American Petroleum Institute Programs In Learning Operating Techniques Water Treatment and Disposal 1575WBProgram developed for API Production Department by: Howell Training Company 13831 Northwest Freeway, Suite 520 Houston, Texas 77040-5215 Author: John M. Wagner API Content Specialist: Earl S. Snavely, Ur Mobil Research and Development Corporation Field validation provided through the cooperation of: Amoco Production Company Arco Oil and Gas Company Cities Service Company Exon Company U.S.A. Marathon Oil Company ‘Mobil Producing Texas New Mexico, Inc. Phillips Petroleum Company ‘Shell Oil Company ‘Sun Production Company Texaco Inc. ‘Special Acknowledgement Preparation guidance and review of the manual was accomplished by the API Committee on Programed Learning under the auspices of the API Executive Committee on Training and Development, F. E. Ellis, Conoco Inc., Chairman. Members of the Programed Learning Committee were: Howard Swaim, Conoco inc., Chairman, Jack R. Blan, Exxon Production Research Co., Tim Fitzsimmons, Sun Production Co., Oliver Haywood, Cities Service Co., L. R. Kennedy, Shell Oil Co., Hugh F. Liming, Sohio Petroleum Co., Ronald T. Platé, Texaco Inc., Byron Rance, Superior Oil Co., Guy Smith, Arco Oil and Gas Co., W. L. Tofte, Mobil Producing Texas New Mexico, Inc., Norris H. Trostel, Amoco Production Co. This text has been validated on behalf of the Production Department, American Petroleum Institute by the Committee on Programed Learning under the direction of the Executive Committee on Training and Development. LD Prorr © Howell Training Company 1982 Reprinted May 1995, ‘Duplication or modification of this copyrighted material, or any part thereof, is ‘2 vilation of Federal Law. Violation of this copyright law may resut in severe ‘ivi penatties and criminal conviction. The Federal Bureau of Investigation investigates all allegations of criminal copyright infringement.WATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSALce water is common in oil and gas reser most wells will produce it at some point in their workife. When this occurs, itis necessary to dispose of the water in some way. Oilfield water, however, usually contains salt and other impurities that are harmful to fresh water reserves. And, these same impurities may cause corrosion or plugging in oilfield equipment. To counteract these destructive tendencies, oilfield water is given special treatment before its disposal. This program will introduce you to some of the treatment methods and disposal techniques that are used on the lease.INSTRUCTIONS This is a programed learning course. Programed learning gives information in a series of steps called frames. Each frame gives some information and asks you to make use of it. Here is how it works. First, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Read this frame and use the information it gives to fill in the blank. A micrometer is an instrument designed to measure in ‘thousandth of an inch. A micrometer is a good tool for measuring very. differences in size. ‘Move the mask down to uncover the word at the right of the frame. If you have filled the blank with that word or a word ‘that means the same, you are ready to go ahead to the next frame. ‘The drawing of a micrometer provides information that will help you fill in the next blanks. OBJECT TO BE MEASURED ANVIL, ‘THIMBLE a fate «= arom FRAME Seven major parts are shown in the drawing, but only and the contact the object to be measured. anvil; spindleThe next frame calls for a choice. Circle or underline the ap- propriate word. Of the two parts that contact the object, only the (anvil/ spindle) moves. ‘A program is a series of frames that work like the ones you have just done: Read the frame. Use the information to fill in the blanks or make a choice. ‘Move the mask down and check the response column. Go on to the next frame. Remember to cover the response column with a mask before you begin each page. ‘Notice that the left-hand pages from here on are printed upside down. ‘The program is designed so that you will go through all the right-hand pages first, and then turn the book upside down and go through the other pages.WATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL Introduction WHAT IS A FLUID? 1. A fluid is a substance that can flow from one place to another. When this jar of water is tumed over, the water can ‘out of the jar. The water is a (solid / fluid). flow; fluid 2. Water is a liquid and a fluid. Gases are also fluids. If a tire springs a leak, the air inside the tire ( will flow / will not flow ) out of the tire. will flowOIL AND GAS RESERVOIRS 3. Here is a cross section of a typical oil and gas reservoir. CROSS SECTION In addition to gas and oil, the reservoir contains water 4. The water is at the bottom of the reservoir because it is (lighter / heavier ) than oil or gas. heavier 5. These beakers each contain the same volume of fluid. ‘A unit volume of water weighs than the ‘more ‘same unit volume of oil or gas.6. Density is the weight per unit volume of a substance. ‘Since a unit of water weighs more than the same unit of oil or ‘928, water is (less / more ) dense than oil or gas. more 7. In the previous diagram, water moves oil and gas ( downward! upward ), because oil and gas are less 8. Typically oil, gas, and water accumulate in rock formations ‘that have holes or pores. SANDSTONE: In this example oil, gas, and water have accumulated in a _——________ formation. sandstone 9. The potential that a rock has for storing or collecting fluids is called porosity. lil and gas reservoirs are frequently located in sandstone for- ‘mations. Sandstone usually has (low / high ) porosity. high 10. The ease with which fluids move through the pores in a rock formation is called permeability. AA rock formation that allows fluids to pass easily through its ores has ( high / low) permeability. high11. High porosity does not necessarily mean good permeability and vice versa. For example, shale is a rock made up of tiny clay particles packed closely together. The pores between the Particles are not interconnected, so oil and gas cannot flow through them. ‘Shale may have many pores, or high porosity, but it is not veg anes a, permeable 12. The fractures in this rock allow fluid to pass through it, so it hhas good permeability. DOLOMITE But not much fluid can be stored in this rock, so it does not five high seeeeeease porosity 13. Porosity refers to the potential for (storage / movement) of storage fluids. 14, Permeability refers to the potential for ( storage / movement) movement of fluids. 15. Oil and gas may move (or migrate) through permeable rocks for several miles. ‘This migration is the result of (equal / different ) densities different between oil, gas, and water.16. 17. 18. 19, 21. Because water is more dense than oil or gas, it moves (or dis- places) these fluids upward Water will move oil and gas upward as long as a rock formation remains ( porous / permeable ). permeable Rocks that do not allow the movement of fluids are called impervious rocks. il and gas ( can / cannot ) migrate through impervious rocks. ‘cannot Fluids accumulate in traps formed by impervious rocks. LIMESTONE GAS OIL WATER SHALE (MPERVIOUS ROCK) The amount of fluids stored in the trap is determined by the (porosity / permeability ) of the reservoir rock. porosity Water is almost always found with oll and gas in a trap. This is because most reservoirs were laid down in a marine environment. Over the years, oil and gas have been moved ‘upward into the trap by water ‘The fluids in most reservoirs are under pressure. ‘The force of this pressure causes reservoir fluids to move toward areas of (lower / higher ) pressure. lower22. When a well is drilled into a reservoir, completed, and put on production, the well itself becomes an area of lower pressure. GAS OIL WATER “The fluids wil tend to flow (toward / away from ) the well toward 23, If all three reservoir fluids are present, the well will produce oll, gas, and, sooner or later, may produce some water OILFIELD WATER 24. Here is a freshly collected sample of oilfield water. oll, DISSOLVED GASES HYDROGEN SULFIDE CARBON DIOXIDE ‘SUSPENDED SOLIDS ‘SAND ORGANIC MATTER DISSOLVED SOLIDS SODIUM CHLORIDE In addition to oil droplets, this sample contains gases, and also and dissolved; suspended ‘solids. dissolved31 ‘The substances or impurities in oilfield water reflect the formation through which the water has moved. Water from a reservoir with large calcium deposits probably (will / will not) contain dissolved calcium. When oilfield water contains salt itis called brine. Most oi- field water is too salty for human consumption. If oilfield brine is allowed to contact a fresh water reserve, it will________the fresh water. Due to its impurity, oilfield water must be disposed of care- fully. If oilfield brine is released into a river, it (might / will not) harm the environment. ‘The process of removing substances or impurities from water is called water treatment. ‘The treatment the oilfield water requires is determined by the kind and amount of _______in the water. If all the impurities were removed from oilfield water, the water (could / could not ) be released into a river. Sait can be removed from water by desalination, but this is an extremely expensive process. A major goal in water treatment and disposal is to get rid of excess water as inexpensively as possible. Due to its high cost, desalination will (often / seldom ) be Used to remove salt from oilfield water. It is less expensive to dispose of oilfield water without removing the salt. But is requires extreme caution so the water does not the environment. Impurities in oiffield water can also plug or damage oilfield ‘equipment. ‘These substances should be removed or neutralized during water ‘The solids and gases dissolved in oilfield water can start a corrosion reaction to metals. It the water is not treated, pipes, tanks, and well tubing may will pollute, or ruin, or ‘contaminate might ‘substances, or impurities could seldom harm, or pollute treatment corrode,37. a. These same substances can form solid deposits, or scale, that will plug up pipes and well tubing. Water treatment (can help / will not help ) prevent scale formation. Solid materials dispersed in water, such as sand and loose corrosion or scale products, are called suspended solids. Since suspended solids in water can plug up expensive equipment, they should be _________in the water treatment process. Oil droplets are another type of suspended material il should be removed from water (during / after) water ‘treatment. Water disposal refers to how water is discarded after treat- ment. ‘Because treated water may still contain impurities, it (can / ‘cannot ) be carelessly released into the environment. On rare occasions oitfield water is stored in large open pits and allowed to evaporate. But, a large amount of water evaporates ( slowly / overnight). ‘And rain increases the amount of evaporation required. Evaporation pits (are / are not) a good method for dis- Posing of oilfield brine. Oilfield water is sometimes treated and released into the ‘ccean, where the water is already salty. This can be an inexpensive method of disposal, provided the water does not require a great deal of treatment, and the oil field is located in or_____ the ocean. ‘Treated water is occasionally sold to companies that can use it for water flooding, or in process operations. This method of disposal helps offset the incurred in treating water. ‘Sometimes treated water is used to feed steam generators on the lease. It fresh water is expensive or is conserved, using less fresh water and more treated water saves by allowing continued operation when fresh water supplies are curtailed. can help removed, or eliminated during slowly are not ear, of around costs, or expenses money43, The most common method for discarding oilfield brine is pumping the water into underground formations. Wells used to pump water underground are called either disposal or injection welts. ‘When water is being pumped underground for disposal pur- poses only, the well is called ( a disposal / an injection ) well. a disposal 44, When water is being pumped underground to help maintain natural pressure in a producing reservoir, the well is called (a disposal / an injection ) well. an injection 45, Water that is returned to the same formation or to a similar formation will not_____ the environment. harm, or pollute46. Oilfield water may corrode or plug water treatment and disposal equipment. Suspended solids in this water can also reduce the porosity and permeability of rocks in the receiving formation. So, oilfield water should be Pumped into a disposal or injection well before it is treated Separation of Fluids REMOVING WATER FROM OIL 47. Here is a sample of fluids that have settled after being pro- duced from an oil well. nT In adaltion to some oil, the sample contains gas (easton water 48. The refiners who eventually buy crude oil will only purchase clean oi So, in the first stages of fluid separation, water and gas must be. from oil. removed, or separated 49. Look at the preceding drawing again. The fluids in this ‘sample are said to be layered. As in the reservoir, the fluids are layered because oil, gas, ‘and water have ( equal / different ) densities. different 1050. The first piece of separating equipment that the fluids usually pass through is the oil and gas separator. FLUID IN INLET BAFFLES ‘OIL OUT WATER TO WATER ‘TREATMENT FACILITIES OIL AND GAS SEPARATOR Fluid entering the separator is forced to flow around the inlet bates 51. As fluid strikes the baffles, the liquid is broken up into sheets and droplets, which (frees / traps ) gas in the liquid. frees 52. Then the gas (falls / rises)to the ________ of the rises; top ‘separator. 53. The oil and water fall to the bottom of the separator because Of the force of ( gravity / buoyancy ) gravity 54. The water is diverted to the water facilites. treatment 55. The oil that leaves the separator stil contains some gas and water. ‘When the oil leaves the separator it (can be sold / requires further treatment ) requires further treatment "56. Oil and water normally do not mix. Because of this, they are called immiscible liquids. Which one of these is an immisci- ble liquid? cou fo A B B 57. Here is another sample of fluids from a well. {In addition to gas, oil, and water, this sample contains a(n) eee emulsion 1288. An emulsion occurs when one immiscible dispersed throughout another. liquid is finely OlL ‘WATER DROPLETS In this emulsion, ________ is finely dispersed throughout 59. Because water droplets are heavier than oil, you would expect them to (remain dispersed in / separate from ) the oil 60. But in an emulsion they don't. The water droplets are so ‘small they stay suspended in the oil for an extended period of time. In order to speed up the separation process, the water must form ( smaller / larger ) droplets. 61. When droplets collide with each other and form larger droplets, they are said to coalesce. ‘So, when water coalesces, the water droplets are (less / more) likely to settle faster. 62. Fluids in the reservoir are usually in layers. But when they pass through pumps, valves, and other production equipment, the fluids are agitated. This agitation may be su droplets in the oil and form an ent to disperse small water 63. Aheater-treater can be used to break up emulsions. Fluids may have to pass through a heater-treater if small water droplets dispersed in the oil (do / do not ) coalesce. Now refer to Exhibit 1. 64. Exhibit 1 is a diagram of a vertical heater-treater. It uses heat and baffles to help break up emulsions. Incoming fluids first enter the (gas separation / oil setting ) section of the heater-treater. 65. As the fluids splash into this section, most of the gas ‘separates from the liquid and is removed from the (top / bottom ) of the vessel. 18 water oll separate from more ‘emulsion gas separation67. 6. 7. 72. 73, 74, 76. ‘The rest of the well fluids flow to the bottom of the treater and enter the knock-out section. In the free water knock-out section, water that is not part of the emulsion is ‘The remaining fluid is composed primarily of clean oil and (gas / emulsion ). Since oil and emulsion are lighter than water, they flow upward into the and. water ‘section. In the heating and water wash section the fluids are heated bya When an emulsion is heated, the heat causes the water droplets to move faster. Because the heated droplets collide more often, they are (more / less ) likely to coalesce and settle out of the emulsion. Alter the fluids are heated, they enter the section. Baffles in the treater cause the liquid to follow a back-and- forth path (up through / down through ) the treater. This causes the remaining water droplets to and settle from the oil. Heat and batfies help the water coalesce and separate more rapidly. By the time the oil reaches the it should be relatively free of water. Chemicals are often added to well fluids to aid in the sepa- ration of water from oil. When chemicals are used, less heat is needed to separate the water-oil mixture. Because of the high cost of energy, emulsions can be sepa- rated more economically by using a combination of heat and 14 free water removed ‘emulsion heating wash firetube more oll settling up through coalesce oil outlet chemicalsREMOVING OIL FROM WATER. 77. Water that is diverted to the treatment plant often contains ‘small amounts of oil that can plug up expensive fiters. So, in the second stage of fluid separation, this oil is ‘from water. removed, or separated This is a skim tank. FLOAT-OPERATED VALVE oe WATER CONTAMINATED _)| WATER INLET ‘SKIM TANK When water enters the tank, oil floats to the surface because itis_____ than water. lighter ‘The flow of oil out of the tank is controlled automatically by a float-operated —__. il can easily be removed from water in a skim tank, but a skim tank is only effective ifthe oil (moves treely / does not move freely )1o the surface of the water. moves freely 1581. If some of the oil remains suspended in water, a loose media coalescer can be used to promote separation of fluids. A coalescer is a device that causes oil droplets to merge, form- ing larger droplets. WATER OIL LAYER Water entering the coalescer follows a path that takes it through the media 82. The media -which is usually crushed stone, charcoal, or pieces of plastic - causes small droplets of oil to collide with each other. When the oll droplets collide, they (coalesce / do not coalesce) and ( form larger droplets / form smaller droplets / coalesce stay the same size ). form larger droplets 1683. As the oil droplets coalesce, they are (less / more) likely to remain dispersed in the water. 84. And they (rise to the surface / fall to the bottom ) of the coalescer where they can be removed. 85. Small amounts of suspended oil can also be removed from water by a flotation cell. AIR OR GAS INLET OIL DROPLETS: WATER OUT FLOTATION CELL In this flotation cell, air or gas is dispersed into the water and forms small 86. These bubbles adhere to the suspended in the water. 87. When the bubbles rise to the surface, the suspended oil droplets ( remain in solution / also rise to the surface ). 88, There, the oil droplets are removed by —____ hat rotate on the surface of the water. 7 rise to the surface bubbles oll Groplets also rise to the surface skimmer paddlesScale Deposits FORMATION OF SCALE 89. Cilfield water often dissolves substances such as sulfur, cal- cium and magnesium while in the reservoir. Water from this reservoir could contain these dissolved (minerals / gases ). 90. These minerals in water can combine to form various kinds of salts. Salts containing calcium, magnesium, and sulfur (may / will not) be formed in the reservoir diagramed in the previous drawing, 91. The salts formed by these minerals usually stay dissolved in water. When a substance dissolves in water we say that itis soluble. So, the salts that are dissolved in oilfield water are called ——_____- sats. minerals may soluble93, 97. But, water's ability to dissolve salts is limited. ‘And once this limit is reached, the formation of new salts causes the water to become (undersaturated / supersaturated ) with salts. Water is said to be out of balance or equilibrium when it is supersaturated with salts. In order to retum to equilibrium, the water must (form new salts / lose some salts ). ‘The salt content of water is reduced when salts precipitate, or come out of solution, in the form of solid products called scale. “The formation of scale deposits causes the water to become (less / more ) saturated with dissolved salts. ‘And, the water moves (closer to / away from) state of equilibrium If enough salts are removed from solution as scale, the water will return to equilibrium. When the water returns to equilibrium, it (continues / stops ) producing scale deposits. Scale deposits are often formed when waters cont different types of minerals are mixed. ing Waters that form scale when mixed are called (compatible / incompatible ) waters. ‘Awater that contains barium is incompatible with a water con- taining sutfate. If these waters are mixed together, scale (will / will not) be deposited. Barium sulfate scale is caused by (mixing incompatible waters / supersaturation ). 19 supersaturated lose some salts closer to will mixing incompatible waters100. Waters that are incompatible because of the different types of minerals they contain ( should not be mixed / can be mixed ). 101. Once scale deposits are formed, they normally will not dis- solve back into solution. So, the salts responsible for scale deposits are called (soluble / insoluble ) salts. 102. Look at this flow line. SCALE BUILD UP If water containing insoluble salts is not treated, scale may eventually the pipe. FACTORS AFFECTING EQUILIBRIUM 103. With the exception of calcium biocarbonate, water's ability to hold most salts in solution decreases when its temperature ‘alls. Generally, if the temperature of water is increased, it will be able to hold ( fewer / more ) salts in solution. 104, The temperature of reservoir fluids decreases as they reach the surface. As a result, water's ability to hold most salts in solution (decreases / increases ) at surface temperatures. 20 should not be mixed insoluble plug, oF clog more106. 108. 107. 108. 109. 110. 11, 112, 113, 114, If the temperature of the water is decreased to a point where the water becomes supersaturated with salts, the sats will ‘come out of solution in the form of scale. “The water attempts to return to equilibrium by turning previously dissolved salts into This scale (reduces / increases) the amount of salts in the water. And the scale wil continue to be produced unt! the water reaches a new state of ‘The temperature of water (can / does not) affect the water's state of equilibrium. Water in underground reservoirs is frequently in contact with ‘a gas phase containing carbon dioxide. Because of this contact the water will (often / never ) absorb ‘some of this gas. Water's ability to hold some salts in solution is affected by the ‘amount of carbon dioxide that is dissolved in water. A water with a high concentration of carbon dioxide can hold more salts in solution than a water with a low concentration. If the amount of carbon dioxide in water is decreased, the water will be able to hold ( more / fewer ) saits in solution. Pressure affects the amount of dissolved gases that can be absorbed by water. Water under high pressure can absorb ‘more carbon dioxide than water under low pressure. ‘The pressure on reservoir fluids decreases as they move toward the surface, so the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved in water (may decrease / should increase ) when the water reaches the surface. If the amount of carbon dioxide is reduced to a point where the water can no longer hold saits in solution, the salts will precipitate out inthe form of When a new state of equilibrium is reached, the precipitation of scale will ‘The presence of dissolved gases (can / does not) affect the water's state of equilibrium. 21 scale reduces ‘equitibrium can often may decrease‘TREATMENT OF SCALE 115. To understand how water is treated for scale, we need to know some basic chemistry. All substances on earth are made up of atoms. The arrange- ment or structure of these atoms determines what a substance is chemically. ‘Substances that are chemically different from one another will have (the same / a diferent ) arrangement of atoms. 116. Minerals dissolved in water are made up of atoms or groups of atoms that carry an electrical charge. ‘SULFATE: (A FORM OF SULFUR) (ENLARGED) ‘These electrically charged atoms are called 117. Electrically charged atoms, or ions that carry opposite ‘charges, are attracted to one another. In the previous diagram, calcium and sulfate ( will be / will not be) attracted to each other. 22 a different jons will beEXHIBIT BOOKLET WATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL ‘This center section contains the exhibits. It may be pulled out of the book for easy reference without upsetting the trame sequence. © 1982, Howell Training Company118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 128. If calcium and sulfate ions combine or bond, they form a salt called calcium sulfate. CALCIUM SULFATE (ENLARGED) ‘This salt is chemically different from either calcium or sulfate alone because it has a arrangement of ions. Whenever ions bond or unbond, we say they chemically react. Calcium sulfate is created when calcium ions and sulfate ions chemically and form a bond. If this chemical reaction was allowed to go unchecked in water, the water could eventually become ( under- / super-) saturated with calcium sulfate and form scale. Water is treated for scale by substituting harmless chemical reactions for the reactions that lead to the formation of scale. ‘This is done by forcing ions to form (insoluble salts / nonscaling products). (One way to treat water for scale is to reduce the dissolved ‘mineral content in water. Water that has a high concentration of scale-producing dissolved minerals is said to be “hard.” Ht we reduce the mineral concentration in water, the water becomes (softer / harder). Soft water contains (fewer / more ) scale-producing ions than hard water. different super: nonscaling products softerEXHIBIT 1 VERTICAL HEATER-TREATER OIL OUTLET DOWNCOMER WATER LEG | BAFFLES i Ol LEG (HEAT EXCHANGER) —_+— +l) GAS OUT FIRETUBE } FLUID IN on, ouT ol ‘SETTLING ‘SECTION HEATING ‘AND. WATER WASH SECTION FREE WATER KNOCK-OUT ‘SECTIONEXHIBIT 2 CLOSED WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM Tam NOLLOSPNI OL DINVL FOVHOLS yavM SUSI INV Wis susqa34 aWOIWSHOEXHIBIT 3 OPEN WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM INV SUaLTS ualuisvoaa BOVHOIS U3LVM aM NOLLOAPNI OL Nisva Nisva NOLWLNAWIGS: NowwwinovoO. YOLOVLNOO INV, sv sua0334 sWOIWSHO124, 125. 126. 127. 128. 129. 120. 131. Water can be softened by adding chemicals like lime and soda ash to it. These chemicals force dissolved minerals to form solid products, or compounds. If these solid products are fitered or settled out of water, sscale-producing ions will (also be removed / be free to form salts ). The solid or insoluble products formed during water softening ‘must be removed from water or they may plug up pipes. Sill it is (easier / harder )o remove solids that are formed intentionally than it is to remove scale deposits from the inside of pipes. ‘Scale formed from iron compounds is a troublesome deposit in many oilfield water systems. This scale can be prevented by removing dissolved ions from water. ‘Although exposing the water to oxygen may cause severe corrosion problems, one way to remove dissolved iron from ‘water is through a chemical reaction involving oxygen. Oxy- {gen reacts with iron to form a solid product called iron oxide. Iron oxide is insoluble in water, so iron ions held in this ‘product (can / cannot ) return to solution. Iron scale can be reduced by (decreasing / increasing) the amount of dissolved oxygen in water. This is done by gas exchange. In the gas exchange process, water is intentionally exposed to air so that it will absorb oxygen. ‘The dissolved oxygen chemically solved iron ions to form a ( solid / soluble ) product. with dis- ‘The scale-producing ions are bound in this solid product. ‘So, when the solid is fitered or settled out of water, the scale-producing ions are effectively. Scale deposits can also be prevented by adding special chemicals to the water called scale inhibitors. These chemicals are called inhibitors because they the formation of scale deposits. 24 also be removed easier cannot increasing removed, or eliminated inhibit, or stop192, 133, 134, 135, 136, There are two different types of scale inhibitors commonly added to oilfield waters. One group of inhibitors, called sequestering agents, reacts with scale-producing ions to form soluble products. When scale-producing ions are bonded in a soluble product, they (are free to / cannot ) form scale deposits. ‘Sequestering agents ( remove scale-producing ions from solu- tion / force scale-producing ions to form soluble products ). The second type of inhibitor is called a threshold-type inhibitor. These inhibitors are absorbed by microscopic scale crystals during the early stages of scale development. Absorption of the inhibitor prevents further growth of the crystal When scale-producing ions are held in tiny crystals that can- not grow, large scale deposits ( will / will not) be laid down. ‘Thresholdtype inhibitors (force scale-producing ions to form soluble products / hold scale-producing ions in tiny crystals ). Here is an ion exchange unit. SCALE PRODUCING IONS: =a TET ey ZEOLITE: (I (HARMLESS IONS) HARMLESS IONS. ION EXCHANGE UNIT The inside of this unit is filed with a finely divided substance called ion exchange resin, or 25 cannot force scale-producing ions to form soluble products will not hold scale-producing ions in tiny crystals zeolite197. 138, 139. 140. 141. 142, 143. 144. Zeolite can be any one of several organic or synthetic sub- stances that contain only ( harmless / scale-producing ) ions. ‘As water passes through the zeolite its ions (are / are not) ‘exchanged with ions in the zeolite. So, when water leaves the unit, it only contains (harmless / scale-producing ) ions. ‘Scale can be prevented by substituting harmless ions for scale-producing ones in an unit. ‘Sometimes, scale deposits form despite treatment. They must be removed, or flow through pipes and other equipment will be eeeceeaeeece ‘Special chemical mixtures are sometimes added to the water treatment system to react with scale deposits and make them soluble. When these mixtures are flushed from the system, the scale will also be. Mechanical devices such as brushes and scrapers can be run ‘through pipes. These will loosen and remove ‘The most economical method of dealing with scale generally isto. the deposit before it is formed. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 145. 146. 147. In order to determine the concentration of substances in water, we need a standardized unit of measurement. Parts per milion, abbreviated ppm, and miligrams per liter, abbreviated mg/l, are units of ____. ‘One ppm means one part of something in a million parts of water. So 5 ppm of scale inhibitor means there are parts of inhibitor in a pats of water. We can figure ppm on either a weight or a volume basis. ‘On a weight‘n-pounds basis, 5 ppm of inhibitor would mean 5 pounds of inhibitor in a mition of water. 26 harmiess are harmless ion exchange restricted, or decreased, or ‘stopped removed, or flushed deposits prevent, or stop measurement Pounds148, 149. 150. 151 (Or, on a volume-in-gallons basis, 5 ppm of inhibitor would mean that in a million gallons of water there are 5 of inhibitor. No matter what base is used, ppm always means _—_________ part of something in a Parts of some other substance. Concentrations are often expressed as miligrams per Iter or mall. Mail means a miligram of something in a of water. Alter of water weighs approximately 1 milion milligrams. ‘So by weight in water, milligrams per liter are ( approximately the same as / vastly different from ) parts per million. SUMMARY 182. Scale deposits are formed when water becomes supersatu- 153, 154, 155, rated with __________, or when incompatible waters are In the water softening and gas exchange processes, scale- Producing ions are forced into solid or insoluble products that can be_______ from the water. Inhibitors force scale-producing ions to form (soluble / insoluble ) compounds or ( small /large ) scale crystals. in an ion exchange unit, scale-producing ions are _—___________ for harmless ones as the water passes through zeolite. Corrosion HOW CORROSION IS FORMED 156. Corrosion is the destructive attack of a metal caused by a reaction between the metal and its environment. Whenever metal comes into contact with oilfield water we (can expect / do not expect ) corrosion to be a potential Problem. 27 gallons ‘one; million approximately the same as salts, or solids mixed removed, or settled, or filtered soluble; small ‘exchanged, or substituted157. 158. 159. 160. 161. 162. Metals must be protected against corrosion or eventually they will corrode and be full of : Pipes, tanks, and well tubing are usually not uniform in construction because their manufacture is not perfectly controlled. The surface of a pipe, for example, is not a blending of metals. ‘Some areas along the surface of a pipe will have a slightly different composition than other areas of the pipe. This will cause some areas of pipe to be corrosion resistant than others. ‘The metal of a pipe is composed of atoms. Atoms are made up of negatively charged particles called electrons, posi tively charged particles called protons, and neutrons which carry no charge. If an atom contains a different number of electrons and protons, it carries a net electrical charge and is known as anion. When a pipe corrodes, positively charged atoms of metal leave the solid surface and enter into solution as ions. This occurs on the areas of the pipe that have the lowest corro- sion resistance. IONS FROM WATER SOLUTION FREE ELECTRONS ‘The metal ions go into solution with ( water / another part of the pipe ). The electrons that were part ofthe metal atoms are now (part of the water / free to move somewhere else ). ‘The free electrons are attracted to areas on the pipe that have the highest resistance to corrosion. ‘The electrons flow through the pipe until they reach a high resistance area. Then the electrons combine with (other electrons / ions ) present in the water. 28 perfect, or complete, or smooth water free to move somewhere else163, 164, 165. 166. 167. ‘When metal ions go into solution, and free electrons travel to fan area on the metal where corrosion resistance is high, 2 galvanic cell is formed. {In a galvanic cell, a metal structure must be surrounded by a wet or moist material, called the Corrosion starts when the electrolyte contacts the ‘The part of the galvanic cell where corrosion resistance is lowest is called the anode. CATHODE ‘The anode is where corrosion ( occurs / does not take place ). ‘The part of the galvanic cell where corrosion resistance is highest is called the cathode. The cathode is where corrosion ( takes place / does not take place). ‘When 2 pipe corrodes, the corrosion damage will be visible at the electrolyte Pipe, oF metal occurs does not take place168, Corrosion damage will not be seen at the. In this example of corrosion, the serves as the electroivte. 170. Because the metal surface of a pipe is not perfect, we can expect several ________ cells to form along the length ofthe pipe. 171. And if the corrosion problem is not treated, the pipe will eventually have to be ‘TREATMENT 172. Suppose a pipe is connected to a metal bar that has a lower ‘corrosion resistance than any part ofthe pipe. The pipe, the water, and the metal bar form a galvanic cell. But in this galvanic cell, the (pipe / metal bar) is the anode. 173. Which will corrode? (Check the correct answer.) Pipe Metal bar 174, The pipe is now the ( anode / cathode ) in a galvanic cell. 175. The pipe is cathodically protected. Making the pipe a cathode in a galvanic cell the pipe against corrosion. 176. Because the metal bar corrodes instead of the pipe, the (metal bar / pipe ) is called a sacrificial anode. 30 cathode water galvanic replaced, or repaired metal bar Metal bar cathode protects metal bar17. 178. 178. 180. 181. 182. ‘As you recall, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode area of a metal during the corrosion process. This flow of electrons is the same as____ current flowing through the metal. ‘When a pipe is protected by a sacrificial anode, the flow of current is from the (metal bar / pipe )to the (metal bar / pipe ). The pipe is actually protected by the —__ generated by the corroding sacrificial anode. ‘Sometimes an external source of power is used to supply a ‘metal with protective current. This external source of power allows the designer of a cathodic protection system to the amount Here is a storage tank protected with this type of system. RECTIFIER (0c POWER SOURCE) ‘One or more __ are attached to one terminal of the power source, and the is attached to the other terminal. This kind of cathodic protection system is called an impressed current system. ‘The impressed current is provided by a 34 electric metal bar pipe electric current, control, or regulate, or adjust anodes storage tank183, 184, 185. 186, 187. 188. 189. 190. 191. 192. Water that is free of impurities is not corrosive to metals. Oilfield water usually (contains / does not contain) many impurities, and therefore it (is / is not very corrosive. ‘The impurities in water increase the potential for transfer of ions and electrons between the anode and cathode areas on a metal. By increasing this transfer, water impurities (decrease / increase ) the severity of a corrosion reaction. ‘The major corrosion-producing substances or impurities in oilfield water are dissolved gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, and some kinds of dissolved salts like ferric chloride. ‘These substances _ the transfer of ions and ‘electrons between the anode and cathode. So, if we reduce the level of dissolved salts and gases in water, the transfer of ions and electrons between the anode and cathode will (also be reduced / increase ). ‘And, the severity of a corrosion reaction will be (decreased / increased ). Dissolved gases can be absorbed or released by water through the process of gas exchange. To reduce corrosion we want the water to (release / absorb ) ‘oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. ‘The process of gas exchange is dependent upon the state of equilibrium between water, its dissolved gases, and the atmosphere the water contacts. For example, if water containing a high concentration of car- bon dioxide is exposed to air that contains a low level of this gas, the water will release carbon dioxide to the air in an ‘attempt to reach When the water and air reach a state of equilibrium, the ‘exchange will (continue / stop ). lt water contains considerably more carbon dioxide and hydro- gen sulfide than is present in the atmosphere, the level of these gases can be reduced by exposing the water to Because our atmosphere is rich in oxygen, exposing water to air usually results in the water ( absorbing / releasing ) oxygen. 32 contains increase also be reduced decreased release equilibrium stop air ‘absorbing193. In order for oxygen to be removed from water by the gas ‘exchange process, the water must be exposed to an atmos- phere that is virtually __________ free, oxygen 194. A trayed column is often used to reduce the oxygen level in water. NATURAL GAS & OXYGEN OUT ‘TRAYED COLUMN The column is closed so air cannot enter the system Because there is no contact with the atmosphere, ‘can be kept out of the gas exchange unit. oxygen 195. Inside this column, water comes in contact with natural gas 196. Natural gas normally does not contain oxygen. It is an oxygen-starved gas. So, when the water containing oxygen contacts the natural gas, the water (releases / does not release ) oxygen to the releases gas.197. 198, 199. 201. 202. ‘And the natural gas that has absorbed oxygen is continually replaced with new natural gas to insure that the water and natural gas do not reach a state of _____. If equilibrium is reached in the oxygen content of the water ‘and natural gas, the exchange will (stop / continue ). Gas absorption and release occur simultaneously during gas ‘exchange. Water absorbs substances from natural gas at the same time that it releases oxygen. In the gas exchange process, (all / only certain) gases are removed from water. ‘A process that removes nearly all gases from water is called gas stripping, or degasification. In degasification, water is exposed to an atmosphere that is virtually free of all 7 ‘A degasiier utlizes the same equilibrium driving force as a trayed column; but in a degasifier, water is either exposed to ‘an atmosphere of steam or placed under a vacuum. Steam, which is water vapor, is chemically (the same as / different from ) water. When water enters a steamtype degasifer, it releases most af te gases In an attempt to reach equllium with the gas-free ‘The gases that the water releases are continually vented out of the system. So, there (are several / are no) gases left in the atmosphere that the water can absorb. ‘A vacuumtype degasifier works on the principle that gases are less soluble in water at reduced pressures. So, water placed under a vacuum is able to hold (fewer / more) dissolved gases than water under normal atmospheric pressure. Ina high vacuum, pressure is very low, and water cannot hold any dissolved gases. ‘A vacuum degasifier reduces pressure to a very low level, 50 (some / the vast majority of) dissolved gases in water are released. ‘The gases that the water releases into the atmosphere must be to maintain the pressure difference. 34 equilibrium stop only certain gases the same as steam are no fewer the vast majority of removed, or vented208. 210. ant. 212. 213, 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. Oxygen is often removed from water with chemicals like sodium sulfite and hydrazine. We call these chemicals oxygen ( producers / scavengers). When sodium sulfite is added to water, it combines with ‘oxygen to form a new product called sodium sulfate. ‘The oxygen that joins with sodium sulfite to form sodium sulfate is (bound to this new product / free to move elsewhere). So, the amount of oxygen in water that can participate in a ‘corrosion reaction is, i Hydrazine reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen and water. ‘The products of this reaction ( reduce / increase ) the amount of oxygen that is available for a corrosion reaction. Corrosive oxygen can be removed from water by adding chemicals that ___________ with it to form other products. ‘Two common oxygen scavengers are sulfite and Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that form a protective film on metais when they are added to water. This film does not allow ions and electrons to (move freely from / stay in place at ) different areas of the metal. ‘When the ions and electrons cannot move freely, corrosion is reduced or Inhibitors prevent corrosion by (removing ions from solution / restricting the movement of ions and electrons ). Frequently pipes, tanks, and well tubing are lined with spe- cial plastic or cement coatings. ‘These linings or coatings also prevent the transfer of ions and electrons between the (anode / magnetic ) and (cathode / nonmagnetic) areas of a metal. This type of corrosion prevention is called a protective coating, or lining, because these materiats metal from the source of corrosion. Suspended solids can settle in pipes when flow rates are too low. These deposits may cause some areas of the pipe to have a higher corrosion resistance than other areas. Tr leads to the formation of ‘areas on the metal. and 35 ‘scavengers bound to this new product lowered, or reduced reduce react, or combine sodium hydrazine move freely from stopped, or eliminated, or prevented restricting the movement of ions and electrons anode cathode protect, or shield, or separate anode cathode219. 220. 221, If pipes are not kept clean, these deposits may eventually ‘cause the metal to ‘i Generally, flow rates of at least 3 feet per second are recommended for most pipe diameters. Large pipes may require higher flow rates. Flow rates less than 3 feet per second (may / will not allow solids to settle in a pipe. Suspended solids will usually not settle when flow rates are maintained at or above___feet per second. THE EFFECT OF pH 222. ‘The concentration of hydrogen ions in water determines whether a water is acidic or basic. Acidic waters contain a high concentration of hydrogen ions. Waters that are basic contain a ________ concen- tration of hydrogen ions. Acidic waters are usually more corrosive than basic waters. ‘A water that contains a high concentration of hydrogen ions is probably ( corrosive / noncorrosive ). ‘A convenient way to express the acidity of a water is by pH units. ACIDIC NEUTRAL BASIC 23 4 ApH ot 7is. ‘A water is acidic with a pH (above / below) 7 and basic with a pH (above / below )7. ApH of 6 is a mild acid that attacks metals slowly. ‘A water with a pH of 6 is probably (mildly / severely ) corrosive. ‘ApH of Sis an acid ten times stronger than a pH of 6. ‘A water with a pH of 5 or less is likely to be (mildly / severely ) corrosive. corrode may i mildly228. 231, Basic waters with a pH no higher than 9 are compatible with most metals. ‘Awater with a pH of 8 probably ( will wil not ) attack steel. We can often determine if a water is corrosive by testing for ‘ApH value below 7 indicates ( acidic / basic ) waters. Acidic waters are usually. Dissolved salts and gases can increase the acidity of water by Participating in reactions that generate hydrogen ions. ‘The hydrogen ions ( raise / lower ) the water's pH. ‘And the water becomes (less / more ) corrosive. However, the pH of 2 water can be raised by adding chemi- cals which neutralize hydrogen ions. This process is called neutralization. ‘When hydrogen ions are neutralized, the water becomes (less / more ) acidic. Adjusting the pH of a water so that it is less corrosive is called ‘A water with a pH of 4 (should / need not) be neutralized to prevent corrosion. ‘SUMMARY 240, ‘The major corrosion-producing substances in oilfield water are the dissolved gases such as . dioxide, and hydrogen ‘along with some kinds of dissolved Corrosive gases are removed from water by gas exchange, or by gas stripping or ( gas absorption / degasification ). Oxygen can chemically be removed from solution by adding (hydrazine / calcium carbonate ) or some other scavenger to the water. To prevent corrosion, the pH of acidic waters is often raised with chemicals. This process is called 37 will not pH acidic corrosive more neutralization should ‘oxygen carbon; sulfide salts, or solids degasification hydrazine neutralization241. Corrosion inhibitors retard corrosion by forming a protective on the metal. film, or coating 242. Pipes, tanks, and other metal equipment can be lined with ‘special plastic or cement_______ to stop corrosion. coatings, or linings 243. To prevent suspended solids from settling in pipes, flow rates of at least ________ feet per second must be maintained 3 through most pipes. Microorganisms GROWTH 244, Here is what a drop of water looks like under a microscope. FUNGI The drop contains —__, ___ algae; fungi that live and grow in the water. bacteria 245. All ving things are classified as organisms. ‘Algae, fungi, and bacteria (are / are not) organisms. are 248. We often use the word micro to name things that are very small Because algae, fungi, and bacteria can only be seen with a microscope, we call them ______-organisms. micro 247. Microorganisms are found in all types of water. In small num- bers they are usually harmless, but when their growth becomes uncontrolled in oilfield water, microorganisms can ‘contribute to corrosion or cause a plugging probiem. If microorganism growth becomes extensive, oilfield water will require some type of treatment to this control, or stop, or retard growth.249, 251. 252. ‘Some microorganisms grow only in the presence of oxygen. ‘They are called aerobes. Oifield water may have a growth problem with aerobes if it is exposed to ( natural gas / the atmosphere ). Other microorganisms, called anaerobes, thrive best when there is an absence of oxygen. ‘These microorganisms ( are active / are not active ) when oilfield water does not contact air. ‘Substances in water, like phosphorous and nitrogen, act as {food or nutrients for microorganisms. Microorganism growth will (decrease / increase ) in the pres- ‘ence of these nutrients. In general, microorganisms grow best in a warm environment. ‘So, microorganisms are most likely to be a problem during the ( summer / winter ). ‘The major factors that affect the growth of microorganism populations are the presence or absence of _____, the availabilty of ; like nitrogen, and the of the immediate environment. PROBLEMS AND TREATMENT 253. 255. ‘Some microorganisms have the ability to produce hydrogen sulfide. ‘As you recall, hydrogen sulfide is very (corrosive / oncorrosive ) to metals, so its presence could lead to a problem. Other microorganisms are slime-formers. The slime unevenly coats the inside of metal surfaces in contact with water. This coating will cause some areas of a metal to have Speer cir oop oro ro Heonroesan eaten than other areas. This results in the formation of _______ and cathode areas on the metal. the atmosphere are active increase ‘summer ‘oxygen, or air nutrients, or food temperature corrosion, more, or higher; less, or lower anode287. 259, ‘Those parts of the metal that are covered by slime will become the anode areas and will eventually When conditions are favorable for growth, microorganisms can quickly reproduce. Although microorganisms are individually quite small, millions of them together will fom a________ mass of solid material ‘And, if this mass of material becomes large enough, it may cause a pipe or filter to become Microorganisms can be killed or rendered inactive by adding chemicals called biocides to the water system. If microorganisms are a problem, the water may have to be treated with Open and Closed Treatment Plants WATER AND INJECTION WELL REQUIREMENTS 260. 261 262. 263. Water quality requirements determine the type of treatment ‘equipment that is used on a lease. Because water quality requirements are not the same for every producing or disposal system, the facilities used to treat ‘water ( will vary / will not vary ) from lease to lease. ‘The condition of the water as it comes out of the reservoir also_______from well to well. For example, water that has @ very low level of suspended solids probably ( will / wil not ) require treatment for solids. But, treatment may be required to avoid corrosion of metals, and to eliminate scale deposits if the water contains a high level of dissolved gases and The goal in water treatment is to meet the required water quality standards as inexpensively as possible. ‘Therefore, water treatment plants should provide treatment (for all possible water problems / for only those problems water tests indicate are necessary ). corrode large plugged, or blocked, or clogged biocides will vary varies will not salts, or solids {for only those problems water tests indicate are necessaryCLOSED TREATMENT SYSTEM Refer now to Exhibit 2. 265. When oilfield water has minimal or small treatment require- ments, a closed system is generally used. The components that make up a closed system may vary depending on the ‘condition of the water. Exhibit 2 is a diagram of a typical closed water treatment plant. The major components are chemical : a —_____ tank, _____ and a water tank. 266. A closed system protects water from contact with air, which contains oxygen. NATURAL GAS. For example, in this storage tank a blanket of _________ shields the water from ‘any contact with 267. In a closed system, the original condition of the water is maintained because it does not contact air. ‘As you recall, water that is exposed to air will tend to (absorb / release ) oxygen. 268. And dissolved oxygen makes water 269. In a closed system there should be (fewer / more) corrosion problems than when the water is exposed to air. a feeders skim; filters storage natural gas absorb corrosiveart 272, 273, ‘As you recall, changing the level of dissolved gases in water affects the water's ability to hold salts in solution. So, by preventing changes in the level of dissolved gases in water, the water's state of equilibrium is (maintained / upset ). And the dissolved salts will not precipitate out of the water in the form of ________ deposits. ‘The purpose of a closed system is to prevent water that requires relatively little treating from contacting ‘and losing its original : ‘One disadvantage of a closed system is that extra pre- ‘cautions must be taken to prevent air-water contact. {fair enters the system through a leaking valve or pump, the water may require_______ treatment. OPEN TREATMENT SYSTEM Refer now to Ext 274, 275. 276. it 3, ‘An open system is generally used for water that requires considerable treatment. The equipment utiized in an open system will depend on the condition of the water to be treated. In addition to a skim tank, water storage tank, filters, and chemical feeders, a typical open water treatment system con- tains a gas exchange unit or gas________, basins Hong ssseteeeeseeesa and goes saeeensees a land's In an open system, no attempt is made to prevent air-water ccontact. In fact, exposure to the atmosphere is used as part of the treatment process. For example, water that contains a higher level of carbon dioxide than is present in the air will (absorb / release ) some of this gas when itis exposed to the atmosphere, When water is exposed to air, it usually absorbs oxygen. The oxygen reacts with dissolved minerals to form _—__________ products that can be settled or filtered out of water. ‘The oxygen can later be removed from water by 2 gas con- tactor, —_____, or by chemicals. ‘An open system allows for storage of water in large open basins, or pits. Because there is no problem with airwater ‘contact, water can be treated (more / less) economically in ‘an open water treatment system. 42 maintained scale, or solid air, oF oxygen; equilibrium more, or additional contactor ‘coagulation; sedimentation degasitier release degasifier more279. 280. Water that contains a mixture of fluids from several different leases and has a high level of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide should be treated in (an open / a closed) system. Water that contains only a minimal amount of oxygen and suspended solids should be treated in (an open / a closed ) system. Gas Exchange Equipment FACTORS AFFECTING GAS EXCHANGE 281, 282. ‘The process of gas exchange is primarily dependent upon the difference in the state of equilibrium that exists between a liquid and a gas. When a gas and a liquid are in equilibrium, there (will be / will not be ) an exchange between them. A liquid and a gas can be manipulated to maximize the driving force of different equilibrium states. Water and most gases are made up of atoms that have bonded to form molecules. These molecules are the smallest Particles within that substance. So, the transfer between water and air will involve an exchange of ( atoms / molecules ). This exchange takes place at the point where the liquid and {gas contact each other. GAS MOLECULES: ™~ GAS-LIQUID INTERFACE DISSOLVED: WATER GAS MOLECULES This point is called the gas-liquid 43 an open a closed will not be molecules interface284. 287. 291. ‘A film of gas molecules and dissolved gas molecules is con- centrated (on the water side / on the gas side / on both sides ) of the gas-liquid interface. ‘Because most of the gas molecules are concentrated near the gas-liquid interface, the surface of the water will reach equilibrium with the air (before / after) water at the lower depths does. ‘And, when equilibrium is reached at the gas-liquid interface, the concentration of gas on both sides of the interface will (increase / not change ). So, the gas molecules that form films on both sides of the ‘gasliquid interface (act as / do not act as) barriers against gas transfer. lf we break up these film molecules, the exchange between a liquid and a gas will be (decreased / increased ). Look at these two drawings. BEFORE AGITATION AFTER AGITATION When the water is at rest, molecules forming a barrier are concentrated on the ______of the water. But after the water has been agitated, these molecules are mixed throughout the liquid, and the film (is stil intact / has Partially broken down ). ‘The water can absorb or release more gases when this fim is broken down. So, the potential for gas exchange can be increased by Seer ewe ‘on both sides not change act as increased surface, or top has partially broken down agitating292. Gas transier is also affected by the amount of water that is exposed to air. {In which drawing is the area of the gas-liquid interface larger? A B B 283. So, the exchange of gases will be greater in drawing (A/B ). B 294. This area at the gas-liquid intertace is called surface area. ‘The potential for gas exchange may be increased by manipu- lating the water to provide the largest possible surface area 295. Exposure time is another important factor in the gas exchange process, It we increase the time water remains at the gasiquidinter- face, the amount of gas absorption and release should be (ower / higher higher 296. Here are two gas contact towers. WATER IN B WATEROUT GAS CONTACT TOWERS The rate of exchange will be greater in Tower A because the water is exposed to air for a longer period of time.KINDS OF GAS CONTACTORS 297. This is a step-type gas contactor. INLET 301 Water comes out of the inlet conduit and flows over the to the outlet conduit. steps When the water hits the steps, its flow is disrupted, and the water is broken into ( smaller / larger ) droplets. smaller ‘As a result, the surface area and exposure time at the air- water interface ( decrease / increase ). increase ‘And, the exchange potential between water and air improves / declines ). improves Agitating the water over steps also helps to break up the _—_________ of molecules on the water’s surface which film, or layer further improves the transfer. ‘The step-gas contactor is primarily used to introduce oxygen into the water. This is accomplished by__ the water. agitating ‘This is a coke-tray gas contactor. PERFORATED PIPE ‘WATER IN CATCH ‘COKE BEDS COKE-TRAY GAS CONTACTOR Water enters the unit through a perforated Pipe307. 310. The perforated pipe breaks the water up into small droplets. This agitation helps break down surface films and in- creases the surface ________ and. exposure at the air-water interface. ‘The water then passes through several beds. Each coke bed is made up of finely granulated charcoal. ws WATER OUT t In order for water to pass through the charcoal, the water into even smaller droplets. ‘And this further ( decreases / increases ) the surface area and exposure time. Coke-tray contactors are generally used to remove dissolved iron from water. Oxygen that is introduced into the water (chemically / physically ) reacts with these substances to form solid Products. Look at the diagram of the coke-ray contactor again. Water that leaves the contactor falls into a ‘The water is usually held in the catch basin for at least 15 minutes so that some of the solid products can out. ‘SUMMARY 311. 312. 313. Step-type and coke-tray contactors are primarily used to intro- duce ______ into water. ‘Surface films that form a barrier to gas exchange can be ‘broken down by__ the water. Agtatng the water also increases the _area time. 47 area time coke separates, or breaks increases chemically basin settle, or separate, or fall oxygen agitating surface ‘exposureDegasification (Gas Stripping) Equipment FACTORS AFFECTING DEGASIFICATION 314, During the gas exchange process, water is simultaneously ‘absorbing and releasing gases. While this changes the kind of dissolved gases in water, the water ( still contains / does not contain )a dissolved gas. still contains 315. Degasifcation is a process that lowers the total amount of gases dissolved in water. To insure that water only releases gases, water must be exposed to an atmosphere that is (free of / enriched in ) most free of gases during degasification. 316. The degasification process, like the gas exchange process, relies on different equilibrium states to force the transfer of gases. ‘Therefore, the same factors that are manipulated to maximize the driving force in the gas exchange process (can / cannot) can be utilized in the degasification process. 317. So, agitating water to break up film molecules and increase surface area and exposure time will (decrease / increase / not affect ) gas release during degasification. increase 818. Here are two containers of water. One is at room tempera- ture, and the other is being heated above room temperature. ROOM ‘TEMPERATURE ‘The gas molecules in the water being heated are (slower / faster) than the molecules in the water temperature. il319. ‘The energy supplied by heat allows some of the faster moving gas molecules to leave the liquid and escape into the atmosphere. Heating water (decreases / increases) the number of gas molecules that escape into the atmosphere. In other words, water's ability to hold dissolved gases in solution is ( decreased / increased ) by raising its temperature. . A certain amount of gas release or degasification will occur by ‘simply (heating / cooling ) water. Here are two different containers of water. The water in one container is under normal atmospheric pressure of 14.7 PSIA, and the water in the other container is under a partial vacuum. ‘The water under normal atmospheric pressure has (fewer / more) gas molecules in contact with it than the water under @ partial vacuum. Pressure can simply be defined as the force exerted by a substance on a unit area. The force or pressure of air is ‘caused by the weight and movement of gas molecules. ‘At any given temperature, the water in Container A is under more pressure than the water in Container B because there are (more / less ) gas molecules pressing against the water in Container A partial vacuum is created by removing gas molecules from the container which ( reduces / increases ) the pressure of the air. decreased more925. Look at these drawings and consider what happens to gas molecules dissolved in water as a result of pressure changes. 14.7 PSIA ‘At normal atmospheric pressure, water and air establish an ‘equilibrium in which the concentration of gas molecules in ‘each phase ( constantly changes / remains constant). 926. But, when a partial vacuum is created, the equilibrium is 927. 328. KINDS OF DEGASIFIERS upset. This is because at lower pressures the water is able to hold ( fewer / more ) dissolved gas molecules. In order to re-establish equilibrium, the water (absorbs / releases ) gas molecules. Hf the gases released by water are continually pumped off and Pressure is maintained at very low levels, the water will be ‘stripped of ( some / most) gases. STEAM SCRUBBER WATER OUT ‘TRAY-TYPE DEGASIFIER Water entering the degasifier is heated to near boiling when it contacts steam coming from the steam NOW TURN THE PAGE, TURN ‘THE BOOK OVER AND GO ON. remains constant fewer releases. most jets331. 332. ‘This immediately reduces the dissolved gas content of the water because the solubility of a gas in water when the temperature of the water rises. Next, the water contacts more steam as it falls through a series of trays in the steam : The trays break the water into small droplets which (decreases / increases ) the surface area and exposure time. Inside the steam scrubber, the water is stripped of most remaining gases as it attempts to reach with the gas-free steam. The gases released by the water are continually removed from the degasifier through the steam —___ Here is a vacuum-type degasifier. ‘STEAM EJECTOR WATER IN VACUUM-TYPE DEGASIFIER Gases are removed from the degasifier by a steam HIGH VELOCITY STEAM STEAM EJECTOR AA stream of high velocity ____is fed past the 51 equilibrium ejectorat. ‘The high velocity steam creates a pressure difference, or raft, that pulls ______out of the draft tube. Removing gas from the degasifier reduces the pressure and creates a Look at the drawing of the degasifier in Frame 335 again. Surface area and exposure time of the water are manipulated as the water passes through a series of ___. The vacuum inside the degasifier strips dissolved from the water. ‘The gases are then sucked out the degasifier by the steam to maintain a vacuum. The steam ejector in a degasifier can be replaced by another type of vacuum device called a vacuum pump. ‘A vacuum pump, like a steam ejector, continually removes gases from the degasifier to maintain a. : ‘SUMMARY 343, The majority of dissolved gases can be removed from water by the process of The solubilty of a gas in water is reduced by (decreasing / increasing) temperature and (decreasing / increasing ) pressure. A steam-type degasifier removes gases by A vacuur-type degasifer remaves gases from water by reducing Chemical Feeders 347. Most water treatment chemicals must be fed into the water ‘gradually. Water treating systems require some device that introduces chemicals into the water (all at once / in measured amounts ). Look at Exhibits 2 and 3 again. Chemical feeders are used in (open / closed / both open and closed) water treat- ment systems. vacuum trays gases ejector vacuum degasifcation increasing; decreasing heating pressure in measured amounts both open and closedDRY CHEMICAL FEEDER 349. Devices ‘that measure out chemicals are called chemical feeders, Here is a typical dry feeder. It dispenses solid 350. 361. 352. 353. chemicals. HOPPER FEEDER WATER CHEMICAL FEEDER FLOW Chemicals drop from the hopper into the ‘The vibrator shakes the feeder bin to force the chemicals into the sees In the dissolver, the chemicals are mixed into a water solution before being added to the water The vibrator is connected to an indicator switch that is activated by water flow. So when the water starts flowing, the switch is turned , and the vibrator (starts / stops ) shaking ‘chemicals into the dissolver. When the flow of water stops, the flow line. the switch will turn , and chemicals will (start / stop ) entering ‘The dry feeder is an example of a constant-rate feeder. ‘These feeders feed at a constant rate, and they stop or start feeding when the flow of ‘stops or starts. bin dissolver flow line on; starts ott; stop water‘955. If the flow rate of water through the pipe increases from 25 to 30 gallons per minute, a constant-rate feeder ( will not change / will increase) the amount of chemicals it feeds. PRESSURE SOLUTION FEEDER 356. Proportioning chemical feeders can detect rate of flow ‘changes and add chemicals in proportion to varying flow rates of water. It water flow rate doubles, the amount of chemical added by a proportioning feeder should 357. This pressure solution feeder is an example of a pro- portioning chemical feeder. It feeds liquid chemicals. ORIFICE PLATE —————_ MAINS = a FLOW LINE LINE A. VALVE ORIFICE PLATE PRESSURE SOLUTION FEEDER When water contacts the orifice plate in the main flow line, the flow of water is slowed, and back pressure forces some of the water to go into line ‘ 368. If the water's rate of flow increases in the main line, the ‘amount of water entering line A also increases. So, the rate of flow in line A (is proportional / is not proportional ) to the rate of flow in the main line. ‘959. Inside line A, water flow is slowed down by another orifice plate. This diverts water into ( the chemical feeder / ine B ). 360. A flow line connects the chemical feeder to the chemical tank. 361. And the amount of chemical that enters the chemical feeder from the storage tank is controlled by a_____on the line. will not change is proportional the chemical feeder storage‘The water in the chemical feeder exerts pressure on the chemical solution, which forces the solution into line 363. The amount of pressure the water exerts on the chemical solution is determined by the water's rate of in ine A. 364, The water's rate of flow in line A is _____ to the rate of flow in the main line. 365. So, the amount of chemical solution that enters the system is, also ______ to the water's flow rate in the main line. GAS FEEDER 366. Here is a simplified diagram of a gas feeder. it feeds gase- 367. 369. ous chemicals. CONTROLLER GAS FEEDER FLOW LINE ORIFICE GAS FEEDER The amount of water passing through the system is metered bya indicator. Flow rate information is sent to the. ‘The controller uses this information to determine the amount of gas that should be added. A signal is sent.by the controller to the —__ and the designated amount of chemical is introduced into the system. The gas feeder is an example of a (constant-rate / proportional ) feeder. When very precise quantities of chemicals have to be added to the water, a (constant-rate / proportional ) feeder is best Suited to do the job. 55 flow proportional proportional flow rate proportional