Electric Motors

♦ Introduction:

Electric motors are used to efficiently convert electrical

energy into mechanical energy. Magnetism is the basis of
their principles of operation. They use permanent magnets,
electromagnets and exploit the magnetic properties of
materials in order to create these amazing machines.

There are several types of electric motors available

today. The following outline gives an overview of several
popular ones. There are two main classes of motors: AC
and DC. AC motors require an alternating current or
voltage source (like the power coming out of the wall
outlets in your house) to make them work. DC motors
require a direct current or voltage source (like the voltage
coming out of batteries) to make them work. Universal
motors can work on either type of power. Not only is the
construction of the motors different, but the means used to
control the speed and torque created by each of these
motors also varies, although the principles of power
conversion are common to both.

They range in power ratings from less than 1/100 hp to

over 100,000 hp. The rotate as slowly as 0.001 rpm to over
100,000 rpm. They range in physical size from as small as
the head of a pin to the size of a locomotive engine.
♦ Classification of motors:

D.C Motors
♦ Construction:
A DC machine can operate as a motor or as a
generator. This kind of machine is usually realized as an
internal rotor/external pole machine. The ring coat shaped
housing of the machine is also used as a magnetic yoke for
the magnetic field through the armature and poles.
The excitation winding (field winding) is located directly
on the main poles of the stator. A current that flows in this
winding generates the main field. Since the machine is
operated with DC current, the magnetic field in the stator is
constant and so all iron parts of the stator can be made of
massive material. Nevertheless the main poles and the
commutating poles are often laminated because of easier
manufacture.
Modern DC machines, used in closed-loop controlled
drives, with a fast change in armature current and main
field consist of one completely laminated magnetic circuit. A
massive iron construction would strongly influence the
dynamics and the efficiency of the machine due to the
appearance of eddy currents. The rotating part of the
machine holds on its shaft the armature with the
commutator.
Since the alternating flux flows through the armature,
iron parts must be built from laminated, mutually insulated
and slotted magnetic steel sheets. The coils of the
 armature winding are placed in the slots; their ends are
connected to the commutator segments. The current is fed
into the commutator by carbon brushes. As the rotor
revolves, conductors revolve with it. The brushes contact
the commutator segments.

♦Basic Construction The relationship of the electrical

components of a DC motor is shown in the following

illustration. Field windings are mounted on pole pieces to
form electromagnets. In smaller DC motors the field may
be a permanent magnet. However, in larger DC fields the
 field is typically an electromagnet. Field windings and pole
pieces are bolted to the frame. The armature is inserted
between the field windings. The armature is supported by
bearings and end brackets (not shown). Carbon brushes
are held against the commutator.

♦ Armature
The armature rotates between the poles of the field windings.
The armature is made up of a shaft, core, armature windings,
and commutator. The armature windings are usually for
Wound and then placed in slots in the core.

Brushes ride on the side of the commutator to provide supply

voltage to the motor. The DC motor is mechanically complex
this can cause problems for them in certain adverse
environments. Dirt on the commutator, for example, can
inhibit supply voltage from reaching the armature. A certain
amount of care is required when using DC motors in certain
industrial applications. Corrosives can damage the
commutator. In addition the action of the carbon brush
 against the commutator causes sparks which may be
problematic in Hazardous environments.
♦ Basic DC Motor Operation:

• Magnetic Fields

You will recall from the previous section that there are two
electrical elements of a DC motor, the field windings and
armature. The armature windings are made up of current
carrying conductors that terminate at a commutator. DC
voltage is applied to the armature windings through carbon
brushes which ride on the commutator. In small DC motors,
permanent magnets can be used for the stator. However, in
large motors used in industrial applications the stator is an
electromagnet. When voltage is applied to stator windings an
electromagnet with north and south poles is established. The
resultant magnetic field is static (no rotational).
For simplicity of explanation, the stator will be represented
by permanent magnets in the following illustrations.

• Magnetic Fields A DC motor rotates as a result of two

magnetic fields interacting with each other. The first field
is the main field that exists in the stator windings. The
second field exists in the armature. Whenever current
flows through a conductor a magnetic field is generated
around the conductor.
• Right-Hand Rule for Motors A relationship, known as

the right-hand rule for motors, exists between the main

field, the field around a conductor, and the direction the
conductor tends to move.
If the thumb, index finger, and third finger are held at
right angles to each other and placed as shown in the
following illustration so that the index finger points in the
direction of the main field flux and the third finger points
in the direction of electron flow in the conductor, the
thumb will indicate direction of conductor motion. As can
be seen from the following illustration, conductors on the
left side tend to be pushed up.
Conductors on the right side tend to be pushed down.
This results in a motor that is rotating in a clockwise
direction. You will see later that the amount of force
acting on the conductor to produce rotation is directly
proportional to the field strength and the amount of
current flowing in the conductor.
• CEMF Whenever a conductor cuts through lines of flux
a voltage is induced in the conductor. In a DC motor the
armature conductors cut through the lines of flux of the
main field. The voltage induced into the armature
conductors is always in opposition to the applied DC
voltage. Since the voltage induced into the conductor is in
opposition to the applied voltage it is known as CEMF
(counter electromotive force). CEMF reduces the applied
armature voltage.
The amount of induced CEMF depends on many
factors such as the number of turns in the coils, flux
density, and the speed which the flux lines are cut.

• Armature Field An armature, as we have learned, is

made up of many coils and conductors. The magnetic
fields of these conductors combine to form a resultant
armature field with a north and South Pole.
 The north pole of the armature is attracted to the south
pole of the main field. The south pole of the armature is
attracted to the north pole of the main field. This attraction
exerts a continuous torque on the armature. Even though
the armature is continuously moving, the resultant field
appears to be fixed.
This is due to commutation, which will be discussed
next.

• Commutation In the following illustration of a DC

motor only one armature conductor is shown. Half of the
conductor has been shaded Black, the other half white.
The conductor is connected to two Segments of the
commutator.

 In position 1 the black half of the conductor is

in contact with the negative side of the DC applied
voltage. Current flows away from the commutator on
the black half of the conductor and returns to the
 positive side, flowing towards the commutator on the
white half.

 In position 2 the conductor has rotated 90°. At this

position the conductor is lined up with the main field.
This conductor is no longer cutting main field magnetic
lines of flux; therefore, no voltage is being induced into
the conductor. Only applied voltage is present. The
conductor coil is short-circuited by the brush spanning
the two adjacent commutator segments. This allows
current to reverse as the black commutator segment
makes contact with the positive side of the applied DC
voltage and the white commutator segment makes
contact with the negative side of the applied DC
voltage.

As the conductor continues to rotate from position 2 to

 Position 3 current flows away from the commutator in
the white half and toward the commutator in the black
half.
Current has reversed direction in the conductor. This is
known as commutation.

♦ Wiring types:
The dynamic behavior of the DC machine is mainly
determined by the type of the connection between the
excitation winding and the armature winding including the
commutation and compensation winding:
1. Separately excited DC machine:
Excitation and armature winding supplied at separate
voltages
2. Shunt DC machine:
Excitation and armature winding are connected in
parallel (i.e. fed by the same source)
2. Series-wound machine:
The excitation and the armature winding connected in
series; if the stator is laminated, series-wound machines
can operate at AC current
3. Compound machine:
This is a combination of 2 and 3 (both shunt and series
winding are available)

Types of DC Motors
The field of DC motors can be a permanent magnet, or
electromagnets connected in series, shunt, or compound.
1. Permanent Magnet Motors are use permanent

magnets rather than windings in the field section. DC

power is supplied only to the armature.
Permanent magnet motors are not expensive to
operate since they require no field supply. The magnets,
however, lose their magnetic properties over time and
this effect less than rated torque production. Some
motors have windings built into the field magnets that re-
magnetize the cores and prevent this from happening.
Permanent magnet motors produce high torque at low
speed, and are self-braking upon disconnection of
electrical power.
Permanent magnet motors cannot endure continuous
operation because they overheat rapidly, destroying the
permanent magnets.
2. Series Motors In a series DC motor the field is
connected in series with the armature. The field is
wound with a few turns of large wire because it must
carry the full armature current. An increase in load
results in an increase in both armature and field
current. As a result, the armature flux and field flux
increase simultaneously. Since the torque developed in
DC motors is dependent upon the interaction of
armature and field flux, torque increases by the square
of current increase.
Characteristic of series motors is the motor
develops a large amount of starting torque. However,
speed varies widely between no load and full load.
Series motors cannot be used where a constant speed
is required under varying loads.
Additionally, the speed of a series motor with no
load increases to the point where the motor can
become damaged. Some load must always be
connected to a series-

connected motor.
V= Ia*(Ra+Rf) + E If=Ia
E= K*Φ*ω = K*Ia* ω
T= K*Φ*Ia = K*Ia^2

3. Shunt Motors

In a shunt motor the field is connected in parallel (shunt)

with the armature windings. The shunt-connected motor
offers good speed regulation. The field winding can be
separately excited or connected to the same source as the
armature. An advantage to a separately excited shunt field is
the ability of a variable Speed drive to provide independent
control of the armature and field. The shunt-connected motor
offers simplified control for reversing. This is especially
beneficial in regenerative drives.
 4. Compound Motors Compound motors have a
field connected in series with the armature and a
separately excited shunt field. The series field provides
better starting torque and the shunt field provides
better speed regulation. However, the series field can
cause control problems in variable speed drive
applications and is generally not used in four quadrant
drives.

Hint:
To reverse the direction of rotation of d.c motor, it is
necessary to reverse the direction of current through the
armature with respect to the current of field circuit. This is
simply done by reversing either the armature circuit
connection with respect to the field circuit or vise versa.
Reversal of both circuit connections will produce the same
direction of rotation. Usually armature circuit selected for
several reasons:
First: the field is highly inductive circuit and frequent
reversal induces undesirable high emf.
 Second: if the shunt field is reversed the series field must
also reversed, otherwise the motor will be differential
compounded.
Third: if the reversing switch is defective and field is fails
to close, the motor may "run away".
Advantages and disadvantages of D.C machines
Advantages:
 Easy to understand design

 Easy to control speed

 Easy to control torque

 Simple, cheap drive design

Disadvantages:
 Armature reaction
 Commutation process
 Expensive to produce

• High maintenance
 Speed Control Of D.C Motor

♦ Introduction:
The speed of a DC motor is directly proportional to the
supply voltage, so if we reduce the supply voltage from 12
Volts to 6 Volts, the motor will run at half the speed. How
can this be achieved when the battery is fixed at 12 Volts?

The speed controller works by varying the average

voltage sent to the motor. It could do this by simply
adjusting the voltage sent to the motor, but this is quite
inefficient to do. A better way is to switch the motor’s supply
on and off very quickly. If the switching is fast enough, the
motor doesn't notice it, it only notices the average effect.

When you watch a film in the cinema, or the television,

what you are actually seeing is a series of fixed pictures,
which change rapidly enough that your eyes just see the
average effect - movement. Your brain fills in the gaps to
give an average effect.

The Motor drive divided into two categories:

1. D.C-D.C converters

1.1. Rheostat
1.2. Choppers
1.2-1.Single quadrant
1.2-2.Two quadrant
1.2-3.Four quadrants
2. A.C-D.C converter (Thyristor Rectifiers)

2.1. Single quadrant

 2.2. Two quadrant
2.3. Four quadrants

• Methods for adjusting the machine speed:

1. Varying the flux, i.e. the excitation current
(concerning the saturation in the excitation circuit, only a
weakening of the flux is possible) the regulation of the
rotational speed at a constant armature voltage is possible
only to speed values above the rated rotational speed, i.e.
beyond the rotational speed at maximum flux. Maximum
permitted excitation current. Limit: mechanical stress
(centrifugal force) and commutation (brush fire, sparking).
2. Reducing the armature voltage Right arrow the
regulation of the rotational Speed is possible only to speeds
below the rated rotation speed, to avoid Possible fire on
the brushes at higher voltages; (voltage switching, e.g. from
220 V to 110 V or supply at DC motor controller, Leonard
set).
3. Increasing Rtot with an additional series resistance R
(starter) in the armature Circuit. This possibility is rarely
used due to the additional losses and strong load
Dependency of the speed.
 (D.C-D.C converters (Chopper
• Definition: A DC-to-DC converter is a device that
accepts a DC input voltage and produces a DC output
with a desired voltage level. In addition; DC-to-DC
converters are used to provide noise isolation, power bus
regulation, etc.
• General block •

:diagram

• General out lines:

Vavg = (1/T).∫v(t)dt = (td/T).Vm =D.Vm
Where D is the duty cycle defined as (td/T)

 single quadrant chopper:

We will start off with a very simple circuit (see the figure
below). The inductance of the field windings and the
armature windings has been lumped together and called La.
The resistance of the windings and brushes is not important
to this discussion, and so has not been drawn.
 Q1 is the MOSFET. When Q1 is on, current flows
through the field and armature windings, and the motor
rotates. When Q1 is turned off , the current through an
inductor cannot immediately turn off, and so the inductor
voltage drives a diminishing current in the same direction,
which will now flow through the armature, and back through
D1 as shown by the red arrow in the figure below. If D1
wasn’t in place, a very large voltage would build up across
Q1 and blow it up.

Reversing
To reverse a DC motor, the supply voltage to the
armature must be reversed, or the magnetic field must be
reversed. In a series motor, the magnetic field is supplied
from the supply voltage, so when that is reversed, so is the
field, therefore the motor would continue in the same
direction. We must switch either the field winding’s supply,
or the armature winding’s supply, but not both.

One method is to switch the field coil using relays:

 When the relays are in the position shown, current will
flow vertically upwards through the field coil. To reverse the
motor the relays are switched over. Then the current will be
flowing vertically downwards through the field coil, and the
motor will go in reverse.

However, when the relays open to reverse the direction,

the inductance of the motor generates a very high voltage
which will spark across the relay contact, damaging the
relay. Relays which can take very high currents are also
quite expensive. Therefore this is not a very good solution.
A better solution is to use what is termed a full-bridge circuit
around either the field winding, or the armature winding.
We will put it around the armature winding and leave the
field winding in series.

 The bridge power converter:

As described in the previous, the speed of a series DC motor

can be altered by varying the voltage applied to its terminal.
One way of varying the applied voltage is by using the pulse-
width modulation (PWM) technique. Using this technique, a
fixed frequency voltage signal with varying pulse-width is
applied to the motor terminal. The following Figure shows an
example of a PWM signal where T is the signal period, td is
the pulse-width, and Vm is the signal amplitude. The average
voltage can be calculated from:
 Vavg = (1/T).∫v(t)dt = (td/T).Vm =D.Vm
Where D is the duty cycle defined as (td/T)
From the previous equation it can be seen that the average
(DC component) of the voltage signal is linearly related to the
pulse-width of the signal, or the duty cycle of the signal since
the period is fixed. Therefore, varying the duty cycle of the
signal can alter the voltage applied to the motor terminal.

The PWM voltage waveforms for the motor can be

obtained using a special
power electronic circuit (DC chopper). A DC chopper
basically uses power
switching devices to switch a constant DC voltage on and
off according to a specified
switching scheme in order to obtain the required voltage and
current waveforms. There are various types of DC chopper
configurations.
In this section, we will discuss the DC chopper configuration
which called:
Bridge power converter also known as H-bridge converter.
The schematic diagram of this converter is shown in
following Figure, T1 to T4 are controlled switches that can be
 implemented using power semiconductor devices such as
Power MOSFET.
These devices provide low resistance for the current flow
when they are turned on and very high resistance when
turned off. Diodes D1 through D4 provide a path for
preserving the continuity of the current flow when one or
more of the switches are turned off. This is necessary to
protect the power switches from excessive voltage spike due
to the inductive load presented by the DC motor. These
diodes are also known as
Freewheeling diodes.
The DC voltage supply Vm can be obtained from a
rectified ac signal or a DC voltage source such as a car
battery.

A full bridge circuit is shown in the diagram below. Each side

of the motor can be connected either to battery positive, or to
battery negative. Note that only one MOSFET on each side
of the motor must be turned on at any one time otherwise
they will short out the battery and burn out!

To make the motor go forwards:

 Q4 is turned on, and Q1 has the PWM signal applied to it.
The current path is shown in the diagram below in red. Note
that there is also a diodes connected in reverse across the
field winding. This is to take the current in the field winding
when all four MOSFETs in the bridge are turned off.

Q4 is kept on so when the PWM signal is off, current can

continue to flow around the bottom loop through Q3's
intrinsic diode:

To make the motor go backwards:

Q3 is turned on, and Q2 has the PWM signal applied to it:

 Q3 is kept on so when the PWM signal is off, current can
continue to flow around the bottom loop through Q4's
intrinsic diode:

For regeneration: when the motor is going backwards for

example, the motor (which is now acting as a generator) is
forcing current right through its armature, through Q2's diode,
through the battery (thereby charging it up) and back through
Q3's diode:
 Four Quadrant Operation

A.C-D.C Converter(Thyristor rectifiers):

 1- One quadrant

2- Two quadrant

3- Four quadrant

Closed Loop Control

 A.C motors
Three phase induction motor

•Introduction
The Induction motor is a three phase AC motor and is the most
widely used machine. Its characteristic features are-

o Simple and rugged construction

o Low cost and minimum maintenance

o High reliability and sufficiently high efficiency

o Needs no extra starting motor and need not be

synchronized

An Induction motor has basically two parts – Stator and Rotor

• Construction

The Stator is made up of a number of stampings with slots to

carry three phase windings. It is wound for a definite number of
poles. The windings are geometrically spaced 120 degrees apart.
Two types of rotors are used in Induction motors - Squirrel-cage
rotor and Wound rotor.
 A squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars
embedded in parallel slots. These bars are short-circuited at both
ends by means of short-circuiting rings.

A wound rotor has three-phase, double-layer, distributed

winding. It is wound for as many poles as the stator. The three
phases are wired internally and the other ends are connected to
slip-rings mounted on shaft with brushes resting on them. The
brushes are connected to an external resistance that does not
rotate with the rotor and can be varied to change the N-T
characteristics. In fact an Induction motor can be compared with a
transformer because of the fact that just like a transformer it is a
singly energized device which involves changing flux linkages with
respect to a primary (stator) winding and secondary (rotor)
winding.
Basic equations and equivalent circuit
diagram

The stator and rotor of the induction machine both are equipped
with a symmetrical Three phase winding. Because of the symmetry
it is sufficient to take only one phase.
Every phase of the stator and the rotor winding has an active
resistance of R1 and R2, As well as a self-inductance of L1 and
L2.
The windings of the stator and the rotor are magnetically
coupled through a mutual Inductance M.
Since the current flowing in the stator winding has the frequency f1
and the current Flowing in the rotor winding has the frequency f2,
then at the rotor speed n.
• Currents induced from the stator into the rotor have f = f2
• Currents induced from the rotor into the stator have f = f1.
According to this, voltage equations for the primary and
secondary sides can be derived.
The equivalent circuit diagram after the conversion of the rotor
parameters on The stator side is presented

The voltage and current equations are:

With this equivalent circuit diagram, the operational performance of

an induction machine can be completely described. This diagram
is purposely used for the operation with a constant stator flux
linkage, as well as for the operation on network with constant
voltage and frequency.
For normal machines with the network frequency f1 = 50 Hz, the
stator resistance R1Can be neglected:
R1 = 0
At normal operation the windings of slip ring rotor are also short -
circuited through Slip rings and brushes like the squirrel cage rotor.
As far as the skin effect in squirrel Cage rotor is neglected, the
operational performance for both types of the rotor
 Theory of operation
As the stator connected to three phase balanced supply, a
balanced current will flow; as a result a rotating magnetic field will
be set up rotating at speed defined as
Ns=60F/p
Where P= # of pairs of poles of stator winding
This field travels past rotor conductors, inducing a voltage in
each conductor. As the rotor winding is short circuited a current will
flow in it. The interaction between stator rotating flux and rotor
currents will set up a torque tending to rotate the rotor in the same
direction of the stator flux rotation. The rotor will flow the stator flux
at a speed Nr which must be kept lees than Ns to maintain torque.
Practically Nr is near Ns during normal operating condition. For
the observer on the rotor surface the stator flux will slip past him.
The slip is defined as (Ns-Nr) and in per unit is
S = (Ns-NR)/Ns
The frequency of the voltage induced in rotor winding depends
on the difference between Ns and Nr and is given by

Fr = p (Ns-Nr)/60 = S*Fs
Where Fr = frequency of induced rotor voltage
Fs = frequency of applied stator voltage
 Classes of Polyphase Induction motor
The rotor of a polyphase induction machine may be one of two
types; the squirrel cage-rotor, with alternatives for motor classes A,
B, C, D and the wound rotor.
The polyphase induction motor has a squirrel-cage rotor with a
winding consisting of conducting bars embedded in slots in the
rotor iron and short-circuited at each end by conducting end rings.
The extreme simplicity and ruggedness of the squirrel-cage
construction are outstanding advantages of this type of induction
motor and make it by far the most commonly used type of motor in
sizes ranging from fractional horsepower on up.

Design Class A:
Normal Starting Torque, Normal Starting Current, Low Slip
This design usually has a low-resistance, single-cage rotor. It
emphasizes good running performance at the expense of starting.
The full-load slip is low and the full-load efficiency is high. The
maximum torque usually is well over 200 percent of full-load torque
and occurs at a small slip (less than 20 percent). The high starting
current (500 to 800 percent of full-load current when started at
rated voltage) is the principal disadvantage of this design.

Design Class B:
Normal Starting Torque, Low Starting Current, Low Slip
This design has approximately the same starting torque as the
class-A design with but 75 percent of the starting current. Full-
voltage starting, therefore, may be used with larger sizes than with
class A. The starting current is reduced by designing for relatively
high leakage reactance, and the starting torque is maintained by
use of a double-cage or deep-bar rotor. The full-load slip and
efficiency are good, about the same as for the class A design.
However, the use of high reactance slightly decreases the power
factor and decidedly lowers the maximum torque (usually only
slightly over 200 percent of full-load torque being obtainable).

Design Class C:
High Starting Torque, Low Starting Current. This design uses a
double-cage rotor with higher rotor resistance than the class-B
design. The result is higher starting torque with low starting current
but somewhat lower running efficiency and higher slip than the class-
A and class-B designs.

Design Class D:
High Starting Torque, High Slip This design usually has a single-
cage, high-resistance rotor (frequently brass bars). It produces
very high starting torque at low starting current, high maximum
torque at 50 to 100 percent slip, but runs at a high slip at full load (7
to 11 percent) and consequently has low running efficiency.

On the other hand, a wound rotor is built with a polyphase winding

similar to, and wound with the same number of poles as, the stator.
The terminals of the rotor winding are connected to insulated slip
rings mounted on the shaft. Carbon brushes bearing on these rings
make the rotor terminals available external to the motor

Modes of operation
An induction machine has three operation modes:
• Motor (the rotor rotates slower than the rotation field):
M > 0, n > 0, 0 < s < 1
• Generator (the rotor rotates faster than the rotation field):
M < 0, n > n1, s < 0
• Braking operation (the rotor rotates in reverse direction to the
rotating field:
M > 0, n < 0, s > 1

Efficiency
By neglecting the copper losses in the stator R1 = 0 the efficiency
of an induction
Machine at rated operation is:
To obtain a higher rated efficiency, the rated slip Sn should be as
small as possible. In Practice, under the consideration of the stator
copper losses and the iron losses, the Efficiency reaches a value
between 0.8 - 0.95.

Single-Phase Induction Motor

Single-Phase Theory

Because it has but a single alternating current source, a single-

phase motor can only produce an alternating field: one that pulls
first in one direction, then in the opposite as the polarity of the field
switches. A squirrel-cage rotor placed in this field would merely
twitch, since there would be no moment upon it. If pushed in one
direction, however, it would spin.

The major distinction between the different types of single-

phase AC motors is how they go about starting the rotor in a
particular direction such that the alternating field will produce rotary
motion in the desired direction. This is usually done by some
device that introduces a phase-shifted magnetic field on one side
of the rotor.

Split-Phase Motors
The split phase motor
achieves its starting capability
by having two separate
windings wound in the stator. The two windings are separated from
each other. One winding is used only for starting and it is wound
with a smaller wire size having higher electrical resistance than the
main windings. From the rotor's point of view, this time delay
coupled with the physical location of the starting winding produces
a field that appears to rotate. The apparent rotation causes the
motor to start. A centrifugal switch is used to disconnect the
starting winding when the motor reaches approximately 75% of
rated speed. The motor then continues to run on the basis of
normal induction motor principles.

Capacitor-Start Motors

Capacitor start motors form the largest single grouping of

general purpose single phase motors. These motors are available
in a range of sizes from fractional through 3HP. The winding and
centrifugal switch arrangement is very similar to that used in a split
phase motor. The main difference being that the starting winding
does not have to have high resistance. In the case of a capacitor
start motor, a specialized capacitor is utilized in a series with the
starting winding. The addition of this capacitor produces a slight
time delay between the magnetization of starting poles and the
running poles. Thus the appearance of a rotating field exists.
When the motor approaches running speed, the starting switch
opens and the motor continues to run in the normal induction
motor mode.
 This moderately priced motor produces relatively high starting
torque, 225 to 400% of full load torque. The capacitor start motor is
ideally suited for hard to start loads such as conveyors, air
compressors and refrigeration compressors. Due to its general
overall desirable characteristics, it also is used for many
applications where high starting torque may not be required. The
capacitor start motor can usually be recognized by the bulbous
protrusion on the frame
where the starting capacitor
is located

Capacitor start capacitor run

These motors have a run capacitor and an auxiliary winding
permanently connected in parallel with the main winding. In
addition, a starting capacitor and a centrifugal switch are also in
parallel with the run capacitor. The switch disconnects as the
motor accelerates. It should be noted that the capacitor start-
capacitor run motor utilizes the same winding arrangement as the
permanently split capacitor motor when running a full load speed
and the same winding arrangement as a capacitor-start Motor
during startup.
 The advantage of the capacitor start-capacitor run design is
derived from the fact that the start winding and capacitor remain in
the circuit at all times (similar to PSC type motor) and produce an
approximation of two-phase operation at the rated load point, plus
with an additional capacitor in series with the start winding circuit
(similar to the capacitor-start type motor), the starting current now
leads the line voltage, rather than lagging as does the main
winding, dramatically increasing starting torque. Capacitor Start-
capacitor run motors feature a low running current due to an
improved power factor caused by the run capacitor.
This results in better efficiency, better power factor, increased
starting torque and lower 120 Hz torque pulsations than in
equivalent capacitor-start and split-phase
designs. The capacitor start-capacitor run
motor is basically a combination of the
capacitor-start and PSC motor types and
is the best of the single-phase motors.

Permanent-Split Capacitor
Motors
The capacitor of this motor is left in series with the starting
winding during normal operation. The starting torque is quite low,
roughly 40% of full-load, so low-inertia loads such as fans and
blowers make common
applications. Running
performance and speed
regulation can be tailored by
selecting an appropriate capacitor value. No centrifugal switch is
required.

Shaded-Pole Motors

The shaded pole motor is the simplest of all single phase

starting methods. In the shaded pole motor, the stator poles are
notched and a copper short circuiting ring is installed around a
small section of the poles.

As a result of the alteration of the filed pole configuration, the

build-up of the magnetic field is delayed in the portion of the pole
surrounded by the copper shorting ring. From the rotor's point of
view, this makes the magnetic field seem to rotate from the main
pole toward the shaded pole. This slight appearance of field
rotation is adequate to start the rotor moving and, once started, it
will accelerate up to full speed.

The shaded pole motor is simple and inexpensive, but has low
efficiency and a very low starting torque. Speed regulation is poor,
and it must be fan-cooled during normal operation. Shaded-pole
motors are thus used in shaft-mounted fans and blowers, and also
small pumps, toys, and intermittently used household items.
 Advantages & Disadvantages

• Advantages:
- Simple & robust construction
- Can run directly from the main supply
- Power electronic may be applied to improve the performance of
the motor
 - Brushless
- Low cost and minimum maintenance
- High reliability and sufficiently high efficiency

• Disadvantages:
- Difficult model to understand and complicated to compute
simulation
- Cogging & crawling phenomenon
- Its complicate to apply speed control

Speed control of induction motor

techniques

Pulse Width Modulated (PWM)

Figure shows a block diagram of the power conversion unit in a
PWM drive. In this type of drive, a diode bridge rectifier provides
the intermediate DC circuit voltage. In the intermediate DC circuit,
the DC voltage is filtered in a LC low-pass filter. Output frequency
and voltage is controlled electronically by controlling the width of
the pulses of voltage to the motor.
Essentially, these techniques require switching the inverter
power devices (transistors or IGBTs) on and off many times in
order to generate the proper RMS voltage levels.
 This switching scheme requires a more complex regulator than
the VVI. With the use of a microprocessor, these complex
regulator functions are effectively handled. Combining a triangle
wave and a sine wave produces the output voltage waveform.

The triangular signal is the carrier or switching frequency of the

inverter. The modulation generator produces a sine wave signal
that determines the width of the pulses, and therefore the RMS
voltage output of the inverter.
 AC drives that use a PWM type schemes have varying levels
of performance based on control algorithms. There are 4 basic
types of control for AC drives today. These are Volts per Hertz,
Flux Vector Control, and Field Oriented Control.
V/Hz control is a basic control method, providing a variable
frequency drive for applications like fan and pump. It provides fair
speed and torque control, at a reasonable cost.
Sensor-less Vector control provides better speed regulation, and
the ability to produce high starting torque.
Flux Vector control provides more precise speed and torque
control, with dynamic response.
Field Oriented Control drives provide the best speed and torque
control available for AC motors. It provides DC performance for AC
motors, and is well suited for typical DC applications.
Volts/Hertz
Volt/Hertz control in its simplest form takes a speed reference
command from an external source and varies the voltage and
frequency applied to the motor. By maintaining a constant V/Hz
ratio, the drive can control the speed of the connected motor.
 Typically, a current limit block monitors motor current and
alters the frequency command when the motor current exceeds a
predetermined value. The V/Hz block converts the current
command to a V/Hz ratio. It supplies a voltage magnitude
command to the voltage control block. The angle of this tells the
voltage where it should be with respect to current. This determines
flux current to the motor. If this angle is incorrect, the motor can
operate unstable. Since the angle is not controlled in a V/Hz drive,
low speeds and unsteady states may operate unsatisfactorily. An
additional feature in newer drives, a “slip compensation” block, has
improved the speed control. It alters the frequency reference when
the load changes to keep the actual motor speed close to the
desired speed.
While this type of control is very good for many applications, it
is not well suited to applications that require higher dynamic
performance, applications where the motor runs at very low
speeds, or applications that require direct control of motor torque
rather than motor frequency.

V/Hz Speed vs. Torque

 The plot above shows the steady state torque performance of
a Volts/Hertz drive. A torque transducer directly on the motor shaft
supplied the data that is plotted. The drive is given a fixed
speed/frequency reference. Then load on the motor is increased
and actual shaft torque is monitored.
Notice that the ability of the drive to maintain high torque
output at low speeds drops off significantly below 3 Hz. This is a
normal characteristic of a Volts/Hertz drive and is one of the
reasons that the operating speed range for Volts/Hertz drives is
typically around 20:1.
As the load is increased, the motor speed drops off. This is not
an indication of starting torque. This only shows the ability of the
drive to maintain torque output over a long period of time.
Sensor-less Vector
Sensor-less Vector Control, like a V/Hz drive, continues to
operate as a frequency control drive, with slip compensation
keeping actual motor speed close to the desired speed.
The Torque Current Estimator block determines the percent of
current that is in phase with the voltage, providing an approximate
torque current. This is used to estimate the amount of slip,
providing better speed control under load.

The control improves upon the basic V/Hz control technique by

providing both a magnitude and angle between the voltage and
current. V/Hz drives only control the magnitude. V-angle controls
the amount of total motor current that goes into motor flux enabled
by the Torque Current Estimator. By controlling this angle, low
speed operation and torque control is improved over the standard
V/Hz drive

Flux Vector
The flux vector control retains the Volts/Hertz core and adds
additional blocks around the core to improve the performance of
the drive. A “current resolver” attempts to identify the flux and
torque producing currents in the motor and makes these values
available to other blocks in the drive. A current regulator that more
accurately controls the motor replaces the current limit block.
Notice that the output of the current regulator is still a frequency
reference.
The early versions of Flux vector required a speed feedback
signal (typically an encoder) and also detailed information about
the motor in order to properly identify the flux and torque currents.
This led to the requirement for “matched motor/drive”
combinations.
While there is nothing inherently wrong with this approach, it does
limit the users motor choices and does not offer independent
control of motor flux and torque.
Flux vector control improves the dynamic response of the
drive and in some cases can even control motor torque as well as
motor speed. However, it still relies on the basic volts/Hertz core
for controlling the motor.

Recently, flux vector control has been enhanced to allow the

drive to operate without the use of a speed feedback device,
relying instead on estimated values for speed feedback and slip
compensation. Again, the basic Volts/Hertz core is retained.
Field Oriented Control
What distinguishes a product using Field Oriented Control
from a traditional vector product is its ability to separate and
independently control (or regulate) the motor flux and torque.
Notice that in the definition of Field Oriented Control we did not say
“currents in an AC motor”. That’s because the concept applies
equally well to DC motors and is the reason we can demonstrate
“DC like” performance using Field Oriented Control on AC drives.
Force Technology uses patented, high bandwidth current
regulators in combination with an adaptive controller, to separate
and control the motor flux and torque. This is a fundamental
difference between Force Technology and other vector control
techniques.

A high bandwidth current regulator that separates and controls

the components of stator current replaces the Volts/Hertz core.
The high bandwidth characteristics of this control eliminate
nuisance trips due to shock loads and continuously adapt to
changes in the motor and load characteristics.
A separate adaptive controller uses information gained during
auto tuning, actual reference information, and motor feedback
information to give independent torque and flux control. This allows
continuous regulation of the motor speed and torque.
Also notice that Force Technology generates separate flux
and torque references to improve the overall control of those
quantities.
Sensor-less Field Oriented Control
As with flux vector products the newest versions of Force
Technology allow users to control the motor without the use of a
speed-sensing device. A major difference is that the drive
continues to operate with Field Oriented control, instead of
reverting back to Volts/Hertz control.
This provides significant benefits with dynamic performance,
trip less operation, and torque regulation.

Below is a plot of a drive using the Sensor-less version of

Force Technology. Notice that the torque output is consistent from
no load to full load over a very wide speed range.
You can also see that the motor has a speed/torque
characteristic that is very similar to its DC counterpart, even when
operating above base speed.
Performance Comparison
The graph below shows a drive using Force Technology
operating with and without an encoder, and a Volts/Hertz drive.
Notice that there is very little difference in operation with or without
an encoder. You can
clearly see the response
to the step load and the
recovery time. The
same can be seen when
the load is removed.

Comparison
between D.C
&A.C Drives

D.C A.C
 Weight Heavy Light

Size Large Small

Cost Expensive Less expensive

Starting torque High Low

High speed Not used Suitable

Control Simple Complex

Feed back signal Available Complicated

Types Separately, Induction,

series, Synchronous
shunt