Describing the de Broglie Model

De Broglie hypothesised that electrons might have wave

properties.
He reasoned that if photons have an equivalent mass
(based on Einsteins relativity theory relating mass and
energy), and they had wave properties, that electrons,
with a small mass, would conversely have wave
properties.
His hypothesis was confirmed by experiments
demonstrating that an electron beam produced a
diffraction pattern, very similar to x-ray diffraction, when
passed through crystalline materials.
X-ray diffraction produced by potassium sulfate crystals
[right]

Describing the de Broglie Model

De Broglie predicted that moving electrons would have wave properties
Wave properties restrict the orbits of electrons to specific, discrete values
Orbits not involving a whole number of electron wavelengths would produce
destructive interference

A possible electron orbit

Electron orbits

An impossible orbit

Describing the de Broglie Model

De Broglie related work done by
Planck and Einstein, producing a
result that correctly predicted the
wave properties of electrons and
their associated wavelengths.

Electron orbits - background

Electrons in Solids - Insulators

The electrons in insulators are all held firmly
in chemical bonds (shared between atoms syllabus)
The electrons are unable to move, hence
these materials do not conduct electricity.
Diamonds are a good example of an electrical
insulator.
Covalent compounds (for the benefit of
chemistry students), or substances made of a
mixture of such compounds, do not conduct
electricity well - they are insulators. e.g.
sugar, alcohol, wood, paper, glass, ceramics
(except for superconducting ceramics).

Electrons in Solids - Insulators

In insulators such as diamond, the outer electrons are used in

pairs to form chemical bonds between atoms and so these
electrons are not free to move through the material

Electrons in Solids - Conductors

Electron conduction
through metals under
the action of an
electric field.

Solids, that are conductors, have electrons in them that can readily move
through the material. Most metals are very good electrical conductors
because the outer electrons of the atoms are free to move from atom to
atom. Even the colour of metals is due to this sea of electrons.

Electrons in Solids - Conductors

Metals have a lattice structure of immovable positive ions in a

sea of electrons free to move through the structure

Electrons in insulators cannot move through the material

There is no sharp division between conductors and insulators

Electrons in Solids - Semiconductors

A pure single crystal of silicon
Sliced into disks for IC production
Becomes an integrated circuit (P2)

The Periodic Table - Semiconductors

14

Si
32

Ge

Comparison of number of charge carriers

Number of charge carriers

conductors have
many charge carriers

insulators have
almost no free
charge carriers

insulators
Qualitative only

Semiconductors
have much fewer
charge carriers than
conductors, but
more that insulators

conductors semiconductors

Electrons in Solids - Semiconductors

Electrons in Solids - Semiconductors

Outer electrons in metals are already in the conduction band.

It takes some energy to move electrons from the valence to
the conduction band in semiconductors.
Larger band gaps result in greater resistances of materials.
Band structure and electrical resistance

Electrons in Solids - Semiconductors

Band structure and electrical resistance

Electrons in Solids - Semiconductors

Explanation
Atomic vibration excites some
electrons across the band gap into
the conduction band.
Corresponding holes are created in
the valence band.
Both holes and electrons act as
charge carriers.
As the temperature increases, the
number of electron-hole pairs
increases and the semiconductor
conductivity increases.
In metals, conductivity decreases
with increasing temperature.
Band structure and electrical resistance

Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors

Pure semiconductors are called

intrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors are
insulators at 0 K (absolute zero)
Above absolute zero the
conductivity of intrinsic
semiconductors increases with
increasing temperature

14

Si
32

Ge

Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors

+
+
+

electron
hole
Electrons and holes exist in equal numbers
When an electric field is applied
electrons and holes move in opposite directions
Investigation - electrons, holes and conduction when an electric field is applied

Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors

+
+
+

This model applies to intrinsic semiconductors

Investigation - electrons, holes and conduction when an electric field is applied

The invention of the transistor

By the late 1950s, electrical engineers were
aware of the potential of digital electronics.
The first digital computers had been built
already, using vacuum tube technology.
Circuits being designed required exponentially
increasing numbers of components. The first
digital computer had over 18000 valves which
meant there was a very short time between
breakdowns.
This was mediated against by the physical
limitations of assembling such large numbers of
components together.
How shortcomings in available technology lead to the invention of the transistor

Invention of the Transistor - Role of Germanium

The first transistors were made of germanium, rather than silicon, because
germanium could be purified and worked at significantly lower temperatures
it was too difficult to produce pure crystals of silicon for semiconductor use
The first [germanium] transistor

An early germanium transistor

Germanium use related to lack of ability to produce [silicon] of suitable purity

Germanium was the First Semiconductor Used

Germanium transistors had disadvantages including
undesirable variation in performance with
temperature increase
their low power outputs (limited by temperature
constraints)
the relative rarity and hence expense of germanium
mechanical point contact between doped
semiconductors, resulted in a lack of ruggedness
and reliability

Why silicon became the preferred material for the transistor

Silicon and the transistor

The later use of silicon in transistors
resulted in an increase in the operating
temperature of semiconductor devices
improved semiconductor power handling ability
(because of higher Toperating)
grown junctions later used in silicon transistors
increased ruggedness and reliability

Why silicon became the preferred material for the transistor

Doping of semiconductors
The electrical properties of semiconductors can
be changed by the addition of minute quantities of
other elements into the crystal lattice
This process is called doping
Elements used for doping typically have either 3
or 5 outer electrons, and similar size atoms to the
semiconductor material so that they substitute
readily into the semiconductor crystal lattice
The electrical properties change due
to the creation of additional charge
carriers - doped semiconductors are
better conductors than intrinsic
semiconductors because they contain
more charge carriers per unit volume
How doping changes electrical properties

B
15

Doping of semiconductors

The addition of dopants containing 5 outer electrons produces a

semiconductor having more free electrons in the conduction band
than an intrinsic semiconductor. There are more negative charge
carriers than holes.
P-type and N-type semiconductors and relative numbers of charge carriers

Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors

n-type semiconductor
1 atom in 200 000 substituted
The old group V is now called the group 15 elements

Intrinsic, p-type and n-type semiconductors

Doping of semiconductors

The addition of dopants containing 3 outer electrons produces a

semiconductor having holes than there are electrons in the
conduction band. There are more positive charge carriers than
electrons free to flow as current.
P-type and N-type semiconductors and relative numbers of charge carriers

Electrical Conduction in Semiconductors

The old group III is now called the group 13 elements

Intrinsic, p-type and n-type semiconductors

Differences between thermionic and solid state

Solid state devices have generally replaced thermionic devices
Small size
Better economy of operation - lower power consumption
Greater speed
Reliability is much better (more rugged, lower temperatures)
Economical to produce
Mass-production techniques are possible

Why solid state replaced thermionic devices (vacuum tubes)

Solar cells and the photoelectric effect

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Semiconductors, electric fields and current in solar cells