Thomas. Kuhn THE FUNCTION OF DOGMA IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH’ reheated acta meet oe Seem este a eit Sas Sera SSS ete ai cicteen Manat SSA WA Se in eh free pies ne as Deno Sera ate Sa a Sch Bei aeecatt Feel SPs ain aie tat ss cil Roa clon ick oes “Diener seer ate een oi ry tte eee ece ete ‘Sin esac ch append Ca Wa sl Tu Th af Ghtind amen a nnaainy Os neapn RS sg en 8,“ epee sees a haa hat ere iets Lona cates anagem Ge ae oc meeceenirers mame or aoe eee Zeeecineteremyme ae Ene Soera arcane metre nae ee [oa Sees retires ont ae L ‘Sow, fa cursory reading ofthe toy af lense provides oo moch ouster= ‘viene. Though the set exterpne may Be open-minded, whaeve ths ‘pplication ofthat phrase may nea he induct very fen ot ‘Whether his works predominantly theoretealorexprienial he wal seems to know, before his esearch proket etn well under way, all bt the mah, inmate dts of the esl which that projet wil achieve Ifthe res ‘wk forthcoming well and good If nat, be wl stroke with hs appratos nd with his equations uaa all poss be thy yd results whch conforms {othe sot of pattern whic he as fre from the start. Nor scon through his on esearch that the sient ply hin Coniton about the poe: nomena which nature can yd and about he wi in which hese may be ted {theory Often the ame convictions show even merece in is eapons ‘the work produced by others, From Gale's reception of Kepler? ose to Nigel's reception of Mendes, ftom Dalton’ tection of Gay Lamas ‘ult o Keli’ rejection of Maxell’, weap nove fat ad theory ave charactesialy been rested and ave often been ied by many of the most cresie membe= the profsioal scene communi, The hi ‘onan, at last scarcely needs Planck to temind um tht: “A hew stig truth ot aly presented in «way ths convinces opponent sri hey gradual di of ad sing generation fanart the eu om alia ht ike these—and they cou easly be multinied do not seem {to bespeak an enerprise whose practioner are notably eperminded. Con {hey ata be econ with ou tal image of posite seni eerch? such a econeltion has no seemed to eset Fundanotalpblee inthe Dat thats probably because restace and peconcepion hare unl beh Vewodasextrasous to since. They are, we ave often Ben ld no morta the product of inevitable an Kron» proper seme tho het ‘ice for them; and that method i power enough so that no mae human ‘aiosnrasy can impede ts sotess for very long. On this vom, cumple of ea pops are reduced othe statu ef neodts ands that evaluation oftheir ignicance that this esa’ aims to chllengs. Verse, alone, gests that such a challenge i reuie. Preconception and restance see ‘he rulather than the exception n mare ei development, Funermore, under nor eirumstanes they charatze the ery Best and most rete ‘ecarch swell a the more out, Note there be mich question where they ome fom Rather than Being characteris ofthe aera sia they ‘te community characterise nth dp tot inthe proedurs tough which ‘siti ar tained Yor workin heir profesion, Strongly el comico ta "epi fo research often sem to bea rendition or snes he srs ‘Otiouly Lam already ahead of ny sory, but in gling tet I have pe haps inated its pial theme, Though precowepion snd rein to ‘novation could very ealy choke off cae proses, ther emnpresene ‘nonetheless ympromat of character upon which tc continuing ity of esearch depends. Those characteris Il ell al the dogmas‘of matre since, and inthe pages to come I sal ty t0 make the folowing ‘Points about thom Sse edoctiog incl wha the scene eomemnity Kettiarouey i lleay gained Sep soars toa arto way ‘ot viewing the wor and of prctsig scene int. That commitment canbe, ‘Sod trom tine ote replaced by another, but it cannot be merely ave YP. ‘And, while it cotines to carat the communty of profesional prac toner i pronto rere fundamental to productive each By dei Ing forthe indidl want both the problems aalable for pus andthe rare of acceptable soos to the, the eminent aculy costae ‘ot revarch. Neral the emt puziesolet ike the ches player, and the commiment duced by eduction 5 what provides him with the rues of th game ing played in Ms tine, Ine abnce he would not be a phy, ‘hem, or whatever he haben red be, Ts addon, commitment has a second and larly incompatible eeserch tole every erangth andthe nanimity with whieh the profession group sibs to ie provides fe indivi! scientt with am immensely seasive ‘decor of the touble rcs from which sigaicaatianovatons of fact and ‘theory are lm ieritabyedaced. Ia the sienes mos covers OF une ected fact and al fandartal onovalions of theory are responses 0 pie ‘rok in the rls of fe prvi) established gm, Therefore, though 23 quaidogmatc commitmest onthe ope hand, a source of resistance and orton, it alo israel in making the senes the most consent!) ‘evolulonary of al bumar activites. One nest make nether renstance not ‘dogma a vite to recogni that no mate scence could ext without them, Before examining forthe the nate and eto seni dogma cotsiet th pttern of eduction trough whic strait fom one geeration ‘of pctitoners to the next Scents are ao, of eure the only profesional ‘Woh they Inter dopoy in hc or creative work, Yet even aston inspes. tion of ste pedagogy sugars that ts far mre likly to indore pote. sional igiity than edaeton in other fells, etepting, perhaps, tematic Theology: Admitely the following epitome i bw foward the American putter wich I know best The corse at which aime mst, Rowever, be il if muted, a Euopein and Brtsh education aswel. Pechape the os stig featur of seni docaton ha to an ett git unlsown in oter reve el ts onded trough atboks, works ‘rien especily for stadt, Until he rend, Yry nea ready o begin his own disurtaton the sden of chemistry, physic astronomy, geologs, of ology seldom eter ased to attempt tral research projets ov exposed 10 the immediate poste of menrch done by others 1, that the proesonal ‘Sonimunications that seit write Tor ther pes Colleton of source feadings ply eligible en slic educton, Nor the cnc stent ‘Sheourged fread te stil class of hi eld wort ie wih he might ‘Steouner vier map ofrgeding the quetons dacused in hs tex, But it Sabich he would aie mee voblems, coeepth and standards of elton that is ftureprofevon had long since cred and replace? Whitehead some ‘where caught thi gute pci ature of he scenes when he wrote, A scence hat tates o forget i founders ot ’An alos exe lane on tesbwok nt alka dtingises ce. tic eduction, Students in ther Sede are after lao expand to ach book, ‘though seldom teyond the second year ool and even a thos early yams rot exclaely. Bet in the snes diferent ebooks daly diferent subject ‘mater rater then, atin the humaies and many socal sien, xem ‘lilpng diferent ppeoaces toa single problem fed Even boos that compete {or adoption ina single sence cour dior mainiy in level and pedagogic ‘eal notin substance or conceptual str. One can seasely imagine a py Iest's'orebemist’s saying that be had ten frond to bein the oSvation of is thirdyear css almost fom fst pris Pease is previous exposure {0 the field hud been trough Books that consstely silos hi eonceton ‘ofthe dicitine. Remarks of hat sorta not by oy ene unpeeedented ‘several of the noi cen. Apparently scent agi about what i that, ‘er stadt of the ld mnt know. Thee why, nthe igo pepe ‘Sonal cuiclun, the en ut extbooks net of eet ase of esearch, Nor the characte technique of extbook presentation shogethe he same inthe scenes as eewhere Exexp inthe oszasonal ntoucins tht Sdets seldom ree, scene texts ma lle temp to esrbe the sorts ‘ot problems that he profesional may be shed to save oo dst the vary ‘of techniqes that experience has madeavaabe for thir solton. Intend, these books exhib, fom the very na, corte jrobemoluions that the ‘rfeson har come to acept ar params, and they then ask the student, ‘iter witha pene and pape orn the laboratory, sls for hil problems {los modeled in method snd substan apm thor through which the txt as ed hi, Only in eemeotary langues istration or in eining = mea Instrument so lage or enema suse ade of “finger exersies” And ‘hose ares the els in which the abet traction to prods with ma ‘um rpity strong "mental st” of Evclngen, tbe sommes T see, ‘eet ofthese techniques much the sme, Though cetie delopment paricalry produce of congue novelty seni education remain {relively dogmatic nation inte a preesabshed prolemsaing ts thatthe ster sneer invited nor equipped tesla. The paten of systematic textbook eosin just described ented in no lace nd inno since eeep perhaps elementary mathemati) unl he ety nee century. ut before that date umber othe ore developed scenes ‘arly displayed the special sharacterti ade above, and in ew cases. had dove so for very lon ine. Where here ere no extbooks there aden en universally roceied paradigms Tor the practice of indi] scence, ‘The were sient achive tepid ia ks that alte pretvoners ofa given eld new snimately an adnitd, achievements Upon which they ‘modelled thei own research and which povided them ith a mest of thir‘on ascomplihment. Arist’ Physic, Polemy/'s Almesest, Newton's Prin. pie and Optids, Franklin's Elect, Lavoiser’s Chem), and Lyel's ‘Golo shee works apd many oter al served forse mpl odie {he Ignite problems and meds ofa rsearh ld for suceding peers: tion of prastuoners Ie thir day each ofthese books, ogee with ober ‘modeled lovely upon them di for ts eld much of what textbooks now Jo for there mame lds and for thers bss [Al of the woeks named above ar, ofcourse, css of scence. As such theirole may be thought to resemble tat ofthe ain asics in ether creative fs for ena the mock «Shakesyere, a Rembran an Adam Sth Bat by caling the works, orth achevements which ic bekind them, per ‘dion ater than clase to rgget hat there omen espa ‘hout them, something Woche them apt both from some ober cites ‘ot cence and from al the dans of other cat ls Part of thi “womething dhe" wha I shall eal the exlsvens of yr adigms Atany tine te peaconet of given pei ay recognize numerous ‘Shae, some of thar ike the wrks of Pllemy abd Copeneus of Newton Sod Dearest incompatible one with the other. But that sane group, ‘Tita paradigm all can ave only one: Unie the community of rst ‘which aa dam siltaeossnepiration fom the works of ay, Remand Ind Cézanne and which therstore des both the community of asronomees Tid o aleratine to choosing Secor te competing models of sete at iy supped ty Copesican and Ptolemy. Furthermore, having mae eit ‘hole astronomer could hrafer select the work which try bad rejected, Sic he sxoonth century the have been only Wo ful eon ofthe na et, both produced in the eeerath onary an dred exh to sco fila the mature cence ‘here no apparent faction forthe equivalent of fart muicum ora brat of Sass, SSenits Know won ook, 25d even Journae are out of date Thoogh they do not then destroy them, hey do, ak ‘ny historian of secs can es, transfer them from the active depart Irary to deuetoe in he general nivesy depository. Up-tonate works ave taken thc plas, and they ll that he artes prog of eens requis, “This characteris of pradgns iy lvely rated to anther, and one tt has puta felvane te my election ofthe tem. Ia recing a paradigm the slate community corms isa, consioul or not, tthe view that he Fundamental problem here reahed hve, at, ban sled one ad fo al. “Thatewnat Lagrange meant when besaidof Nevon: Thee isbutone wives, td ican happen fo but one mas inthe weds history to be the inept tis laws The example of either Asta of Ensen proves Lagrange ‘trong. but that does not ake the fac of his commitment Sas consequential {> ste development Blving that what Newton had done eed not be Sone agin, Lagrange was not tepid to Kndamenalteiterpreatons of ‘tr, Insiad be coal ake up where the men who shared is Newioian cig ba lel of svg both for eater Formulations ofthat paraig {nd foranataltion tat sould beget loser and loser agreement with [ ‘The Function of Dogma i Scintiie Rasereh 361 observations of nature. That sot of works undertaken only by those whofe ‘hat the mods hy have chown i enrelssure- Theres nothing it ike it Inthe act and the pase nth sol ene are at bes pti Paradigms ermine devlopmestal puter forthe ature senes ha unlike te one familar in tbr bl That elference could be Mustated ty comparing the development of @ puredign-hased science wih that of sy, Piosophy of iterate. But the sme Met can be achieves more economics contesting the eal developmeatal fatten of almost any somnce withthe pater caracterstic of teste eld [nis mata eannot here voi ptingte pont fo starkly, but what have ‘in mind this. Excxpig in thos elds wie, ke Scheie, originated {he combisaton of existing spel, paradigms are a eat Inte og ton othe couse of senile development Dering iter) Jers a sence pro eds hou them, or at last without aay 50 unequivocal nd to Binding 8 ‘hose named iustatvely above. Physical opis telore Newton or thesia ‘ot heat Before Black and Lavoiser exemplifies he pre-paradim devlopmestal pultern tht I shll mediately examine the history of eects. Whe ic nines, anti tht ait paradim reached, the developmen fa see evembles that fhe art and of most soi scences mor ll tha resem "es the paltern which astronomy, say, ha already acquired in Antiquity and trhich al theaturl scenes mas falar today To catch the difrence between pend pst pradim siete develop. meat consid a single example. Inthe eal elghcelh contry, avin the ‘evemcenth and erie, there were aoe as any views about tho ature of ‘etry as thee were important eee experimenters en like Hauke, ‘Gray, Deeper, Du Fy, Noll, Wao, and Franklin, All their numerous ‘once of ett had Something in common—they were patil deve from experiment and observation aod partly Tom one or another version of the mechanics corpnclar pilorphy ta ued all emi revere of te ‘ay. Vetere common elements gne thei work po more han & Fai ea: banc. We ae fared fo rcogive the exten of terra competing 008 and subschool, each desving sera rom lation toa parca vero (Cartesian oe Nevionian) ofthe corpuscular metaphysics, and each emphasing the parila cluster of eacrcl phenowena which it ow theory could 60 ‘mow to explain, Other shurvatons were Sell wih by af elaberatins or Femained as oustanding problems for father research" ‘ne ery group of eetcans allows seveieatvcentiry practi, and "hus took atraction and final genention ay the fundamental eet Dhenomena. They tended to eat eepusin a8 secondary ect (in the etem teeth centr had been atid to sme sort of melanie bounding) hd ao to postpone for as long as posable bath dsussion and systematic Tesarh on Gy newly dcoveed efi, ltreal conduston, Anoter ‘oly related group reatded repulsion the fundamental fle, we stil nother tok altracton snd epuontogather oe equally elementary Ma Fesations of cleric. ach ofthese groups modified its theory and researchscotty but they then had as mc dificuky athe est in acount for ny but he sinplcondconefst- Those elect providedthestarting point {bes hte grosp. one whch fended fo speak of electri asa “id” {hat ran through conductors ater than as an “efMusum” that emanated fom soncongustrs. Thi grup, near, bad culty reconcing its theory with TMumbee of arc and repuive eet? “Avanos ties al the sool made siieant contbutons tothe Boy of concepts phenomena ad tecaignes from which Franklin dre the fst fudigfoc elias. Any deiiton of he seems that eed the ‘embers of these choos wl tlie heir modern sucessrs wel Yet 1 ne rereying the develope of eects before Franklin may well conch {hn though the ls practioner were sles, themed rest of thir ‘iy was something ls thn since. Because the Body of bbe cou take {be grated wa ey stall cach eles experimenter fet fore fo bein by building his Bld anes rom foundations In dings hs cho of supporting Ssetwation sad experiment was reively fee forthe set of tandard methods thd phenomena tht every eleceean mst employ and expan was ext Ainahly sal, As res houghovt the Sst hall of the century, eet fnvenigatons tended to cle bac over the same ground again and agin [Now afte mre reese covered, But many of them wee rapid lest, oun, Among those fost wee any ef du to what We should now dsb ‘Sriniotne charging and sso Ds Fay’ famous dscovery of the two sort of ‘lectleation,Feaklin ane Kinperley ete supsed when, sme en years ise, the fntar covered tha charged all which was repel by eubbed ils would be ttrwed by rubbed sesingonax or amber In the absence of i Nctarolted and widey rveived theay (a denderatum which noses onze rom ts ey bepng and which few any of he soil sciences ave EEneved today) te stent nly ve ben eherwie: Daring thea alo theegheent century thee wat no way Tor liars fo ising Consent between setial and poseletical eft, Deween laboratory ‘Sluent and esental nove, or tetwesn striking demonstration and exer nents whith ese theese nature of est. "Tus the sate of als which Franklin changed’ Wis theory explained so many though nt all-of the elects recognized by the various leer shoo that thin a generation all eins ha been consered 10 ‘Sine vw ver lke it Thowpt td no esl quite al disagreuments, Franke is theory was deco fe paradigm, ands euence gies «ew tone td favour tothe cect revearebes ofthe lst decades ofthe cghieeth entuy, The end of intersoo! debate ede the constant iteration of fonda ‘Cental; confidence that tey wee onthe right tack encouraped eetrcans Toundenake more prec eerie, and consuming sors of work, Freed from “ocerm wth any ahd all ecreal phenomena, the ney ued group could Sree steed phenome in far more deta iging such special equip= on forthe tank an eloyiag ft more subborly and systematic than etistan had ver done bore. Inthe hasde of @ Cavendish, a Coulomb, ‘ra Volt the collection oleic! ets andthe action afer theory ‘ee fr the at time, highly Sete scien. Avs resi the fens and ‘Hesnen of cktrcal search increased immensely, proving evidence for ‘Piocual enon of France Racons ave methodological dem: "Truth “meees move real fom ronan from enfonon” ‘Otvitouly¥exsegerate oth the sped and the completeness with which te anaton toa paradigm oe. Buta dos not make the phenomenon elle eal, The matoraton of ec ab a sence I ot coextensive wth the ene development of the Held. Writs on elect dring the fst fur ‘Secades of the sgheeth century posiesod far moe ioformation about ee- flecrice phenomena than ad thir sistem and seveneeth-semury pre “scwore During the hl-century ater 143 vey few ne sors of elected Shovomena were added to thi Ts. Nortel im important rept the lca! wetings ofthe last to decades he entry seed Further removed ftom tho sf Gray, Du Fy, and even Pranlin han ae the wring af hoe tary ephemera lstreane fom howe of ther prodesasors unde Sear before Sometime Between 1740 anc 1760 ctr, a group suited ‘a astronomers hed achieved io Anti student of motion late Middle [Rees of pel opis nthe lat seventh centr, and of historical ebony inthe carly nineteenth. They had, hat achieved paradigm, posession of thick coal them to take the fogator of thee eld for ranted ano posh tn to more consrete and revondte problems? Except withthe advantage of insight shard o find another eteton tha 9 clearly prelams Bld Thee vetarks should Bein to clr what I tke paradigm tobe It, Jn thei place, fundamental scent aehevement and one which includes ‘oth a theory and some etemplary apleations to he resus of experiment sh obervation More important. iis an opet-ended achivement. one which FRmevall srs ot earch st be done, And finally ti an msec’ she: ‘men inthe sere that i rived by 4 poup whose member o longer ey 0 {hal itor fo senteaeroats for Inte thy ater to extend and epiit. tina variety of way to whch {shall shorty tan. Thatscusion of he work ‘hat pris leet Be done will make bth hei rle sp the reasoner het ‘pci eiacy clue sl, But fist thew is one rather leone pot to be Imad about sem. Though the rxepion «paradise steal pre reat the most elie sorte of aati research, the patadigms which hance research efletnenes now not be and usally fe not permanent. ‘Om the conrary, the developmental pater af mature scene i wally om pradign to rsa Ie ler from the pater characteristic of the ery of Prevaradigm period not by the total elineation of cebate over Fandametals, but by the drastic esticton of such debits toecasonal pigs of padi hang. Prlemy's mages wasnt, for example, any es «paradigm because the resarch ration that descended rom i had ularly o be replaced BY an Incompaiie one dered from the work of Copernicas and Kepler Nor WasNewton's Opricks ss «paradigm for eightaentcntury student of light be- ‘eit wa ater replaced bythe eter wave theory of Young and Fresh frag which nts um ae way to the dectromagnetic place theory ‘hat descends fom Maxwil Undoubtedly the resetch work tht ay gen paradigm permits results inating contributions othe body of cient knowt- ge and technique, but paradipns themselves are very ofen swept aide and Feplced by others that wate incompatible with them. We can have no resus fo notions like he "rath oF “vl” of paradigms inoue ate fo undentand the special eeay of the renearch which ther ception permite ‘On the conrary th iran can olen osognze tha in desaring a oer radian out of dae orn ecting the tpprech of ome one ofthe repar- ‘Mig schools a sesliie ommunty ha eed the embeyo ofan portant ‘cine preapon to which ie would Inte be fred to celur. Bu is very far fom lr thatthe prossion dened sini deslopment by doing so. ‘Would quant mechanics have been born sooner i nineteeatncentiry scien: {ts had been more willing admit that Newton's corpuscular view of Light ght il hase something sigan fo teach tem abowt matte? think 0%, tough in the ar, the humanities, aod many socal sienees tht les doct= Iie view is very often adopted toward csc achievements of the pas. OF trould stonomy and yma have advanced more rapa if ets hd ‘Reogtd that Ptolemy and Copernicus had chonen equally legitimate means {© doer the earth's postion? That view way fac suggested during he fevenenth century, and ith sine ben conf by rei theoy. But intheintein twas nly jected topeter wth Palen astonom),enziing ‘gin oaly i the very late nineteenth century When, forthe fst ine i a ‘onset eevance to unsed problems geected by the continuing practice ‘ot nonslatie pics, One cult srs. ar ndeed by implistion | shal that slow eighteenth and ninecemthcatary atention eter fo the work of ave delayed ater than alerted the elution in pcs with whi he Iwenteth centary began. advance fom pradigm to paradigm rather than through the cociatingconretiion betwen reogaise cate maybe fan ‘alt well acted circle of mature ete devon. Mach that has been si ofr ntnded to indicate that except during ‘ecasional exrardiary pedo be dscused inthe las scion fs paper ihe peacidoners of mate set spcty ae deply commited to some one paracign- based way of regarding and ivestiating nature. The prec tel them abou the sree ents ith wih the universe populate’ and bout the way the membet ofthat population behave; im aditon, informs ‘hem of the guston that may letintly be asked about mare and of te techniques the can propery be uo i the scurch fr ansvers to them. Le ‘acta paradge lena 20 tach tit he questions tee for serch fidom hve pest nine Interest to thaw outde the proeion. Thoweh ducted mens group my be fascinated to her about the petra fat mental prises or about the process of molelarrepiation, thins. isu qikly exhausted bys accourt ofthe belies that aleadyundee ‘seare on thee problems, The outcome of he idviealresarch projet i Inuferet to ther, and hi intrest ey to avaken again wt 8 with fant nonconsevaion, research uneypcedy leads to paadign-change and {oa consquent eration nthe Bele wie pide rnarh. That, no ob, [sy both historian aod poplaizrs have devoted so ch of thc atenton to the revolutionary epnode which ein change of parndiga and ave so rely neglected the sort of Work that een he great sie nce do most ofthe une My pont will come clearer iT nov ask what itis that the existence of| 1 paradigm lees forthe scintfecommunity to do. The aswer—as obvious ‘the rltedenstence of resitane to innovation and as often brushed under the arpet—is Chat setts, gives paraign, sve wih ll heir might and sil {o ting into close and closer apeemert wih ature. Much of thee effet, [rly inthe ey stapes of 2 paradigm’ development retest at. Using the paras, rendering i more presen arent where the Ogital focmblation has ineviably Bees vague Fe exams, knowing tat lacey tweva fad how indivi paris sc spon one athe ta diane, lee {rian aler Frankl could atempt to dermie the quantaie la of force ecneen pares of lcs. Otes cold sek the Inui interdepeadeoe of spark length, clstrosopeceesto, quantity of eketiciy, and conductor onfiguration. These were the sorts of problems upon which Cotlomb, Cave ‘dh at Vole worked inthe lst decades of he eighteenth centy, an they ave many paral in the development ofeery ater mate since, Conte pore tmp o determine the quanto mechani forces poteraing the “That sot of problem is not the ony chalenge which paradigm sets for the community that embraces, There ae ays miny eas tm whch Daradign is astumed to work but to whic atmo, a fact yet en appli Matching the paradign o nature these areas often engages mush of te best scien alent in any generation. The eighcethcentuy attempts to develop 2 Newtonian theory of vibrating strings provide one significant example, and the current wotk ona quantum Mechanical ory of solids provides another. Im ‘ition, there is aways much fseinating work to be dove in improving the ‘atch between a paradigm and nature ian are Where at est mie agree ‘eat ha andy been demonstrated. Those work on problems ike hes 1 iueated by’ eigleentscentary rach on the prtrtaion that case Planes to deviate fom thle Keplerian ors ar wall at by the bore fen: ‘etscentry theory of the spa of complex atoms aad melzeules And Se- ompanyng al there problems and tl cers bess I recrring sre Instrumental hun, Spel apport adobe imened and bil to pea Colom’ determination ofthe elt’ fore law Newt sort of telescopes ‘were regured fore obervatons that, when completed, demanded an improved‘Newtonian perturbation tory. The daign and constuction of more fib find moe poweri selena confining deieratum inthe atempt 10 “fielate more pomerfl tore of roses foce These are the sorts of work ‘which alow al cetie spend alos all of thi ime” "Probl this tome of norma sate resach egies no claboration in in place, but bee oreo pine thst must pow Se made about it Fist, tote problems mnensonel above mee paradigm dependent fen in evra ‘tej Some~for trample he deiation of perturbation terms in Newtonian ‘anes theorycould sot veh have teen Hated inthe absence of an apyo- rate pram, With the fanstio from Newtonian to relativity theory few ‘ttm Sears dilletent probleme and otal ofthese have ye ben soe ‘ter problems for xaml the atempl to determine law of ele ores — ‘Soul be and were a eset taaey stated before the emergence ofthe paradigm with which they were toate oled. But in that older form they proved Intestate The nen who dacied cet traction and repabions interns treflieatempld to menu the rsling for by lacing w charged ie ‘tameasred digane Beath one pa of blane- Under thos ceumstancs ‘to cman or interpret sult wereobaied. Te peequsite for sues ‘proned to be a paradigm tht redod ctrl action to «gravitation fetmeen point purer uta ditance.Afer Franklin eletcias thought of ‘Seucalacion in howe tem; otk Coulomb and Cavendish designed their ‘Sppuratus ccordingly Final in both hs exes nd nal the tees a5 wel ‘ommutnent othe pradign was aeeded imply fo provide adequate motivation. ‘iho would design soe but caboate epoca-pupose apparats, or who would trond months ting to she a particle diet equation, without quite ‘om qarance thats effet eccetfl, woul yet the anticipated fruit? "Fic refernce to the sited outome of research projet points (0 tne seondstikng arate of what Tam cling norma, paradigm thsed, ecarch The sent engagd init dos ot at al the pevalen image Shi sects as ele ona inven of Brand new theories which permit Striking and unexpected potions. Oa the contrary, in al the problems dis- ‘Sued above enerhing bt the etl ofthe outome as knowa In advance ‘Novaemist who acres Frankla'sparadipm sould doubt that there was ‘aw ofatection betmer smal partes elec, and thy cou reason {bp sappose that would ake a smpealgebraie form, Some of thm had even ncsed that i ould prove to beam inverse square law. Nor dé Newtonian ‘EXromomers and pte doubt tht Newton’ aw of motion and of gravite tion coud lfimsey be made to ylld the observed motions of the moon and planets eventhough, for over ast, he compet of he reuse mathe ‘ates prevented good agement’ being nifrmly obtained eal ses prob- {ema in os other ta seis ender, the challenge snot to uncover thc unknown bot to cbtainthe kaown, Thi fainton is notin what sucess nny be cepectd to dichoe bat inthe acu of oblaiiog sce tal Ruler than seembingeslration oral esearch soem ke the efor 10 tvembic a Chins cube owe thd oie is koowa rom the Sart “Thos ate the characteris of norma research that I ha in mind when, at the sare ofthis ey I Sovrbed the mu engaged in as pulser, like the chee player The paradigm be has aque hough pie wining pro™ ‘dos bin withthe ules ofthe game, dese the ices with which emus be played, and indicates the mature ofthe eqisedontome Histak sto manipe Ute those pss hin the rl in sch» ay thet the regi outsome fs oc hea amo ena dot a hr ach oon ay {hen problem, that Flue speaks only to ba Ick of sk Henne! call to Seton the rls which hs paadig has spin fr without hoe rls thee ‘Toul hve been no purze wih which to wrt ate Gt place, No wonder, ‘hen, thatthe problems (or puzzles) whieh tse practioner ef amature sense nocmally undertakes presppose a deep commitment tos paraigm. And how fortunate it's that tht commitment snot ihty gen up. Experience shows {han alow all aces the relersted fons iter of the adda of the ofesionl group, doa st soczed in prducing within the paradigm a sole {don to even the most stubborn problems Tat ison othe wap in whch secs Advance Under thoe creamtancer ean ne be surprised that scent ret uraignechange? What they tre deendiog i ater eter sore nor {han the Bas f thi protessonal way of By now one pica advantage of wha began by calling sient dogma tam sould beapparet Asa glance at any 3acoian natural story or asurey the peparacigm development of any scence wil show, nature as 40 ‘complex to be explored even approximatey at random, Something must tell the sete where Took and wht lsk for, and that somthing hoe iemay not last bajond hi generate araigm with which is ection ‘sestietst ha supp hm. nen hat paradigm and the rogue conidence ini the sient gly cons to be ao explorer a all oat et to bea ‘plover ofthe unknown, Istend, he strug to arulte and conceize the known, designing much special-purpose aperius and many speik-purpose ‘apraton f theory for that task. From tov prs of design and apt ‘nh ts his plasre, Unless he ixtacdiany cy, ti apn his ices ith them that his epuaion wil depend oeviabl the enterpese which eo- ‘igs him is characterized, at anyone time by dasaly ested vison. But ‘tin the repon upon shih vison octed the conning emp to match araigms to oature resus in a Knowledge nd understanding of strc dtail, that could not have Bean achieved in ay her way. From Copecnca ad the Problem of precesion to Einstein and the photoktieelt the progress of scence has agin and apnin depended pon js sich esterica. One ret ‘ire of commitment paradigm that tes cinttensng themselves iting poz "Notre this image of clei reerch as partosolvng or paadien- naehing mus oa he Yer eat, thoroopty isompist.Thowgh the see. Inny not bean explorer sions do againand sgh dcover nw aod tne: tod wots of phenomena Or apn hough the neni Soe m8 orallysive to invent ne sors af bari theories, sch theories have repetely emer from the cominung practice of reach But neither of thee peso nnn tion would are ithe enerpee have bee allng normal cence wae aay ‘cel nfs, the man engaged in pzalesoving very fen rests tie nowely and he eso for god eaton- To him te change nthe res of the game and any change of tule innsillysveave, That satersie ‘leat is ofcourse, mos apparent in major thorn! nnoraton ike hone ‘soiled withthe mane’ of Copernic, Laver, o Einstein. Bat he dso fy ofan unanticipated phenomenon can have the same deste eels slough usally on a salle group and for afr shorter tie. Onc he ha ‘formed his ist fllov-up experiments, RSnge's slowing teen demon fated that previously saadard cathode ra) equpment was bebiving in mas for which o one had me allowance. Tere was sn unanticipated vale 12 be controle; enki rere, alta their ay to hssoming pains would regi evaluation; old puzes would have to be sled again under {somewhat diferent set of rales Even oo ready ssmiabe» Seavey ab that of Xrays eam violate» paraigm tht he previously guided research, Ie Follows that ifthe noral puzteolving activity were agsther secon the development of sence couldn 10 m0 fondant innovations a al But ofcourse normal science isnt almags succes, and In feognang ‘that et we encounter wb take to be the econd pret advantage of paradigm ‘sed research. Unlike miny othe ety decir, the pratone of amature scioce knows with comiersle pression what srt of result he sould gah from hs researc. AS aemsoqence he rina paticltyfaourabe postion to rcogize when 2 reseuch problem has gone ar. Puta, ike Gavan ‘© Rongen he encoutes an elec tht he ows ought not to oar Or pe taps, lke Copeeius, Patek, o* Ensen, Re concider that the ckeraed fais wf bis predeeours ching = frag to nae puesunpe ‘iene ofthe ned fo change the res under whch a mate so be sought (Or perhaps, ike Faso Lavoier be desde alr repeaed attempt the no existing theory can be aiulatd to ascout for some newly overed ‘fet Ina ofthese ways and in others bse the pact of normal pul Solving sens can nd rvtably does lend tthe lation ad reogntion oF ‘noma. That recognition prove. think, prerequisite falas ll dcoveres ‘fnew sorts of phenomena and Yor ll fndameta innovations in seca theory. Alera flst palin has ben achieved a breakdown the sles of ‘he reestablished game the weal rele fo infant scent novation * Examine the case of discovers at. Many o them, ike Colom fw ‘oc ne elemento llanempy spot inthe periodic tbl, pet no problem ‘They werent “new sort of phenomens,” But dacoveresanepated trough 1 paradigm and aches by expert pusilesolves: That sort of daconry A natural product of what Rave been ealing normal sence. But otal dco hes are of tht sort Masy could pt have ben antiated by any extra tow om the ina: in ene they hast end "by acento the ther ha the asient soup which they emerged could ot ondnany have oe card oman js looking around. In the mature ences dover demands ‘mock special equipment, Both conceptual ad iatmenal, end that seca Equipment has ivarably been developed and deployed forthe pus of the Dzle of oral research. Dcovery rents when tha equipment Tilt fone on avi shoud, Furthermore, since some sore of leas temporary fle occurs during alot every reach projet, covery results ony when the are is parc stubbocm or siking tnd only when sasems to rae ver: ‘ons about aceped Beles and pocedus.Fstublahedparsdigme are tus ‘ten doubly prerequisite to dicovere, Without them the poet that goes Asay would not have Beewunderaken, And even when the project hss gone sta, a8 most do for a wil, the paradigm can help to determine wheter the faze x worth parsing Te eal ne proper respons oa fale io puzzle: tolving is to ble one's lent or one's tsa orm net to another prob Tem. I'he aot to waste in, the scent mst beable to dirmnae eset somal fom mere ure “That pater)iscovery though an somal that calle etablised ach gues and bef in doubts been pad agua and apn inthe cour of ‘Suni development. Newion discovered he composition of wht ight when he mas unable fo recone measred dispersion with tht redid By Soe realy discovered nw fraction. Teck atery was dncoverd whe ‘xing detectors of ati chage aed to Behave ae Franklin's paradigm ai they shal" The plot Neptune was hovered trough an efor to account forrecogizdsnorali incor of Uranus The semen horned he ‘compound carbon monoxide emerged dary atlepl to econ Lavesirs new chemistry wit aboatory obevaions” The socalled noble gases were the procs of a fong series of invstigatns inated by a smal bu eset ‘anomaly in the rested density of aspheric nitrogen." The letron was Pete wo expan some anomalous propeies of eetel conduction ough {aves an pin war pasted to aesounfor ote sot of anomalies been ‘tin atomic spc Both the peuton andthe neti provie other exa- les apd the lt ould he extended most nds Inthe matore sence TE bowere, toma i sinieant in preparing the way for new doves, ie play al lane rot he invention ef pew theo. Contrary t 8 prer= len, though by to meas universal, bee, ne eos ae ot ives ‘count for obsecations tht have aot pviouy been ordre by theory at Si. Rater, a almost al ints athe deslopmeat of any advaned sien all ‘he fats whose relevance is edited sea either to eiting theory well or tebe in the proceso conforming. Makingthem conform ble jrovide any ‘ofthe standard poblem of normal scence Adamo lays commited {ss suzed in solving them. But they do no always soo, ad, whe they Tai sepentely andi ieeaing numbers then their sector of the setiic community encounters what Ian secre ealing “cs Resogsizing thet Something is fundamentally wrong with th theory upon which their Wonk is ‘had, scents wil tempt move Fundamental atalons of theory thasthose which wee admin before, (Character a tines of et one “encounters numerotsdillees version ofthe paradigm ther.) Sanco they wil often begin mor nay saadom eperimentton within the seu of ‘ify hoping to dncovr some els tha wll suggest may tt the suse tion righ. Only under creumstanes like the, I sugges 8 funda novation in sini hory both invented and accepts “he sate of Poles: stonomy was, fr examps a recogizd cand ‘fore Coperics proposed s busis change in sronomial theory, ad the ‘eface in which Coperazua desrted fir reasons for innovation provses a {case decrion of the cis sate" Calo’ contrition t testy of ‘motion tok thet pia feature from recognizes difties wth medieval {heory, and Newton reece Gales mechanics with Copeniinin, Lavokier’s new chemistry na a product te anomacy created jy bythe ‘oliferstion of new gases and the fist systematic sues of weight relations." ‘The nave theory of ght nae developed amid soning concen about anomalies Inthe relation of aiacion and polaron ests to Newton's corpusult thoory* Thermodjaamiay which Isler came 19 ssn a wupersrotre for xing seiences, was estalihed only at the oe of rting the prviusty paraigmate caloric tear.“ Quantam mechanics was birt roms vary of ditculies surounding blak-bodysadatio, specie est, andthe photo kai effect. Again the ist coold be extended, bot the point should steady be ler New theres aie ffom work conducted under old ones, and they o so only when somehig is observed Io have gone wrong, The pede vd ecogid annals and tht recognition can someon Yo wou that ows very well Wha it weld mean fo Bae things bo sgh. Because limitations of space and time forse me t op a this point, my ‘ase for aogmatsm mst rman seborai I shall not hee even ate Seal with the inesrocte that sense development exhibits tal nes ‘Batter is another more psi qualifestion of myths an requires one losing comment. Though sucessful esearch demands a dp comet to the sats quo, innovation remains atthe hat ofthe enters. Soltis te Imined to operate a6 purdesliers thom etablsked ol, but they ate lo tpt regard temsthrests explores and eventos who Know no ules sce ‘ove diated by natre ie. The results a seguir tension, pry wiht ‘he odidal ad party within the commit, tesmeen profesional kls ‘on the one hand and profesional idelogy onthe oer Alot cern that fenson andthe ably fo sistant are important to seen’ rcs, In 0 fat Ihave deat etcusively with the dependence of research upon tation, my Alcostionisinevtabyonesided.On thi whol bj theresa grea deal nore tobesid "BUC Lo be onesie i 0¢ necesito Be wrong ai ems bea een ‘ia prtiminny toa more sneteting examination ofthe rouse for ete Fulah i. Almat no ane, peraps noone a all ecto Be tld that the vit of science depends upon the coninaation of osasonal tradi ‘ering innovations. Bot the apparently contrary dependence of reach upon {deep commitnentt esablihed tool an bef eee he very miu ‘of tenon. ure that ithe sven more. Until thats done, some ofthe most Stiking charters of acetic edueuion and development will remain nerdy dieu to understand Nones, 1 atic Serpe ps 922m 2 Tetanus es ute ee set doe ne eer ot we ed a Michag) mma no cmimonen thane cemncek a oer Siuhocy site Sr gc ho Haar Si Pgh Yh 1816, bx : : ‘att Sm Re eee oe Be ae (Ca, cont Cie, ening et ogy See the New Earn Seo nd rms Wark cay aa ap ee 5 Ror kenya eg ‘Seimei ten chs nse er sche Pee Fp Shs ue oa ear ec eta aca. tc fc eae eae hen enon pe ‘Rien Wan ait Sos cena a aa Stearate san pig see sa imo ee Spe tase pe eal ea ne iSite nooo cya Re Ce ve! Moa he Sta IT i Server i Sse eo crn Se Een dette ncn oes tate or Samar WN Pa ey arco as US) Eke fi Sgn er Ef eB flckrc iyanln a 0 N s , ‘ee foe ce tos re on Sere frase Oy ay |i amt tm Pr et i neigh i ‘Stati Teen nrc occ hepa Ar Pati{om don princely to Syne. 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