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Assessment
ProfessionalDevelopment

AdvancingFormativeAssessmentinEveryClassroom
byConnieM.MossandSusanM.Brookhart
TableofContents

Chapter2.LevelingthePlayingField:SharingLearningTargetsand
CriteriaforSuccess
Thefirststepinformativeassessmentisbeingclearaboutlearninggoals.Actually,thefirststepinanykindofassessmentisbeing
clearaboutwhatitisthatyouwanttoknowabout.Youmayhaveheardthisexpressedas"identifyoutcomes"orinsomeother
terminologyusedinyourstateordistrict.Simplyput,ifassessmentislookingforevidenceofsomething,youhavetoknowwhatthat
somethingis.
Foranexternalassessor,identifyingoutcomesisenough.Fortheclassroomteacher,however,beingclearaboutlearninggoals
requiresmorethanjustidentifyingoutcomes.Forformativeassessment,teachersnotonlymustbeclearaboutwhattheywant
studentstolearn(thelessonobjectiveorintendedoutcomeforstudentswho"getit")theyalsomustknowtypicalstudentstepsand
misstepstowardthisgoal(thetypicallearningprogression).Thisknowledgeisnecessarybecausewhattheteacherislookingforin
formativeassessmentisevidenceofwherestudentsareontheirjourneytowardmasteryofthelearningoutcome.Tointerpretstudent
workthatisonthewaytowardmastery,teachersneedtobeabletorecognizetypicalandnotsotypicalprogress.

WhatDoesItMeantoShareLearningTargetsandCriteriaforSuccess?
Sharinglearningtargetsdoesnotmeanmerelywritingtheobjectiveontheboardortellingstudentswhattheobjectiveisinasentence
ortwo.Moststudentswill,ofcourse,beabletorepeatbacktotheteacherwhatshesaidtheobjectivewas,andthatcanbesomewhat
useful.Whatwemeanbysharinglearningtargetsandcriteriaforsuccess,however,isthatstudentscomprehendwhatthose
objectivesmean.Forexample,areadingobjectivemightbethatstudentscanidentifythemainideainpassagesofacertaintypeand
level.Whatwewantismorethanstudentsbeingabletosay"identifymainidea."Wewantstudentstounderstandthattheywilllearn
howtogetabettergrasponthemeaningofwhattheyread,whythatshouldbeagoalforthem,andwhatitfeelsliketodothat.For
thestudent,thismeansbothunderstandingthelearninggoalandknowingwhatgoodworkontheassignmentlookslike.It'snotagoal
ifthestudentcan'tenvisionit.
Thesinglemostimportantmethodforroutinelysharinglearningtargetsisusingassignmentsthatmatchreallymatchthelearning
goal.Itisintheassignmentthattheteachertranslatesthelearninggoalintoactionforthestudent.Thestudentwillstrivetodothe
assignment,nottheabstractgoal.Whenwesayanassignmentoractivitymust"embody"thelearninggoal,wemeanthatthe
assignmentoractivityissuchaclosematchwiththegoalthatthestudentwouldbeabletothink,"IfIcando[thisassignment],thenI
cando[thelearningobjective]."
Teachersshouldalwayssharetheirgoalsforstudents'learningbothbytellingorwritingthegoalsandbygivingassignmentsand
activitiesthatembodythemandthencheckforstudents'understanding.Itisnotenoughtoaskstudents,"Doyouunderstand?"
They'llsayyes,ofcourse!Rather,teachersshouldusestrategiesthathelpassessstudents'comprehensionofthemeaningoflearning
goalsandtheircomprehensionofwhatgoodworklookslike.Teachersshouldusethisinformationtoaffirmunderstandingandclarify
misconceptions.

HowDoesSharingLearningTargetsandCriteriaforSuccessAffectStudentLearning
andAchievement?
Oneofthesweetmomentsinthelifeofoneoftheauthorsillustratesthisquestion'spoint.Sue'sadultdaughter,newlyonherown,
askedSuetomakeheracollectionoftherecipesthatshehadcometoknowandlove(includingSue'sapplepieandpotroast).Of

course,itfeltgoodtoknowthatsheassociatedthesefoodswithhomeandwantedtotakethemwithhertoherownnewhome.But
thishomeystoryisagoodmetaphorforthischapter.Sue'sdaughterhadaveryclearpictureoftheintendedoutcome,basedonher
experiencesofthatpieandthatpotroastovertheyears.Shewouldcompareherattemptstomaketheserecipeswithhersenseof
whattheyshouldtastelike.Now,thepotroastwaseasyenough,butshehadtopracticeseveraltimestogetthepieright.Thepoint
forthischapteristhatifshedidnothaveaconceptofwhat"good"piewas,shewouldnothavebeenabletoshapeherpiebaking
towardit,oratleastnotaseffectivelyorefficiently.
Academiclearningtargets,althoughlessconcrete,workinasimilarway.Avisionoftheendpointmakesthejourneypossible.So,for
example,a4thgradeteachermightaskherstudentstowriteabookreport.Herlearningtarget,however,isnot"writeabookreport."
Shewantsstudentstobeabletoreadandcomprehendtheplotofachapterbookandtobeabletomakeapersonalconnectionwith
thestory.Therefore,shesays,"Yourbookreportshouldbetwoparagraphs.Inthefirstparagraph,summarizethestorysothat
someonewhohasnotreadthebookwouldknowwhathappened.Inthesecondparagraph,tellwhatyourfavoritepartofthestory
was,andwhy."
Insodoing,thisteacherhasgivencleardirections.Shehasalsomadeastartatsharingthelearningtarget.Allthestudentsinher
classmaywellunderstandwhattheyaresupposedtodo.However,wecanalmostguaranteethattherewillbemanydifferentvisions
ofwhatconstitutesagood,clearsummaryofabookandanengagingdescriptionofone'sfavoritepart.
Whatwouldhelpstudentsenvisionthetargetmoreclearly?Showingstudentssomegoodexamplesandhavingthemdiscusswhy
theyweregoodexampleswouldhelp.Showingstudentsexamplesofvariousqualitylevelsandhavingthemusecomparisonand
contrasttoorderthemandexplainwhysomearebetterthanotherswouldbeanevenstrongerstrategy.Usingrubricswithspecific
descriptionscouldhelpwitheitheroftheseprocessesandwouldbeagooddefaultstrategyifnoexampleswereavailable.
Nowthestudentsarereadytostarttheirbookreportswithacleartargetinmind.Theymayusethoserubricsandexamplesagain,
duringtheirwork,toselfassess.WewillhavemoretosayaboutstudentselfassessmentinChapter5.

WhatCommonMisconceptionsMightTeachersHoldAboutSharingLearningTargets
andCriteriaforSuccess?
Teachersarelikelytoholdatleasttwocommonmisconceptionsaboutsharinglearningtargets.
Misconception#1:Informingthestudentsofthelearningtargetbytellingthemwhatitisorbywritingitontheboardis
sufficient.Thisisprobablythemostcommonmisconceptionteachersmightholdaboutsharinglearningtargets.Yearsago,ina
districtwhereoneofustaught,teacherswererequiredtowritetheirobjectivesontheboard,andsupervisorswouldobservetomake
suretheteachersdidso.Theassumptionbehindthispracticeisthatwritingtheobjectiveontheboardputstheobjectiveinsidethe
students'heads.Thisisnotagoodassumption.Havingstudentsbeabletorecallorrecitetheobjectiveisnecessarybutnotsufficient
fortheirunderstandingit.
Strategictalkingpointsschoolleaderscanusetoaddressthismisconceptionincludethefollowing:
Most"lessonobjectives"arewritteninlanguageforteachers.
Discussionaboutwhatalessonobjectivemeanscanhelpstudentsexpresstheobjectiveintheirownwordsandclarifythe
conceptintheirownminds.
Studentswillunderstandbestwhatagoalreallymeanswhentheycanseeexamplesofgoodwork.
Misconception#2:Sharingarubricwithstudentswillensuretheyunderstandthecriteriaforsuccess.Sharingarubricwith
studentsisagoodstart,butaswiththeobjective,youneedtocheckforstudentunderstandingofwhatthecriteriamean.Somecriteria
areeasytounderstandforexample,"useatleastthreesourcesofinformation"butthingsyoucancountarenotalwaysattheheart
ofalearninggoal.Somecriteriarequirethestudentstohavemoreabstract,butarguablymoreimportant,concepts.Usingthecontext
ofwriting,forexample,arubricfor"voice"mightsay,"Conveysasenseofthepersonbehindthewords."Readingthatphrasedoes
notmeanstudentswillnecessarilyrecognizewritingthatconveysasenseofthepersonbehindthewordswhentheyseeit.Some
studentswillneedtobetaughthowtodistinguishwritingthatdoesthiswellandlesswell.
Schoolleaderswhoobserveteacherswritingtheobjectiveontheboardwithoutanydiscussionorfollowupwithstudentsmightwant
totalkwiththoseteacherstodetermineifthey,infact,believethisisasufficientmethodforsharinglearningtargets.Similarly,school
leaderswhoobserveteacherspassingoutrubricsandmovingonwiththeassumptionthatstudentscanusethemmightlikewisetalk
withthoseteachers.
Strategictalkingpointsschoolleaderscanusetoaddressthismisconceptionincludethefollowing:
Rubricsareagoodstartingpointbecausetheyorganizethecriteriaforstudentsintolevelsofdescriptionaboutvariousaspectsof
thework.
Youcanfindouthowstudentscomprehendwhatthedescriptivelevelsofarubricmeanbyaskingthemtostatethemintheirown
words.
Studentscanlearntomorepreciselyidentifylevelsofqualitywhentheyseethembylookingatexamplesofwork.
Studentswhocanidentifyqualitylevelsinsamplepapersarebetteratselfassessmentandatproducingdesiredlevelsofwork
themselves.

WhatIstheMotivationConnection?
Studentswhohaveclearpicturesofthelearningtargetandofthecriteriaforsuccessarelikelytoalsohaveasenseofwhattheycan

andshoulddotomaketheirworkmeasureuptothosecriteriaandthatgoal.Clearlearningtargetsdirectbothteachersandstudents
towardspecificgoals.Studentscanmeetgoalsonlyiftheyareactuallyworkingtowardthem,andtheycan'tworktowardthemuntil
theyunderstandwhattheyare.
Oncestudentsunderstandwheretheyareheaded,theyaremorelikelytofeelthattheycanbesuccessful,canactuallyreachthegoal.
Students'beliefthattheycanbesuccessfulataparticulartaskorassignmentiscalledselfefficacy(Bandura,1997).Studentswho
haveselfefficacyaremorelikelytopersistintheirworkandespeciallymorelikelytopersistinthefaceofchallenge(Pajares,1996).
Whenstudentsfeelthattheyunderstandthecriteriabywhichtheirworkwillbejudged,theyalsohavesomesenseofcontrolovertheir
workandarepoisedtobestrategicselfregulators.IfI,thestudentauthor,understandthatagoodstoryneedsasenseofvoicethat
engagesreadersandmakesthemfeellikeIamarealpersoncommunicatingwiththem,andifI(orsomeoneelse)readmystoryand
finditflatandwooden,thenIknowIhaveworktodoand,moreimportant,IknowwhatworkIhavetodo.Thatstudentdecision("My
storylacksavibrantvoice,andIshouldreviseitforthatreason")isanexampleofselfregulation.
Noticethatittakesbothanunderstandingofthelearningtarget(what"voice"isinwriting)andanunderstandingofthecriteriafor
success(recognizingwritingwitheffectiveuseofvoicewhenweseeit)tofosterselfefficacyandselfregulation.Ifstudents
understandthelearningtargetbutdon'tknowwhatqualitieswillgetthemthere,theyarelikelytofeeldiscouraged.

WhatAreSpecificStrategiesICanSharewithTeachers?
Teacherscanhelpstudentsunderstandlearningtargetsbythesamemeanstheyusetohelpstudentsunderstandanything:telling,
showing,ordiscovering."Telling"methodswerepopularforawhile.Theclassicinthiscategoryisforteacherstowritetheirlesson
objectivesontheboard.Thismethodiscertainlybetterthannotmentioningthelearningtarget,whichmakesitaguessinggame("I
wonderwhywe'redoingthis?").But,asnotedearlier,aproblemwiththismethodisthatlessonobjectivesareoftenexpressedin
teacherlanguageforexample,"Thestudentwillbeabletodothreedigitsubtractionwithborrowing."Truesharingoflearningtargets
involvesgettingstudentstocomprehendwhatthelearningtargetentails.Aswehavealreadysaid,manystudents,havingreadthis
objectiveontheboard,couldrepeatitbackbutnottellyoumuchaboutwhatitmeant.
Inthisbook,weconcentrateonwaystosharelearningtargetsandcriteriaforsuccessbyshowingthisinformationtostudentsorby
havingstudentsdiscoverthisinformationforthemselves.Directedstudentconversationcanbeapowerfulwayforstudentstodevelop
comprehensionoftheirlearningtarget.Strategiesthatputinformationinwrittenformenableteachersandstudentstoreviewandrefer
toit.Bothoralandwrittenstrategiesarewaystogetwhat'sinsideastudent'sheadoutintopublicspacesothatotherscanhearitor
readitandrespond.Figure2.1summarizesthestrategiesthatwediscussinthefollowingsections.

Figure2.1.StrategiesforSharingLearningTargetsandCriteriaforSuccess
General
Strategy
Questioning

SpecificTactics

Teacherscheckforunderstanding
byaskingforstudentquestionsor
byaskingstudentstoputlearning
goalsintheirownwords.
Teachersusedirecteddiscussion
orwarmupquestions.
Studentsthinkpairsharewhat
theythinktheywillbelearning,
whyit'simportant,andhowit
relatestopreviouslearning.

Planning
and
Envisioning

Studentslistwhattheyknowand
wanttoknow.

Studentsmakeplanningchartsfor
individualorgroupwork.

Using
Examples

Studentslookatgoodexamples

Examples
Kevin,canyoutellmeonethingaboutthewatercycleyoualready
know?Jacob,canyoutellmeoneotherthingaboutthewatercycle?
Jaden,canyouputthosetwothingstogethersowehaveadefinition
ofthewatercycle?
Whyisitimportanttoknowaboutthewatercycle?
Whatwouldagoodreportonthewatercyclelooklike?
Donna,whatdoyouthinkofMatthew'sideaaboutthewaytodoa
pictureofthewatercycle?
Howlongwouldthereporthavetobetoshowyoureallyunderstood
thewholewatercycle?

Groupsworkingonwatercyclereportsplanaweekofwork,including
libraryresearch,reading,writing,drawing,editing,andplanninga
presentation.
Studentsusetheseplanningchartstokeeptrackofprogress.The
teacherusestheseplanningchartsforinterimassessmentofstudent
progressandforaskingquestionsaboutwhatstudentslearnalongthe
way.
Theteacherasksforinterimassessmentsascheckpointsalongthe
wayforexample,alistofsourcesafterlibraryday,anoutlineasthe
reportisplanned,adraftasthereportiswritten,alistofstudents'roles
foranoralpresentation.
Herearethefivebestwatercyclereportsfromlastyear.Whatdoyou
noticeaboutthem?

andmakealistofwhatmakes
themgood.
Studentslookatarangeof
examples,sortthemintoquality
levels,andwritedescriptionsof
thelevelsthatturnintodraft
rubrics.
Using
Rubrics

Studentsuseteachermade
rubricstoassessexamples.
Studentsrephraseteachermade
rubricsintotheirownwords.
Studentsuserubricstoassess
theirownworkandrevise.

Canyouorganizethesethingsyounoticeintocategories?

Putthesewatercyclereportsintothreepiles:Good,OK,andNotGood.
WhatmakestheGoodonesgood?HowaretheOKreportsdifferent
fromtheGoodones?FromtheNotGoodones?

Herearesomewatercyclereportsfromlastyear.Discusswithyour
grouphowyouwouldevaluatethemusingthisrubric,andwhy.
Hereistherubricwewilluseforyourwatercyclereports.Howwould
youdescribethesequalitiestoanotherstudent?
Howdoyouthinkyourwatercyclereportmeasuresuponthisrubric?
Useahighlightertoshowthedescriptionsintherubricthatyouthink
describeyourwork.Isthereanythingyouwanttorevise?

Questioning
Questioning,alongwithdirectedconversation,isonestrategyforcommunicatinglearningtargets.Thestrategycanbesimpleor
elaborate,dependingontheparticularstudentsandcontent.Sometimesallthatisneededisthatateacheraskstudentswhat
questionstheyhaveaboutanassignment.Listeningtothesequestionscanprovidetheteacherwithsomeinformationaboutwhatthe
studentsthinktheyaretodoandwhattheyaretolearn.
Avariationonsimplequestioningasastrategytocommunicatethelearningtargetisfortheteachertodescribealesson'stargetand
anassignmentoractivitythatembodiesitandthentoaskstudentstorepeatwhatshesaidintheirownwords.Puttingsomethingin
one'sownwordsisaclassiccomprehensionactivity.Insodoing,studentswillshowhowtheyareunderstandingwhattheteacheris
askingthemtodo.
Aslightlymorecomplexversionofthisquestioningstrategyistouseathinkpairshareactivity.Theteachercanhavepairsofstudents
(1)explainwhattheythinktheyaregoingtolearn,intheirownwords,(2)explainwhytheythinkitisimportant,and(3)figureoutat
leastonepreviouslessontopicthisgoalisrelatedto.Inwholeclassdiscussion,thepairsshareanddiscusstheiranswersandcome
toaclassconsensusforthethreequestions(Whatareyougoingtolearn?Whyisitimportant?Whatpreviouslessontopicisthisgoal
relatedto?).Thepurposeofthethirdquestionistoexplicitlyhelpstudentsseethattheyarebuildingknowledgeandskillandto
activaterelevantpriorknowledgethattheycanthenuseastheywork.
SatoandAtkin(2006/2007)reportonaversionofthisactivitythattheycall"warmupquestions."Theteacherprepareswarmup
questionsthatreviewthepreviouslessonorpreviewthecominglesson.Asstudentsrespond,theteacherasksstudentstocomment
ontheirpeers'ideasandclarifyorextendthem.Thisdirecteddiscussionbringsstudents'ideasaboutthelearningtargetoutintothe
open,wheretheycanbeexaminedandfocuseduntileveryoneisclearonwhattheupcominglessonisgoingtobeabout.An
importantfeatureofthisstrategyisthattheteachershoulddiscusswithstudentswhathighqualityresponsestothesequestionswould
soundlike.Studentswillnotimmediatelybegood"clarifiersandextenders."Thisskillneedstobedeveloped.
Whenteachersusequestioningasastrategyforclarifyingalearningtarget,theyshouldaskstudentsabouttheirattitudesand
experiencesaswellastheirknowledge.Teacherscanaskstudentstodescribewhatpriorschoolorotherexperiencesandwhat
attitudesandfeelingscometomind,asappropriatetothetopic.Theycanassessstudents'responsesforrelevanceandthenusethe
informationforadjustinginstruction.Forexample,manyelementaryschoolstudentsstudyrecyclingasacommunityactivityoraspart
ofascienceunit.Itwouldbeusefultoknowwhichstudentscomefromhomeswhererecyclingisanimportantactivity,whattheydoat
hometorecycle,andwhytheirparentshavetoldthemtheyaredoingit.

PlanningandEnvisioning
Forsomelearningtargets,havingstudentsenvisionwhattheyknowandwhattheywillknow(ordo)canbeagoodwaytogivethema
pictureofwhattheirlearningwillbeabout.TheKandWcolumns("know"and"wanttoknow")ofaKWLchartareclassicexamplesof
thisstrategyforclarifyinglearningtargets.
Foryoungerstudents,teacherscanuseactualpicturesthatareimagesfor"whatwewilldo"or"whatwewillneed"(forexample,a
crystalballmightrepresentwhattheythinkanassignmentwillbeabout,andatoolboxmightrepresentthesuppliestheythinkthey
willneed).Dictatedorstudentwrittenwordscanbeaddedtothepicturesinappropriateplaces.Coloredpicturescanbeusedascover
sheetsforfoldersofwork,asappropriate.
Forolderstudentsdoingprojectwork,planningchartsforindividualorgroupworkcanhelpclarifythelearningtarget.Studentsmust
identifywhatneedstobedonebeforetheycanplanhowtodoit.Suchplanningchartshelpmorewiththelogisticalaspectsofthe
workthanwithunderstandingconcepts,buttheycanbeimportantstepsalongtheway.

UsingExamples
Givingstudentsexamplesofworktoreviewanddescribehelpsthemdiscoveranddevelopconceptionsofthelearningtargetand
criteriaforgoodworkbyinduction.Ifpossible,teacherscanuserealexamplesfrompreviousyearsfromanonymousstudents.Ifno

realexamplesfrompreviousstudentsareavailable,teacherscanconstructexamplestoillustratetherangeofpossibleperformance.If
ateacherisusingarubric,itshouldincludeatleastoneexampleperleveltwoisbetteratthecommonlevelsofperformance.For
learningtargetsinvolvinghigherorderthinking,theteachershouldtrytohavetheserepresentlevelsofqualityratherthanquantity,so
studentswillhavetoexplaincharacteristicsoftheworkratherthanjustsaythingslike"Youwantedthreesources,andthispaperonly
hastwo."
Forsomelearningtargets,agoodsourceofanonymousexamplesthatrangeinqualityfromexcellenttopooristheNational
AssessmentofEducationalProgressreleaseditems,availableathttp://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/itmrls/.UsetheQuestionsTool
tobringupreleaseditemsandexamplesofstudentwork.Besuretoselect"constructedresponse"(thatis,notmultiplechoiceitems)
sotherewillbestudentworkassociatedwiththewritingprompts,mathproblems,orsocialstudiesandsciencequestions.
Studentscandiscussthequalitiesoftheexamplesandarriveatadescriptionofwhatgoodworklookslike.Iftheteachergave
studentsarubric,studentscancometoconsensusonwhereeachexamplewouldfallontherubric,andwhy.
Iftheteacherhasnotgivenstudentsarubric,studentscansorttheexamplesintopiles,comeupwithadescriptionofeachpile,and
thusdeveloptheirowndraftrubrics.Forexample,studentscansortexamplesofworkinto"Good,""OK,"and"NotGood"pilesand
thendescribethecharacteristicsofeach.Teacherscanusethestudentgeneratedrubricsasisoreditthemasnecessary.Even1st
graderscancreaterubricsinthisway.Researchsuggestsyoungchildren'sfirstattemptsatrubricsmightgiveneatnessand
appearancetoomuchweightandsubstancetoolittleweight(Higgins,Harris,&Kuehn,1994),buteventhiscanmakeateachable
moment.
OneofusmetateacherinNebraskawhohadusedthestrategyofprovidingexamplesand"createdamonster,"asshesaidwitha
smile.Eachyear,hermiddleschoolsciencestudentscreatedanotebookaboutthematerialtheywerestudying.Shedecidedtosave
someofthegoodsciencenotebookstouseasexamples,withstudentpermission,ofcourse.Shefoundherstudentswereeagerto
haveherusetheirworkasgoodexamples.However,byherthirdyearofusingthisstrategy,shefoundthateachyearthenotebooks
werebetterthantheyearbefore.Studentswouldlookattheexamples,figureoutwhatthepreviousstudentshaddone,andgoone
better.Thenotebooksdevelopedtobenotonlylongerbutalsomoresubstantive,becauseusingexamplesmadeiteasyforstudents
toenvisionwhatcouldbedone.
Sharingonlygoodexampleshelpsstudentsenvisionatarget.Sharingarangeofexamples,fromgoodtopoor,allowsstudentsto
developaconceptualunderstandingofthecriteria.IntheNebraskaexample,iftheteacherhadshownstudentssomemediocreand
poornotebooks,too,thestudentswouldhavehadmoreopportunitytodiscussthecriteria.However,identifyingastudent'sworkas
"notagoodexample"issomethingsometeachersarereluctanttodo,forthesakeofthestudent.Forarangeofexamples,itisbestto
useexamplesfromanonymoussourcesorteachercreatedexamples.

UsingRubrics
Thestrategyofusingexamplesofteninvolvesrubricseitheronestheteacherhasprovidedoronesthestudentsgeneratefromthe
examples.Evenifexamplesarenotavailable,however,rubricscanhelpclarifylearningtargetsinstudents'mindsandhelpthem
understandthecriteriaforsuccess.Insomecases,studenttranslationsofteacherrubricsintowhatissometimescalled"kidfriendly"
languagecanbehelpfulaswell.
Teacherscanalsouserubricstoclarifylearningtargetsthroughopportunitiesforrevision,ifappropriate.Studentscanreviewtheir
ownworkagainstrubrics,decidewhatneedstoberevisedforimprovement,andthendothatbeforetheyturninthework.
Alternatively,theteachercanallow"notacceptable"papersorprojectstoberedone,althoughitisusuallybetterforstudentstorevise
workbeforetheyturnitinforagrade.Thatmakesthem,andnottheteacher,thearbitersoftheirrevisions.Someteachershave
studentsdopeerreviewandrevision.Weadvisethatevenifteachersincorporatepeerreviewintotheirstudents'worktime,theyalso
allowforselfassessment.Peerscanmakehelpfulsuggestions,butitisthestudents'owndecisionsabouttheirworkthatleadto
learning.

HowWillIRecognizeEffectiveSharingofLearningTargetsandCriteriaforSuccess
WhenISeeIt?
First,askstudents.Probablythemostaccuratemarkerofclassroomswherelearningtargetsandcriteriaaresharedeffectivelyisthat
studentscanexplain,whenasked,whatitisthattheyaresupposedtodo,andwhy.
Second,observeteachers.Lookforevidencethatthestrategiesdescribedintheprecedingsectionsquestioning,planningand
envisioning,usingexamples,andusingrubricsarebeingnotonlyusedbutusedwell.Inparticular,lookforthefollowing:
Arestudentsaskedtoputthelearningtargets(orlessonobjectives)intheirownwords?
Arestudentsaskedtotalkabouttheirideasandpreviousexperiencesrelatedtolearningtargets?
Doestheteacherlistentostudentvisionsoftheirwork,and,moreimportant,doestheteacherusethatinformationinsomeway?
Arestudentsencouragedtoplantheirwork,anddotheyhaveopportunitiestoimplementthoseplans?
Dostudentshaveanopportunitytoreviewandrespondtoexamplesofwork?
Doestheteacheruserubricsformativelythatis,toshapework,notjusttogradeit?
Learningtorecognizethewaysthatteachersandstudentssharelearningtargetsrequiressystematicobservationbasedonaclear
understandingofthemanyeffectivewaysthissharingcanhappen.Suchobservationcanalsohelpyouuncoverareasforprofessional
growththatcanguideyourconversationswithteachersaboutthecriticalimportanceofsharinglearningtargetsandthecriteriafor
success.Theexercisepresentedhereasharedlearningtargetscasestudyisathreetieredprocessforgatheringsoundevidence
throughaclassroomwalkthrough(seeFigure2.2),alessonplan/assignmentwalkthrough(seeFigure2.3),andastudentoutcome
walkthrough(seeFigure2.4),followedbydocumentationofconclusionsanddeterminationofgoalsandstrategies(seeFigure2.5).
Theexercisewillhelpyoudocumentthewaysteachersareclearlycommunicatingthelearningtargetandcriteriaforsuccessandhow

studentsareusingthatinformationtolearnhowtolearntobecomeconfidentandcompetentselfregulatedlearners.Althoughthe
casestudyformatisdesignedtoassistaclassroomwalkthrough,youcanalsouseittoguideamorecomprehensiveformal
classroomobservation.

Figure2.2.Tier1:ClassroomWalkThroughforSharingLearningTargets

Figure2.3.Tier2:ClassroomWalkThroughforLessonPlansandLearningActivitiesonSharingLearningTargets

Figure2.4.Tier3:ClassroomWalkThroughforStudentOutcomesonSharingLearningTargets

Figure2.5.ConclusionsandGoalSettingforLearningTargetsCaseStudy
1.BasedontheevidenceyougatheredthroughthethreetieredLearningTargetsWalkThrough,whatareyourconclusions
regardingthequality,consistency,andeffectofthewaystheteachersharesthelearningtargetsandsuccesscriteriainorderto
informstudentlearningandincreasestudentachievement?
2.Basedonyourconclusionsabove,whatarethreespecificgoalsthatyouhaveforthisteacher?
Goal1:
Goal2:
Goal3:
3.Giventheprofessionalgoalsabove,statethreespecificstrategiesyoucansharetohelptheteacherbecomemoreeffectiveat
sharinglearningtargetsandthecriteriaforsuccess.
Strategy1:
Strategy2:
Strategy3:

HowCanIModelEffectiveSharingofLearningTargetsandCriteriaforSuccessin
ConversationswithTeachersAboutTheirOwnProfessionalLearning?

Teachersshouldhavethesameclarityaboutyourgoalsforthemasyouexpectthemtohaveabouttheirgoalsforstudents.Often
teachersaregivenprofessionaldevelopmentexpectationswithoutaclearideaofwhatitistheyshould"develop."Wealsoknowthat
professionallearninggoalsforteacherscanbemoreorlessthoughtful.Oneofusoncedidsomeworkinahighschoolthatrequired
teacherstosubmitprofessionaldevelopmentgoalsandplansatthebeginningoftheyear.Oneteacherwrote"bemoreprofessional"
ashisgoal,andasevidence,hewasgoingtocountthenumberofdaysheworeatietoschool.Sadly,thisreallyhappened.
Thefirsttipforlearningtargetsforteacherprofessionaldevelopmentistobasethemonindividualteachers'needsorbetter,toarrive
atmutuallyagreeduponprofessionaldevelopmentgoalsbasedonyourobservations,theteacher'sreflections,andjointconversation
aboutthegoals.Ifagoalispartlytheresultofteacherselfassessment,allthosemotivationalbenefitsaboutfeelingsofcontroland
beingtheagentofone'sowndestinywillkickin.
Communicatewiththeteachernotonlywhatyouthinktheprofessionaldevelopmentgoalshouldbebutalsowhatevidencemakes
thatanimportantgoal.Oneofthequestioningstrategieswedescribedearlierisagoodonetouse.Simplyaskingtheteacherto
describewhatitisshewantstoimprove,inherownwords,andwhatsheplanstodoaboutitwillgoalongwayinmostcasesto
makingsurethattheteacherunderstandsthegoalandthattheteacherknowsyouknowsheunderstandsthegoal.
Followingrightalong,lettheteacherknowwhatyouwillinterpretasevidencethatthegoalhasbeenmetandwhatcriteriayouwill
use.Itwouldbeevenbetteriftheevidenceandcriteriacouldbearrivedatjointly,inconversation.Rememberthatconversationisa
meansbywhichthethinkinginoneperson'sheadcanbebroughttolightsothatotherscanreflectandcomment.Conversationinthis
senseisarealgiveandtake,notagrillingoralecture.Conversationisalsothemeansbywhichpeopleindicatetheirunderstandingof
whatevertheyaretalkingabout.Sotalkingaboutevidenceandcriteriawiththeteachermayactuallyserveasameanstoclarifyideas
forbothyouandtheteacher.

WhatIf?
Communicatinglearningtargetsinvolvesteachersandstudents.Teachersmusthaveaclearconceptionofthetarget,sendclear
messagesaboutit,andprovideclearopportunitiesforstudentstodeveloptheconcept.Liketeachers,studentshavetobeableto
understandandworkwiththeconceptbehindthelearningtarget.Whatifyouaskastudenttoexplainthelearningtargetheisworking
towardandthestudentcan'tcomeupwithananswer?
First,gatheradditionalevidence.Isitonestudentwhocannotexpressaclearconceptofthelearningtarget,oraremanystudentsin
thesameboat?Doestheteacherknowthatthisstudentdoesn'tunderstand,ordoessheassumehedoes?Inshort,trytodetermineif
theissueisthattheteacherneedstotakeadifferentiatedapproachwithoneorafewstudents,orifthelackofunderstanding
representssomethingmorewideranging.Ifit'soneorafewstudents,talkwiththeteacheraboutstrategiesforindividualizinglearning.
Ifmanystudentscannotsaywhatthelearningtargetis,gathersomeadditionalevidenceanddosometriangulation.Lookatthree
differentsources.Whatdotheteacher'slessonplanssaythelearningtargetis?Whenasked,whatdoestheteachersayitis?What
dothelessonactivitiesandassignmentsimplythatitis?Ifthesethreedonotagree,there'stheproblem:thereisnoclearlearning
target.Starttherewiththeteacher,focusingonhowtodevelopgoodlearningtargets(Gronlund&Brookhart,2009).Talkwiththe
teacherabouttheimportanceofcoherenceinplanning,instruction,andassessment.Sometimesthatisallittakes.Forexample,a
teachermayhavegrabbedaworksheetthatlookedlikeamatchmaybeitwasaboutthesametopic,forexample,butterflies
withoutanalyzingtheworkrequiredtomakesureitdealtwiththesamespecificconceptsorrequiredthesamethinkingskills.
Sometimesteachersneedpracticeatanalyzingwhatreallyisrequiredofstudentsinanactivityorassignment,andyoucanworkon
that.
Andfinally,sometimesthethreesourcesofinformationdoagree,buttheydescribeactivities,notlearningtargets.Forexample,the
teachermaysay,"We'redoingpostersaboutCanada,"withouthavingaclearsensebeyondthat.Ofcourse,thenthestudentswould
probablyhavesaid,"We'remakingposters,"insteadofbeingabletostatethelearninggoal.IsthegoaltolearnfactsaboutCanada?
TounderstandtherelationshipbetweentheUnitedStatesandCanada?Tounderstandinterdependenciesamongtwocountriesin
NorthAmerica?Somethingelse?Inthatcase,explorewiththeteacherhowactivitiesandassignmentsshouldbeinstancesthat
embodythelearningtarget,selectedfromagroupofpossibleactivitiesandassignmentsinserviceofthesameknowledgeorskill.In
ourexperience,youwillrunintothisissuealot.Manyteachersuseactivitiesasashorthandforlearninggoals,whichunfortunatelywill
havetheeffectoflimitinglearning.

ReflectingonSharingLearningTargetsandCriteriaforSuccess
Thereisnomorefoundationalactivityforaschoolleaderthanmakingsurethatthereareclearlearningtargetsalignedtowhatever
standardsareinplaceintheschoolordistrict,thatteachersunderstandthemandteachtothem,andthatstudentsunderstandthem
andreachforthem.Reflectonthesequestionsforyourschoolordistrict:
Arethereclassroomswherestudentsunderstandtheirgoalsparticularlywell?Conversely,arethereclassroomswhereactivities
justseemtohappentoget"done"?Whatarethedifferencesinhowstudentsworkandhowtheybehaveinthosetwotypesof
classrooms?
Dosometeachersstrugglewiththeconceptofa"learninggoal"?Withtheideaofanactivityorassignmenttappingintothat
learninggoalinadeepway?Forthoseteachers,whatistheleveloftheirowncontentknowledgeandoftheirknowledgeof
typicalstudentlearningprogressionsforthattopic?
Doyouobservearangeofstudentbehaviorintheclassroomsinyourschool?Isthereanyrelationshipbetweenthenumberand
typeofbehaviorproblemsinaclassandtheclarityofstudentunderstandingandteachercommunicationoflearninggoals?

SummingItUp
Inthischapter,wehavetalkedaboutthefoundationofformative(andsummative,too,forthatmatter)assessmentclear
communicationoflearningtargetsandclearunderstandingofthecriteriaforsuccess.Infact,itisthischaracteristicthattheyare
bothbasedonthesamelearninggoalsthatrelatesformativeandsummativeassessmentineducation.Wehavediscussed
strategiesteachersmightusetosharelearningtargetsandcriteriawiththeirstudents.Afterthatpointinmostlessonsequences,the
studentsgetbusyanddosomework.InChapter3,then,weturntowaystogivefeedbacktostudentsonthatworksothattheir
learningcancontinuetoprogress.
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