blue)

Territorial development under Philip August (Philip II), 11801223: royal domain in blue, direct vassals to
the crown in green, ecclesiastical territories in yellow, domain of the Plantagenetkings of England in red.

Before the 13th century, only a small part of what is now France was under control of the
Frankish king; in the north there were Viking incursions leading to the formation of the Duchy of
Normandy; in the west, the counts of Anjou established themselves as powerful rivals of the king,
by the late 11th century ruling over the "Angevin Empire", which included the kingdom of
England. It was only with Philip II of France that the bulk of the territory of Western Francia came
under the rule of the Frankish kings, and Philip was consequently the first king to call himself
"king of France" (1190). The division of France between the Angevin (Plantagenet) kings of
England and the Capetian kings of France would lead to the Hundred Years' War, and France
would regain control over these territories only by the mid 15th century. What is now eastern
France (Lorraine, Arelat) was not part of Western Francia to begin with and was only
incorporated into the kingdom during the early modern period.
Territories inherited from Western Francia:

Domain of the Frankish king (royal domain or demesne, see Crown lands of
France)

Ile de France

Reims

Bourges

Orleans

direct vassals of the French king in the 10th to 12th centuries:

Duchy of Champagne (to the royal domain in 1316)

County of Blois (to the royal domain in 1391)

Duchy of Burgundy (until 1477, then divided between France and


theHabsburgs)

County of Flanders (to Burgundy in 1369)

Duchy of Bourbon (13271523)

Acquisitions during the 13th to 14th centuries:

Duchy of Normandy (1204)

County of Tourain (1204)

County of Anjou (1225)

County of Maine (1225)

County of Auvergne (1271)


County of Toulouse (1271), including:

County of Quercy
County of Rouergue

County of Rodez

County of Gevaudan
Viscounty of Albi
Marquisat of Gothia

Duchy of Champagne (to the royal domain in 1316)

Dauphin (1349)

County of Blois (to the royal domain in 1391)

Acquisitions from the Plantagenet kings of England with the French victory in
the Hundred Years' War 1453

Duchy of Aquitaine (Guyenne), including:

County of Poitou

County of La Marche

County of Angoulme

County of Prigord

County of Velay

County of Saintonge

Viscounty of Limousin

Lordship of Issoudun

Lordship of Dols
Duchy of Gascogne (Gascony)

County of Agenais

Duchy of Bretagne (disputed since the War of the Breton Succession, to


France in 1453, to the royal demesne in 1547)

Acquisitions after the end of the Hundred Years' War:

Duchy of Burgundy (1477)

Pale of Calais (1558)

Kingdom of Navarre (1620)

County of Artois (1659)

Roussillon and Perpignan, Montmdy and other parts of Luxembourg, parts


of Flanders, including Arras, Bthune,Gravelines and Thionville (Treaty of the
Pyrenees 1659)

Free County of Burgundy (1668, 1679)


French Hainaut (1679)

Principality of Orange (1713)

Duchy of Lorraine (1766)

French conquest of Corsica (1769)

Comtat Venaissin (1791)

France in the Middle Ages

Early modern France

Economic history of France

BTFH: Early Modern France (14531789)[edit]


Main article: Early Modern France

The Kingdom of France in the early modern period, from the Renaissance (circa150050) to
the Revolution (17891804), was a monarchy ruled by the House of Bourbon (a Capetian cadet
branch). This corresponds to the so-called ancien rgime ("old rule"). The territory of France
during this period increased until it included essentially the extent of the modern country, and it
also included the territories of the first French colonial empire overseas.
The period is dominated by the figure of the "Sun King", Louis XIV (his reign of 16431715 being
one of the longest in history), who managed to eliminate the remnants of medieval feudalism and
established a centralized state under anabsolute monarch, a system that would endure until the
French Revolution andbeyond.

Geography[edit]
Main article: Territorial evolution of France

French territorial expansion, 15521798

In the mid 15th century, France was significantly smaller than it is today, [1] and numerous border
provinces (such as Roussillon, Cerdagne, Calais, Barn,Navarre, County of
Foix, Flanders, Artois, Lorraine, Alsace, Trois-vchs,Franche-Comt, Savoy, Bresse, Bugey, G
ex, Nice, Provence, Corsica andBrittany) were autonomous or foreign-held (as by England); there
were also foreign enclaves, like the Comtat Venaissin. In addition, certain provinces within
France were ostensibly personal fiefdoms of noble families (like
the Bourbonnais, Marche,Forez and Auvergne provinces held by the House of Bourbon until the
provinces were forcibly integrated into the royal domaine in 1527 after the fall of the Charles III,
Duke of Bourbon).
The late 15th, 16th and 17th centuries would see France undergo a massive territorial expansion
and an attempt to better integrate its provinces into an administrative whole. During this period,
France expanded to nearly its modern territorial extent through the acquisition
of Picardy, Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, Provence,Brittany, Franche-Comt, French
Flanders, Navarre, Roussillon, the Duchy of Lorraine, Alsace and Corsica.

Royal flag in presence of the Royal family of the Kingdom of France

French acquisitions from 1461-1789:

under Louis XI - Provence (1482), Dauphin (1461, under French control since 1349)

under Henry II - Calais, Trois-vchs (1552)

under Henry IV - County of Foix (1607)

under Louis XIII - Barn and Navarre (1620, under French control since 1589 as part
of Henry IV's possessions)
under Louis XIV

Treaty of Westphalia (1648) - Alsace

Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) - Artois, Northern Catalonia (Roussillon,Cerdagne)

Treaty of Nijmegen (1678-9) - Franche-Comt, Flanders


under Louis XV - Lorraine (1766), Corsica (1768)

Only the Duchy of Savoy, the city of Nice and some other small papal (e.g., Avignon) and foreign
possessions would be acquired later. (For a map of historic French provinces, see Provinces of
France). France also embarked on exploration, colonisation, and mercantile exchanges with
the Americas (New France, Louisiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti, French Guiana), India
(Pondicherry), the Indian Ocean (Runion), the Far East, and a few African trading posts.
Although Paris was the capital of France, the later Valois kings largely abandoned the city as
their primary residence, preferring instead various chteaux of the Loire Valley and Parisian
countryside. Henry IV made Paris his primary residence (promoting a major building boom in
private mansions), but Louis XIV once again withdrew from the city in the last decades of his
reign and Versailles became the primary seat of the French monarchy for much of the following
century.

The administrative and legal system in France in this period is generally called the Ancien
Rgime.

Demography[edit]
Main article: Demographics of France
The Black Death had killed an estimated one-third of the population of France from its
appearance in 1348. The concurrentHundred Years' War slowed recovery. It would be the early
16th century before the population recovered to mid-14th century levels.
With an estimated population of 11 million in 1400, 20 million in the 17th century, and 28 million
in 1789, until 1795 France was the most populated country in Europe (even ahead of Russia and
twice the size of Britain or the Netherlands) and the third most populous country in the world,
behind only China and India.[2]
These demographic changes also led to a massive increase in urban populations, although on
the whole France remained a profoundly rural country. Paris was one of the most populated cities
in Europe (estimated at 400,000 inhabitants in 1550; 650,000 at the end of the 18th century).
Other major French cities include Lyon, Rouen, Bordeaux, Toulouse, andMarseille.
These centuries saw several periods of epidemics and crop failures due to wars and climatic
change. (Historians speak of the period 15501850 as the "Little Ice Age".) Between 1693 and
1694, France lost 6% of its population. In the extremely harsh winter of 1709, France lost 3.5% of
its population. In the past 300 years, no period has been so proportionally deadly for the French,
both World Wars included.[3]

Language[edit]
Main article: History of French
Linguistically, the differences in France were extreme. Before the Renaissance, the language
spoken in the north of France was a collection of different dialects called Ol languages whereas
the written and administrative language remained Latin. By the 16th century there had developed
a standardised form of French (called Middle French) which would be the basis of the
standardised "modern" French of the 17th and 18th century which in turn became the lingua
franca of the European continent. (In 1539, with the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterts, Francis I of
France made French alone the language for legal and juridical acts.) Nevertheless, in 1790, only
half of the population spoke or understood standard French.
The southern half of the country continued to speak Occitan languages (such as Provenal), and
other inhabitants spokeBreton, Catalan, Basque, Dutch (West Flemish), and Franco-Provenal.
In the north of France, regional dialects of the various langues d'ol continued to be spoken in
rural communities. During the French revolution, the teaching of French was promoted in all the
schools. The French used would be that of the legal system, which differed from the French
spoken in the courts of France before the revolution. Like the orators during the French
revolution, the pronunciation of every syllable would become the new language.

France would not become a linguistically unified country until the end of the 19th century.

Administrative structures[edit]
Main article: Ancien Rgime in France
The Ancien Rgime, a French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", "Old Kingdom", or simply
"Old Regime", refers primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system established in France
from (roughly) the 15th century to the 18th century under the late Valois and Bourbon dynasties.
The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Rgime were the result of years of statebuilding, legislative acts (like the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterts), internal conflicts and civil wars,
but they remained a confusing patchwork of local privilege and historic differences until
the French Revolution brought about a radical suppression of administrative incoherence.

Economy[edit]
Main article: Economic history of France

Political History[edit]
Background[edit]
The Peace of Etaples (1492) marks, for some, the beginning of the early modern period in
France.
After the Hundred Years' War (13371453) and the Treaty of Picquigny (1475) its official end
date in 1492 and 1493,Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties with Henry VII of
England, Maximilian I of Habsburg, and Ferdinand II of Aragon respectively at taples
(1492), Senlis (1493) and in Barcelona (1493). As the 15th century drew to a close, French kings
could take confidence in the fact that England had been mostly driven from their territory and so
they could now embark on an expansionist foreign policy. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII in
1494 began 62 years of war with the Habsburgs (the Italian Wars).

Culture[edit]
Main article: French Renaissance

Wars[edit]
Despite the beginnings of rapid demographic and economic recovery after the Black Death of the
14th century, the gains of the previous half-century were to be jeopardised by a further protracted
series of conflicts, the Italian Wars (14941559), where French efforts to gain dominance ended
in the increased power of the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors of Germany.[4]
In 1445, the first steps were made towards fashioning a regular army out of the poorly disciplined
mercenary bands that French kings traditionally relied on. The medieval division of society into
"those who fought (nobility), those who prayed (clergy), and those who worked (everyone else)"
still held strong and warfare was considered a domain of the nobles. Charles VIII marched into

Italy with a core force consisting of noble horsemen and non-noble foot soldiers, but in time the
role of the latter grew stronger so that by the middle of the 16th century, France had a standing
army of 5000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry. The military was reorganized from a system of legions
recruited by province (Norman legion, Gascon legion, etc.) to regiments, an arrangement which
persisted into the next century. However, the nobility and troops were often disloyal to the king, if
not outright rebellious, and it took another army reform by Louis XIV to finally transform the
French army into an obedient force.[5]
Main article: Italian Wars
Ludovico Sforza,the Duke of Milan, seeking an ally against the Republic of Venice,
encouraged Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using the Angevin claim to the throne
of Naples, then under Aragonese control, as a pretext. When Ferdinand I of Naples died in 1494,
Charles invaded the peninsula. For several months, French forces moved through Italy virtually
unopposed, since the condottieri armies of the Italian city-states were unable to resist them. Their
sack of Naples finally provoked a reaction, however, and the League of Venice was formed
against them. Italian troops defeated the French at the Battle of Fornovo, forcing Charles to
withdraw to France. Ludovico, having betrayed the French at Fornovo, retained his throne until
1499, when Charles's successor, Louis XII of France, invaded Lombardy and seized Milan.[6]
In 1500, Louis XII, having reached an agreement with Ferdinand II of Aragon to divide Naples,
marched south from Milan. By 1502, combined French and Aragonese forces had seized control
of the Kingdom; disagreements about the terms of the partition led to a war between Louis and
Ferdinand. By 1503, Louis, having been defeated at the Battle of Cerignola andBattle of
Garigliano, was forced to withdraw from Naples, which was left under the control of the Spanish
viceroy, Ramn de Cardona. French forces under Gaston de Foix inflicted an overwhelming
defeat on a Spanish army at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512, but Foix was killed during the battle,
and the French were forced to withdraw from Italy by an invasion of Milan by the Swiss, who
reinstated Maximilian Sforza to the ducal throne. The Holy League, left victorious, fell apart over
the subject of dividing the spoils, and in 1513 Venice allied with France, agreeing to partition
Lombardy between them.[7]
Louis mounted another invasion of Milan, but was defeated at the Battle of Novara, which was
quickly followed by a series of Holy League victories at La Motta, Guinegate, and Flodden, in
which the French, Venetian, and Scottish forces were decisively defeated. However, the death of
Pope Julius left the League without effective leadership, and when Louis' successor, Francis I,
defeated the Swiss at Marignano in 1515, the League collapsed, and by the treaties of Noyon
and Brussels, surrendered to France and Venice the entirety of northern Italy.
The elevation of Charles of Spain to Holy Roman Emperor, a position that Francis had desired,
led to a collapse of relations between France and the Habsburgs. In 1519, a Spanish invasion
of Navarre, nominally a French fief, provided Francis with a pretext for starting a general war;
French forces flooded into Italy and began a campaign to drive Charles from Naples. The French
were outmatched, however, by the fully developed Spanish tercio tactics, and suffered a series of
crippling defeats at Bicocca and Sesia against Spanish troops under Fernando d'Avalos. With
Milan itself threatened, Francis personally led a French army into Lombardy in 1525, only to be

defeated and captured at the Battle of Pavia; imprisoned inMadrid, Francis was forced to agree to
extensive concessions over his Italian territories in the "Treaty of Madrid" (1526).

Francis I by Jean Clouet

The inconclusive third war between Charles and Francis began with the death ofFrancesco II
Sforza, the duke of Milan. When Charles' son Philip inherited the duchy, Francis invaded Italy,
capturing Turin, but failed to take Milan. In response, Charles invaded Provence, advancing
to Aix-en-Provence, but withdrew to Spain rather than attacking the heavily fortified Avignon.
The Truce of Nice ended the war, leaving Turin in French hands but effecting no significant
change in the map of Italy. Francis, allying himself with Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire,
launched a final invasion of Italy. A Franco-Ottoman fleet captured the city of Nice in August
1543, and laid siege to the citadel. The defenders were relieved within a month. The French,
under Franois, Count d'Enghien, defeated an Imperial army at the Battle of Ceresole in 1544,
but the French failed to penetrate further into Lombardy. Charles and Henry VIII of England then
proceeded to invade northern France, seizing Boulogne and Soissons. A lack of cooperation
between the Spanish and English armies, coupled with increasingly aggressive Ottoman attacks,
led Charles to abandon these conquests, restoring the status quo once again.
In 1547, Henry II of France, who had succeeded Francis to the throne, declared war against
Charles with the intent of recapturing Italy and ensuring French, rather than Habsburg,
domination of European affairs. An early offensive againstLorraine was successful, but the
attempted French invasion of Tuscany in 1553 was defeated at the Battle of Marciano. Charles's
abdication in 1556 split the Habsburg empire between Philip II of Spain and Ferdinand I, and
shifted the focus of the war to Flanders, where Philip, in conjunction with Emmanuel Philibert,
Duke of Savoy, defeated the French at St. Quentin. England's entry into the war later that year
led to the French capture of Calais, England's last possession on the French mainland, and
French armies plundered Spanish possessions in the Low Countries; but Henry was nonetheless
forced to accept the Peace of Cateau-Cambrsis, in which he renounced any further claims to
Italy.

The Wars of Religion[edit]


Main article: French Wars of Religion
Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with farreaching consequences. Despite the conclusion of a Concordat between France and the Papacy
(1516), granting the crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was
deeply affected by the Protestant Reformation's attempt to break the unity of Roman Catholic
Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority (later dubbed Huguenots) faced ever harsher
repression under the rule of Francis I's son King Henry II. After Henry II's unfortunate death in a
joust, the country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis II, Charles
IX and Henry III. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of Guise culminated
in a massacre of Huguenots (1562), starting the first of the French Wars of Religion, during which
English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic
forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy, the Huguenots Monarchomachs theorized during this
time the right of rebellion and the legitimacy of tyrannicide.[8]
The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys in which Henry
III assassinated Henry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league, and the king was
murdered in return. After the assassination of both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589),
the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king of Navarre as Henry IV (first king
of the Bourbon dynasty) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism (Expedient of 1592)
effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the Pope
(1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as the Edict of Nantes (1598), which
guaranteed freedom of private worship and civil equality.

France in the 17th and 18th centuries[edit]

Henry IV of France by Frans Pourbus the younger.

France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise
to European hegemony. One of the most admired French kings, Henry was fatally stabbed by a
Catholic fanatic in 1610 as war with Spain threatened. Troubles gradually developed during the
regency headed by his queen Marie de Medici. France was expansive during all but the end of
the 17th century: the French began trading inIndia and Madagascar, founded Quebec and
penetrated the North American Great Lakesand Mississippi, established plantation economies in
the West Indies and extended their trade contacts in the Levant and enlarged their merchant
marine.[9]
Henry IV's son Louis XIII and his minister (16241642) Cardinal Richelieu, elaborated a policy
against Spain and the German emperor during the Thirty Years' War (16181648) which had
broken out among the lands of Germany's Holy Roman Empire. An English-backed Huguenot
rebellion (16251628) defeated, France intervened directly (1635) in the wider European conflict
following her ally (Protestant) Sweden's failure to build upon initial success.
After the death of both king and cardinal, the Peace of Westphalia (1648) secured universal
acceptance of Germany's political and religious fragmentation, but the Regency of Anne of
Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin experienced a civil uprising known as
the Fronde (16481653) which expanded into a Franco-Spanish War (16531659). The Treaty of
the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory
of Roussillon after the crushing of the ephemeral Catalan Republic and ushered a short period of
peace.
For most of the reign of Louis XIV (16431715), France was the dominant power in Europe,
aided by the diplomacy of Richelieu's successor (16421661) Cardinal Mazarin and the
economic policies (16611683) of Colbert. Colbert's attempts to promote economic growth and
the creation of new industries were not a great success, and France did not undergo any sort of
industrial revolution during Louis XIV's reign. Indeed much of the French countryside during this
period remained poor and overpopulated. The resistance of peasants to adopt the potato and
other new agricultural innovations while continuing to rely on cereal crops led to repeated
catastrophic famines long after they had ceased in the rest of Western Europe. Prior to Louis
XIV's reign, French soldiers frequently went into battle barefoot and with no weapons. On the
other hand, France's high birthrate until the 18th century proved beneficial to its rulers since it
meant the country could field larger armies than its neighbors. In fact, the king's foreign policy, as
well as his lavish court and construction projects, left the country in enormous debt. The Palace
of Versailles was criticized as overly extravagant even while it was still under construction, but
dozens of imitations were built across Europe. Renewed war (the War of Devolution 1667-1668
and theFranco-Dutch War 1672-1678) brought further territorial gains (Artois and
western Flanders and the free county of Burgundy, left to the Empire in 1482), but at the cost of
the increasingly concerted opposition of rival powers.[10]

Louis XIV
King of France and of Navarre
By Hyacinthe Rigaud (1701)

French culture was part of French hegemony. In the early part of the century French painters had
to go to Rome to shed their provinciality (Nicolas Poussin, Claude Lorrain), but Simon
Vouet brought home the taste for a classicized baroque that would characterise the French
Baroque, epitomised in the Acadmie de peinture et de sculpture, in the painting of Charles Le
Brun and the sculpture of Franois Girardon. With the Palais du Luxembourg, the Chteau de
Maisons and Vaux-le-Vicomte, French classical architecture was admired abroad even before the
creation of Versailles or Perrault's Louvre colonnade. Parisian salon culture set standards of
discriminating taste from the 1630s, and
with Pascal, Descartes, Bayle, Corneille, Racine and Molire, France became the cultural center
of Europe. In an effort to prevent the nobility from revolting and challenging his authority, Louis
implemented an extremely elaborate system of court etiquette with the idea that learning it would
occupy most of the nobles' time and they could not plan rebellion. By the start of the 18th
century, the nobility in France had been effectively neutered and would never again have more
power than the crown. Also, Louis willingly granted titles of nobility to those who had performed
distinguished service to the state so that it did not become a closed caste and it was possible for
commoners to rise through the social ranks. The king sought to impose total religious uniformity
on the country, repealing the Edict of Nantes in 1685. The infamous practice of dragonnades was
adopted, whereby rough soldiers were quartered in the homes of Protestant families and allowed
to have their way with them. Scores of Protestants fled France, costing the country a great many
intellectuals, artisans, and other valuable people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Catholics
like the Jansenists, a group that denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes.
Louis was no theologian and understood little of the complex doctrines of Jansenism, satisfying
himself with the fact that they threatened the unity of the state. In this, he garnered the friendship

of the papacy, which had previously been hostile to France because of its policy of putting all
church property in the country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than of Rome.
Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the creation of a French navy that rivaled England's, expanding it from
25 ships to almost 200. The size of the army was also considerably increased.
Starting in the 1670s, Louis XIV established the so-called Chambers of Reunion, courts in which
judges would determine whether certain Habsburg territories belonged rightfully to France. The
king was relying on the somewhat vague wording in the Treaty of Westphalia, while also dredging
up older French claims, some dating back to medieval times. Through this, he concluded that the
strategically important imperial city of Strassburg should have gone to France in 1648. In
September 1681, French troops occupied the city, which was at once strongly fortified. As the
imperial armies were then busy fighting the Ottoman Empire, they could not do anything about
this for a number of years. The basic aim of Louis' foreign policy was to give France more easily
defensible borders, and to eliminate weak spots (Strassburg had often been used by the
Habsburgs as a gateway into France).
Following the Whig establishment on the English and Scottish thrones by the Dutch
prince William of Orange in 1688, the anti-French "Grand Alliance" of 1689 was established. With
the Turks now in retreat, the emperor Leopold could turn his attention to France. The
ensuing War of the Grand Alliance lasted from 1688-1697. France's resources were stretched to
the breaking point by the cost of fielding an army of over 300,000 men and two naval squadrons.
Famine in 1692-1693 killed up to two million people. The exhaustion of the powers brought the
fighting to an end in 1697, by which time the French were in control of the Spanish Netherlands
and Catalonia. However, Louis gave back his conquests and gained only Haiti. The French
people, feeling that their sacrifices in the war had been for nothing, never forgave him.
The Battle of La Hougue (1692) was the decisive naval battle in the war and confirmed the
durable dominance of the Royal Navy of England.
In November 1700, the inbred, mentally retarded, and enfeebled Spanish king Charles II died,
ending the Habsburg line in that country. Louis had long waited for this moment, and now
planned to put a Bourbon relative, Philip, Duke of Anjou, on the throne. Essentially, Spain was to
become an obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king who would carry out orders from
Versailles. Realizing how this would upset the balance of power, the other European rulers were
outraged. However, most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting
another Habsburg on the throne would end up recreating the empire of Charles V, which would
also grossly upset the power balance. After nine years of exhausting war, the last thing Louis
wanted was another conflict. However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in
Spain, and so the War of the Spanish Succession began, a mere three years after the War of the
Grand Alliance.[11]
The disasters of the war (accompanied by another famine) were so great that France was on the
verge of collapse by 1709. In desperation, the king appealed to the French people to save their
country, and in doing so gained thousands of new army recruits. Afterwards, his general Marshal
Villars managed to drive back the allied forces. In 1714, the war ended with the treaties of

Utrecht and Rastadt. France did not lose any territory, and there was no discussion of returning
Flanders or Alsace to the Habsburgs. While the Duke of Anjou was accepted as King Philip V of
Spain, this was done under the condition that the French and Spanish thrones never be united.
Finally, France agreed to stop supporting Jacobite pretenders to the English throne. Just after the
war ended, Louis died, having ruled France for 72 years.
While often considered a tyrant and a warmonger (especially in England), Louis XIV was not in
any way a despot in the 20th century sense. The traditional customs and institutions of France
limited his power and in any case, communications were poor and no national police force
existed.
Overall, the discontent and revolts of 16th and 17th century France did not approach the
conditions that led to 1789. Events such as the Frondes were a nave, unrevolutionary discontent
and the people did not challenge the right of the king to govern nor did they question the Church.
The reign (17151774) of Louis XV saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the
regency (17151723) of Philip II, Duke of Orlans, whose policies were largely continued (1726
1743) by Cardinal Fleury, prime minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two
major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only interrupted by minor conflicts like the War of
the Polish Succession from 1733-1735. Large-scale warfare resumed with the War of the
Austrian Succession(17401748). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy (the
"Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756) against the rising power of Britain and Prussia led to costly
failure in the Seven Years' War (17561763) and the loss of France's North American colonies.[12]

Louis XVI
Last King of Early France. ByJoseph Duplessis (1775).

On the whole, the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established
order. Louis XV was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for
losing Canada to the British. A strong ruler like Louis XIV could enhance the position of the

monarchy, while Louis XV weakened it. The writings of the philosophers such as Voltaire were a
clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died of smallpox in 1774, and the
French people shed few tears at his passing. While France had not yet experienced the industrial
revolution that was beginning in England, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly
frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true
feudalism no longer existed in France.
Anti-establishment ideas fermented in 18th century France in part due to the country's relative
egalitarianism. While less liberal than England during the same period, the French monarchy
never approached the absolutism of the eastern rulers in Vienna, Berlin, St. Petersburg, and
Constantinople in part because the country's traditional development as a decentralized, feudal
society acted as a restraint on the power of the king. Different social classes in France each had
their own unique set of privileges so that no one class could completely dominate the others.
Upon Louis XV's death, his grandson Louis XVI became king. Initially popular, he too came to be
widely detested by the 1780s. Again a weak ruler, he was married to an Austrian
archduchess, Marie Antoinette, whose navety and cloistered/alienated Versailles life permitted
ignorance of the true extravagance and wasteful use of borrowed money (however, it should be
noted that Marie Antoinette was significantly more frugal than her predecessors). French
intervention in the US War of Independence was also very expensive.
With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms
of Turgot and Malesherbes, but noble disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes'
resignation in 1776. They were replaced by Jacques Necker. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be
replaced by Calonne and Brienne, before being restored in 1788. A harsh winter that year led to
widespread food shortages, and by then France was a powder keg ready to explode.
On the eve of the French Revolution of 1789, France was in a profound institutional and financial
crisis, but the ideas of the Enlightenment had begun to permeate the educated classes of society.
On 1792 September 21 the French monarchy was effectively abolished by the proclamation of
the French First Republic.

Monarchs[edit]
After Charles VIII the Affable, the last king in the direct Valois line, three other branches of
the House of Capet reigned in France until the fall of the Ancien Rgime in 1792:
Valois-Orlans (14981515)

Louis XII

Valois-Angoulme (15151589)

Francis I

Henry II and Catherine de' Medici

Francis II

Charles IX

Henry III

House of Bourbon (15891792)

Henry IV

the Regency of Marie de Medici

Louis XIII and his minister Cardinal Richelieu

the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin

Louis XIV

the Rgence of Philip II of Orleans

Louis XV

Louis XVI

Social history[edit]
France in the Ancien Rgime covered a territory of around 200,000 square miles (520,000 km2),
and supported 22 million people in 1700. At least 96% of the population were peasants. France
had the largest population in Europe, with European Russia second at 20 million. Britain had
nearly six million, Spain had eight million, and the Austrian Habsburgs had around eight million.
Russia was the most populated European country at the time. France's lead slowly faded after
1700, as other countries grew faster.[13][14]

Rural society[edit]
In the 17th century rich peasants who had ties to the market economy provided much of the
capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved from village to village
(or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the market and the need for investment capital,
was the main path to social mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guildspeople and
village laboureurs, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but even this
core required regular renewal. Accepting the existence of these two societies, the constant
tension between them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy
holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure, economy, and
even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991) argues that the Annales

Schoolparadigm underestimated the role of the market economy; failed to explain the nature of
capital investment in the rural economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability.[15]

Women and families[edit]


Very few women held any power some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In
the Enlightenment, the writings of philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau gave a political program
for reform of the Ancien Rgime, founded on a reform of domestic mores. Rousseau's conception
of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern
sociology. Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a
"modern" society.[16]
Salic law prohibited women from rule; however, the laws for the case of a regency, when the king
was too young to govern by himself, brought the queen into the center of power. The queen could
assure the passage of power from one king to another from her late husband to her young son
while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty.
Education for girls[edit]
Educational aspirations were on the rise and were becoming increasingly institutionalized in
order to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their future administrators.
Girls were schooled too, but not to assume political responsibility. Girls were ineligible for
leadership positions and were generally considered to have an inferior intellect to their brothers.
France had many small local schools where working-class children both boys and girls
learned to read, the better "to know, love and serve God". The sons and daughters of the noble
and bourgeois elites, however, were given quite distinct educations: boys were sent to upper
school, perhaps a university, while their sisters (if they were lucky enough to leave the house)
were sent for finishing at a convent. The Enlightenment challenged this model, but no real
alternative presented itself for female education. Only through education at home were
knowledgeable women formed, usually to the sole end of dazzling their salons. [17]
Stepfamilies[edit]
A large proportion of children lived in broken homes or in blended families and had to cope with
the presence of half-siblings and stepsiblings in the same residence. Brothers and sisters were
often separated during the guardianship period and some of them were raised in different places
for most of their childhood. Half-siblings and stepsiblings lived together for rather short periods of
time because of their difference in age, their birth rank, or their gender. The lives of the children
were closely linked to the administration of their heritage: when both their mothers and fathers
were dead, another relative took charge of the guardianship and often removed the children from
a stepparent's home, thus separating half-siblings.[18]
The experience of step-motherhood was surrounded by negative stereotypes;
the Cinderella story and many other jokes and stories made the second wife an object of ridicule.
Language, theater, popular sayings, the position of the Church, and the writings of jurists all
made stepmother a difficult identity to take up. However, the importance of male remarriage

suggests that reconstitution of family units was a necessity and that individuals resisted negative
perceptions circulating through their communities. Widowers did not hesitate to take a second
wife, and they usually found quite soon a partner willing to become a stepmother. For these
women, being a stepmother was not necessarily the experience of a lifetime or what defined their
identity. Their experience depended greatly on factors such as the length of the union, changing
family configuration, and financial dispositions taken by their husbands.[19]
By a policy adopted at the beginning of the 16th century, adulterous women during the ancien
rgime were sentenced to a lifetime in a convent unless pardoned by their husbands and were
rarely allowed to remarry even if widowed.

French exploration and colonies[edit]

Age of Discovery

French colonization of the Americas

French colonial empires

Literature[edit]

French Renaissance literature

French literature of the 17th century

French literature of the 18th century

Art[edit]

French Renaissance

French Baroque and Classicism

French Rococo and Neoclassicism

Kingdom of France
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about pre-Revolutionary France. For the first constitutional monarchy, see Kingdom of France
(17911792). For the post-Napoleonic monarchy, see Bourbon Restoration. For the Orlanist period, see July
Monarchy.

Kingdom of France
Royaume de France
8431792

Flag

Coat of arms

Motto
Montjoie Saint Denis!

Religion

Roman Catholic

Government

Absolute monarchy(8431791)
Constitutional monarchy (17911792)

King
- 843877

Charles the Bald

- 17741792

Louis XVI

(first)

(last)

Chief Minister
- 15891611

Maximilien Bthune(first)

- 17901791

Armand Marc

Legislature

(last)

Estates Generalc

Historical era

Medieval / Early Modern

- Treaty of Verdun

10 August 843

- Direct Capetians

9871328

- House of Valois

13281589

- Hundred Years'
War

13371453

- Italian Wars

14941559

- Wars of Religion

15621598

- Republic
declared
Currency

3 September 1792
Livre, Franc,
cu, Louis d'or

a. France had no official flag and national identity was loyalty


to the King, as in other autocratic monarchies.
b. Official language since the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterts.
c. Retained only a limited legislative role.

The Kingdom of France (French: Royaume de France), was a medievaland early modern monarchy in Western
Europe, the predecessor of the modern French Republic. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe,
a great power since the Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War. It was also an early colonial power, with
significant possessions inNorth America.
France originated as West Francia (Francia Occidentalis), the western half of the Carolingian empire, with
the Treaty of Verdun (843). A branch of the Carolingian dynasty continued to rule until 987, when Hugh
Capet was elected king and founded the Capetian dynasty. The territory remained known as Francia and its ruler
as rex Francorum ("king of the Franks") well into the High Middle Ages. The first king calling himself roi de
France("king of France") was Philip II, in 1190. France continued to be ruled by the Capetians and their cadet
linesthe Valois and Bourbonuntil the monarchy was overthrown in 1792 during the French Revolution.
France in the Middle Ages was a de-centralised, feudal state. In Brittanyand Catalonia (now a part of Spain) the
authority of the French king was barely felt. Lorraine and Provence were states of the Holy Roman Empireand not
yet a part of France. Initially, West Frankish kings were elected by the secular and ecclesiastic magnates, but the
regular coronation of the eldest son of the reigning king during his father's lifetime established the principle of
male primogeniture, which became codified in the Salic law. During the late Middle Ages, the Kings of
England laid claim to the French throne, resulting in a series of conflicts known as the Hundred Years' War(1337

1453). Subsequently France sought to extend its influence into Italy, but was defeated by Spain in the
ensuing Italian Wars (14941559).
France in the early modern era was increasingly centralised, the French language began to displace other
languages from official use, and the monarch expanded his absolute power, albeit in an administrative system
(the Ancien Rgime) complicated by historic and regional irregularities in taxation, legal, judicial, and ecclesiastic
divisions, and local prerogatives. Religiously France became divided between the Catholic majority and a
Protestant minority, the Huguenots. After a series of civil wars, the Wars of Religion (15621598), tolerance was
granted the Huguenots in the Edict of Nantes. France laid claim to large stretches of North America, known
collectively as New France. Wars with Great Britain led to the loss of much of this territory by 1763. French
intervention in the American Revolutionary War helped secure the independence of the new United States of
America.
The Kingdom of France adopted a written constitution in 1791, but the Kingdom was abolished a year later and
replaced with the First French Republic. The monarchy was restored by the other great powers in 1814 and lasted
(except for the Hundred Days in 1815) until the French Revolution of 1848.

Contents
[hide]

1 Political history

1.1 West Francia

1.2 High Middle Ages

1.3 Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War

1.4 Renaissance and Reformation

1.4.1 Italian Wars

1.4.2 Wars of Religion


1.5 Early Modern period

1.5.1 Colonial France

1.5.2 Thirty Years' War

1.5.3 Administrative structures

1.5.4 Louis XIV, the Sun King

1.5.5 Dissent and revolution

1.5.5.1 Limited monarchy

1.6 Restoration and aftermath

2 Territories and provinces

3 See also

4 References

5 Further reading
o

5.1 Historiography

Political history[edit]
West Francia[edit]
Main article: West Francia
Further information: Carolingian Empire
During the later years of the elderly Charlemagne's rule, the Vikings made advances along the northern and
western perimeters of the Kingdom of the Franks. After Charlemagne's death in 814 his heirs were incapable of
maintaining political unity and the empire began to crumble. The Treaty of Verdun of 843 divided the Carolingian
Empire into three parts, and Charles the Bald ruled over West Francia, roughly corresponding to the territory of
modern France.[1]
Viking advances were allowed to increase, and their dreaded longboats were sailing up the Loire and Seine rivers
and other inland waterways, wreaking havoc and spreading terror. During the reign of Charles the Simple (898
922), Normans under Rollo from Norway, were settled in an area on either side of the River Seine, downstream
from Paris, that was to become Normandy.[2][3]

High Middle Ages[edit]


Main articles: France in the Middle Ages and Capetian dynasty
The Carolingians were to share the fate of their predecessors: after an intermittent power struggle between the
two dynasties, the accession in 987 of Hugh Capet, Duke of France and Count of Paris, established the Capetian
dynasty on the throne. With its offshoots, the houses of Valois and Bourbon, it was to rule France for more than
800 years.[4]
The old order left the new dynasty in immediate control of little beyond the middle Seine and adjacent territories,
while powerful territorial lords such as the 10th- and 11th-century counts of Blois accumulated large domains of
their own through marriage and through private arrangements with lesser nobles for protection and support.
The area around the lower Seine became a source of particular concern when Duke William took possession of
the kingdom of England by the Norman Conquest of 1066, making himself and his heirs the King's equal outside
France (where he was still nominally subject to the Crown).

Henry II inherited the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Anjou, and married France's newly divorced exqueen,Eleanor of Aquitaine, who ruled much of southwest France, in 1152. After defeating a revolt led by Eleanor
and three of their four sons, Henry had Eleanor imprisoned, made the Duke of Brittany his vassal, and in effect
ruled the western half of France as a greater power than the French throne. However, disputes among Henry's
descendants over the division of his French territories, coupled with John of England's lengthy quarrel with Philip
II, allowed Philip II to recover influence over most of this territory. After the French victory at the Battle of
Bouvines in 1214, the English monarchs maintained power only in southwestern Duchy of Guyenne.[5]

Late Middle Ages and the Hundred Years' War[edit]

France in 1223
Main articles: France in the Middle Ages and Hundred Years' War
The death of Charles IV in 1328 without male heirs ended the main Capetian line. Under Salic law the crown
could not pass through a woman (Philip IV's daughter was Isabella, whose son was Edward III of England), so the
throne passed to Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois. This, in addition to a long-standing dispute over the rights to
Gascony in the south of France, and the relationship between England and the Flemish cloth towns, led to
the Hundred Years' War of 13371453. The following century was to see devastating warfare, peasant revolts
(the English peasants' revolt of 1381 and the Jacquerie of 1358 in France) and the growth of nationalism in both
countries.[6]
The losses of the century of war were enormous, particularly owing to the plague (the Black Death, usually
considered an outbreak of bubonic plague), which arrived from Italy in 1348, spreading rapidly up the Rhone
valley and thence across most of the country: it is estimated that a population of some 1820 million in modernday France at the time of the 1328 hearth tax returns had been reduced 150 years later by 50 percent or more.[7]

Renaissance and Reformation[edit]


The Renaissance era was noted for The emergence of powerful centralized institutions, as well as a flourishing
culture ( much of it imported from Italy).[8] The kings built a strong fiscal system, which heightened the power of
the king to raise armies that overawed the local nobility.[9] In Paris especially there emerged strong traditions in
literature, art and music. The prevailing style was classical.[10][11]

Italian Wars[edit]
Main article: Italian Wars
After the Hundred Years' War, Charles VIII of France signed three additional treaties with Henry VII of
England, Maximilian I of Habsburg, and Ferdinand II of Aragon respectively at taples (1492), Senlis (1493) and
in Barcelona (1493). These three treaties cleared the way for France to undertake the long Italian Wars (1494
1559), which marked the beginning of early modern France. French efforts to gain dominance resulted only in the
increased power of the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors of Germany.

Wars of Religion[edit]
Main article: French Wars of Religion

Henry IV, by Frans Pourbus the younger, 1610.


Barely were the Italian Wars over, when France was plunged into a domestic crisis with far-reaching
consequences. Despite the conclusion of a Concordat between France and the Papacy (1516), granting the
crown unrivalled power in senior ecclesiastical appointments, France was deeply affected by the Protestant
Reformation's attempt to break the hegemony of Catholic Europe. A growing urban-based Protestant minority
(later dubbed Huguenots) faced ever harsher repression under the rule of Francis I's son King Henry II. After
Henry II's death in a joust, the country was ruled by his widow Catherine de' Medici and her sons Francis
II,Charles IX and Henry III. Renewed Catholic reaction headed by the powerful dukes of Guiseculminated in a

massacre of Huguenots (1562), starting the first of the French Wars of Religion, during which English, German,
and Spanish forces intervened on the side of rival Protestant and Catholic forces. Opposed to absolute monarchy,
the HuguenotMonarchomachs theorized during this time the right of rebellion and the legitimacy oftyrannicide.[12]
The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys in which Henry IIIassassinated Henry de Guise,
leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league, and the king was murdered in return. After the assassination of
both Henry of Guise (1588) and Henry III (1589), the conflict was ended by the accession of the Protestant king
of Navarre as Henry IV (first king of the Bourbon dynasty) and his subsequent abandonment of Protestantism
(Expedient of 1592) effective in 1593, his acceptance by most of the Catholic establishment (1594) and by the
Pope (1595), and his issue of the toleration decree known as the Edict of Nantes (1598), which guaranteed
freedom of private worship and civil equality.[13]

Early Modern period[edit]


Main article: Early modern France

Colonial France[edit]
Main article: New France

Louis XIII, by Philippe de Champaigne, 1647.


France's pacification under Henry IV laid much of the ground for the beginnings of France's rise to European
hegemony. France was expansive during all but the end of the seventeenth century: the French began trading
in India and Madagascar, founded Quebec and penetrated the North American Great Lakes and Mississippi,
established plantation economies in theWest Indies and extended their trade contacts in the Levant and enlarged
their merchant marine.

Thirty Years' War[edit]


Henry IV's son Louis XIII and his minister (16241642) Cardinal Richelieu, elaborated a policy against Spain and
the German emperor during the Thirty Years' War (16181648) which had broken out in Germany. After the death

of both king and cardinal, the Peace of Westphalia(1648) secured universal acceptance of Germany's political
and religious fragmentation, but the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin experienced a
civil uprising known as the Fronde (16481653) which expanded into a Franco-Spanish War (16531659).
The Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) formalised France's seizure (1642) of the Spanish territory of Roussillon after
the crushing of the ephemeral Catalan Republic and ushered a short period of peace.[14]

Administrative structures[edit]
Main article: Ancien Rgime
The Ancien Rgime, a French term rendered in English as "Old Rule", or simply "Former Regime", refers
primarily to the aristocratic, social and political system of early modern France under the late
Valois and Bourbon dynasties. The administrative and social structures of the Ancien Rgime were the result of
years of state-building, legislative acts (like theOrdinance of Villers-Cotterts), internal conflicts and civil wars, but
they remained a confusing patchwork of local privilegeand historic differences until the French Revolution brought
about a radical suppression of administrative incoherence.

Louis XIV, the Sun King[edit]


Main article: Louis XIV of France

Louis XIV, byHyacinthe Rigaud, 1701.


For most of the reign of Louis XIV (16431715), ("The Sun King"), France was the dominant power in Europe,
aided by the diplomacy of Cardinal Richelieu's successor as the King's chief minister, (16421661) Cardinal
Jules Mazarin, (1602-1661). Cardinal Mazarin oversaw the creation of a French Royal Navy that
rivalled England's, expanding it from 25 ships to almost 200. The size of the Army was also considerably
increased. Renewed wars with (the War of Devolution, 1667-1668 and the Franco-Dutch War, 1672-1678)
brought further territorial gains (Artois and western Flanders and the free county of Burgundy, previously left to
the Empire in 1482), but at the cost of the increasingly concerted opposition of rival royal powers, and a legacy of
increasing enormous national debt. An adherent of the theory of the "Divine Right of Kings", which advocates the
divine origin of temporal power and any lack of earthly restraint of monarchical rule, Louis XIV continued his

predecessors' work of creating a centralized stategoverned from the capital of Paris. He sought to eliminate the
remnants of feudalism still persisting in parts of France and, by compelling the noble elite to regularly inhabit his
lavishPalace of Versailles, built on the outskirts of Paris, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members
of which had participated in the earlier "Fronde" rebellion during Louis' minority youth. By these means he
consolidated a system of absolute monarchy in France that endured 150 years until the French Revolution.[15]
The king sought to impose total religious uniformity on the country, repealing the "Edict of Nantes" in 1685. The
infamous practice of "dragonnades" was adopted, whereby rough soldiers were quartered in the homes of
Protestant families and allowed to have their way with them -- stealing, raping, torturing and killing adults and
infants in their hovels. Scores of Protestants then fled France, (following "Huguenots" beginning a hundred and
fifty years earlier until the end of the 18th Century) costing the country a great many intellectuals, artisans, and
other valuable people. Persecution extended to unorthodox Roman Catholics like the Jansenists, a group that
denied free will and had already been condemned by the popes. Louis was no theologian and understood little of
the complex doctrines of Jansenism, satisfying himself with the fact that they threatened the unity of the state. In
this, he garnered the friendship of the papacy, which had previously been hostile to France because of its policy
of putting all church property in the country under the jurisdiction of the state rather than that of Rome.[16]
In November 1700, the Spanish king Charles II died, ending the Habsburg line in that country. Louis had long
waited for this moment, and now planned to put a Bourbon relative, Philip, Duke of Anjou, (1683-1746), on the
throne. Essentially, Spainwas to become a perpetual ally and even obedient satellite of France, ruled by a king
who would carry out orders from Versailles. Realizing how this would upset the balance of power, the other
European rulers were outraged. However, most of the alternatives were equally undesirable. For example, putting
another Habsburg on the throne would end up recreating the grand multi-national empire of Charles V (15001558), of the Holy Roman Empire (German First Reich), Spain, and theTwo Sicilies which would also grossly
upset the power balance. After nine years of exhausting war, the last thing Louis wanted was another conflict.
However, the rest of Europe would not stand for his ambitions in Spain, and so the long War of the Spanish
Succession began (1701-1714), a mere three years after the War of the Grand Alliance, (1688-1697, aka "War of
the League of Augsburg") had just concluded.[17]

Louis XV, by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1730.

Dissent and revolution[edit]


Main article: French Revolution
The reign (17151774) of Louis XV saw an initial return to peace and prosperity under the regency (17151723)
of Philip II, Duke of Orlans, whose policies were largely continued (17261743) by Cardinal Fleury, prime
minister in all but name. The exhaustion of Europe after two major wars resulted in a long period of peace, only
interrupted by minor conflicts like the War of the Polish Succession from 1733-1735. Large-scale warfare
resumed with the War of the Austrian Succession (17401748). But alliance with the traditional Habsburg enemy
(the "Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756) against the rising power of Britain and Prussia led to costly failure in
the Seven Years' War (17561763) and the loss of France's North American colonies.[18]
On the whole, the 18th century saw growing discontent with the monarchy and the established order. Louis XV
was a highly unpopular king for his sexual excesses, overall weakness, and for losing Canada to the British. A
strong ruler like Louis XIV could enhance the position of the monarchy, while Louis XV weakened it. The writings
of the philosophes such as Voltaire were a clear sign of discontent, but the king chose to ignore them. He died
of smallpox in 1774, and the French people shed few tears at his passing. While France had not yet experienced
the industrial revolution that was beginning in England, the rising middle class of the cities felt increasingly
frustrated with a system and rulers that seemed silly, frivolous, aloof, and antiquated, even if true feudalism no
longer existed in France.

Louis XVI, by Antoine-Franois Callet, 1775.


Upon Louis XV's death, his grandson Louis XVI became king. Initially popular, he too came to be widely detested
by the 1780s. He was married to an Austrian archduchess, Marie Antoinette. French intervention in the American
War of Independence was also very expensive.[19]
With the country deeply in debt, Louis XVI permitted the radical reforms of Turgot andMalesherbes, but noble
disaffection led to Turgot's dismissal and Malesherbes' resignation in 1776. They were replaced by Jacques
Necker. Necker had resigned in 1781 to be replaced byCalonne and Brienne, before being restored in 1788. A
harsh winter that year led to widespread food shortages, and by then France was a powder keg ready to explode.
[20]

On the eve of the French Revolution of July 1789, France was in a profound institutional and financial crisis,

but the ideas of the Enlightenment had begun to permeate the educated classes of society.[21]

Limited monarchy[edit]
On September 3, 1791, the absolute monarchy which had governed France for centuries was forced to limit its
power and become a provisional constitutional monarchy known as the Kingdom of the French. However, this too
would not last very long and on September 21, 1792 the French monarchy was effectively abolished by the
proclamation of the French First Republic. The role of the King in France in a Revolution gone berserk, was finally
brought to a shattering end with the"guillotined" execution (beheading) in the public square of the "Place de la
Revolution" of Louis XVI on Monday, January 21, 1793, which was followed by the infamous "Reign of Terror",
mass executions and the provisional "Directory" form ofrepublican government, and the eventual beginnings of
twenty-five years of reform, upheaval, dictatorship, wars and renewal, with the various Napoleonic Wars.

Restoration and aftermath[edit]


Main articles: Bourbon Restoration and July Monarchy

Louis XVIII by Franois Grard c.1815


The monarchy was briefly restored following the successive events of the French Revolution(17891799), and
the First French Empire under Napoleon (18041814/1815) when acoalition of European powers restored by
arms the monarchy to the heirs of the House of Bourbon in 1814. However the deposed Emperor Napoleon
I returned triumphantly to Paris from his exile in Elba and ruled France for a short period known as the Hundred
Days.
When a Seventh European Coalition deposed Napoleon after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815, the Bourbon
monarchy was once again restored. However, the monarchy had made itself unpopular and by 1830 the popular
uprisings of the Revolutions of 1830 and especially the "July Revolution" brought to an end the Bourbon
monarchy which was replaced by a semi-constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe of Orleans, (1773-1851)
who ruled with the title of "King of the French", (1830-1848).[22]
Louis-Philippe I was himself ousted from power by the Revolution of 1848 when a Second French Republic was
proclaimed with Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon I's nephew, as president. Louis-Napoleon initiated a coup
d'tat and declared himself Emperor as Napoleon III.
When Napoleon III was deposed, following defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the French national assembly was
largely in favour of a monarchical restoration, but disagreement between the Legitimists (supporters of the House
of Bourbon), theOrleanists (supporters of the House of Orleans) and the Bonapartists (supporters of the House of
Bonaparte), led to the constitution of the Third French Republic.

Territories and provinces[edit]


Further information: Territorial evolution of France

Western Francia during the time of Hugh Capet. The royal domain is shown in blue

The kingdom of France in 1030 (royal domain in light blue)

Territorial development under Philip August (Philip II), 11801223: royal domain in blue, direct vassals to
the crown in green, ecclesiastical territories in yellow, domain of the Plantagenetkings of England in red.
Before the 13th century, only a small part of what is now France was under control of the Frankish king; in the
north there were Viking incursions leading to the formation of the Duchy of Normandy; in the west, the counts of
Anjou established themselves as powerful rivals of the king, by the late 11th century ruling over the "Angevin
Empire", which included the kingdom of England. It was only with Philip II of France that the bulk of the territory of
Western Francia came under the rule of the Frankish kings, and Philip was consequently the first king to call
himself "king of France" (1190). The division of France between the Angevin (Plantagenet) kings of England and
the Capetian kings of France would lead to the Hundred Years' War, and France would regain control over these
territories only by the mid 15th century. What is now eastern France (Lorraine, Arelat) was not part of Western
Francia to begin with and was only incorporated into the kingdom during the early modern period.
Territories inherited from Western Francia:

Domain of the Frankish king (royal domain or demesne, see Crown lands of France)

Ile de France

Reims

Bourges

Orleans

direct vassals of the French king in the 10th to 12th centuries:

Duchy of Champagne (to the royal domain in 1316)

County of Blois (to the royal domain in 1391)

Duchy of Burgundy (until 1477, then divided between France and theHabsburgs)

County of Flanders (to Burgundy in 1369)

Duchy of Bourbon (13271523)

Acquisitions during the 13th to 14th centuries:

Duchy of Normandy (1204)

County of Tourain (1204)

County of Anjou (1225)

County of Maine (1225)

County of Auvergne (1271)

County of Toulouse (1271), including:

County of Quercy

County of Rouergue

County of Rodez

County of Gevaudan

Viscounty of Albi

Marquisat of Gothia

Duchy of Champagne (to the royal domain in 1316)

Dauphin (1349)

County of Blois (to the royal domain in 1391)

Acquisitions from the Plantagenet kings of England with the French victory in the Hundred Years'
War 1453

Duchy of Aquitaine (Guyenne), including:

County of Poitou

County of La Marche

County of Angoulme

County of Prigord

County of Saintonge

Viscounty of Limousin

Lordship of Issoudun

Lordship of Dols

Duchy of Gascogne (Gascony)

County of Velay

County of Agenais

Duchy of Bretagne (disputed since the War of the Breton Succession, to France in 1453, to
the royal demesne in 1547)

Acquisitions after the end of the Hundred Years' War:

Duchy of Burgundy (1477)

Pale of Calais (1558)

Kingdom of Navarre (1620)

County of Artois (1659)


Roussillon and Perpignan, Montmdy and other parts of Luxembourg, parts of Flanders,
including Arras, Bthune,Gravelines and Thionville (Treaty of the Pyrenees 1659)

Free County of Burgundy (1668, 1679)


French Hainaut (1679)

Principality of Orange (1713)

Duchy of Lorraine (1766)

French conquest of Corsica (1769)

Comtat Venaissin (1791)

See also[edit]
Kingdom of France portal

France in the Middle Ages

Early modern France

Economic history of France

Kings during this period[edit]


The Early Modern period in French history spans the following reigns, from
1461 to the Revolution, breaking in 1789:

House of Valois

Louis XI the Prudent, 14611483

Charles VIII the Affable, 14831498

Louis XII, 14981515

Francis I, 15151547

Henry II, 15471559

Francis II, 15591560

Charles IX, 15601574 (15601563 under regency of Catherine de'


Medici)

Henry III, 15741589


House of Bourbon

Henry IV the Great, 15891610

the Regency of Marie de Medici, 16101617

Louis XIII the Just and his minister Cardinal Richelieu, 16101643

the Regency of Anne of Austria and her minister Cardinal Mazarin,


16431651

Louis XIV the Sun King and his minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert,
16431715

the Rgence, a period of regency under Philip II of Orlans, 1715


1723

Louis XV the Beloved and his minister Cardinal Andr-Hercule de


Fleury, 17151774
Louis XVI, 17741792

Life in the Early Modern period[edit]


Main article: Ancien Rgime
French identity[edit]

France in the Ancien Rgime covered a territory of around 200,000 square


miles (520,000 km2). This land supported 13 million people in 1484 and 20
million people in 1700. France had the second largest population in Europe
around 1700. Britain had 5 or 6 million, Spain had 8 million, and the Austrian
Habsburgs had around 8 million. Russia was the most populated European
country at the time. France's lead slowly faded after 1700, as other countries
grew faster.[20]
The sense of "being French" was uncommon in 1500, as people clung to their
local identities. By 1600, however, people were starting to call themselves "bon
franois."[21]
Estates and power[edit]
Political power was widely dispersed. The law courts ("Parlements") were
powerful, especially that of France. However, the king had only about 10,000
officials in royal service very few indeed for such a large country, and with
very slow internal communications over an inadequate road system. Travel was
usually faster by ocean ship or river boat.[21] The differentestates of the realm
the clergy, the nobility, and commoners occasionally met together in the
"Estates General", but in practice the Estates General had no power, for it could
petition the king but could not pass laws.
The Catholic Church controlled about 40% of the wealth, tied up in long-term
endowments that could be added to but not reduced. The king (not the pope)
nominated bishops, but typically had to negotiate with noble families that had
close ties to local monasteries and church establishments.
The nobility came second in terms of wealth, but there was no unity. Each noble
had his own lands, his own network of regional connections, and his own
military force.[21]
The cities had a quasi-independent status, and were largely controlled by the
leading merchants and guilds. Paris was by far the largest city with 220,000
people in 1547 and a history of steady growth. Lyon and Rouen each had about
40,000 population, but Lyon had a powerful banking community and a vibrant
culture. Bordeaux was next with only 20,000 population in 1500.[21]
Peasants made up the vast majority of population, who in many cases had wellestablished rights that the authorities had to respect. In 1484, about 97% of
France's 13 million people lived in rural villages; in 1700, at least 80% of the 20
million people population were peasants.

In the 17th century peasants had ties to the market economy, provided much of
the capital investment necessary for agricultural growth, and frequently moved
from village to village (or town). Geographic mobility, directly tied to the
market and the need for investment capital, was the main path to social
mobility. The "stable" core of French society, town guildspeople and village
labourers, included cases of staggering social and geographic continuity, but
even this core required regular renewal.[22]
Accepting the existence of these two societies, the constant tension between
them, and extensive geographic and social mobility tied to a market economy
holds the key to a clearer understanding of the evolution of the social structure,
economy, and even political system of early modern France. Collins (1991)
argues that the Annales School paradigm underestimated the role of the market
economy; failed to explain the nature of capital investment in the rural
economy; and grossly exaggerated social stability.[23]
Language[edit]
Main article: History of French
Although most peasants in France spoke local dialects, an official language
emerged in Paris and the French language became the preferred language of
Europe's aristocracy. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (born in 1500) quipped,
"I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to men, and German to my
horse."[24]
Because of its international status, there was a desire to regulate the French
language. Several reforms of the French language worked to make it more
uniform. The Renaissance writer Franois Rabelais (b. 1494) helped to shape
French as a literary language, Rabelais' French is characterised by the reintroduction of Greek and Latin words. Jacques Peletier du Mans (born 1517)
was one of the scholars who reformed the French language. He
improved Nicolas Chuquet's long scalesystem by adding names for intermediate
numbers ("milliards" instead of "thousand million", etc.).

Consolidation (15th and 16th centuries)[edit]

Charles the Bold, the last ValoisDuke of Burgundy. His death at theBattle of
Nancy (1477) marked the division of his lands between the Kings of France and
Habsburg Dynasty.
With the death in 1477 of Charles the Bold, France and the Habsburgs began a
long process of dividing his rich Burgundian lands, leading to numerous wars.
In 1532, Brittany was incorporated into the Kingdom of France.
France engaged in the long Italian Wars (14941559), which marked the
beginning of early modern France. Francis I faced powerful foes, and he was
captured at Pavia. The French monarchy then sought for allies and found one in
the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Admiral Barbarossa captured Nice in 1543
and handed it down to Francis I.
During the 16th century, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs were the dominant
power in Europe. The many domains of Charles V encircled France.
The Spanish Tercio was used with great success against French knights. Finally,
on 7 January 1558, the Duke of Guise seized Calais from the English.
"Beautiful 16th century"[edit]

Economic historians call the era from about 1475 to 1630 the "beautiful 16th
century" because of the return of peace, prosperity and optimism across the
nation, and the steady growth of population. Paris, for example, flourished as
never before, as its population rose to 200,000 by 1550. In Toulouse the
Renaissance of the 16th century brought wealth that transformed the
architecture of the town, such as building of the great aristocratic houses.[25]
French Wars of Religion (156298)[edit]
Main article: French Wars of Religion

Henry IV of France was the first French Bourbon king.


The Protestant Reformation, inspired in France mainly by John Calvin, began to
challenge the legitimacy and rituals of the Catholic Church. It reached an elite
audience.[26] After 1630, came new wars and deep pessimism, because of the
Protestant challenge, heresy persecutions by Catholic bishops, and civil war.[27]
The two Calvinist main strongholds were southwest France and Normandy, but
even in these districts the Catholics were a majority. Renewed Catholic reaction
headed by the powerful Francis, Duke of Guise led to a massacre of
Huguenots at Vassy in 1562, starting the first of the French Wars of Religion,
during which English, German, and Spanish forces intervened on the side of
rival Protestant and Catholic forces.

King Henry II had died in 1559 in a jousting tournament, he was succeeded in


turn by his three sons, each of which assumed the throne as minors or were
weak, ineffectual rulers. In the power vacuum entered Henry's widow, Catherine
de' Medici, who became a central figure in the early years of the Wars of
Religion. At her instigation, thousands of Huguenots were murdered in the St.
Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572.
The Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henrys (1584
1598),at the height of which bodyguards of the King Henry
III assassinated Henry de Guise, leader of the Spanish-backed Catholic league.
In revenge, a priest assassinated Henry III. This led to the ascension of the
Huguenot Henry IV; in order to bring peace to a country beset by religious and
succession wars, he converted to Catholicism. He issued the Edict of Nantes in
1598, which guaranteed religious liberties to the Protestants, thereby effectively
ending the civil war.[28] The main provisions of the Edict of Nantes were as
follows: a) Huguenots were allowed to hold religious services in certain towns
in each province, b) They were allowed to control and fortify eight cities
(includingLa Rochelle and Montauban), c) Special courts were established to
try Huguenot offenders, d) Huguenots were to have equal civil rights with the
Catholics.[29]
When in 1620 the Huguenots proclaimed a constitution for the 'Republic of the
Reformed Churches of France', the chief minister Cardinal Richelieu (1585
1642) invoked the entire powers of the state to stop it. Religious conflicts
therefore resumed under Louis XIII when Richelieu forced Protestants to disarm
their army and fortresses. This conflict ended in theSiege of La Rochelle (1627
1628), in which Protestants and their English supporters were defeated. The
following Peace of Alais (1629) confirmed religious freedom yet dismantled the
Protestant military defences.[30]
In the face of persecution, Huguenots dispersed widely throughout Protestant
kingdoms in Europe and America.[31]
Thirty Years' War (16181648)[edit]
Main article: Thirty Years' War
The religious conflicts that plagued France also ravaged the Habsburg-led Holy
Roman Empire. The Thirty Years' War eroded the power of the Catholic
Habsburgs. Although Cardinal Richelieu, the powerful chief minister of France,
had previously mauled the Protestants, he joined this war on their side in 1636
because it was in the raison d'tat (national interest). Imperial Habsburg forces
invaded France, ravaged Champagne, and nearly threatened Paris.[32]

Richelieu died in 1642 and was succeeded by Cardinal Mazarin, while Louis
XIII died one year later and was succeeded byLouis XIV. France was served by
some very efficient commanders such as Louis II de Bourbon (Cond)
and Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne (Turenne). The French forces won a decisive
victory at Rocroi (1643), and the Spanish army was decimated; the Tercio was
broken. The Truce of Ulm (1647) and the Peace of Westphalia (1648) brought
an end to the war.[32]
Some challenges remained. France was hit by civil unrest known as
the Fronde which in turn evolved into the Franco-Spanish War in 1653. Louis II
de Bourbon joined the Spanish army this time, but suffered a severe defeat
at Dunkirk (1658) by Henry de la Tour d'Auvergne. The terms for the peace
inflicted upon the Spanish kingdoms in the Treaty of the Pyrenees(1659) were
harsh, as France annexed Northern Catalonia.[32]
Amidst this turmoil, Ren Descartes sought answers to philosophical questions
through the use of logic and reason and formulated what would be
called Cartesian Dualism in 1641.
Colonies (16th and 17th centuries)[edit]
Main article: French colonial empire
During the 16th century, the king began to claim North American territories
and established several (unsuccessful) colonies.[33] Jacques Cartier was one of
the great explorers who ventured deep into American territories during the 16th
century.
The early 17th century saw the first successful French settlements in the New
World with the voyages of Samuel de Champlain.[34] The largest settlement
was New France, with the towns of Quebec City (1608) and Montreal (fur
trading post in 1611, Roman Catholic mission established in 1639, and colony
founded in 1642).
Louis XIV (16431715)[edit]
Main article: Louis XIV of France

Louis XIV of France, the "Sun King".


Louis XIV, known as the "Sun King", reigned over France from 1643 until 1715
although his strongest period of personal rule did not begin until 1661 after the
death of his Italian chief minister Cardinal Mazarin. Louis believed in the divine
right of kings, which asserts that a monarch is above everyone except God, and
is therefore not answerable to the will of his people, the aristocracy, or the
Church. Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state
governed from Paris, sought to eliminate remnants of feudalism in France, and
subjugated and weakened the aristocracy. By these means he consolidated a
system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French
Revolution. However, Louis XIV's long reign saw France involved in many
wars that drained its treasury.[35]
His reign began during the Thirty Years' War and during the Franco-Spanish
war. His military architect, Vauban, became famous for his pentagonal
fortresses, andJean-Baptiste Colbert supported the royal spending as much as
possible. French dominated League of the Rhine fought against the Ottoman
Turks at the Battle of Saint Gotthard in 1664. The battle was won by the
Christians, chiefly through the brave attack of 6,000 French troops led by La
Feuillade and Coligny.[35]
France fought the War of Devolution against Spain in 1667. France's defeat of
Spain and invasion of the Spanish Netherlands alarmed England and Sweden.
With the Dutch Republic they formed the Triple Alliance to check Louis XIV's

expansion. Louis II de Bourbon had captured Franche-Comt, but in face of an


indefensible position, Louis XIV agreed to a peace at Aachen. Under its terms,
Louis XIV did not annex Franche-Comt but did gain Lille.[36]
Peace was fragile, and war broke out again between France and the Dutch
Republic in the Franco-Dutch War (16721678). Louis XIV asked for the Dutch
Republic to resume war against the Spanish Netherlands, but the republic
refused. France attacked the Dutch Republic and was joined by England in this
conflict. Through targeted inundations of polders by breaking dykes, the French
invasion of the Dutch Republic was brought to a halt.[37] The Dutch
Admiral Michiel de Ruyterinflicted a few strategic defeats on the Anglo-French
naval alliance and forced England to retire from the war in 1674. Because the
Netherlands could not resist indefinitely, it agreed to peace in the Treaties of
Nijmegen, according to which France would annex France-Comt and acquire
further concessions in the Spanish Netherlands.
On 6 May 1682, the royal court moved to the lavish Palace of Versailles, which
Louis XIV had greatly expanded. Over time, Louis XIV compelled many
members of the nobility, especially the noble elite, to inhabit Versailles. He
controlled the nobility with an elaborate system of pensions and privileges, and
replaced their power with himself.
Peace did not last, and war between France and Spain again resumed.
[37]
The War of the Reunions broke out (16831684), and again Spain, with its
ally the Holy Roman Empire, was easily defeated. Meanwhile, in October 1685
Louis signed the Edict of Fontainebleau ordering the destruction of all
Protestant churches and schools in France. Its immediate consequence was a
large Protestant exodus from France. Over two million people died in two
famines in 1693 and 1710.[37]
France would soon be involved in another war, the War of the Grand Alliance.
This time the theatre was not only in Europe but also in North America.
Although the war was long and difficult (it was also called the Nine Years' War),
its results were inconclusive. The Treaty of Ryswick in 1697 confirmed French
sovereignty over Alsace, yet rejected its claims toLuxembourg. Louis also had
to evacuate Catalonia and the Palatinate. This peace was considered a truce by
all sides, thus war was to start again.[38]
In 1701 the War of the Spanish Succession began. The Bourbon Philip of
Anjou was designated heir to the throne of Spain as Philip V. The
Habsburg Emperor Leopold opposed a Bourbon succession, because the power
that such a succession would bring to the Bourbon rulers of France would
disturb the delicate balance of power in Europe. Therefore, he claimed the
Spanish thrones for himself.[38] England and the Dutch Republic joined Leopold

against Louis XIV and Philip of Anjou. The allied forces were led by John
Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and by Prince Eugene of Savoy. They
inflicted a few resounding defeats on the French army; the Battle of
Blenheim in 1704 was the first major land battle lost by France since its victory
at Rocroi in 1643. Yet, the extremely bloody battles of Ramillies (1706)
and Malplaquet (1709) proved to bePyrrhic victories for the allies, as they had
lost too many men to continue the war.[38] Led by Villars, French forces
recovered much of the lost ground in battles such as Denain (1712). Finally, a
compromise was achieved with the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Philip of Anjou
was confirmed as Philip V, king of Spain; Emperor Leopold did not get the
throne, but Philip V was barred from inheriting France.[38]
Louis XIV wanted to be remembered as a patron of the arts, like his ancestor
Louis IX. He invited Jean-Baptiste Lully to establish the French opera, and a
tumultuous friendship was established between Lully and playwright and
actor Molire.Jules Hardouin Mansart became France's most important architect
of the period, bringing the pinnacle of French Baroque architecture.
Major changes in France, Europe, and North America (171883)[edit]
Main article: Seven Years' War
See also: French Renaissance, French colonization of the Americas and Age of
Enlightenment

The Battle of Fontenoy, 11 May 1745.


Louis XIV died in 1715 and was succeeded by his five-year-old great grandson
who reigned as Louis XV until his death in 1774. In 1718, France was once
again at war, as Philip II of Orlans's regency joined the War of the Quadruple
Allianceagainst Spain. King Philip V of Spain had to withdraw from the
conflict, confronted with the reality that Spain was no longer a great power of
Europe. Under Cardinal Fleury's administration, peace was maintained as long
as possible.[39]

However, in 1733 another war broke in central Europe, this time about
the Polish succession, and France joined the war against the Austrian Empire.
This time there was no invasion of the Netherlands, and Britain remained
neutral. As a consequence, Austria was left alone against a Franco-Spanish
alliance and faced a military disaster. Peace was settled in the Treaty of Vienna
(1738), according to which France would annex, through inheritance, the Duchy
of Lorraine.[39]
Two years later, in 1740, war broke out over the Austrian succession, and
France seized the opportunity to join the conflict. The war played out in North
America and India as well as Europe, and inconclusive terms were agreed to in
the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Once again, no one regarded this as a
peace, but rather as a mere truce. Prussia was then becoming a new threat, as it
had gained substantial territory from Austria. This led to the Diplomatic
Revolution of 1756, in which the alliances seen during the previous war were
mostly inverted. France was now allied to Austria and Russia, while Britain was
now allied to Prussia.[40]
In the North American theatre, France was allied with various Native American
peoples during the Seven Years' War and, despite a temporary success at the
battles of the Great Meadows and Monongahela, French forces were defeated at
the disastrous Battle of the Plains of Abraham in Quebec. In Europe, repeated
French attempts to overwhelm Hanover failed. In 1762 Russia, France, and
Austria were on the verge of crushing Prussia, when the Anglo-Prussian
Alliance was saved by the Miracle of the House of Brandenburg. At sea, naval
defeats against British fleets at Lagos and Quiberon Bay in 1759 and a crippling
blockade forced France to keep its ships in port. Finally peace was concluded in
the Treaty of Paris (1763), and France lost its North American empire.[40]
Britain's success in the Seven Years' War had allowed them to eclipse France as
the leading colonial power. France sought revenge for this defeat, and
under Choiseul France started to rebuild. In 1766 the French Kingdom annexed
Lorraine and the following year bought Corsica from Genoa.

Lord Cornwallis surrenders atYorktown to American and French allies.


Having lost its colonial empire, France saw a good opportunity for revenge
against Britain in signing an alliance with the Americans in 1778, and sending
an army and navy that turned the American Revolution into a world war. Spain,
allied to France by the Family Compact, and the Dutch Republic also joined the
war on the French side. Admiral de Grasse defeated a British fleet
at Chesapeake Bay while Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de
Rochambeau and Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette joined American
forces in defeating the British at Yorktown. The war was concluded by
the Treaty of Paris (1783); the United States became independent. The British
Royal Navy scored a major victory over France in 1782 at the Battle of the
Saintes and France finished the war with huge debts and the minor gain of the
island of Tobago.[41]
While the state expanded, new Enlightenment ideas
flourished. Montesquieu proposed the separation of powers. Many other French
philosophes (intellectuals) exerted philosophical influence on a continental
scale, including Voltaire, Denis Diderot and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose
essay The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right was a catalyst for
governmental and societal reform throughout Europe. Diderot's
great Encyclopdie reshaped the European world view.[42]
Astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and technology flourished. French
scientists such as Antoine Lavoisier worked to replace the archaic units of
weights and measures by a coherent scientific system. Lavoisier also formulated
the law ofConservation of mass and discovered oxygen and hydrogen.[42]
The Enlightenment[edit]
Main article: Age of Enlightenment

Cover of the Encyclopdie


The "Philosophes" were 18th-century French intellectuals who dominated
theFrench Enlightenment and were influential across Europe. Their interests
were diverse, with experts in scientific, literary, philosophical and sociological
matters. The ultimate goal of the philosophers was human progress; by
concentrating on social and material sciences, they believed that a rational
society was the only logical outcome of a freethinking and reasoned populace.
They also advocatedDeism and religious tolerance. Many believed religion had
been used as a source of conflict since time eternal, and that logical, rational
thought was the way forward for mankind.[43]
The philosopher Denis Diderot was Editor in Chief of the famous
Enlightenment accomplishment, the 72,000 article Encyclopdie (17511772).
It sparked a revolution in learning throughout the enlightened world.[44]
In the early part of the 18th century the movement was dominated
by Voltaire andMontesquieu, but the movement grew in momentum as the
century moved on. Overall the philosophers were inspired by the thoughts
of Ren Descartes, the skepticism of the Libertins and the popularization of

science by Bernard de Fontenelle. Sectarian dissensions within the church, the


gradual weakening of the absolute monarch and the numerous wars of Louis
XIV allowed their influence to spread. Between 1748 and 1751 the Philosophes
reached their most influential period, as Montesquieu published Spirit of
Laws (1748) and Jean Jacques Rousseau published Discourse on the Moral
Effects of the Arts and Sciences (1750).
The leader of the French Enlightenment and a writer of enormous influence
across Europe, was Voltaire (16941778). His many books included poems and
plays; works of satire (Candide [1759]); books on history, science, and
philosophy, including numerous (anonymous) contributions to
the Encyclopdie; and an extensive correspondence. A witty, tireless antagonist
to the alliance between the French state and the church, he was exiled from
France on a number of occasions. In exile in England he came to appreciate
British thought and he popularized Isaac Newton in Europe.[45]
Revolution and Napoleon (17891815)[edit]
The French Revolution[edit]
Main article: French Revolution

The Tennis Court Oath of 20 June 1789 was a pivotal event during the first days
of the Revolution. It signified the first time that French citizens formally stood
in opposition to Louis XVI.

The Storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789.


The immediate trigger for the Revolution was Louis XVI's attempts to solve the
government's worsening financial situation. When Louis XVdied in 1774 he left
his grandson Louis XVI, "A heavy legacy, with ruined finances, unhappy
subjects, and a faulty and incompetent government." Regardless, "the people,
meanwhile, still had confidence in royalty, and the accession of Louis XVI was
welcomed with enthusiasm."[46]
Recent wars, especially the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) and theAmerican
Revolutionary War (1775-1783) had effectively bankrupted the state. The
taxation system was highly inefficient. Several years of bad harvests and an
inadequate transportation system had caused rising food prices, hunger, and
malnutrition; the country was further destabilized by the lower classes'
increased feeling that the royal court was isolated from, and indifferent to, their
hardships.
In February 1787 his finance minister, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, convened
an Assembly of Notables, a group of nobles, clergy,bourgeoisie, and bureaucrats
selected in order to bypass the local parliaments. This group was asked to
approve a new land tax that would, for the first time, include a tax on the
property of nobles and clergy. The assembly did not approve the tax, instead
demanding that Louis XVI call the Estates-General.
In August 1788 the King agreed to convene the Estates-General in May 1789.
While the Third Estate demanded and was granted "double representation" so as
to balance the First and Second Estate, voting was to occur "by orders" votes
of the Third Estate were to be weighted effectively canceling double

representation. This eventually led to the Third Estate breaking away from the
Estates-General and, joined by members of the other estates, proclaiming the
creation of the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the
People."
In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from
convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des tats where the
Assembly met. After finding the door to their chamber locked and guarded, the
Assembly met nearby on a tennis court and pledged the Tennis Court Oath on
20 June 1789, binding them "never to separate, and to meet wherever
circumstances demand, until the constitution of the kingdom is established and
affirmed on solid foundations." They were joined by some sympathetic
members of the Second and First estates. After the king fired his finance
minister, Jacques Necker, for giving his support and guidance to the Third
Estate, worries surfaced that the legitimacy of the newly formed National
Assembly might be threatened by royalists.
Paris was soon in a state of anarchy. It was consumed with riots and widespread
looting. Because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city, the mobs
soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers.
On 14 July 1789, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and
ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which also served as a symbol of
royal tyranny. Insurgents seized the Bastille prison, killing the governor and
several of his guards.
The French now celebrate 14 July each year as a symbol of the shift away from
the Ancien Rgime to a more modern, democratic state. Gilbert du Motier, a
hero of the War of American Independence, took command of the National
Guard, and the king was forced to recognize the Tricolour Cockade. Although
peace was made, several nobles did not regard the new order as acceptable and
emigrated in order to push the neighboring, aristocratic kingdoms to war against
the new democratic regime. Because of this new period of instability, the state
was struck for several weeks in July and August 1789 by the Great Fear, a
period of violent class conflict.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was adopted by the National
Assembly in August 1789 as a first step in their effort to write a constitution.
Considered to be a precursor to modern international rights instruments and
using theU.S. Declaration of Independence as a model, it defined a set of
individual rights and collective rights of all of the estates as one. Influenced by
the doctrine of natural rights, these rights were deemed universal and valid in all
times and places, pertaining to human nature itself. The Assembly also replaced

France's historic provinces with eighty-three departments, uniformly


administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population.
Abolition of feudalism[edit]

The signing of the August Decrees - in bas relief,Place de la Rpublique.


On 4 August 1789, the Assembly abolished feudalism, in what became known
as the August Decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second
Estate (nobility) and the tithes gathered by the First Estate (clergy). In the
course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities
lost their special privileges. The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia
of the Ancien Rgime armorial bearings, liveries, etc. which alienated the
more conservative nobles. Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to
work on developing a constitution.
A new judicial organization made all magistracies temporary and independent
of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the
monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The King would have the
unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to
declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and
suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organizations. Consequently, an
individual could only gain the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a
license, and worker strikes became illegal.
The Revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman
Catholic Church to the state. Under the Ancien Rgime, the Church had been
the largest landowner in the country. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the
Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, cancelled special privileges for the

clergy, and confiscated Church property. The Assembly essentially addressed


the financial crisis in part by having the nation take over the property of the
Church.
The republican government also enforced the Systme International
d'Units (International System of Units), commissioned by Louis XVI, which
became known as the Metric System. Charles-Augustin de Coulomb and AndrMarie Ampre's works on electricity and electromagnetism were also
recognised, and their units are integrated into the Metric System.
Royal family captured[edit]

An illustration of the Women's March on Versailles, 5 October 1789.


When a mob from Paris attacked the royal palace at Versailles in October
1789 seeking redress for their severe poverty, the royal family was forced to
move to the Tuileries Palace in Paris. Later in June 1791, the royal family
secretly fled Paris in disguise for Varennes near France's northeastern border in
order to seek royalist support the king believed he could trust, but they were
soon discovered en route. They were brought back to Paris, after which they
were essentially kept under house-arrest at the Tuileries.
Factions within the Assembly began to clarify. The opposition to revolution sat
on the right-hand side of the Assembly. The "Royalist democrats" or
monarchiens inclined toward organizing France along lines similar to the British
constitutional model. The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left
of the assembly, represented somewhat more extreme views. The increasingly
middle-class National Guard under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in
its own right.
With most of the Assembly still favoring a constitutional monarchy rather than a
republic, the various groupings reached a compromise. Under the Constitution
of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy with Louis XVI as

little more than a figurehead. The King had to share power with the elected
Legislative Assembly, although he still retained his royal veto and the ability to
select ministers. He had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a
decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of
making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would
amount to de facto abdication.
The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791 and degenerated into
chaos less than a year later. The Legislative Assembly consisted of about
165 Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) on the right, about
330 Girondists (liberal republicans) in the center, a vocal group
of Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) on the left, and about 250 deputies
unaffiliated with any of those factions. Early on, the King vetoed legislation that
threatened the migrs with death and that decreed that every non-juring
clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this
would result in a constitutional crisis, leading the Revolution to higher levels.
On the foreign affairs front, in the Declaration of Pillnitz of August 1791, Holy
Roman Emperor Leopold II, Count Charles of Artois, and King Frederick
William II of Prussia made Louis XVI's cause their own. These noblemen also
required the Assembly to be dissolved through threats of war, but, instead of
cowing the French, it infuriated them. The borders were militarised as a
consequence. Under the Constitution of 1791, the solution of a constitutional
monarchy was adopted, and the king supported a war against Austria in order to
increase his popularity, starting the long French Revolutionary Wars. On the
night of the 10 August, the Jacobins, who had mainly opposed the war,
suspended the monarchy. With the Prussian army entering France, more doubts
were raised against the aristocracy, and these tensions climaxed during
the September Massacres.
After the first great victory of the French revolutionary troops at the Battle of
Valmy on 20 September 1792, the French First Republic was proclaimed the
next day, on 21 September 1792. The new French Republican Calendar was
then legally enforced.
Factionalism amongst revolutionaries[edit]
The National Convention was fractured into factions, the most dangerous of
which became the Montagnards. TheMontagnards and the Girondins were both
originally Jacobins, a political club which was founded according to republican
beliefs and whose members wanted a French democratic republic.[47] The
Jacobin Club, however, encountered political tension beginning in 1791 due to

conflicting viewpoints in response to several revolutionary events and how to


best achieve a democratic republic.[48] Members of "The Mountain" (French: La
Montagne) sided with the Parisian militants, also known as the sans-culottes,
who aimed for a more repressive form of government that would institute a
price maximum on essential consumer goods and would punish all traitors and
enemies of the Republic.[49]
Additionally, between war and political differences, the Montagnards believed
these crises required emergency solutions.[50] The Montagnards considered
themselves the true patriots of the French Revolution.[51] The Mountain had 302
members during its reign in 1793 and 1794, including committee members and
deputies who voted with the faction.[52]Most of its members came from the
middle class and tended to represent the Parisian population.[53] Its leaders
includedMaximilien Robespierre, Jean-Paul Marat, and Georges Danton.[54] This
party eventually gained overwhelming power in the Convention and governed
France during the Reign of Terror.

Mass shootings at Nantes, War in the Vende, 1793.


Possibly the two most significant factors in the quarrel and consequential split
between the Montagnards and the Girondins include the September
Massacres and the trial of Louis XVI, both in 1792. The official fall of the
monarchy came on 10 August 1792 after Louis XVI refused to rescind his veto
of the National Assembly's constitution. The Mountain argued for immediate
execution of the king by military court-martial, insisting that he was
undermining the Revolution. Because a trial would require the "presumption of
innocence," such a proceeding would contradict the mission of the National
Convention. The Girondins, in contrast, agreed that the king was guilty of
treason but argued for his clemency and favored the option of exile or popular
referendum as his sentence.[55]However, the trial progressed and Louis XVI was
executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793.
The second key factor in the split between the Montagnards and the Girondins
was the September Massacres of 1792. Radical Parisians, members of the

National Guard, and fdrs were angry with the poor progress in the war
against Austria and Prussia and the forced enlistment of 30,000 volunteers. On
10 August, radicals went on a killing spree, slaughtering roughly 1,300 inmates
in various Paris prisons, many of whom were simply common criminals, not the
treasonous counterrevolutionaries condemned by the Mountain.[56] The
Girondins did not tolerate the massacres, but neither the Montagnards of the
Legislative Assembly nor the Paris Commune took any action to stop or
condemn the killings. Members of the Girondins later accused Marat,
Robespierre, and Danton as inciters of the massacres in an attempt to further
their dictatorial power.[57]
Execution of Louis XVI[edit]

The Execution of Louis XVI on 21 January 1793 in what is now the Place de la
Concorde, facing the empty pedestal where the statue of his grandfather,Louis
XV, had stood.
When the Brunswick Manifesto of July 1792 once more threatened the French
population with Austrian (Imperial) and Prussian attacks, Louis XVI was
suspected of treason and taken along with his family from the Tuileries Palace
in August 1792 by insurgents supported by a new revolutionary Paris
Commune. The King and Queen ended up prisoners, and a rump session of the
Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy. Little more than a third of the
deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins. The King was later tried and
convicted and, on 21 January 1793, was executed by the guillotine. Marie
Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October.
What remained of a national government depended on the support of the
insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs into prisons to
arbitrarily adjudicate and butcher 1400 victims, and then addressed a circular
letter to the other cities of France, inviting them to follow this example, the

Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until a
National Convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20
September 1792 and became the new de facto government of France. The next
day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic.
Members of the Mountain went on to establish the Committee of Public
Safety in April 1793 under Robespierre, which would be responsible for The
Terror (5 September 1793 28 July 1794), the bloodiest and one of the most
controversial phases of the French Revolution. The time between 1792 and
1794 was dominated by the ideology of the Mountain until the execution of
Robespierre on 28 July 1794.
The war went badly. Prices rose, the sans-culottes (poor labourers and radical
Jacobins) rioted, and counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions.
This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup,
backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist
faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisiansans-culottes. An alliance
of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the
new government. Policy became considerably more radical.
The Reign of Terror[edit]
Starting in September 1793, a period known as the Reign of Terror ensued for
approximately 12 months, the bloodiest and one of the most controversial
phases of the French Revolution. The Committee of Public Safety, set up by the
National Convention on 6 April 1793, formed the twelve-member de facto
executive government of France. Under war conditions and with national
survival seemingly at stake, the Montagnard Jacobins under Maximilien
Robespierre centralized denunciations, trials, and executions. At least 18,000
people met their deaths under the guillotine or otherwise, after accusations of
counter-revolutionary activities.

The execution of Robespierre, July 1794.


In 1794, Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed. As a
consequence of these actions, however, Robespierre's own popular support
eroded markedly. On 27 July 1794, theThermidorian Reaction led to the arrest
and execution of Robespierre. The new government was predominantly made
up of Girondists who had survived the Terror and, after taking power, they took
revenge as well by banning the Jacobin Club and executing many of its former
members including Robespierre in what was known as the White Terror.
After the stated aim of the National Convention to export revolution, the
guillotining of Louis XVI of France, and the French opening of the Scheldt, a
European military coalition was formed against France. Spain, Naples, Great
Britain, and the Netherlands joined Austria and Prussia in The First
Coalition (17921797), the first major concerted effort of multiple European
powers to contain Revolutionary France. It took shape after the wars had
already begun.
The Republican government in Paris was radicalised after a diplomatic coup
from the Jacobins said it would be the Guerre Totale ("total war") and called for
a Leve en masse (mass conscription of troops). Royalist invasion forces were
defeated at Toulon in 1793, leaving the French republican forces in an offensive
position and granting a young officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, a certain fame.
Following their victory at Fleurus, the Republicans occupied Belgium and the
Rhineland. An invasion of the Netherlands established the puppet Batavian
Republic. Finally, a peace agreement was concluded between France, Spain, and
Prussia in 1795 at Basel.
Directory[edit]

The Convention approved a new "Constitution of the Year III" on 17 August


1795; it was ratified by a national plebiscite and took effect on 26 September
1795.[58] The new constitution created the Directory and the first bicameral
legislature in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives
le Conseil des Cinq-Cents (the Council of the Five Hundred) and 250
senators le Conseil des Anciens (the Council of Elders). Executive power went
to five "directors", named annually by the Conseil des Anciens from a list
submitted by le Conseil des Cinq-Cents. The nation desired rest and the healing
of its many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII and the Ancien
Rgime and those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were
insignificant in number. The possibility of foreign interference had vanished
with the failure of the First Coalition.
The four years of the Directory was a time of arbitrary government and chronic
disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between the
parties impossible. As the majority of French people wanted to be rid of them,
they could achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. The Convention
habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when the elections
went against them, resorted to the sword. They resolved to prolong the war as
the best expedient for prolonging their power. They were thus driven to rely
upon the armies, which also desired war and were becoming increasingly less
civic in temper.
The Directory lasted until 1799 when Napoleon staged a coup and installed The
Consulate. The Consulate still operated within the First Republic. The
Consulate was replaced by the First Empire, established by Napoleon in 1804.
[59]

The Napoleonic Era[edit]


See also: Napoleonic wars

Napoleon on his Imperial throne, byJean Auguste Dominique Ingres.


During the War of the First Coalition (17921797), the Directoire had replaced
the National Convention. Five directors then ruled France. As Great Britain was
still at war with France, a plan was made to take Egypt from the Ottoman
Empire, a British ally. This was Napoleon's idea and the Directoire agreed to the
plan in order to send the popular general away from the mainland. Napoleon
defeated the Ottoman forces during the Battle of the Pyramids (21 July 1798)
and sent hundreds of scientists and linguists out to thoroughly explore modern
and ancient Egypt. Only a few weeks later the British fleet under Admiral
Horatio Nelson unexpectedly destroyed the French fleet at the Battle of the
Nile (13 August 1798). Napoleon planned to move into Syria but was defeated
and he returned to France without his army, which surrendered.[60]
The Directoire was threatened by the Second Coalition (17981802). Royalists
and their allies still dreamed of restoring the monarchy to power, while the
Prussian and Austrian crowns did not accept their territorial losses during the
previous war. In 1799 the Russian army expelled the French from Italy in battles
such as Cassano, while the Austrian army defeated the French in Switzerland
at Stockach andZurich. Napoleon then seized power through a coup and

established the Consulatein 1799. The Austrian army was defeated at the Battle
of Marengo (1800) and again at the Battle of Hohenlinden (1800).[61]
While at sea the French had some success at Boulogne but Nelson's Royal Navy
destroyed an anchored Danish and Norwegian fleet at the Battle of Copenhagen
(1801) because the Scandinavian kingdoms were against the British blockade of
France. The Second Coalition was beaten and peace was settled in two distinct
treaties: the Treaty of Lunville and theTreaty of Amiens. A brief interlude of
peace ensued in 1802-3, during which Napoleon sold French Louisiana to the
United States because it was indefensible.[61]
In 1801 Napoleon concluded a "Concordat" with Pope Pius VII that opened
peaceful relations between church and state in France. The policies of the
Revolution were reversed, except the Church did not get its lands back. Bishops
and clergy were to receive state salaries, and the government would pay for the
building and maintenance of churches.[62] Napoleon reorganized higher learning
by dividing the Institut National into four (later five) academies.

Napolon at the Battle of Austerlitz, by Franois Grard


In 1804 Napoleon was titled Emperor by the senate, thus founding the First
French Empire. Napoleon's rule was constitutional, and although autocratic, it
was much more advanced than traditional European monarchies of the time.
The proclamation of the French Empire was met by the Third Coalition. The
French army was renamed La Grande Arme in 1805 and Napoleon used
propaganda and nationalism to control the French population. The French army
achieved a resounding victory at Ulm (1619 October 1805), where an entire
Austrian army was captured.[63]
A Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar (21 October 1805) and all
plans to invade Britain were then made impossible. Despite this naval defeat, it

was on the ground that this war would be won; Napoleon inflicted on the
Austrian and Russian Empires one of their greatest defeats at Austerlitz (also
known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors" on 2 December 1805), destroying
the Third Coalition. Peace was settled in the Treaty of Pressburg; the Austrian
Empire lost the title of Holy Roman Emperor and the Confederation of the
Rhine was created by Napoleon over former Austrian territories.[63]
Pan-European efforts to contain Napoleon[edit]
Prussia joined Britain and Russia, thus forming the Fourth Coalition. Although
the Coalition was joined by other allies, the French Empire was also not alone
since it now had a complex network of allies and subject states. Largely
outnumbered, the Prussian army was crushed at Jena-Auerstedt in 1806;
Napoleon captured Berlin and went as far as Eastern Prussia. There the Russian
Empire was defeated at the Battle of Friedland (14 June 1807). Peace was
dictated in the Treaties of Tilsit, in which Russia had to join the Continental
System, and Prussia handed half of its territories to France. The Duchy of
Warsaw was formed over these territorial losses, and Polish troops entered the
Grande Arme in significant numbers.

The height of the First Empire


Freed from his obligation in the east, Napoleon then went back to the west, as
the French Empire was still at war with Britain. Only two countries remained
neutral in the war: Sweden and Portugal, and Napoleon then looked toward the
latter. In theTreaty of Fontainebleau (1807), a Franco-Spanish alliance against
Portugal was sealed as Spain eyed Portuguese territories. French armies entered
Spain in order to attack Portugal, but then seized Spanish fortresses and took

over the kingdom by surprise. Joseph Bonaparte, Napoleon's brother, was made
King of Spain afterCharles IV abdicated.
This occupation of the Iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism, and soon the
Spanish and Portuguese fought the French using guerilla tactics, defeating the
French forces at the Battle of Bailn (June and July 1808). Britain sent a shortlived ground support force to Portugal, and French forces evacuated Portugal as
defined in the Convention of Sintra following the Allied victory at Vimeiro (21
August 1808). France only controlled Catalonia and Navarre and could have
been definitely expelled from the Iberian peninsula had the Spanish armies
attacked again, but the Spanish did not.
Another French attack was launched on Spain, led by Napoleon himself, and
was described as "an avalanche of fire and steel." However, the French Empire
was no longer regarded as invincible by European powers. In 1808 Austria
formed theWar of the Fifth Coalition in order to break down the French Empire.
The Austrian Empire defeated the French at Aspern-Essling, yet was beaten
at Wagram while the Polish allies defeated the Austrian Empire at Raszyn (April
1809). Although not as decisive as the previous Austrian defeats, the peace
treaty in October 1809 stripped Austria of a large amount of territories, reducing
it even more.

Napoleon Bonaparte retreating from Moscow, by Adolf Northern.


In 1812 war broke out with Russia, engaging Napoleon in the disastrousFrench
invasion of Russia (1812). Napoleon assembled the largest army Europe had
ever seen, including troops from all subject states, to invade Russia, which had
just left the continental system and was gathering an army on the Polish frontier.
Following an exhausting march and the bloody but inconclusive Battle of
Borodino, near Moscow, the Grande Arme entered and captured Moscow, only
to find it burning as part of the Russian scorched earthtactics.

Although there still were battles, such as Maloyaroslavets, the Napoleonic army
left Russia in late 1812 annihilated, most of all by the Russian winter,
exhaustion, and scorched earth warfare. On the Spanish front the French troops
were defeated at Vitoria (June 1813) and then at the Battle of the
Pyrenees (JulyAugust 1813). Since the Spanish guerrillas seemed to be
uncontrollable, the French troops eventually evacuated Spain.
Since France had been defeated on these two fronts, states previously conquered
and controlled by Napoleon saw a good opportunity to strike back. The Sixth
Coalition was formed, and the German states of the Confederation of the Rhine
switched sides, finally opposing Napoleon. Napoleon was largely defeated in
the Battle of the Nations outside Leipzig in October 1813, and was
overwhelmed by much larger armies during the Six Days Campaign (February
1814), although, the Six Days Campaign is often considered a tactical
masterpiece because the allies suffered much higher casualties.
Napoleon abdicated on 6 April 1814, and was exiled to Elba.
The conservative Congress of Vienna reversed the political changes that had
occurred during the wars. Napoleon's attempted restoration, a period known as
the Hundred Days, ended with his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
The monarchy was subsequently restored and Louis XVIII became king.
Napoleon's impact on France[edit]
Napoleon centralized power in Paris, with all the provinces governed by allpowerful prefects whom he selected. They were more powerful than royal
intendants of the ancien rgime and had a long-term impact in unifying the
nation, minimizing regional differences, and shifting all decisions to Paris.[64]
Religion had been a major issue during the Revolution, and Napoleon resolved
most of the outstanding problems. Thereby he moved the clergy and large
numbers of devout Catholics from hostility to the government to support for
him. The Catholic system was reestablished by the Concordat of 1801 (signed
with Pope Pius VII), so that church life returned to normal; the church lands
were not restored, but the Jesuits were allowed back in and the bitter fights
between the government and Church ended. Protestant, Jews and atheists were
tolerated.[65]
The French taxation system had collapsed in the 1780s. In the 1790s the
government seized and sold church lands and lands of exiles aristocrats.
Napoleon instituted a modern, efficient tax system that guaranteed a steady flow
of revenues and made long-term financing possible.[66]

Napoleon kept the system of conscription that had been created in the 1790s, so
that every young man served in the army, which could be rapidly expanded even
as it was based on a core of careerists and talented officers. Before the
Revolution the aristocracy formed the officer corps. Now promotion was by
merit and achievementevery private carried a marshal's baton, it was said.[67]
The modern era of French education began in the 1790s. The Revolution in the
1790s abolished the traditional universities.[68] Napoleon sought to replace them
with new institutions, the Ecole Polytechnique, focused on technology.[69] The
elementary schools received little attention.
The Napoleonic Code[edit]
Of permanent importance was the Napoleonic Code created by eminent jurists
under Napoleon's supervision. Praised for its Gallic clarity, it spread rapidly
throughout Europe and the world in general, and marked the end of feudalism
and the liberation of Jews where it took effect.[70] The Code recognized the
principles of civil liberty, equality before the law, and the secular character of
the state. It discarded the old right of primogeniture (where only the eldest son
inherited) and required that inheritances be divided equally among all the
children. The court system was standardized; all judges were appointed by the
national government in Paris.[71]
Long 19th century, 18151914[edit]
Main article: France in the long 19th century
France was no longer the dominant power it had been before 1814, but it played
a major role in European economics, culture, diplomacy and military affairs.
The Bourbons were restored, but left a weak record and one branch was
overthrown in 1830 and the other branch in 1848 as Napoleon's nephew was
elected president. He made himself emperor as Napoleon III, but was
overthrown when he was defeated and captured by Prussians in 1870 a war that
humiliated France and made the new nation of Germany dominant in the
continent. The Third Republic was established, but the possibility of a return to
monarchy remained a possibility into the 1880s. The French built up an empire,
especially in Africa and Indochina. The economy was strong, with a good
railway system. The arrival of the Rothschild banking family of France in 1812
guaranteed the role of Paris alongside London as a major center of international
finance.

Religion[edit]
France remained basically Catholic. The 1872 census counted 36 million
people, of whom 35.4 million were listed as Catholics, 600,000 as Protestants,
50,000 as Jews and 80,000 as freethinkers. The Revolution failed to destroy the
Catholic Church, and Napoleon's concordat of 1801 restored its status. The
return of the Bourbons in 1814 brought back many rich nobles and landowners
who supported the Church, seeing it as a bastion of conservatism and
monarchism. However the monasteries with their vast land holdings and
political power were gone; much of the land had been sold to urban
entrepreneurs who lacked historic connections to the land and the peasants.[72]
Few new priests were trained in the 1790-1814 period, and many left the
church. The result was that the number of parish clergy plunged from 60,000 in
1790 to 25,000 in 1815, many of them elderly. Entire regions, especially around
Paris, were left with few priests. On the other hand some traditional regions
held fast to the faith, led by local nobles and historic families.[72]
The comeback was very slow in the larger cities and industrial areas. With
systematic missionary work and a new emphasis on liturgy and devotions to the
Virgin Mary, plus support from Napoleon III, there was a comeback. In 1870
there were 56,500 priests, representing a much younger and more dynamic force
in the villages and towns, with a thick network of schools, charities and lay
organizations.[73] Conservative Catholics held control of the national
government, 1820-1830, but most often played secondary political roles or had
to fight the assault from republicans, liberals, socialists and seculars.[74][75]
The Bourbon restoration: (18141830)[edit]

Louis XVIII makes a return at the Htel de Ville de Paris on August 29th, 1814.

This period of time is called the Bourbon Restoration and was marked by
conflicts between reactionary Ultra-royalists, who wanted to restore the pre1789 system of absolute monarchy, and liberals, who wanted to strengthen
constitutional monarchy. Louis XVIII was the younger brother of Louis XVI,
and reigned from 1814 to 1824. On becoming king, Louis issued a constitution
known as the Charter which preserved many of the liberties won during the
French Revolution and provided for a parliament composed of an elected
Chamber of Deputies and a Chamber of Peers that was nominated by the king.
[76]

The right to vote in elections to the Chamber of Deputies was restricted to only
the wealthiest men. Louis was succeeded in turn by a younger brother, Charles
X, who reigned from 1824 to 1830. On 12 June 1830 Polignac, King Charles
X's minister, exploited the weakness of the Algerian Dey by invading Algeria
and establishing French rule in Algeria.[76] The news of the fall of Algiers had
barely reached Paris when a new revolution broke out and quickly resulted in a
change of regime.
July Monarchy (18301848)[edit]

The taking of the Htel de Ville - the seat of Paris's government - during
the July Revolution of 1830.
Protest against the absolute monarchy was in the air. The elections of deputies
to 16 May 1830 had gone very badly for King Charles X.[77]Charles X reacted
by proroguing the Chamber of Deputies and sending them all packing. He then
unilaterally changed the electoral laws in an attempt to create a new Chamber of
Deputies more favorable to him, and muzzled the press. Opposition to the
absolute monarchy was immediately expressed in the streets of Paris as
suppressed deputies, gagged journalists, students from the University and many

working men of Paris poured into the streets and erected barricades during the
"three glorious days" (French Les Trois Glorieuses) of 2629 July 1830.[78]
Charles X was deposed and replaced by King Louis-Philippe in what is known
as the July Revolution. The July Revolution is traditionally regarded as a rising
of the bourgeoisie against the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons. Participants
in the July Revolution included Marie Joseph Paul Ives Roch Gilbert du Motier,
marquis de Lafayette. Working behind the scenes on behalf of the bourgeois
propertied interests was Louis Adolphe Thiers.[78]
Thiers was perfectly willing to see changes made in the government so long as
property was not harmed. Thiers wanted the "middle class accommodated" with
the vote, realizing that the petty bourgeoisie (owners of small business ventures)
supported property interests, in spite of their being ruined by the rise of the
larger bourgeoisie. Lafayette believed the Orleanist constitutional monarchy
was the safest course for the propertied interests and so Lafayette and Thiers
became supporters of the Orleanist "Citizen King"--Louis-Philippe.
Consequently, Louis-Philippe became "king by the grace of the barricades."[78]
Louis-Philippe's "July Monarchy" (18301848) was dominated by the haute
bourgeoisie (high bourgeoisie) of bankers, financiers, industrialists and
merchants.
During the reign of the July Monarchy, the Romantic Era was starting to bloom.
Driven by the Romantic Era, an atmosphere of protest and revolt was all around
in France. On 22 November 1831 in Lyon (the second largest city in France) the
silk workers revolted and took over the town hall in protest of recent salary
reductions and working conditions. This was one of the first instances of a
workers revolt in the entire world.[79]
The revolt was vigorously put down by Casimir Perier. The Right was also
unhappy with the July Monarchy. On 28 October 1836, Prince Louis-Napoleon,
son of Napoleon's brother, Louis, King of Holland attempted to overthrow the
July Monarchy in a coup d'tat. It failed, but in August 1840, Prince Louis
Napoleon tried another coup at Boulogne with hired soldiers. It failed as well.[80]
Because of the constant threats to the throne, the July Monarchy began to rule
with a stronger and stronger hand. Soon political meetings were outlawed.
However, "banquets" were still legal and all through 1847, there was a nationwide campaign of democracy and/or republican banquets. The climaxing
banquet was scheduled for 22 February 1848 in Paris but the government
banned it. In response citizens of all classes poured out onto the streets of Paris
in a revolt against the July Monarchy. Demands were made for abdication of

"Citizen King" Louis-Philippe and for establishment of a representative


democracy in France.[81]
Representative classes in this revolt included the full range of French society
from the industrial bourgeoisie (who had been excluded from the "finance
aristocracy" that formed the major part of the bourgeoisie that supported the
July Monarchy), the petty bourgeoisie and the workers. Louis-Philippe
abdicated, and the French Second Republic was proclaimed. A Constituent
Assembly was elected which was seated in Paris. Alphonse Marie Louis de
Lamartine, who had been a leader of the moderate republicans in France during
the 1840s became the Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Provisional
Government that was established by this Assembly. In reality Lamartine was the
virtual head of government in 1848.[82]
Second Republic (184852)[edit]
See also: French Revolution of 1848 and June Days Uprising

Napoleon III, Emperor of the French.


Frustration among the laboring classes arose when the Constituent Assembly
did not address the concerns of the workers. Strikes and worker demonstrations

became more common as the workers gave vent to these frustrations. These
demonstrations reached a climax when on 15 May 1848, workers from the
secret societies broke out in armed uprising against the anti-labor and antidemocratic policies being pursued by the Constituent Assembly and the
Provisional Government. Fearful of a total breakdown of law and order, the
Provisional Government invited General Louis Eugene Cavaignac back from
Algeria, in June 1848, to put down the worker's armed revolt. From June 1848
until December 1848 General Cavaignac became head of the executive of the
Provisional Government.[83]
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president on 10 December 1848 by a
landslide. His support came from a wide section of the French public. Various
classes of French society voted for Louis Napoleon for very different and often
contradictory reasons.[84] Louis Napoleon, himself encouraged this contradiction
by "being all things to all people." One of his major promises to the peasantry
and other groups was that there would be no new taxes.[85]
The new National Constituent Assembly was heavily composed of royalist
sympathizers of both the Legitimist (Bourbon) wing and the Orleanist (Citizen
King Louis Philippe) wing. Because of the ambiguity surrounding Louis
Napoleon's political positions, his agenda as president was very much in doubt.
For prime minister, he selected Odilon Barrot, an unobjectionable middle-road
parliamentarian, who had led the "loyal opposition" under Louis Philippe. Other
appointees represented various royalist factions.[85]
The Pope had been forced out of Rome as part of the Revolutions of 1848, and
Louis Napoleon sent a 14,000 man expeditionary force of troops to the Papal
State under General Nicolas Charles Victor Oudinot to restore him. In late April
1849, it was defeated and pushed back from Rome by Giuseppi Garibaldi's
volunteer corps, then recovered and recaptured Rome.[86]
In June 1849, demonstrations against the government broke out and were
suppressed. Leaders were arrested, including prominent politicians. The
government banned several democratic and socialist newspapers in France; the
editors were arrested. Karl Marx was at risk so he moved to London in August.
[87]

The government sought ways to balance its budget and reduce its debts. Toward
this end, Hippolyte Passy was appointed Finance Minister. When the Legislative
Assembly met at the beginning of October 1849, Passy proposed an income tax
to help balance the finances of France. The bourgeoisie, who would pay most of
the tax, protested. The furor over the income tax caused the resignation of
Barrot as prime minister, but a new wine tax also caused protests.[88]

The 1850 elections resulted in a conservative body. It passed the Falloux Laws,
putting education into the hands of the Catholic clergy. It opened an era of
cooperation between Church and state that lasted until the Jules Ferry
laws reversed course in 1879. The Falloux Laws provided universal primary
schooling in France and expanded opportunities for secondary schooling. In
practice, the curricula were similar in Catholic and state schools. Catholic
schools were especially useful in schooling for girls, which had long been
neglected.[89] Although a new electoral law was passed that respected the
principle of universal (male) suffrage, the stricter residential requirement of the
new law actually had the effect of disenfranchising 3,000,000 of 10,000,000
voters.[90]
Second Empire, 1852-1871[edit]
As 1851 opened, Louis Napoleon was not allowed by the Constitution of 1848
to seek re-election as President of France.[91] Instead he proclaimed himself
President for Life following a coup in December that was confirmed and
accepted in a dubious referendum.
Napoleon III of France took the imperial title in 1852 and held it until his
downfall in 1870. The era saw great industrialization, urbanization (including
the massive rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann) and economic growth.
Despite his promises in 1852 of a peaceful reign, the Emperor could not resist
the temptations of glory in foreign affairs. He was visionary, mysterious and
secretive; he had a poor staff, and kept running afoul of his domestic supporters.
In the end he was incompetent as a diplomat.[92] Napoleon did have some
successes: he strengthened French control over Algeria, established bases in
Africa, began the takeover of Indochina, and opened trade with China. He
facilitated a French company building the Suez Canal, which Britain could not
stop. In Europe, however, Napoleon failed again and again. The Crimean war of
1854-1856 produced no gains. Napoleon had long been an admirer of Italy and
wanted to see it unified, although that might create a rival power. He plotted
with Cavour of the Italian kingdom of Piedmont to expel Austria and set up an
Italian confederation of four new states headed by the Pope. Events in 1859 ran
out of his control. Austria was quickly defeated, but instead of four new states a
popular uprising united all of Italy under Piedmont. The Pope held onto Rome
only because Napoleon sent troops to protect him. His reward was the County
of Nice (which included the city ofNice and the rugged Alpine territory to its
north and east) and the Duchy of Savoy. He angered Catholics when the Pope
lost most of his domains. Napoleon then reversed himself and angered both the
anticlerical liberals at home and his erstwhile Italian allies when he protected
the Pope in Rome.

The British grew annoyed at Napoleon's humanitarian intervention in Syria in


1860-61. Napoleon lowered the tariffs, which helped in the long run but in the
short run angered owners of large estates and the textile and iron industrialists,
while leading worried workers to organize. Matters grew worse in the 1860s as
Napoleon nearly blundered into war with the United States in 1862, while
his takeover of Mexico in 1861-1867 was a total disaster. The puppet
emperor he put on the Mexican throne was overthrown and executed. Finally in
the end he went to war with the Germans in 1870 when it was too late to stop
German unification. Napoleon had alienated everyone; after failing to obtain an
alliance with Austria and Italy, France had no allies and was bitterly divided at
home. It was disastrously defeated on the battlefield, losing Alsace and
Lorraine. A.J.P. Taylor is blunt: "he ruined France as a great power."[93][94][95]
Foreign wars[edit]
In 1854, The Second Empire joined the Crimean War, which saw France and
Britain opposed to the Russian Empire, which was decisively defeated
at Sevastopol in 1854-1855 and at Inkerman in 1854. In 1856 France joined
the Second Opium War on the British side against China; a missionary's murder
was used as a pretext to take interests in southwest Asia in the Treaty of
Tientsin.
When France was negotiating with the Netherlands about purchasing
Luxembourg in 1867, the Prussian Kingdom threatened the French government
with war. This "Luxembourg Crisis" came as a shock to French diplomats as
there previously was an agreement between the Prussian and French
governments about Luxembourg. Napoleon III suffered stronger and stronger
criticism from Republicans like Jules Favre, and his position seemed more
fragile with the passage of time.
France was looking for more interests in Asia. The country interfered in
Korea in 1866 taking, once again, missionaries' murders as a pretext. The
French finally withdrew from the war with little gain but war's booty. The next
year a French expedition to Japan was formed to help the Tokugawa
shogunate to modernize its army. However, Tokugawa was defeated during
the Boshin War at the Battle of Toba-Fushimi by large Imperial armies.
Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)[edit]

Areas of France occupied after theFranco-Prussian War until war


reparations were paid.
Rising tensions in 1869 about the possible candidacy of Prince Leopold von
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen to the throne of Spain caused a rise in the scale of
animosity between France and Germany.[96] Prince Leopold was a part of the
Prussian royal family. He had been asked by the Spanish Cortes to accept the
vacant throne of Spain.[96]
Such an event was more than France could possibly accept. Relations between
France and Germany deteriorated, and finally the Franco-Prussian War (1870
1871) broke out. German nationalism united the German states, with the
exception of Austria, against Napoleon III. The French Empire was defeated
decisively atMetz and Sedan. Emperor Louis Napoleon III surrendered himself
and 100,000 French troops to the German troops at Sedan on 12 September
1870.[97]
Two days later, on 4 September 1870, Leon Gambetta proclaimed a new
republic in France.[98] Later, when Paris was encircled by German troops,
Gambetta fled Paris by means of a hot air balloon and he became the virtual
dictator of the war effort which was carried on from the rural provinces.[99] Metz
remained under siege until 27 October 1870, when 173,000 French troops there
finally surrendered.[99] Surrounded, Paris was forced to surrender on 28 January
1871.[99] The Treaty of Frankfurt allowed the newly formed German Empire to
annex the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.[100]

Modernisation and railways (1870 to 1914)[edit]


Main article: History of rail transport in France
The seemingly timeless world of the French peasantry swiftly changed from
1870 to 1914. French peasants had been poor and locked into old traditions until
railroads, republican schools, and universal military conscription modernized
rural France. The centralized government in Paris had the goal of creating a
unified nation-state, so it required all students be taught standardized French. In
the process, a new national identity was forged.[101]
Railways became a national medium for the modernization of traditionalistic
regions, and a leading advocate of this approach was the poetpolitician Alphonse de Lamartine. In 1857 an army colonel hoped that railways
might improve the lot of "populations two or three centuries behind their
fellows" and eliminate "the savage instincts born of isolation and
misery."[102] Consequently, France built a centralized system that radiated from
Paris (plus in the south some lines that cut east to west). This design was
intended to achieve political and cultural goals rather than maximize efficiency.
After some consolidation, six companies controlled monopolies of their regions,
subject to close control by the government in terms of fares, finances, and even
minute technical details. The central government department of Ponts et
Chausses (bridges and roads) brought in British engineers, handled much of
the construction work, provided engineering expertise and planning, land
acquisition, and construction of permanent infrastructure such as the track bed,
bridges and tunnels. It also subsidized militarily necessary lines along the
German border. Private operating companies provided management, hired labor,
laid the tracks, and built and operated stations. They purchased and maintained
the rolling stock6,000 locomotives were in operation in 1880, which averaged
51,600 passengers a year or 21,200 tons of freight. Much of the equipment was
imported from Britain and therefore did not stimulate machinery makers.
Although starting the whole system at once was politically expedient, it delayed
completion, and forced even more reliance on temporary experts brought in
from Britain. Financing was also a problem. The solution was a narrow base of
funding through the Rothschilds and the closed circles of the Bourse in Paris, so
France did not develop the same kind of national stock exchange that flourished
in London and New York. The system did help modernize the parts of rural
France it reached, but it did not help create local industrial centers. Critics such
as mile Zola complained that it never overcame the corruption of the political
system, but rather contributed to it. The railways probably helped the industrial
revolution in France by facilitating a national market for raw materials, wines,
cheeses, and imported manufactured products. Yet the goals set by the French
for their railway system were moralistic, political, and military rather than
economic. As a result, the freight trains were shorter and less heavily loaded

than those in such rapidly industrializing nations such as Britain, Belgium or


Germany. Other infrastructure needs in rural France, such as better roads and
canals, were neglected because of the expense of the railways, so it seems likely
that there were net negative effects in areas not served by the trains.[103]
The Third Republic and the Belle Epoque: 18711914[edit]
Main article: French Third Republic
Third Republic and the Paris Commune[edit]
Following the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War (18701871),
German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck proposed harsh terms for peace
including the German occupation of the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.[100] A
new French National Assembly was elected to consider the German terms for
peace. Elected on 8 February 1871, this new National Assembly was composed
of 650 deputies.[100]
Sitting in Bourdeaux, the French National Assembly established the Third
Republic. However, 400 members of the new Assembly were monarchists.
[104]
(Leon Gambetta was one of the "non-monarchist" Republicans that were
elected to the new National Assembly from Paris.[105]) On 16 February
1871 Adolphe Thiers was elected to be the chief executive of the new Republic.
Because of the revolutionary unrest in Paris, the centre of the Thiers
government was located at Versailles.

A barricade in the Paris Commune, 18 March 1871.


In late 1870 to early 1871, the workers of Paris rose up in premature and
unsuccessful small-scale uprisings. The National Guard within Paris had
become increasingly restive and defiant of the police, the army chief of staff,
and even their own National Guard commanders. Thiers immediately
recognized a revolutionary situation and, on 18 March 1871, sent regular army
units to take control of artillery that belonged to the National Guard of Paris.

Some soldiers of the regular army units fraternized with the rebels and the
revolt escalated.[106]
The barricades went up just as in 1830 and 1848. The Paris Commune was born.
Once again the Hotel de Ville, or Town Hall, became the center of attention for
the people in revolt; this time the Hotel de Ville became the seat of the
revolutionary government. Other cities in France followed the example of the
Paris Commune, as in Lyon, Marseille, and Toulouse. All of the Communes
outside Paris were promptly crushed by the Thiers government.[106]
An election on 26 March 1871 in Paris produced a government based on the
working class.[citation needed] Louis Auguste Blanqui was in prison but a majority of
delegates were his followers, called "Blanquists."[citation needed] The minority
comprised anarchists and followers of Pierre Joseph Proudhon (18091855);
[citation needed]
as anarchists, the "Proudhonists" were supporters of limited or no
government and wanted the revolution to follow an ad hoc course with little or
no planning.[citation needed] Analysis of arrests records indicate the typical
communard was opposed to the military, the clerics, the rural aristocrats.[citation
needed]
He saw the bourgeoisie as the enemy.[citation needed]
After two months the French army moved in to retake Paris, with pitched battles
fought in working-class neighbourhoods. Hundreds were executed in front of
the Communards' Wall, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles
for trials. The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante ("The Bloody Week"
of 2128 May 1871) was perhaps 30,000, with as many as 50,000 later executed
or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia; thousands more escaped to
exile. The government won approval for its actions in a national referendum
with 321,000 in favor and only 54,000 opposed.[107]
Political battles[edit]
The Republican government next had to confront counterrevolutionaries who
rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. Both the Legitimists (embodied in
the person of Henri, Count of Chambord, grandson of Charles X) and
the Orleanistroyalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension
of modernity and atheism, breaking with France's traditions. This conflict
became increasingly sharp in 1873, when Thiers himself was censured by the
National Assembly as not being "sufficiently conservative" and resigned to
make way for Marshal Patrice MacMahon as the new president.[108]Amidst the
rumors of right-wing intrigue and/or coups by the Bonapartists or Bourbons in
1874, the National Assembly set about drawing up a new constitution that
would be acceptable to all parties.

The new constitution provided for universal male suffrage and called for a bicameral legislature, consisting of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The
initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the
"Radicals") andBonapartists scrambled for power. The first election under this
new constitution held in early 1876 resulted in a republican victory, with
363 republicans elected as opposed to 180 monarchists. However, 75 of the
monarchists elected to the new Chamber of Deputies were Bonapartists.[109]
The possibility of a coup d'tat was an ever-present factor. Leon
Gambetta chose moderate Armand Dufaure as premier but he failed to form a
government. .[109] MacMahon next chose conservative Jules Simon. He too
failed, setting the stage for the 16 May 1877 crisis, which led to the resignation
of MacMahon.[110] A restoration of the king now seemed likely, and royalists
agreed on Henri, comte de Chambord, the grandson of Charles X. He insisted
on an impossible demand and ruined the royalist cause. Its turn never came
again as the Orleanist faction rallied themselves to the Republic, behind
Adolphe Thiers. The new President of the Republic in 1879 was Jules Grevy. In
January 1886, Georges Boulanger became Minister of War. Georges
Clemanceau was instrumental in obtaining this appointment for Boulanger. This
was the start of the Boulanger era and another time of threats of a coup.[111]
The Legitimist (Bourbon) faction mostly left politics but one segment
founded L'Action Franaise in 1898, during the Dreyfus Affair; it became an
influential movement throughout the 1930s, in particular among the
conservative Catholic intellectuals.[112]
The period from 1879 to 1899 saw power in the hands of moderate republicans
and former "radicals" (around Lon Gambetta); these were called the
"Opportunists".
Foreign policy[edit]
French foreign policy was based on a fear of Germanywhose larger size and
fast-growing economy could not be matchedcombined with a revanchism that
demanded the return of Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time, in the midst of
the Scramble for Africa, French and British interest in Africa came into conflict.
The most dangerous episode was theFashoda Incident of 1898 when French
troops tried to claim an area in the Southern Sudan, and a British force
purporting to be acting in the interests of the Khedive of Egypt arrived. Under
heavy pressure the French withdrew securing Anglo-Egyptian control over the
area. The status quo was recognised by an agreement between the two states
acknowledging British control over Egypt, while France became the dominant
power in Morocco, but France suffered a humiliating defeat overall.[113]

The Suez Canal, initially built by the French, became a joint British-French
project in 1875, as both saw it as vital to maintaining their influence and
empires in Asia. In 1882, ongoing civil disturbances in Egypt prompted Britain
to intervene, extending a hand to France. France's leading expansionist Jules
Ferry was out of office, and the government allowed Britain to take effective
control of Egypt.[114]
France had colonies in Asia and looked for alliances and found in Japan a
possible ally. During his visit to France, Iwakura Tomomi asked for French
assistance in reforming Japan. French military missions were sent to Japan
in 18721880, in18841889 and the last one much later in 19181919 to help
modernize the Japanese army. Conflicts between the Chinese Emperor and the
French Republic over Indochina climaxed during the Sino-French War (1884
1885). Admiral Courbet destroyed the Chinese fleet anchored at Foochow. The
treaty ending the war, put France in a protectorate over northern and central
Vietnam, which it divided into Tonkin and Annam.[115]
In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and
Great Britain, first by means of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, then the
1904 Entente Cordiale with Great Britain, and finally the Anglo-Russian
Entente in 1907, which became the Triple Entente. This alliance with Britain
and Russia against Germany and Austria eventually led Russia and Britain to
enter World War I as France's Allies.[116]
Dreyfus Affair[edit]
Distrust of Germany, faith in the army, and native French antisemitism combined to make the Dreyfus Affair (the unjust trial and
condemnation of a Jewish military officer for "treason" in 1894) a political
scandal of the utmost gravity. For a decade, the nation was divided between
"dreyfusards" and "anti-dreyfusards", and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed
the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus's innocence came to light. The
writer mile Zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice (J'accuse)
and was himself condemned by the government for libel. Dreyfus was finally
pardoned in 1906. The upshot was a weakening of the conservative element in
politics. Moderates were deeply divided over the Dreyfus Affair, and this
allowed the Radicals to hold power from 1899 until World War I. During this
period, crises like the threatened "Boulangist" coup d'tat (1889) showed the
fragility of the republic.[117]

The Eiffel Tower under construction in July 1888.


Religion 1870-1940[edit]
Throughout the lifetime of the Third Republic there were battles over the status
of the Catholic Church. The French clergy and bishops were closely associated
with the Monarchists and many of its hierarchy were from noble families.
Republicans were based in the anticlerical middle class who saw the Church's
alliance with the monarchists as a political threat to republicanism, and a threat
to the modern spirit of progress. The Republicans detested the church for its
political and class affiliations; for them, the church represented outmoded
traditions, superstition and monarchism.[118]
The Republicans were strengthened by Protestant and Jewish support.
Numerous laws were passed to weaken the Catholic Church. In 1879, priests
were excluded from the administrative committees of hospitals and of boards of
charity. In 1880, new measures were directed against the religious
congregations. From 1880 to 1890 came the substitution of lay women for nuns
in many hospitals. Napoleon's 1801 Concordat continued in operation but in
1881, the government cut off salaries to priests it disliked.[118]
The 1882 school laws of Republican Jules Ferry set up a national system of
public schools that taught strict puritanical morality but no religion.[119] For a
while privately funded Catholic schools were tolerated. Civil marriage became
compulsory, divorce was introduced and chaplains were removed from the
army.[120]
When Leo XIII became pope in 1878 he tried to calm Church-State relations. In
1884 he told French bishops not to act in a hostile manner to the State. In 1892
he issued an encyclical advising French Catholics to rally to the Republic and

defend the Church by participating in Republican politics. This attempt at


improving the relationship failed.[121]
Deep-rooted suspicions remained on both sides and were inflamed by
the Dreyfus Affair. Catholics were for the most part anti-dreyfusard. The
Assumptionists published anti-Semitic and anti-republican articles in their
journal La Croix. This infuriated Republican politicians, who were eager to take
revenge. Often they worked in alliance with Masonic lodges. TheWaldeckRousseau Ministry (18991902) and the Combes Ministry (190205) fought
with the Vatican over the appointment of bishops.[121]
Chaplains were removed from naval and military hospitals (190304), and
soldiers were ordered not to frequent Catholic clubs (1904). Combes as Prime
Minister in 1902, was determined to thoroughly defeat Catholicism. He closed
down all parochial schools in France. Then he had parliament reject
authorisation of all religious orders. This meant that all fifty four orders were
dissolved and about 20,000 members immediately left France, many for Spain.
[121]

In 1905 the 1801 Concordat was abrogated; Church and State were
separated. All Church property was confiscated. Public worship was given over
to associations of Catholic laymen who controlled access to churches. In
practise, Masses and rituals continued. The Church was badly hurt and lost half
its priests. In the long run, however, it gained autonomyfor the State no
longer had a voice in choosing bishops and Gallicanism was dead.[122]
The belle poque[edit]
The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century was the belle
poque because of peace, prosperity and the cultural innovations of Monet,
Bernhardt, and Debussy, and popular amusements cabaret, can-can,
the cinema,[123] new art forms such as Impressionism and Art Nouveau.[124]
In 1889 the Exposition Universelle showed off newly modernised Paris to the
world, which could look over it all from atop the new Eiffel Tower. Meant to
last only a few decades, the tower was never removed and became France's
most iconic landmark.[125]
France was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of ideology,
religion, class, regionalisms, and money. On the international front, France
came repeatedly to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, such as the
1898 Fashoda Incident with Great Britain over East Africa.

Since 1914[edit]
Main article: France in the 20th century
World War I[edit]
Main article: World War I
See also: World War I casualties

A French bayonet charge in World War I

The 114th infantry in Paris, 14 July 1917.


Preoccupied with internal problems, France paid little attention to foreign policy
in the 1911-14 period, although it did extend military service to three years from
two over strong Socialist objections in 1913. The rapidly escalating Balkan
crisis of 1914 caught France unawares, and it played only a small role in the
coming of World War I. The Serbian crisis triggered a complex set of formal
and secret military alliances between European states, causing most of the
continent, including France, to be drawn into war within a few short weeks.
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia in late July, triggering Russian
mobilization. On 1 August both Germany and France ordered mobilization.
Germany was much better prepared militarily than any of the other countries
involved, including France.

Later on that day, the German Empire, as an ally of Austria, declared war on
Russia. France was allied with Russia and so was ready to commit to war
against the German Empire. On 3 August Germany declared war on France,
going through Belgium. Britain entered the war on 4 August, and started
sending in troops on 7 August.
Germany's plan was to quickly defeat the French. They captured Brussels by 20
August and soon had captured a large portion of northern France. The original
plan was to continue southwest and attack Paris from the west. By early
September they were within 40 miles of Paris, and the French government had
relocated to Bordeaux. The Allies finally stopped the advance northeast of Paris
at the Marne River (512 September 1914).[126]
The war now became a stalemate the famous "Western Front" was fought
largely in France and was characterized by very little movement despite
extremely large and violent battles, often with new and more destructive
military technology. On the Western Front the small improvised trenches of the
first few months rapidly grew deeper and more complex, gradually becoming
vast areas of interlocking defensive works. The land war quickly became
dominated by the muddy, bloody stalemate of Trench warfare, a form of war in
which both opposing armies had static lines of defense.
The war of movement quickly turned into a war of position. Neither side
advanced much, but both sides suffered hundreds of thousands of casualties.
German and Allied armies produced essentially a matched pair of trench lines
from the Swiss border in the south to the North Sea coast of Belgium.
The space between the opposing trenches was referred to as "no man's land"
(for its lethal uncrossability) and varied in width depending on the battlefield;
on the Western Front it was typically between 100 and 300 yards (90275 m),
though sometimes much less. The common infantry soldier had four weapons to
use in the trenches: the rifle, bayonet, shotgun, and hand grenade, but the only
defense against machine guns and artillery was to stay low in the trenches.
[127]
Trench warfare prevailed on the Western Front from September 1914 until
March 1918. Famous battles in France include Battle of Verdun (spanning 10
months from 21 February to 18 December 1916), Battle of the Somme (1 July
to 18 November 1916), and five separate conflicts called the Battle of
Ypres (from 1914 to 1918).
Britain introduced the first tanks to the war, while Renault enhanced the concept
by adding a turret. The use in large quantity of these light tanks by Jean-Baptiste
Estienne can be considered a decisive evolution in World War I's strategies.

When Russia exited the war in 1917 due to revolution, the Central
Powers controlled all of the Balkans and could now shift military efforts to the
Western Front. The U.S. had entered the war also in 1917, so the Central Powers
hoped victory could be achieved mostly prior to America's delivery of full
military support. In March 1918 Germany launched the last major offensive on
the Western Front. By May Germany had reached the Marne again, as in
September 1914, and was again close to Paris. However, in the Second Battle of
the Marne (15 July to 6 August 1918), the Allies were able to defend and then
shift to offense due in part to German fatigue and the arrival of more Americans.
The Germans, out of reinforcements, were overwhelmed day after day and the
high command saw it was hopeless. Austria and Turkey collapsed, and the
Kaiser's government fell. Germany signed a surrender "The Armistice" that
ended the fighting effective 11 November 1918, "the eleventh hour of the
eleventh day of the eleventh month."

The Council of Four (from left to right): David Lloyd George, Vittorio
Emanuele Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson in Versailles
Peace terms were imposed by the Big Four, meeting in Paris in 1919: David
Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, Georges Clemenceau of
France, andWoodrow Wilson of the United States. Clemenceau demanded the
harshest terms and won most of them in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
Germany was forced to admit its guilt for starting the war, and was permanently
weakened militarily. Germany had to pay huge sums in war reparations to the
Allies (who in turn had large loans from the U.S. to pay off).[128]
France regained Alsace-Lorraine and occupied the German industrial Saar
Basin, a coal and steel region. The German African colonies were put
under League of Nations mandates, and were administered by France and other
victors. From the remains of the Ottoman Empire, France acquired the Mandate
of Syria and theMandate of Lebanon.[128] French Marshal Ferdinand

Foch wanted a peace that would never allow Germany to be a threat to France
again, but after the Treaty of Versailles was signed he said, This is not a peace.
It is an armistice for 20 years.[129]
The war was fought in large part on French soil, with 1.4 million French dead
including civilians, and four times as many military casualties.
Interwar years[edit]

French cavalry entering Essenduring the Occupation of the Ruhr.


France was part of the Allied force that occupied the Rhineland following the
Armistice. Foch supported Poland in the Greater Poland Uprising and in
the Polish-Soviet War and France also joined Spain during the Rif War. From
1925 until his death in 1932, Aristide Briand, as prime minister during five
short intervals, directed French foreign policy, using his diplomatic skills and
sense of timing to forge friendly relations with Weimar Germany as the basis of
a genuine peace within the framework of the League of Nations. He realized
France could neither contain the much larger Germany by itself nor secure
effective support from Britain or the League.[130]
As a response to the failure of the Weimar Republic to pay reparations in the
aftermath of World War I, France occupied the industrial region of the Ruhr as a
means of ensuring repayments from Germany.
In the 1920s, France established an elaborate system of border defences called
the Maginot Line, designed to fight off any German attack. (Unfortunately, the
Maginot Line did not extend into Belgium, where Germany attacked in 1940.)
Military alliances were signed with weak powers in 19201921, called the
"Little Entente".
The French economy fell into the doldrums during the worldwide Great
Depression after 1929. Leon Blum, leading thePopular Front, brought together
Socialists and Communists to become Prime Minister from 1936 to 1937; he
was the first Jew to lead France. During the Spanish Civil War (19361939) he

did not support the Spanish Republicans because of the French internal political
context of complex alliances and risk of war with Germany and Italy.
Appeasement of Germany, in cooperation with Britain, was the policy after
1936, as France sought peace even in the face of Hitler's violations of the
Versailles treaty and his escalating demands. douard Daladier refused to go to
war against Germany and Italy without British support as Neville
Chamberlain wanted to save peace at Munich in 1938.[131]
World War II[edit]
Main articles: Vichy France, Diplomacy of World War II, Military history of
France during World War II and German occupation of France during World
War II

German soldiers on parade marching past the Arc de Triomphe


Germany's Invasion of Poland in 1939 finally caused France and Britain to
declare war against Germany. But the Allies did not launch massive assaults and
instead kept a defensive stance: this was called the Phoney War in Britain
or Drle de guerre the funny sort of war in France. It did not prevent the
German army from conquering Poland in a matter of weeks with its
innovative Blitzkrieg tactics, also helped by the Soviet Union's attack on
Poland.

When Germany had its hands free for an attack in the west, the Battle of
Francebegan in May 1940, and the same Blitzkrieg tactics proved just as
devastating there. The Wehrmacht bypassed the Maginot Line by marching
through the Ardennes forest. A second German force was sent into Belgium and
the Netherlands to act as a diversion to this main thrust. In six weeks of savage
fighting the French lost 90,000 men.[132]
Many civilians sought refuge by taking to the roads of France: some 2 million
refugees from Belgium and Holland were joined by between 8 and 10 million
French civilians, representing a quarter of the French population, all heading
south and west. This movement may well have been the largest single
movement of civilians in history prior to 1947.
Paris fell to the Germans on 14 June 1940, and the French leaders surrendered
on 24 June 1940 after the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated
from Dunkirk. Nazi Germany occupied three-fifths of France's territory, leaving
the rest in the southeast to the new Vichy government.
Vichy France was established on 10 July 1940 to govern the unoccupied part of
France and its colonies. The Vichy Regime led by Philippe Ptain, the aging
war hero of the First World War was originally intended to be a temporary,
care-taker regime, to supervise French administration before the soon-expected
defeat of Britain. Instead, it lasted four years. It was unique among the various
collaborating regimes of wartime Europe in that it was established
constitutionally, through the French parliament.[133]
The Vichy regime sought to collaborate with Germany, keeping peace in France
to avoid further occupation although at the expense of personal freedom and
individual safety. For example, 76,000 Jews would be deported during the
German occupation, often with the help of the Vichy French authorities, and
murdered in the Nazis' extermination camps.[134] There were also Frenchmen
who joined the German SS and served in the Charlemagne Division. Yet despite
extensive collaboration, the Vichy regime engaged a programme of arresting
German intelligence agents in the unoccupied zone, with the purpose of
preserving Vichy's sovereignty;[135] around 2,000 were arrested and some were
subsequently executed.
General Charles de Gaulle declared himself on Radio Londres to be the head of
a rival government in exile, and gathered the Free French Forces around him,
finding support in some French colonies and recognition from Britain and the
USA. After the Attack on Mers-el-Kbir in 1940, where the British fleet
destroyed a large part of the French navy, still under command of Vichy France,
that killed about 1,100 sailors, there was nationwide indignation and a feeling of
distrust in the French forces, leading to the events of the Battle of Dakar.

Eventually, several important French ships such as theRichelieu and


the Surcouf joined the Free French Forces. On the Eastern Front the USSR was
lacking pilots and several French pilots joined the Soviet Union and fought the
Luftwaffe in the Normandie-Niemen squadron.

The Allied invasion of Normandy, D-Day, 1944.


Within France proper, very few people organized themselves against the
German Occupation in the summer of 1940. However, their numbers grew as
the Vichy regime resorted to more strident policies in order to fulfill the
enormous demands of the Nazis and the eventual decline of Nazi Germany
became more obvious. Isolated opposers eventually formed a real movement:the
Resistance.[136] The most famous figure of the French resistance wasJean
Moulin, sent in France by de Gaulle in order to link all resistance movements;
he was captured and tortured by Klaus Barbie (the "butcher of Lyon").
Increasing repression culminated in the complete destruction and extermination
of the village of Oradour-sur-Glane, at the height of the Battle of
Normandy (June 1944).
In November 1942 Vichy France was finally occupied by German forces,
because the war in North Africa was coming to an end; the Germans foresaw a
threat in southern Europe by the allied forces. Vichy continued in existence but
it was closely supervised by the Germans.
On 6 June 1944 the Allies landed in Normandy (without a French component);
on 15 August Allied forces landing in Provence, this time they included 260,000
men of the French First Army. The German lines finally broke, and they fled
back to Germany while keeping control of the major ports. Allied forces
liberated France and the Gree French were given the honor of liberating Paris in
late August 1944. The French army recruited French Forces of the Interior (de
Gaulle's formal name for resistance fighters) to continue the war until the final

defeat of Germany; this army numbered 300,000 men by September 1944 and
370,000 by Spring 1945.
The Vichy regime fled to Germany. An interim Provisional Government of the
French Republic was quickly put into place by de Gaulle. The gouvernement
provisoire de la Rpublique franaise, or GPRF, operated under
a tripartisme alliance of communists, socialists, and democratic republicans.
The GPRF governed France from 1944 to 1946, when it was replaced by
the French Fourth Republic. Tens of thousands of collaborators were executed
without trial. The new government declared the Vichy laws unconstitutional and
illegal, and elected new local governments. Women gained the right to vote.
Cold War[edit]
See also: French Fourth Republic and French Fifth Republic
On 13 October 1946, a new constitution established the Fourth Republic. The
Fourth Republic consisted of a parliamentary government controlled by a series
of coalitions. During the next 16 years the French Colonial Empire would
disintegrate.
Israel was established in 1948, and France was one of the fiercest supporters of
the Jewish state, supplying it with extensive weaponry it used during the 1948
Arab-Israeli War. The French Republic needed an alliance with Israel to secure
the Suez Canal from potential threats in a context of decolonisation.
In Indochina the French government was facing the Viet Minh communist
rebels and lost its Indochinese colonies during the First Indochina War in 1954
after the Battle of Dien Bien Phu. Vietnam was divided in two states
while Cambodia andLaos were made independent. France left Indochina only to
be replaced there by the United States, which would soon be engaged in the
long Vietnam War.
Suez crisis (1956)[edit]
Main article: Suez crisis
In 1956 another crisis struck French colonies, this time in Egypt. The Suez
Canal, having been built by the French government, belonged to the French
Republic and was operated by the Compagnie universelle du canal maritime de
Suez. Great Britain had bought the Egyptian share from Isma'il Pasha and was
the second largest owner of the canal before the crisis.
The Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal despite
French and British opposition; he determined that a European response was

unlikely. Great Britain and France attacked Egypt and built an alliance with
Israel against Nasser. Israel attacked from the east, Britain from Cyprus and
France from Algeria. Egypt, the most powerful Arab state of the time, was
defeated in a mere few days.
The Suez crisis caused an outcry of indignation in the entire Arab world and
Saudi Arabia set an embargo on oil on France and Britain. The US
President Dwight D. Eisenhower forced a ceasefire when he threatened to sell
all American Sterling Bond holdings and to crash the British economy. British
forces retired from the conflict and Israel, having seized interests in the Sinai
region, soon withdrew, leaving France alone in Egypt. Under strong political
pressures, the French government ultimately evacuated its troops from Suez.
This was a major political defeat for France and the American threats during the
war were received with indignation by the French popular opinion. This led
directly, and was used as a point, to the French withdrawal from the integrated
military command of NATO in 1966. Another consequence of this was the
French loss of geopolitical interests in the region; this meant an alliance with
Israel was no longer of any use for French diplomacy.
De Gaulle and Germany'sKonrad Adenauer in 1961.
General de Gaulle was elected president in 1958 and made the French Force de
Frappe, the nuclear power, a priority of the French Defence. France then
adopted the dissuasion du faible au fort doctrine which meant a Soviet attack on
France would only bring total destruction to both sides.
"Within ten years, we shall have the means to kill 80 million Russians. I truly
believe that one does not light-heartedly attack people who are able to kill
80 million Russians, even if one can kill 800 million French, that is if there
were 800 million French."
The May 1958 seizure of power in Algiers by French army units and French
settlers opposed to concessions in the face of Arab nationalist insurrection led to
the fall of the French government and a presidential invitation to de Gaulle to
form an emergency government to forestall the threat of civil war. The new
constitution of the French Fifth Republic, introduced on 5 October 1958, gave
greater powers to the presidency. Algeriabecame independent in 1962.
In May 1968 students revolted, with a variety of demands including
educational, labor and governmental reforms, sexual and artistic freedom, and
the end of the Vietnam War. The student protest in unruly movements quickly
joined with labor, and mass strikes erupted. De Gaulle responded by calling

a legislative election for 23 June, in which his UDR partyincreased their vote,
and the protests faded away during the summer.
Post Cold War[edit]
After the fall of the USSR and the end of the Cold War potential menaces to
mainland France appeared considerably reduced. France began reducing its
nuclear capacities and conscription was abolished in 2001. In 1990 France, led
byFranois Mitterrand, joined the short successful Gulf War against Iraq; the
French participation to this war was called theOpration Daguet.[137]
Terrorism grew worse. In 1994 Air France Flight 8969 was hijacked by Islamic
terrorists; they were captured.
Conservative Jacques Chirac assumed office as president on 17 May 1995, after
a campaign focused on the need to combat France's stubbornly high
unemployment rate. While France continues to revere its rich history and
independence, French leaders increasingly tie the future of France to the
continued development of the European Union. In 1992 France ratified
the Maastricht Treaty establishing the European Union. In 1999, the Euro was
introduced to replace the French franc. Beyond membership in the European
Union, France is also involved in many joint European projects such as Airbus,
the Galileo positioning system and the Eurocorps.
The French have stood among the strongest supporters of NATO and EU policy
in the Balkans to prevent genocide inYugoslavia. French troops joined the 1999
NATO bombing of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. France has also been
actively involved against international terrorism. In 2002 Alliance Base, an
international Counterterrorist Intelligence Center, was secretly established in
Paris. The same year France contributed to the toppling of the Taliban regime in
Afghanistan, but it strongly rejected the 2003 invasion of Iraq, even threatening
to veto in central coners in the US proposed resolution.
Jacques Chirac was reelected in 2002, mainly because his socialist rival Lionel
Jospin was removed from the runoff by the right wing candidate Jean-Marie Le
Pen. France was struck by a long period of civil unrest in 2005 after the death of
two Moslem teenagers.
Conservative Nicolas Sarkozy was elected and took office on 16 May 2007. The
problem of high unemployment has yet to be resolved. In 2008, France was one
of the first states to recognise Kosovo as an independent nation.
In 2012, Sarkozy ran for re-election but was defeated by Socialist Franois
Hollande who advocated a growth policy in contrast to the austerity policy

advocated by Germany's Angela Merkel as a way of tackling the European


sovereign debt crisis. In 2014 Hollande stood with Merkel and US President
Obama in imposing sanctions on Russia for its actions against Ukraine.
See also[edit]

Economic history of France

Foreign relations of France

French colonial empire

French judicial system in post-Napoleonic France

History of Paris

History of the European Union

International relations (18141919)

Kings of France family tree

List of French monarchs

List of Presidents of France

List of Prime Ministers of France

Military history of France

Politics of France

Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine

Territorial evolution of France

Timeline of French history

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