Literature Review

In considering the ways in which school systems provide support for new teachers, it is
clear that a variety of methods and programs currently exist. While there is high variation
regarding implementation, these programs provide teachers with access to information,
relationships, and resources to help them develop skills as educators, and potentially as leaders
within and beyond the classroom. Each support for 1-6 year teachers, including professional
development, mentoring, professional learning communities, online communities, and the role of
administration play a key role in establishing avenues for teachers to develop professionally and
personally in a school setting. Although they can each be conducted as singular supports, studies
show that a comprehensive induction program provides teachers with the greatest level of
support, leaving them with a multifaceted and scaffolded approach to development and the
establishment of agency within a school. In reference to our definition of formal and informal
leadership, these supports each provide avenues with which 1-6 year teachers can build
foundations of informal leadership skills. These professionals are able to foster skills revolving
around collaboration, autonomy, and confidence in their abilities as teachers, effectively using
content knowledge and experiences to allow for empowerment in the influence of school
practices.
Professional Development
Professional Development (PD) is common training tool that serves the purpose of
managing the gap between teacher preparation and the larger, standards-based reform occurring
in education. While it is widespread in use, most PD programs are not meeting the challenges of
this reform (Birman, Desimone, Porter and Garet, 2000). In order to become an effective tool in
assisting teachers with the changing times, professional development must be structured
differently. Studies have found that effective PD is related to its structure, duration, and type of
participation that teachers exhibit during it (Birman, Desimone, Porter and Garet, 2000).
Teachers valued the PD experiences in which they were able to be active participants and PDs
where the content itself was woven into new strategies for teaching. Since the inception of No
Child Left Behind, professional development has become a means of accountability for student
achievement. In other words, it has become a system by which teachers should be taught the
skills and content they need to teach ones their students the content in order for them to pass
standardized tests (Hochberg and Desimone, 2010). This added pressure to the already stressful
life of a 1-6 year teachers is exactly why PD should be meaningful and add to each participants
knowledge base so that 1-6 year teachers can better serve all their students. For 1-6 year teachers,
professional development also presents itself as an opportunity to expand the professional culture
of a school, and work collaboratively with more experienced teachers. This kind of support for
new teachers is essential, as it also allows for the creation of common strategies and goals
amongst a team or department (Birman, Desimone, Porter and Garet, 2000). Networking such as
this allows 1-6 year teachers to access the minds and resources of their seasoned colleagues.
Lastly, effective professional development provides new teachers with an opportunity for
personal reflection on strategies and goals for their classrooms (Hunt and Hunt, 2005). Such
reflection opportunities are critical to developing self-efficacy and confidence in the classroom.
Professional Learning Communities
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are defined as groups of individuals
committed to continuous improvement through shared values and reection. Within these

groups, the focus of discourse is on critical thinking, reective dialogue, self-examination, and
resolving issues that impede student success (Rasberry and Mahajan, 2008). These groups are
often comprised of teams of varying subject teachers or a section of teachers within a
department. PLCs often include the presence of an administrator or department head when
possible to facilitate discussion amongst the participants. Linda Nathan (2009) explains that
schools themselves can also serve as professional learning communities. She elaborates that
PLCs recognize that work with students and adults is ongoing and embodies the values of
continual growth, risk-taking and trust (Nathan, 2009). These smaller groups or school-wide
programs are useful to both veteran and 1-6 year teachers, as the set times for collaboration allow
individual teachers to voice their concerns, share their successes, and build rapport with
colleagues. PLCs are capable of fostering teacher leadership if they are properly constructed and
supported. State and school policies should provide adequate time and resources for teachers to
carry out effective PLCs, which include giving participants the autonomy to decide frequency of
meetings and rotating leadership roles, as well as time to carry out an inquiry projects or
establish goals to accomplish as a team (Rasberry and Mahajan, 2008). New teachers have the
opportunity to become leaders within these PLCs, and perhaps advance to becoming leaders in
the school as a result.
Online Learning Communities
Twenty first century technology, and its significant integration into schools, has allowed
for the creation of online communities of practice. Similar to PLCs, these online forums provide
a safe space in which teachers can discuss pertinent issues within their school or district. An
example of such an online resource could be a Wiki space. One pilot program utilized such a
space online and included Veteran Teachers, University Professors, Central Office
Administrators, and Principals in addition to the new in-service teachers (Taranto, 2011). The
incorporation of administrators and professors in the discussion allowed 1-6 year novice teachers
to receive answers to their questions or concerns from a variety of perspectives and subject
specializations. Additionally, the type of format of these online communities allows
opportunities to scale educators interactions broadly and efficiently, because online PLCs place
no limits on group size and afford busy educators the flexibility to participate and contribute
meaningfully to the group when they can (Lieberman & Mace, 2010; Sorensen, Takle, & Moser,
2006). As Cynthia Blitz (2013) also points out, however, these online communities present many
challenges. Instruction must be given to participants on how to use the web tools offered, so
technological troubleshooting (especially in an integrated veteran/1-6 year novice staff) is likely
to become an issue. Additionally, 1-6 year teachers in particular may feel isolated when operating
solely in an online community (Blitz, 2013). All these challenges aside, studies have shown that
teachers who partake in such online communities generally feel well supported and are
comfortable sharing their thoughts in the slightly less formal setting than traditional PLCs.
The Role of Administration
In the development of teacher induction programs, the effective leadership and support of
the administration, specifically the principal, is a key foundation to implementation. Beyond the
mere coordination of programs, effective induction involves the inclusive and rigorous
implementation of research, informed decision-making, and collaboration among professionals
in a school system. According to Paul Watkins (2009), the principal is the key player in the
development of an environment conducive to a positive community of learners, and is critical in

the establishment of common goals that are implicative of the value of new teachers (p. 83). In
considering this community, it has been found that the most effective induction program provides
new teachers with a sense of professional autonomy, as their opinions and contributions are
viewed as beneficial to the school, and they are given a level of trust from their superiors.
Although not left in isolation, teachers must be treated as if their decisions are valued and valid
in order to best develop inside and outside of the classroom walls (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2009).
The impact of the principal on both the professional and personal needs of new teachers, and the
effect that self-reliance, self-efficacy, and self-esteem has the potential to set the tone for new
teacher development within a school (p. 1006). In this sense, it is clear that induction for new
teachers begins with a school environment that provides teachers with respect, trust, and a
balance between autonomy and support that allows new teachers to develop a sense of identity in
their new schools (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2009). Essentially, it is the role of the principal to lay
out the groundwork for clear and effective induction practices within a school in order to provide
teachers with the capacity to contribute beyond the classroom (Watkins). In creating an
environment conducive to active participation, support, and a feeling of agency, 1-6 year novice
teachers are encouraged to exert influence over the school in ways suggestive of our definition of
informal leadership. An administrator has the responsibility of creating an environment in which
ideas are valued and respected, as well as to encourage autonomy and the development of
individual identity for new teachers.
Mentoring
Although varied among school systems, a common denominator to induction and new
teacher supports is the emphasis on mentorship and veteran guidance for new teachers.
Mentors, for better or worse, continue to have an effect on teacher self-efficacy in ones first
years in the profession, as confidence is bolstered and stress decreased (LoCasale-Crouch et al.
2012). Teachers that receive mentor support state that they have more satisfaction with their first
few years of teaching, and are also more likely to stay within the profession (LoCasale-Crouch,
Davis, Wiens, Pianta, 2012). However, there is a lack of standardization within school systems
regarding mentors, as the range of supports and the quality of guidance offered is varied
(LoCasale-Crouch, Davis, Wiens, Pianta, 2012). The most effective type of mentor support
involves collaboration, and shared experiences between the mentor and mentee as well. For
instance, teaching the same content area or at the same grade level provides for more meaningful
interactions and observations that strengthen the support system, and help to foster productive
relationships (LoCasale-Crouch, Davis, Wiens, Pianta, 2012). In this type of environment, new
teachers are able to have both professional and personal needs met, as they are receiving support
in terms of feeling confident and valued in their autonomous development, while also receiving
professional guidance (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2009). Currently, mentoring seems to be more
individualized and does not follow a specific protocol, making it difficult to pinpoint what
interactions prove to be most beneficial within a school system. (LoCasale, et al., 2012). With an
effective mentor, teachers can acclimate more quickly to the school environment, and will more
readily be up to speed with other veteran teachers (LoCasale, et al., 2012). The effect of mentors
can further be seen through what teachers want in their schools induction programs. According
to Deborah Bieler, teachers want support from their colleagues without feeling judged or
criticized. They wish these relationships to be used as an exchange of resources and ideas in
order to be most beneficial to induction (Bieler). Despite the clear impact of mentors in
supporting new teachers, Bickmore & Bickmore (2009) assert that a multifaceted,

comprehensive induction program is still necessary to provide effective guidance to new

teachers. Nevertheless, in considering our definition of informal leadership, mentors have the
potential to provide teachers with essential tools and resources to equip them to have influence
on colleagues and the school environment. Because mentors are able to help with acclimation
and resources, 1-6 yearnovice teachers are able to increase their capacity to handle
responsibilities, interact with staff, and implement content, enhancing their ability to be active
beyond the classroom walls.
Although each piece of induction clearly has value on an individual level, it is a multifaceted, allencompassing approach that has consistently proven to be most effective in fostering an
environment and community most suitable for teacher success (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2009).
Clear, effective induction plans help to retain teachers, as well as help them build the capacity
of teachers to contribute beyond the classroom from the beginning to the end of ones career
(Watkins, p. 84).