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This paper examines how Eurocode 7 relates to the design of temporary excavation support. It is shown that total
stress design and the net available passive resistance method described in Ciria Report 104 can produce inconsistent
results, which must be carefully checked for sensitivity to the soil parameter values used. Many temporary
excavations are designed using moderately conservative soil parameter values and a limit equilibrium method of
analysis with a lumped factor of safety of 1.5. It is concluded that design in accordance with Eurocode 7 produces
higher propping forces than design using this approach, but that Eurocode 7 produces propping forces over 60%
lower than design in accordance with Ciria Report C580.
Notation
cu
cu;d
ka
kac
kp
kpc
Psls
ua
up
F
G;dst
G;stb
a
p
va
vp
v9a
v9p
1.
undrained cohesion
design value of undrained cohesion
active pressure coefficient
active pressure coefficient
passive pressure coefficient
passive pressure coefficient
value of the prop force derived from the SLS load case
pore water pressure on active side of wall
pore water pressure on passive side of wall
partial factor for an action
partial factor for a permanent destabilising action
partial factor for a permanent stabilising action
active earth pressure
passive earth pressure
total vertical stress on the active side of the wall
total vertical stress on the passive side of the wall
effective vertical stress on the active side of the wall
effective vertical stress on the passive side of the wall
Introduction
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
2.
a k a v9a ua
passive pressure
p k p v9p up
Eurocode 7
a k a va ua 1 k a
and
Unfavourable permanent
geotechnical action, G 135
Actual earth pressure
distribution (indicative)
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
p k p vp up 1 k p
Since ka is generally less than 1.0, these formulae show that the
vertical total stress on the active side of the wall, va , and the
water pressure on the active side of the wall, ua , are both
unfavourable, since they increase the pressure on the active side
of the wall. On the passive side of the wall, as the vertical total
stress, vp , increases so the passive pressure increases, hence the
vertical total stress is favourable. However, since kp is greater
than 1.0, the term (1 kp ) is negative and water on the passive
side reduces the passive resistance; hence it is unfavourable. To
avoid applying different partial factors to the earth and water
pressures it is simplest to use the single source principle.
2.2 Comparable experience
Eurocode 7 places considerable value on comparable experience,
which is defined in clause 1.5.2.2 as follows.
Documented or other clearly established information related to the
ground being considered in design, involving the same types of soil
and rock and for which similar geotechnical behaviour is expected,
and involving similar structures. Information gained locally is
considered to be particularly relevant. (BSI, 2004a)
Geotechnical Engineering
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Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
3.
Requirement of EC7-2
As existing
As existing
DA1-C1,
DA1-C2
As existing
As existing
Production of geotechnical design report
As existing
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
Surcharge, w
50 m
Prop
20 kN/m3
ka kp 10
kac kpc 20
cu 25 kPa
Active pressure
10 m
v 100 kPa
pp kp d kac cu 50 20d
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
cu : kPa
Factor on strength
cud : kPa
Driving depth,
d: m
Maximum moment:
kN m
Prop load:
kN m
38
36
1.4
1.4
27.14
25.71
5.88
12.26
145
207
81
99
cu : kPa
Factor on strength
cud : kPa
Driving depth,
d: m
Maximum moment:
kN m
Prop load:
kN m
56
49
45
43
1.4
1.4
1.4
1.4
40
35
32
31
1.04
1.83
4.02
6.78
36
48
44
46
29
30
32
33
4.
50 m
10 m
Surcharge 10 kPa
Prop
19 kN/m3
w 10 kN/m3
Linear variation of
hydraulic head
(BS 8002: 1994)
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
600
800
700
550
500
450
Prop load: kN
Moment: kN m
400
500
400
350
300
250
200
300
150
100
200
25
100
25
30
35
Angle of shearing resistance: deg
40
30
35
Angle of shearing resistance: deg
40
analysis are greater than 1.35 times the prop force from the SLS
analysis (Figure 8). However, this is not the case for all soils
and, as with design to EC7, it is necessary to check both load
cases.
13
Driving depth: m
11
10
9
8
7
6
25
30
35
Angle of shearing resistance: deg
40
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
5.
Conclusions
Currently, in the UK, a variety of methods are used for the design
of temporary retaining walls and, in general, design is at working
load whereas the structural codes use partial factors. In that it is a
limit state and partial factor code, EC7 is a major step forward in
standardisation, but the lack of prescriptive measures will lead to
much disagreement and uncertainty among engineers.
In the UK, only design approach 1 is permitted by the National
Annex to EC7-1 (BSI, 2004b). Even using a single method of
design, different interpretations of EC7 can produce very different results. For example, passive earth pressure can be treated as
a resistance, a favourable action or a negative unfavourable
action, each of which produces a different result to the calculations. Water pressure can also be treated in several different ways
and a consistent approach is required, such as using the single
source principle, which removes some of the complexity of, and
is easier to use than, applying different partial factors to the
different parts of the earth and water pressure diagrams.
Some of the opposition to EC7 can be explained by conservatism of geotechnical engineers and the unwillingness to change
existing practices that are known to work. Interpretation of EC7
produces disagreement, among engineers, regarding whether
numerical modelling is required and interpretation of the
individual clauses. Using EC7, it is necessary for the engineer to
refer to NCCI to complete the design. In the UK, Ciria Report
C580 (Gaba et al., 2003) is cited as NCCI; however, parts of
Ciria C580 are contradictory, so a partial rewrite is required
urgently, to ensure reliability in design and to ensure that EC7,
unlike BS 8002, is widely accepted by temporary works
engineers.
Currently, for cohesive soils, total stress design or mixed total
and effective stress design are often used for temporary excavations. However, whenever total stress parameters are used on the
passive side of the wall, the analysis can become ill-conditioned
and a sensitivity analysis is necessary.
The routine method of design for small temporary excavation
support has become a hybrid method based on Ciria Reports 104
(Padfield and Mair, 1984) and C580 (Gaba et al., 2003). When
used with the partial factors of EC7, the overall factor of safety is
significantly less than recommended in Ciria Report C580 and
the results can be sensitive to the parameter values used, which
makes it essential to check the results for sensitivity to parameter
values and accidental overdig, as well as checking against the
output from an existing method of design.
11
Geotechnical Engineering
Volume 165 Issue GE1
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