ELSEVIER SCIENCE BY. Sara Burgerhariteaat 25 P.O. Bog 21,1000 AE Amsterdam, The Nethetinds ean 7eeaezd 92-47578 ISBN: 044481098 4 ©1984 Blsevier Science BY. A ighs reserved, ‘No put of is publication nay be vepreduce, stored na retrieval system or ans ia any form oF by any mean, cletroni, mechanic, photocopying, reonling or others, without the prior ween permison ofthe pblsher Ehevier Senco BN. Copyright & Permsions Department, BO. Box 52, 100 AM Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Special egulations for eader in the US,A. — This publication hasbeen egered wth the Copyri Clearance Center Ie- (CCC), Salem, Massachusts Infomation can be obisined from the CCC ay onions under which photocopies of parts ofthis peblction may be made in the U.S.A. All ther origh questions, inclading photocopying outside of th ISA, shouldbe eferredto the publisher ‘No responsi sumed by he pba for any inary andor damage to prions or property aa rater of products Habis, negligence or otherwise, oF fem any use oF operation of any methods, prods, nructons or dos contin in the material hei, ‘This book is pine on nist paper Printed in The Nethetads vy PREFACE PREFACE Stability is a basic design/construction/performance requirement for many load-carrying systems; therefore, stability design and analysis of structures constitutes a major topic in the field of structural engineering. The science and the engineering of structural stability covers a wide domain; its spectrum ranges from the knowledge of the fundamental concepts of stability and instability to a grasp of the methodologies of stability analysis, the use of the stability codes of practice, and the analysis capability of various homogeneous and composite structures including one dimensional elements, frames, plates, and shells; each of these may be ‘subjected to static and / or dynamic loading conditions. ‘The literature on structural stability is extensive; in addition to general texts, various fields of civil, mechanical, and aeronautical engineering have their own literature on their related stability problems. There are a number ‘of books on stability; however, many of these texts concentrate on some aspects of the science and engineering of structural stability. A concise and yet an integral treatment of the subject containing presentation of the fundamental concepts, systematic stability analysis of the structural ‘elements including the homogeneous and composite bars, rings, frames, plates and shells, as well as the stability design of structures with the help of the codes of practice seems to be lacking; there appears to be a need, in the paris of the students and practising engineers, for the texts of such nature. ‘The present book aims at such a concise and yet an integrated treatment of the clastic structural stability problems; it aims at discussing the fundamental concepts and their applications to the elastic stability analysis and design of various structural elements and systems, The present book is conceived on this basis; ithas the following constitution: (1) Fundamentals of stability analysis; this part embodies: introduction to the basic concepts, discussion of various types of instability, including bifurcation/snap-through, conservative/non-conservative, linear/non-lincar, static/dynamic instability, and the analytical as well as numerical methodologies of stability analysis. These discussions are carried out by the help of simple mechanical models. (2) Stability analysis of homogeneous and composite bars (struts and beam-columns), frames, arches and rings, plates, and shells, In each of these topics, first a non-linear theory is established; the governing relations are then linearized and linear stability analyses are performed. As ‘supplement to static analyses, an introduction to dynamic instability is also given in a separate chapter. Moreover, some topics in the inelastic andvi PREFACE, viscoelastic buckling analysis are presented; this would enhance the elastic analyses and would provide a background to the inelastic instability of structures. () Codified design of the structural elements; in this part, some codes of practice are introduced and discussed; the main body of the text is, however, code-free and can be regarded as classical material which would not be subjected to geographical and temporal variations in the codes; the book can thus be used by different readers at various places and occasions while being of specific use to designers of specific projects. (5) An introduction to the Finite Element method of stability analysis; the stability analysis of structures with complicated geometry, material, and loading necessitates a numerical treatment; the Finite Element method ovides one of these numerical methods. Fundamentals of the Finite ilement method for stability analysis are discussed in a separate chapter. ‘The presentation of the FE method includes an overview of the variational basis of numerical methods and application of the variational schemes to derive the Finite Element equations for various elements. In this chapter, hints are given to avoid errors in the numerical analyses and/or in the interpretation of the computer results. Some examples of computerized buckling analysis are also presented. This book is the result of many years of professorship in several universities, research, and practical experience in this field in the part of its author; it also makes use of a bulk of the available literature in this area. This text is aimed for use by an audience primarily consisting of engineering students, researchers, and practising engineers. ‘Obviously, coverage of a wide spectrum such as strutural stability in a ingle volume can not be fully achieved; therefore, many shortcomings can be anticipated; however, the conception is that, by studying this text, a grasp of fundamentals of the, stability concepts, and the design-analysis methodologies can be achieved. Having obtained such a background, the reader would then be able to follow the detailed treatments of the subject in more specialized literature and, moreover, would be able to relate various topics in an integrated setting. The author would like to thank, Professor F. Eggimann, Professor U. Meier, Herr. Fritz, and Herr, P, Flieler, of EMPA, for their support of this publication and also Prof. H-R Meyer-Piening for his useful comments on the initial text. M. Farshad EMPA, Switzerland CONTENTS Preface 1, Introduction 1.1. What is Stability and Instability? 1.2. Some Cases of Structural Instability 13, Relation Between Instability and Failure 1-4. Stability Considerations in Design 1.5 Codes for Structural Stability Design 1.6, An Overview of This Text References for Chapter I 2. Fundamentals of Stability Analysis 2.3. Classification of Forces and Systems 23.1. Applied Force 2.3.2. Mechanical Systems 24. Types of Elastic Instability 2.4.1. Bifurcation of Equilibrium 2.4.2. Limit Equilibrium Instability 2.4.3. Dynamic and Flutter Instabilities 2.5. Bifurcation Instability Analysis 2.5.1. The Equilibrium Method 2.5.2. The Imperfection Method 2.5.3. The Energy Method 25.4. The Dynamic Method vil CONTENTS 10 12 12 4 15 16 7 18 19 19 22 27 29 18 9-54vill CONTENTS 2.6. Types of Bifurcation Instability 2.6.1. Stable Symmetrical Bifurcation 2.6.2. Labile Symmetrical Bifurcation 2.63. Labile Unsymmeirical Bifurcation 2.7. A Model of Snap-Through Buckling 2.8. A Model for Flutter Instability 2.9. Generalisation of the Energy Method Example 2.1. Problems References for Chapter 2 3. Stability of Columns 3.1. Introduction 3.2. Nonlinear Equations for Straight Rods 3.2.1. Kinematic Relations 3.2.2. Equilibrium Equations 3. Constitutive Relations, ear Stability Analysis of Columns 31 31 32 32 34 38 45 47 50. 53 58-134 35 56 56 59 61 61 3.3.1. Buckling of Columns Under Concentric Axial Force 61 3.3.2. Influence of Boundary Conditions 3.3.3. Discussion of Stability Behaviour of Struts 3.4, Buckling of Imperfect Columns 3.4.1. Columns with Eccentric Axial Force 3.4.2. Columns with Geometric Imperfection The Southwell Plot Stresses in Compressed Struts 3.6.1. Critical Euler Stress 3.6.2. Uhimate Stress in Eecentrically Loaded Columns 3.7. Beam-Columns 3.7.1. Equations of Beam-Columns 3.7.2. Some Basic Problems of Beam-Columns 3.8, Variational/Energy Methods of Buckling Analysis 3.8.1. Methods of Weighted Residuals 64 65 70 70 n 4 15 5 6 B B 81 86 87 3.8.2. Energy View in Stability Analysis of Elastic Systems88 385 Rayleigh Rls Metod of Sublity Anaya .4. Applications of the Energy Method 49, Colanng on Blane Foundation 3.10, Buckling of Sandwich Elements 3.1021. Stiffness of a Sandwich Element 3110.2: Pin-Ended Sandwich Strut with Thin Faces 3.10.3. Wrinkling Instability of Sandwich Elements 3.10.4: Other Types of Local Instability 90 OL 101 105, 105 107 110 118 ix CONTENTS 3.11, Design of Compression Members 120 3.11.1. Philosophy of Stability Design 120 3.11.2. Design of Steel Columns. 122 3.11.3, Stability Design of Sandwich Struts 126 3.11.4, Design Example 127 Problems 129 References for Chapter 3 134 Stability of Frames 135-178, 4.1. Introduction 135 42. Force-Deformation Relations for Flexural Members 136, 43, Stability Functions 142 4.4, Effect of the Axial Force on the Fixed-End Moments 144 4.4.1, Clamped Beam-Column Under Uniformly Distributed Lateral Load 145 4.4.2, Beam-Column Under Concentrated Lateral Load 148 4.5. Frame Buckling Analysis Methodology 152 4.6. Examples of Frame Buckling Analysis 153 4.7. Estimation of Bounds on Buckling Loads 160 4.8. Imperfection Sensitivity of Frames 162 4.9. Second-Order Frame Analysis 164 4.10, P - Effect in Frames 166 4.11, Design Considerations for Frames 169 4.12, Recommendations of the Design Codes 173 Problems 175 References for Chapter 4 178 5. Buckling of Rings and Arches 179-210 5.1. Introduction 179 ‘5.2, Non-linear Stability Equations 180 5.2.1. Kinematic Relations 180 5.2.2: Constitutive Relations 186 5.2.3, Equilibrium Equations for Hydrostatically Loaded Rings 186 53. Linear stability Equations 193 5.4. Linear buckling Analysis, 195 5.4.1. Complete Circular Rings 195 5.4.2, Buckling of Circular Arches 197 5.5. Symmetric and Antisymmetric Buckling 199 5.6. Codified Arch Design Recommendations 204 Problems 208 References for Chapter 5 209x CONTENTS 6. Buckling of Rectangular Plates 6.1. Introduction 6.2. Force System in a Rectangular Plate 6.3. Non-linear Stability Equations 6.3.1. Kinematic Relations 3.2. Constitutive Relations 6.3.3. Equilibrium Equations 6.4. Linear Stability Equatio 6.5. Linear Buckling Analysis, 65.1. Simply Supported Plate Under Unidirectional In-Plane Compression 6.52. Plate Under Combined Two-Dimensional In-Plane Compression 6.6. Application of the Energy Method to Plate Buckling Analysis 6.7. Postbuckling of Rectangular Plates 6.8. General Plate Design Considerations 6.9. Codified Design of Rectangular Plates Problems References for Chapter 6 7. Buckling of Shells 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Geometry of a Thin Shell 3. Internal Force System in a Thin Shell 74, Structural Shell Behaviour 75. An Overview of Shell Buckling 7.6. Buckling Theories of Shells 7.1. Stability Analysis of Cylindrical Shells 7.7.1. Non-linear Stability Theory 7.7.2. Linear Buckling Theory of Cylindrical Shells 17.3. Cylindrical Shells Under Axial Compression 7.74, Buckling Under External Pressure 7-75. Composite Cylindrical Shells Under External Pressure 7.1.6. Buckling Under Combined Bending and Lateral Pressure 7.7.7. Buckling of Concrete Cylindrical Shell Roofs 7.8. Buckling of Shells of Revolution 7.8.1. Buckling of Spherical Shells and Domes 7.8.2. Some Formulas for the Buckling Loads 211-254 2 212 215 215 219 220 224 226 226 230 233 240 245 246 252 254 255-318 255 256 258 261 262 264 266 267 276 219 286 291 293 295 296 297 298 xi CONTENTS 7.9. Buckling of Hyperbolic Paraboloids 79.1. Geometry and Structural Behaviour 7.9.2. Buckling Formula for HP Shells 7.10, Buckling of Internally Pressurized Containers with ‘Toro-Spherical Heads 7.10.1. Sources and Causes of Container Buckling 7.10.2: Discussion of Buckling Behaviour 7.11 Summary of Shell Buckling Phenomenon 7.12. Stability Considerations in Shell Design 7.13, Codified Design of Thin Shells Design Example Problems References for Chapter 7 8. Dynamic Instability 8.1. Definition of Dynamic Instability 8.2. Types of Dynamic Instability 83. Parametric Resonance 84. A Simple Model 5. Strut Under Periodic Axial Force 86, Instability Due to Sudden Loading 8.7. Dynamic Elastic-Plastic Buckling. Problems References for Chapter 8 9. Inelastic and Viscoelastic Buckling 9.1. Introduction 922 Inelastic Column Buckling 9.2.1. An Overview of Inelastic Column Buckling 9.2.2. General Elastic-Inelastic Columns 9.2.3. Members with Distinet Yield Point 93.Viscoelastic Buckling 93.1. An Overview of Viscoelastic Material Behaviour 93.2. Buckling of Viscoelastic Beam-Columns Problems References for Chapter 9 299 299 304 305 305 306 307 310 31 313 316 317 319-340 319) 320 322 322 326 330 335 339 340 341-360 341 342 342 342 348 350 350 353 358 360xii CONTENTS 10. Finite Element Method of Stability Analysis 361-410 10.1. Introduction 361 10.2: Variational Basis of Numerical Methods 363 1033. Steps in the Finite Element Analysis 363 10.4, Element Equations for Bars and Beams 367 10.4.1. Linear Axial Rod Element 367 10.4.2, Beam-Column Finite Elements 373 10.5. Element Equation for Thin Plates 380 106, Finite Element Eigenvalue Analysis 386 10.7. Finite Element Analysis of Frames 386 General Second-Order Matrix Relations 386 Element Equation for Small Axial Forces- Geometric Stiffness Matrix 389 Finite Element Equations for a Frame System 391 10.8. Finite Element Shell Buckling Analysis 397 10.8.1. Methodologies for Shell Buckling Analysis 397 10.8.2. Numerical Strategies 397 10.83. Notes on the Shell Finite Element Buckling Analysis 399 10.9, Examples of Compiter Buc! 400 ‘Buckling o° < Strut 401 Stability of ¢ Truss Structure 402 Uniaxially Compressed Rectangular Plate 403 Finite Element Buckling Analysis ofan Arch 404 ‘An Axially Loaded Circular Cylindrical Shell 406 Problems 408 References for Chapter 10 410 Appendix: Formulas for Buckling of Some Structural Elements 411-420 Subject Index 421-425 INTRODUCTION 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. WHAT IS STABILITY AND INSTABILITY ? ‘The terms “stability” and "instability" are used in various contexts by many people in variety of occasions. The layman concept of stability” is the perseverance of some situation or state; the “instability” is a loss of some situation or state which usually occurs abruptly and entails some ‘unexpected and, in the eye of some people; unfavourable results. Whether ‘or not the phenomenon of “instability’, whatever it is, is favourable or unfavourable is a mauter of point of view and is quite subject to discussion. Philosophically speaking, stability and instability are universal concepts, events, and attributes. As examples, one may refer to a meteorological state as being stable or unstable, a chemical substance/reaction being stable or ‘unstable, and the current in an electric network being stable or unstable. The health state of a patient is sometimes referred to being a stable or an ‘unstable one; the same terminology is also used for societies and species. Many examples of stability and instability in the physical world can be found in mechanical systems, such as structures carrying loads, in chemical reactions, in the sate of weather, in the flow of fuids, in the motion of spacecraft and animals, and in the state of human body. The phenomena of "instability" could occur not only in the physical world; one may refer to stability of state of some situations and relations. In this text, we will confine ourselves mostly to the study of elastic structural stability and instability; a brief discussion of inelastic buckling will also be presented. Our main attention will be to investigate the situations in which the state of a load-carrying elastic structure can become2. STABILITY OF STRUCTURES “unstable” and to discuss the implications, the conditions, and the consequences of loss of structural stability. The goal of these investigations is two-fold: one is to gain an insight into the behaviour of structures and/or to assess the state of the existing systems; the other aim is to design the structures which can withstand the destabilizing factors and to have sufficient load-carrying capacity during their service life. 1.2 SOME CASES OF STRUCTURAL INSTABILITY ‘There have been many cases in which the structures have had failed due to instability of their equilibrium and/or their motion. Failure cases have included building frames and their elements, bridges, silos, cooling towers, aircraft and ships, marine structures, pipelines, containers and pressure vessels, and a variety of other structures. In buildings, vertical slender members (columns) may fail under relatively heavy loads; this type of instability is referred to as buckling. Buckling failure may occur in a variety of cases; in compression members of trusses and frames, in piles, in pipes, in plate and shell structures, and in various machine clements. Figures (1-1) to (1-8) schematically show some examples of structures which have had instability failure, Some of these cases demonstrate the fact, that the instability failure does not have to be global; they show that the local instabilities can also terminate the service life of the whole structure. Weight > yy >| Wind —e} antbquake Figure (1-1) A potential buckling of columns in a frame INTRODUCTION 3 () Figure (1-2) Two buckling cases in metallic silos, (a) buckling of a steel silo at the bottom region; the diameter Of the silo is 20 m, (b) buckling of a cement-storage silo (Source : Ret.{1.9}) (b) Figure (1-3) Propagating buckling of an underwater pipeline, (a) Principle of lay barge pipe lining method, (b) buckled form of a pipe segment together with a so-called buckle arrestor (Source: Ref. [1.10].4° STABILITY OF STRUCTURES aie @ © wvyvy Figure (1-4) Possible non symmetric buckling of a containment shell due to wind and /or earthquake action Pv Figure (1-5) Local buckling of the conical bottom of a ‘container, (a) half of the water container composed of a cylindrical wall and a conical bottom, (b) local (boundary layer) bucking of the constrained end of the conical part INTRODUCTION § Figure (1-6) Non symmetric bucking ofthe torispherical head of a container under internal pressure; the pressure vessel is of stainless steel and its diameter is equal to 3m (Source: Ref: [1-3]) ©) Figure (1-7) Computer-simulated buckling of cooling towers, (a) buckling form in the cooling tower with no, additional ring stiffeners, (b) buckling form in the cooling tower with three ring stiffeners (Source: Ref.[1-11]) ‘There are cases where the state of equilibrium of a structure may become dynamically unstable; this means that the structure may undergo vibratory motions with increasing amplitude. This type of instability has occurred in suspension bridges, in aeroplanes, in fluid conveying pipes, in rotating ghatts in impacted bodies, and in machin eemenis subjected to dynamic loading.6 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Figure (1-8) An example of dynamic instability showing. the lateral torsional instability of a suspension bridge 1.3. RELATION BETWEEN INSTABILITY AND FAILURE ‘The question in the mind of a novice engineer and designer is: structural stability identify its failure and collapse?”. The classical design procedures assume that such is the case; according to the existing common practice, any form of instability should be interpreted as failure of the structures; therefore, the design procedure should assure that instability in any form would not occur, This design philosophy is, in some cases conservative provided that a realistic stability analysis would be carried out. Itis to be pointed out that the failure of a structure may not always happen due to instability; thus, purely material failures in which phenomena of buckling do not play a role, important as they are, should be excluded from this discussion. ‘A realistic stability analysis of structure should take into account salient behavioural feature of each structure, its relation with other structural parts, the loading behaviour, the material behaviour, and the experimental results On that structure. One should also bear in mind that the stability phenomena are dynamic and statistical in nature and hence a realistic design procedure ‘must take these aspects into consideration. INTRODUCTION 7 1.4. STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN Stability criteria are one of the main design considerations in the field of structural engineering. The priority of stability considerations on other design criteria depends, however, on the specific structure, its loading environment, and the serviceability conditions. For some structures such as slender compressed members and thin plates and shells the stability design is, in fact, the primary design consideration. For some other structures, material design may gain more importance; in such cases, the design is checked for stability to assure that the stability criteria are also satisfied. It so happens that with the advent of new materials such as various composite sections and new structural forms and also the changing dynamic environments the stability criteria have acquired a central position in the design activites related to the new structures. 1.5. CODES FOR STRUCTURAL STABILITY DESIGN ‘There are various codes of practice and official standards that deal with the stability design criteria and analysis methods. The existing stability codes are specialized with respect to the materials comprising the structures (for example, steel, concrete, wood, and aluminium) as well as the types of the load carrying members and /'or structures; the later classification includes compression members, axially compressed laterally loaded beams, plates, shells, trusses, and framed structures, ‘The existing codes for stability design of structures differ in some details; the general design philosophy of all recent codes is however the ‘same; it is based on the load-carrying capacity of the member and / or structure taking into consideration the material failure and the kinematic instabilities. ‘The analysis and design methodologies and examples presented in the present text are mostly code-independent; nevertheless, for stability design Of specific problems an appropriate code of practice is needed. To introduce the reader to the common features and design-analysis methodologies of various codes some recent codes are briefly discussed; these codes are then used for stability design-analysis of certain problems. Specifically, The ‘Swiss code (SIA 161) and German code (DIN 18800, 1990), and the European code (CEB/FIP manual of buckling and instability) are introduced and are applied in some design problems.8 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 1.6. AN OVERVIEW OF THIS TEXT ‘The main emphasis in the present text would be a concise treatment of stability behaviour of various structural elements; these elements consist of bars, plates, and shells. Before one ventures into the stability analys ‘specific elements, itis very important to have a grasp of the basic stability behaviour of solid bodied; this goal can be accomplished by investigation of simple models; that is what will be carried out in the beginning of these treatments. ‘The stability analysis of structures can not be goal by itself; the goal of this analysis can be the design of new structure or assessment of an ‘existing design. In addition to theoretical and numerical means, there are some standards and codes that one can use for stability design and analysis of various structures. In some of the design examples, use will be made of some of these standards. The text will be complemented by a set of design charts and relations which can also be used in stability analysis of structures. REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 1 1.1 - M. Farshad, and B. Tabarrok, "Systems Perspectives in Applied Mechanics", Int. Joumal of General Systems, Vol. 14, pp 45-47, 1988. 1.2 - European Recommendations for Steel Construction, European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, (ECCS), March 1978, 1.3 - D. Bushnell, Computerized Buckling Analysis of Shells, Martinus ‘Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1985. 1.4- JM. T. Thompson and G. W. Hunt, Elastic Instability Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, Toronto, 1984. 1.5 - J. M. T. Thompson, Instabilities and Catastrophes in Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982. 1.6- LF. Jullien (ed), Buckling of shell Structures, on the Land, in the Sea, and in the Air, Elasevier Applied Science, London, 1991. 1.7 - M, Farshad, Design and Analysis of Shell Structures, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1992. 1.8 - TH. Richards and P. Stanley (eds), Stability Problems in Engineering Structures and Components, Applied Science Publishers, London, 1979. 1.9 - P. Martens (Hsg.), Silo-Handbuch, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, 1988. 1:10 - WLM. Steel and J. Spence, "The buckling of Sub-Sea Pipelines", in: Developments in Thin-Walled Structures-2, Edited by: J. Rhodes and A. C. Walker, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London, 1984. 1.11 -E, Ramm, (editor), Buckling of Shells, Proceedings of a State of Art Colloquium, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1982 FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 9 FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 2.1. INTRODUCTION In this chapter we will discuss some concepts of stability and instability of mechanical systems. For this purpose, inthe first part of the chapter, we will present some useful definitions:These will include fundamental concepts in stability and instability. Then, we will proceed to defining varieties of systems; in this connection, we will classify forces and systems into conservative and non conservative. We will then introduce various methods of stability analysis by means of simple models. Later on, in this chapter, we will discuss the salient features of various types of instability, including bifurcation, snap-through, and flutter. Fundamentals of the energy method of stability analysis will also be introduced in this chapter; in the other chapters, this method will be further expanded and will be applied to stability problems.10 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 2.2. DEFINITIONS OF STABILITY AND INSTABILITY Stability and instability are attributes and phenomena which are associated with various physical, chemical, and non-matcrial systems. ‘When referring to these phenomena, we always have in mind some status or behaviour of systems; these are termed the state(s) of the system. ‘Thus, stability and instability are attributes related to particular state(s) of the system. In this context, we propose the following definitions: The state of a system - The state of a system is the collection of values of the system parameters at any instant of time. For example, positions of material points in a structure and temperature field at various points constitute the state of that system. The state of a system depends on system parameters and environmental conditions. For example, in a shell structure, system parameters are its geometrical and material properties, and the environmental conditions are the applied forces and the thermal conditions. ‘Stability ~ The state of a system, at any instant of time, is called stable if relatively smail changes in the system parameters and / or in the environmental conditions would bring about relatively small changes in the existing state of the system. The stability/instability of a system may bbe manifested as the time-varying tendencies of the system in its time- ‘dependent behaviour; thus a system may be asymptotically stable and/or unstable. Asymptotic stability means that the system tends to approach a state of equilibrium or a limit cycle in a steady state motion; asymprotic instability implies that the system moves away from such state(s). Instability ~The state of a system at any instant of time is called unstable if relatively small changes in the system parameters and / or the environmental conditions would cause major changes in the existing state. A system may be asymptotically unstable; Asymptotic instability ‘means that the system tends to approach a limit cycle without converging to an equilibrium state. The stability and instability can be best defined in a general dynamic sense. However, for static systems, i.e., for the systems which can maintain a state Of equilibrium for a period of time, we may propose the following definitions: Stability and Instability of Equilibrium - The equilibrium state of a system is called stable if small perturbations in that state, caused by the changes in the loading or perturbations in the system parameters, including changes in the system geometry or in its boundary conditions, ‘would be confined to the vicinity of the existing equilibrium state. The equilibrium state of a system is called unstable if slight changes in the conditions related to that state would force the system away from that equilibrium state; an unstable system may find other equilibrium state(s); the new equilibrium state(s) may be in the vicinity of the initial state or may be far away from the initial equilibrium configuration, FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 11 ‘The fundamental concept of stable and unstable equilibrium is illustrated in figure (2-1). This figure shows a small ball lying on a frictionless surface. According to the foregoing definitions, the equilibrium state 1 is stable, while the state 2 is unstable, The relativity of the foregoing definitions is clearly demonstrated in this figure; the state 1 may be stable in a certain limited region, but it be unstable in a larger domain, Figure (2-1) Stability and instability of equilibrium Buckling is a special mode of instability of equilibrium which may ‘occur in deformable bodies subjected to global or local compressive force field; buckling instability may be an overall buckling, as in the slender columns, or it may be localised buckling at certain regions; this may occur, for example, in some shells as well as in sandwich elements. An existing state of equilibrium or trend of behaviour of the structure subjected to applied compressive loading and / or temperature variations may become unstable and the structure may acquire a new equilibrium, state or a new trend of behaviour. This phenomenon is termed the buckling of that particular structure. A well known example of elastic buckling instability is the flexural buckling of an axially compressed slender elastic column subjected to a concentric compressive force. Static structures may loose their stability in a dynamic fashion. One of the modes of dynamic instability is called flutter; flutter of structures is, by definition, vibrations of members ‘with increasing amplitude. Structural elements subjected to impact and other time-dependent loading may also become dynamically unsiable. The magnitude of the dynamic forces which cause instability may be smaller than the equivalent static loading.12. STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 2.3, CLASSIFICATION OF FORCES AND SYSTEMS 2.3.1. Applied Forces ‘The behaviour of applied loading has some influence on the stability of systems. In this connection, various loading systems may classified into conservative and non conservative forces. Dead loading, such as the ‘weight of structures, are conservative forces; time-dependent forces and the forces which depend on the state of the system are generally non conservative. Conservative loading are derivable from a potential function whereas non conservative forces have no generating potential. From this viewpoint, frictional forces are non conservative. To relate the forces to their action, consider a force F acting on a material particle having the position vector r. This material point displaces from a position vector ry to another position vector r. The path of particle motion is a spatial curve called C, figure (2-2). Figure (2-2) Action of a force on a material particle ‘The work performed by the force F on this particle through such displacement is 72 F.dr ry w 2-1) FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS. 13 ‘The applied force can, in general, depend on the position of particle, r the velocity of particle motion v, and the time parameter, t; $0 the work done in the time interval ty Ois called the magnification factor. For 1, the linear theory predicts an infinite deformation; this is an Indication of buckling. The post buckling behaviour can only be qualitatively investigated by means of the non-linear theories. 2.5.2.2. Imperfection in loading We consider the two-bar system of figure (2-5) again. Now we assume that the axial loading has an eccentricity of € as shown in figure (2-8a). ‘The moment equilibrium equation for this system is, P(Lsin @+ecos @)-2K@=0 or PL-__@ 2K sin @ + &cosO (2-15) Figure (2-8b) shows variation of loading parameter with the angle 6 for some values of the dimensionless eccentricity parameter e/L. This figure also shows the primary and the secondary paths of the corresponding perfect system, i.e., the same structure under concentric Toad. Linearization of equation (2-17) yields Het = oe (2-16) or ole i-pL (2-17) Here again we have obtained the magnification factor A= 1/ (I-p) >0.26 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 08 04 0 04 08 ® (radian) (e) Figure (2-8) Effect of loading imperfection, (a) the two- bar system, (b) load-deformation curve To summarise the discussion of the imperfection approach, we have seen that both cases of imperfect systems discussed herein have had as their liming case the results of the perfect structure, In these cases the horizontal line passing through the bifurcation point is the asymptotic line forall these curves; the bifurcation load isthe corresponding asymptotic value. If we had used a non-linear theory, we would have seen that the behaviour of these imperfect systems asymptotically would also approach that of the post buckling path of the corresponding perfect model; this, ‘would mean that the imperfection parameters would have no influence on these asymptotic trends. The structures having the behaviour simulated by this model are called imperfection insensitive. For imperfection insensitive structures, the so-called imperfection method introduced here yields the same results as obtained according to the equilibrium method. ‘This is however not the case for some other structures including some shell forms which, as we shall see, happen to be quite imperfection sensitive. FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 27 2.5.3. The Energy Method ‘The energy methods provide powerful tools for stability analysis, To demonstrate the salient features of the energy method, we consider the simple model of figure (2-5) again. For stability analysis , we need to have the expression for the total potential of the system. The toral ‘potential is the algebraic sum of the work done by the applied forces and the stored energies. ‘The internal energy, ice, the strain energy stored in the spring is u=Lk@ee ‘The work done by the applied force P is P A, where A; is the horizontal displacement of the movable support at the right-hand side of, figure (2-5); it has the following expression: A1=2L (1 - cos 8) so the work done is W=PAI ‘Therefore the total potential will be T1=2K @2-2PL(1-cos6) (2-18) According to the variatlonal principles of mechanics the stationary of total potential signifies the equilibrium state(s) of a system; at the stationary points, the first variation of the total potential energy vanishes, this provides a means for obtaining the conditions of equilibrium. ‘The first variation (in this case, the first derivative) of II with respect to 0 gives the equilibrium equation: aML.-2PLsind+4KO= 0 48 (2-19) ‘As we note, this relation is identical to the equilibrium relation (2-7) which was obtained by writing the equilibrium of forces and moments.28 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Further on, according to the variational principles, in order to investigate the’ stability / instability of this equilibrium state we must use the second variation (derivative) of the total potential; for this case, we have ML =4 K (1 - pcos 8) ae 2:20) In particular, we are interested in the stability / instability condition of the state @ = 0. For this problem @Il-4K(-p) eo 2 ‘Through the investigation of the sign of the second variation of TI, we state the following criteria: - For p< 1, the second variation is positive, hence the equilibrium state is stable - For p > 1, the second variation is negative, hence the equilibrium state is unstable - For p =1, the second variation is zero, hence the equilibrium state is neutral. In this case, we have a bifurcation of equilibrium. If we investigate the points located on the post buckled secondary path ( pel and 0 #0) we see from the expression (2-24) that for all such points the second variation is positive; this means that the post buckled secondary path is stable. In a similar way we find that beyond the bifurcation point (p >1, 8 = 0) the straight configuration is unstable, ‘The energy criteria for stability analysis has a physical interpretation. Along the prebuckling (primary) path (8 = 0) the total potential is ‘minimum, but along the post-bifurcation (p<1) secondary path the total potential is maximum; thus the system is capable of releasing energy; it can move the system to a lower energy level. This lower energy level necessitates lateral buckling (840); the structure finds its equilibrium state(s) corresponding to minima of the potential energy along the bent secondary path, ‘The linear equations of stability analysis can be derived from the expanded version of the expression for the potential energy. If we expand the trigonometric functions in the expression for the total potential energy into series and retain the expansion terms up to the second power we find the following quadratic form for the total potential energy: FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS. 29 II=- PL @2+2K 02 (2-22) ‘The first derivative of this function yields the linear equilibrium equation (2-9); the second derivative is aT 24K (1-p) ae (2-23) ‘This relation gives p = instability. as the critical load for the bifureation-type 2.5.4, The Dynamic Method In the so-called dynamic method of stability analysis the oscillations of the system around an state, the stability of which is in question, is investigated. According to the dynamic or the kinetic criterion, bounded ‘oscillations around an equilibrium state imply that such a state is stable while oscillations with increasing amplitude indicate that the state is unstable. A change in the vibration regime identifies the threshold of static/instability. + ‘Ap we Figure (2-9) A two-bar elastic structure with a concentrated mass To demonstrate the basic features of the kinetic criterion, let us ‘consider the simple model of figure (2-5) again; now we take the inertial force of the system into consideration by placing the lumped mass m of the structure at the middle point B, figure (2-9). The equation of rotational motion of the part AB about the point B is 220 = PL sind - mid0-PLsind-2KO e2930. STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Equation (2-24) is a non-linear differential equation; it can be used for large amplitude dynamic analysis. In this discussion, we confine out attention to the states which are adjacent to the straight configuration, @ 0. Thus to investigate the stability of the state @ = 0 we linearize the above equation around this value; the result is 0 41 (2K .pyg= at *mor LP )e80 (225) ‘We define the following characteristic parameter: Lg Rk... as (4k -p) (2-26) So the differential equation of motion becom 28 o2O=0 a ‘The general solution to this equation is BW) =A ety Areiot e2 To investigate the stability of equilibrium state © = 0 we must study this solution, The value of parameter « will determine the character of the solution and thus the status of the equilibrium state @ = 0. Referring to relation (2-26); we distinguish the following cases: ()P<2K/IL ===> w2>0 ‘The system has harmonic vibrations with finite amplitude around the state @ = 0, thus the state @ = 0 is stable, Q)P>2KAL ===> @2 < > The system oscillates with increasing amplitude around the state © = 0, thus the state @ = 0 is unstable. G)P=2 KL => w2 => Harmonic vibrations around the state @ = 0 change to oscillations with finite amplitude; thus the state @ = (0 undergoes a change from a stable to an unstable condition. ‘The parameter @ is the natural frequency of vibrations of the system. ‘The expression (2-26) shows that « is not only a function of the system's material and geometric parameters, but it is also a function of the applied loading, P. The natural frequency of a structure is directly proportional to FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS. 31 the square of the stiffness of the structure. In this case, we see that, with an increase in the applied compressive force, the natural frequency decreases; it diminishes at a certain value of the applied compressive loading; this value is given in (3). Thus, the condition of zero natural frequency marks the fonset of instability; this conclusion holds for all conservative structural systems, 2.6. TYPES OF BIFURCATION INSTABILITY So far, in our discussion, we have considered a particular class of bifurcation problems in which the post buckling secondary path was stable. ‘The following discussion goes further in introducing other classes of bifurcation instabilities and their features. For this purpose, we consider a ‘simple one degree of-freedom mechanical model of a compressed element; we will see that changes in the properties of the system will induces remarkable variation in its behaviour. Figure (2-10a) shows this system which is comprised of a linear and a rotational spring; the applied loading acts in the vertical direction. Figure (2-10d) shows a variation in this system in which the rotational spring is replaced by a horizontal linear spring. Figure 210g) shows a variation in the system of figure 2-108; in this, figure, the upper spring has an inclination with the horizontal direction, Each of these mechanical models symbolises a class of real structures the stability behaviour of which may be quite different from other classes. 2.6.1. Stable Symmetrical Bifurcation Figure (2-10a) shows a model of this type of bifurcation; this system can be considered to be a model of a vertical cantilever column under concentric compressive force. Ifthe applied load is below the critical value, eg, the strut remains straight. Beyond the critical value, the strut deflects laterally from its straight configuration. Through the application of the equilibrium method, we find the following non-linear load-deformation relation estenelt sah] (2-28)32 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Figure (2-10b) shows the plot of this relation as the load-deformation curve, ic, variations of p as a function of A. Figure (2-10c) shows the load- deformation plot of the same relation; here, the load p is plotted as a function of 5. It can be observed that both of these post critical plots are ‘ascending curves showing that the post critical state of this system is stable; since the increase of deformation requires an increase in the applied loading. We also note, from figure (2-10b), that the load-deformation behaviour is symmeiric. In both plots, we encounter a bifurcation point; this point identifies the critical load designated by Pz; in these figures. This type of behaviour occurs in the elastic rods and in the flat plate problems subjected to conservative loading. 2.6.2. Labile Symmetrical Bifurcation Another type of divergence of equilibrium path is called the labile bifurcation. Depending on the type of loading and the structure, labile bifurcation may be symmetric or nonsymmetric . Figure (2-10d) shows a simple model in which a symmetric labile bifurcation can be realized. The nonlinear load-deformation relation of this system is =kL, p=kLeos =H -4(A}] (2-29) Figures (2-10e) and (2-10f) show that, beyond the bifurcation point, both curves have a descending trend, This means that for an equilibrium sate tobe preserved, the applied loading must be decreased. In this case, the critical condition is identified by a maximum point on the load- deformation curve, This behaviour can be observed in some types of shell structures. 2.6.3. Labile Unsymmetrical Bifurcation A model of labile unsymmetrical bifurcation is shown in figure (2-10g). ‘The nonlinear load-deformation relation for this case is pati(i go +@H-3{a}2(4}] 0s FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS. 33 Figures (2-10h) and (2-10i) show plots of this load-deformation relation. This trend is characteristic of the structures in which the post buckling deformation can only occur in a preferred direction; this phenomenon can occur in some imperfect structures and also in the Structures which can deform more easily in one direction than the other; liner shells are examples of the latter class of problems; surface wrinkling and delamination buckling of composites provide other classes of examples. , : Pt e Fr , ry tS od . ot “ ‘, , 7 d) ) mh P ' fp Eth : y LL , Figure (2-10) Types of bifurcation of equilibrium, (a) ‘model of stable symmetrical bifurcation, (b) and (c) post critical behaviour of the system(a), (4) model of labile symmetrical bifureation, (e) and (f) past critical behaviour of the system (4), (g) model of labile non-symmetric bifurcation, (h} and (j) post critical behaviour of system (g)34 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 2.7. A MODEL OF SNAP-THROUGH BUCKLING ‘The so-called snap-through buckling is an instability mode in which, at some equilibrium stage known as the limit equilibrium, the system undergoes finite deformations. This type of instability is, by nature, a geometrically non-linear elastic deformation. Thus, to study the snap- through buckling phenomenon, we must use an appropriate non-linear theory. In this section, we study the salient features of snap-through buckling by means of a simple non-linear model. Figure (2-11) A mechanical model for snap-through analysis Consider a system composed of two weightless rigid rods each of length LL; these rods are connected to each other and to their supports by means of hinges. The original angle of inclination of these two bars with the horizontal datum is 0. The right-hand support has a horizontal spring with stiffness K. This structure has one degree of freedom. We apply a statically inereasing vertical force P at the middle hinge. Ata typical state of deformation, the angle made by each of two rods with the horizontal datum is designated by 6; this angle indicates the single degree of freedom of the system. (1) Application of the energy method ‘The toual potential of the structure shown in figure (2-11) is, T= 2K L? (cos 6 - cos a)” - PL (sin a sin @) 31) FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 35 We express the stationary of IT with respect to 6; this is achieved through setting the first derivative of TI relative to © equal to zero; in this way obtain the equilibrium equation. After some rearrangement, the resulting equilibrium equation can be writen as in @ - -cos.sin @ cos @ (2-32) Note that: -n/2<0 2.086; in this region Q2is a complex number, thus the motion is unbounded and the state ®, = 0; =0 is unstable, (2-45)STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Region (3): p2 4.914; in this region {is a real negative number, thus the motion is bounded and the state @, = ©, =0 is unstable. Figure (2-17) shows the time variation of ®,(t) for three values of the oad parameters each of which belongs to one of these three regions. This figure shows variations of 6;(1) as function of a dimensionless time parameter, t'; this parameter is defined as t' = (1 C/2m L2) Figure (2°17a) is representative of bounded vibrations of the system around the vertical (equilibrium) direction; thus, in this region, the equilibrium is stable, Figure (2-17b) shows lateral vibrations with increasing amplitude; it represents an unstable equilibrium. Figure (2-17c) shows an exponentially increasing motion with no oscillations; this is clearly indicative of an unstable situation. From this analysis we conclude that the straight configuration of the structure of figure (2-14a) in the loading range p < 2.086 is stable; beyond this range, the straight state would become unstable and the system would become capable of flutier instability. Therefore, the critical load corresponding to flutter mode of instability is P = 2.086 (2C/L).. Figure (2-18) shows the load-frequency diagram in the real frequency plane. As we see, at p = 2.086, the frequency parameter (0) leaves the real plane and becomes a complex number; this complex number has a negative imaginary part which, when used in relation (2-41), would give a time- increasing contribution; that would be indicative of flutter instability 2? ire and naga ve hercemmeda is tnst able 2? iscomplestence rd fas tute retionardistnst able p= 2.088, 2 ited ard postive hercemedais stable 0.180 0.707 3350 9? Figure (2-18) Load frequency variation of the non conservative system of figure (2-14) FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 45 In practice, one may encounter some structures which may be subjected to non conservative follower-type forces. Elastic bodies moving in the air or the fluid media and the flow of fluids inside flexible pipes are examples of these situations. Flutter of panels of aircraft under deformation-dependent aerodynamic forces can lead to the collapse of the whole structure. From the thermodynamic point of view, some non conservative siructures are open systems; as an open system, they are capable of energy ‘exchange with their environment; in this way, the work of the applied force is accumulated in the system; ie. increases the internal energy at each cycle ‘of motion; hence, at some stage it induces an unbounded oscillations. Non conservative systems may have quite a different mode of behaviour compared with conservative systems. For example, it has been shown that the damping mechanism may have destabilising effect in some non conservative structures. 2.9, GENERALISATION OF THE ENERGY METHOD In this section, we present the energy method for linear stability analysis of systems with several degrees-of-freedom. First, we state a useful theorem which is known as the Lagrange-Dirichlet theorem. Lagrange-Dirichlet Theorem: If the total energy of a system at a state of that system is minimum then such a state is considered stable. To apply this theorem, we. consider a mechanical system with n degrees-of-freedom. A total of n independent variables qs, 42. 43,~-» da, known as the generalised co-ordinates, will determine the state of this system at any instant of time, Without any loss of generality we assume that the state qi = 0.4 1n) is an equilibrium state of the system. We ‘would like to investigate the stability of this equilibrium state The total potential energy of an elastic system, TT, is composed of two parts: one partis the internal (strain) energy; the other partis the potential of the applied forces. The total potential energy is a function of the generalised co-ordinates. So, if we expand this function in Taylor series in the vicinity of equilibrium state we obtain46 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES THC41 4.2.» Gn) ‘The total energy is stationary at the equilibrium state; so fa 8q) Jattqe=0) ‘Therefore, the change in the total potential energy is o, M10, 0.40) = 29) any aiey iat i= (2-46) AT=NQqua; ; we denote this matrix by [A]. So, in matrix notation, the expression (2-68) may be written as ATl= (a) [4] (a) (2-47) where (q) is the column matrix of generalised co-ordinates and (q)¥ is its transpose. The energy expression (2-68) is a quadratic form in terms of the generalised co-ordinates qj (i = 1, 2, ... n). According to the Lagrange- Dirichlet theorem, an assumed equilibrium state will be stable if this expression is a positive-definite quantity; this would imply that the total potential energy is minimum. The following theorem expresses the ‘conditions for positive-definiteness of a quadratic form. Theorem: A quadratic form is positive definite if and only if the main determinant and the determinants of all its principal minors are positive, For a specific mechanical system, the parameters aij are known functions of the system and the loading parameters, FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS. 47 ‘The energy criteria presented here can be conveniently used for stability analysis of given systems. The criteria in its present form is valid only for Conservative systems. For non conservative systems, the matrix [A] is not symmetric, in spite ofthis, a modified version of energy criteria can still be derived. EXAMPLE 2.1. Figure (2-19) shows a three-bar model of a simply supported column under compressive axial force; it is composed of three rigid rods. We assume that these bars are weightless and that they are connected to each other by means of simple hinges at which two similar rotational spring are attached. A concentric axial force P is applied to this structure. We would like to investigate the stability of this system by means of the energy method. ves Figure (2-19) A three-bar model of a simply supported column Solution: This system has two independent degrees-of-freedom, We choose the angles 8; = q; and 0; = q; as the generalised co-ordinates of the system. ‘The angle of inclination of the middle bar, 6, can be expressed in terms of these two variables as sin 9 = "15%2 = sin 6 -sin@ ie (248 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES ‘The expression for the total energy of the system is, T=h0(q1-q)? +4.C(q2-9)*-P ar 2-49) where A=L(3-cosqi- cos - cos qz) (2-50) Expanding the harmonic functions in series and retaining terms up to power two, we obtain the following quadratic form for the total potential T=LC(10-2p)qi+C(-8+p)qa2+ LC(10-2p)a3 2 @s1) inwhich p=2PL/C. ‘The equilibrium equations can be obtained by expressing the stationary of the total potential SIl.o ‘ Stllo dq dq (2-52) So the equilibrium equations are C (10-2 p) q+ C(-8 +p) q2=0 (2-53a) C(-8 +p) git C(10-2 p) qa=0 (2-54b) This is a simultaneous homogeneous algebraic equation on qu and qa; it contains a free parameter, p; this system expresses an eigenvalue problem. For stability analysis, we can solve this eigenvalue problem or use the energy criteria derived in this section; here we use the energy method. ‘According to the theorems stated before, for the system to be stable, the determinants of principal minors and the main determinant must be positive. In this case, we must have 2 SM 10.2p>0 bat (2-55a) 2 SMl-10-2p>0 5a (2-550) FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS. 49 any st 2 4-80 ST ._81_~(2.pycig-3p)>0 bat 5a; Sadar (2-55) All three conditions are fulfilled provided p < 2. The main determinant is zero at p = 2 and p = 6. These are the eigenvalues of the system; these cigenvalues give the critical buckling loads =i Paaayy (2-56) The present two degrees-of-freedom system has two critical loads and two buckling modes; the first buckling mode is: B[I , 1] and the second mode is B{1 , -1] wherein B is the amplitude of the buckling deformation; in linear stability analyses, this amplitude remains undermined. Figure (2-20) Buckling modes of the structure of figure (2- 19) ina three-dimensional load-deformation space Figure (2-20) is a schematic representation of the two buckling modes of this structure, This figure shows the deformation modes in a three- «dimensional space with p, ®}, 6 as its co-ordinates, The figure also depicts the primary and the secondary post buckling paths related to each of the two buckling modes. As we note, the first mode of buckling is symmetric while the second mode is anti symmetric.50. STABILITY OF STRUCTURES PROBLEMS P 2.1 - Figure (P2-1) shows a vertical rigid bar that is connected to a rotational spring at its hinged lower end and to a linear horizontal spring at its upper end; this system is subjected to a vertical compressive force, P. (1) Find the critical load of this system by the equilibrium and the energy methods. (2) Study the stability behaviour of the system in the case where the upper spring is not horizontal but has an inclination @ with the horizontal direction. Figure (P2-1) Figure (P2-2) P 2.2- Investigate the non-linear response of the system shown in figure (P2-2) with the following methods: (a) Classical equilibrium method (b) Kinetie method (©) Energy method Plot the force deformation; frequency-deformation, and energy-deformation curves. P 2.3 - Plot the P-8 relation for the system shown in figure (P2-3). The rod is assumed rigid and its weight is assumed to have been concentrated at its lower end. FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS. 51 Figure (P2-3) P 2.4 - Consider the system of figure (P2-4); this system has an initial imperfection denoted by angle @o; thus the linear spring is initially stretched by an amount C. Analyse the behaviour ofthis system by the linear stability ny. Figure (P2-4) P 2.5 - Consider the mechanical system of figure (P2-5); this system consists of two inclined linear springs and a vertical spring; itis subjected to vertical force, P. The assumed force-deformation relation of the vertical spring is C = A+Bsin® +Dsin?052. STABILITY OF STRUCTURES ‘Study the stability behaviour of this system; find its critical conditions. This system may be considered to be a model of a arch with membrane extensibility, Figure (P2-5) P 26 - Figure ( P-2-6) shows two vertical weightless rigid rod which are Sonn eal pie nw ower supp mca ont 1g constant C; the length of each rod equals L.. An axial foreePis appli a the upper ends the angle of the load with vertical is 02 where ais a constant, Study the behaviour of the system for the range of values 0'Sa S 1.0. Determine the range of validity of the static methods. L. Figure (P2-6) FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY ANALYSIS 53 REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER 2 2.1 - H. Ziegler, Principles of Structural Stability, Blaisdel publishing Co., ‘Watham, Mass..196 2.2-V. V. Bolotin, Non conservative Problems of the Theory of Elastic Siabitity, edited by G. Herrmann ( translated from Russian), ‘The Macmillan Co., New York, 1962 2.3 W. Flligge, (editor) Handbook of Engineering Mechanics, McGraw- Hill Book Co., New York, 1962 2.4 - G. J. Simitses, An Introduction to the Elastic Stability of Structures, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New Jersey, 1976 25 -J.G, A. Croll and A.C. Walker, Elements of Structural Stabili ‘Macmillan, London, 1972 2.6- W. T. Koiter, The Stability of Elastic Equilibrium, Thesis, Delft, 1945 English translation, NASA TT-F-10833, 1967) 2.17 LM. T. Thompson and G. W. Hunt, Elastic Instability Phenomena, John Wiley & Sons, Toronto, 1984. 2.8 - W. I. Supple, Structural Instability, (ed) IPC Science and Technology Press, Ltd., London, 1973. 2.9- W. T. Koiter, The Stability of Elastic Equilibrium, Thesis, Deft, 1945 (English translation NASA TT F 10,833, 1967). 2.10-H. Leipholz, Stability Theory, Academic Press, New York, 1970. 2.11, -B, Budiansky, Theory of Buckling and Post-Buckling Behaviour of Elastic Structures, in: Advances in Applied Mechanics, Vol. 14, Edited by: C. Yih, Academic Press, New York, 1974, 2.12. J. M. T. Thompson, Instabilities and Catastrophes in Science and Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1982. 2.13 - B. Budiansky, ‘and J.W. Hutchinson, " buckling-progress and challenge”, In: Trends in Solid Mechanics, Delft University Prresss, 1970. 2.14 - IM.T. Thompson, and G.W. Hunt, A general Theory of Elastic Stability, Wiley, 1973. 2.15 - H. Ziegler, On the concept of elastic stability”, In: Advances in Applied Mechanics, Vol. 4, pp 351-403, Academic Presss, New York, 1956. 2.16 - M. Farshad, "Stability of systems with multiple motion-dependent loading’, ATAA Jounal, Vol.13, No. 4, pp. 517-518 1975. 2.17 - M. Farshad, "On deformation-dependent Loading in the theory of clastic stability",’ Proc. of Eight U.S.National Congress of Applied ‘Mechanics, Los Angles, 1978. 2.18 - M. Farshad, "On General Conservative end-loading of pretwisted rods", Int. J. Solids and Structures, Vol. 9, pp. 1361-1371, 1973. 2.19 - M. Farshad, "Some Considerations on Timoshenko Bar Problem Subjected to Nonconservatve Louding" J. of Applied Mech. p. 835-536, june 1974,$4 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 2.20 - B. Budiansky, and J.W. Hutchinson, " A survey of some buckling problems", AIAA J., Vol. 4 No. 9, p 1510, 1966, 2.21 - D. Bushnell, Computerized Buckling Analysis of Shells, Martinus jhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1985. 2.22 - W.T. Koiter, " On the stability of elastic equilibrium", Thesis, University of Tecknology, Delt, 1945, NASA TT F 10,833, 1967. 2.23 - S.P. Timoshenko, and JCM. Gere, Theory of Elastic Stability, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1961. 2.24- HG. Allen, P.S. Bulson, Background to Buckling, McGraw-Hill Book Company (UK) Limited, London, 1980. STABILITY OF COLUMNS 5s 3 STABILITY OF COLUMNS |. INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with stability analysis and design of one-dimensional compression and flexural members; these include columns, compressive struts, and beam-columns. Columns are straight one-dimensional structural members which carry the loads mainly by compression. Columns are normally under compressive axial forces; they can in addition be subjected to lateral loads and thus be called beam-columns. There are variety of such members in various structures; buildings, vehicles, and machines. Compressive members of trusses and struts in the mechanical assemblies are other examples of compressive elements which in this chapter will be simply referred to as struts or columns. Columns may be acted upon by static or dynamic forces and conservative or nonconservative forces. Our aim, in this chapter, is not only the treatment of straight bars as an important structural elements, but also to86 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES discuss different stability analysis methodologies for continuous elements. Ina later part of this chapter, we will derive general stability relations for beam-columns as members of framed structures the stability of which will be analysed in a forthcoming chapter. ‘The energy method provides a powerful tool for stability analysis. In this chapter, we will discuss the variationa/energy methods for continuous systems; we will then use this method to solve some stability problems of ‘columns and beam-columns. This chapter also includes a discussion of global and local stability of sandwich compression members. The chapter will conclude with presentation of some design codes and their application to the design of compression members and beam-columns. 3.2, NONLINEAR EQUATIONS FOR STRAIGHT RODS In this section, we derive a general non-linear stability equations for straight elastic bars. The geometric nonlinearity would be limited to the so- called intermediate class of deformations. 3.2.1. Kinematic Relations We consider a straight elastic rod with longitudinal axis denoted by x and a plane of cross-sectional symmetry designated by xz, where z is normal to the x axis. The deformations are assumed to take place in the xz plane. The origin of the 2 axis is taken at the centroid of the cross section. Figure (3-1) A longitudinal fibre of a one-dimensional element before and after deformation STABILITY OF COLUMNS 57 Consider a longitudinal fibre of an infinitesimal element of this rod; this fibre has an initial length dx and located is ata distance x from the origin of the x axis and a distance z from the origin of the z axis, The x and z ‘components of displacement of the left end of this line element are denoted by U and W respectively; the displacement components of points located on the centroidal surface (2 = 0) are denoted by u and w. Figure (3-1) shows a longitudinal fibre of the column in its initial and deformed position. The ‘coordinates of the displaced point are x+d G1) Differentiation of these relations with respect to x gives 14 a4 dx dx ax '* ‘The length of deformed fibre is (aSP = (ax? + (cap sso that se — (asy’-1 20 +(UP+ WP 3-2) where ( )'=d¢ )/dx ‘The longitudinal strain of this fibre is dS - dx dx G3) Rearranging this expression, we can write ere eT] Equations (3-2) and (3-4) are exact, If is much smaller than unity then the equation (3-4) can be replaced by the following approximate relation: G-4)58 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES =f] 3-5) Using relation (3-2), we obtain the following strain-displacement relation b= veers wy G-6) If we neglect the square of i" compared with WI" then the non-linear strain displacement becomes e=7+l1 (mH) 2 FP G7 ‘This relation is the kinematic relation for a class of intermediate deformations. The rotation of the longitudinal fibre of figure (3-1) relative to the x axis is Ww G8) ‘The kinematic relations (3-7) and (3-8) can be expressed in terms of displacement components of the deformed centroidal surface. In order to do 50, we use the classical Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis for the slender straight rods; this hypothesis states that sections normal to the centroidal axis remain normal to the deformed axis. Furthermore, we neglect the shearing deformation. Using these assumptions, we may write u+zB . w=w (3-9) where B= Introducing these into the kinematic relation (3-7), and rearranging some terms, we obtain e=u'+l(w 2! G10) which may be rewritten as Exe+zK Gln STABILITY OF COLUMNS 59 where esu'tliwP , Ke zw (3-12) Relations (3-12) are the kinematical relations for slender straight rods. From a physical point of view, € is the longitudinal strain at the centroidal plane and Wis the curvature of the centroidal surface. 3.2.2. Equilibrium Equations Consider a longitudinal clement of the rod both in its initial and in deformed configuration, Figure (3-2a) shows the free body diagram of this clement; in this figure, the internal forces (the axial force N, the shear force Q, and the bending moment M) and the adopted positive sign convention are shown. Figure (3-2) shows the free-body diagram of this element in its deformed state. Referring to figure (3-2b) and summing-up the forces in the x direction we obtain N+ (N+ 4N)- QB +(Q + dQuB + df) or =0 N-QB+BQ=0 +13) ‘Summation of forces in the z direction gives -Q + (Q+ dQ)- NB + (N + ANY + dB) =0 which after simplification is -NB'-BN'+Q'=0 G-14) the axis normal to the plane of ‘Summation of moments about the y axis deformation, gives -M-(M+ dM) +Qdx=0 or Q=M G15)60 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES @ Mean Figure (3-2) Internal forces in a column element For slender homogeneous rods, the effect of shearing forces are usually small; thus, if we neglect the quadratic terms involving shear force Q, the three equilibrium equations become Axial equilibrium N=0 B-16a) Lateral equilibrium (3-16b) Rotational equilibrium Q=M (3-16) If we eliminate Q between equations (3-16b) and (3-16c) we obtain NB'=0 G-17) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 61 3.2.3. Constitutive Relations We assume that the material of the rod is linearly elastic; so that we can write the following linear constitutive relations between the axial force N and axial strain €, on one hand, and the bending moment M and the curvature x, on the other hand N=EAe G-18a) M=EIX« (3-18b) where E A and E I are the axial and bending stiffness of the rod cross section, respectively. Equations (3-12), (3-16a), (3-17) and (3-18) are nonlinear stability equations for straight linearly elastic rods. These equations can be written in terms of the two unknowns N and w, as follows: 0 (-19a) (Elw 1 Nw" (3-190) ‘The linear stability equations for straight elastic bars can be derived by eliminating the kinematically nonlinear terms in the kinematic relations (3- 12). Thus, the two equilibrium equations (3-19) and (3-19b) become decoupled, and the expression for the axial force N containing the axial force parameter(s) can be obtained independently prior to the stability analysis. Equation (3-19b) with already known N is the field relation for linear stability analysis of compressive struts and columns under end forces. 3.3. LINEAR STABILITY ANALYSIS OF COLUMNS 3.3.1. Buckling of Columns Under Concentric Axial Force In a column subjected to a concentric compressive end loading P the axial load N is constant throughout the column length; its value is N = -P. For a uniform rod (EI constant) with arbitrary boundary condition under Compressive axial force, we have the following linear differential equation(62 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES EL w"+Pw's (3-20) ‘Note that, according to the second relation in (3-12) and the relation (3-18b) the moment displacement relation can be expressed as M=-Elw" 21) ‘The general solution to equation (3-20) is W(X) = Ay sin Lx + Az coshx+ Ag+ Ay (3-22) where A?=P/ ET ‘The coefficients Ay, Az. As, and Ay are four integration constants which must be determined by the appropriate boundary conditions; there are always two boundary conditions are each end. Unbucked shape —--= Buckled shape jon--nw Figure (3-3) A simply supported column ‘As an example, we consider the simply supporter column of figure (3-3); for this case, the boundary conditions are wew'=0 at x=0,L 3-23) Using these conditions in the solution (3-22) we obtain Ar Ax As=0 AqsindL=0 6-24) This is an eigenvalue problem; to have nontrivial solutions, ic, to have buckling, we must have sinkL=0 > hen , 22,3, 6-25) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 63 ‘This gives the critical bifurcation-type buckling loads: + 051,23, . G26) ‘The corresponding buckling modes are = any 2,3, wp =Agsindx , n= 12,3, em In the Tinear stability analysis, the amplitude of buckling remains undetermined. Figure (3-4) shows the first three modes of buckling of this column. The lowest buckling load and its corresponding buckling mode are called the fundamental buckling load and the fundamental buekling mode, respectively. This linear theory of column buckling is sometimes referred 10 as the Euler buckling theory of columns; the related buckling loads are called the Euler critical loads. . : + ONT i }E o y : (a) b) © Figure (3-4) ‘The first three buckling modes of a simply supported column with concentrically applied axial force In the foregoing stability analysis of columns, we have used a fourth: order differential equation, ic., the equation (3-20). We ean use perform the buckling analysis of columns by using an equivalent formulation leading to a second-order differential equation. Referring to figure (3-3), we can write the expression for the bending ‘moment at a section located at a distance x from the origin of the deformed column; the bending moment is M= -P w. Equaing this intemal Bending ‘moment to the constitutive expression (3-21), for the bending moment, and afier some rearrangement we find the following second-order differential equation:64 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES wee w=0 3-28) ‘The general solution to this equation is w(x) = Ai sin x+ Arcos hx 6-29) There are two end conditions for this formulation. For a simply supported column, the end conditions compatible, in number, with this equation are w=0, at x=0,L Using these conditions, we arrive at the same eigenvalue problem and thus the same results as we have obtained using a fourth-order differential equation. 3.3.2, Influence of Boundary Conditions Linear stability analysis of columns with other boundary conditions can be carried out ina way similar to the one presented for simply supported columns. In all cases of homogeneous boundary conditions, we end up with an eigenvalue problem; the resulting eigenvalues are the buckling loads; the eigenvectors are the buckling modes. By carrying out such analysis, we can write the general expression for the buckling load of concentrically loaded columns with various homogeneous boundary conditions; it reads P= MEL | n=1,2,3,.. (kLy 3-30) In this formula, k is a known factor the value of which is obtained for each specified boundary condition. k; itis called the effective length factor. The product kL is called the effective length of the column, ysically, the effective length is the distance between two inflexion points within the bent column or its extension on the other side of a ‘clamped end. Table (3-1) gives the effective length parameter for columns with various homogeneous boundary conditions. STABILITY OF COLUMNS 65 Table (3-1) Effective length factor for columns with various boundary Be | k —}— 2 07 7 In practice, the ns of table (3-1) ate seldom encountered. In metal nection types will determine the particular boundary conditions which should be used in design; in steel structures, the connections are classified as rigid, semi-rigid, and hinged. In reinforced concrete structures, the connections are normally monolithic and hence a rigid joint can be assumed, Table (3-1) provides a guide for the extreme end conditions. Some other ‘cases of practical interest are presented in table (3-2). The effective length factor for framed structures will be determined in chapter four. 3.3.3. Discussion of Stability Behaviour of Struts ‘We sum-up the behaviour of a straight axially loaded column as follows: For discussion of bifurcation instability of one-dimensional elastic members, we consider the problem of a straight slender elastic straight rod subjected to axial compressive force. If the force retains its original direction, then itis conservative. Under the applied compressive force, this rod would first undergo axial shortening; the amount of axial shortening is linearly proportional to the applied force. This trend of behaviour, ic, axial shortening of an otherwise st called the primary path of equilibrium of this rod.66 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Table (3-2) Eectve Length Coetfisents for Colas Case Ends K 3+. fe (10. 4) we | (Bed 428 Be ook =e ap | oe 3407 6 3+B1 2+Bs | otk | 2t08 3+Bs Cental elastic. 4 a boa Wp <8 mo feet | os tmeos P foie = Pope 1+2k : — — ere 05+0.2k A L = : 5 coe Pe 075+ Po P (2Piki) Tree, er= elastic rotational Constraint, Bi = 01 LEI, ay = moment to produce 1 radian rotation 6: 13/53 El, a2 = moment to produce deflection of the central support Fiom "The strength of Aluminium” Aluminium Company of Canada, Lid 1965, STABILITY OF COLUMNS 67 ‘With the increase of the applied force, the rod is further compressed but still retains its straight configuration until the so-called bifurcation point is reached. A certain value of axially applied force would mark the bifurcation int. P“With further increase inthe applied force, beyond the bifurcation point, the rod can follow one of the two following equilibrium paths: (1) it can remain straight and to undergo further pure axial contraction along the primary path or (2) acquire a bent form and undergo lateral as well as axial deformation; this would mark the secondary path of equilibrium. This bent equilibrium state is certainly a new trend of behaviour that is different from its straight configuration. This bent form of the compressed column is called buckling. ‘The straight form of equilibrium, beyond the bifurcation point, is unstable in the sense that a small perturbation could alter that straight configuration and bring the column to a bent position; the bent configuration of the rod (the column) isa stable configuration, figure (3-5). Buckling of such elements as concentrically loaded straight bars and complete rings under uniform external pressure, as normally demonstrated by figure(3-5), is marked by bifurcation or divergence of equilibrium. In these elements, with the passage of the applied load through critical state(s), the structure passes from an unbuckled funicular shape to adjacent buckled configuration(s).. Load Secondary path {ee ° Axial shorting Figure (3-5) Behaviour of axially compressed elastic rod68 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES The existence of two equilibrium paths, emanating from a bifurcation point, and the fact that the system chooses the buckled shape beyond that Point, is characteristic of a buckling type which is usually referred to as classical buckling. ‘The so-called classical buckling load (Pe), indicated in figure (3-5), can be determined by the linear theories of stability analysis. For example, the classical linear theory of slender compressive members yields the well- known Euler buckling load. The Euler buckling load is directly proportional to bending rigidity of the member and is conversely proportional to the square of its length. ‘On of the salient features of stability behaviour of columns and beam columns is that the load-carrying capacity of these members in their ostbuckled sate is not drastically reduced; this feature can be observed in igure (3-5). Straight rods and, as we shall see, flat plates continue to carry the applied loads after they have buckled; this means that their stiffness is not drastically reduced after buckling. There are structural members, such as some thin shells under certain loadings, that loose their stiffness appreciably in their post buckled configuration. The linear theory is mathematically an eigenvalue problem. Itcan not predict the post buckling response of the compressed rod. Figure (3-6) shows the bifurcation points as the thresholds of the elastic instability for a simply supported strut. In this figure, the postbuckling paths are schematically depicted by the dashed curves; the range of validity of the linear analysis is also indicated in this figure. In relation to figure (3-6), a question may arise as to under what condition does a certain pure mode of buckling occur?. As mentioned before, the linear theory only predicts the threshold of the buckling modes. In the framework of this theory, the first buckling load should excite the first mode; if the occurrence of the first mode is somehow inhibited, then ‘one has to increase the applied load to the level of second critical load: then the second mode will theoretically occur, and so one. In practical situations, the existence of geometrical imperfections would influence the tendency of the system towards a certain buckling mode. STABILITY OF COLUMNS. 69 Unstebt Nut yn lepleonets Urata ‘Amplitude, A Figure (3-6) Stability behaviour of straight columns70 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.4, BUCKLING OF IMPERFECT COLUMNS 3.4.1. Columns with Eccentric Axial Force Figure (3-7) shows a straight column under the action of an eccentrically applied axial force P. We denote the eccentricity by the parameter e, Figure (3-7) Bocentrcally loaded straight simply supported column ‘The bending moment at a typical section, x, measured from the left end of the bent column is M=-P(e¢+w) (3-31) So the second order differential equation for the bent column will be wt we -Ve (3-32) ‘The general solution to this equation is the sum of two solutions: the solution to the homogeneous equation and a particular solution to the nonhomogeneous equation; thus the general solution can be written as, Aysinkx+Azcoshx +e (3-33) ions for the simply supported column of figure (3- w=0, at x=0,L Using these conditions, we can obtain two constants A, and Ay; they come out to be. STABILITY OF COLUMNS 71 (1 -cos AL) A sin . Arze 3-34) ‘Therefore, the general solution to the eccentrically loaded column is 1 -cos XL) wo=e( sin x + cos Xx -1) sin XL (3-35) ‘The maximum bending deflection occurs at the mid-length of this column; its expression is 3-36) ‘We note that the relation between the lateral deflection, A, and the axial force, P, (non linearly present in parameter A, is nonlinear. We should ‘mention that the theory used has been a linear theory, but it has resulted a nonlinear relation between the lateral deflection with the axial load. Figure (3-8) shows plots of this load-deformation relation for some values of eccentricity parameter, e. Cutt (because of small dellecions assumption) Inceasing eccertcty, @ A Figure (3-8) Load deformation plot of imperfect column72 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES ‘The nonlinear relation (3-36) is representative of the so-called the P-A effect; it shows that the presence of compressive axial force would affect the lateral deformation nonlinearly. From a physical point of view, the action of the axial compressive force causes some magnification in the bending deflection; as we see, the interaction of the applied force withthe resulting deformation is nonlinear, ‘The roots of the denominator of expression (3-36) yield the symmetric buckling loads of the same column with concentric loading; to obtain non symmetric buekling modes, we must use a more general expression based on (3-34). ‘The present treatment, and that of the following section, runs in parallel with te imperfection method of stability analysis which was discussed by means of simple models in chapter 2. 3.4.2, Columns Consider a simply supported column which is not initially quite straight, but has some deviation from straight shape; this assumed form imperfection is represented by a known function w(x). This column is subjected to an axial force which we assume to act along the straight line connecting two simple supports. We denote the additional bending deflection by the function w(x). Figure (3-9) shows this column in its initial and deformed configuration, Figure (3-9) A geometrically imperfect column STABILITY OF COLUMNS 73 We can represent an arbitrarily varying imperfection of this column by its expansion into a Fourier series as follows: wi L 37) 1g moment at an arbitrary cross section of this column is P(w+wp) (3-38) ‘After rearrangement of some terms this differential equation will be 2? Y ag sin TX Mews " L 639) ‘The general solution to this equation is v=, 23). ‘These are the buckling loads of the same column with perfect straight geometry. Using the boundary conditions of simple supports, we obtain the following specific solution er 41) ‘This solution resembles the series expansion for the imperfection function except for a coefficient identified by a= —L a- Py Per (3-42) Since P < Pz, so A > 1; this coefficient is called the magnification factor. Here again we encounter the nonlinear P - A effect.74 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.5. THE SOUTHWELL PLOT In many occasions, the buckling strength of structural elements is to be experimentally determined. The routine buckling test method consists of subjecting the test sample fo statically increasing axial compression. The results of the analysis carries out in the foregoing section can be used to plan the buckling experiments and to determine the buckling strength of rods though a theoretical-experimental correlation. One of such correlations is due to Southwell; hence it is referred to as the Southwell plot. We assume that the initial imperfection of a strut can be approximated ‘wo(x) = ar sind EX (3-43) Using relation (3-39), we can write the lateral defection at x = L /2 as baw (La) - wL2)= Pa 1-P (3-44) where P, is the first buckling load of the strut. Relation (3-42) can be rewritten as follows P&-m=a rpm (3-45) a linear relation between (A/ P) and A. In practice, we use this relation as follows: a P © Expoimental data Figure (3-10) The Southwell plot STABILITY OF COLUMNS 75 Ina buckling test, by means of some lateral disturbance we produce a lateral deformation ay in the compressed sample. Then, for each value of the applied axial force P we measure the lateral deflection A and carry the pairs of points (AP, A) on a plot; this is the Southwell plot. ‘We can pass a best fit straight ine through these points, The resulting line would look something of the form shown in figure (3-10). This is known as the Southwell plot. The intersection of this plot with A axis gives the coefficient a,, and its intersection with (A/ P) axis yields the value (a, / P,).From these values the value of the first buckling load of the test specimen can be estimated. 3.6. STRESSES IN COMPRESSED STRUTS 3.6.1. Critical Euler Stress At the buckling stage, the so-called critical Euler stress in an ceccentrically loaded compression member is coe Pst «PEL 2 2B a apr ey G-46) In this relation, A is the cross sectional area of the member and ris the radius of gyration of its cross section; the later is defined as, ‘The ratio of the effective length to the radius of gyration kL/t, appearing in relation (3-46), is called the slenderness ratio. The slenderness ratio is a parameter representing the geometrical properties of the column and its end conditions. Relation (3-46) shows that the critical stress is inversely proportional to the square of the slendemess ratio. Of importance in design of columns is the knowledge of the collapse load of the column so that the compression member can be designed against such failure. Figure (3-11) shows variation of maximum axial stress that a pure compression member with the corresponding slenderness ratio can carry. As we see, the ultimate strength of so-called short columns is determined by the limit of its material strength while for the so-called long ‘columns buckling is the determining factor. In short columns, the ultimate load is reached due to the material behaving inelastically by undergoing large inelastic deformations or breaking in a britle fashion.76 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES In long columns, failure initiates from elastic instability; the final collapse is accompanied by inelastic deformations in a later stage of loading. For the so-called intermediate columns, both the material flow and geometric instability influence the collapse loading. In any case, the slendemess ratio plays an important role in the modes of coluran failure. Figure (3-11) shows the influence of the slendemess ratio on the ultimate axial stress; curve AC in this figure represents the Euler hyperbola. This figure also depicts the range of validity of the Euler formula. The horizontal line DE represents the material collapse occurring in short struts. ‘The transition region Ex of the so-called intermediate columns lies between the short and the slender members; it signifies a combined material- geometric failure; various codes of stability design propose their own transition curve. a {Aree shot Inteediate long column column column Figure (3-11) Ultimate stress of concentrically loaded columns 3.6.2. Ultimate Stress in Eccentrically Loaded Columns In section 3.4.1. we derived the following expression for maximum, deflection in an eccentrically loaded column: =e(sechL. 1) Using this value, we calculate the magnitude of corresponding maximum bending moment = = aL Mau =P(e+ A) = © seed ean ‘So the maximum combined axial and bending stress in the column will be STABILITY OF COLUMNS 77 G-48) §=1/c is called the section modulus of the member, ¢ is the distance from maximally stressed fibre to the neutral axis; it has the dimension of length to the power three. Using the definitions of r=V(V/A) and S, we can rewrite the relation (3- 48) as follows: Caen = 2 2 (3-49) Using the definition 4 P/E I, we finally obtain =2| se oan =F 1+ 2 se(h al @-50) This relation is known as the secant formula for eccentrically loaded elastic columns, Figure (3-12) shows plots of the secant formula for some values of the dimensioniess eccentricity parameter (¢ c/t2) for a simply supported column. This figure gives the ultimate strength of eccentrically loaded compression members as a function of two parameters (¢ c/t?) and Lr For columns with other boundary conditions the ratio L/t should be replaced by kL, Figure (3-12) shows thatthe ultimate stress is non-linearly related to the axial force P. Thus, in the ultimate strength design of columns the safety factor should be implemented through the load P and not the stress 6, as is normally the case in the working stress designs!; this is, in fact, the current underlying philosophy of new codes of practice in structural engineering. 900 = OT | Om= 275 Mira Lp Es aor 250 ry g whe Shag [ewe <"* PASS * 100)—-$ 50 °o 40 80 120 460 200 240 ue Figure (3-12) ultimate sess in eccentrically loaded elastic column78 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.7. BEAM-COLUMNS Beam-columns are one dimensional structural members which in addition to axial compressive loading are also subjected to lateral loading and bending moments. The lateral loading can be a prescribed applied distributed or concentrated force; it can also be a force of interaction between the member and its surroundings. Examples of prescribed lateral loading are the wind forces on framed structures, earthquake loading, soil and lateral water pressure, and dead as well as live loading in building frames. Examples of forces of lateral interaction are columns resting on elastic foundation, and facing sheets in composite construction. ‘The presence of the axial force in the beam-columns will cause second- order effects; it will in general increase the internal forces and the displacement field in the member; it will also affect the buckling behaviour. It is to be noted that the beam-column problems are in general not pure eigenvalue problems; this means that for all values of the applied axial Toading a unique equilibrium state exits in which the potential energy of the system is minimum. Other equilibrium configurations may exist if the axial Toading coincides with the buckling load of the beam-column acting as an axially loaded column, 3.7.1. Equations of Beam-Columns The governing equations of elastic beam-columns can be obtained from the general nonlinear equations of one dimensional members derived in section 3.2. they can also be derived independently. The constitutive and the kinematic relations are the same as those derived for the straight rods; the equilibrium equations, however, must be generalized to take into account the effect of lateral loading. F 4 Bi P sep he. Figure (3-13) A simply supported beam-column STABILITY OF COLUMNS 79 To derive the field equilibrium equations of beam-columns, we consider the simply beam-column shown in figure (3-12). Other boundary conditions can also be conceived; they would not affect the field equation, Also, in a more general case, the axial loading may be variable along the member length. Figures (3-14) show free bodies of an element of the deformed beam- column; the original length of this element is denote by dx; these figures show two possible way of viewing the free body diagram of this element in its deformed configuration. Figure (3-14a) shows the free body diagram of this element sectioned by two adjacent planes normal to the original undeformed (straight) configuration. Figure (3-14b) shows the free body of the same element with the intersecting planes normal to the deformed axis of the beam-column; in ‘both cases, the applied load has been assumed to retain its original vertical dinection. The main difference in the internal forces between these the two free body diagrams shown in figures (3-14) is in the definition of the shear force; the shear force V in figure (3-14a) is the internal lateral resultant force referred to the undeformed configuration while the shear force Qin figure (3-14b) is the internal lateral resultant force associated with the deformed shape of the beam-column. There exists a relation between these two definitions of the internal shear force which will be derived later. M fa) M 0) P 8 owiex Mai is +2vidx2 [ 4 Pear x eS @ % Figure (3-14) Free body diagrams of the beam-column, (@) referred to the undeformed configuration, (b) referred 10 the deformed configuration80 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES ‘The linear equilibrium equations for the element shown in figure (3-14a) san be conveniently derived as follows: Equation of force equilibrinr = dx 51) Equation of moment equilibrium: v= Mp dx dx 3-52) By combining these two relations we obtain M d(pdw) et aa) © (3-53) If we substitute the combined kinematic-constitutive relation M = - EI d2w/dx?, relation (3-21), into this equation we obtain the governing differential equation of the beam-column as: a on) d ( s) Hf aX) + £(ps*) = -ax = ae ax" dx ee) (54) For constant El and constant axial force P, this equation reduces to aw Bf 4 po® 2 a) dx? (3-55) Alternatively, we can derive the equilibrium equations by using the free body diagram of figure (3-14b). First, by considering the static equivalency, we can verify, that the two shear forces Q and V are related to each other as follows: dw = V+P— Q arn 6-56) Now if we write the equilibrium equations for the element in the deformed system, figure (3-18b) we obtain 4 STABILITY OF COLUMNS 81 Equation of force equilibrium: Q_ paw q=-2 dx dx? (57) Equation of moment equilibrium: aM @ = it x 3-58) By combining these two relations we obtain @M mt a) -oE + A[pS) = - de ax ax ae) This is the same as the equation (3-53); equations (3-54) and (3-55) will also follow by this formulation. ‘The governing equations of the beam-columns derived here embody as their special cases the relation for concentrically loaded columns (q = 0) and also the equations for beams under lateral forces (P = 0). “The equation for the flexural members with lateral force and axial tension (tied members) can be obtained by reversing the sign of P in all these relations. ‘The governing equations of beam-columns can alternatively be obtained by writing the moment equilibrium equation at a section along the beam- column axis; in such case, a second order differential equation on the lateral displacement variable, w, will be obtained. The equation for the beam-coumns on elastic function of the Winkler type can be obtained by adding the foundation contribution kw to the left- hand side of the equation (3-55). 3.7.2. Some Basic Problems of Beam-Columns 3.7.2.1. Beam-column under concentrated lateral force Figure (3-15) shows a beam-column under concentric axial force P and concentric lateral load W.82. STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 2 w eoala B x —, —— e —>; — wi2| ~S - +" Figure (3-15) A simply supported beam-column under concentrated lateral force ‘The moment-displacement relation is M=-EIw" G59) Bending moment at section x: M=12Wx4Px (sx>L2) So the second order differential equation for the bent member will be W"' +22 w+ (W22/2P) x =0 G-60) where 42=P/EI ‘The general solution to ffis equation is the sum of two solutions: the general solution to homogeneous equation and a particular solution to non homogeneous equation; so, the general solution to (3-60) is w(x) = Ar sin Ax-+ Ap cos Ax - (W/2P) x @aiy ‘The boundary conditions for this problem are Le 6-62) w=0, at x=! Using these conditions, we can obtain two constants Ay and Ag, they come out to be STABILITY OF COLUMNS 83 Aj=W/(2PAcoshL/2) and Ar=0 6-63) ‘Therefore, the general solution to this beam-column under lateral force W is, ww (x) = ———W—__ gin dx - (W/2P) x - 2P AeoshL/2 Se) ‘We note that the relation between the lateral deflection, w, and the axial force, P, non linearly present in parameter A, is non-linear. Therefore, we conclude that the principle of superposition does not, in general, hold for ‘beam-columns, that is, we can not superpose the solution of the axially loaded column problem to the solution of laterally loaded beam to obtain the solution to the beam-column problem. Superposition of two solutions ‘would be possible only if the same axial force were be present in both constituent problems. If we define a dimensionless axial load parameter u as u=AL2 A=2u/L (3-65) then ursA2Lt/4 =4u2EL/L? (3-66) With this definition, the maximum deflection of the beam-column of figure (-14) (that occurs at x =L/2) will be _ lee | ves * gel ow In the special case of a si alone(P = 0), applied in the mid-length, the maximum deflection would be equal to wo = W L3 / 48 EI; this a result that one can find in the standard texts on mechanics of solids. The effect of axial compressive force is to increase the lateral deflection; delineating this coefficient, we can identify a ‘magnification factor in relation (3-67) as oe eo ee 3 w G68) so that Wmnax = 1 Wo -69)84 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Figure (3-16) shows a graph of the magnification factor in terms of the compressive axial force P. As we note, the lateral displacement increases nonlinearly with the compressive axial force P; it tends to infinity at the value u = 7/2; this value corresponds to the buckling load of the same ‘member under the action of the axial force alone, Magnificazion factor 13 16 a4 1.2 “Ariel oad part O2 oF oe oe i a2 a Figure (3-16) Magnification of lateral displacement of the beam-column of figure (3-15) 3.7.2.2. Uniformly loaded beam-column Figure (3-17) shows a simply supported beam-column under the action of uniformly distributed lateral loading with intensity qo and an end compressive force P, Figure (3-17) Simply supported uniformly loaded beam- column STABILITY OF COLUMNS 8s ‘The differential equation of this beam-column can be deduced from the equation (3- 55) to be “4 2 aw yaad 4 xt dx? EL (3-70) ‘The general solution of this equation is the sum of the general solution to the corresponding homogeneous equation and a particular solution to this nonhomogeneous equation; so the general solution to (3-70) is w= Asin Ax +B cos Ax +.qo( x2/2-Lx/2-12)/P @7) The coefficients A and B are two integration constants which must be determined by the use of appropriate boundary conditions ‘The boundary conditions for a simply supported column are atx=0,Liw=0 Using these conditions in the solution (3-71) we obtain A=(qL?/P)tanA2 > B= qo L?/P ‘Hence the solution to this problem will be w=qoL?/P(tan AL/2 sin Ax-+ cos Ax) + qo( x2/2-Lx/2-L2)/P (3-72) ‘The maximum deflection, occurs at x = L/2; its expression is, Wms = qo L?/ P( sec ALI2 - 1) + qo L?/8P 73) ‘The maximum bending moment, which occurs at the same section, is Manax = Go L? (sec AL/2 - 1) @-74) Both the deflection and the bending moment tend to infinity when the denominator of these expression becomes zero; this corresponds to the symmerric buckling deformation of this member under the action of axial force alone. We also note, again, that the relation between the lateral deflection and the bending moment with the axial force, P, is non-linear.86 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.8. VARIATIONAL / ENERGYMETHODS OF BUCKLING ANALYSIS In many problems, the exact analytical solution to the field equations together with their associated boundary conditions is very difficult, if not impossible, Problems in which the governing field equations are non-linear and/or have variable coefficients and also problems with complicated geometry and/or complicated boundary conditions are the cases which render an analytical solution cumbersome. In such cases, resort must be made to approximate solution schemes; these approximate methods may be analytical or numerical. Under some conditions. a high depree of accuracy ‘can be achieved through the appropriate approximate solutions. ‘A group of the powerful approximation methodologies are called the direct variational methods. These methods are based on the energy principles; they deal with the energy functional instead of the field equations ‘and in doing so they employ the technique of calculus of variations. A functional is, by definition a quantity which is a function of a function. An example of a functional is the stored energy in a laterally loaded beam; this energy is a function of the lateral deflection; various deflected shape functions result in different energy functional, In the variational methods, attempt is made to minimize (or maximize) the energy functional by using an approximating function which satisfies certain equilibrium or kinematic requirements of the system. In stability analysis, this method will give the buckling modes and the upper bounds to the buckling loads of the structure, ‘The requirement that the first variation of the energy functional would be zero at the equilibrium state gives the equilibrium equations of the system; the sign of the second variation will determine the stability or instability, or neutrality condition of the equilibrium state. The governing stability relations are normally of the form of differential equations; the solution to these relation gives the conditions of stability / instability of the. system. “The essential steps in the methodology of all variational methods can be outlined as follows: (1) Variational formulation of the problem; the variational formulation may lead to a functional (energy) form or it may only render a variational formulation of the problem. (2) Choice of approximate expressions; these expressions are normally chosen in the form of series expansions containing known functions and unknown coefficients, (3) Use of these approximate expressions in the variational forms; minimization of the error of approximation; this may be done by STABILITY OF COLUMNS 87 imposition of the stationary condition or other schemes; determination of the best combination of the unknown coefficients. ‘The variational methods may be applied in the global sense, i.e, to the whole system or in the local sense, i.e., to the constituent parts of the system; in the Finite Element Method, the latter scheme of approximation is utilized, 3.8.1. Methods of Weighted Residuals ‘The so-called methods of weighted residuals are members of variational methods. In these methods, appropriate approximating functions with Unknown coefficients are used, the error ofthis approximation is then minimized by means of some variational formulation. Included in the method of weighted residual are, Galerkin method, method of least squares, collocation method, Koniorovitch method, Treftc method, and Ritz method. Galerkin method In this method, the weighting function ( also called the test function) is chosen the same as one of the approximating functions; an integral formulation will then yields a set of algebraic equations the solution of which gives the unknown coefficients. This method can be used to solve the nonlinear as well as the linear problems. Method of Least Squares In this method, the integral of the square of the error (residual) is minimized with respect to the unknown coefficients. Thus, the weighting function, in this method, is the derivative of the error with respect to the coefficients of expansion. Collocation method In this method, the error (residual) at certain chosen points over the domain is set to zero; this leads to a set of simultaneous equations in terms of the unknown nodal variables at the collocation points. Kontorovitch method In this method, the coefficients of series expansion are themselves Junctions of one of the independent variables; in this way, through a ‘variational approximation, the governing partial differential equation would reduce to an ordinary differential equation; the solution of the latter equation would result an improved variational approximation,88 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Ritz method Ritz, method is a special case of the Galerkin method; it is applicable to linear conservative problems. Finite Difference method The Finite Difference method can be considered a member of the variational methods. In this method, values of the dependent variable at ‘some points over the domain are chosen as the dependent unknowns of the problem. The variational formulation then leads to a set of difference equations in terms of the unknown nodal variables. Trefiz method In the so-called Treftz method, the approximating functions satisfy the differential (field) equation exactly, but it does not necessarily satisfy the boundary conditions. This situation is to be contrasted with other variational methods where the approximate functions would satisfy the boundary conditions and not necessarily the field equations. 3.8.2. Energy View in Stability Analysis of Elastic Systems ‘The energy principles and the methods based on these principles are powerful tools for stability analysis of columns, frames, plates, shells, and combined structures. The energy approach is based on the principle of virtual work, the later being connected to the first aw of thermodynamics. ‘The first law of thermodynamics relates the work done by the external forces to the energy stored and the energy dissipated in the system; for elastic systems the dissipated energy is zero and the work of external forces is stored in the system as a free internal energy capable of rendering the spent work again. In the elasticity terminology, this internal energy is referred to as the strain energy. The algebraic sum of the work done and the energy stored is called the rota! potential of the system. Let Pi be the applied force vector and let 8ri be the virtual displacement vector of a material point i; here, we use the symbol 8 to designate the virtual change of a scalar/vector quantity. The virtual work done by this force in this virtual displacement is BW=Pi.dr 75) ‘The virtual work done is, in general, path-dependent. Ifthe applied force is conservative then there exists a force potential, V; in such case, the work done would become path-independent; the force potential V is defined by 8Ws-5V=-P..dr, G-76) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 89 ‘The principle of virtual work states that in the equilibrium state(s) of the structure the total potential of a structure is stationary; this means that at the equilibrium state(s) the first variation of total potential is zero, bn ‘Thus, the principle of virtual work relates the first variation of the work done by the applied forces and the first variation of the stored energy, U, as follows: Gam 8U+5W =0 ==> 8(U+W)=0 3-78) We must note that the algebraic sign of the stored energy U is positive while that of the performed work, W, is negative. With these introductory remarks, we now lay an energy basis for elastic stability analysis; in this discussion, we will confine ourselves to conservative systems. In elastic structures, the work of applied external forces is converted into the strain energy; this is the principle of conservation of energy. At the equilibrium state, the total energy of the system is stationary; it can be maximum, minimum, or its first variation may vanish without the potential becoming an extremum. ‘Now, consider a system which has attained an equilibrium state. This state represents a balance between the action of the applied forces and the stored energy. ‘An equilibrium state can be stable or unstable. Form a physical point of view, the effect of some of the applied forces is to force away the system from this state while the stored energy has a restoring action the tendency of which is to preserve the existing state of equilibrium. fone thinks of an increment, A, of both the work done and of the stored energy beyond the equilibrium state, then the equilibrium is considered stable ifthe following inequality dominates: AU>AW -79) IF the direction of this inequality is reversed then the existing equilibrium state would be considered unstable. So, the borderline delineating the stable ‘and unstable equilibrium states can be expressed as AU=AW 6-80) thas to be borne in mind that the symbol A designates the change of the energy quantities beyond the critical equilibrium values; inthis sense, it90 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES can be considered as the first variation of the energy quantities. This relation expresses the stability/instability border; in this sense, it is an stability /instability criterion, 3.8.3, Rayleigh-Ritz Method of Stability Analysis One of the widely used variational methods is called the Rayleigh-Ritz method. In the Rayleigh-Ritz method, an approximating function usually in the form of series expansion is chosen and substituted in the energy functional. The approximating function satisfies the geomerric boundary ‘conditions; it contains some unknown coefficients which can be determined by minimising the resulting energy function. Let we be the approximating function which is expressed in terms of a series of known functions (j in the language of linear algebra, these functions are called the basis function or the coordinate functions; the expansion contains the unknown coefficients (j= 1, ..,m). at G81) As mentioned, the coordinate functions must satisfy the geometric boundary conditions. If the differential equation is of m-th order, then the so-called "geometric boundary conditions" can be expressed in terms of derivatives up to (m-2) order; in column, plate, and shell problems, they are ‘conditions on the end displacements and the end rotations. By substitution of the approximate series solution (3-81) in the expression for the energy functional and after performance of integration on the space variable(s), the energy functional is converted to a function of undetermined coefficients ay; it reads TT = Ti(w) = Uw) + Ww) = Ky (2), 825 ey Qn) -P Kp (21, 25 00s dn) (3-82) ‘Now, to find the best combination for the unknown coefficients, and thus the best energy approximation, we must express the stationary of the energy function; a set of n simultaneous algebraic equations obtained in this way are: an ono i=12, dai G-83) In linear stability problems, the energy function is a quadratic expression, so the above relations are a set of n linear simultaneous STABILITY OF COLUMNS 91 homogeneous algebraic equations; the condition for non zero solution(s), ice, for another equilibrium state is that the determinant of the coefficient malrix be zero, that is Det. G84) ‘This determinant contains free parameters representing the applied loading; it can be expanded to give an algebraic equation of the n-th degree ‘on the loading parameter P; the roots of this equation are the upper bound approximations to the bifurcation loads of the system; the corresponding solutions are approximations to the buckling modes of the structure. This is an eigenvalue problem in which the buckling loads play the role of eigenvalues and the buckling modes the role of eigenfunctions (eigenveriors) ‘an alternative, but equivalent, energy formulation, one may define the so-called the Rayleigh quotient as follows: = Ki@yayendy) G-85) In which Ky is the strain energy and Ka is the coefficient of P in the expression for the work done by this force. The approximate expression (3- 81) has already been employed in the Rayleigh quotient. Minimization of this quotient gives the following set of linear simultaneous algebraic equations: ap dai G86) ‘The solution to these equations would also give the same upper bounds on the buckling loads of the structure, 3.8.4. Applications of the Energy Method 3. 1, A simply supported column under concentric force Consider a simply supported column under a concentric end force P, figure (3-18). The strain energy of the bent column is composed of bending, shear, and axial energies. Total potential energy of this system can be obtained by superposing the strain energy and the work done by the applied force.92 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES a. Figure (3-18) A simply supported column For slender columns, due to high axial stiffness, relative to the bending stiffness, we can neglect the shear energy; the axial energy can also be neglected. Hence the strain energy can be taken to be just due to bending, that is 1M?) 1g 1(@w)? u [ie [ee ‘ax ‘The work done by applied force P on the end displacement AL is W=P AL where 1 1 aufaat- f (dx- ds cos a) = o fo ~ fe - (3-87) (3-88) So the work done by the applied force is s 2 We - of du) ax 6-89) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 93 ‘Therefore the total potential energy will be L a (d2w|*_1 p (dw) | 5. o-{ jeula)4 ey eo For the present problem, we choose the following approximating series: S nmx w(x) = 2 Sn a onal, 2,3. G-91) In this series solution the coefficients Cp are unknown. If we substitute the expression (3-91) into (3-90) we obtain 2 Eatos—TP Etcs 6-92) We have thus changed the energy functional to a function 1I(C1, C2, Cs,...Cq); the unknown coefficients must be so chosen that this function ‘wold be stationary; so we write an 6-93) 3-94) This is a typical eigenvalue problem with which we have dealt before. For non zero C, we must have 2 (2) HI wnat23.. L G-95) This is the Euler buckling load that we have obtained previously by the ifferential equation method. Now to investigate the stability/instability states of the straight configuration of the column we form the second 0 ==> straight configuration of the column is stable. (2) If P > Pe =n? x? EVL?, then d*1Y Cp? < 0 ==> straight configuration of the column is unstable. @) If P = Pg =n? x? BVL?, then d2T/ dCq? = 0 ==> straight configuration of column is neutral, this marks the threshold of instability, ive. itis the bifurcation point. 3.8.4.2. Vertical cantilever column under its own weight Figure (3-19) shows a vertical uniform cantilever column; the uniform weight per unit length of this column is q; the stability of this column under its own weight is tobe investigated. w(x) _——> z Figure (3-19) A vertical cantilever column under its own ‘weight STABILITY OF COLUMNS 95 ‘The bending moment at a typical section of this column located at a distance x, measured from the lower end, is L M = f(@-w)qde ® G-97) In this relation, x < = 8U=8W (3-118) Substituting the expressions for the variatic f ‘the work in this rnin, we obtain eS aan cocagy at We cos i sq (1008 it) a 7 HEL) «_p(Pe au 2L G19) or, noting ao thence of odd multiples of 1/2 is zero, we write ql y= = 35, (Se)te(RE) a 2L G-120) Now we define the following quantities: STABILITY OF COLUMNS 101 Pa=pPEl/L2 — &=P/ Pa Then 4qut “* PE @-121) If we substitute this value for the coefficients of series expansion for the displacement field, we obtain the following approximate solution to the problem. a 4qt4 1, in was 2 sin WEI P(P-a) E ‘This solution holds for various values of applied lateral and axial Joading. We note that the solution tends to infinity for the values a = j; these values correspond to the buckling load of the same structure under the action of the axial force alone. For other values of the applied axial force, due to the presence of the axial force, the lateral displacement will be ‘magnified as compared to the case in which the beam would be only subjected to the lateral loading. "AS we have seen before, this so-called second-order effect also occurs in other problems in which the compressive loading are present; it magnifies the displacement field and the force field in the structure. 3-122) 3.9. COLUMNS ON ELASTIC FOUNDATION In some occasions, compressed elements are embedded in,an elastic ‘medium or have distributed lateral elastic bedding of some sort. There exist also cases in which the behaviour of a two or three dimensional elastic bodies may be modelled by a one-dimensional element with distributed lateral support; cylindrical shells having axisymmetric behaviour are an example of these cases. ‘The simplest model of interaction between a compressed element and its elastic surroundings is the so-called Winkler-type function model; in this ‘model, the effect of elastic bedding is assumed to be proportional to lateral deformation of the beam; the coefficient of proportionality is called the foundation modulus.102 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Consider a simply supported beam with a Winkler-type elastic foundation. This member i subjected to a concen end fore figure L2 L2 P. | H > | P > <— Figure (3-22) Column on an elastic foundation ‘The differential equation for this column is J“ 2 no + p£Y a kw so ax ax? G23) where kis ealled the foundation modulus “The geometric boundary conditions are atx=tL:iw=0 The natural boundary conditions are at xt L: d2v/dx? =0 ‘The field equation (3-123) can be rewritten as 4 2 “ aw 4 gp Oey (2) =0 dx dx Li -124) in which P kL* Fm pe ee EI EI 6-125) ‘The following solution satisfies all boundary conditions R= STABILITY OF COLUMNS 103 wos EA, sinSe* ym 51,2 Bae m= G12) yn must also satisfy the differential equation; upon substitution we obtain the following condition under which the equation is satisfied “ 2 “ mn)’ _ 42 (mn), (2) =0 (=) a(Z) a L, ‘This equation yields 2 w(t) tee mw & %. PE m’ (3-127) In this relation, Pg is the critical load of the same simply supported column without elastic foundation; its value is Pg = x? EI/ L2; Py is the critical load of the beam with elastic foundation. The values of the integer parameter m must be determined to minimize the buckling load P,,. From a physical point of view, the parameter m signifies the half wave length of the buckling mode. Figure (3-23) shows variation of minimum buckling load with the dimensionless foundation parameter, B. The intersecting lines are the P-B ‘aaions for m = 1 and m = 2. From the intersecting line shown in figure G-23) the following values for the minimum buckling loads are deduce ? EI Pa = P= TP for Ospsa 4n° EI Pa = Ph = for 45B<36 (3-128) ‘The continuous curve in figure (3-23) is the P-B variation assuming that ‘m isa “continuous” variable; the value of this m for minimal value of P is obtained by differentiating the expression (3-127) with respect to m ; thus the value of m giving a minimum P can be obtained to be equal to m = bi. ‘The buckling load corresponding to the approximate curve shown in this figure can be obtained by substitution of this value into expression (3-127); thus an approximate value for minimum buckling load comes out to be Pa = 2Pe yB = 2 ykET @-129)106 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 10: Buckling load factor parameter m treated as a continuous variable 2 4 6 8 Foundation parameter Figure (3-23) Variation of the critical buckling load with the foundation modulus Values of the parameter m giving minimum buckling load for a prescribed foundation modulus, k, represent half buckle wave lengths; this ‘means that depending on the foundation stiffness the first buckling mode of beam on elastic foundation may consist of one or several half-sine ‘wavelengths ; obviously, for higher foundation stiffness one expects to have higher number of half-sine wave length; for a beam without elastic foundation the value m = 1 gives the familiar one half-sine wave length as its fundamental buckling load. The model of beam on distributed elastic foundation can be used to arrive a preliminary understanding of the buckling behaviour of the facing layers in a composite construction. It can also be used to arrive at an estimate for the axisymmetric buckling of circular cylindrical shells. In the next section, this model will be used and will then be further developed into more refined models of composite struts. STABILITY OF COLUMNS 105 3.10 BUCKLING OF SANDWICH ELEMENTS 3.10.1. Stiffness of a Sandwich Element A sandwich member consists of two facing layers separated by a relatively thick layer called the core. The core of a sandwich element can be made of a solid material or may be composed of a corrugated sheet o: may be a hollow body; in the later case, the sandwich element is called a honey-comb clement. The faces can have the same thickness or have different thicknesses; in all cases, the thickness of the facing layers is by several orders of magnitudes smaller than the thickness of the core. the function of facing layers is to carry the tensile and the compressive stresses caused by bending. Ina sandwich construction, the function of the core is to keep the facings at a distance apart and thus to provide higher moment resisting arm for the clement; the core should also carry the transverse shear forces. To perform these functions, the facing sheets are normally chosen from the materials that are resistant against the tensile and the compressive forces while the core can be made of relatively weaker substances. Figure (3-24) shows a sandwich beam element; this element can also be subjected to compression or, more generally, to combined axial and lateral loading. In this discussion, the face layers are assumed to have equal thickness, 1; the thickness of the core is assumed to be c. All three layers are firmly bounded together. It is assumed that the face material is much stiffer than the core material; both the face and the core material are assumed to be isotropic and to have linear elastic behaviour. The width of the beam element is denoted by b. ue : La F sensi AA (b) mn of a three-layer composite Figure (3-24) Composit sandwich member106 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Sandwich elements can be designed for much higher stiffness than the homogeneous elements of the same dimensions; at the same time, they are usually lighter in weight than the corresponding homogeneous elements; therefore, composite constructions are suitable for lightweight structures and the structures for which higher stiffness or special service requirements are needed. ‘The sandwich element shown in figure (3-24) has a flexural stiffness denoted by D. The flexural stifiness of this composite beam is the sum of flexural rigidities of its constituent parts; all these quantities are measured with respect the centroidal axis cc of the entire cross section. The expression for Dis bra? | be? +E. be en TB G-130) where Ey and Ey are the moduli of elasticity of the faces and the core respectively and d is the distance between the centre lines of the upper and ower faces: hte a = Ste 2 (3-131) The first two terms in relation (3-130) represent the second moment of area of the facing about the centroidal axis cc; the third term is the second ‘moment of area of the core about the cc axis. ‘The first term in the expression (3-130) denotes the local stiffness of the facings. In practical cases the second term of this expression is uantiatvely dominant the fist term amounts to about 1% ofthe second term when 3(d/0)?> 100 G-132) ‘Thus the first term will be negligible if d/t >5.77; most sandwich elements satisfy this condition, ‘The third term of expression (3-130) amounts to less than 1% of the second term provided: 2 (2) >100 cele G-133) In practical cases, the modular ratio EE lies in the range of 170 to 850 and vc lies in the range 0.02 to 0.1; one may assume d-c: under these STABILITY OF COLUMNS 107 circumstances, the contribution of the core rigidity to the bending stiffness ‘of sandwich element may be neglected. Therefore, in simplified calculations, the bending stiffness of a sandwich element can be approximated by the second term of the expression (3-147). 3.10.2. Pin-Ended Sandwich Strut with Thin Faces ‘The overall Euler buckling load of a simply supported axially loaded strut with a cross-sectional bending stiffness D is (-134) For a composite three-layer sandwich element, D can be substituted from the expression (3-147): if we neglect the local stiffness of the facing and the stiffness of the core, an approximate expression will be bid? 2 (3-135) ‘The Buler buckling load (3-134) has been basically obtained for a slender homogeneous beam under the assumption of no shearing deformation; such a beam can be assumed to have infinite shear modulus; the lateral deflection of this beam consists of pure bending deformation, In sandwich elements, the core has finite shear rigidity; hence the contribution of shearing deformation can influence the behaviour of the composite member, hence, for sandwich members, a more refined buckling theory that takes into account the shearing deformation must be developed. Consider a simply supported strut under the axial force P as shown in figure (3-25a). In the bent configuration, the total lateral deformation of this element is the sum of the pure bending deformation, wi, and the shearing deformation, w2, Setting the moment curvature relation equal to the moment at section of the bent siru, we have D =D: = Er M = PQwi+w2) = -Diwi" @-136)108 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Figure (3-25) Deflection of a simply supported axially loaded sandwich strut Referring to figure (3-25b), we note that the shear force at any section, acting normal to the initial axis of the strut, is equal to the vertical component of force P; it is equal to P(w;'+w2'). On the other hand, the internal shear force is AG w2'; equating these two, we obtain w) = Pow + wa) AG (3-137) If we differentiate equation (3-136) once and then eliminate wa’ from the resulting equation and the equation (3-137) we obtain the following differential equation on wi. tow = 0 (6-138) where © Dill=(P/AG)] (3-139) ‘The general solution to equation (3-138) is wilx) = Arsincx-+ Ap cos ox+ As G-140) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 109 The coefficients Ay, Az, and A3 are constants of integration which should be determined by the use of the boundary conditions. Having obtained w;, we use equation (3-136) to determine the total deflection, w; + wo; the result is D “ witwr = Pi Caretsinaxt Ar ateosax ) Asin ox + Aa 60s ox 1+(P/ AG) (@-141) ‘The prescribed boundary conditions are atx =0:wy+w2=0 ax=L:wi+w=0 Use of the first of these conditions results in A zzives sin oll, = 0; the first eigenvalue corresponding to this equation is AG 142) ‘This is the critical load for the overall buckling of a sandwich strut it is also the critical load for a homogeneous column in which the shearing deformation is taken into account. This formula is sometimes rewritten as follows: ek ey Pe = Pe = AG 143) ‘The first term on the right hand side of (3-143) is the contribution of the bending flexibility; the second term is the contribution of the shearing compliance. For finite G, this relation gives a value of the buckling load that is smaller than the Euler critical load; this is due to the additional flexibility arising from the shearing deformation, For infinite G, the Euler buckling load Px is deduced. When AG is very small, the buckling load approaches to the value AC represents the buckling load of a shear column,110 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.10.3. Wrinkling Instability of Sandwich Elements In some occasions, the sandwich struts or their compressive faces may buckle into wrinkled forms; wrinkling of sandwich struts is identified by ripples on the facing layers; these ripples have short wavelengths. 3.10.3.1, Long struts supported by continuous elastic medium ‘We begin with the simple problem ofan infinitely long elastic suip bounded to an elastic medium that forms a half-plane, ice, it extends infinitely to one direction; both the half-plane and the strip are assumed to have a small width b; this allows the condition of plane stress to govern. ‘The facing strip is acted upon by an axial force P. ‘The force of interaction between the strip and the half plane in the z direction is a stress component 6, acting at the strip-plane interface; this would act as an external load on the strip. The governing differential ‘equation for the strip is tw ew D + pf = bo, dxé dx? G-144) Now we suppose that the strip buckles into sinusoidal waves with half ‘wave-length such that w(x) = wasin (3-145) ‘The normal force of interaction corresponding to this deformation field must be obiained by solving an elasticity problem of a half-plane with a sinusoidal edge displacement; the solution of such problem would yield the normal stress component at the edge; The following value for the normal stress is cited from the books on elasticity: o, = ~Swmsin 6-146) where 2nEe G=vel + ve) @-147) If we substitute expressions (3-145) and (3-146) into (3-144) we obtain STABILITY OF COLUMNS 111 x a pe - ph = -2 ¢ g é (3-148) ‘The parameter D appearing in the above relation has been defined as 3 p=e Ph, Peobt 1 (3-149) ‘Therefore, the critical stress is WEr (sy a (4) og EE (1) 44 (£ Ros we At G-150) This critical stress is a function of (C/t); to find the minimum value of critical stress, we impose the following condition do 9 a t (3-151) This stationary condition gives the following critical parameters: . 1/3 2/3 = v.)*( ey? Ge = BEYER whee Bi=3[l2G-vHW))” 4 50 and 3 (5. = e(&) where C= [(3-ve) (I4veyl2 J er ie (3-153) ‘Table (3-3) gives the values of constants By and C; as we note, there is a small dependency of these constants on the Poisson's ratio, i.¢., on the surrounding medium, Table (3-3) ve By c 0 0.630 1.98 025 0575 207 030 0870 2.00 050 056 213112 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.10.3.2. Wrinkling of sandwiches with isotropic antiplane cores of finite thickness Figures (3-26) show sketches from three types of wrinkling instability in the layered members; these are referred to as cases I, II and Ill. Case 1 represents the wrinkling of compressive face of a sandwich beam the tensile face of which remains flat; this may be a model of sandwich elements with thick core. Cases II and IIT represent, respectively, the symmetric and the antisymmetric wrinkling in a sandwich strut in which both faces carry equal axial thrusts P. In the theoretical development which follows the core is assumed to have an antiplane behaviour; an antiplane core is, by definition, a core in which the in-plane stress components are zero: as a consequence, the out-of-plane shear stress components are independent of thickness co-ordinate variable. Se 1 0 ti Figure (3-26) Types of wrinkling instability in sandwich ‘elements, I: wrinkling of the facing with infinite bedding(tigid base), II: antisymmetric buckling, IN symmetric buckling In all these cases, the behaviour of the upper face of the sandwich ‘element will be governed by equation (3-144). As in the previous ease, we assume a sinusoidal deformation at the interface on the basis of which a sinusoidal interfacial normal stress is obtained; to embrace all three cases wwe let the amplitude of this stress to vary and to differ in each case. To this end, itis convenient to write vs m 2 = ~~= £67 £(6) sin — ® ONO siny 154) where @ = me /fand c is the core thickness. Table (3-4) gives the function £(@) for each case. The results cited in this table have been obtained using plane theory of elasticity; in literature, the method of the stress functions has been used to solve the related governing equations. Table (3-4) also presents the stress function for each case. STABILITY OF COLUMNS 113 Substitution of w and 6, from relations (3-145) and (3-154) into (3-144) gives x wo_ _bEe 2 a a oO FO) (3-155) Rearrangement of this relation and use of relation (3-145) and x/£=0/¢ yields the following expression for the buckling stress at the compressive Face. & (Jer Ee (5) £0) ease ‘The minimum value of buckling stress is obtained provided the following equation is satisied by @ do Er (J (°) —=0 > — |-|e0 +E. |—-|f@) = 0 do 6 \e. t (3-157) By introducing a parameter p, we write this equation as tfey?_ _per@y? _ cle] ~ Le p cL Ee. (3-158) From a physical point of view, the parameter p represents the ratio of material-geometrical properties of the facing and the core. We can use this relation to plot p as a function of 8, Then, given p, i., for each sandwich cross section, we can read the corresponding value of @ from this graph and insert it into relation (3-158) to find the minimum buckling load. It would be convenient to write the relation (3-156) inthe following form: Oa = BE} E27 Br=p767/12+£@)/P (3.459) ‘The value of By in each of the three cases is determined as follows:114 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Case I: Rigid base Figure (3-27) shows the graph of the relation (3-159); it shows the variation of the buckled length {/ c=p / @ with parameter p. The values of {£(@) needed in relation (3-159) can be read from table (3-4). It can be seen that, whatever the value of p is, there always exists a minimum critical stress ‘and a half wavelength of buckled compressed face; the value of the buckling coefficient, By, defining this minimum is also presented graphically in figure (3-27). 4 oat (Ef Figure (3-27) Wrinkling stress for case I (rigid base). Full lines represent the curves for V_ = 0.25 and broken lines the ‘curves for v, =0.5. fis the half wavelength of the buckled face. By is the buckling coefficient in equation (3-152) (Ref.: Allen, Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels) | rue STABILITY OF COLUMNS 115 In many sandwich elements, p < 0.25; in these occasions, By may be taken as 0.575 or 0.543 for Ve = 0.25 or 0.5, respectively. for p >0.25, these values considerably underestimate the wrinkling stress. Case Il: Antisymmetric wrinkling Figure (3-28) shows the graph of the buckling length (/ ¢ versus p, on the basis of equation (3-159); these curves are valid for the range of p values falling bellow the following limiting values: 3 I+ve ma = [ee Bilt-v.), G-160) For p < 0.2, the value of B, may be taken as 0.63, 0.58, and 0.54 for v. = 0, ve 0.25, and ve = 0.5, respectively, Figure (3-28) Wrinkling stress for case II (antisymmetric wrinkling). Chain, full, and broken lines represent the curves for Ve=0 jve=0.25, and ve = 0.5, respectively. fis the half ‘wavelength of the buckled face. B; is the buckling coefficient in the equation (3-159) (Ref.: Allen, Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels)116 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES If p is greater than the limiting value given by relation (3-160), there would be no finite value of @ for which the critical stress is minimum such cases, the instability may be a global (overall) buckling characterised by the Euier-type buckling, but modified by accounting for the shear deformation. Case III: Symmetric wrinkling Figure (3-29) shows the graph of (/¢ versus p, on the basis of equation (3-159). Whatever the value p, there always exists a buckled half wavelength for which the critical stress is a minimum; the buckling ‘coefficient related to this minimum value is also given in figure (3-29). For p < 0.25, and for ve=0, the value of By is 0.63; for larger values of p, By is always larger than 0.63. If the strut is sufficiently long, an overall instability of the strut may ‘occur at a stress lower than the wrinkling stress. 15] 09 10 8 2 8, os: o7 L L tJ 96 02 04 08 10 ole)? Figure (3-29) Wrinkling stress for case III (symmetric wrinkling). Both curves are curves for Ve =0. fis the half ‘wavelength of the buckled face. By is the buckling ‘coefficient in equation the (3-159) (Ref.: Allen, Analysis and design of structural sandwich panels) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 117 Table (3-4) Case T _ 2 Gen) sinh Dosh o4(L499 0 OF GenNo— 19 sink 0-9) Case 1 cosh 0=1 2 1O= 5 CRI C=H) sah OFFA O Case 111 “fy = 2 S28 O41 _ ‘T3sinho-9 =O Case I (face at 2 = 0; rigid base at z= +c) =~ (Es footy ys _ (149) 01) w cosh y sinh 0—sinh yi2G—1) si 2G—¥,) sinh @ cosh OF) 8 aye Case IT (faces at = $e/2) # sinms/l ref @ = (+r) veoshy sian 5} } any [asian s419 $ com Case IMI (faces at z= +¢/2) sin « = +0 )am {ee SaeHs} {sinh yooh S- 8 an 6 -[fsah +200 2]enty) normal stress at interface (tensile)118 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.104. Other Types of Local Instability Apart from the face wrinkling instability, sandwich struts may undergo other forms of buckling; most of these modes of instability may occur locally. Delamination buckling in the composite elements is a major form of local instability of the sandwich members; buckling of the core is another Form of local instability. Figure (3-30) shows the case of a sandwich element with corrugated core. This element when subjected to compression in the direction of corrugations may have the following modes of local instability: (1) Elements such as ab or bb may buckle as long simply supported plates (2) Unsupported region of the face in a corrugated or in a honeycomb sandwich element may buckle under compression. Figure (3-30) A sandwich element with corrugated core Various types of buckling instability may occur in the sandwich elements and in the laminated panels. In this section, we have treated the buckling instability of thin faces as well asthe overall shear buckling of the member. In honeycomb sandwiches, local buckling in the web of the element may also occur. In laminated sheets, buckling in the form of delamination is probable. Figure G-31) shows various types of local buckling that may occur in sandwich elements. As we see most of these modes of instability entail buckling of the core; this buckling occurs either as a consequence of buckling of the facings or as a result of concentrated forces. In some cases, as the one shown in the top this figure, an overall shear buckling of axially loaded strut may occur; this is the case in the struts which are relatively ‘weak in shear, STABILITY OF COLUMNS 119 Shear buckling | | Delamination Core wrinkling Internal buckling Face wrinkling Local buckling of the core Figure (3-31) Core buckling of some composite elements120 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.11. DESIGN OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS, 3.11.1. Philosophy of Stability Design ‘The structural design consists of designing the structures and its members for material strength, stability and serviceability. The stability design includes such aspects as designing for material and geometrical stability; thus the stability design of structures assures their safety against material-geometrical collapse. Due to instability, the strength of some members or the whole structure ccan be drastically reduced and the safety of the system can be endangered. ‘There are other factors such as imperfections in form and loading, thermal effects, fatigue, impacts, dynamic effects, and loss of overall stability which may also endanger the safety of the structural system, Depending on the structural type, its dimensions, the loading system, and the function of the structure, the design of structures against the danger of instability may be a primary design consideration or it may comprise the safety control of a performed design. For slender bodies under compressive loading and for thin shells and panels, the stability design is a major step in the design procedure, ‘The recent trend in many codes of practice in relation with the strength and safety design is based on the concept of ultimate design strength of the member or the structure. According to this design philosophy, the stability strength of a structure is assured provided: R sas & tr 3-161) the parameters appearing in this design relation have the following significance: ‘Sq: Factored design load (ultimate required strength) R’: Design resistance of the structure (ultimate available strength) “te : Capacity reduction factor (resistance factor) ‘The value y = 1.1 is prescribed by some of the codes of practice. ‘The principle of linear superposition does not hold for the stability behaviour of structures. Hence, so far as the stability design is concerned, the factored loading is, in general, a nonlinear function of the various factored applied loading; it can be expressed as follows: Sa=S(Gu, Qu EQ) (3-162) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 121 where Gq: Factored value of the dead weight Qu: Factored value of the main live loading %.Q, : Sum of the factored values of the occasional effects The so-called main live forces are those that are expected to act on the structure during its lifetime; loading such as snow, wind, earthquake, temperature effects, traffic loads are examples of main live loading The so-called occasional forces are those the occurrence of which is a matter of statistical event. “The factored dead loading is: Gu=16 Ga (3-163) where Gy is the applied permanent dead loading and Yo is the deal load factor; according to Swiss code (SIA 160 /1989) and the German code (DIN 18800/Part 2, 1990), the value of this load factor is yo = 1.3; for cases in which the self-weight helps to increase the stability, the value Yo.nin 0.8 is prescribed by SIA 160 /1989 (manual No. 160/1989). The European code on reinforced concrete structures (CEB / FIP) dealing with “Buckling and Instability” (design manual No. 123) prescribes similar values for this factor. ‘The factored loading of the so-called main live forces is Qu=19 Gr (3-164) where Q, is the applied live loading and yg is the related load factor; according to SIA 160 /1989 code, the value of this load factor varies from Ya = 1.2 to Yq = 1.5; for normal cases, the maximum value ¥q = 1.5 is prescribed by SIA 160 /1989. ‘The factored loading of the so-called occasional forces is Q=va (3-165) where Q; is the applied live loading and y is the related load factor, according to SIA 160 /1989 code, the value of this load factor for normal cases varies from y = 0.5 to y = 1.3; for exceptional cases, the range of variation y= 0.0 to y = 1.0 is prescribed by SIA 160 /1989. ‘With these prescriptions, the factored load function can be expressed as122 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Su=SC¥6 Gav ¥QQ, Dy Q) 3-166) ‘The base values of dead loading, wind, snow, traffic, and impact loading are prescribed in the codes of practice; for earthquake loading, an equivalent static loading based on static or dynamic considerations is recommended. ‘The quantities Yo, 4 and y can be referred to as the partial safety factors. So far, the dominant design philosophy against the danger of instability has been that the stability of all constituent members of the structure must be assured. On the basis of this rather conservative design philosophy, the stability failure of individual members of a structure implies that the safety of the whole structure can no more be guaranteed. The recent shift of emphasis from the local to the overall behaviour of the member and the structure, is reflected through the definition of the Joad factors and the ultimate load, instead of the allowable stress as was the case before. In this fashion a more clear definition of the safety factor has emerged and a more unified design procedure for various structural elements has been achieved. This tendency is evident in new codes on ‘metallic, reinforced concrete, and wooden structural designs. 3.11.2. Design of Steel Columns 3.11.2.1. Concentrically loaded columns Jn compatibility with the design philosophy outlined before, inorder to assure the stability strength of a concentrically loaded steel column we must fulfil the following relation N * Np <1 G-167) In this relation, Nis the factored applied load, Nui the ultimate (plastic) axial load bearing capacity calculated on the basis that the whole section has reached its yield point, and x is the stability reduction factor; these quantities have the following expressions: Np=fy. A (3-168) where A is the cross section of the compression member and fy is the yield stress of its material. STABILITY OF COLUMNS 123 ‘The stability reduction factor, x, is due to reduction of load bearing capacity caused by the slenderness of the body; is a geometrical factor; it is the ratio of buckling stress to the yield stress. The SIA 161 / 1990 and DIN 18800/1990 standards give the following expression for this reduction factor Ke when Mes 0.2 G-169) x <= when 2&2 0.2 (3-170) where - x k=05[ 1+ 00( Mx -0,2) + Mea] GIT) k= > S11 Tlie +4) when Tk> 30 @-172) In these relations, 4x is the relative slenderness ratio of the compression member; it is defined by Ra =I he = (by / 6a) Relative slendemess ratio in which Or =n Es de? dy = Lx Fi Euler critical stress Slendemness ratio of the member Yielding slendemess ratio Radius of gyration Effective buckling length (Lg=kL where L is the ‘member length and k is the effective length factor) I Second moment of area ‘about bending axis E Young modulus of elasticity n(E/f,) 12 aay?124 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES In relations (3-169) to (3-172), ais the imperfection factor; according to DIN 18800/1990, its values range from 0.21 to 0.76 depending on the shape of their cross section; when in doubt, the higher number must be chosen. The SIA 161 /1990 standard prescribes a range of ct values between 0.21 and 0.49, Figure (3-32) shows the design curve recommended by SIA 161/1990. In this figure, the vertical axis designates the stability reduction factor x and its horizontal axis designates the relative slenderness ratio of the ‘compression member. Curves identified by letters a and b and ¢ refer to different cross sectional configurations; these sections are shown on this figure. Curve designated by letter a relates to profiles without residual stresses; curve b holds for other cross sections; curve ¢ is valid for ‘compressive residual stresses at their extreme fibres. 3.11.2. 2. Design of beam-columns For members which in addition to axial force are subjected to bending the following interaction relation is prescribed by the SIA 161 /1990: o ae SMemx << 19 NK/ Ye 1-Na e/a Ner (3-173) in which = 0.6 +04 Manin / Maymaxsbut in any case, @2 0.4 in these relations Ng, Maynax: factored axial design force and maximum design bending moment in the member; these ‘quantities have been calculated with the help Of the first order theories of structural analysis Ne load bearing capacity of column under concentric axial load Nop = 7? EI/ Ly? Euler buckling load w « factor accounting for the linear distribution of bending moment along the member from ‘minimum to maximum value (Main and Mazmax) Mp=fW yielding moment (W is the section modulus) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 125 i ‘Alcan of pros fore backing carves 3 eral General 3 colaomea | g e 2 : FE | we Z = For ralled profes wit Welded box proies 71S Boy LTA Brace talescao nyo plats For tape aoe “| 4 + h For rolled profites with cs wae 2s 4 = = \ : Cote fomea joes Te~?athe Relative slendemness ratio ‘8: Cross sections fre from residual stresses or those with uniformly distributed residual simesses 1: Other cross sections Coos Sects wit compressive residual stresses inthe extreme fibres in the buckling, Figure (3-32) Steel column design curve recommended by SIA 161 11990126 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 3.11.3. Stability Design of Sandwich Struts In many design problems related to the sandwich elements, the face thickness, t, and the core and face materials are prescribed; the design problem is to determine the effective height, d, which enables the strut to carry a prescribed bending or axial load; the total length of the strut, L, is also prescribed. The axial load P that the strut should carry is the product of some ultimate force and a safety factor. ‘The buckling design of sandwich struts must take into account the possibility of face wrinkling and overall buckling of the member. Figures G27) and (3-28) show tha in certain range of the following parameter the face wrinkling could occur. L =)" p= t(f 4 \ Be, @-174) ‘Thus if there is a chance thatthe parameter p may fallin this range then the thickness t must be adequate to support P without wrinkling; it should also be adequate to prevent crushing of the face material. To design the strut against wrinkling, the wrinkling stress must be calculated from the relation (G-169) with By =0.5. To design the sandwich strut against global buckling, we can use relation (G-159). The critical load must be greater than the specified load; relation (G-160) gives 1+ (n?Bbtd )/2L7G (G-175) From this relation we obtain the magnitude of the effective height of the section. ne ae al! (59) 2bG6 ot EP @-176) STABILITY OF COLUMNS 127 3.11.4, DESIGN EXAMPLE ‘The free standing column of figure (3-33a) is hinged at its lower end and has a vertically movable hinged support at its upper end. This column is subjected to a concentric axial compression of N = 450 KN. Figure (3-33b) shows the assumed cross section for this column. Is this cross section sufficient to carry the applied load?. The data for geometrical and material properties of this structure are: Geometrical properties: Material properties: L= 4000 mm f= 240 N/mm? ‘A = 8300 cm? 1 1=131.7mm a= 92.9 1,=51.05 mm ‘The assumed effective length coefficients are: By = Bz = 1.0 PL 250x14 T: PL 30x10 PL 150x12 (b) Figure (3-33) ‘The column of the codified design example Design We will carry out the design control of this problem using the German structural stability code DIN 18800 T2/1990 and partly the Swiss code STA 161/1990. we will proceed in a systematic fashion as follows: (1) The appropriate ratio for b/t (required to prevent local instability is observed).128 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES (2) The effective lengths: Ly = (4000)(1.) = 4000 mm Lez = (4000)(1. (3) The slendemess ratios: Ary = (4000)131.7) = 30.37 4000 mm_ Jaca = (4000)/(51.05) = 78.35 (4) Relative slendemess ratios: By Dy My=30.37192720.327 Mh.2 hy Pha=T8,35/92.9°0.843 (5) The influence of the geometrical shape, in the form of a shape factor, is ‘equivalently given in both DIN 18800 and SIA 161; from figure (8-35) we read: dy = 0.34 and o = 0.49. (© Reduction factors: Since % 2 0.2., use relations (3-200) and (3-201). ky = 0.5 [ 1 +0.34( 0.327 - 0.2) + 0.3274] = 0.575 1 x = 0.809 ¥ © 95154 -Vas7s - 0327 k, = 0.5 [ 1 + 0.49( 0.843 - 0.2) + 0.8432] = 1.013 1 & = 0.635 1013 + YLO1s? — 0.843? (7) The dominant reduction factor: w= min (Ry, %) = 0.635 (8) Axial load at fully plastic condition: Np = (8300) (240) = (1992)(108) N (9) Relced plate oad: design ultimate load: Noug = (1992)(109) 1.1 = (1811008) N (10) Control of design for load bearing capacity: (450)(103) ——*——— = 0391 < 10 (0.635)(181 105) Since the ratio is smaller than unity, we conclude that the given design is, quite sufficient; in fact the section can still be reduced to make the design ‘more economical. STABILITY OF COLUMNS 129 PROBLEMS P3.1- An clastic strut has a hinged support at one end and is connected to a rigid rod of length a at the other end; the other end of the rigid rod has a hinged support, figure (P3-1). A concentric force P acts on this system. Find the entica oad ofthis strut. Discuss the results fortwo limiting cases, a=Oand a=, Figure (P3-1) P 3.2 - Consider the two systems shown in figure (P3-2). In both systems, the applied forces P follow the orientation of two rigid arms. Is this a nonconservative system?; If so, determine the flutter load for each of these ‘two structures; if not, find the static buckling load. | | sto] ot (b) Figure (P3-2)130, STABILITY OF STRUCTURES P 3.3 - The weight per unit length of a vertical cantilever varies linearly along its length (maximum at the fixed-end and a nonzero minimum at the top)); its uniform bending rigidity is EI and its length is L. (2) Can this column loose its stability behaviour qualitatively, (@ Find the second order goveming equation ofthis column (G) Determine the critical load of this column by the energy method. P 3.4. The free end of a vertical cantilever column is pulled by a tensile force T which is directed towards a fixed point A. A compressive force P is also applied at this end, figure (P3-4). Find the critical load of this column. TN \r Figure (P3-4) 3,5 - Determine the buckling load of a uniform rod acted upon by a two ‘equal an opposite compressive end forces P. The two ends of the rod are free and the rod is supported by an elastic foundation along its length, 3.6 - A uniform vertical bar hinged at the ends is under the action of its own weight gL in addition to the compressive force P applied at the ends. Use the energy method to derive an approximate expression for the critical Toad. (Answer: Per = p? EVL? -qL/2). 3.7 - Consider a vertical column with varying cross section; this column is fixed at the bottom end and is acted upon by a vertical compressive force P at its other end. The second moment of the cross section of this column varies according to the following relation 1=1 Qa) acx y= €=0. For this case, relations (4-10) and (411) become 80,9) = © (cop sin -sinn cos) (122) a S(0.8) Reinnp ~sinB) (4-126) 4 Bt HO,B) = (Cosh —cosB) (126) ql 2 (0,8) = sinhB sinB (4-124) at Bp (0,8) = GsinhB cosB+coshB sinB) (4-12e) 1 2 (0,8) = (sinh + sinB) 129 1 where A1(0,B) = 1-coshB cosB (4-13) (2) Classical slope-deflection relations In this case, 0 = 0, B = 0 . This situation corresponds to the static problem of a beam without the second-order effect of the axial force. This is the classical case in which the end forces and the end displacements of a flexural member are proportionally related to each other; such relations can be found in the standard texts on the structural mechanics. The so-called classical slope-deflection relations can be easily obtained from the general relations; in this case, the functions defined in (4-10) reduce to constant values; these constant values are STABILITY OF FRAMES 141 $00.0) =4 (14a) S¢(0.0) =2 @-140) 1(0,0) = (0,0) = 6 (4-140) m(0,0) = (0,0) = 12 (4-14) Substituting these quantities into (4-9), we recover the following classical slope-deflection relations: Mj = @EVL) (20} + j-3y) (4-152) Mji = EVL) (26)+ 8} -3 w) (4-156) in which y= (Wj-WiyL= aL (4-16) (3) Static stability relations for flexural elements For this case, ot #0, B=0==> ). Therefore 8(@,0) = (since a cos) (4-173) Az $ e(a,0) = (4170) 1(0,0) = t(a,0) = (4-17e) (0,0) = m(0,0) = (17a where ‘Aa = 2(1 cosa) ~ @ sine (418)142 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES 4.3, STABILITY FUNCTIONS The functions S, Sc, r, and n defined by the relations (4-17) are called the stability functions; these functions depend on the material and the geometric properties of the element as well as on the axial load P. The stability functions, introduced in relations (4-10), can be rewritten as aC 1= a cote ) (4-198) (4-19b) (+c) (4-19¢) (1+) - a? =2 S140) - n? p (4-19) where a = rip 199 and sing © sing cosa, (4-198) ‘The reference value Pg, used here for nondimensionalization, is the first buckling load of the member with simple end conditions under concentric end force. In the expressions (4-192) through (4-19g) we have assumed a compressive axial force, For tensile axial forces, those expressions become: 8(1- 8 coths ) (4-208) (4-20b) STABILITY OF FRAMES 143 where S=nV-p =\-PL?/El (4-21) Figure (4-2) shows variation of the stability functions in terms of the axial force parameter p =P / Pg; positive values of this parameter indicate axial compression; negative values of p indicate axial tension. Stability function “4 Figure (4-2) Plots of the stability functions From a physical point of view, the stability functions $ and Sc represent the bending siffnesses of beam-column elements against end rotations; the stability functions r and t are the stiffness against lateral translation. Figure (4-2) shows some interesting features of behaviour of flexural elements with axial forces. We observe that presence of compressive axial force reduces the stiffness while a tensile axial force increases the stiffness of the element. For zero axial forces, we have the stiffness values derived in expressions (4-14). For analysis of structural systems composed of many of such flexural elements, it would be useful to write the force-deformation relations (4-9) ina matrix form; the matrix form of the element equation is F=Ku (4-22)144 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES where K is called the stiffness matrix, F is the force matrix, and u is the displacement matrix; these matrices are defined as follows: ss -£ + cL OL t r s s -- &£ ke EOL L a om tor a ft Loo roa -B EF bh Of, (4-23) and My Mii = Ja, Qi: (424) The matrix equation (4-22) provides a relatively general force- deformation relation for the flexural elements. This relation embodies the second-order effects arising from the influence of the axial force on the internal forces and the lateral deflection of the member. In the later section, and also in the chapter on stability analysis by the Finite Element method, we will use a special form of this relation for the second-order analysis and buckling analysis of frames. 4.4, EFFECT OF THE AXIAL FORCE ON THE FIXED- END MOMENTS In a comprehensive second-order analysis of frames, the fixed-end moments at both ends of flexural elements required. To this end, and to generalize the element relations (4-9), we should consider the lateral Forces; these forces produce reactive bending moment and shear force at each end of the element. These quantities are calculated for a doubly clamped element; hence they are called the fixed-end moments and STABILITY OF FRAMES 145 shears; these fixed-end forces are to be added to the right hand side of relations (4-9). In this section, we will obtain the fixed-end moments by giving two examples of clamped beam-columns. Through this investigation, we will also ascertain the influence of the axial force on the fixed-end moment. 4.4.1. Clamped Beam-Column Under Uniformly Distributed Lateral Load Figure (4-3) shows a clamped beam under simultaneous action of a uniform lateral load with intensity, qo, and an axial force P; the axial force can be compressive or tensile. We designate the quantities associated with the left end (end 1) by index 1 and those related to the right end (end 2) by the index 2. Ql=qoL/2 Q2=qoL/2 Figure (4-3) Uniformly loaded clamped beam with axial, force ‘The second order field equation, expressing the equivalence of internal and extemal bending moment ata section x, is 2. 2 ie, -(Z)w+-o Sse dx? By)” Er et * 2Er (425) or146 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES (4-26) where ASPEN =rV (P/ PgVL = (ey pL = W/L (4-27) in which a= nV(P/P_), Pe=R2EI/L and p=(P/Pp) (4-28) ‘The general solution to differential equation (4-26) is wey = Asin + ease Ee [sm (429) in which K = EI/ Lis proportional to the bending rigidity of the member. The boundary conditions of the problem are that the deflection and slope are zero at both ends, that is atx =0, and x=L: wedw/dx=0 Using these conditions, we obtain 2 3 2 gL p = Soli (, oi 208K at K (gy L? ‘Substituting these expressions into the general solution (4-29), we obtain wx) = 2 3 2 Gol? ox | dol (a? Mi 28K Lot K (4-30) ‘We can now use the constitutive-kinematic relation M = - EI w" to find the fixed-end moments: In this case, due to symmetry, the fixed-end moments at the left and the right hand side are equal to each other; the fixed-end moment at the left end of the beam-column has the following expression: STABILITY OF FRAMES 147 = [22 (Soop &)] Sol? LP =» [B(-Se$]] m "fp wnt 4.31 In this relation, a parameter f has been defined; the expression for & 4 t= [B(i-Sen Al oe 2 (4-32) This parameter can be referred to as the fixed-end t ent for Amenber under axa and inva forces Moment coelen fo MI1=f(qoL2/12) » 4 2 0 2 yy 4 Figure (4-4) Influence of axial force on the fixed-end ‘moment in a clamped uniformly loaded beam148 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES Relation (4-31) is valid for compressive axial fore; for tensile axial force, we must change the sign of parameter p; in such a case, we would have me = [B(Eeomt—1)] Sle or alt P22 12 12 (433) where Y=(PLYED = (PIPE) =" Cp) (4-34) Tn both cases, we note that for zero axial force (p = 0) we will find f = 1; ‘consequently, My = Mpg = qo L?/ 12; this is the fixed-end moment in a ‘clamped beam under uniform distributed loading, Figure (4-4) shows variation of the fixed end moment coefficient, f, with the axial load parameter, p. As we see, the fixed-end moment in the beam under axial load will be larger than go L? / 12for the compressive axial force and smaller than qo L? / 12 for the tensile axial force. 4.4.2. Beam-Column Under Concentrated Lateral Load As the second example, we consider the beam-column shown in figure. (4-5); this member is subjected to a concentrated lateral force with magnitude W; in addition, an axial force P is applied to this member. The lateral force is acting at a distance r L from the left end; the parameter r can vary from zero to 1, Le (pk Figure (4-5) A clamped beam with axial force and concentrated lateral load STABILITY OF FRAMES. 149 The relation between the external and the internal moment in the interval 0S xs rLis fe aw 2 Lo- Ox) a? EL ‘ (435) The solution to this equation would be ax Ox L = Asin + Beos%+ on a wo) = Asin eos s Sen = Qx) sw Using the zero displacement and zero slope conditions at the left hand side , we can determine the coefficients A and B; so the solution valid in this interval will be L_/Q 0% ox w(x) = |e sin My cos + (My- Qix ) = BK Le Sh MOT (4-37) The relation between the external and the internal moment in the imerval rL= x< Lis ew > 1 LY tw = Elm Qe WOH) dx? Bi lM~ Q 1 (4.38) ‘The general solution to this equation would be wis) = Cain + Deos + aa Pin Gx + WO] (439) Values for the parameters C, D, Qi, and My can be determined through the use of appropriate end and interface conditions at the junction x =r L, Of the two segments. There are two conditions at the each end; these are zero and zero slope requirements, At the junction of two segments, x= L, the continuity conditions between two pieces of the beam must be satisfied; the requirement at x = r L is that the displacement and the slope of two pieces must be equal to each other. Tf we use these two junction conditions and the two end conditions at the right end, we obtain the following system of simultaneous linear algebraic equations on C, D, Q;, and My