The

Encyclopedia of

II

Edited by
Malcolm Stuart

\v

"*
r.yfr.

In The Encyr' ^edia of Herbs and Herbalism, an

enthusiastic

Malcolm

team

<

experts headed by

Dr

Stuart has produced a practical

detailed guide. Beginning with the origins

development of herbalism, they give fall

and
and

r;

account of the biology and chemistry of plants,

moving on to present-day usage ranging from
medicine, cooking and cosmetics, to dyes and
animal food-stuffs. Practical aspects of herb
cultivation, collection and pr-- ^1 vation are also
examined. The alphabetical section describes
420 herbs in detail, with full botanical
descriptions, their habitats

and methods of
and

cultivation, their chemical constituents

their

many and varied uses.

The 350 superb photograph^ and over

1 go specially commissioned drawings and
diagrams allow the reader to identify each
species, and the notes on cultivation will c.iable
anyone to start a personal herb garden. The
possibilities provided by modern processes such

as electric drying,

and the age-old refinement

traditional herb cookery, are all elements in

comprehensive new work of reference on

an increasingly popular subject.

this

Jacket photograph by

Mike Foster

Below : The Mandrake, thought for

centuries to

possess magical powers because of its resemblance

the

human form. ( IGDA)

Back flap : Galanthus

(Pat Brindley)

rac>^v "

<&*

nivalis

- Snowdrop

to

of

The Encyclopedia of

Herbs and Herbalism

The
Encyclopedia of

Herbs
Herbalism
Edited by
/

Malcolm Stuart
Publishers

GROSSET & DUNLAP

New

York

A FILMWAYS COMPANY

7
'

B^VIf

rr

YC

Copyright

1979 Orbis Publishing

Limited, London, and Istituto
("

Geografico de Agostini, SpA, Novara

All rights reserved

Printed in Italy by
Grafiche,

IGDA,

Officine

Novara

SBN: 0-448-15472-2
Library of Congress catalog card

number: 78-58101
First Grosset & Dunlap Edition 1979

Endpapers

from
(

Spices

haded by

Mansell Collection)

HalJ-litle page

The pomegranate Punica

I

granatum from Duhamel's

century herbal,
(

the Chinese,

a seventeenth-century illustration

nineteenth-

Traite des Arbres

Michael Holjord)

Title page

spica

English Lavender

'Lavandula

(Jane Burton/Bruce Coleman)

Right: Some of

the ingredients for

pot-pourri (Leslie Johns)

making
s<

Contents

Introduction

Malcolm Stuart

The history of herbalism

Kay Sanecki and Christopher Pick

The biology and chemistry of plants

Allen Paterson

and Peter Hy lands

The medicinal uses

Peter Hylands

of plants

47

and Malcolm Stuart

Herbs
/.

29

in the kitchen
Audrey Ellison and Christopher Pick

The domestic and cosmetic uses of herbs

71

93

Kay Sanecki
Cultivation, collection

and preservation of herbs 115

Kay Sanecki

Reference section

141

Malcolm Stuart

v>

Glossary

284

Conversion tables

291

Organizations

291

Bibliography

292

General index

294

Index of plants

296

Acknowledgments

304

ar*

8T

y*

$*2

>
-it

---

&&

Introduction

Herbalism

has

long

been

thought

to

almost exclusively of the lighthearted study of early printed works

which dealt with the supposed medicinal
action of plants or their use in cookery.

consist

The

only recently
with quack
medicine and become part of the return
to a more natural way of life with the
study

begun

of herbs

has

to lose its association

rediscovery of our pre-industrial heritage.

The study of herbs cannot be slotted into a

narrow botanical niche, either, since the

development of man's relationship with
plants has always been inextricably linked
with economics, religion and science.
"herb",
In defining the term
'herbaceous' plants arc those which lack a
wood) stem and die down to the ground at

end of

tin

the plant

is

their

growing season, or

an annual. Yet

life if

this definition

cannot accommodate some of

herbs that come to mind such

the

first

as Sage.

Rosemary or Lavender. These arc among

the most commonly used herbs which are
woody and do not die down. As het

dictionary restricts our study to

the-

use of

and leaves from plants whereas

herbalism can involve the- use of lichens,
fungi and innumerable other plants whose

steins

fruit, roots,
us.

bark and

we must simply

gums

are of value to

define herbalism as the

stuck of those plants which are of use to

man. The

definition of a herb

complicated
Left

.'

by

the

inclusion

is

further
of

such

The old-world charm of a formal

herb garden showing the use

of a focal point
and plants with foliage of various colours
(Gatdden Manor, near Taunton, England).

plants as certain onions, beetroot, celery,

and chicory, which we now term

olives

vegetables. Originally herbs were divided

into

three

types:

different

pot

herbs,

which

included onions, for example;

sweet herbs, such as thyme, which we now
call culinary herbs; and salad herbs such
as wild celery. In the seventeenth century
pot herbs began to be called vegetables
since they were no longer thought of as
suitable only for the pot but

The

used at table.

were

also

horticultural breeding

of these plants led to the development of

their structure

and

from the wild plant

bitter

modern

Until

their

away
and less

flavour

to the larger

equivalents.

comparatively

recently

herbs

and quite clearly a

necessary commodity in life. In medieval
were an
Europe,

integral

for

instance,

their

cultivation,

and distribution were essential

to the smooth maintenance of any household. In the kitchen Ash twigs (Fraxinus
excelsior) and Horsetail (Equisetum arvense)
served respectively as egg whisks and
brushes. Such herbal implements are to be
collection

found today only

Soapwort

or

in exclusive chandlers.

Bouncing

Bet

(Saponana

was used as a soap for delicate

fabrics, and Pennyroyal {Mentha pulegium)
Verbascum
as a flea-repellent. Mullein
thapsus) and other herbs served as tapers or
emergency candles, and almost every
daily task involved one herb or another.
For cheesemaking Lady's Bedstraw {Galium verum) provided a juice which acted as
the rennet. Herbs still play a vital role in
the tobacco and brewing industries, in the
manufacture of wine and liqueurs, as
officinalis)

INTRODUCTION
and colourings in the conand in the manufacture of
dyes. With their lovely natural scents and
oils, herbs are once again becoming as
essential to the modern cosmetic business
as they have always been to perfume
flavourings

fectionery trade

manufacturers.
In order to understand the present
revival of herbalism, the development of
man's relationship with plants through
the centuries should be examined. Historv
from the emergence of Homo sapiens to
the present day can be divided into three
broad epochs the hunter-gatherer period,
the agricultural period and the present
agricultural-industrial period with its
beginnings some four hundred years ago.
:

Our knowledge
of man

We

and

his

know

can

of the very early history

evolution

very

early man's diet

is still

little for

very vague.

certain about

and way of

and our

life,

assessment of his dependence on plants

must, therefore, be a combination of

Above: This ancient painting of healing drugs

Below

page from an eleventh-century

surmise and deduction from the remains

was used

herbal. It illustrates an Ivy

discovered by archaeologists. While tools

Galen, whose accounts of botanical drugs

herb's

and describes the

medicinal applications. (This one was

and

were undisputed until the Middle Ages.

written at

Bury St Edmunds, England.)

indication of economics and technology,

to illustrate

a book by

artifacts

plants

^T.

C/'flbnTndlu.

ftulluTfarrom
aVU-

JLrpprui

l^rfriu cdcti,

M .u]iui
Qbtai

\rj u

JtSau

'fun>

<

jM

a* myczu
tnirr far

regions and, often, caves. Plant remains

comprise a variety of forms, mostly seeds,

some flower and

fruit stalks

and

leaves.

can identify plants from

these remains, and even fossilized faeces
can provide clues.

skilled botanist

hunter-gatherer,

man hunted

animals, fished, gathered wild fruits and

leaves

and grubbed up the edible

wild plants.

He may

or

may

roots of

not have

poisonous plants. Certainly he must have

experimented with and come to know the
many plants within the limits of his

rsfcC-Mtm*
jttiiii).;^'

wanderings. Most were innocuous and bland; some nourished him;

a handful were particularly pleasant to
taste and some equally unpleasant. By
trial and error he discovered that some
could relieve pain, some proved fatal and
a few had a strange unearthly effect on his
mind and body. In this period man was
able to develop techniques for neutralizing or rendering palatable the parts of
plants which he discovered to be of any
value to him.
Plants were chopped, leached, dried,
roasted and cooked. There is even some
evidence that the hunter-gatherer may
have experimented with fermentation.

nomadic

fumr

aqua

adite,-

aiyauom

l>ocfarirf lurvt cjirca tcciTttX*

li rtiu nlatt t^ uino

7mrr Umax

in

reacted instinctively in his rejection of

Cdrra niqia

ftbrr

and foods are only preserved

As a
aiirf fbrtr

m oUd rof*mo frgS

ltmino

nna

bucaf A,

luptu ponti-

survive to give an

ideal conditions, such as particularly dry

commonly

(rbvrc fuf^

5*

>

boo

urnr cotara Tfunbar^

Tiiairolr*^^

mmjytnffmr^J dLumoftilZ*n^ ruf mdxzun

lb ^
nwUifliinc
aim riidcra) <eto&JJ PW^ducr tufoTDtTn

(rdrrr for

Right : Marjoram was cultivated

vV^

medieval times not only as a food flavouring

but also for

its

medicinal qualities,

particularly as an antiseptic.

HUNTER-GATHERERS

INTRODUCTION
The hunter-gatherer period was
est clinical trial in

ally

history

the long-

which eventu-

produced the herbs that provided the

best foods, the poison to destroy enemies,

the

finest

drinks,

fuels

and weapons,

soporific

medicines, the plants that pro-

duced colour for body and cave paintings,

and the 'magic' plants which carried
primitive man away from reality.
This last group consists, of course, of
those

herbs

tactile, taste or

causing

visual,

auditory,

other hallucinations.

They

are variously described as hallucinatorv.

psvchedelic. narcotic or psychoactive,

and

can vary from mild euphoria

inducement of artificial psychoM s.
Their importance cannot be overemphasized since the effects they have on the

human mind and body

ful role

To

led to the

early

man

such herbs offered tempor-

ary relief and an escape from the severitv

of his environment.

When

The

power-

they played in primitive society.

sick they pro-

and

early doctors

herbalists

were

invested with an appropriately high social

status

and indeed, they often enhanced

their

social

secrets'

position

of their

by

herbal

guarding the
remedies and

ills,

stage-managing superstition. Mandrake.

though often we must suppose that the

psychic effects of these plants were of more
importance than their purely physical

a herb with anciently appreciated anaes-

vided a direct palliative or cure for his

effects.

we

This

is

when
modern

especially significant

consider that to early

man

the

between science, medicine, art

and religion would not have had any
meaning. Sickness, in primitive societies,
divisions

often attributed to supernatural forces

their effect

is

to the

entering; the

body and from the earliest

medicine was linked with

times, therefore,

the supernatural.

and purgative properties, was imbued with many forbidding superstitions.

In the first century a.d.. Josephus the
Jewish historian said that Mandrake had
the power to expel evil spirits from sick
persons but that it was certain death to
uproot it casually. The Paeony. too. had
to be dug at night, for if a woodpecker
thetic

caught a gatherer by day. woe to his c

Hallucinatory herbs and their products
have been used for thousands of years in
all civilizations. Today their abuse is a
topic of much contention in what is known
as the drug problem. Opium, hashish,
cannabis, morphine, and cocaine are the
most frequently misused. The long historical associations of such herbs with the
supernatural and primitive religion have
been incorporated into modern attitudes
to herbalism. Much of the valuable knowledge our ancestors accumulated about
herbs has been dismissed because of superstitious contamination.
The second period in history witnessed
the birth of agriculture, not as was once
supposed in the fertile valleys of M>
potamia. but in the Near East. One of the
earliest archaeological sites

i>

at

Jarmo

in

where excavations have revealed

evidence of wheat and barley which have
been dated at 6750 B.C. Agriculture began
a few thousand years later in the New
W( >rld and probably started independently.
Maize, gourds, beans and squashes
have been found in early sites in Mexico.
Iraq

The

discovery

Neolithic

of

agriculture

revolution,

as

or

the

archaeologists

was to change man's whole

Whereas the hunter-gatherer
needed a good deal of land to sustain him.
term

it.

existence.

agriculture

meant

that relatively smaller

under cultivation could

sustain a whole community. Man began
to make permanent settlements and the
prerequisites for the growth of science
areas

of land

commenced. Instead of subsisting man

could open up the forests to make suitable
environments

for

the

herbaceous sun-

loving crops he favoured.

B.C.. the Egyptians were makPapyrus and palm fibre,
ropes
from
ing

By 3500

they had begun to

Left:

make

cosmetics and

The frontispiece of a compendium of

was published in France in

plants, which

IJJ4- It describes the plants' range of uses

man.

to

10

REVIVAL OF INTEREST
Right

Many

aquatic herbs are

still

important as medicinal or aromatic plants

Papyrus, the best known aquatic herb, was

used by the Egyptians

5000 years

perfumes and

treatment of disease
reliant on magic. By

in their

became

they

2700

the

B.C.

ago.

less

Chinese had started

to

approach healing
with the use of herbs on a more scientific
basis. Everywhere those species most usecultivate

and

to

or highly prized for domestic, medicin-

ful
al

tea

or religious

employment were brought

into cultivation, planted nearer to

dwellings and stored.

man

The

human

Persians gave

first gardens by planting aroscented herbs together with

and
matic
shade-offering trees in beautiful and
peaceful sites. In some early cities like
Nineveh, municipal herb gardens were
planted for popular use. State-run medicinal herb gardens can be seen in Nepal.
Slowly scholarship and trade developed
and flourished. Ideas were exchanged as
communication grew and with the great
civilizations of Greece and Rome the
foundations of modern science and medicine had been laid. The classical works of
the Greeks and Romans provided standard reference sources right up to the

the

seventeenth century, but nevertheless the

most useful herbs included in them can be
traced back to the hunter-gatherers and
Neolithic

man. Herbalism and our under-

have a far more restricted

than the Roman conquerors of Europe. Sadly, industrializ-

and most of
vegetable

us

diet

meant

ation has

the loss of

much

of the

standing of the benefits of plants did not

Stop developing with the Greeks and

valuable herbal knowledge of our ancestors and the misconception that we can

Romans, however, neither has its stud)

been limited to Europe.
he dis< o\ ei \ of
New
World
brought
the
many new plants
which were added to European herbals
and pharmacopoeias. But even so u only
have records of a mere fraction ol the

manage without
This

world's 342.000 estimated species ol plant

life.
Wild products and plants are still

gathered in large quantities even in the

most economically advanced countries;
new spei ies of wild plants are still being
taken into cultivation

way

in exactly

same

the

as the firsl auric ulturalists did, while-

more

uses air being found

leu

well-known

plants.

enthusiasm for the

initial
Yet OUl
hemical and synthetic alternatives to
herbs made available by modern science

has had the effect

our
Rein o\ eel from the basic proe esses o| prod lie tion, we now know little or nothing about

real

e>l

blindfolding us

and continued need

for

tei

herbs,

raw mate-rials or staye-s involved in the

we cannol tell
commodities we- buy
whether the- d\e in blue- jeans is from
Incline. e>r India, Efficiency had dictated
the

thai

e>|

the-

200,000

spec ies of

plants, only 12 or 13 arc- widely

herbs.

clearly a very great misconcep-

is

tion if one thinks of the

massive quantities
crude herbs used today <\ en in the- most

ol

sophisticated of societies.

revival

hundred

herbalism is now experiencing a

>>\
both public and professional

interest.

The

culed medic

al

professions

which

herbalism

ineffective

wi\es"

'old

Superstitious

nature

.is

tales'

so ridi-

are-

and

once

an attempt to
methods
and
materials
free horn
discover
tinundesirable side-effects frequently
experienced with the modern 'chemically
again turning

to

tailored' synthetic drug.

in

New methods

reappraisal are being used to judge

of

the

produced by centuries of practical

experience. There ate- signs that the
beliefs

revival

of interest

tremely profitable
practices ol our
i

ic

it

ol

in

to

herbs will be ex-

man and

ancestors

the-

herbal

are

being

reasingly vindicated. By careful studies

has been shown that a good proportion

the beliefs of the old herb physicians

flowering

were right, and that, for example, plants

do indeed posse-ss different properties if

ultivated.

harvested

at

herbs used separately.

There has also been a revival

of popular
Enthusiasm has been
aroused for the charm and serenity of the
old fashioned herb garden with its associated culinary and aromatic herbs which

interest

different times ol the da\ 01

in

herbs.

somehow suit the requirements of modern

times. Herb gardens provide useful materand

ials

Alter a decline of about two

years,

year and that certain combinations of

more active than the individual

plants are

minimum

yet

require

not

remain attractive with a

of maintenance, for herbs do

horticultural

special
skills.

soils
or complex
Herbs provide the

vitamins and minerals increasingly sought

alter for a healthy diet. They provide an
ideal starting-point for a range of home-

made products
wines,
dyes.
use.

such as cosmetics, ales,

pot-pourris and

scented sachets,

Not only are herbs cheap and easy

but

those in general

advantage of being
to

free

to

use have- the

from the dangers

health often contained in

man-made

commodities, be they drugs, food colourings or hair dyes.

Herbalism has become part of the new

concern in our society for an ecological
balance and an unpolluted 'natural' way
of life. This late twentieth-century appreciation of herbs and their immense value
in food and medicine truly represents the
rediscovery of old wisdom indicating that
the biblical expression
as true-

today

as

it

'all

flesh

is

grass'

is

always has been.

I

Sfet

Skri

The history
#

of herbalism

&&
^*fcm.

sa.

mn.

"-

Who first used plants we do not know. But

someone - more probably, many different

religious belief in a

people - in the earliest mists of history,

long before the earliest records that now

the gods, receiving their powers of healing

from them.
This much is assumption. But it is valid
assumption, given our understanding of
human nature in general and our knowledge of the earliest communities that
archaeologists have been able to trace. It
also accords with the first medical records
that we have, from India, China, Egypt

survive, discovered that

good

to eat

and

some plants are

that others have healing

properties. This

was the

first

step in a

lengthy process of trial and error by which

early man in different communities slowly

up a corpus of knowledge about

To this gradual process was
added, no doubt, experience handed
down from generation to generation by
word of mouth and a measure of intuition.
Why and how a plant should have been
capable of curing sickness must have remained a mystery to those early communities,
Indeed, only the development of
built

plants.

sophisticated techniques of chemical an-

century or so has at last

provide the solution. So those

alysis in the last

begun

who

to

took a special interest in the healing

qualities of plants

and became especially

gradually
gained an honoured place in society. Their
skills and knowledge singled them out
from the mass as medicine men. Because
there were no readily comprehensible
explanations of how plants healed, primitive communities tended to attribute the
process to a god or gods, as indeed they did
any phenomenon that puzzled them.
Thus the earliest medicine men became
associated with the whole structure of
skilled

in

their

application

were

priests

who

community.

Many

acted as instruments of

and Assyria.
This very vagueness about the first
herbalists points to an important dichotomy in our knowledge of herbs and those
who used them. The story that follows
inevitably recounts what might be termed
the 'official' aspect of herbalism - the only
one for which records remain. We can
only suppose - but none the less with every
confidence - the existence of an 'unofficial' side to herbalism, a succession of
ordinary country men and women skilled
and knowledgeable about the herbs of
their area and their uses - medicinal,
culinary and in the preparation of dyes,
perfumes and cosmetics. Only rarely do
these people emerge in the 'official' story.
Finally, in the nineteenth-century industrial revolution in the western world,
urbanization and the increasing division
of labour gradually caused such rural

Mandrake. For centuries it was thought that

if humans dug up the plant it meant certain

wisdom to die out.

We know little of the origins of medicine in China and in India. It is thought
that the Emperor Chin Nong composed a
herbal in about 2700 b.c. and that some
60 years later another Emperor, Huang-

death.

ti,

Left:

dog uprooting the 'shrieking

wrote a

treatise

on medicine. In India.
'3

HISTORY
the Rig Yeda. one of the sacred books of

ledge

the Brahmins, mentions the use of medi-

spread

cinal plants.

The

scarcity of

knowledge

about ancient medical practice in these

countries should not. however, lead us to
assume that no developed system existed
there, nor that ideas, beliefs and practices
may not have passed across Asia, between
these ancient civilizations, in a process of

which we now know

nothing. Lack of evidence means that we
can only point to China and India and
cross-fertilization of

state that a tradition of medicine as old as

that of

Europe does

exist

there, perhaps

one that is even older, and that plants

were undoubtedly used as remedies. As a
result,
an account of the history of
herbalism is confined to describing the
gradual development of medical know-

in

Egypt and Mesopotamia,

first

its

to the countries of the eastern

Mediterranean and Persia and Armenia,

to ancient Greece and then throughout
Europe and - two thousand years later to the New World.
For many centuries botany and medicine were closely linked, and plants were
central to medical practice. They provided the chief,

if

not the only, remedies

other than surgery, and

theories

were

addition,

many

many medical

around

them. In
ordinary people will have
put their faith in the long line of herbalistwho sold their patent remedies made up
from different herbs in towns and villages,
successful because they were cheaper than
doctors and physicians and perhaps also
because they appealed to the always very
built

potent traditions of folklore and magic.

Only

have
and medical scienthe same time medical

since the eighteenth century

the paths of botanists

tists divided: at
treatment has become available for everyone, and the old herbal remedies have
died out.

EGYPT
The Egyptian civilization is the first of
which we have any extensive medical
knowledge. Much of that is somewhat
imprecise, as

is

illustrated in the case of

Imhotep. the first Egyptian physician

whose name survives. He served Zoser. a
3rd Dynasty Pharaoh, in about 2980 B.C.
and was renowned as an astrologer and
magician as well as for his healing powers.
His reputation lived on after he died:
legends grew up about his work and he
was eventually transformed into a god of
healing. For the Egyptians some two
millennia later, whether Imhotep had
actually lived or not would have been unimportant; in fact, his reality would not
have been questioned in such terms. Just
as a contemporary healer would have
been regarded as a priest and instrument
of the gods because of his healing

Imhotep.

skills.

who had been the subject of

down for many centurie-.

legends handed

would have been regarded as a god.

The ground becomes rather firmer by
about 2000 b.c. Various medical papyri most important among them being the
famous Ebers Papyrus - discovered by
archaeologists in the last 100 years

list

of medical prescriptions in use after

about 1800 B.C. Mineral substances and
series

animal products were included, but about

five-sixths of the ingredients were of
vegetable origin. Each prescription dessymptoms of the disease and

cribes the

gives instructions

on how the cure

One

is

to

be

administered and prepared.

prescription, intended "to empty the belly
and clear out all impurities from the body
typical

of a sick person", required field herbs,

honey, dates and uah grain to be mixed
together and chewed by the patient for
one day.
These same papyri demonstrate the
central role of the gods in Egyptian medicine - and. of course, in the entire life of
Egyptian society. Osiris was worshipped
as a god of vegetation. Isis. his twin sister
Left: Imhotep (c.2g8o B.C.). the first

known Egyptian physician. A celebrated

sage among his contemporaries, he was
worshipped as a god after his death.
Imhotep was the patron of the sciences and of
doctors. For ordinary people he was regarded
as the god of healing.

ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS

and mother, was one of the most ancient

goddesses of Egypt. She held it in her
power to renew life and was reputed to
have transmitted the secrets of healing to
mankind. As such a powerful magician
and healer, it was to her that the Egyptians
prayed for deliverance from disease.
Thoth was believed to have formulated
each healing prescription. He is represented as holding in his left hand the
symbol of life and in his right a staff

around which a serpent is coiling itself - a

symbol of the physician to this day.
So the picture that comes down to us
from Egyptian sources is of increasing
medical skill confined as it were within a
framework of magic. A herbalist carried
with him both a casket of medicines and a
magician's wonder-working rod; before
treatment could begin, the gods had t<> be
called on to cast out the devil which

We

shall find this

association between medic

me and magic
How much

possessed the patient.

continuing in ancient Greece.

both there and in Egypt it was

,i

resull ol a

genuine belief in the power of the L, ods,

how much because of a desire on the
herbalist's part to keep his skills secrel
through a pio< ess ol mystification we anr

uot

now

distinguish. But before

Greece
objectiveat

turn to
<>l

we must look
Mesopotamia and

medical science

the civilizations of

their

we

also saw the beginnings

which

approach

to

medic

inc.

or vice versa
ly,

is

not known. Quite probab-

they both borrowed from a

Asian source

common

in a process of cultural

con-

which is now lost.

The earliest Sumerian herbal dates
from some time after 2500 b.c. and has
come down to us in the form of a copy
tact all trace of

dating from the seventh century b.c. Later

Assyrian inscribed tablets are

much more

informative. Tablets from the library of

Ashurbanipal. King of Assyria between

668 and 626 B.C.. reveal that knowledge of
herbs and their medicinal properties must
have been considerable. Some 250 vegetable drugs are mentioned, as well as 120
mineral drugs and some 180 that remain
unidentified. This wealth of information
makes it reasonable to assume that
gardens where medicinally useful plants
wen cultivated must have been established. Whether physic gardens in the
sense th.it the term came to be used in the
Middle Ayes ever existed is uncertain.
But we do know that gardens and parks

were

laid out

that in

one

round the royal palaces and

herbs were grown.

at least

Language is
and spread of ideas, and it is
significant that a number of the names \>\
which plants are known today are derived
an obvious indicator of the

Above: Tablet depicting Ashurbanipal.

King of Assyria, at work on his herbal.

Ashurbanipal was very interested in herbs
and their medicinal properties, and large
numbers were grown in the royal gardens
for his

use.

Aesculapius
Like the Sumerians and Egyptians, the
Greeks believed that the gods were the
first herbalists and physicians and that
they had taught the art of healing to man.

Aesculapius was the first, and probably

greatest, of them. Historians now

the

believe that he actually lived, but

whether

he did or not is of little importance.

Aesculapius must have been a healer
whose skills and successes brought him

renown and about

whom

after his

death

legends gradually grew up. His signifi-

cance lies in those legends. They tell that

Aesculapius was the son of Apollo and
Coronis. Born in Epidaurus in about 1250
B.C., he was slain by Zeus, who was
jealous of his success in healing the sick

and

daughter was
Another
closer link with

raising the dead. His

Hygieia, the goddess of health.

provides

origin

tradition

from the Sumerians, having passed

through the Greek and Arabic languages.

Egypt by claiming that Aesculapius was

born in the Egyptian city of Memphis and
emigrated to Greece, bringing with him
Egyptian medical techniques and know-

These include Apricot, Saffron, Cumin,

Turmeric, Myrrh, Mandrake, Almond,
Poppv. Mulberry and Sesame.

MESOPOTAMIA

ledge.

The root-gatherers
The

link

with the Egyptian association of

ANCIENT GREECE

healing with magic and mystery

that

The civilization of classical Greece took

much from the Egyptian world and from

physicians.

Mesopotamia, including, of course, its

knowledge of the practice of medicine. It
took much, but it added even more-. It also

demonstrated by the rhizotomists

is
root-gatherers who wandered from place
to place gathering roots and herbs used in
medical prescriptions For the most part,
they were uneducated and would follow
a complex ritual as they went about their
work complex in all likelihood, again, to

he

Sumerians believed

that sickness

the manifestation of devils

and

was

evil spirits

had attacked the human body. Magic

and medicine went hand in hand, and
many of the- gods were believed to be

The

similarity of these

beliefs

Egyptians is cleat. Whether

the Egyptians influenced die Sumerians

io

diose

ol

began, perhaps most important of

basis lor medic

establish a scientific

all.

inc.

to

is

clear.

It

also

'"

HISTORY
He earns

protect their trade from inquisitive out-

known

Certain prayers and chants had to

be spoken as the plants were gathered, and
specific times were appointed for the task.

this

person to establish and

The

to

learning he took from Egyptian sources.

pharmacopolists, who prepared drugs

and other healing remedies for sale in
village markets. The rhizotomists and

But he dropped the elements of mystery

and magic and, recognizing disease as a
natural phenomenon, established for the
first time a system of diagnosis and prognosis. Hippocrates used about 400 drugs,

siders.

rhizotomists

sold

their

plants

pharmacopolists of ancient Greece together form the start of a long tradition of

what might best be described as dealers in
herbs, usually itinerant and always re-

magic and mystery to justify

Such people could still be
the markets and fairs of Europe in

ferring to

their products.

seen in

the early part of this century.

Hippocrates
Despite

the

traditional

framework of
ancient Greece

was in
that scientific medicine fas we now understand the term) was first developed.
Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), who was
born and practised on the island of Cos, is
religious belief,

it

tific

as the father of medicine.

description because he was the

set

system of medicine.

down

Much

first

a scien-

of his

mostly of vegetable origin, but he never

wrote a herbal.
The Hippocratic Oath, to which all
doctors until very recently had to swear
before they could practise, is of course
named after Hippocrates. Its opening
words - 'I swear by Apollo, the Physician,
by Aesculapius, by Hygieia and Panacea
and by all the Gods and Goddesses that
to the best of

my power and judgment

BED(pPAI"F5

MEAANTA

.'
.

demonstrate a close and fascinating

link between modern medical practice
and the beliefs of the earliest medical

EPE2I DS

scientists.

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Aesculapius, the Greek god of

medicine.

Left

Hippocrates, the most important

physician of the classical world.

He

wrote a

number of medical works distinguished for

their scientific content, much of which is
still valid.

memorial
16

The Hippocratic Oath

to his ethical

philosophy.

is

THE ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL

Left: Theophrastus ( c. 37 2-286 B.C.)
the

Greek philosopher, was a pupil of

Aristotle

and

the first scholar to attempt to

establish a scientific classification

plants.

He

is

reputedly the author

of

of

227 works.
Right: Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health
and daughter of Aesculapius. She is usually
depicted with

him and

others

of the family

such as her sister Panacea.

Greek herbals

The

first

The

earliest

Greek herbal of which any-

known was written by Diocles

Carystius, who was born some time in the

thing

first

is

half of the fourth century B.C.

He

noted their habitats and

briefly described their medicinal properplants,

listed

ties.

Nothing

is

now

left

of Diocles'

writings.

was Theophrastus of Eresus c.372286 B.C. on the island of Lesbos, who was
the first person to try to establish any
scientific system of plants. Theophrastus
was Aristotle's friend and pupil and was
bequeathed Aristotle's garden on the
latter's death. His two treatises. Historia
Plantarum and De Causis Plantarum Inquiry
which
into Plants and Growth oj Plants
between them listed some 500 plants, were
based on Aristotle's botanical writings.
These he supplemented with his own
observations made during his travels and
with the reports of foreign travellers and
It

merchants.

The Alexandrian School

Alexandria
Greek Emperor Alexander the Great - in 331 B.C. that Greek
medicine really began to flourish. A
school of medicine was rapidly set up commonly referred to as the Alexandrian
S( hool
which attracted the foremost
scientists and botanists from all over tin
Near East. Gradually a body of knowledge and experience was built up, based
on the observations of contemporary
writers, but also drawing on Egyptian
knowledge and practices and on the
beliefs of the Sumerians and Assyrians. In
addition much information was brought
back from Alexander's campaigns into
western Asia. The Alexandrian School
thus brought together beliefs and practices from many different sources and
developed and extended them through
research and writing, so forming a tradition that was eventually transmitted to
medieval Europe- through the writers and
u holara of the Arab world.
The written herbals produced dining
the Alexandrian period were mainK the
It

was

after the foundation ol

named

after the

works of physicians.
first

half of the

Of these. Herophilus
century B.C.
Andreas of Karystos

third

Mantias (.270 B.C.;,

d.217 B.C. and Appolonius Mys ir.220
were perhaps the most important.
B.C.
Later, in the second century B.C.. Nikander produced a work on poisons and
their antidotes.

Mithridates
Experimental work was also carried out
under the aegis of the Alexandrian School
and was encouraged by Mithridates,
who was Eupator king of Pontus
between 120 and 63 B.C. Mithridates

was especially interested in poisons

and their antidotes. His name is commemorated in the word 'mithridate',
which came to mean any concoction used
an antidote against poison. Up to the
eighteenth century every physician would

as

be equipped with his personal mithridate.

Mithridate's rhizotomist. Kraetus, was
more intelligent and sensitive than most of
his calling. He not only collected plants
but

wrote about them and

nificant of all

including

its

most

sig-

illustrated the entire plant,

roots.

Each drawing was

the plant and

name of

accompanied by

the

by a description

ol its

medicinal

uses.

HISTORY
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acri

Below

Galen, philosopher, teacher and

physician.

proposed

The

theories

and diagnoses he

in his extensive

medical works

Above: Pages from an

version

illustrated Latin

of Dioscorides' writings

made

in the

twelfth century. Beautiful though the

may

remained, in essence, unchallenged until the

illustrations

Renaissance.

scientific value.

be, they

have

little

or no

Dioscorides
Thus the picture

at the beginning of the

century a.d. is one of increasing
experimentation and knowledge. One
man, the Greek physician Dioscorides,
first

drew

knowledge together and assembled it in one vast work, De Materia Medica.

Dioscorides was a physician with the
Roman army and much of his information
came from first-hand observation in the
Near East, France, Spain, Germany and
Italy. He supplemented this with material
taken from Hippocrates - about 1 30 of the
plants known to Hippocrates are mentioned by Dioscorides - Theophrastus,
Andreas, Kraetus and many others. His
work mentions some 600 plants. Each
entry names the plant, describes it and its
habitat, notes how it should be prepared
for medicinal use and the effect it has.

18

this

Dioscorides was without doubt the

first

medical botanist. For 1500 years his

Materia Medica was the standard reference
work on the medical application of plants
and most later herbals were closely
modelled on it. Indeed, many of the
plants he mentions still gain a place in
modern pharmacopoeias such as Aniseed,
Chamomile, Cinnamon, Dill, Ginger.
Marjoram, Pepper, Rhubarb and Thyme.
real

Other Greek
Christian

era

herbalists

were

in

the early

Pamphilos,

who

arranged the plants in his herbal in alphabetical order, Menecrates, physician to

Emperor Tiberius (reigned

37), and Andromachos of Crete.
the

a.d.

14-

ANCIENT ROME
Pliny was the most important writer on

He devoted
in ancient Rome.
seven of the 37 volumes of his Historia

plants

Naturalis {Natural History),

a.d.

77,

to

their

medical

writing was uncritical,

uses.

in

Pliny's

information

and thus his work is now of

value. It was during this time.

unverified,
little

his

composed

THE DARK AGES

however, that the Doctrine of Signatures,
become of such significance in
Paracelsus' hands, originated.
later to

Galen

Much more
Galen

significant are the writings of

perhaps the great-

(a.d. 131 -201),

physician after Hippocrates. Galen was

Greek by birth; he travelled extensively in

est

the Near East and had an enormous output of books, which earned him a great
reputation as a philosopher, teacher and
physician. His herbal, which forms part of
De Simplicibus, contains information on
each plant and its habitat, usually to-

gether

with

about

note

its

use

in

medicine.

THE DARK AGES

Greek herbal tradition,
seen, embraced the
much older traditions of Egypt and
Mesopotamia, comes to an end. Though

With Galen,

the

we have

which, as

the dark ages after the

fall

Empire no longer seem

of the

so

dark

Roman
to the

and writing
stopped. Six centuries or so must pass
before we can point with any confidence
historian, scientific research

evidence to a resumption of interest

and, indeed, in botany and
medicine in general.
What happened in the intervening time
can only be sketched in outline. In
Europe, only the monasteries kept alive
the literature of medical and herbal pracin the
in

herbs

Monks were

tices.

often physicians

and

care for the sick was seen as part of a

Above

Avicenna,

ad. g8o-iojy,

and 950 by a

possibly the greatest physician and scientist

of the Moslem world. His

Medicinae was
kept

its

Canon

translated into Latin

been a friend of King Alfred of England.

This is the first book on herbs written in
the vernacular and also the first which did

and

place as a standard university

became very

lore

influential;

travelling

and herb women treated the

and magic were resorted
much as they had been in ancient

bone-setters
sick,
to,

and

ritual

Egypt.

not base itself directly on Greek texts.

century.

knowledge it displays of herbs is remarkable. Another such manuscript is the

Lacnunga, thought to have been written in

and pharmacological lore of the entire

Orient' and on their own observations.
Among them were Rhazes (865-925), a
Persian employed as a royal physician in
Baghdad, whose investigations into clinical practice gave a considerable impetus
9H0 1037)5
to knowledge, and Avicenna
whose ('.anon Medicinae brought together
information about the diseases, drugs and

THE ARAB WORLD

medical

In contrast, the highly sophisticated cul-

world. In Spain, in particular, where the

Arab world maintained and

the Greeks. By

Cordoban physician Abulcasis (d.1013)

ture of the

added
about

to

the legacy of

900 or a little after, all the

surviving Greek medical works had been
A.I).

known

theories

in

the

practised, especially high standards

reached, and wealthy men

over Europe for treatment.

Arab

all

eighth century.
this

The

greatesi physicians ol

Arab empire drew

011

the

works

ol

the

Greek physicians arid writers as well as on

what one writer on medieval Spain has
described as the 'accumulated botanical

ANGLO-SAXON HERBALS
was the Arab world that prethe main tradition of medical
learning, it should not be supposed that

Although

it

served

came to a halt in northern

Europe. The Anglo-Saxon inhabitants of

all

writing

England,

were very interesnumber of manuscripts

for instance,

ted in herbs,

and

have- survived.

The

Leech Book of Bald,

earliest ol these

the late eleventh or early twelfth century.

It

consists chiefly of a

poem

in praise

of the

Nordic god
Woden. Ritual and magic still played an
enormous role in the herbalist's work, just
as they had in ancient Egypt Waybroad,
for instance, one of the nine sacred herbs,
was believed to cure a headache if it were
gathered, untouched by iron, before sunrise and its roots bound round the sufferer's head with a red ribbon.
nine

herbs

sacred

of the

were

came from

translated in the great cultural centres ol

Damascus, Baghdad and Cairo. Knowledge of them spread with the advancing
Arab armies across North Africa and into
Spain, almost all of which had fallen
under Moslem rule- by the end ol the

The

textbook until as late as the seventeenth

Christian's duty. In another way, too, the

monasteries preserved knowledge, tor it

was there that scribes copied manuscripts
by hand. Outside the cloister walls, folk-

named Cild under the

who is thought to have

scribe

direction of Bald,

is

the

compiled between 900

THE REVIVAL OF KNOWLEDGE

Greek medical theory - supplemented as
we have seen by Arab observation and
practice - was restored to western Europe
at the end of the dark ages by two main
routes. In Spain, a school of translators

grew up

in

Toledo (which had

century.

The

fallen to

twelfth
1085)
work generally went in two

Christian forces in

in

the-

from Arabic to Romance (a

form of old French), then from Romance
to Latin, the universal language ol scholarship in medieval Europe. In Italy,
stages,

first

|(

>

HISTORY
Fulda - produced numerous influential
medical works. Two emanating from
Salerno were the Liber de simplici medicina.
a herbal compiled by Matthaeus Platearius during the middle of the twelfth

Constantine the African c. 1020- 1087

translated a number of Arabic philosophical, scientific and medical works into
Latin. Constantine remains a shadowy
figure of whom little is known except that
he was an Arabic-speaking Christian who
became a monk and spent the last years of
his life at the Benedictine abbey at Monte
Cassino. where he composed most of his
translations. His work spread rapidly
throughout Europe.

century, and the Regimen Sanitatis Salerno.

have been assembled by

to
Arnold of Villa Nova, a Catalan who
thought

simplici

Both these cultural channels, as one might

describe them, centred upon monasteries
the school of translators at

Toledo had

ists and until the invention of printing

were the most important in early medieval times probably the only source of
Others were horticulturalists;
books.
again, they were secure in their monasteries and had both time and opportunity to
cultivate herbs and other plants; contacts

with

other

monasteries

in

their

order

Europe no doubt led to an

of information and of actual
of the sick was another part of
and in many areas only the
monks possessed any medical skills. At
throughout
interchange
plants. Care
their work,

Barnwell Abbey in England, the infirmarius

the monk in charge of the pharmacy was
required always to have 'ginger, cinnamon, penny and the like, ready in his
cupboard, so as to be able to render
promptly assistance to the sick if [they
were] stricken by a sudden malady".

The study of medicine

Two

of the most important schools of

medicine were at Salerno, where Con-

were

stantine the African's translations

particularly

influential,

and

MontCremona

at

founded by Gerald of
14- 1 187
who had translated Avicenna's Canon Medicinae. The Canon be-

pellier.
1

came

a standard

work

at the

University

and was

still

as 1650.

These schools and others -

a prescribed textbook as late

for in-

stance at St Gall. Bobbio. Reichenau

Right: Page from

and

Trattato de
Pestilentia, a fourteenth-century work on
the human body and the diseases to which it
is subject. Almost all medical writing at this
time

was

derivative

the

and

theoretical

practical experimentation of any

consequence

was

centuries later.

20

not to begin until several

medicina

Above: Constantine

the African (c.1020io8j), an Arabic-speaking Christian,

translated a number of Arabic medicinal and

scientific

marked

works

the

into Latin.

These new ideas

end of the dark ages.

usually

Circa instans
was concerned with the medicinal use of plants
and was compiled from both Latin and
Arabic sources. It had considerable influence throughout the Middle Ages.
Despite increasing medical studies from
the twelfth century onwards, the framework within which writers and physicians
worked and thought had remained unaltered since Galen's day. There was

opening words.

The work of the monks

been established under the patronage of

Archbishop Raymond, a member of the
And the monasteries
Cluniac order
played a vital role in medieval Europe in
the spread of medical knowledge and
writing. Many monks were skilled copy-

The Liber de
known by its

studied at Salerno for a time.

THE MIDDLE AGES

little

new observation

or research.

What

was confined within galenic

there
was little questioning of basic
ideas;
certainly no attempt to overpremises
throw them - and most medical writers
were content to base their writings on the
works of Greek physicians which, as has
been shown, had been translated into
Arabic and then further into Latin. This
cumbersome process had led to numerous
there was

errors; illustrations of plants often bore

little

or no resemblance to the original

from any scientific

names of the plants
themselves had become altered because of

plants

and were

useless

point of view often the

;

errors of transcriptions

The development

made by

scribes.

of medicine had stultiwas to take a complete revolution in methods and outlook before any
genuine progress was made. Even the
fied,

and

it

foremost medieval scientist Albertus

200on plants on
nus

(c.

280),

who based

Mag-

his writings

first-hand observations

and

by Konrad von Megenberg (1309- 1374),

which was written in German - contributed

the

to

process.

So,

did the

too,

refused to accept without question the

increasing

statements

spices from the East available in western

Europe.
For much of the Middle Ages Venice
was the European centre of this trade, and
Venetian merchants grew rich from the
commodities that eventually reached
Europe after the long journey across Asia
from India and China.

of earlier writers,

failed

to

break out of the galenic mould.

The birth of the herbals

As the Middle Ages progressed, increasing
interest began to be taken in herbal
remedies. The first major work in English
on botanical medicine was the Rota
Medicinae also
(

known

as the

Rosa Anglica

written between 1314 and 1 3 1 7 by a

known as John of Gaddesden. His

but also included observations based on

personal experience. Other vernacular
herbals - among them the Book of Nature

ft

of exotic herbs and

monk

work
combined Greek, Arabic, Jewish and
Saxon medical writings and herbal lore

*>*

number

Dissemination of knowledge
The whole intellectual revolution of

the

Renaissance had of course a profound

effect on medical science. The old galenic
preconceptions
gradually
fell
away;
observation and experiment flourished,
drawing on the works of ancient writers
but soon soaring beyond their preconceptions. More particularly, the invention of
printing in the mid-fifteenth century gave
a tremendous boost to herbalism, as
indeed it did to all forms of knowledge.
Herbals could be circulated in far greater
numbers. The first to be printed had previously been available in manuscript
form, but by the early sixteenth century
original works were being reproduced.
These were vast improvements on their
immediate predecessors, both in their
scope and organization and in the quality
of their woodcuts, which depicted the
plants described accurately

and

in detail

rather than as mere decoration, which had

previously

Tragus'

Germany
tions

been

the

Kreuterbuch,

of

in
all

case.
first

Hieronymus
published

in

1539, gave precise descripthe plants included. In

England, William Turner, the first part of

whose New Herball appeared in 1551, was
the first person to study plants scientifically.
He travelled widely throughout
Europe and grew herbs in his garden at
Kew, coincidentally on the site of the
present Royal Botanic Gardens. Three
years later in the Low Countries, R.
Dodoens published his Cruydboeck, in
which he grouped plants according to
their properties and affinities rather than
alphabetically. Later a French translation was published, and in 1578 an
English version. John Gerard's Herball,
first published in 1597 and extended and
Left: Illustration of Coltsfoot fTussilago

farfaraj from an illuminated Greek copy of

Dioscorides'

De Materia Medica.

commentary Dioscorides wrote that

leaves could be dried

through a reed

to

In his

the

and then smoked

mucus and catarrh - a

clear

remedy that has now been used for over two

thousand years.
21

HISTORY
Below : Title page of the first edition of
John Gerard's Herball. Gerard was the
Elizabethan

best-known herbalist

in

England; he had

own garden

his

in

London, where he grew plants assembled

from

all over the world.

gardener

to

He was

Lord Burghley for

also

over

20 years. Gerard's herbal

is based entirely on the work Pemptades,

revised by Thomas Johnson

proved extremely popular. By

1583 by the Flemish physician

Dodoens. But it is in fact the later editions

herbals had

written in

of Gerard's Herball, which were considerably

Thomas Johnson in 1633,
that are most valuable.
extended by

become

in

1633,

this

time

authoritative

and

comprehensive, covering practically every

plant then known; one which appeared in
1640 mentioned 3800 plants, whereas von
Megenberg's Book of Mature, the first
printed edition of which had appeared in
1475, had dealt with just 89.

THE DOCTRINE OF SIGNATURES

Despite what, to use a twentieth-century
term, might be called a 'boom' in herbals,
all of them consisted of what we today
would describe as 'objective' information.

not

In the sixteenth century in particular, the

Doctrine of Signatures held sway over
many writers. It was promoted by Paracelsus (1493- 1 541), a physician whose
controversial opinions and manner (not
for nothing was his second name Bombastus!) caused him to lead an unsettled
existence in

many

of the

Europe. According

plant acted in effect as

of

medical

its

cities

its

of central

dogma, every

to this

own

application,

definition

resembling

body afflicted or the

cause of the affliction. William Coles, an
English herbalist who published the Art of

either the part of the

God had not

only 'stamped upon them [plants] (as
upon every man) a distinct forme, but
also given them particular signatures,
Simpling in 1656, wrote that

Man may read even in legible

Characters the Use of them. Heart
Trefoyle is so called not only because the
Leafe is Triangular like the Heart of a
Man, but also because each Leafe contains the perfect Icon of an Heart and that
in its proper colour.' Nicholas Culpeper
6 6- 654^, too, was an influential exponent of the Doctrine of Signatures, as
whereby a

by
under the domination of the sun, the moon or one of the five
planets then known. His herbal, published
in 1652, was immediately successful and
was reprinted many times. He was per-

well as of various astrological theories,

which herbs were

set

haps the first herbalist to write directly for

ordinary people who might collect and
use herbs during the course of their daily
lives.

THE APOTHECARIES
The

increasing

number

of herbals being

produced and their growing scope and

accuracy (Culpeper being the last important adherent to the Doctrine of Signatures)
reflected the widening interest in herbal
remedies and the developing status of the
apothecary. Originally, apothecaries had
merely sold drugs - the root of the word
comes from the Greek for a store - but
gradually they had absorbed skills and

APOTHECARIES
knowledge and had come

compound

to

prepare and

drugs, as well as

sell

them.

establish

fessionally

In England they had been associated prowith the Grocers' Company

were

body of general traders who

and drugs. (Interestingly
enough, the Grocers themselves had their
origin in the twelfth century in one of the

this

since 1378, a

also sold herbs

early City of

London

Guild of

guilds, the

Pepperers, a reminder of the importance

trade in medieval times.)
purchased
herbs and roots
Apothecaries
collected in the countryside by wandering
'green men and women' the term is one of
many used to describe rural herb collectors), the descendants, nearly two thousand

of the spice

years later, of the rhizotomists of ancient

and also imported drugs and

from abroad. They also established

Greece,
spices
their

own

their

demanded

own

Their work

guild.

specific professional skills,

and

had been allegations that grocers

Then, in
1586, came an attempt by the College of
Physicians to set up their own physic

there

selling adulterated drugs.

garden.

was

The

apothecaries thought that

their prerogative

for

by that

time the practice was for physicians to

diagnose and prescribe, while the apothecaries dispensed medicine and attended
the patient. Although the apothecaries
failed to prevent the physicians establishing their garden, they did in 161 7 succeed
in forming the Worshipful Society of
Apothecaries of London, with 114 members. At the same time a law was passed
forbidding medicines to be sold by surgeons or grocers.

physic gardens, so serving as a

between horticulture and medicine

by growing their own medicinal herbs.
By the late sixteenth century in England the apothecaries were trying to dissociate themselves from the Grocers and
link

THE PHYSIC GARDENS

The

origins

of physic gardens can be

traced back several centuries.

astic

communities,

as

alive interest in herbs

we have
and

The monseen, kept

their healing

and the
Middle Ages, and it

potential during the dark ages

early part of the

seems fairly certain that the first herb

gardens were established behind monastic
walls. The monastery at St Gall in
Switzerland probably had 16 herb beds as

and twelfth-century plans

monastery at Canterbury indicate a
small piece of ground set aside for a herb
garden. But the first garden intended to
provide plants for the purpose of study
(until then, students had worked from
herbals alone) was not established until
1545, at the medical school of the University of Padua in Italy. Botany and
medicine - hitherto studied as one subject
- were from then on taught separately.
Pisa followed almost immediately and
also set up a herbarium (in which pressed
and dried plants are preserved on paper).
Within two decades, Florence, Rome and
Bologna had started their own gardens.
Nor was the rest of Europe far behind. By
the end of the seventeenth century,
physic gardens had been laid out at
early as 830,

for a

Tnr

.-7-

i-t

'/

tti.it

i< i

Above

Bo/y krtr

aiAiC U

trves rut a
Jff" Jnhil'tjuj* fjrr

St j-iras'u

a'rl'crie'ttl

r/iV

vou
t '

rind

Mu

h-'lu

mind.

CofKt

Bookt

Portrait of Nicholas Culpeper and,

right, illustrations

from

his herbal.

Culpeper'1 theories rested on his belief

in

astrological influences: herbs were placed

under the dominion of one of the

the sun or the

moon

five

planet \.

different parts of the

body were themselves governed by the planets.

Hi

also believed that plants resembled

either the part 0/ thf

body or the ailment

which they were intended

Herbal! and

to lira/. I lis

Physical Dire* tory both

enjoyed an enormous

sale.

23

HISTORY
Right

The botanical garden

at the

Founded in
16j j and destroyed by fire in 1702, the
garden was revived by Carl Linnaeus who
University of Uppsala, Sweden.

arranged the plants according

and described

it

in

system,

to his

Hortus Upsaliensis.

translated into English as Joyfull Newes out

ofthe.XeweFounde W'orldem 1577. as well as

into Italian, French, Flemish and Latin.
Interest in the plants ofthe Xew World
continued for a long time. In the eighteenth century in particular, numerous

made

botanists

the transatlantic journey:

more frequent passenof packing them was to

plants were even

gers - one

way

wrap them

in an ox bladder half filled with

wet moss and the plant's natural soil - and
form the basis of the North American

collections

in

many European

botanic

gardens.

Bv the early eighteenth century the

heyday of herbalism was passing. William
Salmon's Botanologia : The English Herbal
(1710) was the last herbal of any import-

iyoy-ijj8) the
founder of modern botany. The system of
Above: Carl Linnaeus

plant classification he developed opened the

way for
and

the precise identification

their properties at a time

ance

of plants

when m a

to

The

be published.

erties of plants

still,

curative prop-

of course, played a

plants were being discovered at a great

vital role in

rate throughout the world.

two centuries the skills of the herbali^

were slowly replaced by medical tech-

Although

Linnaeus' s system has been continually

modified,

it

remains the basis

ojf

owed more

niques that

today'

medicine, but over the next

to the scientific
laboratory than to traditional wisdom.

internationally applicable system.

Heidelberg, Leiden, Montpellier. Stras-

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

bourg. Oxford, Paris (the garden there

The system

now

is

famous and popular Jardin des

Plantes), Uppsala and Amsterdam, to
name only a few. All of them were linked
with universities where medicine was
taught. In London, the Chelsea Physic
Garden was founded by the Worshipful
the

Society of Apothecaries in 1673:

on the same site today.

it

still

of plant classification estab-

by Carl Linnaeus in his Genera

Plantarum and Critica Botamca of 1737 was
a harbinger ofthe new attitudes. Linnaeus
lished

in effect formalized a

new

scientific lan-

guage - botanical Latin. Each plant was

described by two separate names: one. the
generic

name

given

first

identified

THE BEGINNINGS OF TRADE

which the plant belonged,

that is, a group with common structural
characteristics; the second name, of the

One consequence ofthe age of exploration,

inaugurated by Christopher Columbus'

from

flourishes

discovery of central America in 1492, was

an increase in the number and varietv of
imported herbs and spices available in

Europe. The English in India and Ceylon

and the Dutch in the East Indies were the
main suppliers, and London became the
centre of the world spice trade, keeping
this position until the early

years of the

twentieth century, when New York superseded it. Xor were herbs, spices and plants
of all kinds the only imports from the Xew

World; great

was taken in the

remedies practised by the native inhabitants. Nicholas Monardes. a physician from Seville, was one of the first to
interest

describe these. His three books, published

in

24

Spain

in

1569,

1571 and

1574. were

the class

to

individual species, distinguished the plant

all its

fellows within the

same

class.

In his Philosophica Botanica of 1751 Linas a group of species

naeus defined a genus

constructed organs
and arranged in a similar way later he
published rules for the formulation of a
generic name. Though changes have since

possessing

similarly

been made

upon which the

made, the principle of

in the bases

classifications are

Linnaeus' system is still in operation.

Indeed, it is now obligatory throughout
the world.
Thus by the mid-eighteenth century, it
was possible for the first time to disting-

manner.
might have given
the same plant widely differing names.
For instance, the Autumn Crocus, used as
uish specific plants in a scientific
Before, different writers

remedy against gout, was given no less

seven Latin names by different

than

herbalists during the sixteenth century. In

addition, it was known by at least half a

dozen names in English and by a similar
number in most ofthe different European

languages.

The new svstem made

it

im-

possible, at least for trained botanists, to

confuse different plants.

it

also identified

many

More important.
previous mistakes

and misconceptions, thus enabling herbalists to refine and extend their skills and
knowledge.

Although herbalists of course benefited

from Linnaeus' work, in as much as it
helped all those associated in one way or
another with plants, in another, wider,
sense it helped to speed the decline ofthe
herbal

tradition

and

to

establish

the

CLASSIFICATION

between botany and medicine.

Botanists were interested in all aspei is ol
plants, rather than merely those that had

division

value as herbs.

From

the late eighteenth

century, and especially throughout the

nineteenth, plant-collecting expeditions

were mounted, and plant-hunters

ally out

of the best

s<

ientific

sometimes spurred on b\ desire

mercial gain
ously

unknown,

for

roamed over man)

oi at least

comprevi-

uninvestigated,

parts ol the world, sometimes

ing,

usu-

motives, but

accompany-

lew steps
on other occasions onk
many famous explorers. he\
,i

behind,

and other botanical writers

at

home

than merel)
have medical value.
rathei

ol

those thought

frequently administered as a sedative for

MEDICINE

was the- Second World War,

however, during which traditional sources
of plant drugs dried up (quinine from

to

shell-shock.

At the same time, medical

science-

was

moving in quite different directions. The

slow development of chemical and biochemical techniques during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries gradually
enabled scientists to isolate and then to
manufacture the chemical substances previously administered in plant form. Plain
material was never entirely rejected, but
nevertheless it came to be considered old
fashioned and in some way second class
None th<- less, even today, the orthodox
medical

ed flora rather than heibals. sc ienstudies of all the plants ol an an a

|)ioc|uc
tific

THE ROOTS OF MODERN

profession

relies

extracted from plants

on

substances

digitoxin from the

Foxglove and morphine from the Opium

Poppy, for example. During the First
World War, inn tine ol Valerian was

It

Malaysia for malaria, for example), that

provided the impetus for the search for
alternative chemical synthetic drugs.
Alter the war, an enormous programme
ol research and development, much of it
carried out by international drug companies, gave- us the wide range of antibiotics available today.

Even the most dedicated and

skilled

herbalist found himself gradually denied

work of modern medicine

be divided among the drug
which became ever larger

a role as the

slowly

came

to

companies,
from the mid-nineteenth century
wards, who manufactured, doctors,

on-

who
25

HISTORY

}
remedies and is
slowly realizing that they have by no
means been entirely superseded by medical science. To begin with, actual plant
material is still used to a far greater extent
than many people are aware - in 1968,
some 3 per cent (over 41 million items) of
interest in the old herbal

prescriptions in the United States con-

tained crude herbs. Conferences have

examined the role of traditional medicine
in contemporary society, and increasing
notice

is

being taken of the experience of

the Third World, both in regard to those

nations'
its

own medical development and

to

application in the industrialized world.

In this context, Chinese practice

ally interesting:

acupuncture

is

is

especi-

practised

alongside western medicine, neither tradition

dominating

at

the expense of the

other. In herbaria throughout the world, a

vast

store

much, no

of information

doubt, merely native folklore but some

surely of enormous importance - noted by
plant-collectors
ally

is

only

now being gradu-

tapped and collated

(it

took research-

and a half years to survey the

collection at Harvard University; they
ended with almost 6000 notes of interest,

ers four

revealing new information of value not

only to medical scientists but also to those
active in the fields of nutrition

taxonomy and entomology

the Herb Society has started
national

Above: Stripping
tree to

the

300 years

is

used

between

to treat
its

and the
World War it was the only effective
remedy. The tree is found principally in

introduction to western medicine

tropical South America, as well as in

Asia.

who

dispensed.

were forbidden to practise (although, no doubt, in

remote country areas, remedies continued
to be dispensed - part of the continuing
In

some countries

'unofficial'

herbalists

tradition

of herbalism),

in

work was frowned on and

came to be dismissed as in some way
'cranky' (though schools of homeopathy
others their

thrived and, in the United States, a school

of physiomedicalism
latter part of the

flourished

in

the

nineteenth century).

MEDICINE IN THE TWENTIETH

CENTURY
Today,

century, the

quarter of the twentieth

dominance of what might be

termed chemical medicine is indisputable.

the less the medical profession - and,
beyond it, an increasingly concerned and
informed lay public - is taking a growing

None

26

up a

herb centre with a botanical

This then points to the way ahead. No

one suggests that the clock should be
turned back and the advances of modern
science be ignored, nor that the old folklore remedies have any credibility merely
despite
by virtue of their longevity. Yet
all the mystery and charlatanism that
have surrounded herbalists and their work
- surely we should not ignore the wisdom
accumulated and found effective over

many

centuries.

Right : Interior view of a pharmacy or

apothecary's shop at Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia,
thought to be one of the oldest in Europe.
Such shops flourished in medieval Europe and
dispensed a wide variety of medicines.

Between

in the last

to build

which will eventually provide

data for a computerized collection of
literary and scientific references to herbs.
Research centres have also been established in China, Germany, Holland, Poland
and the United States.

First

prescribed, and chemists,

and plant

In England,

garden

bark oj the Cinchona

obtain quinine, which

malaria - in the

the fifteenth

and

seventeenth

centuries they were the centres

practice. Doctors

would meet

of medical
their patients at

pharmacy where the drugs they prescribed

would be made up and sold by the
apothecary. The word 'pharmacy' comes
from the Greek word for drug.
the

KK

n
I'll

Jul

11

$*

^v^w
*cjS"

:vs^-""-n<c.*c

5s*-

IPS

'

''

The biology and

chemistry of plants
sH

"-.

Most herbs belong to the relatively highly

developed class of living organisms known
as flowering plants, but nearly all tindivisions of the plant world include at
least a number of herbs. They are different from other plants only in that they
being nutritious to
are beneficial to man
good flavouring agents or effective
medicines because they happen to contain

eat,

certain 'active constituents'. This section

sets out the evolutionary interrelationships
of the plant kingdom and explains the
basic plant anatomy and physiology which
is essential lor an understanding of herbs

THE BIOLOGY OF PLANTS

There are two

(lasses of living things on

animals and plants. Both owe
their existence to the presence of an cxtrcinelv complicated chemical substance
this

plaint

known as deoxynbose nucleic acid DNA

which has the remarkable ability of being
able to replicate itself from smaller chemicals in

vicinity. Ibis material

its

house the genes, and

see

shall

later,

organism.

The

all

it

is

said to

controls, as

the activities of

DNA

molecules

ol

the

I.rjl

As

this

Bumble Bee

collects nectar

jiom a Siottish 'Hustle, pollen nibs

its

legs which become involuntary

pollinators.

off onto

may be

looked upon as the

first

strand of

DNA which happened to be formed in the

'primeval soup' and then replicated

itself.

This single molecule subsequently developed into a unicellular organism by

enclosing its own controlled environment
around itself, within a cell-wall. There are
still present today a number of unicellular
organisms exactly like those original ones
from which all living things evolved. We
know that there have been two main
routes of evolutionary development, one
resulting in plants and the other in
animals. As will be explained later, the
fundamental difference between the two
classes is the way in which they obtain
their food, but first we should examine the

way

in

which a plant grows.

considering

In
herbs,

we

the

basic

biology of

are concerned mainly with the

higher plants.

They can be recognized by

we

the greenness of their aerial vegctativ e

the

parts this characteristic separates chemic-

all

and
minute variations in the composition
of this material determine the type of
organism that results.
Lite, then, is literally dependent on the
presence of this DNA. The original oceans
contained millions of organic and inliving things are essentially similar,

organic substances formed by the action

of heat, light and electric storms on the
air and minerals. The first living thing

from the lower, and

plants themselves from animals
the
possession of chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is

ally the higher plants

which enables plants to build

body of cells from inorganic
elements. Each body will vary in size,
depending upon the species, from microscopic algae to the- huge California!] redwoods which are certainly the biggesl
living things on earth. Growth depends
upon cell enlargement and division, both
of which are made- nutritionally possible
l>\ the actions of roots and the leaf activity.
the catalyst

up

their

29

BIOLOGY
The

structure of plant leaves

cell

is

with wide intercellular

spaces. Filtering through them is a constant stream of air brought in through
small pores or stomata which are normally
situated on the undersides. Young green
stems also possess stomata. Oxygen is

open

largely

taken from the air for the respiration

process characteristic of all living things.
chlorophyll, however, which

The green

is

apart from the upper and

in all leaf cells

lower epidermal layers, promotes reacenabling the small amount of

tions,
carbon dioxide in the air to be utilized.
This is combined with the water brought
up from the soil to produce usable foods
in the form of carbohydrates. The process
is

known as photosynthesis,

ing

up

simplified process,

nutrition

literally 'build-

presence of

the

in

The

light'.

upon which

all

plant

and hence ultimately animal

is based, can be shown as:

foods as well)

light

6C0 +6H
2

^ C 6 H 12

water

carbon

glucose

+6

oxygen

(a sugar)

dioxide

The energy needed

to

power the process

comes from sunlight. Certain species of

plants are adapted to live in shady
habitats and this is usually reflected in
their larger, thinner leaves which can
utilize the weaker energy source. Once

made

often starch - in roots or tubers.

The enormous

variation in plant forms

can thus be seen

and what

it

climate (that

differentially stained, transverse

shows

the outer cork fat the top)

phloem (dark pink) and

(

mauve)

as
1

30

of a tree trunk (left), magnified

The

the inner

layers in the

the

xylem

xylem are known

annual rings. The main water-conducting

wood -

lements of the

magnified

the vessels (right)

times.

375

is,

existence.

green

fall

into

ex-

products of that unceasing

tinct are the

search for efficiency and effectiveness in

any given habitat which must accompany

success as an organism. 'Survival of the
fittest' is no mere Darwinian catchphrase

temperature, availability

Plants

where the chlorophyll, although present,

is masked by the presence of another pigment - Purple Sage and Purple Basil are
typical examples
and those which have
developed a cuckoo-like existence by
living either on the decomposing remains
of their fellows (saprophytes) or directly,
as parasites upon other living plant or

animal hosts. All fungi come into these

two categories: mushrooms are in the
former group while others, such as various
diseases, fall into the latter.

as facultative parasites,

Some of these,

have the extra-

ordinary ability to live saprophytically on

the remains of the host they have themselves parasitically killed.

Those that die

with the host which they themselves have

probably killed are described as obligate
parasites.

the

and

which are not

two main categories those

their

The range of plants alive today and

number of species that have become

as a response to habitat

offers in soil nutrients

of water and especially light).

Greenness, then, is typical of the more
highly evolved members of the plant kingdom and, at the same time, essential for

30

times,

the simple sugars can be trans-

located around the plant or stored in some

form

Above
section

but a basic fact of

life

compounded upon

competition. This teeming diversity within the plant

kingdom has been

man's existence from the

a part of

earliest times,

notably as a basic source of food, but even

at a very early stage man recognized that

had the power to heal and

As a knowledge of plants
with medicinal powers became of more
certain plants

others to harm.

than local importance, a comprehensive

popular knowledge developed which has
come down to us from classical times.
This produced the beginnings of classification and nomenclature which are still
developing today. Both aspects might
seem to be of only academic interest but
this is far from the case. Unless it is possible
to refer individually to the approximately
342,000

different

and

species

of flowering

6000-odd species of
ferns, or to the almost innumerable algae,
fungi and mosses, no knowledge can be

plants

to

the

successfully disseminated

must be suspect.

and

all

reference

CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION AND

NOMENCLATURE
The

first

attempt

to classify living things

was made by Theophrastus

in the fourth

century B.C. He classified plants as either

herbs, shrubs or trees. The word 'herb'
here does not, of course, have present-day
implications but merely relates to the
overall size of the plant.
step in classification

A very significant

was made with the

publication in 1753 of Species Plantarum bv

Carl Linnaeus. His system, largely restricted

to

the flowering plants,

noted

differences in the form of flowers. This

was 'artificial' in as much

as variation of one particular character,
namely flower structure, often does not
necessarily indicate any real or 'natural'
affinity. It was not until the publication of
Darwin's theory on evolution that the idea
was fully conceived that living organisms
might be related to each other by descent,

classification

that

is

to say

that certain present-day

organisms share common ancestors. We

have seen already that all living things
have arisen from similar DNA molecules
and as modifications were made to these
original molecules, so branching of the
evolutionary tree occurred.

Some

of these

primitive organisms developed the ability

to

produce certain photosynthesizing pig-

ments, notably those organisms known

now as the blue-green algae. Many simple
green algae survive in fresh and salt waters
today and there is evidence from fossils of
the Pre-Cambrian period that similar
plants existed over one thousand million
years ago. Certain of these original
organisms gradually acquired the ability
to live outside their first environment - the

oceans - and slowly began to colonize

estuaries and mud-flats and then finally

became land-living. Profound structural

and physiological changes were required
and such development were concerned
mainly with the conservation of water.

Modern classification

based on ancestry will

considerably more in-

classification

obviously

yield

formation about the relationships between

plants than one based on similarities of
certain morphological characters, and the
former is the main criterion used in
modern systems of classification. Morphology is not completely disregarded, however. Indeed, with modern analytical
instruments, such as the electron microscope, fine structural differences may be
of use in clarifying certain relationships.
Similarly, recent advances in techniques
of chemical analysis have made it possible
for the presence or absence of certain
chemical substances in plants to be used
for classification purposes. Such taxonomic knowledge may help in the search for
more useful herbs; if, for example, a
medicinally useful plant is known to
possess a certain tvpe of chemical constituent as its active ingredient, a search
in closely related plants, which probably
also contain similar (though not necessarily identical) substances,

discovery of a

the

plant

may

lead to

with similar

useful pharmacological actions, but, for

example,

undesirable

less

side-effects.

way from
undergoing constant
revision as more and more data comes to
come

Classification has

Theophrastus and

a long

is

light.

current classification of the plant

17 initial divisions. It begins

kingdom has

with the bacteria which are the simplest

and therefore probably evolutionarily the

most primitive, and it proceeds in ascending order (in developmental and hence
to the flowering
group, although the
most obviously visible and valuable to

terms)

evolutionary

The

plants.

latter

man, by no means encompasses

all

plant

life.

The

bacteria possess neither chloro-

phyll nor an obvious nucleus in their unibodies,

cellular

and

their

relationship

with the animal kingdom is very close.

The next eight divisions make up what we
generally term the seaweeds. These are
the algae, varying from single-celled
organisms that can move around by
movements of their special whip-like outgrowths called cilia, to the green covering
on ice bark or to the incredibly diverse
marine flora, some of which can be almost
as large as terrestrial trees. A connection
1

/.///.

.Hiding

and gains some

is

own

its

0/ the hint

which

fViscum album J

Mistletoe

parasitt

of

its

is

a temi-

nourishment by

roots directly into the tissue

eithei

deciduous

in this ins,

01 e;ciieeii.

n Silvei

Maple

Acer saccharinumj.
3'

BIOLOGY
can be noticed immediately these simple
plants are not able to conserve moisture
well and so must live in water or in damp,
shady places.
The Mycophyta - moulds, mildews and
mushrooms - are all fungi. Unlike the
algae they cannot photosynthesize because
they do not contain any chlorophyll,
which accounts for their parasitic or
:

Classification of the Plant

Kingdom

Divisions

Bacteriophyta (9 orders)

Cyanophyta

(4)

Pyrrophyta (4)

Euglenophyta (1
Chrysophyta (6)
Chlorophyta (1 1

Algae-

saprophytic modes of existence.

Lichens have an unusual position in the
classification order in that each species is
a symbiotic combination of an alga and a

Chlorochytridiales

Phaeophyta (Brown Seaweeds) [Gelidium]

Rhodophyta (Red Seaweeds)

We

fungus.

Myxophyta
Acrasiophyta
Lichenes [Cetraria]

Fungi-

Mycophyta

(4 Classes, 33 Orders) [Yeasts. Ergot.

Fomes]

see

them usually

grey.

as

yellow or brown circles on rocks, and, in

areas of the world where humidity is high,
lichens can attain considerable proportions.

Liverworts

and Mosses

The

Hepaticae (5)

Bryophyta_

Musci

(1

5)

Lycopsida (club-mosses) [Lycopodium]

Ferns and

Pteridophyta-

Bryophyta and are the lowest generally

noticed level in any

[Dryopteris.

Ophioglossum]

Higher

Cycadales
L Ginkqoale
kgoales

Cycadopsida-f
Coniferophyta

(Gymnospermae)

Coniferales (5 fams)
[Pinus. Juniperus]

Coniferopsida

Taxales (2 fams)
Gnetales (3 fams)
[Ephedra]

community of plants.

in the evolutionary

usually in stature, too,

fern-allies:

Seed-bearing

come

(Dicotyledons)

/lagnoliophyta

plants

[over
44 orders-|_3oo Families

(Angiospermae)
Liliopsida
_

Herb examples

in

fover
(Monocotyledons; 10orders -L60 Families
_

order and

the ferns

the Pteridophyta.

and

They can
some trees

be tiny plants or as large as

(though the trunks of tree-ferns are not
composed of real wood, but compressed
Left

Each main

kingdom

is

division

of the plant

divided into classes, orders,

tribes, families

and genera. Such a

classification reflects origins, relationships

and evolutionary progress from

Magnoliopsida_
Higher flowering

liver-

Psilotinae

Filicopsida (true ferns)

plants

and

types of mosses

Sphenopsida
Equisetinae (Horsetails) [Equisetum]

fern allies

many

worts follow next. These are still humble

plants needing, in most cases, much
moisture to survive. They comprise the

the

most

primitive algae to the higher flowering plants.

Below from

left to right

Different small

fungi -fruiting bodies of a Penicillium; a

young root tip in symbiotic association with
a mycorrbxzal fungus

Mucor.

a black

saprophytic mould.

sporangium

spores

developing

sporangium

hyphae

32

of the

mycelium

LICHENS

foliose
general view

frond-bases

and

fruticose

root-like

growths

and

are invariably leafy in habit.

Of

compacted hyphae

vertical section

the earlier groups only one or two

cross section

have higher plants, and so their world

is greatly circumscribed by external factors. A similar rough comparison may be
made within the animal kingdom

as

mushrooms and yeasts

by man. Although few

ferns

molluscs with

are of use as loods or in any other

utili-

The last two major groups of this plant

kingdom classification arc visually and

useful fungi

cultivated
tarian

used

way
as

exception)

{Dryopteris flix-mas

treatment

many

are

are

which

is

worms is an
grown as objects oi
for

beauty. Bacteria, algae and bryophytes

can usually reproduce themselves by a

by fragmentation
by sexual means; this helps in
classification. Ferns, however, have

vegetative process
as well as
their

a special

method of reproduction

ing a rather complicated life-histoi

involv\

ru

which develop and are shed like

dust from underneath the fern-fronds

spores

germinate, not into a recognizable fern

plant, but into a flat plate <>l green tissiir
which resembles a liverwort. This pro-

produces male and female

sexual organs, the combination of whose
gametes reproductive cells eventually
thallus in turn

develops into a typical fern of the species.

All the plant groups so lar mentioned,
although su( ceeding in their damp, if not

mammals,

economically by

for instance.

Above

Lichens consist of two plants, an

alga and a fungus living in partnership. The

green alga makes food for the fungus which
in turn provides

most important
to man
though the interdependence of
all plant and animal communities should
never be forgotten, as no one group can be
disregarded just because it seems to have
no immediate economic relevance. These
two groups, the Gymnospcrms and the
Ant^iosperms, are the seed-bearing plants.
Gymnosperms include cycads (a feu
tropical palm-like trees) but mainly confar the

lichens are shrubby while crustose lichens

form fat
consists

crusts on rocks or trees.

which enclose the algal

layers

of the

diversity of this

Each of the

dom

possesses

Angiosperms are the highest (evoluspeaking flowering plants whose

development has in many ways been conditioned by the need to ensure pollination

classes,

with specific functions within the organism

tion

and continuation of the

species.

The

upper

group

is

and

legion

is

17

groups

in the plant king-

many, usually thousands,

of different organisms. Since Darwin, the

belief that each was an individual creation

related

the flowers with consequent reproduc-

cells in the

discussed later.

their berry-like fleshy fruits.

of

type

lichen.

continuation

tionarilv

Each

of strands, called hyphae, offungus

of the invaluable conifers so named

because the majority develop their seeds.
not in flowers, but in the axils of woody
(ones'
those of Pine, Cedar, Spruce and
Kir are very familiar. Less obviously
'coniferous' are Yew (Taxus baccata) and
the Maidenhair tree [Ginkgo biloba) with

sist

actually watery, habitats, arc not vn\

highly evolved. This implies that the)
have not developed the range ol organs

moisture and shelter for the

alga. Foliose lichens are leafy, fruticose

has not held credence. As

each plant

is

background

we have

the product of

its

seen,

genetic

affected, gradually, over mil-

lions of years,

by

its

necessity to classify

environment. The
to slot each into

and

the divisions already described requires a

smaller and

into

groups

through

sub-classes,

tribes, sub-tribes

and

smaller

subdivisions,

sub-orders,

orders,
families.

Such

archical placings have been built

hier-

upon

study and research over centuries but as

classification depends utterly

clature

(it

upon nomen-

has to be possible to

relet

to

33

BIOLOGY
something by name
low)

it is

for discussion to fol-

now universal practice to go back

only as far as the eighteenth century to

Linnaeus. In his Species Plantarum, as well
as offering a form of classification, he also

introduced a method for the naming of

plants which has been adopted as standard. His book listed and described all the
plants known at that time. He gave a
two-part name to each, one for its genus
(the generic name) followed by a species

name

(specific epithet).

the plant's

Hellebore

name,

for

The two make up

example, the Green

Helleborus

is

(genus)

viridis

(species). A plant (or animal) species can

thus be referred to by a combination of

words which belong to it and it alone.

Universality was and still is assured by the
use of Latin.

To

be absolutely correct,
such botanical names are followed by the
names of the botanist who first described
the species. Thus the Green Hellebore

THE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS

A prime factor in the success of the flowering (and hence of the seed-bearing) plants

extraordinary diversity of
of species, although
great, cannot compare with that of the
lower plant groups but their dominance
in most habitats is paramount. This will
lies

their

in

form.

The number

be discussed more fully when the adaptation of plants to their environment is

considered. Some aspect of diversity of
form is exhibited by almost every species.
Indeed, it is largely these differences of
form which, as we have seen, have been
used to give a plant its specific status. Even
though every plant specimen is a living
individual and as such is subject to
biological variation, each individual of a
single species maintains enough characteristics of that species to be able to breed
successfully with others of the same species

among

its

community.

The

destiny of an organism

lies in its

part in the successful continuance of the

species. Atropa belladonna is a herb which

grows best on calcareous

shade.

Under

soils in

the half-

these ideal conditions a

strong healthy plant

is formed (that is, the

conditions are good for the health of the
plant as an individual), but, concomitant
with this, the plant makes luscious black

berries

which contain the seeds which

germinate

to

of the plant species. What is good for the

individual must also be good for the
species. Breeding or reproduction is the

end

to

which

all

life-cycles,

plant

animal, are conditioned.

Below

Parts of a generalized plant. All

flowering plants have the same general

arrangement of their parts but individual

to their organs vary
,

modifications

enormously.

should properly be referred to as Helleborus viridis Linnaeus (often abbreviated

toL).
terminal

which we would recognize

as being identical - all the Green Hellethus have
bores, to retain our example
binomial.
Other
plants,
for
the same
Stinking
Hellebores,
are
example the
similar enough to the green ones to be
placed in the same genus {Helleborus) but
have their own species name - foetidus.
Still more plants have enough similar
characteristics to be placed in the same
All the plants

family (the next highest ranking in the

hierarchy) as the hellebores but not in the

same genus, such as Monkshood (Acomtum

napellus) and the Common Buttercup
{Ranunculus

acris).

bud

flower

peduncle

lamina

shoot

leaf

petiole
stipule

All these plants are in

the family Ranunculaceae.

By a similar process of comparison, this

time with other families, these Ranunculaceous plants are placed in the order
Tubiflorae, along with 25 other families,
and the order Tubiflorae in the class
Sympetalae. Sympetalae is a class within
the

subdivision

Dicotyledones,

in

the

division Angiospermae.

Cultivar

is

soil line

the term for a category,

within the same species, of distinct culti-

vated

sorts.

They are

lateral root

usually referred to as

Hybrids
in seed catalogues.
between species of the same or even different genera occur and these are indicated by an x sign, for example, Tilia x
europaea, being the hybrid derived from
T. cordata and T. platyphyllos An inter-

varieties

system of rules now governs

nomenclature.
The necessity for this seemingly very
complicated system of nomenclature is
national

that correct botanical

consistent worldwide.

34

names are thus

beginning of
root hairs

will

provide the next generation

lateral root

or

PLANT STRUCTURE
The

life-cycle of a flowering plant be-

Already diversification
may be a huge cocoA
seed
apparent.
is
de-mer of the Seychelles weighing several
kilograms, the mustard-seed used in the
Bible to illustrate a tiny measure, or the
gins with the seed.

seeds of certain

even smaller dust-like

orchids

and begonias. Each

seed, regard-

less of its size, contains the vital ability to

continue its species for a further generation. It bears the full genetic complement
of

its

parents,

making

it

what

it

will be,

similar to, but not necessarily identical

with, those parents.

that

do occur take

Any slight

their

differences

chance

in the race

variant that helps, however

infinitesimally, an individual to survive
for

life.

habitat than

otherwise
chance of
stands
better
fellows
a
identical
generation,
subsequent
continuing into a
better in its

and

in so

its

is

less

to

likely

The

dispersal

growing

of these methods of seed

prevent young plants from

too close to their parents but rather

new ground.

colonize

to

object

is to

although diversity of form is extreme the

basic parts have the same functions. The
organs of an angiosperm may be classified
as vegetative or reproductive. Vegetative
organs are those structures of the plant
which are concerned with growth, maintenance and development such as roots,
stems and leaves. Those parts of the plant
which are concerned with the production
of the next generation are classified as the
reproductive parts and include the flowers

which give

rise

the seed-containing

to

The

root of an angiosperm

is

are either utilized in the roots themselves

the

Variegated plants, for example, have

reduced photosynthetic capabilities and
only the efforts of gardeners in propagating them vegetatively keep them alive.
Once the seed has found a suitable environment the new generation can begin
to grow. The seed-coat opens and a first
root emerges to give initial anchorage, and
then a shoot appears to reach for the light.
By the time this happens unicellular root
hairs are abstracting water and salts in
solution from the soil. As it breaks above
ground, the shoot's greenness develops

or conducted via the vascular tissue to

other parts of the plant. In addition, they

may have

certain specialized functions:

food storage, especially as starch (as in
Taraxacum officinale, the Dandelion), or as
aerial roots they

may

serve to support the

plant either by growing downwards at an

angle from the stem to the soil (maize, for
example) or by being especially modified
as climbing roots to anchor stems to walls
and rocks Hedera helix Ivy for instance
(

album

some

Further,

species

Mistletoe)

such

Viscum

as

which penetrate the vascular

this first growth-spurt is obtained

from the food-store within the seed itself,
produced while the seed was still developing within the fruit on the parent plant.
From this moment the plant develops and
eventually attains maturity. As with any
living organism its life is beset with dangers and difficulties: problems of competition, availability of food, unpredictability of weather, inevitability of predators. Yet if only because of the sheer
number of any one species generally in-

plant host.

The stem is that part of the plant which

rises above the ground and, together with
the leaves, forms the shoot. Most stems are
erect aerial organs but some remain
underground and still others creep along
the surface. The stem typically serves as a
mechanical support for the leaves, flowers
and fruits; a pathway for conduction of
newly made- food to other parts of the
plant, perhaps for storage, and of stored

volved, success for that species

manufacture of the food

is

assured.

Only geological cataclysms and man's

interference -

ever before

now

a greater danger than

are likely to cause extinction.

Structure of the typical plant

Depending upon the species concerned
vegetative growth continues by extension
of the primary shoot and root structures
fall growth, of course, is by continual
ell
elongation and division) which branch
and branch again. In a 'typical' plant
aerial growth is paralleled by that underground growth which cannot be seen. But
(

food to

stems

its

and

required

site;

tissues

site

itself

for
in

the

green

as a potential reproductive

Certain underground stems

be used for food storage as tubers,
rhizomes, bulbs and corms. Modifications to aerial stems include stolons, ten-

may

and thorns.

Leaves, the characteristic photosynthe-

organs of higher plants, have their size.

shape and structure expressly designed to
promote maximum contact with light and
air. Another important leaf activity is
transpiration, the loss of water vapour
tic

through the leaves.

dispersal

of a

structure.

drils

water

have parasitic roots

and photosynthesis begins. The eneruv

for

dispersal

a subterranean organ whose functions are

reproduce.

to

is

strawberry
cranesbil

animal

typically

A debilitating variant

survive

this

cotoneaster

fruits.

to anchor the plant to its growing medium

and to take up water and other nutrients
from the soil. These absorbed materials

doing gradually changes the

characteristics of the species

process of evolution.

Right

coconut

Leaves, like stems and roots, vary in

many

example, in their shape and

size, their arrangement on the stem and
their vein patterns. Certain basic features
are, however, distinguishable. The leal
blade or lamina is attached to the stem by
means of a continuation of the stem itself,
the stalk or petiole. At the base of the
petiole are axillary buds which produce
secondary branches or flowers or both.
respects

for

Sometimes small

leaf-like structures, called

In some leaves, leaf

and the leaves are said
The blades of some leaves are

stipules, are found.

petioles are absent

to be sessile.

deeply indented at the margins or edges

while others are completely separated
into individual parts called leaflets. II the

lamina remains in one piece even though

deeply lobed, the leaf is referred to as a
simple leal. Complete segmentation of the
35

BIOLOGY
blade into
leaf.

leaflets

produces a compound
different examples

There are many

of both types.

Flowers are specialized branched stems

with lateral appendages. The flower is
supported by a stem or pedicel which enlarges terminally to give a receptacle, to

which the

floral parts are

attached.

The

sepals (collectively forming the calyx) are

joined to the receptacle and within them

are found the petals (or corolla Together
the calyx and corolla are termed the
perianth. The next group of appendages
)

are the stamens (the male parts, collectively called the androecium) each consisting of a

narrow

filament, topped by an

anther which produces the pollen. Within

these, at the centre of the flower, is the
female reproductive structure, the gynoecium. The basic unit of this is the carpel.

At the base is the ovary containing the

ovules which develop into the seeds. The
ovule is surmounted by a style culminating in a stigma. Extraordinary variation

of the relative size and arrangement of

these structures is observed. Some (lowers
so-called perfect flowers
have both
male and female parts, but other plants
havi male flowers which are distinct from
male ones. When both types ol
the
flowers are found on one plant, the plant
is said
to be monoecious (for example.
Cucumber) when they are on separate
It

plants, the species

(for

is

known

as dioecious

example, Holly).

After fertilization, the flower structure

develops into a fruit containing the fertilized ovules or seecis. The embryo within
the seed consists of a short axis with one or

two seed-leaves or cotyledons which are

food stores. After germination, sometimes
the seed-leaves stay below ground (hypogeal germination), but in other species

they break through the soil surface to act

as the primary photosynthesizers (epigeal
germination). Monocotyledonous plants

produce only one cotyledon, dicotyledonous two. In addition the mature

embryo contains a plumule which gives
rise to the shoot and the radicle which
becomes the root system. The seed is
surrounded by a testa or seed-coat.
The wall of the immature ovary gives
rise to

the

main

structure of the fruit-wall

- the pericarp - which

is

generally divided

Right: Diagram of a generalized flower (all

flowering plants have the same general
arrangement )

which may be defined, simply,

as a specialized branched stem with a

number

of modified lateral appendages. The enormous

variations in size, shape

and colour are

often attributable to the plant's adaptation to

a particular method of pollination.

36

into three,

more or

less distinct, layers:

and the endocarp. A very wide range of seeds and fruits

exists. The variation in form and character
the exocarp, the mesocarp

of each of the organs

is

useful in identifica-

tion and a brief description of each main

type will be found in the glossary.

be realized that every plant is

adapted to its habitat. The
available resources of nutrients derived
from the soil (both of organic and inorganic origins) restrict or promote the
It will

perfectly

dominance of certain groups.

do the amounts of water and the

success or
So, too,

vagaries

Because

of climate.

they

are

plants they are able to harness air

and

sunlight. Herbs, as they have

defined, are plants used by

come

man

in a

to

be

num-

ber of different ways: only in a few cases

does this detract from their efficiency as
organisms. Their botanical classification,

however,

human

is

not necessarily determined b\

usage. Certain plant families con-

numbers of herb
plants. The Umbelliferae, which includes
Parsley, Dill, Caraway, Coriander and
Angelica, and the Labiatae with Sage,
Thyme, Mint, Savory, Rosemary, for
example, have main culinary herbs. The
tain

relatively

Solanaceae

large

include

disproportionate

number of drug plants Mandrake,

monium, Belladonna and Henbane

Stra.

PLANT GROWTH
The

growth are
water, warmth, air and nutrients.

basic necessities for plant

light,

We will see shortly how plant forms

develop in response to the search for these
basic requirements, so making maximum
use of the available resources. Air is the
only essential factor for every phase of
growth of the higher plants except in the
short initial stage of seed germination. In
normal conditions the ramifying root
system possesses myriads of root hairs in
contact with the soil. Each soil 'crumb" is
surrounded by a film of water in which
inorganic salts (the product of the continual weathering of inorganic rocks and
decomposing organic remains; are disThe root-hair wall acts as a
membrane through which water and

solved.

certain dissolved salts can pass. Osmosis,

the process by which two solutions (in this

case cell sap

and

soil

a semi-permeable

water), separated by

membrane

(here, the

root-hair wall) attempt to equalize each

other,

means

that

weaker solutions flow

into stronger ones. In this case, the cell

sap

is

more concentrated and hence

salts) from the soil are drawn
root hair. Its contents are now

the

water and
into the

weaker than those of the adjoining inner

cells

and

so the osmotic flow proceeds

inwards until

it

reaches the conducting

NUTRITION
These are groups of specialized
throughout the plant
whose function it is to convey water and
tissues.

extending

cells

dissolved minerals to all part of the plant

(both the nutrients and the products of

photosynthesis in the green parts). The
sophistication of these tissues is a feature

yffctrlM

/.:,

^K^^^^*

^^

of the morphology of the higher plants.

The conducting or vascular tissues are

capable of permitting nutrient movement

in both directions (that is, both to and
from the roots). In young roots and stems
there are separate strands of xylem taking

pimmmmB'

nutrients

up from the

roots)

and phloem

Ij

(bringing the products of photosynthesis

down). There is considerable variation in
the form of these conducting elements
(vessels

and tracheids are examples) and

may

be used for identification purposes. In more developed (older

this diversity

plants, these tissues exist as rings

xi

^|

^8^mr7nHvTTf ~^yij

^H

^m

^^H

which

develop as the stems and roots enlarge.

The nutrition of plants

For efficient growth plants require a wide
range of nutrients in solution, the main
elements being nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. To these are added calcium,
sulphur,

magnesium and

a large

number

of trace elements such as boron, iron,

copper, zinc and

molybdenum which

are

equally essential but in minute quantities

only. Deficiencies of these minor or trace
elements show as physiological diseases;
in excess, however, they can be positively

the crop has been harvested. Decomposi-

Above

tion of the root system with the nodules

kept in the dark

and the bacteria they contain

stem with small leaves

into the soil, so

Surprisingly, although nitrogen

a major constituent of the air with

which most plants are in constant contact,
only a relatively small number of them
can make direct use of this source. Most
nitrogen has to be obtained from nitrogenous compounds in the soil
hence ui
apply ammonium nitrate or sodium
nitrate as fertilizers to supplement what
is already
there. But members of one
plant family in particular, the Leguminosae, have developed a symbiotic
01
mutually beneficialj relationship with
is

certain bacteria (notably Bacillus species

or Rhizobium radicicola) which are able to
this

is

for

with most crops which deplete soil nitrogen. The nodules are clearly visible on any
carefully lifted legume root. Alders and a
few subtropical trees such as Casuarinas
also display this adaptation.

atmospheric nitrogen. The bacsmall nodules grown by the

teria live in

roots of the plant host

and provide

it

in

return with nitrogen. This is why crops of

peas or beans, lor example, positively
benefit the soil

provided that the under-

ground parts are

left

in the

ground

after

with

ted

reddish

tinge.

Phosphorus

energy through photosynthesis

respiration, and without it both

transfers

and

body

reactions in the plant

to take

fail

place properly. Potassium seems to have

a special part to play in carbohydrate

metabolism and a deficiency shows as

pool general development in many parts
ol the plant. Potassium also contributes to
resistance against disease
It is

the

not necessary to

inorganic

and

list all

nutrients

the roles of

which

plants

growing in a balanced soil. The vital part

played by water as a pathway to nutrient
is

also clear.

Water

is

also

biochemical processes
in the plant, including photosynthesis.
Most plants, however, take up more
water than they actually require for these
processes because the essential materials
essential to all the

are generally only present in

very dilute solution, so that a

has to

be-

taken into

the-

the-

lot

soil

in

ofwatei

plant for

it

to

obtain enough of its dissolved salts. This

excess water is transpired from the surlae c
ol

the leaf or

young

and

so has developed a long

- a good example of

a plant growing without light, one of the

necessities for healthy

growth.

stems. Vast

of water pass through the plants in this

way a summer crop of grass, for example,
has been estimated to have transpired
some 500 tons of water per acre
255
tonnes per hectare) between May and
:

July.

The warmth needed

for

plant growth

relates directly to the species naturally

occurring in any one climate. Plants are

seldom killed by cold in their own habitats. When a range of exotics is grown in
a cold climate, however, it can be seen
that the ability to withstand frost is not
necessarily

plants

inherent.

much

greater

Among

primitive

extremes

appear

Certain unicellular algae, for

example-, have- been recorded in Antarctica, while some species of bacteria may
live at 77 C
71 F). In higher plants the
life-cycle is also seen to be directly related
to seasonal temperatures. A similar relationship is observed, in the higher or
lower latitudes, according to the amount
of daylight available. Flowering plants
grow rapidly and seeds germinate in
response- to increased temperature and
day-length. These- growth patterns of
vegetative development leading to flowering and seed production have evolved to
capitalize upon or to work within the
conditions that exist in their nativepossible.

frost.

obtain through their roots to appreciate

the importance of a healthy root svstem

availability

This courgette seedling has been

in contrast

Plants lacking phosphorus appear stun-

Nitrogen is a basic constituent of all

proteins but also of the vitally important
chlorophyll, hence a lack of this elemenl
produces weak, yellowish plants. An
excess of nitrogenous fertilizers results in
lush, sappy growth which is prone to

fix'

becoming available

the next season's crop. This

toxic.

disease.

compounds

nitrogen-containing

useful

releases

amounts

habitats.

The

stimulus for activity

may

however, be a direct one, such as this.

Winter-hardy cereals, for example, flower
not,

BIOLOGY
Left: Tangles

fLaminaria digitataj,

with a smooth stalk and a strap-like blade

which

is slit

into several sections, is one

the oar-weeds.

of
These are brown algae which

are specially adapted to live only in

particular zones along the seashore.

flowering plant divisions are predominant. Flowering plants which

now

live in

water have probably moved back to it

from the land to cope with excessive
terrestrial competition and have, therefore, had to develop very specialized
structures. The floating leaves of waterlilies have stomata on their upper sides,
not mainly on the lower ones as do most
aerial plants.

The

merged water

cells

of the largely sub-

plants,

hydrophytes, are

wide intercellular spaces, for

air is at a premium. If a plant is to succeed
each problem has to be solved. The swamp
large with

cypress of the Florida Everglades, Taxo-

dium distichum, grows snorkel-like structures,

in the

warmth of

the early

summer

be-

cause their seedlings have been subjected

to winter cold. Chrysanthemums only
flower in

autumn

as the night-length in-

creases sufficiently to allow production ol

hormones which in turn

cause the buds to develop. That we now
accept as normal the permanent availability of chrysanthemums, and other
the various plant

crops, out of season,

man's success

is

an indication of

in providing, particularly

in the highly controlled environments of

greenhouses, the exactly right amount of
the basic necessities for growth. Air is enriched with higher concentrations of
carbon dioxide to accelerate photosynthe-

provided or denied,
temperature
is
controlled,
optimal
amounts of water and concentrations of

sis,

extra

light

is

nutrients are given. All these factors must

be contrived to create the balanced

regime that may accelerate, but cannot
fundamentally alter, the growth pattern
of the plant species concerned.

species)

Plants, no less than animals, are the result

of each species' evolutionary response to
its environment. Yet plants complement

and add

to their

environment

in a

way

that animals cannot.

climate which permits forest as a

vegetation climax (so called because this

represents the peak of plant growth and

development;

is

itself

aided by the convapour from

tinual transpiration of water

the highest branches of the trees that form

a forest canopy.

The

soil

the trees to attain maturity

annual
38

leaf-fall

(even

which enables

is enriched by
from evergreen

In

in the root network of the

Within such woodland a stratification of other plants, from shrubs to
mosses, is encouraged and helps to develop
its associated fauna. A fully developed
habitat encourages a great richness ol
plant and animal life. Yet the natural

being held
plants.

balance

ecological

is

very

sensitive

to

man's interference. The aridity of the

Sahara desert today, and the pollution of
much of the Mediterranean coastal areas,
is a reminder of the hazards of careless

human
Not

exploitation.

all

natural environments, however,

permit the attainment of the woodland

climax and yet in the areas of the earth
which are able to provide even a minimum of the necessary requirements for
plant growth, some such growth is always
present. Its form reflects the availabilitx
of the basic necessities and the external
factors that
It

may

limit their utilization.

seems probable that

moved

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT

and protected from erosion

terrestrial life

very slow evolutionary stages

in

from watery habitats, and thus in plants

the ability to withstand drought can be
seen as a highly developed (and late stage
of this evolution. Thus the world of plants
may be seen as an unbroken continuum
from lake or even sea to desert. Each main
compels plant
habitat
characteristic
species to adapt to it (although the plants
which are successful in this adaptation
may be of widely differing families and of
)

diverse evolutionary origin and age).

This similarity of form in response to the

known

as

pneumatophores. which

protrude above the water level and so

help in obtaining enough air. The mangroves of most tropical swamps have
developed an invaluable seed-dispersal

method: seeds just dropped would fall

into the sea and probably be carried awa\
with little chance of germination. Seeds
of several species thus germinate on the
parent plant, producing a heavy torpedolike first root;

the seedling

falls,

slicing

through the water to stick into, and so

grow in, the mud below.
Bog plants have no difficulty in finding
enough water so long as it is not brackish,
but aeration at the roots presents more of
a problem. The plants of the saline
marshes, halophytes, suffer from physiological drought. Water is available all
around, yet because of its high salt concentration osmotic intake is difficult.
Water-loss must thus be avoided at all
costs and halophytes exhibit similar waterconserving characteristics to desert plants,
where all water is scarce.
Plants which

are

known

grow

best in

as mesophytes.

normal

They

soils

are in-

cluded in a broad band of morphological

types reflecting every sort of habitat and
micro-climate throughout the world. The
great majority of herbs are mesophytic.
In cultivation, however, the individual
requirements of each species have to be
considered: semi-shade and a moist soil
suits Angelica and Sorrel, for example,
while Sage and Basil like full sun and perfect drainage. In general all aromatic

as convergent evolution.

herbs thrive in warmth and sunlight. In

areas of high humidity where plant growth
is at its most concentrated, such as the

In watery habitats the simpler, non-

equatorial jungles, trees will be covered

conditions
habitat

is

prevailing

known

in

particular

ADAPTATION TO ENVIRONMENT
with flowering plants and ferns which
have adapted themselves to enjoy an aerial
life. These so-called epiphytes are especiallv represented in the Orchidacctie for
example, Vanilla) and Bromeliaceae

Pineapple

The

families.

typical plants of desert regions are

They are generally leafless with

stems and deeply
moisture-retaining
thick
the cacti.

stomata to reduce water-loss.

Cacti are good examples of the extreme

sunken

xerophytic

and

condition,

native

are

only to the New World. The problem of

water retention and excessive water-loss
(leading of course to wilting, desiccation
is, however, worldbe a seasonal problem, as in
the Arctic where although there is always
plenty of water, it is unavailable to the
plant in the winter because it is locked
away in the form of ice. Plants have
developed a vast number of ways of minimizing such dangers. Leaves always the
most vulnerable of organs may have
thick, waxy cuticles such as the Bay
Laurel. The woolly covering of many greyleaved shrubs and their colour also helps
to reflect excessive sunlight. Leaves may
be greatly reduced ias in Lavender and
Rosemary or be completely missing
(Ephedra, for example Succulent leaves
Purslane indicate their increased capacity for water storage.
Variation in morphology is also clear
in the type of life a species is programmed
to live, and every possibility exists. Ephemcrals such as Corn Salad rush through

and ultimately death

wide.

It

may

their life-cycle

(that

is

to

sav.

the seed

germinates, develops into the adult plant

which flowers and produces a new generation of seeds) in only a few weeks,

suitable conditions are available.

require a

full

summer

when

Annuals

season. Biennials.

on the other hand, take two years for the

full cycle: during the first year the seed
germinates and develops into a \ egetativc
'body' and an underground storage organ.

The
mer

is used the following sumproduce a flowering spike which

then produces fresh seed. Many vegetables
and herbs do this, for example. Carrot,
Pal nip and Parsley.
1'eiennial plants, which live horn three
to four years to several thousands, have
bifurcated into the herbaceous, which

stored food
to

retire to a resting bulb,

bud

01

some other

inclement seasons

eithei

excessively hot or cold), or the

wood v.

root-stock

in

Shrubs, and especially

trees.

m< rease

theii

vegetative bod) yearly, and this in its turn

has demanded the production of special

strengthening tissues to support the enormous weight of the tree trunks. Similarly
in these cases, special water-conducting

mechanisms within the plant (to convey

water and nutrients from below soil-level
which
to the tips of the highest branches
may be a hundred metres above) have had

Above : Swamp cypress fTaxodium

distichumj, seen here in autumn
coloration, shows adaptation to its marshy

to be developed.

pneumatophores which come above wet

form of body and of lifesi v le a species has evolved, it must be seen

as a preliminary to flowering and sexual
reproduction. The range of flower types
has evolved in parallel with the diversity
of fauna which are available to pollinate
them. Colour, scent, size and season arcgeared to the animate visitors such as
insects and birds and the inanimate wind

water for

Whatever

the'

rain. Efficiency is all and the fact th.it

a plant succeeds in the wild is proof that

and

methods adopted, however bizarre,

u.dk work.
Only distribution of the seeds remains
be considered and the methods are as

the
,k

environment by having modified roots known as

air,

and a

special

soil or

method of seed

germination which avoids losing the seeds in

the sea

where they may fail

to develop.

groups include suitable species which by

trial and error have been discovered to
possess useful properties.

The

alkaloids

which are now used from such species as

Datura stramonium (Thorn Apple) and
Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane) may be byproducts of the plant's normal metabolic
processes or defence mechanisms. 1 1 would
seem that the volatile oils of Rue or

The

Rosemary are in fact intended as a discouragement to browsing animals. Man,

ironic ally, finds them attractive and both
collects them in the wild and cultivates

its

them.

to

varied as those

employed

for pollination.

individual species demonstrates by

existence the efficiency of the whole

organism. Each has reached success and

continues to succeed in its ecological niche
by a constant process of adaptation ovei
many thousands of years.
The- range- of species that man has used
as herbs throughout the world
as food,
medicine or elves is enormous. As already
indicated, almost all of the major plant

It is significant that few herbs are the

product of intensive breeding or, indeed,
selection. They are species that have been
hist collected, then cultivated, and now
even farmed with the development of
horticulture. They have not, however,
been changed genetically from their

original wild form.

39

CHEMISTRY

THE CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS

fundamental point of difference between

We know

plants

that

some plants are

useful in

and animals. The

latter take in

treating certain diseases or in cooking, but

large molecules such as starches, proteins

not sufficient to say that we know that

they work or that they impart pleasing
odours and flavours to food. The reason

and

it is

for their various actions is that they contain certain active chemical substances

and

it

is

these

compounds

that produce

various effects. This section is concerned

with a consideration of what these active

how and why the plant

makes them and how we can best use

materials are,

them. Before discussing the active substances, however, it is necessary to look at

the chemistry of plants in general.

There are a number of similarities

between plants and animals - both are
composed ofcells, for example. The typical
mature plant cell is a very small (about
o.o

to o.ooi

cm

or 0.004 to 0.0004 ins

in diameter), many-sided compartment

enclosed by a cell-wall. Within this wall is

contained the cytoplasm

(in

which most

of the life-giving processes occur) and the

nucleus (which houses the genes and controls all activities

of the

cell).

Most of the

occupied by a cavity or vacuole

containing a watery sap. Some of the
most important components of the cytoplasm are the chloroplasts in which the
plant assimilates its food. This is the

cell

is

(which contain many carbon

atoms), and gradually break them down in
a sort of controlled combustion process,
thus obtaining their contained energy
(required for growth, for example
in
small definite quantities rather than all at
once as in a fire. They then reassemble
these small fragments of the original food
molecules to form their own substance.
Plants, on the other hand, take in from the
air a very small molecule, carbon dioxide,
as their source of carbon and bring together several (sometimes manyi of these
single carbon units, combined with water
from the soil, to make up their own substance, releasing back oxygen into the air
in the process. The energy required for
this conversion is provided by sunlight
which is trapped by the green pigment,
chlorophyll, contained in the chloroplasts. Other pigments, usually yellow.
trap light of slightly different wavelengths
so increasing the efficiency of the conversion of solar to chemical energy. The
initial product of these photosynthetic
reactions is a simple sugar containing six
carbon atoms, glucose, which may then
be used in other reactions or stored as
fats

starch.

Enzymes
Plants are very efficient at carrying out
this process because unlike in the chemical

when

laboratory

a great deal of energy

has to be supplied to cause

(usually heat

a chemical change to take place which

is

very wasteful), reactions in living systems

are controlled by complex protein cata-

enzymes.

called

lysts

These work

by

drastically lowering the energy required

for

each stage in a complicated sequence

of reactions

(like the

process of converting

carbon dioxide to glucose] The protein

of most enzymes is combined in some way
with a metal atom such as iron or manganese which explains why small quan.

of these materials are essential for

healthy growth. If that metal is absent.

tities

enzyme of which it forms a

and the reacwhich that enzyme catalyzes cannot

the particular

part cannot be produced,

tions

proceed so that the chemical constitution

of the plant, hence its development, is
impaired or even stopped. A little energy
still
is
required for enzyme-catalyzed
reactions and this energy is stored in
special chemical bonds high-energy phosphate bonds hence the requirement for
phosphorus. Enzymes are highly specific
materials which can promote only one
small reaction in a complicated sequence
and the overall change from carbon
,

dioxide to glucose requires the presence

of hundreds of closely related enzyme
molecules.

The absence

or malfunction of

one of these means that the reactions

cannot proceed normally. They are also
extremely dependent, among other factors, on temperature
the optimal temperature is usually 37 C or 98 F
The sugars produced by the green

just

tissue in the first stages

of photosynthesis

may

be further metabolized in the same

cell or transported, via the vascular tissue,
to other parts of the plant. They may then
Left: Parts of a typical rigid-walled
cell. ( The cell-wall material

plant
is

mainly cellulose but may be

impregnated with other materials such as

lignin.)

choroplast

B
C

endoplasmic reticulum

nucleolus

E
F

chromatin

nucleus

nuclear

membrane

vacuole

mitochondrion

Golgi membrane

40

cytoplasm

cell membrane
plasma membrane

thickened cell-wall

LIFE-GIVING PROCESSES
Right: The enzyme ( i ) combines with

(2) to form an
This breaks down

certain substrate molecules

activated complex (3)

and

give the products (4)

to

regenerates the

enzyme. Only some molecules will exactly

which explains
'fit' on the enzyme surface
their

high

specificity.

be assimilated

to give, for

example, cellu-

main constituent of plant

lose (the

cell-

important food
walls)
may be used in
or
they
storage material),
important
biothe synthesis of other
chemicals such as proteins (some of which
may be used to make more enzymes),
nucleic acids (which make up part of the
genetic material of the cells - the chromo(an

starch

or

somes) and
A plant

fats.

increases

substance,

its

or

grows, either by enlargement of the existing cells of which it is comprised or by

produce
subsequently
may
which
two further
enlarge and divide themselves. Both
enlargement and division are influenced
by the environment as has been mendivision of certain of these cells to
cells

tioned previously but it is at the biochemical level that control really takes
place.

example, germinate as a
temperature in the
spring because the warmth activates certain enzymes which produce chemical
Seeds,

for

of increased

result

substances whose function

growth by

become important

are to
sion.

An

it

is

on

acting directly

to initiate-

cells

which

centres of divi-

increase in the length ol stems

and roots (as in germination), in the

development of their branching systems
and in the development of lateral growths
such as leaves, Rowers and root hairs is
known as primary growth. The regions ol
extremely active, dividing ells which give
c

these growths

rise to

arc-

called primary

meristems. Secondary meristems also

occur and the most important of these is
known as the cambium. It usually occurs
as a continuous, annular layer ol small
cells from just above the root tip to just
below the stem apex. Lateral division of
these cambial cells inwards towards the
centre- of the stem produces xylem cells.
which conduct water upwards from the
loots.

Outward

nutrients to

all

energy and the energy stored as

phosphate groups ma\ he released

ol
1

'active

cells,

parts of the plant. All cell

elongation
and
requires the utili-

division

zation

same manwhich convex

division in the

ner produces phloem

and so become available- lor carrying out

other processes by a sequence of reactions
which

is

essentially

the-

reverse

breaking

synthesis

tin-

molecules to

much

e>l

photo-

down of

smaller ones

in the-

large
pro-

Above

lack of potassium in the soil

produces browning and death of the leaves of

this

Paeony plant. Other

give

rise to different

may proceed

deficiencies also

diseases but all

may

tually

The

soil

tilled or the fertilizer will be

belli fit the

must be well

unable

ess

takes over as the

is

known

as respiration.

fundamental,

processes

an obvious chemical influence on chlorophyll production as well as inducing

indirect chemical changes which promote
in

inhibited

main growth

Primary and secondary metabolism

Light, vital as an energy source, exerts

flowering

and even-

to

plant.

which

previously

point.

All these(

at other levels

one of the

laterals

generally be rectified by application of the

appropriate fertilizer-

apex, and hence the hormones, are removed by pruning, for example growth

the

Chrysanthemum,

for

example, as has already been mentioned.

In an established plant, cell division and
thus elongation of the stem or branch
occurs at the apical bud because it produces certain growth-retarding substane es
hormones which suppress activity at the
other buds lower down the- stem. If the

(the

literally life-giving,

assimilation

of food,

its

and hence growth)

most plants, and their

digestion, respiration

are

common

to

biochemical control is essentially identical

in all cells (whether they arc on the surface
of a leaf or deep inside a root) of all species
from microscopic, floating seaweeds to the
giant redwoods. For this reason they areknown as primary metabolic processes
and the compounds involved as primary
metabolites.

Most

plants, however,

make other sub-

stances in addition to those they require

4'

CHEMISTRY

..

V->

&

,'

with low osmotic pressures called flavonoids, which happen to be red. A pink
colour thus develops in the leaves. After
some time when the plant has grown and
so needs and can accommodate more
sugar, the red substances are removed by
reconversion into useful sugars so that the
pink hue gradually disappears.

The main types of metabolites

The 'active constituents' of plants may
categorized according

to

their

be
chemical

structure:
Alkaloids are distinguished chemically

by

the fact that they contain a basic nitrogen

atom. An alkaloid-containing plant almost

never contains just one alkaloid but rather
a whole range of closely related chemical
components. Thousands of alkaloids are
known and they are very widespread in
the plant world being present even in
certain fungi.

the

Some

Solanaceous

of the best

group

shows

more may serve a protective function.

Some compounds are extremely toxic
(even in very low concentrations) and a

section through a holly leaf

the 'open' structure

of leaves with
good circulation

large air-spaces to promote

bird, for example, which cats a bcrrv

which contains these substances and as a
result becomes ill soon learns to avoid the
fruit from that particular species: the

of gases. Holly, an evergreen, possesses a

modification to enable it to withstand
drought conditions in winter by having a
thick outer cuticle.

merely to exist and these are often ofver)

complicated structure. They can sometimes be unique to a single species or a

group of very closely related species.

Despite their wide diversity of character
and distribution they all have one thing
in common and that is that their function
in the plant, if they have one at all, is very
poorly understood. It is these secondary
metabolites, sometimes present in an
extremely minute concentration, which
exert

the

physiological

logical effects

on

man and

or

pharmaco-

are responsible

and odours of some

obvious that it is on these
substances that an account of the chemistry of herbs should concentrate.
for the strong flavours

species

and

it is

Biosynthesis

The secondary

may

be

regarded as 'end-products' of metabolism

have an extremely wide range of chemical
structure but their functions are largely
unknown. Some coloured compounds
have an obvious reproductive role in that
they are responsible for the colour of

and the
yellow carotenes of sunflowers are good
examples and hence attract insects which
pollinate and cross-fertilize. Others may
have a role in growth regulation
the
hormones already mentioned while still
flowers (the red flavonoids of roses

42

among other

Deadly Nightshade and Thorn

Apple. Another much more complex
group which includes morphine is found
in certain species of poppy.
Glycosides are compounds which consist of
two parts: a sugar portion attached via a
species,

special

linkage to a non-sugar residue.

chances of survival of the plant are thus

They may be

increased.

action of dilute acid. Probably the most

Some

evidence that

these secondary

substances are concerned, however indirectly, with vital processes is given In

the fact that not

all

parts of those plants

by enzymes or by the

split

important group are those which exert a

powerful physiological effect on heart
muscle
the cardio-active glycosides

which are special

steroids found,

among

which contain these materials have the

same concentration of them. They may.

other plants, in the Foxglove and

the-Valley. Second only to the cardiac

for

example, be concentrated in the bark

Buckthorn) or the fruits (for
example, Caraway). Their concentration,
furthermore, varies with the season (and
this has obvious important consequences
regarding the collection of some medicinal
plants and herbs which will be referred to
later) and even with the time of day. The
concentration of active principles in the

glycosides are those

(as in the

anthraquinone, the purgative substances

of Cascara, Rhubarb, Buckthorn and
Senna.
Saponins are special glycosides which form
stable froths or foams when shaken in
water. Their physiological action depends
on the fact that they break up red blood
haemolysis). The Primula is one of
cells

medicinally useful plants of the family

Solanaceae (particularly the Deadly

the herbs containing saponins.

Nightshade)
metabolites which

are

(atropine and

hyoscine, ibr example) from,

Above: This

known

for

instance

show marked

Lily-of-

compounds based on

mixtures of
oils are complex
quite small molecules which are volatile
Essential

diurnal variation. Another example in

which secondary metabolites may play a

and generally have a pronounced odour.

role in

fundamental metabolism is given

by the so-called 'pink flush' of lettuces.
When growth and photosynthesis is very
active, in young seedlings for example,

many

high concentrations of sugars build up

including Dill, Caraway, Fennel and Anise and the leaves of

certain species of Labiatae including
Peppermint and Thyme). In addition,

increasing the osmotic pressure of the

some

cell

sap to dangerously high levels. If allowed

to proceed the cells could literally explode
at this point certain enzymes are activated
which divert the metabolism to break

down

these sugars to aromatic

compounds

They

are responsible for the flavours of

culinary herbs (for example, the

umbelliferous

fruits

have a therapeutic effect - for

example, oil of Clove is antiseptic.
Mucilages and gums consist of large molecules made up of several hundred individual sugar units linked together to form
chains. They have the special propertv of
oils

EXTRACTION
being able to form gels with water and
thus exert a soothing effect on inflamed

They may

tissue.

also act as laxatives

by

increasing the bulk of the contents of the

intestines and hence induce peristalsis. A
good example is Marshmallow root.
Tannins are complex phenols which react

with protein. Just as a tannin solution is

used to prevent putrefaction of animal
hides by converting them to leather so
may an extract of the Oak (which is high
in tannin content) be used to promote
wound healing by encouraging the formation of new tissue under the leathery layer
formed on broken mucosal surface by the
action of tannins. Because of their astrin-

gent

compounds

these

properties

also

have a marked effect on flavour - as in

tea, for example.
Bitten as the name implies have a strong
bitter taste but do not belong to any one
special chemical class. They are generally
Gentian,
used to stimulate the appetite
for example, is included for this purpose
in a

number of aperitifs.

can be seen that all these different

of substances have very different
chemical properties. Because of these
It

classes

methods used in the preparation of extracts of plants also vary.

The extraction procedures obviously dedifferences, the

pend on the types of constituent present

and it is worthwhile examining the vari< ius
procedures

in detail.

MAKING EXTRACTS OF PLANTS

Although it is desirable for all purposes to
have <ts fresh material as possible It is not
always feasible, and it is thus necessary to
preserve the plant in as near the fresh
state as possible

and sometimes, though

not always, profitable

t<>

extract from

it

the active constituents.

important to choose the appropriate

It is

part of the plant, lor not

theii active

all

plants contain

ingredients distributed evenly

throughout

each

organ.

materials in Bcarbcrry.

fol

The

active

example, are

the simplest

method of preservation. The

concentrated mainly in the leaves while

the useful parts of Chamomile are the

layers

flower-heads.

bunches] and kepi

After collection the pro* edure

ling the material

lot

depends on the

hand-

species,

pail ol the plant, active ingredients

and

whether or not the plant is to be used .it

once or stored, fresh plant material contains a high proportion of water leaves
and flowers usually lose up to about 85 pet
cent ol their weight on drying)

and

foi

reason the fresh materials are ratek

this

used

in

the

preparation of cxtnu is. A

extract may be ob-

more concentrated
tained
the

il

the plant

is first

added advantage

(hied, vvln< h has

that drying

is

also

fresh plant material

certain

in

01

cases

in thin

hung up

in

in a dry, well-\ cnlila-

Tubers and

ted place.

spread out

is

toots will obviously

take longer to dry than flowers

and

Above

The

volatile oil

being extracted.
droplets)

is

The

of certain plants

oil (seen as yellow

driven off mixed with steam

condenses in the upper right-hand

arm

and

of

the apparatus.

leaves

even though the former are sometimes cut

accelerate decomposition by promoting

up

of the

enzyme

also vital.

Once

into

small

Selection

pieces.

correct drying temperature

Too high

,i

temperature ma) cause

active ingredients

volatile oils, for

name

their

as

ple,

is

suggests

loss ol

exam-

vaporize

above about 40 C
or some chemical degradation
10
may oeeur as in Digitalis and most other
readily at temperatures
1

glycoside-containing plants). On the other

temperature ma) actually
hand, too low
,1

activity within the plant

itself.

dried the plant material should

be stored in a dark, cool place in containers that ate as near airtight as possible.

Some

is bound to occur with

and it is advisable to use
only material which has not been Stored
for longer than two years. The material is
usually reduced to a moderate powder b\

deterioration

time, however,

grinding

just

before use.

43

CHEMISTRY
Purification of the extract

The

next problem

is

the extraction ot the

There are two major

the first is to choose a method

active substances.
difficulties:

which
in a

will extract the desired

high yield and the second

compound
is

to ensure

unwanted impurities as possible are removed from the plant at the

same time. As has been seen already the
that as few

principles have very different

chemical, and hence solubility, characteristics depending on the class of comactive

pound

which they belong. Since,

to

example,

oils

for

are insoluble in water, water

or solvents containing a high proportion

of water cannot be used in their isolation.

Alkaloids are soluble in organic solvents

such as chloroform but so are the highly

coloured pigments such as chlorophyll
and carotenes. Glycosides are watersoluble but a great many other substance :s
formed in plants such as the sugars and
acids also dissolve in water.

Thus

it

is

extremely difficult to prepare an extract

which contains a reasonably high concentration of the desired material and
that material alone. A fairly satisfactory
compromise may be achieved, however,
by the use of dilute ethyl alcohol. Ethyl
alcohol contains enough of the properties
of water to dissolve the sugars and acids,

which arc polar compounds.

It

also be-

haves sufficiently like a non-polar organic solvent such as petrol to cause the
larger organic molecules, such as polypeptides and steroids, to dissolve. This has
the

advantage

in

that

in

most herbal

remedies the compounds actually responreported action are either not

known or they are only, or sometime^
more, effective in combination with other
substances either closely related or not
which are found in that particular plant.
This last phenomenon, known as synersible for the

gism,

is

discussed in the next chapter.

The

various ways of

is

making extracts follow.

One of the simplest ways of using herbs
as herbal teas or tisanes, which involves

simply extraction of the plant with water.

If the active ingredients are very soluble
in water, it may be sufficient to macerate
the powder with water for several hours
at room
temperature. Maceration at
higher temperatures (as in the case of

some hard barks;

the drug

is

is

called digestion. If

boiled in water for half an hour

or so the result

is

lor several

days or longer. This

may

either

be by maceration in a closed \ essel with

occasional shaking or stirring or by a
process of percolation which involves
packing the drug into a glass column and
slowly pouring water through, over the

drug.

The

active ingredients dissolve in

may

be collected and
passed through the column a second time.
Concentration by evaporation results in a
the water which

thick

residue

alcohol

is

known

as

an extract.

used the percolate

is

If

called a

tincture.

Volatile oils

may

be extracted

rather pure^state by a process

in

known

as

distillation. This method

heating the powdered drug with boiling
water which causes the oil to vaporize
into the steam. The oil and the steam are
collected together by condensation. The
oil, being lighter than the water, floats on
the surface and may then be collected.

steam

involved-

a decoction; but pro-

bably the best method is to place the plant

in a pot, cover with water that is just
boiling for about a quarter of an hour and
strain the resulting infusion.

Not all plant constituents are soluble in

water under these circumstances, however, and it may be necessary to leave the
44

plant material in contact with the water

This

METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

quality.

relatively straightforward

when

whole, fresh condition

either by direct comparison with an
authentic specimen or by the use of book^
of plant descriptions floras Many recognizable characteristic features may be
lost on drying, however, and certainly in
is

in the

powdered condition further work is

required and this is best achieved by a
microscopical investigation.
the

Microscopical examination
Although most plants contain essentially
the same sorts of cells cork, for example,
or the elements in the xylem, the conducting tissue

form

which have broadly the same

in all species, the fine, microscopic

structure of these cells

is

often

highly

Examination of a powder
under the microscope and the observation
of xylem vessels shows that the powder
contains wood, but from the fine structure
individual.

may

be possible to identify the source

size of the individual cells
may be important: the width of the fibres
enables powdered Cinnamon Cinnamomum zeylanicum\ to be distinguished from

it

plant.

As the activities of plants are very diverse

and even quite closely related species
often have completely different effects, it
is important
to ensure that the correct
species is being used and that it is of good

is

the plant

Even the

the closely related Cassia

Cinnamomum

cassia).

The

botanical source of the plant

is

not

necessarily a sufficiently strong criterion

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Above

In this chromotagraphic separation,

the various constituents

with the spray reagent

spots.

Unknown

of the plant react

to

extracts

produce coloured

of plants may thus

be compared with those of authentic

specimens.

Left

Closely related plants in the powdered

state are often indistinguishable to the eye

but

may

be easily identified microscopically.

Fibres in powdered Cinnamon (near left)

are rarely greater than

jo

micrometres in

diameter, while those in Cassia (far left)

30 and 40

are usually between

micrometres.

of identity. Certainly such techniques

not be applied to the examination

Some

actually responsible for the

The second technique, which has been

known lor about 30 years but only recently

logical activity of the plant, the pattern of

spots

is

applied to the study of plant extracts,

tic

is

called

ex-

which contain no plain

tracts or tinctures

material.

Chromatography

mav

<>l

further

means of control

obviously desirable, but the problem

complicated by the fact that although

many plants have been thoroughly investigated
referred to

and their biological activity

one particular or more than

one group of constituents, many have nol

and we still have very little idea of which
components are the physiologic ally active
ones. If

purify

we

did,

it

should be possible

to

crude extract and actually

the

chromatography.

into individual

with a suitable

and as it does
components of the mixthe bottom of the plate

port by capillary attraction

so the individual

is

nol

possible in the majority of cases, howevei

and the solution to the problem may be
approached in two ways. One is tin
application of certain chemical tests. It an
extract under investigation is suspce ted to
be of, for example, Blueberry, which is

known

contain

to

chemical

tannins,

simple

with a dilute solution offerric

chloride 'which gives a blue-black colour
with such substances) would rapidly tell
test

the investigator
not. But

the

it

if

tannins were present or

would certainly not

extract

were-

truly

of

tell

him

if

Blueberry
from what-

ause generally all tannins

ever source) would give a similar colour.
bee

ture applied to

move-

as

well,

depending on

but

at

different

rates

their affinity for the solvent

and the adsorbent. When the

solvent

reaches the top of the plate, the

plate-

removed and

dried. Coloured

is

compounds

are visible directly, but the plate

is

usually

sprayed with a detecting reagent which

reacts with colourless compounds to give
coloured spots. The pattern of spots produced by this technique is characteristic
for

particular plant extract under a

particular

Although

of operating conditions.

set
the

to the spots

ompounds which give

mav not be those which
e

none the

less

characteris-

compared

ditions, reasonably certain identification

adsorbent. The paper or plate is then

placed in a tank which contains a solvent.
This solvent gradually rises up the sup-

characterize them chemically. This

is

these patterns are

examined

techniques are available but

essentially all involve placing a small
amount of the sample on a sheet of paper

isolate the active substances so as to fully

if

components.

Several

or glass plate covered

produced

and

with those produced by an authentic

specimen, obtained under identical con-

This enables very

small quantities of material to be

and separated

is

pharmaco-

rise

are

may be made. Extra evidence may be

obtained by comparing the patterns made
using different chromatography solvents.
By this technique small differences in

biochemical make-up of plants may be

is important both from
the- quantitative and qualitative points of
view
the amount of extract of a certain
plant which is low in active ingredient
required for a particular pharmacologic al
effect may be very different from the
quantity of extract required from an
apparently identical plant which contains a high concentration of active
material. Such variations could lead to
serious overdoses. Only chemical examidetected and this

nation

would

show

differences.

these

Qualitative differences will also be shown

up by chromatography. The chemical

assessment

account

of a

crucial

herb

must

variables

take

such

as

into
the

time of collection and the fact

that plants of the same species can have
completely different active constituents.
habitat,

45

tsxvl

W^S^

M!?ti!SS

i*?fc<05

partem

^-Si^r

r**

It.

The medicinal
uses of plants
i

^--J!

last 50 years crude plant use has

been central to medicine and there is little
doubt that herbs are man's most ancient

Until the

therapeutic

aids.

We

are

still

heavily

western world
for semistarting
materials
sources
of
as
synthetic drugs or as the drugs themselves.
Because there are still many conditions we

dependent on plants

in the

unable to treat significantly, and

because synthetic drugs sometimes cause
side-effects, there is a growing tendency to
reconsider the traditional systems of healing as alternative medical treatment, and
one such system is herbalism.
Herbalism is now understood to be a
collection of different methods for using

are

plants in healing: some of these methods

use poisonous plants, some do not; some
employ mixtures of herbs, others believe
in

the success of 'simples' or individual

plants; others

combine

different forms of

treatment with a healing regime using

plants. This situation is reflected in the
names given to the various approaches to
herbalism
such as eclectic medicine,
botanic
medicine,
physiomedicalism,
plant healing, medical herbalism, phyto-

therapy and flower remedies. Their common denominator, however, is their derivation from the beliefs of folklore and
origin in the observations of ordinary
people.
Left: Lonitzer's Kreuterbuch' a German
herbal published in I In sixteenth century,
'

appeared

in various editions until

783.

The left-hand page shows the Spindle

tree f Euonymus,i, whose berries were
urn e

Because plants were so central to medithroughout history they acquired

used as a purgative.

cine

many

of the

beliefs

of folklore, which

sometimes had nothing

intrinsic

and

to

do with the

therapeutic qualities of plants,

order to re-evaluate the efficacy of

herbs, we must, therefore, consider the
development of a medicinal plants usage
in

together with the influence of folklore on

on
and disease
of supernatural spirits, and

that use. All medical folklore converges

common

belief that illness

are the result

hence from the earliest times medicine

and religion have been closely associated.
As soon as primitive societies developed,
the

man who became

the

priest

also

and medicine man

and he started to employ a limited range
of therapeutic methods which included
predominantly herb-lore and suggestion
(psychotherapy). The combination was
an important one, and was effective for as

became

the magician

mankind associated disease with

unknown. Indeed, the success of
suggestive methods of treatment is shown
to this day in the efficacy of placebos.
long as

the

In these early days many of the most

important plants used were those which
acted on the mind - the so-called hallucinogens or narcotics, which temporarily
relieved pain and which in combination
with the suggestion of medico-religious
ritual were probably of material benefit.
Numbers assumed an importance which
was initially derived from the astrological
beliefs of the Babylonians. Seven and nine
were believed to be especially powerful;

thus plants which carried the sign of these

numbers were thought to be particularly

47

MEDICINAL USES
Left: Alchemilla mollis readily seeds

and is used only as a decorative plant.

Other Alchemilla species are of

itself

medicinal importance and of these none had

Mantle
was once used
treat painful menstruation, and in
a greater reputation than Lady's
( Alchemilla

vulgaris,). It

to

veterinary medicine.

Below : An illustration of early surgery

from the anonymous thirteenth-century
Pseudo-Apuleius herbal,
'herb a papauer' or the

in

which

the use

Opium Poppy

of

is

described. Several herbs with the ability to

lessen

pain were known

to

early surgeons,

the Opium Poppy and the

Mandrake were undoubtedly the most

and of these

and ultimately it led to the fusion

between Arabic. Graeco- Alexandrian and
Oriental
medicine that emerged in
Europe at the end of the dark ages.
It was in Alexandria that the best
recorded experiments with poisons were
conducted, and there Mithridates in the
Syria,

second

century

B.C.

formulated

of succeeding centuries.
of Mithridates and

beneficial.

lobes on the leaves

the ages to the present

call

orthodox, which

day - those we now

initially

represented

the efforts by physicians to introduce logic

and experimentation into medical practice, and unorthodox, which represented

a continuation of very old, traditional and
often magical beliefs, but which until two
centuries ago largely represented the
medical treatment available to rich and
poor respectively.
Whether the unorthodox medicine of
the Egyptians was conducted by the herb
women who characterized so much of
later history we do not know. But we do

know

that

much

of the knowledge of

Egyptian medicine was passed on to the

Hippocrates (460-377 b.c.
Greeks
learned much from their works - and that
the close association between medicine
and religion was continued by the Greek
physician priests. Hippocrates, however,
began the process of careful observation
which characterized the birth of science,
and he laid down the laws which deemed

him the 'father of medicine' and which

founded modern medicine. Information
had largely been localized to this point but
48

both

and antidotes which remained

famous as the 'theriacs' and 'mithridates'

poisons

The works

important.

Lady's Mantle with its nine

is one such plant with
numerical power; alternatively, plants
with seven or nine roots or berries or seeds
would be prescribed.
These and many similar folklore beliefs
must have already become associated with
plants by the time the Egyptian physicians
began to formulate their healing remedies
because it was probably the Egyptians
who began the orthodox rejection of
magic in medicine. It is evident that by
1550 B.C. the orthodox physicians had
begun to specialize, for it seems that the
Egyptian doctors then restricted their
treatment to one disease or one part of the
body. Thus there arose the two levels of
healing which have continued through

one of the first important movements of

medicinal plant knowledge began with
the establishment of Alexandria in 331
B.C. and with it the Alexandrian School.
This signalled the introduction of Greek
medicine into Egypt. Mesopotamia and

n aotmicinma ixCc&pttxf fcolorcrru

rDclxi pafuucrftluAttcu oorrctum cum acuta
irtu n id fco Kibut colon

tti'jo fbtnriw c\u x no *>2rmu nt

lvUxipApaucrcuoieocvttSi^montt mouctaf

omm cqvfn mxrc1bmmtmeroaO>ucvr,

all

before

MEDICAL HISTORY
him were

distilled into four

with the 600 best

known

books dealing
-i^ ^s.'

plants by the

greatest figure in the history of herbalism.

t;

v>,

^O

^A

Pedacius Dioscorides. Following the col146 B.C. Greek

lapse of Corinth in

moved to Rome, and from

an army surgeon under Nero

physicians
there as

Dioscorides travelled widely

and described the herbs he saw in use in
what was the first 'materia medica' or

(54-68 a.d.

"pharmacopoeia". Without doubt he was

the first real medical botanist, and his
work was for 1500 years the standard
reference for the medical application of
plants.

Galen

a.d.

- whose name
meaning
had enormous in-

131-201

gave rise to the term galenical,

botanical drug - also

fluence until the seventeenth century, but

Galen was a physician, and

his

major

therapy was the

introduction of a system of 'polypharmacy' or mixing herbal preparations to
treat specific conditions; some forms of

contribution

plant

to

herbalism still retain this type of therapy.

Following Galen and Dioscorides. and

and fall of the Roman Empire.

European medicine entered a stagnant
period which was to last several hundred
the decline

years.

To a

large extent the moral ethics ol

physicians were replaced with greed, envy

and quackery, and the old incantation
and magic of previous ages resurrected.
Folklore rose to the surface again, and
individuals either treated themselves with

family

visited

recipes,

travelling

bone-

and herb women, or were helped

by those in religious orders. Even tin
medical work of monks, however, was
stopped by the Papal decrees which were
setters

issued regularly for a century,

from that

ol

Clermont council
130 to the council ol
Le Mans 1247 In early Germany medicine fell largely into the hands ol 'wise
women' or 'wild women who employed
herbal remedies, magic and amulets, and
to the lekeis who were the equivalent ol
the Anglo-Saxon leech-men.
In Russia the position was similar with
the 'wolf-men' or volkhava employing
herbs and spells, while the Celtic order ol
Druids and Druidesses did likewise. The
1

Druids

favoured

seven

magic

herbs

of

which the Mistletoe held pride of place.

In the dark ages, however, between the
ninth and twelfth centuries. Arabic mechc

ine rose

on the tide of

Mohammedanism,

and physicians ol the standing ofRhazes,

Haly ben Abbas and Avicenna. and the
Jewish physician Avenzoar, combined
the previous Greek work with their own
observations and studies ol botanical
drugs and pharmacology. Much ol this
work was recorded in the thirteenth-

century compilation of Ibn Baitar whose

materia medica described 1400 drugs.
The proximity of Arabia to the- East led
Arabian pharmacists (or sandalani) to the
Stud) ol a wide- range of plants and plant
products which became of immense importance to later European medicine:
they developed the use of Cassia. Senna.

Rhubarb, Camphor. Myrrh. Cloves, and

used

the-

flavouring ability

ol

rose-water,

orange and lemon peel and other aromatics

id

mask

unpleasant

medication.
Before the advent of printing

tastes

in

the mid-

had already begun

the internal wrangling in the medical
profession
to be exacerbated by the
printed word
which continued until the
nineteenth

century.

Initially

concerned the relative status

in full judicial

The Druids had an

excellent

knowledge of the medicinal application of

local herbs, and considered some to possess
magical qualities.

Of all plants,

the

Mistletoe held pride of place.

and barbers; the

being increasingly
persecuted by the surgeons who tried to
pi event them from treating wounds. In
latter

England in 1368 the Master Surgeons

formed a separate guild, and in 1421
joined forces temporarily with the Physic-

in

fifteenth century there

late

Above: An Arch Druid

costume.

ol

this

surgeons

ians,

although

even

these

two

bodies

treated each other with suspicion. This

move

forced

the

barbers

to

obtain" a

separate charter (1462) and led to the

beginning of barber-surgery or surgery of
the

common

place-

in

people. Similar events took

France and Germany. Under

'

MEDICINAL USES
Henry YIU's act of
and surgeons

151

ians

licensed practitioners,

While herbal traditions based on

English physic-

became the only

and all others were

lore continued, the effect of printing

to

mark

folk-

was

the beginning of the Renaissance

excluded from practising medicine, but b\

1542 the greed shown by the profession
caused another act to be passed to allow
those common people having knowledge
of herbal and folk medicine to minister to

and the continuation of the

scientific

method

The

the poor.

its

started by Dioscorides.

teenth century was

marked by

six-

the emerg-

ence of both 'proto-botany' books and

herbals, although the herbal did not reach

peak

in

England

until

1633 when
enlarged

Thomas Johnson improved and

Below

The sumptuous

interior

sixteenth-century apothecary.

of a

As some

apothecaries charged very high prices, people

sought the services of herbalists.

the herbal of

John Gerard,

itself

mostly

employed by apothecaries; the 'materia

medicas', pharmacopoeias and dispensatories (the first edition of the

Pharmacopoeia,

for

London

example, appeared

1 6 1 8
Apothecaries were originally drug and
herb traders, who managed to develop a
special relationship with the medical
fraternity. In England they had been
associated from 1378 with the Grocers'
Company who also sold herbs and drugs,

in

derived from a translation of Dodoens.

and who were the

This period also saw the beginning of

printed works devoted to those substances

Both the grocers and apothecaries purchased herbs and roots collected from the

original

drug vendors.

HOMEOPATHY
countryside, and they also imported
drugs and spices from abroad. The apothecaries frequently established their own
physic gardens and thus served as a link

between horticulture and medicine by

growing their own medicinal herbs. The
Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of
London was incorporated in 1617 and the
apothecaries soon began to diagnose and
prescribe without associating with a physician. They continued to do so until 1886
when medical registration was finally only
granted to those candidates qualifying by
examination in surgery, medicine, and
pharmacy.
By the middle of the seventeenth
century therefore, herbs were being used
in many different ways by physicians,
apothecaries, manufacturers of proprietary medicines and a host of traditional
country herbalists and town quacks.
During the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, although herbs continued to play an important role in
medicine, their importance slowly declined.

The

botanic writers

who amassed

details of plant use included

information

from a host of sources - the Greeks, the

Arabs, folklore, early botany, and information received by the grocers or apothecaries from foreign lands. In some cases

mentioned was unand while the real advances of

medicine such as anatomy, physiology
and clinical diagnosis were progressing,
plant-lore became increasingly confused
with an assortment of chemical compounds, mixtures, electrical and magnetic
treatment, and blind faith in tradition.
By the beginning of the nineteenth
century scientific investigation was growing apace, and with it came the realization
the identity of plants
certain,

that specific effects could be demonstrated

when

or

isolated

particular,

purified

substances were applied to living systems.

known

as pharmacology, owes
work and inspiration of
803-1 873 ), the father
Justus von Liebig

This study,

much

to

the

of physiological

chemistry,

who

to

medical

therapeutics:

on

the

effect

specific cells,

Samuel Hahnemann (1 755-1843) and

the work of American physicians of the
early nineteenth century

medicalism,

Homeopathy

is

and

known as physio-

branch

herbalism.

of

a system of healing based

on the supposition that infinitesimally

small quantities of a given substance, such
as a medicinal plant, will cure a condition
in which symptoms exist that would be
identical to the symptoms produced in a
healthy person who is given large quantities

of the same substance.

doctors had an open

Many American

intro-

duced the concept of 'metabolism', and

carried forward the development of organic chemistry which had already produced such important isolated substances
as morphine ,1806; from the Opium
Poppy, strychnine (181 8) from Strychnos
nux-vomica and quinine (1820) from Cinchona bark.
This approach is the modern rationale
specific substances

orthodox practitioner was as eager as the

research worker to move away from crude
plants to the more 'exact', isolated chemical. Notable exceptions to this in the West
were the introduction of homeopathy by

approach to medicine which was unfettered by the historical trappings of their

colleagues in the Old World; certainly

them

the early settlers took with

when

traditional remedies

they

their

Eur-

left

ope, but they soon adapted to the rigours

of

new life by adopting some of the

remedies of the North American Indians.
All these remedies were in continuous use
by an oral culture, rather than a culture

in

which

of their

upon

depended

written

(and,

and

the excitement of the nineteenth-century

therefore, often erroneous) records,

development of organic chemistry the

be reliable. This
led to many reliable drugs being incorporated into the first American materia
medicas and dispensatories.

were therefore found

One group

to

of physicians, led by

Thompson, decided

Samuel

not to interest them-

selves in the isolation of active ingredients

of plants, as was being done elsewhere in

America

and Europe, but simply to

administer tinctures of the whole plant, a

system which became known as the

physiomedical concept, and which was
concerned with assisting the natural
power of tissue regeneration which the
body possesses. Schools specializing in
pliysiomedicalism flourished for a while,

mainly

Chicago, but by the beginning

in

of the twentieth century their influence

declined and
retained in

this

concept

now

is

only

some forms of unorthodox

herbalism.

Herbalism as a system of healing exists

today in name only as there are various
approaches which range from the use of
all types of plant material to the use of
non-poisonous herbs only. In the West the
orthodox employment of medicinal plants
is largely restricted to those with strong
I.i

ft

rural

The less opulent interior of the Swiss

pharmacy of Michael Schuppart, an

eighteenth-century apothecary.

examining

the urine

sitting in front

He

is

of the patient who

is

of him.
")'

MEDICINAL USES
Right: The Opium Poppy (Papaver
somniferum). The latex, which is obtained
by excision of the immature capsules,

25

contains

is

of which
modern medicine

different alkaloids

morphine - indispensable
the strongest

pain

to

reliever (analgesic)

pharmacological action, such as Opium

Poppy, Foxglove and their derivatives.
The great dependence of Third World
nations on traditional plant use has,
however, recently stimulated the beginnings of a modern medical appraisal of

and

herbs,

scientific

possible

that

future

reassessment will

lead

to

it

is

the

orthodox utilization of ancient

herbal remedies and the discovery of new

wider
ones.

MYTHS AND TRADITIONS

Many

magical and religious ideas associ-

ated with plants have survived almost unaltered to the present day. In Crete the fat

onion-like bulbs of the Sea Squill

maritima) are

i'rginea

hung up by farmers

at tin-

entrances to their vineyards to protect the

ripening grapes from harmful influences,

a superstition which seems pointless but

which is explained by tracing the Squill

back to the days when it was sacred to the
god Pan who protected mortals from evil
spirits. Similarly, in some parts of central
Europe villagers still plant the succulent
Houseleek (Sempervivum tectorum) on the
roof tiles to prevent their houses from
being struck by lightning. The Romans
called

Iovis

it

caulis

or Jupiter's

plant

ancient times, and even todav in

plants were thought not only to protect

are tannins, malic acid and mucilages,

and while they may have some minor
effect in treating superficial burns and

man from the dangers of the outside world,

diarrhoea they are completely ineffective

but also to preserve him from disease and

in shingles,

In

some

health, so

ill

properties

wielded.

protect
plants were carried on the person

for the benefit of their protective qualities.

leaf of

Betony

{Stachys officinalis) carried

pocket or purse was said to offer

protection from witchcraft. A sprig of
in the

Mugwort

[Artemisia vulgaris)

worn

inside

the shoe was thought to prevent a traveller

from becoming tired, an old practice
which, surprisingly, persisted in East
Anglia until the beginning of this century.
In southern Europe walking-sticks cut
from the boughs of the Chaste tree Vitex
agnus-castus) were carried by pilgrims
because they believed they were magical
and could protect them from both robbers
(

and the bites of venomous creatures.

These primitive beliefs in the talismanic
qualities of plants are, however, by no
means confined to the ancient cultures of
the world; they abound today in Third
World countries, and you can still be
stopped in the heart of London by
gypsies hawking sprigs of 'lucky heather'.
52

was considered

it

wear a magical plant

because they believed Zeus or Jupiter had

given it to man to protect his property
from the destructive bolt of lightning he

Some

many

parts of the world,

infusion of

or

better

with

still

of these

The

protective

balism

is

this

partly due to the fact that early

drink

to

an

believed to

thatched roofs of medieval

fire from the sky, was also
considered to be effective against fire in
the body - medicine in the Middle Ages
the

houses from

classified diseases into hot

and

cold,

wet and dry. So William Salmon, writing

on the medicinal virtues of the Houseleek
as late as the end of the seventeenth
century was able to say - 'Herba iova is
Glutinative and Segnotick; it quenches
thirst, allays heat, stops fluxes

and abates

the violence of cholerick Fevers, being

given in a spoonful or two of Wine, or the

juice mixt with Sugar.

Balsam

it

is

on the subject received their

information by hearsay or accepted without criticism what they read in the works

Outwardly

in a

cures burns, scalds, shingles,

of other authors. This early attitude led to

the publication of a large number of

accounts of plants which did not even

exist, such as the 'Scythian Lambe' described by John Parkinson, and the
'Fountain tree of water' which Lewis
Jackson maintained grew on the CanaryIslands. There was even thought to be a
'Barnacle tree' that bore fruit which
eventually hatched into live geese. Of the
plants which did actually exist, many
were attributed with medicinal properties
because of their association in previous
a

inflammations.'

examples

these

therapeutic indications are

concerned with
other,

and

vividly

how

the

plant

the

in some form or
example demonstrates

'heat'

the magical 'primary' use of

dictated

its

'secondary'

or

medical use. We now know that the

Houseleek's principal active constituents

who governed
One of the best
common Myrtle Myrtus

ages with a god or goddess

pains of the gout, creeping ulcers and hot

All

of myths and false ideas, and

full

writers

it.

The Houseleek. which was

still

gout and fevers.

history of medical botany or her-

logical to

particular

communis

is

disease.

the

Myrtle was known

to

the Greeks as

and was sacred to the goddess

Aphrodite ^who was also known as
'myrsini'

Myrsini), the goddess of fertility, simply

because the pointed elliptical leaves of
this plant closely resembled the shape of

METABOLISM
As a result of this
was chiefly employed in Greek medicine as a herb for
treating female complaints - a practice
the female genitalia.

association the Myrtle

which was not discredited

until the nine-

teenth century.

Another medicinal plant which earned

reputation by association with the
Greek gods was the Black Hellebore
its

a plant sacred to the

iHelleborus niger |,

'kthonoi' or gods of the underworld.

deities,
spirits

deified

These

whose number included cave

and the souls of the dead and
physicians, belonged to an older

and darker

than the

cult

celestial

Olym-

was believed that they

possessed the power to inflict enormous
suffering on mankind in the form of
disease and madness. Black Hellebore,
which became linked with their worship,
was considered to be the specific remedy
for the diseases for which they were held
responsible, and the root was. used for
pian

deities.

It

treating epilepsy,

and

melancholia, hysteria
disorders. In

neurological

other

Shakespeare's time and beyond it continued to be used for 'the falling sicknesses'
fepilepsyi,

melancholicke

'all

diseases'

and 'convulsions', besides being employed

as a poison, an abortive and a local
anaesthetic. Modern examination, how-

Animals,

including

man,

are

very

ever, has suggested that Black Hellebore

similar to plants in this respect, the funda-

neurological

mental difference between the two groups

being in the way in which they obtain

does

the general

in

assist

conditions for which the Greeks employed

homeopathic tincture is
prepared from the rhizome and used to
treat epilepsy, certain psychoses, eclamp-

and today

it,

sia

(convulsion

with

associated

preg-

nancy), meningitis and encephalitis.

After a period in which herbal medicine

was regarded with the greatest suspicion

by the medical profession, many of the

now being

claims of herbalism are

by

stantiated

scientific

sub-

observation and

reinstated.

up their own food

from small molecules whereas animals
take in large molecules and break them
down. All materials ingested by the
animal are treated in exactly the same
general way: the food is digested in the
their food. Plants build

Above: The evergreen Myrtle fMyrtus

communis )
it

was

is

now of little

importance, but

once sacred to the Greek goddess

Aphrodite. In the Middle Ages Myrtle

berries
It

was

were used as a condiment,

also used in the treatment

like pepper.

of

female complaints.

Below : The Christmas Rose or Black

Hellebore fHelleborus niger,) contains

gastro-intestinal tract, the small molecules

powerful substances which act on the heart

formed are absorbed through the gut

wall and transported via the blood to
other parts of the body where they are
used to build up new enzymes or cell

rather like Digitalis. These

so

much

too strong for

make

modern herbal

the plant
use.

material or act as essential catalysts in

THE INTAKE AND ACTIONS OF

these reactions. Certain foodstuffs contain

MEDICINAL PLANTS

ingredients such as minerals and vitamins

Plants

are

very complicated

composed of millions of

cells

structures

many

per-

forming extremely specialized functions

and each contributing to the existence of
the organism as a whole. Organisms are
'alive' because of the many chemical
reactions which are carried out in each of
these cells; thus life is essentially a series of
highly controlled chemical changes which
consist of building up (anabolismj or
breaking down (catabolism
processes

known

which are

essential

process to occur.

our diet
in

for

some enzymic

deficiency of these in

likely to lead to

some of our

just as

to

is

an impairment

basic metabolic functions,

mineral deficiencies

visible

in plants lead

abnormal symptoms such

as

and yellowing.
digestive and transportation proesses described above are not capable of
discriminating between materials which
spots

The

way
Thus

find their

into the gut from different

metabolism these
changes are initiated by chemical catalysts. All these reactions are under the

sources.

direct

because they contain substances which

after absorption enter certain biochemical

(collectively

found

as

influence of the genetic material

in

the nucleus of each

cell.

certain plants are

'good'

foodstuffs because they are rich in starch

or

protein and

some plants are

'toxic'

53

MEDICINAL USES
Right

magnified section through the wall

of the small intestine showing the folded

mucous membrane (top, pink) through
which food and drugs are absorbed. The
rate

of absorption depends on the nature of

drug molecule and on the other

the food or

substances present in the tract.

and disrupt them. Similarly the

which are medicinally useful contain materials which act in some beneficial way on the fundamental processes
in animal cells, either by promoting
processes

plants

certain reactions or inhibiting other pro-

may

which

cesses

abnormal.

be

The

practice of medicine with herbal products

no fundamental
chemical way different from treatment
with synthetic drugs. Both act by the
introduction of a foreign molecule into
the body (sometimes at a more or less
in

this

respect

specific site) so that

The concept

in

is

it

may

exert

its effect.

of herbalism does, of course,

differ theoretically

from the orthodox

in

that herbal medicine attempts to treat the

patient

as

whole,

rather

than

the

condition in isolation.

Pharmacology
Pharmacology is the study of the manner
in which the functions of living organisms
can be modified by chemical substances.
Since living cells are very complex, many
of the factors which control their activities
are completely unknown. For this reason
a

new

been

science,

pharmacokinetics,

developed

to

study

the

has

factors

hence on the body. This goes

to

a long

wa\

explaining the highly specific nature of

some drug actions, as well as why some

compounds possess powerful, often dangerous, side-effects, since some drugs may
by chance interact with more than one

which would decompose in the

acid stomach juices. Other routes which
invoke passage of active materials through
a mucosal layer are those via the vagina or
urethra. Drugs may also be administered
by slowly dissolving a lozenge under the
orally, or

affecting the absorption, distribution and

eventual elimination of drugs from the

type

body and

Routes of drug administration

The oral route is the one most frequently

nasal

cheap, easy and convenient and the patient can administer

himself tablets which can be manu-

cation

it

largely employs mathematical

models.
A theory which has been advanced
from simple experimental evidence and
has found considerable success in explain-

why

drugs exert their effects is the

It was proposed originally by Paul Ehrlich who believed that
mammalian cells possessed side chains
ing

receptor theory.

which contained receptors (reactive chemical groupings) which combine with another active group on the drug molecule
(in a more or less reversible way) to cause
the drug effect. This proposal was a great
advance and much modern research is
based on a modified form of the theory.
Simply,

drugs

can

be

considered

as

and the receptors on

which may be opened

of

tongue (sublingually) or as snuffs (whereby absorption is effected through the

receptor.

used because

it

is

factured to contain an exact dose.

ever,

if

the medicine

liquid or powder,

is

in the

and most herbal pre-

parations are, the dosage

inaccurate.

How-

form of a

The drug

is

likely to

be

will also be diluted

by the contents of the stomach and intestine.

Since the stomach juices are
strongly acid and those in the intestine
alkaline this may lead to decomposition of
Absorption
the
active
ingredients.
through the gastro-intestinal tract may be
slow or irregular due to the presence of

precisely cut keys,

the partly digested or undigested food,

the cells as locks

thus delaying the effect.

only by the appropriate keys.

When

the

key turns the lock (that is when the drug

reaches and combines with the receptor
on the cell) processes are initiated which
cause chemical changes and so induce the

drug
54

to exert

its

effect

on the

cell,

and

Some

materials are given as suppositor-

ies and the active ingredients are absorbed

through the delicate lining (mucous membrane) of the rectum. This may be

particularly useful for giving substances

which would cause vomiting

if

given

mucosa

When
is

i.

a local effect

made

is

required appli-

to the surface

of the skin in

the form of a cream, paste, ointment, lo-

In these cases some

occur by penetration
through to the subcutaneous tissues.
Sterile solutions may, of course, be injected directly into the bloodstream which
removes the initial absorption step.
The rate and efficiency of absorption of
tion

or liniment.

absorption

may

is largely dependchemical nature but also on the

method of formulation ^how it is presented
for administration). The most obvious
factor is the solubility of the substance in

a material from the gut

ent on

its

the gastro-intestinal contents. No substances can be absorbed from the fluid in

the gut unless they are soluble in the first
place.

Secondly,

the

passage of drugs (that

is

barriers

to

the

the intestinal cell

walls) consist largely of fatty substances,

hence drugs which dissolve well in fats are

absorbed more rapidly and completely
than those which do not. There are some

DRUG ADMINISTRATION
exceptions to this and these depend on the
existence of a specific transport mechan-

ism for a particular type of chemical. In

addition, some drug molecules contain
acidic or basic groupings

which

may

be

ionized (electrically charged) in aqueous

solution. Since only non-ionized or elec-

molecules are fat-soluble,

governed to some extent

trically neutral

absorption

by

also

is

this factor.

Finally, the presence of substances in

whole plants other than the active ingredients may considerably modify not
only the physiological effect of the active
substances themselves but also their solu-

and hence absorption.

bility

The

It will

sweat and milk.

that when one
medicine many-

now be apparent

takes a dose of herbal

the blood

meate

and

drug exerts

its

effect.

but

ingredients

the

also

sub-

'ballast'

body via
compounds that perthrough cell membranes

freely

evenly distributed in
all parts of the body. Some, however, tend
to concentrate at particular sites. Compounds are often bound to carrier molecules - for example, proteins in the blood
plasma - or become strongly attached to
specific

binding

less

sites

in

tissues.

such active transport processes

Where

exist, the

ordinary physico-chemical principles no

longer apply. One particularly effective

mechanism is known as
barriei which prevents

the blood-brain

passage of
most molecules from the bloodstream into
the central
nervous system and the
the

cerebro-spinal fluid.

Metabolism
a drug enters the body,

it

is

acted

upon by enzymes which usually change its

chemical structure into substances which
have less effect (pharmacological activity
on the body. This is why the effects of
drugs wear off gradually. These enzymatic
reactions

which may exert a modifying

on the 'active' substances have first
to be made soluble, then absorbed and
distributed (perhaps via an active binding
process throughout the whole body, to
stances
effect

reach their active site (receptor) before

they can produce an action. Later they
are usually metabolized to inactive sub-

and then excreted.

are

known

as

detoxification

and the most important organ

concerned is the liver.
This does not always happen, however.
Pharmacologically
active
metabolites
(products that have been produced l>\ the
breakdown of the drug; may be formed
from an inactive substance a precursor or
or sometimes the metabolites
'pro-drug'
may have a type of activity which differs
from that of the 'active ingredient in the
drug originally administered. The principal route of excretion of drugs and theii
detoxified metabolites is the urine. This
may be facilitated by metabolic changes

Biological variation

measurements

Repeated

of

same

the

quantity do not always give identical

results. While this may be due to variations in accuracy, with living systems it is

more

be the result of biological

its very nature biological
variable. This produces prob-

likely to

variation - by

material is
lems in the quantitative biological evaluation of all medicines, and these difficulties are particularly severe in the case
of medicinal plants and their extracts.
Medicinal plants are usually administered

as tinctures of the

whole plant, which

many different chemical substances, only

some of which are active pharmacologically. Not only may the presence of the
so-called inactive substances modify the
absorption of the active ones (mixtures
are in general more soluble than pure
compounds), but they may actually modify the pharmacological activity of the
active ingredients, either in a potentiating

way

or

former

is

oppositely

known

as

The

retardants.

The modifying substances need

come from the same plant.

sometimes found that the

particular plant extract

as the detoxification rea< lions

generally produce

than

compounds which

are

soluble in water (hence in urine

in fat.

Alternatively, drugs

may

be

excreted into the intestinal trad via the

bile and so eliminated in the fae< es. Minor

One

of the problems of this

is that haphazard administration of different plant

extracts can produce undesired effects.
For this reason orthodox medical authorities sometimes consider such herbal prac-

tices as unscientific

and inexact.

the-

presence

In recent attempts at the scientific evalu-

of one

effect

considerably
of greater or

is

therapy, often quite complex,

is

the rule

the

exception.

This

is

the

fundamental difference between herbal

and orthodox medicine. Whereas the
latter is often symptomatic in approach,
the former essentially treats the patient as

whole rather than

isolated

effect.

ation of this approach

amounts of extracts of other

plants. This is of paramount importance
in herbal medicine where combination

bined

herbal combination therapy

not

much

helps digestion.

It is

smaller

rather than

Above: Magnification of secretory cells of

the stomach, which secrete the fluid which

Evaluating herbal medicines

necessarily

by

*r.flL

as the s\ net gistic effect or

synergism.

altered

J*

will

consist of solutions in dilute alcohol of

processes,

more

**

r/m&L

and after the

Not only the active

processes intervene before

stances

the

become more or

in as

4.

active materials, once absorbed,

are transported throughout the

When

routes of elimination include the lungs,

saliva, tears,

conditions.

as a collection of
Hence- preparations

containing several different plant extracts

are administered with the intention that
each component will exert its own specific
effect which will produce an overall com-

that

some of

the

it

has been realized

compounds preset

minute concentration

in plants

in

often so

low as to be undetectable by standard

techniques may themselves by extremely
potent
pharmacological agents. This

phenomenon

is

often referred to as the

effect of ballast material.

must be emphasized that everything

body can be considered as
a drug. This is an easy concept to accept
when an active material exerts a pronounced, readily observable pharmacologic al effect on the body such as producing
anaesthesia, but some compounds may
act in a more subtle way, for example, by
promoting efficient working of certain
enzymes or by encouraging the development ol a good immunological defence
It

ingested by the

55

MEDICINAL USES
Plants

system.

belong

the

to

currently

know

producing these effects

group about which we
least:

traditionally they

were the panaceas or tonics - Ginseng

being the best-known example. Today

DISEASES OF THE

HEART AND

blood vessels

The cardiovascular system

is

concerned

difficulties

with the circulation of blood. It consists

essentially of a pump, the heart, and a
system of tubes, the arteries, veins and
capillaries - comprising the blood vessels.
Circulation involves two joined systems
one in which blood passes from the heart
to the lungs where it is oxygenated, and
then back to the heart; and another in
which this oxygen-rich blood is pumped
to the furthest parts of the body, gives up

ticism will

some of its oxygen

they are

known

All these
difficulty

in

as

adaptogens.

problems have led

deciding

how

to great

herbal pre-

parations should be examined, tested and

standardized and this has contributed to

the current scepticism about the efficacy
of the herbal approach. When these

have been overcome this scepundoubtedly decline and some

aspects of plant medication will assume an
even more important role in medicine.
Having described briefly the uptake
and actions of herbs, four groups of
diseases, including their physiology and
their treatment with medicinal plants, are

now examined. The

mentioned
orthodox and

plants

have found use both in

herbal methods and no distinction is made
the examples simply
between them
emphasize the importance of plan's in
medicine as a whole.

The commonest

vessels.

CIRCULATION

to the tissue's cells,

and

then returns to the heart.

Besides oxygen, which

all tissues need

biochemical reactions,
the blood carries foodstuffs absorbed from
the alimentary tract, and is also responsible for carrying the waste products of
metabolism to sites of excretion, such as

for certain of their

the kidneys.

is

disorder of the

arteriosclerosis 'resulting in

narrowing of the arteries), the commonest

site being the blood vessels supplying the
heart (coronary arteries). This leads to a
reduced oxygen supply for the action of
the heart, especially during exercise,
resulting in chest pain (angina pectoris The
coronary blood supply is sometimes so
|

drastically obstructed that a portion of

and this is known as

Another common disorder is
in which the blood pressure is

the heart wall dies,

heart attack.
hypertension,

abnormally raised, causing excessive

strain on the heart, rupture of cerebral
brain blood vessels causing a stroke, and

damage

to the kidneys.

Both coronary artery disease of which

arteriosclerosis is one and hypertension

may

cause heart failure : this

action of the heart

pumping

cope with the work load:

is

when

is

unable

the
to

this results in

and retenand water (causing ankle

swelling, for example) due to a reduced
blood-flow to the kidneys. Other causes of

shortness of breath, tiredness,

The treatment of disorders

Cardiovascular diseases are concerned
with disorders of the heart and blood

of

tion

heart

salt

rheumatic

include

failure

fever,

congenital defects, diseases of the valves

which separate the chambers of the

heart, infections and chronic respiratory
disease.

The treatment of heart failure includes

oxygen, cardiotonic substances (which
improve the function of the heart and
(substances which cause an
increased excretion of salt and water by
the kidneys
The leaf of the Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea is an effective cardiotonic for the treatment of heart failure and
millions of people throughout the world
diuretics

i.

are

still

(or

its

of the

treated with this material today

derivatives

The

|.

active principles

Foxglove are complex steroidal

substances

known

as cardiotonic glycos-

Many

ides or cardenolides.

very closely

Left: Diagrammatic representation of the

cardiovascular system

Superior vena cava

Aorta

Right

Blood exchange

Blood supply within

the

Right atrium

ventricle

Inferior vena cava

in the liver

of
Pulmonary

vein

Pulmonary

arteries

Left atrium

M
A"

the upper part

body especially the brain

Left ventricle

Blood exchange

Portal vein
in the intestine

Blood exchange within the kidneys and

within the lower parts of the body.

Areas of blood exchange consist of
arterioles and venules which meet at the
smallest subdivisions or capillaries.

v>

DIGITALIS THERAPY
compounds of this type are present
plant and some of these have a pro-

related
in the

nounced strengthening
ing heart.

They bind

effect

to heart

on the

fail-

muscle and

increase the force of contraction of the

heart at each beat without increasing

its

for

efficiently.

The need

is

enormous and much modern research

is

for cardiotonic

concerned with the chemical modification

of these active molecules in order to produce better drugs. The major glycosides
digitoxin
and of
digoxin are often isolated from

of Digitalis purpurea
|

the dried leaves by complex and costly

chemical procedures to enable administration to the patient in the form of tablets, but better results, however, are sometimes obtained by treatment with the
whole powdered leaf. It is found that the

combined

effect

of

the

highly

active

glycosides together with the less potent

compounds found in the crude drug may

provide therapy which is less harsh, more
easily controlled, and therefore safer than
the

use

minute

A major problem with Foxglove therapy

of isolated

active

compounds

lanata,) which contains

steroidal glycosides.

63 different
The most important of

these substances is digoxin, often used in

modern medicine

to treat

heart failure.

and diosphenol, Wild Carrot

volatile oil

(Daucus carota) which contains both volatile

oil
and an alkaloid, daucine, or

which

Dandelion

dangerous side-effects occur). This may

be overcome to some extent by the use of
the whole dried leaf, as mentioned above.
Similar cardiotonic activity is found in
the closely related D. lanata and the
Yellow Foxglove. D.lutea. Hedge Hyssop

advantage of containing large quantities

of potassium salts - substances which are
often lost from the body during the process
of diuresis, and which need replacing.
Several medicinal plants may be used

which belongs

to the

as the Foxgloves, the

Scrop-

(Gratiola officinalis)

same family

hulariaceae, has also been

cardiotonic action, but

shown

it is

to possess

considered too

Almost identical
compounds are present in certain Apocytoxic to use medically.

including members of the genera

Strophanthus.
.Xenum. and Acokanthera),

naceae

which

possesses

cardiac

more genera containing

any

than

glycosides

other

so

compounds have
been identified in members of the Ranunculaceae, the Nymphaeaceae, the Celastraceae and the Bignoniaceae.
Similar

studied.

far

Below: The Woolly Foxglove ^Digitalis

Juniper, however, is too powerful to be

used when the kidneys are inflamed, and
it can in this case be replaced with Buchu
leaves {Agathosma betulina) which contains

that the therapeutic dose (the dose

required to produce the desired effect) is
almost as high as the toxic dose (the dose
which undesirable and sometimes
at
is

substances

D. lanata

compounds

present in the leaf in

concentration may completely
alter the physiological effect of the glycosides - this is a good example of
synergism.
certain

oxygen; the heart thus pumps

need

more

Another explanation may be that

alone.

Digitalis glycoside-like active principles

possesses

make

Taraxacum

several

officinale)

substances that

active

one of the most effective of

it

treatment of hypertension, some of

which have been shown to be remarkably
effective. Hypertension has long been
treated in Asia by the root of a shrub,
Rauvolfia serpentina, but it was not until

in the

the 1930s that the agent largely responsi-

was isolated. This comon the central nervous system

reserpine,

ble,

pound

acts

by depleting the stores of a vital transmitting substance called noradrenaline

(or norepinephrine as it is known in the
United States)
without this material
nerve impulses cannot travel and the
resultant loss of smooth muscle tone in the
walls of the blood vessels causes their
relaxation and so reduces blood pressure,
;

are also found in the morphologically far

thus acting as a hypotensive.

removed monocotyledonous
Liliaceae
and Cactaceae.

with

Rauvolfia

families, the

Convallaria

all

plant diuretics. Dandelion also has the

alkaloids

synergistically

act

such

hypotensives

other

as

the

and

this

majalis, of the Liliaceae

alkaloids from

the most powerful of

potentiation of the combined effect (syner-

Family, is in fact
the cardiac glycoside-containing plants growing in temperate zones, and has an important place
in both the folk and orthodox medical
treatment of arrhythmia flack ofa regular
heart brat
especially in eastern Europe.
all

the

exactly

In

same way

that

gism)

Veratrum species,

very useful since

is

it

enables rela-

low doses of both materials to be

used - an important fact since both sub-

tively

stances

may

cause side-effects

when used

on their own.

the

Foxglove glycosides promote regular beatan

ing of the heart so does quinidinc

New Treatments

alkaloid isomeric with quinine, the anti-

that only recently has detailed investi-

malarial substance from the same source,

gation of their activity been started. This

the bark of the

Cinchona

tree.

This

dis-

covery was made quite by chance when it

was noticed that patients being treated
with Cinchona bark for malaria were tree
from arrhythmias.
As well as cardiotonic agents, diuretics
are

essential

failure

and

in

cinal plants possess

Although
there

arc-

certain
effective

treatment of heart
number of medi-

the

a very large

this

is

some

diuretic action.

often not very powerful

Many other

herbs have similar histories in

has shown the presence of other chemical

groups in plants which have a beneficial
effect on the cardiovascular system. The
plants under current investigation include
the
is

Hawthorn

widely used

{Crataegus monogyna),
in the

which

treatment of angina

arteriosclerosis, heart failure,

hypertension and coronary thrombosis.

pectoris,

Its

major constituents are flavonoids.

Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum)
(

also

several herbs, notably those with

contains substances beneficially affecting

contents,

which are

The

fruit

cardiovascular system, as well as

vitamin P. Hawthorn and Buckwheat are
often combined in the treatment of hyper-

volatile
in

oil

diuresis.

ripe

of

Juniper Juniperui communis), for example,

contains up to two per cent ofa volatile oil
plus resins and a bitter principle which,
together, act directly on the kidneys.

the

tension they are frequently also

;

with
Yiscum

I ilia

album

europaea

(Lime

(Mistletoe-

1.

combined
tree

Main

and
herbs
57

MEDICINAL USES
with cardio-active properties contain
kaloids.

The hypotensive

tains several, of which the

are protoveratrin

and

is

blood pressure

Motherwort

most important
B.

Broom

(Saro-

possesses

the alkaloid

employed

to raise the

thamnus scoparius)
sparteine

and

al-

Veratrum con-

in

cardiac insufficiency.

(Leonurus cardiaca), however,

Below : A schematic representation of the

human digestive system which consists
principally of a hollow tube about

produced initially by the liver, not

only facilitates digestion but is also an
important route for the elimination of
certain waste products in the faeces. The
pancreas, in addition to producing a
Bile,

metres

(jo feet) long from the mouth to the anus.

Each part, with its specialized structural or
cellular form, plays one or

more

digestive juice

roles in the

which

is

discharged into the

gut, also releases directly into the blood-

processes of mastication, maceration,

lowering
the blood pressure, and help in angina

processes which all contribute to the

stream a hormone, insulin, which regulates the blood-sugar level. The condition

eventual elimination of unwanted waste

where

insufficient insulin

pectoris.

matter from the body.

known

as diabetes.

contains alkaloids which

assist in

With further detailed study of

itional remedies,

it

is

digestion

and absorption offoodstuffs,

is

produced

trad-

possible that new-

groups of compounds will be discovered or

certain plant combinations will prove to
be useful in cardiovascular disease.
cavity of the

DISORDERS OF THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM AND LIVER
The

mouth
vestibule

tongue

digestive system consists of the ali-

pharynx

mentary canal and the accessory digestive

organs. Food passing along the tract is
broken down by enzymes into small units
which are then absorbed into the blood
stream by passage across the gut cell-wall.
Some substances in the diet need no digesfor example,
tion before absorption
water, certain vitamins and minerals - but
the most important foodstuffs - fats, proall
require
teins and carbohydrates
extensive degradation before they may be

trachea

absorbed.

Some

dietary

constituents,

however,

such as the cellulose of plant cell-walls are

not digested at all by man because the
appropriate enzymes are lacking, and so
these pass through the gut to be expelled

unchanged
in the diet

in the faeces; their inclusion

is

none the

less

important be-

cause they add bulk to the intestinal con-

and improve peristalsis - the rhythmic contractions which propel the contents
from one end of the gastro-intestinal tract

liver

spleen

tents

all

bladder

pancreas

to the other.
pyloric orifice

duodenum

The

digestive system
alimentary canal comprises the
mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum
and anus. Although digestion begins in
the mouth while the food is being chewed,

The

since saliva contains the

enzyme

ascending
colon

descending
"colon

ptyalin

which breaks down starch into sugars, by

far the most important digestive organs
are the stomach and small intestine.
The stomach produces a secretion
which provides the optimal degree of
acidity for the operation of the

enzyme
The

pepsin, also secreted in the stomach.

sigmoid colon

appendix

rectum

partly digested food passes to the small

where it meets an alkaline secrecomposed of juices provided by two

intestine
tion

glands - the bile from the gall-bladder

and the digestive juices from the pancreas.

58

small intestine

(jejunum and ileum)

is

DIGESTION
is thus completed in the small
and most of the small molecules
so produced - amino-acids, sugars, fatty
acids, and glycerol - are absorbed by the
time the mass of food (bolus) has reached
the far end of the small intestine.

Digestion

(Iceland Moss)

Overactive acid-producing cells in the

stomach initially produce heartburn and
indigestion. If the excessive secretion of
gastric hydrochloric acid is prolonged,
peptic ulcer of the wall of the stomach or
the

duodenum may

Here a small
mucosal lining is

result.

portion of the delicate

digested away, exposing the lower layers

together with their associated nerve-endings,

which are

irritated

by the acidic

produce pain.
Ulcers have long been treated with
Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and a semisynthetic derivative of its major constituent, glycyrrhizin, has been introducgastric contents to

ed with useful results.

Hops

which was the traditional remedy of North American Indians, and Carlina acaulis (Stemless Thistle). In Europe a favourite is Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) which is often
combined with Althaea officinalis (Marshmallowj. The latter contains up to 20
per cent mucilage, which protects the
stomach lining, acting in a similar way
to the natural mucus. For the same reason
(Humulus

the

lupulus)

mucilage-rich

it

Cetraria

islandica

similarly employed.

may

be

desirable

in the elderly

stimulate

to

the

appetite. Usually the agents used for this

ipecacuanha).
Ipecacuanha
(Cephaelis
Other plants have been used in this respect
but their effect was due mostly to their
toxicity - the body simply reacts to the

purpose are bitter tonics containing bitter

principles, which increase glandular secretions. Many plants have a history of this
use and the most popular come from the
family Gentianaceae (which characteris-

presence of a noxious substance in the

contain bitter principles), for ex-

by inhibiting the overactivity of the

vomiting centre in the brain. Some of
these are found in the family Solanaceae.
Their action is drastic however, and often

tically

known and

ample, Gentiana lutea, the best

most widely used bitter tonic,
phylla, G. punctata, G. purpurea,

G. macro-

Menyanthes

(Buckbean) and Sabatia angularis

(American Centaury).
Because the tone of the muscle in the

trifoliata

gastro-intestinal

tract

as

well

secretion of the digestive juices

as
is

the

con-

by nervous as well as chemical

stimulation, an increase in nervous activtrolled

ity

may

acidity

Plants used for indigestion include

is

During convalescence or

intestine

lead
or

intestine,

either

spasm

known

in

to
all

as colic.

may

in

of

and

is

vomit-

often

com-

bined for this purpose with Filipendula

ulmaria, Chamaemelum nobile and Peppermint (Mentha x piperita).

and Wild

Yam

constipation.

cerns

divided

into

Below

Purgatives

main

may

classes

be
bulk

The

performs several

liver

important functions besides producing bile

for use

in the digestive process

the removal

of waste products from blood, the

destruction

of

substances.

tincture

three

purgatives, which simply increase the

volume of the intestinal contents and so

Emesis (vomiting)
cases of poisoning by
the

effective, especially in

preparations for digestive problems con-

villosa).

be induced

and

safer

ing during pregnancy

parts

Many members

gently acting herbs include

mints,
Acorus
and
gentians

administration

associated with side-effects. Ballota nigra

is

Purgatives The major use of herbal

More

root (Dioscorea

act

hyper-

which are powerful antispasmodics. Good examples are Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger and Datura stramon-

calamus, Alpinia ojficinarum

Anti-emetics include some herbs containing anticholinergic properties which

of the

hyos.cine,

certain

by the most

it

gastric

of the Solanaceae family contain simple

tropane alkaloids, such as atropine and

ium.

stomach and removes

rapidly effective means.

of worn-out blood

vital detoxification

cells,

and

the

of drugs and harmful

vena cava

hepatic veins
liver

spleen

ortal vein

hepatic artery

common
bile

duct

intestine

59

MEDICINAL USES
promote a

'natural' peristalsis

defaecation
act

and hence

lubricant purgatives, which

by generally loosening and softening

epiglottis

and irritants,
which exercise a localized irritant action
on the wall of the large bowel, inducing
the impacted faecal mass;

reflex evacuation.

Foods which contain a high proportion

of indigestible cellulose or 'roughage' such

blood vessels of heart

bran or seeds of Plantago species are not

destroyed by digestion and swell by
absorbing water; when they reach the
lower intestine, therefore, they act as bulk
as

right

bronchus

purgatives.

As the name
tives

suggests, lubricant purga-

include mucilages and

oils

which are

lobes of right lung

heart

extracted from a variety of plants, including the Psyllium species, Athaea

officinalis.

(Castor Oil Tree) and

Ricinus communis

Olea europaea (Olive Tree).

Irritant purgatives are used either
because they are toxic hence causing a
violent reaction to the presence of the
poison, for example, Ricinus communis

and certain Podophylsome specific physiological action. Toxic irritant purgatives

are seldom used because they are danseeds (Castor

oil)

lum species, or for

aorta

gerous.

Of those which

cause a specific physio-

most effective are the

which contain glycosides based on
the anthraquinone nucleus. The main
examples are Senna Cassia angustijolia
and C. acutifolia), Aloes (Aloe ferox, for
and
example), Rhubarb
Rheum spp
logical action, the

species

certain

members

of the

Rhamnaceae such

Rhamnus frangula Alder Buckthorn

and Rhamnus purshiana (Cascara

as

Injection

of extracts of these

plants

Diseases of the liver

may

lead to the

impairment of the metabolism of all kinds

of foods and. since the liver is the main
organ of detoxification in the body, to an
accumulation of waste products.
As the liver is closely associated with the
gall-bladder problems of these organs are

as Anise.

Fennel and

and certain Labiatae

Rosemary, for example).

Mint and

Umbelliferae such
Dill,

DISORDERS OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
When we

breathe, air

is

taken

first

into the

Hence

nasopharynx and then into the chest via

but orally they take eight hours or more to

exert their effect. This is because the
active principles are in the form of inactive

some herbs are accredited with both

the windpipe, or trachea. This divides into

two bronchi one for each lung and then

tion of bile,

further into smaller tubes, bronchioles.

These are well absorbed from

the small intestine and are then hydrolyzed by enzymes in the blood to give the
active aglycones. These latter compounds
are excreted into the colon where they
irritate the mucosa to produce evacuation.

the liver itself,

The

results in

purgation

in

about 30 minutes

glycosides.

This process takes several hours and for

this reason extracts of such plants are best
taken at night.
Diarrhoea, an increase in the fluidity
and frequency of the stools, has usually
been treated with plants which predominantly contain astringent tannins.

The

action

of these

compounds

is

to

coagulate protein in a thin layer of the gut

lining thereby stopping its secretory action.

Common

Potentilla

examples of such herbs are

Agnmonia
species.

species,

Rubus idaeus, Polygonum

and Ulmus campestris.

Quercus species,
bistorta

60

usually considered in association.

choleretic action (stimulating the produc-

and thus working directly on

and cholagogue action
increasing the release of bile from the
gall-bladder Important cholagogues are
.

Berberis vulgaris

Balmonv

Barberry Chelone glabra

Taraxacum
officinale
,

and

Dandelion).

The Dandelion
action

and

is

also possesses choleretic

one of the most useful plants

for treating liver disease. It

is

employed

gall-bladder

inflammation of
and cholelithiasis

also relieve the

first

as alveolar ducts,

each

leading to an alveolar sac. These alveoli

and they commain body of the lung itself. They

are small hollow spheres

prise the

have very thin cell-walls which are well

supplied with minute blood vessels called
capillaries.

The respiratory system

Oxygen from

the air contained in the

it

alveoli diffuses across the cell-walls into

stage of cirrhosis.

the blood and in exchange waste products,

notably carbon dioxide, are expelled into
the air. This exchange of gases is known as
respiration. At even breath the air con-

(stones in the gall-bladder or bile duct

may

known

in

jaundice, cholecystitis
the

bronchioles branch further into very

fine tubules

Another important choleretic is Cynara

scolymus Globe Artichoke which has also
been shown to promote liver regeneration, following damage by poisons.
Flatulence can be treated with the
carminative plants which contain volatile
oils.
Important here are the aromatic

tained in the lungs

is

partially

exchanged

for fresh air from the atmosphere.

Oxygen is required for nearly all the
biochemical processes which occur in the

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
to

bronchiole

lung

air

pulmonary vein

passage

from pulmonary artery

alveolus

:fY

bronchus

^bJ^m ess, **
capillary

alveolus

Left

Diagrammatic

representation

of the respiratory system. Increasing

magnification of a portion of one lung (above)

show

to

its

internal structure,

and

relationship between blood vessels

which allows

alveoli,

the air

the

an increased
activity of these glands. There may, in
addition, be spasm of the muscle in the
walls of the bronchi adding to the

Arabs.

obstruction.

tussive agents

Another condition of the bronchial

system which causes considerable suffering is asthma. This is frequently of allergic

rest

tion

exchange of oxygen

The

blood

is

in

high

therefore vital.

rapid removal of carbon dioxide is

important because high blond

contribute

also

to

that attacks (pro-

equally

origin,

or tissue concentrations of this substance

nounced constriction of the bronchi and

excessively viscous secretions which lead
to the characteristic wheezing of asthma

depress many enzyme processes.

Most of the oxygen in the blood is not
simply dissolved in the body fluid but is
actively bound to a special molecule called

may

haemoglobin, found within the red blood

corpuscles. This is
complex organic
;i

molecule, rather like the light-absorbing

of green plants in its structure,

chlorophyll

but

instead

magnesium

of containing

an atom of

as in chlorophyll

it

is

bound

This is the main reason that our

diet should contain an adequate quantity
of this element, for a deficiency of iron or
to iron.

its

to

inefficient utilization in the

body leads

anaemia.
As blood passes around the organs ol
oxygen from the oxygenated

the body,

haemoglobin passes into the cells to be

used up in their chemical processes, and
each cell exchanges its waste carbon

The commonest

chronic disordei

ol

the

chronic bronchitis
inflammation of the bronchi), which may
tract

be associated with

ment

of

that

is

sufferers) are

specific

particular

to say

induced by the inhalation of

foreign

type

of

substance,
pollen.

often

Treatment

bronchi
using bronchodilators, and some of the
best known of these are Ephedra species.

consists of the relaxation of the

is

emphysema

enlarge-

may

be caused

the alveoli). This

as

Cough

is

foreign

materials.

tussives (like alkaloids

is

effective

in

chronic

asthma for
which purpose the North American Indians smoked the leaves. In India the
and

related

nicotianaefolia

L.

bronchial

is

used in

the

same way. The following plants are also

commonly employed in both asthma and
bronchitis often in combination with each
other: Drosera rotundifolia

Euphorbia hirta,

Polygala

senega,

Symplocarpus foetidus and

Urginea maritima.

A relatively new treatment for asthma

depends on the administration of a semisynthetic substance which is a derivative

from Opium, the

dried latex of Papaver somniferum) act by

suppressing

this

reflex.

They

are

thus

widely used in cough syrups.

Also used are extracts of Wild Cherry
bark (Prunus serotina or P. virginiana) which
was once frequently used with a complex
bitter compound produced by the Greater

Wild Lettuce (Lactuca virosa)

combined action is sedative as well as

Prickly or
the

phlegm

infiata

may

and promote sleep. Cough is conby a reflex from a centre in the

central nervous system, and many anti-

to treat this condition.

Lobelia

and

Anti-cough or antibe needed to facilitate

trolled

anti-tussive.

bronchitis

a natural reflex to help clear

the respiratory system of secretions

which contain ephedrine. Ephedra has

been used for 5000 years by the Chinese

Grmdelia camporum, Sanguinaria canadensis,

dioxide-.

respiratory

an anti-asthmatic agent among the

viscous secretions.

and the maintenance of

level in the

air pollu-

the

in the blood.

body,

Smoking and

compound isolated from the

mediterranean umbelliferous plant Ammi
visnaga - a plant which has a long history

of khellin, a

and

with waste carbon dioxide

oxygen

by recurrent episodes of infection which

lead to an increased number of the mucus
glands and therefore an increase in

For difficulty
a

in clearing the chest

class

known

of agents

of
as

may

be used. These act

cough or by increasing
the fluidity of an excessively viscous
bronchial secretion. The best-known irritant or cough-inducing expectorant is
tincture of syrup of Ipecacuanha used in a
much weaker concentration than that for
promoting emesis. Other expectorant
herbs include Cowslip (Primula verts),
Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), Mullein
Verbascum thapsus) and Snakeroot (Polygala senega), all of which contain saponins

expectorants

either by inducing

(detergent-like substances) that aid dissolution of sputum.

employed

as

Viola odorata

an expectorant;

it

is

also

contains a
()t

MEDICINAL USES
glycoside, violarutin, as well as saponins.

Primary infection of the upper respiratory tract is in go per cent of cases

caused by minute living particles called
viruses. These may be highly infectious
(demonstrated by the occurrence of the
common cold), and so far few plants have
been shown to possess specific anti-viral
activity. General resistance to these and
other infections in the body may be
increased, however, by employing Phytolacca americana, which stimulates the
immunological defence system. Where
primary viral infection is followed by
bacterial infection a

number

of plants are

is

The nervous system

That part of the peripheral system which
is
under active control is called the
voluntary system and is concerned with
the skeletal muscles while the involuntary
or

acts

on the muscles

from min-

controlled by will, such as the heart or the

(Allium

bladder.

Messages are conducted by changes

strongly antibacterial as are

Cone flower
Elecampane

autonomic system

of the organs and glands which cannot be

ute plants, the moulds). Garlic

sativum)

pulses in the reverse direction.

power of

used, although few possess the

antibiotics (originally isolated

and the peripheral nervous system

comprising the major nerves which connect the spinal cord with the minute
nerve-endings in every part of the body.
The peripheral system conducts messages
from the organs to the central nervous
system and also conveys controlling imcord,

and

{Echinacea angustifoliai,
{Inula helenium).

in

the electrical balance of the nerve cells or

neurones concerned. More than one cell

involved with each pathway, and the
electrical change is transmitted from one
cell to another by the release of tiny
amounts, or quanta, of a special chemical
substance called a transmitter.
This process can be illustrated with a
specific example. When you burn your

two
in

The nervous system

grates

all

controls

and

the activities of the body.

inte-

There

are two main parts: the central nervous

system consisting of the brain and spinal

hand, temperature-detecting
Below

showing

The autonomic

nervous system,

the opposing actions

of the

parasympathetic and sympathetic parts on

various organs of the body.
receive nerves

Most organs

of both systems

and

are

controlled by impulses from each.

cells in the

skin activate nerve-endings. This

is

message

passed along afferent or sensory nerve

fibres

to

changes.

spinal

the

When

cord

by

electrical

the message arrives at the

spinal cord, a chemical transmitter passes

it

across the synapse

the junction

between

activates another

cord.

The

'perceived'

and

down

as

a result an impulse

down

the spinal cord

the efferent or

are controlled in distinct regions of the

ies

and brain by two sets of nerve

- the sympathetic and the parasympathetic - which, generally speaking,

spinal cord
cells

The parasympathetnervous system is responsible, for

example, for increased blood-flow to the
digestive system after a meal, and the
decrease in size of the pupil in bright sunlight. The transmitting substance for these
act in opposite ways.
ic

is known as acetylcholine.
The sympathetic nervous system, which

nerves
uses

mainly adrenaline and noradrenaits transmitter compounds, comes

line as

into effect in conditions of stress such as

fear

and anger, and

acts antagonistically

of the parasympathetic
sympathetic stimulation
causes increase both in pupil size and
to

stimulation

system.

Thus

heart-rate but, at the

same

time, constric-

and
abdominal viscera. All these actions prepare the body for intense activity.
tion of the blood-vessels in the skin

At a higher level of activity functions

such as consciousness, thought, memory.

saliva

saliva

glands

glands
heart

heart

lungs

lungs

stomach

stomach

intestine

intestine

bladder

bladder

spinal

cord

sympathetic
trunk

is

and then
motor nerve to the
muscles of the arm and hand - which is
withdrawn involuntarily from the heat.
Function of organs autonomic activit-

passes

pupil

pupil

neurone

"message"

sympathetic

parasympathetic

62

and

spinal

transmitted up the spinal cord to the

cerebral cortex in the brain. The pain is

is

DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM

cells)

the

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

touch receptors
central nervous

in

the skin

system

*
^

'6^

K.

effectors and receptors in the muscles and tendons

and reasoning

reside

in

the superficial

layer of the cerebral cortex in the brain. In

man, with

his

high intellectual capacity,

dominate

these portions of the brain

all

Co-ordination of the reflexes is

carried out in a smaller region of the brain
called the hypothalamus. The mid-brain
and medulla are concerned with the
maintenance of the wakeful state land
hence also sleep temperature regulation,

the

Passion-flower

[Passiflora

incarnata)

which contain the alkaloids passiflorine,

harmol. and harmine, are also used as
sedatives. Other popular medicinal plants
category include Lady's Slipper

others.

in

respiratory regulation

American Valerian; and Tilia species.

Drugs acting on the peripheral nervous
system may be divided into two groups
depending on whether they exert their
effect on the sensory or motor neurones. In

and maintenance

of blood pressure.

this

(Cypripedium

the

first

pubescens\

class

fall

also

nervous

central

the

which

relieve

pain,

the strongest of these

system

are

those

the analgesics,

known

and

in the plant

kingdom are derived from

Poppy Papaver sommjerum

Opium

the

Historically the best-known pain-killer

Mandrake

which,

like

root

Mandragora

Henbane

officinarum

Hyoscyamus

nigei

contains the alkaloids hyoscyaminc and

scopolamine. Both were used during early

Other analgesics include Bos-

surgery.
wellia

serrata,

Chrysanthemum anemijolium.

Ervatamia dichotoma and

'

ontain

certain

many

essential

herbs which

oils,

such

as

Erythroxylum

irritants

coca

American

the

physiological

of Physostigma venenosum

its

active ingredients arc terpenoid

pounds

is
:

com-

ailed \;de pot notes, present in the

root-Stock The Indian spe< ies V.

wallnhn is even more effective. Extra* ts of
fresh

linking with the

via the central nervous system.

The

reflex

response causes the cigarette to be dropped.

Below: Henbane fHyoscyamus

rarely used today since

it

contains

niger,)

is

many

powerful substances but, historically,

it

has

been very important.

Drugs which act on the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system in the

opposite way, that is by inhibiting or

Adrenergic drugs, or those acting on

neuromuscular junction,
include stimulants such as ephedrine
from Ephedra species) and drugs acting

officinalis

pain of a cigarette

pathway (red)
effector pathway (green)

the receptor

such as nicotine in the leaves oi .\icotiana

(from Pilocarpus jaborandi) or eserine isolated from the beans

hallu-

depressant

and

tabacum.i, pilocarpine

and

A well-known

the reaction to the

burn,

autonomic system include stimulants

which act like an excess of acetylcholine

simu-

tincture of Valerian {Valeriana

show

of tin

transmitter

tranquillizers; and, conversely, the

cinogens.

reflex consists

and counter-

antagonizing the effects of acetylcholine,

include the tropane alkaloids from many
species of the family Solanaceae, for
example, Atropa belladonna and Hyoscyamus

lants such as antidepressants

from, for example, the seed of

Wintergreen whose
oil comprises mainly methyl salicylate.
Other central nervous system drugs
include the depressant group comprising
the anaesthetics, hypnotics, sedatives and
Caultheria procumbens

of the
and an
involuntary muscle movement. The diagrams
left

stimulation of a receptor neuron

Mustard and the oil of Wintergreen.

Drugs which act predominantly on the
cholinergic nerves that is those in which
the chemical compound, acetylcholine,
is

is

shrub,

as

the local anaesthetics

(such as cocaine from the South

Treatment of nervous disorders

The most widely used drugs which act on

known

Above and

niger.

the sympathetic

way (antagonists such as

from
both Rauvoljui
rpentina
reserpine
and R. vomitoria) and ergotamine (from
in the

opposite

(Jlaviceps purpurea).

63

SELF-HELP

SELF-HELP WITH HERBS

are frequently described as a diuretic, but

mainstream
medical profession and unorthodox practitioners have tended to dissuade ordinary
people from treating themselves or obtaining the means or information for doing so.
This opposition was often concerned
with the profit motive and, equally, no
doubt because of the need for secrecy to

they must not be used where there is a

kidney inflammation. Similarly, some

history both the

Throughout

lack of knowledge, ineffective

remedies or even outright charlatanism.
The strongest argument today against
self-medication is the danger of misdiagnosis. Certain commonplace symptoms, such as vomiting, stiff neck, head-

conceal

ache,

fever

themselves

or

earache,

may seem

in

complaints. But, con-

trivial

sidered in the perspective of other associ-

symptoms and
dispositions and case

the

ated

patient's

pre-

symp-

history, such

toms may indicate a much more serious

problem.
Since any complaint is best treated
immediately, it is important to remember
that if symptoms do not disappear very
quickly, proper qualified advice must be
sought. Children must never be treated
with herbal remedies, or with any other
form of home medication; in children
ordinary symptoms such as those of the
common cold may develop into a potencondition

tially serious

in as

quickly as 24

may

herbs

person

blood pressure in a
suffering from hyper-

raise the

already

more than 12 hours as they may deteriorate. Even under ideal conditions herbs
lose their activity: leaves, flowers and
fruit

seeds,

should be used within one year;

roots and rhizomes within three

and there are some plants which

must never be taken internally by preg-

years.

nant women.

weight of remedy used is 30 g. For those

remedies containing more than one herb,
the combined weight is still 30 g.

tension,

There

is

also the question of correct

how and when the dose should be

administered, and the length of time for
which a remedy should be taken. Lack of
dosage:

In both infusions and decoctions the

Used

Infusion

water-soluble
dense parts of
leaves, stems and

to extract the

knowledge of correct herb combinations,

and the use of incorrect doses, can produce

substances from the

adverse

is
also sometimes
employed on thin, small or chopped roots
and fruits.
The method consists of pouring 500 ml

Simply because herbs are natural prodoes not follow that their use in
medicine is any easier than the use of

ducts

it

substances - in

It

method

oz to
of boiling water on to 30 g (or
20 fl ozs) of the finely cut material con-

for these reasons, therefore, that

tained in a porcelain, stone or glass vessel,

it is

is

many

the

as

the

ways,

synthetic

indeed,

such

herbs

flowers,

effects.

more complicated.

recommended
many popular modern 'herb-

self-medication cannot be

fitted

and why

volatile substances

als'

less

may

so

be considered with interest, but

be

with a tight

lost

The

lid.

lid

keeps in the

which would otherwise

during the
required

not as medical manuals. In this chapter

normally

some examples have been given of plants

straining the liquid

10
for
is

or

minutes

15

After

infusion.

allowed

to cool to

below blood heat before the dose

medically effective in disturbances of the

just

cardiovascular, nervous, respiratory and

taken,

demonstrate the
effectiveness of herbal medicine as administered by a properly qualified prac-

one cup of infusion taken three times a

systems

digestive

titioner.

Some

to

or

it

completely.

may be allowed
The normal dose

to
is

is

cool

up

to

day, usually before meals.

of these plants are poison-

Hard

hours.

ous even in only moderate doses. There

Decoction

Apart from mis-diagnosis, some individuals do not tolerate certain plant

material either because of an intrinsic
allergic problem, or because an organ or
system in the body is malfunctioning to
some extent. Juniper berries, for example.

are,

however, many simple conditions

which can be treated at home so long as
the warnings above are fully considered.

rhizomes, bark, seed, and

PREPARATIONS

500 ml (or oz to 20 fl ozs) of cold water

an enamel or glass vessel and allowing
it to soak for 10 minutes. The temperature
is raised to boiling point and the mixture
then simmered for 10 to 15 minutes; this is

purposes of self-care, only three methods

need be employed. Infusion involves

external application only.

Left

There are many

different

ways of

preparing herbal remedies but for the

extraction

tin

of water-soluble substances from

the less dense parts

of a herb, such as

leaves, stems or flowers.

Decoction

extraction

its

is

best

for hard plant parts which will release their

water-soluble parts only after being soaked in

hot water. Poultice simply

means

the use

afresh plant by bruising or crushing

pulp, which

is

then

it

Other

of

into a

mixed with a

methods

of specific

to

groups of active

materials from a plant, so that alcoholic

may

indicate all three methods,

kettle, a

and

include a

good mortar and

of wooden spoons,
storage jars, and, most importantly, a wide
range of dried and fresh herbs. 1 Other methods

pestle,

<>)

a fine strainer,

lots

preparing herbal remedies require a

greater knowledge of

pharmacy and

are best left to the experts.)

entire

process

usually one cup

Still

other methods are related to the

physical nature of the herb

itself;

pouring

its

may

constituents,

whereas the same procedure is perfectly

satisfactory for most leaves and flowers.
A complete understanding of all the

methods of preparation of herbal

remedies requires a knowledge of phar-

different

macy, and is thus not relevant to self-care.

For this purpose only three methods need
be employed, namely infusion, decoction
and poultice. These should always be
made fresh before use, and never kept for

the

(or slightly less)

Poultice

extract only a fraction of

saucepan and

the

vessel

should be kept covered. After straining

and cooling the dose may be taken; this is

released or solubilized in water.

of hot water,

body surface. The variety of

containers and implements assembled here

followed by a further 10 minutes steeping.

times a day before meals.

be

boiling water over a thick hard root

in readiness for application

in

needed to remove
therapeutic chemicals which would not be

solutions

moistening material, such as small quantities

directly to the

the

release

more prolonged hot water treatment. This

requires adding 30 g of the herbal remedy

During
related

are

wood

their water-soluble constituents only after

i(

remedies may be prepared in

several different ways. Some methods are
directly related to their form of administration - poultices, ointments, creams and
salves, for example, are obviously for

Herbal

plant parts such as roots,

This method

may

three

utilize either

which is bruised and

a pulp, and then mixed with a

fresh plant material

crushed to
small quantity of hot water; or dried herbs
which are softened by mixing with host
pastes, which act as a suspending material, made from flour, bran, corn meal or
other suitable vehicles. If the latter method is employed 60 g of dried herbs are
mixed with 500 ml (or 2 ozs to 20 fl ozs) of
fairly loose paste. Both fresh and dried
plant poultices are best applied indirectly
to the skin by sandwiching the paste

between thin cloth prior to application

the affected part of the body surface.

to

65

SELF-HELP TABLE

Left

Herb farms, such as

the one

shown

here,

can supply the herbs used in the following

recipes.

Below

is for adults - children

Herbal remedies should

The dosage

must not be

treated.

be taken daily for two to three weeks.

No

medication should be taken continuously

sometimes better

The figures

; it is

vary the formulations

to

indicate the proportionate parts

by weight.

Key

ACIDITY

see Dyspepsia

ANAEMIA

Golden Seal
Myrrh rs

Dandelion

Spinach
Watercress

As salad herbs,

rs

resin

bd

buds

hb

herb

rt

root

bl

bulb

If

leaf

sd

seed

cl

clove

Witch Hazel,

distilled

Wormwood

Angelica

Nettle

water of

If

If
1

Walnut
Sage If

If

Peppermint

Gentian

hb
If

Marigold fl
Black Bryony hb

cup

hr before

European Centaury hb
1
St Johns Wort hb
Infusion: 2 cups per day

Linseed sd
rt

Sweet Flag
Caraway sd

Cuckoopint If
Lime bk
Herb Robert If
Rue hb
Fenugreek sd
Sanicle hb

rt

Agrimony hb

Gentian

Calumba

European Centaury hb

Hemp Agrimony hb
Apply hot poultices of any of the

rt

rt

Decoction: ^ cup
meals

Bogbean hb

Blessed Thistle hb

Mugwort

Infusion: \

If

cup

hr before meals

Globe Artichoke If
1
Gentian rt
Decoction: \ cup 1 hr before meals
1

Garlic

Rosemary hb

cl

Echinacea rt
Juniper by

Poultice or Decoction

Renew

hr before

(external use)

above, alone or
at least

in

combination.

4 times a day

BURNS

If

Comfrey If
St Johns Wort hb

cups per day

European Centaury hb
1
Thyme hb
1
White Horehound If
1
Hyssop hb
Infusion: 2 cups per day

If

Oak If
Cabbage

Decoction: cup \ hr before

fl

Cowslip

meals

Infusion: 2

ANTISEPTIC

hr before meals

cups per day

1

Birch

meals

If

2 Nettle

Hyssop hb
Arnica

rt

Infusion: 5

Infusion: 2

BAD BREATH

see Halitosis

Cucumber

Comfrey

Oak bk

Marigold

ft

If

fl

Johns Wort hb
Poultice: renew frequently
2 St

Marigold

Sanicle hb

Plantain

fl

If

Comfrey If
2 Lady's Mantle hb
2

Onion
Myrrh

Melilot hb

Thyme hb

BILIOUSNESS

bl

see Nausea

rs

Poultice:

Plantain

If

Poultice
1

Golden Rod hb

Wintergreen

If

Rue hb
Southernwood hb

Poultice or Infusion

66

renew

frequently

BLEEDING

Poultice or Decoction

petals

(lack of)

or vegetables:

frequently

Pt

fruit

Apply on cotton wool

Agrimony hb
Infusion: 1 cup

Moss

Iceland

flower

ft

BRUISES
APPETITE

Nettle

ft

berry

Decoction, use diluted

Comfrey

bark

by

rt

Chives

bk

Cranesbill

rt

Raspberry

If

Bistort

rt

Decoction: as a poultice or wash

Chickweed hb
Golden Seal rt
Irish Moss hb

Poultice:

Burdock
Marigold

renew
rt
fl

frequently

SELF-HELP TABLE

Coltsfoot
Plantain

If

Flag

If

Eucalyptus

Garlic

If

cup before

retiring

Severe
3

CONJUNCTIVITIS

Eyebright hb

Infusion: apply as lotion or

Senna If
Marjoram

If

Chamomile
Sweet Flag

fl

rt

eyewash

Peppermint If
Decoction: 7 cup before

Marigold fl
Fumitory hb
1
Eyebright hb
Infusion: apply as lotion or

4 Senna If
1
Ginger rt
4 Sweet Flag

eyewash

Decoction:

retiring

Blessed Thistle hb

Rue hb
Mugwort hb

2 Horseradish

rt

2 Blessed Thistle

Mallow
Sage If

Coltsfoot

Walnut

hb
1

Golden Seal
Rose pt

Elder

If

If

fl

1
1

Chamomil?

4 Slippery Elm bk (powder)

1
Cayenne (powder)
2 Blessed Thistle hb

Cornflower

Poultice

Melilotfl

2 Plantain

Golden Rod hb
2 Yarrow hb
1
Hawthorn fl
Infusion: 2 cups a day

Coltsfoot
Fennel sd

If

1
1

and

Sundew hb
Thyme hb
Aniseed sd
3 cups per day

Infusion:

Fennel sd

2 Irish

Rue

If

Moss hb

Thyme

If

4 Elecampane rt
2 Aniseed sd
4 Liquorice rt
4 Lungwort If
1
Fennel sd
Decoction: 3 cups per day

Mild

Fruit juices, especially

rt

Elecampane rt
White Horehound. hb

fl

4 Slippery Elm bk (powder)

Blood Root

retiring

Decoction: 3 cups per day

Decoction apply as eye compress

prune

Cabbage

Poultice

cup before

Suppressant

CONSTIPATION

fl

apply as lotion or eyewash

rt

rt

If

Infusion: dilute 1:3 with water

Angelica rt
2 Lady's Mantle hb

Rhubarb

COUGHS

rt

Decoction: dilute 1:5 with water

and apply as lotion or eyewash

If

Poultice

Angelica rt
Alder Buckthorn bk

Infusion:

cl

the vapour

Poultice

2
If

Couch-grass hb
Borage If
Dandelion If

rt

CHILBLAINS

rt

Decoction: wash carefully with

any of the above, alone or in
combination

Sage If
Marjoram

Pour on boiling water and inhale

Tormentil

Willow If
Elm bk
Avens rt

Hound's Tongue
Lady's Mantle If

Sweet

Rosemary hb
Peppermint If

If

Figs

COLDS

Expectorant

Dates
Prunes
1

Yarrow

Elder

Peppermint

Raisins

Bran

If

3-4 cups per day

Infusion

2 Coltsfoot

Rhubarb

fl

fl

Hyssop hb
White Horehound. hb
Infusion 3 cups per day

in the diet,

2
1

or their intake

increased

1
1

Elder

fl

Lime

fl

Psyllium sd
Alpine Plantain sd
Decoction: do not strain, drink 3
cups per day

Bayberry bk
1
Ginger rt
Infusion 2 cups per day.

in

doses

small

1
1

Liquorice sd

Fennel sd
Linseed sd

Ginger

rt

3 cups per day

Infusion

Liquorice

2 Elder
1

Meadowsweet hb

2 Violet
1

rt

fl

Garlic

fl

cl

Decoction 2 cups per day

fl

Marshmallow rt
Soapwort hb or

rt

Mullein hb
Balm of Gilead bd

cups per day

Sage If
Marshmallow

Coltsfoot

Comfrey

rt

If
If

Infusion 3 cups per day

Decoction 3 cups per day

4 Boneset hb
4 Elder fl
4 Yarrow fl

rt

Cowslip

Infusion: 2

Infusion 3 cups per day

Liquorice

Decoction 3 cups per day

Spinach
Apples
The above should be incorporated

If

White Horehound. hb

Turnera hb

Yellow Dock rt
1
Dandelion rt
Decoction: 3 cups per day

CUTS

see Bleeding

DIARRHOEA

2 Alder
1

Ash

Alder

Buckthorn bk

Bilberry

If

Bistort

fl

Peppermint

Infusion:

bed

Tormentil

If

cup before

retiring to

rt

Agrimony hb
Ground Ivy hb
Oak bk
ft

rt

Elm bk
Yarrow hb
Lady's Mantle hb

67

MEDICINAL USES
Cranesbill

GARGLE

rt

Decoctions of any of the above,

alone or in combinations. Up to 2
cups per day taken in small doses

Red Sage

Valerian

Chamomile

rt
fl

If

Myrrh rs
Marigold fl
Decoction: as required
1

Lavender fl
Infusion: 2 cups per day
1

Jambul

Oak bk

ft

2 Raspberry

Sweet

rt

hb

2 Tormentil

Peppermint

2 Marigold

day

hb
Rosemary hb
Infusion: 3 cups per day
2 Blessed Thistle

fl

Marshmallow
Sage hb

rt

INDIGESTION

3 or more cups per day

Infusion:
1

If

Marshmallow If
cups per day

Infusion: 3

Sanicle hb

Lavender

Thyme hb

Tormentil

1
1
1

If

to

fl

Dandelion

Meadowsweet hb

Limefl

Marshmallow

rt

Infusion: as required
1

Meadowsweet hb
Lemon Balm

Peppermint

cup as required, not

exceed 4 cups per day

in

Meadowsweet hb

rt

If

Herb Robert hb
Decoction: as required

DYSPEPSIA

Hops hb
Valerian

1
Ginger rt
Decoction: 3 cups per day,
small doses

Infusion: 2 cups per

If

Infusion: as required
1

rt

Thyme hb

Infusion:

2 Blackberry

Decoction. 3 cups per day. in

small doses

Cleavers hb

If

Flag

2 Plantain

Golden Seal rt
Herb Robert hb
Sage If
Sea salt

If

rt

Infusion: 4 cups per

Decoction: as required

Parsley hb

Sage

day

If

Fennel sd
Decoction: 2 cups per day
1

Sweet Flag

Meadowsweet hb

HALITOSIS

rt

Decoction: 3 cups per day

Anise sd

Cardamom

sd

Sweet Flag

rt

Ginger rt
Decoction: \ cup as required, not
to exceed 2 cups per day
1

Gentian

Chamomile

Angelica

Lemon Balm

Clove
Angelica rt
Fennel sd
Peppermint

rt
fl

rt

If

If

Decoction: 3 cups per day

Parsley

If
1

Sweet

Flag

rt
1

Wormwood

Coriander sd

Sage

hb

Dill

If

Liquorice rt
Infusion: 7 cup per day

see Coughs

sd

of any of the above.

combination. Consider
the need for a laxative, dental care.
treatment of flatulence or stomach
little

alone or

in

Wormwood

Chicory

Anise sd
Fennel sd

Orris

rt

Meadowsweet hb

Caraway sd

in

Sweet Flag

Decoction: gargle frequently

2 Lavender

Peppermint

Caraway sd

Garlic

Yarrow

If

cl

Sage

fl

If

to

exceed

Lemon Balm hb
Chamomile fl

Peppermint If
Infusion: 2 cups per day

HEADACHE

Irish Moss
Chickweed

Carrot

Lime

Lemon Balm hb

Coltsfoot

Borage

Rosemary hb

Linseed

Cucumber

Houseleek

Slippery Elm

fl

Infusion: as required.

1-4 cups

per day
1

Caraway sd

Fennel sd

Mugwort hb

Anise sd
Decoction: 3 cups per day
1

1
1

1
1

Lovage

3 cups per day

Vervain hb
Scullcap hb

Infusion:

3 cups per day

rt

Cumin sd
Thyme hb

Decoction: 2 cups per day

68

Catmint hb
Rosemary hb

Infusion:

Winter Savory hb
Angelica rt

5 cups per day

INFLAMMATIONS
cups per day

Myrrh rs
Decoction: gargle 3 times per day

Apple

rt

Turnera hb
1
Cola ft
1
Ginger rt
Decoction: \ cup as required, not

fl

Infusion: 2

taken

small doses

Decoction: 3 cups per day

2

rt

2-3 cups per day.

2 Sarsaparilla

rt

hb

rt

hb

2 Basil

acidity.

4 Sweet Flag
Ginger rt

If

Woodruff hb
Decoction: 2 cups per day

Infusion:

FLATULENCE

If

Chew a

EXPECTORANTS

Tarragon

Fennel sd
Gentian rt
Peppermint

Yarrow

Scullcap hb

Infusion:

fl

23 cups per day

Oats

Purple Loosestrife

Onion

White Pond
Okra
Lungwort

Parsley

Comfrey
Pumpkin

Lily

Marshmallow

Watercress Iceland Moss

Any of the above may be crushed
and pulped with a little hot water
to produce a poultice suitable for
application to inflammations or

swellings

INFLUENZA

see Colds

SELF-HELP TABLE
Black Horehound hb
1
Decoction: 3 cups per day

INSECT BITES
Houseleek

Parsley

Leek
Olive

Golden Rod hb

Meadowsweet hb

Sage hb
Black Horehound hb
1
Vervain hb
1
Pennyroyal hb
Infusion: 3 cups per day (not
during pregnancy)

If

fl

If

bl
oil

Plantain

cl

If

Rue If
St Johns Wort
Marigold

Garlic

Eaten raw: 2 per day

Infusion: gargle

Summer Savory
Infusion: gargle

If

Pennyroyal

If

Comfrey If
Crush the fresh plant of any of the
above and rub on the sting

Red Sage

Raspberry If
Ginger rt
Peppermint hb

Lemon Balm hb

1
1

Bayberry bk

cups per day

Infusion: 2

If

Infusion: gargle

Decoction: gargle

Repellent

Clove

Lavender
of Pennyroyal

Oil of
Oil

Elder

TONICS

Chew one

slowly

(crushed)

If

see Burns

INSOMNIA
SEDATIVES
Valerian

Lime

Betony hb

Scullcap hb

fl

Fennel sd
Aniseed sd
Passion flower hb (i cup only)

Infusion:

1
1
1

1
1

sd
Fennel sd
Dill

3 cups per day

1
1

1
1

Lime

fl

Hops hb
Lemon Balm hb
Valerian

Infusion

cup

(see also Gargle)

Poke Root

Lady's Slipper hb

TOOTHACHE

Hyssop hb
Lemon Balm hb

Mallow

Eaten raw. 2 per day

Clove

oil

to tooth cavity,

rt

Mistletoe hb

Scullcap hb

but avoid

gums

cups per day.

in

small

Chamomile

fl

Infusion: repeatedly rinse

doses
2 Mistletoe hb
4 Lime fl

Hawthorn

ft

VOMITING
or

fl

Decoction 2 cups per day.

small doses

in

Lavender

Orange

Lemon Balm hb

Basil

fl

Valerian

(see also Nausea)

Peppermint hb
Spearmint hb
European Centaury hb

Chamomile

Wormwood

fl

hb

Infusion sip as required, to 3 cups

fl

hb
Hops hb

mouth

per day

Chamomile
Lemon Balm hb

Peppermint hb

Fennel sd

European Centaury hb

rt

fl

fl

Mullein hb
Coltsfoot If

Marshmallow

If

and chew gently

Apply

cl

Mallow

4-5 cups per day

2 Valerian

Infusion 4 cups per day

ft

If

Turnera hb
Saw Palmetto by
1
Cola ft
1
Oats sd
Decoction: 2 cups per day. in
small doses

Hedge Mustard hb

Sace

rt

Decoction: gargle

Garlic

fl

Soften,

at night

8 Coltsfoot If
4 Blood Root rt
4 Balm of Gilead bd
1

Dog Rose

Oats sd
Hops hb

Infusion: 2

LARYNGITIS

Hibiscus

Lavender fl
Infusion: 4 cups per day

rt

3 cups per day

ft

Infusion 3 cups per day

1
Peppermint hb
Decoction I cup at night

Dog Rose

Infusn

Lady's Slipper hb
Oats sd
Scullcap hb

Infusion:

If

Peppermint If
Infusion: 3 cups per day

1
fl

Lavender fl
Woodruff hb
Thyme hb
Infusions of any of the above.
cup at night

Dandelion
Chicory rt

rt

Hops hb
Chamomile

SCALDS

Liquorice

Infusion 2 cups per day. Or take

alone. 2 cups per day

any one
rt

Infusion: as required

SORE THROAT

rt

Infusion 3 cups per day

LAXATIVES

see Constipation

NAUSEA

Golden Seal

Thyme hb

Sage

During Pregnancy

rt

If

Iceland

Moss hb

Black Horehound hb
Decoction: 2 cups per day

Myrrh rs
Decoction: gargle

Black Horehound hb
Infusion: 2

cups per day

Galangal

Marshmallow

rt
rt

Bistort

Balm

rt

of Gilead

1
Sanicle hb
Decoction, gargle

bd

Chamomile

Meadowsweet hb

fl

Black Horehound. hb
cups per day

Infusion: 2

69

'--

*Jk-<'~

-/

\ag

UP

Herbs
in the kitchen

Herbs and spices have had an important

role in cooking tor more than 5000 years.
No doubt herbs were eaten for their
flavour long before it was recognized that

Proverbs (xv:i7), we find 'Better is a

dinner of herbs where love is, than a
stalled ox and hatred therewith'. Classical

various other beneficial

herbs and spices. Theophrastus, born in

Greece in 372 B.C. and a student of Plato

possessed

they

properties.

An

organized

international

literature

is

similarly rich in references to

many

trade in spices already existed by about

and

1550 B.C. The Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian

medical work, contained references to
Indian spices as well as locally grown
plants. In about 950 B.C. King Solomon

of herbs in his writings. Pliny, born in a.d.

was visited by the Queen of Sheba who

brought gifts of Arabian spices and herb
seeds. Ancient Babylon already grew its
own Bay, Saffron, Thyme, Cumin and
Juniper. In 450 B.C. Herodotus described
Indian spices then

known

in

Greece.

It

was from the mediterranean regions that

many plants came to northern Europe as
the Roman empire expanded. Native
herbs were augmented by Roman favourites such as Mustard, and spices were
imported. South Indian Pepper was the
most popular import and this pungent
spice was sprinkled liberally over dishes
both sweet and savoury. Even today
freshly milled pepper is sometimes added
to

strawberries to heighten their flavour.

Ginger was next

in

popularity

cuisine

of first-century

used

many

in

in

the

Rome and was

spiced mixtures, sauces and

stuffings as a digestive

and

laxative.

Biblical references to herbs

and

spices,

obtained from them, abound in

both the Old and New Testaments. In

and

oils

Aristotle, includes

23, included natural history in his writings

and referred to the custom of sprinkling

egg-brushed bread dough with Poppyseeds prior to baking.

In a.d. 812 the

HerbSy bread

and eggs

simple

Emperor Charlemagne

issued an edict instructing his people to

grow certain herbs and vegetables

in their

gardens - probably the earliest 'permitted

list' of herbs. Perhaps the Emperor's best
tended garden, stocked according to his
plan, was in the Benedictine monastery
at St Gall in Switzerland.
In Britain, the Guild of Pepperers was
in existence in 1180. The guild then became the Mistery of Grossers, Pepperers
and Apothecaries, later the Guild of
Grocers and finally the Grocers' Company. From the fourteenth century the
guild acted as a watchbody, controlling
the quality of spices,

with

adulterated

which could easily be

or low grade
water was another

spent

material. Adding
means of defrauding

the buyer.

Only

in

1875 did the necessary legal machinery

come into the hands of the law with the
Sale

of Food

rendered
guild

Left:

descriptions

the

and Drugs Act, which

watchdog powers of the

less vital.

The

fifteenth-century

from

term

'pepperoccasional

materials that can provide cooks with all the

torn

variety they need.

practice of paying rents to landlords in

rent'

arose

the

7'

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

SI'

ICE

PLANTS

I'

late

ma

Above: Herbs have been used for hundreds of

years, and

it is

only in recent times that they

have been neglected. Here a cook seasons one

of his dishes -

illustration from a cookery

book published

in

1507. For

the

GINGER

medieval

BLACK PEPPER
piper nigrum,.

:in</iicr officinale

cook herbs were an essential part of cooking,

4

most often for heir preservative powers.

Right : Ginger, Black Pepper, Caper and

Cayenne : four spices that have been used

kitchens for

many

in

centuries.

A peppercorn rent signified a trivial amount,

but realistic rents paid in pepper consignments meant that the landowner's annual
pepper expenditure could be avoided.
Rent paid in peppercorns was often preferred because it held its value better than
unstable coinage - suggesting problems
with inflationary currency even in those
days!
The staff of monastic gardens, kitchens
and distilling rooms, the cultivators of the
farms of the Knights of St John of
Jerusalem and church missionaries (often
selected because of their botanical acumen) all played important roles in promoting the knowledge and use of herbs
and spices. The Arab conquest of Spain

his first

meant

Arabian spice traders operated from Spain to the borders of China.

At about the same time Greek, Levantine
and Arabian traders were busy establishing trading stations and factories along

years later Vasco da

the west coast of India.

navigated the Cape of Good Hope and

was transformed, the legendary
overland caravan routes being replaced

Colombo, Ceylon. In 1600 the British

East India Company was founded. The
Dutch formed a similar trading company
two years later, the Danes following in
6 6. In 65 the Portuguese were driven
out of Malakka, in 1658 out of Ceylon,
and for some 200 years London was the

by sea journeys. In 1492 Columbus made

leading spice market.

specified weights of peppercorns.

The

that

period between

the blossoming of the

100 and 1290 saw

North

Italian spice

trade centres. In i486 Bartholomew Diaz

trade

7^

CAYENNE PEPPER

C AJ' F. R

capsicum

capari.i apinosa

voyage

to the

New World and

Gama landed

six

As trade

annuum

in spices slowly

developed,

ref-

in

erences to their culinary use were gradu-

15 10 the Portuguese estab-

lished a base in

Goa and a year later they

entered Malakka in the Spice Islands. In

documented. The fourteenth-century

book Forme of Cury published in England
is evidence of the widespread use of herbs

151 7 the Portuguese established a base in

in cookery.

Calicut.

In

ally

liberally

herbs.

The

plays of Shakespeare are

sprinkled

with

To quote just one

references
extract,

to

from A

Midsummer Nighfs Dream (II.ii.249): 'I

a bank whereon the wild thyme
blows, where ox-lips and the nodding

know

violet

lush

grows; Quite over-canopied with

woodbine, With sweet musk roses

and with

eglantine."

FINDING YOUR HERBS

The

sixteenth

and seventeenth-century

Andrew Boorde, Gervase

Markham and John Evelyn made frequent references to culinary plants. The
indulgent use of herbs and spices may well
writers such as

have been necessary

to

mask

the taints of

partially rotten and rancid food (storage

and preservation techniques were primitive, to say the least), and to add greater

variety

the

to

of basic

flavour

foods.

Today, though methods of food storage

and preservation may be technologically
sophisticated, factory and battery-farming methods of rearing cattle and poultry

much

be desired in terms of
fruit and vegetable
crops (notably apples and potatoes have
come under fire, and the plant breeder is
often reproached for breeding uniform,
unblemished items, designed to suit the
packer's boxes rather than to delight the
leave

flavour.

in

The

function of herbs and spices

transient in dishes

may

be

which are quickly pre-

salad decorated with Nasturtium blooms;

addition at just the right

herbs have more of an effect on diet

necessary.

if,

for

coming

Herbs are often associated with

specific

The

earliest

dates, often religious festivals.

Shrove Tuesday pancakes were tansyflavoured; bitter herbs still symbolize the
Jewish Passover; on Good Friday (tradfree of devilish

itionally

tings of Bay,

Thyme

influence)

cut-

Lavender, Sage, Rosemary

are planted to ensure their

healthy growth; on

May

German

the

cooking process are

all

important

Steeping, distilling, infusion, or

The

dish

moment may be
may be needed for

immediate consumption, or

chutneys, preserves, wines, vinegars, hon-

storage or (as in the case of certain pickles,

chutneys and wines) it may need time to

eys

and

oils.

for

freezer

mature.

AVAILABILITY OF HERBS
Most herbs are grown and harvested

aluminium

when

to the cook's aid.

the

instance, they are used in stored pickles,

in

though nowadays many flourish in town

plots and window-boxes or pots. For those
without access to the fresh form, the cool
cabinets of some chain-stores now have a
limited range of freshly packed containers
or freeze-dried herbs in jars and ring-pull

spices are

whether it is in the fresh

and the method and time of

itself,

or dried state,
factors.

rural settings such as country gardens,

again, herbs and

of the herb

pared, served and eaten, such as a herb

omelette, Elder flower fritters or a bowl of

to

Once

Adding herbs to dishes needs exjudgment and care. The nature

perience,

diets.

Even certain

consumer's palate.

and

min B complex can be a dietary hazard

vegan

cans. Until relatively recently,

upsurge of interest in herbs

began, many cooks were using herbs
which were not always packaged and
stored in the best manner. Often they
were too old, and so generally poor
results were obtained. Today the situation
has much improved. There is more
interest in growing fresh herbs and the
home freezer enables the grower to store
herbs

the

much more

effectivelv.

Four main botanical families supply the

majority of culinary herbs, the Umbelliferae which include Angelica, Caraway,
Dill, Fennel and Parsley, the Labiatae
(the Mints, Basil, Sage and Thyme), the
Compositae (Chamomile, Tansy and Yarrow) and the Cruciferae (Mustard).

Gathering fresh herbs

Pick or snip the young

leaves or whole
from the ends of stems if the plant is
large enough. Avoid over-picking too
many leaves from one stem or from very
sprigs

Below: This flourishing herb bed contains

Marjoram, Lemon Balm, and two types of
Fennel, together with

many

other plants used

by man, which together provide an attractive

kitchen garden.

(The

table on

page 123

lists

some herbs suitable for a cook's garden.)

Mai-Bowie - a white wine cup flavoured

with Woodruff and early Strawberries - is
prepared. August crayfish parties in Swe-

den and Finland would not be traditional

without the flavour of Dill and decorative
Dill heads which are used to garnish the

mounds of succulent

red

pre-

shellfish

viously boiled in a Dill bath.

HERBS AND DIET

As a source of nutrients herbs and spices
are usually consumed in too small quantities

enter

to

the

calculations

concerned

dietician

mended

intakes.

with

The

plant

only significant

is

the

of

recom-

contribution

vitamin

to the diet

daily

of

from a particular
if

a bowlful

is

consumed. Used as a garnishing herb, the

same plant may contribute little in
nutrient terms but a good deal in visual
and palate appeal, thereby playing an
essential role in stimulating the appetite

and aiding digestion.

Gertain plants, however, are known to
be rich sources of nutrients. For example,
vitamin C is present significantly in Rosehips,

Sweet

Peppers.

Nettles

and

Watercress. Nutritional claims are

for certain

and

herbs: for instance,

Alfalfa

source- of

Deficiency

shoots provide an

vitamin B12
oi

tins

in

made

Com In

essential

vegan

diet.

component of the

vita-

in

the

73

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

Left

Garlic, onions

these are three

of the

popular herbs used

onions belong

and

chillies

best

known and most

on sale

and
same family and both

in the kitchen. Garlic

to the

have a very wide culinary use, ranging from

soups

to

meat. Chillies are an integral part

of Indian cooking and are responsible for that

distinctively hot, spicy taste.

made of dark glass or plastic

with well-fitting lids so that direct light
and air do not shorten the storage life. Do
not store over a warm cooker but in a dry
cool spot. When the herb loses its aroma
it is of doubtful use in cooking and should
be replaced.
containers

Freezing herbs
Perhaps the most satisfactory domestic

method of

storing herbs

in the freezer

is

since variable results are obtained bv dry-

ing and not

all

herbs dry well - Chives

'Allium schoenoprasum)

and leathery

Dill

(Anethum graveolens) and Fennel

Foeniculum vulgare), for example. Freeze the
(

clean herbs in small quantities suitable

average size dishes. Blanching

may be dispensed with if the freezer storage time is to be brief, say six to eight
weeks. For longer storage, blanch the
herbs by immersing them in boiling water
for about 45 seconds, then plunge them
for use in

water, drain, and pack in

wrapping material or freezer bags.
An alternative method of blanching herbs
is to steam-blanch them by placing the
sprigs in a steamer above rapidly boiling
water. Allow about i minutes blanching
into

chilled

freezer

The recommended

time.

blanched

Whole
young
Use at once or wrap in foil
and keep in the refrigerator. Sprigs of
Mint (Mentha spp) and Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) may be kept in a jar of water
plants.

in an airing cupboard or in a barely

warm

oven, leaving the oven door open. The

temperature should not exceed 34C

frozen

sprigs

may

freezer

life

for

months.
be crumbled while

herbs

is

six

frozen.

Frozen herbs can be added to many

dishes without thawing. Defrost before

herbs on wire cooling

using in salads and spreads or for garnish-

racks covered with muslin, cheesecloth or

(95F).

Lay

the

Picking and drying

Herbs are usually harvested when the
flowers are just coming into bloom as they

storage jars, preferably of tinted glass, and

Bouquets garnis and portion-wrapped sprigs of herbs can be protected in the

freezer by placing the labelled foil- or
polythene-wrapped parcels in covered

cover with a plastic screw cap. Should

plastic

are then richest in aromatic

signs of condensation

for a

few days.

nylon

ably a certain

amount

of

loss

oils.

Inevit-

of these

occurs during drying and storage.

when

oils

Some

bloom,
namely Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis), Lavender {Lavandula spp), Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), and Thyme (Thymus
vulgaris). Sage (Salvia officinalis) is harvested when the earliest buds are seen.
Pick just after the dew has gone and
discard any yellow or damaged herbs.
herbs are harvested

in full

Handle with care and only

move obvious

rinse to re-

Pat the herbs

dry gently with kitchen paper. Dry them

74

dust or

soil.

When

dry the herbs are brittle

and crumbly. Put the dried herbs into
net.

jar, the

appear inside the

herbs are incompletely dried and

should be returned to the drying cupboard or oven.

Long-stemmed herbs may be dried by

hanging them in a warm, dry, airy place
for a

loose

in small bunches in a
Cover the bunches with

few days. Tie

fashion.

dark paper if direct sunlight is liable to

reach them. Crumble and store the dried
herbs as above.
Avoid purchasing large quantities of
dried

avoid

herbs as

shelf-life

paper-packaged

is

and
Choose

limited

brands.

ing.

boxes or screw-top

jars.

Chopped herbs can be mixed with

soft

breadcrumbs and frozen for use as toppings or in stuffings and dumplings. Place
the chopped herbs in ice-cube containers
and top up with stock. Transfer the frozen
bags for storage. Likesprigs of tiny Mint
leaves in ice-cube trays, top with water
and freeze for use in wine cups and some
aperitifs. Chopped herbs can be mixed

cubes

wise,

to freezer

you can put small

with butter, rolled into cylindrical rolls or

flat blocks ready for slicing and served
with grilled meat or fish, or as part of a
sandwich filling. Herbs commonly used in

TEAS AND TISANES

such savoury butters are: Parsley (Petroselinum crispum),

{Ocimum

Basil

basilicum).

Chives {Allium schoenoprasum), Tarragon

(Artemisia dracunculus), Watercress [Nasturtium

officinale),

folium),

Garlic

Chervil

Mustard

Anthriscus cere-

Capers

(Allium sativum),

(Capparis spinosa), Dill

Horseradish

Anethum

and

armoracia

Cochlearia

[Brassica nigra.

graveolens

Lemon juice and

may also be added. Similarly, store

Rose petals (Rosa spp in butter and spread
on sweet scones for tea. Remember that
ready-prepared dishes stored in the freezer
should be seasoned more lightly than
dishes for immediate consumption. Herbs
and other aromatic seasonings become
more pronounced in flavour during freezsalt

er storage.

USING HERBS IN COOKING

Fines herbes are mixtures of three or four

chopped herbs used

to flavour particular

dishes, the classical

mixture consisting of

Parsley

Petroselinum

(Anthriscus cerefolium

dracunculus

crispum

Chervil

Tarragon

Artemisia

and Chives (Allium

schoeno-

prasum). Fines herbes are used in soups,

and cream cheese.

Herb bouquets are small bunches of
herbs added to food usually only for the
duration of cooking. They can easily be
removed if they are tied together with
white cotton thread or bound in cheesecloth. A bouquet simply consists of a lew
sprigs of Parsley [Petroselinum crispum and
sauces, omelettes

a few Chives

Allium schoenoprasum

(hop-

ped and added to sauces, salads or (ream

A bouquet garni is made of two
two
Parsley stalks Petroselinum crispum

cheese.

sprigs of

Thyme

Thymus

vulgaris

one

Marjoram

of

sprig

(Origanum

onites),

and half a Bay leaf (Laurus

nobilis). Such bouquets may be added to
stocks, soups and stews or put into roastoptional)

Ready-made

ing birds.

sachets of the dried

completely dissimilar tastes, the action of

fermentation producing quite different
flavours.

Whether you plan

to

make

or

teas

you should always pick the herbs

tisanes,

come

into full flower. This

herbs are easily obtainable.

Generally speaking, herbs and spices

just before they

should be used carefully and sparingly.

There are exceptions to this rule; for
example in the use of fresh Dill sprigs

flavour.

Anethum graveolens) in the preparation of

dill-marinaded
salmon when liberal
amounts of the herb bring the best results.
Herbs and spices play a major role in
enhancing rather than overpowering nat-

The range

includes Rosehip, Rosehip and

Hibiscus,

Fennel, Peppermint,

ural food flavours in the various foods

and

which they are added.

The addition of one tablespoon of
chopped fresh herbs usually suffices in a
four-portion dish. Correspondingly less of
the dried herb is used (j to f teaspoon if
coarsely chopped. 5 to 7 teaspoon if
ground This last amount also applies to
ground spices. Freshly ground spices are
more flavoursome than those purchased
ready-ground particularly if they have
been stored for some time. Commercially
prepared freeze-dried herbs, such as
Chives and Dill, are almost the equal of
fresh herbs in colour and flavour. They
are expensive to buy but excellent in
quality. Store at room temperature in welldishes to

sealed containers.

Dried seeds are usually bruised prior

to

will

ensure

Individual

sachets

storage period.

Iu frozen foods die flavours of herbs

storage,

become stronger during

them with discretion in
destined for the freezer. Some

dishes

si.

should

Do

last for

about a year.

10

making

a tisane, as the tannin deposits

inevitably

infuse for three to ten minutes, strain

listed

in

table

the

on pages

HERB TEAS
and

tea

tisane arc often used

synonymously, but the distinction

vital importance. A tea is a drink

is

of

made

adding boiling water to the fermented

leaves and stalks of One or more plants. A
tisane is made by adding boiling water to
the fresh or dried
but unlermented
f>\

normally

plant material

green leaves
Left

Making

The

i/b

resulting drinks have

Thyme, Marjoram and

and

casseroles.

bih cotton thread

bubs

Ibi
i\

,.

00k id.

the form of

Tisanes are drunk without milk. They

can be sweetened with a little sugar or
honey according to taste. Some people

an

to

add a

Among
suitable

little

juice,

and

herbs which are most

those

for

lemon

as well.

use

as

tisanes

are

Lime,

In

ni\ily

to

If tied together

f example,
removed whin the /nod
<

string,

Hibiscus, Chamomile, Lemon Balm, Sage

and Marjoram. Certain herbs, such as
Bergamot and Lemon Balm for example,

need to be boiled for at least a few

minutes to extract the full flavour.
Aromatic seeds may also be used in the
preparation of infusions. They need to be
bruised and crushed and then simmered
gently for at least ten minutes to draw out

Use four teaspoons of

560ml (20 fl oz). Strain and

their full flavour.

seeds to every
serve hot.

Teas
The characteristic

flavour of Tea (includ-

ing herb teas) results from the high tannin

content of the leaves used; the aroma is

not naturally present in the fresh leaves

This makes a delicious addition

leaf.

toups, slews
,,

in

a bouquet garni which

includes Parsley,

Bay

and

serve hot or cold.

Peppermint, Garden Thyme, Rosehip,

90 91.

The terms

it

contain will mar the

delicate flavour of many herbs. Take
about two to three teaspoons of fresh
herbs (or one teaspoon of dried) to each
140ml (5 fl oz). Pour on boiling water,

will

Angelica, Bergamot, Green Buckwheat,

obtain good culinary results, and

are

these

when

not use an ordinary tea-pot

use

herbs, however, must be used in die fresh

si, tie

Chamo-

to

tend

s|)k es

and

to use.

Simply pack the herbs loosely on a wire

rack in the airing cupboard or any other
warm, airy place out of direct sunlight for
about 48 hours. When they are completely dry and brittle, store them in
airtight jars made of dark glass. They

like

recommended

are

teas

Tisanes

sometimes spices

within the

of herb

and Green Buckwheat.

mile,

herbs retain most of the flavour

used

aroma and

and convenient

readily available

use to help to release their flavour. Frozen

if

very best

the

but

is

formed

during

the

process

of

fermentation.

Due

to their high tannin content the

heih teas include Lady's Mantle,
Strawberry, Raspberry, Blackberry and
Rose-bay Willow herb. The leaves should

best

75

HERBS

THE KITCHEN

IN

Angelica leaves
Aniseed
Anise leaves

Bergamot
Borage
Burdock
Caraway

Agrimony

(red)

Celery seed

Chamomile
Clove pinks

G
( flo

rs )

Coltsfoot

Comfrey
Cowslip

Cumin

Dandelion
Dill

Elder flowers

Fennel
Hibiscus

Hops
Hyssop
Jasmine
Lemon Balm
Lime
Lovage
Mate
Marjoram

Mints

Mugwort

Nasturtium

Nettle

Orange-flower

Parsley

Pennyroyal
Peppermint
Primrose
Raspberry leaf

Red Rose petals

Rose-Geranium
Rosehip
Rosemary

Saffron
1

Salad Burnet
Savory

Sage

Sorrel

Sweet Cicely

Tansy

Thyme

Vervain
Violet

76

Watercress
Wild Strawberry

Woodruff
Yarrow

'

SOUPS
Left :

Most people

think ofjust the everyday

Chinese and Indian varieties when making

There are a great number ofplants,

- such as Aniseed, Dandelion,

tea.

however

Lovage and Vervain

refreshing drink.

that can

Many

make a

of them are also

medicinally beneficial, while others possess

cosmetic properties.

Right: Yerba Mate (Tlex paraguariensisj

being gathered in Paraguay. Once gathered,
the leaves are dried on a

wooden frame

placed over afire and then pounded. The

made from the leaves contains both

and tannin. Mate tea should not be
prepared in advance but drunk when freshly
brewed. It is an effective tonic and mild
tea

caffeine

stimulant.

be collected from the time they start to

unfold until they begin to flower. It is
necessary to use large quantities of the
leaves as small amounts will ferment only
with difficulty.

Leave the

fresh leaves in the

shade

for

24 hours. The temperature should

be sufficiently high to make them wilt but
not so high that they dry out. Then bruise
them with a rolling pin, spreading them
out in thin layers. Fold the bruised leaves
in a cloth. Store the cloth in a warm place
3 Fj for 24 to 48 hours;
(20-45 C, 68
12 to

during

this

generate

time the leaves will start to

own

their

Finish

heat.

the

process by drying the leaves in the shade

temperature of not more than 54 C

29F) The tea leaves should be more or
less brown.
Much the best way of producing satisfactory herb teas is by experiment, both
with the fermented leaves of different
plants and with different blends. Take
about one teaspoon of the dried leaves to
Pour on boiling
each 140ml 5 II oz

SOUP DISHES
Gazpacho

water, infuse for 3 to 10 minutes, strain

and serve hot or cold. As with tisanes, a
little

lemon and honey or sugar may be

added.

Some

blends are as

established

Serves 4
half a

Soak the dried peas in cold water overnight. Rinse and drain. Brown the pork or
ham in a heavy saucepan adding a little
oil if the meat is lean. Add the celery and
onion and cook for a few minutes. Add
the cold water, drained peas, ham bone
and the herbs and spices tied in muslin.
Simmer for about 2 hours. Remove the
ham bone and the muslin bag. Taste and

to taste)

3 tablespoons olive oil

tablespoon superfine or castor sugar

4 tablespoons wine vinegar

280ml
25g
salt

10

fl

oz

oz)

tomato

juice

fresh Parsley

adjust the seasoning. Serve sprinkled with

and white peppei

Parsley accompanied by fresh bread.

Peel and dice the vegetables. Gut

cucumber lengthwise and remove
seeds.

mix

sin^

.1

sieve or an electric blender,

with

vegetables

the

the

wine vinegar and a

sugar,

tomato

juice.

Add

the

making sure

sparingly,

the

the

oil

olive

little

Norwegian Caraway Soup

Serves 4

oil,

of the

and vinegar

that the mixture

becomes neither kxj oily nor too sharp.

Pour into a bowl, add the remaining
tomato juice and seasoning to taste. Stir
together and put in the refrigerator.

Blackberry 8 parts
Strawberry 4 parts
Raspberry 2 parts
Peppermint 2 parts
Blackberry 8 parts
Raspberry 4 parts

Thyme

Serve (hilled sprinkled with Parsley.

Pea Soup
Serves 4-8

2 parts

25g
i5g

Rose-bay Willow herb

Raspberry 4 parts

Lime

(flowers

pans

4 Lady's Mantle 8 parts

Raspberry 8 parts

Peppermint 2 parts
All parts by weight

450^
\

parts

y>f
1

dried

diced

7og ib oz)
jog (6 oz)

2l

70

II

oz) butter or margarine

plain flour (unbleached,

(\ oz)

(35 fl oz) good veal stock

225g (8 oz) chopped Caraway leaves
egg yolk
2 tablespoons cream
litre

salt

ground black pepper

4 poached eggs or 2 hard-boiled

eggs,

sliced

lb

OZ

( 1

enriched

3 Blackberry 8 parts

Mace

and pepper
tablespoons chopped Parsley

cucumber

medium-sized onion
green pepper
2-3 large ripe tomatoes
1-2 cloves Garlic (according
1

follows:

whole Allspice

piece blade

salt

at a
( 1

10
1

peas
pork or

salt

(hopped celery
chopped onion

oz) cold

tablespoons finely chopped

Caraway

split

water

ham

leaves

Melt the butter or margarine in a saucepan. Stir in the flour. Gradually add the
Stock, stirring constantly, and bring to the

ham bone

boil.

Bay

gently for 5 to 10 minutes. Beat the egg

yolk and cream together and add a

leaf

6 Parsley stalks

Add

the

Caraway

leaves

and simmer

77

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

spoonful of the soup to this mixture before
pouring it into the rest of the soup. Keep
the soup hot but do not let it boil once the
cream has been added. Taste for seasoning
and adjust if necessary. Garnish each
serving with a poached egg or slices of
hard-boiled egg. Sprinkle with chopped

Caraway

leaves, serve with buttered toast.

Garlic Soup
Serves 6
6 tablespoons whole Garlic cloves
(i oz) butter
tablespoons
olive oil
4
i litre (35 fl oz) chicken stock

25g

3 e gg y lks
salt

pinch Cayenne and ground

Mace

6 rounds French bread (fresh or toasted

2 tablespoons chopped Parsley

Heat
and a
tablespoon of the olive oil over a low heat
for about 15 minutes. Avoid browning the
cloves. Pour on the stock. Bring to the boil
and simmer for 20 minutes.
Peel

the

Garlic

them

in a

heavy pan

cloves

carefully.

in the butter

Beat the egg yolks with a whisk until

Add the rest of the oil drop
by drop. Stir a few spoonfuls of the soup

they thicken.

into the egg-oil mixture,

then add this

the saucepan
Heat but do not boil.
Rub through a sieve into a warmed pan or
tureen. Season to taste and add the spices.
Place a slice of French bread in each
warmed soup bowl and pour the soup
over. Sprinkle with Parsley and serve.

cream. Serve hot or chilled.

Sorrel Soup

MEAT AND POULTRY DISHES

mixture

very

slowly

to

stirring constantly.

3-5 minutes. Stir in the pureed vegetables

and lemon juice. Check seasoning - adjust with a little sugar if preferred. Pour
into bowls and divide the sour cream
between them. Sprinkle Chives on the

Chicken Legs Hunter's Style

450g (1 lb) French Sorrel leaves

450g (1 lb) spinach
50g (2 oz) onion
40g (1^ oz) margarine
40g (i-jr oz) plain flour (unbleached,

Serves 4

225g (8 oz) button mushrooms

50g (2 oz) margarine
small onion
8 chicken legs
2 tablespoons plain flour (unbleached,
1

enriched)
(35 fl oz) chicken stock
black peppercorns and salt
litre

enriched)

lemon juice
oz) sour cream

7 tablespoons dry white wine

420ml (15 fl oz) chicken stock
2 tablespoons tomato puree

2 tablespoons

140 ml (5
finely

fl

snipped Chives

Trim and wash

the Sorrel

and spinach

very thoroughly. Put the leaves into a

large saucepan and cook until tender.
Drain and puree in a blender or rub

through a
onion and

and chop the

fry in the margarine until
softened and clear. Add the flour and stir
to blend. Remove from the heat and stir in
the stock. Return to the heat and bring
to

the

fine sieve.

boil

gently,

^
1

Peel

stirring

Season with pepper and

7

dishes.

chicken legs in the rest of the margarine

until golden brown. Sprinkle the flour
over the chicken and onion and fry

Pour on the wine and stock and

tomato puree, salt, pepper,
Chervil, Thyme and Bay leaf. Cook
gently for 20 minutes or until the chicken
gently.

add

Serves 4-6

Above: Garlic, one of the most popular

kerbs of all. It is most often added to meat

salt.

constantly.

Simmer

for

^
1

teaspoon salt
teaspoon ground black pepper
teaspoon chopped fresh Chervil or
teaspoon dried Chervil
teaspoon chopped fresh Thyme or
teaspoon dried Thyme and 1 Bay leaf
tablespoon finely chopped Parsley

Rinse and chop the mushrooms and fry

in half the margarine in a heavy
saucepan. Lift the mushrooms out of the
pan and fry the chopped onion and the

them

is

the

Add

tender, stirring occasionally.

mushrooms and simmer

for

the

further

couple of minutes. Stir in the Parsley just

before serving. Serve with boiled rice and
haricots verts or a green salad.

Chicken with Rosemary

Serves 4
1

chicken, about ikg (2-25 lb)

25g
1

(1

oz)

margarine

tablespoon chopped Rosemary or

teaspoon dried Rosemary

cream
2 tablespoons tomato puree
pickled cucumber, finely chopped
salt and pepper
200ml

(7

fl

oz) sour

to 425 F (2i5C) or Gas

Divide the chicken into quarters.
Place them in a fireproof dish and brush
them with melted margarine. Season with

Heat the oven

Mark

7.

FISH
Turkish

Lamb

Serves 4

goog

(2 lbs) best

3 large

end of neck of lamb

onions

22<yg (8 oz) carrots

4 fresh or canned tomatoes

1 green pepper
4 diced potatoes
1
teaspoon Fennel or Dill

teaspoon Sage

Bay leaves
2 chopped cloves Garlic
700ml (25 fl oz) stock
2

(2 oz)

50g

lard

flour

and pepper

salt

Melt the lard in a thick pan. Peel and

roughly chop the onions and fry them with
the Garlic until they are golden. Divide
the meat into chops, coat them in
seasoned flour and fry them for a couple of
minutes on each side. Add the carrots,
tomatoes, green pepper, Bay, Sage, Fennel or Dill, stock and seasoning. Cover the
pan, bring to the boil, skim and simmer
for

Add

1 hours.

the diced potatoes

and

chopped onions and Garlic and simmer

for a further

45 minutes.

FISH DISHES
salt,

Pepper and Rosemary. Roast the

in the oven for about 45 minutes
until the meat is thoroughly cooked and
nicely browned. Mix the sour cream,
tomato puree. ( lucumber and seasoning if

Above

chicken

Rosemary, Garlic and Bay leaves

required. Serve the sauce with the chicken

same time masking

accompanied by boiled potatoes and

Goose baked

in a

nay of serving

unusual

moderate oven with

is

an

this bird ; this

combination of herbs brings out to the full

the delicious flavour of the meat, while at the

which tends

to

the slightly fatty taste

be a characteristic of goose.

Chicken may be used instead of goose

salad.

Fish au Poivre Vert

Serves 5

28o~340g (10-12 oz) plaice, flounder or

any white fish fillets, fresh or frozen
7 tablespoons double or whipping cream
7 tablespoons sour cream
2 teaspoons salt

in this

and will

be just as delicious.

Chicken Paprika
Serves

Goulash

Serves
1

25g
25g

()75g

margarine or butter

ozj

(l

oz) lard

chopped or sliced
4 teaspoons Hungarian Paprika
560ml 20 OZ) stock
280ml

10

(1

oz

Sprinkle chic ken pieces with

margarine and lard

<

ream

salt.

Melt the

covered
frying pan. Add onions and cook gentk
until they Stan to brown. Add Paprika
and stock, bring to the boil and add the
in a skillet 01

chicken. Cover pan and simmer until

lender, about 1] hours. Stir the coinlloui
into the sour

Cook gently

cream and
for

few

noi bring to the boil.

made

fillets

under running cold

stir

into

tin

pan.

minutes, but do

This dish can also be

with turkey breasts.

lb

lean stewing beef cut into

shallow pan.

large onions, sliced

dripping
heaped tablespoon Hungarian Paprika

Whip

together the cream,

and herbs and pour the

sauce over the fish. Cover with a lid and
simmer for 5 minutes. Serve with freshly
cooked vegetables and boiled potatoes.
sour cream,

salt

salt

cornstarch)

carton sour

")Og (2 oz)

11

teaspoons cornflour

cubes

3 onions,

frozen

water. Fold them and place them in a

salt
(]

\\ teaspoons chopped Chervil or Parsley

1^ teaspoons chopped Basil

Thaw

or 5 chicken pieces

chopped green peppercorns

\ teaspoons

recipe

teaspoon ( larawa) seeds

teaspoon Marjoram
crushed cloves ol Garlic

stock

55og

Potted Shrimps
Serves 4

225g
(

i^ lb

Fry the onions and Garlic in a casserole

or pan lot a lew minutes in dripping. .Add
the Paprika, salt. Marjoram and Caraua\ seeds and cook briefly. Add the meat
and COVei with stock, (lover the pan and
cook in a slow oven lor at least 3 hours.
Hall an hour before serving add the
potatoes.

(8 oz) freshly

cooked peeled shrimps

(or frozen)

potatoes (optional)
1

iog (4 oz) butter

pinch ground Nutmeg

pinch ground Mace
pinch Cayenne Pepper
salt

Clarify the butter by adding small knobs

of

it

to boiling

When

water

the butter has

in a small
all

saucepan.

dissolved,

remove
79

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

EGG DISHES
Parsley and Garlic Eggs
Serves 2
2

eggs

25g (1 oz) butter

j tablespoon chopped fresh Parsley
1

clove Garlic, chopped

salt

and pepper

Melt half the butter

in a

heavy-bottomed

saucepan. Break the eggs into the butter

and sprinkle with salt and pepper. Leave
over the heat until the whites of the egg
have almost whitened and formed, then
remove. Meanwhile cream the remaining
butter with the Garlic and Parsley and a
pinch of salt and drop this mixture in
small lumps over the eggs. Serve at once.
This is a delicious and unusual dish to
start a

meal.

Herb Omelette
Serves 2
the

pan from the heat and

let

it

cool. Lift

Above

Fennel stalks and leaves make a

off the solid butter, dry the undersurface

delicious vegetable dish, while the seeds are a

on kitchen paper and divide the but to

into two equal portions.
Heat half the butter in a frying pan to-

pungent flavouring.

gether with the spices. Add the peeled

shrimps and toss them in the butter.
Transfer to small pots and allow to cool.
Melt the rest of the butter and pour over
the shrimps to seal them. Chill before
serving with hot toast.

boiled or left-over
[l

sea-bream or porgy, about ikg (2-2|

slices

lb

Bay

fl

oz

fish

fl

oz

vinegar

oil

dry with kitchen paper. Fill the fish

with Fennel sprigs or chopped Fennel
root and place it on a large sheet of
aluminium foil brushed with the oil.
Warm the Pernod, set it alight and pour it
over the fish. Season the fish with salt and
fish

pepper and wrap in the foil parcel and

it on a baking dish. Bake at 350F

place

or

Gas Mark 4
fish

for

30 minutes,

parcel after the

first

15

minutes.

Check that the fish is thoroughly

cooked before serving with boiled potatoes

and a green

sea-bream
haddock.
If

80

is

:s

salt

lemon

fish

stock with the vinegar

lemon and

and the

Pour over the fish

fish
becomes
thoroughly saturated. Refrigerate and
serve with thin slices of brown bread.

and

Gut and scrape the sea-bream thoroughly

to remove the scales. Rinse and pat the

180

peppercorns and' salt

herbs,

black pepper

'

<

salad.

not available use bass or

leave

medium-sized boiled potato

tomatoes
teaspoon chopped Lovage
teaspoon chopped Chives
teaspoon Tarragon

teaspoon Thyme
teaspoon Marjoram
1^ tablespoons olive oil

stock

leaves

3 slices of

up the

salt

turning the

approx 45og

Place the pieces offish in a deep dish. Boil

of Fennel root

2-3 tablespoons olive

4 tablespoons Pernod

fish

lbj

280ml 10
280ml (10

12
i

clove Garlic, chopped

Serves 4

2 Clo\ es

a few sprigs green Fennel or

medium-sized onion

Serves 6

Soused Fish

4 Fennel lea\

Sea-Bream (Porgy) with Fennel

4 large eggs

so

salt.

that

the

and pepper

Roughly chop the onion, Garlic, potato

and tomatoes. Heat the oil in a frying pan
and gently fry the onion and Garlic until
soft. Add the tomatoes and potato and
few minutes. Break the eggs into
and beat them, adding the
herbs according to taste and season. Mix
quickly with the vegetables in the pan and

cook

for a

a mixing bowl

cook until the underside is setting. Then

finish the omelette under a hot grill.

Pickled Mackerel

Oregano Flan

Serves 4

Serves 4

4 mackerel

280ml (10 fl oz) malt or

140ml (5 fl oz) water
6

Bay

teaspoon Allspice

salt

distilled

vinegar

leaves

and pepper

12 peppercorns

Clean and wash the fish and remove the

bones. Place in a baking dish, sprinkle
with salt and pepper, add Bay leaves,
peppercorns, Allspice, vinegar and water.
Bake in a cool oven for about an hour.
Allow the fish to cool and serve in the
liquor.

Pastry
i40g (5 oz) whole wheat flour

70g (2^ oz) mixed

fats

(butter or

margarine and lard)

salt

Filling

x 400g (14 oz) can Italian peeled

tomatoes
grated Cheddar cheese
1 iog ^4 oz
1
small can anchovies
50g (2 oz) black Olives
6 teaspoons chopped fresh Oregano or
2 teaspoons dried Oregano
1

VEGETABLES AND SALADS

whole wheat flour, salt and fats
bowl, adding water to make
the pastry lightly and
Knead
a stiff dough.
chill for 15 minutes. Roll the mixture out
on a pastry board and cover the base and
sides of a flan case with it. Drain the
tomatoes and chop all but one in half.
Place the whole tomato in the centre of
the case and distribute the halves throughout the case. Drain the anchovies and lay
them like the spokes of a wheel across the

Mix

the

together in a

case.

Scatter

the

cheese,

Olives

and

Bake for 45 minminutes at 400"

(200C) or Mark 6. For the last 30 minC
utes lower the heat to 350 F (i8oC) or
Ores^ano over the

utes,

Mark

the

for

first

15

Rosmarino

lb

spaghetti

the

pan of
water. Meanwhile, melt

spaghetti

salted

in

large

the butter in another pan. If dried Rose-

mary

is

leaves

25mm

(i

in)

Cinnamon

stick

VEGETABLES AND SALADS

4 peppercorns
4 crushed Cardamom seeds
20-30 blanched almonds

Aubergines (Eggplants) with Herbs

Serves 4

20-30 sultanas (or raisins

50-85g (2-3 oz) butter
2
2

tablespoons cooking

teaspoons

salt

(less

4 aubergines (eggplants)
3 slices of streaky bacon

oil
if

salted butter

is

used, fry

it

gently in the butter for

a minute or two. Drain the spaghetti well

and toss it thoroughly in the Rosemary

and melted butter before serving.

and

\\

560ml (20

j teaspoon of dried Basil and Marjoram

fl

monds and

Add

4 tablespoons olive
salt and pepper

When
and

stirring to prevent

it

Then add

it

has melted add

fry for

a few minutes,

Wash
two

Basil

oil

but do not peel the aubergines. Cut

lengthwise in each. Chop the

slits

mix with herbs, pepper and salt.

Dice the bacon and fill the slits in the
aubergine with bacon and Garlic. Pour
the oil over the vegetable. Bake slowly in
a shallow, covered dish for 1 hour.
Garlic,

sticking to the base of

and
and reduce the
heat to just above the minimum. Cover
the pan and let it simmer for 5 to 10
minutes. The water will evaporate and

Below: Spring

the rice will cook without being stirred or

following two pages.

the pan.

fresh

or

mixed

sultanas for a few minutes.

the butter.

chopped

teaspoons

Marjoram mixed

oz) water

the drained rice

the water, salt

sugar. Bring to the boil

.V>*
'

2 small cloves Garlic

used
2 teaspoons sugar

iog (4 oz) butter

boiling,

Bay

4 Cloves

the rice and soak in cold water for

about
hour. Heat the oil in a thick
saucepan and fry the Bay leaves. Gloves,
Cinnamon, peppercorns, Cardamom, al-

6 tablespoons chopped fresh Rosemary or

2 tablespoons of dried Rosemary

Cook

rice

Wash

Serves 4
('

during the first 5 minutes. Decorate the

with slices of tomato, hard-boiled
egg or fried onions

rice

onions
hard-boiled eggs
tomatoes

PASTA DISHES

45g

disturbed in any way. Test the rice by

eating a few grains, but do not lift the pan
lid

(1 lb)

450g

flan.

4.

Spaghetti

Herb Rice
Serves 4

herbs

to taste

Summer

Risotto, an Italian dish with

such as Basil, Oregano

and

Savory.

Overleaf: You can select suitable herbs for

each dish you cook from the chart on the

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

Alcoholic beverages

Apples

o o

Apricots

Artichokes, globe

Artichokes. Jerusalem

Asparagus
Baked goods
Beans. Broad

Beef

Beetroots
Brussels sprouts

Carrots

Citrus fruits

Cocoa
Coffee

Dairy foods

Eggs

Fish

Game

Lamb
Marinades
Mayonnaise
Onions
Pasta sauces
Peaches

Pears

o
o

Gooseberries

Peas

Pickles

Pork

o
o

Potatoes

Poultry

Salads

Spinach

Stews

Swedes (Rutabagas)
Sweet sauces
Tomatoes

rice

Tea

Salad dressing

Soups

Pumpkins
Rhubarb

o o

Turnips

O indicates herb must be used fresh %

82

Currants

Veal
Vinegars

Chocolate

Condiments
Cream
Cucumbers

Cherries

Cabbages

Beans, French

Savoury

indicates herb

may be used

fresh or dried

and sometimes candied

SELECTING YOUR HERBS

Artichokes. Globe
Artichokes. Jerusalem

Asparagus
Baked goods

Apples

Beans. Broad

Beans, French
Beef

Beetroots

Brussels sprouts

Alcoholic beverages
Apricots

Cabbages

Carrots

Cherries

Chocolate

Citrus fruits

Cocoa
Coffee

Condiments
Cream
Cucumbers

Dairy foods

Currants

o
[ o o

i

Eggs

Fish

Game
Gooseberries

Lamb

Marinades

Mayonnaise
Onions

Pasta sauces

Peaches
Pears

Peas

Pickles

Pork

Potatoes
Poultry

Pumpkins
Rhubarb

oo

o
o o

Stews

Swedes (Rutabagas)
Sweet sauces

rice

Soups
Spinach

Salads

Savoury

Salad dressing

Tea

Tomatoes
Turnips

Veal

Vinegars

83

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

Cinnamon Spinach

and cook briefly. Pour the wine into the

pan and cook slowly until the mixture is
bubbling gently. Peel and roughly chop
the tomatoes, wash the mushrooms and
halve them if they are the field variety

Serves 4

2kg (4^ lb) spinach

50g (2 oz) butter
a\ tablespoonfuls cream

(button ones can be

Cinnamon

the Parsley stems.

salt

whole).

Chop

mushrooms,
Parsley stalks and a
the

tomatoes, Bay leaves,

sprinkling of Thyme to the mixture in the

sugar

lemon rind

Trim and prepare

the spinach

and wash

several times in a lot of cold water. Place

saucepan with very

in a

left

Add

water and
minutes until

little

salt to taste. Boil for 5 to 10

pan and cook uncovered for about 15

minutes. The mushrooms and carrot
should be tender but
refrigerator

still

and serve

Put in the

crisp.

slightly

chilled,

Horseradish Sauce
25g (1 oz) Horseradish
140ml (5 fl oz) double or whipping cream
pepper and salt
prepared English Mustard
vinegar
superfine or castor sugar

Wash,
Whisk

and grate the Horseradish.

cream lightly. Fold the Horseinto the cream and add the

peel

the

radish

seasonings, sparingly, to taste. Serve, with

boiled

fish, beef,

tongue or

sprinkled with finely chopped Parsley.

cheeses such as

Mint and Grapefruit Cocktail

Poppyseed Sauce

as a garnish to

Edam.

tender.

Strain

of water.

and press the spinach until free

Over a low flame, melt the

Add

butter in a frying pan.

the cream, a

salt and Cinnamon to

and a teaspoon of grated lemon
To this add the spinach and stir

pinch of sugar and

taste,

rind.

Serves 4

well. Serve at once.

3 fresh grapefruits

chopped

Sweet and Sour Tomato Salad

the grapefruit into small segments

in a bowl. Add a little gin, about

tablespoon will be sufficient. Sprinkle
with chopped mint and serve chilled. This
makes a delicious hors d'oeuvre.

medium-sized onion

Herb Dredge

malt or distilled vinegar

2 tablespoons granulated sugar
water

Franco's Dip

Wash and

and place in a
chopped onion. Add
of freshly chopped Chives and

dice the tomatoes

bowl with the

a lew sprigs

finely

a few torn Basil leaves. Prepare the dres-

combining equal parts of vinegar

and hot water with the sugar. Pour over

sing by

the tomatoes, sprinkle very lightly with

freshly milled black

bunches of Parsley, chopped

\ medium-sized red pepper, cleaned and
chopped
a small can of anchovy fillets, drained and
chopped
2 large

ground black pepper

freshly

pepper and place

in

breadcrumbs
vinegar or lemon juice
fresh

Chop

olive

Mushrooms
lb)

(1

a la Grecque

fairly

large onion

large carrot

and an-

Add enough
oil and breadcrumbs to make a
stiff 'dip'. Then add a very small
together thoroughly.

amount of vinegar or lemon juice but not

to make it tart. Season to taste.

mushrooms

the Parsley, red pepper,

chovies as finely as possible, and then mix

all

enough

2-3 dozen Coriander seeds (according

This is delicious eaten with really good

old fashioned home-baked bread. Don't
to

leaves

black pepper

280ml
140ml

Chop

\o

(5

fl

fl

oz) white

wine

oz) olive oil

the onion finely

the olive oil until

it

is

lightly fry in

beginning to turn

golden. Dice the carrot and add

it

to the

onion, frying for a further 5 minutes. Add

the salt, black pepper and Coriander seeds
84

tablespoon lemon juice

5 teaspoon salt

and

Grind the Fennel and Coriander seeds

and mix together with the Cinnamon and
sugar to taste. Add a few breadcrumbs and
a very

j teaspoon Basil

Mix

a pestle and mortar. Use in sandwiches or

or meat.

Score the side of a joint

this seasoning in

lamb and rub

before roasting.
A'ioli

Provencal Garlic Mayonnaise

4-6 Garlic cloves

ground black pepper
teaspoon

salt

French Mustard

y lks

wine vinegar or lemon juice

Pound

the Garlic cloves with a pestle in a

mortar together with the Pepper, salt and

Mustard until smooth. Add the egg yolks
and mix well. Add the oil, drop by drop at
first. If the sauce becomes too thick add a
vinegar or lemon juice or a teaspoon of hot water. When the aioli has
reached a firm consistency pour it into a
bowl and serve chilled with fresh vegetlittle

the ingredients in a blender or with

on hot French bread or with

little flour.

of pork or

olive oil

iog (4 oz) butter or margarine

3 tablespoons finely chopped celery leaves
3 tablespoons finely chopped Chives or
spring onion greens
1

salt

flour

3 e gg

Herb Butter

Thyme

breadcrumbs

2 teaspoons

sprigs Parsley

3 large tomatoes

Cinnamon
sugar

put butter on the bread.

taste)

Bay

Fennel seeds
Coriander seeds

(quantities to taste)

olive oil

them

the refrigerator. Serve slightly chilled.

3-4

Mix the ingredients in a small heavy

saucepan over a gentle heat. Serve as an
accompaniment to hot cooked carrots,

SAUCES AND DRESSINGS

Basil

or 3

pinch Paprika
\ teaspoon salt

cauliflower or peas.

Chives

chopped Marjoram or

Thyme

Mint

6 tomatoes

450g

and place

Serves 4

fresh

5 teaspoon freshly

gin to taste

Chop

(2 oz) butter or margarine, melted

teaspoons Poppyseeds
tablespoon lemon juice

50g

400g (14 oz) can grapefruit segments or

grilled fish

ables, eggs or fish.

SAUCES AND DRESSINGS

Forcemeat

Herb Sauce
i

tablespoon of grated Horseradish

2 finely

chopped

shallots

a few sprigs each (or

Winter Savory,
Tarragon.

Basil,

teaspoon of dried)

Marjoram, Thyme,

6 Cloves
thinly peeled rind

280ml (10
560ml (20

Wash

and juice of

fl

oz) strong vinegar

fl

oz)

lemon

and remove

stalks

from the herbs. Put all the ingredients into

saucepan and simmer gently for 20
minutes. Strain. When quite cold pour
into bottles for storing.

Make

The

Garlic, black

of

artichokes, tomatoes,

and green

all

the dry ingredients together.

Add

egg and enough milk to moisten. Season

with salt and pepper. This is suitable for
pork, duck or veal.

Mustard Dressing

traditional ingredients

Provencal cooking

Mix

and pepper

sure they

are securely corked.

e gg

salt

Below

milk

water

the Horseradish

4 tablespoons grated suet

8 tablespoons white breadcrumbs
2 teaspoons chopped Parsley
teaspoon powdered mixed herbs
1
\ teaspoon Nutmeg
\ teaspoon grated lemon rind

olives, olive oil,

Parsley and wine and, of course, a variety of

aromatic flavouring herbs including

Marjoram, Basil and Bay.

i\ tablespoons olive or cooking oil

2j teaspoons dry English Mustard
juice of j

Add

lemon

Mustard to the oil, beating until

all the lumps have vanished. Add the
lemon juice and mix thoroughly. The
the

Above: Basil

leaves provide one of the most

distinctive flavours.

ingredients of this dressing can be varied

according

to taste. It

is

especially tasty on

a salad of lettuce alone.

Sage and Onion Stuffing

3

medium-sized onions

10 Sage leaves
1

iog (4 oz) breadcrumbs

40g 1^ oz) margarine or dripping

egg yolk
salt and pepper
(

Peel the onions, put into boiling water

and simmer for 10 minutes. Just before

you take the onions out, put the Sage
leaves in for \ minute. Chop the onion
and Sage leaves very finely and then add

the breadcrumbs, seasoning,

or dripping,

and egg

yolk.

Mix

margarine
together.

Pesto
Basil,

washed and

Cheddar

cheese, finely

3-5 small bunches

dried

25g

oz) strong

fi

grated

25g
25g

(1

oz)

50ml

Parmesan cheese,

finely grated

oz) Pine mils

1
I

(2

fl

oz) olive oil

of Garlic, finely chopped

pinch of salt

2 (loves

Chop
(lie
(

lombine

oil.

Let

PestO

Crush
and mortar.

(he Basil into very fine pieces.

Pine

is

nuts in a

pestle

the ingredients with the olive

stand for 2 hours before using.
used as a sauce with spaghetti.
all

it

85

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

Left

Gathered from

-from

the plant

the

hedgerows, rosehips

Rose - can be used

Dog

make a tasty dessert soup,

syrup and rosehip wine.

to

Gooseberry Fool
Serves 4

as well as rosehip

gooseberries

(1 lb)

450g

6 tablespoons water
2

Elder flewer Fritters

i7og (6 oz) plain flour (unbleached,

enriched)

25g
2

280ml (10

tablespoons vegetable

140ml

oil

to

white wine (or

cider) vinegar for use in salad dressings

and marinades. Pour the warmed vinegar

onto the chosen herbs (560ml or 20 fl oz
vinegar to 8 tablespoons herbs). Cover the
container and allow to infuse for 14 days
in a warm place. If the flavour is strong
enough, strain the vinegar, bring to the

140ml

(5

oil for

frying

oz)

fl

lukewarm water

of the

and

Dip the flower-heads

hot

ing sprig of the appropriate fresh herb.

Rosehip Soup

Cap

Serves 6 -8

in

cool

place.

fused.

Use

14-Og

Garlic cloves to

(5
il

oz)
(35

peeled,
fl

ozi

bruised

hot white

wine vinegar. Cloves, peppercorns and

Caraway
after

seeds

may

also be

added. Strain

one week.

Christmas Day Pudding

Serves 4
pkt raspberry- jelly (3 oz pkt gelatin
(2 oz) crystallized Ginger

50g

iog (4 oz) glace cherries

1 iog (4 oz) well-drained pineapple pieces
i70g (6 oz) mixed dried fruit

chopped walnuts
Cinnamon and Nutmeg
whipped cream
(2 oz)

Soak the dried fruit in orange juice and a

water overnight. Make the jelly with

little

of hot water.

Chop

Ginger and soak it in a little hot water

for 5 minutes. As the jelly is about to set,
pour the dried fruit and orange juice, pinethe

a tiny sprig of fresh Mint.

BREAD AND CAKES

kg (25

(8 oz) each whole wheat and plain

white unbleached, enriched flours
iog (5 oz) lard, rubbed in

3 litres

Rosehips
(105 fl ozi water
lb)

cornstarch

50g (2 02 cornflour
25g (1 oz) almonds
sugar

2 teaspoons

salt

and sugar

If possible, collect the Rosehips following

an overnight frost. They should be well
ripened and have a good red colour. Trim
off the stalks and rinse the Rosehips
thoroughly. Simmer the hips for a couple
of hours in the water, strain and return the

liquor to the heat.

Cream

each

teaspoon Dill seed

2 teaspoons chopped fresh Savory or
teaspoon dried Savory
teaspoon chopped fresh Dill weed or
teaspoon
dried Dill weed
j
1

cream

Add

sugar to

the cornflour with a

water then whisk

it

Cook

constantly.

little

taste.

cold

into the soup, beating

for

to

minutes.

Scald the almonds and remove the skins.

Slice the nuts lengthwise and add to the
soup. Serve with cream and sweet rusks.

5g (j ozj fresh yeast or

2 teaspoons dried yeast
280ml (10 fl ozj warm water
1

To make
the

the

dough with

mix
and sugar

fresh yeast,

herbs,

lard,

flours,

salt

together in a bowl. Blend yeast in the

all at once. Mix to a soft
dough (adding more blended

water and add

scone-like
flour

if

necessary so that

it

leaves the

bowl

clean.

To make

the

dough with dried

dissolve a teaspoon of the sugar in a

Ginger Jelly

yeast

on

Serves 4

until

frothy.

water

to the flours,

pkt lime jelly (3 oz pkt gelatin

4 to 6 pieces Ginger preserved in syrup,

lard, herbs, salt

top.

and
and sprinkle with Cinnamon
and Nutmeg. Wet a mould and turn the
jelly into it. Chill and serve with cream.

Leave

Add

drained and sliced

Reconstitute the jelly according to the
instructions on the packet and allow to

When

cool.

sherry into

and leave

86

(1^ lb)

225g
1

apple, walnuts, Ginger, glace cherries

it

Ginger. Pour
and decorate each with

into chilled glasses

amount

cold fold in the cream

crystallized

yeast,

cup of

the hand-hot water. Sprinkle the dried

4 tablespoons medium dry sherry

can unsweetened orange juice

half the usual

electric blender. Stir in

When

and chopped

50g

an

in

the custard.

Makes about 675g

sweet rusks

DESSERTS

into the batter

and puree

Whole Wheat Herb Bread

Popular vinegars include French Tarragon, Basil, Thyme, Marjoram, Rosemary

Mint and Sage. Garlic may also be in-

the

Rinse the gooseberries. Simmer gently

with the water in a heavy, partially
covered pan with the chopped Mint and
peeled, chopped green Ginger. Stir in the
sugar. Rub through a nylon sieve or cool

oil.

castor sugar.

store

melted
beaten white of
in

Drain on kitchen paper.

Serve immediately sprinkled lightly with
try in

and pour into suitable hot, sterilized

bottles, adding a decorative and identify-

and

parb

Mix

water.

boil

tightly

(flat

butter. Fold in the stiffly

egg.

whipping cream,

4 young Mint sprigs

Place the flour and salt in a mixing bowl.

Put the egg yolk in the centre and a little
of the water. Mix to a batter with a wooden spoon or fork, gradually adding the
rest

eggs and Vanilla sugar

oz) double or

fl

4 pieces crystallized Ginger, chopped

Elder flower-heads

Herb Vinegars

(5

whipped

salt

egg, separated

superfine or castor sugar

Most herbs can be added

oz) custard sauce (preferably

fl

made with

oz) melted butter

(1

pinch

tablespoons chopped Mint

piece fresh green Ginger
iog (4 oz; sugar

almost

set, stir in

the

Ginger

ly

rest

of the sugar.
light-

floured board. Half-fill two well-greased

loaf

tins.

(The inside of the pots may be

sprinkled with cracked wheat after greas-

Serve chilled, decorated with whipped

cream and

dough

crystallized Violets.

and the

Mix to a soft scone-like dough.

Knead the dough thoroughly on a

Place the
polythene bag,

in a cold place until fully set.

for about 10 minutes

with the rest of the
containing rubbed-in

ing.)

tins inside a large, oiled

tie

to rise until

loosely
it

and allow the

doubles

in

volume.

BREAD AND CAKES

Remove

bag. Bake on the middle shelf of a

hot oven at 450F (230C) or Gas

for

Mark

30 to 40 minutes. Serve hot with soup

or salad

and cheese.

Above

Freshly baked bread decorated with

Sesame

seeds.

Sesame seeds may also be used

in

combination with Cinnamon, for example,

to

flavour bread.

Many

other herbs can be

dough. Spread the mixture out in the prepared tin and level the top. Sprinkle evenly with topping. Bake at 400F (200C) or
Gas Mark 6 for approximately hour.
1

used as a flavouring, notably Garlic with or

Gingerbread
1

without some finely chopped green herbs such

as Parsley.

iog (4 oz) margarine

i70g (6 oz) black treacle

50g (2 oz) golden syrup

Cardamom Cake

140ml

fresh

breadcrumbs

340g

(12 oz) self-raising flour

(5

fl

oz) milk

eggs

225g

(8 oz) plain flour

(unbleached,

enriched)

(2 oz) sugar
teaspoon mixed spice
tablespoon ground Ginger
teaspoon bicarbonate of soda

This quantity

is

teaspoon baking powder

(7 oz)

3 teaspoons

granulated sugar

ground Cardamom or Cinna-

mon
1

suitable for the following

joml

90ml

(5

(3

fl

fl

oz

cream

tins;

oz) milk

the size of the tin.

i5g

(j oz) plain flour

almonds

(1

oz) flaked

(1

oz) granulated sugar

teaspoons

(unbleached,

enriched)

140ml

(5

fl

oz) milk

teaspoon Garlic salt

1

optional

teaspoon Poppyseeds

salt

and pepper

Grease and flour a 20cm

Roll

out

the

floured board to

(8 in)

sandwich

dough on a

fit

the

tin.

lightly

Place in the

cover with a lightly oiled polythene

bag and allow to rise until double in size
(30-45 minutes at room temperature).
tin,

Topping
25g
25g

225g (8 oz) white bread dough

225g (8 oz) onions, peeled and sliced
50g (2 oz) butter or margarine

tin.

18cm

(7 in) or 20cm (8 in) round cake

two 18cm (7 in; square tins, 2.5cm
deep; two 18cm (7 in) loaf tins.
(1 in
Using a large saucepan, warm together
the margarine, treacle and syrup. Add
milk and allow to cool. Beat eggs and
blend with cooled mixture. Sieve dry
ingredients into a bowl, add the cooled
mixture and blend with a tablespoon.
Turn into prepared tins and bake on the
middle shelf of a slow oven 300 F I50C)
0T Gas Mark 2 for i hours depending on

tins:

level

iog (4 oz) butter or margarine

200g

50g
1

Onion Kiichen

Cinnamon

Grease a qoog (2 lb) loaf tin and line with

fresh breadcrumbs. Mix the flour and
baking powder together. Cut the butter or
margarine into the flour and rub in with
the fingertips until the mixture resembles
fine breadcrumbs. Mix in the sugar and
Cardamom. Add the cream and milk and
Stir well until the mixture forms a stiff

Cook

the

margarine

in

onions

Stir in the flour

Add

the

in

the

butter

or

a saucepan until just tender.

milk

stirring, boil for

and cook for one minute.

and bring to the boil
1

minute. Stir

in the salt,

pepper and Garlic salt. Spoon the onion

mixture onto the risen dough base and
sprinkle with Poppyseeds. Bake on the
middle shelf of the oven at 375F (io,oC)
or

Gas Mark

5 for 30 minutes.

87

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

Garlic Bread
i

French

85g

stick or

Vienna loaf
creamed with

Soaking

Beaume

Balling

Herb and spice sugars

Time

Reading

Reading

hours
hours
hours
hours
hours

25
27
28

46
50

Vanilla sugar is made by inserting a piece

of Vanilla pod into a jar of superfine or

30
32

da Y s

35

65

for use in

24
24
24
24
24

1-2

butter

ozj

^3

Day

cloves Garlic
3

and chunkily,
leaving the base layer intact. Spread both
sides of each slice with the creamed garlic
butter. Spread garlic butter over the
Slice

the loaf obliquely

crust of the loaf.

Wrap

the loaf in alu-

foil and heat in the oven at 400F

(200C) or Gas Mark 6 for 10 minutes.
Serve this delicious bread crusty and hot
either with soups, cheese or salads.

minium

castor sugar. Seal the jar during storage.

It

55

cakes and

60

and

Remove and

drain the Angelica (Angelica

beverages

Store in covered jars in a cool

5.

added

their original

syrup

petals into jars. Cool

boiled to soft ball

is

sugar

280ml (10

to

Use 450g

fl

oz)

lb)

of

Add

water.

a few of the leaves or the (lowers at a

time and boil (at 234F or 94C) for one

minute. Drain using a frying spoon and
transfer to a tray covered with aluminium
foil. Allow to dry thoroughly in a warm

atmosphere such

more than
Markf).
(not

as a barely

iooF

1.

taining the bruised herbs, spices or flower

col-

warm oven

(38 C)

or

Gas

warm

following

brief

list

This method requires the use of a hydrometer. Use green tender young stems
picked in April or May. Trim the stems
and cut them intofemr (3 in) lengths.

Soak for
and boil

15 minutes in cold water. Rinse

water for 5 to 10 minutes,

Drain and scrape off the
outer skin. Prepare a syrup by boiling
450g (1 lb) of sugar with 560ml 120 fl oz
of water. (If you use a Beaume hydrometer, the strength should be 25, or 46
until

when

in

tender.

Balling or Brix hydrometer

is

Grange in his book The

Book of Home Food Preservation

Cyril

used.)

Complete

prescribes the following eight-

Cassell)

day sugar-boiling programme for Angelica. Each day more sugar is added and the
syrup

is

boiled to the prescribed degree of

strength,

and the stems are soaked

prescribed time.

88

lor the

gives

possible additions to honey:

in

The

few of the

Lemon Balm

Monarda
Bergamot
officinalis,
Borage Borago officinalis CardaCinnamon
Elettaria cardamomum,

mom

(irmamomum zeylanicumu
gium aromaticum
sat/nun
Fennel
.

Cloves

Coriander

Syzy-

[Coriandrum

Foeniculum vulgare

Gin-

ger (Zingiber officinale .Mints Mentha spp

Rose
\Papaver somniferum
petals (Rosa spp
Sage (Salvia officinalis

Poppyseeds

>,

Savory (Satureia hortensis), Sesame seeds

Sesamum indicum), and Thyme (Thymus
vulgaris

(left)

and Cinnamon

of their
It is

specific

surprising to

how many of the drinks

most and reserve

for

that

special

we
oc-

although they may not always be immediately identifiable. Some of the most
popular alcoholic drinks, ranging from
sweet mead to mulled wines and exotic
liqueurs,

derive

their

special

qualities

American iced juleps are made of

bourbon whisky, sugar, Mint sprigs and
ice and American cobblers and coolers are
similarly flavoured with pleasantly additive herbs.

Pimms No.

is

decorated with

Borage
officinalis and Mint
Mentha spp
Spices such as Cinnamon
sticks (Cinnamomum zeylanicum), Cloves [Sysprigs (Borago
.

zygium aromaticum
tana cardamomum

1,

Cardamom

seeds (Ele-

and

sometimes root
Ginger (Zingiber officinale are added to
mulled red wines and Swedish gldgg.

Many
Below: Coriander

much

with

from herbal additives.

Melissa
didyma

istic

aperitif

wines owe their character-

flavours to herbs.

(right) plants. Both of these herbs can be

misia absinthium

used for flavouring hone) and mulled nine.

Coriander and Cinnamon have both been used

anisum

for thousands ofyears.

Candied Angelica

and cover. Stand

place for one week before use.

sugar

casions owe their desirable taste and

smell to the judicious use of certain herbs -

and

and newly opened

flowers or buds should be good specimens
young and unblemished. A sugarboiling thermometer is a useful aid in
candying.

may be
warmed honey clover or orange
blossom
Pour the warmed honey conBruised fresh herbs and spices

delicious

leaves, stems

stage (234F or 94C).

prize

to

in

Herbs have always provided alcoholic

flavour and properties.

Additional

ouring and flavouring can occasionally be

added, and the crystallized, as opposed to
the candied, forms are encrusted with a
surface layer of fine sugar crystals.

can be infused

for use in fruit dishes.

Mark

The leaves, stems, Mowers and buds of

many herbs and fragrant flowers can be

The

puddings. Sprigs of Lemon Balm

officinalis

realize just

attractively preserved using sugar syrups

be mixed with sugar

HERBS IN ALCOHOL

Herb honeys

and then dried to retain

colour and shape making

Ground Cinnamon

biscuits.

Cardamom may

archangelica stems on a wire cake tray. Dry

on foil-covered baking trays in a barely
warm oven at about 100 F 38 C or

HERB AND FLOWER

CONFECTIONS

confections.

is

(Melissa

dark cupboard.

decorative

delicious in ice cream, egg custard,

51

is

Wormwood

(Arte-

used in vermouth and

Anise (Pimpinella
Pernod, bitter herbs in Campari, and globe artichokes (Cynara scolyabsinthe

in

production,

HERB WINES
Mead

mus) are used in Italian Cynar.

is

flavoured with herbs such as Rosemary

[Rosmarinus officinalis and spices such as
i

zeylanicum),
(Cinnamomum
Cinnamon
Nutmeg (Myristica jragrans
Mace,
.

Transfer to a cold place for a further two

days. Strain and bottle using robust
flasks. Screw the tops down firmly only
when fermentation has ceased. Store for

about one week only.

not a brew for

It is

long storage.

with herbs. Creme de Menthe, for example, is flavoured with Mint oils (Men-

Mrs Tritton's Dandelion Beer

Kiimmel is Cumin [Cuminum

cyminum) and Caraway flavoured (Carum
carvi) and Green Chartreuse may contain
over one hundred different plant flavours.
spp

Aquavit

[Cuminum

Cumin-flavoured

is

cyminum) and gin

is

flavoured with Juniper

Juniperus communis).

Dandelion plants with taproot

demerara or light brown sugar
i5g (j oz) crushed root Ginger
juice of 2 lemons
liquid ale yeast

water

to 4.5I

berry leaves

Rubus

idaeus

Chamomile

nobile
Burdock Arctium
and leaves, Betony \Stachys
Agrimony Agnmoma eupatona

(Chamaemelum

root

lappa)

officinalis.,

Dandelion
Nettles

(Taraxacum

(Urtica

officinale)

Hops

dioica\,

leaves,

[Humulus

lupulus, Dock Rumex crispus< and Horehound Marrubium vulgare) leaves. Ground
(

Ginger Zingiber
<

Botanic Beer
50g
50g
50g
50g
25g

typical

sugar.

then bottle.

Allow

Meadowsweet

(2 ozj

Agrimony

(2 ozj

Raspberry leaves
Hyssop

oz)
2!

SUgai

11)

litres (2 galls

water

ale yeast
Boil the leaves in the
utes. Strain.

add a

Add

water

the sugar.

ale yeast

little

and

15

min-

When

tepid

for

herb wine-makers task since

equipment for fermentation and storage
is readily available. A wide range of plant
material may be used in herb winemaking such as Cowslip flowers (Primula

and bring

Simmer

nale

offici-

Elder flowers (Sambucus nigra Com(Symphytum officinale

Coltsfoot

for

the boil, adding the

about

10

minutes.

Decant into a
Add the lemon juice

to cool until tepid.

flask.

yeast. Stir to mix. Bottle after four

Marigold Wine
2.3I (4 pts)

flowers

Marigold flowers

2 oranges

lemon

1.4kg 13 lb) sugar

root

frey

to

months, tying the corks down.

Dandelion flowers (Taraxacum

veris),

4.5I

(i

gall)

water

Tussilago farfara

Lemon Balm

Rosemary

I5g (j oz) baker's yeast

Rose petals (Rosa spp

RhuRheum rhabarbarum
Burnet Poterium sanguisorba and Bramble tips. Note
that measurements in wine-making are
usually by volume. Do not press the herbs
down in the jug but firm them by
'bumping' the jug once or twice.

Put the flowers, the thinly pared orange

and lemon rinds and the juice of the
orange and lemon into a large bowl.
Pour on the water which has been brought
to the boil with the sugar. Allow to cool.
Add the yeast. Stir thoroughly, cover and
leave in a warm place for one week.
Strain into a fermentation jar, cover and
leave in a warm place until fermentation

Dandelion Wine

ceases. Store in a cool place for three to

Melissa

officinalis

(Rosmarinus
|,

four weeks before bottling.

Dandelion (lowers
4.3I
gall water
2 large oranges
pts

2.3I

bottle.

large

lemon

V>g (2 oz) raisins

2

Stir

Nettle Beer

facili-

stir.

the

tates

home wine-making

and

leave for three days, stirring occasionally.

and
in

barb

Betony

(1

The upsurge

Pour on
Cover and

into a large bowl.

fermentation

Herb wines

officinalis).

(2 oz)

Put the flower-heads and thinly peeled

washed roots in some of the water,

and add the rest of the ingredients.
Ferment until most of the sugar has gone,

recipe for

is:

(2 oz)

.2kg

often used to

officinale) is

flavour the brew.

of tartaric acid will suffice).

the boiling water

Boil the

i5g (\ oz) yeast (preferably champagne

activated two days before being
added, but baker's yeast creamed with
some of the sweetened must and a pinch

lemon rinds

gall)

cool

Alcoholic beverages
Herb beers and ales can provide the
amateur beer-maker with new experimental lines based on herbs such as
Meadowsweet [Filipendula ulmana Rasp-

water

yeast

lb)

( 1

(tightly

'4 k g (3 Ib ) su g ar

(8 oz)

225g
450g

560ml (1 pt) Elder flower-heads

packed into the measure)
2 lemons
4.5I (1 gall) boiling

Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum and Ginger

(Zingiber officinales Liqueurs are flavoured

tha

Elder flower Wine

kg (i\ lb) young Nettles

tops onl\

1.

tablespoons ye, 1st

6kg

(3^ lb

sugar

lemons
Put the flowers into the water in a large

teaspoon ground Ginger

4.5I

water
demerara or light brown sugar
cream of tartar

gall)

fi

45<>g

lb

25g <i oz)

20g (\ oz) fresh baker's yeast or
teaspoon dried yeast
1

Bring the rinsed Nettle tops, the peel

lemon and the Ginger

water

in

large

pan.

ol

the

pan and bring to the boil. Add the orange

and lemon rinds and sugar and boil for
one hour. Strain, cool until tepid then add
the yeast. Next day add the orange and
lemon juices and raisins. Bottle. Cork
loosely about a month later when fermentation has ceased.

*'

to the boil in the

Simmer

lor

20

Right: Elder flowers

minutes, strain onto the sugar and (ream

another large (lean vessel. Stir
and allow to cool. Add the lemon juice

variety

and yeast. Covei with linen tea towels and

have in a warm place lor three days.

garnishing.

ol tartar in

in the wild.

Overleaf: The chart shows the tremendou

'

and may well

you new ideas for flavouring and
of uses fin your herbs,

89

HERBS IN THE KITCHEN

Agrimony
Alecost (Costmary)
Allspice (Pimento. Jamaica Pepper)
Angelica leaves
Angelica root
Angelica seeds
Angelica stems
Anise

Lemon

Balm.

Aniseed

Basil

Bay
Bergamot
Borage

Burnet (Salad Burnet)

Capers

Caraway
Caraway seeds

o
o

o
o

o
o

o
o

Celery

powder

Chives
Chive salt
Cicely seeds

Sweet
Cinnamon, ground
Cinnamon stick
Cicely.

Clove Pinks (Gillyflowers)

Cloves (whole or ground)
Coriander leaves
Coriander seeds
Cumin seed
Cumin, ground (Jeera)
Curry powder

Dandelion
Dill

seed, ground

Dill

seed,

whole

Elderberry

Garlic
Garlic

Elderflower

Fennel
Fennel seed

Dill

powder

Garlic salt

Geranium
Ginger, ground

Ginger, root

Hops
Horseradish

Hyssop

90

Chamomile
Chervil

o
o

salt

Celery seed

Chili

o
o

Cayenne (Pepper, Tabasco)

Celery

Cardamom

O indicates herb must be used fresh #

indicates herb

may be used

fresh or dried

and sometimes candied

USING YOUR HERBS

9'

gflfc

Wma.
U*

*?.

5PH/

,v,v

vV
-^Cv-JS

i^

rat-

:i3S

-*----"

fc

The domestic

and cosmetic uses

of herbs

a**

$**

^^M
The multitude

of uses

man

has found for

including medicinal,
demonstrates his
domestic and culinary
close association with nature.
plant

material

Apart from their traditional use for all

man's ills and ailments, herbs have proved
invaluable in many other different ways
in the domestic context. They have provided shelter, floor coverings, fire, weapons and utensils; imparted colour, flavour
and decoration to a great variety ol
commodities; proved beneficial to health
and been used to enhance man's natural

'//>

beauty.

And

it

has been since the very

IN

THE HOME

Reeds, grasses, heather and turf have all

been used as roof coverings, while a variety
of plants, man) of them still to be found
to

be useful

home itself. Birch twigs Betula spp)

still make the strongest and most effective
broom or garden besom, though Heather
>c"v*<i

and Ling
long-lasting

Sarothamnus

Calluna

and

vulgaris

effective.

Koparius

Broom

received

its

employed

variety

economy and
from

of ways,

bridges to buildings and furnishings, for

utensils, vehicles

and decoration.

Often the vernacular names of plants

provide a clue to their use. The main
applications of Equisetums or Horsetails
are belied by their prehistoric appearance.

of beautiful natural dyes, producing a

huh imparts

its

different plants,

ou n individual

formerly exported from the Netherlands.

has been

known

Pewterwort.

It

will

Scouring Rush or
clean pewter and form

as

a substantially effective scourer for sauce-

pans, baking utensils and

surfaces.

It will

wooden kitchen

also polish because ol

its

preparation of food and washing materials

range of subtle and vibrant colours. These

garments have been dyed with

are deposited in their stalks render-

them invaluable for polishing and

scouring. Dutch Rush [Equisetum hyemaU

itself

Left: Herbs form the basis of an infinite

fragrance.

in

com-

from being used as such. Birch

bark can be fashioned into a waterproof
The North American
tray or basket.
Indians made household dishes and trays
from Birch bark, which they stretched

each of u

{Phyllostachys spp) has

to oriental

abrasive action. Several fresh Horsetails

tied together form an effective whisk in the

are equally

mon name

variety

Bamboo

ing

in the

:-<

pouring.

always been basic

silica,

growing wild, have been found

zFqrZ'O,

edges

Large quantities of the abrasive material,

earliest times.

HERBS

i.

so

shape and decorated around the

with grasses. It was also the
Indians who used Birch bark rolls as
roofing materials, and formed small rolls
into funnels which could be used for
into

but do not use the dried plant since

fall off the stem. Plants

pieces are liable to

of a high acid content such as

Rhubarb

[Rheum palmatum or Rheum officinaL and

Sorrel
Rumex acetosa) can be boiled in
water and used as pan cleaners, often
bringing a high polish to the surfaces; but

do not leave a strong rhubarb solution in

aluminium pans as it may bum a hole
through the bottom.
Soapwort [Saponaria
known as Latherwort,

officinalis
is

almost

also
self-

<;

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

4

Above: Soapwort, as

its

name

W,"'

implies, has

traditionally provided an effective cleansing

agent ; however,

it

has a somewhat astringent

lather.

explanatory.

It

useful

is

as

a cleaning

agent, especially for old or delicate fabrics

that require gentle treatment.

The

leaves,

and to a lesser extent the root, produce a

somewhat astringent green soapy solution
when decocted (covered and boiled) in
hot water which restores old fibres and
vegetable dyes to their former strength
and clarity. The green coloration soon
washes out in the rinsing process. Soapwort has been specifically employed in the
restoration

of valuable

and

tapestries

brocades.

Above

Rushlights were once the most

economical source of domestic lighting in

many

The rushes are gathered

Then fat - in this case mutton fat
shown being melted (left). The
rural areas.

(above)

is

rushlight

(below

is

left)

dipped once only into the fat

,

and finally (below)

it is

placed in a traditional holder. One rush

CANDLES

candle will last for about an hour indoors.

Chandling has long been a home

craft, the

They provide a

simplest of candles being created from

the particular

kitchen by-products, such as beef

any wax.

fat

or

marrow bone grease (obtained after boiling). The low melting-point of tallow
demands a rather larger wick and this is
best obtained from rushes.

Rush dipping can be mastered with a

practice. It is best to use the soft Rush

little

[Juncus

Both

effusus

grow

pasture, bogs
pecially

or

Juncus conglomerate).

fairly

and

on acid

abundantly

in

damp woodland,

soils.

wet
es-

After gathering,

soak the rushes for a few hours and then

dry out of doors, preferably in the sunshine. Strip the outer husk

away and then

hang the pithy centre part

to dry before
dipping in hot tallow or wax. Dip repeatedly, drying the tallow or wax before
each operation.

When
them
94

using reeds as candles, secure

safely as they are longer in length

lovely soft light

and have

advantage of not dripping

POT-POURRI
less stable than household candles,
but they have the advantage of not dripping wax. They are best contained in
special holders which take several at one
time and can be adjusted as they burn
down. They can be burned indoors or out-

and

One

doors without excessive guttering.

candle will last approximately one hour

when used indoors; outside any breeze
reinforce the burning but will
will

probably cause flickering.

Some nuts with a fleshy kernel such as
Coconut (Cocos nucifera) can be threaded
onto a reed wick and burned to provide
light. Though adequate, they will smoke
and smell fairly strongly, however, so they
should be kept for barbecues or summer
evenings when this will not matter. For
such festive occasions, the reeds can be
coloured before they are dipped. Either

one colour may be used, or bands can be

created along the length of the reed.
A modest range of various tallows and
waxes is available from most craft shops,
but it is far more satisfying to manufacture
all the raw materials from plant matter.

TO SWEETEN THE AIR

and Santolina

spica)

as well

Tansy Tanacetum
(

as

(Santolina chamaecy-

the tough, resilient

vulgare),

were tradition-

strewn about the house to act as

sweet-smelling anu absorbent floor coverings. Their scent helped counteract the
fetid atmosphere of less hygienic days.
Air fresheners have always been popually

lar

because

of the

alleged

properties of certain herbs

fully

(Lonicera periclymenum)

common
(Iris

salt

or bay salt

and Orris root

germanica) These fixatives are the key

.

to the long life of pot-pourri.

ing

up the

common

fixative,

salt

When mak-

use twice as

much

or bay salt as Orris. Rose

petals traditionally comprise the greater

bulk, but the other ingredients invest the

mixture with a lasting individual fragrance, and any combination of attractive

scented leaves, flowers and flower buds
can be used. No single perfume should
predominate.

There are two kinds of pot-pourri, the

dry and the moist. The former is easier to
make, and quicker too, but is not as enduring or as fragrant as the moist variety.
The materials for both need to be assembled over a period, and this is why the
recipes are intentionally flexible. Generally, the flowers should be gathered as dry
as possible immediately prior to being

blown and

day when they are

that

Honeysuckle

like

if,
,

there

at their

is

a time of

most fragrant,

the time for harvesting.

is

For moist pot-pourri pull apart the

petals and scatter them on trays or flat
boxes covered with foil, then cover with
sheets of greaseproof paper or cheesecloth. If it is not too windy, dry them out
of doors in a shaded position; otherwise a
shed or spare room is ideal. Once the
petals are limp and leathery, they can be
used to

make

the moist pot-pourri.

Dry pot-pourri
The

must be dried thoroughly

papery but not brittle; they
should still retain some colour and, of
course, their scent. Drying time varies
petals

until they are

moisture content of
individual petals. Carnations (Dianthus
caryophyllus) and Roses (especially Rosa

according

rugosa,

to

the

Rosa damascena and Rosa

example,

take

(Lavandula spica) or

gallica), for

Lavender
Rosemary (Rosmarinus

longer

than

officinalis)

Ingredients to choose from

Sweet rushes, evergreens such as Juniper

(Juniperus communis), Lavender [Lavandula
parissus),

POT-POURRI
This is essentially a homogeneous mixture
of dried sweet-scented flowers and leaves
with aromatic spices and stabilizing agents
or fixatives - the most usual of which are

antiseptic

and

their use

was promoted to counteract disease.

There were many different methods some
were held in the hand; others placed
among linen and clothing; many simply
placed in bowls around the house.

Seeds and Spices Grind very coarsely

Flowers
Carnations (Dianthus caryophyllus)
Elder flowers

(Sambucus

nigra)

Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum)

Jasmine (Jasminum)
Lavender (Lavandula spica)
Lily-of-the-Valley (Convallaha majalis)
Philadelphus spp
Pinks (Dianthus p/umahus)

Rosemary (Rosmarinus
Rose (scented) spp

officinalis)

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)

Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum)
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)

Nutmeg

Stocks (Matthiolas)
Sweet Peas (Lathyrus odoratus)

Thyme (Thymus

the following seeds and spices in any

combination, in a coffee grinder.
Alexanders (Smyrnium olustratum)
Allspice (Pimenta dioica)
Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)
Cassia (Cinnamomum cassia)

(Myristica fragrans)

Parsley (Petroselinum crispum)

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)

vulgaris)

The
talum

Sandalwood
Cedarwood (Cedrus

subtle scents of

album),

Lavender
flowers

(Lavandula

spica)

Tilia x vulgaris)

and

scattered

Lime
in

cupboard permeate the contents

and maintain freshness. Even the common custom of bringing fresh flowers into
a sickroom not only delights the eye but
freshens the atmosphere as well. Sweet
(Asperula odorata) scattered be-

Aromatic leaves Rub leaves through

them in an electric

sieve or grind

blender after drying

Bay (Laurus nobilis)

Bergamot (Monarda didyma)

Choisya (Choisya ternata)
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
Lavender (Lavandula spica)

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis)

Sage (Salvia officinalis)
Sweet Woodruff (Asperula odorata)
The scented-leaved Geraniums such as
Pelargonium quercifolium and P.

wood

crispurn

will dissipate mustiness,

(Artemisia

drawers

fresh

abrotanum)

and pleasant, while

same time discouraging

insects.

them, however, pot-pourri

al

favourite.

keep closed

is

at the

Of all

of

the tradition-

retain the

essential for a successful pot-pourri.

Gum Benzoin (Styrax benzoin and

Styrax spp,)
Orris root powder (Iris germanica)
Storax (Liquidamber orientalis)
Sweet Flag powder (Acorus calamus)
Violet root powder (Viola odorata)

Melilot (Melilotus officinalis)

while
sachets, pomanders, lavender bags and
nosegays of dried herbs such as Pennyroyal {Mentha pulegium) and Southern-

hind books

These are substances which

aroma of the pot-pourri
components and help to release them
slowly into the air. All are themselves
fragrant materials and they are
Fixatives

(San-

spp),

closed

Woodruff

Wallflowers (Cheiranthus)
(Thick-petalled flowers such as Lily
(Li/ium spp,) and Hyacinth (Hyacinthus
spp,) are not really suitable.)

The sweet-scented Artemisias such as

Artemisia abrotanum

Thyme (Thymus

vulgaris)

Verbena (Verbena

officinalis)

Note: Ground citrus peel can be added

as above, or a whole Orange (Citrus
sinensis) or Lemon (Citrus limon) can
be stuck with Cloves (Syzygium
aromaticum) and immersed in the
pot-pourri mixture to absorb the scent

95

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

The dry

mixed

recipes can be

as the

season progresses and, provided they are

not

left

their

uncovered

fragrance

Though some

for too long, will retain

for

up

to

two years.

varieties will lose

some of

containing

coumarin, such as Woodruff Asperula odorata

and Melilot Melilotus officinalis develop
their

strength,

others

new-mown

a scent like

hay.

Dry

scented leaves and flowers you wish.

usually superior

are

because they last longer and ingredients

can be accumulated over the growing
season. Once petals are dry and leathery,
store them in a mixture of common salt,
coarsely

ground

Iris germanka
Pack a layer of petals

Orris root
jar.

jar, then sprinkle

mm

5 in

is full.

in

in the

base of the

with a generous layer of

cover the petals to a depth of

fixative, to

jar

bay salt and

a wide-necked

sea salt or

Repeat

in layers until the

Place a weight on the top and

then cover to exclude light and air.

Treat aromatic leaves in exactly the
same way, harvesting them prior to the
plant flowering - this is when the essential
oils are at their peak. As the season draws
to a close, assemble all the dried plant
matter, checking that they bear no hint of
mustiness.

mix
pot-pourri

will

about two years. The

moist varieties last longer and need not be
stored in covered containers. They can be
revived very quickly by adding a few
generally

last

for

drops of essential

such

oils,

Cananga

or

odorata

as

oil

of

Ylang-Ylang
Spike Lavender

Bergamot Monarda didyma

pot-

pourri can be improved by the addition of

both these herbs. Use any combination of

Moist pot-pourri
The moist recipes

Keeping pot-pourri
The dry recipes for

Once the drier kind

however, the mixture cannot be
restored to its former fragrance.
Use one of the many specially designed
porcelain bowls or jars for storing potpourri. The lids of these are pierced with
Lavandula spica

\.

fades,

holes or

the scent,

release

to

slits

and

sometimes there is an inner lid with a

fitted cover to keep in the fragrance.

Connoisseur's pot-pourri
Mix a jug full of dried Rose
one handful of

and then leave

(

thus

in

officinalis

Pinks

and Wallflowers

or bay

Cheiran-

and some scented

salt

Prepare wedges of citrus fruit peel

by sticking them all over with Cloves
(Syzygium aromaticum and allowing them
to dry naturally for a few weeks.

leaves.

When

all

the ingredients are ready,

thoroughly mix the petals with the lea\

the citrus fruit and Cloves whole or
grind them in an electric blender and add
handfuls to equal the quantity of salt
used. Add a teaspoon of Cinnamon
C.innamomum .zeylanicum and another of

Add
Below:

Orris.

The

dried powdered root

used with other herbs in pot-pourris and

some dry shampoos.

is

Allspice

Pimenta dioica

quarter of a 9 litre 2 gall bucket

filled with Rose petals
85g 3 oz common salt
50g 2 oz fine rubbed bay salt
50g 2 oz Allspice Pimenta dioica
50g 2 oz Cloves Syzygium aromaticum

Mix

Then add

well

and

50g

brown sugar

oz

Gum

Benzoin Styrax benzoin

5g 5 oz
oz
Orris
root Iris germanica
2
50g
2 tablespoons brandy
iog

Lavender heads Lavandula

4 oz

spica

iog

Verbena

4 oz

leaves

Verbena

officinalis

50g

Rose-Geranium

oz

leaves

Pelargonium graveolens

Sprinkle the fresh Rose petals with the

common salt and

in the

leave for three days. Stir

remaining ingredients, then place

the mixture in a stone pot. Stir every three

days

two weeks, adding a few drops of

the mixture appears too dry and

for

brandy

if

lacking in scent.
this will

A quick
Throw
petals
spica

moist pot-pourri

like

have a more lingering perfume.

pot-pourri

together handfuls of dried Rose

and dried Lavender

Honeysuckle Lonicera

Lavandula
periclymen-

Carnations
Dianthus caryophyllus
um
Rosmarinus officinalis
and
Rosemary
.

Lavender Lavandula spica

Bergamot Monarda didyma and Geranium Pelargonium spp Store in a closed

Sweet William Dianthus barbatus flowers.

Ensure that you have twice the bulk of the
flowers in Rose petals. Add some powCinnamomum zeylanidered Cinnamon

container for eight to ten weeks.

cum. Nutmeg

leave overnight.

a few drops of

essential oils:

(Syzygium

Lemon

Traditional pot-pourri
9

litre

3_L0g

2 gall

12 ozi

bucket of Roses

common

salt

for a

oz

Orris root

Iris

peel

Cloves

and some dried

Citrus limon

at the ratio of

month

or so before using.

Using pot-pourri

An

50g

Myristica fragrans

aromaticum:

about one teaspoon of the mixed powders

to every two handfuls of flowers. Add a few
drops of brandy and or pot-pourri reviver,
and then store the mixture tightly packed

225g (8 oz) finely powdered bay salt

85g 3 oz Allspice Pimenta dioica
85g 3 oz Cloves Syzygium aromaticum
50g 2 oz brown sugar
iog (4 oz) Gum Benzoin Styrax benzoin
germanica

attractive alternative to putting pot-

pourri into an open container

j cupful of brandy
Several handfuls of dried fragrant flowers
and leaves such as Carnations Dianthus
caryophyllus),
Pinks
Dianthus plumarius
Wallflowers [Cheiranthus
and Jasmine
.

Jasminum).
Place the Rose petals and salt in a jar in
layers, then add the other ingredients and

96

coarsely ground

salt.

RoseDian-

the

petals with

or bay

separate containers, together with

little salt

Elizabethan recipe

Lavandula spica

mary Rosmarinus

An

Open and

room

is to be
perfumed. If the pot-pourri appears to
dry out too much, moisten with a few
drops of brandy.

weeks. Store

for several

dried Lavender
thus plumarius

salt

when

occasionally

common

well. Store in closed jars.

stir

into a porcelain

cupboard or

sachets

using

of the
scraps

cutting

required,

is

to tuck

it

pomander and hang it in

wardrobe You can make

of

sweet-smelling

mixture

pretty

fabrics,

light,

them to the size and shape

and then embroidering them or

adding beads, lace or ribbon.

Cut two pieces of fabric to shape and

SCENTED ARTICLES
or two of an aromatic
(Citrus

aurantium),

spied),

Patchouli

such as Neroli

oil

Lavender (Lavandula
(Pogostemon

patchouli).

The most widely used herb

pillow to

promote

sleep

Hops (Humulus

one containing dried

is

and it is certainly
Hops are replaced
months after which they

lupulus)

effective providing the

ever)' four to six

lose their strength.

Rosemary herb
Mix

pillow

a sufficient quantity of herbs in the

following proportions
4 cups dried Rosemary leaves [Rosmarinus
officinalis)

cup

Lemon Verbena

dried

leaves

(Aloysia triphylla)
i

cup dried Pine needles

crushed

tablespoon

(Pinus)

Orris

root

(Iris

germanica)
2

crushed Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum)

When

adding the Pine needles to

the mixture, be sure that you make the

Note:
Above
dried

may

Sweet-smelling Lavender

and used wherever

enhance the household

its

plaiting

be

aroma will

corn dollies.
Incorporate a narrow ribbon in a pretty
colour as you work, not only to add decorative interest but to help hold the dolly

as scented

accessories to aid sleep, as a fragrant

pot-pourri or placed with clothes.

size,

them

place

together,

then stitch

facing,

all

right

sides

round leaving a

Turn

small opening for stuffing.

to the

seam allowances
around any curves and cutting across
corners to achieve an even shape. Tack
any trimming into the seam before
right side, clipping the

stitching.

Turn

to the right side, stuff

with pot-

pourri and slip stitch the opening to close.

Trim
Place

the edges afterwards

among

linen

where it will remain

two years.

if

preferred.

among

or

clothes

effective for

up

to

LAVENDER BAGS
You

can

make

sachets

similar

Lavender [Lavandula

spica).

It

is

with

best to

gather the flowers just before they open so

that they are still firm. The drying process
will not alter the shape of the flowers and

you will find them easier

making up the bags.

to

them to make Lavender dollies, in

same way as you would make

exactly the

handle when

weave small capsule-shaped

cylinders and fill them with dried Lavender flowers for an even more powerful
together; or

aroma.

pillow slip of strong, closely woven cotton,

otherwise your sleep might be interrupted

by

their prickly escape into the bed.

Fragrant herb pillow

Mix

cup dried Rosemary leaves and flowers

(Aloysia triphylla)

HERB PILLOWS
an extension
of the idea of stuffing mattresses with
sweet-smellinggrassesand aromatic herbs.
They are usually small and cushion-like
in appearance and are mainly used today
to add fragrance to bedclothes. Many
people believe that if a herb pillow is
tucked under a pillow proper or used as a
neck rest, the fragrance of the herbs will
encourage a deep and restful sleep; if
trimmed with lace and made up in pretty
prints, herb pillows make delightful bed-

(Rosmarinus

Historically, herb pillows are

room

accessories

You can

and charming gifts.

any fragrant and
or petals, and assemble

Lily-of-the- Valley (Convallaria majalis),

Jasmine (Jasminum)

Ground
Note:

aromatic leaves
them in any combination that

from

Oranges

The Lemon

powdered Orris

Lemons

Make

is

person-

is
added as a
add two teaspoons
germanica), or Sweet

peel

(Iris

a pillow slip in a plain

OTHER SCENTED ARTICLES

The number of ideas for creating other
scented articles is wide ranging. Here are

cotton fabric, decorated to taste.

Choose from dried petals, flower-heads

gifts

Rosemary {Rosmarinus officinalLavender (Lavandula spica), Roses,

Lemon Verbena {Aloysia triphylla), Thyme

and then

a separate cover in an attractive

just

a few suggestions to stimulate en-

thusiasm for making your own

and

or leaves of

Clove oranges

sneezing agent.

is),

These are surprisingly easy

and smell

so

{Thymus
out so well

good that it is a pity not to

remain fairly soft, try

use them. As they

vulgaris),

and

Marjoram {Origanum

Rose-Geranium
[Pelargonium graveolens), enhancing their stent
with spices, ground citrus peel and a drop
vulgare)

home-made

accessories.

wear a mask of some sort over the mouth

and nose as Lavender is a powerful

Lavender dollies
The stalks of Lavender dry

(Citrus

(Citrus sinensis)

Flag (Acorus calamus) root or three drops of

oil of Bergamot (Monarda didyma).

flowers from the stalks.

make

and

fixative. Alternatively,

cotton, stuff with the mixture

advisable to

citrus peel

limon)

use almost

ally pleasing.

is

officinalis)

cup other dried flowers, for example,

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus)
Honeysuckle (Lonicera periclymenum)

Hang up the stalks in bunches in a dry

place for a week or so; once dry, rub the
It

together:

cup dried Rose petals

cup dried Lavender (Lavandula spica)
cup dried Lemon Verbena leaves

will last well

when hung

prepare and
wardrobes or

to

in

on a Christmas tree for a spiry festive

atmosphere. Use thin-skinned Oranges
(Citrus sinensis) preferably

and make

around the

in

fruit

working

slits

both direc97

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

- top

to bottom and left to right.

These will hold the ribbon in place for
hanging the finished article.
Dry the Orange for a day or two above a
stove or domestic boiler, then push Cloves

tions

(Syzygium

aromaticum)

into

the

entire

place and hang so that

the

room

its

spicy scent

fills

Tussie-mussies
The name 'tussie-mussie'

ha been

known

touch. If you find

ally,

first

them hard to push in,

with a sharp needle or

bodkin.
Roll the Orange in a powder
of equal parts of Cinnamon

powder
(Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and Orris powder (Iris germanica), then leave wrapped in
the powder for two weeks. Remove the
wrapping after this time, shake off the
surplus powder,

Below

tie

A pomander

First the orange

is

makes a delightful

gift.

cut so that the ribbon can

eventually be tied on.

into the

a ribbon or cord in

The

orange (below)

cloves are stuck

It is

then rolled in

powdered Cinnamon bark and Orris root and

left to dry, wrapped in greaseproof paper, in
a

warm

in

the

is

is

tied on

making an attractive and

fragrant pomander (bottom).
(below right)

Sweet Flag root powder

tablespoon

(Acorus calamus

a sweet-scented nosegay, small

to carry

travellers in

around,

its

bad odours and

carried

infection.

Collect fragrant leaves and flowers,

and

form a tiny Victorian posy-like bunch.

Use a Rose-bud (Rosa sppi or a feather of
Artemisia foliage as the centrepiece, and
arrange the other leaves and flowers
around it. Tie or bind with a ribbon and
back with a paper frill or doily (or an
especially pretty finish.

Give them away as presents, tuck into

cupboards or drawers, or place in a small
vase to decorate a dressing table.

Lavender-scented pomander beads

By making up beads of herbs and (lower
materials and then stringing them to-

tablespoon ground

Gum Benzoin

(Styrax

benzoin

origins being

by judges and
the Middle Ages to ward off

posies

place (such as an airing cupboard or

above a stove). Finally, the ribbon

it

Lavender flowers

(Lavandula spica)

fifteenth

enough

made up

2 level tablespoons dried

multitude of different forms since the

in a

make

holes

or wrist right

through wintertime.

century when it appeared as

'tumose of flowrys or other herys'. Basic-

surface of the skin so that the heads almost

you can wear your memories of

gether,

summer around your neck

or cupboard.

teaspoons Sandalwood powder (Santalum album)

6 drops essence of Lavender (Lavandula

spica)

3 drops essence of Ambergris

teaspoon powdered Gum Tragacanth
Astragalus gummifer
8 teaspoons Orange-flower water
i

Lavender

oil

Grind the dried Lavender flowers to a fine

sift into a bowl with the
Sweet Flag, Gum Benzoin and Sandalwood powders. Mix them all together
thoroughly, then add the essence of
Lavender and Ambergris.
Make a mucilage of Gum Tragacanth
by mixing one teaspoon of the Tragacanth
with eight teaspoonfuls of Orange-flower
water. Then use the mucilage to mix all
the ingredients into a paste. If you find the
powder does not form a paste easily,
add a drop or two more of Orange-

powder and

flower water.

Moisten your hands with a few drops of

Lavender oil and break the paste into
small equally sized pieces. Roll each one
into a round, oval or cylindrical shape.

Pierce with a large needle. Either string

immediately and place in a dark cupboard or drawer for about a week, or dry
the beads first and string later.

Aromatic beads
i

tablespoon finely ground

level

Benzoin
i

level

Gum

(Styrax benzoin)

tablespoon Orris root powder

(Iris

germanica)
i

heaped tablespoon Sweet Flag root

powder (Acorus calamus
heaped tablespoon Mace powder (Myristica fragrans)

heaped tablespoon Nutmeg powder

Myristica fragrans)

heaped tablespoon dried powdered

Basil (Ocimum basilicum)
Syzygium aro4 finely ground Cloves
i

maticum)
2

drops

drop

oil

oil

of

Cedarwood

Cedrus spp

of Spike Lavender (Lavandula

spica)

3 drops essence of Ambergris

Gum

Tragacanth
Rose-water

98

(Astragalus gummifer)

NATURAL DYEING
Tin (Stannous chloride)

powdered herbs and spices

and blend thoroughly
oil
of Cedarwood, Spike
the
Add
bowl.
in a
Incorporate all
Ambergris.
and
Lavender
Pass

all

the

through a

these oils into the mixture.

Make

a brightening

agent used to brighten colours.

Iron (Ferrous sulphate) - usually called a
'saddening' agent because of its dulling

fine sieve

and darkening

a thick

mixture of Gum Tragacanth and the Rosewater, add to the other ingredients and
stir thoroughly to form a paste.
Lubricate your hands with a fragrant
oil, pull off a small piece of the paste about
the size of a cherry pip and roll into a ball.
Before it becomes too hard, pierce with a
bodkin or large needle, then thread on a

effect

on colours.

Chrome (Potassium dichromate) - deepand creates a more lasting dye.

sulphate
or blue vitriol - adds a
Copper
blue-green tinge to a colour.
ens colours

Household ammonia- the clear kind-and

white vinegar can also be used as mordants, providing an alkaline or acid

string.

medium respectively, as required.

The chart suggests some plants suitable

have strung
warming.

for dye extractions, plus the effects you

can expect to obtain when various mordants are added. The acid or alkaline
content of the dye-bath will affect the

Lubricate the piercing instrument

and the string with oil to make both jobs
easier. If the paste hardens before you
all

the string, soften

by

it

fastness of the colour

Moth bags
You can protect your

washed
clothing and linen

by making up small bags or sachets to

hang in wardrobes and scatter in drawers.
The perfume will deter insects.
Mix equal quantities of dried Cotton
chamaecyparissus)
(Santolina
Lavender
Tanacetum vulleaves with dried Tansy
gare) or Costmary {Chrysanthemum balsamita) leaves. Put them all in a grinder or
chop and pound together in a mortar.
Make up as required - their effectiveness
will last for about three to six months. To
increase effectiveness, add a small quantity of Pyrethrum powder or, even better,
Pyrethrum flowers {Chrysanthemum cine-

to a

was

The

use of

Tansy as an

insecticide

once essential as part of the day-to-day

running of a home.

It

can be hung up in

general guideline of

textile or yarn.
to

cram

bath,

bunches and will effectively repel flies and

Spread
wool -

other insects.

too

different plants to achieve the colours

here. Saffron, for

shown

example, has been used

to

produce the deep, rich yellow tones. (See the

table overleaf for dyeing at

home.)

to

much

the

(35 fi oz)
oz) of woven

litre

(1

A common

resulting

failing

is

textile into the

patchy

in

material

out

in the liquid

and

to try

dye-

colouring.
especially

so that the fibres are

immersed
in

Sri Lanka. Their robes have been dyed with

Natural dyes are the pigments obtainable

from plant matter. They are soluble in
water and have the capacity of imparting
colour to fibre.
Fibres of animal origin such as wool and
silk are essentially protein-based, while
those from vegetable sources such as
cotton and linen are predominantly cellulose in structure. The former take natural
dyes especially well, as the structure of the
fibres expands when the temperature of
the dye-bath is raised, thus providing an
increased surface area for the dye to
permeate with colour.

is

alkaline fixed dye, for

of liquid dye for each 25g

Above

Below : A procession of Buddhist monks

TEXTILE DYES

the fabric

example, can be washed very successfully

with soap which is alkaline based.
Dyes are extracted from herbs by
boiling or soaking; the plant matter is
then removed and the textiles or fibres to
be dyed immersed in the dye-bath together with the mordanting agent. Work

rariifolium).

An

later.

when

stir

completely
constantly

ensure even dyeing.

Natural dyeing

is

not usually cheaper

and certainly not easier than using

commercial dyes, but the colours are
beautifully subtle and impart a delicious
fragrance to woven or natural yarns.

Mordants are generally employed in

natural dyeing process. These are
chemical substances that combine with
the dye and fix the dyestuff in the fabric or
fibres, and they can also be used to control
the

the colour, either by shade or strength.

The range

of chemicals suitable for

use-

mordants is as follows:
Alum (Aluminium potassium sulphate) this is usually combined with cream of
tartar in the ratio of three parts alum to
one part of tartar.
as

'.<>

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

Guide to natural dyeing
Colour

Plant

Mordant

Colour

Plant

Grey

Horsetail {Equisetum

alum

Acid yellow

Pseudocyphellaria

sylvaticum)

Black

thouarsii

st

Onion {Allium cepa)

chrome (on bleached

sk

wool)

lemon yellow Coreopsis

wp

chrome and
alum or

fl

rt

Onion {Allium cepa)

chrome

sk

Pale lemon

Rhododendron spp

Greenish yellow

Dyer's

tin

iron
Iv

chrome

fl

{Daucus carota)

Carrot

Madder {Rubia
tinctorum)

iron

alum and

Iv

Greenweed

{Genista tinctoria)

Coreopsis

tin

iron

[Fili-

pendula ulmaria)

ammonia

wp

Evernia spp
Bright

Meadowsweet

Dark brown

Mordant

rt

Iv

chrome

chrome

Murky yellow

If

Evernia spp

wp

copper sulphate and

ammonia
Chocolate brown

New

alum and washing

soda

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax)

rt

Mid brown

Rhododendron spp

Warm brown

Madder {Rubia

chrome and

Iv

Rhododendron spp

Dark green

alum and iron and

copper sulphate

Iv

iron

Pseudocyphellaria
tinctorum)

rt

If.

alum

rt/lf

Light golden

New

{Phormium tanax)

brown

New

Zealand Flax

Carrot

Pale green

Rhododendron spp

Blue-green

Evernia spp

tin

and cream of

iron

Apricot shades

fl

bd

Pseudocyphellaria
thouarsii

New

tartar

murky blue

and copper

Elder

{Sambucus

tin
fl

and vinegar

and cream of

{Sambucus

Lavenders and

Elder

purple

nigra)

Rich rose purple

Umbilicana spp

chrome and cream

vulgare)

tartar

Golden yellow

Onion {Allium cepa) sk

and

fl

tin

Chestnut red

alum

Onion {Allium cepa) sk

alum and

Tansy {Tanacetum

alum

H. perforatum)

ft

Dyer's Greenweed
{Genista tinctoria)

alum and
If

tin

rt/lf

Wort
{Hypericum maculatum

alum and cream of

tartar

H. perforatum)

(dried)

Magenta

Dandelion {Taraxacum

soda

alum and

Onion {Allium cepa) sk

tin

Rose

Umbilicaria spp

Pink

New

wp

tin

alum and iodized

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax)

alum

Marshmarigold

alum

rt

ammonia and washing

wp

salt

Iv

Dandelion {Taraxacum

none

fl

officinale)

Greenwood

{Genista tinctoria)

Umbilicaria spp

wp

ammonia

alum
Pink-fawn

Iv

Carrot {Daucus carota)

Iv

Iv

alum
alum

none

Madder {Rubia
tinctorum)

Birch {Betula spp)

rt

none

fl

Rose pink

IOO

tin
iv

Pse udoc yphellaria

Creamy yellow

rt

St John's

officinale)

Dyer's

-fbd

Madder {Rubia

ft

Coreopsis

fl

tin

none
Bedstraws {Galium
verum and G. mollugo) n

and

(Caltha palustris)

and vinegar

iron

Brownish red

Clear yellow

tin

rt

St John's

tinctorum)

Bright yellow

alum and ammonia

Wort
{Hypericum maculatum

Red

Rusty red

alum and

Coreopsis

thouarsii

wp

Iv

Gold

vulgare)

salt

of

chrome

Greenweed

alum and

rfr

Dandelion {Taraxacum

Purple

Tansy {Tanacetum

{Genista tinctona)

none

tartar

bd

ft

nigra)

sulphate

tin

Zealand Flax

Dyer's

copper sulphate

rfr

officinale)

Orange yellow

copper sulphate
iron

Iv

wp

wp

{Phormium tanax)
Orange

Iv

rt

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax)
Copper

{Daucus carota)

Bright green

Soft
of

and copper

sulphate

chrome

brown
Shades

tin

wp

rt/lf

Madder {Rubia
tinctorum)

thouarsii

New

rt

If

rt/lf

alum

Zealand Flax

{Phormium tanax)

fl

or

aluminium
soda

+ bd and washing

WRITING MATERIALS
PAPER AND INK
New

transformed the

techniques have

making of paper from an ancient craft to

a modern industry, but the basic proremain the same.

cesses

The Chinese

are attributed with the

invention of paper in about a.d.

105,

though papyrus and parchment had been

comparable forerunners. The Chinese
used bark fibre and Flax (Linum usitatissimum), steeping the raw materials in water
and beating them to a paste with stones
and hammers to produce a sheet that was

Some 700 years

Japanese perfected the process
of making hand-made paper from the
wood of the Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia
then dried in the sun.
later, the

papyrifera)

in

known

the fibre being

as kozo

Japan.

Many plants have fibres substantial

enough to provide the basic ingredient for
making paper in the home, such as Nettle
(Urtica dioica), Flax (Linum usitatissimum)

and Pineapple Ananas

i

sativus).

Pineapple

used extensively in the production of textiles, but the waste from this
material is excellent for making paper.
Woods such as Magnolia {Magnolia

fibres are

sppj

and Poplar are

also used, particularly

and

Populus tremula, P. alba

P. italica.

The

Cotton plant (Gossypium hirsutum) offers

another suitable fibre.
Plants of the grass family (Gramineae)
which possess long, straight, conductive
are excellent too. Suitable species

cells

from

range

bamboos

tall-growing

cultivated cereals

to

Common Oat

the

(Avena saliva), Barley (Hordeum sativum

Common Wheat

Maize

(Secale cereale),

(or

Indian corn

i^ea mays), Esparto (Stipa tenacissima)

the

Danube Weed

can

all

when

was invented, pulped

Left:

selection
it,

and

{Phragmites communis)

be used with good

Prior to 1800,

results.

chlorine bleaching
fibre

was treated

dyer's chart to facilitate the

of the right herb, or specific part of

mordant which will

together with the

combine

from a

to

produce the

Rye

(Triticum vulgare),

specific colour required

plant.

Above:

Key
skin

Iv

leaves

ft

flowers

ft

flower tops

section from the ancient

but

with a range of animal and vegetable

glues during the process of sizing to prevent wetting and the penetration of the
paper by inks and paints. The Chinese
first painted on paper with a short stick of
hardened Pine wood (Pinus spp) using a
mixture of soot and glue, which was
rubbed on an inkstone with a drop or two
of water to produce the required con-

The Romans used reed pens, the

Egyptians made use of rushes for writing,
while styli of all kinds have been fashioned
from wood through the centuries. Today,
the best quality artist's charcoal is made
from the Willow (Salix sppj.
A writing ink has been made in Europe
since the Middle Ages from the Bullet Gall

Oak

These are not the commonly

known Oak Apples, but galls, formed by
insects, which mature in August and
remain on the tree throughout the winter
long after the insects have left the tree.
They are to be found on the Pedunculate
Oak (Quercus robur and Q. pedunculata), and
nut.

the Sessile

St

stalks

Oak

(Quercus petraea syn.

G\

ft (dried)

dried flower tops

both commonly to be found in

the scrubland, copses and hedgerows of
Europe. On the whole, northern European-grown galls do not contain enough

fl+bd

flower and buds

tannic acid to

ripe fruit

try.

450g

(1 lb)

bruised galls

gall) boiling water

I55g (5^ oz) ferrous sulphate
85g (3 oz) Gum Arabic (Acacia Senegal)
previously dissolved in a few drops of
antiseptic such as a five per cent
carbolic acid solution, or Tincture of
Myrrh (Commiphora molmol).
(1

Macerate the

The

ingredients.

bottling

by steeping for 24
and add to all the other

galls

hours, then strain

and

ink

is

then ready for

use.

sistency.

root or leaf

whole plant

worth

certainly

Black ink

4.5 litres

word paper comes from papyrus.

rtllf

rfr

are

suggested in later recipes.

of the .Vile. The writing material was made

from the pith of this strong, reed-like plant,
and ink was applied to it with reed pens. The

root

wp

they

Alternatively try some of the scented inks

wrote

an aquatic herb which grows along the banks

rt+lf

and leaf

Egyptian

on the material they obtained from Papyrus,

or

sk

Book of the Dead. The Egyptians

sessiliflora),

make

really successful ink,

Lemon Verbena

scented ink

You can use this basic recipe with other

herbs and flowers such as Rosemary
(Rosmarinus officinalis) and Lavender leaves
(Lavandula spica).

\ cup tightly packed and crushed

Verbena

Lemon

leaves (Aloysia triphylla)

55 ml (2 fl oz) bottle of ink

\ cup cold water
Place the Lemon Verbena leaves in a
small saucepan with the cold water. Bring

and then simmer for

10-30 minutes with the pan covered. Do
not let the water evaporate completely;
when it becomes opaque and brownish in
colour, remove the pan from the heat.
to the boil rapidly,

Strain the liquid, allow

add

to

bottle

of ink.

it

to cool,

The

then

resultant

aromatic ink

will vary in potency according to the freshness of the dried leaves.

101

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

Smoking

ingredients,

The American

Indians used to call their

smoking pipes 'tabaco'. These pipes were

Y-shaped and hollow, the two points
being inserted into the nostrils to inhale

smoke from burning Tobacco. So closely

identified with Tobacco has smoking
become that the word now describes any
variety of plant matter which is smoked
for pleasure.

Herbs

such as Coltsfoot
Tussilago
farfara) are rendered into a smoking mix(

commer-

ture by a process similar to the

production of Tobacco. This involves

drying or 'curing' the leaves, and then
mixing or blending them with other
materials. Smoking tobacco mixtures include Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), salt,
saltpetre and sugar. Herbal mixtures can
be blended with other leaves and seeds.
Coltsfoot tobacco is rubbed in the hands
much as a pipe smoker prepares his
cial

guarded

many

secrets.

of which are closely

After fermentation has

taken place, the mixture is dried and

ground, and then sometimes fermented a
second time to enrich the flavour even
further.

Whether of

the dry or moist variety,

damp, though not

damp. Throughout the nineteenth

snuff needs to be kept

too

century flavours were refined to newer

heights of sophistication, and today an
enormous range of blends exists, and the
habit is again becoming popular. Many
incorporate such plants as Mints [Mentha

Jasmine (Jasminum sppj, Rose {Rosa

Bergamot (Monarda didyma), Violet

spp),

spp),

odorata), Geranium
Pelargonium
and Carnation (Dianthus caryophylMost powders ground from Tobacco

(Viola

spp)
lus).

are so fine that a moistening agent

is

required to prevent the powder blowing

away.

tobacco.

Above

nicotine

shown

Tobacco leaves drying

and

tar-rich tobacco has

now

been

be harmful, the traditional praclit

to

Contemporary thinking blames the

smoking of Tobacco for chest complaints
and cancers, but it should not be for-

As

in (he sun.

gotten that

of mixing and blending plant smoking

mixtures has once again become popular.
large

number of

the herbal

smoking mixtures

many 'poisonous' plants are

when used correctly. The

galus gummifer), Ghatti

smoking of leaves to relieve pulmonary

congestion and coughs has been recom-

latifolia)

mended

Coltsfoot.

2000 years ago, when he smoked through

since

the days of Dioscorides,

a reed.

Scented notepaper
is

'British

made by

easily

sheets of paper

in a

storing several

box with

a liberal

sprinkling of either dried pot-pourri or

one of several powdered aromatic substances.

Use Orris root

(Iris

germanica),

Sweet Flag root (Acorus calamus), and

Violet root (Viola odorata); or even powdered Allspice (Pimenta dioica), Aniseed
(Pimpinella

momum

anisum),

zeylanicum),

teryx odorata),

folia) or

Cinnamon (CinnaTonka beans (Dip-

Vanilla pods (Vanilla plani-

Sandalwood (Santalum

album).

achieved by spraying; an
aromatic water (Rose-water or RoseGeranium water, for example) by means
of a fine hand spray, and then hanging
the sheets to dry in the sun before storing.

crinkled effect

is

LEISURE AND PLEASURE

The knowledge
tabacum)

and

its

of Tobacco
uses

(Nicotiana

derives from the

Americas where, in 1492, a party of

Columbus's men reconnoitring Cuba reported seeing men carrying lighted firebrands and perfumed herbs. Tobacco
chewing was also observed on the coast of

South America in 1502. On Columbus's

second visit from 1494 to 1496, he noted
was
that snuff a derivative of Tobacco
in popular use.
102

Fairly simple glues can be

foot

is

Herb Tobacco', of which

a principal

cludes Buckbean

Evebright

Thyme

ender (Lavandula
flowers

Menyanthes

[Euphrasia

(Thymus
spica),

(Matricaria

also

in-

trifoliata),

officinalis),

Rosemary

Stachys officinalis'.
officinalis),

ingredient,

Colts-

Betony

Rosmarinus

(Anogeissus

colostomy bags to the body.

The quantity of powdered gum to water
varies according to your requirements
and the gum used. Usually half a teaspoon of gum to half a cup of water is
sufficient.

Several plants contain natural mucil-

and Chamomile

ages which can be used as simple gums.

recutita).

In

pleasing herbal smoking mixture

France,
is

made up

of the leaves and roots of Arnica (Arnica

folium)

Gum

and Carob Gum (Ceratonia siliqua). Karaya or Katira Gum (Cochlospermum gossypium) is especially effective and is
still
used in some countries to attach

Lav-

vulgaris).

tabacs des Vosges or tabacs des Savoyards

Yarrow [Achillea milleand Mallow (Malva sylvestris) can

montana).

made from

powdered gums such as Gum Arabic

(Acacia Senegal), Gum Tragacanth (Astra-

quite harmless

commercially available today are based on

This

GUMS AND GLUES

Both

be used for herbal tobaccos too.

The

berries of Mistletoe (Viscum album)

and the bulbs of

nonscriptus) are

the Bluebell (Endymion

examples.

In the Middle Ages small birds were

caught on sticks coated with birdlime, a
practice which is still carried on in such

countries as Portugal

and

Italy.

Today the

glues are obtained from the petro-chemi-

Snuff
Parliament acted to
'Prevent the Mischiefs by manufacturing
In

7 15, the British

leaves and other things to Resemble

Tobacco, and the Abuses in Making and
Mixing of Snuff. The bill notes that 'It is
found by experience that of late Several
Evil Persons have Cut, Cured, Manufactured and Sold Wallnut-Tree-Leaves,
Hop leaves, Sycamore Leaves and other

Herbs, Plants and Materials

resembling Tobacco.'
Snuff is made by a complicated and
intricate process of fermenting Tobacco
with salt, Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra),
Tonka bean [Dipteryx odorata) and other
Leaves,

400 years ago one of the

most effective birdlimes came from the
Holly tree (Ilex aquifolium).
The Holly's young bark was stripped
from the tree, soaked and boiled, and the
inner layer allowed to ferment - sometimes this was done by burying the material in a closed container. This fermentation
produced a mucilaginous mass, which was
then ground, washed and refermented,
finally being mixed with a fatty substance
to produce an extremely effective sticky
cal industry, but

paste.

Birdlime from Holly is a useful glue in

greenhouses or animals' quarters, and can
be incorporated in fly papers.

GARDENING
the

GARDEN AND VETERINARY

number of herbs can be used in

garden to deal with pests and have the

Below:

advantage of not producing the

chemical insecticides. The
moles, Clover

Quassia

is

is

side-effects

Mole Plant

in particular

- have

a number of parts to play in the natural

cycle. Some decompose to form valuable

of

repels

fertilizers; others control pests or act as

a good fertilizer , and

an excellent pest deterrent.

makes much

Plants - and herbs

and there are some plants

other plant and insect
without there being any known

insecticides;

It

seem

that

better sense, ecologically, to

to affect

use herbs such as these judiciously in the

life

garden.

scientific basis to their success.

COMPOST ACCELERATOR
Home-made compost is a valuable asset

can be made into an accelerating material

that rapidly breaks

Mix equal
officinalis),

quick guide to successful gardening

Fertilizers

green manure
sativa)

Clover
{Tri folium pra tense)

green manure

Wrack

mulch manure

Pyrethrum

{Chrysanthemum

aphids. leaf-hoppers,

cinerariifolium)

spider mites, etc

controls:

{Denis elliptica and

D. malaccensis)

aphids, leaf-eating
caterpillars,

mosquito

larvae

Quassia
{Picraena exelsa)

controls:

mealybugs,

leaf-

hoppers, thrips. slugs

plants, leaves or

bark

box or bin

is

ANIMAL CARE
Animals benefit from medicinal herbs in
the same way that humans do, and there
are many substances which are effective
but considered too powerful for human
use. Examples include some of the stronger plant purgatives and vermifuges used to
expel worms.
plants
history

(POISONOUS)

aphids, leaf-hoppers.

{Nicotian a tabacum)

thrips. spider mites.

White Bryony {Bryonia

has been used
supplement horse and

sativus) skins,
floor

3-4

left

on

nights

Angelica {Angelica
archangelica) -

lathyrus)

planted
crops

among

salad

Parsley {Petroselinum
cri spurn)

ex-

for

traditionally

to

fodder to
dried root of the

cattle

The

traps:

can also be used as a purgative.

lice in animal coats can be
treated very easily and successfully with a
decoction of Walnut (Juglans regia) leaves
or Stavesacre {Delphinium staphisagria)
seed, soaked overnight. Pyrethrum {Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium), Derris {Derris

earwigs

disperses:

rodents

hides. It

Fleas

elliptica)

and

or

Wormwood

{Artemisia absin-

each mixed with water are also

very effective. Soak the coat thoroughly
with the liquid, then brush and comb well
once dry. If used in large quantities, use as
a dip rather than a lotion.
Horseheal or Scabwort {Inula helenium)
has been used in veterinary medicine in
the effective treatment of sheep scabs.
thium)

repels:

moles

Onions {Allium cepa)

dioica),

ample,

same plant can be used directly to polish

the coat, while tanners use it to thicken

and
over the garden

Mole Plant {Euphorbia

employed

supplements.

condition their coats.

root into pieces

scatter

been

food

as

repels:

hollow stem among

herbaceous plants

chop

have

cockroaches, woodlice in
sheds and greenhouses

scatter pieces of the

White Hellebore
{Veratrum album) -

form thin

essential.

Many

Cucumber {Cucumis

to

layers, and then alternate with any green

garden rubbish and soil, dampening the
pile with water as it is made. Compost
manufacture is greatly assisted by a warm

through

whitefly

Plant associations

whole

controls:

Nicotine

from folklore

officinale),

Yarrow {Achillea milleand Oak bark (Quercus spp). Use

folium)

post

controls:

Derris

Traps and controls

DandeChamomile

Nettle [Urtica dioica),

temperature, and a well-ventilated com-

(Fucus vesiculosus)
Insecticides

waste.

{Matricaria recutita),

Lucerne

{Medicago

down

parts of Valerian [Valeriana

{Taraxacum

lion

to

the gardener, making use of green waste

and enriching the soil. Some herbs decompose more quickly than others and

discourages:
rabbits

repels:

Rose beetle
repels:

HERBS FOR BEAUTY

Chives {Allium

blackspot, mildew,

The

schoenoprasum)
- near Roses

aphids

reflects

Garlic {Allium sativum)

repels:

an individual. Healthy
skin and hair cannot be obtained by

or Chives {Allium

aphids

Garlic {Allium sativum) or

lettuce or peas

Hyssop {Hyssopus
officinalis) - near beans

the inner physical

and psycho-

logical health of

schoenoprasum)

- near

health and appearance of the skin

repels:

blackfly

cosmetic use alone and attention should

be paid to well-balanced diet and adequate exercise, rest and general health.
Herbal or natural cosmetics are, however,

of material

especially

if

benefit

to

the

body

used on a regular basis.

103

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

HERBAL BATHS
The

scenting of water is a long practised

custom, and it renders the water refreshing for bathing. The Romans threw

Lavender {Lavandula spp) into

their baths,

not only to scent the water, but to act as a

name

disinfectant. In fact, the

Lavandula

from the Latin lavare, meaning to wash.

Herbal baths are taken today for one or

is

more of

They

several reasons.

stimulate

the action of the pores, relax the muscles

and soothe the

joints,

and perfume the

water.

Bath bags
The best results

are to be obtained by

using a herb sachet.

square or circle of
should be

or muslin

either cheesecloth

with herbs and tied securely. Fix the

bag under running hot water, agitating
and wringing it out to release the oils and
filled

perfume, then allow

it

to steep in the

bath

water.

Oatmeal can be mixed together with

the herbs to help soften the water and
impart smoothness to the skin. Use in the
proportion of twice the amount of finely
ground oatmeal to the amount of herbs.
The herbs can be chosen from what is
available or they may be mixed according
to

stimulating effect,

Some

herbs have a
while various others

personal preference.

Tonic baths

Above

Herbs

astringent for oily skin

when

only yield their essential oils

subjected to heat, so those rich in
will

fragrant

used

sauna:

Elder flowers

flowers

(Matricaria

Sambuciu nigra

recu-

Lime

Tilia x europaea or T. x vulgaris

Sage leaves (Salvia officinalis

Thyme
{Thymus vulgaris
and Verbena leavelerbena officinalis, or Eucalyptus Euca-

are relaxing.

Herbs

for the bath

Stimulating

(Ocimum

basilicum)
Bay (Laurus n obilis)
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)
Lavender (Lavandula spica)
Lemon Verbena (Aloysia triphylla)
Basil

Lovage (Ligusticum officinale) also

considered to act as a deodorant

Meadowsweet

(Filipendula ulmaria)

Mint (Mentha sppj

Pine (Pinus sppj
Rosemary (Rosmarinus

Sage (Salvia

officinalis)

Thyme (Thymus

cataria)

Chamomile (Matricaria recutita)

Jasmine (Jasminum officinale)
Lime flowers
T.

(Tilia x

europaea or

x vulgaris)

Vervain (Verbena officinalis)

Healing

Comfrey (Symphytum officinale)

Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris)
Mangold (Calendula officinalis)
Mint (Mentha spp,)
Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)

104

to look really

Collect

is

required

when

dingy and tired

will
prove

new young

shoots

after

the skin tends

Blackberry
invaluable.

leaves

(Rubus)

and

is

an ingredient

'

cleansers.

Bath oils
Very few oils

will disperse completely in

you do not want to emerge
glistening from top to toe, use a specialist
oil. Castor oil (sometimes sold as Turkey
Red oil from the Castor Oil plant

water, so

if

Ricinus communis

disperses

and does not

and

and

leaves,

Sandalwood (Santalum

Allow to infuse for three to five

minutes, and then strain and add the

bath.

i5F).

warm

bath

Similar tonics are easy to

make

using

album).

teaspoonful of the

cum

officinale)

every 3-4

(1 lb)

litres

for

It

is,

quantities of various essential oils until

water Allow

you find ones which suit you. The different

fragrances are supposed to affect the
emotions differently, a theory which is
practised by aromatherapists who use

(6-8

pts) of

30 minutes, then strain and add to a

bath.

essential oils in the treatment of a

Left: This chart details the properties of

various herbs which can be infused

added

to the

bath.

the skin's pores, relax muscles

number

of physical and emotional conditions.

and

the action

Bath salts
You can add

and

turn the routine bath into a luxurious ex-

Herbal baths are taken

for many reasons : they stimulate

of

there-

advisable to experiment with small

of dried plant matter to

the flowers or herbs to steep in the liquid

warm

the

Aromatic oils can be used, of course.

Just a drop or two will prove sufficient
since pure plant oils are powerful and
fore,

Allow 450g

Pour into

oil is sufficient for

some may cause headaches.

it

screw on the lid, shake to mix

thoroughly and then store until required.
Shake each time before using - one

Nettle (Urtica dioica), Dandelion (Taraxa-

or Daisies (Bellis perennis

Mix

with your favourite aromatic oil in the

proportion of half a cup of Castor oil to ten
drops of aromatic oil such as Rosemary
Rosmarinus officinalis!, Pine (Pinus spp) or
a jar,

liquid to the

particularly efficient as an

of many natural' facial

dry and crush them with a rolling pin. To

each 560 ml (20 fl oz) of water, add yog
(6 oz) of plant matter, and then heat the
two together to a temperature of 45C

vulgaris)

Relaxing

Catnep (Nepeta

winter, for example,

(1

officinalis)

a real tonic that

is

is

leave a dirty ring around the bath.

lyptus globulus).

If it

Yarrow

when

[Ocimum

Basil

try

Chamomile

basilicum).
tita

are especially effective

oils

in

soothe

a handful of bath salts to

The soda

base

of the

joints, and, additionally, impart a pleasant

perience.

perfume.

neutralizes the acids secreted by the skin

salts

SOAP
perfume clings to the body
and it softens even the hardest
of waters at the same time.
so that the

Right : Summer Savory

afterwards,

value in the home. Apart from

Mix

the following ingredients together

i40g

(5 oz)

&5g

(3

Bicarbonate of Soda

salads, sauces

broad beans,

Applied

powdered Orris root

to

is

of great practical
its

use in

and as a complement

it

to

also has medicinal properties.

a bee sting, the crushed fresh leaf

germanica)

of Summer Savory relieves pain, and it can

also be added to aromatic bath mixtures.

few drops of essential oils such as oil of

oil
of Rosemary or oil of

recipe can be followed very easily:

oz)

[Iris

Xeroli,

Lavender
Once mixed together, pound in a pestle
and mortar, and then store in an airtight
tin. They will keep for about three months
so long as the container

is

firmly sealed.

After-bath cologne
Use this fragrant cologne
rub

as

a friction

after a bath.

\ cup

- Roses (Rosa

fresh flower petals

'Take a pound of fine white Castile Sope,

shave it thin in a pinte of Rose-water,
and let it stand for two to three days, then
pour all the water from it, and put to it
halfe a pinte of fresh water, and so let it
stand for one whole day, then pour out
that, and put half a pint more, and let it
stand a night more, then put to it halfe an
ounce of powder called Sweet Marjoram,
a quarter of an ounce of powder of Winter
Savory (Satureia montana
two or three
drops of Oil of Spike, and the Oyl of
,

sppi, Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus),

Jasmine

(Jasminum

any

or

officinale

other strongly scented species.

\ cup deodorized alcohol*
1 j cups very hot water
3 tablespoons ground citrus peel
tablespoon dried Basil Ocimum basilicum) or Lemon Verbena (Aloysia triphyl1

la)
1

(crushed)

tablespoon Mint

{Thymus
*Note: In
excise

Mentha spp or

(crushed

vulgaris)

many

Thyme

make

difficult

to

obtain certain alcohols normally used in

cosmetics. As a substitute use food-grade
isopropyl alcohol which can be obtained
from most chemists.

Soak the flowers in the alcohol lor one

week in a tightly closed jar. On the sixth
day, make an infusion of the citrus peel
and herbs in the hot water, then allow to
stand for 24 hours.
Strain through cheesecloth or muslin;
then drain the petals. Combine the two

ajar or

resulting liquids in

screw top and shake well.

bottle with a

Use a

little

whenever required.

Soap balls
Perfumed or medicated balls of soap were
popular in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries before soapmaking was industrialized. The most
sophisticated kinds were made in Italy
and incorporated exotic perfumes and a
wide range of aromatic powders. Soap
balls were made in most homes, either in
the still-room or pantry, and the traditional recipes can be adapted to modern day
extremely

requirements very

easily.

Use Castile or simple (unperfum* :d

soap as a base. After grating it, add a
variety

of perfumed

powdered

roots.

The

Ambergris and the same of

The almond cake could

macaroon or

it

petals,

and

as

much

Ambergris, work all together in a fair

Mortar, with the Powder of an Almond
cake dryed, and beaten as small as fine
flowre, so roll it round in your hands in
Rose-water.' (Ambergris and Musk can
be substituted by three drops of essence of
oil

leaves

or

following traditional

i5g \\ oz) Plantain [Plantago lanceolata)

leaves

i5g
r

oz) Cornflowers (Centaurea cyanus)

(-j

5g

(2

420ml (15

(Melilotus

flowers

oz) boiling water

fl

Make an

ratafia biscuit.)

Melilot

oz )

officinalis)

of Musk.

be replaced by a

and

countries customs

regulations

Cloves, three grains of Musk,

infusion of the

herbs in the

boiling water. Allow to stand for an hour,

Modern washballs
1

then strain and use

large bar simple soap or Castile soap

cup of Rose-water (Rosa spp)

drops
oil of Lavender (Lavandula
3
i

when

tepid.

few

drops in the eyes will relieve tiredness,

while it can also be used as an eye bath to
soothe soreness and inflamed eyelids.

spica)

Crate the bar of soap into a suitable container, then pour the Rose-water over it.
Allow the soap to stand in the liquid for 15
minutes, and then transfer to an electric
blender or pestle and mortar, adding the
oil of Lavender, one drop at a time.
Once smoothly blended, pour the mix-

Cornflowers (Centaurea cyanus)

(j oz)

5g

or Eyebright (Euphrasia rostkoviana)

420ml

(15

oz) water or rain-water

fl

Infuse the flowers in the water by boiling.

Strain and allow to cool.

liquid

The

add sparkle and

will

resulting

vitality

to

tired, sore eyes.

ture into a basin, then allow to stand for a

Form

by breaking off pieces and rolling them in your

hands. Allow the soap to dry and harden.
To obtain a smooth and attractive finish,
moisten your hands with Rose-water and
roll the balls into shape in the palms of
your hands.

day or

so.

into small balls

BODY POWDERS
The best known of all the body powders
Talcum powder. The word 'talcum'
from the Persian

talk,

and

strictly

powdered Hydrated Magnesium Silicate.

soft greasy powder was first introduced to European toiletry in the sixteenth century.

The term 'talcum powder'

is

A quick and

includes mixtures containing

requires

(ea

(ucumis sativus) over each eye and resting

now

used

mays),

rather

loosely,

precipitated

and often
Corn starch

chalk

(light

Calcium Carbonate) and various other

in a

darkened room for five to ten minutes.

For those with more time, try either of the

substances.

following recipes, noting that they have id

be used fresh and stored no longer than 12
hours. Decomposition takes place aftei

toilet, face,

powdered

period of time and can cause even

greater irritation to the eyes.

best.

this

is

means

This

EYE BATHS
simple remedy for eye strain
placing a slice of Cucumbei

is

It

is

relatively easy to

make

scented, cosmetic

a range of

and talcum

powders, either using a chemical base, a

herbal material or a combination of the two
the latter is often

[05

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

Frangipani (Plumeria

rubra)

Lavender (Lavandula spica)

Ylang-Ylang [Cananga odorata)

Lime

x europaea or T. x

Tilia

Lemon

vulgaris)

grass (Andropogon spp)

Neroli (Citrus aurantium)

Rose-Geranium

(Pelargonium graveolens)

Aniseed (Pimpinella anisum)

Bay (Laurus

nobilis)

Add

the essential oil to the base drop by

drop and mix thoroughly, using a pestle
and mortar for the best results.
Supplement with powdered aromatic
seeds or herbs to a proportion of two parts
base to one part additional ingredients.
Experiment with different aromas for the
one that suits individual taste.

Foot powder
Foot care

both

important,

is

for

their

health and to relieve general soreness.

This powder

and

the toes
j

will

reduce friction between

so eases walking.

cup Talc

j cup Corn starch (%ea mays)

\ teaspoon Peppermint (Mentha x piperita)
extract

Traditionally,

known

powder

cosmetic

as poudre de chipre

was made by

Above

The

oil

be added to a dry pot-pourri

macerating Oakmoss in running water

for two to three days. It was then dried
and reduced to a powder. Oakmoss is
now rarely available, and the most

fragrance or

common

Frangipani

plant

Orris root

(Iris

powder

bases are either

germanica) or

Corn starch

mays).

(Zjea

Chemical base:
30% French chalk;

40%

Orris root;

30% Corn

Rice flour.
(These percentages refer
All the ingredients

an old mixture ;

starch;

10%

(2

to weight.)

must be reduced

to as

powder as possible. Combine these

chemical and herbal bases in any proportion you wish, or use them separately.
fine a

Experimentation will reveal the best type

powder for your skin type.

of

powdered Tonka

oz)

(Dipteryx

beans

Poudre a

la

Mousseline

Lavender

450g

described)

i70g

(6

(1

lb)

50g

50g

powdered Mace

oz)

(2

25g

powdered Cloves (Syzygium

(1

ozj

25g

(1

oz)

powdered Cassia {Cinnamomum

powdered Sandalwood

talum album)
Mil)

powdered Lavender flowers

(2

Gum

powdered

oz)

Benzoin

(1

fl

oz)

Lavender

oil

(San-

teaspoon Myrrh (Commi-

Place the mixture on an

open tray and heat

at

oven

in the

medium

for

about

temperature.

Remove and allow to cool for ten minutes

then grind very finely in a pestle and
mortar or electric grinder. Press the mixand store the
powder; throw away any lumps

in the sieve.

This

is

gently abrasive at

first

(until the

components dissolve in the mouth) as well

as being an effective antibacterial. Use it
with a soft action on the teeth with an
ordinary toothbrush.

CLEANSING THE SKIN

essential oils:

Bergamot (Monarda didyma)

the skin.

450g

(1

lb)

base (chemical or herbal, as

described)

cassia)

and

sea salt

phora molmol).

4 teaspoons Sage leaf

teaspoons rock salt or

Everyone knows the importance of keeping the pores of the skin unclogged and
clean. This often requires more than a
quick wash with soap and water, and
steaming the face is the quickest and
cheapest way to improve the cleanliness of

aromaticum)

25g

lb)

Simple scented powder

oz)

(1

(1

{Myristica

fragrans)

made by mixing

(Salvia officinalis), 3

(Styrax benzoin)

25ml

(Coriandrum sativum)

simple and very effective tooth powder

is

left

base (chemical or herbal, as

(Lavandula spica)

powdered Coriander seed

oz)

Tooth powder

resulting

base (chemical or herbal as

lb)

(1

all the ingredients together thoroughthen keep in a jar with a tight-fitting

lid. Use after drying the feet thoroughly.

ture through a fine sieve

graveolens)

described)

450g

Mix

30 minutes

4 drops Neroli oil (Citrus aurantium)

4 drops Bergamot oil (Monarda didyma)
4 drops Rose-Geranium oil (Pelargonium

450g

food-

aroma

iog (4 oz) powdered Sandalwood (Santalum album)

odorata)

(or

ly,

1.2kg (2$ lb) base (chemical or herbal, as

described)

50g

teaspoon rubbing alcohol

grade isopropyl alcohol)

it is

iiog (4 oz) powdered Vanilla (Vanilla

planifolia) beans

precipitated chalk.

enhance the

sun-tan lotions.

starch;

Herbal base

60%

to revive

to

often used in body powders, perfumes and

30% Corn

of this plant, Bergamot, can

drops

of any

one of the following

Patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli)

Provided your skin

is

fairly

normal

CLEANSERS

Chamomile flowers {Matricaria recutita) or

Lime flowers Tilia x europaea or T. x

try gently pushing out the blackheads

with a tissue and clean fingertips. Steaming should unblock the pores - a blackhead is only a blockage of grease (sebum)
secreted by glands under the surface of the
skin, with a layer of dirt trapped on top.
Excessive pressure may cause local skin
damage, and the formation of spots or

vulgaris) for the best results.

pimples. If this happens, add 50g (2 oz)

Place a towel over your head, lower

your face until it is just above the bowl

Burdock root {Arctium

not too dry or sensitive, with no thread

veins visible - begin by making an infusion
of herbs in a large bowl. Use three tablespoonfuls to two

litres

(3^ pts) of boiling

water. Choose between Sage {Salvia offici{Mentha x piperita),

Peppermint
nalis,

and allow the vapour

skin.

The

to rise to

meet your

towel forms a tent that traps the

vapour, and you should allow the treatment to continue as long as you can bear
the heat; ten minutes is about the right
length of time.
After steaming, the skin will be pink

and glowing. Splash with tepid and then

cold water to close the pores, or use an
astringent lotion dabbed on with cotton
wool or tissues. Stay indoors for an hour or
so after steaming, and do not repeat the

560ml
(20 fl oz) cold water. Bring to the boil and
simmer for 15 minutes. Allow to cool,
strain and apply to the infected spot.
lappa)

to

MASKS FOR OILY SKIN

Most people have

some

at least

oily areas

of skin on their face, and blackheads and

whiteheads tend to congregate where
there

is

an excess of grease. Steaming

one method
masks and packs,

is

of attack, but there are others

designed to clear

for

this

example, that are

grease away.

Oatmeal {Avena sativa), Almond meal

dulcis) and Corn starch {^jea mays)
are all substances that when mixed with

Above:

Herbal butter-milk cleanser

Lemon

as a cosmetic,

No

water or tepid milk or butter-milk, and

then rubbed over the face, will act as
cleansing agents. Beaten egg white and/or
yoghurt can be used to control grease,

treatment

Primus

for at least three days.

beauty routine should be without a

lotion to cleanse the skin at the end of the
day. This recipe

most

its

action, but

effective.

140ml

(5

Elder

Lime

nigra) or

or T. x vulgaris

Sambucm

flowers

flowers

applied

either

oz) butter-milk

fl

tablespoons

gentle in

is

Tilia

x europaea

{Citrus limon) juice, cider vinegar,

directly

to

the

combined with any one of

face

the

or

agents

described above, together with herbs such

as

Yarrow

{Achillea millefolium),

Chamo-

A woman from Mozambique

wearing a herbal face paint. Though valued

flowers

it

also protects her skin.

{Sambucus

nigra),

Sage

{Salvia

Lady's Mantle {Alchemilla

officinalis)
vulgaris). Yarrow tea - made by infusing
two tablespoons of dried Yarrow in a
glass and a half of boiling water -- is
or

especially

recommended

for clearing ex-

cessively oily skins.

mile flowers

Heat the butter-milk, add the flowers and

boil gently lor approximately hall an
hour. Leave to infuse lor two hours.
Strain before using;: apply to the hue with
cotton wool and remove all traces of dirt,
grease and make-up with gentle movements.

{Matricaria

recutita),

The

Elder

action of a face pack rids the skin of

impurities by drawing

Below

own

to

An

oatmeal face pack

draw

out impurities

is

from

used on

the skin, or

as a binding agent in combination with

other cosmetic herbs.

its

It

them to the surface.

and stimulates the

also tightens the skin

circulation, thus encouraging the skin to

glow. The use of masks on drier skins

should be undertaken with care. Although
they can humidify the skin and restore
natural oils, masks must be blended carefully to fulfil these functions.

Fragrant cleansing lotion

420ml (15

fl

oz)

warm Rose-water

handfuls dried Rose petals

preferably

Rosa gal I a a

5g

Mix

i/iboz
the

Gum

Benzoin

si run benzoin

warm Rose-water

Rose petals

with the dried

an earthenware jar. Leave

to infuse for one to two hours, and then
strain off the liquid. Leave a day or so
before adding the Cum Benzoin. Use to
in

cleanse the skin as

in the

previous recipe.

Blackheads
Blackheads are a problem even on a
unblemished skin. If rubbing

relatively

Tomato
Marrow iC.ucur-

the affected spot with a slice of

{

Ly copersicon

esculenlum) or

bita pepo var. ovifera)

and then rinsing

There are a wide range of herbs and

that can be utilized for making
packs for the face and neck. Milk, yoghurt,
egg white or egg yolk, Oatmeal {Avena
sativa), honey or Fuller's earth are all
spreading or thickening agents, though
fruits

in

tepid water does not work, give the face

a steaming treatment as described, then

simple treatments exist such as

rubbing the skin with fresh Cucumber
{Cucumis sativus) or Strawberry {Fragaria

quite

vesca).

The

usual

method

for using a face

mask

back the hair or protect it in

some way, lie down on a bed or lean back
in a chair and spread the pack over the
face and neck. Avoid the skin around eyes
and lips as these areas are too delicate to
be stimulated in this way. Raise the level
of your feet above your head, then rest for
is

to fasten

10 to 15 minutes. The mask should then be

washed away using tepid water and tissues

or cotton wool.
107

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

The most renowned gentle
common Cucumber. It

Right

of all

is the

astringent

favourite

fruit.

also

(Fragaria

vesca),

provides a quick remedy for eye strain

slice

and soothing

Peach (Prunus

Water Melon

of Cucumber placed over each eye has a

cooling

Incorporate Strawberry

apple

(Citrullus

(Ananas

Pine-

Cucumber

and

sativa)

persica),

lanatus),

(Cucumis sativus) with or without the white

ejfect.

of an egg and reduce

Astringent

all to a pulp in a
blender or pestle and mortar. The flesh of
the fruit should be as smooth as possible.
Spread over the face and neck, relax for
a few minutes, then wash off.

mask

for oily skin

Blend together equal amounts of Tomato
juice and the pulp of a Lemon. As an
alternative, you can steep the Tomato
juice in the pulp of the cut halves of
the Lemon, and then scrape away the

NOURISHING THE SKIN

combined pulp. The end result is exactly

the same, whichever method you use.

Some skins require

when exposed to

Splash the mixture on your face, paying

particular attention to the greasy areas,

weather. All the recipes that follow are for

then wash off with tepid water after the

sensitive or has a

Egg white and cucumber mask

Egg white is renowned for tightening the
skin and temporarily firming away lines
and lifting sagging skin. It works most

Mix
2
i

Yeast face

as 'orange-peel' skin.

together:

egg whites

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)

teaspoon Lemon juice [Citrus

limon)

5 teaspoon Peppermint extract

x piperita

teaspoon

50%

rubbing alcohol

(or

isopropyl alcohol)
ice

with

the egg whites, then blend together

all

the other ingredients in an electric

blender. Anything

left

over can be stored

your refrigerator.
Dab the mixture on to your face and
leave for approximately eight minutes. If
there is an excessive tingling effect before
this time, remove the pack with tepid
water and tissues or cotton wool and
splash the skin once more with tepid water
afterwards, or omit the alcohol.
in

MASKS FOR DRY SKIN

It is not advisable to use any drying
treatment on skin that is either naturally
dry or ageing. Egg white is particularly

damaging, since it dries on the face and

becomes a powerful astringent.
Use fatty substances such as egg yolk as
a spreader, and incorporate such agents as
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) or Wheat

germ

Triticum vulgare)

oil,

Almond

(Pru-

nus dulcis) or Linseed (Linum usitatissimum)

Other ingredients such as Apple

Malus spp) juice, Peach (Prunus persica)
or Pear (Pyrus communis) juice, mixed with
ground Almonds (Prunus dulcis) will help
oil.

revitalize the skin

to secrete

100

by stimulating the pores

more natural

oils.

mask

are well

known

for their healing,

tablespoon brewer's yeast

teaspoon Comfrey infusion (Symphytum

(35

fl

teaspoon sugar
\ teaspoon tincture of Benzoin
1

Mix

teaspoon Marigold infusion (Calendula

teaspoon skin

this

oil

oil

thus annuus),

Avocado

oil

can be a favourite

or Sunflower

proprietary

Olea

oil

(Helian-

(Persea americana),

europaea)

or

(Styrax

almonds with the Rose

the

water

or rain-

mixture resembles a fine

paste. Then filter through fine muslin.
Add sugar and a few drops of tincture of
Benzoin (Styrax benzoin) and bottle ready
until the

for use.

Peanut

(Arachis hypogaea) oil

Combine

litre

benzoin)

teaspoon milk or yoghurt

Olive

ground almonds
ozj Rose-water or rain-water

4-Og (1^ oz)

teaspoon honey

officinalis)
1

cubes

Whip

oil

Almonds

officinale)

(Mentha

Almond

skin.

nourishing and soothing effect on the skin

and were used extensively in ancient
Greece for facial and hand creams.

powerfully on. ageing, oily skin with large

known

drying effect of

the

If your skin is
tendency to blemishes,
do not use before seeking medical advice.

on

use

allotted time.

pores

normal

nourishing, especially

Cucumber

honey with a few drops of

very hot water. This will thin the honey
down and make it easier to use. Blend in
the yeast, then add the milk or yoghurt
and the herb infusions. Stir until it
becomes a thick paste.
Pat your face with the oil, and then
spread a layer of the paste. Allow to set for
approximately 15 minutes, then wash off
with tissues and splash with tepid water.
the

This

is

oil

also cooling in effect

and

is

an

excellent protection against sunburn.

You

will

2 ripe
1

need

Cucumbers

litre

(35

fl

(Cucumis sativus)

oz) cold water

(35 fl oz) rain-water

dessertspoons glycerine
\ teaspoon tincture of Benzoin
1

litre

(Styrax

benzoin)

Cut the Cucumbers

into

small

pieces,

For dry

including their rinds. Put them in a pan

with the cold water. Bring to the boil

ing

gradually and simmer

Oatmeal

facial

skins, Oatmeal makes a nourishand somewhat bleaching base when

mixed with a favourite flower water -

Rose-water, Elder flower-water, for example.

Work the ingredients into a paste, then
pat onto the face and neck. Allow to dry
for up to 15 minutes, then wash off with
tepid water or clean off with tissues and
pat with a damp face flannel.

When

a jelly bag.
water,

This

is

a recipe to try in the height of

summer when

there

is

a glut of your

cold,

glycerine

the

20 minutes.

mix with the rainand tincture of

Benzoin. Apply to the skin as required.

Cold cream

of this applied every night before

little

sleep will feed

Fruit sundae special

for

Strain and squeeze through fine muslin or

70g
25g

(2-j
(1

340ml

and

revitalize

your

oz) spermaceti

oz) fresh
(12

fl

beeswax

oz) sweet

Almond

oil

skin.

HAIR CARE
40ml (i
40ml (ij
40ml 1|
1

fl

oz) glycerine

fl

ozj

Rose-water

fl

oz)

Cucumber juice

Melt the spermaceti in a double boiler

with the fresh beeswax and the sweet
Almond oil. Stir continually with a wooden spoon or spatula. Once the ingredients
have melted and amalgamated, add the
glycerine, Rose-water and Cucumber

Anti-wrinkle lotion
Drop 15 to 20 Poppy (Papaver rhoeas)
petals into 280ml (10 fl oz) boiling water
and allow them to infuse for approximately ten minutes. Filter or strain and then
allow the liquid to cool belbre bottling.

Use night and morning;

is

it

especially

kind to dry skin.

Cocoa-butter neck smoother

juice.

the

until

Stir

cream

is

quite

cold.

Note: Cold cream derives its name from

the very fact that it is stirred until it is
cold. It is at the point when it sets that it

becomes ready

cream recipe

50g (2 oz) fresh beeswax

435ml (i-jj fl oz) Almond
glycerine
25ml
fl oz
25ml
fl ozj Rose-water
io drops Rose essence
1

(Theobroma

cacao)
1

tablespoon lanolin

j cup

W heat germ

oil

Triticum vulgare) or

or

mays)

Peanut

\Arachis

hypogaea) oil

4 tablespoons water (optional)

iog (4 oz) spermaceti

tablespoon Cocoa butter

Corn (ea

for use.

Alternative cold

Melt

all

three

oils in

a double boiler until

oil

completely dissolved. (The addition of

water makes the cream easier to spread.)

for

Allow to cool, place in jars and refrigerate.

Shake before use. The mixture may be
cloudy but this in no way impairs the
power of the cream.

any

other

fragrance preferred)

ducts have classified the general public

into three categories: those with dry,

greasy or normal hair. The herbal trichologist, however, claims that all hair is
normal - normal to the individual that is and that dryness and greasiness should
not be treated as an isolated condition,
but as part of a larger problem.
Anyone who feels they have severe
problems with their hair, either with an
excess of oil or hair that

their action.

On

the other hand, a natural

always leaves a certain amount of grease,

dirt, on the hair. By modern
standards, of course, this would not be
considered clean enough.
The first step towards using herbs for
hair health is to get a good shine - nothing
else may be necessary. Make an infusion

Below

then bottle until required.

lating the circulation.

substance, keratin,

Night cream
Use this very rich and nourishing cream
every night
youthful and

to
to

keep your skin looking

help smooth out

contains lanolin which

is

lines,

waxy substance

obtained from wool grease and is used

widely in cosmetics lor its moisturizing
effect on the skin.

beeswax

2 teaspoons

2 teaspoons lanolin

4 teaspoons Almond oil Prunus dul<i\

2 teaspoons distilled water
pinch of borax or 3 drops of tincture
2

Benzoin (Styrax benzoin

capsules
teaspoon Wheal germ
(

oi

of Rosemary (Rosmarinus

through the use of a variety of herbal

recutita

preparations.

favour.

Hair

is

warmed distilled water, then allow

both liquids to cool. Mix them together,
then beat in the Wheat germ oil.
Note: Add infusion of Comfrey Symphytum officinale) or Marigold
Calendula
t

officinalis) to assist cell

regeneration.

It

of a
re-

The majority of proprietary herbal hair

products have a synthetic basis, an attractive perfume, delightful packaging and a
pretty name. However, purely herbal
shampoos, among other things, have been
made in the past, and even today herbalists still base their range of hair cosmetii s
and medicaments on completely natural
substances. Apart from shampoos, you
will find that they stock hair and scalp
conditioners, rinses and dyes. If you make
them yourself, you will derive far more
satisfaction and save money, too.

to

dioica),

Nettle

{Matricaria

or any herbs you particularly

Measure 560ml (20 fl oz) of water

each 25g

( 1

oz) weight of herb. Boil the

water. Place the herbs in a suitable container such as a jug or basin

Although hair

the condition
cells.

The

(right)

is

composed of a dead

health depends upon

of the scalp and underlying

diagram shows a hair in the

top

and frightened'
The bottom diagram shows how a

normal position
itnc hair

its

and pour the

is

(left)

produced from the

follicle.

Shampoos
certain plants which contained soapy sub-

stances called saponins.

and Almond
oil in a double boiler until they have
melted and combined. Dissolve the borax
the beeswax, lanolin

in the

made up

cannot be

a dead substance

Urtica

officinalis),

Chamomile

Pure herbal shampoos of the past relied on

oil

Triticum vulgare)

Warm

Throughout the centuries, man has improved the health and beauty of his hair

protein called keratin.

shampoo

and therefore

juvenated. No amount of wishful thinking

will bring it back to life, though massage
will encourage healthy growth by stimu-

HAIR HEALTH

so dry that the

ends are badly split, should consider their

general health. Greasy hair can be associated with diet, while those with dry hair
should look first to their shampoo: it
could be far too strong. Synthetic shampoos leave the hair unnaturally clean, the
acidic balance of the hair being upset by

Melt the spermaceti, beeswax and Aloil in a double boiler. Pour into a
basin and mix with a wooden spoon or
spatula. Leave to set in the refrigerator.
Pound for 45 minutes in a mortar, or
blend in an electric mixer until it turns into a thick white cream, add the glycerine
and Rose-water. Blend again for two to
three minutes to emulsify the cream. Add
the Rose essence and mix again for one
minute. Refrigerate until it solidifies, and

mond

is

One

of

the best

an attractive
flowering perennial bush called Soapwort
(Saponaria officinalis). This type of shampoo produces very little foam and gives
dry astringent wash. It was last produced
commercially in 1930. Those with greasy
hair will find a decoction of Soapbark
sources of these substances

is

.1

(Quillaja saponaria) very effective.

Manufacturers of commercial hair proIO()

domestic: and cosmetic uses

Left

An

An

Indian lady displays the palms of

lotion can be derived

with Henna. Henna was also used

Pyrus cydonia). Measure 50g

Quince seed and boil in 280ml

dye

to

nails red.

last

rinse for deliciously scented results.

Even

would be white wine, white or

better

cider vinegar.

An

Rosemary

Rosmarinus

can also impart shine

to hair. It

has the advantage of acting as a mild anti-

Steep the spikes

septic.

water

in boiling

lor

is

ill-advised

Chamo-

of

parts

recutita

Rosemary

officinalis;,

Nettle

millefolium

Place 25g
a container

root

was

also used as a

teenth century.

Wheat

Triticum vulgare)

whiten wigs and

in 1748, the year of the Great Famine, a
quarter of a million pounds weight of hair

and

lichens

were used

powder was used

to

to

indulge fashion while

These are usually acidic

taining

Lemon

(Citrus

limon).

Aloysia triphylla).

designed

to

Verbena

rid

officinalis:

the

hair

To

of the

common

Urtica dioica:,

a non-volatile

Below

the hair

called

oil

Herbs were
powders

the

only herb
contains

It

apigemn u Inch

so

essential constituents for

much

in

vogue in

elaborate coiffure probably contained

powdered Orris

root

and Rosemary

leaf.

and then

and

ssels

lustre.

make an

stinging
strain

in-

Nettle

and

cool.

encourage healthy growth.

so

The

stimulant plant Jaborandi Pilocarpus

microphallus from Brazil was once the most

^^^ELj< :

'

popular herbal scalp conditioner and hair

restorer, but it is no longer considered safe
enough to use. If a massage is preferred,
take equal quantities of herbs such as
Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Nettle Urtica
.

Chamomile
and Yarrow 'Achillea

Matricaria

dioica.

recutita

millefolium), or

any

of those previously mentioned, and steep

in

560ml 120

of Sunflower

oz

fl

Place in the sun-

oil.

encourage the release of

Note the results for future

reference.

They

oils.

Lemon
are

all

of residual

made from the juice of all citrus fruits,

though Lemon is the most popular.
Lemon has traditionally been used, along
with vinegar, in a final rinse to remove
scum", so allowing the hair to shine with a

10

is

reallv lightens fair hair.

the scalp to dilate the blood

to

vinegar.

or

Rinses for use after shampooing can be

and

condition the scalp,

the herbs'

the natural acidic balance of the skin.

Add

which

and Henna [Lawsonia

nigra

Chamomile

Elder berries

dry shampoo.

con-

alkaline after shampooing, or to restore

natural lustre.

Sambucus
inermis

recutita.

light if possible to

in reaction,

Verbena
Verbena

Matricaria

eighteenth-century Europe. This lady's

usual way. Use as a final

in the

(Helianthus annuus)

Hair and scalp conditioners

mile

then strain

them

most of the populace starved.

coastlines.

similar kind of preparation can be used as a

Apply

Powdered Orris

pean

boiling water over them. Steep until cool,

mary

sweet-scented hair powder in the eigh-

less

fusion

then out again.

add

oz of the mixed herbs into

and pour 560ml 20 (1 0/. of

purchased in the form of a white powder,

ground from Orris root {Iris germanica),
Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), RoseQuassia
officinalis)
chips (Picraena exelsa), and each designed
to
remove grease from the hair by
absorption. Brush it into the hair, and

Achillea

light hair

more Chamomile, and for dark hair

Chamomile and more Rosemary.

rinse for general health

or

Horsetail

and Yarrow

For blonde or

Rosmarinus

Urtica dioica

or timed, try a dry shampoo. These can be

(Rosmarinus

include Kelp Fucus vesicuseaweed found on many Euro-

this recipe to

rinses tor

equal

Equisetum arvense

occasion where hair washing

much mucilage as possible is

squeezed through. The liquid will jellify
and set when cold. Apply either hot or
warm, as preferred. You can also adapt
as

dull hair, turn to those stalwarts

officinalis

of illness or an unexpected

making sure

press through muslin,

Chamomile

Salvia

eases

and

Brightening and lightening

For three quick and brightening

In

oz

commercial natural hair cosmetics.

Another pleasant rinse is one made by
Fennel
Foeniculum
vulgare), and Lime flowers
1 da x europaea
or T. x vulgaris
together with some Sam

muslin or cheesecloth. Allow to cool. Mix

the infusion with your usual shampoo and
wash your hair in the normal way.

fl

losus

Matricaria

30 minutes. Strain through

10

30 minutes, then strain and cool. Use as a

rinse as required. Rosemary, incidentally,
is
one of the major herbs added to

gathering

to steep for

of

oz)

(2

of water for 15 minutes. Make up the

quantity of liquid as it evaporates. Strain
that

infusion of

officinalis

boiling water over them. Allow the herbs

based setting
from the Quince

naturally

excellent

her hands which have been delicately painted

a teaspoonful to your

Setting lotions
Vegetable sources can be used to encourage the hair to curl, or at least to hold a
curl in place once it is set. Gum Tragacanth, an exudation from an Asiatic plant.
Astragalus gummifer,
setting

lotions

is

and

used as the basis for

as

certain hair conditioners.

Sodium

Alginate,

weeds, has been used

commercial setting

an

additive

More

derivative
to

of sea-

provide a basis

lotions.

in

recently.

for

4ltm

v
V

m *7i
<M * ^
tI9 ^^
5

fe

4T"

HAIR COLOURS
hair

light

gives

yellow tone.

lighter

Dves containing quick-lime, of a similar

nature to the depilatories, were used by

Roman women

as

bleaches, often with

To make

disastrous results.

Chamomile

make an

infusion from 50g (2 oz)

of the herb to 560ml (20 fl oz) of water.
rinse,

Steep, strain

and use

made

Romans as

a pack

grey hair and, used in this way, will

impart a bluish hue. You can either buy
Elder berries pre-dried, or gather your
for

own between September and November

when they are ripe and before the birds get
to them. Make up an infusion and add a
pinch of

brightness.

And

and alum

salt

so,

Use

additional

for

Henna

to

Lawsonia

brown

spp). For those of you with light

through red, dark brown

Henna is the perfect herb

to black hair

condition

to

highlight and give shine to your hair

Weigh out 25g

(1

Henna

oz) of

type will do - and

make an

history, but

is

what they have, make a strong

Rosemary (Rosmarinus officin- or preferably the oil - and rub into

leaf- any

Excessive

or dryness should be rebeing associated with general

oil

as

health. Dandruff, however, is the flakingoff of the top layer of skin on the scalp. Its
cause can also be linked with diet, climate,
environment and stress: any one of these
factors or several in combination.
Useful remedies include massaging
Olive oil or Sweet Almond oil gently into

the scalp to soften

could

use

an

alternatively you

it;

infusion

of

Chamomile

Marigold (Calendula
mixed and whipped into a
officinalis)
cream (cold cream) for this. This is then
(Matricaria recutita) or

applied to the scalp.

An itchy scalp is a

common complaint.
This is usually associated with stress rather
than with any physical cause. An infusion of

Chamomile

smells delightful

and

is

(Matricaria recutita

weak

sedative, as

well as soothing the scalp

itself.

can also be attributed

lice.

Itching

Vinegar
rinses are often effective in the removal of
nits (the eggs of the louse
that cement
to

themselves to the shaft of the hair. Altern-

an infusion of Poke Root (Phytolacca decandra), Quassia chips

Picraena
exelsa) or Juniper berries
Jumperus communis; can be used to rinse the hair; then
atively,

comb

beards to a youthful blue-black.

is an integral part of the Eastern
culture. Arabic women are given a sack of
Henna on the eve of their wedding with

Herbs tend to have a slow colouring effect,

and none act directly as a bleach. Commercially produced hair dyes and colouring

rinses

are

products and were

teenth century.

first

coal-tar

by-

used in the nine-

A large range of synthetic

organic dyes are

rinses

on

based

now

available,

(Lawsonia spp) was used to render

brown hair auburn and to help mask

greying strands, while acting as a marvellous conditioner at the same time. It is
easily absorbed, the colour being assimilated through the cuticle of the hair into
the cortex.

(Salvia officinalis) has

in

dead

in

Henna,

while a hennaed beard has great religious

significance for Muslims.

The powdered leaf gives a

hair when mixed with

rich red tone

water. It is
applied for two to three hours and has to
be maintained at a regular temperature;
to

cling film or silver

quality of the

foil assist in this.

Henna and

The

the colour

imparts to the hair depends on

and country of origin. Persian

its

it

source

Henna

is

producing a deep rich red;

Below: A branch from the Egyptian Privet

or Henna tree ( Lawsonia inermisj, the
powdered leaf of which provides Henna
which has traditionally been used as a
colouring agent for both hair

and body.

fl

oz)
for

and the
several

months. Use as a final rinse. Powdered

Rhubarb root (Rheum officinale) will add
attractive golden tone to light brown or
fair hair. It should be made into a pack
mixed with hot water and applied to the
hair for 30 minutes; but care must be
taken as it will dry the scalp. Another

remedy which is effective in

masking grey or white hair is to crush
Black Walnut leaves and husks (Juglans
nigra). Soaking in water will result in a
dark brown stain that will add tone to
grey or white hair. Other recipes can
include Marigold (Calendula officinalis)
traditional

petals to brighten blonde hair,

(

Quercus

robur)

for

reddish

Oak

bark

tone and

Alkanet (Anchusa officinalis) for a lighl

pink
lor those who want that colour.
Many other herbs (and spices) have been
tested over the years for their colouring
properties and found to be effective in
varying degrees. These include Woad
(Isatis

tincloriaj,

There
baldness have been sought

their

Berber

Certain

patterns.

embalm

needs to be strong

iog or 4 oz to 560ml or 20
process
repeated weekly
1

Turmeric

lor

intricate

families

been greatly recom-

ticular, has antiseptic qualities that repel

Cures

in

the past to disguise greying

hair, but the infusion

(

colour hair and

herbs and spices to

and Chamomile Matricaria recutita) were popular. Neither penetrate the

hair shaft, however, and such sources are
therefore used as colouring rinses and
shampoos rather than as direct dyes. Sage

mended

to

which they make a thick paste to colour

the hair and decorate their hands and feet

the finest,

The Romans used

tinctoria)

was used

false

available. Before

became commercially

reng,

Henna

Colouring and dyeing

campechianum), Saffron -Crocus

r.

shoots, called

alis)

out the corpses. The procedure

should be repeated after two weeks, and
again two weeks later. Quassia, in parli(

Mummified remains from Egyptian

tombs show that a mixture of Henna and

years.

Henna

sativus)

garded

is the powdered leaf of Egyptian

and has been in use for over 5000

Indigo (Indigo/era

colour their hair, of which Saffron (Crocus

Problem hair

privet

protect

infusion ior a

final rinse.

Henna

infusion from

Henna

as a final rinse.

briefly,

accept that there

a rinse

from Elder berries (Sambucus nigra

These were used by the

to

the scalp four or five times a week.

as a final rinse.

Grey hair can be coloured with

we have
no magic cure for
hair loss which can be for any number of
reasons. For those who require a potion to
and pursued through

favourite

Logwood (Haematoxylum
sativus)

and

Curcuma
no doubt, however, that the
colouring agent is Henna.
longa).

is

DOMESTIC AND COSMETIC USES

Right:

Herbal

oils

modern perfumery

thousands ofyears ago are

the

France.

in

which were prized and used

still

employed by

most exclusive perfume manufacturers.

Ranged

Lavender, Oak-

in this laboratory are

moss, Patchouli and Neroli. There are four

oils from

methods of extracting the

plants

distillation, maceration, absorption

and

enfleurage.

Egyptian Henna gives more orange reChinese is the cheapest, being of

sults;

inferior quality.

Another major virtue of Henna, makit even more versatile, is that it can be
mixed with other organic substances to
coffee, wine. eggs,
modify the colour
lemon juice and onion skins are modern
ing

may

variations. Traditionalists

preler to

experiment by adding Indigo shoots

(for

reng), Walnut husks (darkening), Lucerne (Medicago sativa) (darkening), Catechu (darkening), the extract that is so
rich in tannin

nut (Piper

from Acacia

betle)

catechu, or Betel

PERFUMERY

(reddening!.

To henna your hair, select your variety,

then weigh out the Henna powder. For a
head of short hair,
70g (6 oz) will be
sufficient. Shoulder length hair or longer
will require 2253 (8 oz). For further
1

The word perfume comes from

the Latin

meaning 'through smoke". This is probably derived from the custom of making
burnt

sacrificial offerings to the

those times, as practised by the

gods

<>!

Romans

conditioner; a glassful of red wine, or

and Egyptians. The latter were especially

generous in using perfumed oils, and the
Greeks followed the tradition, so gaining
an understanding of the many herbs and

ground

plants in

or

benefits

to

colouring,

the

affect

modifying agent should be selected. An

egg will act as a secondary and nourishing

cum)

coffee or Cloves (Syzygium aromati-

will

result

colour; while

variations of

slight

in

Lemon

juice (Citrus limon)

or vinegar will aid the release of the dye, so

increasing

the

colouring

Have

effect.

ready a couple of old towels, a plastic bag,

a saucepan, a pair of rubber gloves and
set aside a couple of hours of your time.
Mix the modifying agent with the
Henna and sufficient water to mix to a
thick

creamy

then

set

paste.

Heat

to boiling point,

aside to cool slightly.

the scalp, rub vegetable

To

protect

into the skin

oil

to act as a protective barrier. Wearing

rubber gloves, apply the Henna. Do this
thoroughly by making numerous partings

from one side

to the other or

to the front or vice versa.

from the back

Wrap

in cling film to seal in the

the hair

Henna and

maintain a warm temperature.

your head in a towel and sit in a
place to 'cook'.

The

Wrap
warm

longer you leave

it,

the stronger the colour, so only increase

the length of time after you have experi-

mented with leaving

it

for, say,

one and a

water runs
shampoo.
Your hair
then
quite clear and
will glow with colour, and it will shine as
never before.
I

12

until the

part of the Medi-

Europe.

The numerous

delights of perfumery
from Europe during the
Middle Ages, though Charlemagne tried
hard to recreate the luxury enjoyed by the
Romans by using sweet-smelling plants

disappeared

and

scenting

streets for the

public

fountains

in

the

peoples pleasure.

and early eleventh

Avicenna brought the art of
making Rose-water from Persia, and the
Crusaders brought back phials of Rosewater from Asia together with many other
In the late tenth

centuries,

strongly scented products.

By the fourteenth century, it was

customary to offer perfumes to guests in
any noble house. They were offered after
meals for freshening the hands and
fingers after eating - without implements
of course. During this period, alcoholic
perfumes were being tried in Europe and
quickly found favour. 'Hungary water'
was particularly

half hours.

Wash thoroughly

own

their

terranean world. As a result, the Romans

spread this knowledge to other parts of

teenth

century,

senteur pour

publiques
festivals.

successful.
les

embaumer

herbes
les

By the
et

plantes

six-

de

eaux des fontaines

were commonplace

in

France

for

There are four methods of extracting

oils
from plants: distillation,
from whole plants
maceration, absorption, and finally, expression of rind
essential

or skin

which is a process known as

which combines maceration

'enfleurage'

and absorption.
Distillation
This is a steam-assisted process, whereby
the plant material is placed in containers
above water vats so that the steam carries
some of the oil away and forms a condensate containing the essential oil.
Because many of the oils in plants are to
a greater or lesser degree water-soluble,
the

distillate

distilled.

is

skimmed

off

and

re-

Plants that cannot be treated by

the steam distillation process are treated

with various substances (mainly alcohols

which, acting as solvents, remove oils,

and break down pigments

dissolve fats

and other

cell

components.

Maceration
This is literally the steeping of flowers and
herbs in water to release the essential oils.

Absorption
This method

involves the plant

absorbed by

fat

oil

being

or grease, traditionally

either tallow or lard.

It is

used for plants

which continue producing oils after being

picked like Jasmine [Jasminum spp and
Tuberose [Polianthes tuberosa) and plants
whose oils would be damaged by steam or
whose odour would be altered by steam.
water or volatile solvents.

The

usual

on both

method

is

to

spread the

fats

sides of a sheet of glass held in a

PERFUMERY
and then

to

spread

fresh flowers over the grease every

morn-

frame called a

"chassis',

represented bv Tobacco

of days. The chassis are

hours
in a darkened room.
stacked
24
the fat or grease
this
period,
Over
absorbs the flower oils and becomes iming for a

number

for

pregnated with their perfume. The resulting scented grease is called a 'pomade'.
The quality of the pomade can be
recognized by the number attached to it.

changed 20 times, the

pomade is known as 'Pomade 20* if
changed 30 times, 'Pomade 30' and so on.
Originally they were used in their greasy

now usual to extract the

pomade by means of
from
the
perfume
form, but

it

is

alcohol, the resulting scents being called

'Extrait 20' or 'Extrait 30'. If the alcohol
is

than evaporated, an

called 'absolue de

residue

oil

left

is

pomade'.

simpler method involves immersing

176F)

45 -80

from

ranging

ature

for several hours.

The

13

resulting

pomade

is

and sometimes

20'

may

'absolue'

plants are

known

an

be produced as already

nique

for

rinds or

a relatively simple tech-

is

extracting the
peel of fruit

oils

from the

and other plant

The matter is subjected to

mechanical pressure and grinding to
release the oil. A more traditional method
involves pressing the whole fruit into a
sponge, which is then wrung out to yield

make

to

Add

at

15 drops

of essential

oil to

and shake the

560ml (20

bottle.

fl

oz) of

The most

water

are Rose-water, Orange-flower water

Lavender water, and

all

and

three of these can

be used to scent the body directly and as

an ingredient for many other cosmetic
products. The more complex perfumes
depend on blending carefully measured
amounts of oil with pure alcohol. Pure
alcohol, however, is not for sale to the

and isopropyl alcohol

(which is itself somewhat scented must be
used in the making of toilet waters.

storing.

25ml

fl

Orange-flower essence

oz)

Citrus sinensis)

4.5I

gall) distilled

water

public,

Mix

the two together

at least a

week.

and allow

to

age for

You can make Rose-water

same way.

in exactly the

Eau de Portugal
420ml

(15

fl

oz)

proof alcohol

45

(isopropyl alcohol)

20ml (f fl oz) essence of Orange

6ml (5 fl oz) essence of Lemon
ml re fl oz essence of Rose
25 ml I fl oz) essence of Bergamot
1

oil

Lavender water
Mix
25ml

(i

oz

fl

oil

of Lavender

Lavandula

all

bottle.

the

ingredients

The mixture

together

and

stores well.

spica)

840ml

30

fl

Ancient 'spice' perfume

ozj isopropyl alcohol

Shake the ingredients together in a large

bottle and leave to settle for about 48
hours. Shake well again. After a further 48
hours the liquid can be put into small
bottles with tight-fitting lids.

This

is

not really a 'perfume' at

was traditionally known

all,

but

it

as such. It has a

splendid spicy scent.

2 cups Rose-water (Rosa spp)
i5g (j oz) bruised Cloves

(Syzygium

aromaticum)

Hungary water
1

tablespoon fresh Mint leaves [Mentha

table-spoon fresh

marinus

10ml

2-3 Bay leaves (Laurus

2 cups wine vinegar

Combine

spp)

Classifying perfume odours

Perfume is classified according to one or
more identifiable odours, and these fall

and leave

store for a week,

(Monarda didyma)

50ml

oil.

Cover well and

versatile

materials.

the

the ingredients together

all

shaking each day. Strain into dark bottles

which should have tightly fitting lids for

'Pomade

as

sold as such; or

explained.

Expression
This method

are the toilet waters.

then filtered off and the immersion repeated up to 20 times. In this case, the

Mix

to soak.

Orange-flower water

The simplest fragrances

home

general

plant matter in molten fats at a temper-

\icofiana tabac-

category.

If the flowers are

Clover [1 njolium pratensei and sweet

grasses. Oriental scents usually combine
woody, mossy and spicy perfumes, with
Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) and Balsam
Myroxylon spp) being considered in this
iini

fl

Rosemary

leaves

Ros-

officinalis

oz, alcohol
fl

grated peel

oz
of

isopropyl alcohol

Rose-water

Orange and Lemon

nobilis)

the Rose-water, Cloves, chop-

ped Bay leaves and vinegar, and boil. As it

reduces, add water to make up the quantity. Strain and place the liquor aside in a
well-sealed jar for several weeks or

more

before using.

into

six categories:
floral scents from
plantssuch as Rose Rosa spp Lily-of-theValley (Convallaria majalis j, Jasmine Jas.

minwn spp;, Gardenia (Gardenia

oide.s);

spicy scents that include

{Myristica fragrans),

mum

zeylanicum

lus);

woody

Cinnamon

jasmin-

Nutmeg
Cinnamo-

Clove Syzygium aromaticum) and Carnation (Dianthiu caryophyltalum album)

Sandalwood Sanand Cedarwood (Cedrus spp

stints like

mossy scents such

(Evernia

from Oakmoss
(now very ran

as those

fmrpuracea)

Herbal scents are considered not so

powerful and pungent, and these are
Right

Women

in

France at the beginning

of this century sorting thousands

oj rose

petals in preparation for the manufacture 0/

perfumes.

13

jut

<***

r>'

4*

"%

,;^

3P"

&fc
-

>
>

mi
6-^ly

:,-;

\Jgr
13/
<:

Cultivation,

collection

and

preservation

of herbs

&C
s2*r

_*

ft

< :-_=,-_-~

Herb gardens were traditionally attached

to monasteries and provided substances
for the treatment of ailments, and flavouring for food, and often the colour and the
scents of monastic life as well. Over the

warm,

centuries herbs have been relegated to

garden plots, then retrieved for their oldworld charm and associations, forgotten
again, and now in the twentieth century

which would form a

of perennial weeds
and with good drainage is an essential
factor of any site selected for herbs, unless
a bog-type herb garden is being planned.
Shaded shrub borders and rock gardens
do not usually make suitable sites, except

they are enjoying a revival of interest. In

decorative value most of them fail to reach

acceptance, bul used in conventional herb

which

been exclusively designed, there is an appeal

redolent of ancient atmospheres in which
an illusion of simple antiquity can be

garden

settings

have

achieved.

Herbs were first used decoratively in

Europe in the sixteenth century, where
the practice began of growing herbs in

tected

air on a site adequately profrom prevailing winds, but not

still

shaded. If the land slopes, a south or

south-west facing slope is preferred, and
without a hedge or wall running across
the base of the slope
frost

pocket.

soil free

range of herbs such as

Thyme, pinks, violets, Sedums and Arnica
that like the sharp drainage of the rock
work. A level site is normally best, or
perhaps a site on two levels with a refor

the limited

taining wall between the two to

example, ferns,
Pellitory and Centranthus.

modate,

for

accom-

Feverfew,

knot gardens. But the progression of horticultural practice the finer achievements

immense

of the art of cultivation, and the

influx cil new decorative plant material

superseded the lowly herbs. Household

economy has continued to know and to
need these plants however unassuming

though main of them appeal

to be.

SELECTION AND PREPARATION

OF SITE
Herbs are undemanding plants, then
stamina is good, and their natural appeal
can be strong. Most are at their best in
1. 1 1 1 :

of the season herb

this which includes Chervil

the height

borders, such as

and Mint, provide an array of both

and decorative plant material

useful

Preparation of site
Time is well spent in first

clearing a pro-

posed site thoroughly of perennial weeds

and even fallowing (backsetting) if time
allows. The crop of eager weeds that
appear following soil disturbance can
then be eradicated before the herb seedlings and young plants are introduced.
Ideally the soil should be fertile, but not

too

rich,

and some form of moisture-

retaining material will probably need to

be added but not food material such as

artificial fertilizer.

Humus can be provided in the form of

compost made from garden and kitchen
waste and forked in to improve the soil in
Thus
both texture and composition.
adequate moisture and warmth are en-

"3

CULTIVATION
Left

The gardens of the

sixteenth century

provide excellent blueprints for the design of a

formal herb garden today. The simple
outline

of the beds

is

important and the

relationship of one bed to the others should be

carefully considered.

sured. Leaf mould, spent hops, peat or

animal bedding straw may also be used to
produce humus - they are all organic in
composition and gradually break down to
encourage a friable (crumbly well-drained soil. Lightly fork or hoe in the material
to the surface of the soil and the frosts will
do the rest. If this kind of soil improvement cannot be achieved or if the soil is
very light or dry and chalky, the gardener
must be content to grow those plants that
will tolerate a dry, baked soil such as
Rosemary, Thyme, Marjoram, Sage.
Broom and pinks.

be removed, the
soil

site levelled

and the top

then replaced.

Paths
As with all workable gardens, the herb
garden is best served by well-constructed
paths which will give a firm, dry access.
Gravel,

concrete,

paving or bricks

all

provide these requirements and the choice

dependent upon the cost and availability of material and labour. If beds are
to be marked out in turf, where the turf
is

will finally

well laid

provide the paths,

it

should be

and established before beds are

cut out.

Levelling

On a site of any considerable size levelling

Marking out the beds

has to be carried out properly, especially

The

where two levels are envisaged, and the

work has to be done before any planting

out on paper, then measured carefully on

starts.

On

a small

site,

the surface level

can be corrected by forking and raking

and there are no difficulties in keeping the
top soil on the surface. Where there is a
marked discrepancy in existing surface
levels, the top soil of the entire area has to
i

if,

outline of beds should

first

be drawn

to the site and marked out with pegs and

cord - and, even at that stage, again
considered before proceeding. Sufficient

space should be allowed between beds so

that

when

there will

plants spread towards the path

still

be enough room for easy

passage with wheelbarrows and

tools.

CLASSIC HERB GARDENS

Left and overleaf: Based on the principles of
classic design, this herb

garden indicates the

immense range of available material. Paving

adds simplicity to the overall design and
affords ease

of maintenance. Repetition of

planting patterns ensures unity and allows

the design to be used within a

The key

small area.

(overleaf) shows which plants

may

be used, taking into account their relative

habits of growth

and

colour.

This plan can

be adapted to meet the requirements

smaller

site,

of a

as shown on page 123.

"7

CULTIVATION
Key to Herb Garden ground plan

Bed
1

Bed

Bergamot

or

Oswego

tea (red)

Lamb's Lettuce or
Salad

Cowslip
Lovage
Salad Burnet
Sorrel

Cotton Lavender
(border)

61

62
Corn
63
64
65
66
67
68
Bed
69

Bed B

Chives (border)

Chamomile
Annual Clary Sage
Lavender
Rose (red. scented)
Violet

Golden (wild) Marjoram

Clove Carnation
Cotton Lavender
(border)

8 Purslane

Bergamot or Oswego
Tea (pink)
Fennel

Cowslip

Rue
Lavender
Parsley (border)

Vines (on the Dergola)

Bed C
16 Woodruff
17 Wild Thyme (border)
18 Bird bath or tub of
plants

Bed D
19 Golden Marjoram

70 Vervain
71 Bush Basil
72 Lavender
73 Violet
74 Rose (red. scented)
75 Wormwood
76 Clove Carnation
77 Oregano or Garden
Marjoram
Left-hand border

78 Bay
79 Violet
80 Foxglove
81 Sweet Woodruff
82 Morello Cherry (on
83 Common Mint or

(border)

French or Pot Marjory

Common

Sage
Cowslip
Tansy
Lady's Mantle

Sweet Cicely
26 Tarragon
27 Juniper
Bed E
28 Pinks (border)
29 Purple Sage
30 Lavender
31

Lady's Mantle

32 Mallow
33 Hyssop
34 Juniper
35 Bush Basil
36 Clove Carnation
Bed F
37 Pinks (border)

84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91

Lilv-of-the-Valley

Morello Cherry (on wall)

Lemon Balm
Periwinkle

Foxglove

(borders)

94
95
96
97

Scented Pelargonium
Lavender
Myrtle

Lemon-scented Verbena
Right-hand border

98 Hop

(in

angle of

pergola)

99
100

Violet

101

Juniper
Apothecary's Rose

102
103
104
105

(pink)

Spearmint
Ivy (behind fountain)
Apple Mint
Foxglove

92 Rosemary
End beds and terrace
93 French Marigold

Wormwood

Narrow-leaved Sage

wall)

Rue

Elder

Chervil

Winter Savory
Borage
Rose (on wall)
Florentine

Iris

Honeysuckle

(in

arbour)

106 Jasmine (mixture of

yellow and white)
Common Thyme
107 Florentine Iris
Common Sage
108 Rose (on wall)
109 Southernwood
Bed G
48 Lemon Thyme (border) 110 Woad
Curry Plant
Pot Mangold

111

Bush

112 Myrtle
113 Fig (on wall)
114 Rue
1 1 5
Tree Germander

Basil

Clove Carnations
Narrow-leaved Sage
Rose (red or pink.
scented)

Service area

Hyssop

116 Marrows and

Courgettes

Pot Marigold

Golden Sage
Lavender
Bed H
58 Woodruff
59 Wild Thyme (border)
60 Sundial or tub of
plants

18

Catmint

Juniper

117
1 18
119
120

Rhubarb
Onions

121

Lettuce

Comfrey
French Sorrel

122 Garlic
123 Espaliered

fruit

(on wall)

SELECTION OF PLANTS

Above:

Hardwick

traditional garden at

Hall, Derbyshire. Height

tripods upon

is

garden

provided by

which honeysuckles or jasmine

SELECTION OF PLANTS
grow mm
is

for

herbs to

indeed for any plant,

a suitable environment. In the w ild state

own

plants seleet their

location

and often

indicate the type and condition of the

soil,

the drainage and the intensity of light.

Observation will thus suggest which
plants can be expected to flourish in. or at
least tolerate, a

given situation. While the

demands of herbs

are lew

often thrive without

results will be far

<

can

the)

attention,

more rewarding

requirements are

basii

,iiid

much

il

tin

some

out

<

On

essfully, as

(anied

subsequent judicious
thinning is always possible. Small plants.
such as Thyme, Pennyroyal, and Chamomile used perhaps as an edging, need to be
planted more losely.
be

can be grown.

The primary requirement

being planted for immediate

effect, closer planting needs to

is

decorative

strong or rich

soils

be produced than on

.1

more growth
poorer

can be
expected to establish themselves more
The table overleaf indicates the
easily.
arly, if plants like the soil type the)

requirements ol a number ol plants, and

man hing a plant to its needs in a
selected position greater success can be
achieved. The ultimate size of a plant
should be (onsidered in proportion to the
b\

size ol the hei

b garden.

onsidered befon

starting to plant.

The type of garden

Number

The second major decision

herb garden that is required.

When

of plants

a sp.ne has

been cleared, and the

Selection ol plants has been made, a
decision has to be taken as to whethet a
short or

long-term

effect

is

required. In

general, ten plants per square metre one

plant per square foot
with the exception
.

ol all

but the tiniest plants, will give inter-

est in

the

first

yeat

and subsequent

and

effei

years.

will

soil; simil-

in

When-

the

se<

the

ond
herb

to

representative
01

collection

drawn

frequently sufficient to buy

each of perennials such as

Rosemary, Mint. Tarragon. Lovage and
Lemon Balm and propagate them to build
up the necessary stock. Many herbs are
stem rooters and soon form clusters of roots
along their runners and stems, so that new
plants can be obtained quite quickly by
separating these from the parent plant. In
this

wav

it

will take

two or three years

establish a reasonable stock of plants

to
foi

an interesting herb garden. There is the

that losses can be replaced, the general plan can be amended,
and should any plant prove not to Incompatible with its position, no great loss

added advantage

the garden

Annuals like marigolds. Dill, Basil.

Borage and Summer Savory need to be
raised from seed each spring. Some will

it

to

be

medicinal,

Once

these

the plan

gained by haphazard planting; l<>i effect

and foi usefulness herbs need to be considered with (are.

It is

plant

Is

an be acquired and
an begin. There is nothing to be

up, the plants

planting

one

to

is

made and

decisions have been

achieved.

is

the sort ol

ol

scented plants.'

way, but often the most

buy plants so that an
immediate air of organization can be
quickest

expensive,

is

be de< orative or utilitarian? Is

culinary

Stocking the garden

The

sustained.

seed themselves, but often

appeal

at

where general
need

to

the-

seedlings

the other end of the garden, so

effect

is

important they w

ill

be transplanted as soon as they

are sufficiently established to be able to

cope wnli

change. Biennials, such as

foxgloves, Verbascum and Angelica do
tin

19

CULTIVATION
not flower until the second season after
sowing, but once established they provide
generations of seedlings.

Market

stalls

and garden centres are the

and there are

best sources of herb plants,

also a

Buy

number

of well-run herb nurseries.

and ensure that they

are free from insect and fungus attack.
They should be well grown and sufficiently
hardened off, if bought during the early
the best plants

well-grown plant

be shortjointed, of good texture and colour and

spring.

will

ought not to be in flower. Buying from

herb nurseries and farms may mean
buying by mail order, but most establishments have their reputations at stake and

SMALL HERB GARDENS

are careful to dispatch clean stock. Doubt-

places.

ful

specimens ought always to be returned.

A stock of plants can also be made up of

from other gardens each plant a reminder of a friendly visit.
This exchange of plants is one of the most
traditional ways of making a plant collecsnippets

and

gifts

tion of individualitv

and

interest.

Moist situations

Box (clipped)

Acorus
Bergamot

Valerian

Sedum

Bistort

Sempervivum

Comfrey

Hyssop (clipped)

Thrift

Meadowsweet

Lavender (dwarf)

Thymes

Mints

Lungwort

Violet

Wall Germander

Veratrum
Watercress
Yellow Flag

(last

walls an d paving

Blessed Thistle

Pennyroyal

Borage

Pinks

Chervil

Chamomile

Sedums

Feverfew

Sempervivum
Soapwort
Thymes
Wall Germander

Coriander
Corn Salad

Alchemilla spp.

Catmint

Hyssop
Lavender (dwarf)
Pellitory

real

Thyme and Lemon

Thyme, Houseleeks, Chamomile, Chives.

Dwarf Lavender and Feverfew are ideal
for

trough or sink gardens. Containers in a

wide range of shapes and sizes are obtainable from garden centres; alternatively,
very attractive herb gardens can be estab-

Larger plants like Lavender. Rosemary, Rue and Sage can easily be included in the scheme for containers, such as
stone jars, any large pot or even an old
bucket, by growing rooted cuttings and

Cumin

Florence Fennel
Marigold
Marjoram, sweet
or knotted
Nasturtium

pruning and cutting back. Many herbs

can be kept in check simply by nipping off
shoots as required for the kitchen. A good

Purslane
Savory. Summer

to leave the

trick

is

Left

By

Poppy

Sunflower

Dill

them when they grow out

of proportion to the scheme or b\ judicious

year )

Anise
in

adequate light,
Small plants like

either replacing

Annuals
Basil

Planting

sometimes, unlikelv
requirements are
and space for their roots.

The only

and birdbaths.

Sweet Cicely

Catmint
Chives
Feverfew

Parsiey

and,

such as wheelbarrows, drinking troughs

Front of the border. or edging plants

Marjoram, golden

confined

in

lished in all sorts of disused containers

Selection of herbs for the garden

Pinks
Santolina (clipped)

The undemanding qualities of manv

herbs make them ideal plants for growing

selecting plants appropriate to a

situation, a greater degree

of success can be

assured. Plants that normally

soils, for

Flax

rooted cuttings in their

grow on

example, will thrive best

garden with sandy or well-drained

Hedges
Box
Hyssop

Biennials (last 2 years)

Lavender
Rosa gallica

Alkanet
Angelica

Caraway

Woad

Alexanders

(common)
officina

lis

Rosemary
Rue

Chalky soils
Calamint
Chicory
Chives
Hound's Tongue
Juniper
Lavender

Lemon Balm
Lily-of-the-Valley

Marjoram
Mignonette
Mullein
Periwinkle
Pinks

Rosemary
Sage
Salad Burnet

Alecost
Alkanet
(evergreen)
Arnica
Artemisias

Bay
Bergamot
Bethlehem Sage
Bistort

Chenopodium
Chives
Coltsfoot

Light soils

Below : Balance of design

Melilot

borders

Mullein

front of larger ones and restricting the

Parsley

numbers of plants.

Perennials (continue year after year)

Santolina

Lavender

Lemon Balm
Liquorice

Lovage
Lungwort
Marjoram, pot

Marjoram (wild)
Mignonette
Mints
Pinks

Rhubarb
Rose
Rosemary
Rue
Sage

Alkanet

Marjoram

Cowslip

Borage

Marjoram, pot

Broom

Melilot

Daphne
Dyer's Madder

Bugle

Mugwort

Elder

Chervil

Elecampane

Chives

Rosemary
Sage

Garlic

Savorys

Hound's Tongue
Hyssop
Lavender
Lemon Balm
Lemon Verbena

Southernwood

Fennel
Gentian

Tarragon

20

English

Mace

soil.

Foxglove

Santolina
Savory. Winter
Sorrel

Sweet Cicely

Tarragon

Helichrysum

Thymes

Thymes

Jasmine

Wormwood

Wormwood

Juniper

Yarrow

is

in

light

in a

one-sided

achieved by keeping small plants in

SMALL HERB GARDENS

and sink the whole pot below the soil
and then as the plants grow both pot

pot.

level,

and plant can be replaced. A variety of

containers can be maintained in this way.

Window-boxes
This method of replenishing pots can also

adopted for window-boxes, though

good effect and considerable success is

be

possible

the

when

soil in

plants are

the box.

grown

directly in

The boxes should be

10 to 12
about 25 to 30 centimetres
inches deep and be filled with a moisture-

retaining potting compost, such as

John

Drainage is provided by a
layer of rough material, such as broken
brick rubble, clinker or gravel, being
Innes Xo.

2.

spread over the entire base of the box.

which is then covered with about two
centimetres an inch of rough peat and
then

with

the

potting

compost.

This

ensures that the roots of the plants have

food, space

and drainage.

Dampen and

firm the compost before planting

and

in

the spring put in rooted cuttings or small

plants

which were cut back

autumn and have

in the

previous

started to break into

growth. Most plants can be connew growth constantly to encourage a bushy growth. The
fresh

fined in size by nipping

plants selected should be the smaller ones

or smaller-growing cultivars
varieties

Lavender
mints.

Chives.

cultivated

thvmes. cuttings of Sage, and

and Rosemary, the smaller

Parsley.
Selfheal,

Tarragon.

Marjoram.

scented-leaved geran-

iums. Dill and Mignonette are

all

well

suited to box cultivation.

Patios and balconies

Above: Low-growing herbs or rooted

patio and roof

any other plants,
depends upon the proper selection of
container and of plant material which
must be suited to the size and position of
the area. A simple effect is always more
successful than an elaborate one. Troughs

Success with herbs

gardening, as with

along

base

the

of

in

patio

screens

are

and the plants benefit from some

shelter, but adequate light must be ensured. Boxes or troughs which are raised

effective

or attached to balustrades or walls with

firm brackets

and hooks are probably the

most successful. Hanging baskets, cither of

the conventional bowl-shaped kind used
for

summer

display or country baskets,

and garden

trays lined with grey or black

plastic

prevent

to

leaking,

can

maki

delightful tiny herb gardens to decorate

balconies and rooi (gardens. The) require

regular attention and occasional replen-

ishment with new

effei

plants to maintain the

B,i\

is

one

oi

the most popular choices

cuttings

of larger ones can be assembled in an

Here Angelica, Chives,

attractive container.

Sage and other culinary herbs have been

tucked into a decorative bowl, which

is

small

enough

to

be carried from one part of the

garden

to

another.

for patios

and balconies and

clipped to a formal shape.

it

It

is

usually

is

best to

purchase these already trained, and with

care they can be expected to last several
years. Cold winds are the chief enemy of
these potted trees and they appreciate
being taken into a porch or light hallway,
or even a conservatory during the winter.
in all
I

but the mildest

districts.

he golden rule for container-grown

plants is to try to keep the compost evenly

clamp, not overwatered - which leads to
sourness - and not parched. As most small

herb gardens are grown for summer effect

and usefulness, watering will be the major
task, for it is during the summer months
that (Ik \ require the most water.
12

CULTIVATION
A

Right :

Herbs

for

troughs and containers

small culinary border can be

contained in a run of j or 4 metres (about

Borage
Catmint

half repeated, where a longer

Coltsfoot

There

10

Chamomile

to 1

5 feet)

is

the design being repeated, or

nothing

to

site is available.

be gained by

making

border deeper, as culinary herbs need

to

the

be

Chives
readily accessible.

Clary

Lemon Balm

In the house

Lily-of-the-Valley

Lungwort

Rooted

Mint (round-leaved kinds)

Pulmonaria

decorative

Rosemary (rooted cuttings)

Sage (rooted cuttings)

vation.

window-boxes

pots

and

Alternatively,

as

for

window-

Fennel
1
2 Rosemary
3 French Tarragon
4 Angelica
5 Sage
6 Golden Marjoram
7 Lemon Balm

8 Sorrel
9 Mint

10 Thyme
Savory
12 Chives
13 Parsley
1

pots.

Basil

Seed can be sown early

Black Horehound

Broom

in

containers

boxes or patio troughs, many plants can

be cut back and once the fresh growth
starts and the plant has recovered, they
can be transferred to indoor cultivation in

Violet

for

grown

provide the best

method of starting plants for indoor culti-

Thymes

Herbs

cuttings

in the

year for

and Clary, while

nasturtiums and marigolds can be sown in
either spring or autumn. Plants of the
Parsley, Cress, Purslane

(seedlings)

Chives
Corn Salad
Catmint (small divisions)

can be purchased from garden

centres and maintained as room plants
provided that they are judiciously pruned
from time to time.
A large bowl decorated with several
small pots of herbs sunk among pebbles, or
covered with peat, makes a most attractive,
aromatic bedside garden for an
right size

Clary

Geranium (scented-leaved)
Hyssop
Lemon Balm
Marjoram
Mignonette
Nasturtium
Parsley

invalid.

Rosemary (rooted cuttings)

Rue (rooted cuttings)
Sage (rooted cuttings)

When grown

in the kitchen, plants

such

are

grown

for culinary use, they are best

treated like the remainder of the kitchen

garden, and planted in rows.

easier to

It is

then

run the hoe along to keep the

bay and to harvest the crop as

weeds at
and when required.

LARGE HERB GARDENS

The name

'herb garden' conjures up a

tranquil plot sheltered from troublesome

winds, bathed in sunlight and fragrant

with delicious scents. All the denizens are

humble plants of ancient cultivation,

which have no need of flamboyant flowers

Savory
Tarragon

Mint, if cut back and potted up to

confine their roots, will provide a long
succession of fresh shoots for the cook.

Violet

Good

some knowledge of

as

light

is

essential

and watering must

never be neglected.

Herbs to plant

in a

garden

for the

blind

Scented and textured leaves

Alecost
Angelica

Bergamot
Chamomile
Feverfew

Lavender

Lemon Balm
Lily-of-the-Valley

Meadowsweet

(for treading)

Rosemary
Rue
Sage
Southernwood
Sweet Cicely
Tansy

Thymes

(for treading)

Wormwood

122

it

is

When

plan-

necessary to have

the plants themselves

requirements and their effect when
fully grown.
A herb garden can be formal or informal, there are no salient requirements, but
one of formal design has an added
atmosphere of authenticity because the
herb gardens of the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries were formal plots - usually

kitchens,

Whatever the details of the design,

some form of shelter is needed to enclose
the garden; this can be a hedge of Broom.
Rosemary or roses, or a dry wall, with
Lavender, Hyssop, or Artemisias growing

square.
(for treading)

Geraniums (scented-leaved)
Hyssop

Mignonette
Mints
Pennyroyal

difficult to generalize
in

ning a herb garden

their

about plants
however, because
atmospheric conditions vary so widely
from one kitchen to the next. As the plants
cannot be expected to thrive simply
because they are indoors, the right conditions have to be provided for them.
It is

grown

to advertise their presence.

Small herb borders

square metre (about 10 square

feet)

of

suitable soil can be transformed into a

tiny herb plot, but, again, proportion

is

most important. Small plants grouped

together will flourish provided they are
not in a draughty passage way or in a
shaded corner under dripping trees. A
plot so small would usually be used to
provide fresh culinary herbs and could
well support as much as two clumps of
Chives, two plants of Thyme, two of
Marjoram, one of Winter Savory, a patch
of Mint with its roots confined in an old,
deep biscuit tin to prevent it from becoming invasive, one plant of Tarragon and at
the back a small Sage bush.
Where small herb borders are virtually
part of the vegetable garden and the herbs

along the top. Best of all, but seen all too

infrequently is a walled garden, where
Clematis, honeysuckles. Jasmine
and other sweet-scented plants can scramble up the walls.
The accompanying plans suggest a
roses,

simple treatment

to

achieve formality.

Restraint in planting few kinds of plants

rather than an extensive range will ultimately give the best result. Further, careful thought needs to be given to the central
feature of a formal garden - proportion
obviously being the main consideration for this is what gives each herb garden its
individual character. Choose a container-

KNOT GARDENS
for a cook's

Herbs

choose a tree such as Hamamelis, Sambucus or Prunus for the central feature, or
make an arbour which can be covered in

garden

Alecost
Angelica

Garlic

Basil

Lovage

Bay

Marigold

Bistort

Borage

Marjoram
Mint

Caraway

Nettle

Elizabethan knot gardens

The Oxford English Dictionary

Chervil

Oregano

knot garden as

Chicory
Chives
Coriander
Corn Salad

Parsley

Rosemary
Sage

Cumin

Savory

Jasmine, hops, Ivy and "roses. If authenticity is desired, a knot garden should
form the central attraction.

Lemon Balm

defines

flower bed laid out in an

- the term was first used
in 1494. Designs can be complicated or
relatively simple. They are usually symmetrical, and as they are intended to be
looked down upon, they should be formed
of low-growing plants like thymes, pinks,
violets, chives, savories, marigolds, mar'a

intricate design'

Purslane

Dill

Shallot

Fennel
French Sorrel

Tarragon

Thyme

jorams,

Lungwort and Feverfew. The

design of each bed needs to be outlined

grown Rosemary
to

be brought

or

Bay which

will

need

into a frost-free place in

with Box, Santolina, Feverfew or Dwarf

Lavender planted closely to form a firm

Box

severe weather) or a sundial, birdbath.

line.

fountain, beehive or statuette surrounded

choices because they are both evergreen

Rue -

by Lavender or Rosemary or

as

evergreen they will give an

air of permanence. In a larger garden.
these are

all

Below : This plan, for a

garden,

is

culinary herb

based upon the central part of the

plan for a large herb garden which

on page

ij.

The

is

shown

central feature can be a

sundial or bird bath, for example.

Bed D
1

Thymes

Bed
in

variety

Pot Marjoram

3 Sage
4 Eau de

Cologne Mint
5
6
7
8
9

Bed

Angelica
Chives

Sweet Cicely
Tarragon
Parsley
E

10 Thymes
1 1

12
13
14
15
16
17
18

in

23
24
25
26
27
28
29

designs can be copied, or individual

schemes may be composed, but it is best to
keep designs simple. The design should be
drawn on to squared paper, scaled and
then drawn out on to the ground.
An original design can be executed

simpler central

alternating squares like a chess board. All

paved and each

one of the 'white' squares is filled with
one kind of plant - so there might be
the 'black' squares are

Marjoram

in one,

Mint

in another,

Parsley in a third. Repetition

is

and

attractive

form of garden, but the taller plants

such as Fennel and Angelica ought to be
avoided.
An even simpler central bed can be

in this

made on

the cartwheel design,

where the

rim and spokes of the wheel are picked

Lemon Balm
Lovage
Apple Mint

Poppy
Basil

Bed G
30 Thymes
32
33
34
35
36

Cumin

Parsley

Winter Savory
Apple Mint

and can be clipped.

The site on which the knot garden is to
be made must be level. Traditional

much

formed on the traditional

chequer board design, where a central
paved area is broken up into a series of

Chives

Purple Sage

Basil

favourite

variety of very

features can be

Purslane

Parsley

Fennel

are

Central beds

31

Spearmint

Santolina

then diagonally from the centre. On the

paper doily principle, a pattern can be
made by cutting away pieces.
Once the design has been transferred to
the ground and the outlines of the beds
formed by planting Box or whatever has
been chosen, the 'colouring' can begin,
and the final effect planned. Two or three
years are needed for the knot to become
effective and, apart from clipping and
replacement planting, or attention to
annuals, the upkeep is not arduous.

19 Thymes in variety
20 Golden Marjoram
21 Summer Savory
22 Parsley

variety

Lemon Balm

or

quickly from a square piece of graph

paper, folded first into two, then into four,

in variety

Corn Salad
Pot Marigold

Rosemary
Narrow-leaved

Sage
37 Sorrel
38 Sweet Cicely
39 Bowles' Mint

Bed H
40 Pennyroyal
41

Thrift

123

CULTIVATION
A

/,<?//:

wide variety of design of knot

gardens can be achieved, but the basic

concept must be one of geometric symmetry.

In their Elizabethan heyday the patterns had

names such as

delightful

cink-foil, trefoyle,

crossbow and flower-de-luce, and were

often formed

of intricately twisted designs.

Today simpler patterns

are preferred, but the

use of compact plants

achieve the general

effect

to

cannot be over-emphasized.

must be chosen and

level site

the smaller the area the

simpler the design must be.

Some

spaces can

be filed with shells or coloured pebbles to

provide a permanent foil for a range of

plants,

Crossbow ; 2

fine knot ; 4

New

New

knot ;

Curious

knot for a perfect garden;

j Flower-de-luce ; 6 Trefoyle ; 7 Flower of

Deluce ; 8 Good pattern for a Quarter of herbs.
out in clipped Box or Santolina or per-

GXmm
mmw.

haps even Golden Marjoram and each

space is filled with a different herb. Again,
the taller growing kinds should be avoided as this destroys the design. For the best
results, select plants

of different colours.

Informal herb gardens

not imperative to have a geometricplanned garden and where the right
environment is available an informal herb
garden can be very attractive. Visually
such a garden is more successful if the
L'mbelliferae tribe are excluded because
they become untidy and many of them

It

is

ally

seed themselves very easily.

bank may be transformed

by working on two levels, or a sheltered

An

existing

corner

with a roughly triangular

filled in

is a winding grass
two borders of mixed
planting. 'See page 126. The only essen-

Most

bed.

path

am'

successful

between

tial

feature in the choice of site

not

overhung bv

and drip from the

trees,

is

that

it is

because both shade

trees discnuratjrs rjn

>\\

h.

Growing herbs commercially

Before

starting

commercial

to

gjrow

herbs on any

scale several lactors

need

to

be considered. Apart from enthusiasm,

capital

and

a suitable

site,

thought must

be given to labour, selection of crops, and

the market

plants or

whether

embark upon

and. above

all,

to

market

fresh

large-scale drying,

to the relationship

between

acreage, yield and profit. Undoubtedly,

markets are the most important single

crop has

factor, for the destination of the

be assured, and the choice of crops is in

turn dependent upon the market demand.
to

bunches of herbs going to market

is the whole harvest destined
a distillery? Are herbs to be disposed of

Are

fresh

regularly, or
for

fresh or dried, retail or wholesale?

long will
124

it

How

take to establish a paying crop

COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION

of fresh material should yield 450 grams

lb of the dried herb, and the harvest

Some experience of
herb growing is necessary because the
bulk of the harvest could easily be lost - a

of fresh material will vary with crop,

good case

Three and a half kilograms eight

1

lbs

and

season

situation.

Prevailing

soil,

local

ditions vary widely.

growing several different

for

Above:

reconstruction

of a renaissance-

style knot garden at Villandry, France.

Clipped Box forms some oj

outlines others.

the

shapes and

Such patterns are the basis oj

sorts of plant.

modern knot gardens and are often symbolic.

PROPAGATION AND GARDEN

MAINTENANCE

typical

There are several ways

plant.

conditions differ, but reasonable averages

to

expect are up to 500 kilograms per half

(half a ton per acre) of say,

hectare

Angelica or Caraway Seed and three to

four tonnes per half hectare or acre of
fresh Mint. Lavender bushes in their
prime would probably yield a tonne of

should be clean
plants.

all

known

cuttings, layers or divisions

plants.

visor\

used

con-

method of producing new

is

ensure health of the

Starting with seed

Many

Whichever method of propagation

it

to

as vegetative propagation, or b\

Advice should be sought from appropriate government departments and adprevailing local

a supply

namely from

seed, the sexual

as

which

stock and to select only

and not deformed parts of the
Knives, pots, boxes and compost

pest-free

of plants can be maintained or increased,

flower-heads.

services

in

and

is

essential to use onl\ diseasc-lree

herbs can be grown from seed.

Some produce

their

own seeds quite easilv.

while others need to have special climatic

125

CULTIVATION
and some

conditions,

with

readily

progeny

their

not

is

will

hybridize so
that

relatives

necessarily

good.

the

The

annuals and biennials, or plants cultivated as such, have to be raised from seed,
and the time of sowing depends upon the
hardiness or frost-sensitivity of each kind
of plant. Once the ground has warmed up
in spring, seed-sowing can generally begin

An

can be made
where greenhouse or frame protection is
available, and seeds can be sown in pots,
boxes or flats, pricked off, hardened off
and later planted out. This earlier sowing
out-of-doors.

earlier start

does not bring forward the harvest appreciably,

but the method can prove con-

venient in a late spring for such plants as

where the ground has not been

prepared for seed sowing or if it is one in
which a good tilth the texture of cultivated surface soil) cannot be achieved.
Notable exceptions to spring sowing are
Basil, or

Cowslip, Chervil,

Woad, and Angelica.

These seeds need to be sown as soon as

ripe to produce a crop of fresh young
leaves in late spring. Obviously where
winter conditions are unfavourable to

5m

seedlings, as in mid-continental gardens,

cannot be followed. Selfhowever, will sometimes

germinate quite quickly with the melting
snow. General rules for seed sowing include covering the seed lightly with soil,
and sowing thinly cither in rows or
broadcast scattered
In either instance.
the resultant seedlings will need to be
thinned out to allow adequate growing
this

practice

sown

seeds,

space.

Parsley

seed

is

notoriously

slow

to

germinate, but watering the seed drill

with boiling water immediately before

sowing seems

to

encourage germination.

Vegetative propagation
Perennial plants with good clump-forming or shrubby habit can be propagated
by cuttings or division or both.
made of hard or soft wood,
according to the type of plant, or can be
stem cuttings, root cuttings or leaf cuttings. In each case an entirely new plant is
formed and each new plant will resemble
the parent plant in every way. Broadly
speaking, cuttings of such evergreens as
Lavender, Rosemary, Santolina and Rue
can be taken in spring and struck in a
frame, or. if made with a heel of old wood,
in open ground in July. (This requires
tearing the cutting away, bringing with it
a small slip of old wood from the base.
Cuttings are always best made from
non-flowering shoots with the base leaves
removed. Trim the stem cleanly below a
node ^the point at which a leaf stalk joins

either

Cuttings can be

126

Plan for a decorative herb garden

Number

Key
1

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Eucalyptus gunnii
Lavender. Mitcham
Foxglove

of Plants

Catmint
Chives

6-1 2

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

21

Brooms

12

Rosemary

Alchemilla

Bergamot

Lavender. Dwarf Munstead

Mint, Bowles'

Rosa gallica officinalis

10 Artemisias
11 Eau de Cologne Mint
12 Golden Thyme

Number

Key

of Plants

Golden Marjoram
Costmary
Pinks

Marigold
Papaver somniferum
Foxglove

12
8
6

25
18
8

12
2

15
24

The chart on pages 1 32-1 39 gives

information on each plant

further

PROPAGATION
Left: Plan for an informal decorative herb
garden for early to midsummer. The planting

scheme for the border can be repeated if a

greater length is required. Unity of design

is

achieved by repetition, rather than by

introducing a number of new ideas.

Right : The simplest way

perennial plant

is to

to

increase any

divide the whole

crown

autumn. Thus two or more

in spring or

pieces, complete with roots, are obtained

(see far right)

from

one plant.

Each piece

can be set out separately and will eventually

form a new

plant.

the stem), dip the tip of the cutting into

rooting

powder and plant firmly

in

cutting compost or a sharp

sandy compost. Where space is limited
and pots not available, the base of several
cuttings can be packed around with
dampened sphagnum moss and firmly
folded into a polythene strip, rolled up and
held firmly in place by a rubber band
or string until the roots have formed.
Increasing stock by cuttings is the only
way to perpetuate a specially good form

proprietary

of a plant or a variegation of leaf or

some

other desirable characteristic of growth.

It

is

by cuttings that the non-flowering

forms of those plants

like

Box, Santolina

and Bay which are clipped, resulting

in a

certain lack of flowering, can be increased.

The

clippings

themselves usually

make

adequate cuttings.

perfectly

Perennials like Mint and Tansy which

form good root-stocks can be divided or

even torn apart. Each runner with a shoot
on it forms an 'Irishman's cutting' and
behaves as a rooted cutting.

Division
Division of clumps

is

little

more demand-

and is best carried out when the plant

is
dormant. Divisions can be made of
perennials, and plants that have become
thin in the centre of the clump, or too
large and bulky. The whole crown of the
plant is lifted from the soil, and divided by
two forks plunged amid the growth back to
back and pulled apart to break up the
clump
each of the resultant pieces
will
eventually bear roots and some
growth buds. Replant the pieces in fresh
ing

ground, ensuring that the depth of planting

is

at least as

crown was
planting

is

deep

lifted

for

was before the

division. Firm re-

as

it

vital.

Layers are used as a method of propagation for such plants as Sage in the herb
garden, when an old and bare branch is

pegged down roots will form at a point in

COntad with the soil. This shoot can
be severed and forms an entirely new

plant with the same characteristics as the

parent plant.

Some

plants layer naturally,

Strawberry and the Raspberry.

(The Raspberry is said to form 'tip roots'
and the Strawberry layers are called
like the

runners.)

ing to the habitat available

and

their idio-

syncrasies catered for. Basil, for

example,

likes to be watered at midday, not in the

evening as most plants prefer; Parsley,
apart from demanding great patience
from the gardener, prefers a humid soil to
a dry one otherwise it w ill soon run away to
seed, and Marjoram likes to be left alone
during its long seedling stage. Some
perennials dislike winter dampness and
low temperatures. It is not the freezing
temperatures themselves that are responsible for winter damage, but the
fluctuations in temperature and the early
morning sunshine on frozen plants. A
mulch of dry peat, leaf mould, sawdust or
r

Management
The
to

of the herb garden

general rules of garden upkeep apply

herb gardens although

many

herbs are

and remarkably
tolerant. Weeds need to be kept down, of
course, and old flowering shoots and dead
constitution

of strong

or diseased material removed.

The

latter

must be burned and not incorporated into

the compost heap as many disease spores
survive, or even flourish, in the warmth
generated by decaying materials.
Herbs do not require a rich soil, so
there is no need to apply fertilizers.
Generally known as
the plants a

fillip

Artemisia

and generally encourage

Bay
Box
Geranium

'artificials',

The

essential oils of

herbs represent their ultimate value, and

is
known about the shortterm effect of chemical fertilizers on the
composition of the plants themselves.
Herbs, in any case, often produce larger
quantities of oil when grown in poor soils.
Garden compost, a so-called organic

insufficient

added

to the soil

and forked

into

the surface is far more suitable to herbs

and will generally improve the quality
and texture of the soil. Herb lawns such as
non-flowering Chamomile and prostrate

Pennyroyal benefit, however, from a

summer

Cuttings

these give

a spurt of growth.

material,

Propagation requ rements of

selected herbs

late-

(scented-leaved)

Rosemary
Rue
Sage
Santolina
Savory, Winter

Hyssop

Thyme

Lavender
Mint

Verbena.

Lemon

Divisions

Alchemilla

Bergamot
Catmint
Chives

Lungwort
Marjoram
Mint

Elecampane

Periwinkle
Sweet Cicely

Iris

Tarragon

Lemon Balm

Thyme

Lovage

application of fine peat.

Many minor

problems in the management of herb gardens can be eliminated by

Seed
Angelica

Lemon Balm

Basil

Borage

Marigold
Marjoram, sweet

individual requirements such as watering,

Caraway

Parsley

protection from wind, and companion-

Chervil

Parsley.

Clary

Purslane
Savory, Summer

growing plants compatible with prevailing conditions and noting the plants'

few plants like to grow in solitary

confinement. Many theories have been

ship

promulgated for plant associations, but

recent experiments have shown that some
have little or no scientific justification.
Plants respond best when selected accord-

Corn Salad

Hamburg

Dill

Sorrel

Fennel

Verbascum

Foxglove
White Horehound

Woad

[27

CULTIVATION
a polythene cover will protect

any

sus-

ceptible plants in cold weather.

Pests and diseases

Garden pests, such as greenfly and blackexample, are particularly troublesome on Valerian and Nasturtium and
may be cleared by spraying with a
pyrethrum or quassia decoction or with
soap solution. These sprays, particularly
quassia, can also be used against caterfly for

and leaf-hopper.

pillars

Diseases need to be considered a

more

little

carefully, for their long-term effect

is always more serious. Rusts affect mints

and violets and the most effective treatment once the disease has got a hold is to

wood shavings among the

autumn and set light to them.

Various leaf spots attack Parsley, pinks,

Lavender, Peony and Raspberry. The
affected part should be cut away and
burned, or if it is summer the plants can be
sprayed at three-weekly intervals with

Bordeaux mixture.

rietary fungicides are available in spray

form
but
to

to

for

immediate use and are

many growers

anything that
use them.

effective,

of herbs, being opposed

is

not natural, prefer not

Aphids

or greenfly

and

blackfly

feed on a wide variety of plant by sucking

the sap

and

thus causing deformity to the

whole plant. These

insects thrive in

warm

weather. (See the table on page 103 J or

how

information on

to

soil,

preferably a

right

There

is

each selects a single type of host plant. This

shows

the effect

of rose

euchronatumj

rust

the rust

violets will be either

(Thragmidium
which attacks

Puccinia

Puccinia aegra, while that

will be Puccinia menthae.

violi or

selecting mint

and

land

habitats

flourished.

plants, especially those of limited toler-

trouble.

ance

environmental

factors, have been

number.
The opening up of the landscape in this
way and the building of motorways,
however, has created new habitats, sometimes relatively temporary ones, where the
more ubiquitous plants have colonized.
Herbicides, known and used since the
to

restricted in

a good crop of leaves is assured.

Lavender, especially, tends to become
leggy after a few years so a supply of rooted
cuttings should always be ready to fill in
the gaps left when old plants are removed.
When Sage has become straggly and bare
of growth at the base of the bush, soil can

that

of the plant.

mound around the base

The bare growth should be

buried and the

tips

of

growth

left

truding. These will soon form roots

pro-

and

can be severed to be used as fresh plants,

eventually replacing the mother plant.

control insect attack.)

a range oj rusts and

World War

of mechanized

revolution

the

one, the fungus can be discouraged. Soil treatment with a weak

formalin solution (one part formalin to 50
parts water used at the rate of 2.25 litres to
930 square centimetres or half a gallon to
a square foot) will usually clear up the
lime-free

COLLECTING FROM THE WILD

Below

II

in which
useful plants
Hedges have been removed in
England on a vast scale to allow for a
longer, and therefore more economical,
field run, taking with them the shelter,
shade, drainage and microclimates of
field verges and hedge bottoms. Many

the mint beds to fresh

be built up into a

Below

transport and industry. Since

troyed innumerable hedgerow and wood-

Renovation

burned off and the

the last 130 years with the development of

by moving

Short-lived plants are best replaced so

affected shoots are

North America has under-

Occasionally a root rot such as black

root rot can attack mints, but

plants in

The

gone

parts of

drastic changes, particularly during

chemical agricultural practice has des-

scatter straw or

spring growth should be rust-free. Prop-

many

now

from
once was. Perhaps
only 150 years ago the \greenman' roamed
the countryside gathering herbs to sell,
upon which country people depended for
It

is

not

as easy to collect herbs

their wild state as

it

any and every ailment. The endemic flora

of Europe generally, as well as that ol

years of this century,

early

employed mainly

for

have been

weed control

since

about 1946 when synthetic plant regulator factors such as MCPA and 2.4-D
were introduced. The results appear to
show that whereas monocarpic annual
species of plants which die after flowersuch as annual grasses and sedges,
ing
have been severely reduced in number.
the perennials remain and the dicotyledonous annuals have even increased in
distribution. This is perhaps most notice.

Tat Hen

able in Chenopodium album

and

Goosefoot

Stellaria

media

or

Stitch-

wort). In short, susceptible species have

reduced

been

immune

and the distribution of

species has.

if

anything, notice-

ably increased.
The devastation of any habitat affects
plants directly, but the insect
bird

life it

life

and

the

supports are affected indirectly.

Food chains are then radically altered,

bringing about a change in balance of the
entire habitat. Pollution of sites in con-

widespread devastation, especially

trast to

water pollution, tends to affect animal

more

easily

than plant

effluents, detergents

example, take their

life

but sewage

life,

and sheep dips, for

toll more slowly on

aquatic plant life. Industrial effluents,

including highly toxic by-products, are
habitually disposed of into rivers,

fre-

quently changing not only the chemical

content of the water, but the temperature
of the whole watercourse.
Excessive water pollution problems

many

exist in

now

far

parts of the world and are

beyond redemption. The water of

some of the Swiss

128

lakes will hardly support

The Great Lakes

life at

all.

where

nitrates drained from

of America,
farmland are

POLLUTION
Right: At Cranborne Manor. Dorset, a
small collection of thymes has been made and
on the old fashioned chequerboard

set out

design.

Each space

thyme. This

with a different

is filled

herb garden provides a

little

riverside retreat complete in itself,

simplest form

and

is the

of herb plot.

overabundant, have the same problem.

Some plants have their own solutions to
adverse conditions. The perennials often
resort to vegetative survival, and others

have built up a tolerance. At

first

perhaps

only a tiny percentage ol seedlings was

able to survive, but over several generations a resistant strain

built up.

is

Other plants, however,

pilv where toxic amounts
metals

present

are

live

quite hap-

of.

say. salt or

the

in

mine workings, where ore

is

Old

soil.

sometimes

exposed, support a number of colonized

plants. The plantains and grasses colonize

newly disturbed subsoils in this way most

noticeably. For centuries man has carved
his way over the surface of the earth and
nature has always obliterated his traces if
left unchecked. But the present level ol

destruction

now

exceeds man's early

vital role of

far

activities

and ignores the

plants in

the great circle of

life.

Their

photosynthetic powers are life-giving processes and not infrequently when surface
plants have been removed, inland lak<

made

are

It

landscape.

to 'replace' the

was man, therefore,

excursions

in

his

countryside

the

into

early

which

began from the industrial towns of the

declining

nineteenth century

particularly in west-

prohibits the uprooting of any wild plant.

who

started the wholesale

be uprooted or collected only

by the owner of the land or anyone acting
with his permission. This is of immense

ern Europe

ravaging of plant

life.

Collection of prim-

and cowslips

roses, bluebells

initially pro-

Plants

plant

species

importance

subsequently

roads

needed

for

larger, to the clearing of the

Violet,

Valerian,

grew ever
road verges
themselves, therefore continuing the deas

nudation. The verges were originally

cleared by scythe, which took only enough
for

good hay and encouraged the regener-

ation of the grass.

The

scythe has now

been replaced by expensive sprays which

not only clear the verges but destroy plant

Man in his disregard of nature has

brought about a very serious state of

life.

affairs, not

only

in

plant

life

but in

many

but

may

vided relaxation, but this led to the clearing of tracks to make roadways which
led,

Britain,

in

random

no longer can
of any plant
such as Comfrey,

its

roots

made

Bistort.

Rampion

or

Collecting leaves, seeds or flowers from

makes

several

demands on

the

herb collector. Apart from the general

rules for harvesting, the plant

must

first

be identified correctly, and then only

harvested from localities in which it is
relatively abundant. Cleanliness is difficult to ensure
grit may be removed by
washing, though this defeats the objective

when

natural resources.

of trying to harvest

Conservation, restoration and reconstruction of natural sites, however, have

begun. The iq68 Clean Air Act has been

dry. But toxic sprays, atmospheric pollu-

responsible for reducing the

smoke haze

England which reduced the

rate of photo-

synthesis in plants.

The Conservation of

Wild Creatures and Wild Plants A(

1975

riot

only

in

provides

protection

oi

for

tion

from

heat.

artificial

Both the gathering and

are

frequently

made

simply by the
humidity.

prevailing

lower

drying

processes

easier

to herbalists, for

collection be

Dandelion.
the wild

dried out-of-doors without any form of

the plants are

by traffic and aeroplanes, and drift

chemical crop dressings are all

potential dangers.

Wild plant collecting is easier in most

Europe than in England simply

parts of

because of -the greater distribution of

plants.
The plants can VCT) often be

HARVESTING AND DRYING

The

exercised in cultivation can

be forfeited by incorrect harvesting
or inadequate drying. When the part of
the plant used is the root, harvesting is
carried out at the end of the growing

care

easily

season,

the

mature and

autumn, when the root

is

storing as

much

is

food as

possible. Seeds, too, are harvested

when

end of the season. Knowing the

moment to harvest the leaves - or in some
instances the entire herb itself
is an
ability that comes only with experience.
The general rule is to take leaves from the
plant just before the flowers are fully open
ripe at the

this

is

the time

when

the active principles

of the plant are of the best quality.

timing can be

critical

The

and care must be

exercised to take only the part of the plant

required and not so much of it as to impair

the metabolism of the whole plant. Take
only from clean and representative plants

[29

CULTIVATION
Left

Herbs may be dried by hanging them

in loose bundles

Storing
Label each

along a line in a shaded,

five days.

Material

when it snaps
thumb and finger.

between the

easily

dry

is

Fresh material should not be introduced

into the chamber before the drying process
is complete.

Drying in bulk
The same rules apply where herbs
grown

in

where an equable temperature of 32' to

34C (90 to 95Fj can be maintained
together with some form of ventilation to

and gather on a dry day when the dew has

Keep one kind

of plant material

separate from another and label

amounts

pick

mediately, for

it.

Lastly,

that can be handled imif they

are

left for

an hour or

two, they will deteriorate with the result-

ant

loss in

value.

Domestic drying
Few households can

keep the air circulating. The objective

should be to remove the moisture-laden
air while maintaining the temperature so
that the herbs can be dried evenly and
quickly. As the moisture from the atmosphere may be reabsorbed if the temperature falls (or if fresh material is added
.

frames. These allow the air to

and can

easily

be stacked if
battens are

drawn

large quantities of plant material, racks

against direct sunlight and a continual

can be constructed, so that the trays can

be stacked.
The dried material obtained will be
about one-eighth of the weight of the
harvested herb.

temperature of 25C to 34C (75 to

95F) can be achieved, perhaps by using
an electric convector heater. Attics under
a warm roof, airing cupboards, warming
drawers of domestic cookers, or even a
warm conservatory or garden shed (if it
can be shaded) all provide conditions
suitable for drying herbs. Ideally, spread

provided

with

legs

or

if

there are

Rubbing down
Once
down

and windows left open is ideal.

Small amounts can be dealt with
satisfactorily by picking the leaves from
the stalks, and crushing the leaves with a

is to dry
change the condition of
the leaves rather than the chemical content. The temperature in the drying
chamber should be 32 to 34C (90 to

them

briskly to

95F) before the plant material is introduced, and this needs to be maintained for
the first 24 hours of drying. Subsequently
the temperature may be reduced to 25 to
8oF) to complete the
process, which should take from three to
2 7C

130

(75

to

size

compare it with its various relatives.

There are large herbaria at the Natural
History Museum, London, and at the
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England,
and at the Linnean Society, London,
which houses the herbarium assembled by
Linnaeus. His widow sold it to Dr (later
Sir) James E. Smith, a founder of the
Linnean Society of London. The collec-

trying to do

it

There

is

no point

out-of-doors, for if there

in

be

lost.

kitchen or out-house with

rolling-pin or in a coffee-mill.

should be discarded.
riddle

the

at

London,

is

The Kew Herbarium was

founded by Sir William Hooker and
considerably enlarged by the work of his

Joseph Hooker, and is rich in

A large herbarium at Le
Jardin des Plantes in Paris is based upon
the collections of Antoine Laurent de
Jussieu, his son Adrieu and of Auguste de
St Hilaire. There are other important
collections in Europe in Vienna, Leiden,
Uppsala, Copenhagen and Florence. In
the United States of America the chief
son,

Sir

colonial flora.

is

fine

Harvard University,
at the New York

at

personal herbarium

Plant specimens can be assembled as a

satisfying

hobby, or

an extension

as

to

one's interest in herbs. Essential equip-

stalks

ment includes: a notebook and pencil, a

hand lens which magnifies up to 10 times,
an Ordnance Survey Map and either an

sieve or

old-fashioned vasculum or a series ol large

The

mesh

are

is

the slightest breeze most of the material

will

tion

collections

the door

is

museums of any
have extensive classified collections.
There is an obvious advantage in being
able to consult a specimen at any time of
the year, and perhaps at the same time to
dens and natural history

formed by Asa Gray, and

Botanic Garden.

frequently.

plants

herbarium or hortus siccus is a collection

of plants dried and preserved for use in
plant identification. Most botanic gar-

process should be carried out in a

well-ventilated place.

The moisture content of most

more than 70 per cent. The aim

bags are

the dry herbs are cool the rubbing

and leaves in a single layer in

flat boxes or lids, or on trays or sheets of
wrapping paper or newspaper, and during
the first day or two turn over the material
the shoots

Plastic

light.

collections.

in

circulate

the curtains can be

the

to

obviously unsuitable.

wooden

be brought

room

if

exposed

Natural History Museum,

based upon eighteenth- and
nineteenth-century collections, including
those of Sir Hans Sloane and Sir Joseph
Banks, and also houses several modern

to

wedged between them. Where

ideal

herb and store separ-

should be placed high up.

Plant material for drying in bulk is best
handled on trays constructed of plastic
mesh, nylon net or hessian stretched over

any new material that has

provide a special
room suitable for drying herbs, but a spare
is

in

THE HERBARIUM
are

bulk for drying, but the provision

of suitable drying conditions is more
difficult. Enough space has to be provided
to deal with the amount of material likely
to be ready to handle at any one time.
Some form of wooden shed can be used

gone.

sort of

an

airtight container so that

moisture cannot be reabsorbed. Wooden
boxes or screw-top jars of darkened glass
provide the best containers, because the
essential oils in herbs will deteriorate if

ately

draught-free place.

useful for the final refinements,

plastic

bags

especially for culinary herbs.

portable

Treat only one kind of material at a

time and wash the utensils each time
before dealing with another plant, or else
the aroma and flavour will be adulterated
and your effort wasted.

number

with

flower

wire fasteners,

press

to

give

the

addition to the place

a
a

The map

of

of tie-on labels.

considerable importance for

practice

or

together with

grid

it is

is

accepted

reference in

name when recording

made on

the locality for a plant. Notes are

DRYING HERBS

Above:

hortus siccus

or collection

pressed plants mounted onto paper

of

known

is

as a herbarium. Pressed specimens of various

mounted together for

trefoils are

comparison (left)

Space

is

included for

information on name, date found and

location.

the labels as to location, variation in plant

after insertion,

open up the press and

re-

modern herbarium

sheet

right)

Arrangement of the herbarium

arrange the more tractable material such

The

no confusion will arise by

the time the specimen reaches the flower
press. A portable, or even temporary,

as the petals.

plant press used out-of-doors ensures that

for

the plants are pressed absolutely fresh.

the process

paper or card folders, and when a

has been collected they
should be kept in a cupboard or metal
cabinet where dust can be excluded and
room temperature maintained. Some

features

and any other point of

special

interest, so that

The time
paper

will

herbs take to dry varies.

need

to

The

be changed especially

succulent specimens, and sometimes

be purchased from

may be hurried by keeping the

an airing cupboard or even in
the sunshine. The paper may have to be
changed at intervals of 6 to 12 hours, and

equipment

the pressure increased relative to the dry-

presses in

plant press

Special
firms

presses can

supplying

naturalists'

and from some department

home-made

stores,

but

presses are equally effective

and can be made to any size. Sheets of

absorbent drying paper are piled together
with

wooden boards

or metal sheets at the

top and bottom. These can be strapped or

clamped together

to

hold the papers and

plants firmly in position during the drying

process.

brushed

The

material to be pressed

and

is first

examined,
identified and then arranged on a sheet of
paper in such a way as to display its form
as clearly as possible. Leaves and flowers
need to be carefully flattened - a small
paintbrush is useful for this. Take a second
sheet of paper and hold down one edge
firmly on top of the sheet with the plant.
Slowly roll the top sheet down, taking care
clean

closely

not to disturb the specimens.

few hours

ness of the specimen.

when
feel

the specimen

cold

when

sheets are usually assembled loosely

in large

is

Drying is complete
crisp and does not

held to the cheek.

It

should

number

large

of classification
authoritative
system
should be followed, such as the Bentham
and Hooker which is still standard in
many herbaria. Scatter moth balls with
the collection to

ward

off insect attack.

Overleaf: The following table will enable you

then be mounted on sheets of good cartridge paper, about 43 cm by 28 cm (17 in

by 11 in), with all the relevant inform-

to select the

ation added.

It is good practice to write

on a label which is stuck to the lower
right-hand corner of the paper. Essential
information includes: name, date, place
(and grid reference) of collection and
some note about the habitat.
Mounting the specimens can be done in
one of several ways, either by gluing them
directly to the paper, or by stitching steins
and leaf margins to the paper, or by placing several gummed strips over stems, leaf

Abbreviations

this

Sp

spring

ESp

early spring

ES

summer
summer
late summer
mid-late summer
second summer
end of summer
autumn

and leaves to hold the plant

permanent position.

stalks

in

to the

herbs you wish

conditions ofyour

LS

M-LS
ss

EndS

to

grow according

site.

early

winter

LW

late winter

AT

anytime
>:!'

CULTIVATION
SELECTING AND GROWING YOUR

OWN HERBS

HERB

TYPE

SOIL

HEIGHTxSPREAD

POSITION

Achillea millefolium

perennial

well drained, tolerates

30-65x30 cm

tolerant of

most

(12-26x12

very damp, rich

50-1 40 x 90

cm

bogs, ponds, rich moist

(20-56x36

ins)

soils in full

(Yarrow)

Acorus calamus
(Sweet Flag, Rush.
Calamus)

perennial, aquatic

Ajuga reptans

perennial

damp, loamy

or dry

10-30x30 cm
(4-12x12

(Bugle)

Alchemilla vulgaris
(Lady's Mantle)

perennial

Allium cepa aggregatum

(Tree Onion. Top
Onion)

bulbous, perennial

Allium sativum

bulbous, perennial

ordinary, well-drained

30-45 x 15 cm
(12-18x6 ins) (grow

fertile,

well-drained

bulbous, perennial

ground cover
full

sun

full

sun

rows)

rows)

15-30x 15 cm

and loamy

rich

tolerant of most; useful

30-60 x10 cm
(1 2-24 x4 ins) (grow
in

Allium schoenoprasum
(Chives)

sun or shade

15-30x15 cm
(6 12x 6 ins)

(Garlic)

sun

ins)

almost any except

waterlogged

in

most

ins)

(6-1

2x6

ins)

useful for edging

(forms

clumps)

Anethum graveolens

annual

(Dill)

most acidic

soils,

but

20-90x60 cm

not too light

(8-36x24

full

sun

ins)

Angelica archangelica

biennial treated as

not too

(Angelica)

short lived perennial

acid

150-240x90 cm
(5-8x3 ft)

back of border where

is cool and moist

Anthriscus cerefolium

annual, sometimes

moist, light, well-

40x30 cm

prefers

(Chervil)

biennial

drained soils with

(16

rich, slightly

x12

it

some shade.

Mid-border plant

ins)

added compost
Artemisia absinthium

perennial

(Wormwood)

Artemisia

perennial

deeply dug clays

65-110x40 cm
(26-44x16 ins)

most

120x50 cm

most

soils: prefers

soils

(48x20

dracunculoides
(Russian Tarragon)
Artemisia dracunculus
(French Tarragon)

perennial

Artemisia vulgaris

warm,

rich

60-90x40 cm

and

officinalis

sun

full

sun

(24-36x16

perennial

most moist

90-1 80 x 40-50 cm
(3-6 ft x 16-20 ins)

back of border or
mid-border plant

perennial

dry.

90x30 cm

full

sun or some shade.

sun; seen to best

soils

sandy

(36x12

(Pleurisy Root.

Borago

full

ins)

well-drained

(Mugwort)

Asclepias tuberosa

back of border or can

be used as screen

annual

(Borage)

ins)

ins)

well-drained poor, dry

60 x 40 cm

full

soils

(24x16

effect

ins)

when

planted on

low wall
Calamintha

officinalis

perennial

chalky

soils,

30-35x50 cm

dryish

(12-14x20

(Calamint)

ins)

dry. not too

shaded

(forms

clumps)

Carum

carvi

(Caraway)

132

biennial

most well-drained

soils

65x25-30 cm
(26x10-12

ins)

full-sun.

mid-border

ACH-CAR

PROPAGATION
Sp

division

division of rhizome

Sp.

FLOWER

good

pink or white

light.

Tolerates

drought

Sp

seed

EXTRA DETAILS

only flowers

grown

in

when

greenish-yellow

water

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

grey-green, feathery,
aromatic

leaves before
flowering
S

sword-like, plentiful,
stout, smelling of

rhizome

ESp.

tangerine

whpn
division

Sp.

space 30 cm (1 2 ins)
and allow to run
together for ground

Sp

seed

apart,

rnishprl

blue; rarely pink or

deep green

white

reddish-purple

to

whole herb

whole herb

cover

Sp
ES under glass

division

spreads

seed

needs control

bulbils

Sp. S.

not shaded

Sp.

seen

cylindrical,

LS

whitish-pink

Sp-MS

drills

seedlings should not be

disturbed in first year

rose purple

do not

yellow

plant close to

blue-green

flattish. spiky,

when

Sp

seed, in

pale green, fluted

Sp.

bulbs
seed

ES

yellow

rarely

bulbs, broken into

cloves

fairly rapidly,

Sp

leaves

LS

LS

bulbs

bruised

grassy,

MS

odorous

bulbils

in

clumps

soft spikes, aromatic

Fennel. Protect from

AT

leaves

AT

leaves

seed

LS

wind
seed as soon as ripe

grows

Sp

shade, produces softer

leaves

stems Mature plants

cannot be transplanted

seed

seed,

sown at
AT

week

intervals

better in light

maintain a succession
of

young

plants

yellowish

M-LS

soft, fern-like,

aromatic

root

white

fern-like, dark green,

Do

Sp

stems

Sp. S

LS

aromatic

leaves before
flowering
AT

feathery, silvery-green,

shoots

not transplant
division

Sp.

stem cuttings
seed
A
division

Sp.

LSp-ES

seed

division

support

in

back

in

LS and cut

greenish-yellow

Give mulch
cold sites

cover

in

really

sunny sheltered

Sp. S

aromatic

greenish-white

pale green, willowy

leaves

AT

greenish-white

glossy, dark green,

leaves

AT

position

Sp

cuttings with

heat

ES

sunny sheltered
up
every 2-3 years Cut
back and mulch in
really

some

position; Divide

Sp

aromatic

division

Sp.

cuttings

seed

Sp.

dry

MS

cuttings

division

Sp

seed

dislikes

shade

brownish-yellow

Sp

division

seed

in drills

soil

bright

only a small seedling

may be transplanted
Readily self-sown

orange

blue, pink or white

dark green above,

silvery beneath,
feathery, aromatic

whole herb

narrow, alternate on

leaves

short stems

rootstock

rough, green, aromatic

flowers and leaves

AT

pale green, light and

flowers and leaves

AT

AT

MS
blue, fragrant

ES

fragrant

Sp. S.

prefers cool site

not transplant

Do

white

SS

soft green, feathery,

seedheads

aromatic

leaves

AT

rootstock of

st

year

'33

CULTIVATION
HERB

TYPE

SOIL

HEIGHTxSPREAD

POSITION

Chamaemelum nobile
(Roman Chamomile)

perennial

well-drained

15-35x10-15 cm
(6-14x4-6 ins)

full

Chenopodium album

annual

50x300 cm

most positions

(Fat

dryish, rich soils

(20 ins x 10

Hen)

Cichonum intybus

perennial

most

(3-6

Cimicifuga racemosa
(Black Cohosh)

perennial

Convallaria majalis
(Lily-of-the-Valley)

perennial

most

fertile,

ft

sunny position

x 22 ins)

90-270x90 cm
(3-9x3 ft)

loamy

rich,

ft)

90-180x55 cm

soils

(Chicory)

well-

drained soils

some shade

sun. or

Useful as lawn

woodland

rich

25 x 10

cm

front of border or

(10x4

ins) (spreads

among bushes

slowly)

Conandrum sativum

annual

fertile, light to

average

Crocus sativus
(Saffron Crocus)

bulbous, perennial

Cuminum cyminum

annual

and well-

light, rich

cm

30

well-drained

light,

30 x

purpurea

perennial, evergreen

biennial

well-drained,
calcareous

fertile,

well-drained

(Foxglove)

Foeniculum vulgare

perennial

perennial

well-drained

light,

(Alehoof)

Helianthus annuus
(Sunflower)

Hyssopus

officinalis

annual

perennial, semi-

(Hyssop)

evergreen

Inula helenium

perennial

(Elecampane)

Juniperus communis

perennial, coniferous

most

cm

light

full

sun

likes

120x40-50 cm
(48x16-20 ms)

full

plant,

sun

sun. but tolerates

shade
sun. sheltered from

c~

full

ins)

wind

10x30 cm

will tolerate

(4x12

hedge

ins) (spreads)

shade of

(3-10x3ft)

back of border, allow

much space, full sun

60x20 cm

sunny

(24x8 ms)

results

90-1 80 x 90 cm

needs sun; plant at

back of sunny border

soil,

and moist

(3-6x3

dry.

calcareous

up

up

well-drained

sheltered,

good edging

ins)

to

to

ft)

780x780 cm

(26x26
perennial, evergreen

sun

(8x8

rich

ft)

often less

1200x1200 cm

(40 x 40

(Bay)

full

20x20 cm

any

preferably

sheltered,

ms)

90-300x90 cm

soils

(Juniper)

Laurus nobilis

height

40-120x60-90
(16-48x24-36

fairly rich

(Fennel)

Glechoma hederacea

in

ins)

(12x6

Dianthus caryophyllus
(Clove Pink)

protected situation,

sunshine needed,
mid-border plant

ins)

30-45 cm
(12-18

drained

(Cumin)

Digitalis

60

(24x12

(Coriander)

ft)

often less

situation for best

banks in sunny
good drainage

sheltered spot, free

from wind and

good container
Lavandula angustifolia

perennial, evergreen

(Lavender)

Ledum groenlandicum

perennial, evergreen

(Lovage)

'34

90x60 cm

poor

soils

(36x24

wet.

rich,

sandy or

perennial

fertile, acidic,

prepared

well-

ins)

ins)

frost,

plant

not too exposed,

(bushy)

up to 90 x 90 cm

(36x36

peaty

(Labrador Tea)

Levi stic um officinalis

chalky, well-drained,

spot,

(forms

prefers

full

sun

some sun

or shade on
bogs or swampland,

mat)

not too dry.

90-210x90 cm
(3-7x3 ft)

Some shade

or full

sun

CHA-LEV
PROPAGATION
division

Sp.

cuttings

FLOWER

best when a patch of

plants are grown

white daisy

together.

Sp

seed

EXTRA DETAILS

Keep

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

pale green fern-grass

whole herb

very soft mid-green

shoots

jagged, green

root
leaves

S-LS

soil

moist around young

plants

mealy-white

Sp

seed

Sp.

division

seed

Sp

seed

Sp

SS

clear blue

yellowish-white

division

Sp.

division

25 wide

leaflets

Sp

A
S

rootstock

A
takes time to establish

can be grown

itself,

in

white, sweetly-scented

mid-green, upright

whole flowers,
ES

fern-like, green, smells

seeds

unpleasant just before

seeds ripen

leaves

grass-like

stigmas

thread-like, slightly

seeds

ES

plant

pots

may require support.

Do not transplant

seed (slow to
germinate, but
usually high
germination)

corm

seed

Sp

pinkish-mauve,
sometimes white

M-LS

End S

AT

Sp
divide every 3 years

water well

in

drought

mauve

pinkish-white

End S

fragrant

pipings or layering

pink, white and

combined arrangement

grey, clean, spiky in

flowers

leaves

ES

shape

of these colours, very

M-LS

fragrant

protect 1 st year
seedlings from frost

Sp. S

seed

division

seed

Sp

give

enough space, and

sow

in

Sp.

division

Sp.

SS

magenta

mid-green, wrinkled,
soft

yellow

succession

ground cover, allow

space, but it may need

bluish

thread-like, strongly

leaves

aromatic

seed

green, marbled with

ES

silver, slightly

S
S
S

leaves

aromatic

control

may need support

Sp

seed

Sp
ES

division

cuttings

seed

or

Sp

Replace every 4-5

Sp

division

seed

cut back

bright yellow

MS

bluish-mauve, pink or
white
ES-LS

End S

green, roughish

seed

dark green, bushy,

aromatic

flowers and shoot

when

years
Sp.

replace every 3 years

bright yellow

MS

large,

mid-green

Sp.

leaves before
flowering
Sp
roots

cuttings

tips,

available

greenish-yellow

useful as container

very difficult

LS

cuttings

creamy-yellow

ES

dark green

berries

when

smooth dark green

leaves

AT

grey, aromatic

leaves
flowers

short oblong

leaves

AT

strong green, deeply

cut. aromatic

leaves

prickly,

ripe

plant out-of-doors,

withstands clipping

AT

stem cuttings
seed
Sp

Sp

seeds
layering

division

Sp.

.ion

Sp.

seed

Sp. S

regular pruning

mauve, fragrant

suit evergreen borders.

but requires shade

cream

disappears below

yellowish

ground
spot to

W. mark the
ensure no other
in

Sp

MS

MS

MS

roots

seed

LS

plants are too close

35

CULTIVATION
HERB

TYPE

SOIL

Melissa officinalis

perennial

warm, not too

dry,

poor

perennial

very moist or aquatic

(Water Mint)

Mentha

citrata

POSITION

60-90x40-60 cm

full

(24-36x16-24

(Lemon Balm)

Mentha aquatica

HEIGHTxSPREAD

biennial

15-90x1 5-20 cm

will tolerate

(636 x 68

suitable as a

ins) (spreads)

35-45x15-20 cm
(14-18x6-8 ins)

moist and rich

(Eau de Cologne Mint)

sun or some shade

ins)

shade,

bog plant

full

sun or some shade

full

sun or some shade

(spreads)

Mentha

x piperita

perennial

(Peppermint)

Mentha pulegium

perennial

moist, for

good

results

50-60x20 cm

add moisture-retaining

(20-24x8

material to

(spreads)

all

soils

ins)

0-30 x 20 cm
(4-12x8 ins)

fertile

(Pennyroyal)

can tolerate shade

(spreads)

Monarda didyma

perennial

moist,

and very

fertile

Add manure

(Bergamot)

70x30 cm

good

(28 x

some shade

2 ins) (forms

light,

but tolerates

clumps)
Myrrhis odorata

perennial

(Sweet Cicely)

Myrtus communis

perennial, evergreen

90 x 15

cm

moist

(36 x 6

ins)

well-drained

300

well-drained,

fertile

and

150 cm

(10x5

(Myrtle)

Nasturtium officinale

perennial, aquatic

(Watercress)

very damp, rich

in

Nepeta catana

perennial

soil,

or

shallow water

fertile,

well-drained

(Catmint. Catnep)

(bushy)

ft)

060 cm

(4-24

in

length

slight

shade

needs

shelter, dislikes

wet

full

soil

sun or some shade

ins)

50 x 40 cm
(20x 16 ins)

mid-border plant
tolerant of

most

situations

Ocimum

basilicum

annual

light,

well-drained

45x15 cm
(18x6

(Basil)

Origanum majorana
(Sweet Marjoram)

perennial, usually

medium

grown

alkaline

(10x4-6

Origanum onites

perennial

dry. light

50x20 cm

as annual

rich,

dryish and

25 x 10-15

cm

with good

rich, fertile

grown

tilth

(12-20x8

Portu/aca oleracea
(Purslane)

annual

light

25 x 20 cm

as annual

(10x8

ins)

ins)

perennial

light,

calcareous

(Salad Burnet)
perennial

Reseda lutea

perennial treated as

(Mignonette)

annual, evergreen

Rosmarinus
(Rosemary)

perennial, evergreen

136

sunny position

most

soils

moderately
calcareous

rich,

light, well-drained
calcareous

good edging plant,

grow in rows

sunny spot
(forms

mat)

officinalis

sun

requires

30-50x20 cm

biennial, usually

(Parsley)

officinalis

full

ins)

Petrose/inum crispum

Pulmonaria
(Lungwort)

sun

(20x8 ms)

(Pot Marjoram)

Potenum sanguisorba

full

ins)

in herb
border or kitchen
garden

30 x 25 cm

needs damp, grassy

(12x10

surroundings

ins)

20x20 cm

front of border, tolerant

(8x8

of

ins)

shade and shrubs

90x20 cm

mid-border

(3x8

prefers

ins)

60-120x180 cm
(2-4x6 ft)

full

plant,

some shade

sun.

good

for

hedges; prostrate form

provides useful ground
cover

MEL-ROS
PROPAGATION
stem cuttings
Sp.

division

seed

Sp. S

EXTRA DETAILS

FLOWER

spreads, needs tidying

creamy-white

needs confining,
otherwise spreads and

mauve

MS

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

light green, wrinkled,

very fragrant

leaves

ES.

division of runners

during growing season

is

division of runners
during growing season

MS

shining green, aromatic

leaves and shoots

S.

invasive

MS

lilac-mauve

needs confining,
otherwise spreads

roundish, green to

leaves and shoots

brown- purple- bronze

S.

in

dry situations,

aromatic
division of runners

needs confining.

during growing season

otherwise spreads and

is

division of runners

during growing season

MS

lilac

dark bronze-purple
ranging to black in dry
situations, aromatic

invasive

may need
may need

MS

mauve

confining
protection

in

Sp.

divide regularly as

centre tends to
bare.

seed

LS.

Cut back

requires acidic

Sp

root cuttings

red

grow
in

ES

creamy-white

soil,

deeply dug. Very easily

self-sown

white

often needs wall

MS-End

protection and shelter

layering

MS

from winds

division

clean water to

deep green, sometimes

leaves and shoots

variegated, creeping,

S.

dark green, strongly

leaves and flowers as

fragrant

required

grow

in

root

leaves

Sp. S

light green, smallish

leaves

berries

dark green, shiny,

white, very small

dark green, soft and

fern-like

cuttings of

plentiful,

non-flowering shoots

flavour

Sp. S.

cuttings, with heat

aromatic

severe winters
division

leaves and shoots

S.

AT

whole shoot

pungent

division

Sp.

blue spires

Sp.

seed

under glass ESp

ES

outside

Sp.

seed

Sp

seed

Sp.

warmest spot

available

green, triangular,

pink

soft,

mid-green,

fragrant

cultivated

cream

soft,

shoots before
flowering
Sp

leaves

AT

pungent
tender and not widely

ES
seed
stem cuttings
division

green-grey.
aromatic

seed

purplish or whitish

long period for

germination, assist by

creamy-white

SS

leaves before
flowering
S

soft green, fragrant

leaves before
flowering
S

crisp, curled, bright

leaves

leaves

leaves

AT

green, fragrant

pre-soakmg seed
seed

Sp

ought

to

be thinned

yellow

light green,

with

seed

Sp

division
after

seed

immediately

Sp.

smooth

sheen

green

reddish-green

pretty, dark

appreciates some shade

and moisture

pink and blue

Sp. ES

rough, silvery marks on

dark green

leaves

does not transplant

spires of reddish-yellow

mid-green

whole

successfully

rosette

best

flowering

sown

in drills

in

basal

Sp. S

plant

which

withers before flowers

arrive

cuttings
layering

S
S

withstands clipping

pale mauve-blue

may

ES. often

suffer in cold,

exposed, windy

Sp.

highly aromatic,
grey-green, narrow

leaves as required

sites

'37

CULTIVATION
HERB

TYPE

SOIL

Ruta graveolens
(Rue)

perennial, semi-

most

evergreen

soils not

damp

HEIGHTxSPREAD

POSITION

50-70

full

x 60 cm
(20-28x24 ins)

sun; will tolerate

some shade

(bushy)
Salvia officinalis

perennial, evergreen

90x90 cm

dryish

rich,

(Purple Sage)

Salvia sclarea

(36 x 36

biennial or perennial

and well-drained

light

(Clary)

Sanguinaria canadensis
(Blood Root)

perennial

Santolina

perennial, evergreen

loamy

rich,

light,

well-drained

chamaec yparissus

allow space, prefers

(bushy)

ins)

full

sun

90x30 cm

will tolerate a little

(36 x

shade

2 ins)

20x30 cm

cool, moist

(8x12

woodland,
under shrubs

ins)

40-60 x 40-60 cm
(16-24x16-24 ins)

good edging

30-90x30 cm

mid-border or grassy
bank, spreading

likes

plant,

sunshine

(Cotton Lavender)

Saponaria officinalis
(Soapwort.

perennial

dampish

fertile,

(12-36x12

ins)

Bouncing Bet)
Satureia

montana

perennial

light,

perennial

ordinary

15-40x15-40 cm
(6-16x6-16 ins)

well-drained

(Winter Savory)

Stachys

officinalis

(Wood Betony)

Symphytum

officinale

perennial

perennial

full

(6-36 x 10

shade

moist, fertile

50-90x30 cm

tolerant of shade, likes

(20-36x12

dampish situations

some

loam

or sand, moist

light,

well-drained

Thymus citriodorus
(Lemon Thyme)

perennial

light,

well-drained,

slightly acid

ins)

full

some

sun or semi-shade

ins)

25x20 cm
(10x8

(Wall Germander)

ins)

120x90 cm
(48x36

perennial

sun. tolerates

15-90x25 cm

soil, likes

(Tansy)

Teucnum chamaedrys

sun. front of border

humus

(Common Comfrey)
Tanacetum vulgare

full

needs good drainage,

base of wall or in
paving

ins)

at

10-20x25-30 cm
(4_8x10-12 ins)

full

sun; carpet-forming,

needs paving or front

of border position

Thymus serpyllum
(Wild Thyme)

Tussilago farfara

perennial

perennial

light,

most

well-drained

soils

(Coltsfoot)

5-10x20-40 cm
(2-4x8-16 ins)

full

(creeps)

of border position

20x10 cm
(8x4 ins)

dry banks, under shrubs

sun; carpet-forming,

needs paving or front

where

it

can become

naturalized

Valeriana officinalis
(Valerian)

perennial

Valerianella locusta

annual

rich

and moist

(54x12-16

rich

(Corn Salad)

Verbascum thapsus

biennial

dryish, fertile, chalky

perennial, evergreen

well-drained

(Periwinkle)

shaded borders

ins)

10-20x15-25 cm
(4_8x6-10 ins)

90-180x25 cm
(3-6 ftx10

(Mullein)

Vmca major

135x30-40 cm

edge

of herb

bed or

kitchen garden

full

sun. back of border

ins)

5-40 x 90 cm
(616 x 36 ins)
1

good

for planting

on

banks

(spreads)
Viola odorata

(Sweet

138

Violet)

perennial

well-drained, previously
enriched, moist soil

10-20x5 cm
(4-8x2 ins)

some shade, moist

banks

RUT-VIO
PROPAGATION
LS

cuttings

seed

Sp

layering

FLOWER

needs pruning back

every 2nd year

yellow

does not

S
S

cuttings

EXTRA DETAILS

like

windy

mauve-purple

sites

FOLIAGE

HARVEST

grey-green, small,
aromatic

leaves

grey (some forms

variegated or purple),

flowers and bracts

pungent
Sp,

division

seed

mauve-blue, rather
S

division

keep moist

after

when young

white or pinkish

Sp

stem cuttings
layering

division

cut back in Sp.

Withstands clipping

yellow

S
seed (slow)

lift

division

Sp

division

Sp.

and divide plants

Sp

each

bushy

AT

leaves

leaves and shoots

pale green, soft

roots

M LS

white or pink

small, dark, aromatic,

leaves

Sp. S.

leaves

leaves

LS-S

leaves

Sp. S

enduring subshrub

every 3 years. Cut back

layering

soft green, aromatic

rose-pink

Sp

division

root cuttings

division

Sp.

Sp.

Sp.

trim in

stem cuttings

cuttings

division

Sp.

remove flowers
promote leaves

to

rampant spreader,
needs chopping back,
confining and
sometimes supporting

division

large,

rough and

stiff.

pale green

yellow buttons

dark green, fern-like

pungent

blue-mauve

Sp

LS-S

blue and pink

dark green, shiny,

(decorative plant)

bushy growth

trim

back each year

pinkish-mauve

minute, dark green,

aromatic

leaves and shoots

grey-green, minute,
aromatic

leaves and shoots

dark green, felt-like,

grey underneath

flowers
leaves

green, shiny

rootstock

pale green, smooth,

leaves as required

S.

layers

cuttings

division

Sp.

trim

back each year

pink

layers

division

invasive,

root cuttings

seed

rhizome

lobed

coral-like, grey

pink or white,
sometimes with red

Sp

stem cuttings

seed

solitary leaf stem,

growth

marks

seed

leaves

leaf

flowering

seed

dark green, broad

variable

Sp

Sp.

Sp.

division of rootstock

needs to be

yellow - appearing

confined

before leaves

divide and replant

pinkish-white

LW. ESp

LS

ESp
Sp

every 4 years

A
seed

Sp.

sow

in drills,

make

successive sowings

mauve
used

seed

Sp.

lighten

heavy

soils

Do

allow to flower

not

if

for salads

strong yellow

roughly spoon-shaped,
rosette

SS

growth

felt-like,

silver-white

before sowing
cuttings

division

Sp.

can be invasive, keep

runners
ESp
seed (slow)
Sp
division

it

leaves

stem

mauve-blue

ES

shines, dark green

within bounds

violet

Sp

dark to mid-green

S,

(decorative plant)
leaves

Sp-S

flower

Sp

after

flowering

139

'

*****A\'
'/-

*r-

*>
ff-

*'

'

>-"'*
..

jf'jjf

Reference section
I
yV

te-*4
'.V

The

-1

of 420 of the most important herbs,

each illustrated with a photograph or
drawing and with its characteristics and
constituents described in full. The enormous variety and extent of the powers of
plants is amply demonstrated in these
entries. The practical information included gives ideas on how to cultivate
those herbs that interest you, together
with a concise indication of their uses,
whether culinary, medicinal or otherwise.
Once again, however, we must stress that
the medicinal use of plants requires expert
knowledge. In this respect, the book is a
reference work rather than a guide to
practical application. Under no circumstances should readers use the information
iu these pages for home treatment without
first

taking expert advice.

The

cultivation section states whether

is found in the wild state (as

most are), or whether it is found wild only
as an escape from cultivation, and also
gives details of commercial and horticultural cultivation where applicable. Re-

the species

'*

J=

lists

the parts of the plant,

commonly

together with their uses, most

employed.

In

necessary to

list

some

cases,

it

has been

different parts of the plant

for different uses, as the effects of different

parts of plants can vary widely

to the

extent of being contradictory.

The naming of herbs

often causes prob-

We

have used the Latin botanical

names of the plants (the most accurate
system), followed by the preferred common name in bold type with some of the
alternatives. The Latin names have particular significance, and it is as well to
lems.

know how

they are

made

up.

The

follow-

example is of a relatively complex

name, as the herb is a hybrid, although
ing

the principles apply to

Mentha x
LABIATAE

all

other species:

piperita var. citrata (Ehr.) Briq.

Bergamot Mint Eau

de Cologne Mint/

Orange Mint
In this example, Mentha indicates the
genus and piperita the species; (Ehr.)
stands for Ehrhart which is the name of
the botanist

who

first classified

the species

and

and, in addition, those closely related

accepted reclassification - thus without

brackets. Originally this plant was classified by Linnaeus simply as Mentlm piperita,
but it was then reclassified by Ehrhart as
Mentha x piperita var. citrata; the x indicates

varieties

species that are cultivated as medicinal or

economic plants

for the

same purpose

as

the species in question are also mentioned.

Left:

A mass

the wild.
the

of different herbs

growing

in

Many

of the herbs described on

following pages
over 420 species -

can be collected easily and put

>

which arc of greater

horticultural importance have been noted,
lated

V7

-J

Each entry

following pages include a detailed

list

oj different uses,

to

a variety

which include culinary,

medicinal and cosmetic.

the

Briq. (the abbreviation of Briquet)

name

that the plant

is

a cross between Mentha

spicata

and Mentha

means

that this

is

is

of the person responsible for the

is

aquatica,

and the

'var.'

a variety of mint which

not sufficiently distinct to be classified as

a separate species. Labiatae indicates the

family to which the plant belongs.

'

1'

ABI-ADI
Abies alba Mill,

pinaceae

Silver Fir
This conifer was once the source of 'Strassburg
Turpentine', first described in detail by Belon
in

De

in the

now

Arboribus coniferis (1553).

London Pharmacopoeia
and the

rarely collected,

It

was retained

until

leaves,

788. It

is

buds and

fresh resin are only used in folk medicine.

Description Coniferous evergreen tree to 50

trunk straight, branches brownish and pubescent;

leaves simple,

needle-like,

glossy

and

dark green above, rounded at apex; to 3 cm

long. Monoecious, the male cones small;
female to 16 cm long, erect, becoming reddishbrown, with deciduous scales. Appearing late
spring to early summer.

Native to central and southern

Europe; mountainous regions from 400-2000
m altitude. Introduced elsewhere.

Distribution

Cultivation

especially

and

Employed

Wild.

horticulturally,

the cultivars Columnaris,

Compacta

Pendula. Dislikes polluted air.

Constituents Oleo-resin

comprising turpentine;
provitamin A.

essential oil; a sugar, abietite;

Uses

(leaves,

occasionally)

fresh

ant; carminative.

of bronchitis,
flatulent colic.

resin,

oil

of turpentine

Antiseptic; diuretic; expector-

Employed

cystitis,

The

in the

treatment

leucorrhoea, ulcers and

oil is

an

irritant

and can be

applied externally, diluted, as a rubefacient in

neuralgia.
externally,

1677. It was included in the London

Pharmacopoeia of 72
Description Moderate sized tree, 9-12 m high;
until

Contra-indications

The

and may

should only be used

cause skin reactions.
oil

trunk short, not straight, 1.5-2 m

thorny branches; light

in girth;

straggling

feathery

rough, dark grey-brown bark; pale

foliage;

yellow flowers.
Distribution

Indigenous

ma; common
plains of

to eastern India,

Burma, forests of tropical

Not cultivated; trees

Cultivation

Bur-

of Ceylon,

in hotter, drier parts

east Africa.
felled

and

processed.
Constituents Astringent action

due

Not cultivated;

trees incised

and

collected early winter.

mainly of calcium, magnesium and potassium salts of arabic acid

(arabin). Forms a mucilage in water.
Uses (dried gummy exudation from stems and
branches; Soothing for inflamed tissue. Used
in mouth lozenges, cough mixtures, emulsions.
Highly nutritious taken as gruel. Adhesive.
Constituents Consists

L acanthaceae

Acanthus mollis

red, catechol.

Bear's Breech Brank Ursine

The specific name, Acanthus from the Greek
akanthos, ake meaning thorn, anthos meaning
flowers) occurs frequently in Greek and Roman

and strained extract of heartwood

dark brown solid mass

Powerful astringent, useful

tions of throat,
as

Used

gargle.

inflamed condiused diluted

treat diarrhoea and
for

gums and mouth;

to

and boils. Wood for posts,

heating and charcoal. Catechu and bark for
tanning and dyeing.

externally for ulcers

Acacia Senegal

L) Willd. leguminosae

Gum Arabic Acacia Gum/Gummi

When

the Egyptians brought

Gulf of Aden

acaciae

gum from

in the seventeenth

century

the
B.C.,

they called it Kami and used it mainly for

painting and as an adhesive for lapis lazuli or
coloured glass. Theophrastus mentioned Kami,
in the fourth

142

Cultivation

gum

Indigenous to east and west Africa.

Arabia and India.

in

catechu-

to

chips, forming very

leguminosae
Catechu Black Cutch/Kutch
This herb was known as Cacho or Kat and was
an important export from India to China,
Arabia and Persia in the sixteenth century. It
was introduced to Europe in the seventeenth
century from Japan. The dark brown extract
was not recognized as a vegetable substance

Common

tannic acid. Also contains quercetin, catechu

Uses (boiled

Acacia catechu (L) Willd.

flowers yellowish, fragrant; corolla white.

Distribution

Gummi

century

B.C.,

and Celsus

called

it

century B.C.
Arabian physicians at the medieval school of
Salerno used it and it was liable for customs
duty at Pisa and Paris. It reached London by
via Venice. Gum Arabic is still used
1 52
pharmaceutically.
acanthinum

in

the

first

Description

Low

tree,

3-6

high,

bending grey

branches, grey bark leaves pale green, smooth

;

ABI-ADI
writings referring to different prickly plants.

periods. Stimulates gastric secretion.

The

Fresh herb in salads.

beautiful leaves stimulated designs for the

of columns

decoration

classical

in

Greek

oblong
dark green and
leaves

undulating margins,
30-60 cm long; stems straight to 150 cm
high; white or lilac pink flowers on spikes,

with

glossy,

summer.
Distribution

Native of southern Europe.

Now

widely distributed.
ordinary soil prefers deep
sun or partial shade. Propa-

Cultivation Tolerates

loam, either

full

gate by division in spring or

cuttings, or seed, in spring.
as

house plant

Uses

autumn;

May

root

be cultivated

in large pot in full light.

Crushed leaves once used

for

burns and

scalds.

Hops

in

for greasy skin.

was an ancient herb of the East

mentioned in the Bible in the book
of Exodus. It was probably introduced into
Russia by the Mongolians in the eleventh
century, and into Poland by the thirteenth. At
the end of the sixteenth century it was widely
distributed by the Viennese botanist Clausius.
Description Hardy, vigorous, aromatic perennial; much branched rhizome, 3 cm thick,
bearing sword-shaped leaves with wavy margin,
m high and 15 mm wide. Small flowers
Acorus calamus

Ching' sticks.
Contra-indications Large doses produce headaches and vertigo.
Snuff; tobacco substitute.

'I

Aconitum napellus L ranunculaceae

Aconite Monkshood/Blue Rocket/Wolfsbane
This lethal herb was widely employed as an
arrow poison by the ancient Chinese and its
generic name comes from the Greek akontion
meaning a dart. Napellus means 'little turnip'
- a reference to the shape of its tuberous root.
Aconitum napellus was an important herb among
the thirteenth-century Welsh physicians of
Myddvai but was not introduced into medicine

and

L compositae

Yarrow
Weed
From

Milfoil/ Wound wort/Carpenter's

ancient times

this

herb has been associ-

wounds and the

stemming of blood-flow, hence the generic
name; Achilles, for example, was supposed to
ated

with

have cured
A.

healing of

the

his

millefolium

warriors with

its

traditionally

has

Hardy herbaceous perennial;

Description

leaves.

had a wide

medical use.

Aromatic perennial, far-creeping

stoloniferous herb; erect furrowed stem, 8-60

also

AW<

'''/

essen-

biennial as roots produced one year,

tially

flower the next; stem erect reaching 150 cm;

leaves dark green, glossy, 3-8 cm wide, divided
flowers
2

cm

(summer and autumni

violet

blue,

high, helmet shaped, in terminal clusters.

Indigenous to Alps and Pyrenees;

mountainous districts of northern hemisphere.

Distribution

Prefers moist soils in shade.

Root division
daughter roots are stored
then planted mid-winter
Cultivation

Description

is

generally until the eighteenth century.

Achillea millefolium

Sedge/Myrtle

Flag

Cosmetic cleanser

Hardy perennial;

L araceae
Calamus Sweet Flag/Sweet

Acorus calamus

substitute

brewing.

architecture.
Description

Can

cm high; white or pinkish flowers early

summer to autumn and slightly hairy bipinnate leaves, 2-10 cm long, divided into fine

sown

leaflets.

Constituents

in

garden

in

autumn;

in a

warm

in moist

selected

place and

loam. Seeds

spring flower in 2-3 years. Attractive

decoration; blue, white and violet

cultivars include Blue Spectre, Sparks Variety.

Sedative and toxic action due to

Widespread in temperate zones;

native to Europe; on all but poorest soils.
Cultivation
Increase by division spring or
autumn. Grows in any soil in sunny position.
Distribution

Constituents

and
Uses

Volatile

oil

Distribution

parts,

and urinary

including flowers)

antiseptic.

Combines with

Only

Elderflowers and Peppermint for colds and

Of use

flowers in water.

Constituents Bitter,

hypertension and coronary

thrombosis, dysentery and diarrhoea. Fresh
influenza.

long.

to central Asia, eastern

zones, in

Diaphoretic; antipyretic; hypotensive; diuretic

Indigenous

Europe; now native in northern temperate

marshy regions.
Cultivation Needs
moist soil and frequent
watering, best by water margins. Divide
clumps early spring or autumn, cover well.

containing azulene;

a glycoalkaloid, achilleine.

(dried aerial

summer), on inflorescence 4~8cm

(early

in

aromatic, volatile

oil; bitter

principle, acorin.

Uses (dried rhizome) Carminative; vermifuge;

spasmolytic; diaphoretic. Stimulates salivary

leaf alleviates toothache. Regulates menstrual

and

gastric glands. Slight sedative action

on

central nervous system. Best used in flatulent

dyspepsia.
Beer flavouring and liqueur. Candied rhizomes
used as sweetmeats. Young leaf buds in salads.

colic,

Insecticide; powder repels white ants.

Perfume additive similar to orris root. Toothpowder, hair-powders and dry shampoos.

Snuff.
Contra-indications

Oil

of acorus

has reputed

carcinogenic properties.

alkaloid, aconitine.

Also contains picraconi-

Adiantum capillus-veneris L polypodiaceae

Maidenhair Fern Venus Hair
The generic name Adiantum is from the Greek

tine and aconine.

word

Uses (dried root tubers, whole plant fresh or

repels water

dried

wet environment. The specific and

Sedative; pain

killer; antipyretic.

used for feverish conditions,

ally for neuralgia

and

now

only extern-

"

S.

To

names

POISON-

be used only by medical personnel.

unwetted, since the foliage

and the

plant's natural habitat

refer to the hair of the

fine, shiny,

sciatica.

Contra-indications All parts intensely

(

Once

adiantos or

pudenda

is

common
after the

black petioles. This was once the

most important herbal ingredient of a popular

cough syrup called Capillaire which remained

'43

ADO-AGA
divided into 3 leaflets.
Distribution Native to Europe, naturalized in
eastern North America: often near habitation.

hedgerows.

Wild;

Cultivation

vigorous

too

for

garden

cultivation, although A. podagraria variegatum

used for edging.

dried herb, fresh root and leaf Diuretic:
sedative. Traditionally taken as a drink for
gout and sciatic pains. Boiled root and leaf in
is

Uses

hot poultice applied to joints.

Young

leaves

fresh

cooked

spring

in

as

vegetable: taste similar to spinach. Used in

salads.

L hippocastanaceae

Aesculus hippocastanum

Horse Chestnut
was the

Aesculus

but

the

classical

of the

origins

uncertain:

name

of an oak tree

common name

was used extensively

it

are

in the East

and horse fodder: alternatively the

may have differentiated it
the edible Sweet Chestnut, Castanea

as cattle

prefix

from

'horse'

sativa.

Deciduous

Description

tree

up

to

very resinous buds, bark smooth

in use until the

Some

nineteenth century.

10-40 cm tall;
petioles thin, delicate, black and shiny. Leaves
ovate to narrowly triangular, finely pinnate,
pinnules fan-shaped and toothed: sori reddishbrown on the underside of leaf tips.
Distribution Native to Great Britain, central
and south Europe. Now world-wide in temperate and tropical regions. Especially near
the sea, in caves, wells, on damp walls; cliffs,
on chalky soils; but also to 1300 m altitude.
Description

Cultivation

loam and

Perennial

fern

Wild. Cultivated as a pot plant in

leaf mould mix: requires moisl

atmosphere. Propagate by division.

Constituents Mucilage; tannins; gallic

white or double flowered varieties are

cultivated.

cymarin.
Valuable heart tonic, not
cumulative and less toxic than Digitali-.
Dilates coronary arteries. Not widely used due
to irregular absorption. Vermifuge.
Constituents Glycosides, including

Uses

dried herb

Contra-indications

POISONOUS

Aegopodium podagraria

The name

Weak expectorant: bechic: weak emmenagogue: weak diuretic.

Principally employed in chest complaints
such as respiratory catarrh, and coughs. Once
used in the treatment of both pleurisy and
asthma but with little effect in the latter.

herb

Description Perennial

in

suits rockeries.

144

in

and the

ancient times, from

Distribution

Native

Cultivation

Grows

Constituents

in

many soils:

often self-sown.

arin: tannins.
i'ses
fresh seed without seed-coat, branch
bark Tonic; narcotic: antipyretic. Bark employed traditionally in intermittent fevers.

Combined

of constituents

action

strengthens

and

arteries

thrombosis.

Seed

extract

rhoids. Fruit

mash

for cattle

Contra-indications

wide.

soils in full

Balkan peninsula: now

Saponin: aescine: flavones; coum-

Seed

veins,

of seeds
preventing

relieves haemorand sheep fodder.

POISONOLS. To

be

used by medical personnel only.

Aethusa cynapium

moist

to

widely cultivated.

solitary,

L umbelliferae

Fool's Parsley Lesser Hemlock

sun or

sunnv position. A. vernalis

A. annua cannot be transplanted.

shade: flowers best

very

umbels of white flowers summer

2-7 cm
wide; leaves 10-20 cm long with stalks, sub-

garden.

Grows

seed.

weed with creeping root20-40 cm bearing

Central and south-east Europe.

Occasionally wild in temperate zones: can be
in the

green, containing

stock; hollow stem reaching

Distribution

Cultivation

on erect conical

spiny,

vegetable.

blood the herb sprang. It is still retained in

several European pharmacopoeias. There are
two varieties, A. vernalis with yellow flowers
and A. annua with red flowers.
Description Perennial herb. 10-30 cm high;
sparingly branched, leaves numerous and

grown

brown

yellowish,

fruit

Greek aigos meaning goat; podos meaning

and podagra the Latin for gout. In the
Middle Ages it was cultivated as a pot herb or

L ranunculaceae

cm

or

foot

False Hellebore Pheasant's Eye/Spring

Adonis Ox-eye
The name is derived from the legend of Adonis,
who was killed by a wild boar and from whose

terminal, rich yellow. 3-6

pink

inflorescence:

L umbelliferae

suggests both the leaf shape

the

essential oil.

early spring

white,

Herb Gerard
acid:

fresh, or dried, leafy fronds occasionally

divided: flowers

and becomes scaly: leaves subdivided into 5-7

leaflets, 8-20 cm long: flowers early summer

Ground Elder Goutweed/Bishops-weed/

minute quantities of an

much

high:

sonnel only.

specific use of this

Adonis vernalis

in

small amounts: to be used by medical per-

sugars; various bitter principles: capillarine:

i'ses

even

35

when young

Known

in

to

Dog

Poison

sixteenth-century apothecaries as

apium rusticum.

this

is

a highly poisonous herb.

ADO-AGA
as

indeed the

common names

when

required

suggest.

Care

orthodox western medicine, the use of Buchu

was learned from the native Hottentots by the
colonists of the Cape of Good Hope. It was
first introduced
to Europe in 1821. Until

is

collecting edible plants from

the wild. Fool's Parsley, for example, can easily

be taken for an edible Parsley.

Annual, flimsy looking, rarely more

high, thin, hairless, hollow stem
leaves triangular, segments ovate, pinnatifid:
umbels of white flowers (summer 2-6 cm
wide with 3 or 4 long pendulous bracteoles.
Distribution Native to Europe; common, widely
distributed; weed of cultivated ground.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Toxic principle an alkaloid, cyno-

recent legislation most of the leaf production

Description

than 30

cm

was used
States.

is

still

used by herbalists and

Originally classified as

African tribesmen.
Barosma betulina Bergius Bartl. & H.L. Wendl.
Description A small shrub 1 1.5 m high bearing
smooth rod-shaped branches with leathery,
|

glossy,

long, 5

pale yellowish-green

mm

cm

wide.

leaves

Young

cm

1-2

twigs and

toothed margins of leaves have conspicuous

pine.

Uses

United

as a cordial flavouring in the

Buchu

Stomachic; sedative. Once

gastro-intestinal complaints of chil-

dried herb

used for

dren, convulsions,

summer

Contra-indications

Very

amounts

pain,

cause

glands.

confusion

oil

flowers.

Cape province of South Africa:

mountain-sides and hillsides on dry soil.

Distribution

diarrhoea.

POISONOUS.

White

Wild plant; cultivated on hillsides.

comprising up to 40
diosphenol; limonene and menthone.
Uses dried leaf) Urinary antiseptic; of use in
cystitis and urethritis. A weak diuretic.
Used to flavour brandy Buchu brandvV
Used as a blackcurrant flavouring.
Black South Africans use the leaves mixed
with oil as a body perfume.

Small

Cultivation

of vision,

Constituents Volatile oil

vomiting.

L agavaceae
Century Plant Agave/American Aloe
Agave americana

rtfV

from the Greek for admirable, after the

appearance; the common name refers
to the mistaken belief that it flowers only after
a hundred years' growth. In many tropical
countries the Agave provides one of the
cheapest and most effective cattle fences availAgave

mm

pulp and brown seeds, 2

wide.
Cultivation Wild: cultivated particularly

in

Ghana.
pungent resin.
Hot and pepper)
pepper substitute.

Constituents Essential oil;

(

ft!

seeds

Stimulant.

condiment: used

as

Traditionally used in veterinary medicine.

able.

Agathosma

betulina fBerg.

Pillans.

rutaceae

Bucco/Short Buchu/Round Buchu

the tew indigenous plants ol southern
Africa to lincl a place in both traditional and

Aframomum

melegueta Rose,

monocotyledon, eventuflowering after 10 years or more, after

Description Succulent
al lv

Buchu
One ol

is

plant's

which

although frequently leaving

Leaves are very thick,
5-20 cm wide,
long, grey, smooth, and
spiny-edged. Flowers to 3 cm long, pale
it

dies,

suckers at the base.

1

12m

zingiberaceae

Grains of Paradise Melegueta Pepper/

Guinea Grains

The name

Melegueta is derived from the am ienl

African empire ol Mellc which extended ovei
the Upper Niger region. It was originally
transported from the African west coast across

the deseit

to

porta on

the

Tripoli

coast.

It

served as a spice

in

and was one of

the ingredients ol the spiced

medieval European cuisine

Known as grana parmh n

was imported from distant lands, it
was sold at Lyons in 1245. At the same time the
Welsh physicians ol Myddvai called it grawn
wine,

hippocras.

because

it

Paris'.

Herbaceous reed-like plant,

2.5
high, long leaves producing delicate waxlike, pale purple flowers, succeeded by pearDescription

rn

shaped

scatlet fruit, 6

tO

cm

long, enclosing

AGR-ALL
m

yellowish on horizontal branches of a 6-12

tall stalk.

Constituents Tannin; volatile oil;

combination is anti-inflammatory,

resin.

The

antibiotic,

from the Indonesian for tree of heaven, a name

first given to another species. The alternative

Distribution

astringent.

common names

ally

Uses (dried flowering plant) Mild astringent;

misnomers,

possibly diuretic. Used for acute sore throats,

chronic catarrh, children's diarrhoea, cystitis,

varnish (or copal) material.

Native to tropical America, especiMexico. Introduced and established in

southern Europe, India, central and south
Africa,

and elsewhere.

Cultivation

On

arid

soils.

Wild. Cultivated as an ornamental

or hedge plant in tropical countries; propagate

agave

gum

saponoside; cutin; hecogenin, a sapogenin

sugar, agavose.
Uses (fresh or dried leaf, juice, root,

emmenagogue;

Purgative;

diuretic;

gum)

insecti-

cide; counter-irritant.

Wide

folk-medical use in tropical countries,

brown indehiscent winged

wounds. The

yields a yellow dye.

vomiting.
Description

is

fermented

to yield the

Mexican

alcoholic drink, pulque.

Powdered leaf employed as snuff; root used in

washing clothes.
Used for fencing in tropical countries.
In veterinary medicine it is only used as a
purgative.

Agrimonia eupatoria
specific

name

Perennial grass; long jointed,

diabranching, yellowish rhizome 1-3
meter; erect glabrous stems; bright greenishwide; small purplish
grey leaves up to 15
flowers in spikes appearing mid-summer to

fruit called samara.

Chinese native. Naturalized in
eastern North America.
Cultivation Wild. Introduced horticulturally to

Distribution

urban areas as a shade-tree due to its rapid

growth, and resistance to pollution and
disease. Easily grown from seed.
Constituents

Fixed

oil

volatile oil

gum

oleo-

mm

mm

autumn.
Widely distributed
Europe; naturalized in United

early

Distribution

native
States

of

and

Steeples/Sticklewort

of this herb refers to Mith-

who

radates Eupator, ancient king of Persia,

was renowned

and

Description

L rosaceae

Agrimony Church
The

gramineae

Grass
troublesome weed to
gardeners, Couch Grass has played a long and
important role as a medicinal herb, and was
promoted by Dioscorides and Pliny. European
country people still drink it as a tisane and it is
one of the plants eaten by sick dogs to induce

well-known

particularly for external application to burns

juice

'varnish' tree are

and contusions.

The

and

Couch Grass Twitch Grass/Witch

whole plant

as a lotion for

Agropyron repens (L) Beauv.

and oxalates;

phloionolic acid; oxalic acid

'copal'

the tree does not provide a

Rapidly growing deciduous tree

reaching 10-20 m; leaves 30 cm-i m long,
subdivided into 11 14 oblong, lanceolate or
ovate, gland-bearing leaflets 7.5-1 1.5 cm
long. Flowers small, greenish in terminal
panicles 10-20 cm long followed by reddish-

and externally

from seed or suckers.

Constituents (leaf) acrid volatile oil

as

as a herbalist.

'Agrimony'

is

corruption of the Greek word argemon, a white

speck on the cornea of the eye. This herb was

once famous for the healing of wounds, and it

was an ingredient of eau de arquebusade, used to
treat wounds, from the fifteenth-century word
for musket or arquebus. Still used in European
folk

medicine.

downy, red30-60 cm high; compound pinnate leaves, up to 20 cm long. Flowers (summerautumn) yellow, 5-8 mm wide and numerous.
Distribution Throughout Asia, Europe, North
America; common on roadsides, waste-ground,
Description Perennial herb; erect

dish stems,

hedgebanks.
Cultivation Wild, but easily propagated by root
division in autumn. Tolerates varying conditions.

troublesome

in eastern states.

Australia and S. America.

Northern Asia,

Weed

of arable and

^jfr^yj;

Wild

plant.

'.
Constituents

resembles

Triticin
inulin)

(a

carbohydrate which

sugar;

inositol;

salts

of

potassium; mucilage; acid malates; a volatile

oil with antibiotic properties.
Uses (dried rhizome) Diuretic; urinary antiseptic. Useful in cystitis. Underground parts

once used

'..V
146

and

glycosides.

Uses

wasteland.
Cultivation

resin; sugars; oxalic acid; possibly alkaloids

as cattle food.

(fresh

root

and stem bark)

hoea.

unpleasant causing nausea,

is
vomiting and debility, and is therefore no
longer employed.

Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Seingle

Ajuga reptans

Bugle

ornamental. The medicinal value of the bark

in France in 1859. Ailanthus is

dried

The remedy

simaroubaceae
Tree-of-Heaven Copal Tree/Varnish Tree
Introduced to England in 1751 from Nanking
in China, and then in 1800 to the United
States where it rapidly became a popular
was discovered

or

Emetic; cathartic; antihelmintic; astringent.

Formerly used in the treatment of dysentery
and diarrhoea, asthma, epilepsy, palpitations
and as a douche in gonorrhoea and leucorr-

L labiatae

Common

Weed
One of

the

or Creeping Bugle/Bugle

common names

of Bugle

is

the

Carpenter's Herb, which reflects its original

importance as a plant used to stop bleeding.
Known to apothecaries as 'bugula' the herb is
rarely used today, but it possesses other

AGR-ALL
properties which as yet have not been fully

considered more effective although

researched.

been proven.
with

Perennial

Description

leafy

or

stolons

runners; basal spatulate leaves form rosette;

stem square, hairy on two sides and bearing

6-12 small blue flowers

in early to late

summer.

Occasionally white or pink flowered mutants.

European native; introduced
Distribution

Common on damp ground in loamy

elsewhere.
rich

soil,

in

nutrients.

Mixed

woodland,

meadows.
Wild plant; horticultural
and variegata.

Cultivation

purpurea

Constituents

Tannins;

unknown

varieties

digitalis-like

cm

high;

diameter divided into 5-7

silky beneath, glabrous
above; small yellow-green flowers in clusters
on branched, erect, thin stems. Flowering
from mid-summer until early autumn.
white

leaflets

Prolonged use

in

and excessive

menstruation.

Used

in veterinary

medicine

for

diarrhoea.

and

Mountain ranges of Europe and

Distribution

styptic.

mountain pastures of northern Europe.

Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Similar to Alchemilla vulgaris

(Lady's

tinctoria Tausch. boraginaceae

Alkanet Dyer's Bugloss/Spanish Bugloss

Alkanna

Although several colouring plants are now

called Alkanets, Alkanna tinctoria probably was
the first to be used. Its name is derived from the
Spanish alcanna which came from the Arabic
al-henna, the well-known Henna dye. Alkanet
means the 'little alcanna'. It was exported

Mantle but

Uses (dried leaves) As for Lady's

considered more effective.

(dried whole herb)

Astringent; bitter;

Formerly used to stop haemorrhages; for coughs, and ulcers. Thought to

aromatic.

possess heart tonic qualities.

10-12

Mantle).

substances.
Uses

cm

leaves 3-7

and

plant) Astringent

relieves discomfort of menopause

Perennial herb

Description

has not

this

rosaceae
Lady's Mantle Lion's Foot
This is an example of a herb which acquired
Alchemilla vulgaris agg.

r\

\M.

#-*sT#
1

4i

Alchemilla alpina L rosaceae

Alpine Lady's Mantle

The

historical

associations of Alpine

Mantle are similar

vulgaris.

reputation

to

those

far

greater

than

therapeutic

its

action would have suggested. Although un-

Lady's

of Alchemilla

Traditionally the alpine species was

known by

ancienl classical writers

it

became

important northern European magical

plant on the discovery that ovcrnighl dew
collected in the funnel-shaped folds of its
partly closed nine-lobed leaves. To alchemically minded sixteenth century scientists dew
was strongly magical, and so in turn was Lad\ 's
Mantle. Hieronymus Bock emphasized this In
an

ascribing the

name

Alchemilla or

the

'little

magical one' to the herb.

Description Perennial herb, 10 50 cm hii^h.
branched stems bearing lew round or rcniform
leaves 3-8 cm in diameter, with 7 it lobes;

mm

flowers not prominent, 3 5

in diameter,
greenish-yellow, in terminal panicles; tippet
flowers small

spring

early
closely

the

and without petals. Appearing

to mid-autumn.
At least
{

related species are aggregated iindei

name

Northern Europe and mountainous

areas of central and southern Europe. Prefers
deep loamy moist soil in meadows, pastures,
open grassy woodland, paths. Calcifugous.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Distribution

Tannins.

Unknown

anti-inflam-

mators substances. Action anti-diarrhoeal.

Uses

(dried

leaves,

rarely

Pentaglottis

Description

dried

flowering

and

sempervirens,

Alkanet, Anchusa

Thick root up

reaching 30

narrow

the

Common

cm

long with

officinalis.

to 10

purplish root bark, bearing

cm

high;

numerous

stalks

leaves are long

somewhat

alternate,

hairy,

and

many

around root crown. Attractive

funnel-shaped, purple-blue, sometimes white

clustering

or yellow, flowers; appearing late

early

summer

to

autumn.

Distribution Central

and southern Europe-. At

roadsides, dry sandy

Cultivation

soil.

Calcifugous.

Wild plant.

Constituents

Possibly an alkaloid poisonous to

mammals.
Uses (root, root bark) Not used medicinally.

Used variously

Alchemilla vulgaris).

Constituents

from Spain, Germany and France for centuries as a dye for pharmaceutical and cosmetic
use. It was also used by victuallers. It is now
often replaced by the Evergreen Alkanet,

colour

is

as a colouring agent.

red

released in oils and waxes but not in

water.
Alliaria petiolata (Bieb.)
(,ki<

11

Cavara & Grande

ERAS

Garlic Mustard Hedge Garlic/Jac k-by-thchedge

A common European herb which has nevei

'47

ALL-ALO
Shallot, formerly A. ascalonicum L, with this

Allium sativum

and numerous cultivars of A. cepa now

exist, including some bred to crop within a
limited range of day-length and temperatures.
The unusual top Onions, (Egyptian or Tree
Onions) were recorded by Dalechamp in
1587, and are usually grown as herb garden

Garlic

species

When
late

present

they

are

greenish-

summer.

Probably native to central Asia or

Now world-wide.

Distribution

Cultivation Cultivated plant, or wild very rarely.

Numerous

which are now submajor characteristics into

cultivars exist

divided according to
3 groups: the Cepa group, the Proliferum
group, the Aggregatum group. The first group

of the crushed plant.

Description Garlic-smelling biennial or peren-

reaching 30-100 cm; stem erect, simple.

Leaves thin, pale green, petiolate, coarsely
nial

cordate above, reniform beneath.

Flowers small white, 6
diameter, in a false
umbel; appearing mid-spring to mid-summer.

crenate,

mm

Distribution

European

native. In

open waste-

land, moist woodland, on well-drained nutri-

ent-rich

soil.

Cultivation

Wild

Constituents

grine,

in

oil;

heteroside,

water yields the aglycone,

and

cuts or

in small quantities as a salad herb, boiled, or in

seed can be taken as a

condiment.

L liliaceae

Onion
The Onion

has been in cultivation for so long

country of origin is uncertain and it is
now rarely, if ever, found wild.
The plant is recorded in the works of the
Chaldeans, Egyptians and Greeks, and as
that

its

early as a.d. 79 Pliny described in detail

and the varieties to be used.

its

cultivation

Columella in a.d. 42 introduced the word

from which the common name is
derived. Modern classification groups the
unionem

148

juice)

Antibiotic;

the stem.
Description Perennial or biennial; sub-globular

bulbs consisting of 8-20 cloves

partial bulbs
pink-white skin. Several
erect, long pointed leaves 1-2.5 cm w ide,

surrounded by
flat,

to

15

cm

silky

long arising from base or crown.

Unbranched stem

spathe

7.5- 10

of

rose-white

greenish

or

flowers,

warm climates.

Prefers rich, light, well-drained

soils.

Cultivation

This plant has been grown from

the Mediterranean to Central Asia for centuries. Several varieties exist including small
cloved and giant forms, and white, pink, or

mauve skinned

Flavour varies from

forms.

sweet to nutty, mild

to strong.

cloves in spring or preferably

dry
4

soil, in

cm

autumn

a sunny position, 15

cm

Essential

oil,

disulphide and

B2

allyl

comprising mainly
propyl disulphide;

C; antibacterial subI and II:

vitamins A,
also

in rich,

apart and

deep.

Constituents
allyl

Plant individual

stances comprising allicin, allicetoin

colds,

often

mm

antispasmodic; hypoglycaemic.
Useful in the treatment of coughs,

and

long,

displaced by sterile pinkish bulbils 4

long.
Distribution Asian native; introduced in all

diuretic; expectorant; hypotensive; stomachic;

cm

pointed, bearing apical, small, dense umbels

Bi,

an enzyme

alliinase.

expectorant; weak anthelmintic; weak fungi-

of use externally to relieve pain from

Allium cepa

fresh

is

level.

neuralgia, and rheumatism. Leaf may be used

The crushed

bulb,

The common name

duces the blood pressure and the blood-sugar

vulnerary; stimulant; rube-

dilute poultice, applied to ulcers

sauces.

(fresh

soldiers.

derived from the Anglo-Saxon leac meaning a

pot-herb and gar, a lance, after the shape of

sini-

abrasions, cleans and aids healing; undiluted,

is

Uses

Roman

were

allyl

facient; expectorant; diuretic.

it

garlic cloves daily to sustain their strength as

Uses (fresh bulb) Antibacterial: hypotensive;

Uses (fresh, or dried flowering plant occasion-

has been cultivated in the East for cen-

turies

Re-

isothiocyanate.
ally) Antiseptic;

culinary

the Shallot, usually sterile but producing a

crop of bulbs at the base and grown from these
in early spring or late autumn. All onions prefer a very rich, deep soil.
Constituents Similar to those of garlic
also
containing glucokinins; pectin; flavonoid glycosides; vitamins A, B,, B 2 B 5 C, E; nicotinamide.

bronchitis, laryngitis

plant.

Essential

which

common

Onion and its

members have single bulbs and are usually
propagated from seed sown in spring or
autumn or from sets sown in summer. The
second group contains the Tree Onion and its
members produce swollen bulbils in the inflorescence, and are propagated from these
bulbils in late spring or late autumn, or by
division every 3 years. The last group contains
contains the

as A. officinalis Bieb., the generic name

derived from allium or garlic after the smell

flavour of the cloves develops best

and was widely employed medicinally

by the Egyptians and Romans. The slaves that
constructed the pyramid of Cheops were given

south-west India.

known

warm

most of the

is

It

appearing

is

in

The

is one of
used dailv
climates of the

flavourings and

120 cm, characteristically with 4-6 aromatic,

bulbils.

Also

cooking

world.

of the onion family,

Description Variable biennial or perennial to

white, small, numerous, in rounded umbels,

medically.

in

member
common

in sunny countries, and may be rank when

grown in northern Europe.

and hollow scape.

Flowers sometimes absent or replaced by

much importance

the most

novelties.

cylindrical, hollow leaves

been of

Garlic, a

L liliaceae

gastro-enteritis.

Used externally as a local stimulant, on cuts,

treat acne, and to promote hair growth.
An important vegetable and flavouring.

cide.
to

sion

Employed
and

in the

treatment of hyperten-

arteriosclerosis; as a carminative

an expectorant

in

and

bronchial catarrh. Provides

protection against the

common cold, amoeboid

ALL-ALO
dvsentery, typhoid and other infectious diseases. Garlic also increases the flow of bile and

was once used as an inhalation

treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis.
Wide culinary use; both fresh and cooked,
the fresh juice

in the

when

the flavour varies.

vinegars and

Employed

in butters,

aroma

Parsley reduces the

salt.

on the breath.
Contra-indications

May

be slightly irritant to the

skin.

Allium schoenoprasum

L liliaceae

Chives
Chives is the only member of the onion group
found wild in both Europe and North America,
and although used for centuries was not
cultivated until the Middle Ages. It cannot be
dried with any success but may be quickfrozen and stored.

with blood led to the tradition that

larity

Perennial in clumps; small bulbs

Description

Alders was unlucky.

felling

The

tree

is

an

dark

inhabitant of wet environments and coinci-

diameter,
green leaves, 20-30 cm long, 2-3
bearing in the summer an inflorescence of pink

was as a support under

bridges or buildings. Venice is largely constructed on Alder posts.

produce

grass-like

cylindrical

hollow

mm

purple flowers in a compact spherical

capitulum.
Distribution Native to cool parts of Europe:
introduced and naturalized in North America.
Tolerates a wide range of conditions from dry.
rocky places to stream banks, damp grassland
or

and wood edges.

Cultivation Wild but cultivated commcrcialK

dentally

main

its

use

Medium

Description

sized tree or large shrub,

reaching 25 m; leaves stalked, obovate, 5-10

long, downy veins underneath, sticky when
unfolding: small flowers appear before leaves

cm

in early spring;

female catkins referred to as

in autumn.
North Africa, Europe, parts of
Asia. Introduced and locally naturalized else-

'berries'

almost spherical, formed

Distribution

where.

Prefers

moist,

swampy

sites

beside

Wild plant; cultivated commercially

and the Caribbean. Grown as a house

Cultivation

in Africa

plant.

Barbaloin and isobarbaloin, formaloin; 'amorphous' aloin;

aloe-emodin resin volatile oil. Action on large
intestine largely due to purgative effect of
Constituents

ing

'crystalline'

aloins

and aloe-emodin.

Uses (the brownish crystalline solid, resulting

from drying the liquid which exudes from cut

L sed normally in combination with carminatives to prevent griping.

leaf blades! Purgative.

Fresh juice used

burns.

to heal

Contra-indications Excessive use induces

haemor-

rhoids.

streams.
Cultivation

Wild plant.

Bark,

Uses

Aloysia triphylla Britt.

Tonic, astringent. Bark

leaves

decoctions once used as gargle and for external

inflammations. Formally used in bitters.
I

sed as a wool dye, the bark produces reds

blacks,

young shoots yellow,

the

fresh

and

wood

pink and the catkins green.

Once

A. perryi

Baker A.ferox Miller

LILIACEAE

Aloes Curacao/Socotrine/Cape

One

ol

history.

the

most important crude drugs of

Aloe vera

is

still

extensively used in

modern medicine. Known

and horticulturally in northern Europe and
America. Variable in form depending on
environment. A large leaved type exists.

ander the Greal

Chinese chives A. tuberosum

Socotra

flavoured and has

flat solid

is

larger,

<

OS user-

leaves. Propagate

to

the Greeks at

as early as the fourth century B.C., a

legend claims that Aristotle requested Alexleast

and

to

onquer the inhabitants of

produced Aloes

the island which

install

Greeks.

the

In

tenth

century,

lis sowing seed in mid-spring, or by division ol

clumps in spring or autumn. An excellent

however, Moslem travellers reported that

Socotra was still the only place cultivating

decorative edging plant

Aloes.

Constituents

Very

for

similar

herb gardens.
to

garlic

Allium

Uses

fresh or quick-frozen leaf)

Used only

lor

culinary purposes, (hopped in sauces, soups.

salads

and

Curacao or Barbados Aloes were

London druggists in 1693, and Cape

offered by

Aloes were exported

sativum).

as a garnish.

Description

Several

he

derives

from

an

old

Germanic word meaning reddish-yellow. sm< e

the trunks change from white to reddishvellow alter felling.

lili-

flesh)

margin and
producing woody branching

betulaceae
Common Alder Owler

common name

of succulent

leaf blades, usually prickly at the

Alnus glulinosa (L) Gaertn

or

species

1780.

aceous plants forming clusters of very

tip; stemless or

Alder English

first in

supposed colour simi-

stems; from 45 cm- 15

tall, bearing erect
spikes of yellow, orange or red flowers. Appears
most of the year.
Distribution Natives of dry,

and

This South American plant was introduced to

Europe by the Spaniards and was once used to
give a lemon scent to fingerbowls at banquets.
The former botanical name Lippia citriodora

HBK

and the common name reflect the

lemon scent of the plant's leaves.
Lemon Verbena's modern generic name,
Aloysia comes from the name Louisa, after
Maria Louisa, wife of King Charles IV of
Spain. Although half-hardy this herb makes a
good indoor plant, as well as providing attractive and aromatic stems and foliage for flower
strong

extensively used by tanners.

Aloe vera

verbenaceae

Lemon Verbena

Tannins.

Constituents

sunny areas of south

east Africa; naturalized in north Africa,

Spain, Indonesia and the Caribbean islands

arrangement.
Description Aromatic shrub to 3 m, but rarely
more than 1.2 1.5 m in cooler northern
temperate zones. Branches striate and scabrous, bearing whorls of 3-4 leaves which are
entire, 5

7.5

cm

long, short-petioled, glabrous,

lanceolate and dotted on the underside with

oil-bearing

glands.

Flowers

mm

lavender, small (6
or terminal panicles.

white

or

pale

long) in axillary spikes

Native to Chile and Argentina;

widely distributed in tropical zones.
Cultivation Wild.
Cultivated horticulturally
and as a greenhouse plant in temperate zones.
Half-hardy in cool temperate countries and
Distribution

requires

frost

and

against a south

wind

facing

protection;

wall

on

light,

plant
well-

drained soil; protect with straw and cut back

at the end of the growing season.
Propagate from woody cuttings in early summer or from seed sown under glass in early
spring.

l'i

ALP- AN E
recorded by Ibn Khurdadbah in 869 who
listed it with Musk, silk and Camphor as an
article of trade from the Far East. It was
commonly used in the Middle Ages as a
culinary spice with Cloves, Nutmeg and
Ginger. The plant from which the root came
was not described until 1870, when it was
named after Prosper Alpinus the sixteenthcentury 'teacher of drugs' at Padua University.
Description Perennial rhizomatous herb of flaglike form; stems reaching 1.5 m, covered with
long narrow lanceolate leaves; bearing racemes
of orchid-shaped flowers, white and veined

rhizome 3-9 cm long, 2 cm thick;

pleasantly aromatic when dried.
Distribution South China, tropical south-east
red;

comprising mainly

Uses

(fresh

dried

or

leaf)

Antispasmodic;

stomachic; aromatic.

As a

tea

it

is

Also galangol; galangin; kaempferide.

Of use in

flatulent dyspepsia.

Once used

for seasickness. Snuff for catarrh.

Culinary spice. Vinegar and cordial manufacture; brewing. Popular in east European,
Russian and Indian cuisine.

nausea, indigestion, flatulence, palpitations,

Althaea

Marshmallow
used

be

flavouring in cakes,

sparingly
fruit

as

dishes

a lemon
and sweet

officinalis

Sweet Weed/Schloss Tea/

Althea

The name

is

well

known

as a confectionery

the

was a soothing paste

containing the powdered root. The plant has a

long medicinal and culinary history; the

The

Romans

dried leaf

is

employed

in

pot-pourris and

perfumery.
Contra-indications Prolonged use or large internal dosage may cause gastric irritation.
oil

used

is

in

Alpinia officinarum

Galangal

Hance zingiberaceae

East India Root/Galans;a

was introduced into European

medicine by the writings of the Arabic
physicians Rhazes and Avicenna; it was first

This

150

root

level to

Constituents

30%

keep cool.
mucilage comprising glucosan
and xylan; responsible for demulcent action.
Also sucrose; lecithin; phytosterol; asparagin.

Externally as poultice for leg

gastric ulcers.
ulcers.

Powdered

ingredients in

and then

fried

pill

root used to bind active

manufacture. Roots boiled

with butter, or young tops eaten

in spring salad.

Althaea rosea (L) Cav.

and

considered

in the

it

a delicious vegetable,

ninth century the

Emperor Charle-

magne promoted its cultivation in Europe.

Today it is widely used both in folk and modern
medicine.
Description

1-

1.

with

25

m
3 -5

petioles;

Erect

hardy

perennial

reaching

high; stem and leaves hairy, latter

lobes

or

5-petalled

undivided
white

or

and

pink

Malvaceae
or Garden Hollyhock

well-known and widely distributed

it first reached Europe
from China in the sixteenth century, after
which it was used both as a medicinal herb and
a pot-herb. Turner gave it the name Holyoke
in 1548 indicating the blessed mallow, and
a

decorative garden plant

scented sachets.

The

light soil if

below root

Now

L Malvaceae

original pate de guimauve

foodstuffs, or in drinks.

autumn.
compost introduced

or division of root-stocks in spring or

Succeeds on

Hollyhock Common

of benefit in the treatment of

vertigo.

Leaf may

autumn.

Uses (dried root, 2 years old; le-aves, flowers)

Similar to Ginger.
oil,

until early

Moist places throughout Europe

from Norway to Spain; temperate parts of
western and northern Asia; Asia Minor,
Australia, and eastern North America. Prefers
saline areas, salt marshes and damp land near
to sea or estuaries. Often wild.
Cultivation Wild and commercially cultivated.
Propagation by seed sown spring or summer,
Distribution

Demulcent; emollient. Relieves inflammations

of mouth and pharynx, and gastritis and

Uses (dried rhizome) Carminative, stimulant.

Essential

clustered in leaf axils,

summer

Wild; grown commercially.

Constituents Essential oil and resin, both stimulant.

Constituents

in diameter,

in late

Asia, Iran.
Cultivation

citral.

3-4 cm
appear

short

flowers,

Lyte

in

1578 called

it

the 'beyondsea rose'.

Description Tall biennial

producing

in

second

year spire-like, hairy, flowering stem up to 3

tall;
iarge, rough, long-stalked 5-7 lobed
leaves, in the axils of which are

formed flowers,
up to 10 cm in diameter on short peduncles.
Colour from pale pink or yellow to purpleblack. Flowering mid-summer to late autumn.
Distribution
Cultivation

Native of China.

One

Now

widespread.

of the oldest cultivated plants;

ALP- AN E
from seed. Tolerates most soils.
Mucilage; volatile oil; tannin and
anthocyanin pigment.
Uses (dried double purple flowers) Antiinflammatory, emollient, mildly purgative.
Used as tisane for chest complaints or as a
mouthwash. Colours wine.
easily raised

Anacardium

Constituents

Cashew Nut

L anacardiaceae

occidentale

Although only the nut or kernel

known

tropical

this

tree

and products, and

variety of uses

widely-

is

provides

wide

is

of some

in Africa

and

Spreading attractive evergreen

tree

importance

in native

medicine

the Americas.
Description

Amaranthus hypochondriacus

L amaranthaceae
Amaranth Love-lies-bleeding/ Red
Cockscomb
This herb is one of a number of Amaranthus

reaching 12 m, bearing alternate oval leaves

10-20 cm long, 3-10 cm wide, and scented
panicles 20 cm long of yellow-pink flowers each

which have been taken into

horticultural cultivation. Most were native to
tropical countries where they are predomin-

receptacle

species or varieties

antly coarse looking plants usually used as

pot-herbs.

The name

amaranton

meaning

Greek

derives from the

'not

since

fading'

the

crimson flowers do not fade with the death of

the plant, and thus the plant came to symbolize

The

immortality.

bright red colour led to the

cm

across.

Flowers followed by fleshy edible

(cashew-apple)

enclosing

partly

kidney shaped nut.

Distribution Native to tropical American zones

and

naturalized

cultivated

in

tropical

countries.
Cultivation

Commercially

in groves

and occurs

infrequently in the wild.

Constituents Protein: niacin;

magnesium;

iron;

anacardic acid: cardol.

stems up to 30 cm long, thinner
branched ascending stems bearing opposite
leaves, ovoid and spotted black on the under-

square

with purple centre,

appearing in leaf axil from
early summer to early autumn. There are two
varieties of Anagallis arvensis, one red and
one blue.
Distribution Widely distributed in temperate
zone, especially Europe. Found in loamy soil
side; scarlet flowers, often

single, long-stalked,

with

high

content;

nutrient

vegetable and

cornfields; rare on wasteland.

Saponin.

Constituents
fully

Use

Active

principles

not

understood.

(leaf,

whole herb,

Once

diaphoretic.

phobia,

fresh or dried). Diuretic,

used

depression

in

hydro-

epilepsy,

following

liver

disease,

dropsy, and rheumatic conditions. Leaves once

used

in salads.

Cosmetic herb

'pimpernel

as

water' for freckles.

Contra-indications

POISONOUS;

there

is

evi-

dence the plant causes anaemia. Leaves can

belief that the plant stopped

all

kinds of bleed-

part of the seventeenth-century school ol

ing

thought known as the Doctrine of Signatures.

annual to 2 m; i<< t.
upper parts branched; leaves dull green,
spotted with purple, 3 15 cm long, 15
to
I.75 cm wide, on thin petioles; the small
Description Tall glabrous

<

mm

greenish or usually crimson flowers, borne on

erect terminal clusters, to 20 cm long, appeal

summer.

in late

Uses

nut,

Nut or kernel
content Tree bark once

tree bark, fruit)

malarial fevers and fresh shell

removes warts and corns. Juice from fruit
made into wine and spirit. Milky secretion
from incised tree makes indelible marking ink.
Non-drying lubricant oil from nut. Ammonium
salts of resin form hair dye.
Contra-mdications Oil from fresh shell strongly

used

in certain

juice

vesicant,

Native of tropics and American

central states. Prefers waste-grounds,
ultivated fields.

oil.

nutritive, high protein

ausing skin

blisters.

Distribution

Wild or grown horticulturally from

Cultivation

seed

sown

Constituents

in ipring.

Mucilage; sugars.

Uses (dried flowering herbi Astringent.

in

diarrhoea. Externally as wash

as gargle for

swelling,

Young

lor

Oftue
ulcers;

ulcerated mouth; to reduce

and

also as

leaves of

douche

lor

Amaranthus

tissue

leucorrhoea.

species widely

used as a vegetable.

The

related A. retrofiexus (L) oner used as

alternative

Content.

made

It

soap,

to

was

due

to

high

an

saponin

also used as a vegetable; seeds

into flour.

Anagallis arvensis

L primulaceae

Scarlet Pimpernel Pool Mans

Weatherglass
This is an interesting herb which merits
modern research. It was held in high esteem
from the time of the earliest Greeks until the
nineteenth century and is now rarely used,
even in folk medicine. Evidence suggests that
it
is of benefit in melancholia and diseases of
the brain; its Latin name derives from the
Greek 'to delight", a term given to the herb by
common name is
Dioscorides;
another
'laughter bringer'.

and

close

Description

if

The

flowers are sensitive,

rain threatens.

Annual herb; prostrate creeping

cause dermatitis.

L ranunculaceae

Anemone alpina

Alpine

Anemone

Previously classified botanically as Pulsatilla

Schrank. and Anemone acutipetala Hort.,

herb formerly enjoyed only local European

alpina
this

folk-medical

use,

either classical or

and

is

not

mentioned

in

modern works.

Description Perennial on thick rhizome; stems

reaching 10-40 cm, soft-hairy. Leaves large,

long-petioled, ternate then 2

pinnate. Flowers
with 6 sepals, solitary, 5 7.5 cm wide, white
tinged with violet; appearing mid-spring to
early

summer.

Native to the mountains of Europe.

Introduced elsewhere.

Distribution

Cultivation

Wild.

Hegi, which
is

The

subspecies sulphurea (L)

characterized by yellow flowers,

lound in alpine collections. Propagate by
is

division or root cuttings in

autumn

spring; or from seed as soon as

Constituents

it

is

or early

ripe.

Protoanemonine; anemomne.

Uses (whole, dried flowering plant) Irritant;

anodyne.
Formerly used in the treatment of toothache
alterative;

AXE-APH
petioles reaching 30

cm

kidney-shaped 3-lobed

leaves, green above, reddish-purple beneath.

cm in diameter, born
on hairy scapes reaching 40 cm; from
mid-winter to early autumn.
Distribution North temperate zone; mainly in
moist deciduous woodland, preferably calcareous, with loamy soil.
Cultivation Wild plant. Propagate by division
soon after flowering; in sheltered position on
ordinary soil with good drainage; or from seed
gathered and sown in mid-spring. In shade.
Seed dispersed by ants.
Constituents Mucilage; tannin; sugar. Action
Light blue flowers, 4

singly

Fresh

Constituents

ranunculin. This

plant

contains

glycoside,

converted via protoaneanemonine on drying. Action due

is

monine to
anemonine.

to

Sedative; analgesic;

Uses (dried aerial parts

nervine;

some

Used

spasmolytic.

headaches,

for

skin eruptions, earache, painful condi-

tion of reproductive organs.

Employed homeo-

and

also for menstrual

pathically for measles

pain.

POISONOUS

Contra-indications

when

fresh.

Dried herb should only be administered by

medical personnel. Overdosage causes violent
gastroenteritis

and convulsions.

uncertain. Fresh leaf contains the poisonous

protoanemonine.
Uses

Anethum graveolens

Demulcent:

dried leaves and flowers

pectoral; tonic. Tisane used for liver congestion,

kidney, gall-bladder and digestive dis-

Of use as syrup

orders.

Distilled

for

coughs or bronchitis.

water once used

Contra-indications

in large doses.

pain, but

due

to

its

toxicity

it

Contra-indications

POISONOUS;

not be taken

name
Easter.

Anemone hepatica

L ranunculaceae

Liverwort
This delicate looking herb possesses individual
flowers which last for little more than one week
but which in that time have the ability to
double in length. Its name comes from the
heparatos

meaning

liver: in folk

used for treating the

Description Small perennial;
is still

root-stock:

almost

medicine

is

much branched
produces

still
is

respected

grown widely

its

beat".
it

in

as a

and has been

in

it

is

and

a constituent of gripe water

still

common name

is

is

The

derived from an old Indo-

shaped

to

with spindle-

tall,

root, bearing usually

one

stalk: leaves

specitn

Gerard

flowers at
traditional

decorative

plant.

Erect,

Description

5-40 cm

soft,

hairy

perennial

herb

high, with bi- or tri-pinnate leaves

appearing as rosette after solitary flower

formed: flowers hairy, dark blue-violet, 6
petals, 3 -5 cm long, from late spring to mid-

summer.

liver.

evergreen;

It

medicine, and

Kidneywort American

Greek

'to

called the herb Pasque Flower as

internally.

it

meaning

Pulsatilla

Seed

in the Bible

use as a medicinal herb from the earliest times;

belliferous plant,

Legend maintains- that anemones only open

when a wind is blowing, and the Greek word
anemos means 'wind'. Certainly this very
attractive hairy plant waves about in the
slightest breeze, a fact reflected in

has fallen into disuse.

mentioned

is

European word meaning 'to blossom".

Description Aromatic annual; typically um-

Anemone Pulsatilla L ranunculaceae

Pasque Flower Windflower

and rheumatic

Dill

L umbelliferae

Dill

often included in children's medicines.

for freckles.

POISONOUS

Weed

Dill Dill

on

Wild on dry, sunny, calcareous

throughout Europe. Introduced elsewhere. Prefers well-drained chalky oil. in dry.
Distribution

slopes

warm

situations.

Cultivation

Wild

plant. Cultivated by division

of rhizomes after flowering or seed sown in

shallow tray in spring. Other horticultural

varieties are alba

and

rubra.

feathery,

leaflets

of

consisting

linear;

numerous

terminal
yellow

umbels

flowers

in

mid-summer.
Distribution

W ild
r

Asia.

countries.

Origin southern Europe or western

in cornfields of mediterranean
Now widespread garden herb.

Tolerates most
Cultivation

soils.

From

seed sown in spring; easily

cultivated.
Constituents Oil of Dill comprising,

d-carvone:

d-limonene: some phellandrine.

Uses

(dried ripe fruit,

fresh

or dried leaf

Carminative: stomachic: slightly stimulant.

Excellent as Dill water for digestive problems
in children, especially flatulence.

Pickled cucumbers, flavouring for soup,

sauces,

cakes,

pastries.

Dill

vinegar.

fish,

Most

important in Scandinavian and central European cuisine.

Perfumes soap.

1^2

AXE APH
Angelica archangelica

L umbelliferae

Angelica European

Now

best

known

or

Garden Angelica

as a decorative confectionery

the candied green stems, Angelica

an important ingredient of liqueurs and
aperitifs. It does not appear to have been used
until the fifteenth century, soon after which it
acquired a reputation as a plant which gave

made from

is

also

protection against evil and the plague.

European
Christianized names hints

origins

north

planfs

tion with early

at

The

and

its

deep associa-

its

Nordic magic.

Description Biennial or perennial: if latter last-

up

ing

to

4 years; from 1-2.5 m m gli, stem

cm thick, bearing few triangular

hollow, to 6

deeply dentate leaves to 90

cm

long.

Large

numerous greenish-white
flowers, mid-summer to early autumn.
Distribution Native to northern Europe or Asia.
Introduced and cultivated elsewhere. Common garden herb; prefers damp meadows,

spherical umbels of

river banks, waste-grounds.

Cultivation

Seed rapidly

loses viability;

sow

as

mid-autumn in deep moist soil.

soon
Transplant following autumn to m apart, or
as ripe in

transplant offshoots from 2 year old plants to

name Antennaria comes from

botanical

was not important even

species

cine, but

the

pappus resembles antennae. This

fact that the

much

use

is

made

in folk

medi-

of it in dried flower

arrangements. Various related species, however, have been used more than the species
dwica
for example, an American relative.
(naphalium polycephalum
classified as

dwica previous!}

Gnaphalium dioicum was a favourite

remedy

Indian

A.

for

mouth

and the

ulcers,

Chinese herbalists use G. multueps

Wall,

to

treat coughs.

20 mi high, on single unbranched erect or

5
decumbent stem. Spatulate basal leaves in
.1

rosette to 8.5

cm

and tomentose

long, white

beneath, green and glabrous above. Linearlanceolate stern leaves. Flowers

",

dense terminal involucre, which

nun long
is

woolly

apart.

Volatile oil and derivatives ol

coumarin which stimulate digestive se< retions,
control peristalsis and increase appetite. Also
bitter principles; sugar; valeric and angelic
Constituents

dried rhizome

and

roots, seeds, fresh leal

Aromatic; stimulant

sterns

carminative.

islands;

to

pasture,

light

25OO
dry

altitude,

Cultivation
Constitui

an in 11 essential
:

The combined

oil

Once

Wide

bronchitis and bilious conditions.

and

portant constituent

confectionery
ol

use.

Im-

liqueurs such as Bene-

soils.

resin

a bittei

action promotes the

Stimulates appetite; of benefit in bronchitis,

anorexia nervosa, bronchia] catarrh.
culinary

on

How ol bile-.
/
a dried flowering plant Astringent; chole(in
weak diuretic
1

in

used

irr

mixtures

lor

the

treatment ol
Mav be used

diarrhoea, and as a throat gargle.

Antennaria dwica (L) Gaertn.

compositae

Cat's Foot

Cudweed

In-

down)

this plant

I. lie

Everlasting

leaves

being

and woolly involui re led

as Cotton Weed;

known

Anthriscus cerefolium (L] Hoffm.

mbei.liferae
Chervil Garden Chervil
Although this is an important culinai v herb in
is not widely grown or used outside
France
that country. It is however one ol the best
herbs lor growing in boxes, and will supplv
fresh leal throughout the winter if it is sown
\

it

to
its

to

Middle

East,

Russia, the Caucasus. Cultivated in

temperate climates.
degree of moisture.

Prefers

Cultivation Easily cultivated

light

south

warm and
soil

with

from seed, lightly

permanent site, early to

mid-spring or autumn. Rapid germination
and soon runs to seed. May be sown in boxes
lor

soil

at

w inter supplv
Volatile

Constituents

oil;

stimulates the meta-

bolism.
fresh leaf before flowering

us

poultice

applied

to

Stomachic.

painful

Mainl) used lor culinary purposes;

plement most dishes.

will

joints.

com-

Aphanes arvensis agg. rosaceae

Parsley Piert Breakstone Parsley

common name

is derived
both from a
resemblance to Parsley and from
the old French perce-pierrc signifying a plant
which grows through stonv ground. The
Flemish botanist De L'Obel suggested in 1570
that although the herb was not widely used by
was commonly employed by the
herbalists,
poor to 'break' stones in the kidney or bladder.
Todav it is one of the most highly respected

The

superficial

it

plants used in the treatment of kidnev Stones.

branched stem up to
wedge shaped;
insignificant flowers 1.5-2 mm in diameter
borne in axillary clusters; appearing from late
s|)i int; until late autumn.
Description

20

di( line.

Contra-indicatiom Large doses lust stimulate

and then paralyze the central nervous system.

Native

Distribution

Wild plain.

fits

mm

Warm

woodland and

thickets; prefers poor, porous, sand) dry

principle.

,k ids

and

Aleutian
semi-dry

herb

produced mid-summer.

in

White male flowers and pink female

appear early sum ma to early autumn.
I>
Native to central and western
tribution
Europe, United States and the North Pacific

greenhouse.
sweet-smelling

reaching 70 cm high, with pale green delicate

leaves, deeply segmented. Stem slightly hairy;
in diameter, in flat umbels,
flowers white, 2

.11

base

warm

Annual

pressed into

Description Stoloniferous. dioecious perennial.

60

regularly in a
Description

cm

Annual;

tall;

Distribution

parts of

leaves,

thin

3-5

lobes,

Native British herb,

Europe on bare

soil

in

common

in

dry places.

cornfields, wasteland, walls, gravel pits. CalciIllgOUS.

'53

API-ARC
L ranunculaceae
Columbine European Crowfoot

winter. Strong smelling.

Aquilegia vulgaris

Southern European native. Wild in

marshy and salty soils in Africa, Europe, South
and North America.
Cultivation Wild plant.

Columbine is from the Latin columba meaning

dove. In the Middle Ages it was referred to as
aquilinae and ackeley after the Latin aqmla

Constituents Volatile oils; apiol.

meaning eagle - both terms

Distribution

Uses

dried

or

(fresh

plant,

appetizer; carminative. Strong diuretic

juice used.

Once recommended

in

referring to the

Tonic;

seeds)

if fresh

treatment

of rheumatism, excess weight, loss of appetite.

Decoction of seed beneficial in nervousness.

Dried leaf may replace celery for soups, sauces,
and stocks, although it has a stronger taste than
Celery.

Apocynum cannabinum

Canadian

L apocynaceae

Hemp Hemp

Dogbane/Black

Indian Hemp
This was one of many North American plants
introduced to settlers by native Indians. No
longer used in medicine.
Description Perennial to 2 m high, stems erect,
branched only at top, bearing ovoid leaves

Cultivation

Constituents

Wild plant.

An

flower shape.

The

astringent principle.

Uses (dried leaf

and

flowers) Diuretic;

demul-

the

Considered most effective when freshly

collected and dried in the treatment of kidney
stones, bladder stones or painful urination.

in the

cent.

was provided by

somewhat

this

day

from

leaves sessile. Leaflets 3-lobed, crenate. Flow-

celery flavour

ers

palates,

few to many, nodding on long peduncles,

violet-blue or white, 5
early summer.

was a

Romans. The Celery we eat

today was developed initially by Italian
gardeners on the plain of the Po.
Description Biennial with bulbous fleshy root,
producing branched angular stem 30 cm - m
high in second year. Leaves opposite, 10-15 cm
long, dark green, dentate with fan-shaped
leaflets; small grey-white flowers in sparse
compound umbels from late summer to earlyfavourite of the

Distribution

Native

to

cm

diameter; appearing

Europe. Naturalized in

eastern North America, and introduced else-

where. In mixed woodland, mountain forest on

rich calcareous soils to 2000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Frequently grown as a garden
ornamental, especially the double-flowered
cultivars Alba Plena and Flore Pleno. Propagate

by seed or by division
Constituents

lipid;

with

hairy lower surface,

to

7.5

cm

long;

flowers small, whitish-green in terminal clus-

followed by thin double pods 10-15

ters,

long. Flowers late

summer. Root up

to 2

cm

long.

North America, near streams, open

ground, forest borders, in gravel or sandy soil.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Apocynamarin, a cynotoxin: symarin; apocynin and derivatives; phytosterols.
Distribution

Action of a

heart

stimulant,

dilates

Uses

an uncharacterized alkaloid.
(Root, flowers and leaves) Antiseptic;

astringent; weakly sedative.

No longer employed internally; once used in

homeopathy to treat nervous conditions. Only
the root may be used, externally, for the
treatment of ulcers.
Contra-indications POISONOUS. Seeds may be
fatal to children. Most parts have a similarly
poisonous effect as Monkshood (Aconitum
napellus L).

Medical use only.

renal

L leguminosae

Arachis hypogaea

rhizome, roots, bark) Diuretic;

powerful emetic; laxative. Used in folk medi-

Peanut Ground-nut

(dried

worms and
fever. Powerful heart stimulant. The fibrous
bark employed as substitute for hemp in
cine in North

America

to

treat

manufacture of nets and twine.

Contra-indications

tion

needed

POISONOUS;

in usage.

in spring.

Cyanogenic glycoside: vitamin C;

arteries.

Uses

54

741, but
fell

Stout perennial with pubescent

stems branched at the top; 60-80 cm tall.
Basal leaves long-petioled, biternate, upper

wild herb, which although

bitter to present

Description

graveolens L umbelliferae
Celery Wild Celery/Smallage
all

of

nineteenth century A. vulgaris

official use.

Apium

Until the seventeenth century

herb's antiscorbutic effect was recorded in

Wurttemberg Pharmacopoeia

Although the Peanut is now one of the best

known and universally grown edible nuts, it
was not until 1840 that Jaubert, a French
colonist of

Cape Verde, suggested

greatest cau-

its

importa-

an oil seed. The first to

mention the plant was Fernandez de Oviedo y
Valdes who lived in Haiti from 151 3 to 1525
tion into Marseilles as

API-ARC
and reported
the mani - a

mon names

that Indians widely cultivated

name

for Arachis

still

such

Gypsy's Rhubarb, Pig's

as

Rhubarb and Snake's Rhubarb

used in South

refer to this.

America and Cuba.

Description Annual herbaceous legume, 25 50

widely employed in folk medicine for skin

problems, and cultivated commercially in

cm

Japan

tall;

pairs

Still

stems slightly. hairy; leaves consist of 2

of leaflets,

oval.

cm

long.

Yellow

for use as a vegetable.

Description Biennial or short-lived perennial to

2

m;

cm

thick hairy stems. Vertical roots

Large leaves, ovate and petiolate

with undulate margins. Small tubular flowers
1

long.

red to purple, consisting of disc florets only, in

cm

spherical capitula of 3-5

diameter. Fruit

surrounded by hooked bracts (burr). Appearing late summer to mid-autumn.

Distribution European native. North America.
Prefers weedy sites and roadsides, on loamy,
nitrogen-rich

soil.

Wild plant; cultivated commercially

from seed in Japan.
Cultivation

Inulin;

Constituents
oil; resin;

bitter

principle;

Uses (root, fresh or dried - from

plants;

volatile

several antibiotic substances.

fruits,

the

rarely

Diuretic.

Of

Increases resistance to infection.

year

first

leaves)

use in

various skin diseases, especially psoriasis and

eczema.
Stalks, before flowering,

may

be eaten as salad

or boiled as vegetable.

same way
and eaten.

Stalks are candied in the

flowers possess long calyx tube; after flowering

the latter possessing strong antibiotic activity

the stem bearing the ovary elongates, bends

against the

towards the ground and forces the young pod

beneath the soil. Pod oblong, 2.5 cm long,
containing 14 irregularly ovoid seeds.
Distribution South American native. Widely
cultivated, especially Africa, India, China,
and America.

Uses (bark, root, leaves, fruit! Antiseptic; anti-

Mycobacterium

inflammatory; astringent; diuretic.

May be used to treat diarrhoea and biliousness, and possibly of use in arteriosclerosis. A
decoction provides an excellent antiseptic
wash, gargle or poultice. Formerly employed

mown

in certain

flower has

drinks or preserves such as marmalade.

of the glycerides of 4 fatty acids.

Uses (seed, oil expressed from seeds) Nutritive

bark was once used

in leather

wood provides good

quality charcoal, and

the seed

Unknown

is

substitute

in the

wild state;

an important foodstuff. Used as a

for

olive

oil.

Employed

in

kidney and liver complaints. The

weak diaphoretic properties.

Fruit can be used with discretion in alcoholic

suitable for turning

tanning.

The
The
is

and marquetry.

Arctium lappa

ERICACEAE

Bearberry Uva-ursi/Mountain box

This herb's common name comes from

L compositae

recent

research

shrub;

to

Trailing
15

cm

green,

leathery,

Small

flowers,

Known

from which chara< teristica the name is derived.

It also resembles Rhubarb, and several com-

diameter.

and early Arabian

physicians, but never widely employed; it
deserves modern investigation, however.
Arbutus is an ancient name, while unedo is from
to

Dioscorides

the Latin phrase unum edo or

has

shown

that

it

possesses

effective antiseptic properties.

Greater Burdock Beggar's Buttons/Lappa

herb with dock-shaped leaves, and fruiting
heads covered with hooked spines or burrs,

the

Greek arkton staphyle signifying 'bear's grapes'.

It was used in the thirteenth century by the
Welsh physicians of Myddvai, described in
detail by Clusius in
1601, and officially
recognized to be of medical importance in 763
bv
several German physicians working in
Berlin. Although use of the herb declined,

L Ericaceae
Strawberry Tree Cane Apples

Arbutus unedo

as angelica.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L) Spreng.

Description

the

manufacture of soap.

root cooked

bacteria.

on a large scale commercially and horticulturally in tropical and subtropical countries.

Constituents Peanut or arachide oil, consisting

(Cultivation

Chopped

or

creeping

evergreen

high, forming mats of dark

ovoid leaves 1-2

white or pink in

cm

long.

terminal

12, followed by red fruit of 5 mm

Appearing early spring to mid-

clusters of 3

summer.

eat only one,

supposed unpleasantness of the fruit.

Description Erect evergreen shrub or tree 3 10
m tall. Young bark reddish. Leaves alternate,
petiolate, serrate, oblong to obovate, shiny
above, 5 10 cm long. Flowers creamy-whin or
pinkish, urceolate, in nodding panicles 5 cm
long, appearing late autumn to mid-winter,
followed by scarlet, warty berry.
Distribution Native to south Europe, eastern
France and Ireland. Introduced elsewhere. In
damp situations often in woodland.
Cultivation Wild, locally abundant. Crown
hortirulturally in warm regions on welldrained soils; requires wind protection. Propagate by seeds and cuttings of half-ripened
wood in autumn under glass; also by layering.
(Constituents Tannins; arbutoside; ethyl gallate,
after the

55

ARE-ARN
Cool regions of northern hemis-

Distribution

phere. In coniferous woodland, moors, alpine

mats, on porous acid humus-rich

Cultivation

Wild

Uses

soils.

Arbutin and methylarbutin. which

produce antiseptic substances related to phenAlso flavonoids: tannins: gallic and egallic

fruit

ripe

or

taenicide.

unripe

dried leaves

fically

Diuretic: antiseptic. Speci-

used in kidney and bladder infections.

for bronchitis and urinary in-

medicine.

Chewed

nut.

with a

little

Contra-indications

Used for leather tanning. Ash coloured dye.

Grouse feed.
Added to smoking mixtures.

use restricted to veterinary.

Contra-mdications Prolonged use results in con-

Birthwort Birchwort
The fact that the herb was

Areca catechu

L arecaceae
Betel

Areca

is

also

constituent

Nut
known as

of the

the

combination

lime and a Piper BetU

continence.

and

made from

as a masticatorv in

lips

Areca Nut

human

in

urinary tract disorders, and for the expulsion

of tapeworms. Use now restricted to veterinary

Once used

stipation.

Astringent

Once used

Dentifrice, using the charcoal

acids.

Uses

one of which resembles pilocarpine:

stimulant:

plant.

Constituents

ol.

alkaloids,

also areca red.

leaf.

Stains

teeth red.

Toxic

in large doses:

medical

L aristolochiaceae

Anstolochia clematitis

at

one time con-

Nut since it is a
chewing mixture

Betel

"betel"

is a widespread habit in the East. The

mixture consists of Areca. a little lime and
leaves of the Betel plant Piper betle
As earlv
as 140 b.c. Chinese conquerors of the Malayan
archipelago returned with samples of the
Areca palm and nuts, which became known as
pin-lang after the Malay word, pinang. for
them. Asians chew small pieces of the nut to
sweeten the breath, strengthen gums and

which

rhomas Johnson Serpentarv was introduced

European medical usage via the London

into

Pharmacopoeia of 1650. and as late as 1741

rTrov was praising its effectiveness as a
remedy for rattlesnake and rabid dog bites. A
century after this it was only being used as a
diaphoretic, and then often in combination
with Cinchona bark. It is now seldom used

improve digestion.
Elegant palm: straight smooth
trunk 12-30 m high. 50 cm circumference.
Description

Numerous feathery leaflets 30-60 cm long,

upper confluent and glabrous. Flowers on
branching spadix. male above and numerous:
female usually solitary and below. Fruit ovoid
5 cm long, orange or scarlet, in bunches of up

even

sidered important in childbirth

Maritime Malaysian native; cultivated in India. Ceylon. Malaya. Burma. East

Africa. Introduced into American tropics as an

by

its

common and

derived from the Greek

and

locheia

is

emphasized

Latin names. Aristolochia

meaning

aristos

meaning

is

best

childbirth. William Tur-

gave the herb

ornamental. Prefers coastal sites.

Cultivation Collected from wild, and cultivated

ner, the father of English botany,

in coastal areas.

herb has not been subjected to modern investigation and is rarely employed.
Description Perennial on long rhizome: stem
erect or slightly twining to 50 cm high: heartshaped dark green leaves with long petioles.
Flowers axillary. 3 cm long, yellowish-green
appearing from early summer to mid-autumn.
Distribution
Europe and temperate North
America. Japan. In thickets, vineyards, weedy
edges of fields, in warmer situations on

Constituents

Tannin:

gallic acid: oil:

gum:

four

its

common name in

calcareous

soil.

Cultivation

Wild

the sixteenth century.

The

plant.

which

is

similar to

colchicine.
Uses

dried root-stock, entire fresh flowering

Diaphoretic: emmenagogue: oxytocic:

Once used in rheumatism and gout.
Juice from stems once used to induce childbirth.
plant

stimulant.

L aristolochiaceae
Virginia Snakeroot Birthwort Serpentarv
The earliest belief concerning this herb was
that it would give protection from poisoning.
Specimens from Virginia were growing in
London in 1632. and were described by
Aristolochia serpentana

=,6

25-40 cm high, with

branched stems bearing heart-

shaped

pointed

leaves

7.5

cm

long:

roots

brown flowers arising

singly on short stalk coming from the stem base.
Distribution East Central and southern United
fibrous. Dull purple to

States: in shady woods.

Cultivation

Wild plant.

Constituent^ Essential oil: resin: aristolochine.

Stimulating tonic:
dried root-stock
Uses
diaphoretic: anodyne: nervine: once used for
treating snake bites.

Used

in early stages of in-

Small doses stimulate appetite.

Contra-indications Large doses act as irritant,
and cause vomiting and vertigo. Respiratory
fectious diseases.

paralysis

may

also occur.

Armeria maritima

Mill.

\\ illd.

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Constituents Aristolochine.

medicine.

erect, slightly

to 100.

Distribution

in folk

!> inption Perennial herb

Thrift Sea Pink

Sea Pink now belongs to the genus Armeria
which consists of at least 100 closely relau d
species and many more subspecies and varieties
which are often exceedingly difficult to differentiate. This genus was formerly called Statice
A. maritima was known as Statice armeria L and
is closely related to the Sea Lavender genus
known
as
now
Statice
but
called
also once
Limonium.
The American Sea Lavender
Limonium vulgare Mill, has similar antiseptic
properties, but like Thrift

it is

now

very rarely

used for medicinal purposes.

Thrift has most widely been used as an edging

ARE-ARN
Arnica montana

L compositae

Arnica Mountain Tobacco

When grown at high latitudes such

in

as

Arctic Asia or America, a form of this herb

produced which

is

leaves; although this

Vahl

is

characterized by narrow

was once renamed by

as Arnica angustifolia,

it is

really a variant

form of Arnica montana. The herb was known

by Matthiolus and other botanists, and was
widely used in sixteenth-century German folk
medicine. Largely as the result of exaggerated
claims by a Viennese physician, it enjoyed
short-lived popularity among the medical
profession in the late eighteenth century.

Aromatic perennial with creeping

rhizome, producing a basal rosette of 4-8
downy leaves 4-7 cm long in the first year.
Flowering stem usually unbranched, hairy,
30-60 cm high, with only 1-2 pairs of opposite
leaves.
Flowers golden-yellow, daisy-like,
appearing mid-summer to early autumn.
Distribution Central and northern regions of the
northern hemisphere. Prefers sandy acid soils,
Description

humus, in a sunny position.

Root division in spring; or seed
sown in spring in cold frame and transplanted
in early summer. Seed may be slow to germinate, occasionally as long as 2 years. Wild
rich in

resemble, and armoracia. the

to

Roman name

Radish which cannot be identified

for a wild

with certainty as Horseradish. Gerard gave the

herb

present

its

was known

common name,

but before him

English as Red Cole or Redcol.

plant appears to have been

plant in formal gardens, and from the six-

it

teenth to the eighteenth centuries few species

Certainly

were

more popular in Scandinavia and Germanv

and otherwise did not find much use in
western Kurope until the middle of the

as

popular

purpose.

for this

Description Grass-like perennial

woody

on branched

forming basal rosette of

narrow (3 mm) linear, -nerved (occasionally
3-nerved), acute or obtuse, fleshy and glanduroot-stock

2-15 cm

lar leaves,

Flowers stalked,
white),

downy

rose-pink

mm

corolla

globular heads,

long, ciliate at the edges.

occasionally

for

diameter,

in

dense

cm diameter, on leafless,
20-55 cm tall. Appearing

.5-3

scape
mid-spring to mid-autumn. Variable in form.
Distribution Native to Europe, Asia and North

America; on dry sandy somewhat acidic soils

lills and
in sandy turf, coastal salt-marshes.
mountain pastures to 1400 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild; frequently found growing in
dense evergreen masses. Propagate from seed
sown in spring on light, dry, well-drained soil,
in full sun or partial shade; or by division ot
<

the

seventeenth
moutarde

irritation.

May

Rarely used, even

in folk

medicine.

be employed hortic ulturally as an ex-

cellent, low,

evergreen edging plant for formal

arrangements.
rusticana

Gaertn, VI

<

v el

Scherb.

Horseradish
Linnaeus gave Horseradish the botanical name,
Cocklearia armoracia, aftei cochleare, an obsolete
name for a spoon which its leaves were thought

in-

troduced and cultivated elsewhere; tolerates

most dampish soils.

Wild

Cultivation

and

ally

plant. Cultivated

hortic ulturally.

division in spring OT

Constituents Polyacetylenic
oil;

tile

flavones;

unknown
s\

in vola-

phulin;

inulin;

substances acting on the circulatory

stem which

and

compounds

arnicin;

later

initially

raise

it.

lower the blood pressure,

Also substances which

increase biliary secretion.

w

dried

Stimulant;

flower- heads,

diuretic;

dried

rubefacient.

rhizome)
is
an

It

and kidneys, and

hence only of use externally - in bruising,
sprains and dislocations. Homeopathic doses
are effective in epilepsy, seasickness and
possibly as hair growth stimulants. Used as a
gargle for treating inflammations of the throat.
Contra-indications POISONOUS: can be toxic
if taken internally. Repeated external use mayirritant to the digestive tract

cause skin irritation.

commerci-

Propagate by root

autumn, planting at -,<-< in

and thin

intervals, or sou seed in early Spring

I,

in

Grows

watei

vigorously.

Fresh

which

is

by the

root

contains a glycoside.

decomposed in the presence

enzyme myrosin, producing

ally] isothioc

oil

antibiotic substanc

yanate; vitamin

Stimulant; rubefacient

Uses (fresh rool

C.

es.
:

weak

diuretic.

taken

he

M.i\

intern. dlv

as

svitip

,1

bronchitis, bronchial catarrh, coughs,

she eel

Most

on boils or
rheumatism.

root
in

widely

used

especially in sauces
fish,

lor

and

lot

to

Applied externally

stimulate' digestive organs.

.is

CRUCIFERAE

mid-autumn.
European native;

to

South-east

Distribution

poultice

Armor acia

leaves,

Appears mid-summer

mustard

an antiseptic

high on stout.

oi

as

basal

plant, but protected in parts of Europe.

1.5

m high bearing lusters <>l white flowers and.

beneath, ste-m leaves with short petioles

Uses (dried flowering plant; Antibiotic; anti-

cause dermatitis or local

as

cm long and 5 cm
30-100 cm long,
coarse-, lanceolate with dentate margins and
long petioles. Erect flowering racemes 50 cmlarge

thick:

obesic Once used it) the treatment of obesity,

certain nervous disorders, and urinary in-

may

it

it

tapering, lleshv taproot to 60

sinigrin,

it

and druggists knew

Description Perennial to

action due to plumbagone.

Cannot be employed

century.

de\ allemands,

Constituents

poultice as

The French called

Raf)hanu\ rusticanus.

clumps, replanting every 2 years, 25 em apart.

Constituents A napthaquinone, plumbagone;
mineral salts comprising mainly iodine, bromine, and fluorine; mucilage. Antibiotic

fections.

in

Cultivation

as

rubefacient

culinary

purposes.

and vinegars; complements

poultry, and beef.

Contra-indications

May

be

vesicant

to

some

skins; large- internal doses pie>diiec

tion ot

inflammathe gastrointestinal mucosae.

'":

ART-ASA
Artemisia abrotanum

Southernwood

L compositae

Lad's Love/Old

L compositae
Tarragon Russian Tarragon

Artemisia dracunculoides

Man

In common with other members of the

Artemisia family this is a strong-smelling herb
which has the ability to repel insects. For this

reason

it

was

called garde robe

Unlike French Tarragon the flavour of this

variety improves as the plant ages, although
never

by the French

achieving

dracunculus.

dracunculus

the

delicacy

of Artemisia

The Latin name is derived from

meaning 'little dragon' after a

herbalist's description of the coiled serpent-like

root.

Artemisia was the Greek

who was regarded

Artemisia

as

name

for

Diana

the discoverer of the

group of herbs. Russian Tarragon

is

also called Artemisia redowskii.

Description Perennial

.5

high with erect,

branched stems bearing smooth, pale green

entire leaves 3-6 cm long, and clusters of
greyish-white woolly flowers in late summer.
Distribution Asia and Siberia. Introduced elsewhere.

and cultivated as garden

sown under glass in mid-spring or
in the open in early summer. Root division in
spring or autumn; cuttings in spring. Hardy
during winter and tolerates any soil.
Cultivation

Wild,

plant. Seed

Constituents

Essential

oil

identical

to

Anise,

largely lost during drying.

Uses (dried or fresh herb) Fresh herb promote^

appetite.

who

used it to protect clothes from attack by

moths. It was also considered effective against
infection and employed in nosegays by court-

and herb wines. Both absinthe and vermouth

obtain their names from the plant, the latter

room and jail officials. The name Southernwood is derived from the Old English suthernewudu meaning a woody plant from the south,

of the

since

is

it

a native of southern Europe. At one

time herbalists considered the herb an aphrodisiac,

which

led to the

common name

Lad's

Love.
Description Perennial

subshrub

to

90

cm

high

with branched feathery grey-green leaves 6 cm

long, finely divided and somewhat downy.

Flowers very small, inconspicuous, yellowishwhite, in loose panicles, appearing late

to early

summer

autumn.

Southern European native; introduced and widespread in temperate zones as

garden plant. Naturalized in North America.
Cultivation Easily propagated from young,
green cuttings in summer, or heeled cuttings
from old wood in autumn. Prefers full sun and
light to medium soil with added compost.
Needs hard clipping in mid-spring to prevent
Distribution

straggling growth.

May

Constituents Essential oil,

in

German Wermut which was also the

name Wormwood. The
herb contains several substances which may

origin of the English

adversely affect the body

high
hairy stems bearing highly aromatic
bipinnate and tripinnate leaves covered in
;

down. Flower-heads 3-4

mm

diameter, with

grey-green bracts and numerous minute yellow

florets, appearing late summer to late autumn.

Europe, North America.

Widely introduced garden plant. Found

Distribution Central

Asia.

on waste-ground, especially near the

warm

sea, in

regions.

Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated by seed

sown outside in late spring, thinned to 30-60

cm

apart. Often slow to germinate. Cuttings

taken in summer; root division in spring or

autumn.

slight shade.

powder mixed with treacle to treat worms

Used in aromatic baths and

taken in excess

this reason it produces some of the strongest,

and most dangerous, alcoholic drinks.
Description Perennial undershrub 0.75-1 m

mainly absinthol.

children.

if

(including the hallucinogen, santonin) and for

not flower.

Uses (dried whole plant) Stimulant; emmenagogue; antiseptic; antihelmintic. Once used
as a

being an eighteenth-century French variation

Prefers

medium

soil

in

full

sun or

Bitter principle and volatile oil

which stimulate secretions and promote appetite;
also a glucoside; resins and starch:
antihelmintic action due to santonin.
Constituents

poultices for skin conditions.

Uses (whole flowering plant, leaves) Anthel-

Leaves discourage moths.

mintic;

Stems yield yellow dye. Foliage used

in floral

decorations.

L compositae
Absinthe/Green Ginger
Several species of absinthium are mentioned by
Dioscorides, and many of them were employed
for the removal of intestinal worms. Although
one of the most bitter herbs known, it has for
centuries been a major ingredient of aperitifs
Artemisia absinthium

Wormwood

158

antipyretic;

antiseptic;

stomachic.

Used to aid digestion, stimulate digestion or

for abdominal colic. The tincture was formerly
used in nervous diseases. Used in liniments.
Used in vermouth, in absinthe, as a tea, and
for stuffing geese. Some countries ban its use

Similar uses to French Tarragon

in wine.

L compositae
Tarragon French Tarragon
An essential component of French

Contra-indications Habitual use causes convul-

plants

sions,

causes

restlessness

vertigo,

delirium.

and vomiting. Overdose

cramps, intoxication, and

Artemisia

dracunculus) but of inferior flavour.

Artemisia dracunculus

cuisine,

French Tarragon are

difficult to obtain and almost as difficult to
maintain. Even under ideal circumstances the
of the

'true'

delicate flavour of this varietv tends to revert

ART-ASA
coarser flavour of Russian Tarragon.

to the

Similarly unless

it is

dried carefully an inferior

product results. The common name is derived

from the Arabic tarkhun, via the Spanish
taragoncia.

cm

Perennial 90

Description

high with slim,

branched stems, bearing smooth, dark

shiny entire leaves 3-5 cm long, and clusters ol

erect,

greyish-green or white woolly flowers, appearing

mid-summer

Distribution

where

as

to late

summer.

Southern Europe. Introduced elsegarden plant or for commercial

cultivation.
Cultivation Cultivated commercially in Europe
and the United States. Cannot be propagated
from seed. Divide roots in spring or autumn or

Renew

take cuttings in spring.

every 3 years

from young cuttings. Protect in warm situation

during winter, especially when young. Prefers
a richer soil than Russian Tarragon, and may

Can be grown

require the addition of peat.

indoors as a pot herb. Will not tolerate wet

soil.

Constituents Essential oil.

No modern medicinal

Uses (dried or fresh herb

use - formerly used in toothache.

promotes appetite.
Widely used as flavouring

The herb

leaflets. Flowers brownish-yellow to

numerous, small, arranged on panicles
and appearing late summer to mid-autumn.
Distribution
Asia. Europe. Naturalized in
North America. Common on various soils,

toothed

red,

especially
for salads,

steak,

if

they are nitrogen-rich. In waste-

hedgerows and near rivers and streams.

Cultivation Wild and cultivated. Seed sown in
spring. Root division spring and autumn.
Grows quickly and needs restricting in gardens.
A variegated form also exists.

white

Constituents Volatile oil; resin; tannin; a bitter

spring to early summer, followed by scarlet

lands,

principle, absinthin,

which stimulates diges-

flowering shoots,

(dried

emmenagogue. Used

Diuretic;

leaves,
as

roots)

an aid

in

irregular menstruation, lor lack of appetite,

and weak
of

digestion. Chinese

employ

the cones

the leaves imoxasi for rheumatism, in the

therapeutic method

Used

as a

tea.

known

as

moxibustion.

culinary herb for stuffing

duck or other fatty fish or meat.

Repels flies and moths. Leaves may be used

geese,

for

flavouring and the clarifica-

tion of beer.

Contra-indications

Large prolonged dosage

in-

jures the nervous system.

butter, vinegars,

and

is

best

known

for

its

use

with chicken.

Used

in

some perfumes and

liqueurs.

late

and western Europe, north

Found in porous

Africa, introduced elsewhere.

loamy

soils,

in

warm damp

sites,

hedgerows,

woods.

Wild plant.

Cultivation

an unstable skin and

which is largely broken down
on drying; starch; gums; saponin; sugar.
Aroine,

Constituents

mucosa

irritant,

(fresh

dried

or

strong

Diuretic;

dried

leaves,

purgative;

tubers)

no longer em-

ployed internally. Bruised fresh plant applied

Formerly used

preserves, pickles, shellfish, lobster, herb

Flowers appear

fruits.

Uses
in

tobaccos.

fish,

(spathe).

Distribution Central

tion.

Uses

bract

in
rheumatic
pain.
Used
homeopathically for sore throats.
Well-baked tubers are edible, nutritious and

externally

harmless.

Root starch, after roasting or boiling, and then

drying and powdering, produces an arrowroot
substitute used for starching.

Arum maculatum L araceae

Cuckoopint Lords and Ladies/Arum
Because of the obvious sexual symbolism of the

Contra-indications All

erect spadix of this attractive plant, almost

POISONOUS.

all

European common names have some sexual

connotation. Even Dioscorides suggested that
the herb was an aphrodisiac. It may have been
for this reason that large quantities of the

parts of fresh plant are

its

Artemisia vulgaris

L compositae

Mugwort
An

Felon Herb/St John's Herb

ancient magical plant, deeply respected

throughout Europe, China and Asia, and once

known as the Mother of Herbs (Mater Herbarum). It was one of the nine herbs employed to

demons and venoms

repel
times.

Although used

especially beer, the

in

pre-Christian

to flavour drinks,

common name

is

and

derived

from the Old Saxon muggia wort meaning

'midge plant' after its ability to repel inset ts.
Description l,ie<t sparsely

pubescent perennial;
grooved with reddish-purple colouring,
angular, reaching 1.75 in. Leaves 2.5 5 cm
long, dark green above, whitish and downy on

strips

the

underside;

pinnate

or

bipinnate

with

tubers were processed and sold as a foodstuff

in

the eighteenth

The herb was

and nineteenth

centuries.

and root
was employed to starch
ruffs in the sixteenth century, even though the
practice often caused blisters on the hands of
also called Starchwort,

starch obtained from

those

who

used

it

it.

Description Perennial plant arising

from ovoid
tuber 3 cm diameter; arrow-shaped leaves to
25 cm long, plain dark green or with dark
brown-purplish spots. Flowers occur at base of
purplish club-shaped spadix which is enclosed
in characteristic 15-cm long leafy greenish-

Asarum canadense

L aristolochiaceae

Wild Ginger Canadian Snakeroot

As the name suggests the root-stock may be
used as a substitute

Ginger. American
herb was an effective

for root

colonists

found

stimulant

when taken

the

as a tea,

and American

Indians believed a decoction of the root-stock

to

be an effective contraceptive.

Description Stemless ginger-smelling perennial,

with round, fleshy root and branched, hairy,

root stalks each bearing 2 kidney-shaped
leaves, dark green above, pale green beneath,
to 20 cm wide. Flowers single, bell-shaped.
dull brownish-purple, appearing close to the

ground

summer.
Canada

in

Distribution

and

northern

United

59

ASA-AVE
1

yV

.J A
-

'

Aspalathus linearis (Burm.

appears early summer to early autumn.

Distribution Europe, Siberia, Caucasus; in
woods and shady sites. Introduced elsewhere
in temperate zones as a garden plant.
Cultivation Wild plant. May be propagated by

leguminosae

J!

';

autumn;

root division in

careous

K
f^

surface or leaf mould. Single purplish flower

*-

fekL

BP^^Mw

and

^P>

States, Russia,

moist shaded
Cultivation

leaves) Emetic; purgastimulant in small doses.

Produces copious mucus flow if taken as snuff.

Once an ingredient of tobacconists' 'head-

Far East. In rich woodland on

as

an important medicinal herb,

employed

sites.

Wild plant.

Constituents Volatile oil

L asclepiadaceae
Pleurisy Root Butterfly Milk Weed
Once officially recognized and included in the
United States Pharmacopoeia and long used

Asclepias tuberosa

''

resin a bitter principle

in

is

still

European and American

folk

it

medicine. Appalachian Indians made a tea

from the leaves to induce vomiting during

asarin; sugars; alkaloid.

certain religious ceremonies. Several species of

Stimulant; tonic; diuretic;

diaphoretic; carminative. Tea used in flatu-

Asclepias

Uses (root-stock)

lence

and indigestion. Thought

to exert direct

influence on the uterus.

May

be used as a substitute

for root

Ginger.

Oil used in perfumery.

Dried root used

Contra-indications

headaches.

Large doses cause nausea.

Numerous

in dry,

was called
medicine by
Dioscorides. Herbalists of the Middle Ages
it

name

another herb which

was probably a true cyclamen. Sixteenthcentury apothecaries joined the names and
described the Hazelwort as Asarabacca. Most

members

warm

climates

tea.

Commercial exploitation

now gaining

in

of the tea,

which

is

popularity in Europe, began in

the early twentieth century after successful

experiments to improve seed germination and
cropping techniques.
Description

Shrub or shrublet, decumbent or

m. Branches bearing thin (0.4-1

erect to 2

wide), glabrous leaves,

short,

leafy

shoots in

1.5-6

cm

long,

the leaf axils.

mm
and

Small.

bright yellow flowers, often with violet tinge:

followed by

1.5

cm

long pod.

as

m;

fleshy

cm

long and darker green abo\

<

erect, beautiful

North American native; common

sandy or gravelly soils on roadsides.
Cultivation Wild plant
propagate by division
Distribution

nut-shaped Rowers

asaron

given by Dioscorides

in

fermentation process necessary to obtain the

orange-yellow flowers in terminal umbels appearing mid-summer

to mid-autumn, followed by long, narrow seed

An inconspicuous herb with

bacc/iaris, a

and shoots which develops,

leaves

white root-stock supporting few stout hairy

stems, bearing hairy alternate, lanceolate

pods.

incorrectly called the plant

grown

are

Description Attractive perennial to

Asarum europaeum L aristolochiaceae

Asarabacca Hazelwort/Wild Nard

and cyclamen-shaped leaves,

and introduced into

1772.

colour

attractive garden plants.

leaves 5 -15

as snuff to relieve

Thunberg when he visited the Cape in

The common name derives from the red

together with a distinctive aroma, during the

Uses (dried root

'ST

Rooibosch was traditionally used by South

Bushmen and Hottentots and its
popularity was noted by the botanist Carl

African

of the

clearin' snuff.

Rooibosch Red Bush Tea

loid; sugars; resin.

tive; sternutatory;

R. Dahlgr.

Constituents Volatile oil; bitter principle; alka-

tiM

prefers moist, cal-

humus and shaded.

rich in

soil,

fil.j

to

of the family Aristolochiaceae are

climbing woody plants from South America.

Description Herbaceous perennial bearing 2
kidney-shaped, leathery, long-stalked leaves
on short pubescent stems. Inflorescence arises
from thick root-stock and flowers on soil

of root-stock in spring.
Constituents Glycosides, including asclepiadin;

resins; volatile oil.

Uses

dried

root-stock

Diaphoretic;

anti-

spasmodic; carminative; expectorant. Specially of use in infections of the respiratory tract

such as pleurisy. Powdered roots used as a

poultice on open sores.

Young

seed pods and root-stock

may

be boiled

and eaten.
Contra-indications

Very large doses cause

rhoea and vomiting.

vomiting.

Wfe

Fresh

leaf tea

diar-

causes

South African native; especially in

Cape, on well-drained, sandy but

Distribution

western

moisture-retaining, non-acidic
Cultivation

soils.

Wild. Cultivated commercially

South Africa from seed sown 10

late

winter

or

early

spring

seedlings transplanted in

mid

in

mm

deep

in

in

seed-beds:

or late

summer

10-20 cm tall. Later trimmed to

promote branching. Plantations replaced every

when

6 or 7 years.
Constituents

Vitamin C; tannin (1-3%); min-

eral salts; quercitin:

unknown

substances.

fermented young leaves

branches) Anti-spasmodic: tonic.
Uses

(dried

and

Of benefit in vomiting, diarrhoea, and other

mild gastric complaints. Clinically untested
but traditionally is considered of use in certain
allergic disorders - especially milk allergy.
160

ASA-AVE
as a hot or cold beverage:
also used as a culinary herb, and as a flavouring

Mostly employed

and the
Tea

This attractive low-growing herb which is

frequently found carpeting beech woods makes
useful ground cover in shady places or beneath

baking.

in

Asperula odorata L rubiaceae

Woodruff Sweet WoodrufT/Waldmeister

Asparagus officinalis L liliaceae

Asparagus Garden Asparagus/Sparrow

first definite report of its use is found in

Grand Herbier (1504) printed in Paris.
The herb was known by various names during
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries including Strygium, Strychnon, Solanum somnijerum.

the

Grass

Known

Sperage or Sparrow Grass in the

the Garden Asparagus
(Asparagus officinalis subsp. officinalis) has been
cultivated as a delicacy for over 2000 years. It
became an 'official" medicinal herb due to its
as

century,

sixteenth

and

laxative
herbalists

it

and some

properties,

diuretic

claimed

also increased the libido.

Europe Asparagus grows

The name is from
Greek word meaning 'to sprout".

In parts of eastern

wild and
the

is

eaten by cattle.

Description Perennial with short root-stock 5

cm

producing in spring the young fleshy

shoots which are eaten as a vegetable. If they
are left, they mature into many branched
stems 1-3 m high which bear insignificant
leaves in the axils of which are clusters of
cm
needle-like modified branches cladodes
long. Small bell-shaped whitish-green flowers
appear in cladodc axils early summer to midlong,

h was

roses in formal beds,

widely used

fragrant herb in earlier times as

as a

develops,

it

branched stem 50 200 cm

from

Strong scent
it

many

which

quadrangular
1

-n

cm

smooth,

high. Leaves in

oi i>. dark green, lam eolate, 3 cm long,

rough-edged small white funnel-shaped flowers appear on long stalks earl) summer to midsummer. Plant has a Strong characterise

whorls

smell.

Introduced elsewhere; cultivated in United

Prefers porous loam) soil, rich in

States

mixed woodland.
Wild plant: ma) he propagated
seed sown in late miiiiiiii'i to earl)

orange berries

wide

<>n

iaIK

Produc-

scale.

tion of the vegetable requires 3-year-old plants.

7.5

<

years. Seed

]j

last

deep.

in

loam

1
iii

sown

position.

rich

subspecies

found wild.

also

141

phoretii

laxative,

bordei

in

tannin.

used

oumaiiii

foi

for

biliary obstructions.

fresh

due
foi

item
to

Diuretic; dia-

high fibre content

treatment

goul and rheumatism.

ulinar) use as a vegetable.

oi

tonic.

Sonne

ol

anticoagulant drugs. Tea relieves

stoinai h pains.

dropsy,

ized

In

fla\

oui ing.

perfumery and pot-pourris, and

linen.

for

si

cnting

Repels insects.

Contra-indications

dizziness

with

smooth.

leafy,

tall

Native

ally

Europe, Asia; natural-

to

soils.

Wild

plant.

Widespread commercial

ultivation from seed or by root division.

Hyoscyamine; atropine;

Constituents

other alkaloids inainlv

sv

traces of

Action

root-stork.

in

autonomic nervous

to these affecting the

stem.
root-stock and leal

Uses

Reduces

Employed

secretions.

Narcotic mydriatic
;

and sudorific gland

salivar)

treatment of biliar)

in

Formerly used in nervous

diarrhoea and enuresis. Used iii heart anyth-

and

intestinal colic.

as

Externall)

liniment

gout

in

or

rheumatic inllainmation.

a delii ions tea

ied in cei tain w ines as a

to dilate the pupils.

Perennial

and introduced elsewhere. Found especiin woods and wasteland on calcareous

mia.

Flowers and leaves make

who

black berries.

sedative.

a dried herb Carminative; diuretic;

Once

Herba
used

plant

on thick creeping root-stock. Leaves dull green, unequal

sized pairs to 20 cm long, bearing solitary bellshaped purplish-brown drooping Mowers 3 cm
diameter in the axils. Appearing midin
summer to earl) autumn, followed by shin)

due

s.

Coumarinic ((impounds which

coumarin as tin plant dies down: also

Contra-indications

All

ONOUS;

to

supei

only

pans extremel)
be

POIS-

under medical

used

ision.

Large quantities can produce

and symptoms of poisoning.

Atropa belladonna

young

Once recommended
1

foi

root division after flowering. Ideal

resin;

ai id

root,

\\ ide

deep

Oil

Volatile oil; glucoside;

\tituentt

lannii

is

[ate spring,

in

seeds per hole

open

A. officinale subsp. prostratui

Con

undei planting

commen

Wild plant; cultivated

and horticultural!)

sand)

hei h

Coasts and sand) areas; woods and

hedges; Great Britain to Central Asia.

Cultivation

Bids

01

diametei

iii

Distribution

water of it

Description

tituents

01

a distilled

Cultivation

autumn,

the

called

first

donna after the practice of ladies

Cultivation

release

red

who

Venetians

nutrients, especially in

from ripe

oi

nightshade".

Distribution

Alma

North

Europe,

Asia.

Distribution

fruit

apothebeing translated as 'deadly

Matthiolus stated it was the
it

Description Perennial with creeping root-stock

.1

slender stems arise.

summer. Bears

mortale. the latter - the

for

billa

dried.

for this reason

name

ol new mown hay:

was one of the main strewing
herbs tor home and church floors. The Latin
name asperula refers to the roughness of the
w heel or ruff-like leaves.

when

and Solatium
caries'

I.

soi

aw eab

hi, saliva L gramineae

Oats Croats
One ol the do/en members
I,

ol

the grass family

Deadly Nightshade Dwale

which together provide the staple

Although a plant with such powerful sedative

and poisonous properties was undoubted!)

ol

widel) used for sinister purposes,

it

cannot he

identified with certainty in classical writings,

the

Latin

world's

name

Description

population.

most

diet for

Avena

the

is

old

lor the plant.

Annual

tufted erect grass,

high, with broad leaves

nun

cm

t.25

wide,

i6i

BAL-BRY
word meaning

'to reject' since

normally

is

it

rejected by cattle. Although the plant

is

of some

now grown

medicinal value, it is
gardens only because it

is

in herb
regarded as one of

Whorls of

flowering.

to late

typical

labiate

Appearing mid-

axils.

and bark

leather. Fruit

of the eastern hemisphere.

Wild

by

root

division in mid-spring or sow seed in late spring,

later thinning to

40

cm

herb sedative: antiemetic; especially used to counteract vomiting

during pregnancy.

hairs.

derived from A. fatua, A. sterilii or .1. barbaja.

which originate from southern Europe and

Widespread commercial cultivaoften found "lowing wild, having escaped

Cultivation

from cultivation.
Constituents Starch; protein; gluten: albumen;
salts;
/

r&s

gum

L berberidaceae
Barberry European Barberry Sowberry
A useful shrub cultivated in medieval times

Berberis vulgaris

near monasteries

east Asia.

tion;

flowering

dried

oil;

tocopherol.

(dehusked seed, starchy seed endosperm

Nutritive;

antidepressant;

use in depressive stales

and

thymoleptic.
in

general debility

highly nutritious.

was used

It

dyeing, and as a medicine, and

its

in

delicious

berries were used lor jam. jelly

sweets.

Now

relegated

to

and candied
hedgerows, it is

becoming scarce. Barberry is a host plant of the

wheat rust and long before plant diseases were
understood

()l

and churches.

farmers

accused

the

plant

ol

'blighting' wheal.
/),

to 2.5

tall,

L labiatae

Betula pendula Roth,

betulaceae

Silver Birch

able time: Birch bark

is

to

poor, the tree has

man

for a consider-

have been found in

Mesolithic excavations and North American
Indians still use the bark for domestic purposes. The tree has also long been considered
magical and reputedly has the ability to repel
enchantment and evil. Its employment as a
form of whip or 'birch' predates the Roman
lictors

rolls

who used Betula species in the fascis they

Now widely grown horticulturally as

carried.

an attractive garden

tree.

Deciduous tree to 20 m high: white

bark, smooth and peeling in horizontal strips.
Pendulous slender branches bearing resinous,
rough and scaly glands. Leaves bright green

Description

to

cm

long, irregularly serrate, heart-shaped

triangular.

Flowers consist of male and

female catkins.

greyish beneath with 3 sharp spines at the base.

northern Europe, the mountainous parts of

southern Europe and Asia Minor. Also found
in Canada and the northern United States.

Black Horehound Stinking Horehound

Flowers small, yellow,

This generally unattractive herb is distinguished only by its strong and objectionable
odour, which caused Turner in 154H to
describe it as the 'stynkyng horehound'.
Dioscorides gave the plant the name ballote
which is probably derived from the Greek

late spring

oblong

to

in

(lusters

appearing

mid-summer, and followed by

scarlet to purple fruit.

Distribution

naturalized

Native from Europe

in

Distribution

to East

Asia:

eastern North America. Prefers

olerates

Cultivation

Common

all soil

Wild

types
plant.

throughout central and

and

situations.

Grown

Constituents Volatile oil: a

horticulturally.

saponin: a flavonoid

deciduous woodland on chalk) soils.

Once common in hedgerows but becoming
scarcer due to infection by black rust fungus

antiseptic action, thus used in urinary tract

disease.

infections.

light

Cultivation

[62

for use in curries.

bearing rod-shaped branches tinged yellowishcm long in (lusters.

red. Leaves obovate 2.5
|

Ballota nigra

and
and eaten with

for wool, linen

into jelly

mutton, candied and pickled

Ered deciduous shrub

w ription

made

Although birch timber

nevertheless been of use

apart.

Constituents Flavonoids.

Uses

dye

as a yellow

soil.

Propagate

plant.

liver diseases.

used in the manufacture of tooth-picks

Distribution Natives of

Cultivation

a eultigen possibly

and other

gall-stones

much

nitrogen-rich, moist, rather loose

is

Wood

autumn.

temperate Europe and

Found on
wasteland, hedgerows and on walls; prefers

lemma without

atropur-

var.

Constituents Alkaloids comprising berberine,

oxyacanthine and chelidonic acid. Fruit rich
in vitamin C.
Uses root bark, stem bark, ripe fruit Cholagogue; specifically used in the treatment of

purple flowers borne in

Distribution Avena saliva

include

varieties

Strong smelling perennial with

angular branched hairy stems, 40-100 cm
high, bearing heart-shaped leaves, crenulated,
2-5 cm long, opposite and often turning black

summer

spreading;

Horticultural
purea.

after

early

the traditional herbs.

Description

5-30 cm long, flat and scabrous. Short ligules.

Terminal panicle 1525 cm long, open and

autumn; seed sown in late

autumn; or cuttings taken in
autumn and planted in sandy soil.

of suckers in early

spring or early

Wild plant. Propagated by layering

resin.

Uses

dried young leaves

rheumatism.

Formerly

Diuretic, with mild

used

for

gout

and

BAL-BRY
made from the bark. The tree
made into birch wine and vinegar.
Birch wood seldom used commercially as
timber; but employed for broom handles.

narrow or lobed with

beer can be

sap

bright

small,

is

serrate margins. Flowers

yellow,

twig-like

in

racemes,

appearing mid-summer to early autumn. Seed

dark reddish-brown in colour, in smooth pods.

Whole of Europe except far north

northern Africa, Asia Minor, China, western
India, North and South America.
Cultivation Wild plant; formerly cultivated
commercially on a wide scale - this now
restricted to southern Italy, Sicily, Ethiopia.
Seed sown in drills in spring preferably on rich

Bark once used as candles and the oil extracted

from it was used to cure leather, and also in
medicated soaps for skin conditions.

Distribution

L compositae
Bur-Marigold Water Agrimony
The herb is unrelated botanically to the
common Agrimony and it scarcely deserves the
name marigold with its inconspicuous brownBidens tripartita

soil.

Glycoside

Constituents

(comprising

sinigrin)

yellow flowers. Flies and insects are repelled

and an enzyme (myrosin) which react

when

presence of water

the herb

burned.
Description Erect annual 15-60

cm

high, with

smooth or downy branched stems; leaves 5-15

cm long, opposite, dark green, mostly with 3 or
sometimes 5 leaflets. Flowers brownish-yellow,
inconspicuous, somewhat drooping. Late summer to mid-autumn.
Distribution European native. Common on
soil.

Wild

Cultivation

sown

plant.

Propagate from seed

in spring.

dried flowering herb

Uses

alternate, rough leaves, hairy on both surfaces.

3-1 cm long and up to 2.5 cm wide, usually
without petioles. Bright blue, drooping starshaped flowers 2 cm wide appear from early
summer to mid-autumn on sparsely flowered
racemes.
Distribution Native to mediterranean region;
naturalized and introduced elsewhere; found
1

Constituents Volatile oil.

Astringent: dia-

to

Mainly used as a rubefacient poultice for

rheumatism, local pain and chilblains. Added
to hot water as a foot bath. Used as an ingredient of the condiment Flour of Mustard.

banks, in ditches, near ponds. Prefers

river

muddy

in the

form allyl isothiocyanate

(or essential oil of mustard) which is responsible for the smell, taste and inflammatory
action of mustard. Also contains proteins;
mucilage; and non-volatile oil.
Uses (seed, leaves) Stimulant; irritant; emetic.

is

Young

leaves occasionally used in salads.

Contra-indications

May

Should

sparingly

used

be

tender

blister

skins.

when taken

in-

ternally.

garden escape.
Wild plant and prolifically selfThrives on ordinary well-drained

especially as
Cultivation

seeding.

Sow seed in shallow

summer.

in full sun.

soil

drills in

late spring or late

Mucilage;

Constituents

tannin;

volatile

oil:

various mineral acids. Active principles not

fully

understood,

and

diuretic

they

but

act

as

mild

sudorific.

dried flowering plant, fresh leaves) Mild

Uses

diuretic; once used

for

kidney and bladder

inflammations. Used externally as a poultice

on inflammations.
Taken as a tisane for

rheumatism
Said

and

for

respiratory

infections.

stimulate the flow of milk in nursing

to

mothers.

Candied flowers used for cake decoration.

Fresh leaves and flowers added to salads, and
phoretic; antihaemorrhagic. Formerly used in
a variety
CX(

ol

pt for

A weak

now

condition*, but

rarely

antihaemorrhagic purposes.
dye is obtained from

yellow

used

the

officinalis

iptions of

i<

to bees,

its

bright blue star-shaped flowers are

alwa\s covered with the msec is.

Description Annual 01 lometimei biennial herb,
with ere* hair) stems to 60 m, bearing ovate,
1

Roots

lips.

<

Brassica nigra (L)

Bla< k

Koch cruciferae
Mustard

word

lie plant, howe\ ei, does not lend itself Well

is often
mechanical harvesting as
2 3 m

it

height,

As

and readily sheds

result

has

it

its

almost

when

seed

completely

lliiissiia

juncea

which

is

burning must' since the French

ground the seed with grape must.

cucurbitaceae

less

lo
01

originally

varying

shapes,

generally

to

grow luxuriantly:

root-stock

is

Mandrake

similar

in

since the enor-

appearance

to the

legendary Mandrake (Mandragora officinarum)

and was once used as a substitute lot it. Bryony
toots carved into human form were often used
as

shop signs

In

English

herbalists

the

in

eighteenth century.
Description

Climbing perennial arising from

large while tuberous root 75

thick.

of

meaning

mous

been

much

bruein -

another name, tin wild vine, emphasizes the

vigorous growth of the annual stems which
rapidly covet hedgerow shrubs. The herb is
also called English

Description Much branched annual

3 m high.
smooth above and slightly hairy below grass-

leases

acq.

lo

ripe.

pungent. The word 'mustard' is thought

derive from the Latin
mustum ardens,

green

in

Brown

replaced with the shorter Juncea or

Mustard

Bryonia dioica

White or Red Bryony/ English Mandrake

The common name is derived from the Greek

the historical dest

Borage
refer to the herb's abilities to bring happiness
and comfort and drive away melancholia.
Even Pliny (ailed the plant euphrosinum because
it
made men joyful and merry. Certainly it
was widely used in a variety of alcohol
dtmks, and it is still a vital ingredient <l
summer wine ii|>s. As Boi aye is very attractive
all

me

Hie powerful flavoui of old- fashioned Mustard

was due largely lo its content of Black Mustard.

L boraginaceae

Borage Bun age

Almost

flavour wine.

Mustard

flowers.

Borago

fresh flowers used lo dec orate

Long

stein.

cm

I>ran< liing

long, 7.5

neai

the

cm

base

leaching 4 m tall, and supported by coiled

tendrils. Leaves palmate, 5-lobed and rough.
Male plants beat pale green flowers on long

163

BUX CAP
Box woods were widespread in Europe but the
for the wood - which is twice as hard
as oak - led to extensive felling. Close clipped
Box hedges make excellent edgings to formal

demand

herb gardens.

Slow growing evergreen

Description

tree

or

bark greyish, leaves dark

green above and shiny, pale beneath, oblong
1-3 cm long. Flowers minute, yellow-green in
axillary clusters appearing mid-spring to early
shrub, 2-7

tall;

sandy

soil

taken

autumn.
Mediterranean native; widely distributed in Europe and Western Asia; introduced elsewhere. Prefers a well-drained and
chalky or loamy soil.
Cultivation Wild plant.
early

Distribution

parabuxine,

buxine,

parabuxonidine oil; tannin.

Uses (leaves, woodi Not used medicinally; but
formerly used for syphilis and as a sedative
A volatile oil from the wood was once used in
the treatment of epilepsy, piles and toothache.
Perfume once made from the bark. Leaves and
sawdust were formerly used to dye hair
auburn. Box wood is as durable as brass and is
therefore used in instrument manufacture.
Leaves once used as a substitute for Hops.

Resin

Constituenti

comprising

bryonin; tannin; volatile

and
Uses

oil;

or

employed
rarely used

to

dried

allay

due

to

its

root

coughs

glycoside

other glycosides

alkaloids. Purgative action

fresh

the

due

to resin.

Irritant;
in

once

pleurisy,

now

violent purgative action.

Berries of use as a dye.

Contra-indications All parts

POISONOUS.

Contra-indications

died

from

Jord. labiatae

Calamintha

ascenden.1

Calamint Mountain Balm

Mountain Mint

An am

ient medicinal herb which once had

such a good reputation as a heart tonic that it

was named after the Greek lor excellence

kalos. Although an 'official' herb of the Middle
Ages it now has no place in either orthodox or
medicine.
Hairv

Buxus sempervirens L buxaceae

arising

Box Box Tree

high;

164

have

Common

Description

Although once used for medicinal purposes the

slow growing and somewhat peculiarly smelling Box Tree is now mainly sought after for its
timber which is used in the manufacture of
chess pieces and turned boxes. At one time

Animals

eating the leaves.

folk

perennial;

stems

from creeping root-stock,

leaves

(dried

may

leaves

herb

flowering

An

infusion

is

Diaphoretic;

a useful tonic.

The

be used as a poultice for bruises.

peppermint flavoured tisane can be made

from the leaves.

in spring.

Alkaloids
:

to

Constituents Volatile oils.

or limestone.

Constituents

appear early summer

late spring.

Uses

in

berries; both plants

summer

Distribution

expectorant.

Wild plant. Cultivated from cuttings

long. Typically labiate flowers,

to early autumn.
European native; prefers dry
woodland and waste places on chalky soil.
Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated by cuttings
of side-shoots taken in spring; seed sown in
early spring: root division late autumn and

ing late

Native to Europe, North Africa,

western Asia. Cultivated widely: prefers chalk
Cultivation

female plants bear greenish flowers in

umbels of 2-5 on short stalks and single red

cm

pale purple, in dense whorls of 10-20, appear-

summer.
Distribution

stalks;

ovate, 2-3

stalked,

toothed

to

and

square,

30 cm
broadly

officinalis L compositae
Marigold Carden Marigold

Calendula

This well-known garden plant is probably one

of the most useful of all herbs. It has valuable
medicinal properties, yields a yellow dye, and

can be used
purposes.

as a culinary

It

herb and

for

cosmetic

has been used in the Mediter-

ranean region since the ancient Greeks, and it

was known to Indian and Arabic cultures
before the Greeks. The botanical name comes
from the Latin calendulae or calends meaning
'throughout the months', which was intended
to emphasize the very long flowering period of
the Marigold.
Description Annual; biennial rarely; branching, angular stem to 50 cm; leaves oblong or
lanceolate, hairy on both surfaces, 5-15 cm
flower-heads large, yellow or orange,
tubular florets absent
double-flowered
appearing mid-summer to late autumn.
long:

Mediterranean native; distributed

throughout the world as a garden plant.
Cultivation Not found wild. Tolerates any soil in
full sun, although prefers loam. Seed sown
mid-spring, but once established is generally
Distribution

self-sown.
Constituents Volatile oil; a

yellow resin; calen-

all of which
and promote wound healing.

dulin saponins; a bitter principle;

;

aid bile secretion

I

es

entire flower-heads, individual florets,

rarely the entire flowering plant

Cholagogue:

BUX-CAP
styptic; anti-inflammatory:

vulnerary; anti-

emmenagogue.

septic; possibly

ulcers,

and some inflammatory

treatment of kidney and urinary

diarrhoea. Frequently included in cleansing mixtures such as acne
remedies. May possess a weak sedative action.
Can be used as a tea substitute.

skin

Used externally for treatment of leg

and in conjunctivitis as an eye lotion.
Petals are substitutes for Saffron, and may be
added to salads and omelettes or used to colour
cheese and butter.
Young leaves added to salads.
lesions.

Cannabis
Recorded in the fifth century B.C. in the
Chinese herbal Rh-ya but now subject to
considerable nedical and legal reappraisal.
Hemp has long been of economic importance
to man. John Gerard described it in the sixteenth century as the Indian Dreamer. C.
sativa L is considered now to be synonymous

and cosmetic preparations, and

as a hair rinse.

Yellow dye obtained by boiling flowers.

Calluna vulgaris (Li Hull Ericaceae

Heather Ling

A common

herb long used

European

in

L cannabaceae

Cannabis sativa

Hemp

Petals are also used as tea.

in skin

in the

infections,

tract

ulcers,

Used

glaucoma, spasmodic cough, neuralgia,

thma and migraine.

Stem fibre provides 'hemp' for rope, sail-cloth
etc. Seed is a bird-feed, and source of a drying

Of use

Specifically of use in inflamed lymphatic nodes,

duodenal

Uses (fresh flowering tops) Antiseptic; diuretic;

astringent.

with C. indica L. although the herb

folk

is

variable

in constituents and appearance dependupon region and method oi cultivation.

ly

tall.

Leaves grey-green,

latei

reddish, verj

mm

appearing

late

summer

Native

to late

autumn.

Europe, Asia Minor.

eastern North America, On

Distribution

to

Introduced to
acidic sandy soils. 01 peal bogs. In woodland,
dry hillsides, mountainous distrit is. to 2500 m
altitude.

lanceolate, toot lied.

panicles

flowers in

sessile leafy spikes 2

Distribution

introduced

small, sessile, overlapping in 4 tows. Ffowei

long, pink in terminal one-tided rat emes,

">

countries.

Native

in

j-

cm

40

23
c

<

long. Male-

and western Asia

in altitude

tropical

can

be

.11

cultivated

Last

man) countries il

In

only with a government

pei mit.

Bush.

pickled in wine vinegar, have been used as a

condiment for at least 2000 years, and have

been known as either capparis or

always

Dioscorides suggested a medical use

them, but the) have never widel) been used
for anything except culinary purposes. The
best known substitute lor capers is pickled,
gi

in nasturtium seeds.

Description Straggling spiny

shrub

leaves tough, roundish e oval 2

spines

in

high;

cm

long,

the base.

at

White or pink single flowers 2 .5 cm long with

4 petals, and numerous purple stamens hanging below them, appearing from early

Wild and cultivated commercially,

in temperate regions lor oil) seed anil fibre
Soviet Union and central Europe, for example- and in tropical regions lor the- drug
Cultivation

\inea. India.

Physical

illegal.

is

Capparis spinosa L capparaceae

Caper Caper Bush
The unopened flower buds of the Caper

with short petiole and

long. Variable.

to central

5000

female

long;

man) temperate and

to

To

7. 5

tops

personality. Medical use only.

lor

Coarse strong-smelling dioceious

m (all. Leaves long-petioled
thin, alternate, palmate; 3 11 leaflets, narrow-

flowering

as a narcotic (marijuana).

and psychological effects, ranging from

change in blood pressure and impotence to
hallucination, vary enormously depending on

(capparis.

cm

Dried

oil".

smoked

Contra-indicatwns Possession

ing

Description

whose generic name is from the

Greek meaning to sweep, alter the use "I n^
branches in brooms.
Description Evergreen subshrub from
5 cm

illegally

both

annual, go

medicine

'hemp-seed

oil,

as-

autumn and

to earl)

Distribution

Ah

ie

Mediterranean region and North

a to the

Cultivation

climates

Ma\

be

summer

lasting onl) 24 hours.

Sahara.

Wild plant; cultivated

when
grown

the
in

bush

is

often

greenhouses

in

in

warmer

spineless

temperate

zones.

tivars exist lor

cannabinone, comprising
various compounds; pharmacological action
probably due to isomers <>l tetrahydrocanna-

in summer most successfully rooted

with the help of mist propagation (requiring
very high humidity).

stone

binol.

Constituents

Constituents

Cultivation Wild.

soils.

under

Numerous

horticultural cul-

rock-garden use. Dislikes limePropagate by young wood cuttings

glass.

Uses

and fumarit acids; arbutin;

tannins; an oil, ericinol; a resin, ericoline;
llavouoid glycosides, quercitrin and myricitConstituents Citrii

rin;

carotene.

The combined

dominant!) antiba<

terial.

action

pr<

fibre,

flowering
(

resin,

seed, oil, female

lops

(lie

and male dried

latter

erebral sedative; narcotit

onl\

analgesii

rarel)
;

anti-

spasmodic.
Mielie mal US4 and attitude to the drug varies
according to country. ( lonsidered e>l benefit in

Cuttings

Caprit acid, which develops on

pn kling the buds, and which is responsible for

th<

Uses

I1.11

actei

istii

unopened

flavoui

llowei

buds

Numerous

culin-

ary uses caper sauce, tartare sauce, vinaigrette,

buitet, in Liptauei cheese, and as a garnish
:

wilh hois d'oeuvres.

fish,

meat and salads.

(i
,

CAP-CAS
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L)

Medic, cruciferae

Cultivation Wild in parts of South America and

southern India; cultivated elsewhere.
Constituents
Capsicin; capsicain; alkaloids;
vitamin C; palmitic acid.

Shepherd's Purse Shovelweed

In almost all European languages the common
names of this herb allude to the strange shape
of the

fruit,

which are very similar

from
the

belts.

The Latin name

to the purses

Uses

commonly hung

or pouches which were once

also simply

means

fruit

antiseptic;

Stimulant:

rubefacient.

and

spas-

Used

in

improve both the

peripheral circulation and digestion. Occas-

flatulence,

case of the shepherd".

'little

ground

(dried

molytic;

colic

to

Shepherd's Purse can be found growing in

Greenland at sites where it was introduced by

Norsemen iooo
places

years ago.

It

was, and in some

extensively eaten as a spring

still,

is

vegetable.

3g

ji^

1*1

..

'

Ai

pungency, and the plants are grown commerand subtropical countries.

cially in all tropical

Some

varieties grow in the cooler parts of

Europe and America. Chili is dried and ground
to form Cayenne Pepper; it is also blended
with several varieties of Capsicums, herbs and
spices to make Chili powder.
Although the origin of the cultivated varieties
is

uncertain, experts believe

all

come from one

original species. For this reason the botanical

classification

of

muddled, and

C.

these

plants

annuum

somewha'

is

often described as

is

C.Jrutt Kens.

Herbaceous annual or biennial:

Description

30 90 cm high; leaves 2.5 12 cm long,

acuminate, often narrowing towards the petiole: white flowers, solitary, 5
cm wide,

mm

or

Annual,

Description

or

generally

biennial;

smooth or slightly hairy stem, branched, to

50 cm; arising from basal rosette of dentate or
variable leaves. Upper leaves entire and
narrow. White flowers 2.5-4 mm diameter, in
loose racemes appearing throughout the year,
and followed by triangular shaped fruit called

much

varied

in

larger.

Fruit from

30

1.5

cm

long,

colour (yellow, brown, purple, often

bright red
Distribution

in

shape and degree of

Grown

in

tropical

all

fleshiness.

and sub-

Distribution

Europe and America.

Not found in wild state, but closely
related
to
the
Bird
Pepper
(Capsicum
microcarpum (D.C.). Seed sown under glass in
early spring; later transplanted. Best sown in
pots or under glass in cool climates to ensure

common weed

ripening of

siliculae.

Widespread in temperate zones;

on gravelly, sandy or loamy
soils, especially those which are nitrogen-rich.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Choline; acetylcholine: and other
amines
acting as vasoconstrictors and
haemostatics.
Uses

(dried

plant;

fresh

Anti-haemorrhagic; the herb acts

plant)

as a vaso-

and is therefore of use in certain

haemorrhages especially profuse menstruation.

during

to

assist

childbirth.

cabbage

in

many

Capsicum annuum

Chili

contraction of the uterus

Spring

leaves

eaten

as

countries.

L solanaceae

Peppers Capsicum/Sweet Peppers

All species of Capsicum are of American origin

and were unknown before 1494 when Chanca,

the physician to the fleet of

second voyage

to

the

Columbus

West

Indies,

described their use by the natives.

in his

briefly

Today

there

are scores of varieties in cultivation, ranging in

shape,

166

size,

colour,

flavour,

and degree of

as a liniment in neuralgia or

Weak

infusion of benefit as throat

gargle.

Large doses are an extreme

Contra-indications

Cultivation

irritant to the gastro-intestinal system.

fruit.

Capsicin; capsaicin: alkaloids:

vitamin C; palmitic acid.
Uses (fresh or dried fruit) Spasmolytic: nutriConstituents

tive

and stimulant. Aids digestion; of

use in

Mainly employed

as

condiment and

Cardamine pratensis

Lady's

Smock

L cruciferae

Cuckoo-flower/Bittercress

Lady's Smock is one of the first wild flowers to

appear in spring, and is characteristic of moist
meadows in Europe and America. It is rich in
vitamins and minerals and was formerly cultivated and used as a common salad herb, often
being found on market stalls. It has, unfortunately, now fallen into disuse. Cardamine is an
ancient Greek

name

for Cress,

and

refers to

its

national

supposed heart-benefitting properties.

Description Slender erect perennial on short
root-stock, to 25-50 cm. Leaves pinnately subdivided, consisting of 3-7 segments, oblong or
cm long. Basal leaves broader and
rounded,
form a rosette. Pale lilac or white flowers, 4
attractive petals cm long, in terminal racemes
appearing spring to early summer, and followed by 2.5 cm long fruit pod. Double flowers

came from Cayenne

occasionally occur.

vegetable.

constrictor

Thought

employed

rheumatism.

tropical countries;

diarrhoea.
flowering

ionally

Capsicum frutescens L solanaceae

Tabasco Pepper Cayenne Pepper

Cayenne was classified as C. minimum by

Roxburgh, but is generally known as C.
frutescens.
It
is
the species which is used
medicinally, and it is still included in many
pharmacopoeias. Traditionally it
in French Guiana.
Description Perennial shrub to 2 m; trunk
becoming woody, 7.5 cm diameter. Leaves
various, usually elliptical, 2

cm

long; flowers

mm

cm wide.
white in groups of 2 or 3, 5
Fruit small and oblong.
Distribution Tropical and subtropical countries.
1

Distribution

Native

in

temperate

zones

of

northern Europe and America: prefers loamy

soil saturated with water, beside streams, in
damp meadows and moist woodland.
Cultivation

Wild plant; once cultivated. May

when ripe, on damp

be raised from seed sown,

CAP-CAS
loamy

mustard
Uses

Known

soil.

Constituents

Vitamins, especially C: minerals:

oil.

fresh leaves, flowering tops

nutritive. Infusion

may

Stomachic:

be taken

promote

to

the appetite, or in indigestion.

Eaten raw

added

cooked as vegetable;
Flavour similar to Watercress.

in salads, or

to soups.

France as Barometre because it

approach of rain.
Description Stemless or short-stemmed perennial to 5 cm on taproot. Bearing oblong 30 cmlong pinnate leaves, divided into numerous
spiny segments. Flower-head large (to 12.5
cm) solitary, creamy-white, composed entirely
of disc florets: appearing late summer to midin

closes at the

autumn.
Distribution

Native to south and central Europe.

meadowland, on poor, dry,

heathland.

In

stony calcareous

soils

in

warm

positions to

Commercially and
on a wide scale.
especially in Germany and Holland. Tolerates
most soils: sow late summer for seed harvesting
the following summer.
Constituents Volatile oils, which prevent flatulence and promote secretion of gastric juices.
Uses (ripe fruit, young fresh leaf, fresh roots)
Carminative: aromatic. Of much benefit in
horticulturally

Constituents Essential oil: resin: tannins: inulin:

and

antibiotic substances, carlinoxide

carlin-

dried root

Cholagogue: diuretic;

Young

The decoction may

added

in

in

stomachic tonic.

be used to clean

as flavouring.

to salads: root boiled as

vegetable.

such as Kiimmel.

to flavour liqueurs

Cassia angustifolia Vahl.

and urine retention:

complaints such as acne and eczema;

benefit in dropsy

liver disorders, or as a

leaves

anti-

bacterial: vulnerary: stomachic.

skin

lack of appetite, diar-

indigestion,

flatulent

Used

ene.

some

plant.

cultivated

Seed has wide culinary use

Wild plant.

Cultivation

Uses

waste-grounds.

Wild

Cultivation

rhoea. Safe to use with children.

2800 m.

Of

Europe: very widely distributed and naturalized. Prefers

wounds

or

an antiseptic gargle. Used in veterinary

medicine to stimulate appetite of cattle.
Contra-indicatwns Purgative and emetic in large
as

doses.

leguminosae

Senna Tinnevelly Senna

Senna

well-known

is

for

of constipation,

cases

its

effectiveness in

and the herb

is

still

by inclusion in most
national pharmacopoeias. It was first brought
into medical usage by Arabian physicians of
the ninth century when the best sort was considered to come from Mecca. Another species.
recognized

officially

Cassia acuti folia, provides the slightly inferior

mbelliferae
Caraway (ai aw a \ Seed
Both the common and Latin names of this herb
Stem directly from the ancient Arabic word for
its seed karau iya, w Inch are known to have been
used b\ man as medicine and as
flavouring
since the earl) Egyptians. ( araw av cultivation
is mentioned in the Bible, and the seed has been

Carum

carvi

.1

Found
sites -

Carlina acaulis
(

L COM POSITAE

years,

trline Thistle Du.nl Thistle

Carina
Charles

possibh,

is

kimj

army from
more certainh
his

derived

who

acaulis

means

it

die remains of food at Mesolithic

has thus been widely used for 5000

and

1-

-nil extensively

use as a flavouring

from

the

traditional!)

the plague with

among

name

protected

this

'stemless'.

plain

/>

and

Typical

cription

as a

<

cultivated for

arminative.

umbelliferous

biennial:

lowed by erect slender brani bed

00 (in bearing lew pinnate leaves
stem jo
and umbels oi numerous minute whin- (lowers.
Appearing mid 10 late summer, linn when
-1

\i-.n

lol

ripe

late

summer

to late ainiinin

',

shrub or undershrub

to

cm

with pale erect angled branches. Leaves

subdivided into 4 8 leaflets, oval-lanceolate,
smooth. 2.5 6 cm long, 7 8
wide; flowers
75

mm

on erect racemes, small, yellow, numerous.

Followed 1>\ fruit, 13 17
broad.
D iiihution Native to Arabia and Somaliland:
introduced in southern India, especially Ma-

mm

M\ sore and

dura.

Tinnevelly.

Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated

in

rosette ofbipinnate or tripinnate feather) leaves

in in

'Alexandrian senna".
Description Perennial

India,

and

commercial!)
Arabia and

to a lesser extent in

Somaliland.
<

onstituents

ally rhein,

netin

Anthraquinone

derivatives, especi-

aloe-emodin, kaempferin, isorham-

also beta-sitosterol

kaempferol myric)
:

nun

long, oblong, strongl) ribbed.

Distribution

Native

to

mid-East, Asia, Central

,(,7

CAS-CEP
Purgative action due to
anthraquinone substances acting on lower
bowel wall and nerves Auerbach's plexus) in
alcohol and resin.

the wall.
(dried

Uses

fruit,

dried

Cathartic.

leaflets)

Widely used alone or more commonly

com-

in

bination with aromatics to treat constipation.

May

be taken as a tea with

Ginger or

slices of

Coriander Seed.
Contra-indications

constipation or

Not

be

to

used

spastic

in

Large doses of the

colitis.

leaf

Caulophyllum thalictroides CL) Michx.

BERBERIDACEAE
Blue Cohosh Papoose Root
Eighty years ago this herb was included in the
United States Pharmacopoeia and was considered worthy of detailed study and use in
obstetric
and gynaecological conditions.
American Indian women drank an infusion of
the root for two weeks prior to childbirth,
which was usually comparatively painless. The
herb is also called Blue or Yellow Ginseng. Its

now

cause nausea, griping pain and red coloration

use

of the urine.

Description Erect perennial to

fagaceae
Sweet Chestnut Spanish or Eurasian

pinnate:

was

the

classical

name

restricted to herbal medicine.

m on contorted
branched root-stock; stem terminated in large
sessile tripinnate leaf. Other leaves 2 or 3

Castanea sativa Mill,

Chestnut
Kastanea

is

this

for

which produces the largest and

best nuts only when grown in a mediterranean
climate. These nuts, once known as kastana, arc
now called marones and traditionally make the
attractive tree

leaflets being oval, usually 23 lobed,

2.5-10 cm long. Flowers 6-petalled, yellowishgreen (occasionally purplish appearing late
spring to mid-summer on peduncle arising

best stuffing for turkey.

common

Tree to 30 m; thick dark brown

corrugated bark with spiral fissures: large buds

the

Description

4-5
10

mm

25
above,

long, coarsely serrated, dark green

light green and

Flowers (catkins) 12 20
late

spe< ies such

wide, ovoid; leaves oblong-lanceolate

cm

glabrous

cm

beneath.

Distribution

cm

3 nuts, 2.5

Native

bun

for

food.

Best

Tannin;

Asia,

south

Leaves

m.

propagated

thickets

gum:

and roadsides.
Wild plant.

Cultivation

Constituents

Active principles unknown.

root
bark
cholagogue; diaphoretic.

b\

Emetic;

dried

Uses

diuretic:

Used formerly in biliary obstruction, to promote menstruation and to treat skin cancer.

fresh leaf was once

whooping-cough, and
formerly employed as an

Attractive orange fruits used in flower arrange-

Uses (nuts) Nutritive.

was

to

ovate to ovate-lanceolate,

resin:

taken as a decoction

bark

long,

albumin;

alkaloids.

the

rarely used

numerous, greenon terminal racemes 10 cm long, followed

cm diameter.
by orange-yellow seed capsules,
Distribution Canada and United States from
Quebec to New Mexico. Prefers dense moist

grafting.
Constituents

Twining shrub

cm

12.5

Now

medicine.

ish,

Europe and North Africa. Introduced into

America and Europe. Tolerates most soils.
prefers deep sandy loam.
Cultivation Wild plant; widely grown and
hundreds of varieties now exist, some of which
are cultivated

as trellis or wall covers.

in folk

serrated. Flowers ver\ small,

wide.

western

to

grow

")

related

orbiculatus are useful plants to

.is (..

even

l)i scription

long, appearing

spring to early summer, followed by a

enclosing

plant found growing beside roads in

American Appalachians. This and

The

ments.

in

L compositae
Cornflower Bluebottle Bachelor's Button
Once common in cornfields but in parts
Europe now becoming much rarer because
Centaurea cyanus

antipyretic.

Nuts boiled, roasted, ground into flour, and

used in pates, tarts, bread and soups.
Good quality timber obtained from the tree.

of
of

methods; the Cornflower gained its name by the translation of the

apothecaries' term for the drug "flosfrumenti'.
Before the sixteenth century it was called Blue
Bothem or Bluebottle. Both this and another
growing in the mounspecies C. montana L
tainous areas of Europe, are considered
excellent eyewashes for tired eyes. Tradition
maintains they are most effective for blue evePlantago
while a completely different plant
major (the Greater Plantain
is believed to be

changing agricultural

from base

upper

of

leal.

Fruit

cm

diameter,

blue-black.
Distribution

United States and Canada; especi-

woodland and mountain glades.

Wild plant.
Constituents Saponin; green-yellow colouring
ally in moist

Cultivation

matter; resins; starch;

salts:

stances acting on voluntary

unknown

sub-

and involuntary

muscle - especially the uterus.

Uses dried rhizome and root Oxytocic. Once
used to facilitate childbirth and treat chronic
rheumatism. Also used in fevers but only weak
diaphoretic action has been shown.
|

Powder is irritant, especially

to mucous membranes. May cause pain to
fingers and toes.
Contra-indications

Celas'rus scandens

brown eyes.
Annual herb on

best for

20-90 cm high;

leaves grey,

linear-lanceolate, usually

7.5-15

cm

wiry stem

downy,

alternate,

than 5

mm w ide.

less

long. Bract fringes silvery. Flowers

capitulae 2.5-4 cm wide,

bright blue (occasionally white, pink or pur-

on large
ple).

solitary

Only

summer

Bittersweet

Distribution

of the spindle-tree family and a

erect

Description

False Bittersweet American or Climbing

A member
if)M

L celastraceae

disc florets present.

to early

Appearing mid-

autumn.

Native to south and east Europe,

naturalized in parts of North America. Intro-

CAS-CEP
ingredient of vermouth.

stems

erect,

cm

cm

high:

to

form

Basal rosette of elliptic leaves

inflorescence.

mm

8-20

wide; stem leaves

shorter, linear, oval, glabrous with 5 veins.
cm long, borne on
Flowers sessile, pale red,
1-5

long,

Unknown.

Constituents

annual 2-50
glabrous, branching

Description Biennial or

Uses (fresh leaves

and

No medical

root-stock)

use.

Used

cooked

in salads (bitter),

as a vegetable.

Root-stock used in soups.

Attractive garden plant.

corymbs of 6 10 flowers. Appearing late

to mid-autumn.
native;
Distribution
Central
European
distributed from western Europe to western

Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich.

apical

summer

introduced

Siberia:

elsewhere.

dry

Prefers

woodland and roadsides.

Wild plant. Cultivated commercially on a small scale in North Africa and
central Europe. Seed sown in spring or autumn.
Constituents Glycosidic bitter principles and
related compounds which stimulate gastric
and salivary secretions.
slopes,

Cultivation

Constituents Sterols:

cyanin: cyanin chloride:

dried (lower-head

Uses

astringent.

Diuretic: tonic: mild

may

decoction

be used as an

in eye inflammation and fatigue. A

blue ink was formerly made horn the (lower

eyewash
juice.

Flowers used

in

pot-pourris.

Centaurium erythraea Rafn.

Centaury Lessa
(

ientui

!hiron

who

suffering an arrow

named

after the

wound. The plant

called Gentian since

it

is

also

has similar properties

Hue Gentian Gentiana hum and is used

(or the same purposes. It was considered I
luck\ plant b\ some ol the Celtic peoples nl
Europe. Centaur) v\as widel) grown in the
M
Ages, and it is si ill used toda) as an
to the

<

<

Important constituent of gastric herbal

in bitter herb liqueurs.

Centranthus ruber

drug's effectiveness

current inclusion in

is

in

court

emphasized by

its

national pharmaco-

all

poeias except the Chinese.

Small straggling shrub on creeping

Description

fibrous roots initially

smooth becoming en-

teas;

DC

valerianaceae

Red-spurred Valerian Fox's

Brush
The Red-spurred Valerian has none of the
medicinal properties of the closely related
Both
Valeriana officinalis
'official' Valerian
l.'Miii
and Linnaeus classified the herb
botanically as Valeriana ruber, and Gerard
(ailed it Red Valerian or Red Clow Basil.
.

centaui
treated himself with the herb after
is

The

who

his success to the

used

in:

leases

mate

entire,

sessile,

Centaur)

688 sold the secret of

of Louis XIV.
1

effect.

Description Perennial

Centaur)

Common
(

QENTIANACEAE

Common

01

a Parisian physician called Helvetius

Aromatic: bitter;
stomachic. Stimulates appetite and bile secretion: of benefit in weak digestion. Widely used
as a tonic. Has an insignificant antipyretic

Red Valerian

fragasin.

Ipecacuanha - known as poaya in its native

and long used there for medical purposes - did not reach Europe until 1672 and
was not botanically identified until 1800. Its
use for dysentery was proven and promoted by
Brazil

dried flowering plant

Uses

duced elsewhere. Found especially on wastegrounds on porous nutrient-rich soil.

Cultivation Wild plant
becoming rare or less
common Widely cultivated horticultural!}
from seed sown in spring on sunny site.

RL'BIACEAE

Ipecacuanha

on wood) based stems to

lam

to

eol.ile

occasional!)

IO

toothed

Cttl

long,

al

base

nun wide, red or pink, the corolla is

tubular and spurred al the base. Appears hue
Flowers

spring.
Distribution

old walls,
Cultivation
use.

Europe

cliffs,

<

sites.

Wild plant: limited horticultural

white variety,

Propagated

south-west Asia: prefers

to

halk)

In

root

C. rubei var. albus, exists.

division

in

spring

or

autumn.

banded

and annulated

larged

Stem con-

tinuous with root-stock, smooth, green, angu-

30 (in, bearing few opposite, ovate, entire

Flowers white in heads on terminal
solitary peduncles, appearing late winter to
earl) spring, bears clusters of dark purple
lar to

leaves.

berries.
Distribution

elsewhere.

Indigenous

to

brazil; introduced

Grows in clumps in moist and shady

forests.

Cultivation

Wild plant; cultivated in Brazil,

Burma.
Alkaloids comprising mainly eme-

India (Bengal), Malaysia,

Constituents
1
1

ne and

<

ephaelinc. together with psychotrine,

melliN l-psv< hotline

glyi oside;

and

ipecac nan hi 11

emelaiiiiiie.
;

Also a

Starch, ipecacuanhic

acid.

diied ioot

Emetic; powerful expectorchronic bronchitis.

Prevents cyst formation in amoebic dysenterj
Useful in acute dysentery and as a diaphoretic.
1

ant.

sed

in

acute and

i6g

CER CHI
Dangerous in large doses as it
whole gastro-intestinal tract,
causing serious vomiting and diarrhoea. Powder irritates skin and mucous membranes
causing violent sneezing and coughing. To be
used by medical personnel only.
Contra-indications

the

irritates

cactaceae
Night Flowering Cereus
Cereus grandiflorus Mill,

Although many cacti provide food and drink,

comparatively few are proven effective medicinally. One exception is the Night Flowering
Cereus which is characterized by its exceed-

and beautiful scented

ingly large

commonly grown

flowers.

The

house plant.
Description Perennial succulent shrub; stem 5
or 6 ribbed, simple or rarely branched, 1-4 cm
diameter, dark green, prickly. Flowers white.
plant

is

as a

terminal or lateral, very large 20-30

diameter.
hours,

They bloom

and

in the

cm

evening,

die. Fruit ovate, scaly,

last

in

orange-red.

Distribution
West Indian native; tropical
America, Mexico.
Cultivation Wild plant: grown horticultural!)
as a house plant in sharp, sandy soil.
Constituents

stances.

Resins; alkaloids;

The method

unknown

of action

is

not

sub-

dry, sandy

fully

Cultivation

Commercially grown in central

Europe. To ensure double flower-heads, prop-

understood.
I

ses

fresh

or

dried

flowers,

young stems

agate vegetatively by root-stock division in

early spring.
fruits rare, apical,
1

cm

rounded,

rust

coloured

to

diameter.

Abundant

Distribution

high northern

in

tudes, especially coniferous forests,

lati-

mountain-

ous parts of central Europe. North America.

Also in Antarctica.
Cultivation

Wild plant.
mucilage, comprising lichenin

Constituents 70",,

and

which

isolichenin.

acts as a

demulcent:

L Ach. parmeliaceae

Moss

This is not a moss but a lichen and it has long

been used as a foodstuff in the cold northern
countries where

entire

plant
Demulcent; mild
weak antituberculous agent.

dried

it

flourishes.

It is still

employed

and

acid.

Spasmolytic;

flower-heads

dried

Uses

Excellent in

Whole herb used

Used

in

beer manufacture.

Centra-indications

vomiting and vertigo.

be ground and

made

into flour lor baking

Chamaemelum

nobile (L) All.

compositae
or Double

Chamomile Roman, Common

to lighten hair.

Excessive

This is one of the best known of all herbs and

has been in continuous use from the time of the
Egyptians who dedicated it to their Gods
until today when it is widely available prepacked in tea bags. Its name derives from the
Greek chamaimelon meaning 'apple on the
ground' since all parts of the herb are strongly

cultivated and

purgative properties.
Description Lichen, consisting of erect dichotomously branched, curling thallus 312 cm

of yellow-white ligulate

high; upper surface olive-brown or grey, paler

lower surface with depressed white spots:

Distribution Indigenous to southern Europe:

introduced and widespread elsewhere: prefers

Description Aromatic perennial to 30 cm with

creeping root-stock, low growing, hairy stems,
branched and supporting leaflets divided into

almost entirely
15

mm-3 cm

wide, born singly on long erect stems.

mid-summer

to

produces

found on waste-ground near to habitation

is yet another herb once

indicates that this

florets,

dosage

Chelidonium majus L papaveraceae

Greater Celandine
The fact that Greater Celandine is commonly

Chamomile

many segments. Flowers consist

men-

vomiting and nausea.

flatulent dyspepsia taken as tisane.

dyspepsia,

May

apple-scented.

170

spacings. Succeeds
even in part shade.
comprising azulene.

tiglic acids, anthemal.

anthemenc. Action antiseptic: anti-inflammatory: anti-spasmodic. Improves appetite.
Also inositol, and a bitter glvcoside, anthemic

esters of angelic

Stimulates appetite. Specifically of benefit in

debilitating diseases associated with vomiting.

medicine largely because of its nutritive

properties, although Linnaeus recommended
its general
use in medicine for pulmonary
diseases. It was once called 'muscuscatharticus"
which suggests wrongly that it possesses
in folk

oil.

tren-

cm

soil

struation,

bread or boiled in milk. Edible jelly made by

boiling soaked plant to remove bitterness.

Iceland

Volatile

Constituents

15

secretions.
Uses

Cetraria islandica

2.5 sq.m., planted at

on any free-draining

clone

100 plantlets cover

sedative; carminative. Relieves painful

bitter

tonic; nutritive;

cases of dropsy.

The non-flowering

eague' ideal for lawns;

organic acids, including fumaroprotocetraric acid, which stimulate gastric

also

Cardiac stimulant: increasing the force of

myocardial contractions. Used in cardiac
arrhythmias and heart failure. Once used in

sun.

soil in lull

From

mid-autumn.

now

forgotten.

It

is still

used

in

medicine however, chiefly for liver

problems, but no longer for its traditional
ability to improve poor sight. Dioscorides
called the herb chelidonion from khelidon - a
swallow since it was supposed to flower when
swallows were migrating.
Description Perennial 30-90 cm high; stem
branched, slightly hairy, leaves pinnateK finely
hairy or glabrous, with 5-7 ovate or oblong
leaflets crenated or toothed, blue-green underherbal

neath: flowers yellow, 4-petalled. 2-2.5 cm

diameter, appearing early to mid-summer.

Followed by erect thin green capsules 3-5

cm

long.
Distribution

Native

to

Europe, naturalized in

eastern North America, introduced elsewhere.

CER-CHI
laxative; anthelmintic.

Used

tinal disorders as a tonic.

Of benefit in anorexia,

constipation

indigestion,

Once used

as

an ointment

in

general intes-

and

of piles.

calcium, vitamins

iron,

in

and C.

B,

cholecystitis.

to relieve irritation

Rich

Constituents

(fresh

Uses

common

young

medicinal

Xo

Nutritive.

seed)

leaf,

use,

although mildly laxa-

tive.

Seed can be ground and used as flour.

Leaf eaten as cooked green vegetable or raw.
It is more nutritious than spinach or cabbage.
Produces a red to golden-red dye.
Can be used as animal fodder.
Chenopodium ambrosioides var. anthelmintium

CHENOPODIACEAE

American Wormseed Mexican Tea

to Mexico this herb has
become thoroughly naturalized as far north as

Although indigenous

New England, and

Europe
cluded
but

in

1732.

in the

it
was introduced into
Mexican Tea was once in-

United States Pharmacopoeia.

now restricted to American

is

folk

medicine.

Strong smelling annual reaching

.25 m, branching profusely from ground level

Description
1

leaves alternate, oblong-lanceolate.

long:

flowers

leafless spikes

Found on waste-ground, wood

edges, paths

and walls primarily near habitation.

Wild plant. Propagate by

Cultivation

Fat
root

di\ ision in spring.

Constituent Acrid

orange coloured latex con-

taining several alkaloids, especially chclidon-

and

ine

chelerythrin;

chelidoxanthin;

principle,

bitter

malic and chelidonie

citric,

Hen White

attractive plants,

bladder

and

bladder.

Hen and

from
dried

flowering

Cholagogue;

narcotic;

or

Irrsli

latex)

plant,

fresh

purgative:

included

Description

cholecystitis. Fresh juice

formcrU

POISONOl v

side-effects include sleepiness, skin irritation.

respiratory

tract

irritation

causing

violent

coughing and dyspnoea. Urine stained bright

yellow.

May

auSC

<

iili

<is

often

seed from

fatty

L scrophui.ariaci w

to late

Distribution America, especially tropical central

America; widelv naturalized. On drv waste

sacrificed in

Denmark

111

kin<;

were eaten
nineteenth
(.'.

album was

ol

Tollmund

meal

too

B.c

Annual to
m consisting ol short,
reddish, branched stem, bearing bluish1

green lanceolate toothed variablc-si/ed leaves,

and mealy white inflorescence. Flowers small,
greenish-white,

in

clusters,

appearing mid-

mid-autumn.
Distribution European native; found
genous weedy places, often one ol

summer

to

plants to appeal cm disturbed

Chelone glabra

Good

the closely related

in the ritualistic last

Man.

and

summer

main of which

Century, and the

of biliary duct and gall bladder, such as gall

used externally on warts

tra-indications Large doses

Pigweed

or

Chenopodium bonus-henricus
neolithic times until the

antimitotic. Principally used in inflammations

stones

late

edible plants, for example-, spinach and beet.

Henry

gall

appearing

cm

12.5

arranged on

1500 species of rather unare important

includes

species

Fat

as

Common

small,

autumn.

Goosefoot family
from the Greek khenopodwn meaning goose
foot which is the shape of the leaves of sonic

smooth

such

Goosefoot

The Chenopodiaceae

acids; saponin. Acts as an antispasmodic on

muscle,

L chenopodiaceae

Chenopodium album

greenish,

Cultivation

in

nitro-

the

first

soil.

Wild plant.

Turtle-head Balmony

swamp

This beautiful

flowers
he, id

plant possesses odourless

whose shape resembles

chelom

is

that ol a turtle's

(.reek lor tortoise

It

has long

been a favourite toni< in North American folk

medicine, hut has not been scientifically

examined.
Description

Perennial

to

.-,

m: stem

erect

smooth, square, bearing opposite, sessile 01

shortly
petiolatc dark green slum
leaves,
( m long, narrow
and pointed, somewhat
7
serrate. Mowers white or rose-linked. 2.-, cm
i

-,

long, in terminal oi axillary spikes

law

lumma

to

Appearing

mid-autumn.

and previously cultivated land.

alum Wild plant.

places
Cultii

Constituents Volatile
I

fruit,

entire

chenopodium
flowering

oil.

plant

Anthel-

roundworm and hookboth humans and animals.

mintic, especially lor

worm, and used in

Tea from leaf reported to stimulate milk How
and to relieve pain .liter childbirth. Main use
as the- source of chenopodium oil lor incoi poration into

anthelmintic preparations.

Contra-indications

POISONOUS.

Large doses

cause vertigo, deafness, paralysis, incontinence,

sweating, jaundice, and death.

North America from Newfoundca.iv Found cm low wet

land to Florida and
ground, stream margins, wet forests au<\

Chionanthus virginicus L oleaci u

Fringe Tree Snowdrop Tree/( )ld Man's

lhi< k'

Heard

tribution

Cultii iitum

Constituents
I

Wild plant.

No

dried

\ll

analysis available.

flowering

plan)

lelei

Cholagogue;

the
to

flower,

common names
its

I01

ol

this bcaulllul

spectacular appearance

which reason

it

when

c<

in

has of course been

7'

CHO-CIM
Description

Hardy aromatic perennial

5-15 cm long,

leaves ovate

to

m;

finely serrate, often

with pair of small lobes at the base; greyishcm broad, yellow, button-like,

green. Flowers

appearing

late

summer

to early

autumn.

Asian native; naturalized

North America, Europe. Tolerates any soil;

Distribution W'estern
in

sunny position.
Wild plant; once widely cultivated
as a garden plant. Propagate by root division
spring or autumn, or by seed sown in spring.
It cannot be raised from seed in cool climates.
prefers

Cultivation

If

grown

in the

shade

will not flower.

it

Constituents Volatile oil.

Uses fresh and dried leaf Stomachic. Rarely

used medicinally; an ointment once used as a
salve in burns and stings.
1

Wide culinary uses; including

flavouring home-made beer,

spring salad,
soups,

cakes,

poultry.

Formerlv a cosmetic water was made from the

widely cultivated.

From

a distance the flower-

ing tree appears to be covered with snow,

leaf.

and

name chionant/iu.s is from the Greek meaning

snow flower. The Fringe Tree belongs to the

Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium (Trevir

the

same family

as the olive,

lilac,

jasmine and

dried

Deciduous shrub or tree to H m;

leaves smooth or downy, oblong or oval,
7.5-20 cm long, opposite. Flowers delicate,
fringe-like, numerous, white, 2.5 cm long, on
long stems, in panicles 10-20 cm long, Appearing late spring to mid-summer and followed l>\

Formerly used

ovoid drupes (berries).

Native to North America from

Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas. Found in
woods and thickets, on rich moist soils.

Wild plant; cultivated

as

ornamen-

tal tree.

Saponins;

Constituents

phyllyrin;

lignan

glycoside.
Uses

Antipyretic;
stimulant.

bark,

root

fresh

bark

trunk

cholagoguc; hepatic
infusion once used as a general

diuretic;

An

tonic after debilitating disease, especially of

hepatic origin.

Of

tions, cuts, ulcers

benefit in skin inflammaand bruises when applied as

Chondrus crispus (L) Stackh. gigartinaceae

Carrageen

Irish Moss
Moss is unimportant medically and is not
mentioned at all in classical writings. It was
briefly promoted in 1831 by Dr Todhunter in
Ireland, but it attracted little attention and is
now largely of use in the food and cosmetic
Irish

industries.

seaweed, yellow-green
purplish-brown when fresh, white to yellow
and translucent after drying. Thallus (fronds)
10-30 cm long, arising from subcylindrical
stem, becoming flattened, curled and someDescription Cartilaginous
to

times bifid. Fruiting bodies (cystocarps) small,

oval,

appearing on the branches of the

Distribution Coasts of north Atlantic

thallus.

Ocean on

mainly rocky shores.

Cultivation Wild plant; collected in Ireland,
Brittany and Massachusetts.
Constituents Mainly mucilage; proteins; iodine.
W hen Irish moss is boiled, the soluble subr

172

Once

gelatin

substitute in

jell)

used for dressing cotton, stuffing matfining beer,

colour thickener

feeding cattle, and as a

cinerariifolium

is

is

the

source

of the

best-

natural insecticide, pyrethrum, which

renowned

for

its

possession of an extremely

rapid paralyzing effect and toxicity to a wide

range of insects. It is non-toxic to mammals,

however. For this reason it is used as a spray to
kill

the vectors of certain insect-transmitted

diseases in aircraft. Recent

work has shown

weak antibiotic

that the flower-heads possess

in (loth printing.

although the herb is not used

medicinalK
Description Herbaceous perennial 30-75 cm
tall with slender, hairy stems; leaves 15-30 cm
long, petiolate, oblong or oval, subdivided into
linear segments. Flowers solitary on long
slender peduncles, white, appearing early
activity,

L compositae
Alecost Costmarv Bible-leaf Mace
The most obvious characteristic of this

Chrysanthemum balsamita

herb
is

is its

known

Herb. The

in several

common

aroma by
Greek word kostos;
to

ancient

pleasant balsam-like scent from which

this

languages

as the

Balsam

English names also

their incorporation

refei

of the

was an old Asian herb

used in perfumery which had a similar odour
to C. balsamita. Alecost is famous as the preeminent Middle Ages agent for flavouring and
preparing

a poultice.

as a

C.

known

coughs.

.1

it

(dried

to treat

nutritive.

manufacture; as an emulsif) ing agent for codliver and other oils; in the [bod industry as
suspending and gelling agent.
tresses,

Distribution

Cultivation

mosth

I'sed

Demulcent;

plant

Uses

fleshy, purple,

Pyrethrum Flower Dalmatian Pyrethrum

stances extracted are called carrageenin.

forsythia.
Description

Vis.

compositae

ale.

kostos

summer

to early

Distribution

autumn.

Indigenous

to parts

of Yugoslavia

CHO-CIM
and adjacent

coastal islands: prefers littoral

zones but also found inland including

dried

Uses

moun-

leaf,

dried flowering plant) Bitter;

20 cm, remove

side-shoots

all

and

leaves

and

stack in dry sand in the dark. For coffee sub-

aperient; tonic.

tainous areas.

An

Wild plant. Cultivated commercially in Japan, Kenya, South Africa, parts of

central Europe. Propagation by seed sown in
autumn, thinning out in the following mid-

general tonic and to promote menstruation.

Brunswick or Witloof. White and pink horticul-

Once used

tural races also exist.

grease.

spring.

Employed

Cultivation

Constituents

and

chrysanthine and chrysanthene;

all

and

II,

Small

(dried

pyrethrin

II

No

and powdered flower-heads

as a

moth

the

'cuts"

lead to allergic dermatitis, allergic rhinitis

Chrysanthemum parthenium

L Bernh.

COMPOSITAE
Feverfew Featherfew
There is evidence that Feverfew was used as a
general purpose tonic in previous ages, its
common name being derived from the Latin
Jebrifugia meaning a substance which dri\es
out fevers. The old herbalists' term 'febrifuge'
- from the same stem - has now been replaced
with the medical description, antipyretic, but
strangely the herb is rarely employed in folk
medicine to treat fevers. It is an attractive,
robust and vigorously growing garden plant.
Description Perennial, sometimes biennial, to
90 cm; much branched with yellow-green,

repellent.

Uses (fresh

*S|r

to the

like the

%
V'^
%

mid-spring.

soil.

Double-downed

variet)

W^^&S*

mid-autumn.
Distribution South-east European native; introduced elsewhere. Prefers dry sites on an)
l>\

lactones!

salts; lipids;

bitter

principles

chiefly

lactucine

employed

root)

as

little

an aid

Diuretic;

weak

tonic:

use;

formerly

in jaundice,

and may

medical

protect the liver from the effects of excessive

coffee drinking. Increases glandular secretions
slightly.

Root roasted and ground

as a coffee substitute

or additive; can be boiled or baked, or used as

Forced leaves used as a winter salad

you ig leaves added to summer salads.
Leaves produce a blue dye.
Contra-indications Excessive and continued use
may impair function of the retina.
flour.

Linnaeus described

*J JtffLCx. A^J

to

root

earl)

mineral

and P;

Black Cohosh Black Snakeroot/Bugbanc

Wild plant, propagated

cuttings and seed sown in

leaf,

Of

laxative.

well-drained

Constituents Inulin; sugar;

Cimicifuga racemosa (L) Nutt.

nut

mid-summer

of the varieties Magdeburg and

RAM NCLLACEAE

s( ented pinnate leaves, tin3 leaflets

exceeding 7.5 cm long. Man) Bowers,
2 cm wide consisting of yellow disc florets,
white ra) florets, in tight clusters, appear

strongl)

stitute, use roots

vitamins B, C,
(sesquiterpenoid

Arabians - used the

blanched leaves as a salad, a custom continued
to this day on a commercial scale in Belgium
and horticulturally throughout Europe. Sometimes the blanched winter salad leaves are
known as Endive, which is derived from the
Arabic word hendibeh: the specific botanical
name comes from the same source. Dickens in
his Household Words described the extensive
cultivation of 'chiccorv' in England for the
root which was ground and roasted to be used

and asthma.

to

grown

horticulturally.
<

food

to

L compositae

who -

Egvptians,

cockroach, domestic fly and other pests.

Contra-indications Prolonged human contact

division,

added

Chicory Succory Wild Succory

The use of Chicory can be traced back

medicinal action; used only as a non-toxic

Cultivation

mild sedative.

as a

quantities

Cichorium intybus

also

possess

insecticide for control of the bedbug, mosquito,

may

of benefit in indigestion, as a

and lactupicrine.

insecticidal properties.
L'ses

is

comprising the keto-

Pyrethrins,

esters cinerin

infusion

onstituenti Volatile oils.

.is

,1

St

>*

In

Deep rooted
m; stem bristly or

.11 11

-in. ill

cm

30-100
creamy-white
flowers with numerous long stamens, on a
terminal raceme; appears early summer to
leaflets,

jr.j

cm

long,

early

long. Inflorescence

consisting of foetid,

autumn.

Indigenous to Canada and the

United States, especially Massachusetts, Ohio, Indiana and Georgia. Prefers rich
open woodland and cleared hillsides.
Distribution

eastern

offer substitute.

perennial

Description
1.5

this herb in his Materia

Medica of the eighteenth century as Actaea
racemis longissimus, but it was first called
Christophoriana canadensis racemosa by Plukenet
in 1696. It is an American herb, introduced
into medical practice in America in 1828 by
Garden, and used briefly in Europe from i860.
Now only employed by Anglo-American
herbalists of the Physiomcdical school.
Description Graceful perennial 1-2.5 m h'gh on
thick, gnarled, blackish root-stock bearing
smooth, furrowed stem with alternate leaves
subdivided into 2-, 3- or 5-ovate, toothed

Ins.

hair)

reaching

bearing

rigid

fpper parts practit ally leafless with

bract-like

lowei

leaves;

leaves

entire,

broadly oblong or lanceolate, partly clasping

and bristl) beneath, flowers in large capitula
ol 4 cm diameter, azure blue and ((insisting
only ofra) Hotels. Appearing from late nimmei

to

mid-autumn. Flower-heads lose b\ inidd.i\

European native; introduced else(

Distribution

where; naturalized
roadsides,
(

.in oils

,1

held

ncl

in

edges,

On

the United States.

on

nitrogenous.

al-

alluvial toilt

Wild plant; widely cultivated hortiand commercially. Seed sown 111

well-manured soil from lai" spring to midsummer, thinned to 15 20 Cm apart in midsummer to late summer. Forced blanched
salad heads best obtained from the variety
M itloof: lift the root in late autumn, shorten to
Cultivation

cultural!)

'73

CIN-CIT
Wild

Cultivation
Constituents

presence of small pits (scrobiculi

plant.

Resins and salicylic acid, both act-

ing as anti-rheumatic agents; isoferulic acid;

phvtosterols; alkaloids; tannic acid; 3 uniden(A resinoid impure

fied crystalline alcohols.

mixture, cimicifugin,

produced by adding

is

tive.

Anti-rheumatic;

root-stock)

(dried

Uses

mild expectorant

emmenagogue

uterine cramps.

Large

doses

in

mountainous
and

irritate

m.
Wild plant; mostly cultivated com-

Cultivation

Particularly effective in acute stage of

Contra-indications

Grows only

Africa.

cultivated from 1500-2500

seda-

rheumatoid arthritis, sciatica, and chorea.

Apparently most successfully used in females,
and acts specifically on the uterus, easing
nerve

and may cause abortion.

centres,

East

regions, most valuable species being found

tincture of cimicifuga to water.

bitter

at the vein

on underside of leaf.
Distribution South American natives, occurring
exclusively on the western side of the subcontinent. Also Java, Ceylon, Burma, India,

axils

mercially in Java.
Constituents 20 alkaloids including quinine,
cinchonine, cinchonidine. and quinidine: a

cinchona red: starch: wax: fat:

cinchotannic acid; quinic, quinoic and oxalic
glycoside;

acids.
I

dried

bark

stem

Antipyretic;

bitter

tonic: stomachic.
officinalis L rubiaceae
Cinchona Quinine Tree/Peruvian Bark
The Spanish conquerors learned of the

More

Cinchona

pyretic properties of

anti-

Cinchona Bark from

employed

tin

common

material themselves, considering

Powdered

it

extremely

was introduced into Spain in 1639,

and promoted throughout Europe bv the
Jesuits who gave the powder to those suffering
from fever. Medical opinion varied as to its
safety, but by 1677 it was introduced into the
London Pharmacopoeia. About 12 species oi
Cinchona are now used as sources of the bark,
which is mainly employed lor the isolation oi
quinine, once used as an antimalarial agent.
Description The Cinchonas ate evergreen trees
from 6-25 m tall; reduced to shrubs at the
It

limits of their habitat.

irritant to the

Leaves extremely vari-

pure

its

form. Useful astringent throat gargle. Tincture

inhabitants of Peru in the sixteenth century

it is not certain, however, that they used the
powerful.

more

slowlv absorbed and

gastro-intestinal tract than quinine in

quinine

for

preventative treatment of the

cold: orthodox medicine

for the relief

bark

emplovs

still

of muscle cramps.

used

astringent

in

tooth-

Used internally

powders.

Ma\

be used as a red dye

May

teria.

lor fabrics.

cause

vomiting; prolonged usage can cause cinchonism, symptoms

of which include deafness and blindru
Contra-indications

rarely

for sedation in hys-

Commonly employed

externally as a

counter-irritant in inflamed rheumatic joints,

fibrositis.

and neuralgia. Small doses stimulate

combination with

respiration. Often used in

other substances.

Cinnamomum camphora
LAURACEAE

Nees

et

Eberm.

(Contra-indications

Camphor Tree Laurel Camphor

The Camphor Tree was mentioned
Chinese

sixteenth-centurj

Large internal doses toxic

to

children, causing respiratory failure.

herbal

in

the

kang-muh and earlier b\ Marco Polo

Pun-tsao-

the end

.it

Cinnamomum cassia Blume lauraceae

Cassia Bark Tree Chinese Cinnamon
Cassia and Cinnamon are confused in

earlv

of the thirteenth century.

The camphor product was certainly known

^Cj>

before this and was regarded as one of the most

yfy.

and valuable perfumes; it is. however, not

certain whether this camphor was derived

rare

from

(..

camphora or from Dryobalanops aromatica,

Sumatran tree. In 1563 Garcia de Orta

w rote that Sumatran Camphor was so superior
and costly that none found its way to Europe.
Certainly Camphor was known in European

medicine by the twelfth century since the

German abbess Hildegarde used it
as
ganphora.

Dense topped evergreen tree reachand occasionally even taller: trunk

Description

ing 12 m,

enlarged at base. Leaves camphor scented,

alternate, acuminate, smooth and shiny above,

cm long. Yellow flowers

appearing early summer.
Indigenous to China and Japan:

whitish beneath. 5-12

in axillary panicles

Distribution

introduced elsewhere. Flourishing in tropical

and subtropical countries up to an altitude of
750 m.
Cultivation

Wild plant: introduced horticultur-

allv.

able but often bright green, obovate or lanceolate

from 7.5-50

cm

long, finely veined with

crimson, traversed by prominent midrib, and

borne

on

brown

Flowers

Constituents

very

terpineol.

landrene.

on panicles. The useful species are differentiated from others by presence of curly hairs
bordering the corolla, by its mode of capsule

Uses

dehiscence

74

from

below

upwards

and

bv

distillation of

Camphor, white

oil

24-40-

of

Cam-

phor, both comprising safrole, acetaldehyde.

fragrant, small, deep rose-crimson, clustered

petiole.

Obtained bv

year-old wood.

eugenol,

(Camphor;

oil

cineole,

of

d-pinene,

Camphor

phel-

Weakly

antiseptic; stimulant: carminative: mild ex-

writings, and it is probable that the terms were

sometimes used to describe different grades of

same

The

spice

pectorant; mild analgesic: rubefacient; para-

the

siticide.

called kwei in the earliest Chinese herbal bv

or closely related plants.

is

CIN-CIT
Shen-nung

2700

B.C.

It

reached Europe

times via Arabian and Phoenician

traders,

and

is

frequently

inferior substitute for

used

still

as

an

India. Jamaica,
Cultivation

cultivated

also cultivated

in

com-

prises largely

dried

Uses

cinnamaldehyde.
bark) Aromatic:

carminative:

astringent: stimulant.

Used

as a

nausea

in

powder

and
Cinnamon,

or infusion in flatulence

a similar

manner

to

sometimes replaces. May be used

alone or in combination to treat diarrhoea.

which

it

antiseptic:

bark:

volatile

as

used

in

Limited use

in

spice:

cordials.

oil

perfumery.
amara L Link
RL'TACEAE
Bitter Orange Seville Orange Bigarade
Known to the early Greeks, this was probablv
also the first orange grown in Europe in about
the twelfth century. The Sweet Orange was
Citrus aurantium var.

until the mid-fifteenth century.

The

the

total

cription

io

tall,

in conserves,

and

for flavouring.

Burm. rutaceae

limun.

of the Lemon was

with Arabian knowledge and
plants, and probably started in the thirteenth
century in Spain or Sicily. Numerous varieties

European

carried

now

cultivation

out

exist.

Small glabrous tree 3-6

Description

stout

stiff

thorns;

leaves

pale

high,

green,

5-10 cm long, on
narrow margins.
Flowers 8-16 mm long, white inside and pink
outside, clustered in the axils. Sour fruit 7.512.5 cm long, light yellow, oblong to ovoid
oblong

short

elliptic-ovate,

to

petioles

terminating

with

very

in a nipple.

Native to Asia; wild

Cultivated commercially especially
terranean countries.
Distribution

is

to

in
in

India.

Medi-

Wild plant: extensive horticultural

and commercial cultivation.
Cultivation

Constituents

Citric

acid:

pectin;

hesperidin;

B and C: citral; citronellol;

d-limonene; phellandrene; sesquiterpene.
vitamins

European

I 'ses

exceeded, and for yean large

quantities had to be burned.
Dt

Orange-

is

The Lemon is a household fruit today, but it

was unknown in ancient Greece and Rome.
The wild Lemon is probably a native of
northern India, and is known in Hindustani as
hmu or ninbu, which passed into the Arabic

with

with such success that

used in India as a

used to flavour medicines.

Employed in perfumery.

Citrus Union

until 1275, when il

which ii was indigenous
was documented by an Arab writer. Ka/wini.
The Portuguese occupied Ceylon in
5 [6
mainly to obtain supplies of Cinnamon, and
the Dutch began its cultivation there in 1770

demand was

flower water

Lemon

an intestinal stimulant and astringent

treat vomiting and nausea.

Cinnamomum zeylanicum \ees lauraceae

Cinnamon Tree Ceylon Cinnamon
Cinnamon was considered by the ancients as
one of the most important aromatic spices
available and is mentioned in the Old Testament in the same context as Myrrh. Olibanum.
gold and silver. It is doubtful, however,
whether the species C. leylardctan was known
not mentioned as a product of Ceylon

is

Aromatic:

oil

as

known

vaseline

in

oil

Used

not

before the thirteenth century, since the spirt

Neroli

preventive against leeches. Leaves and flowers

Used
dried

Widely employed
flavouring and in

com-

Aperitif:

antispasmodic; sedative; cholagogue; tonic;

vermifuge.

astringent: stimulant: carminative.

to

Constituents Volatile oil: resin: tannin: lignin:

Uses (flowers, leaves, fruit, fruit rind

in infusion act as sedative stomachics.

whose action is carmalso tannin and mucil-

age.

mercially.

bassorin: colouring matter. Oil of Cassia

and

inative

Uses

of China:

and

Seychelles,

Wild plant: cultivated commercially

Constituents Volatile oil.

summer.
Native

southern
Ceylon,

in coppices.

mm

China and Burma.

Cultivation Wild plant:

the

Brazil,

in
in

other tropical countries. In forests to 1000 m.

Cinnamon.

m.
white aromatic bark and angular branches:
leaves oblong-lanceolate 7.5-10 cm long, on
long petiole. Flowers small on
slender 6-8
slender panicles. 712 cm long, appearing
Distribution

and Malaya; cultivated

India

Description Attractive evergreen tree to 7

early

Native of Ceylon, wild

Distribution

in

classical

far

A.

fresh

stimulant

Medium-sized evergreen tree 6.5

with thi< k. smooth and pale bark:

fruit,

tonic;

scorbutic;
;

dried peel, juice,

refrigerant:

o\\)

Anti-

carminative;

aromatic.

Fresh juice employed as a household remedy

<>i
rarely alternate, hard,
long and 4 7.5 cm wide, ovate Of
ovate-lanceolate, shiny above and palei beneath. Numerous yellowish-white flowers, dis-

leaves
7

20

opposite

cm

agreeable odour,

in silky loose

than leaves on long

pedum

panic

Irs

longei

les

Bittei

Orange

is

usuall) onl)

lood and perfume industi

Description

employed

in the

Glabrous evergreen

tree

to

m;

brain bes spiny. I.<a\ es alternate, ovate-oblong

to 8 cm long, sinuate or crcnalc. petiole broad-

Flowers fragrant, white or pink.

-mule or few; followed by 7.5 cm
diametei globose orange to reddish fruit.
Asian native. Introduced and
Distribution
naturalized in south Europe, Florida, United
States and else w here.

winged.

axillary,

Cultivation

Used
1

.11

Wild and cultivated commercially.

lor the Sweet Orange. l.asiK

as slot k

led

from seed.

Constituents

volatile

oil.

flowers
fruil

Oil

and

ol

neroli. a

rind

complex

Volatile

oil

vitamin C;
comprising limonene to 90%
Havonoids; bittei compounds including naringine.

75

CLA-COL
for the

common

cold;

as a carminative,

Lemon

oil

and the peel

was once used

employed

is still

Cultivation

Wild; cultivated commercially by

inoculation of rye plant heads with

artificial

as a bitter.

the fungal spores.

The

Constituents

widest use is for culinary purposes as a

flavouring agent and as an antioxidant.

Used

for

cosmetic purposes as astringent, skin

tonic, in scents.

Claviceps purpurea (Fried.)

Tulasne

number

of alkaloids; carbohydrates; lipids;

quaternary ammonium bases; sterols; dyes;

amino-acids and amines. Six isomeric pairs of
alkaloids have been isolated, including ergocistine, ergotamine, ergocryptine, ergocornine,

Most are deriva-

ASCOMYCETES

ergosine and ergometrine.

Ergot Ergot of Rye

Ergot is best known as the cause of a serious
and spectacular human disease characterized
by symptoms of hallucination and madness. It
is now known as ergotism and arose in epidemic

tives of lysergic acid or iso-lysergic acid

proportions throughout Europe from at least

century and lasted until

called by a variety of
disease
was
8
6.
The
1
names the most common being Ignis sancti
Antonii or St Anthony's Fire, and was eventuas early as the sixth
1

be caused by eating flour or

bread containing a high proportion of the
Ergot fungus.
It was found to be of obstetric value in the
1550s by Lonitzer of Frankfurt and is retained
to this day in many pharmacopoeias, including
ally discovered to

the British, French

and German.

Ergot is the dried sclerotium, or

resting stage, of a fungus which develops in the
ovary of the rye plant [Secale cereale (L)), and
other grasses belonging to the genera AgropyDescription

largely

is

due

action

to these alkaloids.

haemostatic; circulatory stimulant; emmenagogue.

Most effectively employed as a preventative
against post-partum haemorrhage and as a
stimulant to arrest bleeding in menorrhagia
and metrorrhagia. Also used in neurology.
Uses

Large doses may induce

pregnant women. Increases blood
pressure. To be used by medical personnel only.

abortion

in

Cnicus benedictus

L compositae

brittle.

Internally

whitish-pinkish
in the

to

The

galactagogue.

Carduus sanctus or carduus benedictus

Blessed

Thistle

is

still

the Sacred

cultivated

as

medicinal herb in certain European countries

and has long enjoyed a reputation as an effective remedial plant. At one time considered a

and

Mixed with wine

Young leaves
heads eaten

to

used

make an

to

it

in the

aperitif.

be eaten in salads, flower-

manner

of Artichokes,

and

root boiled as a pot herb.

Contra-indications

Large doses strongly emetic.

L palmae
Coconut Palm

Cocos nucifera

A well-known

tree of

enormous economic and

nutritional importance in
tries.

many

Many parts of the palm

the fruit or coconut

tropical coun-

are exploited, but

most useful: for this

have been bred
which produce 100 to 200 coconuts each year.
The generic name Cocos is from the Portuguese

reason cultivated

is

varieties

monkey ^
means nut-bearing.
Palm tree to 25 m trunk usually
one side and regularly ringed with

monkey,

as the nut looks like a

Description

curving

to

Leaves in a terminal crown, very

on a yellowish petiole which is
deeply embedded in loose fibre surrounding
the trunk: deeply pinnate and pendulous.
Flowers followed bv ovoid nuts 20 cm long,
usuallv in bunches of 10 to 20.
Distribution Native to Malaysia and Polynesia;
widely distributed throughout tropical zones.
leaf scars.

long

In coastal situations or occasionally inland.

Wild. Widely cultivated commerci-

ally.

white

autumn.

comprising

Constituents

Oil,

trimyristin,

trilaurin,

triolein,

tries in

capric and caproic acids.

fields.

Uses

cure-all

its

use

now

is

generally restricted to

inclusion in herbal tonics. Cnicus

is the Latin
Safflower which was once the name

name

for

given

to the thistle family.

Description

70

cm

on each

cm

Thistle-like

branched annual

to

leaves lanceolate, dentate, with spines

tooth, dark green, white-veined,

5-15

long. Flowers partially concealed within

spiny bracts, yellow 3-4 cm wide, and appearing mid-summer to early autumn.

Mediterranean native; naturalized

United States; introduced elsewhere. Tolerates most soils.
Cultivation Wild plant; cultivated commercially. Easily raised from seed sown in spring or
autumn, preferably on well-manured soil.
Distribution

in

.76

infusion

said to act as a

is

flowering tops were once

tripalmitin;

edges of rye

principle,

used to treat worms.

Cultivation

producing counareas or years of high humidity and

at

weak

as

stimulates the appetite

Distribution In all the cereal

then often

bitter

(ace; nucifera

with a faint odour. Appears

Used

diaphoretic.

for

Blessed Thistle

rum, Alopecurus, Anthoxanthum, Avena,

Brachypodium, Calamagrostis, Dactylis, Hordeum and Triticum.
The sclerotium externally is dark violet to
black, usually
3 cm long and
5 mm broad,
fusiform, often tapering towards both ends,
1

oil;

aids digestion.

dried fungus) Uterine stimulant,

Contra-indications

or

which

Uses (dried flowering plant) Tonic; emetic:

Extremely complex, containing a

on the uterus

Volatile

Constituents

cnicin,

oil,

also

the

the

glycerides,

tristearin

and

glycerides of caprylic.

kernels, seed, leaves, sap

Nutritive:

CLA-COL
The seed is sometimes used as an
anthelmintic in tropical countries. Fractionated coconut oil (containing medium chain
anthelmintic.

triglycerides

is

used

in

certain

for

diets

forms exist; grown indoors as a house plant.

Constituents Caffeine
(12%), acting as a
stimulant upon the central nervous system;
volatile oils; colouring matter; tannin: traces

conditions such as cystic fibrosis and steator-

of theobromine and

rhoea where patients are unable to absorb

normal fats completelv.
The oil is used as an ointment base, and in

Uses freshly roasted

massage creams and certain medicated shamAlso

poos.

used

in

sea-water

and

soaps,

isomer, theophylline.

culinary use of the kernel as a food and

long,

Distribution

estuary

Wild plant: cultivated in West

and the West Indies.
Constituents Caffeine (1.5%), combined with
kolatin in the fresh state, and unbound when

Taken

Africa, Java, Brazil

as a general tonic stimulant, especially

useful in narcotic poisoning.

ployed as a flavouring agent

in

Decoction empharmaceutical

dried; also theobromine; kola red; fat; sugar;

Very wide use

as a beverage, for colouring

and

and
and

starch.

and the apical bud or 'cabbage' of the

confectionery manufacture.

pressive.

Contra-indications Excessive intake may cause

insomnia, muscle tremor, restlessness, palpitations and tachycardia.

ted

eaten as a delicacy.

employed

in

The fermented

palm wine and

sap

is

manufac-

spirit

ture.

Leaves are extensively used in basket, mat and

rope manufacture; the husk fibre from the nut
is similarly used in coconut matting and rope.
Coffea arabica

Coffee

L rubiaceae

Common

or

Arabian Coffee

The Coffee plant forms wild forests in parts of

the Sudan and Abyssinia and for centuries the
berry has been eaten raw by natives as a
stimulant.

The

habit of drinking Coffee probably origin-

ated with the Abyssinians, from

whom

the use

north-west African coast,

sites in forests.

Cultivation

flavouring

is

to

Leone and the Cameroons.

Introduced elsewhere. Prefers coastal and

flavouring, particularly in Indonesian cuisine;

tree

Native

especially Sierra

diuretic.

preparations.

formerly in margarine.

Wide

its

ground kernel Stimulant

4-5 cm
and consisting of cotyledons 2-5 cm long.

long, containing red or white seeds

purposes,

liqueur

in

Uses

Stimulant: anti-de-

(dried cotyledons)

employed in debilitated, exhausand depressive conditions; in melancholia,

anorexia and migraine.
Particularly

flavouring

for

drinks,

soft

Cola acuminata fBeauv.) Schott et Endl.

creams and wines. Used

STERCL'UACEAE
Cola Nut Kola Goora Nut
The Cola Nuts commercially available consist
of the cotyledons, fleshy and white before
drying, obtained from the 5 to 15 seeds of the
large fruit of the Cola tree.
Fresh Nuts are seldom found outside Africa.
where they are consumed raw before meals to
promote digestion. They are also considered to
improve the flavour of food.

cola-type beverages.

red dye

is

in the

cordials,

ice

manufacture of

obtained from the Cola Nut.

Colchicum autumnale

Autumn Crocus

Colchicum/ Meadow

liliaceae

Saffron

The Autumn Crocus

plant known since the

early Greeks

not introduced

medical practice until

quite

recently.

into

Most

a rare

is

of

the

example of a
which was
ancient

and

medieval writers, except the Arabic physicians,

considered Colchicum too poisonous to use,
although it did appear briefly in the London
Pharmacopoeia from 16 18 to 1639.
Its modern use derives from the research of
Wedel
718) and Storck (1763) on the treatment of gout, for which purpose it is retained
to this day in many countries.
1

Description

Perennial;

solitary

pale

purple

on 20-cm long white 'stalk'

which is actually an elongated corolla tube,
appearing in the autumn from a corm 15 cm
flower, 6 petals

of Coffee spread into Arabia.

Rauwolf, the botanist, mentioned Coffee

for

1573 when travelling in the

Levant, and Prospei Alpinus described it more

the

fully in
in

time

first

591

Venice

at

in

European

!offee

drinking began

the beginning of the seventeenth

century, and was fashionable

in

England In

1652 and France In 1669.

It is thought that all the Coffee now exported
from Brazil and the West Indies stems from the
propagation of a single plant introduced to
the Celebes in 1822.

Evergreen

Description

shrub

high,

with a single main trunk, later developing others bom this; leaves dark green and
initi. ilK

glossy, thin, opposite, 7

2 cm long; 2.5
wide, abrupt 1) a< uminate with a point

inn

long.
b\

White

nun

star-like flowers, fragrant, followed

2-seeded deep red berr)

beans

15

mm

long.
Distribution

Native

to

tropical

Africa;

earl)

introduc tion to Arabia. Introdui ed to tropic al

countries, espe< ially abundant in the America
Prefers jungle conditions

and

partial shade.

Wild and extensively cultivated

commercial!) in plantations, often under
Cultivation

artificial

shading.

Horticultural

variegated

Cola Nuts,
the

Congo

dc

sc

ribed as colla were lust seen

b) Fathei Carli in 1667.

The

in

dried

product does not contain the same properties

as the fresh Nut, and most ol it is used in soli
drinks.

It

is

still

used

in

lolk

medicine

as a

stimulant.
Dest ription

leathery,

Evergreen tree to 15
acute-,

long; yellow
panicles,

entire,

flowers

ol

m high;

obovate,
15

calyx tube green.

mm

10

leaves

20

diameter,

Fruit

to

-,

cm
in

cm

below

ground; 6 stamens,

lane eolate leaves

30

cm

long

3
first

styles;

appear

fleshy,
in

the

following spring, and enclose the seed-filled

brown capsular fruit by mid-summer.

Distribution European native; prefers deep clay
and nutrient rich loam in damp meadows and
leu woodland
Wild plant; cultivated from seed

Cultivation

Collected

in late

Constituent

summei.

Several

toxic

en

from coims.
largeh

alkaloids,

'77

COM-CRO
colchicine

to

gum;

starch;

which
sugar;

its

action

fat;

tannin.

is

due; also

corms, seeds) Anti-rheumatic.

Used to relieve the pain and inflammation of
acute gout and rheumatism.
Contra-indications All parts highly POISONOUS, causing diarrhoea and sometimes death.
Only to be used by medical personnel.
(dried

Uses

and mouthwash in inflammations of

mouth and pharynx. Tincture is applied to

a gargle

Constituents Several alkaloids, chiefly confine,

the

to

ulcers.

body

Stimulates natural resistance of the

in septicaemia.

in

the earliest times as a constituent of

perfumes, unguents and incense, the modern

name is directly derived from the old Hebrew

and Arabic word mur, meaning

The

knew

ancient Greeks

liquid form called stacte

found, but

is

thought

to

which

is

no longer

be a natural exudation

Myrrh tree or a closely related species.

Myrrh was highly prized in the Middle Ages
and is still used as a mouthwash and in folk
of the

medicine.

drine; paraconine;

antispasmodic.

constituent of some tooth-powders.

Used

medicine

veterinary

in

wound

for

treatment.

Once used
epilepsy,

in incense,

and when burned

repels

all

parts of this

of conium; conic acid.

oil

Anodyne;

sedative;

in neurological conditions

mania and chorea, and

such as

in ancient

times externally to treat breast tumours. Never

mosquitos.

employed today, not even in folk medicine.

Although cooking is said to destroy the toxic

Conium maculatum L umbelliferae

Poison Hemlock Mother Die

constituents, this herb should never be eaten.

Hemlock
Hemlock
principal,

bitter.

Myrrh and

of

toxicity of

attributed; also methylconiine; cony-

Uses (unripe seed, fruit

Myrrh Gum Myrrh/Myrrha

Used from

is

dyspepsia.

Employed
Commiphora molmol Engler burseraceae

Small doses effective

which the intense

plant

is

if

best

known

historically

the

and

especially the

POISONOUS.

seed, are intensely

not the only, ingredient of the

Athenian State poison used

execution

Contra-indications All parts,

as

among

for,

method of
Thermanes,

as a

others,

Phocion and Socrates. Dioscorides introduced

it as a medicine mostly for the external treatment of herpes and erysipelas, and both Pliny
and Avicenna considered it effective in the
treatment of tumours. The old Roman name

Convallaria majalis

liliaceae

Lily-of-the- Valley

flower which

is

May

Lily

frequently found in country

gardens and which was shown as early as the

sixteenth century to possess strong therapeutic
action. It was known as lilium convallium to
sixteenth-century apothecaries. Like the Foxglove, with which it shares similar heartherb did not previously
enjoy wide medicinal use. Today, however, it is
assisting properties, the

an important drug

in

some national pharma-

copoeias.
Description Perennial fragrant plant

10-20 cm

high producing annually a pair of oblong-oval

petiolate leaves 10-20

cm

long, 37.5

deeply ribbed longitudinally:

cm

wide.

510 bell-shaped

mm

wide, borne on leafless

white flowers 10
peduncle, appearing early summer, and fol-

lowed by round, red berries containing 2-6

seeds.

Native to Europe, East Asia, North

America; introduced elsewhere. Prefers damp,
calcareous, porous soil in woods, in some alpine
Distribution

locations, often forming dense areas of growth.

Cultivation

Wild: introduced horticulturally.

cultivated races bearing larger flowers. Propa-

gated by root division in the autumn: prefers

some shade may spread rapidly.

Low

Description

2.75

stunted bush or small tree to

high; trunk thick and bearing numer-

ous irregular, knotted branches and smaller

stout clustered branchlets, the latter spreading
at

right angles

Few

spine.

and terminating

leaves,

1 1.5

cm

in

a sharp

long, at ends of

for the herb was cicula, a term found in tenthcentury Anglo-Saxon works.

The poisonous nature

of the

warmer

colder climates than

cm long,
minute, the terminal
obovate-oval, narrowed at the base, entire,

however, always be treated

poisonous plant.

glabrous.

Description

Gum discharged through

after

wounding.

Distribution
soil in

'

si's

On

basaltic

Wild plant.

Constituents

Arabia; Somaliland.

very hot areas.

Cultivation

35%

the bark naturally or

Oleo-gum-resin, comprising 25-

resin. 2.5

6.5%

volatile oil, 50-60,,

gum.

dried oleo-gum-resin/ Carminative: an-

tiseptic;

mildly

expectorant;

diuretic;

dia-

Erect

biennial

as a

It must,
dangerously

herb,

smelling of

ones.

mice, arising from a forked root, and reaching

1.5 m; much branched, stems speckled and
purple towards the base. Foliage dark and
finely cut, 2-4 pinnate, glabrous; umbels of
small white flowers appearing mid-summer to

mid-autumn.
Distribution European native; extensively distributed in temperate zones. Found in weedy
places

especially

phoretic.

streams or

Astringent to mucous membranes, and used as

Cultivation

178

varies

Hemlock growing in London was harmless,

and others maintain that it is less poisonous in

short wart-like branchlets; trifoliate, the lateral

leaflets

plant

considerably. Carpenter in 1850 claimed that

field

in

moist,

warm

edges in loamy

Wild plant.

soil.

sites

by

COM-CRO
Cardioactive glycosides cardeno-

Constituents

similar to foxglove glycoside, especially

lides

convallatoxine.

convallo-

convalloside,

also

and convallotoxoside;

toxole

saponoside,

juices. Bruised seed

Cardiac tonic: emetic:

flowers)

Root can be cooked and eaten

diuretic.

The

Regulates heart action in a similar manner to

the Foxglove and is considered to be safer and

used of

Seldom

effective.

as

applied externally as a

is

poultice to relieve painful joints in rheumatism.

convallamarine.
Uses (dried

Mostly used to prevent griping caused by other

medication, such as Senna or Rhubarb. Chewing the seed stimulates secretion of gastric

used

outside

eastern

all

as a vegetable.

seed

is

action

coronary arteries.
an adaptogenic agent.
flow in

It

improves blood
appears to act as

Of

employed

myocardial weakness, arteriosclerosis, paroxysmal tachycardia, and angina pectoris. Pro-

European countries.

condiment,

Flowers provide a perfume base.

Dried ground roots were formerly an ingredient

confectionery

May

Combined

stituents.

specific

is

world.

The

Constituents

probably the most widely

flavouring herbs throughout the

leaf

fresh

Wild plant. Often planted as hedge.

Flavone glycosides; catechins; saponins; vitamin C; several unidentified conCultivation

in baking, as a spice or

and

liqueur manufacture,

in

in

be added to pot-pourris.

Uses (fresh or dried fruits)

Hypotensive.

use in hypertension associated with

longed treatment is necessary.

Liqueur once manufactured from the berries.
Timber formerly used for small boxes.

of snuff.
Contra-indications

POISONOUS. To be used

by

Crataegus monogyna J acq.

The
Coriandrum sativum

L umbelliferae

Coriander
Cultivated for over 3000 years Coriander

is

mentioned in all the medieval medical texts,

by the Greeks, in the scriptures, by early
Sanskrit authors -

and even

in the

rosaceae

Crithmum maritimum

Hawthorn May/Whitethorn

medical personnel only.

who

called

it

kustumburu -

Egyptian Ebers papyrus.

Its

botanical

name

Samphire

of Hawthorn, Crataegus,

comes from the Greek meaning strength which

describes the strength of the wood, while the
plant's common names in several European
languages refer to the fact that
bush producing fruit, the haw.

this

a thorny

is

of the Hawthorn's previously considered

powerful magical properties are now for-

some people

feathers,

still

Samphire,

Sea Fennel

Samphire has long been

rocks of

its

collected from the

natural habitat for shipment in

urban areas or for local use.

was also grown as a kitchen

barrels of brine to

Surprisingly

it

Gerard described its cultivation in 1598

England, and Quintyne described it in
France in 1690. The English particularly
herb.

Much

gotten, although as with lilac

L umbelliferae

Peter's Cress/Rock

in

and peacock's

refuse to bring the

flowers indoors.

Medicinally the herb is very important and is

used in orthodox Eastern and unorthodox Western medicine lor the treatment
widely

ol

h) pei tension.

I),

scription

Shrub or small

ing branches with thorns

glabrous,
lobed,
1

i.-,

ij

(in

broad-ovate

mm5 cm
across,

tree to

cm

i.-,

or

m: spread-

long; leaves

obovate,

deepl)

flowers

long:
clusters

in

<i

ol

",

white
12;

20

Stamens with red anthers: appearing earl)

summer to mid-summer followed by ovoid
scarlet false fruits Oi 8

globose, u
Distribution

in, h

eat h

Europe.

10

mm

ontain

North

diameter, substony

Africa,

fruit.

western

Asia: introduced in other temperate /ones. In

hedges and open deciduous woods.

name
bug,
insc(

is

derived from

since

koris,

Greek

the

smells

plant

the

foi

StTOngl)

oi

bedthe

and

pickles.

It

for inclusion in

sauces

was cultivated in American

1821, but is now rarely seen

gardens from
an) w here.
Description Bushy, aromatic, perennial, umbelliferous plant reaching 30 cm; smooth, blight
green and much branched on woody base,
fleshy and somewhat spiky leaf segments, and
greenish-yellow llowc-rs appearing mid-sum-

tS.

Small glabrous solid-stemmed hard)

annual plan) from 30 ><> cm tall on
thin,
pointed root, lowei leaves pinnate, clefi and
Description

.1

lobed, the upper bipinnate and finch, dissected.

compound umbels

oi white and
from mid-summei to
early autumn. Followed b) brownish orbit ulai
fruit with an unpleasant smell before the)
ripen, then becoming spi< \ and aromatic.

Small,

favoured the seed pods

flat,

reddish flowers appeal

mer

to

mid-autumn. Numerous bracts and

bracteoles.
( iteming upon rocks on the southern
European Atlantic seaboard and on the shores

Distribution

ol

several mediterranean countries.

Cultivation

Wild plant, may be grown horticul-

tural^ on well-drained soils.

Constituents Mineral salts: oils;

volatile

oil;

iodine; vitamin C.

Indigenous to mediterranean and

Caucasian regions; now widespread weed in
many temperate zones. Prefers dry soil and lull

purposes as a boiled spiced pickle, as a salad, a

buttered vegetable or as a condiment. Said lii

sun.

stimulate the appetite.

Distribution

Cultivation

Unknown

in

later.

rei

mination

Volatile

Constituents

coriandrol,

'

ai

di ied

may

oil,

be slow

ipe

fi

yl

0-pinene,
aldehyde.

uits, leal

minative; stimulant.

young leaves

Used

for

culinar)

and

rooi

L iridaceae
Saffron Crocus Saffron
The Saffron Crocus has been considered an

Crocus sativus

importanl trade item from the

comprising borneol,

d-pinene,

geraniol, and de<

fresh

the wild state, culti-

vated
commercially
and
horticultural^
throughout the world. Seed sown in late spring
01 earl) summei in drills 3
m deep; need thinning

Uses

terpinene,

earliest

times,

and has long been employed as a medicine.

dye, perfume and ondiment. Its earliest name
was probabl) the lebi ew carcom.
It
was cultivated in main countries and
exported from Persia and India to China .is
<

Aromatic

'7')

CRO-CYP
Europe from the Middle Ages. The Romans
Cumin seed in the same way that

in

used ground

we
it

use Pepper. In the last 300 years, however,

has been discarded from European cooking

and

is

now

chiefly used in Indian cooking.

Description Slender, glabrous,

cm

annual herb 15

high; stems branched above; leaves with

few

divisions

filiform

sparsely

flowered

mm-5 cm

15

umbels,

white

long;

or

rose-

coloured with simple involucral bracts, appearing late spring. Fruit 7

mm

long, bristly.

Indigenous to Egypt and the

mediterranean. Widespread distribution. Tolerates most well-drained soils in sunny situaDistribution

tions.

Wild plant. Cultivated on North

African coast. Middle East. India. Malta and
China. Seed sown in late spring in sandy soil

Cultivation

in

warm

or in the greenhouse.

situation,

Thin

out.

Keep

free of

harden

off

and plant 20 cm apart.

weeds.

4 ",,. which comcumaldehyde, terpencs. cuminic alcohol.

pinenes; also fatty oil and pentosan.

Constituents Essential oil. 2.5

prises

Uses

ad. 1280

Yuen dynast)

early as the

the Chinese called

it

i;5<>H

Commonly

Sa-fa-lang.

Records suggest the Saffron Crocus was cultivated in Spain in the nintli century, in Frame.
Italy and Germany in the twelfth, and in
England by the fourteenth. Such was the
standing of the drug that severe penalties were
suffered by those who adulterated Saffron:
Hans Kdlbele, for example, was buried alive in
Nuremberg in [456 with his impure drug.
Typical crocus, producing blue.
Description
lilac

or purple fragrant flowers in the

arising from a

corm

cm

in

diameter.

autumn
Numer-

The
but

into disuse from then until 1812

fell

English medical officers

the

in

temperate zones. Prefers sunny,

Cultivation

Now unknown

vated

the

in

in

the wild. Culti-

mediterranean.

Middle

East,

India and China. Propagation by

corms planted in rows 10-15 cm apart in late
Persia,

cm

Indigenous

south-west India, and

manv

parts of the East.

China and south

cultivation in

Constituents Fatty oil

following

the

Malabar
Burma.

60%;

oil

palmitic,

sedative.

No

longer used medicinally except to colour

medicines.

Formerly considered an aphro-

coast,

garden

comprisstearic,

myristic, lauric, acetic, butyric, formic, oleic,

The

responsible for the vesicant activity.

and

linoleic
is

oil

valeric.

croton-resin, a lactone,

expressed from seed

active con-

which

is

also

Powerful cath-

artic; counter-irritant; vesicant; rubefacient.

Formerly administered as a purgative to

mental patients: now rarely used
internally and only for extremely obstinate
violent

disiac.

constipation.

Employed in many culinary dishes both for

taste and colour and in some liqueurs.
Cannot be used to dye fabrics as it is readily

great

water-soluble.

irritant:

care,

May

irritant in gout

be used externally with

diluted

in

form,

as

counter-

and neuralgia.

Powerful
gastro-intestinal
capable of causing death. May induce

Contra-indications

severe external blistering.

Croton tiglium

L euphorbiaceae

Croton Croton Seed

from Croton Seeds

is one
of the most
known, and should never be
used by non-medical personnel. The seeds

Oil

violent purgatives

were described

first by Christoval Acosta in

1578 and called pinones dt Maluco. They were
regarded as 'official' in the seventeenth century

180

veterinary medicine.

Commercial

glycoside, picrocrocin: crocin. the glycoside of

dried stigma Stomachic antispasmodic

in

Asia.

croton

acids:

as a

tiglic,

ses

perfumery.

in

Wild and cultivated

Cultivation

ing

Tavoy

stituent

in

employed

long.
to the

Constituents Oil 8-13",,: essential oil: a bitter

used

India reintroduced

summer.

the colouring matter crocetin.

oil is

Oil chiefly

and

cordials.

Inconspicuous flowers in erect terminal

racemes 7.5 cm long, appearing earl) summer.
Brow n. capsular. 3-celled fruit, each contain-

plant in

sites.

in

when

for pickling,

and

Small tree or shrub to 6 m with lew

branches bearing alternate, smooth ovale 01
acuminate leaves, dark green above, paler
beneath and with a strong, disagreeable odour.

Distribution

well-drained

in curries,

into medic inc.

oil

ing a single seed 1.5

widespread

used

Description

blood-red style branches.

from Asia Minor, now

Stimulant, carminative.

also for flavouring liqueurs

ous narrow, linear leaves to ("> em long, greygreen. Yellow anthers longer than filaments,
Distribution Originally

dried ripe fruit

Useful in diarrhoea and dyspepsia.

Cuminum cyminum L umbelliferae

Cumin
Although indigenous

to the

upper regions of

the Nile, the seeds of this herb ripen as far north

as

Norway. The fructus cumini or Cumin seeds

were known
and.

later.

prophet Isaiah.
Dioscorides. Thev found wide use
as early as the

L zingiberaceae
Turmeric Turmeric root or rhizome
Turmeric was once much more highly esteemed

Curcuma longa

than it is today; it fell into disuse in the Middle

Ages having previously held a position at least
equal to that of Ginger to which it is closely
related. Dioscorides called it cyperus, and in the
sixteenth century it was known as crocus indicus.

and curcuma. Several types exist of

which Bengal Turmeric is considered the best

turmeracke

for

dyeing.

The yellow

robes

of Buddhist

CRO-CYP
monks were
It is

dyed with

often

Description

it.

similar to another ancient spice.

(C. zedoaria Roscoe

well-known

in the

which

is

Zedoary

today even

less

West.

1 all

large ovoid

large, lilv-like. in tufts to 1.2

long: oblong-

lanceolate blades tapering towards the base,

long petiole. Pale yellow flowers, clustered in

dense spikes 10-15 cm long: peduncle 15 cm

long and enclosed in a sheathing petiole. Pale
green bracts. Appears late spring to mid-

summer.
Native

Distribution

to

south-east

Asia:

dis-

and introduced elsewhere. Prefers

humid conditions and rich loamy soils.
Cultivation Wild and cultivated in many tropical
countries; propagation by root division in
autumn.
tributed

Volatile

Constituents

oil

5-6",,:

terpene.

colcurcumen: starch 24%; albumen 30

ouring due to curcumin or diferuloyl methane.
dried rhizome
Aromatic, stimulant.
Uses
Employed in eastern medicine externally for
bruising and internally in certain blood disorders, to relieve catarrh, and in purulent
:

opthalmia.

A pharmaceutical

Main

is

use

as

colouring agent

colouring agent.

condiment and culinary

and Piccalilli.

in curries

1-

Thistle-like

perennial

usually

leaves large

and deeply

pinnatifid.

tall,

Mice

some

in

kunoglosson.

Large capitula with enlarged

fleshy receptacle, broad involucral bracts and
numerous purple flowers, appearing mid to

today,

late

spiny.

summer.

Distribution Native to North Africa

in most
temperate and subtropical zones. Preferring
well-manured, moisture-retaining soil, rich in
:

humus.

is

It

but

is

lingua cams

homeopathicallv

Annual or biennial herb with

unpleasant smell, reaching 30 90 cm; bearing
grey leaves covered with silky hairs, the lower
Description

cm

30

to

long, lanceolate to ovate, stalked, the

upper generally without

Wild only as an escape: a close

the Cardoon
C.
cardunculus
Cultivated commercially and horticulturallv
either from seed or preferably from suckers
arising from the root-stock, retaining a portion
Cultivation

of

of the parent plant.

The

cm

rich moist soil 75

'heels' are

planted

Flowers dull
diameter,

stalks.

red-purple, occasionally white,

relative

early

The
and the Greek.
rarely used in folk medicine
occasionally employed
still

parts of western England.

medieval name was

greyish, green above, whitish beneath: very

rarely

perennial herb arising from

rhizome with sessile cylindrical
tubers, orange coloured within. Leaves very
Description

1.75

cm

arranged on branched cymes 10 25 cm long.

appearing mid-summer.
Distribution European native; on light dry
grassy soils, wood fringes, walls and ruins, in
particular near to the sea.

in

apart in late spring or

summer. Give plenty of water, some

may

protection in cold weather

be required.

Optimal cropping is reached in the third

and plants should be replaced in the

year.
fifth

season.
Constituents

Cynarine, a bitter aromatic sub-

stance: polyphenols acidic substances: flavonoids;

tannins:

.im
at

enzymes

several

catalases. peroxydases,

including

narase, oxydases,

and

orbinase; also provitamin A. The combined

lion

is

and stimulant

diuretic

liver cell

to

regeneration and action.

Uses

fresh

leaves,

receptacle,

gogue; diuretic.
( )l proven v .due in jaundice,

Chola-

root

er insufficiency

li\

anaemia and liver damage caused l>v poisons.

Stimulates and .lids digestion; anti-civ speptic

Considered
sclerosis.

to In-

prophylactic against arterio-

A major

constituent of proprietary

Wild plant

Cultivation

Two

Constituents

cynoglossine and

alkaloids,

consolidine; essential

oil; resin:

tannin; gum.

dried root, dried whole herb, fresh leaves

/ 'set

Anodyne; demulcent.

soothing

Effective

sedative

in

and

coughs

diarrhoea. Administered internally and as a

poultice

lot

haemorrhoids.

nan

oti<

Formerly

con-

and prescribed in combinawith Opium. Henbane, and aromatic

sidered
tion

herbs.

The bruised
I'sed

bites.
1

may be tubbed on
homeopathic medicine

leal

in

insect
as

till e.

<

Contra-indications

caution

Incompletely studied theraused with

and therefore 10 be
may ause dermatitis.

peutically

Cypnpedium pubescens Willd. orchidaceae

Lady's Slipper Yellow Lady's Slippei
\c

Cynara scolymus

L compositae

digestive tonii

Artichoke (.lobe Auk hoke

he Globe Artichoke is not only a delicacy, but
an important medicinal herb whf< h was known
I

tO the me<|ie\
Its

name

1. iniiie.

is

,1]

Aiabic

|>li\ si< 1,1ns

as al-Uiaisuj.

from the Latin 011111111

derived from the similarity oi
Cynara,

involucral spines to the dog's tooth.

It

.1

eaten

receptacle

blanched central

as

leal stalks

delicacy;

the

may be cooked

as

vegetable.

Root

Cypripedium was included in the United

St, ites Pharmacopoeia a century ago, and was
considered

Flower-heads employed

in floral

tin

Cynoglosswn

has

Hound's Tongue

officinale

L boraoinai

that Us leaves look like a

however, more

ol

(loss's

mice, and

tongue

is

used

vi

Gipsv Flowei
usual names ol (his hetb relei

to the |a<
:

it

smells.

called Rats

that
It

time

worthy

of further

has continued I" be used to

the present day in folk medicine lor the

decorations.

purpose

All tin

at

investigation.

01

proven remedial effe< tl on the liver. The plant

was one ol the (.reek ultivated garden herbs.
and itill enjoys wide hortii ultural use.
c

Fleshy

and

it.

thai
as a

same
American Indians have always

sedative.

It

has been called

he

American Valerian, and was introduced to

European medicine by Rahnesque in tin
eighteenth
Description

entury.
Perennial

orchid

on

fleshy

root-

le?

DAP-DIG

mm

long: strongl) fragrant

rose-violet, 10

15

and appearing

in sessile- clusters

of 2 5 along
previous year's branches before leaves develop.

Appearing
stock producing several 5 20 cm long, manynerved, acuminate, alternate leaves; on glan-

dular hairy stems 10 cm-i

high. Flowers
golden yellow,
spotted magenta-purple, with lower lip forming the shape of an inflated sac: appearing
early to late summer. The plant is variable in
distinctive,

cream

dull

to

shape and degree of fragrance.

Distribution Native to eastern United States.

late

winter to early spring: followed

by red berries.
Distribution Native to Europe and Western
Asia;
introduced
elsewhere.
Found in
deciduous mixed woodland and on rich
calcareous

soil.

Wild. Cultivated as garden plant.

Propagate from cuttings taken in early summer.
A white variety, D. mezereum var. alba West,
Cultivation

is

in existent

An

acrid resinous poisonous sub-

especially the north; prefers shady areas, moist

Constituents

meadows, bogs, woods, rich soils.

Cultivation Wild plant: cultivated in
eastern Europe. Very closely related

stance, mezerine; a glucoside,

confused

often

with.

pubescens

Willd.i

pubescent

Correll

commercially
Constituents

as

is
,

C.

(,'.

and

to,

calceolus

named

also

parts of

I-

(..

calceolus var.

and both orchids are know

tannin; gallic acid.

Uses

bark, bark

root

sudorific

Former!} used internally as an alteram e in the

treatment of venereal, scrofulous and rheum-

resins;

The combination of these

vesicant

in

Now

skin complaints.

Uses

root-stock

Effective in

and

An

Sedative: spasmolytic.
specifically used for anxiety

Bark applied

certain ulcerative skin conditions.

root constituents,

which are not water-soluble,

complex known as cypripedin.

e.

externally as poultice as a counter-irritant or

form

a resinous

Alterative: stimulant:

vesicant; rubefacient.

atic conditions, or as a purgativ

Lady's Slipper.

Volatile oil; glucosides;

daphnin; also

coccognin.

Contra-indications

POISONOUS

and

fatal: not

be taken internally.

nervous headaches. Formerly taken in sugar

water to promote sleep.
Contra-indications Large doses may cause hallucinations. Fresh plant may cause dermatitis.

Datura stramonium L solanaceae

Thorn Apple Jimson weed

The Thorn Apple

is

indigenous to the shores

un-

Caspian Sea, and was distributed

throughout Europe by the end of the first
century a.d. It is doubtful whether the Greeks
or Romans used the herb, but it was traditionally smoked by Nubians for chest complaints.
Gerard the herbalist cultivated the plant in
London in 1598, and Storck 17621 introduced
stramonium into wide medicinal use. It is now

to

Arabian physicians

sidered

of

similar

as

use

was

little

as

the

substance.

euphorbium, from Euphorbia resinifera.

if

known

as daphnoides

botanists

It is

the Greeks used the plant, but

certain

it

of great

was known
mazariyun and con-

and

and

herbalists.

it

thymelaea to medieval

Tragus

1546; called

mezereum germanicum.

Description Perennial

m: bearing on

erect

deciduous shrub; to 1.25

branched stem, alternate.

oblong or oblanceolate leaves, 5-7.5 cm long:

leaves thin and glabrous. Flowers rose-pink or

182

Near East: naturalNorth America, and throughout

Europe: on waste-ground, roadsides, forest
edges, walls, preferring porous nitrogen-rich
soil in sunny situations.
Cultivation Wild: cultivated commercially in
Europe by seed sown in late spring.
Constituents Alkaloids, comprising mainly hyoscv amine,
hyoscine, atropine, whose action
relieves spasms of the bronchioles during
asthma.
dried leaves Antispasmodic; narcotic:
Uses
anodyne.
Of benefit in bronchial asthma, either as a
tincture or smoked in the form of a cigarette.
Also controls muscular spasm and salivation in
Distribution Native to the

ized

in

postencephalitic parkinsonism.

May

be ap-

plied externally as a poultice to reduce local

pain.
(jintra-indications

POISONOUS,

hallucino-

genic.

used in folk medicine.

and unpleasantly scented

Description Strongly

annual, from 30

L umbelliferae
Wild Carrot
Daucus is the old Greek name
still

of the

It

cm

Daucus carota

excellent horticultural herb.

to

decorative use in herb gardens.

prickly capsules. 5

long.

only employed homcopathically for some

neurosis associated with insomnia, hysteria or

Daphne mezereum L thymelaeaceae

Mezereon Spurge Olive
An attractive winter-flowering shrub

autumn: followed by

cm- 1.5

high: erect and

straggly, bearing glabrous or pubescent, ovate

and petiolate leaves 7.5-20 cm

long, broad

and

with irregular acute lobes. Flowers 5-8 cm

long, erect, funnel shaped, terminal and white
or pale blue. Appearing late

summer

to late

to

be found

in the

for a

wild plant

hedgerows of Europe,

DAP-DIG
medicine. Carota

the Latin

is

name

few or scattered, blue or purple, growing in

and
same

as food

and which has long been of service

for the

plant.

Several subspecies

developed by

the root crop being

exist,

German

horticulturalists in the

sixteenth century from D. carota ssp. sativus.

Both

and D.

this

carota ssp.

carota

are used

medicinally.

on

Description Erect biennial

cm

compound: segments
long.

cm

Constituents Volatile oils

an upward curving spur behind the corolla.

which are responsible

Appearing mid-summer.
Distribution European native: introduced in
other temperate zones especially on chalky,
loamy soil in weedy places, compost sites, and

medicinal use, although

tonic cordials were made from a conserve of

White flowers

diameter,

tall;

solid, striate or

Cultivation

leaves pinnateh

Larkspur

pinnatifid, lobes 5

in

compound umbels

mm

sown

37

D.

plant.
ajacis.

The common garden

Propagated from seed
summer.

in early

Delphinine;

Constituents

or convex, with usually one

flat

Wild
is

cm deep

unknown

Uses (seed, flowering plant

blackish-purple flower in the centre, appear

mintic, anti-parasitic.

mid-summer.

Formerly used internally

Native to Europe, west Asia.

North Africa: prefers semi-dry, sandy, or stony

ditions,

Distribution

soil

Cultivation

common

Wild

plant.

Wild

B vitamins:

and pubic hair

may

salts.

Contra-indications

employed

to

destroy

POISONOUS.

Diuretic antilithic. Specificin

Dianthus caryophyllus

the

agent

for

bever-

wine cups, cordials, and vine-

gars.

The

fresh flowers decorate soups, stews, sauces,

and open sandwiches. A syrup, prepared by steeping petals in a hot sugar solution
has culinary applications.

scented

pot-pourris,

to

sachets, cosmetic products.

Foxglove

L scrophulariaceae

Common

Foxglove
fame and importance in medicine in
the last two centuries, the Foxglove does not
seem to have been described by Greek and
Roman physicians, nor did it have a classical
name. Fuchs in 1542 first called it digitalis after
For

all its

the finger-like

treatment of urinar\
stones; often in combination with other antilithic remedies. Weakly anthelmintic. Decoction dI the seed may be employed in flatulence
and stomach acidity, as may Carrot juice.
Contra-indications Do not drink excessive quantities of Carrot juice, as it induces hypervitally

be applied

be prepared from the fresh petals.

Useful garden ornamental.

dried herb

as a flavouring

Digitalis purpurea

may

parasites.

Blue ink

Mainly used

Dried petals added

for a variety of con-

an alkaloid daucine; vitamin C; potassium

f 'set

substances.

Purgative, anthel-

strong tincture of fresh seeds

human

carrot.

Constituents Volatile oils: carotene:

the flowers.

only certain effect being violently

its

externally to head

of the

relative

for the clove-like scent.

No

salads,

purgative.

near to the sea.

Uses (fresh flower)

ages, liqueurs,

cornfields.

ridged stem 30 to 100

Pink derives from D. plumarius.

comprising eugenol,

sparse terminal racemes and distinguished by

L caryophyllaceae

considered

Clove Pink Gillyflower/Carnation

true Gillyflower gilly was the Old English

until

it

of

siiape

its

but he

flowers,

and

a violent medicine,

was not

it

William Withering investigated

776-9)
of Foxglove tea in Shropshire for
(

The

the

July and was so named probably because ol

appearance in July), is rarely seen in gardens
today, having been replaced b) the more
show) but Ear less aromatii Carnations. Its

dropsy that the hei b entered wide medical use.

The common name probably derives from the

use

aminosis A.
Delphinium consolida

Larkspur
A member

L ranunculaceae

Field or Forking Larkspui

oi the Buttercup family and the

Northern European equivalent <>t tin historically much more well-known Delphinium Staphiswas known to
agria (L), or Stavesacre, whil
li

the

Rom. ins

as Staphisagria or herba pedicularia.

lirn is no evidence dial the specific name of

Larkspur refers to an) power ol consolidating
wounds, which
docs not. It is probabl) a
I

it

pre-Linnaean name referring to the consolidated petals. Like Stavesacre, it is effective

against skin parasites.
/> ,11/1/11,11 Annual herb reaching
m, arising
from slender taproot. Stem glabrous, forking
1

and

diffuse, bearing petiolate

divided, simple leaves ]

and

sessile.

(in long.

And)

Iloweis
loi

its

name

spe< ilu

reflects the old

loin

loi

Cloves,

m vop/tyllon,

>,

;o

jit

mi

to

Minli

bi a ii( lied glabrOUS pi ten 111.

high; stems hard with consph u-

~,

night, rose-purple 01 while:

.11

summer

to eat

ruins.

Description

appear

late

autumn.

in a

Biennial,

to ovate-lanceolate,

stalked

perennial;

downy arising

01

sessile.

Stem

and

stem leaves short-

rarely

branched and

bearing a one-sided raceme 30 4.0 cm long.

\tti.K nve purple (lowers, often spotted internally;

appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn.

Western European native, prefer-

Distribution

ring acid soil in

:.ih

areous.

Cultivation

Wildylanl and widel) cultivated

commercially. All modern horticultural ( larn.11 ions derive from D
tatynphyllus: the modern

occasionally

rosette; radical leaves lout;. Stalked

ovate

Native to southern Europe and

open sunny position on old walls,

Cultivation

'fox-music' after

m. Leaves rugose and

In

Distribution

India.

lv

01

the shape ol an aiK ient musical instrument.

reaching

OUS nodes, bearing thick linear leaves 7.5

2.5
in long, obtuse and keeled. Flowers 3 (in in
diameter, 2
pet stem, very fragrant especiall)

Anglo-Saxon 'foxes-glew'

Now

<

ultiv

sunny situations on rough land.

ated widely.

Wild: veiv widel) cultivated both

commercial!) and horticulturally.
any gar-

den variants
var.

mui iilniu.

exist; var.

iniipanulnlii. var. nihil,

Propagated

from

seed

which

[83

DRY-EPI
should be sown in late spring.

aspidic acid; volatile

Echinacea angustifolia

oil.

DC

compositae

Uses (dried rhizome, frond bases, apical budsi

Purple Coneflower Black Sampson

toxin, gitoxin,

An

on

Poultice

This stark and attractive herb is one of several

outstanding examples of plants deserving
modern examination. The United States
Dispensatory stated a century ago that the

Constituents Several glycosides

including digi-

and gitaloxin, which act directly

muscle increasing the output in
patients with congestive heart failure.
Uses dried leaves Cardiac tonic.
heart

Acts as a cardio-active diuretic in conditions

of oedema due to heart failure.

May

be used externally as a poultice

may

removing tapeworms.

be applied externally

to

aid

tissue healing.

Contra-indications

To

be used under medical

supervision only: large doses

may

cause blind-

Only

to

be

Squirting

Cucumber

Elaterium Fruit
appropriately named herb both from the

It

was formerly

folia.

An

point of view of its action, as a strong purgative,

tacle,

Dryoptens filix-mas (Li Schott

hedgehog.

POLYPODIACEAE

and from its violent method of seed dispersal

which involves ejaculation of the contents of

Male Fern

the ripe fruit to a distance of 10 m.

is

name

it

It

an effective remedy for tapekills and expels from

the
intestines. It is, however, an irritant in large
doses and must be used only by those medically
trained.
It

was well known

to the ancients,

a constituent of secret

and was

'worm remedies'

ol

also

The

generic

derives from the Greek meaning expel.

was certainly well-known to Theophrastus
and Dioscorides who described the manufacture of Elaterium, and it was cultivated
throughout Europe in the sixteenth century.
of Elaterium

Constituents

are

now mostlv

classified as Brauneria angusti-

but the present generic

used by medical personnel.

The Male Fern

worms which

and

claim.

Ecballium elaterium (L) A. Rich cucurbitaceae

POISONOUS.

tincture increased resistance to infection,

the experience of folk medicine supports this

ness or death.

to aid

healing of wounds.
Contra-indicatwns

effective agent for

name

reflects the

shape of the sharp-pointed bracts of the recepthe

after

Greek

meaning

echinacea,

Coarse perennial reaching 45 cm.

Leaves sparse, lanceolate to linear; 7.5-20 cm
long, entire with slender petioles. Flower-head
solitary on stout terminal peduncle, consisting
of spreading ray florets 3 cm long, purple or
Description

rarely white,
florets, also

earlv

and

cm

long conical erect disc

mid-summer

purple. Appearing

to

autumn.

the

eighteenth century, particularly those made by

German apothecaries. Frederick the Great

purchased the secret of one such mixture

his

for

personal use.

Other fernSj however, seem to be equally or

more effective as taenicides; Dtyopteris spinuKuntze, for example, is twice as
losa O.
effective as Dryopteris jilix-mas.

Perennial fern on dark-brown

rhizome 20 50 cm long, 10 cm diameter;
foliage growing in a crown, fronds arranged
spirally, 60 cm to 1.5 m high. 2-pinnate, obDescription

long-lanceolate in outline, leaflets alternate,

subdivided, and with rounded segments. Sporesori.

greenish white, later brown,
appear from summer to autumn.
Distribution Widespread in temperate /ones, to

bearing

1600

altitude.

Cultivation
Constituents

Wild plant; extensive!} collected.

Oleoresin iilicin and related taeni;

cidal substances; desaspidin; albaspidin: flav-

employed
toxicity

for

scientific

research

into

cyto-

and roadsides.
Cultivation Wild

plant.

Leaves triangular-ovate, downy. 7.5-10

cm long, with sinuate margins. Flowers 3 cm
diameter, followed by an ovoid-oblong fruit,
4-5 cm long, rough-haired due to a covering
of numerous short, fleshy prickles, green
becoming yellowish when mature. Contains a

division in spring

and autumn.

mass of oblong seeds and bitter succulent pulp,

which is forcibly ejected up to 10 m.
Distribution Mediterranean native; preferring
dry. sandy soil in sunny situations.
Cultivation Wild and cultivated commercially

caemia;

to a limited extent.

This

Cucurbitacins B. D. E. and I. The

action of cucurbitacin B is that of a powerful
hydragogue - purgative; also cytotoxic.
dried sediment, elatarium. deposited in
L 'st

reserved for Lycopsis arvensis, nor

Description

coarse, fleshy, trailing perennial,

lacking tendrils and borne on a thick white

root.

Constituents

the juice

to patients suffering

from

dropsy as a purgative, especially those with

kidney complaints. The preparation is verj
variable from season to season.

Propagated by root

Constituents Resins, sugars,

acids

and inulin which

pharyngitis,

salts, fatty

Antiseptic, digestive.

remedy

tonsilitis.

useful

mineral

act in combination.

Uses (dried root-stock

Particularly effective

for boils, acne,

abscesses

externally

and

and

septi-

internally.

Dilates peripheral blood vessels.

L boraginaceae
Viper's Bugloss Blue Weed
Echium vulgare
is

known
echion.

not a true Bugloss. that term being

to

is it

the plant

Dioscorides as the Viper Plant

Nevertheless, medieval proponents of

the Doctrine of Signatures noticed that the

brown stem

Purgative.

Once administered

184

Distribution
Native to central and southwestern United States; on dry open woodland

snake's skin,
viper's head.

pustules

It is

parts of America,
use.

looked

and that the seed

regarded

and

is

rather
is

as a

like

shaped

weed

in

like a

some

of doubtful medical

DRY-EPI
Horsetail, primitive in evolutionary terms.

has been used for thousands of years

in

It

the

East in the treatment of bronchial asthma, and

yet

today the herb

included in only the

and Chinese pharma-

is

British, Indian, Japanese

copoeias.

Other species used

clude E.
It is

sinica,

for the

E. equisetina

same purpose inand E. nebrodensis.

rarely available commercially.

shrub

Description Tufted, rigid

high on

woody gnarled

15

cm- 1.2 m

stem. Green ascending

smooth and striate, with leaves

reduced to small sheaths at branch nodes, 2
long. Bearing 2-3 male spikes of 4-8 flowers,
branchlets

mm

and

solitary female spikes of 1-2 flowers; latter

followed by ovoid, edible red

Distribution

Rough

Description

Stem

tall.

hairy biennial. 30 -90

and branched with

erect

brown

arising from white or

oblong

pustules. Leaves

linear-lanceolate.

to

mm

15

with

long,

long,

nfloreseeiH

buds pink, flowers blue

loose, flower

purple,

cm

13

or with short petiole- only.

sessile,

cm

hairs

stiff

to violet-

longer stamens.

Appears mid-summer.
Native

Distribution

porous or stom

lighl

Europe and Asia: on

to

soils,

or semi-dry

grass-

Cultivation
k

Wild plant. Traditionally

ultivated

dins.

l;.ii

1)

<

Wild plant. Commercial cultivation

Asia and the

tropical countries in

Americas.
Volatile

oil

8",,

comprising

terpinene and terpineol; also cineol; starch:

gum: yellow colouring matter.

Uses dried fruit and seed Carminative.
Employed in flatulent dyspepsia, to
griping caused by

ill

and
(

osmetic

in

some mixed

mild tonic infusion is useful in

nervous headaches or the common

Also used

in

mulled wine

Persian.

scented domestic articles, and

Formerly

one

employed

Eoi

Elettana

\i

Lesser

Cardamoms

ideally with a

to

plants

venom.

in

urticaria,

enuresis,

in
the treatment ol
serum
myasthenia gravis.
A commercial source of the ephedrine

Contra-indications

Not

to

be used

in

patients

suffering from hypertension, coronary throm-

Epigaea repens L Ericaceae

Trailing Arbutus May Flower Gravel Plant

The botanical name

reflects the fact that this

Wall.

Stapf.

\i

Ephedra Ma-1 luang

Eph< dra
a Gymnosperm and
is

hence, like the

Greek meaning upon earth and repens

meaning creeping. Also known as Moss Beauty
the

because of the attractiveness ol its

small, pink, scented (lowers.

rust leaves

and

Ma ton

var. miniscula

Cardamom

thrive

mean temperature
e,is\

respected

bronchial asthma and hay

employed
sickness,
and

also

\i

Cardamom
forest

most

the treatment of vipers'

cardamomum

ZINOIB1 H

As

the

oi

Anti-asthmatic: stimulant.
in

aromatic plant clings very closely to the damp

mi issy hanks of its natural habitat epigaea from

purposes.

Ephedra gerardiana

EPHEDRA*

cold.

dried stem

spices.

simple

treating

mm long.

bosis or thyrotoxicosis.
in

ollee. espei i,dl\

Limited use
foi

pic kles.

fruit, 10

dry temperate regions

alkaloids.
allay

purgatives, and to flavour

A Savouring agent
and

Uses

Primarily of use
lexer:

Constituents

cuiries

Tannins; an alkaloid.
dried herb Weak diuretic; weak diaphoredc.

Constituents

main

other medic ations.

land.

in

in

to the

of the alpine Himalayas at altitudes 22504500 m; also China.

Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Alkaloids comprising mainly ephedrine. to which the hypertensive and bronchodilatory action is due: pseudoephedrine, benzyl methylamine: ephidine.

tropical countries.
Cultivation

Native

oi

rainfall ol 3 5 in

<

ultivate 01 harvest,

the) are not

and

The best type

are expensive.

mountain
and

shad)

in

mean

foi

is

reason

this

Malabai

the

ardamom, and others of good quality are

My ore, Ceylon, Aleppi \and Madras Seed
pods from related members ol theGinget family
are frequently offered ^ Cardamom, especi(

Amomum

ally

EUttan was

cardamon L, but they are inferior.

Malabai name

tin

Description Perennial arising

for the plant.

from

fleshy

thick

rhizome bearing from 8 20 smooth erect grei n

items to 2. 7 m. Leaves alternati
oblonglanceolate, sheathed, $0 60 cm long, 7 5
m
<

wide

On

[0
\-i

Flowers arising from neat the item base

long peduncle, arranged in
panicle
,1

60
Med
I

<

m
1

hillsidi

in

and are followed

b)

.111

OVoid

.i|)sule.

Distribution

India:

long,

Indigenous
rich

Wild

moist
in

to

forests

south

and

and
111

Burma. Introduced

wooded
in

othei

B5

EQU-EUO
Description Fragrant prostrate evergreen branching shrub, spreading to 50 cm diameter
on the ground; with hairy, rounded stems of
rust colour, arising from tangled red-brown

fibrous roots. Leaves alternate, oval to orbicular 3-7.5

cm

long, 1-3

hairy beneath.

The

cm

wide, entire, and

apical or axillary inflores-

cence consists of pink, deep rose and occasionlong, appearing

allv. white flowers 15

mm

mid-spring

to early

summer.

Native to central and eastern

North America, on rich, damp, acid soils in
shady protected sites.
Cultivation Wild plant; may be propagated
easily by layering any part of the stem.
Constituents The glucosides urson, ericolin, and
arbutin; formic acid; gallic acid; tannic acid
oil,

ericinol: the

combined

action being antilithic and antiseptic.

whole dried plant,

Uses

fresh leaf

Urinary

Although rarely used, even in folk medicine.

this is one of the most effective remedies for
urethritis,

bladder stones

prostatitis,

and particularly acute catarrhal

cystitis.

Horticulturallv the herb offers useful fragrant

ground cover in shady situations thriving with

some protection and

little light.

L equisetaceae
Horsetail Bottlebrush/Shave Grass
Horsetails have an almost prehistoric appearance, and indeed have hardly evolved since the
coal seams were laid down. They were known
to medieval apothecaries as taudo equina, and
were an article of trade from the Middle Ages

Equisetum arvense

the

until

eighteenth century,

being used to

pewterware and woodwork. The herb

has continued in cultivation in some eastern
European countries and plays a useful role in
polish

folk

medicine.

producing 20 cm
shoots with

4-6 sheaths

in the spring;

and are
shoots 20-80 cm

the shoots die after the spores are shed,

then followed by green sterile

decumbent, bearing whorls of
segmented solid lateral branches at each node.
long, erect, or

in

Silicic
acid and water-soluble
compounds: saponins: phytosterol; flav-

Constituents
silicic

onoids; aconitic acid: traces of the alkaloids.

nicotine, palustrine

and palustrinine.

dried sterile stem, fresh juice

Uses

genito-urinary

duced and naturalized elsewhere. Common on

dry, weed-covered roadsides, walls, dunes,
waste-ground: preferring warm, light, sandy
soil, but tolerating most conditions.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Volatile oil, comprizing mainly a
terpene, acting as a styptic: also gallic and
tannic acids, acting as astringents.

Diuretic:

astringent:

weak

whole dried herb,

Uses

The

effective as a

mouthwash in aphthous ulcers or

and can be used as a douche in
leucorrhoea or menorrhagia. Also employed in
prostatic disease, enuresis and incontinence.

The

gingivitis,

associated

may

Dried stems

oil

Astringent

tonic

diuretic: styptic.

anti-haemorrhagic.
be applied externally to aid the
healing of wounds, sores or ulcers; the tisane is

A poultice may

was formerly employed

treatment of a range of urinary and renal
disorders; it appears effective in diarrhoea.
tisane or tincture

in the

and relieves
and has been
haemoptysis, haematemesis, and

soothes

oil

employed

in

throats

sore

swollen

glands,

haematuria.

be used to polish pewter or

woodwork.
Employed in

cosmetic

strengthen finger

nails.

Eruca vesicaria ssp. saliva

preparations

to

Mill.

Thell

cruciferae

Rocket-salad Rocket
Although described

as a

'good salat-herbe b\

L compositae
Canadian Fleabane
Erigeron canadensis

The Canadian Fleabane has received almost

unwanted weed with

universal abuse as an

commend

to

little

it

beside

extraordinary

powers of survival and distribution. Originally

from cistern and central North America, it
was introduced into Central France in 1653,
became naturalized in that country within 30
years, and rapidly spread through Europe.
Asia.

Australia

and

several

of

the

Pacific

Islands.

The Latin name

indicates not only

its

original

home, but also its hoary appearance; from the

Greek erigeron signifying "old man in spring".
Description Annual with stiff, erect stem from
8 too cm tall depending on soil type. Very
leafy and varying from sparsely hairy to
glabrous;

on thin creeping rhizome,

long grey-brown, simple,

Description Perennial

fertile

Wild plant: limited cultivation

Cultivation

eastern Europe.

fine

antiseptic; diuretic; antilithic.

cystitis,

moist waste-ground.

vulnerary:

Distribution

and an aromatic

European native; abundant on

Distribution

all

leaves sessile; basal leaves obo-

ate-lanc eolate. stem leaves lineal -lanceolate.

4

cm

long, entire. Inflorescence in terminal

mm

panicle, capitula small, cylindrical, 3 5

diameter. Ray florets whitish, disc florets pale

yellow;

appearing

late

summer

to

early

autumn.
Distribution

North

American

native:

intro-

John Gerard and

in

almost continuous cultiuntil the seventeenth

Romans

vation from the

from the Latin name eruca

was seldom

century. Rocket

via the Italian diminutive ruchetta

grown

in north-west

Europe

after 1800. It

is,

however, still an important and useful salad in

Italy, Egypt and France, and deserves wider
use.

Description

Half-hardy annual, 30-70

much branched. Upper

long

petioled,

large-toothed

cm

cm

tall;

leaves sessile, lower

or

pinnatifid.

creamy-yellow or
whitish, with purplish veins; appearing mid to
Flowers

late

to

long,

summer.
Native

Distribution

and western

to

mediterranean region

Asia. Introduced horticulturallv

elsewhere. In waste areas or on cultivated land

in

warm

positions.

Cultivation

Wild.

Grown

as

salad

herb,

especially in south-east mediterranean, south-

ern France and Italy. Propagated from seed

186

EQU-EUO
sown

in spring or

may run

to seed in

autumn on

moist

rich,

summer. Harvest

soil;

leaf within

8 weeks and keep cutting. Cultivated herb is

milder flavoured than the wild plant E.
vesicaria L.

Constituents Essential oil; heterosides.

Uses (fresh

young

leaf

and

Tonic; mild

stalk:

stimulant; stomachic.

Only used

as a constituent of

mixed

salads.

L umbelliferae

Eryngium maritimum

Sea Holly Eryngo

The

striking prickly nature

and

coastal habitat

herb led to it being named, quite

obviously, as Sea Holly. In fact, unlike most
herbs, it has few other names, and Eryngo is a
popularization of the old generic term eryngium
of this

which

The

signifies a thistle-like herb.

and

plant's virtues

shoots can be boiled and eaten in the

Erythroxylum coca Lam.

ERYTHROXYLACEAE
Coca Leaf
Coca was well-known

in pre-Columban days
and revered as a magical plant: small bags of
the leaves have been found in the graves of
Incas. It is still widely employed as a means of
maintaining endurance by South American
peoples, and is cultivated commercially for

The

cocaine extraction.

name

Small hardy shrubby

Description

but pruned to

refers to

tree to 5

in cultivation; leaves oval

4-8 cm

long, 2.5-4 cm wide, glabrous and

with prominent reddish-brown midrib
Fruits
projecting as a small apex apiculus
entire,

uses centre mostly

on

red or reddish-brown.

roots have been given aphrodisiacal qualities,

Distribution

why

generic

the bright red colour of the fruit.

the sexual organs; even the extremely long

a fact explaining

same way

Asparagus.

as

they enjoyed widespread

Peru and Bolivia. Introduced

Taiwan and Indonesia. On

to

steep valley sides in

century the tree has become well established

and

as a source of timber, oil, shade,

as a

means

drainage in Africa, the Americas,

Southern Europe, and India. The name is
derived from the Greek eucalyptus meaning a
of

soil

well

and a

and

since the sepals

lid,

petals fuse

forming a cap. which resembles a well with a

lid.

"Globulus" or

globe' signifies the

"little

shape of the fruit.

Di upturn Tree reaching 70 m. Trunk smooth
si

and grey or bluish following natural

bark:

leathery,

leaves

loss

of

glaucous,

lanceolate,

and usually opposite; covered

with oil-bearing glands. Flowers, 4 cm wide,
either single or 2 3 on short flat peduncles.
whitish, sessile

followed bv 3-cm wide

fruit,

surrounded by

WOOdy receptacle.
Native

Distribution
in

Europe

sale in

foi

250

well-drained, light, humus-rich

ears.

and glaucous
biennial or perennial, much branched plant.
on

i.-,

bushes 30

forming hemi-spherical
high. Leaves fleshy, very stiff and

long root,

cm

deeply veined, ovate,

broad, spiny

appearing mid
Distribution

On

s.i iir

j-lobed,

to

cm

long,

and long-petiolate. Flowers

spherical umbels.

where.

bluish

Attractive

Description

cm diameter,
summei

in

pale blue.

to late

European native; introduced elsehhI dunes and ideally requirinj

saline soil.

Wild plant sometimes ulti\ ated on

and propagated b\
loot division in the autumn, 01 From seed sown
in the autumn.
<

light soils liortii ulturalK.

Constituents
I

fresh

Saponins; unknown substances.

01 di ied rool
Aromatic; tonic;

diuretic.
I

he herb was formerly

considered

genito-urinary irritation and

ol

use

infei tion, espei

m
i-

inflammations of mucous membranes

painful urination.
The powdered rool

known

longer

soil.

in

wild

state;

commercially in South Amenta.

and Indonesia. Propagated from
fresh seed sown in shaded humus-rich seedbeds and planted out 2 m apart.
The cultivation of this herb is subject to
worldwide constraint.

applied

externally

.is

,1

poultice

aids

tissue

regeneration

On.

Constituents

cineol; also pinenes; sesquiterpene alcohols;

most importani being o< .one; also innamyl-cocaine,

/- and /J-n uxilline cocatannic a< id vitamins;
proteins; mineral salts.
Several

alkaloids,

the

Usa
The
as

Stimulant tonic.

fresh or dried leal

leal

is

hewed

lime or the ash

ol

in

oiiibinat ion with a

little

certain Chenopodium species

general stimulant, to reduce fatigue, allay

<i

of hunger, to relieve gastric pain,

nausea, and vomiting, and as .1 cerebral and
must ul, 11 stimulant.

feelings

Contra-indicatiom

.in

incorporation

in

sweet dishes.

Young

flowering

.11

Eucalyptus

oil.

comprising

chiefly

omadendrene; cuminaldehyde.

Uses

oil,

occasionally

Antiseptic; deo-

leal

dorant; stimulant; counter-irritant.

Widely used in proprietary medicines
external application
antiseptic purposes.

cough

in

in

Vapour inhaled

Gum

Eucalyptus

Tasmanian Blue

Eucalyptus

indigenous

most successful

am

e ,iiid

d 1st

bron-

Occasionally taken internally in small

doses on sugar lor catarrhal inflammation of
chitis.

the respiratory tract.

Limited use

in

perfumery; leaves included

in

dry pot-pourris.

Employed

in

veterinary medic ines.

Contra-indicatiom Large doses toxic, leading to

delirium, convulsions and death.

myrtaceae

he genus

to relieve

catarrhal colds and chronic

Euonymm europaeus L celastraceae

Spindle Tree European Spindle

Eucalyptus globulus Labill.

ol trees

for

burns, colds, and for

Dangerous; hence not obtain-

able

importanl culinary flavouring, the

roots being parboiled and candied prioi to
i-

cultivated

extensively

Taiwan,

ally local

and

Cultivation
Wild;
and grows rapidly.

cultivated

Constituents

s,

Cultivation

No

Cultivation

Australasia; introduced

to

semi-tropical countries.

in

() |

300

terms
is

oi
/,.

herb

specit

which the
'ion. nun import'

globulus. In the last

is

also

Evonymus

described

as

ree

EvonymUS

and

Euonymus
niiopaea. Its common name is derived from
the Dutch practice of spindle and peg manu1.1c inn
from the strong wood.
Description Deciduous shrub "i small tree 2 6
europaeus,

to Australasia ol

In lion
1

consists

This

europaea

187

EUP-FER
Cultivation

Constituents

Wild plant.

glucoside, eupatorine; also tan-

gum;

nin; volatile oils; resin;

acid. Diaphoretic action

glucoside and volatile

Uses

(dried

sugar: gallic

probably due

to the

oil.

flowering

plant

Diaphoretic.

Although the cold decoction is tonic and

stimulant in small doses and emetic in large,
the

widest use

is

for

the

common

cold or

similar feverishness, taken as a hot infusion

is

tall;

somewhat bushy. Young

twigs square-

divided

sate, dentate,

ovate or oblong-lanceolate, 3 8
autumn. Pale green
flowers, up to 6 in axillary panicles, appearing
early to mid-summer followed by attractive,
deeply 4-lobed, red-orange or pink capsule of
diameter.
15

florets

cm

summer.
European native, found on damp
calcareous soil which is rich in nutrients. In
marshes and fens or less frequently in mixed
deciduous woodland.
Cultivation Wild plant. May be cultivated by
root division in the autumn, but only on moist

mm

Distribution

Native

Europe and western

to

Asia.

In open woodland, clearings, hedgerows, close

on deep moist loam.

to water,

Cultivation

Aldenhamensis and Burtonii are used as garden

ornamentals. Tolerates most positions and
soils. Raise from seed in spring and from hard-

wood

cuttings or layering in

Constituents

tonic

summer.

lipids; tannins; cardio-

including

heterosides

euonoside,

to

due; organic acids and

several pigments including physaline

which the
esters;

Vitamin C;
toxicity

is

and phyllorhodine.
Uses (dried seed and

fruit, fresh leaves;

Emetic;

purgative; insecticide; cholagogue.

Effective

when used

mid

to late

Distribution

Eupatorium purpureum

soils.

Wild. Several cultivars including

externally against scabies,

Constituents

iron

Tannin;

resins; volatile oil; inulin;

bitter principle.

herb Cholagogue; diaphoretic;

emetic; expectorant.
In small doses the herb acts as a bitter tonic 01
Uses

dried

aperitif suitable for those disposed to biliousness or constipation. Often

other remedies as a tonic.
In

huge doses

it

is

laxative

L compositae
Boneset Thoroughwort
Although

it

is

less

imposing herb. Boneset is

Root as it possesses

other skin parasites.

similar chemical constituents.

Eupatorium cannabinum

This herb played a role in the American

domestic economy during the nineteenth
century at least equal to that now enjoyed by
hot lemon tea in the treatment of coughs and

Hemp Agrimony

colds. It

not

to

be

used internally.

L compositae
Water Hemp
An attractive plant which in some parts of
England is called Raspberries and Cream
leaves

are

Cannabis saliva

similar

and old botanical

hence

to
its

those

of

common,

Cannabina aquatica

more

effective. It

was

first

Hemp
Latin,

cm

names.

It has not, however, been employed in the

manufacture of rope or cloth, and no longer
enjoys wide use.
Description Perennial on woody base, reaching
30 120 cm. Stems erect, downy, bearing
petiolate. oblanc eolate. basal leaves and ovate
or lanceolate branch leaves. Most leaves sub-

188

certainly

introduced into Europe in 1699.

Description Perennial herb reaching from 50 cm
to 1.5 m; pubescent stem which is stout and
cylindrical, branched above, bearing 10-20

because of the appearance of its flowers.

Its

is

long lanceolate leaves united

at the

base

around the stem; dark and shiny green above,

cotton-like beneath and fine-toothed. Inflorescence of 10-16, small white or. rarely,

blue

flowers,

on a dense corymbose cyme.

summer

mid-autumn.
North America from
Florida and Texas; prefers open

Appearing

late

Distribution

Indigenous

Dakota
marshy

to

regions.

to

to

L compositae

Gravel Root Joc-pve Weed

This enormously tall North American herb
with its mass of purplish-white flowers makes
such a splendid sight when in flower that it has
been given the name Queen of the Meadow.
Indians used the plant for dyeing and to induce
perspiration to break a fever, uses which were
quickly adopted by European settlers. Still
used by British and American herbalists.
Description Perennial of a variable nature,
reaching from 75 cm 3 m high, but typically

Eupatorium perfoliatum

closely related to Gravel

POISONOUS;

combined with

and emetic.

pediculoses (head, body or pubic), ticks and

Contra-indications

it

effectiveness.

3 leaflets. Flowers in cymose

each with 5 6 mauve or whitish
and 10 purple involucral bracts, appear-

capitula,

ing

its

into

stemmed. Leaves blue-green, opposite, decuslong, yellow-red in

practically unequalled in

EUP-FER
and

tall

graceful.

Stem

rigid, generally

wide. Flowers small, numerous, crowded on

hollow

tinged with purple above the nodes, bearing

leaves, in whorls of

creamy

Flowers

roughish

vanilla-scented,

oblong-lanceolate

tinged

often

Native

Distribution

purple, arranged in clusters of 5 or 10 on very

numerous dense terminal compound corymbs.
Appearing late summer to mid-autumn.
Distribution North American native: preferring
rich calcareous woodland soils, either dry or

India: intro-

tropical

to

duced and naturalized

with

in

most tropical and

subtropical countries.

moist.

Wild plant: may be propagated by

root division in late spring or autumn.

globose cymes; followed by 3

celled capsular fruit.

2-5 leaves, 30 cm long.

white,

cm diameter

Cultivation

Wild

Constituents

An

mid-summer

altitude.

Wild plant: cannot be cultivated

Cultivation

plant.

easily as

ill-defined glycoside

and alka-

to late

it

is

a semiparasite on certain grass

species requiring a close physical association

loid: phytosterol: melissic acid: euphosterol:

with the grass roots, from which

tannin; a phenolic
gallic acid; sugar.

nutrients.

dried

Uses

Cultivation

flecks. Appears from

autumn.
Distribution European native, on poor meadow
land and turf. Calcifugous, and found to 3000 m

purple stripes and yellow

quercetin;

substance:

Constituents

flowering

Expectorant:

plant

Tannin:

resin:

obtains

saponin: volatile

aucubine. The Qombined

anti-inflammatory for mucosae.

glycoside,

oils:

it

antasthmatic; anti-amoebic.

action

flavonoid.

Chiefly employed in the treatment of intestinal

L'ses

euparin: an oleoresin, eupurpurin. is produced

by pouring the tincture into cold water - it has

amoebiasis; also effective in bronchitic asthma

and laryngeal spasm since it causes relaxation

tory; weakly astringent; weak vulnerary.

Almost exclusively employed as a mild eye

of the bronchi by central depressant action.

lotion for use in conjunctivitis. Also as a nasal

The

douche

in

sinusitis.

Externally in poultices to aid

Constituents

Resin: volatile

same action

the

oil:

as that of the

whole

root.

dried root-stock Astringent tonic: diure-

Uses

latex

applied externally

is

Contra-indications

caused by excess uric

acid. Hence also useful in gout and rheuma-

intestinal irritation,

tism.

Euphrasia rostkoviana

The

stones

L euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia Asthma Weed
Euphorbia hirta

The Spurge familv

species

<

Eyebright

is

the best

known

to treat eye conditions.

of

Although

herbs used
its

name

is

thousand
must <>i the

known

as

euphorbium

in

honoui

egetable dishes.

second century a.d.. a tax was levied on

drug in Alexandria, and it was used by the
Arabian physicians of the Middle Ages who
called it hiltit. The thirteenth-century Welsh
Physicians of

Myddvai considered

portant medicinal substance:

oi

from the Latin purgatoria, the

purging herb. The diied latex of E. resinifera
,

is a strongly foetid brownish gum.

name. In small quantities, however,
it gives food a particular flavour and has long
been used as a condiment by Indians in

its

the

used

purgatives
Berg.

umbelliferae

In the

example, is used in Ethiopian arrow

The common name for the family

indicates the widest use lor Euphorbias, that

and

wound

constituent of herbal smoking, mixtures.

hence

action to extremel) poisonous. E. heptagona

poisons.

colds

Asafetida

all

its

head

healing.

Ferula foetida Regel

1000 species of the genus Euphorbia exude an

,i(
id milky latex which ranges from irritant in
(L), for

catarrh,

nasal

Asafetida

onsivt^, o| se\ rial

worldwide;

distributed

Hayne

SCROPHULARIACEAE
Eyebright Meadow Eyebright

pink or red textile dye.

fruit yields a

the

Large doses cause gastronausea and vomiting.

Specifically of use in the treatment of renal or

urinary calculi

in

treatment of warts.

stimulant; antilithic; anti-rheumatic.

tic;

fresh

is

(dried flowering plant) Anti-inflamma-

i",

Euphorbus, physician to Juba II died a. d. iM

was used continuously item ancient times until
the last century. Asthma Weed, however, is
one oi the lew spei us still considered safe to

stoc k

it

now

an imrarely

Herbaceous monoecious perennial,

high, bearing large bipinnate radical

and developing

leaves,

is

Europe.

in

Description

oi

it

(in

thick

covered by coarse

at

fibres.

usually produced in the

massive fleshy rootcrown, which is

the

The inflorescence is
year of growth on

fifth

use.

pimn Annual. [5 50 cm high ; stems ereci

/>,
covered with still yellow hairs, considerably
branched. Leaves dark green above, palei
beneath, obov ate-laiu eolate. .11 ui> and den,

tate;

opposite,

(in

lout;,

mm

i.j

cm
derived from the Greek meaning gladness, it
appears unknown to ancient physicians priot
to the Middle Ages
when it was introduced
by Hildegarde.
The How 11 certain!) gives the appearance of a
bloodshot eye. Apothet aries knew the plant as
ocularia

and

ophthalmica,

retained to this da\

classified

it

and

in folk

its use has been

medicine. Linnaeus

as Euphrasia officinalis, but his

type

mixture of a number ol
is, therefore, an ambiguous

jpeciei consists of a
species. E. officinalis

name which

has no standing. Only Eyebright

species possessing glandular hairs

on the calyx

have medicinal value.

Small attractive annual on erect,
branched, stems From
30 cm high,

Description

usuall)

",

bearing opposite, ovoid, down) and crenate

senate leaves 0.5
cm long, and spikes ol
(in long white flowers in the axils ol upper
1

leaves. Calyx and leaves (lose to the inflorescence heat glahdulai hairs; flower also has

[89

FER-FRA
m

a 2.5-3

high, to 10

cm

naked, flower-

thick,

ing stem. Flowers yellow in umbels appearing

mid-spring.

Native

Distribution

eastern

to

western Afghanistan, on rocky

Wild plant; the

Cultivation

Persia

and

is

collected

commercially from plants which must be

at

Constituents Volatile oil

:

ferulic

(10%);

acid.

resin

The

(50%

volatile

oil

contains terpenes. disulphides and pinene. and

responsible for the therapeutic action.

is

dried oleo-resin-gum, obtained by inNervine stimulant;

L'ses

Distribution
Cultivation

Indigenous

Wild

gum

May

plasters for application

condiment commonly used

as

an ingredient

and vegetable

dishes; also with fish.

Ferula galbaniflua Boiss. et

Buhse

MBELLIFERAE

Galbanum
ingredient of the

incense used by the Israelites

plant product Chelbenah.

and other

It

is

who

called this

obtained from
notably F.

species of Ferula,

by collecting the
milky-white tears of gum-resin which naturally
exude from the stem, or by severing the plants
root crown. Ferula is from the Latin, to strike.
Both Hippocrates and Theophrastus mentioned its medicinal properties, and Pliny
called it bubotuon. It was known b\ the Arabic
term, kinnafi. to the physicians of the School of
Salerno. Previously imported from Persia, but
rubruaulis

now

Most widely known medicinally as a folk

remedy for constipation: taken as syrup of figs.
Senna. Once used externally as a
for boils

and

ulcers.

culinary use in confectionery, in jams,

and used to flavour some coffees. May be used
in

home wine manufacture.

remedies.

be

on

incorporated

in

ulcers.

constituent of incen-e.

L Maxim rosaceae
Meadowsweet Queen of the Meadow
Queen of the Meadow is this herb's
modern common name, and it seems to

Filipendula ulmaria

been the more popular

Ficus carica

L moraceae

languages.

It

Fig

Common Fig
Known to the Romans

plant

as ficus, figs were valued

by the ancient Hebrews, and. with the
vine, signified peace and plenty in the writings
of the scriptures. The plant was so extensively
cultivated that even in Pliny's time several
different varieties existed, of which the best
was considered to be that flourishing in Caria
in Asia Minor; hence the modern botanical

dominate

as a food

Meadowsweet

is

is

in several

European

when

certainly apt. for

fully established,

a low-lying

may

it

most
have
the

completely

damp meadow.

from the
was once used to
flavour mead. Botanically. the herb was
classified by Linnaeus as Spiraea ulmaria since
is

simply

earlier 'meadwort', since

the

fruit

consists

derived

it

of small

spiral

achenes

classification F. carica.

Galbanum was an important

this

nutritive.

demulcent poultice

60

effective in hysteria

of Indian sauces, pickles, Worcestershire Sauce,

resin

ing expectorant, often in combination with

powerful antispasmodic; expectorant: carm-

colic.

Grape invert sugar, gum. sucrose.

and dried fruit Mild laxative:

used in chronic bronchitis as a stimulat-

inative.

conditions,

fresh

\\ ide

other

and some nervous

and in bronchitis, asthma and
whooping-cough. Once employed in infantile
pneumonia and in the treatment of flatulent

_'o

cision of living root-stock

Very

Uses

tives like
io",,

semi-hard gum-resin obtained from

L'ses
stem or root crown Stimulant; expectorant.

Once

Constituents

Also used in combination with stronger purga-

to Persia.

plant.

Constituents Volatile oil

least 5 years old.

gum

thin flat fruits.

hillsides.

resin

Umbelliferous perennial on solid

reaching 1.5-1.75
high, bearing
greyish tomentose leaves, yellow ish-white flowers in flat umbels appearing in mid-spring, and
Description

stem

Boiss.

either

onlv from the Near East.

Charlemagne promoted its cultivation in

Europe in the ninth century, and today
is still an official plant in the British Pharma-

central
it

copoeia.
Dtscriptwn Deciduous tree to 9 m. much
branched, soft-wooded, with large rough
leaves, 10-20 cm long, broad-ovate to orbicular. 35 deep lobes and pubescent beneath:
forming mass of attractive foliage. Leaves
entire in some cultivated forms. Flowers
uniquely. hidden within a hollow fleshy receptacle isyconus) and therefore never visible.
Receptacle 37.5 cm long, single, axillary and
often pear-shaped, or variable. Appearing
early

summer

Distribution

to

mid-autumn.
to Mediterranean

Indigenous

<\>Z

re-

gion, widely distributed.

Cultivation Wild several forms grown for fruit,
shade and ornament, of which the best is the
variety Brown Turkey. Easily cultivated in full
sun: to ensure good harvest, root growth must
:

be severely restricted by planting in 50 cm

diameter pot. sunk in the soil. Propagate from
cuttings.

twisted together. This generic name has been

immortalized in the word Aspirin meaning.
from Spiraea because it was from the flowerbuds of Meadowsweet that salicylic acid was
first discovered in
1839 - and from which
.

Aspirin was later synthesized.

herb 60-120 cm tall

aromatic root-stock. Stems erect,
reddish, bearing alternate, acute, ovate leaves,
irregularly pinnate with 2-5 pairs of leaflets.
2-8 cm long, glabrous above and whitish and
tomentose beneath. Faintly aromatic flowers
Description Stout perennial

on

thick, pink

mm

5-petalled.
white or cream, small 2-5
with numerous long stamens, in dense but
irregular paniculate cymes on glabrous stems:
appearing mid-summer to early autumn.
Distribution European and Asian native. Intro-

'9

FER-FRA
duced and naturalized

in

North America.

On

wet. nutrient-rich, but not too acidic, sandy or

loamy soils near streams and rivers in fens,

marshland or wet woodlands, to iooo m
altitude.

Wild, often growing

Cultivation

profusion in

in

sown

suitable habitat. Propagate from seed

in

spring or from root division in spring; thin or

cm

plant to 40

shade

partial

apart.

A damp,

rich soil in

required; water well in dry

is

weather.
Constituents

Tannins

io

zoate:

also

methyl
ben-

ethyl

including

glycosides

flavonoid

also

heliotropin.

vanillin,

salicylate;

com-

volatile oil

prising, salicylaldehyde (to io

spiraeoside; salicyclic glycosides, comprising

gaultherin and spiraein; vitamin C: sugars;

mineral

salts.

dried flowers, dried root-stock Antipyretic: anti-rheumatic; astringent: weak anUses

tispasmodic; diuretic; antiseptic.

The

root

employed

is

specifically

the

in

treatment of diarrhoea, while the flowers are of

benefit in influenza, fluid retention, rheumatism and arthritis. They are probably the
most effective of all plant remedies for the
treatment of hyperacidity and heartburn.
Useful therefore in the control of peptic ulcers

and

The

gastritis.

infusion also has an effect in

certain urinary tract infections.

Formerly used

mead and wine

in

cups.

black dyestuff has been obtained from

May

be used

tin-

copper mordant.

plant, using a

scented articles.

in

?i^m:^ a
Propagated in any soil except heavy
from seed sown in autumn. Remove
flower-heads if seed is not required. Different
iai is produce seeds ol varying flavour.
Constituents Volatile oil. comprising mainly
anethole and a No fenchone, d-pinene, limonene, dipentene, phellandrene and anisic acid.
Carminative action due to the oil.

Description

whitish fungus with yellowish spots and pores;

Uses

Foeniculum vulgare Mill,

lmbelliferae

and dried leaf, oil, dried ripe fruit,

tools
Carminative: aromatic; weak

fresh

rarely

Fennel Sweet Fennel

The appearan< c <>l dried Fennel

diuretic

rather like coarse,

prevent

both the

leal, w hi< h is
rumpled hair, gave rise to
and botanical names brmu
1

common

derived from the Latin foeniculum,

me, mint;

has been used

It

for

purposes

culinary

at

foi

2000 years, and was formerly prized more

succulent stems than foi
> seed, which
oin 111011U employed. Special
the pan now

least
for
is

it'-

<

have been developed supplying swollen bulbous stalls bases Finnocchiooi Floreno
and foli
Fennel
large stalks Carosella

varieties

decorative purposes

Sweet Fennel. It is traditionally considered

one of the best herbs to use with fish dishes.
I),

Hauls biennial

criplian

cultivated

stem.

-<>

oil

is

and

flatulence

on ion-

pi

added

lac

an

as
(111

pinnately

hunger.

Thought
use:

colic

Once

to aid in

aids

used to

slimming.

haves traditionally

to

or perennial, often

annual:

compound

erect

blue-green

high, bearing fine,

leaves,

ecu

PORAC1

mid-summer

mid-autumn.

Distribution

Native

to

mediterranean region,

introduced and naturalized

in

othei

prefers wasteland on well-drained

places;

soil in

sunn)

ations.

and extensively grown horticulturally and commercially in all temperati

Cultivation Wild,

Bresadola

whole fungus) Astringent;

remedies

and

Boletus

officinalis

Fries.,

Ungulina

officinalis.

Owing

known

as PolvpOTUS

hunts

J acq.

and

to the difficulty

<>l

lassihe ation

identified

as

Inis was used more frequently and

jumenst\piic agent in fresh wounds.
I.

/'.

is

onlv occasionally available,

is

known

as

used as a cigar lighter.

<

used

as

an

ingredient

of the

Tincture

anti-

Warburg's Fever Tincture, a

ompound medit anon whose om position was
published in 1875 by Dr Warburg after years ol
recy. The fungUS is not an edible mushroom,
is now vet v
and
lately used.
fiiiiutlii/i
(

or

<

it

excess

used

as

source

the

which was used

of crystalline

for similar

medical

flavouring in

as a bittei

Large doses cause vomiting

//</;,

una

veSCO

ROSACEAE

I.

Wild Strawberry Wood Strawberry

Numerous varieties have been developed

since

Strawberry began in the

early sixteenth century, but it was this species
which was gathered wild from the woods of
Kurope for centuries. I'raga was the Latin
name, and probably refers to the fruit's
cultivation

ol

the'

fragrance.

ause of its bitter taste F. officinalis was oik

used to flavoui confectionery and it was also
I')'

diarrhoea,

and purgation.

cil the fungus group, it cannot be

with certainty in ancient writings
and probably the related species l-mm fomen-

treat

to

levers.

Contra-indications

vi

This fungUS has also been

bitter;

confectionery

Agaricus Purging Agaru

Amadou, and

turning grey-brown. Appearing

Vittadini

officinalis

autumn.

Riconoleic acid; phytosterol; agar-

Formerly employed
Fomes

decidua

Larix

in early

Formerly used in compound antipyretic mediines, and either alone or in combination with

purposes.

ol

Uses fdried

nervous

stem.

especiallv Larix

DC.

europaea

L.

purgative.

agaric in

s\

Lain spp.

acid: agaricol: resins.

ANo once

tarius

Constituents
ic

Growing on various

plant.

Formerly collected

liqueur inanulac ture and as a condiment.

Contra-indications Very I. nee doses disturb the

lactation

m long, on broad and lasping

Small yellow dowers, on large umbels
5 20 rays, succeeded by fruit, bluish

filiform, to

often

Led.,

sibinca

othei

in

Wild

species of Larch

he boiled and eaten as a vegetable; seed used

petioles.

I'.,

intestinal

fleshy,

soft,

Russia, in larch forests.

Cultivation

garnish fish, and are added t<> salads, soups.

sauces ,uicl pork dishes. Rooi and stalks 111. iv

tarius

to

purgative medication to

allavs

tation.

almost

to

and

griping

shaped,

variably

to 50 cm long and 30 cm wide. The surface is

dry and marked by irregular furrows; it has an
aroma of flour.
Distribution Southern Tyrol and French Alps to

Mill.

h<
Bronze Fennel
seed flavour also varies considerably from the
Bitter or Wild Fennel and the less bittei Saxon
or German Fennel to the Sweet Roman or

for

The

mild stimulant.

All parts of culinary

little lia\.

/ones.

clay,

Description Perennial 5

woodv
runnels.
pale

25

Leaflets ovate,

beneath,

Lateral leaflets

Flowers white,

silky,

-,

mm

on

tall,

long,

stout,

rooting

bright green above,

toothed,

sessile,
1

cm

producing

toot-stock,

cm

Ions;.

terminal, short-stalked

diametei

erect, ^

10

per peduncle; appearing early to mid-summer,

followed hv led 01 white ovoid, false fruit.

191

FRA-GAL
European pharmacopoeias.

Fraxinus ornus

Small tree or deciduous shrub to 6

m; usually 1-4 m. Branches supple, smooth,
erect towards the base, young branchlets redbrown at the tips, later darkening to greyblack. Leaves alternate, acute, entire, or sometimes undulate, obovate to oblong, 3-4 cm
long, dark green and shiny above. Flowers
small, bisexual, greenish, borne in umbelliform cymes. Appearing late spring to midsummer; followed by globose fruit 7.5

Manna

Description

mm

diameter, red then black or blue-black.

Native to Europe, Central Asia,

North Africa; introduced and naturalized in
eastern United States. On acidic, often heavy
Distribution

open, damp, deciduous or coniferous

to 1000 m

soils, in

woodland, especially near streams,

altitude.

Cultivation Wild. Commercial plantations are

being established in Eastern Europe. Collected
commercially in Russia. Holland. Poland and
Czechoslovakia.

L oleaceae

Flowering Ash
According to the Bible. Manna was the substance miraculously supplied to the Israelites
during their progress through the wilderness to
the Holy Land, and the name has been applied
to several substances both real and imaginary,
thought to provide spiritual nourishment.
Prior to the fifteenth century. Manna was
imported from the East and its provenance is
uncertain, but from the middle of the sixteenth
century most Manna was the dried sugary
juice obtained by incisions in the bark of the
Flowering Ash grown for the purpose in Sicily
and Calabria in southern Italy. Now rarelv
obtainable in Europe.
Description Ljeciduous tree 10-20 m. Rounded
in shape, and with great variation in leaflet and
fruit shape. Leaves 20-25 cm long with 7-1
1

Anthraquinone glycosides, comproduced during drying and

Constituents

prising frangulin

frangula-emodin,
frangularoside.
chrysophanic acid, an iso-emodin; also tannic
acid; bitter principles; mucilage.
Purgative action due to the presence of
storage

emodins,
Native to Europe, western Asia,
North America. In woods, scrubland, preferably on moist, somewhat calcareous soils; to
800 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild plant. Propagate l>v transplantation of daughter plants produced on

which

act

on the large intestine

Distribution

causing

runners.

Uses (12-month old stem and inner branch

bark Purgative; choleretic.
Almost exclusively used in the treatment of
constipation, often in combination with other
remedies. Very small doses may be used to
stimulate bile secretion. Once applied extern-

Tannins;

(leaves)

Constituents

flavonoids.

Organic acids; vitamin C; mucilage;

(fruit)

(fresh

Astringent;

fruit,

root-stock

leaves,

antiscorbutic;

diuretic;

rarely
tonic;

laxative.

The root decoction was formerly used to treat

gonorrhoea, and as a diuretic; it also acts as a
weak, bitter tonic. Leaf and root-stock can be
used to treat diarrhoea, while the fruit is
laxative.

The

dried leaf can be used as a tea substitute.

Contra-indications Strawberries

may produce an

allergic response.

Frangula alnus Mill,

rhamnaceae

Alder Buckthorn
This medicinal plant

is

so

named because

it

bears a superficial foliage similarity to the

Alder [Alnus glutinosa (L) Gaertn. |, with which
it

shares a predilection for wet environments

and because it has the same purgative qualities as Rhamnus catharticus, which was known as
cervi spina

(buck's thorn) to the early apothe-

caries.

The

ally to aid the healing of

Contra-indications Fresh

wounds.

bark contains anthrone

glycosides which cause severe catharsis, emesis

sugars.
i'ses

peristalsis.

quite thornless Alder Buckthorn does not

appear

to

have been used

until the

beginning

when the Italian

Pierre Crescenzi introduced it. German physicians were to make most use of it in subsequent

and cramps.

The

fruit

is

POISONOUS.

usually ovate or oblong, somewhat

pubescent. Flowers dull white, on numerous

leaflets,

dense feathery panicles, 7.5-12.5 cm long

appearing early to mid-summer, and followed
by linear or lanceolate

fruit 3

cm

long.

Native to southern Europe and

western Asia. Introduced into central Europe,
Distribution

North America and elsewhere.

Cultivation Wild, and cultivated as an ornamental tree and for commercial purposes.
Constituents Various sugars, chiefly comprising
mannitol. mannotriose. mannotetrose and
dextrose: also mucilage; aesculin and fraxin.
Laxative action due to fraxin.
Uses the yellow-white saccharine exudation
obtained by bark incisions during the flowerMild laxative. Exclusively of
ing season
service as a gentle laxative for children and
pregnant women, taken in quite large dosage
either alone or in combination with Rhubarb.
Nutritive and therefore useful during convalescence.
Contra-indications

May

cause flatulence.

of the fourteenth century

years.

Since

it

sagrada
collected

[92

has

similar

properties

Rhamnus purshiana D.C.

locally,

it

is

retained

Cascara
but can be

to
,

in

several

Fucus vesiculosus L fucaceae

Bladderwrack Kelp
Although commonly called Kelp,

this

is

are

somewhat

larger algae.

seaweeds long used both as

a term

w hich
one of several
food and medicine.

usually applied to species of Laminana.

It is

FRA GAL
stimulate the regeneration

the ability

to

some nerve

cells.

ol

reaching 10-20 cm tall:

and glaucous. 7 mm wide, fleshy,
ridged, on bulbs growing in compact

Description Perennial

leaves linear
basal,

less than 25 cm
bearing single flower: outer segments
white. 15 mm3 cm long, inner segments

masses. Pedicel slender, usually

long,

white and green. Appearing early spring.

Distribution Native to central and south Europe.

Caucasus: introduced elsewhere. Prefers

to the

humus and

rich in

soils

mixed

nutrients in

deciduous woodland.

Wild plant; cultivated

Cultivation

garden

as a

plant and found as an escape. Propagate by

division

autumn.

the

in

Hook

Elwesii

Alkaloids,

Constituents

form.

giant

G.

exists.

chiefly

in

the

bulb,

comprising tazettine. lycorine. galanthamines.

and sometime-

as a

cheap manure. Iodine was

discovered by distillation of Fucus

first

rarly nineteenth

century, and

tor

in the

about

this

in

wax.

It-

common name

is

derived both from the typical bladder-like air

vesicles

word

on the thallus, and from an ancient

something which is driven

signifying

ription

<

Perennial seaweed consisting

yellowish thallus. 18

fast

ol

branching, brownish-green or

thin, leathery,

Wood)

mm

wide and

long.

attached to rocks l>\ dis< oid holdmargins entire, midrib broad and distinct,
stipe

running the length ol the plant, along which

air vesh les arc borne in pairs. Terminating in
strong

globose

ovoid receptacles
Distribution

fructifications
;

cm

Common

in

consisting

ol

length.

west Scotland,

Norway,

and North America; attached to ro( ks.

(.ultr, ation Wild plain
collet ted commen ially
Constituents
A gelatinous substance, alum:

mannitol: iodine: a volatile oil: ^-carotene:

zeaxanthin: various inorganic substanc
i

dried

whole plant

Anti-obesii

anti-

hypothyroid.
Spe<

wispy

grey-green

iIk ally ol

effective

obstruction leading

with hypothyroidism.

decoction

is

ol

assoi iated

the

whole

plant ma\ be applied externally

rheumatism and rheumatoid arthritis.

lush

An

excellent source ol
purposes; one ol tin

manure

for horti<

in

ultural

commercial sources of

mm

ers 8

emanations in the ground, and that its smoke

when burned repelled evil spirits Both its
common and botanical names derive from the
I. aim word lor smoke, probably
because ai a

cm

long,

pinnate,

1.2

cm

Flow-

long, pinkish-purple, dark

tips, borne in racemes 5 7 em long,

appearing mid-summer to late- autumn.

red at the

Distribution Furopean native: naturalized in

America and parts (l Asia. Common iii weedy
.mas
gardens, fields, vineyards, rarely
|

,1

loamy
Wild plant.

ornfields. Prefers

soils.

\,

Emetic.

bull)

plant

Flic-

is

benefit in a range of conditions characterized

fumarine; tanacid: lumaric acid: potassium salts.

nervous

by

nic

poliomyelitis.

chic; tonic

Laxative; stoma-

flowering plant

diiecl

weak

diuretic

sidered

ol

benefit in arteriosclerosis.

he Rowers produceyellow wool dye.

Dried leaves may be added to smoking mix,1

tures.

Gaianthus nivalis

Snowdrop
lie

Galega

The

POISONOl
L amaryi

is

well

lor

example.

SONOUS.

rDACi

known

L papilionaceae
French Lilac
ol Coat's Rue to promote the

officinalis

Rue

ability

reflected in

'-"w

some animals, is
much as 50%
its name galega from the Greek for
iii

The most

effective galactogenic preparaan infusion of the fresh plant.

<n/ii>i>n Attractive bushy perennial to
/>
m
on hollow stem bearing leaves consisting ol
11
17 oblong or oblong-ovate glabrous,

milk.

is

mm

Bulbous Violet

Snowdrop

milk, by as

tion

Centra-indications

degeneration,

Contra-indications P(

Goat's

various

ol

tissue

hiefly employed in the treatment ol

-km complaints including eczema,
exanthema and dermatitis. Also once- con-

Formerly

used medicinally, but in

rarely

Europe a preparation known as

has been promoted as being of
'ni valine'

eastern

Constituents 7 alkaloids, chiefly

including

but today

petiolate, with lanceolate leaf segments.

ronate,
as the hisl llowei

flowers

leaflets
1

cm

long

cm

in

Purplish-blue

long.

racemes

slightly longei

and its name gaianthus is derived

from the Greek meaning milk llowei aftet its
snow-w hite appearance.
It is verv rarely mentioned in the herbals and

than the leaves; appear mid-summer to midcm long redautumn and are followed by

has

Asia:

ol

the belid thai H aiose not Iron) seed but Iroin

of intestinal

to skin diseases,

/) cription Annual: variable in form, the stem

being erect, bushv or trailing, from 15 70 cm

alginates

Fumaria officinalis L fimariaceae

Fumitory
Much legend surrounds this herb,

look

used.

rarely

is

it

conditions

in

use in obesity whi< h

leaflets

times Fumitory was con-

the earliest

sidered

Cultivation

on north-west Atlantic

coastlines, especially

the

lon^: leaves grey-green

ashore.
I)

From

y>

years most commercial supplies of Iodine wen-

obtained

distance-

smoky.

the year,

never attracted attention as being

medicinal use except fol a poultice ol
c

rushed bulbs which

in

may be applied

xt<

ol
the

ma

llv

cases of frostbite, Recent research in Europe,

however, suggests that the plant

may

possess

brow

n pods.

Distribution

Native-

to

Europe and

introduced elsewhere.

moist positions

Prefers

western
slighth

in fields.

Wild and occurs as an esc ape from

garden cultivation. (,. officinalis var. albifloui
Boiss. has w hite How ei 5, and G. o\]n innlis v ,n
Cultivation

193

GAL-GEL
Brande

Queen

1788

in

who was

the apothecary to

of most benefit in the treatment of various skin

and

it

was originally introduced

medical recipe for the treatment of fever. 'Angostura bitters' no longer

contains extract of angostura bark, this having
been replaced by Gentian root.
Angostura is the former name for Ciudad
Bolivar, a town in Venezuela.
Description Small tree 4 5 m tall. 7.5 12.5 cm
in diameter, the trunk being straight, irregularly branched and with a smooth bark,
covered externally with a yellowish-grey corky
as a

smooth

and

divided

petiolate.

arranged

scented,

alternate

glossy,

into

oblong, [jointed. 4

cm

leaflets

and

which are

long. Flowers strongly

in

terminal

pedum

led

racemes.
Distribution Tropical South America, especially
Venezuela. Mostly abundant in mountainous

and

varie-

districts.

gated leaves. Propagate by division of roots in

spring or autumn, planting in deep soil.
Alkaloids, chief!) galegine and
Constituents

chief!)

('specially in the seed

pai inc.

tannic

a glucoside, galuteoline;

saponin;

acid;

vitamin

C;

bitter

ses

dried flowering plant, seeds

Galacto-

gogue; hypoglycaemic diuretic; diaphoretic.

;

tea of Goat's

action

and

Constituents

Volatile

is

Rue

has supportive antidiabetic

used to promote milk flow

women and animals.

The fresh juice clots milk and may

in

both

be used

in

cheese-making.

glucoside: alkaloids.

stem bark

Stimulant ionic.
South America
locally
in

cm in length. Leaves prickly, cuneate.

whorls of 6 or 8-. coarse-haired on the leaf
margins. Flowers very small, white, or greenish-

ing 120
in

cm long inflorescences borne on

and extending longer than the leaves.
Distribution European native: prefers moist
nutrient-rich loamy soils, in weedy sites,
particularly field and garden edges and

white on 2-3
leaf axils

Cultivation
Constituents

Uses

Wild plant.

glycoside, asperuloside.

dried flowering plant, freshly expressed

Vulnerary; weak diuretic.

Used externally to treat wounds and ulcers,
and internally in painful urination associated
with cystitis; in enlarged lymph glands, and in
psoriasis. The herb reduces body temperature
and blood pressure slightly. Also employed
juice

homc-opathic

allv

The dried plant

may

roasted

provide

seeds

be drunk as a tea. and the

an

excellent

coffee

Galium verum

L rl'BIaceae

Ladies' Bedstraw

combination with sliced Lemon and sugar,

Angostura bitters was used for hiccups.
Formerly an ingredient of some commercial

The pleasant honey scent of the flowers and

aroma of the dried leaves and stems
made this an admirable herb for stuffing
mattresses in medieval times. It was commonly
mixed with brae ken or some aromatic or flearepelling herb for this purpose. Dioscorides
knew it as gallon or the milk plant, and it was
used throughout Europe from the time of the

acts as a fish poison.

Contra-indicatiom Large doses cause diarrhoea.

Galium apanne L rubiaceae

Goosegrass Cleavers Clivers

Many

of the

common names

in the distribution of the plant via

which assist
animal coats.

The Greeks

meaning

also by the globular seed capsules

man

called

it

philanthropon

because the leaves and

fruit cling to

love

the

Cheese

Rennet Yellow

Bcdstraw
hay-like

Greeks

refer to the cling-

ing nature of the steins of this common weed of

roadsides and hedgerows, a character shared

94

habit,

Once- considered a valuable tonic, and used in

lexers iii preference to Cinchona Bark. In

Angostura Cusparia Bark

First
used in 1759 in Madrid by Minis.
Angostura was introduced into England by

Annual herb with straggling

the trailing, quadrangular, rough, stem attain-

for

bitter liqueurs.

rutaceae

Description

substitute.

diarrhoea and dysentery.

dyspepsia, chronic

The bark
Galipea cuspana St Hilaire

oil;

angosturine; a bitter substance, cus-

Employed

principles.
I

Wild plant.

Cultivation

Uses

conditions.

hedgerows.

layer.

Leaves

flowers

has been widely used in folk medi-

teenth century Angostura was considered an

by Dr Siegert

lias lilac

It

cine for centuries, generally being considered

effective tonic,

Hartlandii (Hort.)

clothes.

Charlotte. Until the end of the nine-

until the

1800s as a

means

of

curdling

GAL-GEL
milk

cheese manufacture.
A perennial herb

in

with

Description

decumbent somewhat woody

or

erect

round

stems,

with 4 prominent edges or almost square.

glabrous, slightly branched and from 20-80
cm tall. Leaves white and slightly hairy on the
underside, recurved, bristle-tipped, in whorls

mm

wide.
of8-i2, linear, 1.5-2.5 cm long, 12
wide, smelling of honey, on
Flowers 2-3
terminal panicles, golden-yellow, appearing

mm

summer

to mid-autumn.
European native; now a weed in
the eastern United States. On semi-dry or dry

early

Distribution

grassland.

Wild

Cultivation

plant.

saponin: an enzyme,

Constituents Silicic acid;

rennin.

Weak

dried flowering plant

Uses

diuretic:

styptic.

Formerly employed as a diuretic for dropsy

and in epilepsy. Applied externally to wounds
and some skin eruptions.

therapeutic value, but

Strong decoctions curdle milk when boiled.

and may be used in cheese manufacture: the

mild evacuant since

herb also colours cheese a greenish-yellow.

A rd dye can be obtained from the lower stem.

promotes

Mnsisis

salicylate.

from
before

methyl

produced

was formerly obtained

It

young birch
th.it
was
il

now

of Wintergre en

oil

synthetically

oi

trees

Betula

tenia

largely
.

and

isolated from the Winter-

green plant. Wintergreen was once mentioned

in the United States Pharmacopoeia but has
tievei
iv

it

much medical

attracted

widely used

Gaul tier,

Di

afta

Quebec

about

in

stems and ereci

bearing

.1

physician

is

named

practising

in

still

shrub with
branches to

<

",

mi,

him

oil oi

gaultheria

01 oil oi

winter-

obtained by distillation ol the leaves

and omprises chiefly methyl salicylate, and an
alcohol, a ketone and an estei
1

Usa

An

Stimulant; astringent; tonic;

leaves, oil

aromatic

<
;

ounter-ii

inliision

oi

throat gargle, as

.1

may be used

dou< he and

foi

as

headai Iks

lie
oil is readily absorbed by the skin and is
employed in various aches and pains, including rheumatism, ft is occasionally used internally as .in emulsion against hookworm.
Leaves may be used as
tea substitute
I

.1

he

flavouring agent
preparations.
I

oil

is

medic

it

,i|

and made

many

fungi

it

to cultivate

and

identify

responsible

for

human and animal

Today most

of the

for this

by

revolutionized
possible

of the bacteria
disease.

Agar produced is employed

purpose, and although Japanese Agar
various

species

Gelidium

oi

is

various dental

Agar

from either Chondrus enspu^ 01

combination of the two,
the New Zealand variety from Pterocladia
lucida, and
Australian from Gracilaria conBritish

is

Gigartina stellata or a

fervoidts.

nited Slates.

on poles driven into (he sea bed.

ol

onstituents Chiefly
.1

sulphuric ester

also a ti,u

oi

omposed

<>l

,1

boh v di ale
and mineral salts.

ol a cat

protein,

nun salt,
complex;

,d<

greyish-white

Uses

dried

strips

obtained by drying the liquor resulting

At;, ii ;

translucent

,kI\

Unlike gelatine Agar-Agar has no nutritive

ic

e.

oil

may

irritate

Yellow Jessamine Yellow Jasmine Root

Gelsemium

name

the

is

of

derived from the Italian Gelsomino

the- true Jessamine or Jasmine. It

was introduced
early

to

medicine accidentally

in the

nineteenth century after a Mississippi

planter mistakenly took a tea

made from

plant to cure bilious lexer. The

first

the

were

tests

made

in 1852, and it eventually entered the

United States Pharmacopoeia, and the British
Pharmaceutical Codex. Until quite recently it
was used in various mixtures lor migraine
treatment, but it is toxic even in quite small
doses and now seldom used.
/),
upturn Perennial evergreen vine to 10 m on
woody purplish-brown rhizomes stem slender,
woody, bearing opposite lanceolate to ovatc;

01

cm

lanceolate,

short-petioled

lout;, entire,

shiny dark green above, and paler

leaves

2.5

to

beneath. Flowers yellow, 2.5 4 cm long, highly

fragrant,
6 on axillary or terminal cymes,
appearing from mid-spring to mid-summer.
1

Native to southern United States,

Mexico, Guatemala; in moist woodlands.
Cultivation Wild plant; sometimes cultivated
Distribution

as

cover,

or

in

greenhouses.

Propagate from cuttings or from divisions

ol

root-stock in the late spring.

Constituents Alkaloids: gelsemine,

must not be used internally without

The pure

stabilize

Gelsemium sempervirens Ait. loganiaceae

horticulturally

Wild marine pi. mi: collected commercially and sometimes encouraged to grow

Cultivation

and thus

to

,i

seaweed to 25 cm long;
ha II us develops from a persistent basal
the
portion each growing season, is cylindrical 01
flattened, pinnately subdivided and ofa tough
consistency. The spherical fruit appear in the
late autumn and winter months.
Distribution Gelidium amansu Km/.. G. elegam
Kutz. and G. polycladum Sond. are found in the
maritime zones of Japan and G. cartilagineum
Gaill.) in the maritime zones ol South Africa
Description Perennial

from boiling the seaweed for ') liouis In the

presence ol dilute sulphuric acid) Bulk laxative emulsion si.ibih/i

ContTO'indicationi

skin;

in

1880s

bacteriological research

and

itant

the leaves

and

bacteria
the

considered the finest and has the greatest gel

is

11

of
in

strength, other seaweeds also provide Agar;

Arbutin: ericolin; urson; tannin;

al-,

Koch

used

purifiers.

cm tall.
cm long,

and shin) above, palei beneath,

petiolate and apiculate; whin- flowers 7.5 mm
long, solitary and drooping, appearing from
the leal base in mid and late summer, and
followed l>\ scarlet berries 7 nun in diameter.
Distribution
North American native, from
Newfoundland to Georgia. On poor soils.
Cultivation Wild plant.
<

cultivation

Robert

Also

,i

the

for

creeping

glabrous

a volatile oil

the

made from

the top oval leaves,

al

750.

Evergreen

Description

attention, nor

in lolk traditions,

Gelidium spp. rhodophyceae

Agar-Agar Japanese Isinglass
The use of Agar as a semi-solid medium

peristalsis.

in

emulsions of other laxatives. Mostly employed

as the basis of bacteriological culture media,
and as a thickening agent in some foodstuffs,
both commercially and domestically.
Employed as the physical base for certain air

Gaultheria procumbens L Ericaceae

Wintergreen Checkerbcrrv Mountain Lea

Most commercial

absorbs water

intestine, increases the faeces bulk,

used medically as

it is
it

sempervirine

and gelsemicine; phytosterol; resin; fixed oil;

emodin monomethyl ether /3-methylaeculetin.
Action largely due to the alkaloids which
;

depress the central nervous

swem.

Sedative;
rhizome and roots
nervine. Formerly employed in the treatment
of neuralgia, sic k headac he, menstrual and
rheumatic pains and pat in ulai ly migi aine
and trigeminal neuralgia. A perfume can be
Uses

dried

195

GEX-GLE
tall. Bearing glabrous or pubescent forked
branches and 1.5-3 cm l n Ei oblong-elliptic or

oblong-lanceolate,

nearly

alternate,

glabrous, simple leaves. Flowers 15

golden yellow, in racemes 37.5

appearing mid-summer

to early

sessile,

mm

long,

cm

long,

*^Bk^

*J^

4W

~i

B Ai

^-V\

1 j

^^l^H^rSEva

autumn, and

followed by long narrow pods.

Native

Distribution

to

Europe and western

Asia: naturalized in North America.

Intro-

duced elsewhere. On dryish loamy or sandv

-oiK in light woodland, pastures, heaths and
meadows.
Cultivation Wild plant.

The

Constituents

yellow

h^mJ3

alkaloids, sparteine, cvtisine

and methyl-cytisine: a Havone.

glycoside,

genistein; a

The

luteolin.

combined
W^^L

action weakly cardio-active and vasoconstric-

tive.

(lowering plant, -red-, leaves Emetic;

purgative; diuretic: weakly cardio-active.
u

>

Formerly used

rheumatism and

dropsy,

and purgative:

a- a diuretic

as

The young bud- may

dyspepsia.

pan- POISONOl double vision, giddiness,

respiratory depression and death. Gelsemium
i- more strongly
depressant than Hemlock.
All

toxic effects include

dye.

appetite,

Not to be used internally

during pregnane) or hypertension.

eating.

L gentianaceae

In

material

known,

centuries

as

i-

and

bitter

the most bitter plant

been

has

used

Several

tonic.

L legimino-u
Dyer's Greenweed Dyer's Broom
A- the common name suggests this herb was
an important dyeing plant, and was often combined with Woad to produce a green wool dye.

Europe and North

America have been employed for the same
purpose, and it i- not certain which of the
European species was known to the Greeks.

It

i-

which

closely
in

related

the

Genista, but unlike

weed does not

qualities and

to

Sarothamnus

Middle Ages was

tin-

now

called

plant Dyer's Green-

possess verj
is

scoparius

itself

strong medicinal

mainly employed

in

homecraft dyeing;.
Description Perennial

trate or

decumbent,

herbaceous shrub, prosm. usually 30-50 cm

to

name

(rutin-. King of Illyria

Some

since.

Di

167

b.c

for

cleaning wounds.

in veterinary

medicine

is

used as a bitter prepara-

L geraniaceae
American Cranesbill Wild Geranium
The specific name of American Cranesbill

is

derived from macula meaning spotted, since the

leaves

become blotched with whitish-green

is from
the Greek
crane after the beak-like shape nl

they age. Geranium

for the

plant- survive as long a- 50 years.

Herbaceous perennial

scription

reaching 60

taproot

thick

180

i-

the

Geranium maculatum

word

however,

powder

he fermented root

who.
according to Dioscorides, introduced the herb
to medicine. It has been widely employed ever

gentiana,

stimulates

tion in alcoholic drink-.

when

he

it

improve appetite.

derived from

doses

for

other

Gentiana species native to

Genista tinctoria

small

and should be taken an hour before

Formerly used externally

to

Gentian Yellow Gentian

Yellow Gentian root

fc

particularly useful in anorexia associated with

also used as a

Contra-indicatiom

m
k!m

Acts as a tonic on the gastro-intestinal system:

aper substitute.
The (lowering plant furnishes a yellow-green

Gentiana lutea

'"

salivation.

be pickled and used as a

Contra-indications

the flowers.

jL

v-

''

prophylactic

made from

^ |j^^

in

against hydrophobia.

cm

to

10

cm on
Stem-

long.

-imple and erect, glabrous, bearing oval. 5 7

veined, shiny leaves 30 cm long and 15 cm
wide: lower leaves on -hort petioles, upper
leaves sessile. Bright yellow flowers. 2.5 -3

cm

peduncles in 3-10 flowered

axillarv clusters, appearing late summer to
early autumn on plants at least 10 years old.
Distribution Native to Europe and Asia Minor:
introduced elsewhere. Common in mountain

on

long,

pastures,

long

and

on calcareous

wooded mountain forest-,

which are porous but often

thinly
soils

moist.
Cultivation
in

Wild and cultivated commercialh

Eastern Europe and North America.

Unsaturated lactones gentiopicroamarogentine and gentiopicrine. which

are partially or totally converted depending
Constituents

sides

upon

the

method

glvcosides. gentiin
oil:

to

the

bitter

volatile

sugars: mucilage: tannin.

The combined
bile

of drying

and gentiamarine:

and

its

action stimulates secretion of

release from the gall bladder.

dried root, and dried fermented root

Cholagogue; choleretic: stomachic: promote-

v->

GEN-GLE
the fruit; hence also the herb's common names.
This was a favourite herb of the American
Indians, once official in the United States
Pharmacopoeia, but now restricted to folk

medicine.
Description

stem

Erect hairy perennial to 60

solitary,

stout rhizome.

Some

are long-petioled.
15

cm

2.5-4

forking,

leaves opposite, 7.5-

wide, 5-lobed, deeply incised and cut at

end,

the

leaves arise

Stem

cm

on
from root and

occasionally

but

cm

hairy.

Flowers rose-purple, large.

cm long peduncles, 2-3

wide, on 2.5

pubescent, reddish stems to 45 cm. Leaves

opposite, palmate with 3-5 leaflets with deeply
cut divisions, on long petioles, deep green

and

mm

cm
1
red tinged. Flowers pink or rose, 5
wide, in pairs or peduncles arising in terminal
axils. Petals

Appear

have

early

3 longitudinal

summer

white

stripes.

autumn.

to late

Native to North America, Eurasia

and North Africa; common on rocky soils,
walls, mixed and deciduous woodland edges,
preferring moist and nitrogenous soils.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Distribution

flowers arising in the axils, appear late spring

Constituents Volatile oil; tannin; a bitter sub-

summer.
Distribution North American native.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Tannic and gallic acids, 1025%,
which produce astringent action; oleo-resin.

stance, geraniine.

to late

Uses

dried

rhizome

Astringent;

styptic.

Useful in diarrhoea, in haemorrhage of the

upper gastro-intestinal tract, haemorrhoids,

peptic ulcers and aphthous ulcers. Formerly
recommended in dysentery and cholera. Used
as a douche in leucorrhoea, as a gargle for sore
throats, and in the powdered form externally
to stop

wound

bleeding.

L geraniaceae

Geranium robertianum

Herb Robert Red Robin

A common herb in Europe and

an old medi-

plant which was once official in tin

Middle Ages, and ascribed to St Robert or
Pope Robert, hence the medieval name lierba
sanctu ruperti. It is probable that the plant was
commonly associated with magic and goblins

names

it

rellcc ted in

the range ol

has been given in various

countries.

Still

used

in folk

European

medicine

in

mam

parts of the world.

/)>

tcription

Of most

plant

diuretic: sedative.

use externally for treatment of skin

and

eruptions, stomatitis, bruises

The

dried

plant,

weak

may

leaves

erysipelas.

be chewed or used as a gargle

inflammations of the mouth and throat.

Formerly used in diarrhoea and applied
externally as a poultice to relieve inflammations: also used as an eyewash.
in

01

dec

smelling annual

01

umbent. glandular-

Glechoma hederacea

Ground
Geum urbanum L rosaceae
Avens Herb Bennet Wood Avens
Avens is also known as Herb Bennet

names which derive

Ivy

Gill

L labiatae
Over The Ground/Field

Balm
In the second century a.d.

or

directly

Ground

the use of
exes,

and

it

is

Galen was aware of

Ivy for treating inflamed

probable that the herb was a

Irom the medieval name lurba bent dicta from

the Latin meaning the blessed herb, since the
strongly aromatic roots were thought to drive

remedy from the

The plant was also employed
to impart flavour to it and

away

keeping qualities. Glechoma was used much

earlier than hops were, being widely employed

evil spirits.

For

this

and

it

In

reason amulets of the herb were worn,

was

also kept in

botanical

name

popular

folk

reflects

the

roots'

is

also

Distribution

Native

form.

naturalized

in

is

<

mm

European

Distribution

common

native:

wood

wasteland,

<

iillr,

glycoside

in

Pubescent perennial, strong-smeldecumbent stems

which form a dense mat. Leaves hairy. Ions;
petioled and rotund or renilorm to 4 cm wide,
coarsely crenate and deeply cordate at the
base. Flowers in clusters of
3 borne in the
Description

ling with Ions; creeping or

_>

terminal

leaf axils,

mid-spring

damp

to earl)

bluish

or

pink,

appear

summer.

to Europe,
north Asia:
North America. Common on
grassland in open woods and ten wood-

prefers moist

soil.

Wild plant.

iilmn

Volatile

Constituent

eugenol,

its

edges, hedgerows,

mixed and deciduous woodland;

nitrogenous

improve

known

old English

thickets,

to

as Alehoof or Tunhooffrom an
word for the herb. hofe. and from
the process of mashing and fermenting the
brew know n as tunning.
It

from the Greek meaning to

produce an agreeable smell. The fragrance is
unfortunately lost on drying. It is rarely used
toda\ e\ epi in lolk medicine.
Description Perennial herb on clove-smelling
rhizome
2 cm thick, bearing
7 cm long,
richl) branched down) stems to 30 cm. Leaves
3-lobed, the terminal leaflets largest, irregular,
renate 01 dentate: upper leaves palmate and
sessile. PaleyelloH flowers, 5-petalled, 5 7
diameter, in loose open panicles, appearing
earl) summer to late autumn. Variable in
geum

scent:

earliest times.
in clarifying ale

until the early 1600s.

homes.
also

Unpleasantly

biennial, on erec

flowering

fresh

Benedict's herb:

cinal

in earlier times, a lac

i'ses

Styptic: astringent:

the

oil,

geoside

comprising

being

lattei
in

mainl)

combined

as

the fresh plant: tannin;

bitter print iples.

Uses

dried

rhizome,

Astringent: styptii

matoi
Useful
ioiik

fresh

flowering

plant

hitter: tonic; anti-inflam-

in

to

diarrhoea, and as an aromatic bittei

promote appetite following

illness.

wounds to reduce inflammation,

and employed as a gargle lor sore gums or in
Applied

to

halitosis

The dried rhi/ome was formerl)

substitute for Cloves;

used as

used as a
pot

herb

in

broths and soups, and hunt; with clothes to

repel moths.

Also used tO flavour

ale.

i<)7

GLY-HAM
land, preferring moist, nitrogenous

Essential

Constituents

oil;

tannin;

bitter

compound, glechomine.

Formerly mostly used

to soothe coughs,

and

as

gentle stimulant tonic following digestive

once applied externally as a

the treatment of bruises, contus-

disorders. Also

poultice for

and

ions,

sore eyes.

Taken

as snuff to relieve

headache.

Used

as a tea

and

known

Glycyrrhiza glabra

ales.

L leguminosae

Liquorice has been used medicinally for 3000

years and was recorded on Assyrian tablets and
Egyptian papyri. It was known as Scythian

Theophrastus

to

commonest

varieties exist, the

and

glycyrrhiza

and

the

old

names

radix dulcis reflected the sweet

taste of the roots.

corruption of the medieval

from glycyrrhiza.
Now grown on a wide scale, it docs not appear
to have been cultivated in Central or Western
Europe until the fifteenth century, and il was
first introduced to the Pontefract district of
England by the Dominican Black Friars.

Liquorice

is

gliquiricia, itself

Glycyrrhizin

3o"

starch

20 -30 lilac-blue
loose racemes 10 15 cm

Inflorescence

cm

long

in

of

Appearing mid to
late summer, followed by reddish-brown pod,
1-2.5 crn on gDistribution Europe to West Pakistan. On deep
sandy rich soils, preferably in river valleys.
Cultivation Wild plant, although rarely wild in
central and western Europe and more common
in eastern Europe. Introduced to temperate
long, arising in leaf axils.

'

.comprising

of glycyrrhizic

protein; fat; resin; asparagin:

volatile oil; saponins.

Demul-

inflammatory.
in coughs and bronchitis, and in the
treatment of gastric ulcers: also has a mineralocorticoid action in treatment of Addison's
disease. Once used as an eye lotion for use on
inflamed eyelids.
Used as a sweetening agent and flavouring in
pharmaceutical preparations, and once in the
powdered form as a base in pill manufacture.
Used to flavour some beers such as Guinness.
Large quantities are employed in tobacco
flavouring some tobaccos contain io n Liquorice
in snuff" manufacture, and in confei .

tionery.

Root

pulp incorporated in insulating mill

mushroom compost.
Contra-indications Large doses may cause sodium
retention and potassium loss leading to water
board, and

retention, hypertension,

headache and short-

ness of breath.

As

its

name

L compositae

Low Cudweed

Everlasting

indicates.

Marsh Cudweed

derives

from

the

Latin

is

an

name

uliginosus

meaning of marshy places. Gnaphalium is from

the Greek gnaphalon meaning a flock of wool,
from

its

woolly appearance.
has never achieved wide use even

The herb
folk

medicine,

Constituents Volatile oil; resin; tannic acid: the

combined action bemg

antiseptic

and

astrin-

gent.

dried flowering plant

i'ses

septic; antitussive;

weak

aphthous

Astringent; anti-

diaphoretic.

and mouthwash

in

quinsy and tonsillitis. Also of

benefit in diarrhoea, pharyngitis and laryn-

gitis.

ulcers,

may

poultice

be applied externally to

cuts, bruises or ulcers.

Once used

in

smoking mixtures.

L Malvaceae
Cotton Cotton Root
The plant has been cultivated in India
Gossypium herbaceum

since

the earliest times as a source of Cotton fibre,

and

its

botanical

name

name

gossypium

is

the ancient

Cotton-producing plant.
The method of cultivation was introduced to
China and Egypt from India in about 500 B.C..
and in 1774 G. herbaceum was taken to the
United States.
This species of Cotton is also called Levant
Cotton: many other species and varieties are
employed today in cotton manufacture including American Upland Cotton G. hirsutum
L Chinese Cotton G. arboreum L and Sea
Island Cotton {G. barbadense L
Latin

for the

and is rarely mentioned in

Although it possesses useful

it is still

The species G. peruvianum was probably grown

in Peru before Cotton was cultivated in Egypt.
Description Herbaceous annual, in warm climates biennial or perennial, forming a subshrub
to 1.5 m with branching stems, hairy or
occasionally glabrous, bearing reticulate, coriaceous and cordate leaves, with 5-7 acute and
lanceolate lobes. Flowers yellow with purple

mm

in

classical writings.

properties,

acidic,

inhabitant ofwel situations; the specific

uliginosum

autumn.
European native. On damp,
sandy soils - especially wet heathland.
Cultivation Wild plant.
to early

Specifically used as a gargle

dried root-stock, dried extract

Uses

Marsh Cudweed

salts

flavonoid glycosides, liquiritoside and

isoliquiritoside; sucrose and dextrose 5-10'

Gnaphalium uliginosum

reach 8 m. Erect stem bearing 4 7 pairs

of leaflets 2.5 5 cm long, ovate, glutinous
flowers

510%

acid;

may

on primary taproot

beneath.

are var. typica

var. glandulifera.

Constituents

Herbaceous perennial. 50 cm .5 m
15 cm long which subdivides into 35 subsidiary roots 1.25 m in
length and several horizontal stolons which
Description
tall,

Several

Of value

as Gill tea.

Liquorice Licorice

root

Distribution

in early winter.

cent; expectorant: laxative: spasmolytic: anti-

to clarify beers

Drunk

3-4-year-old plants

calcium and potassium

vulnerary.
a

wide, with brown bracts, and overtopped

4
by the terminal leaves. Appearing late summer

Persia,

and
Tonic; diuretic;

fresh flowering plant

i'ses

mm

and extensively cultivated in Russia,

Spain and India. Propagated by root
division in autumn: roots harvested from
zones,

soil.

Wild plant; a variegated variety is

grown horticulturally as ground cover. Propagate by division in the autumn.
Cultivation

long 3-4 celled

centre, followed by 18
capsule containing about 36 seeds covered
with greyish trichomes. lint.
Distribution Originally native to East

and now

rarely used.

Description Annual, 5-20 cm tall, with woolly,

ascending or decumbent stems, much branched
at the base: bearing narrow, spirally arranged,
simple, oblong, woolly leaves 1-5 cm long.
Small flower-heads in terminal clusters, vellow.

to

Indies,

Arabia and Asia Minor: prefers

and loams, especially alluvial soils.

Wild plant: widelv cultivated in
United States, India and Egypt. Seed sown in
rows 1-1 .5 m apart, later thinning to 30-60 cm
rich sands
Cultivation

apart; manure applied in early stages of

growth, and plants are treated as annuals to
prevent insect and disease attacks.
Constituents root bark acid resin: dihydroxy

benzoic acid: salicylic acid: fatty acids: ceryl

alcohol; betaine; sugars; phytosterol: phenolic

_*^^^^>^*'

mm

Sjimg

substances.
(root

i'ses

bark,

Formerly used

in

rhagia. Cotton seed

oil for

^pmHo*

seed

oil

Abortifacient

emmenagogue.

\J0\
4fu

the treatment of metroroil

is

used similarly to olive

external applications, but internally as a

oil have
been administered intravenously in cases ol
severe nutritional deficiency, or where nitro-

lubricant cathartic. Emulsions of the

gen-free diets are required.

Seed once used

iK?

.98

The
The

oil is

seed

as a food.

employed

in soap manufacture.
trichomes are a major source of

GLY-HAM
Flowers

cm

1.5

vellowish

white or pink, with

tube on short peduncles;

long,

corolla

appear singly

from

in leaf axils

summer

late

to

autumn.

early

Distribution Native to southern Europe: introduced to north and west Asia and North
America. On marshy fields, in ditches, peat

bogs, river-banks, beside slow-flowing or stag-

nant water. Prefers wet calcareous

stand summer drought.

but

soils,

will

Wild

Cultivation

plant.

cardeno-

Constituents Cardio-active glycosides

lides

and gratiotoxin;

gratioline

i.

bitter

principle.

flowering

dried

Uses

Emetic:

root

plant,

cathartic; cardiotonic diuretic.

Formerly used

as

purgative and

violent

emetic, and as a diuretic in dropsical conditions.

and

Also in liver disorders such as jaundice

Many other uses have

as a heart tonic.

been ascribed

cotton fibre.

No

Contra-indications

part of the plant should be

used internally without medical advice.

to the plant. Still

Highly toxic and drastically

Contra-indications

purgative. Large doses

Gratiola officinalis

used homeo-

pathically.

may

cause death.

L scrophulariaceae
L zygophyllaceae

Hedge Hyssop

Guaiacum

Hedge Hyssop belongs to the same family as

Foxglove and possesses similar cardioactive

Guaiacum Wood or Resin

Guaiacum Wood was first exported

was introduced to northern

Europe in the Middle Ages and used as a
purgative; its employment has been described
as 'heroic' since it was so powerful, and. indeed,
it was probably responsible lor several deaths.
Nevertheless it was described as Gratia or
Gratia Dei meaning thanks-be-to-God in appreproperties.

ciation of

its

It

After the sixteenth

it

has recentl)

entut\

its

use dec lined, but

been introduced into homeo-

pathic practice.
Description Perennial,

on white, scab, creeping

rhizome, from which arise erec or decumbent,

square, simple or o< asionally brant lied stem1. eaves
to 35 cm.
opposite and decussate.
t

<

sessile, finely

Wood,

The

achieved

-en. He. glabrous, and Lanceolate.

known

then

considerable

lignum

as

reputation

vittu,

the

in

sixteenth century tor the treatment of 'Frenche

pockes' or syphilis.

method

success

Its

was possibly due

administration

of

patients were

Wood

given massive doses of the

Taken

arthritis.

from the
island of St Domingo in the Carribean in 5
after Oviedo had learnt of the drug guayacan
from the local inhabitants.

to the

effectiveness.

officinale

decoction,

wrapped up in bed and shut in a hot

room. In 193a it was demonsti ated that raising
a patient's body temperature to |. C was

as a hot decoction

it

is

mildly

when

diaphoretic; also useful in sore throats

applied as a lozenge.

Guaiacum

used as a colour

test to

detect the presence of oxidizing agents

which

will

turn

it

tincture

is

blue.

The hard wood was once used

ture

of such

bowling alley

The

resin

edible fats

articles

in the

rulers,

manufacand

pulleys

balls.

employed
and oils.
is

as

as

an antioxidant

for

tightly

partially

Hamamelis virginiana L hamamelidaceae

Witch Hazel
A well-known garden ornamental and source

s\philis

of the distilled commercial preparation also

.1

effective method of destroying the

bacterium. Guaiacum Resin was
introduced to the London Pharmacopoeia in
(677, but the drug was gradually relegated to

being merely a constituent of the proprietary

blood-purifying mixtures ol the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries known as Compound

Mixtures,

Uterative

combined

often

which had DO

sars. ip. 11 ilia,

with

syphilis

in

effect

known as witch hazel. Forked Hamamelis

branches were employed as divining rods by
water diviners in North America, and Indians
brought the medicinal virtues of the plant to
the notice of European settlers. Hamamelis
w.is included in the United States Pharmaco-

treatment.
I

>

n />!

mi

reaching

Low to medium sized evergreen tree

m; trunk covered with greenish-

18"

brown furrowed bark;

ovate very obtuse

and

a 2 -celled

capsule-shaped

Distribution Native- to

coast

leaves

fruit.

Carribean

South Aim in

o|

pinnate with
Blue flowers

leaflets, in pairs.

a;

islands, north

especially on arid

plains.
Cultivation

Wild

and exported
wine h

commercially

wood

or as the resin

eithei as the

extracted by heating the

is

Resin

Constituents

and

plant. Collected

/)-guaiai onii

10",,

vellow

20

25",,

ai id

jo
,

logs.

comprising

%-

guaiaretic acid

guaiaCU acid; guaiac -ft-resin guaiai

vanillin; guaiacsaponin and guaiacsa-

ponic ac id

guaiaguttin.

heartwood. resin
Focal stimulant:
irritant; mild laxative; anti-inflammatory.
Formerly frequently prescribed as a preventaUses

tive in

srW

kJ5$Lr*

gout and

in the

ran

treatment of rheumatoid

199

H ED-HIE
poeia of 1882. and the leaves are

still

included

Peduncles long, thickening towards the

some national pharmacopoeias today. The

name hamamelis is from the Greek words for
apple and together, since the flowers and fruit
are produced at the same time.

volucre. Flower-heads 7.5

Small tree or spreading shrub, from

.5 2.5 m tall, stem usually single and to 10 cm
in diameter. Bark smooth and brown. Leaves
elliptic to obovate 7.5-12.5 cm long, coarselv
crenate-dentate,
downy pubescent when
young. Flowers bright yellow externally,
brownish-yellow inside, 2 cm long, strap-like,
appearing in the late autumn when leaves have

ray florets are chrome-yellow

in

The

central disc

Grown

volatile oil, to

which

13 to

15%

ethyl alcohol

added.

is

tringent

As-

haemostatic.

Once employed

sprains, as
distilled

is

the diluted tincture. Very dilute

witch ha/el

constituent

may

be used

proprietary

of

in

eye lotions.

haemorrhoid

ointments and cosmetic preparations

ally as an astringent.

specific-

must not
be confused with the tincture made from hark
or leaves; the latter may be extremely astrin-

may

Hedera helix

cause disfigurement to the skin.

L araliaceae

Ivy Common Ivy/English Ivy

The Ivy has never been widely accepted as
having great medicinal value, vet it was once

much

respected as a magical plant protecting

and symbolizing

against evil spirits

fidelity.

was also dedicated to Bacchus, possibly

It
because an infusion of the leaves in wine was
considered an effective preventative and treatment for drunkenness. For the same reason an
Ivy bush painted above tavern doors symbolized the good quality of the wine served therein.
No modern work has been undertaken to test
ancient belief.

this

Some

Ivy plants

Description

may

Woody

means

reach more than 500

evergreen perennial, climb-

of adventitious roots

reaching great heights.

5 lobed,

cm

Young

long:

veins

to

and often

leaves usually

margins entire or nearly

from triangular-ovate
18

varying
reniform. and from

often

so.

light-coloured.

I'pper leaves and those on fruiting branches

unlobed, narrowly ovate. Flowers small, green-

)<

diameter

autumn on

to late

followed

garden

Russia. Hungary. United

Mexico. Argentina and parts of Africa.
horticulturally in sunny position from

-own

in late

spring to early

summer

they

10-year-

black, globose.

l>v

mm

t>

fruit.

Europe; widely naturaltemperate /ones and very common,

although rarer in coniferous woodland.
Distribution Native to

ized

in

Wild

Cultivation

extensively

plant;

grown

horticulturally with approximately 40 foliage

forms recognized.
Saponin.

hederacoside

hederegenine.

vonng

Once

leaves

used

Antispasmodic.

internally

treatment

the

in

<>l

whooping-cough, neuralgia, rheumatic pain,

bronchitis. The berries, though toxic, were
considered an effective purgative.
Leaves may be applied externally as a poultice
fol some skin complaints, sores and rheumatic
formerly

pain. For toothache the

with a

decoction

lilac k

gummy

mouth may

leaves

ol

were- formerly
resin

the

plugged with the

produced

varnish was made' from the

be rinsed

vinegar;

in

bv

the plant.

gummy

resin.

The whole plant is POISONand should onlv be used externally. The

berries mav
cause blisters and the leaves

brown.
Seed contains an unsaturated fixed
albumin: lecithin: betaine: cho30

he-stnut

Contra-indications

OUS

Constituents
oil

dermatitis.

potassium nitrate: potassium carbonate; tannins: a flavonic glycoside,

L compositae
Sunflower Common Sunflower
The aptly named Sunflower is well-known

quercimetrin.

line: plant contain-

Helianthus annuus

the-

source of a fine salad

commercially

in several

other purposes.
the

plant

is

Mexico where

Its

most
it

is

oil.

and

is

cultivated

countries for this and

origins are uncertain, but

probably

indigenous

called chimalati.

seed, often

field as

growing the plant

to

American

Indians have long cultivated the Sunflower

its

in the

for

same

maize.

was once believed that growing Sunflower

near to one's home gave protection against
malaria, which may be explained by the fact
that an infusion of the flowers has weak
insecticidal properties.

Robust annual from 30 cm to 5 m

tall: stems erect, sometimes mottled, rounded
and rough, bearing opposite leaves below and
Description

alternate long-petioled. ovate, acute or

inate leaves above. 10

cm

wide.

30

cm

seed,

Uses
as

It

years of age.
ing by

appearing mid

ish,

old plants

decayed teeth

Contra-indications Distilled witch hazel

gent and

seed

Uses

haemorrhages from the

rectum, nose and uterus; now externally in the
treatment of haemorrhoids and varicose veins.
Distilled witch ha/el is applied to bruises and
in

as

should not be transplanted. Several hybrids

exist including some with double heads, and
with colours ranging from a dull white to

Constituents

bark, leaves, flower-bearing twigs

Uses

found

often

Rumania. Bulgaria.

North American native; common

in damp woods from Nova Scotia
to Nebraska and Georgia.
Cultivation Wild plant; cultivated horticultural^ as a hardy garden ornamental; prefers
lime-free soil and flowers best in the open,

<>l

the

escape. Cultivated commercially, particularlv

Distribution

consists entirely

Wild

Cultivation

and profuse

It

brownish-purple and

sun.

in full

States.

flower-bearing twigs.

is

Distribution Native to Central America and

western North America: introduced and widespread in many countries: tolerates most soils

fallen.

in-

diameter,

to 35 cm in diameter in cultivated
forms, appearing late summer to early autumn.

although can be grown in semi-shade.

Tannin, comprising hamamelitannin bark 6%, leaves u ",,
gallic acid;
calcium oxalate; and traces of volatile oil,
saponin and flavenoid pigments. Leaves also
contain phlobatannin. Distilled witch hazel is
prepared from witch ha/el brush, the young

in

and up

Description

Constituents

cm

15

acum-

long and 10-20

llowei-

seed

oil.

occasionally

leal

and

Nutritive: expectorant: diuretic.

Formerly the seeds were considered useful

in

and bronchial infections: and

leaves and flowers were used in malaria. Used
externally on bruises, and a homeopaihically
prepared tincture is employed in constipation.
Sunflower oil is widely used in foodstuffs as a
salad and margarine oil, and pharmaceutical^
as a substitute for olive or ground-nut oils.
Seed is roasted and eaten, used as a Coffee
substitute, ground into meal for cakes and
soups. Unopened flower buds are boiled and
eaten with butter in the same way as
treating coughs

Artichoke-.
It has excellent burning qualities and

used

in

old-fashioned

oil

may

be

lamps.

Leaves provide animal fodder, and when dried

mav be used as a substitute for cigar tobacco.

Seed receptacles and

paper manufacture.

stalk pith

may

be used in

HED-HIE
Helleborus niger L ranunculaceae
Black Hellebore Christmas Rose

Helleborus

the classical

is

name

for a closelv

and was a
the White Hellebore and

related species Helleborus orientalis.

term also applied

to

other Hellebores by the Greeks.

Many
and

of the Hellebores have similar actions,

L and

several species such as H. viridis

Green and Stinking Hellebores respectively, were employed by herbalists in the Middle Ages - largely for their

purgative

but also in the treatment of

effect,

certain skin complaints. Outside

their use

is

now

homeopathy,

confined to horticulture.

Perennial

Description

an acid flavouring at least as early as 1774; the

calices being the parts used. It is now being

generic name, Heracleum

after

(hence
robust-

its

used in other parts of the world, and

ally

popular

is

especi-

Switzerland where it is called

used in wines and sauces.

in

stems
bearing hairy, large (15-60 cm), pinnate to
palmately lobed leaves. Flowers white in
umbels of 5-15 cm diameter, appearing midsummer to mid-autumn. Variable in form.
Distribution Native to Europe, northern Asia,

karkade and is
Other parts ot the plant are used medicinally,
and the stem yields an excellent fibre known as
rosella hemp.
Description Bushy annual reaching 2 m, forming
a broad growth by branching at the base.
Stems reddish and almost glabrous. Basal
leaves undivided and ovate; stem leaves
3-lobed, 7.5-10 cm wide, lobes 2.5 cm wide
and crenate. Flowers borne in the leaf axils.

western North America, in woodland, niass-

solitary,

have long been used both

ness; related species

human and animal

foodstuffs. Particularly

favoured by Scandinavian peoples.

Description Stout, erect biennial or perennial

50-200 cm

tall,

with ridged, hollow

cm: on slowly

30

to

its

as

foetidus L, the

H.

L umbelliferae

Heracleum sphondylium

Cow Parsnip Hogweed

A common weed, dedicated to Hercules

creeping, tangled, blackish-brown root-stock.

The

true stem does not rise

above ground:

basal leaves have long petioles, are leathery

and evergreen, serrate, and deeply divided

into 7 or more oblong leaflets. Flowering stem
simple or occasionally forked, bearing single
white or purplish flowers
cm wide, appear-

38

ing mid-winter to mid-spring.

European native; especially southand central mountainous regions. In

mountain forests, open woodland, on stony,
Distribution

ern

humus-rich, calcareous soils only.

Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as a garden plant.

Propagate by division of root-stock, or from

sown as soon as ripe, in the open or under
a cold-frame. Well-drained shad) positions on
seed

chalky

soil

include

are ideal. Horticultural varieties

var.

Constituents

Hayne

Altifolius

Wheel: both have large

and Potters

flowers.

cardenolide, hellebrigenine; sap-

onosides, comprising helleboreine and

borine; also protoanemonine.

helle-

The combined

action of the cardenolide and saponosides

1

dio-active

ai
>

and purgativ

diird root-stock

Powerful hydragogue

cathartic; cardio-ai n\< :

<

)n< <

used

lo< al

heart tonic; local anaesthetic

irritant.

emmenagogi

purgative;

ai

is

<-.

abortive and

in

many other onditions. Now obsolete ex< epl in

homeopathy which employs a tincture foi

land. roadsides, cm nutrient-rich, moist

treating

10

<

ei

|>s\

tain

The powdered
stituent of sn<

hoses.

was once
zing powders.
root-stock

Contraindications All parts

duces

ii

applied

1800

Cultivation

pro-

plex

altitude.

long ovoid

Distribution Native to tropical Asia;

sphondrin;

Pimpinellin;

bergapetene,

oil;

com-

furo-coumarin

to

which the photosensitization is due.

young shoots, seed. Ira\cs Stimulant:

lo< all\

stomachic

ol

the

gastro-

emmenagogue; mild

hypotensive;

aphrodisiac

Leal

remedies

in

used

Once

used to treat

The

bomeopathically.

seeds have a substantiated aphrodisiacal action.

used

Young
in

Sudan and Mexico. Needs a

Wild, and cultivated commercially

Ceylon, Egypt, Asia and Mexico. Can be
grown horticultural!) from seed sown in the
Cultivation

shoots can be cooked and eaten, 01

European

certain cast

beers.

Young

and eaten iaw

Percutaneous photosensitizand possibl) permanent purple

tituents

i<

dried

l'u\

laxative

Used

ation

as

blisters

pigmentation

may

follow ingestion or handl-

light.

Hibiscus sabdariffa

L Malvaceae

is

the old Latin

introduced

to

ci

name

Africa and Asia as a cough remedy,

dressing and diuretic Mostly employed

in

an acid flavouring

foi

this

.1

plant

Jamaica and used

as

for sauces,

jams,

jellies,

and chutneys.

pleasant tea which can also be used as a red

olout ant

Hieraaum
Jamail

weak

antiscorbutic.

drinks, wines, curries

ing ol juice with subsequent exposure to sun-

Roselle Sudanese Tea Red

and phytosterolin.
young calices Diuretic;

also glucosides

wound

.1-

Red and white lorms also exist.

Organii acids, comprising tartaric,

citric, malic and hi hist

acids; red pigment
comprising gossipetin and hibiscin vitamin C;

sterna are peeled

Hibiscus

in

Contra-indications

which w

introduced

tropic a environ-

ment.

combination with othei

hypertension.

Now

epilepsy.

to

fruit.

early spring.
benefit in

ol

is

and almost sessile: consisting ol red

calyx and yellow corolla and followed In .'-cm

Wild plant.

Constituents

POISONOUS;

inflammation

con-

mucous membranes, and of the skm

violent

intestinal

soils.

I01

othei hei

pilosella

l>

teas.

L oompositae

Mouse-ear Hawkweed Mouse Bloodworl

Ihe botanical name I In nil nun
from the
is

Greek

lot

hawk

alter the tradition thai

hawks

201

HOR-HYO
considered

was a sacred grain. Besides

it

many

food and medicine,

its

use

from
the early Egyptians have enjoyed beer obtained
from fermented Barley. The Greeks and later
generations grew a closely related species. H.
distichon L, which itself was the parent of
as

many

civilizations

other cultivated lorms.

annual grass, to 90 cm
wide, short and tapering.

Description Stout erect

mm-2 cm

leaves 7

The terminal

spike

is

7.5-10

cm

long, erect or

occasionally nodding, topped by

many

long,

stout beards.
Distribution

Temperate

H. vulgare

Cultivation

is

cereal crop.

a cultigen derived from

an oriental wild grass, either H. spontaneum

Koch or H. ischnatherum 'Schulz.
Wide
commercial cultivation.
Constituents Starch (75-80",, 1; proteins; fat;
vitamins B and E; mucilage.
Uses (seed, germinating seed
Nutritive: demulcent. Barley water is a soothing preparation for inflammations of the gastro-intestinal
system, and a nutritive demulcent in conj

I.

Cooked Barley

valescence.
for sores.

The germinating

is

a useful poultice

grain contains an

hordenine. whose action resembles

ephedrine and it is thus of use in bronchitis.
A well-known cereal with many culinary uses
in soups and stews.
alkaloid,

improved
it

for

belief, herbalists

some eye complaints, but

largely fallen into disuse.

Mouse-Ear

from

is

auricula muris,

it

apothecaries'

Flowers indistinct,

term

strobilus

summer

being a description of the shape

on creeping

autumn. Very variable in form.

Distribution European native; introduced
other temperate zones.

On

warm

to

Uses

Weak

diuretic;

used

in

the

treatment

Humulus
of liver

and diarrhoea. Possesses

weak antipyretic action and was used in the
treatment of intermittent fever. The powdered
enteritis

lupulus

L cannabaceae

diameter;

appear

late

Bine

The

Hops revolutionized brewing

use of

since

enabled beer to be kept for longer, yet

although the plant was grown by the Romans
Hop gardens were not widespread in France

it

gargle.

eleventh century, but the English only intro-

and

Germany

duced Hops

L gramineae

and

tenth

Hops were famous

in the

until

as a

the

ninth

replacement for traditional

Alehoof and Alecost) in

bitter herbs (such as

Barley Big Barley/Bere/Six-rowed Barley

the sixteenth century. Pliny called the plant

Barley was the

lupus salictarius or 'willow

first

cereal crop to be cultivated

use has been traced back to Neolithic

The Egyptians
their goddess

believed
Isis,

it

was

intro-

while the Greeks

Wild:

cultivated

(5%

commercially,

bitter principles; resin.

(dried female strobilus

Young

centuries. Bavarian

vulgare

situations.

Mild sedative:

treatment of certain prostate disorders.

Hops Hop

herb arrests nose bleeds. Various claims have

been made for its effect in eye conditions.
Possesses antibiotic action, and is an effective

202

in

mid-autumn.

weak diuretic; weak antibiotic: bitter.

Employed alone or in combination with other
herbs as a soporific in insomnia and restlessness. Aids nervous indigestion and may be
applied externally to ulcers. Once used in the

Wild plant.

Uses (dried flowering plant)

times.

greenish-yellow catkins,

in

tannins

dry waste-ground,

astringent; cholagogue; antibacterial.

duced by

in

and Chile. Propagate from cuttings taken in

the early summer.
Constituents Volatile oil (0.31%) comprising
humulone, cohumulone, adhumulone, lupulone, colupulone, adlupulone and xanthlumol

an umbelliferone; antibiotic substances.

its

tall.

especially in northern Europe, United States

Constituents Volatile oils; tannic acid; flavones;

and

cm

to

Cultivation

dry grassland, rocky screes, preferring moderate sunshine and tolerating most soils.

Hordeum

rough-

Native to northern temperate

hedgerows, thickets, alder, willow
and osier groves, on damp humus-rich soils in

zones;

leafy runners,

forming a basal rosette of hairy leaves, 4 7 cm

long, entire, oblong, white or grey on the
underside; leafless stem. Flowers usually solitary, occasionally 2 4, reaching 10 40 cm
high on hairy or bristly scape; flower-heads
consist ofcapitula of ray florets only, sulphur
yellow, appearing early summer to mid-

disorders,

to 6

Distribution

Description Perennial

Formerly

perennial

stemmed and twining clockwise

the female enclosed in a conical inflorescence

of the leaves.

Cultivation

as a kitchen herb.

Dioecious

and long-petioled.

employed
has now

The common name

the

Hops were once grown

Description

Leaves opposite usually 3-, sometimes 5- or

7-lobed, broad terminal lobe, coarsely serrate

their vision by using the plant's sap.

Beeause of this early

humele.

wolf

after

its

habit

of twining tightly around willows and other

its damp natural habitat. Humulus is a
medieval latinization of the Anglo-Saxon term.

trees in

shoots

and male flowers may be eaten

in salads.

The

oil is

used in some perfumes.

Stems once used in basket and wickerwork.

Most widely employed in brewing.
Hydrastis canadensis L ranunculaceae
Golden Seal Orange Root; Ground

Raspberry
Golden Seal was once common in the damp
shady forests of North America and was used
both as a dye and a medicine by the Indians.
It
entered the United States and British
Pharmacopoeias as a treatment for uterine
mucosa inflammation, and was so extensivelv

HOR-HYO

methods of commercial cultivation. Now it is a

very expensive herb which still finds consider-

over-secretion of these membranes,

while therapeutic doses aid in catarrhal conditions. The powdered root-stock was once used
topically on mouth ulcers and as a snuff in

able use in folk medicine.

nasal catarrh.

America

collected in

the twentieth century

The name

Hydrastis

is

that by the beginning of

it

was necessary

to devise

derived from the Greek

meaning water-acting after its effect on

mucous membranes.

the

Low

herbaceous perennial from

15-30 cm tall; on knotted, gnarled, tortuous,
sub-cylindrical rhizome which grows horizontally or obliquely and is 1-6 cm long and 4-15
thick, yellowish-brown outside and bright
yellow internally. Flowering stem erect, subcylindrical, hairy, bearing two sessile, rounded,
doubly-serrate leaves reaching 20 cm wide,
each consisting of 5-9 lobes. Occasionally a
single 24-cm wide root-leaf arises on a tall
petiole from the root-stock. Single flower,
wide,
greenish-white, without petals. 7.5

mm

mm

appearing late spring to early summer followed

summer by raspberry-shaped, inedible
:

in late

berry.

Native to Canada and eastern

United States; in shady woods and the edges
of woodland on rich moist soil.
Cultivation Wild, and becoming rarer. Cultivated commercially on damp humus-rich soil
under artificial shading from root buds or
divided root-stock; planted 20 cm apart in
Distribution

early

autumn.

Constituent Alkaloids, hydrastine

berine

2%

canadine

trace

3%
fixed

beroil;

volatile oil; resin: starch; also mineral salts.

dried root-stock

Bitter toni< stomachic;

smooth-muscle stimulant; nervine
stimulant ;anti-haemoi rhagic jhypoglycaemic.
Used internally in atonic dyspepsia, anorexia
or gastritis.
Also in dysmenorrhoea and
due to the
menorrhagia. Its main action
alkaloid hydrastine is on mucous membranes
I'ses

laxative-;

especially

those of the uterus.

conjunctivitis,

Large doses

A weak
as

infusion

is

employed

and

eardrops,

root tea

as

acts

mouthwash.
was formerly drunk

antiseptic

The

secretion of
Description

cause

in

an

as a tonic.

Produces a yellow or orange cloth dye.

Contra-indications

Constituents

which

side,

heteroside (saponosidej, asiatico-

is

antibiotic

and

also assists in the

formation of scar tissue; triterpene acids,

including indocentoic acid; a glycoside, indocentelloside; an alkaloid, hydrocotylin; resin;
pectic acid; vitamin C; a bitter compound,
vellarin; tannin (9 ); sugars; volatile oil.
Uses (fresh or dried

plant)

Diuretic

tonic

purgative.

POISONOUS in large doses;

not to be used in pregnancy.

Used in India and Africa for 'blood-purifying'

purposes in venereal conditions and tuberculosis. The active principle, asiaticoside, appears
to exert a direct effect on the bacterium
Mycobacterium leprae) involved in leprosy

L umbelliferae
Indian Pennywort Centella, Indian Water
Navel Wort
Indian Pennywort was employed traditionally
in the Indian and African continents as an
important treatment of leprosy, and modern
research has now shown that the plant does
possess some action against the leprosy bacteria.

around the bacterium), and also assists

scar healing
for which purpose it is used

The herb

as a

Hydrocotyle asiatica

is

called

brahmi

the

in

Indian

Ayurvedic medical system which still employs

it.
In Europe it was last mentioned in the
French Pharmacopoeia of 1884.
attributed

Hydrocotyle

is

medicinal

properties

recently

attracted

one

attention

is

general beneficial tonic effect;

remains

many

with

and

this,

formerly

Also

ointments.

used

in
in

fevers.

in

rheumatism and gastric complaints, including

dysentery. There is some evidence it may act
general tonic.

Used

Africa as a snuff.

in

Contra-indications

POISONOUS.

narcotic, producing vertigo

Large doses
and possibly coma.

other

which has
its
supposed
however,

Hyoscyamus niger

L solanaceae

Henbane
Henbane

has a long medicinal history which

runs from the Assyrians to the present day, and

be proved.

to

waxy

(possibly by dissolving the protective

coat

Description Slender trailing umbelliferous plant

which derives from the sedative, analgesic and

with reddish prostrate stems, rooting at the

spasmolytic properties of the leaf's powerful

nodes, from which also arise

constituents. At various times

cm

-3 petioles to

bearing glabrous, entire-, or crenate,

cm
cupped, orbicular-renilbrm leaves, 7
long. Flower-heads hear ; or (> reddish, sessile
15

tall

",

Bowei

s.

Indigenous to subtropical /.ones

Ceylon, southern Africa,
southern United States. Malaysia. Also found
in eastern Europe. On marsh) sues to a 600 m
Distribution

Mich

as

India.

altitude.
Cultivation

has been con-

and

an ingredient of witches' brews.

Its name Hyoscyamus comes from the Greek
meaning hog bean, a term which is still
retained in some areas. The herb has had
several other names including Symphoniaca,
Jusquiamus, Henbell, Belene, Hennibone, and

Hennebane.
Strongly

Description

Wild plant.

it

sidered as a love potion, a magical herb,

smelling,

coarse

erect,

annual or biennial: the former less robust and

shorter than the biennial form which reaches
50 cm on a stem covered with long, jointed
30
hairs. Leaves pale-green, ovate-oblong, coarsedentate, hairy and slightly sticky, 5-30 cm
ly
long. Flowers on short stalks in leaf axils, or
1

terminal unilateral panicles; funnel-

sessile in

shaped,

cm

long,

yellow-brown or cream,

marked with purple veins, particularly

at the petal base. Appearing late summer to
earl) autumn (annual or early to mid-summei
usually

biennial

Indigenous to Europe; widely

throughout Eurasia and introduced to North America, Asia, Australia and
Brazil. On waste-ground and roadsides, and
in well-drained sandy or chalky soils.
Cultivation Wild and cultivated, or collected, on
a small scale. Seed sown in sunnv position in
Distribution

distributed

summer

carl)

biennial

(annual)

and

the

soil

or

early

kepi

autumn

moist

until

germination.
Alkaloids, hyosev amine, atropine

Constituents

and hyoscine
sedative
I'ses

ac lions

fresh

or

to

which the narcotic

and

aie due-.

dried

leaves,

Sedative; anti-

spasmodic analgesic.
Formerly used in a wide range- ol neivous 01
painful conditions which required sedation
;

203

HVP-ILE
An

alcoholic extract of the flowers dyes

silk

and

wool a violet-red, but does not colour cotton.

Contra-indications If eaten by light-skinned
animals, the herb may cause photosensitizaleading to sw elling of the face, generalized

tion,

skin

of

irritation

unpigmented

areas,

and

possible death.

Hyssopus

L labiatae

officinalis

Hyssop
The genus Hyssopus

consists

of this single

and the herb's common name is

practically identical in all European languages. Hyssop is a very ancient name and can
be traced back almost unchanged through the
Greek hussopos to the Hebrew esob.
Whether Hyssopus officinalis is in fact the
Hyssop frequently referred to in the Old
Testament is doubtful, however - this was
probably a marjoram - and how it came to be
given the biblical name is not known.
The herb was once much respected as a
medicinal plant being mentioned by Paulus
Aegnita in the seventh century, and was also
used both for cosmetic and strewing purposes.
Gerard 1597 described 3 varieties and Mawe
species,

17781 6 varieties.

and analgesia, but due

it is

now

to

poisonous nature

its

generally only employed internally

in

homeopathic dosage; it is retained, however,

in several South American and European
pharmacopoeias as an aid in spasm of the
urinary tract, or

to alleviate the

griping caused

by strong purgatives.
Oil of

may

Henbane

or a poultice of the fresh leaves

be applied externally

to relieve

rheumatic

pain.
Contra-indicatiotu

POISONOUS. To

be used

Hypericum perforatum

L hypericaceae

St John's Wort
John's Wort has been closely associated with
supposed magical properties since the Greeks
gave it the name hypericon. This indicated that
St

The

oil

and

it

enough
was believed

glands

to drive

away

evil

to purify the air.

when crushed

certainly release

a balsamic odour similar to incense. In addition the yellow flowers turn red

when crushed

due to the release of the red fluorescent pigment hypericine - and this was undoubtedly
an important factor in the development of the
folklore which surrounds the herb
red
signifying, of course, blood. As St John was
beheaded, and the herb is in full flower on St
John's

Day

(24 Junej,

it

became known as
Wort

herba Sancti Ioannls and, later, as St John's

- the herb of St John.

Besides the magical attributes which predate
Christianity, Hypericum has real and effective
medicinal properties and it is still widely used
in European folk medicine.
Description Perennial; rapidly spreading from
many long runners produced at the base. Stem
erect with 2 raised edges along its length,
branched at the top, reaching 30-60 cm;
bearing oblong or linear leaves 1.5-3 cm on Sopposite, entire, glabrous, and marked with
'

204

spots.

Flowers 2-3

cm

flowered terminal cymes, appearing late sum-

mer

to

mid-autumn.

Distribution

Native

temperate

to

zones

oi

Europe and western Asia; naturalized in the

Americas and Australasia. In open situation-.
on semi-dry soils of various sorts, but particucalcareous

long, covered with fine hairs at the tips. Leave-

wide,

sessile

mm

cm

linear to oblong, 2.5

long and 4-9

so,
opposite and

nearly

or

Wild plant. May be propagated by

autumn, and efforts are being made
cultivate it commercially.

mm

tomentose. Blue flowers 7.5-15

one-sided whorls in leaf

soils.

axils,

cm

long in
terminal

the

long; appear late

Cultivation

inflorescence being 10

division in

summer

to

white forms occasionally occur.

Distribution Native to central and southern
Europe, and temperate western Asia: intro-

Constituents Volatile oil, called red oil: resin; a

Common

the smell was strong

oil

wide, yellow, consisting of 5 petals dotted with

small black oil glands, and carried on many

larly

only under medical supervision.

spirits,

numerous translucent

Hyssop has had a mixed iortune as a culinary

herb due to its strong flavour, and is now
mostly employed for decorative purposes
especially as a low hedge in herb gardens.
Description Aromatic perennial subshrub with
erect branched herbaceous stems 20-60 cm

red pigmented glycoside, hypericine; a poly-

phenolic flavonoid, hyperoside; tannin

whole herb and i6

carotene; vitamin C.
in

the

(fresh

or

in

flowering

dried

8-9%

the flower

plant,

fresh

weakly diuretic; sedative;

anti-inflammatory: anti-diarrhoeic; cholagogue; antidepressant; antiviral;
flower, fresh leaves) Vulnerary;

antibiotic; astringent.

Many virtues have been ascribed to this plant

ranging from the antipyretic and anthelmintic
properties reported by the most ancient writers,
to

modern

Certainly

suggestions of antiviral activity.

when taken

internally

the

herb

stimulates both gastric and bile secretions, and

is

effective in irregular menstruation.

It

has

been shown to improve the blood circulation

and to be of use in some conditions characterized by neurosis and disturbed sleep pat-

one of the most

effective agents for assisting

in the healing of wounds or

burns when applied

externally, especially

where nervous

tissue has

been damaged;

also applied to

haemor-

rhoids and

Violet, red, pink or

North America. On rocky, calsunny situations.

Cultivation Wild in native habitat: occasionally
wild elsewhere as a garden escape. Cultivated
commercially in Europe. Russia and India.
Wide horticultural employment as an ornamental; propagate by seed sown in spring,
root division in spring or autumn, or cuttings

duced

into

careous dry

soils in

taken in late spring or early summer. Plant out

cm apart in full sun on well-drained light

30

soil,

and

Replace

clip occasionally.

after 4 or

5 years.
Constituents Volatile oil

(0.2-1%

glycoside, diosmin; tannin

Uses

a flavonoid

dried flowering tops, fresh leaf

Tonic;

stomachic; expectorant; carminative; sedative:

weak diaphoretic: weak

diuretic: astrin-

gent: mild spasmolytic.

employed in bronchitis and the

improve appetite and
to
common
stimulate gastric secretions; and as a gargle to

it

is

The

cold;

soothe sore throats.

perspiration and

plant contains an
has been patented as a
possible food preservative. Leaves once used

weak.

as a salad herb.

antibiotic

autumn.

Specifically

terns.
It is

to early

bruises.

which

cuts or bruises
treat

may

The herb

around the

eyes.

hysterical conditions,

constituent of

also

reduces

be applied externally to

some herb

but
teas.

Once used

to

action

is

its

HYP-ILE
The plant was not called Holly until the
seventeenth century, previously having been
-

known

as

Holy Tree and

name

holen.

the

Quercus

ilex),

name Ilex was the

Holm or Holly Oak

botanical

Its

name

ancient

the

for

while aquifolium

meaning point and

\.ji

Holme;

earlier as

being derived from the old English plant

latter

from the Latin

well-known

is

leaf after the

shape of its leaves.

Description Evergreen shrub or tree usually
2-5 m, occasionally to 12 m tall; with manv
spreading glabrous branches forming an oblong-shaped plant. Leaves shiny, leathery,
ovate or oblong-ovate, 4-7.5 cm long, margins
wavy and spiked with 6-mm long spines, shortpetioled. Small unisexual or bisexual, dull
white, scented flowers produced in axillary
clusters on previous year's growth, appearing

mid-summer.

early to

Native

Distribution

Europe and widely

to

dis-

tributed from western Asia to China: intro-

duced elsewhere. Common in deciduous woodland, less so in mixed or coniferous woodland:

on most soils but preferably humus-rich, acid,
moist well-drained types.

Wild. Cultivated horticultural!} for

Cultivation

decorative purposes and as hedging: avoid

planting in frost-prone

be used to flavour meats

oil

distilled

employed

from the flow trine; tops is

liqueur and perfumery

the

in

industries.

Ilex aquifolium

Holly

Bark:

tannin;

pectin:

substances.

pigment.

yellow

ilixanthine.

or soups.

The

unknown

theobromine:

ilicine;

may

Small quantities

sites.

Leaves: tannin; a bitter substance,

Constituents

L aquifoliaceae

Common

Holly'English Holly

Although Holly is no longer considered of any

importance medically, it has retained an important role

in

the traditions associated with

Christmas and in northern Europe red HolK

berries and branches are symbolic ot Christperhaps representing drops of
mas-time
blood and a crown ol thoi as

[eaves

Once used
and

ployed

in

diuretic: tonic.

the treatment of fevers, bron-

rheumatism.

chitis

Wood

weak

Antipyretic:
in

em-

Occasionally

diarrhoea, and as a tonic tea.

used

for

engraving.

and

purgative

are

Berries

Contra-indications
toxi<

Ilex

par aguariensis St Hil. aquifoliaceae

Mate Verba Mate/Paraguay Tea/Hervea

Mate has been taken

as a refreshing stimulant

American inhabitants

tonic drink by South

long helm, the Jesuits

orded the habit in the

Although in many South
Amei .in ountries it is drunk more frequently
than any other beverage, 'Jesuits' tea' as it was
rei

sixteenth century.
11

liisi

become known

ailed has only recently

Europe

an alternative

.1-

to

in

Indian or Chinese

tea.

/>

Evergreen shrub or tree

ptiot

to 6

m.

often kept low in cultivation; branches glab-

rous bearing glossy, obovate. crenate-scrrate.

short-petioled, alternate leaves,

to

cm

long:

Rowers white and axillary, followed

rounded, reddish 7-mm diameter fruit.
Distribution

Brazil.

Argentina.

Chile,

In

Peru,

Paraguay; frequently in mountainous areas.

Cultivation Wild, and cultivated commercially
in Paraguay.
Con tituenti Caffeine (0.2 2",,
chlorogenu
:

acid

to

bromine

ib",,
'

add; theo-

neochlorogenii

atei hols; the

<

ombined

ai

tion being

I01111

Uses

dried leaves

Tonic; nervine; diuretii

itimulant.

Almost entirely employed

manner
ol

ol

as a tonii

Indian or Chines*

,m\ undesli able stimulant

effi

tea in the

but devoid

tea.
1

Ilex verticillata (L) Gray aquifoliaceae

Black Alder Winterberry/Feverbush
North American Indians were the first

this attractive plant for

to use

medical purposes and

was once included in the United States

Pharmacopoeia; it was also used homeopathically. Other remedies have now replaced
it, even in folk medicine, and it is rarely found
in use as other than a garden ornamental.
It was formerly classified as Prinos verticillatus
L. The specific epithet verticillatus means
whorled or clustered around the stem, after
the arrangement of the flowers and fruit.
Description Upright and spreading deciduous
it

shrub 12-3

ta "-

with thin obovate, oval or

ILL-IRI
acuminate, serrate
pubescent on lower
veins; petiolate and alternate. Flowers dioecious, white, small, in groups of usually less than
10. on short peduncles in umbels, appearing in
oblanceolate,

4-7.5

leaves,

acute

cm

to

long,

and

leaf axils in late spring

early

summer.

Followed by bright red globose berry

in

7.5

mm

diameter.

American native, from

and Wisconsin; introduced
elsewhere. Usually in woodland thickets on
wet. marshy, rich soils or beside rivers and
North

Distribution

Canada

to Florida

lakes.
Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated as a garden
ornamental for its attractive berries which
remain until mid-winter on the bare branches.
Requires rich soil in damp, preferably shadv.
site.

Constituents

resins;

Uses

Tannins

unknown

(fresh

(to

5%);

bitter principles;

substances.

bark,

rarely

60 1, but even

to flavour tea

in

it

1694

when

was rare

The Latin name

in

and

fruit. It

is

also classified as

closely related species

which

anisatum

/.

cm

large, to 7

in diameter, solitary or

bose, yellow, the ray florets

that

religiosum

/.

Siebold

or Japanese Star Anise, which in the East is

sometimes found as an adulterant of the
Chinese Star Anise, has poisonous leaves and
fruit due to their content of sikimitoxin. This
plant is called the 'mad herb' in China, but in

corymnumerous, long,

and arranged in a single row. appearto mid-autumn.

Distribution Native to central and southern
Europe and north-west Asia, naturalized in

slender,

ing

mid-summer

nited States: introduced elsewhere.

On damp

it is revered and used at funerals. Fruit

of the plant cannot be used, and may be distinguished by their lack of aniseed smell,
unlike the Chinese variety.

Japan

Description

Small tender evergreen tree or shrub

5 m; leaves aromatic, alternate, entire,

shiny. 7.5 cm long, elliptic and acuminate:
to

magnolia-like attractive greenish-yellow soliunscented flowers with many petals.

tary,

dried

bark,

fruit

Followed by 4-cm wide. 8-rayed

consisting of one-seeded

The bark may be employed

collected

as

an infusion or

decoction in the treatment of diarrhoea, or as a

tonic following severe diarrhoea or feverish
complaints. It aits as a carminative and

promotes both the appetite and the digestion.

Due to its astringent action it was once used
externally as a wash in skin complaints sik h as

The

means

illicium

it

entices from the very pleasant scent of the tree

Astringent; antipyretic; bitter; tonic.

herpes and ulcers.

Dutch used

the

Europe.

berries possess slight

antihelmintic and laxative action, but should

not be used as the effective dose is slightly toxic.

they are

requiring aniseed flavour.

It has long been used as a spice in the East, but
was not seen in Europe until 1588 when
Candish brought a sample from the Philippines to London. Clusius first described it in

which are

when green, and then sun-dried

woody and reddish-brown.

until

Distribution Indigenous to south and southwest China and north Vietnam: introduced
elsewhere. On well-drained soils, frequentlv

above a 2500-m altitude.

Cultivation Wild and cultivated in south China
and parts of eastern Asia. Prefers sheltered
sunny situations on well-drained, moistureretaining

soils.

anethol:

8o-o,o

to

fixed

10",,
oil;

comprising

sugar:

resin:

tannin.

dried

Uses

fruit

soils near ruins

probably because they were
once cultivated near monasteries, etc.
or
.

Constituents Volatile oil

Illicium verum Hook. f. magnoliaceae
Star Anise Chinese Anise
The oil obtained by steam distillation ot the
fruit of Star Anise is now an important substitute for expensive European aniseed oil. and
is
widely used in commercial preparations

star-like fruit

follicles

Carminative; slightly stimu-

lant; mild expectorant.

employed as an aniseed flavouring

and as a carminative for digestive disorders. Used in cough remedies as an expectorant and considered to benefit the bronchial
mucous membranes.
Used in the East as a spice, particularly with
duck and pork: added to tea and coffee in
China. The oil is of commercial importance as
an aniseed flavouring for drinks and liqueurs.

roadsides and woodland edges.

Wild. Limited cultivation in central

Europe: on rich moist soil from seed sown in
spring or by division of root-stock in autumn.
Plant in semi-shaded position at back of the
Cultivation

Chiefly

border.

agent,

Constituents

Inulin

4"

essential

oil.

com-

prising a mixture of lactones, chiefly alanto-

lactone: resin; a complex camphor, elecam-

pane camphor: mucilage.

dried root-stock

Uses
sive:

Bactericidal: antitus-

expectorant; tonic: weak cholagogue.

Almost exclusively employed

in the

treatment

of respiratory disorders, especially bronchitis,

coughs, and catarrh. Also used to promote

L compositae
Elecampane Scabwort

an aromatic

Once

Inula helenium

appetite as

Elecampane

treatment of skin diseases and in

veterinary medicine for the same purposes -

employed

used

medicine
cough remedies
and has always been popular both as a medicine and a condiment. Its use as a flavouring in
sweets continued until the 1920s, and it was
is still

in folk

as a favourite constituent of

it

acts as

hence

its

other name, Scabwort.

is

Formerly candied and eaten

as a

sweetmeat:

used in the flavouring of certain sweets.

employed

Still

Much

central Europe.

names, but helenium is from Helenus.

of Priam - a somewhat obscure
association - while elecampane is derived from
the ancient Latin name inula campana via the
French enule-campane. It was commonly used
both by the early Anglo-Saxons and Celts as
well as by the Greeks and Romans: the Welsh

The herb

strongly antibacterial.

traditionally cultivated in herb gardens.

controversy surrounds the origin of the

tonic.

in the

in

some wines and liqueurs

in

plant's

the

son

called

it

marchalan in the thirteenth century.

Description Tall attractive perennial to 2

m; on

15-cm long taproot. Stems hairy,

erect,

thick

bearing large, alternate, elliptical leaves to

cm long and 15 cm wide, velvety beneath,
hairy above, dentate-serrate, the lower leaves

45

petiolate. others partly clasping.

206

Flower-heads

Iris foetidissima

L iridaceae

Stinking Iris Gladdon Scarlet-seeded Iris

Most Iris species possess substances in the fresh
root-stock which act as purgatives, and when
purging was a popular form of medicinal
treatment Stinking Gladdon was commonly
used.

The name Gladdon is derived from

meaning a little sword after

gladiolus

of

its

the Latin
the shape

leaves: while the term stinking

is

an

inaccurate description of the roast-beef smell

of

its

crushed leaves.

Description

Slow growing perennial on slender

ILL-IRI
should be considered a variety, florentina, of
others consider /. florentina is a
/. germanica
;

synonym
/.

some feel it rs a true

own, pure white, variety -

of/, spuria, while

species with

its

florentina var. albicans.

The white

Florentine Iris became associated

with Florence in the early Middle Ages, and
the plant's cultivation there was described by
Petrus de Crescentiis in the thirteenth century.
It is still

represented on the heraldic arms of the

used as a powerful purgative. It is now rarely

used even in folk medicine.
Used as a bitter flavouring in certain liqueurs.

Widely employed as a violet scent in the perfume industry, and as a fixative in pot-pourri
manufacture. May be used in some tooth
powders or dusting powders.

on stout rhizome bearing

45 cm tall, 3-4 cm wide, sword-shaped leaves,
and flowering stalk reaching 60 cm-i m.
Terminal flower-head usuallv 2-flowered. sessile: the flowers unscented. white tinged with
violet and with a yellow beard, or pure white

root-stock

may

be

powdered root-stock cause vomiting. Tlu powder

may

city.

Fresh

Contra-indications

violently purgative. Large doses of the

cause allergic reactions.

Description Perennial

Iris versicolor

L iridaceae

Blue Flag Flag

Lily

common American

and beardless. Appearing early to mid-summer.

Variable in the form and colour of the flowers.
Distribution Native to southern Europe; natur-

herb which
was employed by both the Indians and early
settlers as a remedy for gastric complaints. It
was once included in the United States
Pharmacopoeia and is still believed in folk
medicine to be a blood purifier in eruptive skin

alized in central Europe. Persia, north India:

conditions.

introduced elsewhere. Tolerates most welldrained soils, but prefers sunny, stony, dry.

In some places the plant is known as Liver Lily

because of its particular effect on that organ.
The herb may be a hybrid between the closely
related /. virginica (L) and another Iris.
/)- Hiiption
Perennial bog plant on thick
branched creeping root-stock bearing erect,
stout, coarse stem 30 cm 1 10 cm tall, and
sword-shaped leaves 20 cm-i m long, 15

hilly situations.

Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commerciallv in

India and Egypt. Propagate by

Italy. Persia,

division of root-stocks in late spring or earlv

autumn, planting in deep,

sunny position.

rich,

well-drained

Blue Flag

is

mm

soil in

horizontal rhizome; producing 60 90-cm tall

branched stems which bear glossy dark green,
narrow (3 cm) leaves, 30-45 cm long. Leaves
remain during winter, and are sometimes

Flowers

variegated.

inconspicuous,

purple-

grey with purple veins, beardless, appearing

early to

mid-summer and followed by 4-5-cm

long capsule containing scarlet-red

globose

seeds.

Native

Distribution

to

North Africa, west and

south Europe. Prefers rich moist

soils

bv rivers

or ponds in a semi-shaded position.

Cultivation Wild. Cultivated horticultural!) bv

root-stock

division

spring

late

in

summer. Requires humus-rich wet

Constituents
I 'ses

)ik e

ate ot

Off

earl)

soil.

Acrid resin; unknown substances.

Purgath

fresh root-stoc k

c.

used as a purgative by drinking a macer-

lush root

tli<-

No

in ale.

longer employed

inc-dic ally.

Chief!) cultivated tor the

use'

Bowel capsules and seeds

arrangements.
ripe

of
in

its

alti.n

dve

dried (lowei

germanica v ar. florentina Dykes iridaceae

Iris

Orris Florentine Iris

In Greek word iris means
I

the

rainbow

used to describe the variable coloiiiiny

members
Orris, dct

tive

ot this
iv eel

term

ol

the

genus.

dire*

for

,u\<\ is

the

llv

from

11 is.

is

the desc rip-

violet-scented,

powdered

rOOt-StOCk which has been used in perfunieiv

since

and

Egyptians

the

Several spec iesoi hybrids

ol
/.

Onis

ol

germanica

winch

the

.ire

ancient

used as the some

most

especially

Greeks.

/.

important are
nermanun vat

Lamk. and /.
florentina L. Due- to the variation and hybridization of this group, some authorities believethat /. florentina L is not a distinct species and

florentina

Dykes),

/.

pallida

Constituents

Essential

ing myristi<

oh
di

H
v

.11

nl

.1

and

ini;

.11

nl

* > i

85%

0.2%

0.1

ketone, none-, w

slot

compris-

aye: resin

hie h

develops mi

tannic acid: starch

ide.

yellow,

appearing early

to

Formerl)

used

treatment

ol

in

mixed

remedies

foi

(resh

juice

places on peaty

the

was one

apsule.

Distribution North-east

chest complaints such as bron-

and asthma. The

peduncles,

mid-summer, followed by

marked with

6 per plant, on short

globose, leathery

dried root-stock
Stomachic; diuretii
.110111,1111
weak expee tenant.
Uses

hills

in

Attrae live blue or violet Mowers,

sugars.

and methyl myristate

North America;

in

wet

soils.

limn Wild plant.

Constituents
irisin;

An

acrid

volatile oil;

resinous

substance,

fixed oil; starch;

tannic

207

ISA-JUN
acid: an unidentified alkaloid.

dried

Uses

leaves

root-stock;

on the stem

persist

Purgative;

for

weeks.

European native: introduced

Distribution

On

else-

humus-rich, well-drained chalky

diuretic: sialagogue: emetic.

where.

Chiefly employed in eruptive skin conditions

waste places in sunny situations.

Cultivation Wild. Cultivated in western Europe

caused by a sluggish gastro-intestinal system

and constipation.
bile and

saliva,

It

stimulates

gastric

the

secretions,

flow of

acting

particularly on the liver and pancreas. Leaves

Propagate from seed sown in

sunny position on well-drained, very rich soil,
in late summer. Thin to 40 cm apart bv transuntil the 1930s.

applied externally on bruises.

planting in early spring.

Large doses cause nausea,

vomiting and facial neuralgias. Handling the

Seeds itself readily, but acts as a short-lived

perennial if the unripe flower-heads are re-

Contra-indications

plant

may

moved.

cause dermatitis.

Indigo

Constituent*

L cruciferae
Woad Dyer's Weed

Woad was

cultivated as the source of a blue

Europe and was

only superseded 50 vears ago by indigo, which
was first extracted from subtropical Indigo/era
dvestufffor over 2000 years

developed by fermenting

lea\

Isatis tinctoria

in

species.
is an ancient name for a healing herb,
which was described bv Dioscorides as being
an excellent stvptic. Doubtless the habit
adopted by ancient Britons of painting their

Isatis

bodies with a paste of the leaves served the dual

fermented leaves, rarely fresh leaver

Uses
Vulnerary styptic.
Once employed externally to stop bleeding and
assist in the healing of wounds and ulcer-. Too
poisonous and astringent to be used internalK.
Traditionally the source of a blue dye obtained
bv fermenting, drying and refermenting the
crushed leaves, and adding lime-water to the
:

product.

final

POISONOUS.

Contra-indication*

Not

be

to

used internally.

purpose of frightening their enemies and heal-

wounds of battle.
The herb is now mainly

Jateorhiza palmata Mier-

ing the

of historical interest,

although a- its blue colour is more permanent

than Indigojera indigo it is in demand l>>
homecraft d\>
Description Biennial from 45 cm to 130 cm tall:
produces in the first year a rosette of entire or
toothed, oblong or obovate leaves from which
arises stout, erect stems branching near the top.
bearing lanceolate to linear glaucous sessile

mfm-permaceak

Calumba Colombo
Calumba remains

favourite

tonic

for

the

treatment of gastric disorders in Africa and

India, and retains a place as a bitter in some
European pharmacopoeias. In East Africa it is

known

kalumb

as

or

koamua and

been used as a treatment

for

has long

diarrhoea and as

The Portuguese introduced

it

to

Europe

in the

seventeenth century when it was considered

an antidote to poisons, but it was generally

numerous, in 45 cm wide panicled

racemes, produced in earlv to mid-summer.
and followed by pendulous black seeds that

neglected until Percival promoted

very

cm

long

at the

was valued

Sua

it

in

to increase the intestinal

the blood pressure.

Used

An

tone and lower

excellent bitter tonic.

yellow dye.

as a

and in 788
it was included in the London Pharmacopoeia.
Lamarck first described the plant in 1797 and
called it Menispermum palmatum.
B\

/)

781

it

criptum

Tall

at

dioecious

kilo

twining perennial

Annual stems herbaceous,

membranous, alternate, palmate-lobed. long-petioled leaves, and
insignificant greenish-white flowers, which are
followed by a moon-shaped stone contained
within a globose drupe. Male flowers in
fleshv tuberous root.

hairs

and bearing

cm

panicles 30

L jlglandaceae
Butternut White walnut Oil-nut

Juglans cinerea

The walnut family

derive their generic name.

Juglans, from the Latin Iovis glans

177

vine: often reaching the tops of trees. Large

large,

meaning

the

nut of Jupiter after the ancient belief that the

gods ate walnuts.

Most of the names of this tree, in fact, refer to

nut. for example, butternut. Oil-nut and

its

Lemon

nut. indicating both the oily nature

and shape of the fruit. This species is described

as both white and as J. cinerea after the light
colour of

its

bark, the botanical

name

being

derived from the Latin cinereus meaning ashcoloured.

It

is

thus distinguished from the

closely related black walnut. J. nigra.

Oil from the nut was once used as a strongly

flavoured seasoning in America.

long.

Indigenous to East Africa, especially northern Mozambique: introduced elsewhere, for example. Brazil. In forests.
Cultivation Wild. Some small-scale cultivation
Distribution

Tree from 12-30 m tall: bark light

deeply furrowed with broad rid,
branches pubescent, bearing 11-19 opposite
Description

grey,

com-

5-12.5 cm long, irregularly serrate,

acuminate, short-petioled and oblong lanceoFlowers in drooping catkins. Fruit
late.

3 yellow alkaloids,
columbamine. jatrorrhizine. palmatine: bitter

elongated, pointed. 4 cm long in groups of 2-5.

externally sticks and strong smelling, contain-

in East Africa.

Volatile

Constituents

prising

oil

0.071.15%

mainly thymol:

principles,

chasmanthin and a lactone, columand

bin: traces of the sapogenins. diosgenin

krvptogenin: mucilage: starch.

Uses

dried

root

Stomachic:

bitter

tonic.

Chiefly employed as an aqueous infusion

in,

vomiting during pregnancy or atonic dyspepsia associated with hypochlorhydria. In Africa

is
it
used as a remedy for diarrhoea and
dysentery, and in India as an antipyretic and
anthelmintic.

208

alkaloids present in the root have been

a general tonic, as well as being used as a dye.

base and 4 cm long

near the flowering top. Small yellow flowers,

leaves. 10

The

shown

leaflets.

'

ing an edible nut.

North American native, from New

England to Georgia and Maryland. Introduced elsewhere. In rich damp woods or close
to rivers, on well-drained soils.
Distribution

Wild.
Fixed oils: a complex resin, called
juglandin. containing nucin.
inner root bark: ripening fruit. leaseUses
Cathartic: anthelmintic: sveak rubefacient.
Cultivation

Constituents

ISA -J UN
The bark was formerly used as a domestic
remedy for constipation. The oil from the fruit
was employed to remove tapeworms. It is now
rarelv used even in folk medicine.

Ripening fruit can be pickled.

The sap produces a syrup similar

to

maple

mixture applied to the head!

Both the green walnut husks and fresh leaves
have been used as a brown hair dye for
centuries, remaining as the main constituent of
proprietary hair tints until the beginning of the
twentieth century.

Root bark, leaves and

wool dve.

fruit

provide a brown

of varieties exist, and the

is variable. Tree to 30 m: bark

Usually 7 or 9 glabrous leaflets.
entire, acute, oblong-ovate. 5-12.5 cm long.
Male flowers in drooping catkins appear late
spring to early summer. Indistinct female
flowers followed by almost globular, glabrous
fruit singly or in groups of 3.
Distribution Native to western Asia, south-east
Europe. China and the Himalayas. Introduced

form of the

hyoYocarbons

terpene

limonene

sesquiterpenes

cadinene. elemene

a-pinene.

comprisina;
/?-pinene.

oc-caryophyllene.

bitter substances, alcohols,

and a monocyclic cyclobutane monoterpenoid.

junionone; resin
sugar 30-33
10%
;

A number

Description

syrup.

0.52%

Constituents Essential oil

tree

silverv-sjrev.

organic acids.
dried

i'ses

fruit, leafy

branchlets

Antiseptic:

diuretic: stimulant: carminative: rubefacient.

Used

internally as a urinary antiseptic, speci-

promotes gastric secreappetite. Applied

externally to relieve rheumatic pain, to counteract alopecia, as a styptic and to wounds. Used
homeopathically and in veterinary medicine.
fically in cystitis: also

and improves

tions

the

elsewhere. In open woodland.

Widely cultivated

Wild.

Cultivation

for

its

timber.
Constituents

Fixed

Fruit:

oils:

vitamin

C.

compound, juglone: hydrojuglone: tannic acid: unknown substances.

Leaves:

bitter

Tonic: astrinweakly hypogly-

dried leaves, fresh fruit

Uses

anti-inflammatory:

gent:

caemic.

wide range of
and used both
internally and externally.
Also emploved
homeopathically for the same purposes.
Ripening fruit can be pickled. The ripe nuts
are of commercial importance. Oil expressed
from the nuts provides a cooking oil. and is
occasionally employed in non-drying; artists
Leaves considered of benefit
eruptive

skin

in a

conditions,

paints.

Timber used

in furniture.

Leaves yield a brown dye.

L cipressaceae
iommon Juniper
Juniperus 1^ the classical name lor this
Juniperus communis

Juniper

Juglans regia

Walnut
I

ji

Persian

his tree

gi.andaceae

Walnut

hears the

both because

oi

its

name

meaning royal,
appearance and
source of timber
Theophrastus a-

regia,

attractive

its historical importance as a

and food. It was known to
karuon, and Plim
who believed it entered
Europe from Persia
first dew ribed the use oi

considered

<is

especially

derived

from

suggested that the green husk- be boiled with

Geneva

as the

lead,

lor

ashes,

dyeing white hair

oil

and earthworms,

and

the

a ipice,

it

an important

still

is

Berries are

used

to

and

flavour meats, gin

Once used as a spice and substitute

pepper, and when roasted as a coffee

liqueurs.
lor

substitute
Contra-indications

or

when

Not

be used in pregnane)

to

the kidneys are inflamed.

flavouring lor certain preserved meats, liqueurs

and

brown He

the shells

variable

and widely distributed plant ol the northern

temperate zones, which has remained in use
from the Greek and Arabic physicians to the
present day. Although no longer generally

turn,

gin.

an

The English word gin is

of Hollands
was first ailed which, in

abbreviation

-.pirit

stems from the Dutch jenci>> meaning

Juniper. ()nl\
kilogram 0! the berries is
used to flavour over 100 lures
gin.
/> cription Variable, from a dense procumbent
1

sin

ub

to a

needle-like,

\2

tall

13

evergreen. Leaves

tree-;

mm

long,

spreading from the bran<

Flowers
upper siniaci

>i

in

hlets.

whorls

ol

^.

bluish-white on

indistinct,

axillary,

dioecious, greenish-yellow, appeal late spring

to

earl)

summer: followed

diameter blue-black,

fleshy

b\

10

7.5

Mediterranean
also An in Norway to Soviet Union,
west Himalayas, North America. On
moorland, open coniferous lon-sts and
Distribution

Native

mm

3-seeded berries.

10

region;

north-

Juniperus sabina L cipressaceae

Savin Savin lops

5a\

in

ary

has a lone; history as a stimulant veterin-

drug

in

wounds and
toxicity,

used as a

lowed b\

distributed

Ivbamtti

tamariscifolia

cv.

prostrala

its

\l\

humans.

laic-

sprint;

fol-

mm

Native to central and south Europe

lie mi the Caucasus to south Siberia
North America. ( )n sunny mountain

Distribution

moun-

Cultivation

communis

to

diameter brownish-purple,
j-seeded berries on pendulous pedil els.
7

Also

J.

lor

to the

has never been w

yellow, dioecious, appearing

slopes.

Gard.,

it

Due

Evergreen shrub, usually lowgrowing and of spreading habit, to 1 m tall:

sometimes a small tree, to 7.5 m. Young leaves
Opposite, acute and pointed: older leaves
scale-like,
adhering to branchlets,
closely
bright green. Flowers indistinct, greenish-

Wild Berries collected commercially. Other forms may be used, foi example,
communis ssp. nana Syme, J. communis ssp.
/
11

of animals.

Description

tain slopes.

Be|s~

ulcers

however,
medicine

heaths,

Cultivation

Europe, and was applied

in

Wild,

drown

horticultural!)

which purpose
Ait. and
fabina

hedt^e-plant, for

Laws, are also used

/'.

as

J. tabina var.
var. variegata

LAC-LAV
Constituents Volatile oil

(1-4%), similar

to that

of J. communis; tannic acid; resin.

Uses (young green shoots) Powerful uterine
stimulant; emmenagogue; irritant.

Now only used externally, with care, as a

stimulant dressing for blisters, wounds, ulcers,
and to remove warts. Employed in veterinary
medicine.
Contra-indications

POISONOUS

and occasion-

Causes severe gastro-intestinal irritation, haematuria and hallucinations. To be

used only under medical supervision.
ally fatal.

weak,

was used

it

an adulterant of true

as

opium and entered the Edinburgh and other

European pharmacopoeias as a cough suppressant. The common Garden Lettuce, (L.
L), was also once used as a source of
lactucarium, but by breeding out the bitterness of this salad herb modern cultivars only
contain a trace of the complex.

sativa

Strongly smelling biennial,

Description

pro-

ducing a rosette of obovate, undivided leaves

12-30 cm long in the first year, and an erect
stout, cylindrical, pale green branched stem to
1.5 m high in the second. Stem-leaves dark
green, clasping, scanty, alternate, ovate-oblong.

Numerous

flower-heads, arranged in panicles,

pale

short-stalked,

summer

appearing

yellow,

late

mid-autumn.
Distribution European native. On dry nitrogenrich soils, in wasteland and hillsides.
Cultivation Wild. Formerly cultivated on a
to

small scale.

Lactucarium,

Constituents

comprising

bitter

substances (lactucine, lactucopicrin, lactucic

acid); crystalline substances

(including lac-

caoutchouc;

sugar;

tucerin);

traces

of

mydriatic alkaloid; and other substances.

Uses (dried latex, dried leaves occasionally]
Mild sedative; mild hypnotic.
Formerly used as a constituent of remedies

employed

L compositae
Wild Lettuce Greater Prickly

May

Lactuca virosa

Lettuce

be used

in

Contra-indications

and a closely
related species L. scariola L, was cultivated
on a small scale in western Europe as the
source of lactucarium
the dried latex which
In the nineteenth century

in the

this,

treatment of irritable coughs.

insomnia or restlessness.

The

latex

is

very irritant to

the eyes.

Lamium album L labiatae

White Dead-Nettie Blind

Lapsana communis

This

in 1799.

often found growing close to or

Although

its

action

as

sedative

is

fairly

not a true nettle, nor

is

related to the nettle family, but

it

botanically

album does

/,.

bear a superficial similarity to nettles and

fact that

generic

it

reflects the

does not possess any sting, while

name Lamium

is

is

among them.

The common name Dead-Nettie

its

from the Greek word

shape of the plant's flower.

historically, but nevertheless a useful medical plant particularly for
menstrual problems.
for throat after the

Not of importance

20-60 cm tall, spreading

by underground stolons; stems rigid, square,
bearing opposite, decussate, stalked or sessile,
Description Perennial

downy, deeply dentate, nettle-shaped leaves,

4-6 cm long. Flowers off-white, usually 5-8
(or occasionally to 16) in axillary whorls, the
calyx consisting of 5 long, toothed projections.

Appearing early summer to late autumn.

Distribution European native; introduced elsewhere.
in

On

sunny

rich soils in waste places, preferably

positions.

Cultivation

Constituents

Wild.
Traces of essential

mucilage;

oil;

tannic acid; flavonic heterosides, (kaempferol,

potassium salts; histamine;

ramine; and unknown substances.
isoquercitin)

Uses (flowering plant) Astringent

ty-

expector-

ant; diuretic; vulnerary; anti-inflammatory.

Useful internally in

cystitis,

leucorrhoea and

particularly metrorrhagia; as a bowel regulator,

it

can be used to treat either diarrhoea

or constipation in respiratory or nasal catarrh.

;

210

L compositae

Nipplewort

Nettle

exudes from the cut surface of the plants stem.

It was introduced to medical practice in 1771
by Collin and called 'lettuce opium' by Coxe

is

externally to wounds it is both

and healing. It may also be applied to
haemorrhoids and burns.
Young leaves may be boiled and eaten as a
green vegetable, or added to soups.

Applied

styptic

In

the

papillaris

sixteenth

century

this

by the apothecaries,

was

called

after the Latin

meaning nipple, since the herb was

employed to treat cracked nipples
a use which may originally have been

papilla

traditionally

LAC-LAV
by

suggested

nipple-shaped

the

unopened

i"

with similar composition

comprising mainly cineol.

j,

flower buds.

leaf,

In some parts of Europe ointments made from

the fresh juice are still used for this purpose.

Uses (berries, leaves,

Annual 20 cm- 120 cm; stem

Description

much branched near

hairy.

the top, bearing three

types of alternate leaves, the lower lyre-shaped,

and petiolate, the upper small,

the middle oval

and

sessile

entirely of ray

arranged

Flowers

lanceolate.
florets,

composed

yellow, in small capitula,

in panicles,

appear early summer

to

From Europe

in thickets, to

an

Employed

antiseptic.

stimulant

in

flavouring in some liqueurs.

Most widely used as a culinary herb

freshly

dried

leaf).

Can be used

i^the

both

in

an 1800

wood

edges,

altitude.

Wild.

Unknown.

Constituents

Uses

as

liniments in veterinary medicine.

northern Asia:
humus-rich moist

naturalized in America. On
on wild or cultivated land,

Cultivation

and

to

soils

and

expressed from berries)

Antiseptic; stimulant; stomachic; weak insecticide. Formerly used to stimulate digestion.

Once used externally to relieve rheumatic pain

savoury and some sweet dishes and confections.

mid-autumn.
Distribution

oil

to that of the

leaves,

(fresh

juice)

fresh

Laxative;

vulnerary.

Traditionally used externally to treat cracked

nipples or to promote the flow of milk from the

Considered

breast.

useful

constipation

in

associated with liver problems. Supposed, but

May

unproven, antidiabeti" agent.

to wounds
Young radish

be applied

or cuts.

flavoured leaves eaten in salads,

or boiled as a green vegetable.

Native

Distribution

mediterranean region;

to

widely distributed in southern Europe; intro-

L lauraceae

Laurus nobilis

Bay Tree Sweet Bay/Sweet

duced elsewhere. Often on poor, well-drained

This

soils.

Laurel
an ancient aromatic plant, once dedicated to Apollo, and for thousands of years it
was considered to be a powerful antiseptic. It
is a vital ingredient of the genuine bouquet
is

garni.
Its botanical name emphasizes the respecl with
which the ancients held the plant: laurus from
the Latin meaning to praise, and nobilis
meaning renowned or famous.
This was the leal used to make the victor's
crown ol laurels in classical tunes
and the
tree was once called the baccot lauri or noble
berrv tree, from which bv direct association
with the victor's (Town the- modern French

educational term barralaureat

derived.

is

Evergreen tree to [5 m; with gre)

shiny bark. Usually grown as a bush to 1 m.
Leaves leathery, dark green, shiny above,
Description

lanceolate

to

oblong-lanceolate,

em

7.",

Constituents Volatile oil,

t<

dark purple berries.

introduced

mountain

elsewhere;

Minor and Europe;

in

sheltered

sunny

l.issiliecl

and is
which

as

/..

vera

DC

and

closely related to
is

it

however,

/..

/,.

inferior

oil,

Chaix.,

officinalis

lati/olia Yill.

sometimes confused.
which is also called

ail

the

This species has also been

traditional herbs.
(

of

The
/..

with

latter,

spun

I.

called spike lavender

and

ies

,ue not clear-

probable that French

Lavender has been used longer lor medicinal

Iv

Uses

dried flowers;
rubefacient;

differentiated

it

is

prevent vertigo and fainting.

Mav also he used as ,111 antiseptic

ai

The

horticultural varieties were developed

and

Constituents

prising

<

cineol,

e>il

eugenol,

bittei principles,

Many

3%), comterpenes;

berries)

(at

(25

omprising glyceryl laurate; volatile

oil

although

L.

angustifolia

entury.

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but

some- of these are now difficult to obtain.
in the

Description

Aromatic perennial subshrub

cm; on woody stem. Leaves

to

as a
in

mild

gastric

in

5
long, the smaller often clustered in axils,

grey-green

and tomentose.

grey-blue,

mid-summer

to

usually

mm long, in spikes on
10-20 cm long; appearing
early autumn.

15

peduncles from

Flowers

to

lotion lor

cuts.
oil is used as an insect repellent; to mask
unpleasant odours in ointments; in perfumery

as a flavouring agent.

Dried flowers are employed

sachets,

moth

repellents

in

scented pillows,

and pot-pourris.

80

opposite, entire,

very narrow, lanceolate or oblong-linear, 2

cm

autumn.

Heaves) Volatile

geraniol,

tannii ae id

\o%

or early

medicine internally

to counteract rheumatic pain, or

embrocations.
Lavender oil vapour is traditionally inhaled

popular Strewing and cosmetic herb from

summer

antispasmodic;

diuretic.

employed

least the twelfth

late

in folk

weak

disturbances characterized by flatulence. Externallv the oil is stimulant and is occasionally

Cultivation

on rich soil; or in tubs filled

with rich soil which should be ke-pt moisi and
protected in winter. Propagate from cuttings
in autumn, or by layering ol lower branches in

used

Still

of lavender] Carminat-

sedative;

sedative and cough suppressant, or

on

frost-free sites,

oil

antiseptic; stimulant;

Wild plant. Grown hortic ulturally

commercial scale as a garden ornamental,
especially in Holland and Belgium. Plant
hushes in late spring or mid-autumn, in sunny

comprising an alcohol,
a hydroxveou-

tonic

purposes,

early

acetate;

linalyl

ive-;

was

valleys on rich soils.

in spring,

ole; geraniol.

vi

Lavender English Lavender

One of the most popular and well-known

In classical writings these spec

Distribution Native' to Asia

long taken

marin, hcrniarin eucalyptol; limonene; cineLavandula angustifolia Mill. LABIA!

produces

mm-diame

and

linalol,

oil.

",

cm

hardwood cuttings taken between

spring and late summer.

or

summer and

in

germination may be slow). Or

apart

use green cutting, 10

by

cm

45

long. Flowers small, yellowish, in groups ol 3

in the leaf axils, appearing late spring to earl)

followed

Wild. Cultivated commercially

Cultivation

southern Europe. Very wide horticultural use

as garden ornamental. Propagate from seed
sown in pans in late spring, later planting out

Lavandula dentata

i.abiatae

Fringed Lavender French Lavenclei

This
best

is

one

of the least

grown indoors

hardy lavenders and

is

or as a winter flowering pot

plant under glass.

Its

botanical

name

ive fern-like leaves

dentata refers to the attract-

which

arc

quite different

21

LAV-LEV
from those of English Lavender. The aroma of
being a
Fringed Lavender is also different
sweet blend of Rosemary and Lavender.
Description Aromatic perennial, usually shrubby from 30-80 cm tall; leaves 3-4 cm long,
green or grey, pubescent, pinnately dentate, truncately toothed. Deep lavender
flowers, 6-15
long on small, long pedlinear, light

mm

uncled spikes, 7.5-20 cm long, appear winter.

Distribution Native to the mediterranean region
as far east as Malta; introduced elsewhere.
Cultivation Wild. Grown horticulturally as a
garden plant in warm climates, and as a greenhouse or indoor pot plant elsewhere. Propagate

For

the hardier L. angustifolia Mill.

Description

Perennial subshrub, 30

Leaves linear, narrow, hairy, entire, greygreen, 1.5-4 cm l n g- Flowers 3

long,
dark purple, specked with orange, in short
wide spikes on 3 cm long peduncle. Flowers
surmounted by attractive purple bracts onethird or one-quarter the length of the spike;
appearing mid-spring to early summer.
Distribution Native to the mediterranean regtall.

mm

ion; also the

Canary

Islands,

Turkey and Asia

Minor; introduced elsewhere. In coastal

on sandy soils.

sites

from cuttings in sandy, slightly alkaline soil;

prune to prevent straggling growth or cut back
to produce a bushy plant. Requires full sun
and feeding occasionally with liquid manure if

grown

cm-i

**"

I'

in pots.

Constituents Volatile oil.

Uses (dried flowering plant, dried leaves)

Cultivated as a winter-flowering ornamental.
Dried flowers and leaves used in floral arrange-

ments "nd

in scented sachets

this

reason

it

has long been used to dye the

and hair - and the Berbers

colour both corpses and young babies with
the dye, as well as using it in marriage cerenails,

hands,

feet

still

monies.

The shrub now

has a

very wide

and commercial henna varies

greatly in composition and quality - often
being adulterated with Lucerne leaves or
powdered Acacia catechu, Catechu. The variety
distribution

now

considered

finest for use as a hair

dye

Green Henna gives the

deepest red tones and is made from young
shoots, while so-called 'compound henna'
consists of inferior leaf and synthetic dyes. The
comes from

botanical

Persia.

name

Lawsonia

is

named

Surveyor-General of North Carolina,

burned to death by Indians in 1712.

after the

who was

Shrub to 6 m with glabrous

branches bearing greenish brown, opposite,
shortly petiolate, oblong or broadly lanceolate
leaves, 1.5-5 cm on g> I_2 cm wide. Small
highly scented, white, light red or deep red
flowers to 7.5
diameter in a corymbose
terminal panicle, followed by spherical fruits
diameter.
7.5
Variable in form.
Distribution
Indigenous to Arabia, Persia,
India, Egypt and Australia; naturalized in
tropical America; introduced elsewhere.
Cultivation Wild. Grown horticulturally as an
ornamental and cultivated commercially for
the leaves, mainly in India, Egypt, China,
Description

'

mm

and pot-pourris.

mm

Morocco and

Iran.

Constituents Fats; resin;

*-j

mannitol; volatile oil;

lawsone (henno-

fixed oil; a yellow pigment,

tannic acid or oxynaphthochinon).

Uses (dried leaves, dried green shoots, dried

'

<E

folk

cultivated indoors as a pot plant; requires a

soil, full

sunlight,

and

occasional feeding with liquid manure.

Constituents Volatile oil.

^^^^

Uses (dried flowers, dried leaves, dried flower-

ing plant) Antiseptic; antispasmodic; carminative; vulnerary; stimulant; insect repellent.

L labiatae
French Lavender Spanish Lavender

Lavandula stoechas

This

is

the lavender species

known and

which was

best

Romans and Arabs - usually

an antiseptic and sweet-smelling. herb for
inclusion in bath and other washing water.
The generic name lavandula is derived from the
latin lavare meaning to wash. Like L. dentata,
the scent is somewhat ba'sam-like and a mixture of Rosemary and Lavender.
It continued to be used medicinally (known as
ancient Greeks,

as

Flores

stoechados,

sticadore

or

stoechas

arabica)

and was even

included in the London Pharmacopoeia of
1746. Gradually, however, it was replaced by
until

the eighteenth century,

Formerly used in a wide range of complaints;

only employed in southern Europe as a
mild sedative, antiseptic and remedy for
nausea and vomiting. The flowers may be used

now

possibly most widely used by the

in conserves.

Dried flowers and leaves employed

such as sachets.

in scented

articles

Lawsonia inermis

for the treatment of leprosy in African

medicine; the powdered leaf has also been

used to treat intestinal amoebiasis.

Wild plant. Grown horticulturally

as a garden ornamental in warm countries,
and occasionally in cooler temperate zones in
very warm protected sites. May be propagated
from seed sown under glass in spring or from
cuttings taken in spring or summer. Also
Cultivation

dry, sandy, well-drained

twigs) Astringent; stimulant.

Used

L lythraceae

Henna

Mignonette Tree/Egyptian Privet

Henna, or Al Kenna as it is called in Arabic,
has played an important role in religion and

mysticism in the East for centuries. The red

colouring produced from the leaf was considered to represent the fire and blood of the
earth, and to link mankind with nature.

Most widely used

as a hair, skin

and

nail dye.

LAV-LEV
arranged in whorls of 6-12 in leaf axils; appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn.
Distribution European native; introduced elsewhere. Usually rare or localized on wasteground and roadsides near ruins. On welldrained, light, calcareous soils in sunny
situations.

May

Wild.

Cultivation

be propagated by root

mid-autumn

division in

or late spring. Sell-

seeds easily.

Tannic

Constituents

acid

leonurinine;

alkaloid,

essential

oil

glucosides;

The combined

principle, leonurine.

an

bitter

action

is

sedative.

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant) Sedative;

antispasmodic; emmenagogue; cardiotonic;
hypotensive; slightly astringent.
Formerly used in the treatment of bronchitis,
diarrhoea, asthma, and rheumatism. Now
considered of benefit in amenorrhoea and

and

dysmenorrhoea,

useful

specifically

in

tachycardia.

May

be of use in anxiety. Employed homeo-

pathically.
Contra-indications

pregnant women
name Motherwort.

Ledum groenlandicum Oed. Ericaceae

to treat

Labrador Tea Marsh Tea

(synonym L. lalifolium
named after Greenland where it

Its

Jacq.j

cardiaca,

It is

is

heart,

in profusion.

rarely used today, perhaps because of

American War

its

during the
of Independence it was one of

narcotic

slightly

but

qualities,

several herbs used as a substitute for tea.

Labrador Tea may be grown horticullurallv

exposed

cold, wet,

sites.

closely related

called

plant, L. palustre

Marsh Tea and has

Description

in

also

is

similar properties.

Evergreen shrub

to

90 cm; bearing

aromatic, alternate, entire leaves 3-5 cm long

petioles. Leaves folded back at the

on short

edges, green above

Flowers small

and

and rust-coloured beneath.

(to 12

- hence

from

while

the
the

Greek
generic

kardiaca

term,

meaning

May

be cultivated

in

Koch umbelliferae

Parsley

With its interesting and unusual flavour

Lovage has a wide culinary potential, but it is
not widely used except as a soup flavouring.

Greeks, who called it ligustikon, chewed the

seed to aid digestion and relieve flatulence - a

The

medicinal use which was promoted in the

Middle Ages by Benedictine monks.
The common name is derived from the fact
that in many European countries the herb had
a traditional reputation as a love

aphrodisiac.
tion

of the

The

Ligusticum,

once grew

or

a corrup-

in

after

abund-

ance.

Glabrous aromatic perennial on

petiolcd, ovate-cuneate, to 3-pinnate leaves,

70 cm long and 50 cm wide near the base,

smaller at the top. Flowers small, greenish
yellow, in umbels 57.5

mid-

Tannic acid; arbutin;

summer, followed by

cm

wide, appearing

7.5 mm long oblong fruit.

Southern European native; naturMinor and eastern United

States; introduced elsewhere. Tolerates most
soils except heavy clay.

comprising ledol

mineral

Formerly added

to

sails

Once

beer to increase

12-*
its

in-

toxicant properties.
Contra-indications

use of the tea

may

alized

resin: essen-

used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea.

Now rarely used as a tea.

Evidence suggests excessive

cause delirium or poisoning.

in

Asia

Very rarely wild, and then usually

garden escape. Gultivated commercially
on a small scale in central Europe, and widely
as a garden herb. Seed sown as soon as ripe or
in spring in well-manured, moist, but welldrained soil; transplanting 60 cm apart.
Also propagate by root division in autumn or
Cultivation

as a

Leonurm cardiaca L labiatae

spring,

replanting 5

Motherwort

reached

in

Leommii

species

from

of the world, which include

various
/..

parts

(ibiricus,

L.

L. demmutus and /.. helerophyllu\.

been shown in animal experiments to
possess hypotensive and sedative properties.

glaucescens

have-

European species L. cardiaca has the- same

properties and was used smce the early Greeks
he

it

charm

Stem stout
and hollow, bearing large dark green long-

cold wet

Uses (leaves, fresh or dried) Astringent.

name

earlier

Liguria, Italy, where

is

Distribution

Constituents

Several

name

botanical

stout fleshy root-stock to 2.20 m.

autumn.
tial oil,

Lovage Love

Description

on thin pedicels in terminal

clusters; appearing in spring.
Distribution Native to Greenland and Ganada.
In sphagnum bogs and wet peaty soils in colder
parts of the northern hemisphere.
Wild.

is

from the Latin leo or lion and the Greek oura or

tail, since it was thought that the tall, leafy
stem resembled a lions tail.
Once commonly grown in herb gardens but
now rare, even in the wild.
Description Strongly smelling erect perennial
90-150 cm tall; on stout stem, square in
section, branching below and hairy. Leaves
pale green beneath, darker above, long petioled, serrate, the lower leaves deeply palmately
lobed, the upper leaves less deeply 3-Iobed.
Flowers pale pink to purple, very hairy, small.

mm wide), scented, white,

situations; propagate by root division in

name

Leonurus,

carried

Cultivation

May cause contact dermatitis.

its

Levisticum officinale

action on the heart led to the specific

This aromatic herb,

grows

for anxiety

Constituents

3-5

cm

deep.

Full

size

is

years.

Essential

oil

comprising mainly

jimbelliferone and butyl phthalidine; resin;

starch;

sugars;

tannin;

gum; vitamin C;

coumarin.
Uses (dried root, fresh or dried plant, seed)

Diuretic; stomachic;

emmenagogue;

expect-

orant.

213

LIA-LOB
Formerly used as a diuretic, in the treatment of
rheumatism and migraine, and for bronchial
catarrh. Of use in flatulence and to promote

chapmannii, also called Blazing Star, contains a

the appetite.

substance

Sometimes employed externally

to treat

still

some

root

L.

callilepis).

related

species,

L.

which has been shown

(liatrin),

to

possess anti-cancer properties.

simple skin problems.

The powdered

found as a horticultural plant, sometimes

called

Nearly glabrous erect perennial on

stem 30 cm-2 m, bearing
alternate linear, punctate leaves, 30 cm long
and 10
wide. Flowers dark blue, 4-8
diameter, in groups of 5-13, in dense spikes 40
cm long, appearing from early to late autumn.
Distribution
North American native from
Massachusetts to Florida and Arizona. On
rich, damp meadow soils or near marshes.
Cultivation Wild. May be propagated by root
Description

was once used

as a pepper.

tuberous

root;

mm

division

mm

early

in

manured, damp

spring,
soils.

planting in wellwhite variety alba

exists.

Constituents

Coumarin; unknown substances.

Uses (root, fresh plant) Diuretic; antibacterial.

Formerly used

in

New England

as a treatment

for venereal diseases, particularly

The decoction

is

gonorrhoea.

of use as a gargle for the

treatment of sore throats.

Powdered

root

and

leaf

may

be employed in

scented sachets and pot-pourris.

The leaf was once used to flavour tobacco.

The powdered root and leaf may also be used
Once used

as a diuretic, but

it

is

rather too

as

an insect repellent.

strong for this purpose.

The herb may

Leaves once employed as a tobacco flavouring.

Largely cultivated as an attractive late flowering garden herb, and as a source of vanilla-

scented leaves for use in pot-pourris.

Lovage Sea

hardy

Ligusticum scoticum

The

leaf

may

be used as

a'

flavouring in soups,

sauces and salads, and as a vegetable; the seed

and with meat.

in biscuits

Young

stems

may

Stems and leaf

stalks

eaten in the same

origin,

be candied like Angelica.

way

can be blanched and

as celery.

Contra-indications Large quantities should not

be taken by pregnant women or by people
suffering from kidney disease.

while spicata refers to the spikes on

which the flowers are carried.

Although now rarely used medicinally

it

is

sist for weeks.

This species possesses coumarin

which

is

responsible for

its

in

its

leaves

attractive scent.

Glabrous perennial on thick tuber-

Description

ous root-stock, to 1.2 m. Leaves alternate,

clasping, narrow, entire, spoon-shaped and
fleshy to 25 cm long. Flowers bright purple on
spikes 35 cm long; appearing early to late

autumn.
North American native. On damp
meadows and open woods.

Distribution
soils in

Cultivation

Wild. Propagate by root division

in

early spring.
(

Constituents

Coumarin; unknown substances.

Uses (dried root, fresh or dried leaf) Diuretic.

214

is

so called because

larly collected

ceased

to

be of medicinal or culinary import-

ance.
Description

Coarse

perennial

to

60

cm on

Stem red below, bearing

dark green, long stemmed, ternate leaves with
branched

Liatris odoratissima Willd. compositae

Deer's Tongue Vanilla Plant
Deer's Tongue, so called because of the shape
of its leaves, is one of 40 species in the North
American Blazing Star or Liatris genus. The
group is difficult to classify botanically due to
hybridization between species, but is characterized by attractive flower-heads which per-

L umbelliferae

Parsley

it was particuand used as a culinary herb in

Scotland, where it is known as shunis.
North American Indians also ate it, peeling
the stem and eating it raw. Because of its
viatmin C content, the plant was also popular
with sailors and fishermen suffering from
scurvy. It was once cultivated, but has long

This herb

compositae
Blazing Star Dense Button Snakeroot
The botanical name, Liatris, is of unknown
Liatris spicata Willd.

be employed horticulturally as

late flowering plant.

root-stock.

LIA-LOB
few segments, 3-5 cm wide, toothed on upper
half only. Flowers yellowish white, in umbels,

and stems may be eaten raw as a

as a vegetable. Stems can be
candied like Angelica, and they may also be
eaten in the same way as celery.
The seed may be powdered and used like

Flax has been described in detail in all the

classical writings of the Egyptians, Hebrews,
Greeks and Romans, and was promoted in
northern Europe first by the Romans and later
by Charlemagne; Irish linen manufacture,
however, was not reported until a.d. 500.
Description Thin annual, branching at the base,
from 30-130 cm tall; stems erect, usually
glabrous with narrow, sessile, linear or lanceolate alternate glaucous green leaves, 3-5 cm
long, and marked with 3 veins.
Flowers 5-petalled, blue or occasionally white
or red, 3 cm diameter, on erect terminal
panicles, appearing mid to late summer and
followed by globose capsules somewhat longer
than the calices. Variable in form depending
upon variety and environment.
Distribution Originally Asian
widely distributed through temperate and subtropical
zones, often as escape from cultivation.
Especially on well-drained wasteland in sunny

Pepper.

situations.

appearing

late

summer

early

to

autumn,

with prominent ridges.

Distribution Sub-arctic Atlantic coasts; occasionally inland. Especially on rocky shores
followed by

and

fruit

river estuaries.

May

Cultivation

Wild.

fresh seed,

and grown

be propagated from

in

damp,

slightly

shady

situations.
Constituents Essential oil,

comprising umbelli-

ferone; starch; vitamin C.

Uses (root, fresh plant, seed)

Diuretic; aro-

matic; carminative.
Once used medicinally as an aromatic flavouring and in the treatment of rheumatism.

Young

leaves

salad, or

The

cooked

root

was formerly chewed

as a

tobacco

Bath water

may

be scented by the root.

Cultivation

Unknown

seed

it.

century,

but was charged with

one of his patients with

after poisoning

Cutler examined

and

its

anti-asthmatic proper-

was introduced to
medicine in 1829. It is now rarely used.
The generic name, Lobelia, is after the Flemish
botanist Matthias de L'Obel (1538-1616),

ties in

181

3,

the herb

British

in the wild state.

grown

for

England, Argentina, North

(United States, Morocco, USSR),
(United States, USSR, India,

(Holland,

Africa), oil

Linum usitatissimum L linaceae

Flax Linseed
Flax has been of exceptional economic importance to man and has been grown since
5000 B.C. It was used by Mesopotamians and
and by early Egyptians who wrapped their
mummies in cloth made from it.
Unknown in the wild state, it is thought to have
been derived from the Pale Flax, L. bienne

murder

Different cultivars are commercially

substitute.

nineteenth

and fibre
Middle East). Some varieties are biennial.
Seed is sown in drills in late spring or early
summer, on dryish, well-drained soils.
Constituents (seed) Fixed oil (30-40%) comprising the glycerides of linoleic, linolenic and
other fatty acids, and stearic and palmitic
acids; mucilage

(6%) a cyanogenic glycoside,

linamarine; vitamin F; pectin; other nitro;

genous substances. The laxative action

to the oil and mucilage content.
Uses

(stem,

seed,

seed-oil,

is

powdered

due
oil-

exhausted seed) Laxative; demulcent; antiinflammatory. Seed is of value internally as a

mild laxative; it is sometimes combined with
other anti-inflammatory medicinal plants for
the treatment of respiratory and gastrointestinal inflammatory disorders.
Both the seed and powdered seed may be
applied externally as a poultice to relieve pain

and heal skin wounds, certain skin conditions

and suppurations.
Seed may be roasted and eaten, and unripe
capsules can be eaten raw.

The

oil

has been

used for culinary purposes.

in

It is of importance
and varnish manufacture. Fibre from
stems is very widely used in linen and

paint

the

cloth manufacture.

Although linseed

oil

injlata refers to

the

way

in

which the seed

Description Hairy, erect, somewhat angled

stem from 20-70 cm, branching near the top,
containing an acrid latex, and bearing oval or
ovate-lanceolate, alternate, sessile, toothed
leaves. Flowers pale blue externally, often
violet within, small

(4-6

mm

long), irregular,

on loose terminal spike-like racemes; followed

by 2-celled capsule which inflates to a
cm
1

long oval, glabrous structure.

Native to North America from

Georgia. Introduced elsewhere.
Cultivation Wild. Propagated from seed sown
on the surface of rich soil, in the autumn.
Constituents Alkaloids (0.3-0.4%) comprising,
Distribution

Labrador

to

lobeline, lobelidine, lobelanine, isolobelanine;

is

rarely used internally

as a purgative in

humans,

ary medicine for

this

Exhausted seed pulp

while

capsule inflates during ripening.

it

is

used in veterin-

purpose.
is

also lobelic acid; inflatin; resin; fat; fixed oil;

caoutchouc (India rubber). In small doses the

combined action

utilized as cattle foddei

dilates bronchioles

and

re-

laxes bronchial muscles.

Uses (dried fruiting plant) Expectorant; antiLobelia injlata

L lobei.iaceae

Indian Tobacco Lobelia

Indian Tobacco is so called because it was
formerly smoked by North American Indians
to relieve asthma and related conditions
Mill,

by selection and cultivation.

Today

several cultivars exist,

seeds which are used for

oil

small seeded types which are

cloth manufacture.

some with large

and the
used in linen and

extraction,

Early settlers used it for a wide variety of

complaints, and some early American herbalists considered it almost a panacea. Samuel

Thomson, who was an important

physiomedical
particularly

school

of

figure in the

herbal

promoted Lobelia

in

medicine,
the

early

asthmatic; emetic; diaphoretic.

Of benefit in chronic bronchitis with associated
dyspnoea and in bronchial asthma.

Formerly used to induce vomiting and in the

treatment of whooping cough, croup and
tetanus. May be applied externally to relieve
pain and irritation caused by rheumatism,
bruises, bites

and certain

Contra-indications

skin conditions.

POISONOUS- may be fatal.

Large doses cause purgation, vomiting, conmedullary and respiratory depression.

vulsions,

215

LON-LYT
Lonicera caprifolium

L caprifoliaceae

only because of the yellow colour of the moss's

spores, but also because they burn brightly in a

Perfoliate Honeysuckle
Honeysuckle receives its common name from
an old habit of sucking the sweet honey-tasting
nectar from the flowers, while this species most common in southern Europe - is also
called perfoliate because its upper leaves
surround the stem.
Now widely used as a climbing or hedge plant.
Description Climbing deciduous shrub. Stems
glabrous to 6 m. Leaves opposite simple, oval.
to cm long, green above glaucous beneath;
5

similar

Appearing early

to

to

powdered sulphur.

generic name, Lycopodium, means fox or

wolf foot - another illusion to the shape of the
plant.

This and closely related species, such as L.

selago L (the Fir Club Moss
were once widelyused medicinally, especially in North America
and continental Europe. The use of the spores
in treating wounds, which was introduced by
German apothecaries in the seventeenth
century, continues to this day in several
.

the upper 2 or 3 leaf pairs united at their base

forming a cup (connate). Flowers fragrant,
pale yellow, 4-5 cm long, corolla not glandular, borne in terminal whorls of 2-3. Bracts
large.

manner

The

parts of the world.

Procumbent evergreen perennial

Description

moss, reaching at least 100

mid-summer and

cm

long: rooting

along the branching stem which

hence

trees

The

its

sixteenth-century
or Lonitzei

relets

Lonicera,

German

thin

and

name Woodbine.

alternative

name.

generic

is

to

.1

physician, Lonicei

deciduous
Climbing,
twining,
shrub: stems to 9 in. Leaves opposite, simple.
ovate to oblong-ovate, 4 7.5 cm long; dark
green above, often glaucous or pale beneath;
Description

upper leaves not united.

Flowers fragrant, yellow,
glandular,

borne

peduncled.

terminal

-,

cm

Bracts small.

clusters.

Appearing mid-summer

to

long, corolla

many-flowered,

in

mid-autumn and

followed by red berries.

Distribution

Native

to

Europe, western Asia

and

North Africa; introduced elsewhere.

Especially on porous sandy or loam soils, in
mixed woodland. Calcifugous.

followed by orange berries.

Native to central and southern

Europe and western Asia: introduced elsewhere. On well-drained loamy soils. Calci-

propagate from woody cuttings taken in early

autumn and rooted in peat and sand mix or by

fugous.

layering in late

Cultivation Wild. Cultivated horticulturally

propagate from woody cuttings taken in early
autumn and rooted in peat and sand mix or by

Constituents

Distribution

layering in late
Constituents

summer.

Uses

flowering plant

Diuretic:

antiseptic:

emetic; expectorant.
Similar actions to Honeysuckle

L.

periclymenum

POISONOUS

berries.

Ex-

horticulturally:

summer. The

varieties

oar.

are garden plants.

Mucilage: an amorphous gluco-

var. Belgica

flowering plant

Diuretic:

antiseptic:

internally

for

con-

several

ditions;

but now recommended

external

use as an application for skin in-

only

for

POISONOUS

berries:

ex-

is the taller growing of the two common

European honeysuckles, and may live for 50
years. It is often found bound tightly around

This

2l6

Distribution

World-wide distribution on acidic

erous woodland and grassland, especially

spores

Fixed

ilavatus,

is

It

which

it

(50% compris-

lycopodium

oleic

whole
muscus

carries.

has also been called vegetable sulphur, not

plant

in

phytosterin:

acids:

2%

acid; a carbohydrate, pollenin

so called because of the club-shaped

fruiting bodies

oil

ing glycerides of palmitic, stearic, arachitic

sporonine: lycopodic acid

L lycopodiaceae
Club Moss Stags-Horn Moss
Club Moss, known to apothecaries as

in

mountainous districts.
Cultivation Wild plant.

and

ternal use only.

Lycopodium clavatum

L caprifoliaceae
Honeysuckle Woodbine

Constituents

fections.

ternal use only.

Lonicera periclymenum

mm

narrow, pointed, bristled leaves, 3-5

long.
Spores yellow, minute, carried in large numbers in yellow-green cones, usually
or 2
rarely 3
which are borne at the ends of
stalks extending from aerial branches, to 15
cm long. Spores ripe from early to mid-

or silica-containing soils; on moorland, conif-

expectorant; emetic; slightly astringent.

used

densely covered with bright green, smooth,

autumn.

side: salicylic acid; sugars; invertin.

Contra-indications

Contra-indications

Aurea and

Formerly

side; salicylic acid: sugars; invertin.

Cultivated

Uses

Mucilage: an amorphous gluco-

Wild.

Cultivation

addition

hydrocaffeic

45
to

the

above,

contains alkaloids (0.12% comprising clavatoxine, clavatine and lycopodine.

Uses ^spores
ient;

Vulnerary; haemostatic: aper-

weak antispasmodic.

LON-LYT
Tannic acid;

Wild.

in the treatment of
inflammatory disbladder
kidney, liver and
Use now
incontinence.
urinary
in
and
orders,

lycopine; flavone glycosides.

Constituents

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant; Sedative;

lycopine; flavone glycosides.

confined to its external application as a

soothing dusting powder for wounds and in
skin irritations such as in eczema. Also em-

anti-haemorrhagic; cardioactive; antithyroi-

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant) Sedative;

ds.

Formerly used internallv

is

ployed homeopathically. Hypoglycaemic action has been demonstrated experimentally.

It was also used to coat pills to prevent their
adhesion when stored.
Once used as a basis for medicinal snuffs and as
a vehicle for the application of powdered herbs

Constituents

uses

have been ascribed

may

be used internally. The

if introduced to

L labiatae
Gipsywort Gypsyweed
Called Gipsywort because

More

stained

skin

their

weed.
it

was supposed

with

the

herb.

certainly the plant has been of use as a

Although quite closely related to the mints this

herb lacks aroma almost entirely.
Description Perennial on creeping rhizome.
Stems erect, simple or branched from 30-100
tall;

bearing opposite, shortly petiolate,

ovate-lanceolate to elliptic leaves up to 10

long.

Weed

Lower

leaves

pinnate,

mm

crenate. Flowers, 3
dotted with purple,

upper

cm

leaves

diameter, white and

numerous, in dense
whorls in upper leaf axils. Appearing late
summer to mid-autumn.
Distribution Native to Europe, western Asia:
introduced to North America. On many soil
types, but especially those which are flooded:
river margins, marshland and ditches.
Cultivation

Wild.

is

Tannic acid;

essential oil; a bitter,

L labiatae

Virginia Bugle

Weed

is

in

the

diabetes.

Lythrum salicaria L lythraceae

Purple Loosestrife Spiked Loosestrife
This is still popular in European folk medicine,

was

name, Lythrum,

very similar to the

the latter half of the nineteenth century

effectiveness

Action the same as that of L. europaeus. It has

also been employed in the treatment of

thiolus thought

Weed

action was investigated originally in

Its

dic; hypoglycaemic.

and was once used in tanning leather. Pliny

described a purple-red Lysimachia which Mat-

cloth dye for centuries.

cm

Lycopus virginicus

Bugle

which

linen.

European Gipsywort (also known as Gypsyweed and is itself sometimes called Gypsy-

Lycopus europaeus

gypsies

fresh juice provides a black dye,

Virginia Bugle

a flame.

it

gland.

permanent on wool and

ignite explosively

herb;

haemoptysis and other forms of haemorrhage

including menorrhagia.
It is a sedative, as it reduces the pulse rate in
conditions involving an overactive thyroid

The

powder may

to this

has been used in the treatment of tuberculosis,

to the

only the spores

Cultivation

anti-haemorrhagic; cardio-active; antithyroi-

Many

Still

nose and ears.

employed in firework manufacture.
Contra-indications The whole plant is toxic;

essential oil; a bitter,

treatment

and

its

of internal

blood after

its

is

this species.

The

generic

derived from the Greek for

haemostatic properties. Salicaria

refers to the Willow-like (Salix

appearance of the

means willow)

leaves.

somewhat downy perennial

50-175 cm tall, on creeping rhizome; stem
square and branched at the top. Leaves mostly
Description Erect,

haemorrhages and other conditions led to its

inclusion in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
It is

now

This

rarely used outside folk medicine.

species

Gipsywort

[L.

is

slightly

europaeus)

more

active

than

when used medi-

cinally.

Perennial

Description

Stem

from

15-60

erect, glabrous or nearly so,

stolons

the

at

base,

cm

tall.

producing

and bearing ovate or

oblong-lanceolate, shortly petiolate, coarsely

Flowers whitish, sometimes

heavily marked with purple, small, in loose
axillary whorls; appearing late summer to
serrate

leaves.

\\

f:

/*#&

HP B TOf

mid-autumn.
North American native; from
Labrador to Florida and British Colombia.
Distribution

On

rich,

espei iaIK

damp soils, in shady situations.

marshy land and moist forests.

opposite, cordate below, lanceolate above to

10 cm. Flowers purple in whorled clusters
tall,

leafy

summer

to

on

terminal spikes; appearing mid-

mid-autumn.

Native to Europe and western Asia,

Russia. Introduced and naturalized in other

Distribution

temperate zones. In reed-beds, ditches,

1500

to

altitude.

Cultivation

may

fen-

beside stagnant or flowing water;

land,

Wild. Horticultural cultivars exist:

be propagated by seed or by division in

spring.

pectin; essential oil;

Constituents Tannins;
provitamin A; calcium oxalate; a glycoside,

The combined action is antibacterial

and haemostatic.
Uses (fresh or dried, whole flowering plant)
vitexin.

Astringent; haemostatic; antibacterial; tonic.

An

excellent

cleanser,

gargle,

and of benefit

douche
in

and

wound

diarrhoea or gastro-

intestinal disorders such as mild food poison-

ing Rapidly stops bleeding. Once used

in

diluted form as an eye-wash.

217

MAH-MAR
Mahonia aquifolium (Pursh.) Nutt.

Description

BERBERIDACEAE

biennial.

Usually

pulled

Stem hairy, erect or decumbent,

branched, 30-150 cm tall; bearing tomentose,

it out of the ground.

Certainly Mandrake, like Henbane and Belladonna, was an ingredient of witches' brews and

after

reniform
leaves, 4

McMahon.

round-cordate,
long-petioled
diameter, with 5-7 crenate lobes.
Few pinkish-violet flowers, 4 cm diameter, 5-

poisons, but

Bernard
The herb was introduced into

Europe

1823,

petalled, in clusters in leaf axils; appearing

in many European
pharmacopoeias until the nineteenth century,
and an official homeopathic preparation was

Mountain Grape Barberry

This is known as Mahonia
American

the

in

aquifolium

horticulturalist

and

is

now

often

grown

because of its attractive foliage and fruit.

Description Fast growing evergreen shrub to
2 m: leaves consisting of 5 9 ovate leaflets
2-7 cm long, dark green and glossy, lighter
beneath. Flowers yellowish-green, heavilv
scented, in terminal racemes. Bears purpleblue smooth berries.
Distribution

Indigenous

early

perennial,

or

cm

summer

to

mid-autumn.

Native

Distribution

Europe, western Asia,

to

North America; on porous nutrient-rich soils,

especially hedge banks, field edges, and wasteland; in sunny situations.
Cultivation Wild. Once grown as a garden
plant propagate from seed sown in late spring,
;

to

mountainous regions

later thinning to 75

cm

of British Columbia. Distribution from British

Constituents

Mucilage;

Columbia

vitamins A,

B p B 2 C.

to

occasionally

Oregon. Introduced elsewhere.

apart.
volatile

tannin:

oil;

Roman

employed
It

it

was

also used

physicians

as

an

by the Greek and

anaesthetic and

in early surgery.

continued to be included

introduced

in 1877.

Perennial on thick, branching,

tuberous root; practically stemless. Leaves
reaching 30 cm long, ovate and undulate,
basal or nearly so, dark green. Flowers greenDescription

ish-yellow or purplish, 3 cm long, single or

clustered within the leaves; appearing mid to

and followed by orange, globose,

many-seeded fruit.
Distribution Native to Himalayas and southeastern mediterranean region. On poor thin,
sandy soils in full sun.
Cultivation Wild plant. Rarely cultivated hortilate spring

fleshy,

culturally in historical gardens or in botanic

drug collections. Requires warm situation and

winter protection in north Europe. Propagated from seed sown as soon as

ripe, or

by

division.
Constituents Alkaloids, including atropine, sco-

polamine and
action

is

hyoscyamine,

to

which the

due.

dried root, fresh leaves rarely

Sedative;

hallucinogenic; purgative; emetic; anodyne.

No

Cultivation

plant and

Wild

now

plant.

Cultivated as garden

and flowers, occasionally

Demulcent; anti-inflammatory; laxat-

dried leaves

temperate /ones.
Constituents Alkaloids comprising mainly berberine, berbamine and oxyacanthine.
Uses dried rhizome and root Used in digestive
complaints and for skin diseases
especially
psoriasis. Combined with Cascara uigrada for

roots)

use in constipation.

Externally

naturalized

in

ive: slightly astringent.

Useful

in

system.

Taken

irritation
for the

of the

gastro-intestinal

treatment of coughs and

bronchitis.

Large doses are gently purgative.

may

be used as a soothing poultice.

supposed sedative effect is unproven.

Leaves were once cooked as a vegetable; and
seeds and capsules known as cheeses may be
Its

Malva

sylvestris

L Malvaceae

Common Mallow

The Common Mallow was once

highly res-

pected as a medicinal plant and foodstuff, and

from the days of the Romans was cultivated as
a garden herb. In the sixteenth century it was
given the
all

name

omnimorbia,

- probably because of

its

meaning

a cure-

gently purgative

eaten raw in salads.

Mandragora

qfficinarum

L solanaceae

Mandrake
Mandrake

is

the most

commonly

action; a practice which in itself was thought

those obsessed with magical rites

body of disease.
The common name Mallow is from the Latin
malva for soft and emollient, after the feel, and

ritual

to rid the

examby

and

orgiastic

with which some hallucinogenic and

narcotic herbs became closely associated in the

dark ages.

was protected by the early Greek

properties respectively, of the leaves.

It

For medicinal purposes it has largely been

replaced by the more effective Marshmallow.

who invested

218

cited

ple of the former abuse of medicinal plants

ful

collectors

the root with such fictitious

attributes as the ability to

kill

harm-

man who

longer used medicinally owing to

its

high

MAH-MAR
The

toxicity.

leaves were once applied ex-

had

ternally to ulcers, while the root formerly

wide application in the relief of pain,

treatment of nervous disorders and

in the
as

an

Brazil to Mexico. Introduced to Africa, India

tall,

and south-east

leaves 1.5-5

Wild. Cultivated commercially by

harvest time and replanting a

Cultivation
lifting

it

Asia.

at

portion of the rhizome that has buds on

aphrodisiac.
Contra-indications

POISONOUS

and danger-

ous; not to be used internally or externally.

it.

Starch small quantities of gum and

Constituents

Uses (starch, occasionally rhizome

Nutritive:

demulcent.

Arrowroot was first noticed on the West

Indian island of Dominica at the end of the
seventeenth century, and it was subsequently
grown in Jamaica where it was employed both
as a source of starch and as a poison antidote.

mm

Appearing

nutlets.

mid-summer

mid-

to

autumn.
Native to southern and central
Europe, North Africa, Asia; introduced elsewhere, often widespread. On dry grassland or
pastures, field edges and wasteland, in warm
Distribution

fibre.

Maranta arundinacea L marantaceae

Arrowroot Maranta Starch

bearing wrinkled, dentate, ovate, opposite

cm l n g; tomentose beneath and
long-petioled. Flowers whitish, 5-8
long,
numerous in axillary whorls; followed by-

The powdered rhizome was applied to poisonous bites and wounds in some tropical

situations.

Wild. Cultivated commercially on a

countries.

Cultivation

Of

small scale by root division in mid-spring.

benefit as a soothing food-stuff following

diarrhoea or illness. Once employed in pill

manufacture, and in barium meals for X-ray
of the gastro-intestinal system.
It may be candied as a sweet. It can also be
used in cooking as a thickener.
vulgare L labiatae
White Horehound
White Horehound has been used

Marrubium

remedy from
present day.

is

still

as a

cough

included in the

an expectorant, and it remains a popular

domestic and folk medicine. Wherever European emigrants have travelled they have taken
this plant and grown it in herb and cottage
thus

generic name.
Pliny

and

mon name
hunt

widely

distributing

Marrubium, was

first

it.

is

The

used by

refers to the bitter taste; the

meaning

com-

derived from the Old English

a

downy

cm

thinning to 30
in

May

in late spring,

apart, or from cuttings taken

summer.

Constituents Tannins; volatile oil, comprising

marrubiol; mucilage; resin; sterols; a bitter
principle, marrubin; vitamin C.

Uses

Austrian and Hungarian pharmacopoeias as

gardens,

grown from seed sown

(dried

flowering

dried

plant,

leaves)

Expectorant; emmenagogue; weak diuretic;

the time of the Egyptians to the

The herb

also be

liar

plant.

Description Faintly aromatic woody perennial,

almost entire plant is woolly. Branched near

the base; stems erect, nearly square,

30-60 cm

spasmolytic; weak diaphoretic.

Useful

in

specifically

many
in

respiratory

bronchitis

disorders,

but

and coughs. Pro-

motes bile flow and stimulates the appetite.

Considered of benefit in disorders of the gall
bladder and stomach, and acts as a stomach
tonic. Formerly used to treat menstrual pain.
Possesses
for

some weak sedative

action, suitable

use in conjunction with other herbs in

nervous tachycardia.
May be applied externally to minor cuts and
certain skin conditions. Laxative in large doses.
Leaves may be used powdered as a bitter
condiment, or whole as a tisane and in the

manufacture of the confection, Horehound

candy.

The common name is thought to be derived

from the fact that a pouliii e ol it was applied to
arrow wounds. Its Brazilian name, however, is
araruta, which may indicate a different etymological origin

Supplies of Arrowroot

from Jamaica

at

first

reached Europe

the beginning ol the nine-

it was being grown

and by 1858 Maranta was a commer-

teenth century, but by 1840

in India,

cial

The

crop

in

generic

Georgia,

name

is

in

the

alter

B.

United States.
Maranta, six-

teenth-ceniury Venetian botanist and physician; arundinacea relets to the reed-like shape

ol

the plant.

Although it is still used, it was much more

popular before tin- 1914 1918 war.
Description Herbaceous perennial on creeping
rhizome and fleshy tuben; stems 60 mii 3 m
tall,

thin, reed-like,

oblong,

and

petiolate,

to

cm wide

branched, bearing ovateglabrous,

ing around the stem.

on long thin

-,

30

cm

long

leaves; the petioles sheath-

pedum

Few

small, white flowers

les.

Distribution Native to tropical

America, from

219

MAT-MEL
L compositae

Matricaria recutita

Wild Chamomile
German or Wild Chamomile was previously
called

M.

Chamomilla, but in botanical terms

not a true chamomile and

it

sometimes
called Sweet False Chamomile. Although now
is

also

it is

considered slightly inferior to Roman Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) - even its aroma
being somewhat less pronounced - there is no
certainty

tions

promoting bile and gastric secreand increasing the appetite. In large

doses

it is

disorders,

German Chamomile

which of the chamomiles was meant

by the chamaimelon of Dioscorides. Today both

and M. recutita are used for similar

The name, Matricaria, is either
from the root word mater meaning mother

emetic.

Promotes sweating and

common

cold; a

weak

Although

formerly used to treat painful

menstruation, it is not very effective.
May be applied as an antiseptic douche; used

aphthous ulcers; applied to

haemorrhoids; or used as a poultice or
compress for cuts, bruises, ulcers and skin
as a gargle for

C. nobile

disorders.

purposes.

or from matrix, the Latin for

Employed as a tisane.
Widely employed as an

womb,

after

its

use

used to treat the

is

infusion acts as a tonic.

flavouring

in

alcoholic

certain

drinks.

anti-allergic agent in

female complaints.
Description Aromatic glabrous annual to 60 cm
stems erect, much-branched, bearing 2-3
pinnate leaves with almost filiform segments.
Flower-heads pedunculate, single at branch-

shampoos, and

apices. Flowers to 2 cm wide, ray florets

(10-20) white; disc florets yellow; receptacle
hollow and conical. Appearing early summer

Medicago sativa L leguminosae

Lucerne Alfalfa
The name, Medicago, is derived from Medea

for treating

let

cosmetic preparations.

constituent of

some

liquid

and dry hair

and lightens

lotions. Highlights

fair hair.

in

North Africa where this important plant was

thought to have originated.
Certainly the Arabs have used Lucerne fodder
for centuries to feed their horses, and it has
been in cultivation for so long that, like Flax, it
exists in

The

many

plant

Europe

when

different forms.

was

not

known

until the seventeenth

in

north-west

century however,

The

vated.

nutritive

Lucerne has few traditional medicinal

gation has shown that

field,
it is

uses

but recent investi-

of great nutritional

importance and contains, for example, four

times as much vitamin C as citrus juice,
measured weight for weight.
Description Glabrous perennial 30 cm-i m;
on deep, thick taproot; much-branched stem
often forming dense bushy growth. Leaves
pinnate, with 3 denticulate leaflets to 3 cm
long, obovate-oblong. Flowers 1.5-3 cm on g>
'

on axillary racemes, appearing

late summer to mid-autumn; followed by
pubescent spiralled seed pod.
Distribution Originally native to mediterranean
violet-blue,

mid-autumn

or sometimes later.
Indigenous to Europe, northern
Asia, naturalized in North America; widespread on wasteland, farmland and in gardens.
Cultivation Wild.
Cultivated and collected
commercially in central Europe. Propagate
from seed sown thinly in the autumn, or with
to

less

success in the spring.

Constituents Volatile oil (0.3-0.

75%) compris-

(chamazulene),

azulene

ing

farnesene,

a-

bisabolol, sesquiterpenes, palustrine, quercetol,

methoxycoumarin,

salicylic acid;

tane;

fatty

furfural

acids

to

also apigenin

and flavonic

The anti-inflammatory
a-bisabolol,

spasmolytic

choline; phytosterol; triacon-

but

action

antiseptic action

due

action

also

due

to

heterosides.

due mainly
chamazulene;
is

dicyclic

to

to several

ether;

components.

Uses (dried flower-heads) Anti-inflammatory;

antiseptic;

antispasmodic;

carminative.

Of

great benefit as an aromatic bitter for gastric

220

Uses (fresh or dried leaf, occasionally seed)

was given the name lucerna meaning

lamp, after the bright shiny appearance of the
seeds. The specific name sativa means cultiit

outside the veterinary

Distribution

substance, coumestrol.

region

and

western

Asia;

naturalized

in

North America. Now worldwide in distribution, especially on dry, light or chalky soils.
Cultivation Wild as an escape. Many strains
exist and the form of the plant depends on the
variety grown. Very widely cultivated as
fodder and for commercial purposes. Seed
sown in late spring after risk of frost has passed,
preferably on calcareous loam, which is free of
weeds and prepared to a fine tilth. When
grown commercially, seed is usually inocu-

Nutritive; diuretic; anti-haemorrhagic.

seed was once used by Indians as an

abortifacient.

Of

benefit

as

tonic

and

herb; an infusion taken regularly

promotes appetite and leads to weight inA very rich source of vitamin C, when

crease.

used fresh.

May

be applied

externally

to

aid

wound

healing.

Used

The

as a beverage.

leaf is

employed

as a salad herb, or

cooked

as a vegetable.

The

sprouted indoors and eaten as a

and amino-acids.
Of considerable veterinary importance as a
food-stuff; in cows it increases milk yield.
One of the major commercial sources of
chlorophyll; also a source of vitamin K,.
seed

is

rich source of vitamins

The

seed provides a yellow dye. Formerly used

as a diluent to adjust the strength of powdered

medicinal plants such as

Digitalis.

Melaleuca leucadendron L myrtaceae

Cajuput Tree Punk Tree

lated

Cajuput oil is extracted by steam distillation

from the leaves of a number of related Australasian trees or shrubs, all of which are members
of the Bottle Brush group. Melaleuca leucadendron is the most important commercial source.
The characteristic flowering spike with its
numerous long creamy-white stamens led to

drine;

meaning white
from the Greek for
black and white, after the trunk and bark
colours of one of the species.
The word Cajuput is derived directly from the
local Malaysian name kqyu-puti which means
white wood - another reference to the colour.
The oil was first noticed by Rumphius in the

with a specific nitrogen-fixing root

nodule bacterium to ensure growth. Replace
after 5-7 years. Very drought resistant.
Constituents Protein (16%) fat (3%) vitamins
C, B p B 2 D, E, K,; provitamin A; several
mineral salts, including potassium, calcium
and phosphorus; choline; trimethylamine:
betaine; alfafa saponin; an alkaloid, stachy;

bitter

principle;

hormonal

the specific
tree,

name

leucadendron

while melaleuca

is

MAT-MEL
seventeenth century

late

who

described the use

of the plant by Malaysians.

Lochner, a physician to the German Emperor,
and von Wittneben, promoted its use in the
early eighteenth century particularly in Ger-

many, where it was called Oleum Wittnebianum.

Description Large tree with spongy, shiny and
branches usually pendulous,
oblong tapering strongly-veined

bark;

peeling

bearing

1.5-2

leaves,

cm wide and 5-10 cm

long.

Flowers creamy white, small, with numerous

stamens extending 15 mm, borne on terminal
spikes to 15 cm long, which themselves terminate in a tuft of leaves; followed by brown

Medic, leguminosae

Melilotus alba

White Melilot White Sweet

ointments

Clover/

Bokhara Clover
This is the taller of the common melilots and
although of little benefit to man directly it is of
great importance as an agricultural fodder
crop, honey plant and cover crop for green
manuring. Spoiled White Sweet Clover may
sometimes cause cattle poisoning due to the
presence of large quantities of dicoumarol,
which delays blood coagulation and leads to
severe, often internal, haemorrhage. Evidence
suggests the cultivated races of the herb have

terpineol, 1-pinene, aldehydes, including those

lower concentrations of dicoumarol.

Description Sweet smelling erect, branched,
annual or biennial from 1-2.5 m ta ^- Stems
ribbed longitudinally, glabrous, bearing pinnate leaves with oblong, denticulate leaflets
1.8-4 cm l n g- Flowers white, honey-scented,
small (4
long), numerous, on long thin,
erect,
terminal racemes; appearing midsummer to early autumn and followed by

of benzoic, valeric and butyric acids.

small pods.

capsules.

Native to Australasia and Malayintroduced elsewhere in tropical situations,

Distribution
sia

swamps.

especially

Wild. Limited cultivation; propa-

Cultivation

mm

gate from cuttings.

Oil

Constituents

Uses

comprising

and

leaves

occasionally

(oil,

cineole

(60"

ulant; rubefacient; antihelmintic; expector-

treatment of
oil

Of

and

for the

some

Used externally

in

oils for

rheumatic pain;

in various liniments;

and

scabies;

treat

to

in

cavities

to

relieve pain.

tea

Oil

is

and

is

also

All

essential

is

now made commercially.

of commercial

importance

as

flavouring for cheese and tobacco and was

once used in beer manufacture. Its botanical

name, Melilotus, means honey-lotus or honey
clover,

The

and

reflects the

sweetness of its nectar.

hay-like smell of the substance

coumarin

develops only when the plant is dried, and it

was for this aromatic property that Common
Melilot was once used as a strewing herb.

Known

to the apothecaries as corona regis, or

it is

not

now used

very widely.

cm; stems

Flowers yellow, honeylong) borne on long,

racemes, appearing mid-

leaflets.

narrow

axillary

summer

to early

mm

autumn.

Coumarin and

related substances,

released on drying; a glycoside, melilotoside;

the leaves.

leaves repel insects.

Contra-induations
in

It

Constituents

made from

used only

botic preparation

Distribution

stimulant-rubbing
tooth

officinalis

Eurasian native; naturalized in

North America. Especially on nitrogenous
wasteland, embankments and fields.
Cultivation Wild plant. Collected commercially.

digestive dis-

orders.

(L) Pall, leguminosae

Melilot Yellow Sweet Clover
This member of the Laburnum family (which
is also called Wild Laburnum) is a very old
medicinal plant from which an antithromMelilotus

Common

denticulate

removal of roundworms.

benefit internally in

and

honey plant.

scented, small (4-6

is

excreted via the lungs), as a gastro-intestinal

antiseptic,

greatest importance as cattle fodder,

glabrous or pubescent, ribbed, erect or decumbent, branched. Bearing trifoliate leaves,

and obovate or oblanceolate, 1-2 cm long,

ant.
in the

skin

antibacterial ac-

Formerly used homeopathically.

tivity.

Of

weak

Description Straggly biennial to 130

Carminative; antispasmodic; antiseptic; stim-

Formerly used internally

promote the healing of

the kings crown,

twigs)

chronic bronchitis and tuberculosis (the

to

complaints. Possesses

fixed oil; melilotic acid.

oils

Uses (dried flowering plant) Aromatic; carminative; expectorant; antithrombotic; anti-

should be

very small quantities.

spasmodic; antibiotic.
Formerly used in a wide range of conditions.

Native to Asia and Europe. NaturNorth America, especially the eastern

Distribution

alized in

introduced

varieties

states;

weedy wastelands,
nitrogenous
herb,

M.

Hubam

soils in

alba

sunny

var.

elsewhere.

In

on stony and

situations.

An annual

Wild.

Cultivation

especially

annua

variety of this,

Coe,

also

called

developed as a droughtresistant, high weight yielding fodder and

honey yielding crop, is grown worldwide
from seed sown in spring.
Clover,

Constituents

Coumarin and

related substances;

occasionally dicoumarol (melitoxinj

Dicoumarol

acts as a vitamin

fixed

oil.

antagonist,

thus reducing prothrombin synthesis which

delays blood coagulation.

Uses (cured fresh plant, occasionally flowering
plant;

Nutritive; aromatic; stimulant; vul-

nerary.

Rarely used medicinally, but used in Central

as a stimulant. May be employer! in

America

22

MEL-MEN
May be taken regularly to help prevent
thrombosis; also to treat bronchial catarrh and
flatulence. Externally applied to wounds and
skin inflammations

on inflamed

eyes.

and can be used with care

The

seeds possess antibiotic

activity.

Formerly used

in

herb beer; flowers and seeds

used to flavour Gruyere cheese, snuff and

smoking tobacco.
May be employed

some meat

in

dishes, for

Native to southern Europe; mediterranean region; central Europe; introduced

Distribution

and widespread
on nutrient-rich

soils in

required

clothes.

comprising

Large doses are emetic.

common

sunny position.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated commercially and
horticulturally from seed sown in mid to late
spring (slow germination) or by root division
in spring or autumn. Prefers rich, moist soil in
sunny position with some shade; some shelter

example, rabbit.
Limited cosmetic use where hay-like aroma is
required. Repels moths and is used to protect
Contra-indications

northern temperate zones,

in

often as a garden escape. Especially

to frost.

in cooler climates, as

variegated form

Constituents (fresh plant)

it is

susceptible

exists.

Essential oil (0.1%)

citral, linalol, citronellal

aniol; tannins

(5%

and

ger-

a bitter principle; resin;

succinic acid.

L labiatae
Balm Lemon Balm/Common Balm

Melissa

Uses (fresh or dried leaves, occasionally flower-

officinalis

Although Balm has been cultivated in the

mediterranean region for over 2000 years, it
was for almost half this period considered
important only as a bee plant, and until the
fifteenth century was known as either melissophyllon, Greek for bee leaf, or apiastrum,
Latin

bee plant.

for

modern botanical

Its

name,
The Arabs introduced

Melissa, reflects this early association.

specifically of benefit in

and

it

bites.

medicinal herb
anxiety or depression,

it

as a

has been used as a sedative or tonic tea

Balm

ever since.

has frequently been incorpor-

ated in proprietary cordials or liqueurs, and

its

name The

de

popularity in France led to

Balm

its

an abbreviation for balsam

sweet aroma, but this aroma is rapidly

France.

is

alter

its

lost,

together with

value, on drying

much

and

of

its

therapeutic

storing.

Description Sweet-smelling perennial, on slightly

oil) Carminative; diaphoretic; antispasmodic; sedative.

Of use in aromatic waters or as a tea for the
treatment of minor gastric disturbances, nausea and headaches. Also used in conjunction
with other remedies to treat nervous tachycardia and restlessness. Some hypotensive action.
Fresh leaf is soothing when rubbed on insect

ing tops,

Oil once used alone as a diaphoretic, but

is

slightly toxic.

Wide

culinary potential where delicate lemon

flavour

is

common

required.

An

important constituent of several liqueurs,

including Benedictine and Chartreuse. Useful
in wine cups and cold drinks. Taken alone .1.1

tisane.

A useful bee plant.

May be used in pot-pourris,
in

herb mixtures

for

herb pillows, and

aromatic baths.

hairy square stem, branching near the top,

from 30 80 cm. Leaves opposite, petiolate,

ovate,

greenish-yellow,

dentate,

to

7.5

cm

dentate or crenate-

long;

lemon

scented.

mints, although in the Middle Ages

Flowers

which

is

sometimes

and rather

lilac

florescence, 4

species hybridizes readily with other mints,

this.

producing a large array of varieties.

Distribution

mid-autumn.

It is

This

strong-smelling and not as pleasant as most

rarely

many

in

cm

Appearing

2-6 cm

long.

diameter, with usually only

late

Native

summer

to

to late autumn.
Europe and naturalized

On

northern temperate zones.

beside

soils,

crisp;

or red, in rounded terminal in-

axillan whorls of flowers beneath

Flowers whitish, occasionally pinkish or yellow; small (0.75-1.5 cm long) in scanty

axillary clusters; appearing late summer to

in distinct varieties.

of

oil

Spearmint.
Description Strong-smelling perennial; variable
in form. Angular, glabrous or pubescent,
much-branched stem to
m, on stolons.
Leaves opposite, serrate, decussate, ovate,
petiolate,

plant

related Mentha spicata

used as a commercial source of

is

Mentha aquatica L labiatae

to exist

The

as a strewing herb.

Water Mint
A very variable
considered

then called menastrum/ was used

Water Mint

streams,

in

ditches

and

wet
on

regularly flooded land.

Cultivation

Wild.

May

be propagated by stolon

division in spring. Plant in water or keep very

wet.

(poco oil, to 0.85

linalol
comprising menthofuran.
acetate,
holine;
limonene, L-carvol; also betaine;
succinic acid; glucose; menthyl pentose; dotConstituents Volatile oil

ricontane; aquaticol; tannins.

fresh herb, occasionally root bark and
i'ses
i

oil)

Carminative; antispasmodic; cholagogue;

slightly astringent.

Of benefit

as a

warm

infusion in disturbances

of the gastro-intestinal system, particularly

diarrhoea, and intestinal spasms. Also useful in
the treatment of the

common

cold

and

in

painful menstruation. In Africa the root bark

is

employed

in the

treatment of diarrhoea and

colds.

May
Mav

be taken as a tisane.
be employed with discretion

in

scented

articles.

Once used

as a strewing herb.

Contra-indications

222

Large doses may be emetic.

MEL-MEN
Mentha x

piperita

L labiatae

Cultivation

Peppermint
Peppermint
herbs, but

1696

when

is

it

now one

was not

of the best

known of all

definitely recorded until

the botanist, Ray. published a brief

description of a pepper-tasting mint which

had, near to that date, first been observed by

Eales in Hertfordshire, England.

Dr

In his Histona plantarum

704 Ray

called the

mint Peper-mint or Mentha palustris, and

although the latter correctly refers to the
marsh-loving nature of the plant, no satisfactory explanation can be given for his erroneous

an escape, and seldom

as

cially

and horticulturally

in

many

commer-

parts of the

autumn and
cm deep. Water

world. Divide stolons in

replant

M. odorata, is therefore rather more accurate

than the present one, which suggests only a
lemon

scent.

Very aromatic decumbent, glab-

Description

well in
30 cm apart, 5
ordinary garden situations; replace after 5
years. Does not breed true if raised from seed.
comprising
Constituents Volatile oil (to 2

cm tall, on overground leafy stolons. Stems branched, bearing

dark green, purple-tinged, smooth, ovate or

menthol (50%), menthone, menthyl isovalerate, cineole. jasmone, phellandrene. amy!

rounded dense terminal spikes or in

upper leaf axils, appearing from mid to late
autumn.
Distribution European native, naturalized else-

alcohol, acetaldehyde. cadinene; tannins; bitter

compounds.

Uses

(fresh

or

dried

plant,

oil)

Aromatic

rous perennial from 30-60

elliptic, petiolate leaves

where.

On

rich,

stimulant; carminative: antiseptic; antispas-

partial shade.

has nevertheless been retained. Pepper-

modic; anti-inflammatory: cholagogue.

May be employed in a variety of gastrointestinal disorders where its antispasmodic,
anti-flatulent and appetite-promoting actions

Cultivation

mint's medicinal value was soon recognized

and within 25 years of its description the herb

was included in the London Pharmacopoeia it is still retained in many national pharmacopoeias.

Botanically

the

herb

represents

hybrid

between M. spicata and M.

some authorities is thought to

exist as

varietal forms called Black

(forma rubescens

and by
two main

aquatica

and White forma pallescens) Peppermints.

Description Aromatic perennial on root-stock
producing runners. Stem square, erect, somewhat branched above, slightly hairy, either
purple Black Peppermint or much less so
White Peppermint
from 30 cm
m tall;
1

deeply dentate leaves. 1 8 cm long and

2.5
cm wide. Flowers mauve (occasionally white
1

irregularly

spike 37.5

arranged on a conical terminal

cm long; appearing late summer

mid-autumn.
European Dative; widelv distributed and often naturalized. In sunn) 01
to

Distribution

partially shad) conditions on rich

damp

hedgerows, ditches and

found neat

habitation.

it

is

also

soils;

moist

soils

in conditions of

cm

Constituents Volatile oil.

Uses (fresh or dried leaves)

Used sparingly

in

Not used medicincold

tisanes, jellies,

drinks, or salads.

May

be employed

in a

range of scented and

cosmetic articles.

L labiatae

Mentha pulegium

Pennyroyal Pudding Grass

required.

Well-known culinary

uses.

Also employed to flavour some liqueurs.

The

oil

may

cause allergic

reactions.

Mentha x piperita
LABIATAE

Mauve

deep.

ally.

Contra-indicatwns

l n -

Wild. Cultivated horticulturally by

headaches and agitation. Used in conjunction

with other remedies for the common cold.
Both the herb and the oil may be used externally in baths to treat cuts and skin rashes.
Wide cosmetic, dental and confectionery use
of the oil where a mint flavouring or cold-taste
is

cm

division of stolons in spring; planting 5

are required. Particularly useful in nervous

variable. Bearing petiolate green or purple-

green, lanceolate, or ovate-lanceolate, acute,

1.5-4

flowers in

common

description of the plant's taste; the

name

Wild only

established permanently. Cultivated

Ehr.

var. citrata

Bergamot Mint Eau

Briq.

Pennyroyal was held in very high repute for

centuries throughout Europe and was
the most popular of all the members of the
mint family, being used both for a wide range
of medicinal purposes and in various ancient

many

ceremonies.

regarded as the originator of its name

is derived from pulex meaning
flea, since both the fresh plant and the smoke
from the burning leaves were used to eradicate
Pliny

de Cologne Mint

( hrange Mint
This mint is one of the most attractivelv
scented of all herbs and should occupy a place
in every herb garden. The aroma is. however,

somewhat intangible and

it

is

variously des-

cribed as lemon, orange, bergamot, lavender

and can <\c ( k>logne mint the latter being (he

most widely used. Its former botanical name,

is

pulegium which

the insects.

This association with fleas has been retained in

botanical name given to the plant by

Linnaeus. Before his scientific classification the

the

superficial

appearance and unusual aroma of

the herb led to

it

being considered as a tin

inc.

was an old French name for thyme and

this plant was designated the royal thyme
heme puliol royali and thus the corruption,
Pennyroyal. The modern French name is la
menthe Pouliot
from puliol. Although long
considered an abortifacient, it has been found
Puliol

that

tltis

cllcct

dose of the

oil

is

usually only possible with a

which

is

highly toxic and leads

kidney damage.
The plant can therefore be used as a flavouring
agent, but only when the concentration of
pulegone does not exceed 20 mg in
kg of the
to irreversible

product being flavoured.

The American Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides
final

I.

Pers.) has similar properties

Description

Aromatu

perennial

and

uses.

with

much

blanched prostrate 01 erect stems to 30 cm

on overground runners. Leaves dark
tall;
green, slightly hairy, petiolate. oblong 01 oval
innate 01 senate, 0.8 2 cm long. Flowers
mauve-blue, in rounded dense axillary whorls,
along upper halfol the stem. Appearing late
summer to early autumn.
Distribution Native to Europe, North Africa
and western Asia; introduced elsewhere. On
nutrient-rich, moist hut sandy soils. Prefers
sunny situations.
Cultivation

Wild.

Commercial

cultivation

223

MEN-MOR
Grown

limited.

horticulturally; the prostrate

form as a lawn (var. decumbens) or for aromatic

ground cover. Sow seed in late spring under
glass

cool

in

zones,

planting out

early

in

is

more

fore

employed

Bowles Mint (also sometimes incorrectly called

Apple Mint) is a hybrid between this species

and M.

protect from hard frosts. Propagate also by

rotundifolia

autumn

or spring, or from

summer.
Constituents Volatile oil (0.5-1%) comprising a
ketone, pulegone (80-90%), to which the
action is largely due; also menthone; /?-

cuttings taken in the

far

kitchen.

summer on open, friable, loamy soil 15-20 cm

apart. Keep well watered in dry weather, and
root division in

and mav theremore widely in the

subtle than most mints

be

spicata,

but

'Bowles

is

known

usually

Variety.

An

variegated form of Apple Mint

grown

as a

Description

is

as

M.

attractive

commonly

garden ornamental.
Aromatic pubescent perennial on

margin deeply serrate, to 6 cm long.

Flowers pale lilac, on cylindrical, irregularly
flowered terminal spikes 5-10 cm long, appearing early autumn.
Distribution Native to southern Europe. Widelv
curled,

damp, shady sites

near habitation.
Cultivation Wild. Very widely cultivated commercially and as a garden plant. Propagate
from stolon division in the autumn; plant 5 cm
naturalized, especially in

caryophyllene; methylcyclohexanol; iso-menthone; tannins.

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant) Emmenagogue; antispasmodic; carminative.

May

be used

in

minor

Vi

gastric disturbances,

and menstrual

flatulence, nausea, headache,

leafy stolons, bearing erect,

somewhat branch-

ed, thin stems to 90 cm. Leaves green, white

and velvety beneath, sessile, oblong to round.

crenate-serrate, 3-10 cm long. Flowers white,
(team to pink, on dense irregularly flowered,
somewhat pointed terminal spikes, from 3 o
cm long; appearing early to mid-autumn.
Distribution European native; widely naturalized; on damp soils in ditches and waste places.
Cultivation Wild. Widelv cultivated horticulturally.

common

of benefit at the onset of the

Fresh leaves
irritations

may

and

it is

it

stolon

division

in

acts as a rube-

facient.

May

be taken, weak, as a tea (Organy tea).

Formerly used as a flavouring in puddings.

ries

Mentha spicata L labiatae

Spearmint Garden Mint/Pea Mint
Spearmint was formerly known as Mentha
viridis L; the specific name viridis meaning
green emphasized the bright green colour of

The modern

botanical name, and the

the herb.

The

may

shape of both the inflorescence and the leaves.

In the sixteenth century the plant was called
Spere mynte and even then, as today, it was
the most commonly used of all mints.
The Romans were responsible for its distribution throughout north and west Europe.
Besides important culinary and flavouring uses
it
is still
retained in the Hungarian Pharmacopoeia for its medical use.

been used

as a

Contra-indications

genito-urinary
uterine

May

Somewhat
tract

in

irritant

possibly

movements; not

nancy, or

it

has

to

the

dye plant.

to

causing reflex

be used in preg-

kidney disease.

cause contact dermatitis.

224

on

rotundifolia (L)

its

It

reflect the

spear or spike-like

Aromatic nearly glabrous perennial

underground stolons. Stems erect,
square, somewhat branched, from 30-60 cm
tall. Leaves smooth and green, opposite, almost
sessile,
lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate and
Description

Huds. labiatae
Apple Mint Round-leaved Mint
Apple Mint is so-called simply because
aroma is a combination of mint and apples.
Mentha

for

used as a flavouring agent in

oil is

and

garnishing and general

toilet-

and confectionery.

Menyanthes

trifoliata

Buckbean Marsh

L menyanthaceae
Trefoil/Bog Bean

is
the old Greek name for an
and distinctive herb, common loand sometimes extensive in shallow water

Mmyanthes
attractive

common name,

In the eastern mediterranean region

use in sauces, jellies, hot

and

Not used medicinally.

Many culinary uses, including meat and fish,
egg dishes, fruit dishes, jellies, hot and cold
beverages, sauces and vinegars.
Once used in confectionery manufacture.
fresh leaf)

sachets.

repellent.

Wide culinary
cold beverages,
flavouring.

drawer

be used in cosmetics as an insect

Uses (fresh or dried leaf, oil

Carminative;
aromatic; antispasmodic; weak emmenagogue.
Similar uses to Peppermint.

The

Useful in scented articles, particularly clothes

oil

Volatile oil comprising menthol,

carvone, limonene; vitamin A; tannins.

autumn.

cold.

be applied externally to skin

insect bites, as

by

true.
Constituents

Constituents Volatile oil; tannins.

Uses

pain. In combination with other remedies

Propagate

deep and water well. Replace after 4 years.

Rarely grown from seed since it does not breed

leafy

cally
in

many

cooler parts of the northern hemis-

Greek name means flower of the

month, which reflects not only the duration of
its beautiful shaggy flowers, but also its beneficial effects on menstrual pain. At one time
Buckbean was considered in Germany to be a
panacea and was used to treat many ailments
from gout to scurvy and rheumatism. The
Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Scots also
phere.

Its

particularly favoured this bitter tasting plant.

It is

now

generally considered to be a useful

substitute for Gentian Root.

The common name, Bog Bean,

is

less

than 200

and is derived from the German

Bocksbohnen meaning goat's beans, which in
English became Buckbean.
Description Glabrous, aquatic perennial on
years old

black, creeping, thick horizontal root-stock;

bearing alternate, basal,

trifoliate leaves

with

pale prominent midribs, sheathing at the base.

MEN-MOR
on petioles
the base

to

25

cm

high. Petioles thicker at

and surrounded by

bracts. Leaflets

obovate or oblong, entire, sessile, terminal,

4-7.5 cm long, dark green. Flowers white;
pinkish or purplish externally with shaggypetals, 15

on

mm long,

long

scapes;

10-15 per terminal raceme

appearing early to mid-

summer.

as a garden ornamental for its combination of

orange scent and attractive flowers. It is called
Bergamot because of its scent which resembles

Bergamot orange. Several

now exist of which the best-known
that of a

varieties
is

Cam-

bridge Scarlet; other types are salmon, rose,

purple, or white in colour - but the wild, red
.U. didyma

is

the most aromatic.

times root and

agogue; expectorant.

May

be

used

less

ing Iceland and Greenland. In ditches, fresh-

century Spanish medical botanist Nicholas de

skin problems.

water marsh and bog, reed-beds and meadows

which are always wet and consist of acidic,
peaty soils.

Purple Bergamot

America

zones, from North

temperate

northern

Wild plant. May be grown as a

pond or bog plant by division of root-stock in
spring or autumn.
Constituents A glycoside, menyanthin; bitter
Cultivation

principles,

loganine,

meliatine;

sweroside,

flavone heterosides; inulin; vitamin C; cho-

malic acid.
Uses (dried leaves, occasionally dried whole
plant Bitter tonic emmenagogue stomachic.
line; resin;

The

fresh plant

tic.

Now

was formerly used

of greatest

benefit

as a cathar-

intestinal tonic; stimulates gastric

secretions,

and hence promotes

gastro-

and

biliary

as

appetite.

a direct beneficial effect on the liver;

it

It

has

is

of

Monardes, and

is

closely related to

\M.

fistulosa

L)

Wild or
which is

Oswego Tea - and which has long

been used by American Indians for medicinal
purposes. Oswego derives its name from the
Oswego River district near Lake Ontario in
the United States where the herb grew in
abundance and from where most supplies
originally came. After the Boston Tea Party,
1773, a protest at the tea duty imposed on the
colonies, Oswego Tea replaced Indian tea in
also called

many American

households.

Aromatic, usually glabrous perennial from 40-100 cm tall; stems erect, acutely
quadrangular, bearing opposite, serrate, ovate
to ovate-lanceolate dark green, often redtinged, leaves to 15 cm long. Flowers scarletDescription

red,

4-5 cm

relieve

to

nausea,

vomiting and, with

headaches and

success,

chial catarrh

to

tea

colds.

It

is

also

taken internally and by inhalation of the water

vapour (pouring on boiling water) for bron-

to Siberia includ-

Native

as

flatulence, menstrual pain,

Red Bergamot belongs to the Monarda or

Horsemint genus, named after the sixteenth-

Distribution

Carminative; stimulant;

oil)

weak diaphoretic; weak emmen-

rubefacient;

and sore throats.

Formerly used externally as an ointment

May

be taken as a

tea,

for

and used sparingly

in

salads.

Useful

in

wide

very

range

of

scented

articles.

Once an ingredient of
The oil is sometimes used
Morns

nigra

hair
in

preparations.

perfumery.

L moraceae

Common Mulberry
Morus and morarius were the classical Latin
names for the Mulberry and come from the
Latin verb meaning to delay after the tree's

Mulberry

Black or

bud formation until

had passed. The Greeks knew
both moron and sukamnos - from its sweet-

habit of delaying spring

the cold weather
it

as

ness; the fruit being only slightly less sweet

than the sweetest

fruits

known

to

them, namelv

long, usually in solitary terminal

whorls, with slightly hairy calyx. Appearing

late

summer

to mid-autumn.
North American

native, from
Ontario to Georgia: naturalized in South
America. On moist nutrient-rich soils preferring shade but tolerating full sun: especially
deciduous woodland.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated throughout the
world as a horticultural plant; occasionally
wild as an escape. Many horticultural forms
exist Propagate from seed sown in spring or by
root division in spring; succeeds best on lighl
soils and may be a vigorous grower. Cut back
each autumn and replace after 3 years.
Constituents Volatile oil comprising compounds
related 10 thymol; tannic acid.
Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant; someDistribution

grape and cherry. Until the fifteenth

nigra was important as a medicinal
plant, and its leaves were used for silkworm
rearing, but after this date it was mostly
the

fit;,

century

replaced by the oriental species

M.

alba L.

The tree is now becoming quite scarce in parts

of Europe.
Description Bushy tree to 10 m; branches dark
coloured,
ovate-,

value in amenorrhoea, and possesses some antihelmintic activity. The root has been used
externally to treat obstinate skin complaints.

serrate,

Leaves once used

lout;,

in

brewing and baking and

may

be taken as a tonic tea

Leaves used as a tobacco substitute.

Contra-indications

Not

to

be used

ma\

cause-

numerous, consisting of
2 stigmas. Fruit to 3

in

the-

treat-

vomiting and diarrhoea

Bee Baim/Oswego

BergamOl has become

wicle-K

cm

purplish red.

Native

to

western Asia, Persia and

/ones.

ea
ultl\ ale-el

Wild. Cultivated as a fruit-tree in

protected from cold winds and
Propagate from cuttings taken in early

Cultivation

areas that
frost.

Reel

variable, flowers unisexual

green perianths and

Distribution

Monarda didyma L i.abiatak

Red Bergamot

somewhat

catkins; the female,

the Caucasus; introduced to other temperate

tneni of diarrhoea. Large closes ol the whole-

plant

bearing thick, alternate, cordatecm long; margins

pointed leaves, 5-20

arc-

by layering
Requires a loamy

autumn. Slow grow-

spiint; or

in

ing.

soil in

Constituents

(fruit)

warm

Sugar (lO%);

position.
malic-

acid

225

MYR-MYR
(2%); pectin; gum; vitamin C.
Uses (fresh fruit, root bark and occasionally
helmintic.

by grey, waxy, spherical,

-seeded berries.
Appearing late spring to mid-summer.
Distribution North American native, especially
on the East Coast from New Jersey to Florida.

Until recently the leaves were employed in the

Balkans as an hypoglycaemic agent for use in
diabetes. The root bark was formerly used as a
cathartic and to remove tapeworms.
Once used to colour medicines.

On poor, sandy, well-drained soils, but frequently near swamps or marshland. In coniferous woodland and thickets near the sea.
Cultivation Wild.
Constituents (berries) Myrica wax, comprising

Now

glycerides of palmitic,

leaves) Nutritive; laxative; antipyretic; anti-

employed as a food, and in the

home manufacture of wines, jams, and conusually

and myristic

stearic

serves.

(root bark)

May

acid; an acrid resin, myricinic acid; an astrin-

be used as a dyestuff.

gent resin;
Myrica

Wax

cerifera

L myricaceae

starch. Action largely

and common names of this

fragrant North American plant indicate the
fine yellow or light green wax (strictly an edible
fat) which is produced on the berries as they
specific

(root

fresh

leaves)

Astringent;

weak diaphoretic;

tonic; sialogogue. Principally

gargle,

sore

douche and poultice

throats,

May

colitis,

East Coast of the United States and was used in

feverish conditions.

mem-

soap and candle manufacture. Related

and medicinal

purposes; in South Africa, for example, M.

cordifolia L is both a source of berry wax and
a valuable anti-diarrhoeic remedy.
is

now unused

M.

cerifera

employed

in the

leucorrhoea

or myrica wax, was once widely collected on the

bers of the Myrica genus are used throughout

diarrhoea,

the

as a

treatment of

and

be used internally

common

ulcers

res-

mucous
cold and

for

Powdered bark formerly

taken as a snuff in the treatment of nasal

may be chewed to
promote salivation, aid gingivitis, and reduce
toothache.
Once taken as a tonic tea.
Wax used in candle and soap manufacture.
Contra-indications

some proprietary domestic

cause flatulence.

Large

emetic;

doses

may

late to lanceolate, acute leaves

3-7.5

cm

long.

Flowers consist of short, conical or globular

scaly catkins, either sterile or fertile; followed

acidic soil in a shady position.

Uses

Myrtle or Myrica wax;

berries;

M.

similar to

cerifera

(Wax

Myrtle),

leaves)

volatile oil.

berries'

wax, occasionally leaves and

bark) Aromatic; insecticide.

Formerly used externally to treat scabies.

may

be employed with discretion

as a spice in soups

and

stews. Berries

can be

similarly used.

Leaves formerly flavoured beer (Gale beer),

and may

also be used as a tea.

Wax may

be used in the manufacture of

aromatic candles. Roots and stem bark dye
wool yellow.
Repels fleas and may thus be used in scented
sachets.

Myristica fragrans Houtt.

myristicaceae

Mace Nutmeg
The

early history of the use of Mace (the outer

covering of the seed of the plant; and Nutmeg
(the seed itself) is not known with certaintv.
but it is improbable that these spices were

L myricaceae
Bog Myrtle Sweet Gale
Myrica gale

century, however, both

Bog Myrtle was once one of the many important herbs used in northern Europe to flavour
beer, and was both widely collected and

were obtaining them from the Far East, and

they were known in Europe by 1191. In that
year they were one of several fumigant strewing
aromatics used in the streets of Rome during

protected by law.

the coronation of

The

herb's ability to repel

and destroy

insects,

such as fleas, led to the now obsolete common

Flea Wood, and the plants' domestic
employment in mattresses and linen drawers.
Small quantities can be used as a flavouring in

name

Emperor Henry VI.

Around 1300 an Arabian writer, Kazwini, had
named the Molucca Islands as the source of
both materials, but it was not until 1506 to
151 2 that the Portugese took possession of the
Islands

and began a

spice

monopoly which was

branchlets reddish and growing almost vertically, bearing grey-green oblanceolate, glan-

be continued by the Dutch and English until

the beginning of the nineteenth century.
recognized for centuries that
It has been
moderate doses of Nutmeg cause a feeling of

dular-pubescent, aromatic, obtuse leaves 3-6

cm long. Brown and yellowish-green uni-

unreality and visual

have now been shown

sexual flowers borne in dense apical catkins to

alkaloidal constituent, myristicin,

meat

dishes.

Description

15

mm

Deciduous shrub

to

to

1.5

tall;

long; appearing late spring to early

summer, and followed bv numerous small

226

damp,

Constituents

used by the Greeks and Romans. By the sixth

Indians and Arabs

cold cures such as Composition Powders.

Fragrant perennial evergreen (occasionally semi-deciduous or deciduous) dioecious shrub (1-3 m) or evergreen tree (to 10
m), much branched with pubescent, somewhat rough branchlets bearing glandular, entire or occasionally serrulate oblong-lanceo-

catarrh. Small pieces of bark

outside folk medicine except as

Description

suckers, by division or from cuttings. Requires

Dried leaves

wax, occasionally

pectively.

a constituent of

to

berries'

bark,

Uses

ripen. This substance, called bayberry tallow

the world for various domestic

due

the resin content.

Myrtle Bayberry/Candleberry

Both the

Volatile oil; tannic acid; gallic

gum;

Distribution Native to north-west Europe;

north America as far south as Virginia; Asia.
Introduced elsewhere. Especially in thickets
on wet heathland or fens. To 600 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. May be propagated from

Aromatic

acids lauric acid unsaturated fatty acids,

;

flattened berries.

illusions.

to

These

effects

be caused by a proto-

which

psychotropic with structural similarities

mescaline - found in the Peyote Cactus.

is

a
to

MYR-MYR
Description

Tall,

bushy, glabrous,

dioecious,

m. Leaves yellowish,
evergreen tree to
coriaceous, petiolate elliptic - or oblonglong,
lanceolate, 5-12 cm long. Flowers 6
in axillary umbels; followed by nearly globular
or pear-shaped, red or yellow, pedunculous
fruit which splits on maturing to release the
ovoid seed (Nutmeg) surrounded by a scarlet
aril (Mace).
Distribution Indigenous to the Molucca Islands; introduced and widespread in the
tropics. Frequently on volcanic soils in shade
12

mm

appearing early
large (2-2.5

cm

mid-spring; followed by

to

ridged brown

l n g)

Distribution European native. Introduced to

some temperate regions, locally naturalized.

On

grassy

in

soils,

mountainous regions;

hedgerows, often in
shady sites, but

prefers

tolerates full sun.

Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commercially on a

small scale in Western Europe, and elsewhere

as a

mid

garden herb. Propagate from seed sown in

or late spring on well-drained, but humus-

rich, soil in partial

shade; transplant to 45

cm

Cultivation

Wild; now cultivated

in East

and

bearing glossy dark green, opposite, entire,

3-5 cm long
and dotted with transparent oil glands. Petioles
short. Flowers pure white, but often rose
coloured, very fragrant, 5-petalled to 2 cm
wide, numerous golden stamens; on long thin
pedicels in pairs in leaf axils; appearing mid to
late summer and followed by 12-mm diameter
acute, ovate to lanceolate leaves,

bluish berries.
Distribution

Outside the tropics may be grown as an

in
humusornamental hothouse plant,
enriched soil with high ambient temperature
and humidity.
Propagate from woody cuttings in a peat and
sand mix.
(kernel)

Volatile

Asia,

summer, under glass in a sand and peat mix.

Usually slow growing in cool regions.
malic acid
vitamin C.

Constituents Volatile oil

resin; tannic acid;

citric

acid

Uses (fresh or dried leaves, dried fruit, dried

(515%)

oil

comprising eugenol and iso-eugenol; fixed

to mediterranean region
growing to 800 m altitude;

Native

introduced elsewhere.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as a garden plant
against south-facing walls in all except the
warmest south European sites. Requires full
sun and well-drained, medium rich soil.
Propagate from woody cuttings, taken in

Zanzibar, Brazil, Ceylon and

India. Trees first produce seed in ninth or
tenth year of growth and may last 80 years.
Indies,

Constituents

Aromatic evergreen shrub 1-3 m

taller. Highly branched,

and western

and high humidity.

West

Description

high; occasionally

fruit.

flower-buds,

oil

fresh

flowers,

occasionally

oil)

(25-40%) yielding nutmeg butter and com-

Astringent; antiseptic. Rarely used medicin-

prising myristic acid (60%), oleic, palmitic,

and linoleic acids; also terpineol,

ally,

borneol and terpenes.

Action mainly due to volatile
carminative.
Uses (seed,

aril,

occasionally

aromatic; stimulant.

Used

oil]

corrhoea,

acting as a

Carminative;

the

reduce flatulence, aid

improve the appetite and to treat

diarrhoea, vomiting and nausea.
Both Mace and Nutmeg may be used in a
range of sweet and savoury food-stuffs. Mace is
less strongly aromatic, and Nutmeg particularly complements milk and cheese dishes.
The oil is employed as a flavouring agent and
in some rubefacient liniments and hair lotions.
digestion,

Contra-induations

was once used as a douche in leuand it was formerly employed

internally for psoriasis and sinusitis. The fresh
fruit juice has been used as a drink to stimulate
infusion

oil,

in small doses to

POISONOUS.

n.m

Us.

apart. Taproots

may

be

lifted,

corns.

The

Constituents Essential oil,

/ 'ses

root,

established.

comprising anethole.

and
weak

fresh or dried leaf, occasionally seed

Weak

diuretic; tonic: hypotensive;

antiseptic. Rarely used medicinally.

Once an

ingredient of wound-healing ointments.

used as a sugar substitute

and

They may

in

name

responsible for the botanical

meaning perfume, and

grant, while

many

of

aroma

myrrhis

meaning fracommon names are

odorata

its

prefixed 'sweet' because of the taste of the

Until the sixteenth century

Seseli,

name

first

is

used

although not necessarily

leaf.

was known as
by Dioscorides

it

for

this

particular

honey plant.

useful

An

in

anise flavouring used in certain liqueurs.

Myrtus communis (Lj Herm. myrtaceae

Myrtle Common Myrtle

Myrtle is frequently mentioned in the Old

Testament, the writings of ancient poets and in
the works of the Greeks and the Romans, to
whom it was known as myrtos. Myrtus is
directly derived from this old name, while
communis means
It

common.

was almost certainly because the aromatic

species.

leaves

Description Strongly smelling hirsute-pubescent

pudenda

perennial on
stems 60-100

aphrodisiac, and carried by Israeli brides, lor

pale beneath,

grooved,

cm

tall.

hollow, branching
Leaves bright green,

soft, thin, 2

or 3-pinnate to 30

long, with oblong-ovate,

cm

narrow-toothed segments. Stem-leaf petioles sheathing. Flowers

small, white, in umbels
5 cm diameter,
1

added to roast pork for the

minutes of cooking.
Fresh flowers once added to salads. Formerly
used in the manufacture of toilet water called
Eau d'ange.
leaves can be

final 10

tart fruit dishes.

salads.

aniseed-like

be crushed
as pepper-

also be

Sweet Cicely

Its

may

same way

sweet conserves

Roots were once boiled, cooled, and eaten

sidered a useful plant.

as a spice in the

May

Myrrhis odorata (L) Scop, umbelliferae

Sweet Cicely was once cultivated as a pot

shrub in Europe. It is among the first garden
herbs to emerge after winter and is almost the
last to die down, and it was therefore con-

and used

of the stomach.
fruit

be used as a sugar substitute by diabetics.

Fresh leaf and chopped green seed may be
used in salads; leaves may be boiled as a
vegetable or added to soups.

Myrrh

mucous membranes

Dried flower-buds and

may become rampant when

possibly epileptiform convulsions.

the

cut into sections

each having a bud, and replanted 5 cm deep in

either spring or autumn. Often self-sown and

Even moderate doses overstimulate

motor cortex causing disorientation,
double vision, hallucination, tachycardia, and
sparingly.

British

but a leaf decoction may be applied

and haemorrhoids. An

externally to bruises

lauric

Venus,

bear

resemblance

to

the

female

that Myrtle has been dedicated to

that

it

has

been considered

as

an

example, at their weddings.

Every part of the shrub is highly scented and in
southern Europe it is used in a number of

home-made cosmetic

recipes.

227

NAS-OLE
Nasturtium

officinale

R.Br cruciferae

Nepeta cataria

Watercress
Watercress is so common that its valuable
medical and dietic values are often forgotten,
even though for centuries it was an official
medicine. Nasturtium is from the Latin nasi
distortion

or

tortium

pungent

of the

nose,

after

its

taste.

Description

Aquatic perennial, either floating

Although

Catmint

freely

rooting,

terminal leaflet largest. Flowers small, white,

in pedicelled racemes,

appearing early sum-

mid-autumn.
European native; world-wide introduction and widespread naturalization. In
ditches, streams to 2500 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild, and world-wide commercial
cultivation as a salad herb. Easily propagated
by stem or root cuttings, taken at any time and
to

Distribution

rooted in water.
moist garden

soil

May be cultivated in rich,

with frequent watering, but

pungency then

the

Constituents

amide a
;

herb possesses what

cats

and

many

con-

aroma,

it is

commonly
Cats frequently damage

for this

reason

used to stuff toy mice.

the plant in gardens, which is unfortunate
since their attractive light grey foliage and
long persistant flowers are suitable for formal
displays.

with

this

by

relished

succulent

mer

alba L nymphaeaceae
White Water Lily

Nymphaea

sider to be a disagreeable mint-like

stems; leaves dark green to bronze, entire,

ovate, or cordate; pinnate when older, the

creeping

or

L labiatae

Catnip Catmint/Catnep

now

very rarely used for medicinal

purposes even in folk medicine.

It was once used by hippies as a mild hallucinogen.
Description Strongly smelling, branching, pubescent, erect perennial

40-100 cm

mid-autumn.

and calcium.

many

an excellent cough remedy when mixed

be eaten raw or cooked and as a delicious
soup.

Native to Europe, East and West

Introduced and often naturalized in
other temperate zones. On moist calcareous
soils, especially road or railway sides, hedgeDistribution

Asia.

rows, in open situations.

May

be propagated from
rooted in a peat
and sand mix under glass or by root division in

Cultivation

Wild.

cuttings taken in

summer and

spring or autumn.

comprising thymol,
and nepeacid; also tannic acid. Antispasmodic

Constituents

Volatile

oil

carvacrol, nepetol, nepetalactone

talic

action due to the

oil

content.

Uses (dried - or occasionally fresh - flowering

Antispasmodic; anti-diarrhoeic; carstomachic; weak emmenagogue.

The tea is of benefit in the treatment of a
number of gastro-intestinal complaints but
plant

minative;

particularly infantile colic

also of value in the

and diarrhoea.

common

It

is

cold, irritability

and delayed menstruation. Externally it may

be applied to cuts, abrasions and bruising.
Combined with ground Cloves and Sassafras
bark it was formerly applied to aching teeth.
Leaves may be used with discretion as a
flavouring (mint-like in sauces, and as a mildly

stimulant

tea.

Once smoked

may

to relieve chronic bronchitis

cause hallucinogenic effects.

Contra-indications A mild hallucinogen when

but

this

smoked.

228

first
\

modern

odorata

Aix

similar,

but

American White Pond

properties and uses.

Lily:

is

the

fragrant,

more
it

has

herb with stipu-

mm

America; introduced elsewhere. On rivers,

ponds to 800 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as an ornamental
aquatic. Propagate in spring from rhizomes
planted under water not deeper than 50 cm. In
cold situations the flowers and leaves are much
reduced in size.
A red variety, N. alba var. rubra Lonnr. is the
parent of most water lily hybrids in cultivation.
lakes,

with hone\.

May

retained as the

derived from the

niloufar and Sanskrit nilotpala - terms
used for the Indian Blue Lotus.

aphrodisiac, purgative and asthma remedy.

summer

still

common name was

branched, rhizome. Leaves reddish when

young, later dark green, smooth and shining.
Flowers white, 20-petalled, 5-20 cm diameter,
stamens numerous and golden. Appearing
mid-summer to early autumn, followed by
5-40
diameter obovoid fruit which opens
under water.
Distribution
Native to Europe and North

countries including use as a contraceptive,

is

French
Arabic

round or heart-shaped, floating leaves

10-30 cm in diameter; on horizontal, black,

pyretic; stomachic; irritant.

It

name Nenuphar

late,

volatile oil

from

Nymphaea is from the Greek nymphae meaning

water nymphs, while the pre-sixteenth century

Description Perennial aquatic

to

attributes

indicating their possession of similar chemical

constituents.

summer

Uses (leafy stems) Stimulant; diuretic; anti-

Numerous medicinal

The Chinese have coincidentally used

two other members of the family Nymphaeaceae - Nelumbium nucifera Gaertn. and Euryale

similar

mm

comprising phenylethylisothiocyanate; minerals including manganese, iron, phosphorus,

iodine

and some related plants may depress sexual

activity.

Leaves
3-7 cm long, coarsely serrate, whitish beneath,
grey-green above, ovate or oblong-ovate,
petiolate. Flowers white, dotted with purple, or
purple, 6
long, in crowded terminal whorls
and spiked axillary whorls. Appearing midtall.

increases.

posed anaphrodisiac qualities of this attractive

aquatic herb, it is now considered that N. alba

ferox Salisb. - for precisely similar purposes

is

Vitamins A, B 2 C, D, E; nicotin-

glucoside, gluconasturtin

Although controversy surrounded the sup-

Constituents

Alkaloids,

especially

nupharine;

tannins as nymphaea-tannic acid; a cardenolide, nymphaline; mucilage.

L'ses

rhizome, occasionally seeds

Weak

as-

tringent; antiseptic; antispasmodic: anaphrodisiac.

NAS-OLE
A

may

decoction

throats, a

douche

be used as a gargle for sore

in leucorrhoea, and extern-

ally for ulcers or,

much

an eye-

diluted, as

wash. Rarely used internally but acts as a

sedative cardiac tonic, and is considered of
benefit in spermatorrhoea. Once taken to

reduce libido.
Well-cooked leaves once eaten as a vegetable.
Fresh root once used as a soap substitute.
Provides a dark brown dyestuff.

horticultural cultivation as a culinary herb.

Propagate from seed sown in early summer, or

frost danger, on moist, well-drained,

after

medium-rich

soil

Varieties exist

in full sun.

with somewhat different aromas.

Constituents Essential oil comprising mainly
estragol (present also in French and Russian
also eugenol, lineol and linalol:
Tarragons
sometimes thymol; tannins; basil camphor.
Antispasmodic and other actions due to the oil
;

content.

Ocimum basilicum L labiatae

Basil Sweet Basil
Basil was introduced to Europe from the East
in the sixteenth century as a culinary herb and

Uses (fresh leaf Antispasmodic: galactagogue;

stomachic; carminative; mild sedative.
May be employed in a wide range of simple
gastro-intestinal complaints; particularly for
stomach cramps and vomiting. Its weak
sedative action may be used in the treatment of

nervous headaches or anxiety.

Mainly used for culinary purposes
salads,

meat

and

fish

in soups,

particularly

dishes;

compatible with tomatoes.

Dried powdered leaf once taken as snuff.
Basil oil, obtained by steam distillation, is used
as a commercial flavouring and in perfumery
as a substitute for mignonette scent.
Oenothera biennis L onagraceae
Evening Primrose Evening Star

Evening Primrose ha. ecently received attenfrom pharmaceutical concerns who dis-

tion

covered that

it

of reducing

is

not comparable with the flavour

<>l

leaves

from the garden Several lorms

freshly picked

are in cultivation, including

lettuce-leaved

.1

and the flavour varies with the volatile

content; one type has a peppermint-like

variety,
oil

taste.

and the smallet Hush Basil

originally from Chile
Ocimum minimum I.
make excellent pot or window-box herl>s, and
can only be grown indoors in cooler, temperate
Both

this ipei ies

climates in wintei
is

an

abbreviation

ol

Greek for kmglv herb. A

related plant, Ocimum sanctum I., is still considered kingly or holy by the Hindus
Description Much-branched aromatic annual
',<>

bo

phuton.

cm

tall,

with glabrous entire or slightly

serrate ovate leaves

reddish

in

purplish,

3-5 em

lout;

often slightly

Flowers small, white, or

whorls of 6 flowers on open

colour.
in

terminal racemes. Appearing

mid-summer

to

mid-autumn.
Distribution

Native

to

southern

Middle East Naturalized

and some Pa< ifx Islands.
where in subtropical zones.

or

clotting

astringent; vulnerary; anticoagulent.

attack.

applied externally as a poultice or in ointments

This is an American native introduced to

Europe in 1619 via the Padua Botanic Garden,
and is now well established in parts of Europe.

eruptions,

has never been extensively used even in folk

medicine.

name Oenothera is of uncertain provenance

may come from an older Greek plant
name which signified that its roots were eaten
I

In

but

it

to promote the appetite lor wine. As late as the

nineteenth century in Germany, pickled 0.
biennis roots were still eaten as an aperitif.

The

less

St, 11

is

emu
/>

well-known

common name Evening

derived from the

phosphorescent

that

tact

the petals

annual,

in

Asia,

parts

ol

Introduced

Iran,

Africa
else-

Rarely wild. Cultivated commercentral and southern Europe, North

ed reddish, rough stems

to

1.25

bearing

alternate, lanceolate- to ovate, entire-, shortly

petiolate

leaves

cm

long.

Mowers

verj

parts of the plant

L oleaceae

Olea europaea

The Olive

is

well

known from

frequent refer-

ences in the Bible and in the writings of the

to

whom

it

symbolized

peace.

varieties

much-branch-

all

Olive

cm

It

has been in cultivation for

and

for

now

reason

this

exist;

more than 3000

many

some providing

different
oil

and

others the large fruit so frequently used in

and with

salads

The

drinks.

ancient Egyptians called the plant bak,

Romans knew

cm diameter, yellow, erect on

fragrant, 3
i-petalled. opening in the evening.

while

spikes,

meaning

Appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn.

Distribution North American nativeIntroduced and naturalized in Europe. In wastelands especially on dry, sandy or stemv soils

important commodity which may be extracted

from the fruit.
Description Evergreen tree usually to 8 m, and
occasionally to 12 m. Branches pale grey, thin,
thornless, bearing opposite, entire, lanceolate
or oblong leaves, dark green above and lighter
beneath;
cm long. Floweis fragrant,
numerous, off-white, borne on short panicles
in leaf axils, followed by dark purple fruit

-)

such as railway embankments

Cultivation Wild. May be propagated from seed
sow 11 as soon as ripe, usually in late- summet in
.

permanent

sunn)

position. Tolerates most soils in a

position.

varietie-s

cially in

hairy forms.

Ana, and in subtropical America Wid<

be eaten hot or cold;

are edible.

years

arise-

be

the

producing, cm thick yellowish conical root.

rosette ol obtuse basal leaves to 60
diameter, from which

May

treatment of minor wounds or skin

and used internally for coughs,
colds, gastric irritation and intestinal spasm. A
direct effect on the liver is suspected but not
proven.
Young roots can be boiled or pickled, and can
in

(.neks and Romans,

light at night.

Biennial, or occasionally

upturn

Cultivation

Africa,

compound capable

of blood

compressed

The common name

basilikon

rate

substances,

whole plant Tannins; mucilage; resin; bitter

principle; potassium salts.
i'ses (fresh whole plant, fresh root, seeds)
Antispasmodic; nutritive; demulcent; weak

thrombus formation, and hence possibly acting

as a prophylactic against some forms of heart

It

popular with cooks who utilize it- vw eet,

pungent flavour. Unfortunatclv the dried herb

is still

possesses a

the

unknown anticoagulant

exist

Constituents

Readily

self-sown.

Several

including large-flowered

and

the

Unsatutated

lam

acids;

as olea

from oleum

375

clrupe-

,5

Distribution

seed)

it

after the large quantity of this

oil,

cm

Native

long.
to

mediterranean region,

introduced elsewhere-.

229

OPH-OXA
Wild only as an escape. The wild
parent of the Olive is considered to be Olea
europaea var. oleaster DC, which may be
differentiated by its thorny branches, wider
leaves and smaller fruit. Cultivated commerCultivation

and domestically on a wide scale in the

Peninsula, North Africa, southern
France, Greece, Italy and the Middle East.
cially

Iberian

by

Propagated

grafting

from

or

suckers;

fruiting begins in the second year of growth.

(fruit) Oil (to 70%) comprising
mainly glycerides of oleic acid, also glycerides

Constituents

of palmitic, stearic, myristic and linoleic acids;

protein; mineral

salts,

particularly calcium;

organic acids; vitamins

(nicotinamide or B3).
Uses

occasionally

fruit,

(oil,

B 2 and PP

B,

leaves)

fresh

Nutritive; demulcent; mildly purgative; antiseptic;

The

weakly astringent.
used internally as a physical laxative

oil is

in chronic constipation,

and

flow of gastric secretions

as

reduces the

it

has been used to

it

oval leaf blade which sheaths the stalk of the

fertile spike the latter usually 2-5 cm long and
;

above the leaf blade. Spores ripen early

to mid-summer.
Distribution Europe, North Africa, Asia and
America. On grassland, pastures, scrub and
rising

as a perennial in

fens.

Wild

Cultivation
Constituents

hardy annual

plant.

Unknown.

warm

Uses (fresh leaf, fresh juice) Vulnerary.

later thinning to 25

and

glass

plant

cm

40

Annual Marjoram

acid.

for

peptic

Externally

ulcers.

it

may

be

applied as a liniment or embrocation for a

variety of purposes, particularly as the vehicle
for

more

The

active substances.

leaves possess antiseptic activity

been used

in a decoction for

They may

also

wound

and have

treatment.

have some antipyretic and

hypotensive activity.

For medicinal purposes the oil should be

extracted by the cold press' method to retain
;

its

many

has been cultivated in Europe

centuries for

its

culinary and medi-

cinal value. Majorana or maiorana

name

The fruit is of considerable commercial importance

in the food industry.

The

oil is

of culinary importance and

is

also

used in soap manufacture.

L ophioglossaceae
botanical

names

refer to

the distinctive shape of this small fern's leaves

glossa

meaning snake and

meaning tongue. Once famous as a
Greek

ophis

wound-healing herb

it is

now

only of historical

on small, yellow, fibrous

tall. Stem solitary, arising
from root-stock crown, round, hollow and
succulent, expanding at 5-10 cm above
ground level into broad, leathery, concave,
Fern,

root-stock; to 20

230

cm

septic.

Useful in most simple gastro-intestinal

dis-

minutes of cooking.

shape of the spherical, clustered

is one of the most
important of all western culinary herbs and its

use in meat flavouring

German name

is

emphasized by the

orders,

Employed

May

as a tisane.

be used in domestic cosmetic waters, and

scented articles.

Wurstkraut or sausage herb.

aromatic perennial (usually

grown as an annual or biennial), 30-60 cm
tall, with square, branched, tomentose stems;
sometimes occurring as a subshrub. Leaves

small and

or toothed, petiolate, opposite,

insignificant,

cm

l n g-

white

to

Flowers
pink,

in

3-5 per cluster.

mid-autumn.
Distribution Native to North Africa, Middle
East, parts of India. Introduced and naturalclustered

Appearing

ized

late

in

spikes,

summer

south-west

in

region, central

On

interest.

Description

Weak

antispasmodic;
carminative;
choleretic; aromatic; weak hypotensive; anti-

knot-like

spherical

common and

the

or dried flowering plant)

(fresh

flower spikes. This plant

elliptic, entire

Adder's Tongue

from

Uses

expectorant;

and an excellent digestive aid. Similar

external uses to Oregano (Origanum vulgare).
Very wide culinary use; particularly in meat
dishes, but must be added only in the last 10

greyish-pubescent, 0.75-3

Both the

a very old

unknown derivation by which the

plant was known when first introduced to
Europe in the Middle Ages. The common
name Knotted Marjoram refers to the unusual
of

j;

Description Spicy

active ingredients.

Ophioglossum vulgatum

is

borneol and other terpenes (to

mucilage; bitter substances; tannic

terpineol,

Also classified botanically as Majorana horten-

treat

apart; or raise under

when hardened off.

oil (to 2%) comprising

out

Constituents Essential

it

zones;

Europe and

North America sow seed in late spring or early

summer, on medium-rich, finely prepared soil,

L labiatae
Sweet Marjoram Knotted Marjoram/
Origanum majorana

Moench.

temperate

sensitive to frost. In north-west

Formerly an ingredient of wound healing

ointments, and once used internally for the
same purpose. Not used today.

sis

regions or as a half-

cooler

in

to

Africa,

mediterranean

Europe and North America.

dryish or well-drained, nutrient-rich

sunny

soils,

positions.

Cultivation

Wild. Impermanently established in

commerEurope and the

parts of central Europe. Cultivated

America, central
mediterranean region. Grown horticulturally
cially in Asia,

Origanum

onites

L labiatae

Pot Marjoram
This

is

also

from the

known as Majorana onites Benth.

name onitin used by Pliny in

classical

first century. This species was not cultivated very widely in north-west Europe or
America, and was only introduced to Great
Britain in the eighteenth century. Pot Mar-

the

joram

is

inferior to

Sweet Marjoram and

is

now

only cultivated as an alternative in areas too

cold for 0. majorana, or where the decorative

perennial variegated variety

is

required for

ornamental purposes.
Description Aromatic perennial on erect tomentose

or hirsute stems to 30

cm

tall;

leaves

tomentose and usually ovate,

0.75-2.5 cm long. Flowers small, white to
pink, in numerous ovoid spikelets arranged in a
serrate, sessile,

OPH-OXA

Appearing

cluster.

summer

late

mid-

frequently bushy, on horizontal root-stock, to

May be used
to flav

Europe,

75 cm tall. Leaves glabrous, opposite and

decussate, entire or obscurely toothed, petio-

to

autumn.
Distribution

Native

to Sicily, south-east

Syria and Asia Minor.

light

well-drained

hillsides.

Prefers

sun and

full

open positions and

soils in

upper

leaves

Wild. Cultivated in cooler climates

or corymbose clusters,

terpenes; also bitter nibftancts; tannic acid

altitude.

Not used
medicinal purposes.
Employed in cooking as a substitute For Swcd
Marjoram, although its flavour is inferior.
Variegated forms may be used as garden
ornamentals.

Far

On

East.

but

gravelly

dry,

usually

nutrient-rich

especially

positions;

clearings

hedgebanks,

cm

apart.

southern

Italy.

The nature

composition and

the
in

of both the volatile

some extent the plant's

appearance depends on where it is cultivated.
I he southern
European product is far more
pungent and bears little resemblance in flavour

oil

to that
I

to

from the cooler north.

Essential

name Origanum is from the Greek

and ganos meaning mountain glamour, or

joy ol the mountain,

appearance and aroma

plant; vulgare
Description

after
ol tin

tin

attractive

bushy flowering

means common.
hairy aromatk

l.ini

(to 15",,

to

2000

oil

(0.5%) comprising

origanene, carvacrol; bitter

Uses (dried flowering plant, occasionally

oil)

Expectorant antiseptic; antispasmodic; carminative; tonic; stomachic; anti-inflammat;

ory.

Useful

specifically

for

gastro-intestinal

or

respiratory disorders; particularly coughs as-

sociated with upper respiratory tract infection,

and

colic or indigestion.

all\

in

May

be used extern-

where an
Weakly sedative

baths, inhalants or poultices

antiseptic action

he generk

oros

woodland

forms exist including a

Several

principles; tannic acid; resins.

in

L oxalidaceae

Sorrel Irish Shamrock

Oxalis is from the Greek for sour, after the taste
of this small attractive herb which contains
quite high concentrations of oxalic acid and its
salts. It was cultivated from at least the fourteenth century as a major sauce herb, but it
was displaced after the introduction of the
unrelated French Sorrel (Rumex scutatus L).
DescriptionSlemless perennial on scaly rhizome,

variegated form with golden leaves.

Oregano Wild Marjoram

Although Wild Marjoram is now cultivated
commercially in some parts of the world, most
particularly

cultivated

thymol

from the wild

The Rouge) once used

commercially in
North America. Propagate from seed sown in
late spring on warm site, later thinning to 30

Constituents

and

or

warm

in

Collected commercially in

Wild.
Italy,

Origanum vulgare L labiatae

collet ted

mm

calcareous
soils

and peripheries, roadsides;

Cultivation

region,

6-8

on short spikes
appearing late summer

mid-autumn.
European native; also in Iran,
Middle East and Himalayas. Introduced to

southern

still

Wood

to

Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant

mediterranean

Oxalis acetosella

rose-

Distribution

for

supplies are

long,

long, bracteoles purple, borne

semi-hardy alternative to 0. majorana:

from cuttings in early summer, root division in
spring or autumn, or from seed sown cm deep
in light, dry soil in late spring
crimination
may be slow or poor). Variegated forms exist.
In very cold positions grow in pots and keep in
a cool greenhouse during winter.
Constituents Essential oil (to i%), comprising
as a

cm

Flowers

reddish.

often

purple, sometimes pink to whitish,

Tolerates most conditions

Cultivation

pointed, broadly ovate 1.5-4.5

late,

as a tisane

our beer.

is

required.

and of some benefit

in nervous headaches or
Aids digestion.
commercial and domestic ulmary use as

irritability.

Wide

a flavouring, especially in

<

meat dishes and

stuffings.

perennial,

Oil and herb used in (osmetic industry.

231

PAE-PAP
reaching 5-8 cm. Pale green leaves composed
of 3 obcordate leaflets on long petiole. Flowers
5-petalled, white tinged with purple veins and
yellow flecks at corolla base, solitary on long

appearing

peduncles;

spring

late

to

early

summer.
Europe, north and
central Asia, Japan; introduced elsewhere. On
acidic, humus-rich moist soils in mixed or
deciduous woodland shade, to 2000 m.
Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated by root
Native

Distribution

to

status

of P.

Western

officinalis

folk medicine,

declined

rapidly in
but the herb is still

especially so.

Only

to

be used by medical

personnel.

retained in Chinese traditional medicine today.

Panax pseudoginseng Wallich araliaceae

on thick, knotted, dark,

root-stock, producing stout succulent stem 60
cm- m tall. Leaves biternate or ternate, with
ovate-lanceolate leaflets, 3 cm wide, dark
green above and lighter beneath. Single red, or
occasionally pink or whitish, flower: large and

Ginseng

Description Perennial

and composed of 8

Ginseng is so well known in both the East and

West that it has become the most widely used
of all medicinal herbs. The Koreans and
Chinese have employed it as a panacea for
This

centuries.

is

reflected

weakly antipyretic.

The word

Ginseng

Once used

elsewhere.

Schin-seng,

meaning man

division in spring.
Constituents
to

Oxalic acid and potassium oxalate,

taste is due; mucilage vitamin C.

which the

Uses

fresh

and

leaves

root-stock)

internally as a spring tonic (es-

pecially in Iceland), in fevers,

alcohol consumption.

Now

an external application
scabies,

and

of the leaves

Diuretic;

as a gargle.

may

be used

and

after excess

principally used as

treatment of
Small quantities only
for the

in salads or sauces.

Large quantities are POISONOUS. To be avoided by those predispose <1

to gout, rheumatism or renal calculi.
Contra-indications

Paeonia

officinalis

L paeoniaceae

Peony Common Peony

The Peony was first used very early in medical
history and is named after Paeon, the physician
of the Greek gods.

included

in

many

Known

as paeonia,

it

was

very early medicinal recipes

and one, accredited to Pliny, combined this

herb with Mint (Mentha spp.) and Chick Pea
(Cicer arietinum L) for the specific treatment of
both kidney and bladder stones, which, it was
claimed, the mixture would dissolve.
After the sixteenth century the medicinal

petals

Propagated by division of
root-stock in early autumn or from seed sown
in spring on deeply-dug, well-manured soil.
Once established, it must not be moved.
Wild.

in

its

botanical

name, Panax from pan meaning all, and akos

meaning remedy. It was so highly prized in the
Orient that not only did emperors monopolize
the rights to harvest the roots, but wars were

and 5
petal-like sepals, to 20 cm diameter. Appearing
early summer to early autumn*
Distribution Native to southern Europe from
France to Albania, and western Europe.
Widely introduced as garden ornamental
attractive

fought over them.

is

derived from Jin-chen or

root or like a

man,

human

Benzoic acid (5%) 1-asparagin;

an alkaloid; a ketone, paeonol a

shape of the root. In

commerce various grades exist depending on
shape, age and colour. Red Korean Ginseng is
one of the most expensive and sought-after
types, and Ginseng production in Korea is
carefully controlled by the government.
The wide range of effects on human physiology
claimed by Chinese physicians have only

heteroside.

The

recently

stimulates

uterine

Cultivation

Several forms
plena

exist,

and Rosea

Constituents

essential oil;

including Alba plena, Rubra

plena.

alkaloid

is

vasoconstrictive:

may

and

contractions,

increase blood coagulation.

Uses dried root-stock Vasoconstrictor; antispasmodic; diuretic; sedative; emmenagogue.
Formerly used specifically in the treatment of
both renal and gall-bladder calculi. Also once

used for a variety of other conditions including

(hose of a nervous origin, gastric disorders,

varicose

veins

and haemorrhoids.

effective in the latter condition, but

May

now

be

rarely

used.
Contra-indications

POISONOUS,

the

flowers

after the peculiar

been tentatively acknowledged by

WCstern pharmacologists who have created a
new term, adaptogen, to explain the normalizing effect of the active ingredients.

Panax pseudoginseng was formerly

C.

ginseng

A.

Mey and

P.

classified as P.

schinseng

Nees.

Russian scientists claim that another member

of the Araliaceae family, Eleutherococcus senticosus or Siberian Ginseng, possesses similar
adaptogenic properties to Ginseng.
A related species, Panax fruticosum L, is used in
some Polynesian Islands as both a food and
medicine.
Description Perennial 60-80 cm tall on aromatic, frequently bifurcated, spindle-shaped
root-stock; bearing persistent fleshy scales at

stem base. Single erect stem, unbranched and

reddish, bearing whorl of 3 or 5 palmate leaves,
the

leaflet

finely

thin,

acuminate, 8-13

cm

yellow, small, few,

serrate,

gradually

long. Flowers greenishin

single

terminal ped-

uncled umbel; appearing mid to late summer

and followed by bright red drupe-like berry on
elongated peduncle.
Distribution Native to China Manchuria and
Korea. In damp, cool, humus-rich woodland.
Cultivation Wild, but becoming rare. Cultivated

on an increasing scale commercially in Korea

and China, from seed and carefully selected
seedlings, by a complex horticultural procedure involving specially prepared seed-beds,
transplantation and shading. Harvested up to
9 years after planting.
Constituents Volatile oils, comprising sapogenin

central nervous
panaxin; panax acid:
a
(with hypoglycaemic activity
glycoside, panaquilon (acting as a vasocon-

and panacen (stimulating the

system
ginsenin
1

saponin,

strictive stimulant); ginsennosides; phytoster-

hormones; vitamins B and B,: mucilage;

several other substances; all combining to
produce a complex total effect.

ols;

Uses (dried root) Tonic; adaptogenic.

in a very wide range of conditions, but

Used

particularly of benefit where increased mental

232

PAE-PAP
and physical

efficiency

the patient

exposed

is

is

required, or where

and external

to internal

phvsiological stress factors

such as ageing,

surgery or disease.

Large doses may cause deand nervous disorders. Do

not combine with any herbal remedies con-

Contra-indications

pression, insomnia

China

taining iron, or with Indian or

Camellia spp.

teas

North American native from

Minnesota. Exclusively in cool,
humus-rich woodlands.
Cultivation Formerly wild. Now extremely rare.
Cultivated commercially in the same way as

Principally used as a colouring agent for medi-

to

to

Panax

pseudoginseng

Tonic; adaptogenic. Similar

Panax pseudoginseng Wallich.

Uses (dried root

to

L papaveraceae

Papaver rhoeas

Corn Poppy

This has the same general properties

Corn Poppv
as

Panax

Oriental relative, and from

exported to China by Canadian Jesuits, until the end of the nineteenth
century it was so heavily collected that it is

pseudoginseng,

1718,

now

when

its

first

unknown

practically

in its

natural wild

Most supplies are today cultivated in

Wisconsin and exported to the East some
probably return to the United States and
Europe fraudulently described as the more
expensive Chinese or Korean root. There is
evidence that any North American
little
Indian tribes beside the Chippewas or Ojibwas
used the herb to he same extent as the Chinese.
habitat.

Perennial

Description

aromatic,

12.5-45

occasionally

cm

bifurcated,

ta "

on

spindle-

shaped root-stock, bearing thin scales at stem

base which are shed during growth. Stem

unbranched and reddish, bear-

simple-, erect,

Field Poppy/Flanders

Poppy

have been collected

petals

for

this

species,

its

being

action

Description Slender erect

cm

branched annual

hairy stem bearing deeply pinnate,

5 cm diameter, solitary, deep red with

purplish flecks at the base (occasionally
to

white), on long peduncles. Appearing earl) to

summer, followed by ovoid capsule.

Native to Europe and Asia, naturalized in North America and introduced elsewhere. In fields, arable land, on roadsides,
late

Distribution

especially

700

after

soils

soil

disturbance.

or loam, in

warm

On

altitude.

Cultivation

Wild

plant.

Constituents (flower)

Pigments comprising

adine, rhoeagenine

in single

in long.

Flowers pink, small, lew,

terminal, peduncled umbel; appear-

late- summer and followed by a cluster of

red drupe-like berries on elongated peduncle.

ing

either

positions; to

minate. 8

90

sessile,

anthoc yanins, mecocyanin and cyanidol

to

short leaves with lanceolate segments. Flowers

chalky

tin

mu-

cilage; traces of the crystalline alkaloids, rhoe-

Uses

and wine.

Seed

is

sprinkled on bread, biscuits and cakes.

Poppy seed

oil

is

used in cooking.

Papaver somniferum

L papaveraceae

The abuse

of this medicinal plant and its

products has caused considerable human
misery and a great deal of governmental
effort has gone into controlling its cultivation

and distribution.
America and other nations have recently
attempted to dissuade Turkish farmers, for
example, from cultivating it on so large a scale,
for it presents a formidable problem of drug
abuse - and is therefore an extremely lucrative
crop.

similar.

ing whorl of 3 or 5 palmate leaves; the- leaflets

obovate, thin, coarsely serrate, abruptly acu1

as a

colouring agent since at least the fifteenth

century, and were employed from the earliest
limes as a medicine. P. dubium L is often substituted

cine

Opium Poppy

Wallich.

American Ginseng

irritable coughs.

chitis

Quebec

Panax pseudoginseng.
Constituents
Similar

Panax quinquefolium L araliaceae

and particularly

Distribution

fresh,

dried

and rhoearubine.
flowers

rarely;

Sedative;

The Opium Poppy

of

however, provided the

killers,

times. Extraction of the

achieved by cutting the green
capsule with a small sharp implement and
scraping ofF the soft material which will
exude within the following 24 hours.
Opium syrup was particularly advocated in

since

the

opium

earliest

or latex

is

the treatment of coughs by an eleventhcentury Arabian physician, Mesue, and as late

as the seventeenth century this preparation
was still widely known as Syrupus de Meconio
Mesuae.
I

he plant's specific

name

somniferum

means

sleep inducing.
Description

Of

pain

all

substance

antispasmodic diaphoretic.
benefit in colic, anxiety, tonsillitis, bron-

has,

morphine ~ a
which has not been artificially
synthesized
and opium which has been
employed in medicine in the eastern mediterranean, the Middle East and western Asia,

greatest

tall;

Glaucous annual from 60 cm 1.25

rigid, seldom branched and then

stem

233

PAR-PET
only at the base, sometimes slightly hairy;
bearing glossy, cordate, unequal, coarsely
leaves

7.5-10

cm

10-25

dentate leaves,

usually clasping.

cm

l n g> tne upper

Flowers 4-petalled,

wide, entire, of variable colour;

pink or purple
markings. Sometimes red or purple. Appearing
late summer to early autumn and followed by
usually white or lilac with

ovoid, glabrous, then woody, capsules.

Native to Middle East, south-east

Europe, western Asia. Introduced elsewhere.
On shallow loamy or chalky soils in sunny
situations; especially wasteland as escape.
Cultivation Cultivated plant, especially in Turkey, India and China. Occasionally wild as an
Distribution

Panetaria diffusa Mert.

& Koch

urticacae

Pellitory of the Wall Pellitory

This plant has been used for centuries and was
described as a medicinal plant by Pliny and as
a vegetable by Theophrastus.
It is commonly found on ruins and old walls,
hence its name parietaria from the Latin paries
meaning a wall. As it was a favourite of the
apothecaries and herbalists - who used it
almost exclusively for urinary complaints - it
was formerly an official herb and therefore

cm

12% morphine;

Opium

oil)

of cough, and

now

morphine and other

infusion

capsules of the
ally to sprains

Poppy was once applied externand bruises.

Ripe seed (which does not contain harmful

may

on bread and

be used in curries or sprinkled

The seed oil provides two

cakes.

products: a culinary

oil

(olivette),

and an

Dried capsules
arrangements.
Contra-indications

dried

flower

DANGEROUS. To

be used

are

used

only by medical personnel.

234

in

To be avoided by hay fever

one of several species shown to
rhinitis

and possibly hyper-

pneumonitis.

L passifloraceae

species are

predominantly of sub-

United States for its effective sedative

and has been retained in certain
national pharmacopoeias; it is also a popular
folk medicine and constituent of some proprietary herbal sedative preparations.

Passion-flower, from the Latin, passiflora,

named

is

of sulphur.

supposed symbolic association

between the anatomical and numerical arrangement of the flowers and the elements of

Description Perennial with reddish, hairy stems.

the crucifixion.

Pellitory contains an unusually large quantity

erect

and spreading or sometimes decumbent

cm

Leaves alternate, petiolate,

entire, ovate to lanceolate, mostly acuminate,
softly
hairy.
Flowers greenish, unisexual,
female terminal, male lateral; appearing mid20 75

summer

artists' oil.

is

properties,

Narcotic

alkaloidal

effective

in the

the source of purified

pain-killing

much more

complaints. This herb was introduced in 1867

alkaloid

made from powdered

is

American origin, and several have

been employed traditionally for a variety of

has traditionally been used in

is

fresh plant

tropical

the relief of pain, diarrhoea and certain forms

substances)

The

Passiflora incarnata

lecithin.

An

pyelitis.

Passion Flower Maypop

(seeds) Oil (to

Uses (dried latex, ripe seeds, seed

drugs.

in the treatment of cystitis, with or

without bladder stones, and less frequently in

Passiflora

content, and

sedative.

Employed

sensitivity

(capsules)

25%

Demul-

Uses (dried or fresh flowering plant

cent; diuretic.

cause allergic

At least 25 alkaloids
mainly comprising morphine (0.1-0.3%),
also codeine, papaverine, narcotine, meconic

60%);

Sulphur; tannic acid; bitter principotassium and calcium salts;

mucilage. Diuretic action due to the presence
of potassium salts and flavones.
Constituents

Contra-indications

apart.

acid, thebaine, narceine. (latex)

in mid-spring, plant in

soil.

ples; flavones;

sufferers; this

Seed is mixed with 4 parts of sand and sown

from mid-autumn to late spring; thinning to
25

Divide root-stock

cracks with peaty

than the dried herb.

classified as P. officinalis L.

escape. Possibly derived from Papaver setigerum

and developed by centuries of cultivation.

Constituents

walls.

to

Distribution

tall.

mid-autumn.
European native. Beneath or

on strong, woody,
climbing by means
of axillary tendrils. Leaves serrate, 3-lobed,
cordate, petiolate, 7.5-12.5 cm long. Flowers
Description Perennial vine

hairy stem 6

cm

m tall,

wide, appearing early to late

cm

700 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. May be grown on low stone

Distribution

To

to 10

and followed by

crevices of old walls; occasionally in hedge-

rows.

attractive, white, with pink or purple calyx,

4-7.5
in the

after the

in

summer

edible, yellow, ovoid fruit 5

diameter.

Introduced

Native
to

to

southern United States.

Bermuda and

elsewhere.

On

PAR-PET
New

Zealand, Australia, North America and

elsewhere. In deep
nitrogenous or calcareous soils on wasteland

loamy, nutrient-rich soils in full sun.

Cultivation Wild. Occasionally cultivated; the

commercial sources of the edible passion

Uruguay and introduced

fruit

and meadows. To 1000 m.

Cultivation Wild plant. Extensive commercial

or Granadilla are Passiflora edulis Sims, or less

commonly

P. ligularis Juss. P. caerulea

is

the

most common species grown as a climbing

shrub in warmer temperate zones.
Constituents (fruit) Ascorbic acid; flavonoids;
citric and malic acids; amylopectin; fixed oil.
(flowering plant) Alkaloids comprising harmine, harmol, passiflorine; a cyanogenic

cultivation for the edible root, especially the

cultivar

P.

var.

sativa

spring and

lift

root in

(0.03% ); pectin;
marin, bergaptene
Uses

and flowering

effects

employed

are

in

The

fruit

is

in

commercial

drinks

in

vitamin

furo-cou-

aromatic;

Diuretic;

and

to

promote appetite.

may

be cooked and eaten. Root extract

to flavour schnapps.
Contra-indications May cause photodermatoses;
gloves should be worn when handling leaves.
tops

employed

and
some

Pelargonium graveolens L'Herit

geraniaceae

Fresh leaves can be added to cakes before

baking; to sweet fruit dishes, and cold summer

Rose Geranium Pelargonium

countries.
Contra-indications Sedative.

To

be taken only

under medical supervision.

*

Pastinaca saliva

L umbelliferae

Parsnip Wild Parsnip

The Parsnip fa fourteenth-century name was
once a major

Roman

word

pastus for food.

It

was largely replaced by the Carrot in the

eleventh century, probably because of dangers
it

for related

In the rose-scented geranium group the species

most commonly cultivated in temperate gardens and homes is P. graveolems. Other species
which are grown commercially as sources of oil
of Geranium include P. capitatum. P. radens and

dishes.

and these may be employed

for similar domestic and culinary purposes.
Almost all scented Geraniums - or more
correctly Pelargoniums
are South African
natives. They were introduced to England
from Gape Province in 1632 but were largely

scented articles, and cosmetic bath prepar-

P. odoratissimum:

foodstuff being called

pastinacea after the Latin

of mistaking

Principally used as a root vegetable; the leafy

various

tonic

refreshing,

edible,

(to 0.2

root)

leaf,

oil;

Traditionally employed in urinary disorders as

a diuretic,

neuralgias.

employed

(fresh

seed in

nutritive; mild sedative.

tops, fruit)

Antispasmodic; sedative; anodyne.

Principally of benefit in the treatment of
nervous tachycardia, anxiety and insomnia;
also used in certain types of convulsion or
spasmodic complaints such as epilepsy. Its

anodyne

Sow

autumn.

essential

heteroside; flavonoids; passiflortannoid; mar-

Ehrh.

hortensis

soil.

Constituents (root): Protein; starch;

acugin.
Uses (dried fruiting

saliva

Requires deeply dug loamy

but poisonous species

of the Umbelliferae family.

unknown

Thick-rooted biennial. 50 120 cm

tall, with hairy, robust, grooved Stem becoming hollow. Leaves pinnate or bipinnate with
ovate or oblong, sessile, toothed leaflets j 10

was recognized by the French.

Oil of Geranium is an essential ingredient of
certain perfumes lor men, and some of the
hnest qualit) used lor this purpose nines from
Rhodesia and Reunion.
Pelargonium is derived from the Greek for

Description

cm

long. Greenish yellow flowers in ompound

umbels appearing mid to late summer.
Distribution

Eurasian

native.

Naturalized

in

until

1847

when

their potential in

perfumery

stork's bill alter the fruit's shape.

Bushy aromatic perennial, becomm. Leaves long-petioled, hairy.

lobed, circular to cordate-ovate, margins

dentate. Flowers 2.5

sessile or

nearly

so.

cm

oil

of importance in the perfumery

is

and

industry,

wide, pink, unseented,

on short-peduncled, dense

is

often used as a substitute for

may

Dried leaves
ations.

An

attractive house plant.

thought to resemble the shape of the Butterbur

leaf. In French the plant is known as chapeau du
diable

devil's hat.

The common name Butterbur may

le.iv

was once wrapped

i's.

1685 Schroder described several preparations from this plant for use against the
Plague: they included the juice extracted from
the root; an alcoholic extract; the fresh leaves

On

folk

soils in lull

sun.

loamy

medic

Widely cultivated as
house
plant. Cultivated commercially in the warmer
louth-west mediterranean region, central and
southern Africa and Reunion. In coolei
temperate /ones grow as tender perennial,
sinking pots in the garden during the summer,
.1

bringing plants indoors before threal of

pinkish

reeping,

hollow,

purplish

flowers

appear

flowers

are

,i<

Mm,

are

oil,

or dried leal, oil

Aromatic;
N01 used medirinallv in Europe: in

the roots oi certain Pelargonium sp<<

employed

in

the treatment ol diarrhoea.

h-s

Male and

stems.

violet

emes, but the former are

and the

female

both

plants;

different

pinkish

date and roundish.

Volatile

on

comprising mainly
geraniol, also linalol, geranyl tiglate, citronellol, eitronella lorminate and iso-meni hone.

I,

(fresh

from the whole

only seldom used in

Semi-aquatic perennial on thick,

rhizome
Flowers appear
before the leaves, from mid-spring to early
summer, on 10 40 cm long, stout, scaly,
c

short-stalked,

Uses

now

inc.

propagated from cuttings taken in

Hi summer and Struck in a peal and sand mix.
Several cultivars exist, and the aroma varies
from lemon to apple.
host. Easily

astringent

oil distilled

is

Description

Cultivation Wild.

Constituents

indicate

in these large

In

elsewhere.

well-drained,

Schcrb.

Butterbur Bog Rhubarb

The botanical name is derived from the Greek
petasos, meaning a large Greek hat that was

plant. Butterbur

dryish,

May &

Gaertn.,

Petasitcs hvbridus (L)

C.UMPOS11AE

South African native. Introduced

Distribution

.mil

be employed in a variety of

and (lowers; and an

umbels.

oil

of Rose.

that butter

Description

ing woody, to

The

12

latter arc

on

spike-like

mm wide and
mm wide

3-6

and long-stalked. Leaves, appearing towards

(he end of flowering, arc- large, to 90 cm wide,
long stalked, woolly underneath, deeply corDistribution

European

native;

on

wet,

careous and stony soils, beside streams,

in did lies or flooded pasture.
Cultivation
(

Wild.

onstituents Inulin;

mucilage;

cal-

rivers,

an

helianthenine; tannic acid;

petasine and
oil;

essential

235

PET-PHY
an alkaloid.

petasitine;

rhizome,

(dried

Uses

Portugese, Yugoslavian and Czechoslovakian

occasionally

fresh

or

dried flowers and leaves) Vulnerary; astringent;

weak

diuretic;

expectorant;

antispas-

modic; weak emmenagogue.

Principally used homeopathically in the treatment of neck pains and headache. Fresh leaves

and flowers may be applied as a poultice to

wounds. Rhizome may be employed in combination with other inulin-containing remedies for

certain eruptive skin conditions.

used as an antispasmodic
tract infections

and

for

in

Once

coughs, urinary

pharmacopoeias, and the seed is found in

French and Portugese pharmacopoeias.
The botanical name for this herb has changed
several times; it has previously been classified
as Petroselinum hortenso Hoffm., P. sativum
Hoffm., Apium petroselinum L, A. crispum Mill.,
and Carum petroselinum Benth.
Description Biennial or short-lived perennial on
Swiss,

stout vertical taproot; stems solid, branching,

cm tall (usually 30 cm). Leaves deltoid,

pinnate, segments 1-2 cm long, cuneate-ovate,
to 75

much curled (depending on cultivar).

Flowers small, greenish-yellow or yellowish, in
flat-topped, 2-5 cm wide compound umbels,
appearing mid-summer to early autumn;
followed by 2.5
long, ribbed, ovoid fruit.
Distribution Native to northern and central
Europe. Introduced and naturalized elsewhere, including some subtropical zones (such

stammering.

stalked,

rm

mm

as the

West

Indies).

u
,

*A

"

<

\^\&mki^M?44.

j*

.vwVK^hB

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.)

Nyman

UMBELLIFERAE
Parsley

The Greeks

differentiated

between

Marsh

Celery or Smallage (heleio selinon) and Rock

Celery or Parsley [petros selinon). Both types
were associated with death and funerals and
only later on in Roman times were they used as
food. Pliny stated that every sauce and salad
contained what was then known to the

Romans

Today Parsley is
known of all garnishing herbs in the
West, and a number of varieties exist. Columas apium - or Parsley.

the best

ella (a.d. 42)

was the

first to

mention a curly

form - the type now favoured in Englishspeaking countries. It lacks, however, the
hardiness of plain-leaved varieties, though it is
less likely to be confused with the highly
poisonous Fool's Parsley

(Aethusa cynapium).

forms are commonly cultivated: the Neapolitan or celery-leaved; the

At

least three other

fern-leaved;
rooted.

and the Hamburg or turnip-

Parsley root

is

still

retained in the

Description Similar to P. crispum but leaf seg-

in

drills

early spring to early

encourage
leaf growth. Requires rich, moist, open soil in
partial shade or full sun; a good watering
during hot weather and protection under
cloches during winter. Germination is often
poor and slow (to 8 weeks) and may be encouraged by pouring boiling water in drills
immediately after sowing. The plain-leaved
varieties tolerate extremes of cold and dryness
better than the curly-leaved varieties.
Constituents Essential oil comprising apiol,
apiolin,

myristicin,

pinene;

to

flavonoids;

glucoside; apiin; provitamin A; ascorbic acid.

Action largely due

essential oil,

to the apiol

blood-flow

increases

content of the

which stimulates the appetite and

the

to

digestive

tract,

and

P. sativum var. tuberosum

Bernh.

ments usually not curled or crisped, and taproot is fleshy, 5 cm wide and 12.5 cm long.
Distribution North and east European cultivated plant.
Cultivation Cultivated horticulturally

and com-

mercially particularly in Holland, France and

Germany.
Seed is sown in early spring on deep, rich,
well-dug soil; watered well during dry weather; and roots harvested from mid-autumn
onwards. Frost resistant.
Constituents Similar to P. crispum; the root also

contains bergapten.
Uses

(cooked

Cooked

Not used medicinally.

root)

soup mixes.
Flavour resembles both Celery and Parsley.
as a vegetable; or used in

uterus and mucosae.

Uses (fresh or dried leaves, dried root, dried

occasionally

seed,

oil)

Diuretic:

emmenag-

ogue; stomachic; carminative.

Effective in dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, as
a diuretic, anti-flatulent

and

to stimulate the

appetite.

The

use of the leaf for culinary purposes

known. The
(Parsley tea).

is

well

was formerly used as a tea

May be chewed to destroy garlic

leaf

odour on the breath. Dried stems of use

as a

green dye.
Contra-indications

The

oil

either the oil or the leaf

They may

should only be used

may

cause abortion.

also cause polyneuritis. Apiol

and

myristicin can induce fatty degeneration of the

liver,

and

gastro-intestinal haemorrhages.

Peumus boldus Molina monimiaceae

Boldo Boldu
Chilean Andes is still
South American and
European pharmacopoeias, and is employed
predominantly for liver disease. The leaves,
which are the only parts used in medicine,
This

native

retained

in

of the

several

were first tested in Europe in 1869 by the

French physician Dujardin-Baumez.
Other botanical names for Boldo, which is the
local Chilean name, included Boldoa fragrans
Gay and Ruizia fragrans Pavon.
Description
Aromatic, dioecious, evergreen
shrub 5-6 m tall leaves shortly petiolate, grey;

green, coriaceous, entire,

terminal racemes.
Distribution

This variety of Parsley was probably first

developed in Holland since it was once called
Dutch Parsley. Fuchs described it as oreoselinum
in Germany in the mid-sixteenth century, and
the name Hamburg Parsley was used by Mawe
Miller

(1691-1771), the
curator of the Chelsea Physic Garden, introduced it to England in 1727, but it was only
in

1778.

Philip

revolute,

elliptical,

UMBELLIFERAE
Parsley

somewhat

upper and lower surfaces

slightly pubescent, upper surface covered with
small papillae. Flowers small, pinkish, on open
ovate or

Petroselinum crispum var. tuberosum Crovetto

Turnip Rooted Parsley Hamburg

236

still

is

seed sown in

under medical supervision. Very large doses of

\M

for a

plant

radicosum Bailey

summer. Remove flower-heads

'

The

1880.

Wild. Extensively cultivated horticulturally and commercially. Propagate from

Cultivation

century - from 1780 to

frequently found in
France and Germany in vegetable markets.
It is also described botanically as P. crispum var.

popular there

Chilean native. Introduced elsewhere. Especially on sunny slopes.

Cultivation Wild. Limited cultivation in Morocco and elsewhere.
Constituents Volatile

mainly eucalyptol,
comprising mainly

oil

(to

2%) comprising

also ascaridol; alkaloids,

boldine

(to

o.i

);

(boldoglucin or boldina).
Cholagogue action due to the presence of
boldine. Antihelmintic action due to ascaridol.

glycoside,

boldin

PET-PHY
Uses (dried leaves, occasionally bark) Cholagogue; choleretic; stomachic; sedative; diu-

a dehiscent oblong

retic; sternutatory; antihelmintic. Formerly

used as a tonic where quinine was contraindicated; in rheumatism; and in certain

Distribution

urinary tract infections, including gonorrhoea.

Of benefit in the treatment of hepatic congestion and gallstones; used to stimulate the

countries.

cm

long.

Native to west coast of Africa,

especially Nigeria, Cameroun, Togo, Dahomey; introduced to Brazil and other tropical

On swampy

river banks.

Wild, and collected commercially in

West Africa. Ripe seed germinated and plant
grown in greenhouses in temperate zones.
Constituents Alkaloids comprising mainly eserine (physostigmine) to 0.3%, also calabarine;
Cultivation

and release of bile, and hence to aid

and as a tonic in gall-bladder
The powdered leaf may be used to

secretion

digestion,
disease.

pod 16 cm long, and con-

taining 2 or 3 seeds to 3

starch (to

induce sneezing.
The aromatic fruit pulp can be eaten.
Bark was once used in tanning.
Contra- indications Large doses cause vomiting.

50%);

proteins (to

23%).

Uses (cotyledons from ripe seed) Miotic.

Now

used exclusively in opthalmology - to contract

the pupil in the eye, and decrease intro-ocular

Uses

(fruit,

rarely

leaves)

Diuretic;

anti-

pyretic; mild sedative; nutritive; laxative.

Formerly employed in the treatment of renal

rheumatism, arthritis and gout. The

calculi,

in

may be eaten in small quantities or used

jams, and the whole plant (except the root)

is

used in certain diuretic wines.

fruit

Contra-indications

Large quantities

may

cause

diarrhoea.
Physostigma venenosum Balfour

leguminosae

Calabar Bean Ordeal Bean/Esere Nut

Calabar Bean is named after the area in southeast Nigeria, and near to the modern Port
Harcourt, where the plant is most commonly
pressure in glaucoma. Formerly employed in

found.

L solanaceae
Bladder Cherry Chinese Lantern

known locally as esere, hence one of its

common names
Esere Nut. The plant's

physostigmine,

Dioscorides called the herb phusalis or strychnos

cotyledons were once used

kaloid used in

Physalis alkekengi

It

and considered it a sedative.

Although several other Physalis species unused for jams, they are now seldom of medicin-

halikakabos

al interest.

Description Perennial (often

grown

as

annual)

on creeping rhizome, reaching 20 110 cm.

Leaves entire, ovate, petiolate to 8 cm.
Flowers solitary, whitish, nodding, appearing
early summer to late autumn and followed by
red globose berry enclosed in paper-thin,
orange-red calyx.
Distribution Native from central and south-east
Europe and western Asia to Japan. On dry
calcareous soils in vineyards and wasteland,
to

1500

is

altitude.

by ordeal in
Africa in which the accused had to drink the
powdered bean. An explanation for the fact
that the innocent generally survived and the
guilty died is that in the former case the entire
quantity was drunk thereby inducing violent
vomiting and purging which removed much of
the poison; while the guilty person sipped the
potion, allowing rapid absorption of the
alkaloids from the gastro-intestinal tract and
thereforesubsequentdeathfrom cardiac arrest.
was introduced to Europe in 1840 by
It
Daniell, and its medicinal properties were
recognized in i860. The plant has no place in
modern medicine, and physostigmine (its chief
constituent) has now largely been replaced by
in trials

Wild frequently as a garden escape.

Cultivated as an ornamental from seed sown. as
early as possible, or under glass
Require!

neostigmine.

warm

large, ternate, pinnate; flowers purple, 3

Cultivation

on climbing woody stem

thick) reaching 15 m tall. Leaves

Description Perennial
(to 5

cm

cm

wide, produced on long pendulous axillary

including malic and citric; a bitter substance,

physaline; pectin; pectinase; glucose.

racemes, each possessing 30 or more flowers;

appearing early to mid-spring, and followed by

Constituents

(fruit;

a parasympathomimetic alsome of the above conditions

and

in the treatment of myasthenia gravis (a

neuro-muscular disease), and to induce peristalsis in

ity.

post-operative gastro-intestinal debil-

Calabarine and physostigmine exert op-

posite effects; the action of the seed

is

therefore

frequently different from that of pure alkaloids.

Once

used in veterinary medicine.

Contra-indications

may

Very

POISONOUS.

Death

be caused by cardiac arrest or respiratory

paralysis.
Phytolacca americana L phytolaccaceae
Poke Weed Poke Root/Pigeonbcrry

Phytolacca

is

derived from the Greek phyton

meaning plant and

pigment),

propagated by division.
Vitamin C; organic acids

position. Also

tetanus and rheumatism. Used as a source of

the French lac (a reddish

reflecting

the

berries'

ability

to

produce a crimson dye.

The herb was introduced to American settlers
by Indians to whom it was known as pocan or
cocum and from which the name Poke Weed
originates. Traditionally Poke Weed was used
as an emetic and as a remedy for venereal

*37

PIC-PIM
but by 1830 Geiger had discovered
other medicinal attributes.
diseases,

Because of its complex chemical constituents

the herb has received considerable scientific
attention, and among other things it has been
shown to possess a mitogenic phytohaemagglutin called Poke Weed mitogen factor

(PWM)

which

snails,

is

agent

to

for

immuno-

modern medicine.

logical purposes in

Another

employed

is

which has the ability to destroy

being examined in Africa as a possible
factor,

control the carrier of Bilharzia. a

and

a hydrolysis product, phytolaccagenin;

and dicarboxy oleanand saponins; potassium

jaligonic acid; carboxy

enes; various steroids

(berries)

salts,

Saponins

(to

25%); mucilage;

tannic acid; phytolaccinic acid; red pigment,

caryophylline. (leaf) Anti-viral protein, called

PAP and

similar to interferon; rubber; fatty

Note: the exact chemical status and
nature of phytolaccin and phytolaccine are

oil.

not fully known.

young cooked
Emetic; purgative: narcotic; sternu-

Uses (dried root, occasionally

leaves)

which invades and

organs and which is
contracted by washing in water containing

tatory; molluscicidal; spermicidal; fungicide;

anti-rheumatic; anti-catarrhal. Root principally used internally in the treatment of

certain snail*.

smooth hollow
on large fleshy

throat infections associated with swollen

glands; acting particularly on the lymphatics.
Also used in chronic rheumatism and upper

petiolate, alternate, entire, ovate-lanceolate or

respiratory tract infections. Externally it is

applied as an ointment or poultice in fungal

disease caused by a parasite

destroys

many body

Description Perennial with thick,

25-3. 5 m tall,
Leaves unpleasantly scented,

purplish stem,

branched

1.

root.

cm long, acute at both ends.

Flowers white or sometimes pinkish, 7.5
wide, bisexual, on many-flowered terminal,
then lateral, racemes from 5-20 cm long.
oblong, 10-30

mm

Appearing

late

summer

to

mid-autumn and

followed by purple-red, globose berries to

cm

diameter.

haemorrhoids and scabies.

was once applied
externally to ulcers and tumours, but it is not
very effective. In Hungary the root is employed
as an abortifacient, and in Mauritius it is
infections, ulcers,

from

Juice

the

berries

considered to be a sedative.
After special treatment the berries
to colour

also

may be

used

wine and confectionery. They have

been used

as a

colouring in

artists' paint.

Toxic and dangerous: it

should only be used by medical personnel. To
remove harmful substances it is important to
soak in salt water, and cook well with 3 changes
of water. The use of the young cooked plant,
however, is not advised. When handling the
mature plant gloves should be worn. May
cause haematological abnormalities, violent
Conlra-mdications

emesis and possibly death.

Picea abies (L) Karst.

pinaceae

Picea

is

now

name for a tree which

commonly planted conifer in

the ancient Latin

the most

North America and Europe.

but strong timber.

employed

It

yields a light

Norway Spruce

is

locally

manufacture of spruce beer by

fermenting with yeast the leaves and twigs in a
in the

sugar solution.

Monoecious evergreen tree to 40 m

bark reddish brown, branches pendulous,
pubescent or glabrous, bearing quadrangular
leaves 14-18
long. Female cones cylindrical-oblong to 18 cm, woody and pendulous.
Male cones catkin-like.
Distribution Central and north European native. Introduced elsewhere.
Cultivation Wild. Extensively grown for timber.
Numerous horticultural cultivars used as
ornamentals.
Constituents Resin comprising a - and /? - piceaDescription
tall;

mm

North American native, from New

England to Texas and Florida. Introduced
elsewhere, particularly in the mediterranean
region. Especially on rich, light soils in newly
Distribution

cleared land, field edges, roadsides.

Cultivation Wild. Cultivated on a marketgarden scale in Carolina and elsewhere in the
United States. Propagated from seed sown in
spring or from root division in spring or
autumn. Prefers sunny situation on deeply-

dug, nutrient-rich, well-drained

crop of vegetable leaf

lifting roots in late
ly in a

may

box of

be cut

when

15

A winter

may

autumn

damp

soils.

be obtained by
and planting close-

peat, kept indoors; leaf

cm

long.

Neutral principle, phytolaccin; alkaloidal substance, phytolaccine; phylolaccic acid; phytolaccatoxin (cyanchotoxin)
Constituents (root)

238

Quassia Jamaican

pimarolic, piceapimarinic and piceapimaric

and juroresene; also volatile oil.

Burgundy pitch, wood) Burgundy
pitch was formerly used in counter-irritant
plasters for the treatment of lumbago, rheumatism and chronic bronchitis.
Young tips (the spray) used in beer manu-

Quassia/Bitter Ash

name given by Linnaeus

amara L in honour of a Guyanan
slave called Quassi who had used the wood
from this 2 m-high shrub to treat fevers.
Quassia amara L or the Bitter Wood of Surinam
(Surinam Quassia was therefore introduced
to Europe (1756) and entered the London
Quassia was a generic

to Quassia

Pharmacopoeia in 1788.
By 79 however the much larger, but closely
related, West Indian tree, Picrasma excelsa (then
known as Quassia excelsa Swartz] had been
shown to possess very similar properties and
this so-called Bitter Wood of Jamaica was
imported to England. It replaced Surinam
Quassia in the London Pharmacopoeia of
1

Norway Spruce
is

Picrasma excelsa (SW.) Planchon simarubaceae

1809, but in several other countries - including

Holland and Germany - Quassia amara has

remained to this day the official Quassia. The
Indians use another related plant, Picrasma
quassioides

Benn.

for exactly the

Description Ash-like tree to 20

same purposes.

tall;

leaves

opposite, entire, unequally pinnate; the leaflets

pointed at both ends, ovate. Flowers

conspicuous, greenish, appearing late

to

early

winter;

followed

in-

autumn

by shiny black

drupes.
Distribution Native to West Indies, particularly
Jamaica (on lower mountains and plains),
St Vincent and Antigua.
Cultivation Wild. Trees felled and sawn into

long for export for quassia chip

acids

logs

Uses (resin,

manufacture and

for

local

pharmaceutical

processing.
Constituents
sin,

a- and /?-piceaand neoquassin, to

Resin comprising

isoquassin (picrasmini

facture in north Europe.

which the action is due.

Uses (stem wood) Bitter tonic: stomachic:

The

insecticide.

timber, white deal, is of great economic

importance and a main source of paper pulp.

benefit

in

A powerful
loss

non-astringent bitter of

of appetite

due

to

gastric

PIC-PIM
debility.

Stimulates

and
an enema to

also entered into the composition of several

gall-bladder

the

Once used

gastric secretion

as

Hop

substitute to render ale bitter.

Of

may be

used as a

its
its

high cost, and it is often replaced by Chinese

Anise (Illicium verum Hook).
Description Aromatic, pubescent annual on
thin root, to 75 cm tall. Stems erect, bearing
long-petiolate, simple, coarsely-toothed, reni-

Infusions of Quassia chips, sweetened with

sugar, or used alone,

aphrodisiac mixtures. In recent years

use as a flavouring has declined because of

classic

eradicate threadworm, and as an ingredient of

lotions to destroy pediculi and other parasites.
Roasted, powdered wood once employed as a

fly killer.

form lower leaves, 2.5-5 cm l n g> an<^ 2 or 3

lobed, cuneate, entire or toothed upper leaves.

service as a horticultural insecticide des-

troying red spider, woolly aphids and greenfly.

Contra-indications Large doses iritate the stom-

Flowers whitish, small, numerous in open,

thin, compound umbels; appearing late sum-

ach and cause vomiting.

mer
ish,

to early

autumn, and followed by brown-

ribbed, aromatic, ovate

fruit.

Egypt, the Levant

and parts of the eastern mediterranean. On
dry poor soils in sunny situations.
Cultivation Wild, or occasionally wild as an
escape. Widely cultivated commercially in

Distribution

Indigenous

many warm

to

countries,

particularly

India,

Turkey, south mediterranean region, Mexico,

Chile and Soviet Union. Propagate from seed
sown in spring, later thinning to 30 cm apart;
cannot be transplanted successfully. Will not
produce ripe seeds in cold northern zones.
Constituents

(seed)

Volatile

comprising mainly anethole

oil

(to

(to

85

),

3.5%)
methyl

chavicol (estragol) (to 15%); also fixed oil (to

20 ); starch; choline; sugars; mucilage.
entire, glossy

to

12.5

cm

and leathery; oblong-lanceolate

long.

Flowers small

(to

mm

7.5

many-flowered cymes borne in

Appearing mid-summer to
early autumn and followed by dark brown,
wide white,

in

the upper axils.

globose, 6
Distribution

co,

West

mm

Native
Indies.

Prefers hilly
Cultivation

wide. 2-celled berries.

Central America, MexiIntroduced to Indonesia.

soils.

Wild. Cultivated commercially in

Central America; collected commercially in

May be propagated by cuttings or

Jamaica.

layering, but in northern zones only

to volatile oil content.

Uses (ripe seed, fresh leaf, occasionally oil)

Mild expectorant carminative galactagogue

;

weak

diuretic; laxative; antispasmodic.

Especially effective in flatulence or flatulent

Aids digestion and improves the appetite

by promotion of gastric secretions. Stimulates
the mammary gland secretions and acts as a
cough suppressant. Used in the treatment of
bronchial catarrh. Used in combination with
other laxatives. Once emploved in asthma
powders.
The oil may be combined satisfactorily with
colic.

to

environments on calcareous

Action mostly due

grown

as a

non-flowering greenhouse ornamental.

myrtaceae

Pimenta dioica (L) Merr.

Constituenti Volatile oil (to

Allspice Pimento/Jamaica Pepper

Must of the European supplies <>l Allspice ome
from Jamaica where plantations ol n.it ural
woodland consisting predominantly oi these
trees are called Pimento walks. The berries an
harvested by hand when green and unripe.
and then either sun or kiln-dried.
he name Pimento derives from the Spanish
i

pimienta or pimiento
similarity in shape

meaning pepper,

after tin-

4.5%) comprising

mainly eugenol (to 65%), also cineole, phellandrene, caryophyllene.

Uses (dried unripe berries, oil) Carminative;
aromatic stimulant. Used as the source of oil of
Pimento, which was once employed as a
carminative-.

Powdered berries are of benefit in

and to disguise the uste

flatulence, dyspepsia
ol

They may also be

stimulant lotions and plasters.

disagreeable medicines.

incorporated

in

peppercorns. Pimienta

Print ipally used as a flavouring in rice, curries,

comes from the medieval term pigmentum

meaning spicery.
The spi<e was first imported to Britain in the
early seventeenth entury and variously ailed
Pimienta de Chapa and Pimienta de 1 abasia.

puddings and cakes, and in pickling.

The tree provides wood which was one e much
used in the manufacture of umbrella handles
and walking sticks.

to

itself

<

before

Ray

in

<

[693 described

it

as

Allspict

combination of the flavours <>l

cinnamon, nutmeg and loves.
Botanically it has been
lassified as Myrtus
ilimia L, M. pimenta L, Eugenia pimenta DC, and
Pimenta officinalis Lindl.
the last
nam<
emphasizing that the plant was included in the
official British Pharmacopoeia from 1721 to
because of

its

<

<

191

Aromatic evergreen tree to 13 m,

resembling a large Myrtle; haves petiolati
Description

Pimpmella amsum L umbelliferae

Anise Aniseed

Aniseed is one of the most ancient of spices and

was cultivated by the Egyptians and later by
the Greeks and Arabs. The early Arabic name
was anysum from which was derived the Greek
anison or anneson and the Latin anisum. Dioscorides considered that Egyptian Aniseed was
sec ond only to that grown in Crete.
In the Middle Ages it was largely used as a
spue and as a carminative medicine, but it

239

PIM-PLA
liquorice in cough lozenges, or used alone as an

may

antiseptic.

and

Important

manufacturing industries

in

as a

flavouring for food, liqueurs. Fresh leaf may be

used in salads. Seed is added to vegetable

chewed

curries, or

sweeten the breath.

to

It

is

occasionally used in perfumery, for example,

as a constituent of eau

de Cologne.

although

certainly used by the ancients

it

be the kaukalis which Dioscorides referred

Formerly employed

as a

mild sedative and

externally as a poultice or bath to treat wounds.

The young fresh leaf can be included in salads.

The oil has limited use in certain liqueurs as a

PINACEAE

Dwarf Mountain Pine

This variety of Mountain Pine
a pure essential oil
as

which

is

the source of

is

variously described

The
Rumanian,

Pini Pumiliones.

Swiss,

the

in

oil

is

retained

Yugoslavian.

Hungarian, Austrian and Czechoslovakian

pharmacopoeias, and it is especially popular in
Swiss. Italian and Hungarian medicinal use.
Pumilio Pine Oil is produced by distillation of
the fresh young needles (which are shown in
the illustration, below). It has been used since

*'

at least the

In

diseases,

Dr

James

Prosser

described

its

and suggested

its

use in an atomizer

Description Low prostrate shrub with glabrous,

dark brownish, erect branchlets, and a grey
somewhat scaly bark. Leaves to 3.5 cm long,

crowded in clusters or fasciCones dark brown to

yellowish, almost sessile, deciduous and dehis-

stiff,

cles,

needle-like,

bright

green.

cent, ovoid to 4

cm

long.

Native to the mountains ofsouthern

and central Europe. Rarely introduced elsewhere. Often on light, sandy or rocky soils.
Distribution

German

physicians used

it

particularly from

Middle Ages onwards and it appeared in a

number of pharmacopoeias including those of
Augsburg (1640), Wiirttemberg 11741 and
the

Prussia (1799- 1829).

In seventeenth-century

Germany

is

was an

ingredient of "magic powders'.

Description Perennial

taproot.

on unpleasantly smelling

Stem 30-100 cm

hairy, finely furrowed;

pinnate

1-2.5

strong, slightly
1

or 2-

with

leaves,

segments,

tall,

bearing few

cm

ovate to lanceolate
l n S- Flowers white or

compound umbels to 5 cm diameter.

Appearing late summer to early autumn.
pink in

Distribution

Native

to

Europe, Middle East and

and naturalized in New

Zealand and the United States. On dry, grassy,
shallow, stony and calcareous soils in warm
situations to 2500 m altitude.
Siberia. Introduced

Cultivation

Wild.

comprising
coumarinic substances including isopimpinellin and pimpinellin; saponosides; bitter princiConstituents Volatile oil (to o.4

ples; resin; tannic acid.

Uses

(dried

root,

occasionally

fresh

root

Expectorant; vulnerary; diuretic; stomachic;

antiseptic; weak galactagogue; weak sedative.
May be used in combination with other
remedies for genito-urinary infections. Alone
it is of benefit in the treatment of respiratory

upper respiratory
and throat infections in the

tract catarrh,
tions

240

tract

infec-

latter case

it

sub-

Stimulant; counter-irritant
appears to possess slight
anaesthetic properties. Inhaled as steam, the
oil is of benefit in the treatment of coughs,
laryngitis, chronic bronchitis, catarrh, asthma
and other respiratory diseases since it exerts
dilatatory action on the bronchi, the oil may
be taken internally in small doses in the form
of lozenges, syrups, or on sugar. The infusion of
leaves is inhaled in the treatment of similar

sometimes

respiratory disorders.

Cultivation

Wild plant infrequently cultivated

horticulturally as an ornamental.
Constituents

(oil)

Esters

Piper betle L piperacae

Betel Betel Leaf

Betel
as

chewing

popular

peans.

as

is

a habit

among Malays almost

among Euro-

tobacco smoking

The method

consists of rolling

up a

slice

Nut (Areca catechu L with a little Lime

(Chunami (made by burning seashellsi, inside
a leaf of Betel, and then slowly chewing the

or Areca

called a quid.

Chavica siriboa

Miq.

is

sometimes used as a

substitute for Betel Leaf.

Shrub, climbing by adventitious

semi-woody, enlarged at nodes,
bearing entire, or undulate, thick, glo^\
broadly ovate, slightly cordate leaves on 2.5
cm long petioles. Flowers yellowish in dense
pendulous cylindrical spikes to 5 cm long:
followed by fleshy fruit.
Distribution Indigenous to India, Ceylon and
Malaysia. Introduced elsewhere. Requires hot
and moist environment, in partial shade.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated in India and the
Far East.
comprisConstituents Essential oil 0.2 1.0%
ing cadenene, chavicol, chavibetol and sesDescription

rootlets; stems

to disinfect sickrooms.

unknown

Uses (fresh leaves

and

mixture

seventeenth century.

Britain,

beneficial action in 1888 for certain respiratory

(leaves,) Esters; resins;

Pumilio Pine Oil, Pine Needle Oil and

Oleum

to in his writings.

mainly bornyl acetate,

small quantities of glycosides;

stances.

Pinus mugo var. pumilio (Haenke) Zenari

Burnet Saxifrage
This somewhat variable herb is widely distributed throughout much of Europe but was not

may

internally.

bitter flavouring.

L umbelliferae

Pimpinella saxifraga

be used as a gargle. It promotes gastric

gland secretions when taken

mammary

(4-10%) comprising

quiterpenes; also sugars; starch: tannic acid:

PIM-PLA
acid; diastase (to 2",,

Ceylon, India and the East Indies.

Stimulant; antiseptic; carminative; sialogogue; tonic; stomachic.

Leaves commonly employed as a masticatory
Uses (leaves,

oil)

in the East; they act as a general tonic, pro-

mote

and

salivary

gastric

secretions,

digestion, decrease perspiration

aid

and increase

physical endurance.

Constituents Volatile oii

cubebic acid

Cubeb

L piperaceae

comprising

1%), cubebin, cadinene,

several terpenes and sesquiterpenes; resin:
fixed oil; starch; calcium and magnesium
malate. Action largely due to cubebic acid
which has a local irritant and stimulant effect
on mucous membranes.
dried

Uses
Piper cubeba

(5-2O o

(to

unripe

fruit,

occasionally

oil)

Antiseptic; diuretic; stimulant; expectorant:

Cubebs/Tailed Pepper
the East Indian name

Cubeb was

for this spice

stomachic; carminative. Once used in the

treatment of genito-urinary tract infections,
including gonorrhoea. May be of benefit in
cystitis, indigestion, and if incorporated in
lozenges, can be used for coughs, bronchitis
and respiratory complaints. Formerly employed in the United States in asthma cigarettes.
Principally of use as a condiment; the flavour

resembles Allspice, and

and

is

suitable for sauces

fruit dishes.

Piper nigrum L piperaceae

Pepper Black Pepper

Historically one of the most important spices

the alkaloids piperine, piperidine

which has been very highly prized since the

earliest days of East-West trade. It has been
used as a form of currency: during the siege of
Rome a.d. 408 part of the city's ransom was
paid in Pepper berries, and a thousand years
later "pepper rents' were commonly paid to
landlords. The quest for Pepper by European
nations led them to discover a maritime route
to the East. During the Middle Ages much of
the- wealth of Venice was derived from its
Pepper trade.
In England the control of the spice trade was in
the hands of the Guild of Pepperers (or

ine;

derived from Piper or Pepper

Piperarit

from

Guild was later to become

incorporated with the Grocers Company,
which in turn eventually lost its control over
clings and spit es to the apothecaries. P. nigrum
as early as

which

as early as the tenth century

was recog-

nized by the Arabs to be a product ol Java.

authorities consider that the Arabic

Some
word

kababe

referred
fruit.

to

was

collective

number

Indeed,

even

ol

in

which

term

similar cubeb-like

modern

times

the

peppercorn-like berries are frequently adulterated with inferior Piper species such as

and
The spice has enjoyed varying
popularity. In the thirteenth century it was
Commonly found in Europe as a medic ine and
as a condiment, but by the- end of the- seventeenth century it was both uncommon and
expensive. In England it had fallen into almost
complete disuse by the early nineteenth
century, but was reintroduced in 1815 alter
Piper crassipes, P. ribesundes, P. mollissimum

P.

muncatum.

verification of

medical

therapeutic effects b\
serving in the far East

its

office rs

Arms

picking the

produce

this

White Pepper. Instead

unripe berries and drying them

source- of

also the

is

154

<>l

dark skin (pericarp

White Peppei was
to Theophrastus and his Greek contemporaries but In the Middle Ages it had lost
its popularity. Although still used most White
Pepper is now. in lac 1, decorticated Pepper in
.

known

that the outer layer

by

is

incompletely removed

machinery

/) cription

and chavic-

piperettine which

hydrolyzes to piperidine and piperettic acid;

traces of

hydrocyanic acid; resins

starch

30%

to

(to

6%

dried unripe fruit) Stomachic; carmin-

Uses

ative; aromatic stimulant; antibacterial; insecticide; diaphoretic.

Stimulates taste-buds and thus causes reflex

stimulation of gastric secretions.
atonic

membranes and
and

Also

dyspepsia.

Employed in
mucous

stimulates

part of the nervous system,

body temperature. May be used as a

and externally as a rubefacient. East

raises

gargle,

Africans use

as

it

an abortifacient. They also

consider that the body odour resulting from

eating the

fruit repels

Mostly employed

mosquitoes.

as a stimulating

and food preservative,

as,

for

condiment

example,

in

sausage meats.
Plantago major L plantaginaceae
Greater Plantain Rat-tail Plantain/
Wavbread
This and some closely related Plantago

major var. asiatica Decne.

as P.

sue h

lanceolata

L have

species

and

P.

a long traditional use in the

treatment of sores which has recently been

by modern examination of the

vindicated

plant's action.

Perennial

climbing shrub: stem

strong and woody bearing tdossv prominently
nerved, ovate-oblong to orbicular leaves, to 18
cm loncj; and 12cm wide, on 2 cm long petioles.
Flowers white-, usually dioecious, on glabrous
spike-s from 5
15 cm long. Followed In (>
diameter globose, yellow and then red, fruit.
.

mm

Distribution

compound

yellow

to

black variety, the fruit is allowed

to ripen on the \ me and then soaked to removethe

tin

Native- to southern

India; intro-

The

unattractive and tenacious Plantains are

the scourge of gardeners, but

many

are

still

highly respected in folk medicine from Africa

Vietnam.

to

Leaves entire or

Description Perennial.

slightly

toothed, long petioled, ovate to elliptic,

cm

5-20

forming a basal rosette. Leaves

prominently 7-veincd and no more than twice
as long as the petiole. Flowers inconspicuous
wide, numerous, yellowish-green, with
3
lilac and then yellow anthers; on cylindrical
long,

Climbing perennial or shrub; stems

smooth and flcxuous, bearing glabrous entire,
acuminate, petiolate, oblong or ovate-oblong,
coriaceous and obliquely cordate leaves. Flowen dioee ions, in spikes, and followed l)\
brownish globose fruit to *> nun diam<

duced

and China; frequently

Distribution Native- to

Distribution Native to south-east

other temperate zones. Widely distributed on

cultivated land, wasteland and roadside.

Description

i<

ally

Asia, especi-

Sumatra and Java. Introduced elsewhe n

Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commercially

in

Brazil.

to

tropical Asia.

Malagas)

In tropical forests: requires

Republic.
shade and

high humidity
Cultivation

Wild. Cultivated commercially

Indonesia, South India. West

ill)

Indies.

in

Brazil

in mixed plantations
other lucrative Crops SUCh as Coffee. Will

yield a crop for

approximately 10 years.
2.5%), comprising

Constituents Volatile oil (to

mm

spike 5
to

40

cm

lout;.

Appearing

earl)

summer

mid-autumn.

Prefers

moist

Europe. Introduced

to

sandy or loamy nutrient-rich

24

PLA-POL
but tolerates most conditions.
Wild plant. In eastern

soils,

Cultivation

commercial cultivation of

P. lanceolata L. has

recently begun.
Constituents

Mucilage;

(leaf)

bin (rhinanthin)

pentacyclic

the

enzymes emulsin and

invertin; potassium salts (too.5

22%);

citric acid.

a trisaccharide, plante-

ose; aucubin; choline; various organic acids.

Uses (dried leaves, seed) Vulnerary; diuretic;

expectorant; astringent; bacteriostatic.

Principally of use as a poultice, ointment or in
decoctionfortheexternal treatment of wounds,
ulcers

and

eye-wash

bites.

in

Dioscorides'

day,

derived from the Greek for flea ipsylla) - an

allusion to the seed's appearance. Apothecaries

triterpene, oleanolic acid; a glycoside, aucu-

(seed) Oil (to

They have been used since

and the specific name is

Psyllium.

as

Europe

Also used as a gargle and as an

blepharitis

and

conjunctivitis.

called the seed Pulicariae, from the Latin for

flea.

In India P. ovata Forskal,

commonly known

Ispaghula,

precisely

used

is

may

purposes, and

for

the

as

same

therefore replace Psyllium.

Annual with

erect thin hairy stems

bearing sessile, long thin
(acicular) grey-green glandular leaves; opposite or in whorls of 3-6 leaves. Flowers small,
numerous, white, in globose spikes borne on
long peduncles; appearing late spring to late
summer, and followed by 2-3
long, dark
Description

IO ~35

cm

ta U>

mm

brown

glossy seeds.

Native to the mediterranean reFrance, Spain and North

Africa. On poor, dry sandy soils in full sun.
Cultivation'Wild. Cultivated commercially from
Distribution

gion;

especially

seed sown in the spring.

and followed

mucilage

Constituents Oil;

to

10%

compris-

Distribution

onic acid, to which

to Florida

therapeutic action

is

due.

soils

Emollient

seeds

Usei

Used

treatment of chronic constipation;

mucilage swells considerably in
water and the gelatinous mass acts as a bulk
the

in the

seed's

purgative.

The

emollient action makes this

herb also suitable for use in severe diarrhoea.

It can be used as a soothing eye lotion.
Young leaves may be added to salads.

Employed

The

plant has the ability to destroy a wide

range of micro-organisms, and stimulates the

in

Wild.

Cultivation

Collected commercially

cosmetic preparations,

May

eastern North America.

in

be propagated

by division of root-stock in the autumn, or

from seed sown in the spring. Requires damp,
humus-rich soils, and partial shade.
Constituents Podophyllotoxin and related substances such as picropodophyllin: podophylloresin; qucrcetin; a-

industrially to dress muslin.

An ingredient of certain

long,

streams.

laxative.

35 cm

fruit.

North American native from Texas

and Quebec. On damp nitrogenous
open woodland, pastures and near

ing xylose, arabinose, galactose, and galacturits

autumn by

in early

ovoid, yellow edible

and

/J-peltatin; starch;

(lavonoids. Purgative action

due

to the

podo-

phyllotoxin and podophylloresin content.

such as face masks.

American Mandrake Podophyllum/

Podophyllin or podophyllum resin is produced

by adding the alcoholic tincture to water.
Usei (rhizome, Podophyllum resin Powerful

in constipation.

Common

purgative; gastro-intestinal irritant; antihel-

Formerly used to treat various haemorrhages

including post-partum haemorrhage; also
bronchitis, bronchial catarrh and coughs. An

The name May-apple

healing process (epithelization

The

may

be employed internally to treat

diarrhoea, and conversely the seed is of benefit
leaf

effective diuretic.

The young

Plantago psyllium

Psyllium

Employed homcopathically.

leaf was once used as a pot-herb.

L plantaginaceae

Flea Seed

Seeds from several Plantago species which have

the ability to swell in water due to their high
mucilage content have been used for medicinal

and other purposes.

P. psyllium and P. indica L. seeds are rich in
mucilage and both are commercially known

L berberidaceae

Podophyllum peltatum

May-apple
is

and acidic

that the juicy

derived from the fact

mintic; anti-mitotic. Used locally externally

sometimes

soft venereal warts and on other warts.

Both resin and rhizome have been employed as
a purgative in cases of chronic constipation
with associated liver complaints, although

fruits are

eaten, and, despite their laxative effects, they

were once on

sale in

some American markets.

All other parts of the plant must, however, be

on

considered as poisonous, and the powerful

nature of the dried rhizome is emphasized by

actual choleretic action

is

Normally combined with

less drastic

the size of the therapeutic dose - 0.12 of a

Contra-indications

gram. American Mandrake was long used as

an emetic by the Indians; but its purgative
effect was introduced to medicine by Schopf
who was the physician to German
1787

severe

fighting

soldiers

Independence.

It

in

the

first

American War of
entered

the

United

Pharmacopoeia in 1820 and is also in

the Spanish and Portugese pharmacopoeias

remedies.

POISONOUS. May

cause

or

poly-

gastro-intestinal

irritation

External application must be care-

neuritis.
fully

not substantiated.

restricted

to

abnormal

tissue

only:

systemic absorption has been shown to cause

poisoning. Not to be used during pregnancy.

Only

to

be used b\ medical personnel.

States

although

now

lum
The

resin.

for

foot-leaf;

generic

only as the source of Podophyl-

is

derived from the Greek

while peltatum

means

shield-

on reddish-brown, long
5-15 mm diameter. Stems simple, erect to 45 cm, bearing
or
2, 7-9 deeply lobed drooping leaves, to 30 cm
wide. Flowers white, borne singly on nodding
peduncle in the stem bifurcation between 2
leaves. Petals fleshy, 6 or 9; stamens 12 or 18;
corolla to 5 cm wide. Appearing early summer
Description Perennial
_'

1,

cylindrical rhizome

242

has one of the strongest and most

perfumes known and for this
reason was traditionally used to scent Indian
linen, to distinguish material of Indian nrisrin.
Several of the 40 species in the genus Pogostemon are now used as a source of Patchouli oil,

Patchouli

name

shaped.
to

Pogostemon patchouli Pellet labiatae

Patchouli
oil

distinctive

which has therefore become of somewhat

variable

quality.

Besides

known

P.

patchouli

Pell.

and
Blanco Benth. Patchouli is mostly
derived from the Javanese species P. comosus
Miq. Alternative sources from different genera
which

is

P. cablin

also

as P. heyeanus Benth.
,

PLA-POL
commonly found;

include Microtaena cymosa Prain and Plectran-

species

thus patchouli Clarke.

properties as P. vulgaris but

and hence

Description Aromatic perennial to

stems erect, square, slightly hirsute, bearing
opposite, ovate or triangular leaves approximately 3-5 cm long. Flowers whitish, often
i

marked with purple, arranged

terminal and axillary spikes.

in

tall;

has the same

it
it

more

is

bitter

acts as a bitter tonic. Early writers

was the polygala and

and Dioscorides respectively
- both from the Greek meaning much milk but this cannot be certain and several Milkdecided that P.

vulgaris

polugalon of Pliny

groups on

now

wort's

and

the

retain

traditional

virtue of

India; introduced to West Indies and parts of

South America. Requires tropical or sub-

being galactogogues.
Description Perennial 10-30 cm tall, with erect
or decumbent stems. Leaves alternate, ever-

tropical conditions.

green, obovate to lanceolate,

Native

Distribution

south-east

to

Asia

Wild. Cultivated commercially and

Cultivation

5-35

mm

long.

Flowers usually blue, occasionally pink or

whitish, in loose racemes; appearing early

horticulturally from seed sown in the spring, or

by division of root-stock in spring or autumn,
or from cuttings taken in late spring. May be
grown as a greenhouse plant in temperate
zones. Use a rich or medium-rich potting
compost, and strike heeled cuttings in high

summer

autumn.
to Europe; on grassland,
heathland, mountain pastures, in sandy, wellto early

Distribution

drained,

Native

humus-rich

but

to

soils

2000

altitude.

humidity.

Wild. Propagate from seed sown in

Cultivation

comprising cadinene, stearoptene and related compounds. Obtained from

leaves by distillation.
Constituents Oil

Uses (dried leaves,

oil)

Not commonly used

Once considered

Antiseptic; insecticide.

for

medicinal purposes.

to act as a stimulant.

Principally of use as a perfume.

employed

in

The

oil

may

be

wide range of cosmetic pre-

parations, including soaps.

It

is

also used in

incense. Leaves can be incorporated in potpourris,

scented sachets and other scented

articles.

Valerianae graecae, was still retained in some

European pharmacopoeias and was employed
predominantly as an antisyphilitic agent or in

the treatment of rabies.

The common name

refers to the ladder-like

shape of the leaves.

Description Perennial from 30 cm to
m tall;
stems erect bearing short, petiolate or sessile,
alternate, pinnate leaves. Basal leaves from
1

12.5

7.5

cm

long, long-petiolatc. the petioles

being winged; 1-21 lanceolate

than stem leaves, from 15

leaflets large)

mm

lowers blue, 5-petalled, 3

drooping

panicles,

to 2

cm

appearing

cm

long.

diameter,
late

in

mid-

to

summer.
European

Distribution

native.

Introduced

to

temperate zones.

damp

Prefers

soils

near streams in the partial

shade of woodland.
Wild, usually rare and localized.
garden escape. Cultivated horticulturally from seed sown in spring or by

soil

autumn. Requires rich,

soil and the addition of

ine

Cultivation

Found

as a

division

the

in

moisture-retaining
lime.

Mowers
larger

/'.

lilac

Bcnth.

has

white
caeruleum var. himalayanum Baker lias
-blue Mowers. Both may be found in

caeruleum

/'.

var.

lacteum

cultivation as Jacob's Ladder.

Constituents

Unknown.

Polemonium

is

herb which

;i

into disuse.
poll

in

an ancienl
It

murium ,mrl

wine

in

name

lias

now

was known lo
the root was oik

<>l

uncertain

largely fallen
)ios( 01

late

to possess

Weak
blood-

Principally ol horticultural use in formal

histoi H al

administered

cases ol dysentery, toothache

and

[830 the herb, then called Herba

do not cover with

comprising gaulthcr-

and other compounds; saponins; polygalic

acid and senegine; mucilage; resin.
/ ses (dried whole plant, dried root) Expectorr

ant; diuretic; laxative; stomachic.

Traditionally considered to be a galactogogue,

unsubstantiated.

is

Of

use in bron-

and pulmonary complaints, often com-

bined with other remedies; but not effective

as once supposed.

in

asthma

The
is

leaves

and

root

similar to Saponaria

make

a crude soap

officinalis

but

which

less effective.

and

gardens.

Polygonum

bistorta

L polygonaceae

Bistort Snake Rooi/Snakeweed

ides as

againsi the bites ol poisonous animals.

\

Once considered

Constituents Essential oil,

chitis

purilying qualities, but now no longer used lor

medicinal purposes.

PolemOTlium caeruleum L POLEMONIACEAE

Jacob's Ladder Chains (.nek Valerian

origin lor

surface;

soil

or germination will be poor.

but this

Uses (dried flowering plant, dried toot

diaphoretic

spring on the

L polyoalacbai
Milkwort

Polygala vulgaris

Bistort belongs to the- knotweeel genus,

Common

members of which

In ha Iky areas and in continental Km ope the

very similar Bitter Milkwort /'. amarn I, is the
1

swollen

or

man)

are characterized by their

jointed

stems.

means nianv-kneed from

Polygonum
the

itself

stem's shape.

t;

POL POT
rhizome and

Bistorta describes the

Latin

shape of the underground

known

is

from the

twice twisted, after the snake-like

for

parts. It used to

be

as Serpentaria or Serpentaria rubra (after

the red colour within the blackish rhizome)

which has

some confusion since both

L and Arum maculatum L
Serpentaria in the sixteenth and

led to

haemorrhoids. The powdered rhizome

Once used in the treatment of
tuberculosis faction uncertain
The root is edible after it has been soaked in
water and then roasted.

and

to

acts as a styptic.

Young

shoots

and leaves may be boiled and

decaying tree trunks. Requires damp, shady

sheltered conditions.

Wild. Several varieties cultivated

most of these forms
being characterized by attractive foliage.
Cultivation

for horticultural purposes;

Constituents

Essential

oil;

mucilage:

sugars;

Artemisia dracunculus

eaten as spring greens.

tannic

were

Used

polypodine; various mineral salts. Cholagogue

action largely due to polypodine.

also called

seventeenth centuries.
There are over 200 species of Polygonum and

one was not introduced into medical

practice until the Renaissance; the leaf, howthis

ever

is still

included

in the

Pharmacoppharmacopoeias of
Swiss

in veterinary

medicine.

Polypodium vulgare L polypodiaceae

Polypody Root Common Polypody

Dioscorides

knew

a purgative.

He

herb.

mucilaginous root as a poultice

on thick, somewhat flattened and twisted S-shaped rhizome; stem

m tall.
erect 25 50 cm or occasionallv to
Radical leaves broadly ovate or lanceolate,
lighter and hairy beneath, 5 15 cm long, outline wavy stem leaves sparse, smaller, triangu-

fractured fingers.

Description Perennial

drug and prescribed

it

also used the pulverized fresh

for

sprained or

Cholagogue; expector-

Small doses promote the appetite: stronger

decoctions are useful in the treatment of chest
infections,

and bronchial catarrh.

mild laxative and anti-

coughs,

Large doses act

as a

Populus candicans Ait. salicaceae

Balm of Gilead

in

The

was usually only used for its expectorant action, which is weak. A related
Peruvian Polypody, P- calaguala Ruiz
whose

used

It is

now

rarely used

and

it

Poplar Buds

Balm of Gilead has been

descriptive term
for a

number

of different plants.

of

first

it

is

extinct in

its

Indian and Egyptian homes, although

One

and possibly the original Balm of the

Bible was the oleo-resin obtained from Balsamodendron opobalsamum Kunth.
also called
the Balm of Mecca. Miraculous properties
wereonce attributed to this aromatic substance
but it is now obsolete in Europe and most
the

authorities consider

opening. Flowers pale pink or rarel)

diameter in
white, numerous, small (4
dense solitary, cylindrical terminal spikes <>l

mm

saponoside,

as

mm

helmintic with some action against tapeworms.

the

lar-acuminate. Petioles variable in length and

triangular in section; leaves iolded longitudinally before

resins;

Uses (dried rhizome

footed.

the past

bitter

ant; laxative; antihelmintic.

Brake Root
Both the generic and common names of this
fern refer to the branching habit of the
rhizome; the Latin polypodium means many-

and the rhizome in the

France and Russia.
It was certainly an important food in the spring
in northern countries from earliest times
sometimes even being cultivated as a garden

oeia

acid;

former
it

mav

survive locally in the Middle East.

Canada Balsam from

mid-summer

Wild plant.
Tannic acid to 20% oxalic acid
vitamin C; starch action due to the astringen-

Abies bahamea Marshall

was also once called Balm of Gilead. but the
commercial product is now derived from P.
candicans which is also known as P. balsamijera
var. candicans Gray and P. gileadensis Rouleau
and from the Balsam Poplar, P. balsamijera L.
also called P. tacamahacca Mill.
It is probable
that several other substitutes from the Poplar
family
such as P. tremuloides Michx.
are

cy of the tannins.

known

Uses (dried rhizome) Strong astringent; anti-

Description

10

15

diameter. Appearing

autumn.
Distribution European
to early

native.

On

moist

silice-

ous nutrient-rich grassland, mixed woodland,

fenland and alpine mats. Particularly on
higher ground, and Frequently near water.
Cultivation

Constituents

Useful in decoction or infusion for diarrhoea or

aphthous ulcers, stomatitis and

Applied externally to cuts or sores

as a gargle in

common name

is

Calahualae

was shown

in

the 1930s to possess better expectorant qualities

than

this species.

Description

Perennial fern on long creeping

somewhat flattened rhizome to 10 mm thick,

bearing numerous brown scales, and from
which the stipes grow to 10-50 cm. Leaves
smooth, deeply pinnate, with 20-40 lanceolate, alternate and opposite, obtuse or semiacute sometimes curved, segments; midribs
prominent. Sporangia in light brown circular
sori

arranged either side of main segmental

nerve.

Native to Europe, western Asia:

introduced to North America and other
temperate regions. Frequently found on old
walls, rocky ground, woodland, ruins and old
Distribution

244

Balm of Gilead.

Tree to 20 m occasionally to 30 m
spreading with open and irregular top: leaves

inflammatory vulnerary.

gingivitis.

as

POL-POT
dark

above,

lighter

and

beneath,

hirsute

Native from Greece to

Introduced elsewhere. On dry, sano

Distribution

cordate, alternate, petiolate. broad-ovate or

cm on g- Flowers in drooping
to 15 cm long. Winter leaf buds

10-15

deltoid,

scaly catkins

'

and highly aromatic.

sticky, resinous

Distribution

Uncertain origin. Introduced and

temperate countries.

Frequently beside rivers.

Wild. Cultivated horticulturally as
aromatic garden ornamental.
Cultivation

Oleo-resin;

compounds

salicylic

including salicin and salicin benzoate; buds

yield to 40 of an alcohol-soluble extractive.
Uses dried or rarely fresh leaf buds, occasion(

ally

Antiseptic:

oleo-resin;

rubefacient: ex-

pectorant.

Used

internally

respiratory

coughs,

in

and

laryngitis

employed

treatment of upper

the

bronchitis.

ointments

in

particularly

infections,

tract

for

May

external

be

appli-

cation to relieve the local pain and irritation of

arthritis, cuts

and

An

bruises.

excellent gargle

for sore throats.

The buds can

where

articles
is

be used in a range of scented

a

heavy resinous balsamic aroma

Wild. Cultivated horticultura'

Cultivation

Purslane has long been used as a foodstuff

early autumn on light, well-drained soil;

water well and harvest 6-8 weeks after sowing.
Leaves of the cultivated varieties may be less
sharp than the wild plant.
Constituents

plant

collected from the wild

in

Africa,

organic acids

pulmonary and

The

skin diseases.

spring crop can be obtained by successive

when

plantings on hotbeds or in frames. Grown

semi-commercially in France, Italv and
Holland.

used fresh and

may

remedies

the

for

erties,

and

The

be incorporated with other

treatment of urino-genital

low blood pressure

in conditions of
to

induce more vigorous contracsubtropical coun-

in several

somewhat
fleshy,

ipatulate, sessile leaves

Flowers small
in groups

or

summei
seed

7.5
of

mm

the petals soon

apsule.

yellow,

1,

or

.'

cm

long.

sessile, single

appearing
ill and reveal

3,
I,

in

late

a small

Not

herb)

used

for

medicinal

The stem and

taste.

it

may

has a sharp

leaves are pickled for

traditional

ingredient of the

French soup bonne femme and the Middle East

Portulaca oleracea v?LT. sativa

DC.

I.

salad, jattoush.

The

rULAC vcKAE

I'OK

Garden Purslane Green

Kit<

attractive golden-leaved variety

north-west

in

Europe from the end of the sixteenth century

end of the eighteenth entury, but in
(

English speaking countries

now

is

it

rarely

grown.

Potentilla anserina L rosaceae

Silverweed Wild Tansy
There are more than 300 species

in the genus
found in the
northern temperate zones, and Silverweed is
one of the most easily recognized with its
silky-silver leaf undersides. This characteristic
Potentilla,

varieties wen- developed from the

Wild Purslane of which the Green, Golden and
large-leaved Golden were the best known.
Only the Green and Golden varieties are now
easily obtained, the latter sometimes errone-

Several

led to both

most

its

of which

current

argent

Yellow Purslane.
The true
Yellow Purslane is I', lutea Soland and is found
New /ealand.
111

meaning powerful

he

the

onimon name

is

from the old Latin name

while oleracea means

lor the plant porcilocca]

vegetable garden herb used

Description

plant

taller

,1

Annual. Similar

stems and

to

oleracea

/'.

<

leaves.
Distribution

temperate and subdeveloped in tinsouthern Europe. Prefers

Widespread

tropical

/ones.

Middle

Last

in

Probably
01

nitrogen-rich, well-drained dryish

soils

lull

sun.

Only found
Propagate as

Cultivation

in

ape.

for

15

20

cm

suIIk tent

apart

water

be possible from

in

the wild as a garden

P.

oleracea L.

rows 30

<

Plant

apart.

II

given, 2 or g gatherings will

each plant.
winter and early

is

The generic name

common name and

is

the

Argentaria (from

from the Latin

potens

after the medicinal action of

the group, most of

which contain high per-

centages of tannin and are thus strong astringents.

Anserina

L but

50 m, with thi< kei

green succulent spatulate

reat hing

bright

.1

cooking.

in

are

names Argentina and

meaning silver).

earlier

ously being desc ribed as a separate species, P.

or

be

gardens.

hen-garden Purslane

sativa

may

used for horticultura] purposes in formal herb

Purslane/

until the

Annual or biennial with flesh)

decumbent stems to 15 cm;
pinkish, and
bearing opposite,

(fresh

Uses

purposes. Principally eaten cooked but

winter use.

a salad herb.

emetic by the Zulu.

or

Constituents Similar to P. oleracea L.

also be used sparingly in salads;

cooked vegetable and

.is

a useful diuretic

leaf has vasoconstrictive prop-

Extensively used
tries

It is

Garden Purslane was popular

prostrate

seed and

root are reported to be antihelmintic but this

India and the Far East and used for culinary

and medicinal purposes. The related plan! P.
quadrifida L is used in South Africa as an
Description

to

(2%). The combined

action being predominantly diuretic and tonic.
Uses (fresh herb Diuretic: tonic; anti-scorbutic. Due to its high vitamin C content the
plant was once an important remedy for
scurvy. It has also been used in a variety of

tions of the heart.

in

[%); sacchariferoid

duced into cultivation in Europe in the

Middle Ages. It was first grown in England in
1582 but was probably well-known in 1.1
and France long before this a-- Ruellius described both the wild and erect cultivated
garden form in 1536.
1

per 100 g fresh

in fresh, 7o

sitosterol: volatile oil; resins;

infections.
in

mg

(700

salts (i

dry plant); urea; oxalic acid: carotenoid

pigments; alkaloids (o.03 ); glucoside: /?-

can be used

still

Vitamin

potassium

India and the Middle East, and was intro-

is

y for

Middle and Far East. A number of varieties and cultigens have been
developed from this wild species. Propagate
from seed sown successively from late spring to

has not been proved.

required.

\i
Portulaca oleracea L PORTULACA(
Purslane Wild Purslane/ Yellow Portulaca

It

n'tro-

sun.

soils in full

centuries in the

naturalized in several

Constituents

gen-rich weedy

J una.

comes

fron

Latin anserinus mean-

ing pertaining to geese, since the birds were

thought

to

be particularly partial to the leaves;

many animals

are happy to graze on the plant.

The Silverweed has been identified as the
Mynophyllon of Dioscorides who suggested
boiling the plant in salted water lot the treatment of haemorrhages.
Description Silkv perennial 20 40 cm tall, on
short, thick root-Stock from which arise long
creeping stolons (to 80 cm long) which toot at
the nodes. Radical leaves 5-25 cm long,
compound, pinnate, silvery-white and hairy
beneath; 14 24 leaflets,
6 cm long, alternately large and small, oval, deeply dentate.
1

'I

POT-PR U
Many

ations.

Rhatany

have noted that

for
economic

authorities

only

preferred

is

reasons, since the plants possess similar actions.

Rhatany was brought to

women of Lima who
preserve their teeth, while Tormen-

coincidental that

It is

the notice of Ruiz by the

used

to

it

was long used as an astringent tooth

powder. P. erecta was apparently not widely
tilla

used in medicine until the sixteenth centur\

it first found favour in the treatment of

when

the name Tormentilla is derived from the

Latin tormina meaning colic.
It is still employed widely in European folk

colic

medicine, and occasionally

of

manufacture

in the

artists' colours.

10-40 cm tall on thick

woody, long to 20 cm rhizome,
reddish internally. Stems prostrate or more

Description Perennial,

cm

to 3

Flowers 5-petalled, golden yellow, to 2 cm

diameter, borne singly on long stems arising

from the basal

rosette.

Appearing mid

to late

summer.
where.

On

damp
damp

soils;

native. Introduced else-

10-15
10-30

resins; flavours:

starch.

flowering

cm

sessile.

long,

Flowers

mm
cm

yellow,

wide,
l

only

carried

peduncles,

thin

4-petalled.

on

long

arising

from

singly

axils. Appearing from early summer

autumn.
Distribution Native to Europe. West Asia and

stem-leaf

Tannins; choline;

(dried

altitude.

'

embankments,

an alcohol, tormentol
Uses

ovate,
leaflets.

roadsides, railway

-2

narrow
and long stalked. 3-lobed. broadh
basal leaves, with v mrn long

nitrogen-rich, loamy, undisturbed

pastureland to 1500
Cultivation Wild.
Constituents

usually erect, thin, branched, bearing

5-lobed stem leaves, with

leaflets

European

Distribution

1,

plant,

dried

leaves,

to early

Siberia; rarer in the mediterranean region.

damp

On

occasionally root-stock) Astringent: antispas-

light,

modic; tonic; stomachic.

land, fenland, open deciduous and coniferous

woodland, and often in hilly regions. To 2200

Used

in the

treatment of diarrhoea, painful

acidic,

menstruation weak action and as a digestive

aid in indigestion. Formerly used to treat

various haemorrhages including those arising

Constituents

from haemorrhoids;

as a

douche

in

leucorr-

hoea, and for uterine spasms. Externally

it

may

soils,

particularly heath-

altitude.

Wild plant.

Cultivation

on

storage

Calcchol-iannins to 20%
which
convert to phlobaphcncs: an
.

alcohol, tormentol; a glycoside, tormentillinc

be applied to cuts and wounds, and it is of

use as a gargle in mouth complaints such as
ulcers. Employed homeopathically. The roots

quinovic acid also found in Cinchona bark.

Uses dried root-stock Astringent haemostat-

may

ic;

be roasted, boiled or eaten raw.

rosaceae
Tormentil
The red colouring matter found in the rootstock of this herb appears to be identical with a
Potentilla erecta (L) Raiisch.

Tormentilla

substance

Common

known

as ratanhia-red present in

sugars;

starch:

bitter,

chinovic

acid

or

'

anti-inflammatory; vulnerary.
A powerful remedy in severe diarrhoea, largely due to its high tannin content. Principally
used to much benefit externally as an infusion

on

cuts,

wounds, abrasions and burns, includThe plant promotes epitheliz-

ing sunburn.
ation.

It

is

also used as a lotion for topical

Sanguisorba means either blood-ball or blood

stopping after both the appearance and action
of the inflorescence and whole plant.

on woody root-stock
forming a clump of branching
grooved stems bearing leaves subdivided into
serrate lobes, oblong or orbicular.
7
Flowers greenish or reddish brow n. small, in a
dense rounded terminal panicle to 15
diameter; appearing early to mid-summer.
Distribution Native to Europe and Asia: introduced and sometimes naturalized elsewhere.
On dryish porous calcareous grassland, woodland edges, roadsides, in warm situations to
Perennial

Description

20-70 cm
1

tall,

mm

700

altitude.

Wild. Cultivated as a salad herb

Cultivation

from seed sown

Remove

the root-bark of Krameria triandra Ruiz and Pav.

applications to haemorrhoids, frostbite, and as

Peruvian Rhatany, an astringent plant

which was introduced to Europe in 796 by
Hipolito Ruiz and which has now largely replaced Tormentilla in several official prepar-

a gargle in throat

the flowers to encourage production of leaf.

The powdered

Suitable as an edging plant in formal herb

or

and mouth inflammations.

root-stock is an excellent

root

extract

is

used in certain forms of

The roots provide a red

Once used in tanning.

dye.

A powerful astringent; must

be used internally with care. Prolonged contact with the skin should be avoided, as it may
cause scarring.
L rosaceae
Salad Burnet Garden Burnet
Poterium sanguisorba

has been cultivated as a salad herb at least

since Lyte recorded

-'

{)
\

Vitamin C;

essential oil; tannins;

was

also

it

(whole fresh or dried plant, fresh

i'ses

dried

rarely

Contra-indications

1578. but

Constituents

flavones; a saponoside.

schnapps.

It

spring or autumn.

garden designs.

styptic.

in

in Dodoens' Herball of

known

root-stock

leaf;

Astringent;

vulnerary; haemostatic; carminative; digestive.

Chewing

the leaf assists digestion,

w hile

in-

whole plant are of use in treating

haemorrhoids or diarrhoea. The root decoction is an excellent haemostatic and can be
used on all cuts and wounds. Traditionallv
considered of benefit in the menopause, but
fusions of the

this

is

unsubstantiated.

as Sanguisorba minor

from the time of Fuchs

The Great
154.2
Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis L) was preferred
as the official medicinal plant, probably
because it is larger; both species, however,

Primula veris L primulaceae

Cowslip Paigle
The Cowslip obtained its name by

possess similar properties.

signifying

corruption

from the old English cu-sloppt.

occurrence in meadows freits

of 'cow slop'

POT PR L
quented by domesticated animals. Changing
agricultural practices, however, have led to its
rapid disappearance in parts of Europe, and
attempts to cultivate it on a commercial scale
in eastern Europe have proved uneconomic.
Tradition maintains that the Cowslip arose
from the ground where St Peter dropped his
keys, hence the English, French and German
common names, Keys of Heaven, Clef de St

and

Pierre

Primula
after

is

Schliisselblumen.

The

generic

from the Latin primus meaning

first

on short,
rhizome surrounded by leaf bases and
producing long thin rootlets. Leaves obtuse,
ovate-oblong, finely hairy and crenate, 5-20
cm long, narrowing at the base into a winged
petiole, equally long as the leaf blade. 1-30
Description Soft-pubescent perennial

stout

deep yellow flowers marked with orange.

10-15 mm diameter, on a nodding umbel
surmounting a 10-30 cm long stalk (scape).
Appearing late spring to late summer.
Distribution Native to northern and central
Europe, Iran. Introduced and sometimes
naturalized elsewhere. On porous calcareous
mixed or
soils in meadows and pastures,
deciduous woodland; preferably in warm
dryish situations. To 2000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. May be propagated from seed
sown as soon as ripe, or by division of rootstock in autumn. The Oxlip P. elatior (L) Hill
is frequently mistaken for the Cowslip but may
be distinguished by its lack of orange marking
and its possession of a seed capsule longer than
P.

wmvar. Kleynii
darker

has

it

Hort.

yellow

found in cultivation
to salmon coloured

is

flowers.

Vitamin C; saponins to m
Savonoid pigments; a volatile oil, primula
camphor: the heterosiclcs primulaveroside and
prim veroside enzymes; mineral salts.
Uses (dried root-stock, dried Mowers and
;

calices, occasionally dried

antispasmodic;

weak

leaves

Expector-

diuretic;

Primula vulgaris Huds. primulaceae

Primrose
The Primrose is so popular
now almost extinct close to

weak

to

be a

drinks, conserves, cos-

and subtle smell. They are to the north

Europeans the epitome of spring, and are well
named since the word Primrose comes from
the Latin prima rosa, meaning the first rose (of

flowers are used as a weakly sedative tea

as for Primula

veris.

The genus

Primula comprises more than 400

which hybridize readily and are an

important horticultural group. This species,
for example, hybridizes with P. veris L to
produce the so-called Common Oxlip.
Description Perennial on short thick root-stock
Leaves wrinkled, blunt, obovate-spatulate,
hairy beneath, glabrous above, crenulate,
species

8-20 cm
than

long,

the

Prunella vulgaris

L labiatae

Self Heal Heal-all/Woundwort

A common weed throughout America and
from western Europe to China. Its easy availability led no doubt to its commonest use in
stemming blood flow resulting from domestic
accidents and fights; hence the common names
Carpenter's Herb, Touch and Heal, Sicklewort, Hercules Woundwort, and the plant's
historical pre-eminence as a vulnerary herb.
It has other uses: the Chinese, for example,
discovered its antipyretic and diuretic actions
and still use it in gout in conjunction with other
remedies.

Sixteenth-century adherents of the Doctrine of

Signatures saw the throat in the shape of the
flower and introduced

the year).

narrowed

into a petiole shorter

Flowers

leaf blade.

occasionally purplish,

pale

yellow,

34 cm wide, solitary on
cm

long.

summer.
European native.

it

to treat diseases of the

and diphtheria. Hence its

modern generic name Prunella which is
derived via Brunella and Braunella from the
throat such as quinsy

German

for

quinsy (Die

Braiine).

and Gemeine

called Brunelle commune

It

is

still

Brunelle in

France and Germany respectively.

Description Aromatic perennial with creeping
rhizome on square erect or decumbent stems
to 60 cm. Leaves either entire or toothed,
opposite

petiolate,

ovate, 3-7.5

cm

and

decussate,

oblong-

long. Flowers violet-purple

Appearing

early spring to early

Distribution
in

On

rich,

damp

shady woodland, hedgerows, grass-

land.

Wild plant. Propagate by division

on heavy or medium loam in semi-shade or

Cultivation

sun.
Constituents

Uses

Saponins; volatile

dried root-stock,

oil.

fresh flowering plant

Expectorant; antispasmodic; diuretic; anodI

pneumonia and traditionally thought

remedy for palsy and paralysis.

it is

large

metics or just for their attractive appearance

inflammatory conditions of the

respiratory tract, bronchitis and coughs; li <quently used in the form of a syrup. ( )ik e used

The

home-made

base for

Of

benefit in

in spring that

urban areas.
It has in fact always been heavily cropped by
man, not so much as a medicine but rather as a

laxative.

to treat

by a violent
and forearms.

sensitivity, characterized

Allergic individuals should avoid the plants.

soils

Constituents

ant;

primula

vesicular eruption on the fingers

pubescent pedicels to 20

the calyx.

Flowers may be candied, used in salads and in

Primrose tea.
Leaves once boiled as greens.
Contra-indications The same precautions apply

particular form of contact dermatitis called

name

early flowering in the spring.

its

manufacture of home-made wines,

and are candied and used as cake decorations.
Contra-indications Some members of the Primulaceae, but particularly Primula obconica Hance,
possess the quinone, primin, which causes a

also in the

in
si il

.is

.in

expectorant

respiratory infections.

in

bronchitis and other

The

tisane

may

be of

and
Formerly used in rheumatic disorders and in ointments lot '.km wounds and
benefit

as

mild sedative

in

anxiety

insomnia.

blemishes.

mm long, borne in
on compact spikes to 4 cm long.
Appearing mid-summer to mid-autumn.
Distribution Native to Europe, Asia and North
America; introduced elsewhere. On moist,
loamy, well-drained soils in grassland, pastures, open woodland; preferably in sunny

(occasionally pink) 8 5
1

leaf axils

situations.
Cultivation

Wild. Propagate from stem cuttings

summer and rooted in a peat

and sand mix; or by division of clumps. The
|)ink flowered form is sometimes called /'.
taken

in

spring or

vulgaris vat. rubrifolia

variety

may

be

Beckhaus., while a white

found

as

/'.

vulgaris

var.

leucantha s< hur.

Constituents

bitter

prim

Tannins;
iples;

volatile oil;

unknown

an alkaloid;

substances.

247

PRU-PYR
(dried flowering plant)

i'ses

Vulnerary;

as-

tringent; antiseptic; carminative.

vides the

Commonly

used as a mouthwash, gargle and

wash in the treatment of sore throats,
irritation and inflammation of the mouth,
ulcers, cuts, burns, wounds and bruises. Once
external

considered a specific against diphtheria. Rarelv

used internally and then only in cases of mild

diarrhoea or flatulence.

acts

It

(Lj Schiibl. and Martens proHeart Cherries, and P. avium var.

duracina (L) Schiibl. and Martens the Bigarreau Cherries, of which the best known are
Napoleon and Windsor.
Constituents (fruit stalks) Tannic acid; potassium salts; flavonoids. (fruit) Organic acids;
provitamin A; tannins.
var. Juliam

weak

as

bitter tonic.

Uses

dried fruit stalks

(fruit,

Strong infusions of the dried powdered herb

Many

are effective styptics.

used

parts of the tree have traditionally been

for

commercially,

the cultivated Cherry varieties but, unusually

diarrhoea.

European

tree

is,

Sweet Cherry
described in
It

fruits,

they are quite sweet.

therefore, understandably called

in the

its

United States yet rarely

so

for use in

medicine as a

folk

diuretic.

They

have some

also

The

fruit

effect

used domestically

is

cases of mild

in

for

home-made
manu-

conserves and commercially in liqueur

facture

kirsch

The wood

native home.

purposes.

the dried fruit stalks are available

Prunus avium L rosaceae

Wild Cherry Common Wild Cherry/Gean
Th fruit of P. avium are smaller than those of

The

of medicinal

variety

Today only

for wild

Diuretic; as-

tringent.

sun

a valuable timber.

is

has doubtless long been of domestic importstones have been disco ered in

ance since

its

Neolithic

remains.

This

species

has

also

provided the stock for the table Cherry while

the Morello or So-ir Cherry comes from P.
cerasus L. Prunus is an ancient name for the
plum, while avium is the Latin for bird, which
readily eat the fruit. The word cherry can be
traced back to an Assyrian base karsu] the

Greek name for it was kerasos.

Deciduous tree 10-20

m tall; bark
smooth, reddish, peeling off transversely in
strips; branches ascending bearing dark green,
denta.'-, alternate somewhat variably shaped
leaves, 10-15 cm on ' Dut usually oblongovate to oblong-obovate, and pubescent beneath Flowers white, 5-petalled, 3 cm wide, on
long glabrous pedicels to 4 cm; appearing late
Description

'

spring to earlv

summer

with the

leaves,

first

and followed by globular or cordate fruit

which are first yellow, then red and finally
purple.
to

land.
Cultivation

Wild - the

species from

cultivated Cherry was developed.

which the

It is

used for

grafting purposes in fruit-tree nurseries.

Many

different

ornamental forms

flowers,

variegated leaves,

weeping growth

The

variety P. avium

attractive foiiage.

exist

with double-

Mill.)

Webb rosaceae

D.A.

been

tree has

in cultivation in

Asia for thousands of years and

mentioned in
Europe by tin

is

was introduced to
of more than 10 kinds oi the
seed which was then known as amugdale, and
from which the Latin term amygdala was
derived. The Romans called them .\
graecct o- Greek Nuts, and they have been
Genesis.
(

ir.eks

It

who knew

from a very early date.

They do not seem to have been grown in
France until the eighth century and were not
cultivated

grown

:i

Italy

north-wesl

in

Micldlc Ages;

England

the

Europe
tree

first

until

the

late

was planted

in

in the early sixteenth century. Eliza-

bethan cooking, however, used large quantities

set I, and "Almond water' was frequently

of the
c

allcf

or

and used much

certain recipes.

The

as

we now

use milk in

botanical classification of

is
complicated and very many
names will be found: Prunus amygdalus
Batsch. and Amygdalus communis L are the
commonest, but have low been superseded.
Description Bush or tree from 3-7 m tall, with
glabrous light-coloured branches, and narrow,

plant

different

glabrous finely dentate, acuminate, oblonglanceolate leaves 7.5-10 cm long, with gland-

bearing petiole. Flowers pink or white, usually

solitary, 3-4 cm wide, sessile, appearing mid to
late spring either with or efore the first leaves:
followed by oblong-ovoid light green pubesI

4 cm long containing 2 seeds.

Native to southern and central
Asia, especially Persia. Introduced to southEurope 2500 years ago: now wio-spiead and
cent

Di

fruit, to

'ribuii^n

altitude.
To 3000
Wild. Widely cultivated, and is the

frequently naturalized.
Cultivation

which many varieties

have been developed. The Bitter Almond is P.
dulcis var. amara (DC) Buckheim formerly P.
amygdalus var. amara (DC) Focke), and the
Sweet / Imond is P. dulcis var. dulcis (DC)
original species from

Buckheim formerly P.
(T.C. Ludw.) Focke). Other

amygdalus var. sativa

varieties

cultigens provide fruit of different shapes

sizes.

The

tree

is

somewhat

frost sensitive

should be planted on well-drained

248

position.

(seed)

fatty oil

65%

mide

The Almond

warm
to

Protein

and
and
and

soil in full

mineral

contains up to
dalin
I

(to

20",,

edible

enzymes, mainly emulsin;

B 6 E and PP nicotinaBitter almond seed

of a toxic glycoside, amyg-

vitamins A, B,, B 2 Ji

Almond

the

Native

Europe, western Asia;

introduced elsewhere. In deciduous woodDistribution

and

Prunus dulcis

in a

Constituents

salts.

4%

oil,

res

seed

Demulcent:

fying agent. Sweet

Almond

nutritive; emulsi-

is predominantprepare emulsions in which other

herbal remedies may be suspended, particularly for cough mixtures. The sweet oil is used

ly

used

oil

to

externally in massage

oils

and internally
was once used

laxative. Bitter

Almond

flavouring

pharmaceutical

in

oil

as a

as a

preparations

and externally in demulcent skin and sunburn

lotions, and is now used in the perfumery,
liqueur and confectionery industries. Almond
flour was formerly used in diabetic foodstuffs.
Both

oils

toilet

preparations.

The

seed

are widely used in cosmetic ai.d

is

used

in

many

sweet and savoury

dishes.
Conlra-indications

The raw

Bitter

contains cvanide derivatives and

Almond
is

seed

POISON-

OUS.
L rosaceae
Cherry Laurel Cherry Bay/

Prunus laurocerasus

Common

Cherry Laurel

is
now most commonly
found as an ornamental hedge, and has never
been of great importance medically although
some Spanish and Swiss physicians once
promoted it as a sedative. In Britain it was
noticed first by Madden in Dublin
1731
following fatal poisoning by Irish cooks who
mistakenly thought it could be used as a
Bitter Almond flavouring. Its action is due to
the presence of cyanide derivatives, which may
be fatal even in small quantities.
The plant was introduced to European botany
by Pierre Belon and Clusius between 1550 and

The Cherry Laurel

1580.
Description

Variable evergreen bush or small

tree usually

3-4

(occasionally 6

tall.

Leaves shiny, dark green, oblong, alternate,

obtuse or occasionally retuse. short-petioled,
7.5-12.5 cm long. Flowers strongly scented,
white, in slender racemes to 10 cm long,
appearing late spring to early summer and

PRU-PYR
is

replaced by a rosette of basal, long-petioled.

auriculate-cordate leaves.

Native to Europe; introduced elsewell-drained calcareous soils in

mixed woodland and thickets; to 1000 m

Distribution

On

where.

Mucilage; tannins; mineral salts,

potassium and silica; saponins;

very short petiole.

Flowers orange-red, waxy, 4-5 cm long and
wide, followed by large brownish-red or
yellowish edible fruit (4-8 cm diameter)
containing numerous seeds and soft pink pulp.

dried flowering plant! astringent; diure-

particularly
Asia,
Distribution
Native
to
Afghanistan, Persia and the Himalayas. Natur-

altitude.
Cultivation

Wild. Propagate by rootstock divis-

autumn

ion in

Constituents

especially

or after flowering.

allantoin.

Uses
tic;

Deciduous tree or shrub to 6 m tall,

with spiny tipped branches; leaves opposite,
sub-opposite or clustered, glabrous, entire,
oblong or oval-lanceolate with pellucid areas,
2.5-6.0 cm long, narrowing at the base to a

Description

weak expectorant. Of use

emollient;

in the

treatment of diarrhoea, haemorroids and some

gastro-intestinal problems; also of some benefit
in respiratory disorders such as bronchial
catarrh.

the mediterranean region, India,

South America, southern United States, and

alized in

parts of south

and

horticulturally.

Leaves once used

Both

mm

Native to south-east Europe, and

western Asia to Iran. Introduced and often
naturalized elsewhere. Frequently in valleys in

mintic action
in areas

greenhouse ornamentals.
Yellow bitter colouring

as

methylisopelletierine,

Wild. Introduced as an ornamental

summers nor

a dwarf
grown in

and
which the antihel-

tierine, pseudopelletierine, isopelletierine

hilly regions.

bush and successfully grown

are

matter; gallotannic acid (to 30%). (root bark)

Alkaloids ^o o.o,
), comprising mainly pelle-

long.

neither the

(Pers.")

Constituents (fruit rind)

Distribution

Cultivation

and

this species

form. P. granatum var. nana

as a pot herb.

temperate zones
followed by dark purple conical fruit to 15

east Africa.

Wild. Cultivated commercially and

Cultivation

where

triterpenes.

the winters are too

due; also tannins

is

Ursolic

(leaf)

and

betulic

citric

20

(to

acids;

).

various

(1020%

Invert sugar

(fruit)

(510%);

glucose

to

(0.5-3. 5%);

acid

extreme. Frequently used in hedging, when it

should be pruned carefully with secateurs
rather than generally clipped. May be propagated by cuttings taken in summer.
Constituents The glycosides prulaurasin lauro-

and prunasin, which are decomposed

cerasin

water by the enzyme prunasr to release

hydrogen cyanide, benzaldehyde and glucose.
Cherry Laurel water is manufactured from the
in

by

lea\ es

distillation.

Uses (Cherry Laurel water, very occasionally

leaves] Sedative; antispasmodic.

The water was once used

in the treatment of
nausea and vomiting, as a flavouring agent,
and, much diluted, as an eye lotion. It is now
obsolete in most countries. The leaves can only
be applied externally in small quantities in
mixed poultice for the temporary relief ol pain.
.1

Contra-mdicatiom Very

POISONOUS. To

used

under medical luper-

internally

only

be
Punica granatum

L pinicaceae

boric acid; vitamin C.

vision.

Pomegranate

fresh

Pulmonaria

Pomegranates are mentioned in nianv ane ient

writings and have been depicted in various
forms of illustration from the days of the
Egyptians.
Both the fruit rind and root bark were used

astringent which

Lungwort

boraoinai \i
Jerusalem Cowslip Jerusalem

Sage
This herbs

common names

officinalis I.

variously icier to

white spots on its leaves, the hange in its

flower colour from pink to blue. 01 more
frequently to its former application in lung
tin

<

Hence

diseases.

which
of

is

the generic

derh ed from

pulmonaria, and, by

its

name

Pulmonaria

medieval Latin name

Lungwort.

translation,

Lungwort's reputation tar exceeded its therapeutic a< tion. however.

Description Hairy perennial on creeping roottock, reaching 30 cm tall; items hairy and
unbran< hed bearing lew, alternate, sessile,
white-spotted, oval and slightly pointed leaves
to 7

-,

in

long. Flowers blur-, pink, purplish 01

white, primrose-like, to 3

vmes; appearing spring

Flowering stem Hies flown

cm
to

long

in

in late

terminal

summer.
lumma and

early

medicinally by the ancients, and Pliny and

Dioscoricles

mentioned the

specifically

root

decoction as being effective in the destruction

of tapeworms. Yet, although various parts of
such as the fruit rind
the plant
can be
traced

in the

writings of the apothecaries and

druggists, the valuable root bark apparently

fell

2000 years

into disuse for

teenth century. In
tions of

its use-

in

until the nine-

1807 Buchanan and then

Fleming reintroduced

The

it

India.

many

seeds.

fresh

leaf,

fruit)

mintic; antibacterial.

Astringent;

The

rind

is

antihel-

a powerful

is used in decoction in the

treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea, and as
an infusion for colitis or stomach ache. Also

used as a douche in leucorrhoea. The bark is

removal of tapeworms (more

effective in the

when fresh
emmenagogue.

effective

In

leaf

The
fruit

and has been used

has antibacterial

applied externally
cial

an

as

properties and

is

to sores.

fruit is bitter and refreshing; of commerimportance both as the whole fruit and in

drinks.

following observa-

word Punica is derived from tinLatin malum pumcum meaning the apple cil
11 thage, which is one of its early names while
poma granata (and hence pomegranate means
generic

apples with

(dried fruit rind, fresh or dried root bark,

/ 'ses

MJ. Roem. ROSACEAE

Firethorn Everlasting Thorn
Although closely related to the genus Crataegus some ol whose species provide valuable
heart remedies, the Firethorn is now employed
Pyracantha coccinea

only as

,111

ornamental. Pyracantha

is

from the

'H

QUE-RHA
Description

Round-topped deciduous

tree to 40
smooth, later developing
fissures; leaves 5-12.5 cm long, oblong-ovate
with 3-7 lobes each side, petiole short (to
cm). Small, greenish-yellow staminate flowers

bark

tall;

first

in thin catkins; pistillate flowers in spikes in

leaf axils;

appearing

late

spring

summer, and followed by ovoid

to

early

or oblong fruit

on peduncles 3-7.5 cm long.

Distribution Native to North Africa, Europe and
western Asia; introduced elsewhere. In forests,
mixed woodland, on clay soils; from lowlands

mountainous regions.
Wild plant. Planted commerciallv
on estates and forestry land for timber. The
variety Q. robur var. Jastigiata DC has a more
columnar appearance while the Durmast or
to

Cultivation

Sessile

Oak

(Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebleinj has a

spreading and

less

less

branched growth, and

sessile fruit.

Several forms of Q. petraea exist.

Constituents

Tannins

(to

20",,

glycoside,

(dried bark, occasionally dried leaves

/ 'ses

fruit)

and

Astringent: anti-inflammatory; antisep-

tic.

Used

as a

dout he
to

Greek

for fire

and thorn

alter the red fruit

gargle for throat disorders: as a

leucorrhoea; externally as a lotion

cuts, burns, abrasions, and for application

for

in

Much branched

The

Latin ranunculus means a

was given

name

frog

little

since

many

with

hollow,

and

it

of the 250
species in the group are aquatic or are found in
this

very wet habitats.

Perennial

Description

erect

or

prostrate branched stem, on several clavate or

root-tubers; 5 25 cm tall. Leaves

cordate, occasionally toothed, glabrous, petio-

haemorrhoids.

fusiform

and

and sheathed

late

at the base, glossy;

cm

long, the stem leaves being smallest. Flowers

shiny branches.
Description

should be handled with care and only used

externally.

quercitrin.

evergreen shrub or

yellow,

23

cm diameter with 8-12 petals,

appearing mid to late spring on long

small tree to 5 m. Leaves dark green, acute,

crenate-serrate, narrow-elliptic, .5 cm 5 cm

solitary,

long. Small, white flowers in large corymbs,

appearing early summer and followed by red

or orange berries which last through the

Distribution Native to Europe. North Africa

and western Asia. On rich nitrogenous soils in
u el situations in woodland, meadows, ditches.

winter.

Prefers shade.

peduncles.

from south Europe to

Escaped and naturalized in
North America and elsewhere.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated as ornamental or
wall shrub, often espaliered. Hardy on welldrained soils. Propagate by ripe wood cuttings
under glass, by seed, or by layering. Prune
back hard to promote branching. Dislikes
Native

Distribution

western

Cultivation

damp

Uses

No

the fruit

Of

use as a winter ornamental for hedges or

L fagaceae

Oak English Oak/Pedunculate Oak

No plant has been of greater symbolic,
and magical importance in Europe
than the Oak tree, and its esteem has been
traced back to the earliest Indo-Germanic
religions. No other plant has provided more in
the construction of buildings, ships, weapons
and fine furniture. Oak's strength and durability were unequalled, and as a result the vast
Oak forests of Europe have been virtually
destroyed. Although its bark provides an
excellent astringent medicinal remedy, only
herbalists used it to much extent, the apothereligious

and others preferring more

costly drugs.

250

deep,

in

Vitamin C: anthemol; tannins.

herb,

fresh

The

occasionally

plant

is

dried

herb

specifically used in the

preparation of ointments

for external

appli-

cation to haemorrhoids.

The

walls.

caries

from root-

cm

acrid

and vesicant

juices from the sliced

tubers were once applied to warts.

purgative but toxic.

Quercus robur

Astringent.

Cyanogenic glycosides.

longer used for medicinal purposes;

is

plant. Propagate

rich soils.

Constituents

transplanting.
Constituents

Wild

tubers planted in the autumn, 5

Asia.

exotic

and

Used internally for haemorrhoids, diarrhoea

and enteritis. Once used as a tonic tea.
Roasted acorns have been used

as a coffee

Very young leaves were once eaten

POISONOUS

Contra-indications

substitute.

state; not to be used internally.

Valuable timber.
Bark was once the most important agent for
tanning leather; and also provided a variety of
dyes, the colour depending upon the mordant

bruised plant

Raphanus

may

sativus

The

L cruciferae

well-known

fig-like

certain, but

where many

shape of the swollen root-tubers of

plant led to the specific epithet ficaria from

ficus or fig. Earlier herbalists considered the
same structure to resemble piles and by
this

association they were used, with

in the

much

success,

treatment of haemorrhoids.

Members

of the genus Ranunculus are not

popular in folk medicine because of their
poisonous and acrid nature, and all species

the fresh

cause skin irritation.

salad

herb

cultivation for so long that

Ranunculus fie aria L ranunculaceae

Lesser Celandine Pilewort

in

Handling the

Radish
This

used.

prevent

to

scurvy.

it

been

has

its

origin

probably originated

in

is

in

un-

China

varieties exist today including a

long-rooted, winter-harvested Chinese Radish,

or

Daikon

Japanese name

which

is

some-

times cultivated in the West.

Some

authorities believe that R. sativus [sativus

means cultivated) is a cultivated variety of the

Wild Radish or Wild Charlock R. raphanistrum
L), a widespread and troublesome weed.
Radishes have certainly been grown since the
time of the Pharaohs, and the Greeks and

QUE-RHA
Romans knew
radix

several varieties including the

or round Radish

syriacan

(the

common

and

Rhamnus

long Radish

catharticus

L rhamnaceae

Uses (2 year old bark, fruit) Purgative diuretic.

;

Buckthorn

the radicula or

So

Only employed

common

a plant with so drastic an effect as

powerful purgative has doubtless been
used for a very long time. The Anglo-Saxons
certainly recorded it in the ninth century,
when it was known as Waythorn or Harts-

the latter

meaning simply root and being the source of

the common name, Radish.
The black Radishes which are the varieties
now employed in homeopathic medicine were
probably developed in Spain in the Middle

this

while

thorn,

the

thirteenth-century

Myddvai used

Contra-indications

boiled

be taken with great care.

physicians of

Annual or biennial on fleshy root of

shape and colour; stem glaucous
60-90 cm bearing lyrate-divided, petiolate
leaves with a large terminal segment. Flowers
dark-violet, white-veined, in racemes appearing summer and followed by 3-7 cm long fruit

with honey. Three hundred years later Gerard

was to recommend boiling them with broth;

Description

variable

(a silique).

Distribution

Worldwide on most

Cultivation Cultivated plant:

escape.

Many

soil types.

found wild

cultigens exist,

all

as

an

of which are

sown thinly on moist, friable

an open position. Time of sowing
depends on variety; but usually best sown
raised from seed

soils

in

Constituents

An

they are rarely taken alone, and even

antibiotic glycoside, glucora-

phenine; mineral salts; vitamin C; oxalic acid.

seeds contain linoleic and linolenic acids.

called

fresh root, fresh leaves, root juice, fresh

young seed pods

Antibiotic: bechic; tonic;

carminative; choleretic; nutritive.

Of benefit in the relief of dyspepsia and used

to

Formerly employed in the

treatment of coughs and bronchitis. May be
used in combination with other remedies in the
treatment of liver conditions especially where

promote

salivation.

bile secretion

is

inadequate. Also used homeo-

pathically.

The root and young leaves are eaten aa salad

t). and the young seed pods ma)
l><
pi< Ided.
.1

lui

it

Spina

cervina;

Cordus.

Cervi

spina:

and Caeselpinus,
Dodoens knew it as Rhamnus

Matthiolus, Spinus
cervatis.

infectoria:

solutivus.

The

The

L'ses

when

Syrup of Buckthorn was first included in the

London Pharmacopoeia in 1650 (it had
appeared almost a century earlier in the
German pharmacopoeias) it was mixed with
Nutmeg, Cinnamon. Aniseed and Mastich
fthe latter a gum from Pistacia lentiscus L
The characteristic spine on the branches has
led to most of its names: Crescenzi and Gesner

Spina

every three weeks.

fruit

plant

is

purposes, but

dyes.

Welsh

Ages.

its

treatment of chronic
constipation; usually in association with other
remedies. Juice from the fruit was once used in
veterinary medicine as a laxative.
The fruit and bark can be used as sources of
in the

now rarely used for medicinal

home dyers still employ the bark

golden-brown dyestuflT.
Description Deciduous bushy shrub from 24 111
tall, occasionally to 6 m. Branches spreading
irregularly, and often tipped with a spine bark
reddish-brown and glossy. Leaves opposite,
acute or obtuse, margins finely dentate, ovate,
3-6 cm long, 2 -5 cm wide. Flowers small,
as a

Do

Strong purgative action;

to

not use fresh bark.

DC rhamnaceae
Cascara Sagrada Sacred Bark
Rhamnus purshiana
Cascara sagrada

name

the

first

Mexicans who

means sacred bark and

this

was

given to the tree by Spanishnoted the American Indian use

of the bark as a laxative and tonic.

The

tree was mentioned in the eighteenthcentury American materia medicas but first
described botanically in 18 14 by Pursh - hence
the plants specific name. Use of the bark in
conventional medicine began in 1877 and a
year later a nauseous and bitter fluid extract
for use in chronic constipation was available
pharmaceutically. This extract was exported

Europe and it was not until 1883 that the

bark itself was made available outside the
United States of America. It has been conclusivelv demonstrated that the crude bark is
to

greenish-yellow, usually unisexual, in delicate

clusters in leaf axils,

appearing

late

spring to

mid-summer, and followed by 7.5 mm diameter

globose, fleshy, black fruit drupe
Native to north-west Europe,
northern Asia, eastern North America. Wide-

Distribution

spread in scrub, woodland, forests, on calcareous soils to 1200 in altitude.

Cultivation

Wild.

Planted

hedging. Cuttings taken

in

on

farmland

summei

as

are easily

I'm >ted.

Vitamin C: Erangula-emodin;sheschrysophanol; rhamnosterin; rhamnioaide; rhamnicogenol a Buoresi ent pigment,

Constituents

terine;
1

rhamnoMuoi

in

other yellow pigments.

\er\

much more

effective as a purgative than

an) commercial preparation

bark; the

official

example only

fol

bark

is

made from

the

dried and liquid extracts are

15 per cent as active.

retained in

many

national

The

pharma-

copoeias.
Description

Deciduous

m. Bark dark
Leaves in tufts at

tree to to

grey, smoothly wrinkled.

branchlet tips; 5-15 cm long, elliptic to ovateoblong, either rounded or acute. Flowers in
umbels, stalked, appearing spring and followed by black, globose fruit of 7.5
diameter.

mm

North American native from British Columbia to Washington state. In coniferous woodland, on mountain ridges and canyon
Distribution

walls.

Wild plant.
Anthraquinone glycosides 6 9%
comprising cascara ides A, B, C and I) and
Cultivation

Constituents

Othei glucosides, to whi

{

dried item li.uk.

li

al

the action
leas)

is

monf

due.
hs old

Ar)'

RHE-ROS
Purgative; bitter stomachic.

May

be used in

small doses as an appetite stimulant. In large

doses it acts as a laxative or a mild purgative.

chronic constipation. In small doses it may be

used to treat diarrhoea, gastro-intestinal cat-

and

arrh,

to stimulate the appetite.

Sometimes the tincture is applied to childrens"

fingernails to deter them from biting their

Added

nails.

with renal or urinary calculi.

to tonic

wines as a

Contra-indications

Not

to

Added

wines as a bitter.
Not to be used by individuals
with renal or urinary calculi.

bitter.

be used by individuals

Ribes nigrum

officinale Baill.

polygonaceae

Rhubarb
This
for

is

not the garden species

commonly grown

edible leaf stalks, that one being R.

its

rhabarbarum

The garden Rhubarb was

L.

western Europe in 1608 and was

first cultivated at Padua botanic gardens by
Prosper Alpinus; it was widely grown by the
end of the eighteenth century, but the root has

introduced

to

never been used owing to a substance (the

glycoside, rhaponticini which exerts a hor-

on humans.
officinale, however, is one of two main
species, the dried rhizomes of which have been
important medicinally in China since around
2700 B.C. Both have been imported into

monal
Rheum

effect

since the time of the early Greeks.

Dioscorides described the drug as rheon or rfia,

Europe

hence the modern names. Because the main

centre for trading in the drug has changed over
the centuries, both this and other species have
been variously described as Turkey, East
Indian and Muscovitic rhubarbs. The plant
was introduced to Europe in 1867 and limited
cultivation led to further names such as
English,

German,

Bucharest,

Dutch

and

French rhubarbs.

Rheum palmatum L polygonaceae

Rhubarb Chinghai Rhubarb
R. palmatum and some varieties such as R.
palmatum var. tanguticum (L, Maxim., and R.
palmatum var. palmatum (L Maxim., are now.
and possibly always were, the main sources of
medicinal Rhubarb.
R. palmatum was introduced to European
gardens in 1763, earlier than R. officinale Baill..
and like that species was cultivated commercially. It is still cultivated in Russia and

Germany, but

the Chinese product

is

superior.

In the Chinese herbal Pen-King 2700 b.c.

the drug was called Ta-huang, meaning the
great yellow, after

and

its

colour and reputation,

name was retained

traders who collected it
this

for

2000 years by

the
in Tibet and the
province of Kansu. R. palmatum is now called
Chinghai or high-dried Rhubarb.

on thick rhizome, reach-

Description Perennial

ing 2

cordate

Large leaves

in

orbicular

base,

Flowers

lobed.
small,

tall.

at

reddish

numerous,

to

clusters

in

basal clumps,

and

palmately

greenish-white,

on

tall,

stout,

hollow, finely grooved stem. Appearing mid to

late

summer.

Distribution

to

north-east

Asia.

On

on thick rhizome, reachm wide, roundto

elliptic, basal, 3-7 lobed. Flowers white small.
numerous, in panicles on tall, stout, hollow,
finely grooved stem. Appearing mid to late
Description Perennial

ing 3

Leaves

tall.

well-known

fruit

formerly collected from the

wild in northern Europe and now extensively

cultivated commercially and horticulturally.

Although

it

was once used

throat infections

it is

now

in folk

Ribes

is

an old Arabic name and the

means

epithet nigrum

colour of the wild

fruit.

Today

Description

Aromatic perennial shrub

Mild purgative; astring-

employed alone
remedies

in

or in combination

the

treatment

of

deep, rich, moist

soils

at altitudes of

3000-

4000 m.
Wild. Cultivated commercially in
China, Russia, Germany and Central Europe.
Requires moist, deep, well-manured soil:
propagated from root division and root cuttCultivation

from seed. Occasionally grown as

garden ornamental.
Constituents Tannins: anthraquinone derivatings, rarely

ives

of aloe-emodin,

and rhein
Uses

chrysophanol. emodin

to 10'

dried rhizome

Mild purgative: astring-

ent: bitter.

Principally

employed alone or

in

combination

with other remedies in the treatment of

chronic constipation. In small doses it mav be
used to treat diarrhoea, gastro-intestinal catarrh,

252

m,

long-petiolate. alternate or clustered leaves.

Flowers 4-10, greenish-white in pendulous

racemes in leaf axils. Appearing late spring to
early summer and followed by spherical, soft
berries.

and central Europe,

and west Asia. Introduced and naturalized in
North America. On moist, loamy, slightly
acidic soils in woodland.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated commercially and
Description Native to north

horticulturally for fruit. Several cultivars exist.

Propagation by cuttings taken

cool,

humid climate and

in

autumn.

clay

soils

provided they are well drained. Constant

pruning is essential to good cropping.
Constituents Anthocyanin pigments: vitamin C:
pectin: sugars: various organic acids: essenUses

ent; bitter.

other

to 2

lacking spines and bearing 5-lobed. rounded,

fresh or dried

leaves,

The

with

culti-

vars have been developed.

Native to Tibet and west China,

introduced elsewhere. On deep, rich, moist
soil at altitudes of 3000 4000 m.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated in the East.
Constituents Tannins; anthraquinone derivatives of aloe-emodin, chrysophanol, emodin and

Principally

green, yellow

tial oil.

Distribution

10%

specific

and white forms are grown, and many

diuretic: astringent; tonic.

Uses (dried rhizome

for

black, referring to the

summer.

rhein (to

medicine

not considered to be

of medicinal importance and finds greatest use

in the food and drinks industries.

Prefers

Native

L saxifragaceae

Blackcurrant

A
Rheum

to tonic

Contra-indications

and

to stimulate the appetite.

leaves

mav

fruit

Nutritive:

be used as an infusion to treat

RHE-ROS
male below, female above: both without
and in panicles. Followed by a smooth

diarrhoea: they are also weakly diaphoretic

and have been included in cold remedies, and

cious;

to treat urinogenital infections.

or spiny capsule. 3

Once employed in
matism. The fruit is

Distribution

from

treatment of rheuof value to those suffering

the

hypertension,

possessing

or

capillary

an infusion as a
sore throats. Leaves can be used as a

and can be used

fragility:

gargle for

in

petals

cm in diameter.
Native to India, tropical Africa:
distributed throughout tropical and main
temperate regions. On most well-drained soils
in full sun.

many

jams, drinks, cordials and liqueurs as well as

eaten fresh.

cool,

L euphorbiaceae
Castor Oil Plant Wonder Tree
The Castor Oil Plant was certainly known to
the Egyptians who employed the seed oil as an
unguent base and also in lamps. Theophrastus. Dioscorides and other Greeks also knew
both the plant and the oil. but considered the
latter unfit for culinary use and suitable onh
Ricinus communis

for external application

tion

maintained

for the

medically - a tradifollowing 1500 years

Wild. Cultivated commercially in

especially South America.

Cultivation

tea substitute. Fruit widely used in conserves,

countries

Grown as a house plant in

northern temperate zones, or outside
in protected sites. Prefers well-drained clay or
sandy loams. Propagate from seed planted in
early spring or under glass, transplanting in
India. Africa. Italy.

summer. Many

early

cultivars exist.

Protein

seed

Constituents

26%

to

fixed oil

50%

comprising ricinoleic. oleic, linoleic.

stearic and hydroxystearic acids. One of the
to

w hole seed

protein substances in the

albuminoid,

is

a toxic

which the poisoning

to

ricin.

is

due.
seed

Uses

steam treated seed cake

oil.

Pur-

gative.
Constituents

E.

enema to remove
impacted faeces.
Used externally as an emollient and a vehicle

pectin.

poisoning. Applied as an

for various

The

oil

is

he seed cake

is

used in

am

other flower symbol-

zenith of beaut) in the plain kingdom,

I

alba

that n has generally

he epithet

Dog

is

been

and contempt.

treated with familiarity

I

thought Britain was called Albion

was covered with the white rose
it

meaning white

onl)

iiu

identalb derogat-

coming original!) from the cynorrodon ol

Plin) and Rout comma ol the Middle Ages aftei a
supposed abilit) ol the root to cure 'mad-dog
bites', or rabies. Apothecaries employed the
briar balls or galls of the Dog Rose as a
diuretii and the rose-hips were used as a tart
ory,

reproduced

faithfully

in

th<

sixteenth-

century herbals of Turnei and Gerard.

the end

supplies

the

"I

sixteenth

the

<>i

en]

century

ami from the

Up

to

European

East, notably

fruit

from the

200 /ears the supply

medicinally

shiik
reason and mi much ot
was only used infrequendy.
In oil w.iv reintroduced to medicine in
70
by Canvane who had noted its use in the W< 11
Indies where
was i.illerl Paltna Christi and
agno Casta bv the Spanish,
hem CaStO oil.
and then ( !astoi oil
Since the 7801 n has been retained as a pur

World Wai

India, bul

declined

Europe

t<>i

.1

period

ol

foi

il

il

gative in

man) pharmacopoeias.

diuretic.

The seeds were once used as a

The hips are used in conserves and

jams.

earliest times.

important

The

onl)

in

as a in h source ol

latter be<

This is a vigorous grower and possesses a

strong fragrance which can be smelled at a

which led to its use as

hedging plant from early times.
The common and specific names come from
the medieval Latin aculentus meaning thorny.
Formerly classified as Rosa rubiginosa agg. and
subdivided into two species. R. rubiginosa L
and R. murantlia Borrer ex Sin., but now condistance, characteristics

sidered as R. tglanteria.
Description Perennial

orbicular to

shrub 12

elliptic, to 3

cm

tall.

Leaves

long; pubescent

ame

Second

the

vitamin C.

Climbing and trailing prickly

perennial shrub to 3 m. Leaves alternate, ovate
/> cription

to

to

elliptic,

cm

senate,

long,

acute or

acuminate. Flowers aromatic, large, white or

pale pink on long pedicels, appearing mid to
late
s<

summer. Followed

ar let false

lr

nils

by

hips

mm-long,

fleshy,

Native to Europe, North Africa,

western Asia: introduced and naturalized
elsewhere
( )n
porous soil in hedgerows,
Distribution

/> cription

Very variable annual herb <>i

perennial tree from a 15 m tail, usually
m.
Leaves simple, alternate, long-petioled, 5 11
lobed, glossy, to
m wide. Flowers monoej

lethargy.

L rosaceae
Sweet Briar Eglantine

Plin)

or in

Rosa eglanteria

Briar

and since man started ullivation its seen lias

been most highl) esteemed. The )<>^ R"-<
however, was so common throughout Europe
because

may be used as a laxative

wound healing.

form of the seedless puree, are an excellent

source of vitamin C. a tonic, and useful in

The Rose more than

izes the

leaves

poultices to aid

Rose-hips, usually used as a tisane or in the

L rosaceae

Rosa camna

Tonic; laxative; diu-

and soap.

is

Dog Rose Dog

rose-hips, leaves

steam treatment destroys the

employed as a fertilizer.
CoBtra-indications Whole seeds are toxic: not to
be used internally. Large doses ,,i the oil ma)
cause vomiting, colic and severe purgation.
poison, ricin

Uses

retic; astringent.

The

ointments. Soothes eye irritations.

not suitable for cooking, but

the manufacture of paints, varnishes

.hkI

Vitamin C to 1.7% vitamins B.

K; nicotinamide; organic acids; tannins:

Principally used to treat chronic constipation

but also in acute diarrhoea caused by food

woodland, thickets
Cultivation

to

[600

in

111

altitude.

Wild.

253

ROS-RUM
Flowers

and rusty-coloured beneath.

are toxic, possibly causing abortion, convul-

13,

bright pink, strongly scented, to 3 cm wide,

appearing mid to late summer and followed by

sions,

round

Rubia tinctorum

and very

rarely, death.

Asia,

Madder

and naturalized elsewhere. In

hedgerows and woodland edges.
Cultivation Wild plant. A cultivar, Duplex, with
double flowers is grown horticultural!}
Constituents Tannins; essential oil.

Both the
the Latin

L rubiaceae
Madder
early Greek name Erythrodanon and
name Rubia come from a stem-word

meaning

red. since this has traditionally

Uses (flowers) Astringent.

alizarin.

scarlet false fruit

Distribution

Native

to

hip

Europe,

west

introduced

the source of a brilliant red

No
it

longer used medicinally. In some countries

employed in the treatment of diarrhoea

By the end of the nineteenth century the

maddering wool or cotton consisted

of various steps including scouring in mild

hedging plant

in large gardens.

alkali, steeping in oily emulsions,

Rosa rugosa Thunb. rosaceae

Japanese Rose Turkestan Rose

one of the most hardy of all roses and is
both disease resistant and a profuse
and continuous bloomer. The scent is rich and
This

is

in addition

about 1330 by Raymundus Lullus, and

still

extensively used in perfumery.

One

it

is

of the

most famous cosmetic preparations containing

the herb was the Queen of Hungary's water.
The apothecaries used Rosemary in a wide
range of preparations including waters, tinctures, conserves, syrups, spirits and unguents:
but today only the oil is included in the
pharmacopoeias, while the leaf remains popular in folk medic inc.
Aromatic, evergreen perennial
Description
shrub to 180 cm, usually 100 cm tall. Branches
somewhat pubescent when young, becoming
woody. Leaves simple, opposite, leathery,
tomentose beneath, to 3.5 cm long. Flowers

Sweet Briar

as a

be used as a source of vitamin C.

Description Perennial to 2 m. Very

prickly

59

elliptic
Leaves subdivided into
leaflets to 5 cm long. Flowers scented, white to
rose, to 7.5 cm diameter, followed by large red
or orange hip to 3 cm diameter.
Distribution Native to Japan and China.
Cultivation Wild. Widely cultivated as a large

stems.

number
include
roses,

of attractive hybrids, and varieties

Max

Graf, one of the lowest growing

obtained by crossing R. rugosa with R.

uichuraiana Crep.
Constituents

(hips)

B,

C,

E,

K.;

nicotinamide; organic acids; tannins; pectin.

Uses Rarely used for any purpose other than as
a hedge plant.

officinalis

Rosemary
The common and

L labiatae

to

sheltered position in cooler regions.

grown

in pots.

seed. Various cultivars are

most useful

is

5%

io-2O

linalol.i;

free

be
the

sometimes

generic

names are derived

254

stem:

usually

sessile,

and spiky

long, tipped

lanceolate,
at the

5-10 cm

margins. Flowers

small, greenish-yellow, in both axillary

terminal cymes; appearing

early

and

mid-summer

to

autumn, followed by globose, purple-

black berry.

Native to south-east Europe. Asia

to

2%) comprising

and
alcohols (mainly borneol and
mainly

bornyl

acetate

organic acids: choline; saponoside;

heterosides; tannins.
r

ses

fresh or dried leaves, oil

Tonic diuretic
;

aromatic; stomachic: carminative; antispasmodic cholagogue antiseptic emmenagogue.

A leaf infusion has a wide variety of internal
applications as indicated. The oil may be used
;

soothing

embrocations,
is

and diluted

as

an

particularly effective in

neuralgia.

Wide culinary use of the leaf in meat dishes.

The oil is employed widely in the cosmetic
industry.

Leaf may be used

in

bath mixtures and aro-

matic preparations.
Contra-indications

internally.

The

oil

deep, friable
Constituents

should not be used

Extremely large doses of the leaf

soils.

medicinal
red

The

comwhich the

Heteroside anthraquinones

prising mainly ruberythric acid

pectin.

Essential oil

esters

grown of which

the prostrate form,

called R. prostratus Hort.

Constituents

May

Propagate by stem cuttings or

antiseptic gargle. It

from the early Latin ros maris or dew of the

sea, from its habit of growing close to the sea
and the dew-like appearance of the blossom at
a distance. From earliest times its medicinal
virtues were recognized and it has always been
a popular aromatic plant.
The oil was first extracted by distillation in

Climbing perennial, 60-100 cm

on long, fleshy, much-branched rootstock. Leaves in whorls of 4-8 on stiff, prickly
Description

tall,

drained alkaline soils in full sun or partial

shade to 1000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Propagated from seed sown
spring or autumn, or by root division. Prefers

Native

externally as an insect repellant, in various

Rosmarinus

L provides

mediterranean coast.
commercially from
the wild and cultivated only as a garden plant.
Requires well-drained soil and warm, wind-

summer.

Cultivation Wild. Collected

Vitamin

Rubia peregrina

a rose-pink dye.

Minor; introduced to central and north-west

Europe, and locally naturalized. On well-

Distribution

to

The Wild Madder

to

early

and is considered superior

hedge plant. The hips may

in

Distribution

white to pink, small,

short axillary racemes, appearing late spring

clove-like

washing

sheep dung, galling with oak galls, treating

with alum and finally maddering with powdered and partially fermented roots.
The dried roots w-ere first exported from southeast Europe and Turkey to other parts of
Europe, and cultivation then commenced near
the cloth centres of France, Holland, Germany
and, less commonly, England. Even though it
has long since been replaced by synthetic
alizarin, it is still grown as a medicinal plant in
central Europe and west Asia.

in

pale blue or rarely

somewhat

later called

process of

colic.

useful

been

permanent dye

Adrianople Red or Turkey Red,

is

and

Dyer's

action

is

mainlv

to

due:

colouring; matter includes

alizarin

madder purple

sugars:

madder

purpurin

ROS-RUM
madder orange rubiacin
xanthine
I

rarely

root,

ses

and madder yellow

Choleretic;

stems

lealy

emmen-

tonic; antiseptic; diuretic; vulnerary;

Europe, fragments of the berry being found

agogue; laxative; antispasmodic.

The powdered

root

and

dissolution

is

much

of

archaeological excavations of Swiss villages.

and

Cultivation began in the Middle Ages, and the

many European raspberry cultivars are all

bladder calculi; the remedy also acts as a

prophylactic against stone formation. May be
used externally to aid wound healing.
The leafy stem in infusion can be used to treat
constipation.

Root

is

employed

as a dye.

developed from this wild species. Prior to 1866

at which time over 41 varieties were known in
the United States of America all American
tvpes were also from R. idaeus. They are now
also developed from R. ulmifolius Schott. R.

Cham and

ursinus

Rubus fructicosus agg. rosaceae

L. Rubus

Bramble

means

Blackberry

While the Raspberrv was named

red French wine,

the

raspis,

after a sweet

common

fruit

of

more varieties and species grouped

under the name R. fructicosus were simply
blackberries, and the plant itself was the brom
or thorny shrub, hence bramble.

the iooo or

In

German

the plant

Mount

'of

Mount

Schlechtend, R. occidentals

from the Latin

is

and idaeus
abundance on

for red.

Ida', after

its

Upright or bent perennial 90-150

cm tall, with varying degrees of prickles or
sometimes entirely lacking them. Leaves glabrous above, grey tomentose beneath, compris-

now

Europe Blackberry picking

Description

shrub

Variable

Rumex acetosa L polygonaceae

Sorrel
All sorrels are acidic and sour-tasting, and in
former times were popular ingredients of
sauces, especially those for

name

old French

plant's acidity

and

its

by R.

with

woody,

leaves

By the eighteenth
was largely replaced by R.
scutatus L in horticulture. The plant was known
to the apothecaries as Herba Acetosa and was
century or even

native:

especially

annins; sugars.

in

<l

de< o< tion

douche and externally on

been

<k

redited with

antidiabetic

Wide
\

ides

.1-

Sowers

.1

n,ut;li

01

have
unsubstantiated
I

bey

a< ti\ ity.

culinary

mm

ol

an orange dye.

the fruit.

many

in

to

he rool

|m<.-

cm

10

from

dispensatories

the

50-150 cm

nearly

tall,

long,

small,

summer

to early autumn.
European native;

damp, loamy

Cultivation

Wild

soils to

plant.

2500

May

in altitude.

be propagated by

autumn.
and juice Oxalic acid and
potassium binoxalate (to t%); tartaric acid;

root division in
Constituents

ing 3 or j ovate leaflets. Flowers small,

.is

ulcers.

\et

earlier.

it

also found in
northern Asia. In meadowland on nitrogen-

in

Astringent; tonic; diuretit

ust

how ever,

Distribution

fleshy, black, edible

Uses fdried or fresh leaves, fruit, rarely

Leaves may be

L.

The herb

the upper ones sessile.

reddish-brown on slender,
loose inflorescence to 40 cm long, appearing

Vitamin C; organic acids;

I

acetosella

animals.

has, nevertheless, long been used as a salad and

vegetable and was cultivated in the fourteenth

late

hedgerows, wood edges and gardens. ( )n moist

2400 m in altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Introduced near habitation
.hkI often rampant.
pei tins,

by R.

man and

glabrous. Leaves rather thick, oblong-lanceo-

soils to

fruit

or

acetosa

occurring in both

rich,

Constituents

(mostly

latter substances are responsible for the

Description Perennial

fruit.

European

vitamin

salts

occasional cases of Sorrel poisoning caused

early

Distribution

its

potassium hydrogen oxalate).

These

Leaves palmate or ternate. and petiolate.

Flowers white to pink in compound inflorescence appearing mid-summer to early
1>\

due to both
and oxalate

is

oxalic acid

Flowers

followed

surele.

The

biennial stems densely covered with prickles

autumn and

The common

fish.

derived from sur meaning sour, via the

is

fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries.

practised.

still

and

cosmetic purposes.

included

is

the last ritualistic seasonal collet ting of

wild plant food

in wines, liqueurs, vinegars, syrups,

other confectionery, culinary and some

century,

Like raspberries they have been picked and

eaten for thousands of vears and todav in much
ol industrialized

Used
for

either

Ida.

Description

called Brombeere.

still

is

in

value in the

of renal

elimination

L rosaceae
Raspberry
Like so many wild fruits the Raspberry has
been known and used since prehistory in
Rubus idaeus

in

leaf

vitamin C. (rhizome) A hyperoside, quercetin3-D-galactoside; anthracene; oxymethylanthraquinone; tannins 1025%).

fresh leal, rhizome) Diuretic; laxative;
Uses

drooping panicles in terminal axils, appearing

early to mid-sunimer. followed by aromatii
fleshy cone-shaped red to yellow Emit.
Distribution Eurasian native, introduced and
widespread. In woodland clearing] and edges,
espet ially deciduous woodlands. On light soil,
moist and rich 111 nun icnts. to 2OO0 in in

as

an astringent in diarrhoea

it

is

altitude

certain skin complaints, including acne.

Numerous

Wild.

Cultivation

cultivars

tonic; antiseptic; bitter.

The root decoction

is

used as a bitter tonic and

:

also as a diuretic

not suitable lor use in either

young

or very

old people.

The

leaf may be

employed

in poultices to treat

propa-

gated by suckers 01 root cuttings. Canes should

be removed alter fruiting to allow new ones
primocanes to develop. Tolerates most soils.
leaf

Constituents

acting

stances,

in

Fragarine and other subisolation as both uterine

muscle stimulants and relaxants,

ai id; vitamin C; pectin.
/

hs

oxv
I

il

fresh 01

loi k

dned

leaves, fruit

leaf is of proven value during confinement,

taken regularly and in small doses as ,m

In

infusion

it

and speeds parturition.

eases

is

menstruation and also

amounts
I

Astringent;

nutritive; laxative.

larger doses the leal

ol

Citric

fruit

he

fruit

the fruit
vs. is

is

ol
in

benefit

diarrhoea. In large

mildly laxative.

formerly employed

phai mat eutn

al

and

het bal

in a

produi

ouring and oloui ing.

Edible fruit is pi << onomit impot tarn

llav

In

painful

in

variety
1

as a

255

RUM

SAL

The young

leaf

is

edible fresh or cooked.

SONOUS,

it is stomachic and tonic, and in

China it is considered antipyretic.
The powdered root-stock in water is employed
as a gargle for laryngitis and as a tooth powder

In small doses

Very large doses are POIcausing severe kidney damage. The

Contra-indications

herb should not be used by those predisposed

to rheumatism, arthritis, gout, kidney stones or
gastric hyper-acidity. The leal may cause

The

dermatitis.

in cases of

Rumex

crispus

L polygonaceae

Yellow Dock Curled Dock, Rumex

in gingivitis.

seed

highly astringent and

is

may

be used

diarrhoea.

Young leaves may be eaten as greens, but water

should be changed twice during cooking.
Contra-indications May cause dermatitis. Excessive doses produce nausea.

both this species and

weed, the Broad-leaved
Dock [R. obtusifolius L) have been used for the
same medicinal purposes, and more recently
they have been shown to possess similar chemi-

Rumex scutatus L polygonaceae

French Sorrel Garden Sorrel
While Rumex alpinus L or Monk's Rhubarb

cal constituents.

the most physiologically active of the

R. obtusifolius was known as Lapathum or

Lapathum acutum from the fourteenth century,
while the Yellow Dock was called Lapathum

species of Rumex.
the
French Sorrel is
probably the least, and since it in addition

In

writings

ancient

common

another

calism

development of physiomedi-

In the

crispum.

early

the

in

nineteenth

century in

was used for obstinate skin

complaints, while in Europe R. obtusifolius was
used for the same condition. Today Rurm \ is
found in English herbals. and Lapathum in
European ones.
Description Perennial 50-100 cm tall on stout
rootstock. Leaves with undulate edges, lanAmerica. R.

crispus

lemony taste it has

become the most popular of the edible sorrels.
Once established its deeply-growing roots may

then as a broom or twitch to scrub chopping

be difficult to eradicate.

blocks,

possesses a mildly sour,

low-growing and glauLeaves petiolate, hastate,

Description Perennial,

cous,

10-50

cm

tall.

and

Christmas time, and the evergreen twigs are

duced elsewhere.
Cultivation

in

Wild. Cultivated

as a salad herb in
Propagate from seed sown
thinning to 30 cm apart and

rich, moist soil.

spring,

It

Broom included

Eurasian native, widely distributed in temperate and subtropical countries

as a weed. In anv rich, heavy soil in weed)

cm

Constituents

pinkish, minute, solitary or clustered, attached

is

cladode midrib, appearing mid-autumn

and followed by red or yellow
globose berries reaching 15
in diameter.
Distribution Native from the Azores to Iran,
including north-west Europe and the mediterranean region. Introduced elsewhere. In woodland thickets on poor, dry soil among rocks.
To 600 m in altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Grown horticulturally. and

starch;

to the

to late spring

)xymethylanthra-

rumicin;

thiamine.

mm

chryso-

tannins:

The combined

both astringent and purgative, and

is

described as tonic laxative.

(root-stock,

Uses

young

leaves,

rarely

seed

Purgative: cholagogue; tonic; astringent.

much

associated
function.

and

Of

value both internally and externally

skin complaints, especially

with

May

urticaria,

Erect evergreen perennial 30-90

leaves are minute and bract-like

The

tall.

and subtend the 4 cm-long, spine-pointed,

altitude.

quinone to 0.2% erftodin too.i%

phanic acid: volatile oil: resin:
action

and Hypothe rhizome

ovate, leaf-like cladodes. Flowers whitish or

Wild. Propagate from seed.

root-stock

Eruscus

recommended

Bruscus,

of kidney stones.

Description

Distribution

to

glosson; Dioscorides
in cases

winter decorations.

in florists'

related

is

autumn.

bears scarlet berries at

Asparagus and starts with

young edible shoots which can be eaten in a
similar way. The ancient names of Butchers

any

Cultivation

It

now used

Flowers small, reddish, unisexual, appearing mid to late summer.

Distribution Native to Europe and Asia; intro-

whorls along a somewhat branched inflorescence, appearing mid-summer to mid-

places, to 1500

decoration for meat

finally as a

times.

festive

at

fleshy.

ceolate, large, crispy. Flowers greenish, small,

in

is

European

where the cause

constipation

or

liver

collected

in

on a small commercial

Constituents

is

potassium

dys-

be applied to ringworm, scabies

the parasites probably being

removing flower-heads

to

promote

leaf.

Water

well in hot weather. Tolerates partial shade or

lull sun, and can be grown under cloches
provide leaf throughout the year.
Constituents Oxalates, in small quantities.

Uses

to

fresh leaf Diuretic.

oil;

scale.

saponoside:

resin;

salts.

dried root-stock,

['ses

leaves

destroved bv the rumicin content.

Essential

young

shoots,

rarely

Antipyretic; diuretic; vasoconstrictive.

Rarely used medicinally, but of value in some

problems associated with venous circulation.
Traditionally used in the treatment of haemorrhoids, gout and jaundice.
The young shoots have been used in spring
salads in the same way as Asparagus.
Contra-indications Not to be used by individuals
with hypertension.

Not used medicinally but moderate amounts

of the leaf are diuretic.

Ruta graveolens

May

Rue Herb

be used with discretion in salads.

Contra-indications

Not suitable

for

those pre-

Rue

is

L rctaceae

of Grace Herbygrass

an ancient and important medicinal

plant of undoubted effectiveness which de-

disposed to kidney stones.

serves wider use by medical personnel; yet.

Ruscus aculeatus

L liliaceae

and use

Chinese herbal medicine, it is now only

tained in the Swiss Pharmacopoeia.

teenth to the nineteenth centuries,

allv

crude repellent barrier

256

besides folk medicine application

Broom

Box Holly Jew's Myrtle

This unusual member of the Lily family was
associated with the meat trade from the six-

Butcher's

to

first

as a

vermin and animals.

It

in
re-

had wide therapeutic application traditionand was also included as a major ingredi-

ent of the poison antidotes of Mithridates.

Its

RUM-SAL
opposite, joined along their margins forming

marins; several other active substances.

Uses (dried or fresh leaf, rarely juice)

Emmen-

agogue; abortifacient; antihelmintic; stomachic; diaphoretic.

Principally active on the uterus and in small

Distribution

doses beneficial for the relief of dysmenorrhoea

and

it

an emmenagogue.

acts as

pre-eminence as a

name was once thought

Greek

reuo

meaning

effectiveness.

The

from the

to be derived

to set free after

its

ancients, however,

general

knew

hrute

differentiated

wound

its

use in

homeopathy

in

1818.

ive

Rue

and the plant has

is

strong and distinct-

to be used with care,

Salsola soda

L chenopodiaceae

Saltwort
and the

Both

is

glass,

this species

and

closely related S. kali

in the

amounts of

large

manufacture of

the mineral-rich

sometimes precipitating mental conand the oil is capable of causing death.

Handling the plant can cause allergic reac-

toxic,

fusion,

tions or phytophotodermatitis.

Salicornia europaea agg.

chenopodiaceae

Glasswort Marsh Samphire

It

it

has not enjoyed popular use in recent times;

maintaining the tradition of its employment in

Mead known as sack, however, it is
included in the Italian grape spirit Grappa con
the old

manuL

replaced the southern Salsola soda

which had been exported northwards up

the sixteenth century.

Its

other

it
was eaten in the same way
Samphire Crithmum maritimum L).

It is

now

rarely,

if

ever, used.

S. herbacea

to

common name

indicates

botanically as

Since the flavour of

salts.

butter.

L were once important

oil

facture.

introduced

knob of

The

as a source of materials used in glass

hrute,

plant's effect

mann

Large proportion of mineral

Uses (fresh plant) Diuretic.

as a flavouring.

on the uterus and the nervous

system, and many, such as Bock in the
fifteenth century and Lemery in the eighteenth, differentiated between the wild and
garden herbs in medicinal application. Hahne-

from

Wild.

healing, in neuralgia, rheumat-

Writers after Dioscorides also emphasized the

to be derived

marshes

Rarely used medicinally.

May be eaten either raw, or cooked with a

and hence the word Rue.

now thought

is

salt

Of much value in certain autonomic nervous

system disorders; traditionally employed in
epilepsy. Externally used to treat skin diseases,

herb of the salt marshes of Europe, especially

found in the north and west, and one which as its common name suggests - was employed

Ruta

On

native.

it

and peganon and Dioscorides

between a sharper
'mountain peganon' and a garden peganon'.

both as
further

European

mid-

to

Constituents

employed in the perfumery industry.

Contra-indications Must be used only by medical
personnel. Must not be used at all by pregnant
women as it is an abortifacient. Large doses are
its

appearing early

flats.

Cultivation

ism and as an eye lotion. Also as a gargle.

Leaves may be used, with discretion, in salads

protector against witchcraft and magic; the

mud

spikes,

Increases blood-flow to the gastro-intestinal

system, aids in colic and acts as a stomachic.

to aid

beneficial effects led to

'segments'. Flowers minute, greenish, borne

on fleshy
autumn.

It is

also

as

known

L.

Description Succulent annual or biennial with

green leaves, and green or dull red uniformly
candelabra-shaped stems, to 10 cm tall. Leaves

ash were exported from southern Europe and

North Africa under the name Barilla. In

Europe

were

ruta.

north-west

Aromatic semi-evergreen perennial,

glabrous and glaucous herb or subshrub to m.
Deeply subdivided alternate leaves with spatulate or oblong 15 mm long segments.
Flowers
yellow
in
terminal
corymbose
inflorescence, appearing summer to early
autumn.

placed over 300 years ago by the abundant

local Salicornias, but in France and Italy they

Description

Distribution

north

Native

to

southern Europe, as

far

southern Alps. In sheltered

positions on dry rocky or limestone soils.
Cultivation Wild. Collected commercially from
as

the

Grown horticulturally and propagated from seed sown in the spring, from
cuttings taken in spring, or by careful division.
Prefers full sun and well-drained soil. The
the wild.

cultivar variegata with variegated leaves,

and

the variety var. divaricata (Ten. J Wilk., with

bright yellow-green leaves, are also grown in

herb gardens.
Constituents Volatile oil (to

0.6%), comprising

various ketones, but mainly methylnonylkcI'uic (to

90%),

also limonene, cineol,

toxin;

coumarin;
alkaloids;

fixed oil;

ascorbic

bergapten; xantoacid;

both commercial and, to a

medicinal importance until the

The herb was never

German pharmacopoeias, since
remedies are numerous. The plant is

nineteenth
superior

re-

to be of

lesser extent,

included

species

century.

in

no longer used.
Description

Decumbent annual with spreading

stems to 60 cm; leaves to 4 cm long, fleshy,

sessile, simple and cylindrical; flowers usually

and insignificant. Appearing

mid-autumn.

solitary, greenish
late

summer

to

Native to mediterranean region.

sandy seashores.
Cultivation Wild plant.
Constituents Mineral salts, particularly large
quantities of sodium sulphate; alkaloids, salsoline and salsolidine.
Distribution

On

Uses (fresh or dried plant] Diuretic.

No

longer

employed medicinally.

methyl

acetate; resin; tannins; the rhamno-glucoside,

rutin;

continued

Salsola

furo-cou-

Salvia officinalis L labiatae

Sage
The Sage family is a large group

of horticultur-

>7

SAL-SAX
important plants which consists of over
750 species widely distributed throughout the
world. Some are also of culinary use. others
medicinal and at least one central American
species is a powerful hallucinogen, traditionally employed in religious and magical rites.
allv

The most important and

officinalis,

known

is

Salvia

for millen-

ancient names include elifagus, elelisphanamed by Dioscorides lingua

ia. Its

kon

best

which has been cultivated

the latter

humana, selba and

from the Latin

health

salvia.

solvere,

The name

meaning

and the old French

salvia

to be in

is

good

saulje gives us the

modern common name.

bitter

compounds including

Uses

fresh

picrosalvine.

or dried leaves,

oil

Antiseptic

antifungal;
anti-inflammatory: astringent;
carminative; emmenagogue; choleretic: weak
hypoglycaemic.
Wide medicinal application: especially effective as

an anti-sudorific

in cases of excessive

sweating, and also to reduce lactation. Lseful

in

liver

and

disease,

respiratory tract infections,

nervous conditions such as anxiety or

depression. Red Sage is an effective antiseptic
gargle and may be used as a douche in
leucorrhoea, or in baths to treat skin problems. It was traditionally employed in female
in

At one time Sage was included in a brew called

Sage Ale, and Sage tea was also a popular
drink. The Chinese once preferred it to their
local teas and exchanged their product with
the Dutch for Sage tea. bartering on the basis

sterility.

of weight for weight.

Clary Clary Sage Muscatel Sage

Sage is also known as Muscatel Sage
since it is now almost exclusively grown

Subshrub from 30-70 cm

stem
woody at the base, branched, quadrangular.
white and woolly when young. Leaves oblong.
3-5 cm long, usually entire, glandular or
rugose, grey-green, petiolate. Flowers violetDescription

blue, to 3

cm

long,

tall:

The oil

is

in

both the pharmaceutical

and culinary

industries.

Salvia sclarea

L labiatae

tries

Uses

fresh or dried leaves,

seed,

oil

Anti-

principal

and

medicine
Oil

is

employment is as the source of the oil,

most commonly used in herbal

is

it

to treat

vomiting.

of value in the perfume and flavouring

decorative garden plant.

L caprifoliaceae

Dwarf Elder Danewort

Clan,

commercially as the source of Muscatel oil,

which is used in flavouring and in the perfumerv industrv. The leaves were once mixed

between 5 and 10 arranged

Appearing early summer to

Of
the

the 20 or so species in the genus Sambucus

Dwarf Elder

cologically,

is

the most active

and unlike

its

pharma-

close relative the

L its fruit should be considered

The dark purple berries are

Elder 5. nigra
poisonous.

as

Middle
A^es both these and the root or root bark were
used as such - although ancient Greek

certainly violently purgative: in the

physicians did not

recommend

their use.

Early names included chamaiakte. atnx and

ebulus.

the

ebullire

meaning

describing

Grigson

Wide horticultural use and several

commonly grown. In northern counNarrow-leaved Sage is grown from seed in
spring, flowering early summer to early

in

last

shows

it

stemming from the Latin

bubble out, and possibly

to

purgative action.
The Englishman's Flora traces the

its

origin of the

common name Danewort and

has nothing to do with the spilled

blood of the Danes", from which the herb wa>

once thought to grow: it is. in fact, derived
from the danes. or diarrhoea, caused by the

autumn. Broad-leaved Sage does not flower

in cool regions and cannot be raided from seed
use cuttings taken in late spring or early sum-

plant.

The Anglo-Saxons and Gauls employed Dwarf

Elder berries as a blue dye. and this is now the

mer. Red-leaved Sage Purple or Red Saa;e

Variegated Sage and Tricolor Sage variegated and tipped with purple are all grown
from cuttings or by layering. Old leggy plants
should be earthed up in spring and rooted
cuttings cut off and planted out in autumn.
Replace every 47 years.
comprising
Constituents Volatile oil
to 2%
mainly thujone and cineol but including
.

main

use for the herb.

Description Strong-smelling
nial to

herbaceous peren-

120 cm, on creeping rhizome. Stems

numerous,

grooved,

bearing

long-pointed,

5-15 cm

long. Flowers

oblong, serrate,

leaflets

in flat-topped,

broad cymes, white

to pink:

appearing late summer to early autumn and

followed by small black fruit.
Distribution Native to Europe. North Africa.
Asia; introduced elsewhere. On damp soils.

numerous

other substances: also tannins:

organic acids; rosmarinic acid: oestrogens:

with Elderflower and employed in flavouring

wines,

and

Clan.-

wine

itself

was a sixteenth-

century aphrodisiac. The name Clary comes

from the Latin clarus after the use of its
mucilaginous seeds to clear the eye of grit.
Description Erect biennial 30-120 cm tall,
flowering stems bristly. Leaves simple, aromatic, pubescent, petiolate. broad-ovate. 1522 cm long. Flowers white, lavender and pink,
attractive, numerous, on terminal panicles.

Appearing early summer

to late

autumn.

Native to southern Europe on dry

limey or sandy soils, to 1000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Grown commercially and
horticulturally from seed sown thinly in
spring. For blooming each year allow some
Distribution

plants to self-seed, or plant even. year.

Constituents Essential oil

^8

saponine; tannins:

spasmodic: stimulant; emmenagogue.

The seed becomes mucilaginous in water and
may then be used to extract foreign bodies
from the eye. The leaves in infusion may be
used as a gargle, douche, skin wash for ulcers
and cuts, and in small doses may be taken to
promote appetite. It reduces sweating. Its

Sambucus ebulus

varieties

late

esters; choline;

mucilage.

industries.

employed

on terminal spikes.
early autumn.
Distribution Native to southern Europe, notably the mediterranean region. On limestone
soils in full sun slopes, to 750 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Collected commercially from
the wild, especially in Yugoslavia Dalmatian

Sage

and

linalol

too.i

comprising

SAL-SAN
wasteland, grassland or roadsides, to 1400

Wild

Cultivation

anthocyanins; tann-

organic acids.

gative. Rarely used

fruit

owing

to

its

Pur-

drastic action.

produces a blue dye.

Contra-indications

such

exist,

as

The

berries

Sambucus nigra

should not be

L caprifoliaceae

Elder
The Elder has been used continuously since
the days of the Egyptians and probably before,
and it is still included in certain modern
cosmetic preparations as well as retaining its
popularity in folk medicine. Elder flowers and
Peppermint infusion is the medicine of choice

treatment of colds

homes in Europe.
The plant has several
that every part of the

comprising terpenes;

and quercitrin;

alkaloids;

tannins; vitamin C; mucilage; anthocyanins.

The combined

action

is

predominantly dia-

phoretic.

taken internally.

for the

varieties

Constituents Essential oil

the glucosides, rutin

Uses (root bark, fresh berries, flowers)

The

horticultural

dissected forms.

plant.

Constituents Essential oil;

ins;

Some

white, golden-yellow, variegated, or deeply

altitude.

in

many country

and some believe

Elder has some use. None
uses,

more popular than elderberry wine, while

Elder flowers soaked in lemon juice overnight

is

provide a most refreshing summer drink.

Probably out of respect for its usefulness, the
plant has been attributed with a variety of
magical virtues, and many different European
spirits were thought to inhabit it. In some

Uses (fresh or dried flowers, fruit, leaves, root

bark, stem pith) Diaphoretic; laxative; anti-

spasmodic: diuretic; emollient.

Mostly of use in combination with Peppermint
and Yarrow in the treatment of colds and nasal
catarrh, or alone as a gargle in throat infections.

Also of value with other remedies in constipation, haemorrhoids, rheumatism, bronchitis

and cystitis. The flowers are sometimes used as

an ingredient of eye lotions. Young buds can be
pickled, and the flowers can be eaten raw or
used in various drinks including wines. Fruit
valuable in conserves, pies, jams and also

They can be used in home

Wide cosmetic use of the flowers.

wines.

dyeing.

Sanguinaria canadensis L papaveraceae

Bloodroot Red Puccoon/Tetterwort
Another common name for this small pretty
herb is Indian Paint since it was one of the
body stains iand clothing dyes) used by the
Red Indians.

It

was known

akte,

doff their caps at the

rich soils in

modern generic name.

Description Shrub or small

and

tree to

10

its

(all:

leaves dull green, subdivided into 5 elliptic,

serrate acuminate leaflets,
<
g cm long.

Flowers white, 5

mm

diameter, numerous,

in

20 cm diameter: appealing mid-summer and followed by numerous

flat-topped

cymes

to

it.

to the ancients as rixus, ixus

to

edible, purple, globose fruit to 8

mm

diameter.
Native to Europe. North Africa.
western Asia. Introduced elsewhere. In hedgerows, woodland edges, on nitrogen-rich soils.
To 1000 m altitude.
Distribution

woods and woodland

On

be used,

diluted, as a gargle in sore

throats.

POISONOUS.

Contra-indications

only.

The

therapeutic dose

is

Medical use

very small; large

doses are toxic, causing violent vomiting, and

possibly death.
Santolina chamaecyparissus L compositae
Lavender Cotton Cotton Lavender/

French Lavender

used

clipped hedges of formal knot

valued as an ingredient of

in the low,

was

gardens.

It

scented

sachets

also
to

repel

drawers. Other than

received

much

this

moths

in

clothes

the herb has not

attention, although

its

vermi-

fugal properties have been recognized from

the earliest times.

moist,

slopes in the

shade.
Cultivation Wild. Introduced as a shady wild
garden ornamental. Propagate by division in
the autumn. A cultivar
multiplex' with
double flowers is found horticulturally.
Constituents Alkaloids comprising sanguinarine,

protopine,

chelerythrine,

a-

and

fi-

homochelidonine, also chclidonic acid; an

orange resin; gum; starch; sugars.
Uses (dried rhizome) Expectorant: emetic;
antipyretic spasmolytic cardio-active stimu;

lant; topical irritant; cathartic; antiseptic.

The

fresh juice

is

caustic (escharotic)

and has

Cultivation

Wild plant. Usually propagated by

been used against warts. The powdered drug

has also been used externally to treat certain

SUCken or

CUttingS. Prefers moist

skin

soils.

much

well) in the sixteenth century, largely to be

Perennial

oblong capsule.
Distribution North American native.

but mostly as sambucus which gives us

May

genus.

30 cm on thick
rhizome; one leaf, basal, palmately lobed,
petiolate, and only appearing when flower
dies. Stem is a smooth scape to 20 cm, terminated by white, sometimes pinkish, flower.
Solitary flower to 4 cm wide, appears midspring to early summer, followed by 3 cm-long
still

capillary circulation.

This southern European native wasintroduced

to cooler northern climates (which it tolerates

Description

plant or refuse to burn

employed in chronic bronchitis as

and in cases of deficient

expectorant,

Introduced to medicine via folklore, it was

used as a domestic remedy for gastric complaints. It was described by Geiger (1830) as
having an action similar to Foxglove Digitalis
purpurea L), and a century later in the HagerHandbuch as an emetic similar to Ipecacuanha.
These are powerful properties for a domestic
remedy, and the rhizome should not be used
except under medical supervision, since in
large doses it can be fatal.
Sanguinaria describes the red colour of the
rhizome and juice. It is the only species in the
|

places old people

Principally

an

complaints and as a snuff in nasal polyps.

259

SAP-SCR
The Greeks knew it as abrotonon and
Romans as habrotanum, both referring to

the

shape of the flowering branches - a

tree-like

modern

characteristic also indicated in the

specific

the

name.
shrub 20-50

Description Perennial evergreen

much branched with silver-grey,

tomentose leaves to 4 cm long, subdivided into

cm

tall;

small, thin segments. Flowers bright yellow,

numerous, but

rounded capitula

in solitary

the tips of branchlets; appearing

to early

at

mid-summer

autumn.

Spain to Albania; North Africa;

introduced elsewhere and locally escaped. On
dry rocky soils in full sun, to 1000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Cultivated horticulturally
from cuttings taken late summer, autumn or
early spring, and rooted under glass in a peat
and sand mix. Well-drained soil in full sun is
required in cool climates. Clip in mid-spring to
Distribution

On

shape.
Constituents

unknown

Essential

bitter

oil;

principles;

substances.

moist but well-drained

and roadsides,

weak emmenagogue.

fuge; antispasmodic;

Rarely used medicinally.

Leaves may be included in insect-repellent

sown

seed

Constituents

wasteland

soils in

horticulturally from

by

or

division.

to

comprising

sachets.

Principally of use as a decorative evergreen

Uses

garden shrub. Especially suitable as a low

laxative; cholagogue; choleretic; expectorant.

hedge.

Once

fresh leaves, dried root-stock) Diuretic:

in

the treatment of certain skin

conditions, including psoriasis, eczema,

Saponaria

officinalis

L caryophyllaceae

Soapwort Bouncing
As both the

stock

and

suggest, the boiled leaves

names

generic

roots of this herb

may

be used as the source of a somewhat

astringent lather suitable for cleaning woollen
fabrics. How long the herb has been used as a
natural soap (its cleaning properties being due
to the presence of saponins in the plant) is
uncertain. It is not known how widely it was
employed, but it may have been known to the
Assyrians and is certainly still used both in the

Middle East and rarely

in the

West

for clean-

ing old and delicate tapestries.

Dioscorides probably

knew

Saponaria

officinalis

Middle Ages

as Struthion while in the

it

was

variously called Herba Philippi, Sapanaria or

Herba

fullonis.

those

who

The

name

latter

fulled cloth (that

cleaned and thickened

it

is,

used

indicates that

the fullers
it

and

acne. In India the specially prepared root-

Bet

common and

who

as a cleaning

and from this William Turner in his

The Xames of Herbes (1548) called it 'Soap-

agent,
wort'.

considered a galactagogue, and else-

is

where

has been employed as an expectorant

it

in respiratory complaints.

Fresh leaf

is

princi-

pally used as the source of a soap to clean old

fabrics.

Contra-indications

To

be used internally only

under medical supervision.

ex

Formerly classified as
and known as Genista

Cytisus scoparius

L Link

in the early herbals, this

useful medicinal herb was employed by all the

major European schools of medicine and is still
in demand in folk medicine. It was the emblem
of the Norman conquerors of England. Cytisus
was the Greek name for a type of clover, which,

hardly resembles at all.

Deciduous shrub to 3 m with many
erect slender glabrous 5-angled branches
bearing short-petioled obovate or oblanceoin fact,

it

Description

mm

Distribution

5-10

acute leaves,

yellow,

2-lipped,

2.5

cm

long.

long,

Flowers

appearing

spring and summer.

Central and southern European

Description Perennial, sparingly

native; naturalized in the United States.

rhizome bearing erect,

30-40 cm tall. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceo-

wood

clusters;

long, 3-veined. Flowers pink

cm wide

appearing

in

dense terminal

mid-summer

to

mid-

autumn.
Distribution

fringes, roadsides, in clearings to

On

500

altitude. Calcifugous.
Cultivation

Wild plant; grown

horticulturally,

the variety Andreanus has yellow flowers with

dark crimson wings.

Constituents Several alkaloids, including spar-

Native to

Europe and western

teine; flavonoid pigments; a glycoside, scop-

Asia.

arin; mineral salts; bitter principles; tannin;

Introduced and naturalized elsewhere.

volatile

260

and
the

blood

pressure

is

especially

lowered.

Some

oxytocic

and therefore cannot be used in

pregnancy. Constricts peripheral blood vessels,
and of benefit in profuse menstruation.
Seeds once served as a Coffee substitute, and
the flowers and buds were pickled and eaten as
Capers.
Twigs used for basket manufacture.
Bark yields fibre suitable for manufacture of
paper and cloth.
Formerly used to tan leather, and leaves yield a
green dye.
Contra-indications Large doses paralyze the
autonomic ganglia; to be avoided in pregnancy
activity,

Sassafras

as a fish poison.

cm

pur-

when

palpitation,

Sassafras albidum

Scotch Broom

usually appear alone in the axils, pale or bright

usually 7

Diuretic,

use in the treatment of tachycardia

functional

PAPILIONACEAE

late

or whitish to 4

flowering herb

Broom

to be treated in special ways

can be used medicinally and it has been
implicated in the poisoning of both animals
and man, a property once recognized in its use

late,

(dried

Koch

before

branched, on
finely pubescent stems

Uses

and hypertension.

L Wimmer

Sarothamnus scoparius

Soapwort has
it

and conductivity of

lessens irritability

gative, anti-haemorrhagic.

Of

soils.

Saponins

saporubin and saprubrinic acid: gums; flavonoids; vitamin C; vitexin.

used

which

cardiac muscle.

altitude.

mid-spring,

in

Tolerates poor

Grown

Wild.

Cultivation

Uses (dried flowering stems, leaves) Vermi-

1500

to

oil.

Action largely due

to sparteine

This tree

is

Nutt.

Nees lalraceae

considered bv

manv

authorities to

SAP-SCR
provided the first of the American
medicinal plant drugs to reach Europe. Its
action was noticed by Monardes during an

have

expedition to Florida

and

1564),

wood was imported to

It was known firstly by

in

1574 the

Spain.
the native Indian

name

flowered inflorescence, appearing late

to

Distribution

Native to eastern mediterranean

and south-west Asia, introduced to

South Africa, America and elsewhere. On dry
region,

chalky

soils,

rocky

hills,

roadsides; to 800

pavame, and also the French sassafras. From

1582 the Germans called it lignum floridum and

altitude.

Fennel Wood,

the wild. Cultivated from seed

pauame after

as well as lignum

its

and the fennel-like aroma of the bark.

The tree was grown in England as early as
origin

1597. An Italian, Angelus Sala, first extracted

the Sassafras oil by distillation, and it was this

summer

mid-autumn.

Wild. Collected commercially from

Cultivation

sown

in spring.

comprising
mainly carvacrol and cymene; phenolic substances; resins; tannins; mucilage.
Constituents Essential oil (to i.5

Uses (fresh or dried leaves, dried flowering

product which in modern times has been used

most frequently. It is now under scrutiny for
possible toxicity problems, and in many
countries it has been withdrawn as a flavour-

Antiseptic; expectorant; carminative;

stomachic; stimulant; antihelmintic; diuretic.
Principally of use in gastric complaints, to aid

ing.

beneficial antihelmintic action,

Aromatic deciduous

Description

tree to

Leaves variable, lobed or

tall.

30

entire, altern-

ovate to 12 cm long, darker above. Flowers

greenish yellow, on clustered racemes to 5 cm

tops)

digestion or stimulate

appetite.

Possesses a

and can

also

be used as an antiseptic gargle. Once considered

an effective aphrodisiac although this is

long; followed by dark blue fruit with fleshy

probably only due to its stimulant effect.

oil is used commercially as a flavouring, as
is the leaf which is an important constituent of

the wild.

The

Grown from seed sown in poor, welldrained and chalky soils in early to midautumn or propagated by division in spring or

red pedicel. Leaves attractively coloured in

salami.

autumn.

ate,

autumn.

1.5%) comprising
mainly carvacrol and cymene; phenolic subConstituents Essential oil (to

North American native from cen-

Distribution
tral to

southern states.
Wild.

stances; resins; tannins; mucilage.

Cultivation

Constituents

Uses

3%

oil, to

comprising safrole

80%), phellandrene and pinene.

Uses (root wood, root bark, oil

rarely)

The

tops)

Aro-

inner root bark in decoction

ornataj in

decoction to induce sweating.

is

oil

and

rubefacient

although safer remedies

for

destroys

appetite.

used as an antiseptic gargle.

Possesses a

and can

also be

Once considered

an effective aphrodisiac although this is

probably only due to its stimulant effect.
The oil is used commercially as a flavouring, as
is the leaf which is an important constituent of
salami.

lice,

both purposes are

preferred. Pith from the stem forms a

or stimulate

beneficial antihelmintic action,

carminative and has

been used for gastro-intestinal complaints, and
in association with purgatives in constipation.
The wood shavings were formerly administered with Guaiacum and Sarsaparilla [Smilax

The

Antiseptic;

digestion

is

aromatic and

mildly

or dried leaves, dried flowering

(fresh

expectorant; carminative;
stomachic; stimulant; antihelmintic; diuretic.
Principally of use in gastric complaints, to aid

to

matic; carminative; stimulant; diaphoretic;

diuretic.

Scrophularia nodosa L scrophulariaceae

Knotted Figwort

demul-

cent mucilage in water and can be used in eye

the lame properties and uses as

Savory and is collected commercially
both for the leaf and for the oil extracted from
the leaves. The flavour of Winter Savory is,
however, both coarser and stronger, but it has
the advantage of being a hardier plant and a

Figwort is an interesting medicinal plant which

modern examination. Like the
Foxglove, which is also a member of the
Scrophulariaceae, it possesses cardio-active
substances which lead to increased myocardial
contraction. It is not used in heart therapy
however, and its main employment in folk
medicine is a dermatological one, where its
action on the liver is traditionally considered
to benefit skin problems. Nineteenth-century
research also indicated a hypoglycaemic action,
and for a time the root was included as an

hortensis.

perennial evergreen, thus providing fresh leaf

antidiabetic agent.

ancient application against

effective

warmer climates.
Winter Savory is also called Mountain Savory,
hence its specific name montana.
Description Shrubby evergreen perennial 10-40
cm tall, woody at the base, branched and
forming a compact bush. Leaves

cervical

lotions.

Oil

deserves closer

used

is

Sassafras tea

made from

is

Contra-induatwns
internally as

May

it

now under
and perfumery.

food flavouring

in

review], tobacco flavouring

the

wood

should

Oil

not

shavings.

be

used

causes liver and kidney damage.

irritate the skin if

L labiatae
Savory

sometimes incorrectly named as Satureia

It is now most commonly used as a
culinary herb, the name Savory emphasizing
its culinary use. It has been employed in food
flavouring for over 2000 years and probabb
longer than Sage. The herb also possess s
This

is

medicinal

properties

stimulant effect which led to

an aphrodisiac.
this

Some

among
herb,

was the origin of

meaning satyr. The

the

and

first
it

to

including

former use as

authorities believe that

effect

Satureia

its

introduce

the old

name

were
a garden

Italians

this as

has been in cultivation since the

ninth century.

Annual, 30 10 m tall, pubescent,

and branched. Leaves acute, entire, 3 cm

Description

erect

long. Flowers rose,

<

lilac

his

has

Summer

used externally.

Satureja hortensis

Summer

L labiatae
Winter Savory

Satureja montana

or white, in a sparsely-

for

winter flavouring

oblong-linear
long.

White

or
or

in

sessile, entire,

oblanceolate,

pink

flowers,

flowering spikes appearing early

15-30
in

mm

terminal

summer

to

still

apothecaries'

fig)

The

plant's

older, traditional uses.

name

Ficaria major refer to the

\\\tficus

or piles; while Scrophularia

(Latin

goitre and
lymph nodes),

for

names indicate

Figwort and the

is

(Latin for

from scrophula

tuberculosis
since

it

of the

was used

in

complaints characterized by swelling, such as

tumours and mastitis.

Square-stemmed, strong-smelling

Description

Native to south-east Europe and

North Africa; introduced elsewhere. On dry
chalky soils, rocky hills and mountains to 1500

perennial, 40 to 120 cm tall, on tuberous

rhizome; leaves opposite, undivided, decussate, ovate and glabrous. Flowers greenishbrown, to
cm long in panicles appearing

mid-summer

early

autumn.

Distribution

altitude.

Cultivation

Wild. Collected commercially from

Distribution

to mid-autumn.
European native. In wet woodland.

261

SED-SIL
women formerly made a tea from the
plant which they used before or during childIndian
birth,

and

hoea.

The herb never

to treat conditions

such as leucorr-

much

attracted

atten-

however, and it was only included in the

early nineteenth-century American Eclectic
Materia Medica; Hale introduced a homeopathic preparation, however, of the fresh

tion

flowering plant in 1875.

The

plant contains

which have been implicated

poisoning, and it is, therefore, now

toxic substances
in cattle

seldom used.
on thick horizontal

Description Perennial

root,

reaching 30-60 cm tall. The stem is grooved,

erect and brown-streaked; basal leaves alternate, long petioled, obtuse, toothed, 3-15 cm
long.

Stem

leaves oblong or lanceolate, lyrate

or pinnatifid. Flowers golden-yellow to 2

cm

wide, in corymbs, appearing early to mid-

summer.
North American native; on nutwet
soils,
near
to
streams,
marshland.

Distribution

fenland hedgerows, ditches, near streams.

1700

porous,

altitude.

On

To

nutrient-rich loamy, but

embankments and

Cultivation

roofs.

Wild.

Wild

cosides; mucilage;

plant.

unknown

semadine; gly-

substances.

Constituents

Uses (fresh leaves) Rubefacient; hypotensive;

ins,

irritant.

Cardio-active glycosides; saponcomprising mainly diosinine; hesperetin;

Use of the

substances.

external

Uses (dried root-stock, dried flowering tops)

warts and corns;

weak hypoglycaemic.
Used in poultices for the external treatment of
wounds, burns, ulcers and haemorrhoids.
Formerly used externally and internally in
glandular disorders, mastitis and tumerous
conditions. Also used externally and internally
in

chronic skin diseases such as eczema.

Contra-indications

heart

it

Owing

to

its

action on the

should only be used under medical

supervision.

Sedum acre L crassulaceae

Biting Stonecrop Yellow Stonecrop or
Wall-pepper
The Wall-pepper, named after its habitat and
taste, has never been considered of much
medicinal importance, and even some of the
ancient writers warned against
It

its

internal use.

was, however, included in some sixteenth-

century apothecaries' remedies for intestinal

parasites, and was known then as vermicularis.
Similar, related plants were used for the

same

purpose and by 1741 the Wiirttemberg Phar-

macopoeia

specified

'

Vermicularis Jlore flavo\ the

yellow-flowered Vermicularis. In 1830

ble

employment

in epilepsy

its

possi-

had been recog-

was rarely used

for this purpose

because the irritant substances it contains
caused blisters.
Description Fleshy perennial on creeping or
decumbent stems forming mats 5-20 cm tall.
long, thick, sessile, numerous,
Leaves 3-4
cylindrical, arranged closely along the stem.
Flowers yellow, to 15
wide, sparse, in
terminal cymes; appearing mid-summer to

nized, but

it

mm

mm

autumn.
European native; introduced elsewhere. On poor, dry, warm, calcareous or

Cultivation

Wild.

Constituents Alkaloids; tannins; resin;

fresh plant

must be restricted to

for local treatment of

should be diluted with
water to aid wound healing. The plant cannot
safely be used in the treatment of hypertension.
May be employed homeopathically.

application

Not

Contra-indications

External use

it

may

to

be used internally.

cause blistering.

Emmenagogue;

and

root)

diaphoretic; tonic; diuretic;

anti-haemorrhagic.
used in the treatment of certain internal
haemorrhages, especially pulmonary haemorrhage; in female complaints and in childbirth;

Once

in genito-urinary tract infections.

Considered

be a tonic in debility following illness.

Contra-indications To be used only by medical
to

personnel.

L compositae
Golden Ragwort Liferoot/Squaw Weed

unknown

substances.
Uses (fresh or dried flowering plant

vitamin C; palmitic and malic acids; unknown

choleretic; diuretic; cardio-active; vulnerary;

rient-rich
in

Constituents Alkaloids including

soils.

Cultivation

rubble,

May

prove toxic.

Senecio aureus

Female Regulator
and indeed most of its uses were traditionally
concerned with female complaints. American
Senecio aureus

is

also called

Senecio vulgaris

L compositae

Groundsel
This common weed is known to most European
gardeners as an unwelcome intruder in the
vegetable plot, or wherever soil has been disturbed. Dioscorides called it erigeron and conit had cooling properties, a statement
echoed 1600 years later by Culpeper who
thought the herb of value in all diseases caused
by 'heat'. In the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries Groundsel was frequently used in

sidered

it evidently fell out of

780 Hagen wrote that 'it had
.'.
formerly been used
Dr Finazzi reintro-

various conditions, but

fashion, since in

duced the herb

in

1824 for liver diseases, and a

folk medicinal application

century later its

included it being used in amenorrhoea and

dysmenorrhoea.

now known

It is

that, like

its

American relative S. aureus, it possesses toxic

alkaloids which after prolonged or large dos-

damage the liver.

The English name Groundsel, (from
age

the old

English ground swallower) and the French

name

Toute-venue,

emphasize

the

weed's

vivacity.
Description

Annual 4-60 cm

tall;

stems erect,

succulent, purple at the base. Leaves pinnatifid,

with

irregularly

toothed

lobes,

short-

petioled or half-clasping. Flowers yellow, the

mm

diameter in cylindrical

early

flower-heads to 4

Distribution

involucre, on terminal dense corymbose clus-

stony

262

soils,

or sand; especially on old walls,

ters;

appearing throughout the year.

European native, introduced

Distribution

else-

SED-SIL
where. Widespread and common on wild and
cultivated soils, to 2000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild.
Constituents Alkaloids including senecionine;
mucilage; tannins; resin; various mineral
salts;

unknown

months.

yields white or yellowish

oil is

or

brown seed from

S. orientale

The black
L (now classified

as a cultivar of S. indicum L) gives

an

which

oil

considered suitable for industrial purposes.

Constituents Fixed oil (to 55%) comprising
is

Uses (entire flowering plant)

Emmenagogue;

astringent; vulnerary; haemostatic.

Used

glycerides of palmitic, stearic, myristic, oleic

in

and

in various conditions

and other acids; a phenolic subsesamol; sesamin; choline; lecithin;

linoleic

associated with blood circulation or haemorr-

stance,

hages, and in problems of menstruation. Now

very rarely employed, except externally as a

nicotinic acid; calcium salts.

wash

Nutritive;

Uses

for cuts.

Popularly used to feed caged birds.

and can damage the liver;

under medical supervision.

to

seed

(seed,

fresh

oil,

laxative;

leaves

emollient;

rarely)

demulcent.

may be used as a poultice, as may

The ground seed when mixed with

Fresh leaves

Large doses are dangerous

Contra-indications

suitable for both

culinary and medicinal purposes.

substances.

homeopathy. Once used

S. indicum

seed and the expressed

the seeds.

water can be used to treat bleeding haemorrhoids, and can be taken for genito-urinary
infections
when combined with other

be used only

remedies.
Seeds are of benefit in constipation, and
Indians consider a decoction acts as an

emmenagogue.
The oil has wide medical, pharmaceutical and
culinary application.

Sesame seed paste (tahini) is used in spreads,

and pates.
The seed is used to decorate and flavour bread.
sauces, casseroles

from

plains

Carolina. In

drained

Florida and Texas to South

swampy, low-lying land on well-

soils.

Wild. Sometimes transplanted as a

garden cover plant.
Constituents Fixed oil (to 1.5%) to which the
Cultivation

action
I 'ses

due.

is

partly dried ripe fruit) Tonic: stimulant

expectorant; nutritive; sedative. Although the

is mildly sedative, the fruits have

general action
a

stimulant

local

urinary

on

action

membranes of both

mucous
and genito-

the

the respiratory

The

systems.

action

overall

considered tonic, especially following

Serenoa repens

Small palmae
Sabal

Principally used therefore in chronic

Bartr.,

Saw Palmetto

The generic name

Serenoa

is

named

Watson, an American botanist

repens means creeping, and refers

acute

Screno

alter

[899
to the habit of
t8<>f>

bronchitis,

cystitis,

catarrh,

is

illness.

and suband as a

tonic tea. Considered to be of benefit in sexual

and atrophy of

debility

the testes, but this

is

unsubstantiated.

the stems. This habit leads to dense stands of

Saw Palmetto growing along the coastal

of Florida and Georgia

in the

plains

I'nited States of

America.

American Indians used the ground-up seed as

food and considered the fruits were sedative
and tonic. They were, therefore, included in
some orthodox pharmacopoeias from 1830
for

about

100 years,

restricted

palm.

their

use

is

now

folk medicine. Saw Palmetto

saw-toothed edges of the leaves ol
was formerly known as S. serrulata

to

refers to the
tin

but

It

(Michx.) Hook.
Description Palm, usually low and shrubby,
9
m tall, sometimes to f) m tall, with prostrate
1

and creeping, branching stem,

often underground. Leaves very deeply divided to 20

legmen ts), 7-, (in wide, green 01 glaucous
Flowers inconspicuous, on a brain lied luster,
(

followed by SUCCUlent purple drupes fruit)

won drying, darkening, and shrinking
to 18

mm

Distribution

long.

North American native, on

oastal

Sesamum indicum L pedaliaceae

Sesame

Bennc/Gingclli

Sesame is still widely cultivated for its seed

which yields the valuable Sesame or Gigelly
oil

an edible

those of Olive

with similar properties to

oil

The name Sesame can be

oil.

traced back through the Arabic Simsim

(

loptic

Semsem

name mentioned
B.C.)

and

Egyptian Semsemt, a
the Ebcrs Papyrus (c. 1800

to the early
in

which indicates how long man has known

and used

the herb.

Description

Erect,

pubescent

annual

strongly

smelling,

cm

finely

Leaves
variable, simple above, lanceolate or oblong,
alternate or opposite. Flowers purple to whitish,

to

cm

solitary,

to

long,

axillary.

90

sub-erect

Followed

capsule containing numerous

Distribution

Native

tall.

or

by
flat

to the tropii

drooping,
3

cm-long

seeds.

s.

Widely cultivated in Africa, Asia

and America, on sandy loam; the seed being
sown broadcast and harvested within 4
Cultivation

L Gaertn. compositae
Milk-thistle Marian Thistle/
Wild Artichoke
Dioscorides described this herb as silybon but
from early Christian times both Latin and
common names have normally included the
name of the Virgin Mary, after an old tradition that the white veination on the leaves
came from her milk. From this there arose the

Silybum marianum

belief that

which there

the plant affected lactation

is

for

no modern evidence. The herb

is

SIN-SOL
Young leaves,
and

shoots, peeled stems, receptacles

roots can be

Contra-indications

The

seed should be used only

by medical personnel.
Sinapis alba

L cruciferae

ancient Greeks and

officinale

(L) Scop,

cruciferae

This herb was the erysimon of Dioscorides who

prescribed it (combined with honey) against
deadly poisons and a host of other diseases and
pestilences.

Mustard White Mustard

The

Sisymbrium

Hedge Mustard

cooked and eaten.

The Greek name was

the apothecaries' Herba erysimi,

Romans

used Mus-

Linnaeus who

classified

it

as

retained in

and even by

Erysimum

officinale

tard as a spice, usually ground up and sprinkl-

The development of the now

known condiment began in France

ed over food.
universally

and today over half

comes from Dijon. White
Mustard is closely related to the Wild Charlofck (Sinapis arvensis L), and is much less
pungent than Black Mustard. There was no
medicinal differentiation between the various
types of Mustard seed until the London
Pharmacopoeia of 1720.
Description Branched annual to
m high;
slightly hairy stems; leaves generally oval and
in the seventeenth century,

the world's supply

lobed. Flowers small, bright yellow, appearing

mid-summer

to early

autumn. Seed yellowish

in colour, in bristly pods.

Native to southern parts of Europe

and western Asia. Introduced elsewhere.
Cultivation Wild plant. Cultivated commercially on wide scale.
Distribution

effective

upon

the liver, however, a property

it

shares with another species of the Compositae

Constituents

Family, the Artichoke; and,

A glycoside comprising sinalbin

an

recognizing

in that

name

the fact that

Hedge

Mustard had long been an official plant, and

effective as an expectorant.
Traditionally, and in practice, the herb or juice

enzyme,

myrosin,

the flower receptacle can be eaten.

presence

of cold

Milk Thistle was formerly cultivated quite

crushed.

may

widely, not only for the receptacle but also for

Uses (seed, leaves) Stimulant, irritant, emetic.

roots - the latter

Less powerful than Black Mustard and used in

Tragopogon porrifolius L). In

combination with it for similar purposes.

Powerful preservative, effective against moulds
and bacterial growth; used for this reason in

loss, and for this

became known as the Singer's plant.
Description Annual on branched, erect stem
30-90 cm tall, with 5-8 cm long basal leaves
deeply pinnatifid and toothed; stem leaves
thinner and hastate. Flowers small, pale yellow

young

the

stalks, leaves

resembling Salsify

like the

and

the eighteenth century the

Artichoke,

young shoots were

thought to be superior to the best cabbage.

Medicinally the herb was often used in
place of the Blessed Thistle (Cnicus benedictus L)
and for a long time the seed was considered a
specific for stitches in the side.

Description

Annual or biennial; 30-150 cm

tall

prominently grooved, seldom

branched stem. Leaves large, oblong, shiny,

with

erect,

variegated and very spiny; sessile or clasping.

Flowers violet-purple, thistle-like in a hemispherical capitula to 5

cm

and surrounded

the base by long spiny

at

long; usually solitary

appendages.

Appearing

elsewhere.

summer

to early

On dry rocky or stony soils in waste-

and roadsides to 600 m altitude.

Cultivation Wild plant. Easily grown from seed;
prefers sunny situation and well-drained soil.

lands, fields

Constituents Essential oil;

tyramine; histamine;

bitter principles; a flavonoid, silymarine.

Uses (powdered seed, fresh

and dried

whole and dried flowering plant, fresh root,

young stems and shoots, fresh receptacle)
Choleretic; cholagogue; bitter tonic; hyper-

tensive; diuretic.

The whole herb

leaves used in salads.

the
is

be used fresh to restore the voice in

hoarseness or in complete

reason

is

of value in the stimulation of

assist digestion.

it

on long racemes, appearing early summer to

mid-autumn.
Distribution European native; in hedgerows,
roadsides, railway embankments, most wasteland and weedy places and occasionally on
1700 m altitude.
Wild. Once cultivated as a pot-herb.
Constituents Sulphur-containing compounds;

walls.

To

Cultivation

cardenolides.
Uses (fresh flowering tops, fresh juice) Expect-

bechic;

stomachic;

tonic;

diuretic;

laxative.

Useful in bronchitis, pharyngitis, tracheitis,

and

as a tonic.

May

be used with discretion in sauces;

formerly eaten as a vegetable but the flavour is
strong and disagreeable in large quantities.
Contra-indications
it is

As

it

has an effect on the heart

not suitable for the very young, old or those

with cardiovascular problems.

leaves,

fresh

appetite and to

Young

in

seed

orant;

autumn.
Distribution Native to central and west Europe;
introduced and naturalized in California and
late

pickles.

which interact
water when the

The powdered

Smilax ornata Hook.

f.

liliaceae

Sarsaparilla
Sarsaparilla was introduced to Seville, Spain,
between 1536 and 1545 from Mexico, and it
soon received attention as a potential remedy
- particularly following the reports

for syphilis

markedly choleretic

of successful treatment using the herb's roots

cardiovascular disorders.

sickness.

by Pedro de Ciezo de Leon in the 1540s.

The plant was established as an official drug
by the mid-sixteenth century and remained

ulcers

official

seeds taken in emulsion are

and of use

They

264

in certain

also act prophylactically against travel

Formerly used in the treatment of leg

and varicose veins.

until

the

early

twentieth

century.

SIN-SOL
was given various names, including
and
Sarmentum indicum, and by 1685 three main
sorts, Mexican, Honduran and that from the
province of Quito were being exported to
Europe in large quantities.
By the nineteenth century Sarsaparilla was
established as a valuable alterative and tonic
Initially

it

Zarzaparilla, Zarza-Parrilla, Salsa Parilla

for use in

rheumatic, syphilitic, scrophulous,

some

benefit in rheumatism.

gests

Smyrnium olusatrum L umbelliferae

Alexanders Black Lovage/Horse Parsley
Because of superficial similarities with other
members of the Umbelliferae family, AlexBlack Lovage, Wild
A medieval name
Petroselinum Alexandrium or the Rock Parsley of

Celery,

root

now

is

retained in few national

pharmacopoeias, and besides

use,

it

is

folk

medicinal

only employed as a vehicle and

flavouring agent for medicines, or as a soft

climates.

is

also

known

and Horse

as

Parsley.

Alexandria echoes these similarities and gives

us the name Alexanders.
It was known to Theophrastus as hipposelinon

and occasionally

as petroselinon, the latter

usually being applied to Parsley.

name

related

L, which had similar

and uses was given the Greek name
Smyrnion and from this the generic name of
Alexanders is obtained. Both plants were
official from the earliest times, and the root
plant,

perfoliatum

S.

properties

drink flavouring.
Description Dioecious,

means of paired

woody

vine climbing

in a sunny position from seed sown in the

autumn. Its cultivation is similar to Celery.

Unknown.

Constituents

Uses (seed, dried

and

fresh root, fresh stems

and

leaves) Stomachic; diuretic.

anders

The

Evidence sug-

warmer

Employed as a pharmaceutical flavouring

Used in soft drinks.

many

were reaching
Europe. These included Honduran, Guatemalan, Brazilian, Jamaican, Mexican and
Guayaquil Sarsaparillas. Of these, the socalled Jamaica Sarsaparilla (exported via
Jamaica but actually from central America)
was the only sort once allowed in the British
Pharmacopoeia.

effective in

agent.

and chronic dermatological problems, and

different types of root

more

is

it

Now

rarely used medicinally, the seed soaked

wine was formerly considered an emmenagogue, while the leaves were antiscorbutic in
days when vitamin C was unavailable. The
root is mildly diuretic and a bitter, thus promoting appetite. The seed is stomachic, and
was once thought to be of benefit in asthma.
The fresh juice may be used on cuts and
wounds.
Seed may be crushed and used with discretion
as a condiment.
Leaves, stem, root and shoots may be boiled
and eaten. The fresh blanched stem and flower
buds can be eaten raw.
in

Solanum dulcamara

L solanaceae

Nightshade Bittersweet/Woody Nightshade

The Solanaceae family consists of over 1700
some of which are of considerable
economic importance - such as the Egg-plant,
Pepino, and Potato. Others are of horticultural interest and several have been employed
species,

by-

Stems prickly
root-stock, from

stipular tendrils.

arising from rhizomatous

which numerous thin, cylindrical roots also
arise.
Leaves alternate, variable. Flowers
greenish to white, followed by berries.
Distribution Native to Central America, especially Costa Rica. In humid forests, swamps,
and river-banks.

for

medicinal purposes

Many, such

in all parts of the

world.

acid sitosterol-d-glycoside fatty acids sugars

have very poisonous

berries due to their glycoalkaloid content. This
irritant substance partially breaks down, however, in solution to yield steroidal alkamine
aglycones which have an effect on the nervous
system. Various parts of the plant (excluding
the berries) have therefore been used appropriately in medicinal practice since as early as

resins.

the thirteenth century.

Uses (root) Alterative; diuretic; tonic. This

herb's stem

Cultivation

Wild.

The

thin rootlets are usually

collected from the wild.

Constituents

Sarsaponin, a glycoside; sarsapic

remedy

is

ineffective in syphilis

and

is

now

as this species,

The

was introduced

sixteenth century

when

it

specific use of the

in

Germany

in the

was called Dulcis

considered of low therapeutic value. It does

assist in the elimination of urea and uric acid,

amara,

however, and

chemical changes mentioned above).

Its medical use has almost disappeared in the
last 30 years although it is included as a food
flavouring provided the solanine content in
the final food product is not more than 10 mg

is

thus of value in gout;

it

is

which

of
so until 1830 in much of
Europe.
Alexanders has been most important as a
culinary herb however, and its cultivation was
described by Pliny and Columella in the first
century a.d. Even Galen considered it more
important as a food than a medicine. The
leaves, the upper part of the roots, stem and
shoots were most often used, but the flower
buds were also added to salads. Like Celery the
herb was blanched to remove bitterness. Due
to the whims of fashion, Alexanders largely
disappeared from gardens in the mid-eighteenth century, but it is worthy of modern

and seed remained

literally
is

first

sweet bitter, after the taste

then sweet (due to the

bitter,

per kg.
Description

cm
tall.

Shrubby perennial usually 60-170

sometimes climbing or trailing to 4 m

Leaves ovate, pubescent, petiolate, entire

tall,

cultivation.

Glabrous biennial, 50-150 cm tall

furrowed stem. Lower leaves to 30 cm
long, compound, stalked, with broadly ovate
segments to 6 cm long. Flowers yellow-green in
sub-globose umbels to 10 cm wide appearing
early to mid-summer and followed by aromatic
Description

on

solid,

black seed.
Distribution Native to west Europe, mediterranean region, and naturalized elsewhere; on
moist soils in hedge banks, rocky soils, cliffs,

specially close to the sea.

Cultivation

Wild

plant. Cultivated

on most

soils

265

SOL-STY
2

or

more

basal lobes; to 10

spotted

violet,

cm

with

green,

long. Flowers

bright

yellow

numerous in long-stalked cymes,

appearing mid-summer or mid-autumn. Followed by ovoid, scarlet-red fruit to 12
anthers;

mm

diameter.
Distribution

weedy
on

Widespread. Native

places, stream edges,

damp

nutrient-rich

Cultivation

Wild

Constituents

Europe,

to

On

and North America.

Asia,

wasteland,

and woodland;

Leaves either dentate or entire. Flowers

golden-yellow, to 15
wide, arranged in
terminal panicles; appearing late summer to

mm

autumn.

late

Native

Distribution

and

to

Europe, North Africa

wood

edges,

grassland;

porous acid and calcareous

Alkaloids

(to

1%)

comprising

and solanine; glycosidal

and non-glycosidal saponins comprising dulcamaric and dulcamaretic acids.

Uses (dried stems) Expectorant; diuretic.
Formerly employed in decoction to treat
asthma, catarrh, rheumatism and bronchitis,
and especially of benefit in dermatological
problems such as eczema, psoriasis and pity-

May

woodland

Asia. Introduced elsewhere. In

clearings,

soils.

plant.

solaceine, solaneine

pubescent, the basal ones obovate to

oblanceolate and petiolate, to 10 cm long.
Upper leaves smaller and becoming sessile.
ate,

soils,

to

on deep
2800 m

altitude.

Wild plant. Propagated horticulturby division in spring or autumn, or from

seed sown in spring. Prefers open conditions,
and soils which are not too rich.
Cultivation

ally

Constituents Essential oil; flavonoids; tannins;

saponins; various organic acids comprising

mainly

known

tartaric

citric,

and oxalic

acids; un-

substances.

be used homeopathically.
All parts of the plant are
POISONOUS; to be used only by medical

Uses (dried flowering plant) Anti-inflammatory expectorant vulnerary astringent weak-

personnel.

Of much

riasis.

Contra-indications

use applied externally in poultices or

ointments
Solidago virgaurea

L compositae

ance.

It

is

to assist tissue healing; used intern-

same purpose, and

ally for the

Golden Rod
The common name

ly diuretic.

also in urino-

genital inflammations or to treat chronic skin

refers to the herb's appearan attractive plant and has been

problems.

Formerly

taken as an adjuvant (assisting

with other remedies, of benefit in

taken into cultivation as a useful late-flowering

agent)

ornamental.
The herb is not certainly mentioned in ancient
writings and there is evidence that it was
particularly promoted by the Arabs in the

asthma, arthritis and rheumatism.

Rarely used in cases of diarrhoea. Its ability to
reduce cholesterol levels is not clinically

Once

substantiated.

takes place.

Middle Ages,

since to fifteenth

and sixteenthSpigelia marilandica

wound

The

herb, hence the

name

consolida

from the

make whole and hence its generic

name. Traditionally it was employed both
externally and internally. Clarke introduced
an extract of the fresh flowers to homeopathic
medicine in 1902, and in 1949 it was discovered by Hager that Brazilians used the
Latin to

herb

closely

related

wound

plant, too.

S.

microglossa

DC

as a

Erect perennial to
tall
on
knotted rhizome. Stems usually sparsely branched, sometimes unbranched. Leaves alternDescription

rarely

round-worms;

specifically used to expel

when purgation

the action only being effective

It

was, therefore, usually adminis-

L loganiaceae
Pink Root Carolina Pink/Worm Grass/

of use in the treatment of nervous headache.

Indian Pink

The remedy

generic

name

of this once popular North

American Indian remedy

for

round-worms

is

taken from Adrian van der Spiegel, a physician from Brussels

who

died in

Padua

in 1625, in

whose honour it was called Spigelia.

The herb was particularly favoured in the
southern States by the Cherokees, to whom it
was known as unsteetla. It was introduced to
medicine in the 1750s by Dr Garden and Dr
Chalmers; it was included in the United
States Pharmacopoeia, and continued to be
used in orthodox medicine until 40 years ago.
The name Pink Root comes from the internal
colour of the root-stock. It was formerly classi-

from 30-60 cm tall.

acuminate, sessile, ovate to ovate-lanceolate,
somewhat pubescent beneath; 5 10 cm long.
Flowers very attractive, 3-5 cm long, deep red
outside, yellow inside, carried on erect, onesided terminal cymes; appearing early to late
Distribution

rich,

American

North

New Jersey

deep

soils at

native;

incompletely

be of benefit
leaves

may

be used, with discretion, as a

stomachic tea; they do not contain the same

quantity of active substances as are found in
the root-stock.

Betony
is an interesting example of a herb which
was attributed with magical properties from
the earliest times when it was used medicinally,
and which for some time retained an important
place in folk medicine even though its value is

This

The EgyptBetony with

magical properties, and it was the most
important magical plant of the Anglo-Saxons,
being mentioned as one of the medicinal
plants in the eleventh-century work, the
seriously questioned.

ians were the

first

to attribute

Lacnunga. Dioscorides

knew

authorities consider

it is only an astringent
was once an ingredient of bitter

Wild

tonics), while others believe

An

plant.

alkaloid, spigeline; bitter prin-

ciples; resin; volatile oil; fixed oil; tannins;

content, which

is

to

the

as kestron while

in

Cultivation

due

it

the

Constituents

mostly

labiatae

Stachys officinalis (L) Trevisan

bitter

is

but

com-

plaints.

The

clearings.

action

studied,

certain nervous

in

woodland

the

thought to be

in

from

and Texas;
the edges of woods and
to Florida

is

is

Romans called it vettonica, from which the

old name betonica is derived. It was previously
known as Betonica officinalis L.
Today opinions differ as to its value; some

summer.
southern

may

now being

on twisted root-stock,
Leaves opposite, entire,

Perennial

Description

powder

In small quantities the

fied as Lonicera marilandica L.

266

and rhizome,

tered in conjunction with a purgative.

it was known as Erba pagana

and the Germans called it Consolida Saracema.
Golden Rod has principally been used as a

century Italians

Uses (dried or fresh roots

fresh leaves) Antihelmintic; narcotic.

spigeline

a slightly toxic substance.

(it

however,

now

chiefly

it is

sedative.

employed

smoking mixtures and herbal

in

It

is,

herbal

snuffs, as well as

occasionally being used in folk medicine.

Description Perennial with square stems; reach-

SOL-STY
medicine by Dr Symons. It was soon an
drug in the United States Pharmacopoeia, and entered European pharmacopoeias
its action is markedly reduced if old tinctures
or roots are employed, and it was found to be
a better expectorant than an antisyphilitic. It
is still retained in folk medicine and proprietary herbal products as an alterative.
Its leaves are often marked with chancre-like
which may have
(like syphilitic lesions) spots

to

official

originally suggested

use in syphilis.

its

subshrub to 90
on thick, creeping root-stock. Stems
clustered and regularly branched. Leaves very
variable in form; from ovate to oblong or
Description Glabrous, perennial

cm

tall,

lanceolate, sessile or short-petioled, toothed,

Distribution

long-petioled, 3-20 mm long;

some leaves ovate and sessile. Flowers small,
white, numerous on downwardly pointing
stalks. Appearing early spring to mid-winter.
Distribution
European native; distributed
worldwide, and often naturalized as a weed of
importance. On all moist, cultivated land and

in

wasteland

to

altitude.

Cultivation

Wild

Wild plant.
Constituents Tannins (to

Mineral salts including calcium

and potassium salts; saponins.
Uses (fresh stems and leaves) Vulnerary.
The crushed plant may be used in poultices;
once rubbed on arthritic joints to relieve discomfort. Used homeopathically in the treatment of rheumatism.
Principally used as a salad herb or ma\
be cooked as a vegetable with a knob of
butter added.

30-60 cm

ing

dentate,

tall.

slightly

Basal rosette of cordate,

and

long-petiolate

hairy,

strongly-nerved leaves. Flowers pink or purple, in

a dense, terminal spike surmounting a

mid-summer

long stalk; appearing

mid-

to

autumn.

European native; on sandy loams

wood clearings, meadowland, to 1500 m

saponosides;

15%);

sub-

bitter

glucosides;

alkaloids

comprising betonicine and stachydrine.

Uses (dried flowering tops, root-stock rarely)

emetic;

stomachic;

Astringent;

purgative;

vulnerary; sternutatory; bitter; sedative.

The root may cause purgation and is not
usually employed.

The herb
in

is

an effective bitter tonic and useful

diarrhoea and

for external

application

in

may

states,

but

is

best

taken with other remedies.

dried leaves

may

be used as a tea sub-

and are included

stitute,

in

smoking and

snull

I)r Benjamin
named.

The

Stillingfleet, alter

use of the

herb as

was established

States well before 1828

media (L) Vill.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

dry

W ild
r

plant.

Constituents Volatile oil (to

months

12

with birds.
It

has long been used as a bird feed, and in

winter

it

provides one

of

Seed lor them. Indeed,

the few sources ol fresh

is

it

as a foodstuff lor

The commore than

ive; laxative; sialogogue.

Principally used now as an alterative in

chronic skin problems, liver infections and
urino-genital infections. In small doses it is
laxative,

and

in large

doses

it

is

emetic and

in

pulmonary

purgative.

Of

an expectorant

benefit as

whom

it

was

Styrax benzoin

Benzoin
It

was

in

spe<

against

the southern United

when

it

was introduced

it

Dryander styracaceae
Benjamin

Gum

noted by Ibn Batuta following his

to 1349, and he called

first

Sumatra in 1325
Java Frankincense

Arabic).

(or Luban Jawi

The Arabic name was altered

in

to

Banjawi, Benzui, Benzoin and Benjamin over

subsequent centuries.

The resin was imported to Europe following

Garcia de Orta's description of the drug
(1563), and in the

in

an

old) Expectorant; emetic; purgat-

in

bite

fixed oil;

Uses (dried or fresh root-stock, not

Chickweed
and

4%);

ate; cyanogenic glycosides; starch.

bined action is mildly irritant.

I'oiseau its

is this herb's English name, Imbed

French name, Vogelmiere iis German,
medieval Latin mOTSUl gtUlitUU liens
all of these emphasizing die association

from
light,

sun.

soils in full

Cultivation

visit to

The

Chickweed

native;

Card, eiphorbiaceae

Queen's Delight Queen's Root/Yaw-root

Queen's Delight receives its generic name from

syphilis

Stellaria

American

Virginia to Florida and Texas. In sandy,

disorders.

mixtures.
fresh plant provides a yellow dye.

mid-autumn.
North

to

Distribution

acrid resin, sylvacrol; tannins; calcium oxal-

altitude.

plant.

Stil/ingia sylvatua

possess a mild sedative action of benefit

headaches and anxiety

The

to

wounds.
It

2000

Constituents

Cultivation

stances;

ovate-acute,

green to red, 3- 11 cm long. Flowers monoecious, yellow, without petals, in dense, terminal spikes to 12 cm long; male flowers in
clusters, female solitary. Appearing late spring

1582

name

it

was

list

listed as

of taxes levied at

Asa

Worms

(Sweet Asa) -

dulcis

retained until the 1850s.

By [800 the antiseptic properties of Benzoin

had been fully recognized and both Simple
and Compound Tinctures of Benzoin were
regularly employed as preservatives in a wide
range of medicinal and cosmetic preparations,
the resin is still used today in herbal

animals and poor country lolk that it has

received most attention; the ancient writers
ignored it and it has few, if any, medicinal

and

applications.

elliptic to orbicular, entire or slightly dentate.

Stellaria

is

from the Latin

Stella

meaning

a star.

after the (lower shape:

preparations.

Vigorous annual, but rapidly propagating and found throughout (he year.
Stems much-branched, decumbent and as-

Cultivation

'

ending, very Straggly, 10

40 (in

tall.

Leaves

to

tall;

leaves simple,

Flowers white, several, in drooping clusters on

cm long pedicels.
Distribution Native tosouth-east Asia, especially

while media serves to

distinguish this plant fi >m both larger and
smaller relatives as it me, ins middle.
Description

Tree

Description

Sumatra;

mixed forests lose to rivers.

Wild and cultivated commercially.

in

obtained by tapping 7 10 year old

raping off the whitish exudation
from the bark. Trees can be so treated for up to
I

he

trees

ic

sin

and

is

se

267

SUC-TAX
symphiton of Dioscorides. but

the

Roman

it probably was
from the verb meaning to
the name from which both the

conferva

join together

common name

medieval Consolidae maioris and

Comfrey are derived.

Comfrey was once one of the main herbs used
in treating fractures and hence the alternative
name Knitbone. The pounded root forms a
mucilaginous mass which can be bound around
a fracture and which, when dry. holds the bone
in place.

30- 1 20 cm tall, on thick

brownish-black root-stock. Leaves and stem
erect, with stiff hairs. Lower leaves to 25 cm
Description Perennial.

long,

lanceolate,

petiolate.

Upper

narrower.

leaves

hairy

beneath.

Flowers

purplish,

pinkish or yellowish-white, in crowded ter-

minal

appearing early summer

cymes;

to

autumn.

early

Europe. Asia; introOn rich, wet

streams, in ditches, on low-

Native

Distribution

to

duced and naturalized elsewhere.

soils

near

lying

rivers,

meadowland. To 1500

altitude.

Propagated by division in
spring and autumn, or by root cuttings from
spring to autumn. Tolerates most conditions,
but requires regular watering on dry soils.
Constituents Mucilage: allantoin
to 0.8
Cultivation

20 years, before they die.

Balsamic acids to 6o
comprising esters of cinnamic and benzoic acids:
benzoresinol: benzaldehyde; styrol: vanillin:
Constituents

and

several related substances.

The combined

predominantly antiseptic.
Uses resin Carminative: antiseptic; diuretic:

action

is

mildly expectorant.

Used internally as a genito-urinary antiseptic,

and as an expectorant in chronic bronchitis.
Principally
poultices

of benefit

and

an

as

antiseptic

in

and also applied directan antiseptic tincture. The

plasters,

ly to the skin as

an excellent preservative, suitable

various pharmaceutical and cosmetic

tincture
for

is

preparations.

can be used diluted as a mouth wash.

Used in incense and aromatic products.
It

toothed. Flowers dark blue, occasionally white.

numerous, arranged in globular, involucral
heads, terminating a long stalk. Appearing
late summer to late autumn.
Distribution Native to North Africa: Europe:
western Siberia: introduced and naturalized
in north-east United States and elsewhere. On
moist soils in woods, pastures, fenland. and

To

The second

part of this herb's

Wild

Cultivation

plant.

in

which scratching

is

characteristic.

It

was

most

members

scratchy

seed

of

the

heads;

Dipsacaceae
the

Fuller's

is

rarely used today.

Description Perennial

A decoction may be

stem erect 15-100 cm tall, usually glabrous.

Basal leaves narrowly elliptic to obovatelanceolate, to 30 cm long, arranged in a
rosette; stem leaves narrower and rarely

268

used externally

pruritus or to aid

healing or ulcers. Also used homeo-

Symphytum

officinale

L boraginaceae

Comfrey Knitbone
Comfrey

has

received

much

attention

recent years both as a medicinal plant

viding a source of vitamin

proliferant allantoin

and

B 12 and

in

pro-

the cell-

as a potential source

Attempts
suitable

extract the protein in a form

to

human consumption and

for

to

develop the plant as a food source in underdeveloped countries have so far been unsuccessful.

on short, erect root-stock

Astringent: demulcent: cell-prolifer-

ant: vulnerary:

Root

used

weak

sedative.

internally

in

the

treatment

of

veins.

almost 35 per cent total protein, which is the

same percentage as that of soya beans, and 10
per cent more than that of Cheddar Cheese.

is

fresh or dried root-stock, fresh or dried

leaves!

Now rarely used; the root-stock was formerly

considered of benefit as an expectorant in

of protein. Certain strains of the herb contain

an old prefix from a traditional

story in which the devil bit part of the root off.
The herb is not very effective medicinally and
Devil's-Bit

cell-pro-

tion. Considered of benefit in neuralgia and

rheumatism, applied externally. Occasionally

flower?

have

The

to the allantoin content.

root are applied as a poultice, lotion or decoc-

rarely

Teasel

Honk, is the most extreme example of this, and the bracts were once
used to tease or scratch up the nap on cloth.
Dipsacus sativus

due

and

root-stock;

pathically.

formerly classified as Scabiosa succisa L.

This may have been introduced through the
theory of the Doctrine of Signatures, since

Uses

is

Expectorant: diuretic: antihelmintic:

vulnerary; astringent: stomachic.

dried

Uses

juice

common name

it has been used in the

treatment of scabies and similar skin conditions

liferant action

gastric

altitude.

Constituents

wound

refers to the fact that

sugars; essential oil; choline.

Saponins: a glucoside. scabioside:

starch; tannins: mineral salts.

1800

to relieve itching of the skin

Moench. DIPSACACEAE
Devil's-Bit Scabious

tannic acid: resin; traces of alkaloids compris-

ing consollidine and symphyto-cynoglossine:

and duodenal ulcers and diarrhoea:

leaf used in pleurisy and bronchitis.
For wounds, bruising, ulceration and dermatological complaints the leaves or macerated

marshes.

bronchitis.

Succisa pratensis

Wild.

Comfrey is, however, an important animal

some parts of the world, and in Africa.

feed in
for

example,

also
It

is

increasing in importance. It is
an organic compost and mulch.
not certain that this species was the

grown

it is

as

used externally

in

the treatment of varicose

Dried leaf is a tea substitute.

Fresh leaf used as a vegetable;
in composting and mulching.

in

animal feeds:

SUC-TAN
araceae

Symplocarpus foetidus (L) Nutt.

Skunk Cabbage

Weed

Polecat

This herb has an unusual appearance and, as

common names suggest, an awful smell

its

when

bruised.

has been classified botanically in several

Pothos,
notably Ictodes,
genera,
different
Arum, and Dracontium, but it is now included
It

genus Symplocarpus.

as the only species of the

Skunk Cabbage root and seed were introduced

to Europe in the early nineteenth century from
American folk use, and although included in
the United States Pharmacopoeia for a short
time they did not attract much attention since
superior antispasmodics were available. It is,

however, retained

medicine.

in folk

hardy perennial on large

tuberous root-stock and long rootlets. Stemless. Leaves (produced after the flowers) ovatecordate, 45 cm long and 30 cm wide, smooth,
Description Foetid,

entire, long-petioled (to 25

mentioned in the writings of Chinese

and an early custom of the Han
dynasty (266 B.C. to a.d. 220' was to retain a
first

physicians,

cm). Inflorescence

a fleshy ovoid spathe to 15 cm long, purplebrown, mottled with yellow, covering a black

Clove in the mouth when addressing the

emperor, presumably to counteract halitosis.
Pliny mentioned a spice called caryophyllon,
hence the specific name, and by the fourth
century Cloves were widely used throughout
Europe. In the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries the spice caused serious trade rivalry
between some European countries, and eventually the French began cultivation in Mauritius. It was first grown in Zanzibar in 1800.
Description Attractive pyramidal evergreen tree
10-15 m ta "- Leaves ovate-oblong, 5-12.5 cm

is

oval spadix; appearing early to mid-spring.

North-eastern

Distribution

American
swamps and

North

native; also in north-east Asia; in

boggy land.

long,

smooth and shiny, leathery, acute, and

tapering at the base. Flowers crimson or pale

mm

purple, 7
wide, in branched terminal
cymes. Fresh buds pink, but reddish-brown
after sun drying.
Distribution Native to south-east Asian islands,
especially the Moluccas. Introduced to West
Indies, tropical East Africa, China.

Wild; cultivated commercially

maritime countries.

Cultivation

tropical

Constituents Volatile oil

in

u.illotannic acid

caryophyllin action due to volatile oil.

Uses (dried flower buds, oil) Aromatic stimu( 1

3o

Cultivation

Wild.

ent

Resin fixed
;

oil

volatile oil

whooping

asthma,

bronchitis,

fever,

respiratory

hay

cough,

Root-stock formerly employed in the treatment of certain nervous disorders; also used to
treat snake bites.
Contra-indications Slightly narcotic;

only.

The

fresh plant

may

&

Perry

lie

dried

(loves,

unopened flower buds, known

are

derived

growing only on

tin

from a

tree

as

originally

small islands comprising

the \Ioluc( as propci. For

tliis

reason thev win-

tamine-like

Formerly only used externally

Contra-indications

remedy externally
ailed

nigra

ampelos

(black

melana
vine)

his

to treat bruises.

Certainly by the Middle Ages

<

prescribed

(black

and

this

plant was

ampelos),

finally

brioma

vitis

nigra

as a poultice to

Tanacetum vulgare

in

It

POISONOUS;

the

berries

fatal to children.

is

also

L compositae

found

classified as

now

Chrysanthemum

grown
and longyellow flower-heads, many of which are
Bernh.

herb gardens

used

who

his-

oxalate; un-

treat contusions.

scented articles.
Ampelos {Ampelos

Mucilage; gums;

resolvent.

Black Bryony
The Black Bryony

field

m altitude.

Uses (fresh or dried root-stock) Rubefacient;

lasting

thought to be the herb

100

compound; calcium

Tamus communis L dioscoreaceae

is

soils, to

plant.

substances.

vulgare (L)

described as the wild or

agria) of Dioscorides

Clove-tree

Wild

Constituents (root-stock)

Tansy

medical use

MYRTACEAE

Cultivation

should not have prolonged contact with the

gums as this may cause serious irritation.
oil

cause blistering.

Syzygium aromaticum (L) Merr.

drained, nutrient-rich

Contra-indicalions If applied for toothache, the

leaves can be used fresh as a vulnerary.

mm

diameter globose, red berry.

Distribution Native to central and southern
Europe. In hedgerows, woodland clearings,
wood margins, scrubland; on moist, well-

Tansy

catarrh.

The

spring to late summer, and followed by 12

Culinary uses include bread sauce, curry,

mulled spiced wine, liqueurs and stews. Acts as
a preservative in pickles. Used in pomanders.

use in the treatment of various respiratory

including

Black Bryony is poisonous, and if the root is

used internally it is violently purgative and
emetic. It has, therefore, never been considered useful medicinally, but Clarke introduced
a homeopathic preparation in 1902 to be used
in sunstroke and rheumatism.
Description Dioecious perennial, on very large
tuber (to 60 cm diameter), producing annual,
twining stems. Leaves entire, cordate, broadlyovate, glossy, to 10 cm long, with very long
petioles. Flowers yellowish-green, male stalked, female sessile; both small. Appearing late

known

counter-irritant.

common

derived.

can be

expectorant; diuretic; emetic; mild sedative.

Of

is

Used in the treatment of flatulent colic, and as

a remedy for toothache. Applied externally in
embrocations to relieve neuralgic pain, and in
rheumatism.
A constituent of tooth-powders and toothpastes, as a flavouring agent and antiseptic.

sugars

gums; unknown acrid substances.

Uses (dried root and rhizome) Antispasmodic;

complaints,

antispasmodic; carminative; rubefaci-

lant;

Constituents

(black brionia) - from which the

name

in

It is

for its

frequently

attractive

insect-repelling pot-pourris or other

has traditionally been used as an insecticide

and in the Middle Ages was

one of the strewing herbs used on floors.
Tansy was also rubbed over meat to keep flies
away, and one of its old names arthemisia
domestica emphasizes its use in the house.
It was also called athanasia and tanacetum.
or insect repellent,

269

TAR-THY
the family Flacourtiaceae which yield seed
containing a fatty oil. The oil, and the crushed
seed, have long been used in south-east Asia to
treat various skin diseases, and it has been

the most useful of European herbs and all parts

of the plant can be employed. It is an extremely

shown

the best herbs

that

the active principles of the oil

(hydnocarpic and chaulmoogric acids,

are

effective medicinal plant, being possibly the

safest

and most active plant

known

and one of

diuretic

to treat liver complaints.

Both the leaves and root have long been eaten

strongly antibacterial. For this reason Chaul-

as

moogra

cultivated forms with large leaves have been

employed

is

Hindu medicine

in

to

material,

developed

treat leprosy.

Tree

Description

salad

20

to

tall;

leaves glossy,

and oblong-lanceolate, to 20 cm long. Flowers few, in branched

axillary cymes, or appearing singly. Followed
by rugose, indehiscent, hard, globular fruit to
10 cm diameter; containing numerous seeds in
entire, alternate, leathery

as

and

in

the last century

an autumn and spring vegetable;

these usually being blanched in the

as

same way

Endive.

flowers last so long.

Dandelion roots provide when dried, chopped

and roasted the best-known coffee substitute,
and all parts have been employed in fermented
and unfermented beers, wines and tonic
drinks. Surprisingly the herb is rarely mentioned by the ancient Greeks and Romans, and
it
is
generally considered that the Arabs
promoted its use in the eleventh century.
By the sixteenth century it was well established
as an official drug of the apothecaries, who
knew it as Herba Taraxacon or Herba Urinaria

Tansy was used

the latter term emphasizing

a pulpy mass.

Native

Distribution

names of uncertain
to

mean

Burma and Thailand

to

and now introduced

to

other regions of tropical

association but considered

deathless

because

possibly

the

until the mid-eighteenth

century in certain types of pancakes called
tansies. These were eaten at Lent, and the
bitterness was meant to remind the eater of

It

Description

Aromatic,

60-120 cm

somewhat
tall,

Leaves pinnate, alternate,

divided

into

numerous

to 12

rhizome.

cm

long, sub-

leaflets

which

It is still

mid-autumn.
to Europe and Asia;

to early or

Distribution

Native

variety (var. crispum

larger and more

are found in T.

is

with

some-

yellow, on hollow scapes, appearing late spring

Constituents Essential oil,

(to

to

comprising thujone

70%), and borneol; vitamin C; tannins;

south-east Asia.

acid

(to

Uses

irritant.

Anti-

emmenagogue.

Small doses are effective in the treatment of

round-worms. The herb also aids digestion.
Maybe used in infusion as a gargle in gingivitis.
The extracted oil was formerly used externally
in the treatment of rheumatic pain.

Employed in a variety of
and scented articles.

insect-repellent

sachets

Contra-indications

Large doses are irritant and if

may induce abortion.

taken during pregnancy

Taraktogenos kurzii

King flacourtiaceae

23

gorlic

),

acid,

),

oil,

compris-

chaulmoogric

oleic

The

Antibacterial;

seed)

ioil.

oil is effective in

matous

acid

and

and

alterative;

the treatment of lepro-

still used in the East.

Also useful in the treatment of intestinal worms.
Seed used externally and internally in various

leprosy,

is

skin diseases. Usually applied as an ointment.

In India the seeds are considered to be an

alterative tonic.
Contra-indications

The

oil

is

irritant

and may

cause nausea and vomiting, as well as having a

slight

depressant action on the cardiovascular

system.

Taraxacum

officinale

Chaulmoogra

Dandelion

This tree is also classified as Hydnocarpus kurzii

King) Warb. It is one of several members of

ed

270

Chaulmoogra

palmitic acid.

resin; citric acid; butyric acid; oxalic acid;

Uses (fresh or dried flowering stems)

On

situation to 2000

Cultivation

Constituents (seed)

Weber compositae

Although the Dandelion is generally considerto be a ubiquitous weed, it is in fact one of

Native to Europe and Asia; intro-

duced elsewhere.

nitrogen-rich

soils in

any

altitude.

Wild. Propagated from seed sown in

use as an autumn salad herb.

Blanch by earthing up or placing an inverted
flower pot over the plant. Grow as an annual
to prevent bitterness developing in the plant.
Constituents Taraxacin,
a bitter principle;
taraxerin, an acrid resin; taraxerol; taraxas-

spring

lipids.

helmintic; insecticide;

mid-summer.

Distribution

ing hydnocarpic acid (to 36

times preferred in herb gardens.

officinale.

Variable perennial on taproot, to

30 cm tall. Leaves spatulate, oblong or oblanceolate, entire to runcinate-pinnatifid. Flowers
Description

intro-

DC

finely divided leaves

retained in the national pharmaco-

the roots. Small quantities of a similar latex

are

duced and naturalized elsewhere, especially in

north-east North America. On wasteland,
wood clearings and undisturbed, nitrogenrich, loamy soils to 1500 m altitude.
Cultivation
Wild. May be propagated by
division of old clumps in spring or autumn, or
from seed sown in spring or autumn. Tolerates
most positions provided the soil is not constantly wet.

is

Union
and Switzerland. The Russian Dandelion T.
kok-saghyz Rodin.,; was extensively cultivated
during the Second World War as a source of
rubber, which was extracted from the latex of

deeply toothed. Several golden yellow flowers,

consisting only of disc florets, in a dense flat or
hemispherical corymb. Appearing late sum-

mer

lion's teeth),

and from which term the

derived via the French dents

poeias of Hungary, Poland, the Soviet

straggling
a

on

diuretic effect.

de lion.

apothecaries.

perennial,

its

also called Denta Leonis

common name

no doubt, also acted

as a useful vermifuge since this has been the
herb's main therapeutic use from the days of
the

was

after the leaf shape,

Christ's sufferings; they,

first

for

TAR-THY
terol; 3:4

inulin;

dioxycinnamic acid; flavoxanthin;

acid; phenyloxyacetic acid;

citric

riboflavin; sitosterol; sitosterin; stigmasterol;

C and

coumestrol; vitamins B,

provitamin A.

Uses (fresh or dried roots, leaves

Diuretic:

cholagogue;

and

choleretic;

flowers)

laxative;

bitter tonic; stomachic.

An

excellent bitter tonic in atonic dyspepsia;

mild laxative in chronic constipation; a

cholagogue and choleretic in liver disease
(especially jaundice, cholecystitis and the
primary stages of cirrhosis). Considered of
benefit as an anti-rheumatic. As a bitter it
promotes appetite and improves digestion. A
a

very effective diuretic.

Leaf and root used as a salad

cm

long. Flowers purple, rose or rarely white,

root

is

a coffee

lip,

in

either loose or dense terminal spikes: appear-

summer

ing early

mid-autumn.

to

Native to Europe and south-west

Asia; introduced elsewhere. On dry chalky
soils, in dry thickets, woodland, rocky screes,
Distribution

and old

To 1500 m altitude.
Wild. Cultivated as an edging plant.

walls.

Cultivation

Propagated from seed sown in spring: division

autumn; or cuttings from spring to summer.

in

The dwarf cultivar

um

is

T. chamaedrys cv. Prostrat-

useful as a carpeting herb.

Tannins; an essential oil: bitter

probably including picropulin:

Constituents

principles
;

but lacking upper

labiate

typically

sugars including stachyose and raffinose: un-

Dandelion wine,
and leaves in Dandelion beer and tonic drinks.
The plant is safe to use in large amounts.

known

L labiatae
Wall Germander Germander
The genus Teucrium consists of about 300
species, many of which are native to the

disorders.

mediterranean region. For this reason it has

not been possible to identify definitely this

considered effective in the treatment of gout,

although this is unsubstantiated.
Used in the manufacture of liqueurs, ver-

substitute. Flowers used in

substances.

Uses (dried flowering plant

Choleretic: anti-

septic; antipyretic; tonic; aromatic; diuretic.

and digestive
employed to
promote the appetite, aid digestion, and dispel
Principally of use in gall-bladder

Teucrium chamaedrys

particular

with

species

the

Khamaidrys

of

Dioscorides, and it is now considered most

probably to be the same as his Teukrion.
Both these Greek names have, however, been

combined

The

infusion can be

flatulence.

Once used

mouths and

May

shading or planted under higher

Propagated from seed.

ficial

and formerly

in feverish conditions

tonic wines.

be used effectively as a horticultural

edging plant.

Constituents (seed) Fat called

Theobroma

oil;

after the

sixteenth century Yaldes reported their use as

central nervous system.

is

shape of the leaf. The common name

derived from gamandrea the latinization of

a form of exchange instead of coins (in the

Cocoa

The herb was once

predominantly

in

a popular medicine used

commuch employed in

digestive 01

feverish

plaints, but it was also

lormal herb and knot gardens as an edging

There is very little modern information

iv
available on Germander, however, and
plant.

ii

little

used

liqueurs

other

and

Description

than

as

an

of

ingredient

tonic wines.

Small, shrubby, practically

green perennial, 10

30

cm

tall.

ever-

Stem er

or

decumbent, hairy, marked witli purple, bearing oblong to obovate-oblong, toothed leaves,

suc-

diuretic.

Theobroma cacao

Yucatan

khamaidrys.

);

and glucose (2.5 ); caffeine; mucilage.

oleopalmitostearin.
(fat) Comprises 55
Uses (Fat - Cocoa butter, seed products cocoa and chocolate) Emollient; nutritive;
rose

Cacao Cocoa-Plant
The Spanish were the first to describe the seeds
of this now important economic plant. In the

Cocoa butter or

theobromine (i-3

name, and for

much of the Middle Ages the herb was known
as Herba chamaedryos. Germander was also
called Quercula maior or Quercula - names which
like chamaedryos
mean ground or little oak,
to give the botanical

trees.

and

cultivated

in

L byttneriaceae

Any medicinal

have long been

northern South America as a
the

source of chocolate.

from the Mexican

trees

The name

chocolatl

comes

itself

while cacao

is

from

same language.
Both the seed and chocolate itself were known
in much of Europe by 1600, and Cacao butter
was prepared in 1695 by Homberg in France.
The medicinal applications of Cacao butter
win promoted by the r'ien< h and it was soon
cacauatl in the

popular
It

is

in

still

pessaries,

forms

various
retained

bougies,

cosmetic
as

and

preparations.

base

for

medical

suppositories,

a vehicle for certain

cosmetics

its

and
main

due

actions of the seed products are

theobromine and caffeine content, which act as a mild stimulant and diuretic. Theobromine has no stimulant effect on the
to

their

and
chocolate
are
now
used
pharmaceutically to mask unpleasant flavours.

The

fat is used in pessaries, ointments and as a

massage lubricant.
Very wide culinary and confectionery use of

the seed products.

The

fat

used in cosmetics.

is

Thymus x

citriodorus (Pers.)

Schreb. ex Scheigg.

& Korte LABIATAE

Lemon Thyme
Of

the many species and cultivars of Thyme

which are available for use in a scented herb
garden, one of the most popular is the true

Lemon Thyme.

value being that it does not go rancid quickly.

Both Cocoa and chocolate consist of the fer-

Since

tin

mented and roasted plant seed; they differ in

quantity of sugar and type of additional
Savouring such as vanilla) added to the

other lemon-scented Thymes, notably some

varieties of T. vulgaris.

product.

found

Description

Evergreen tree

simple, alternate, glossy

to 7

and

tall.

Leaves

leathery, oblong

to 30 cm long, red when young. Flowers small,

yellowish-pink, long-stalked in clusters carried

directly

on branches or the trunk, followed by

30-cm long yellow to brown

20 40 3 cm-long seeds.

fruit

containing

T.

it

is

a cross between T. pulegioides

vulgaris

Lemon Thyme

there

is

often

is

variable in form.

Queen, which

itself

ranges

inflorescence; appearing

many tropical countries, especially Brazil and

the west coast of Africa. Usually given arti-

in

degree and

Because of its mild flavour Lemon Thyme is a

popular culinary herb.
Description
Aromatic lemon-scented bushy
shrub to 25 cm tall. Leaves glabrous and
revolute, varying in colour from dark to light,

tropics or wet soils.

in

often

colour of variegation.

mm

Wild. Cultivated commercially

It is

as the silver-variegated cultivar, Silver

Distribution Native
to
Central and South
America; introduced elsewhere. In lowland

Cultivation

L and

confusion with

01

silver-variegated, lanceolate to ovate, to 9

long. Flowers pale lilac, in small, oblong

Distribution Cultivated
Cultivation

Found

mid

to late

summer.

world-wide.

horticulturally only; propa-

gate from cuttings spring to autumn, or by

271

THY-TRA
aromatic carpeting herb
serpyllum

Thyme

Creeping

and,

garden.

for the

also described as

is

T.

Mother of Thyme,

Lemon

confusingly,

Thyme.
Extremely variable, prostrate, mat-

Description

bearing 8 mm-long linear to elliptic, almost

sessile leaves and pink to purple small flowers

arranged

an ovoid, short, terminal inAppearing late summer to early-

in

floresence.

autumn.
Distribution

Native

from
from

in turn derives

names thymbra or thumon. It is howmost unlikely that this species was the
main one used by the ancient Greeks, more
probably they used Thymus capitatus Lk.
It is also uncertain when Thyme was first
cultivated in northern European countries;

Europe,

to

north-west

believe the Romans took it to Britain,

while there is stronger evidence that it became
popular north of the Alps between a.d. 850
and 1250. Certainly by the sixteenth century it
was in general cultivation being grown as an

some

annual

in the far north.

The

On

isolated

well-drained sandy

or sandy loams in

woodland

altitude.

German
the

apothecary

plant's

Neumann

essential

first

in

oil

1725,

and

this powerfully antiseptic substance is

used in pharmacy and various commercial
preparations.
still

Wild. Propagated by layering in

Cultivation

summer

soils

roadsides, sunny slopes,

turf,

clearing; to 2600

or from cuttings taken from spring to

autumn.

Aromatic perennial sub-shrub on

Description

somewhat gnarled

comprising
mainly thymol and carvacrol; tannins; saponConstituents Essential oil (to o.3

soil

which

the Greek

Asia; introduced and naturalized elsewhere.

dry

common names come

generic and

the Latin thymum

ever,

forming, aromatic perennial 10-40 cm tall;

woody at the base and sometimes a semishrub. Flowering stems erect to 10 cm tall

division in spring. Requires well-drained

The

oside; resins; flavones; bitter principles.

Com-

10-30 cm
small,

or tortuous

linear

entire,

woody

stems,

leaves grey-green, opposite,

tall;

to

elliptic,

mm

petioled or

sessile,

tomentose, to

lilac to

white, small, in dense or loose

15

long.

Flowers

warm position. Winter protection under

glass may be necessary for some cultivars in

position varies considerably.

Anti-

flowered terminal inflorescences, characteriz-

northern climates.

spasmodic; antiseptic; expectorant; carmin-

Constituents Essential oil.

ative; bitter aromatic.

ed by somewhat larger leaves than those on

non-flowering stems. Appearing early summer

in a

Uses (fresh or dried leaves)

Not used medi-

Uses (dried flowering tops, rarely

Principally

employed

oil

in digestive complaints,

including flatulence and indigestion. Useful

cinally.

Widely used
culturally

as a culinary herb.

as

Used

horti-

an aromatic ornamental and

coughs and respiratory

May

in

tract infection.

be used as a disinfectant mouth wash,

edging plant.

external poultice on wounds, for rheumatic

Thymus serpyllum L labiatae

The

pain,

Wild

Thyme

ancient names refer to the prostrate, snake-

growth habit of the plant. Wild

exists in

many

forms with variations

in colour,

many

different

growth habit and

leaf size;

varieties are, therefore,

but

all

Thyme

found

as

Wild Thyme,

are suitable as a quickly spreading

as a

douche.

is used commercially
pharmaceutical and cosmetic pro-

(Oil of Serpoletj

in certain

As the common name suggests this herb is

found wild. It is extensively distributed in
Europe and Asia and is found as far north as
Iceland. Wild Thyme has been used since the
earliest times, and Dioscorides called it herpyllos; the Romans knew it as serpyllum. Both
like

and

oil

ducts.

Dried leaves can be taken as a

used for culinary purposes.

tea,

and are

vulgaris L labiatae
Garden Thyme Common Thyme
Thyme is one of the best known and most

Thymus

autumn.

to late

Native to the western mediterranean region and southern Italy; introduced

elsewhere. To 2500 m in altitude. On dry soils,
eitherrockyorwell-drained,in sunny positions.
Cultivation Wild. Collected commercially from
the wild in south-west mediterranean countries;
cultivated commercially in Europe,
especially Hungary and Germany.
Widely grown as a horticultural or culinary
plant. Propagated from seed sown in early
summer, by division in spring, or by cuttings or
layering from mid-spring to early summer.
Grown as an annual in very cold climates.
Distribution

Very variable

widely used of the culinary herbs, and to

satisfy the demand it is not only collected
from the wild in mediterranean areas, but is

thymol

and

neutral

also cultivated

eastern Europe.

commercially

in

central

many-

plant.

Constituents Essential oil (to 2.5,,;,

(to

40

bornyl-acetate;

/-pinene,

linalol,

comprising

carvacrol, borneol, cymene,

),

saponins;

thiamine;

cafleic acid; tannins; bitter

and

acid

ursolic

acid;

compounds; other

active components.

The combined
due

to the

action

is

antiseptic,

and mostly

thymol content.

Uses (dried flowering plant, oil) Antiseptic;

carminative; vermifuge; rubefacient.
Thyme can be used in a wide range of con-

where

ditions

oil

antiseptic

properties

beneficial

in

are

gastro-

and respiratory complaints.

intestinal

The

its

Particularly

required.

may

be used as an antihelmintic,

particularly to destroy

hookworm.

Wide

in

use of the

oil

commercial, phar-

maceutical, flavouring, and cosmetic preparations.

The

plant

is

of great importance as a flavouring

and kitchen herb.

Tilia cordata Mill,

tiliaceae

Small-Leaved Lime
The Lime, like the Oak and

certain other

European plants, was sacred to the IndoGermanic peoples, and the name Lime is

272

THY-TRA
unknown
Uses

leaves).

plant or simply by standing close to

active substances.

and

(dried flowers

bark, fresh

bracts,

Antispasmodic; sedative; diaphoretic;

diuretic; expectorant; choleretic.

Flowers principally used in combination with

Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.) and
Mistletoe Viscum album L) in the treatment of
(

hypertension.

They

are also of much benefit in feverish chills,

respiratory catarrh, indigestion, anxiety states

and migraine, and

in combination with other

remedies in urinary infections. Small doses
assist digestion. An infusion can be made for

external use on skin rashes, as a gargle, or as a

soothing bath. The bark decoction is of benefit

in liver disease.

Flowers used as a tisane -

German

base

lind.

tea

Native

may be eaten.
used for carving and is also used in
charcoal manufacture.
The tree is used (often clipped to shape) as a

Cultivation

Wood

Constituents

roadside ornamental.

Once used
Salisb

Gillis

made

Wild

fruit.

to eastern

in

plant.

Tannins,

codendric acid;

North America

as rhoitannic acid; toxi-

unknown

substances.

Uses (leaves, juice) Narcotic; irritant.

in the

treatment of chronic skin

problems, rheumatism and paralysis. No

longer employed, except in homeopathy.
The juice was formerly used as an indelible ink,
and in shoe-creams.
Contra-indications May cause severe contact
dermatitis.

Not

to be used internally.

L compositae

Tragopogon porrifolius

Salsify Vegetable Oyster/Oyster Plant

called

is still

brown globose

Fresh leaves

Linden Tea. In
America the so-called American Linden /
from the flowers

pale

Distribution

thickets.

Toxicodendron toxicaria

derived from the

homeopathically.
Description Perennial shrub to 2 m containing
milky juice. Leaves compound, comprising
three thin, acute, rounded and dentate or
crenate leaflets, downy beneath. Flowers small,
several, greenish, in open axillary, racemose
panicles; appearing mid-summer, followed by

Linden Tea.

ANACARDIACEAE
Poison Ivy Poison Oak Hiedra
The genus Rhus contains more than 150
species, some of which are grown as orna-

it.

medicinal use was discovered in 1794 by

Anderson and Horsfield in America, and it was
introduced to Europe by Du Fresnoy in 1 798.
The leaves and a tincture have been included
in various pharmacopoeias and materia mediNow only used
cas until as late as 1941
Its

Basswood Tea (which should, however, only

The Greek name for Salsify was tragopogon

which means goat's beard; this gives both the
generic name for this species and the family, as

be taken sparingly since it can cause nausea).

The Latin name for this and related species

ent herb, Tragopogon pratensis L.

amencana L

provides a similar drink

the

well as the English

Tilia, hence the generic name and the

modern French, Italian, and Spanish names
Tilleul, Tiglio and Tilia.
The tree has long been planted around houses
and in towns as a decorative or shade-plant.
It is the lightest European wood in weight as
well as being one of the easiest to work in
carving. The inner bark fibre was also once

name

was

used

pres,

especially

warm

position;

native,

in

in

mixed or
sandy or

to

1600

altitude.

Wild. Introduced
tree.

May

Constituents Volatile oil

several

age;

in

saponins;

salts;

towns

as

an

reach 1000 years old.

(to 0.02%) comprising

compounds including

manganese

farnesol; mucil-

flavonoid glycosides;

polyphenols;

to

for Salsify

were

oculus porci

from the Italian sassefrica (meaning the plant which accompanies stones - after
its

tannins;

Othci

predisposition for rocky land).

The

Italians

were the

first

to cultivate Salsify as

a vegetable, doing so in the early sixteenth

century. By the seventeenth century

it

had not

been introduced as a vegetable in

northern Europe, but also as a flower.
Salsify was largely ignored by nineteenthcentury gardeners in favour of the Spanish
Scorzonera (Scorzonera hispanica L), although
both are now used commercially.
The herb has never been of medicinal interest.
Description Attractive hardy biennial to 10 cm,
on 25 cm-long edible taproot. Leaves clasped,
tapering, pointed and grass-like. Flowers
purple, attractive, solitary, opening in the
morning, ligulate to 8 cm wide. Appearing
only

known

European
deciduous woodland

Cultivation

adding

also used), thus

the confusion that surrounds

herba salsifica

fruit.

ornamental

is

colour and appearance of the broken root) and

globose

in

Salsifis des

or pig's eye (which might be a reference to the

mentals. Recently six species (each

soils

however,

international names.

15-40 m tall. Trunk straight, smooth when

young. Leaves to 6.5 cm, orbicular, petiolate,
serrate. Flowers aromatic, yellowish, in eithei
erect or pendulous cymes of 5 10 flowers.
appearing mid to late summer, followed by

stony

is,

for a differ-

The French

Salsify (although barbe de bouc

The medieval names

its

l)i\lrtbutwn

T. pratensis

Meadow

and emphasizing

blossom in a pleasant
herbal tisane, Lime has an important place in
folk medicine and eastern European medicine
as a remedy for high blood pressure. For this
purpose the flowers of T. platyphyllos Scop.
(Large-leaved Lime) and T. x europaea L (a
hybrid between T. platyphyllos and T. cordata
are also collected for medicinal application
Description Deciduous tree or, rarely, shrub
Besides the use of

for

or goat's beard

rope manufacture.

in

or

common name

as Poison Ivy or Poison

transferred

to

genus

tin

commonly

Oak) have been

and

Toxicodendron,

Toxicodendron toxicaria was formerly classified as

Rhus toxicodendron L. It is frequently confuted
with the closely related R. radicans L now T.
radicans (Lj O. Kuntze) which is considered by

some authorities to be- a variety of T. toxicaria.

and having the same properties. Poison Ivy is
best known as an agent causing a violent
allergic

response

in

susceptible

individuals.

This allergy occ urs either on contact with the

early to late

summer.

Native to southern Europe; introduced elsewhere. Naturalized as a weed in

North America. On stony but moist soils with
some loam, in meadowland to 2000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Propagate from seed sown in
spring, thinning to 10 cm apart. Requires wellDistribution

dug, rich and deep

soil

which

is

kept well-

2 73

TRI-TUS
Lam.

Husnot

The herb was known

to the

ancients as triphyllon and trifolium, after

leaves, but

it

its

was not widely used medicinally,

only occasionally being used as a vulnerary.

After its introduction to America it soon be-

came naturalized and American Indians both

ate

and used

it

it

medicinally

in

ointments for

external sores and internally in skin disease.

It

appears to have re-entered British herbal use

from American folk medicine in the nineteenth
century.

Distribution
Cultivation

on large branched

cm

tall,

Stems short and hairy,

root.

being ovate to obovate,

50

leaflets to 5

cm

long, in

long, con-

Native to south Europe and Asia.

Wild. Cultivated commercially in

Middle

the

cm

India.

East.

Morocco and

else-

where. Propagated from seed sown in spring.

seed Mucilage 1030',, trigonel-

Constituents

choline;

line:

protein
ive;

pigment;

flavone

20

to

fixed

oil;

lecithin: phytosterols.

Aromatic: carminatSeed valuable in dyspepsia and

seed, fresh leaves

Uses

Description Short-lived perennial to

appearing mid-summer and

after flowering,

followed by beaked pod. 57.5

taining 10-20 seeds.

tonic.

diarrhoea.

Used as a

spice, or roasted as a coffee substitute.

long-petioled, trifoliate leaves. Flowers rose-

purple or white in ovoid, dense heads

appearing

long:

summer

early

cm

to 3

early

to

autumn.
Distribution

European native: introduced and

naturalized elsewhere. Widely distributed in

beside roadways, on deep,
moderately moist soils.

rich,

fields,

watered.
winter

Lift roots in

in the soil.

or leave during

Unknown.

Constituents

Uses

autumn

Readily self-sown.

tresh taproot) Nutritive; diuretic: bitter.

Although not used medicinally, the root acts as

an appetite stimulant, and there is some evidence that it may have a beneficial effect on
the liver.

Roots cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

Leaves nun be used sparingly in salads.

Wild. Grown agriculturally as a

fodder crop. Usually sown broadcast on pre-

Cultivation

trilolianol; a quercitin glucoside; essential oil:

phenolic glycoside, trifoliin: an hydroxvmethvloxvllavone. pratol: sugars, including

rhamnose: a plant oestrogen, coumestrol.

It

is

often

arable

Ryegrass

dried flower-heads, fresh plant

L LEGUMINOSA1

land

under

\Lolium

in

pasture

multifiorum

short-term
with
ssp.

leas

Italian

multiflorum

ment of
a short-lived perennial

incorporated

Alterat-

antispasmodic expectorant vulnerary.

Flower-heads applied externally in the treat-

sometimes incorrectly described in seed lists as an

annual or biennial which is of great importance as a forage and cover crop in agriculture.
is

coumarii

Salicylic acid:

acid: isorhamnetin; a phytosterol glucoside;

Red Clover
Red Clover

in spring.

pared, rolled fields

flower

Constituents

ive

Trifolium pratense

dry or

burns,

ulcers,

sores

Used internally

plaints.

and

skin

to treat chronic

comskin

conditions such as psoriasis and eczema.

Once
The

used in domestic wine-making.

fresh plant

is

used for cattle fodder and

although it has

other agricultural purposes

been known
titis in

cattle

to

cause a photosensitive derma-

known

as trifoliosis.

Trigonella foenum-graecum

An

L legi ionosae

Fenugreek Foenugreek
Like Red Clover Trifolium pratense L this herb
is a fodder crop and the specific name foenumgraecum

Latin for Greek hay emphasizing

is

agricultural use,

and the

fact that

it

its

has been

used for this purpose since the earliest times.

ingredient of commercial chutneys and the

Middle

Eastern

confectionery,

used

The
may be

halva.

seeds are celery-flavoured. Fresh leaf

can be sprouted and

in curries, or seed

used as a salad herb.

Seed provides a yellow dye.

Employed

as a fodder plant.

Benedictine monks introduced the plant to

central

Europe and Charlemagne promoted it

was grown in England

in the ninth century. It

The herb has long

been a favourite of the Arabs and it was studied
at the School of Salerno by Arabic physicians.
Egyptians not only use the seeds for medicinal
purposes, but roast them as a coffee and eat
both the sprouting seed and the fresh leaves as
a vegetable. Indians also use the leaves as a
in the sixteenth century.

L liliaceae

Wake-Robin genus

The Bethroot

or

of about

species

30

of attractive

flowering liliaceous plants.

refers to the fact that

three leaves

and a

Most

native

are

The

consists

spring-

generic

name

each species produces

tripartite flower.

to North America and

Appalachian and other In-

vegetable and consider the seed not only a

traditionally the

spice for curries, but as a source of a yellow

dians used various species to treat a range of

cloth dye.

The name Fenugreek

is

simply an

abbreviation offoenum-graecum.
It is

now

used more in veterinary than

human

to 60 cm.
2-2.5 cm l n toothed, oblanceolate-oblong. Flowers whitish,
solitary or in pairs in axils, petals deciduous

Description

Leaves

Smooth, erect annual

trifoliate:

leaflets

female complaints
root

medicine.

274

Trillium erectum

Bethroot Brown Beth

Squawroot Stinking Benjamin

hence the name Squaw-

When

Rafinesque and others introduced

Bethroot to medicine in 1830 it was considered
that any species of Trillium could be employed,
although the Indians considered the white
flowering species the most effective.

Millspaugh proposed

in

1892 that only

T.

TRI-TUS
the Yellow Alder,

T. ulmifolia L) indicating

the presence in the group of a tonic constituent

or constituents.
Description

Aromatic, pubescent, shrubby percm tall. Leaves simple, petiolate,

ennial to 60

obovate, pale green, dentate, to 2.5 cm long.

Flowers small, yellow, axillary, attractive,
appearing early to late summer, followed by
small, globular,

many-seeded capsule.

Native to subtropical North America, especially Mexico, California and Texas.

On dry, sandy or rocky soils in full sun.
Cultivation Wild plant. May be propagated
Distribution

from seed sown

erectum

L be

used,

which

fusion

since

herb

collectors

some concontinued to

led

to

and generally
pendulum - a name which Jn

collect several different species

called

now

them

all

T.

obsolete. Indians traditionally used the

herb as an aphrodisiac.
in some folk medicine.

now

It is

cm

only retained

on short.
thick root-stock; 3 leaves, sessile, rhomboid, to
21 cm long in terminal whorl, subtending a
pedunculate solitary, somewhat nodding, atDescription Perennial to 50

flower

tractive

to

ranges from white

cm

tall,

wide.

The

colour

brownish purple. Appear-

to

ing late spring.

North American native, from

North Carolina. In shaded wood-

Distribution

Quebec

to

land, on moist rich

Cultivation

Volatile oil;

Constituent
oil

soils.

Wild.

gum;

tannins; fixed

a saponin, trillarin.

dried

Uses

emmen-

Astringent;

haemorrhages, metrorrhagia,
lcu< orrhoca.
The poultice is

ted in uterine

menorrhoea,

countries.

Considered to be an astringent tonic and

oi

use

benefit in

ol

frosts.

South American native, especially

Peru and Bolivia.
Cultivation Wild.
Cultivated widely as an
ornamental, and rarely as a drug. Propagated
from seed sown in late spring to early summer
in rich soil in sunny situation. Dwarf and
Distribution

double-flowered cultivars are found. Some

double-flowered forms cannot be raised from
seed. Harvest sceel before pods lose their green

line,

biotic
i

essential

me.
The herb was known from

vegetable and

its

introduction as

iihcIk

\/i\turcium

The

Cress.

eaten

but

01

is

It

still

is

is

anti-

fresh

Bowers, sccels, pickled

Antibacterial; antimyc otic.
leaves,

the genito-urinar)

and

employed

fsed as a

as a salad

herb or as a

garden ornamental.

Turnera diffusa Willd. vat. aphrodisiaca

Ward.

KNKKACKAE
Damiana Mexican Damiana /Turnera
Damiana is principally a tonic tea which has
It

long been used by the Mexicans

who

call

was introduced to Europe from American

folk medicine in the early twentieth century
and recommended as a tonic and aphrodisiac
It

Ionics

111

Iropieal

gum;

comprising

tannins (4%);

Tonic;

mild

laxative;

similar

America and Africa such

anxiety
the-

neuroses.

infusion

and acts as a laxative.

and hence stimulant,

It

initiates

In

atonic

peristalsis

has a specific irritant

on the mucosa ol
and therefore possib-

effect

the genito-urinary tract,

acting as an aphrodisiac
Small doses aid digestion.

ly

it

luerba de la pastora.

various disorders such as depression. Related

members of the genus Turnera are also used as

collected commercially in some-

(to

oil;

Principally of benefit as a tonic in depression

constipation

studied extensively but appears to be useful in

rarely used medicinally,

i")

oil

and

best substitute-

are-

Volatile

damianin; also fixed

starch two resins.
dried leaves)
Uses
stimulant.

aper substitute.

I'll).

autumn, and from cuttings taken in summer

and rooted in a peat and sand mix.
Constituents

now

Mowers and leaves

spicy taste in salads,

now

an antibiotic

and the

indicum or Indian

the-

to yield

Principal action

formerly being incorporated with other supposed aphrodisiacs or agents considered ol

benefit in sexual debility. It has not been

Nasturtium peruvianum;

flower buels provide

capers
it

seed.

their

lor

pli kleel
lor

indicum

became Nasturtium

it

oil.

Bower buds
Used in infections of

Nasturtium is a well-known garden ornamenwhich is a perennial although it is grown as

an annual.
It was introduced to Spain from Peru in the
sixteenth century and reached Gerard in
London in the- 390s it was unknown in
finlral Europe, however, until
(>84 when
as

glycoside, glucotropaeo-

which hydrolyzes

and an

<

tal

it

Constituents (seed)

Principally

L tropaeolaceae
Garden Nasturtium Indian (a ess

hence

to orbicular

entire, glossy, alternate, long-

respirator) systems.

Tropaeolum majus

Beweming promoted

perennial,

petioled. Flowers spurred, to 5 cm wide, from

orange to white, occasionally red or mahogany; appearing from early summer to first

post-partum; and an alterative

chronic skin conditions.

succulent

reaching 40 cm. Leaves reniform

5-20 cm wide,

applied to ulcers and sores.

(

Somewhat

Description

grown as an annual in cool climates. Climbing

and twining to 3 m tall - dwarf forms only

colour.

root-stock

agogue; antispasmodic; emetic; expectorant.

I

in spring, division in spring or

as

Tussilago farfara L compositae

Coltsfoot Son-before-father

Named

after

the-

leal

shape, Coltsfoot

is

still

one of the most important herbal remedies for

the treatment of coughs. The Greeks knew it as
bec/iion and the Romans as tusilago, both names
referring to the 'cough plant' and from which
the modern medical terms bee hie and (and-)
tussive are derived. Even in the days of
Dioscorides Coltsfoot was smoked to relieve
coughing, a tradition maintained in its modern

2 75

ULM-VAL

incorporation as the basic ingredients

of

herbal

flowers

both

belong

to

smoking mixtures. The leaves and flowers are

now normally administered in the form of an

ferred by both the

infusion.

later

on creeping stolons reaching &-30 cm tall. Flowers yellow, to 4 cm wide,

in solitary capitula, appearing early to late
spring on purplish, woolly and scaly cape 12
cm long, later elongating and bearin numerous achenes covered with a pappus of white
hairs. Leaves appear from late spring: basal,
long-petioled, tomentose beneath, orbicularcordate, sinuate, 10-18 cm wide.
Distribution Native to Europe, north and wesl
Asia, North Africa; introduced and naturalized in North America and elsewhere. On
moist, loamy soils in wasteland and uncultivated places, to 2400 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Collected from the wild.
Propagated by seed, by root cuttings or
division. A moist soil is essential. The herb may
become rampant, and care is needed to
restrict its growth in gardens.
Constituents Mucilage; tannins; inulin; a bitter
glycoside; essential oil; potassium and calcium

used in certain rat poisons.

Description Perennial

salts;

saponins.

Uses

(dried leaves

leaves, fresh juice)

and

flowers,

rarely fresh

Expectorant; demulcent;

the heart

sores.

Fresh leaves eaten as a salad herb rarely.

Fresh or dried flowers used in wine-making.
Leaves formerly smoked to relieve coughing,

and now included

in

herbal tobaccos.

L'lmus rubra Miihlenb.

Slippery

ulmaceae

Elm Red Elm

its common name from

moistened inner bark (the
secondary phloem), which is the only part now
used medicinally. North American Indians
have long used the bark tea as both a laxative
and treatment for diarrhoea, and the root tea
to assist childbirth. Since the bark has been
used as a mechanical abortive it is now only
available commercially in the powdered, and
hence harmless, form.

Slippery

Elm

the

of the

276

feel

receives

It is

now

the variety

retained in several national

in

view of

its

action on

unsuitable for use by other than

Bulbous perennial

to

50

leaves fleshy, glaucous, basal, to 10

Slippery

Elm

drinks,

constituents, are

still

some including malted

popular nutritive medi-

cm tall
cm wide

and 40 cm

long. Flowers white or rose, in

racemes terminating a leafless scape; appear-

cines following gastrointestinal illnesses.

ing autumn.

Formerly called U.fulva Michx.

Description Small or medium-sized tree reaching 20 m tall: leaves dark green, simple, rough
above and pubescent below, serrate, 12 cm
long,
obovate
oblong.
to
Flowers
inconspicuous in clusters, appearing spring
followed by flat, conspicuous 1-seeded samara.
Distribution North American native from Florida to southern Canada. In moist woodland
and stream edges; also rarely in dry situations.
Prefers poor soils.
Cultivation Wild plant. Inner bark collected in

Native to mediterranean region

from Spain to Syria; also Canary Islands and
South Africa. On dry sandy soils specially near

spring.
Constituents

(dried

3-

to

the sea,

in poultices, or as a

hoea or constipation.
Employed commercially and domestically

full

Wild

Cultivation
Constituents

red

mainly

sides

action

is

sun; but also to 900

Red

plant.

and white varieties) GlycoA and B to which the

scillarin

largely due; mucilage

carbohydrate,

sinistrin:

to

ii

);

and other substances.

Squill, in addition, contains the rat poison

scilliroside.

dried bulb- Expectorant: emetic:

irri-

tant: cardio-active.

acute

in

the treatment of chronic

but not

bronchitis.

Employed
decoction for diarr-

in

altitude.

Used

powdered inner bark Demulcent:

emollient.

Used

Distribution

i'ses

Mucilage, on hydrolysis yielding

i'ses

and

U.

the medical profession.

methyl-galactose.

ulcers

it is

Description

Used

treatment of irritating coughs and

respiratory disorders such as bronchitis and
laryngitis; applied externally as a poultice to

is

pharmacopoeias, but

anti-inflammatory.
in the

Squill

species

is

French apothecaries.

White

the

more active and preearly Arab physicians and

maritima, but the red

as a constituent of rat poisons.

Contra-indications

Very

POISONOUS:

to

be

used only by medical personnel.

in

nutritive, convalescent drinks.

L'rginea maritima (L) Baker liliaceae

Squill Sea Onion White or Red Squill
The Squill is a powerful medicinal plant which
has been in almost continuous use from the
time of the earliest Greeks to the present.
To Dioscorides it was known as scilla, hence
the common name. There is some evidence
that the bulbs were used to beat to death scapegoats or ritual victims in very early Greece in
order to placate the gods of fertility. Certainly
the large, heavy bulbs have strong magical
associations as well as having therapeutic uses.
Two varieties were known, the white and red
(the colour referring to the bulb scales, not the

L'rtica dioica L urticaceae

Stinging Nettle Nettle/Common Nettle
The Nettle is now a common and painful
stinging weed which appears wherever land is
disturbed by man and left derelict. In the past,
however, it has variously been used in cloth
manufacture, as a food, and medicinally.
was once even cultivated in Scotland,
It
Denmark and Norway.
The use of the plant in cloth manufacture onlv

stopped in the first quarter of the twentieth

century but can be traced back to the Bronze
Age - and is recorded in the common name,
nettle, from an old word meaning to twist and
hence make fibre).
Greeks knew it as akalyphe and Romans as

ULM-VAL
annual

U. pilulifera

rather more, since

Both

Europe.

same values

Roman

(or
is

it

is

commercial source of chlorophyll.

Used in paper and cloth manufacture.

Nettle)

southern
Small
also an annual, have
native

Vaccinium myrtillus L Ericaceae

Bilberry Whortleberry /Huckleberry

the

The genus

as U. dioua.

from 80-180
branched,
cm tall, stems
bearing opposite and decussate, acuminate,
sparsely

deeply serrate, petiolate and ovate leaves to

14 cm long. Flowers minute, in pendulous
axillary racemes, appearing mid-summer to

there

to

confusion in the genus (which

exchange of the same

various species.

It is

because of the free

common name between

not possible, therefore, to

in ancient
medicinal plant
from the sixteenth century and known then as
vaccinia and mora agrestis. The specific name
refers to the Myrtle-shaped leaves.
The fruits have long been a popular food, and
are still collected for this purpose.
Description Subshrub 30-60 cm tall, deciduous

identify

definitely

writings, but

2700 m altitude.
Wild plant. Cultivated only rarely

Cultivation

medicinal purposes, and as a source of

for

much

is

contains about 150 species

mid-autumn.
Distribution Widespread; Eurasian native. On
wasteland, especially damp and nutrient-rich
soils which have previously been disturbed by

man;

Principally

Vaccinium includes several species

which are grown as ornamentals as well as

others which provide such edible berries as the
Blueberry, Cranberry and Bilberry.
V. myrtillus has many common names and

Description Dioecious perennial,

bristly,

used in the treatment of diarrhoea.

Leaves have a weak hypoglycaemic action,
and have been used in combination with other
remedies in the treatment of diabetes.
Fruit

to

and

species

this

Nettle (U. urens), which

the

- but the ancients probably used the

urtica

it

this

was an

species

official

and glabrous on thin creeping and rooting

employed as a nutritive, rather

and syrups, or eaten raw.

tart fruit in conserves

Also distilled to flavour certain liqueurs.

Valeriana officinalis

Valerian

L valerianaceae

Common

Heliotrope
Several different

been used
officinalis

L,

Valerian/Garden

species

of

Valeriana

have

European medicine of which

V. celtica L, V. dioica L and V. phu

in

V.

L,

were the most important. The latter species

was probably the herb known as Phu to the
ancients while V. celtica was referred to as
Xardus celticus.
Valeriana officinalis was particularly promoted
by the Arab physicians and the name Valeriana first appears in the tenth century.
Tincture of Valerian was employed in the
First World War to treat shellshock, and the
rhizome and roots are still retained in several
national pharmacopoeias. The root was once
included in various recipes and was also used
to scent linen.

Glabrous perennial 20-150 cm tall,

on aromatic root-stock. Stems lightly grooved.
Leaves pinnate to 20 cm long, leaflets either
entire or toothed, lanceolate. Flowers white or
Description

pinkish, small, in terminal inflorescence appearing mid-summer to early autumn.

Distribution

Native

to

Europe and west Asia;

naturalized in North America. In grassland,

ditches, damp meadowland, close to streams,
on nutrient-rich soils to 2000 m altitude.
Cultivation Wild. Propagated by division of
root-stock in spring or autumn, or from seed
sown in spring.
Constituents

Essential

oil

(to

t%) comprising

various components (which include monoter-

pene valepotriates) and which

in

combination

are sedative and antispasmodic.

ommercial chlorophy 11.

Propagated from seed, or by root division

I
(dried root-stock) Sedative; stomachic
fes
antispasmodic; carminative.
Of benefit in the treatment of a wide range of
nervous disorders and intestinal colic. Used in
combination with other remedies in the treatment of hypertension. Useful in insomnia and
migraine, nervous exhaustion and anxiety

in

spring.

Histamine: acetylcholine;
Formic acid; gallic acid; tannins; ylndiow-

Constituents (leaves)

tryptaminc; vitamins A and C; mineral sails

including calcium, potassium, silicon, iron,

manganese and sulphur;

stances;

othei

active

sul>-

unknown components.

stems.

fresh or dried leaves, root-stock rarely

Uses

Astringent; anti-haemorrhagi<

diuretic;

t^al-

actagoijiie.
I

manv

he Nellie has

but

principally

is

internal

therapeutic apphe ations.

is

it

haemorrhages; as a diuretic; in
haemorrhoids:
laxative;

woodland,

in

all

used

in

.1

dermatological problems

in-

he

powdl led

has been

level

and

shown

also

2600

in

forests,

moorland and fcnland,

to

altitude.

Cultivation Wild.

leal

used as a

suiill

slops nose

bleeds.
It

Asia;

fruit.

Native to Europe and northern

humus-rich, acidic, damp soils in

Distribution

benefit

cluding eczema.
I

followed by globose purple

ol

oi

urticaria, jaundice,

and

kinds

Leaves alternate, bright green, finely

oval, to \ cm long. Flowers pale
greenish-pink, small, solitary, appearing in
leal axils from laic- spring to late summer,
dentate,

lo

to

lower the blood-sugar

lower

the-

blood

pressure

Propagated as ground covei

shady positions on damp and ac idic soils
eithei peaty or sandy. Grown from rooted
in

minims.

Constituents

fruit

Organil

acids;

pectin;

slightly.

sugars; mineral salts; tannins; vitamins

ed to promote haii growth rarely, and fresh

Inane lies applied externally in rheumatism.

C; arbutin; anthocyanin pigments.

Young

antiseptic

shoots and leaves cooked like Spinach.

Uses

fresh
;

fruit,

leaves

rarely

A and

Astringent;

tonic

*77

VAN-VER
The

states.

was once used,

root

small

in

Contra-indications

The drug should

in large doses for

an extended period of time.

Vanilla planifolia

Andrews orchidaceae

not be taken

Vanilla
was introduced to Europe by the
Spanish in the early sixteenth century following their observation of its use in Mexico by
the Aztecs for flavouring chocolate. Early
names included Araco aromatico, banillen and
Vanilla

was employed

in the

seventeenth century,

chiefly in France, both for chocolate

manu-

and scenting tobacco, and

eighteenth century it was included
first time in several pharmacopoeias

in

the

for

the

facture

as

an

aromatic carminative. Vanilla pod- are now

mainly employed in flavouring. West Indian
Vanilla is from V. pompona.
D- nription Epiphytic orchid with stout stems,

and oblong-lanceolate lcather\.

petioled leaves to jo

and orange
fruit to 18

to 5

cm

cm

cm

fleshy, short-

long. Flowers yellow

long, followed by aromatic

Green Hellebore
Veratrum viride was formerly classified as I*.
eschscholtzu A. Gray. The European White
Hellebore is V. album L. Both these species and
another European plant. V. nigrum L the
Black Hellebore have long been used as arrow
poisons as they are very toxic.

The Red Indians

and

poison,

it

used

V. viride as

was introduced

medical practice

in the late

to

known

America;

intro-

duced and cultivated elsewhere.

Cultivation Wild. Widely cultivated in Mexico.
Madagascar and elsewhere: in high humidit)
under shade, on poles or tree trunk-.
Vanillin

to

2%

unbranched peren-

onlv to

Verbascum thapsus L scrophulariaceae

Mullein Aaron's Rod
The common name. Mullein, is derived from
the Latin mollis meaning soft, after the large
ear-like

eighteenth century

POISONOUS:

Very

be used by medical personnel.

an ordeal

veterinary practice.
/) cription Rhizomatous,

Contra-indications

American

British supplies of V. album were cut off

by the War of Independence. Green Hellebore
was once an American domestic remedy for
removing lice from the hair - combing it
through in the form of a strong decoction.
The herb contains alkaloids which drastically
depress the action of the heart and reduce
blood pressure. Its use is now strictly limited to

leaves - the

Donkeys

as

herb

is

also

variously

Ears. Bunny's Ears

and

Bull's Ears.

stem was
been dried
tallow. There is evidence
was one of the supposed

Mullein's

tall,

once used

as a taper,

spire-like flowering

and then dipped

that at one time

in
it

having

first

magical herbs of the ancients.

Various species of Verbascum have been
employed medicinally, the most important,
historically, being I'. thapsiforme Schrad. and V.
phlomoides L. Mullein is now grown mostly a- a
decorative plant.

Distribution

and woolly biennial,

Leaves grey-green, forming a basal
rosette in the first year, eventually reaching 30
cm tall. Flowers yellow, sessile, in clusters, on
dense, erect 2.5 cm-wide spikes appearing

-oil- in

mid-summer

nial

to

m.

Flowers

on

ovate to

alternate,

cm

long.

Distribution Native to tropical

Constituents

is

when

vainillen.
It

anti-parasitic and can be used by veterinarv

personnel for animal use.

Veratrum viride Ait. liliaceae

American White Hellebore

quantities, as a culinary flavouring;.

thick

root-stock.

elliptic,

to

30

cm

terminal panicle-, greenish,

in

Leaves
long.
to

"

wide, appearing late spring to late summer.

North American native, on wet

woodland, beside streams, or on low-

[) cription Erect, very soft

to 2

tall.

to early

autumn.

Eurasian native: naturalized in

-orne temperate zones. On stony, shallow, wellDistribution

drained, nitrogen-rich

woodland

aromatic sub-

soils in

wasteland and

clearing-.

Cultivation Wild. Propagate from seed sown as

soon as ripe or in the spring. Will not tolerate
cold, wet conditions.
Constituents Mucilage: essential oil: saponos-

stam

ides.

dried

or

fresh

leaves,

dried

flowers

Emollient: weak!) -edative: expectorant.

Principally employed with other remedies in
the treatment of respiratory disorders.

King meadowland.
Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated by rootstock division in spring or autumn.
inConstituents Several alkaloids
to 1.5%
cluding veratrine. jervine and veratrosine:
Vanilla bean-

dried cured seed-pods

glycosides.

Aromatic carminative.

Uses

Rarely used for medicinal purpo-e- other than

a- a pharmaceutical flavouring.
and
Principally employed as a culinan

emetic: purgative.

commercial flavouring and

;tH

in

cosmetics.

dried

rhizome

Hypotensive:

toxic:

any medicinal purpose. Once

reduce blood pressure associated
with toxaemia during pregnancy. A decoction
Rarely used

employed

to

for

VAN-VER
The

leaves have been included in herbal

ing mixtures,

smok-

and used

in

domestic cosmetic

provide

pale

The

An

un-

is

yellow

dye.

Fluellen

Used externally

to treat

officinalis

Veronica beccabunga L schrophulariaceae

Brooklime Water Pimpernel

L verbenaceae

Vervain
Like Betony. Vervain has a long and welldocumented history of association with the

magic and sorcery of the Celtic and Germanic

It also seems to have been
considered sacred by the Greeks and Romans
however, being known as Herba sacra and Herba
veneris. Not surprisingly for a herb with alleged
magical properties, Vervain was used in
numerous complaints and it became an official
drug. By 1830, however. Geiger stated that in
Germany it was seldom used. It still has a
peoples of Europe.

L scrophulariaceae

Fluellen

is

common

wounds.

attractive horticultural ornamental.

Verbena

Veronica officinalis

Speedwell

probably the older of the two

it is derived from
the old Welsh llysiau Llywelyn - the herb of St
Llywelyn.
The name Speedwell is given to the entire

substantiated.

preparations.
flowers

chronic skin complaints. Considered to have a

specific benefit to the uterus, but this

Brooklime has a similar but more bitter taste

to Watercress, and in former times was eaten as
a salad herb. Its sharpness may have led to
another common name Mouth Smart - or
more probably this English name was a translation of the Flemish beckpunge and German

English names, and

family, as well as to this species. In

America

it

Low Speedwell and Gypsyweed - one of many herbs with the latter name.

is

known

also

As Herba

as

majoris this plant became

Middle Ages and had a repu-

Veronica

official in the

tation as a healing herb - including the ability

place in folk medicine.

35-80 cm

Description Perennial

tall,

glabrous

or nearly so. on erect, ribbed, angular

branched and

loosely

only

sparsely

sum:
leafy.

Leaves petiolate, ovate, some pinnatifid, to 6

cm long. Flowers small, lilac, at the tips of long
stalks.

Appearing summer

Distribution

established

gion;

to late

autumn.

Native to the mediterranean

elsewhere.

wasteland, on nutrient-rich

On

to

soils

re-

roadsides,

1500

altitude.
Cultivation Wild.

Propagated from seed sown

spring. Requires
Constituents

sential

oil;

verbenaline

lull

Mucilage; tannins; saponins;

verbenaloside;

and

in

sun.

verbenine;

es-

glycosides,

the

unknown

sub-

stani

Uses

dried flowering plant

diuretic

diaphoretic

Tonic astringent
;

gala< tagogue;

emmen-

agogue; vulnerary; antispasmodic.

Used in the treatment oi nervous complaints
such <is depression, and with othei remedies in

mean

Bachbungt which

To

the same.

Be<

and

abunga hcn<

as

Herba

modern spe< ifi< name

Water Pimpernel

e the

Anagallis aquatiea or

from

similarities
between Brooklime's
and those of the Scarlet Pimpernel

the

(lowers

Anagallis arvensis

a vai iet) of skin complaints.

used in a wide range oi syrups and

to treat

was known

the apothecaries h

although the) differ

in

and stomach problems; it became

important l>v the mid-nineteenth century
and 11 was ihen inostlv used as a lea substitute.
The French give it the name the d' Europe less

European Tea
Low-growing pubescent perennial,

Description

Description Semi-aquatii

often forming mats

10

to

obi out; to ovate, to 5 cm long, crenate-serrati

Flowers small blue, in loose- short, axillary

appearing

racemes,

tummei

earl)

mid-

to

autumn.
Native-

Europe,

to

North

Asia.

Africa; introduced elsewhere. In streams

to _>f>oo in altitude

elite lies

Wild plant.
Constituents Tannins;

.1

<

leaves

glucoside;

Kate
liver

tinal

dried

or

flowering

stimulant:
siomac hie

Diuretic;

pV telle
lv

tall.

oblong,

to

be

hie

used

unknown

plant,

weakly

fresh

anti-

siiniinei

America;

Native

oppic

es,

loamy

to

Luiope,

Asia,

North

scrubland clearings, moorland,

hedgerows, heaths; on acidic, sandy
in

soils, to

moo

Constituents

Fonnerlv

used

in

problems, haemorrhoids, gastrointescomplaints, and applied externally to

mav be eaten

in altitude

glycoside,

principles;

sparingly,

aucuboside;

tannins;

unknown

resins;

sub-

stane es.

plant
Expectorant;
galactagogue diuretic.
All the actions are weak and the plant is no
longer ol medic mal interest.
Uses

(dried

flowering

stomachic; vulnerary

mcclie inallv

ulcers. Fresh leaves

prostrate tooting stems.

ol

Leaves opposite, serrate, ovate

cm long, with short petioles or

Flowers pale- blue, small, attractive. 111

dense, erect racemes. Appearing e.nlv to laic

bittCI

fresh

Cultivation Wild.

substances.
w

sessile-.

or

Cultivation

01

jo

Distribution

Distribution

was also

elixirs, for

respirator)

colour.

succulent perennial,
60 cm tall, with hollow, creeping, easily
rOOted stems. Leaves opposite-, shot l-pelioleel.

It

Principally

employed

as

tea

substitute

in

herbal tea mixtures.

79

YER-VIO
Veronicastrum virginicum Farwell

principle; leptandrine, to

SCROPHULARIACEAE
Culver's Root Black Root/Physic Root
Formerly classified as both Veronica virginica L
and Leptandra virginica Nutt., this tall American

largely due.

herb

is

closely related to the

Speedwell family

or Veronicas.
Its

popularity as an Indian remedy

in

another

is

reflected

common name, Bowman's

the Seneca Indians once used

its

Root;

root as a tea to

(dried

Uses

which the action

rhizome and root]

Purgative;

emetic; cholagogue; tonic.

as a

when used
purgative and may

Contra-indications In large doses or

widely used.
Its botanical

name

Veronicastrum

derived

is

was named after St

from
Veronica) and astrum or star - after the
arrangement of the leaves.
It was first introduced to Europe in 17 14.
Description Perennial to 2.25 m on horizontal
blackish rhizome. Stem erect, smooth and unbranched bearing 15-cm long lanceolate, or
oblong-lanceolate, dentate, and shortly petiolate flowers in whorls of 3-5 or occasionally 9.
(which

itself

acts as a drastic

it

cause vertigo and bloody

Native to Europe, North Africa,

northern Asia; introduced elsewhere, often as
an ornamental. In woodland clearings, on wet
loamy soils to 1200
altitude.
Cultivation Wild plant. Propagated from seed or
Distribution

hardwood

cuttings; several cultivars are

grown

ornamentals.

Constituents (bark)

Viburnum opulus

L caprifoliaceae
Guelder Rose Cramp Bark/

resin; viburnine.

Cranberry Tree
This is an attractive plant and several cultivars
are found as horticultural ornamentals. As the
name Cranberry Tree suggests, the fruit have
been used like Cranberries but they do not
really compare in quality and they must be

Of benefit

Tannins; isovalerianic acid;

Uses (dried stem barki Sedative; spasmolytic.

in functional uterine disorders, as a

uterine sedative;

menopausal metrorrhagia,

miscarriage, and dysmenorrhoea.

may

Fruit

be cooked and eaten, or used as a

dye.
Contra-indications Fresh berries are

POISON-

OUS.
Viburnum prunifolium L caprifoliaceae
Black Haw Sweet Yiburnum/Stagbush
American Sloe

mm

to

fruit.

as

stools.

long, numFlowers white, pink or blue, 7

erous, on short pedicels, arranged in dense
terminal spike-like racemes. Appearing mid-

summer

cymes to 9 cm wide, appearing early to

mid-summer; followed by scarlet, then purple,

emetic.
fresh

Shrub to 4
tall, branches glabrous and erect; leaves 3-5 lobed, opposite,
petiolate, dentate. Flowers white, in peduncuDescription

late

stomachic tonic,
in diarrhoea, dyspepsia and atony of the
gastro-intestinal system. Promotes the flow of
bile from the gall bladder. Boiled in milk it
acts as a laxative; larger doses are purgative or

Small doses are valuable

cause vomiting for ritualistic and medicinal

purposes.
Although it was formerly included in the
United States Pharmacopoeia it is not now

veronica

is

V. prunifolium

mid-autumn.

ties

and

has similar constituents, proper-

uses to V. opulus L, but differs in that

the part used medicinally is usually the root

bark rather than the stem bark. Its fruit are
also sweeter than those of V. opulus - hence the
name Sweet Viburnum. Black Haw continues
to be used in folk medicine and is retained in
several pharmacopoeias; other species are
similarly used, besides V. opulus,

clude

V.

and

Haw

cooked before they are eaten - the raw

fruit

cause severe gastro-intestinal disorders.

In

Norway and other Scandinavian

countries a

liquor has been distilled from the

V.

fruit.

numerous common names: Guelder

Rose is from the Dutch Geldersche roos since the
tree was introduced from Guelders, on the
German border, to England in the sixteenth
opulus has

American

native

from

Massachusetts to Florida and Texas, on a

variety of soils from dry to rich and wet; but
especially in moist meadows and river banks.
Cultivation Wild.
May be propagated by
division

of rhizomes after flowering in late

autumn, or in mid-spring.
also known.
Constituents

terol;

saponoside;

280

Gum;

volatile

purple variety

is

resin; a phytosterol, veros-

oil;

citric

volatile

acid;

mannitol; a

alkaloid;

bitter

century. Strictly, Guelder Rose

roseum
sterile,

(or V. opulus

var.

is

sterile

V. opulus var.

DC

and

thus non-fruiting, ornamental

in horticultural

The herb was

lists

as the

is

found

Snowball Tree).

employed in north and

west European medicine, but it was popular in
the early nineteenth century in America - it is
rarely

still

included, however, in the Polish,

ian

and Russian pharmacopoeias.

Ruman-

and they

in-

Possumhaw Viburnumj

rufidulum Raf. (the Southern Black

- the latter being found in the Mexican

V.
1

Description

contains a substance, viburnine, which can

North

L. (the

Pharmacopoeia.
Deciduous shrub
branches spreading. Leaves

|lll?

Distribution

nudum

to

tall;

dull-coloured,

VER-VIO
opposite,

ovate to

petiolate.

elliptic,

land in loamy calcareous

finely

toothed to 7.5 cm long. Flowers small, white, in

sessile cymes to 10 cm wide, appearing late
spring to early summer, and followed by
purple oval

fruits.

Distribution

Native

Connecticut
Cultivation

Tannins; alkaloids, including pubescine, vinine and vincamine; flavonoids:

pectin: organic acids; several mineral salts:
vitamin C; rubber; ursolic acid. The flower

Constituents

plant.

Constituents (root bark)

Tannins; isovalerianic

contains robinoside.

acid; resin; viburnine.

dried root bark

Uses

Of benefit
hia,

Sedative: spasmolytic.

and threatened miscarriage. Once taken

and considered to be of benefit in

Hypotensive: vasoplant
hypoglycaemic; astringent: vulner-

(flowering

Uses

dysmenorr-

as a uterine sedative in

dilator;

ary; sedative.

as a tonic tea,

Generally used

asthma.

ally

Contra-indications

autumn.

cuttings taken in spring or

North America from

to

well-drained, to

soils,

altitude.

Cultivation Wild. Used as ground cover in

shady positions; propagate by division or stem

to Florida.

Wild

1200

Uncooked

fruit

is

POISON-

and

to stop bleeding,

both extern-

internally, as in metrorrhagia

and

menorrhagia. Also used in nervous conditions

such as anxiety states and subsequent hyper-

OUS.

tension.
Yinca major

possesses many other uses. It reduces

blood pressure and dilates both coronary and
peripheral blood vessels. There is also a marked effect on smooth muscle. Can be used as a

The herb

L apocynaceae

Greater Periwinkle Periwinkle

The Periwinkle family consists of about 12
species of trailing evergreen shrubs. The genus
from the old Latin name Yinca
from which the common name is
derived formerly included the Madagascan

and

Employed

Yinca

tonic, bitter

peruinca

itionally in Africa to treat Diabetes mellitus.

Periwinkle,

Yinca rosea L,

Catharanthus roseus (L) G.

(now

Don

classified as

which

is

major

was generally preferred, and

it

is

still

used in folk medicine.

Various cultivars of V. minor are grown as
garden ornamentals.
Description Trailing evergreen perennial 30-90
cm tall. Long prostrate stems bearing dark
green, shiny, ovate, short-petioled, obtuse or
acute leaves to 4 cm long. Flowers pale blue to
4 cm wide, solitary on hollow stalk appearing

mid

to late ipring.

Distribution

European

native, in

trad-

Note diabetes must only be treated by medical

:

personnel.

an

important medicinal source of anti-leukaemic

drugs. Both the Greater and the Lesser
Periwinkle Y. minor L have long been considered as magical and medicinal plants, but
Y.

in catarrh.

mixed wood-

hypotensive; expectorant; diuretic.

L violaceae

Viola odorata

Sweet Violet
The name Sweet

Violet describes both the

and colour of the

smell

and the plant

flowers,

has been cultivated for over 2000 years as both

a colouring agent for drinks
a source of perfume.

It is still

and syrups, and as

grown in southern

perfume industrv At the turn of

Water and other Sweet
Violet perfumes were one of the most popular
of all m cuts in England although Violet-scent
was also obtained from Iris germanica L
France

for the

the centurv

Violet

names included viola purpurea, viola

The aromatic
glaucia and the Greek ion agrion.
principle is known as ioninc or irone. The
Early

name

genet k

is

taken directly from the old

Leaves and flowers are principally employed

in the treatment of respiratory disorders,
especially chronic naso-pharyneal catarrh and
bronchitis. Used in cough mixtures, and once
employed in the treatment of rheumatism.
Used as a gargle in inflamed buccal mucosae.
Flowers used to colour medications; candied in
confectionery, and used widely in perfumery.
Contra-indications

large

In

doses

Yiola tricolor

ssp. arvensis

This herb with three-coloured petals (white,

yellow and purple)

became

the Herba Trinitatis

of the Middle Ages, and was later given the

similarly descriptive specific

name

Heartsease

in

on long stolons, to 15cm

on short rhizome. Stemless Leaves teniform to cordate-ovate, petiolate. Flowers
1

up/ion Perennial

cm

attractive

scented,

violet, also

white or pink: appearing mid to

to

wide,

usually

late ipring.

Native to Asia, North Africa,

Europe
introduced elsewhere on damp calcareous soils in shad) woodland, scrubland,
hedgerows, wood clearings to 000 m altitude.
Distribution
.

Wild. Propagated from offsets rewinter or earlv spring in a peat

Cultivation

planted

in late

and sand mix, under

glass; or divide in spring.

Requires shade, rich soil and moisture. Various cultivars may be found.
Saponins; a glycoside, violarutin;
methyl salicylate; mucilage; vitamin C; an

Constituents

alkaloid,

odoraline;

author yaniii

an aromatic substance
c

he

Usei

dried

c^lyc

ioninc- 01

pigments;
irone; sali-

leaves

European

and

root-dtock)

is

still

official

and

countries
until

however remain important horticultural ornamentals as edging plants. The name Pansy is
from the French word pensee, meaning
thought or remembrance, and Wild Pansy is
called Pensee sauvage in France. In the
traditional language of flowers the purple form
meant memories, the white loving thoughts

still

and
was

a plant received in

the

heart-break of separation.

the-

yellow

Description

perennial,

souvenirs. Hence- Heartsease

happy memory
annual

Variable,

somewhat

straggly

or

to ease

short-lived

and branched

to

m tall. Leaves opposite,

ovate to lanceolate.
dentate, with lobed stipules, flowers purple,
while-,
yellow or a combination of these
j",c

Most frequently yellowish in the wild

Appearing mid-spring to late autumn.
Distribution European native. Naturalized in
North America. Introduced elsewhere. On

colours.
plant.

in

fields,

flowers. Iresh Mowers.

mountain pastures; on

Emetic;

altitude

purgative-;

tricolor.

some eastern
remained so in

1926; it is now no longer

cultivated medicinally. Various cultivars do

Germany

wasteland,

osides.

clried

is

Murr. violaceae

Latin name.

tall,

root

Heartsease Wild Pansy/Field Pansy

Various parts of the plant are still used

medicinally but their a< tions differ. The rootStO< k is now the part most commonlv employed

the

emetic and purgative.

hedgerows,

rarely

in

acidic soils.

To 2000

in

281

VIS-ZIX
\ ilci-

This species

is

one parent of

Garden Pansy V. x mttrockiana

which is found in several forms.

the cultivated

The herb

hybridizes readily with related

Propagate from seed sown in spring or
on as ripe. Requires rich, damp soil.

plants.

Constituents Salicylic acid

and

salicylates: sap-

onins; flavonic glycosides including violaquer-

blue chromoglucoside,

citin:

emetu

rutin

violanin:

which

violin

principle,

bittc.

and related

as

acts

an

traces of

rutins:

volatile oil.

dried flowering plant, fresh juice, dried

Bowers Diuretic: antipyretic: tonic: laxative:

anti-inflammatory.

Used

agent especially in
complaints and rheumatism.
Stimulates the metabolism and induces persas a blood-purifying

chronic

skin

piration,

and therefore employed

conditions.

Of

benefit

in feverish

indigestion

in

urino-genital inflammatory condition^.

as a gargle or lotion

ulcers

and

sores.

to

aid

wound

valuable

and
Used

healing.

horticultural

plant.

Contra-mduations Large doses or prolonged

may

use-

cause allergic skin reactions.

Vollm., and Loranthus europaeu* L

onstrated in some animals but not

The parasite.

Used

phyll

Mistletoe w bicb contains chloro-

tound on different deciduous trees and

the Apple. It has been shown that

is

commonly

the constituents of the

mas

Mistletoe

belief that the

drug from the

thought

Druids

itself

to

Oak

most

vsas

be magical by the

Mistletoe

currently

being

examined

for

contains sub-

It

Woody perennial evergreen; stems

long and regularly branching. Leases
green,

light

to

cm

short,

in

narrow

blunt,

long.

Rowers

sessile,

almost

sessile

axillarv

in-

is

mas
album L

collected from the wild the resultant drug

also contain other specit-x
->p.

abieti,

album L.

V.

notabh

V.

Abrom.. V. album ssp.

Wiesb.
album L ssp. austriacum Wiesb.

to

women

Native

several

to

regions

from

trees.

Wild.

Semi-cultivated

in

some

fruit.

Constituents

galactosyl
alkaloids:

11

proteins: a lectin

specificity

many

toxin,

svith

D-

siscotoxin:

other supposedly active com-

gynaecological

Uses

dried branches and leaves

Hypotensive:

cm

basket

in

The

making

in

long.

South European native: introduced and often naturalized in svarm regions.

On sandy or loamy. s\ ell-drained soils in full
Distribution

sun.

Propagated from seed sown in

by layering in spring to summer, or
young woody cuttings under gj

Cultivation Wild.

spring,

Several

are grosvn for decorative

including the svhite variety Alba

cultisars

L ^ed in combination svith other remedies to

hypertension, and associated, nervous

Constituents Several

dem-

now included

formulations.

Aromatic shrub or small tree to 6 m

Leaves opposite, palmately compound,
disided into 57 lanceolate leaflets, each to 10
cm long. Flowers small, lasender or lilac, in
dense cymes to 15 cm svide. in panicles to 30

purposes,

complaints. Considered anti-neoplastic

is

and are of
hormonal

Description

cardio-active: diuretic: sedative.

treat

in

certain

tall.

from

pounds.

with

problems. Chaste Tree

branches are used

southern Europe.

ed ripe

in

s\a-

benefit

by the inoculation of tree bark in

Apple orchards, for example svith the squash-

interest

It

that the seeds contain hormone-like substances

svhich reduce libido in the male

places

species of medicinal

from which the

used to put the leaves in their

sticks fruit.

Cultivation

album, although since the plant

the

derived.

is

seseral

deciduous

V.

meaning wild

agnus-castus

and

Europe to China, including Iran

and parts of the mediterranean region: rarely
tound on conifers, but common on some

is

piper agreste of the

uni-

north-svest

The

agreste

and

florescence,

Distribution

Europe

Middle Ages
called iituis

Wild Pepper

name

beds, and later monks in Europe used the

ground-up seed as pepper - in both cases the
purpose was to ensure chastity hence Chaste
Tree and Monk's Pepper
It is nosv knosvn

appearing mid-spring to earls

summer and followed bv i-cm diame-ter svhite.

world.

also called Indian Spice.

is

Hemp Tree and

macology of the plant is vers complicated.

however, and no definitise results hase yet
been demonstrated in humans.

sexual,

and almost 1500 species of mostly parasitic

plants which are widely distributed around the

Vita agnus-castus

Sage Tree.

name

leathery,

family comprises jn genera

Vita agnus-castus L verbenaceae

Chaste Tree Monks Pepper Agnus Castas

women

obovate,

Mistletoe

winter decorations.

botanical

mas combine with

and phar-

DescriptUH

The Loranthaceae

in

Athenian

to

L loranthaceae

Employed

certain cancer cells: the chemistrs

statues called lectins which

n album

prepar-

ations.

latter reflecting the

possible anti-cancer effects.

humans

certain

in

var\

according to the host plant on which it is

found. This mas explain the ancient druidic
valuable

pharmaceutical^

Westn.
dried fruit

hormonal substances.
Anaphrodisiac

in

males

VIS-ZIN
The drug was introduced
following long use by Red

in 1849 by King
Indians as a local

and general stimulant.

It was once included in

remedies for alcoholism, but is now used only
in folk medicine.
Sometimes incorrectly found classified as

Xanthoxylum.
Description

Aromatic shrub or small

Leaves

30

to

cm

tree to 3

long, subdivided into

m.

511

ovate leaflets. Flowers greenish-yellow appearing in late spring before the leaves arranged in
:

axillary clusters.
Distribution
in the east.

North American native especially

in rich woodland on moist

Usually

soils.

Wild.

Cultivation

Constituents

Resins:

alkaloid-like

substances;

a phenol, xanthoxylin.
Uses (dried stem and root bark, rarely fruit
Stimulant; counter-irritant; diaphoretic: car-

minative.

Used

in atonic

dyspepsia; in combination with

respiratory catarrh, and

more frequently with other remedies of value
in
chronic skin disease and rheumatism.

other remedies in
Principally
ditions

May

employed

in

gynaecological con-

including depression in menopause.

be used sparingly as a condiment.

Decoction used externallv on ulcers.

the

east

centuries

for

described

medicinal

before

Dioscorides

Far East it
had also long been employed; in China it was,
and still is, an important drug, and Green
Ginger in syrup was a delicacy from the
fifteenth century. Ginger is now grown commercially throughout the tropics
from
Australia to Jamaica - and many types and
grades are available. The Spanish were
importing Ginger from Jamaica before the
mid-sixteenth century, and Jamaican Ginger
its

uses. In the

considered the best for culinary use.

Perennial, creeping plant, on thick
tuberous rhizome, producing an erect annual
stem ()o iao cm tall. Leaves 1-2 cm wide,
still

is

I)i

scription

5 30 cm long, lanceolate to linear-lanceolate.

Flowers greenish marked with purple, in
1

radical spikes (to 7

cm

long) on 30 cm-long

peduncles.
Distribution

Native

and

duced

To

countries.

south-cast Asia; intro-

to

widespread
1500

several

in

Propagated from
on rich, well-

Cultivation Cultivated plant.

rhi/ome

cuttings,

tropical

in altitude.

planted

drained loam.
Constituents

camphene,

many

Volatile

oil

(to

phellandrene,

3%), comprising
and

zingiberine,

other substances resin starch gingerol

the latter two substances being
;

shogaol

pungent.
fc?J
fresh or dried rhi/ome
Stimulant;
carminative; aromatic; sialogogue; anti-emetic
Very valuable in flatulent colic, dyspepsia
and atonic dyspepsia. < )lteu used as an adjunct
to other remedies lor general tonic or stimulant
purposes, or to purgatives to prevent griping.
1

\<
Zanthoxylum ameruanum Mill, ri
\i
Prickly Ash Toothache Tre<
Several %anthoxyUm species have
medicinal
non. notably Prickly Ash and the Southern
Prickly Ash
ClavO'Herculii I.
They are
(ailed Prickly because of their stem and
petiole spines; and the other common name
relers lo the Red Indian use of the l>.nk foi
i

;i

11

."'.

toothache In this respect the therapeutic use

seems to he that ol a powerful counterirritant,

and

it

is

not a

im

Zingiber

officinale

Rose oe zingibi racj

\i

Ginger
Before
plant,

it

Roscoe reclassified this well-known

had been called Amomi/m zingiber I..

name reflecting the old Arabic name

Amomnrn Zerumbeth. The term amomum had

been used

to desc rihe

ei

tain aromatic spices

Rubefacient when applied externally

Very wide culinary

Round Cardamom, lor example, is still

called Amomum compactum Soland. ex Ma ton.
Ginger was long known as Zingiberis however,

ed In

and

plaint.

the

the Greeks

had imported

the-

rhi/ome from

in

the

fresh state.

<

ommen

ial

uses in

many domestic and

preparations.

Contra-indications

Large doses should be avoid-

patients suffering from any

skin

com-

283

ALIMENTARY TRACT The

Glossary

from the mouth

ALKALINE

through body membranes and

bodv compartment

tissues

from one

to another.

ACETYLCHOLINE

The substance which

transmits cholinergic nerve impulses.

(bot.) A dry, indehiscent. one-seeded

ACHENE

pericarp or

fruit.

ACICULAR

Needle-shaped.
substance which forms
hydrogen ions in solution, and which contains
replaceable hvdrogens. Opposite to alkali.
ACTIVE SUBSTANCE A substance which,
either in combination with other substances or
in the isolated form, exerts a physiological
or pharmacological effect on living tissue.
(bot.) Describing the acute
apex of a leaf, the sides of which are concave
and taper to a protracted point. The point
of such a leaf is called the acumen.
A system of medicine,
originated in China, in which needles are
inserted into specific tissues and/or organs at
predetermined points thereby relieving pain,
inducing anaesthesia, or assisting in the healing

ACID

(bot.)

chem.)

ACUMINATE

ACUPUNCTURE

process.

ADAPTOGEN A

(chem.)

ANTIHELMINTIC A

destroys or expels intestinal worms.

ALKALOIDS A

group of naturally occurring

compounds which contain at least

one nitrogen atom in a ring structure in the
molecule. They are usually of plant origin,
basic organic

substance which modifies the

ADRENALIN A

hormone

secreted by the

adrenal glands. One of the substances which

transmits sympathetic nerve impulses.
ADRENERGIC Describing either a substance
which acts like (nor)adrenalin or the type of
physiological action characteristic of
(nor'ladrenalin.

ADVENTITIOUS ROOT
appears casually or

on a plant, and

is

in

bot.

root that

an unusual place

not a part of the

main

root svstem.

Hydrocarbon

radical

derived particularly from those of the

paraffin series.

ALUM

Potash alum or crystalline potassium

aluminium sulphate, a chemical substance
occurring naturally and used for a number
of purposes, including as a mordant in dyeing.
ALVEOLAR DUCTS The minute air passages
in the lung which lead from branched
bronchioles to alveolar sacs.
terminal branches of
alveolar ducts comprising alveoli.
An air cell of the lung.
Absence of menstruation.
AMINO-ACIDS The basic constituents of
proteins, consisting of organic compounds.

ALVEOLAR SACS The

part of a

AMMONIA

characteristically pungent-

smelling gas with the formula NH3. It is vcrv

soluble in water, forming an alkaline solution
of ammonium hydroxide.
AMOEBIASIS Infection of the gut and liver
by Entamoeba histolytica, a parasitic protozoan.
A cyanogenic glycoside found

AMYGDALIN

in

peach stones,

for

example.

ANABOLISM

That aspect of metabolism

which is concerned with the building up of
complex substances from simpler material: the

ANAEMIA

The male organs

of a flower.
Plants which have their seed

enclosed in a seed vessel.

bot. A plant whose life-cycle
from germination to maturity and death lasts
only one growing season.
A substance that relieves pain.
A condition characteristically found in young women usually in

ANNUAL

ANODYNE
ANOREXIA NERVOSA

which intense aversion

to excess weight leads to

great restriction in food intake and subsequent
emaciation and nutritional deficiencies: often

convinced she is fat.

associated with emotional

The

condition

is

is

contains pollen.

albumin.

ANTHOCYANIN

intermediate between alcohois and acids.

ALGAE (bot.) A group of largely aquatic
plants which lack roots, stems and leaves and
which do not flower. They range in size from
large seaweeds to minute organisms, and are of
great importance as the primary source of
organic matter in the food chains of seas,
rivers

284

and

lakes.

White

oral sore or ulcer

cause.

APICAL BUD

The bud

bot.

nearest to the

archaic term for those who

prepared and sold drugs and who at one time
administered to the sick. The modern
apothecary is, strictly speaking, a general
medical practitioner, but the term may also be
applied to pharmaceutical chemists and
druggists.

AQUEOUS SOLUTION A solution in water.

ARABINOSE A sugar which found in plant
is

material.

It is

also called pectin sugar

and

ARACHIDIC

Relating to the Peanut,

Arachis hypogaea.

ARACHNOID
like a

Soft entangled hairs.

bot.

cobweb.

ARECA RED A

red dye obtained from the

of the Betel Palm. Areca catechu.

ARIL bot. An outer wing on a seed or
fruit

appendage

to a seed,

growing out from the

hilum or funiculus.

AROMATHERAPY The

use of essential oils

treatment of medical and cosmetic
problems; the oils are considered to act at a
spiritual or emotional level. The subject was
promoted by Rene-Maurice Gattefosse in the
1920s and is not accepted as a legitimate
branch of herbal medicine.

AROMATIC

chem.

Organic compound

derived from benzene; also called aromatic

compound;
spicy taste

having a fragrant and or

herb,

and

smell.

ARRHYTHMIA

med.

Irregularity or

absence of rhvthm of the heart

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS

Hardening of the

arteries.

ARTIFICIAL

chem.

Man-made

substance.

ARYL RADICAL

ALBUMEN

organic chemicals

unknown

in the

ANTHELMINTIC See antihelmintic.

ANTHER bot. The part of the stamen

class of

of

pectinose.

The non-sugar part of a glycoside

molecule. (See Glycoside.
Egg white; comprised chiefly of

ALDEHYDES A

APHTHOUS ULCER

APOTHECARY An

AGLYCONE

heat.

ANTISCORBUTIC A substance which

prevents or cures scurvy.
ANTI-SUDORIFIC A substance which stops
or reduces perspiration.
ANTI-TLSSIVE An agent which reduces or
relieves coughing.
APERIENT Laxative.
APHRODISIAC A substance which stimulates
sexual excitement and sometimes ability.

AMENORRHOEA

conflict.

ALBUMIN

top of a shoot.

plant which exists above ground.

One of a group of protein

substances; soluble in water and coagulable by

substance that inhibits

or destroys

ALVEOLUS

the emaciated patient

AERIAL VEGETATIVE PART Any

ANTI-NEOPLASTIC A
or reduces fever.

as salts of organic acids.

ALKYL RADICAL

ANGIOSPERMS

effect of another.

inhibits

the division of cells.

and often found

ANDROECIUM

class of

ANTIMITOTIC A substance which

physiologically active, insoluble in water,

ADJUVANT A

new

substance which

tumours (neoplastic cells

ANTIPYRETIC A substance which prevents

consciousness.

to describe a

substance which counteracts or

to acid.

herbalists' term, alterative.

Brekhman

ANTIDOTE A

the soluble hydroxides of metals. Opposite

drug (of which Ginseng is the prime example

which is ineffective and harmless in the
absence of stress, but which returns body
processes to normal when faced with stress
or damage. (Similar in meaning to the

Israel

substance that slows

neutralizes a poison.

referring to

conversion of nutritional compounds into

those of which living matter is composed.
A reduction in the normal level
of the red blood cells and/or haemoglobin
content of the blood.
ANALGESIC A substance which produces
insensibility to pain without loss of

term introduced by Professor

ANTI-COAGULANT A

or prevents the clotting of blood.

substance which forms

and usually

ions in solution,

ABORTIFACIENT A substance causing

expulsion of the foetus; hence an agent which
induces an abortion.
ABORTIVE (bot.) Undeveloped; barren;
immature; faulty; coming to a premature end;
med. cutting short the course of a disease;
ending without completing.
ABSOLUTE Relating to alcohol ethanol or
ethyl alcohol) that which does not contain
less than 99% pure alcohol by weight.
ABSORPTION The passage of substances

digestive tract,

to the anus.

which

Radicals derived from

aromatic compounds. See Aromatic.
ASCORBIC ACID Vitamin C.
Difficulty in breathing, due to
constriction or spasm of air passages and

ASTHMA
One

of the flavonoid
glycosides which comprise the soluble colouring
matter of certain plant material, such as the

caused by increased responsiveness of the

bronchi and trachea to various stimuli.

purple and red of autumnal leaves, and the

and blue of flowers.

particularly allergy.

violet, red

ASTRINGENT A

ANTHRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDE A

contraction, shrinkage or firming of living

mucous membranes, and which in

doing reduces or stops the function of those
tissues thereby affecting haemorrhages.
secretions, diarrhoea, etc. The term is often
applied to cosmetic preparations which tighten

glycosidic derivative of anthraquinone. usually

tissues, often

possessing a cathartic action.

so

ANTHRAQUINONE NUCLEUS

Complex

aromatic compound. (See Aromatic.

ANTICHOLINERGIC Acting as or relating
to a cholinergic blocking agent, hence blocking
the action of cholinergic nerves or acetylcholine.

substance that causes

the skin.

ATROPINE An

alkaloid obtained from

Atropa belladonna (Deadly Nightshade) and other

members of the Solanaceae family. It is a

parasympatholytic agent which is used mainly

its spasmolytic action on smooth muscle and
for its action in reducing secretions.
AURICULATE Ear-shaped, particularly
referring to the shape of leaves.
AXIL (bot.) The upper angle formed between
a petiole or peduncle and the stem carrying it.
AXILLARY BUD A bud formed in an axil,
the angle of the leaf with its stem.
AXIS bot.) The main stem or root of a plant.
for

drugs with bitter constituents, which are used

CARPEL

promote the appetite.

BLEPHARITIS Inflammation of the

the

to

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER A

BACTERIA An

enormous group of unicellular

or sparsely cellular micro-organisms which are

neither animal nor plant, but which possess a

wide range of structural and biosynthetic

ability. They range from free living soil and
water organisms to human parasites which have
never been cultivated. Some forms are able to
photosynthesize in a manner similar to that of
green plants but they do not produce oxygen.

BALLAST MATERIAL

Those substances,

naturally occurring in medicinal herbs,

which modify the physiological activity of a

movement of substances from

substances to simpler ones, with the release

of energy.
CATALYST A substance which alters the rate
at which a chemical reaction takes place,
but itself remains unchanged at the end of

the blood to the

central nervous system, allowing

some

to pass

freely while inhibiting or completely

preventing the movement of others.
BRACT (bot.) A much reduced and often
scale-like leaf that bears a flower or

the reaction.

CATHARTIC A purgative substance.

CAUDATE (bot.) Having a tail-like appendage

its axil.

BRACTEOLE (bot.) A small bract.

BRONCHIOLE A branch of a bronchus

which

mm in diameter.
BRONCHODILATORS Substances which

is

less

than

increase the diameter of the

pulmonary

air

whose life-cycle
maturity and death takes

from germination to
two growing seasons.
BIFURCATION Forking or branching.
BILE A secretion of the liver which is stored
in the gall-bladder. It is rich in fats, pigments

and various

salts

BILHARZIA
One

which aid digestion.

Bilharziasis or Schistosomiasis.

of the most important debilitating

diseases of

man, contracted

in tropical

subtropical regions of the world.

worm permeates
of

its

and

BRONCHUS

One

of the main branches of the

trachea or that within the lung which contains
cartilage in the wall structure pi. bronchi").
(bot.) A division of the non-

parasitic

Acute paroxysmal pain

caused by the movement of gallstones

down

the bile duct.

BILIARY OBSTRUCTION

Reduction

down

in the

the

bile-

duct due to physical obstruction.

BILIOUS Sometimes

CALCIFUGOUS

CALCIFUGE

and

(bot.)

(bot.)

salts,

often phosphate or

BIOCHEMICAL

chloroplast.

CHOLAGOGUE A substance which stimulates

or aids the release of bile from the gall-bladder.

CHOLECYSTITIS

Inflammation of the

flower.

presence of stones in

the bile duct and/or gall-bladder.

CHOLERETIC A

substance which stimulates

CAMBIUM

CHOLINERGIC That part of the nervous

system which uses acetylcholine as its
transmitting substance; or the type of
physiological action characteristic of

(bot.) A secondary mcristematic

producing annual growth of vascular

tissues, or
(

cork

in

woody

\OCICHOrC

plants.

India-rubber or

many

Gum

Elastic

plants.

smallest subdivision of
conned the smallest

veins to the smallest subdivision

of

CAPILLARY ATTRACTION
between the surfaces
results in the

ol

That force
narrow tubes which

movement of fluids along them.

CAPITULUM

(bot.)

A Bower-head;

often

acetylcholine.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

The

separation of a

mixture of substances by various methods, such

as selective adsorption or partition between
non-mixing solvents, for example.
(biol.) Small bodies found
in cell nuclei which carry the genes or
inheritable characteristics of the organism
concerned. Different organisms often have

CHROMOSOMES

numbers of chromosomes. Normal

referring specifically to those with sessile

different

flowers

vegetative cells have two sets; reproductive

cells have only one.

pi.

capitula).

CARBOHYDRATES
c

A class of organic
ompounds containing carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen. Included

in this

group are the sugars.

starches and cellulose.

An

odourless and

CILIATE

Fringed with small hairs.

small hair or whip-like structure
attached to some animal and plant cells,

CI LI
f

UM

(bot.)

pi. cilia).

wilh living matter.

and used

degeneration and regeneration of

BIOSYNTHESIS The

starting point for the synthesis of

production of chemical
lubstam es by a living organism.
BIRD-LIME A glutinous substance
manufactured from various plant materials
which was traditionally applied to sticks to
capture birds.

BITERNATE

(bot.) Leaflets in a

compound

arranged in threes, in wlm h one group

borne on a sec ond.irv but similarly arranged

leaf,

petiole.

BITTER A

substance characterized 1>\

Often applied to alcoholic drinks
ontaining bitter substam es. 01 to botanii
.1

bittei

in

photosynthesis by plants as the

arbohvdrates.

CARDIO-ACTIVE
(

ARDIOTONIC

Acting on the heart.

bsi wci.s Agents
of

heart

muscle-; applied loosely to substances

have some benefit

(

ial

which

action on the heart.

Relating to

tRDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

the heart

and blood

CARMINATIVE
and

into vitamin

vessels.

A substance which

relieves

Reddish-yellow pigments in
be- converted by animal tissue

may
A-.

disorder of the liver character-

ized by increase in fibrous connective tissue,

Caused

liver cells.

especially by alcohol.

COLIC Acute paroxysmal pain in the

abdominal region.
COLON That part of the large intestine
which begins at the caecum and ends at the
rectum.

TOMY The surgical

formation of an
anus in the abdominal wall following
lower bowel disease.
COMBUSTION PROCESS Any chemical
process which is accompanied by the release ol
(

:(

)I,(

)S

artificial

colic.

CAROTENES
plants which

al

si

which increase the contractility

flatulence

taste

gall-

bladder.

CIRRHOSIS A

biologic al

which

CHLOROPHYLL

colourless gas with the formula CO2. Formed in

the pioc ess ol respiration by man and plants,

Relating to physiological or
lirmistrv the chemicals ,isso< iated

fluid

surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

Abbreviated as CSF.
(bot.) The green pigment of
plants, vital to the process of photosynthesis.
CHLOROPLAST (bot.) A minute organ
(organelle) within green plant cells, containing
the green pigment, chlorophyll. The basic
processes of food manufacture occur within the

the production of bile in the liver.

CARBON DIOXIDE

distinct species.

grey

cambium.

blood vessels which

BILIOUSNESS A disorder associated with

poor digestion and characterized by gen era
discomfort, headache, constipation and nausea
It may or may not be related to bile se< k lion.
and the term is medically inexact.
BINOMIAL bii.l Describes the system of
nomenclature of animals and plants in which
two names are applied to a spec ih< organism
the first genus groups the organisms into
closel) related types, and the second apecifii

true plants.

CHOLELITHIASIS The

CALYX (bot.) The outer covering of a

CAMBIAL CELLS (bot.) Cells of the

of arteries

ifies a

or containing

Descriptive of plants which will not tolerate

soils containing chalk or limestone.
CALCULI Stones in the kidney, gall-bladder
or bladder. They are composed of mineral

subdivision

spe

of,

Descriptive of plants which tolerate, or require

soils containing chalk or limestone.

into the intestinal svstem.

epithet

Composed

CALCICOLOUS AND CALCICOLE

relating to bile itself or to disorders aused

by excessive production and release ol bile
<

The carbohydrate

structural constituent of the cell-walls of all

CEREBRO-SPINAL FLUID The

free lime or limestone.

CAPILLARY The

plants.
(bot.)

CEREBRAL CORTEX The external

obtained from the juice of

called Bilous. Eitln

CELLULOSE

laver of the brain.

tissue,

flow of bile from thr gall-bladder

(biol.) The fluid within plant cells,

including that in conducting vessels and the
material which can be extracted on crushing

flowering plants which contains the

Liverworts, Hornworts and Mosses.

oxalate.

life-cycle.

BILIARY COLIC

tail.

CELL SAP

BRYOPHYTA

substances and

the circulatory system, as part

or

and macerating

passages.

CALCAREOUS

soothes a cough.

Related to or containing

CATABOLISM That aspect of metabolism

concerned with the breaking down of complex

plant or extract.

BECHIC A substance that

BIENNIAL (bot.) A plant

CARTILAGINOUS
cartilage.

barrier between the tissue of the brain and the

brain capillaries which effectively controls the

inflorescence in

eyelids.

functional

(bot.) One of the units composing

gynoecium or the female parts of a flower.

heat

COMPOUND LEAF

(bot.)

One made up of

285

DNA

several distinct leaflets.

compound

CONJUNCTIVITIS

CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDE A glycoside

Inflammation of the

mucous membrane covering

conjunctiva, the
the eye-ball.

which

to the cut surface.

hydrocyanic (or prussic) acid

liberates

when broken down.

CONTUSION A bruise.
CONVERGENT EVOLUTION The separate
and independent development of unrelated
plants or animals leading to structural or
functional similarities or close identity that

(See Glycoside.)
A group of evergreen plants belonging
to the Gymnosperms, and thus among the most
primitive of living seed plants. The Cycads
were especially dominant in the flora of the

CYC AD

Mesozoic period.

superficially suggests a close relationship

CYME

between them.

flower-cluster in

CORDATE (bot.) Heart-shaped.

CORIACEOUS (biol.) Having a
A

which the central flowers open

CYSTITIS Inflammation

leathery

CYTOPLASM
(bot.)

broad, inverted cone-shaped

first.

texture.

CORM

(bot.)

swollen, rounded underground

excluding the

stem which lasts for one year only, that of the

next year being produced on the top of its

COROLLA

(bot.) Collective

term

for the

its

leaves

autumn.

(herb.) Extract of a herb

obtained by boiling a given weight of plant
matter in a given volume of water for a given

the heart.

time.

blood

cell

or any other small

rounded body.

CORTEX
organ

part of the small

from the stomach,

DYSENTERY

plant that loses

formation
of a clot or thrombus in a coronary artery of

CORPUSCLE A

first

and containing the pancreatic and common

DECOCTION

CORONARY THROMBOSIS The

with a medicinal substance.

DROPSY An old-fashioned term for heart
failure, characterized by the abnormal
accumulation of serous fluid in body tissues.

bile ducts.

in

petals of a flower.

DOUCHE

Normally referring to the direction

of a flow of liquid into a body cavity;
often the vagina for the purpose of washing

intestine following the outlet

DECIDUOUS A

parent.

DNA

DUODENUM The

of the bladder.
material within cells,
nucleus.

The

cell

(Deoxyribonucleic acid) Complex

molecules containing a deoxyribose sugar and
organic bases.
is present in chromosomes
of all plant and animal cells and carries coded
genetic information.

DECOMPOSITION

The breaking down

of

Inflammation of the intestine,

characterized by diarrhoea containing mucus
and blood, pain and painful straining to
evacuate the bowels.

DYSMENORRHOEA

Painful or difficult

menstruation.

DYSPEPSIA

Disorder of the digestive process.

DYSPNOEA

Difficulty in breathing.

complex substances into simpler ones.

The

(med.)

peripheral portion of an

as in the cortex of a kidney; (bot.) the

between the vascular cylinder and

epidermis of the stem and root.
tissue region

CORYMBOSE CLUSTER

(bot.)

and

short

DECUMBENT
bending towards

(bot.)

Lying on the ground or

but with the apex pointing

upwards (as for a plant stem or branch).

DECUSSATE

it,

(bot.)

Arranged

in opposite

each pair being at right angles

pairs,

to the

ECLAMPSIA A

disease occurring during the

pregnancy characterized by a
blood pressure, and sometimes

latter half of
rise in

convulsions.

broad, practically flat-topped flower (luster.

next.

ECLECTIC MEDICINE A

CORYMBOSE TERMINAL PANICLE

DEFALCATION

that particularly attracted attention in

Corymbose

See

cluster.

COTYLEDON

The leaf or leaves of an

embryo, usually differing from the shape of
mature leaves, and found already developed
within the seed. On germination they either
remain in the seed-coat or rise above ground
(bot.)

and become green.

COUMARIN

A compound

found

many

in

and responsible for the aroma ol 'newmown hay which some possess. Ingestion in
large amounts can lead to haemorrhage in
man and animals.
plants

COUNTER-IRRITANT A

substance thai
causes inflammation of the skin. It is applied
for the temporary relief of a deep-seated
painful irritation.

CRENATE

(bot.) Scalloped or shallowlv

round-toothed.

CRENULATE

The diminutive

of crenate.

CROSS-BREEDING and CROSSFERTILIZATION To fertilize with

The action of expelling

waste matter from the body.
DEHISCENT (bot.) Opens to shed seeds or

form of medicine
North

America

painful surface.

in the late eighteenth and early

nineteenth centuries, in which methods and
materials were borrowed from different systems
of medicine.
An acute or chronic inflammatory
disease of the skin of unknown cause.
Characterized by a variety of lesions.

DENTATE

EFFLUENT

spores,

DLL

IOII)

Triangular.

hot.

DEMULCENT

substance that is smooth

and soothing when applied to an inflamed or

ECZEMA

(bot.) Having sharp or coarse

indentations or teeth that are perpendicular to
the leaf margin.

antiseptic

DENTICULATE

resist

Very finely dentate

DER MATITIS Inflammation of the skin
DESICCATION The complete drying ol

EMBALM

Waste

fluid.'

The treatment

of a corpse with

and preservative substances

EMBROCATION A

liquid medication or

substance.

liniment applied to the body surface by

rubbing.

DIABETES A

EMESIS

condition characterized by the

habitual discharge of an excessive volume of
urine and by an associated excessive thirst.
Used loosely to describe diabetes mellitus
DIABETES MELLITUS A disorder of the

Vomiting.

EMETIC A

substance that causes vomiting.

A substance that
stimulates the menstrual flow.
EMOLLIENT A substance used internally to
soothe inflamed membranes, or externally to

EMMENAGOGUE

from another plant of different variety, strain

carbohydrate metabolism characterized by

disturbance to the insulin mechanism and
resulting in hyperglycaemia or excess of sugar

or species.

in the blood.

especially referring to the lungs in

DIAPHORETIC A

there

pollen

CULTIGEN A

plant deserving species status

known only in cultivation, not

but which is
being found in the wild.

CULTIVAR

(hort.)

horticultural variety of a plant species

may have

which

originated either in the wild or in

cultivation.

CUNEATE

(bot.)

petals or leaves in

Triangular or wedge-shaped
which the narrow end is

attached to the plant.

CUTICLE

(bot.)

layer of epidermal

The water-conserving

outer

cells.

CUTIN

A wax-like substance found on the

surface of the external cellular layers of most
plants,

which

assists in the

prevention of

excessive water-loss.

commonest methods of

plant propagation, consisting of the removal

of stem, leaf or root portions from the parent
plant, before rootlets are formed on them.

Portions arc rooted in sand, peat, vermiculite

or a mixture of these and other materials, often
alter application of a

286

hormone rooting

EMPHYSEMA

Distention of the tissues by air;

walls.

fevers.

ENCEPHALITIS
flowering plant which has

two cotyledons.

is

which

destructive change to the alveolar

ENDOCARP

Inflammation of the brain.

The innermost layer of the

(bot.)

fruit wall.

DILATION

(med.) The enlargement or

stretching of an organ.
DIOECIOUS Having the male and female

DISPENSATORY

(i)

The

pharmacopoeia.

book

ENDOCRINE

Relating to the endocrine

glands, which are those secreting hormonal

substances directly into the bloodstream.

Examples include the pancreas,

flowers on different plants.

early

name

for a

testes

and

adrenals.

ENDOSPERM

substances are listed and their preparation and

administration for various conditions are
described.
DISTILLATION The process of heating a

The nutrient tissue in the seed

of a flowering plant, formed after fertilization
of the ovule.
The injection of fluid material into
the rectum; usually for therapeutic purposes

it to vapour (often doing so

under reduced pressure), condensing the
vapour, and collecting the condensate or

but occasionally to help diagnosis.

The study of insects.
ENURESIS Incontinence, in the absence of

(2)

in

which medicinal

liquid to convert

CUTTING One of the

soften the skin.

substance that causes an

increase in perspiration. Some are used to treat

DICOTYLEDON A

cultivated or

to

putrefaction.

distillate.

Components with

different boiling

ENEMA

ENTOMOLOGY

organic causes.

points can thus be separated.

ENZYME An organic

DIURETIC A

mainly of protein found

substance that increases the

volume of urine, and hence the frequency of

and

urination.

reactions.

vital for the

catalyst

composed

in all living systems

functioning of biochemical

There are numerous

kinds.

EPIDERMIS

The outermost

(bot.)

cell-layer

of a

compound

associated with the vegetation of salt-marshes

flower.

FORMALIN SOLUTION A

of the primary tissues of a plant.

Plant
EPIGEAL
germination when the cotyledons are raised

powerful
disinfectant and fixing substance consisting of a
37 per cent aqueous solution of formaldehyde;

above the ground.

also called

EPILEPSY A

FRAGMENTATION

GERMINATION

brain disorder characterized by

transient episodes or seizures during which
convulsions and psvchic dvsfunction mav occur.

EPILEPTIFORM CONVULSION

Convul-

formaldehyde solution.
(bot.) A term loosely

applied to a process of natural vegetative

reproduction of plants in which portions are
variously detached and propagated.
A disinfectant substance in a
vaporized or gaseous state.
FUNGI Non-flowering plants ranging from

FUMIGANT

sion resembling that typical of epilepsy.

EPIPHYTE Plant which grows attached to

another plant, but not as a parasite.
EPITHELIUM (med.) Cellular tissue of a
variety of types, one of which forms the

An alkaloid obtained from

Ergot, Claviceps purpurea. It can be used

microscopic moulds to edible mushrooms.

are incapable of photosynthesis and
share some other features with the animal
kingdom. They provide various antibiotics
and are important in the breakdown of organic
matter in the soil, but are also responsible
for the loss of foodstuff through spoilage and

to treat migraine.

disease.

uppermost layer of the

skin.

EPITHELIZATION The
damaged

over a raw and

growth of epithelium

surface.

ERGOTAMINE

ERYSIPELAS A

skin disease characterized

They

FUNICULUS

FUNICLE

or

by which an ovule

by inflammation of the skin, caused by the

bacterium Streptococcus pyogenes
ERYTHROCYTE Red blood corpuscle.

attached

is

(bot.)

The

to the

ovary wall

stalk

name

for the alkaloid

physostigmine, obtained from the Calabar

Bean Physostigma venenosum, Balfour which is
largely responsible for the powerful action of the
I

plant.

ESSENTIAL OIL A
by

a plant

aroma

volatile oil, obtained

and having

distillation

from

a similar

GALACTAGOGUE A substance

that can
induce or increase the secretion of milk.

GALLIC ACID An

GAMETES

astringent substance.

Sexual reproductive

biol.)

bot.)

The outermost

wall (pericarp)

layer of the

also called the epicarp.

EXPECTORANT A

substance which promotes

the expulsion of fluid or semi-fluid matter from
the lungs and air passages, by coughing or

lor

lowing; or now, more commonly, allowing

land to remain unrropped lor a year or more.
FASCICLE (bot.) A bunched mil ot branches,

GENES

The

biol.i

FAT-SOLUBLE Soluble in lam substances.

FATTY ACIDS Acids which with glycerine
fats.

substance which prevents or

reduces lever

now known

FILAMEN

hot.)

characteristics;

GENITO-URINARY TRACT The

ol the

urinary organs and the genitalia.

Inllammation of the mucous

membrane and

soli tissues

surrounding the

FIXATIVE
substam

A substance which

perfumer)

retaining the

aroma

ol the

other

GLABROUS
same

Lacking hairs; but not the

bot.

as 'smooth'

when used

in the

botanical

sense.

nonvolatile oil that cannot

be distilled or evaporated without
decomposition. (See Essential oil.

FLATULENCE A
is

Hairs and

(bot.

GLOBOSE Almost spherical.

GLUCOSIDE A glycoside- which

leaf.

yields glucose

(See Glycoside.)
alkaloid

combined

HERBICIDE

A substance

(hort.)

referring to dried
that

kills

plants.

HERPES An

inflammatory skin disease

characterized by the formation of small vesicles

in clusters - such as coldsores.

HETEROSIDE A
aglvcone

is

glycoside in which the

not a sugar.

condition in which excess

present in the gaslro-inleslinal system.

chemical linkage between phosphorus and

oxygen (usually in adenosine triphosphate)
which releases a large amount of chemical
energy on reaction.
HILUM (bot.) The point of attachment of a
seed, denoted by a scar.

GLYCOSIDE An

organic substance- which ma\

be broken into two parts, one- ol whie h is
always sugar. (See AgljCOtU
\ venereal diseasecharacterized l>\ mucopurulent (mucous and
purulent disc hargc from and inflammation eil
the- genital tract. Catise-el b\ the bae leiium,
\

is

cut or

A system of medicine,
introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, based on
the supposition that minute quantities of a
given substance, such as that of a medicinal
plant, will cure a condition in which
symptoms exist that would be identical to the
symptoms produced in a healthy person were
he given large quantities of the same substance.
(med.) Chemical substance
produced by tissues which is introduced into
the general blood circulation, and acts as a
regulatory agent on different tissues in different
parts of the body, (bot.) Chemicals which are
produced in small amounts by the plant and
control its growth and behaviour.
(hort.) The product of the
decomposition of organic matter.
HYBRID (biol.) An organism which results
from cross-breeding.
ACID (med.) The acidic
substance secreted in the stomach to adjust the
stomach contents to the correct degree of
acidity for the action of certain digestive
enzymes.

HUMUS

HAEMOGLOBIN

The

pigment

blood

in tfie reel

HAEMOLYSIS

red oxygen-carrying
enpuse les.
e

The release of haemoglobin

damage

HAEMOPTYSIS

HYDROGEN CYANIDE

Prussic acid;

hydrocyanic acid; an intensely poisonous

substance, derivatives of which are found

Spitting of blood, or blood-

stained sputum.

HEMORRHAGE

Bleeding; the

esc

ape of

blood from the blood

vessels.

HAEMOSTATIC

substance that Stops

HYDROLYSIS The chemical fission of a

substance by water into two or more parts,
in which the water is also decomposed.
An aquatic plant.
HYPERTENSION Excessive tension such as
may be- found in some nervous individuals
often characterized by high blood pressure-.
HYPERVITAMINOSIS A A condition caused
by the- excessive intake- of vitamin A.

HYDROPHYTE

HYPOGEAL GERMINATION

The

germination of plants where the cotyledons

remain below the ground.

FLAVONE A type of flavonoid a vellow dye.

FLAVONE HETEROSIDE A glycoside with

bleeding.

HYPOGLYCAEMIC A

flavone or a derivative- as

HALLUCINOGEN A

the concentration of glucose in the blood.

aromatic substances

substance which can

affect all or any of the senses, producing a wide
range of perception and reaction.

FLORE1

HALOPHYTE

HYPOTHALAMUS

FLAVONOID
bot

A broad
|

the-

aglyeone.

lass ol coloured
See Aromatu
Small flower which forms part
<

in

certain plants.

seria gonorrhoeae.

II

Protective substance present in

of the body, being released into the

HYDROCHLORIC

with a sugar.

from red blood corpuscles following their

es.

FIXED OIL A

gas

now

HORMONES

teeth.

stamen

that supports the anther.

assists in

urino-

genital (or urogenital) system comprising the

as antipyretic).

The part

plants in monasteries,
plant specimens.

HOMEOPATHY

units of heredity

more inherited
composed of DNA, and protein.

GONORRHOEA

roots or fibres.

FEBRIFUGE A

Relating to plants

burnt.

GLYCEROL Glycerine.
GLYCOALKALOID An

form

(bot.) (i)

blood, when, for example, the skin

Colloidal solution which sets to a jelly

when broken down.

onstituents.

Ploughing read)

HERBACEOUS

which are not woody and which die down at

the end of each year; (2) plant parts which are
soft and green with the texture of leaves.
HERBARIUM Formerly a live collection of

GEL

on cooling.

GLANDULAR PUBESCENT

lagric.)

Congestion or

HISTAMINE

glands mixed on a surface, such as a

product obtained by treating

plant material with a solvent or mixture of
solvents designed to extract the desired

ALLOWING

HEPATIC CONGESTION

inefficient functioning of the liver.

all tissues

EXTRACT A

I-

propagation.

alimentary system, from the mouth to the anus.

spitting.

<

cells.

GINGIVITIS

glands.

EXOCARP

Breaking a young shoot away

from the parent stem, with a portion (heel)
of the parent attached to it, for the purpose of

GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT The

controlling one or

to the plant itself.

EXCRETION The discharge from the bod\ of

waste products; not limited to the evacuation
of the bowels, and including, for example,
the excretion of waste matter via the sweat
fruit

saline habitats.

(hort.)

substance that provides a

slough on the skin; acting as a caustic
substance; corrosive.
alternative

HEEL

HIGH ENERGY PHOSPHATE BOND

or placenta.

ESCHAROTIC A
ESERINE An

and other

Salt-tolerant plant, generally

substance- that lowers

HYPOTENSIVE A substance

that lowers the

blood pressure.
That part of the brain

28 7

which controls the integration of the functions

of the endocrine system and the nervous system.
(See Endocrine.)

LECITHIN A member

of the group of
phospholipids; a very complex substance
containing phosphorus, found in egg yolk,
brain and blood.
A white discharge from the
vagina.
LICHEN (bot.) A member of a group of slowgrowing plants that consist of a symbiotic
relationship between an alga and a fungus.
LINIMENT A substance, usually medicinal,
applied to the skin.
LIPID A fat or fat-like substance insoluble

LEUCORRHOEA

IMMUNOLOGY The study of the systems

whereby

living organisms (especially

man)

respond to foreign matter of a biological nature

which, when taken into the body, may cause
damage to it; especially of those factors in the
blood and lymph that produce resistance to
disease.

INDEHISCENT

(bot.)

Not opening, or not

opening regularly.

in

water and soluble

many

of lipids includes

INFLORESCENCE A

flowering branch

group of flowers with a

common

(or, a

in fat solvents; the

group

different but related

materials.

LOAM

stalk).

INFUSION The

preparation of a dose of a
herb by pouring a given quantity of boiling
water over a given weight of herb, and infusing
for a given time.
INGESTION The act of taking in food or other

(hort.) A good soil containing at

two of the main soil particle sizes: gravel,
sand, silt or clay; designated by the dominant
least

LYMPH

hence a 'sandy loam'.

A straw-coloured fluid which

circulates

many

particle

iodide (or iodine-containing) salt

ION

Electrically charged

atom

or groups of

atoms.

IONIZED In the form of ions.

ISOMERIC Having the same molecular

and cleanse them.

M
MACERATION

The

process of extracting

MEDULLA

to distinguish

it

from the cortex.

(med.) Severe depression,

MELANCHOLIA

often of a psychotic nature.

MENINGITIS

Inflammation of the meninges,

The

(bot.)

formula but different properties owing to a

arrangement of atoms within the
molecule. Hence one compound may be an
isomer of another.
,
ISOPROPYL
(Isopropanol) An
alcohol with many applications as a substitute
for ethyl alcohol (ethanol) some grades are
used in the food industry.

ALCOHOL
;

of plants, distinguished from the permanent

tissues by the power their cells possess to
divide and form new cells. Primary (apical
meristems are located near the tips of roots and
in the buds of stems. Secondary meristems
produce lateral growth subsequent to the
primary extension growth produced by the
primary or apical meristems.
(bot.) The middle layer of a

JAUNDICE A

condition which is caused by

excessive amounts of bilirubin in the blood and
is characterized by yellowness of the skin and

body

secretions.

KERATIN A

protein material which

characteristically constitutes hair, feathers

and

nails.

KHELLIN A
which

substance, isolated from

Ammi

used as a bronchial dilator.

(hort.) A decorative formal
garden popular in the sixteenth century and
consisting normally of very low hedges in
geometric patterns.
visnaga,

is

KNOT GARDEN

MESOPHYTE

LACTATION The secretion of milk.

LAMINA (bot.) The blade of a leaf or petal.
LANCEOLATE (bot.) Spear-shaped (of leaves)
with the widest part near the centre.
LARYNGITIS Inflammation of the larynx.
LEACH The extraction of soluble constituents
from a mixture of soluble and insoluble material.
LEAF FALL Loss of leaves.

LEAF
288

MOULD

Partially

decomposed

leaves.

MUCOSAL

MULCH

MYASTHENIA

(bot.)

term used

to

denote

the group of fungi as a separate division of the

plant kingdom.

MYCORRHIZAL

Referring to any soil fungus

which establishes a close symbiotic relationship
with the young roots of particular trees and

shrubs.

MYDRIATIC A

substance which dilates the

pupils.

N
(bot.

NARCOTIC A

plant suited to a

moderately moist climate.

substance that in small doses

produces sleep and relieves pain, but which
in large doses may cause poisoning with coma

The reactions involved in the

building up and decomposition of chemical
substances in living organisms.

or convulsions.

METABOLISM, PRIMARY

back of the throat

Vital processes

concerned with the maintenance of life.

METABOLISM, SECONDARY Reactions
which result in the formation of complex
materials which are not concerned with the
maintenance of life. These are often the
medicinally active

compounds

NASOPHARYNX
NERVINE

Cavity extending from the

to the nose.

(herb.)

substance that calms

nervous excitement.

NEURALGIA

Brief but severe pain along the

course of a nerve.

NEUROLOGY The study of the nervous

system.

in plant

extracts.

NEUROMUSCULAR

MINERAL A

and muscles.

elements.

NODULE A small

natural inorganic substance;

often applied to metallic salts and certain

MIOTIC A substance that contracts the pupils.

MITHRIDATE An antidote to poison. (From
King Mithridates,

who

See Galactagogue.

fungus of web-like structure.

product formed by the
addition of gum to water; mucilages occur
naturally in many plants and may be applied
to irritated or inflamed surfaces to relieve
them.
SURFACE The surface of a

MUCILAGE A slimy

MESOCARP

the second-century b.c.

LACTAGOGUE

MOULD A small

fruit wall.

METABOLISM

JK

MORPHOLOGY

The study of the arrangement

of organs and tissues, including their inner
structure and outer form.

MYCOPHYTA

formative tissues

different

colour.

acetylcholine.

to lubricate

MERISTEMS

added.

when applied to the fabric to be dyed reacts

chemically with the dye thereby fixing the

women.

MENORRHAGIA Excessive menstrual flow.

MENSTRUATION The periodic, usually

which an
has been

sugar.

MORDANT A substance used in dyeing which

monthly, elimination of blood and cellular

material from the uterus of sexually mature

INVOLUCRE

salt to

plant.

MUCOUS MEMBRANE

the covering of the brain.

IODIZED SALT Common

same

MONOSACCHARIDE A simple

MUCOUS

body and serves

Compositae.

flower or flower-cluster.

flowers on the

COLITIS Inflammation of the

colon resulting in a mucous discharge.
Membrane, kept
continually moist by a variety of glands, that
lines canals and cavities of the body which
are exposed to the air: mouth, anus, vagina.
(hort.) Substances spread around
a plant to protect it from weeds, water-loss,
heat, cold and in some cases to provide nutrient
material. Mulches comprise many materials
from sawdust and pine-needles to black plastic,
but leaves and old straw are the materials most
commonly employed. Mulches should only be
applied to moist soil.
GRAVIS A condition of
weakness and rapid tiredness in the muscles
of the skeleton (voluntary muscles) which is
caused by a malfunction in the release of

tissues of the

substances from a botanical drug by steeping

in a solvent.
The central part of an organ, used

Bracts or small leaves arranged

whorl or whorls immediately beneath a

plant which has unisexual

male and female

mucous membrane.

material through the mouth.

INSULIN A hormone secreted in the pancreas
which regulates carbohydrate and fat
metabolism; deficiency causes diabetes mellitus.
INTESTINE That part of the gastrointestinal tract from the distal end of the
stomach (pylorus) to the anus. Consists of the
duodenum, the jejunum, the ileum, the caecum,
the colon, the rectum and the anal canal.
INULIN A complex sugar found in several
plants, especially in members of the family

in a

MONOECIOUS A

flowers, but with both

studied poisons and their antidotes.)

A member of the Mollusca,
animals without segments or limbs and usually

MOLLUSC

having a

Relating to both nerves

NEURONE, NEURON A

complete nerve

cell.

rounded organ.

NUCLEIC ACIDS (biol.) One of a group of

substances characteristic of the nuclei and
cytoplasm of cells, which yield purine and
pyrimidine bases when broken down.

NUCLEUS
of a

(biol.)

The

functional centre

cell.

shell.

MOLLUSCIDAL A substance

that

kills

OBLANCEOLATE

molluscs, such as snails.

MONOCARPIC

(bot.)

Bearing

fruit

once, and then dying.

MONOCOTYLEDON A flowering plant

has only one cotyledon.

(bot.) Inversely lanceolate.

OBLIGATE PARASITE

only
that

(biol.)

parasite

that cannot live without a host.

(bot.) Inversely ovate.

OBOVATE
OESOPHAGUS

The

gullet; passage

from the

pharynx

(bot.)

short lateral offshoot of a

stem or root of a plant that can be used for

propagation.
OLEIC ACID An unsaturated acid found in

many

fats

and

oils.

OLEO-GUM-RESIN A
containing an

and

oil

resinous substance

gum, obtained from

POLYPHARMACY The

outer flower parts usually consisting of distinct

stomach.

to the

OFF-SET

certain plants.

ORBICULAR Disc-shaped or circular.

OSMOSIS The flow of a solvent through

sepals

and

petals.

PERISTALSIS The

progressive, wave-like

contractions of the gastro-intestinal tract

or parts of it, whereby matter is moved along
PETIOLATE (bot.) Possessing a petiole.
PETIOLE (bot.) The stalk of a leaf.
The study of the
absorption, distribution and elimination of

it.

POMADE

PHARMACOKINETICS

POULTICE (herb.) Warm or hot external

application of crushed herbs or extracts of
plant contained in cloth such as muslin.

drugs.
a

semi-permeable membrane from a dilute

solution into a more concentrated one.
OVARY (med.i A glandular organ which
produces female eggs, (bot.) The ovule bearing

PHARMACOPOEIA A

Applied locally

descriptions of

and inflammations.

book containing
and recipes for the manufacture

place.

PHARMACY

the ovary which becomes the seed after

fertilization.

pharynx.

OXYTOCIC An

PHARYNX

PALMATE

of the nose,
oesophagus.
Thick, elastic mucus secreted bv
the cells lining the air passages. Originallv

pistil.

OVATE Egg-shaped.
OVULE bot. The egg-containing

part of

agent that hastens evacuation

of the uterus by stimulating contractions.

Shaped or divided

like a

PROTHROMBIN

secretes substances responsible for the digestion

one of the four humours or cardinal body fluids

the other three being choleric, sanguine and
melancholic in the ancient Greek system of

of carbohydrates, proteins and

medicine.

hand.

PANCREAS An

abdominal gland which

fats;

also

it

PANICLE

(bot.)

flower-cluster in which the

branches are racemose.

PANICULATE

Arranged

in a panicle.

PARASITICIDE A

substance that destroys

parasites, especially those which exist on the

PARASYMPATHETIC NKRYOl
SYSTEM med.) That part of the
autonomic nervous system which

The

bot.

principal tissue

PHOSPHOLIPIDS
distributed in nature

Substances widely
and comprising lipids.

phosphoric acid and

fatty acids.

generally dei reases must

PHYSIOMEDICALISM

glandular secretion and contracts the blood

vessels.

PARASYMPATHOMIMETIC

Substances
causing an action in the bod) similar to thai
occurring when the parasympathetic nerves
arc stimulated.
PECTIN A natural arbohydrate substanc e
used as a demulcent or thickening agent.
<

PECTORAL

imcd. Relating to the best.

substance used in the treatmenl <>l
complaints.

h<

si

herb.

PEDICEL

The stem

hot.

ol

one flowei

PEDICULOSIS A
i

skin

ondition

aused In

and skin lesions.

The stem of a flower-

harai terized by itching

PEDUNCLE
cluster,

bot.

The stem of a

flowei

when

ihat

flower is the- only one remaining in an

inflorescence. (3) The stem ol a solitary flower.
PEPSIN A digestive enzyme sec reted into and
part of the- gastric jtiic e.

PEPTIC ULCER
digestive system

Tissue loss

parts ol the

which are exposed

to the

acidic juices; charae inisin ally the- stomal h.

lower end of the oesophagus and the beginning

as the starting materials.

W em of herbal

PHY TODERMA THIS A

skin eruption win,

A substance

arranged either

PISTIL

bot.

style-

side

ol

trains ofa flowering plant which carry

male- reproductive

more

PERIANTH

the-

bot.)

hot

skin.

plant which survives

years.

Collective term for the

its

pharmacologic alls inactivesubstance given as a drug either in the

treatment <>l ps\e bological illness or in the
course ol dru<4 (rials.
PLASMA The- liquid part ol blood or lymph.

PERCUTANEOUS Thai
PERENNIAL

The embryonic shoot which

germinating seed.
PNEUMONITIS Inflammation of the lungs.
(bot.)

The
<

POLYNEURITIS
nei

ol certain of the

Compositac

iaIK Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium.

QUINSY

A small unit of energy.

Abscesses surrounding a tonsil.

and stigma.

POLLEN

or applied through

e-spei

PLACEBO A

suitable solvents through a vessel containing

the lubstance.

performed

PULMONARY

QUANTUM

'The ovary ol a flower, with

hot

is

ihose-

the axis in

uln<h

The external genitalia; usually

of the female.
Relating to the- lungs.
PULQUE A Fermented Mexican drink
obtained Irom the sap of Agave amencana.
PURGATIVE A substance that causes
evacuation of the bowel.
PYELITIS Inflammation of the kidnev.
An insecticide made from the
family,

as a feather.

PLUMULE
1

PUDENDA

PYRETHRUM

Formed like a feather;

compound leaf in which the

way

A botanical group
and fern allies.
Covered with short, soft

bot.

ferns

(bot.)

powdered flowers

hot.

the same-

or psvehe.

applied to

emerges Irom

duodenum.

PERCOLATION

lor three or

I,

The medicinal use of

plants; herbalism 01 medical herbalism.
a

mind

PUBESCENT

plants.

leaflets ate-

precursor ofa vitamin.

hairs.

which possesses specific

antibody-like activity to animal cells.
PHYTOSTEROL One ol a group ol sterols,
very similar to cholesterol, which occurs in

applied to

The

chronic, inflammatorv skin

which contains the

in plant seeds

PINNATE

microscopic, unicellular

PTERIDOPHYTA

initiated In contact with plants.

PHYTOHAEMAGLUTININ

PSORIASIS A

the

medicine in which herbs are used to assisl

the body's natural powers of healing. Thes\stem was developed in North America in the
earlv nineteenth centurv.

found

or stage

PSYCHOSIS An aspect of serious mental

impairment that leads to inability to
manage normal affairs, and is characterized In
delusions, hallucinations and mental confusion.
PSYCHOTROPIC A substance which affects

the presence of light, using carbon dioxide

is

precursor

condition.

process whereby
food substances are formed by green plants in

The extra* don ol onstituents

Irom a powdered substance l>\ the passage ol

ol the

sensitive

PHYTOTHERAPY

in a cluster.

In

PROVITAMIN

Becoming

PHOTOSYNTHESIS The

and water

tone, depresses

PROTO ALKALOID A

PROTOZOAN A

following the intake of certain

to sunlight

concerned
with maintaining muscle lone, inducing
glandular secretion and dilation of the blood
vessels. Hie sympathetic nervous system
le

bleeding.

animal.

substances.

is

in

in

development ofi or substance that can be

converted to an alkaloid.
PROTO-BOTANY Early development of
botanical studies; primary botany.

responsible for the internal transport of

substances svnthesized bv plants.

PHOTOSENSH IZATION

skin.

development^ of thrombin which is formed

the liver; thrombin acts as a clotting agent

in the

PHLOEM

secretes insulin.

The

microscopic plants of land and water which

constitute the greatest part of the world's
photosynthetic ability, that is, the lowest part
of the food-chain.
PROPHYLACTIC A substance that helps to
prevent disease.
(bot.) The sexual generation
of the Pteridophytes which include ferns and
clubmosses) which consists ofa minute, flat
structure bearing the sexual organs.
A precursor (or stage in the

PROTHALLUS

The muscular tube from the back

mouth and larynx extending to the

PHLEGM

bot.

to contusions, bruises, sprains

PRIMARY PHOTOSYNTHESIZERS

of those therapeutic substances that are

officially recognized by a given country or

The study of the preparation

of therapeutic substances. (2) The place where
prescriptions are made.
PHARYNGITIS Inflammation of the

part of the

administration of

medication which consists of many different

therapeutic substances, as, for example, in
herbalism when several different herbs are
included in one prescription.
A perfumed ointment; often applied
to those used on the head.

<s

microspore

01
the-

ells

The inflammation

of

simultaneously.

POLYPEPTIDE A
amino-ae

iels.

substance containing

several

RACEME

An elongated

the terminal flowers open

RADICAL
Radii

hen

inflorescence in which
last.

Relating to the rool

see also

RADICALS chem.) Groups of atoms in a

chemical molecule which retain their identity
during bemii al changes and affect the- rest of
the same molec ulc.
RADICLE bot.) The embryonic rool which
emerges Irom a germinating seed
REAGENT A substance involved in a chemical
1

reac tion.

RECEP1 \( I.I. bol

he uppei pan ol the
stem which bears the Mowers; it may be
I

concave or convex.
The lower part of the large

flattened,

RECTUM
intestine.

plant material; usually applied to green

TISSUE REGENERATION The

(i)

RENAL ARTERY The artery of the

RENIFORM Kidney-shaped.

RETARDANT
slow

substances with the aid of introduced steam.

STEATORRHEA, STEATORRHOEA

down

kidney.

(chem.) Serving to delay or

Inflammation of the mucous

membranes

of the nasal passage.

(bot.) A horizontal underground

and nodes.
root and herb collector of

roots, scales

RHIZOTOMIST A
ancient Greece.

fungus infection of the skin

tissue following

that causes

saturated or unsaturated alcohol

STOLON

normally produced above the

is

surface

and which

soil

gives rise to a separate

or nails producing ring-like lesions.

plant at

RUBEFACIENT A

STOLONIFEROUS Bearing stolons.

STOMACHIC A substance that counteracts

reddening of the

RUNNER
the tip of

substance that causes

skin.

An

(bot.)

aerial, trailing shoot,

which takes root when

it

touches the

ground.

its tip.

or relieves cramps.

STOMATA

(bot.) Minute openings on leaf

rhizomes and some stems that allow
exchange of gases between the plant and the
atmosphere.
STOMATITIS Inflammation of the soft
tissues within the mouth.
STYPTIC A substance that stops bleeding,
usually by contracting the tissue.

surfaces,

SALICYLIC GLYCOSIDE

Glycoside
containing as the aglycone salicylic acid, or a

derivative.

SALTPETRE

SAMARA

Potassium nitrate.

An

(bot.)

indehiscent winged

fruit.

SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUES

damage

TOMENTOSE

derived from perhydrocyclopentanophenanthrene, such as cholesterol.

STIGMA (bot.) The part of a pistil which
accepts the pollen.
(bot.) A short, horizontal stem
that

RINGWORM A

Increase in the

sneezing.

STEROL A

RHINITIS

stem bearing

stools. (2)

STERNUTATORY A substance

a chemical reaction.

RHIZOME

Fat in the

secretions of the sebaceous glands.

The

soft,

(bot.)

or

loss.

Having

a thick

mat of

white hairs.

TRACHEA The windpipe.

TRACHEID (bot.) A vascular
pitted,

end

leaf.

growth of

woody

(lignified) walls

plant

cell

with

and oblique

walls.

TRACHEITIS

Inflammation of the trachea.

TRANSMITTER

(med.) A substance that

transmits or passes on; usually applied to
substances involved with the transmission of
nerve impulses.

TRIFOLIATE (bot.) Bearing three leaves.

TRIFOLIOLATE (bot.j Bearing a leaf
subdivided into three equal leaflets.
TRISACCHARIDE A carbohydrate which
yields three molecules of monosaccharide when
it is broken down.
TUBER (bot.) An underground, rounded
storage organ, formed from the stem or root
of a plant.

TUMOUR

An abnormal

swelling resulting

from the multiplication of cells.

UV

loose

connective tissues beneath the skin.

UMBEL

plants containing saponins have been used as a

SUCROSE Common sugar.

SUDORIFIC A substance that

substitute for soap.

sweating.

umbrella-shaped inflorescence, in which the

flower stalks arise from a common point.
An ointment; formerly a perfumed
or scented ointment.

SAPONIN A
in

glycosidic substance that loams

water and has a detergent action. Some-

SAPROPHYTE
obtains

its

(biol.)

An organism

that

nutrient material solely from dead

or decaying matter.

SCABIES An
by a small

infectious skin condition caused

induces

SCABROUS (bot.) Rough.

SCURVY A nutritional disorder

substance or substaiu es
of therapeutic value introduced into the
urethra, vagina or rectum in the form of a bod)
solidified by means of a fatty agent and which

SYMBIOSIS
caused by

mutually advantageous
relationship between two different organisms.
(biol.)

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

lack of vitamin C.

SECONDARY MERISTEMS

(See

SYNAPSE The
between nerve

point of communication

cells.

SYNERGISM

Potentiating action between

two or more substances.

calyx.

SEPTICAEMIA

Bacterial infection in

SERRATE (bot.) A leaf margin which has

forward-pointing, saw-like teeth.
SESSILE Lacking a stalk.
SIALAGOGUE A substance that initiates or
increases salivation, the production of saliva.
SILICULA, Silicle or Silicule (bot.) A short,
specialized fruit or capsule found in certain
Cruciferae, which is usually less than three
times as long as it is wide.
SILIQ.UA,
fruit

Silique (bot.)

long, specialized

or capsule found in certain Cruciferae.

SIMPLE LEAF
divided into

(bot.)

leaf that

is

not

TACHYCARDIA

Excessive speed of the heart

'TANNIN

Astringent substance related to

tannic acid.

TAPROOT

(bot.)

persistent

primary

root,

usually swollen with food.

TENDRIL

(bot.)

supporting

thin,

URCEOLATE Shaped like an

URETHRA The duct through

URTICARIA Nettle rash; a skin condition

characterized by red weals that itch.
(biol.) A space within a cell.
Substances in the rootstork of Valeriana species responsible for the
plants' sedative action.
VARIEGATION (bot.) Patches or markings of
different colour on a leaf.
(bot.

VASOCONSTRICTOR A substance

VERMIFUGE
VERTIGO

which
unable to reproduce outside a host. Viruses
are responsible for a wide range of diseases

mevalonic acid.

in all

(bot.) Flat, primitive

THERIAC An

old term for poison antidote.

in several volatile oils.

protein shell

and

Normally referring

mosses which grow in very wet places.

An organ which produces

THIAMINE A member

heal wounds.

spores. (PI. sporangia.)

circulation

SPORE

TILTH

SPUTUM

STAMEN

290

antiseptic

of the vitamin B
complex. Deficiency affects the nervous system,

and alimentary

(hort.)

prepared

TINCTURE A solution
active

VOLATILE OIL

See

surface.

of substances (both

and inactive therapeutically) extracted

from medicinal plants by the maceration or

percolation of the plant with alcohol or
alcohol-water solutions. Most herbal tinctures
are made with 70 per cent alcohol solutions.
TISANE A drink made by the addition of
boiling water to fresh or dried unfermented

organs

WHORLS

essential oil.

used to treat or

WX

tract.
soil

to the

within the abdominal cavity but strictly also

those organs of the cranium, thorax or pelvis.
VISCOUS Sticky or glutinous.
VITRIOL Sulphuric acid.

VULNERARY A substance

An

is

other living organisms.

VISCERA

substance.

(herb.)

of a

a nucleic acid centre,

SPHAGNUM MOSS A group of related

reproductive cell.
Materia! eliminated from the mouth
by spitting, consisting of secretions from the
mucous membranes of the buccal cavity which
can include pus or blood.
(bot.) The pollen-producing part of
a flower, ((insisting of the anther and filament.
STEAM DISTILLATION The distillation of

that

destroys intestinal worms.

Sensation of giddiness.

THYMOLEPTIC

asexual, unicellular

tissues

causes the constriction of blood vessels.

A substance that expels or

release of semen, in the absence of orgasm.

An

The

constituting the conducting regions of a stem,

TERNATE
TERPENOID

whip-like, modified

THYMOL A bactericide and fungicide found

(bot.)

which urine

passes.

VESICANT A blistering agent.

VIRUS Minute organism, composed

or relieves convulsions or spasmodic pains.

SPORANGIUM

urn.

touch, which supports the

plant by coiling around a support.
(bot.) In groups of three.
Organic substance derived from

plant.

fronds, not distinguished as stem or leaf.

The involuntary

Consisting of a

leaf, sensitive to

appendage on a

SITOSTEROL A common plant sterol.

SPASMOLYTIC A substance that counteracts

SPERMATORRHOEA

(biol.)

root or leaf.

action.

THALLUS FRONDS

leaflets.

UNICELLULAR
single cell.

VASCULAR CYLINDER

which

the organisms invade or multiply in the blood.

indeterminate, flat-topped,

VACUOLE
VALEPOTRIOTE

Parasympathetic nervous system.)

(bot.)

Meristematic tissue which produces lateral

growth subsequent to the primary extension
growth produced by the apical meristems.
SEPALS (bot.) The separate parts of the

An

UNGUENT

SUPPOSITORY A

melts at body heat.

insect.

(bot.)

Three or more leaves, bracts

or flowers arranged at one point in a circle
around an axis.
XEROPHYTE (bot.) A plant adapted to arid
(bot.)

conditions.

XYLEM

(bot.)

The

tissue responsible for

conducting water upwards within plants; also

imparts mechanical strength to the plant, and
contains cells with food and waste reserves.

Oven temperatures

Conversion tables

The

only an approximate guide

and the suggested temperatures and timings are
those appropriate to the oven of an average-sized
domestic cooker.

Conversions from imperial to metric are only

approximate as exact conversions are unwieldy

tor

table

below

quick measurement.

is

Solid measurements
ENGLISH
8 oz butter or

fat

AMERICAN
cup (solidly packed

oz butter or

tat

lb castor

sugar

GAS
NO
G

OVEN HEAT

8 oz castor sugar

no C

very cool

oz castor sugar

130

very cool

lb plain Hour, sieved

275
300

140

cool

150

slow

4 oz plain flour, sieved

325
35o

170
180

moderately slow

375
400

190

moderate
moderately hot

8 oz

200
220

hot

very hot

230

verv hot

425
45"

4 tablespoons

42 cups cake

cup plus 4 tablespoons

8 tablespoons
1

oz plain flour, sieved

12 oz dry, grated cheese

rice,

imperial fluid ounces

40

140
1000
1

35
20

560
420
280

10

140

cups
cups

scant
ij

pints

cups

cups

cup
cup plus
cup
cup

tablespoons

gill

",

pints

2-j

44 tups
2j

'5

230

IMPERIAL

225

85

teaspoons

50

teaspoon

tablespoon

\\ tablespoon-.

dessertspoon

5
H pis=

gal

(.',

<li\

ingredients in wine-making are usually b\ volume. Pack the herbs into

nol puss

.1

jug

down.

Medit al Prai titioners Asscm iation

170 Johnston Road. Hong Kmiu

The
be following organizations offer membership,

Ihinese

In- (

Organizations
I

I<

Nature Health So(

landii

Laufasvegi

information and details of suppliers.

hose
marked * offer a regulai publication such as a
magazine and set vk CS ol pal 111 ulai In in In in
those with an interest in herbalism \ si. imped
addressed envelope

National Herbalists Association of

what each one

I'

Bos

Nazionale

.I/nun

Produtti

Inn isih

l.i

lommen

Montville Road. Mapleton, Queensland,

iand

Australia

Parkside, S. Australia,

(ii.

offl is

Associazione Nazionale Erborisli e Piante

Olli, mal,
ANEPO *
Siena,
Via I. S Ph olomini 59, 53

he Queensland
;

lei

b S01 iety

In-

Quei nsland

In

In

l')i

i-l

old

12

In

,1

In

Sni iety

di

in

-x

me

Si

Man

Pai

is

le,

ant

<l<

lb

'1

l>

So< iety

rasmania, 7006

.1

o! \
\
In Ii S01
a*
In
300 Massai husetts Avenue. Boston, Mass, 11 husetts
02 ii',' s \

Plantes

dei Reformwaren-Herstellei

and Register of

Avenue. Bout ncmoul Ii. England.

Last

Institute of

Medical Herbalists Ltd

Osborne Avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle, England.

20

In ( Ihinese Medii ine and A< upun< ture

Research ( lentre
2nd Moot, 322 ;.'| Nathan Road. Kowloon,

Swedish Hei bal Institute Svenska

Ortmedicinska Institute) Kb
Bellmansgatan n, |n 28 G6teborg, Sweden.

11

Aim

l<

lii

Society

ol)i

I)

Ei onomii Botany
Marderosian, Philadelphia College

\\

|.'!'i

Foundation
1

',

Ban

t.

Washington

H<

foi

iopathy

Building, 910

DC.

171I1 Street,

2000b, U.S A

foi

Pharmacy and Science, Philadelphia,

Pennsy K .una 19104,1 s \

ol

in an

Suite

[80 Bad lomburg v d. H.

enring 73, Postfach 2320 Germany.
I

11

e
I

I)

louncil

Hong Kong.

Bundesfai ln< rband del Heilmittelindustrie e.V.

I)
,>><< Km In. Glockengasstrasse 1. German)

Verband

American Horticultural Society*

901 N. Washington Street, Alexandria,
Virginia 2231 ", U.S.A

Medil males
Ji

7.

SWi, England

de Diffusion

.eneral

lln

kri Inn

ii

lie

lonsultani Herbalists Ltd and

The Bridsh Hei balists I fnion Ltd

The National

Ii

asmanian In
he
12 Delia Avenue, I.

Boscobel Place, London,

S01 n

>ai

Natural Healing Pty Ltd.

New South Wales,

>

.1

Japan
rokyo, 3 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku,

ol

din list 01 s S01 ici\ *

Charlbury Road. Oxford, England.

In

So* iety ol

In Am kland
lerb Sew ictv
P.O. Box 20022, Glen Eden, Auckland
New Zealand.

Australia.

al

ol

he Esplanade, Ashfield,
Australia 2131
I

Park, Brisbane,

Herbal Medicine Association

oach House, South borough Road,
Sin biton, Shi is England
I

Botanii

University
ok\ n. Japan.

Greenmounl Avenue, Holland

560

Academy

In

Via Massena 20, 10128 Torino, Italy.

Society of South Australia Inc.

1

Queensland Chapter

Australia

Herb

following organizations offer either

in medical herbalism or include
herbalism as pari of other courses:
11. lining

international reply coupon

01

will usual!) se< ute details ol

In

The

iety

Reykjavik, belaud

2.

lures

Measurements foi
and 'bump' In firm. Do
\'ii

10

OUriCt

12

25

10

'3

'4

140

'5

teaspoon

375
34
300
280

4 tablespoons

'5

50
3"

425
400

180

iti

200

tablespoons

HI

2 pints

cup
cup

raw

Solid measurements
metric grams

Liquid measurements
mitlilitres

flour.

sieved

45o
metric

cups powdered sugar

cup plus 3 tablespoons

225 F
250

tablespoons

2j

National College
1327 North
S
13
l

ol

Naturopaths Medit ine

t, Seattle, Washington

r.ili Strei

\
Si I100I ol N.niii

box

|,i

,il

lealing

Provo,

1.

ih

84601, U.S.A.

2Q1

Riverside NJ.)

Bibliography

Introduction
Altschul, S von Ries, Drugs and Foods from
Little- Known Plants Harvard University
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HG

Baker,

Swain, T fed. Plants in the Development of

Modern Medicine Harvard University
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Thompson, C J S The Mystic Mandrake
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Thorwald, J Science and Secrets of Early
Medicine: Egypt, Mesopotamia. India. China.
Mexico, Peru Thames & Hudson,

Plants and Civilization

London 1962

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AJ

Brock.

Budge. Sir E

The Divine Origin of the

Culpeper House,

Craft of the Herbalist

'

May

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R E Herbs and Savoury Seeds

Dover Publications, New York 1970
Crockett, J U and Tanner, O Herbs
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Dawson.
R A Leechbook or Collection <>/

Medical Recipes

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Macmillan, London 1934)

Medicine and Magic oj the
Gelfand,
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Giles,
F Out Vegetables, Whence They Camt

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'944'
Grieve,

.1

Modern Herbal (Penguin,

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G A Dictionary of English Plant
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Grigson,

Grigson, G The Englishman's Flora

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975
Hedrick, U P Sturtevanfs Fdible Plants oj tin
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Plant and Planet

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North Mexico
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Kelly,

Folk Practices

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Harrap, London

Green Medicine

Rand McNallv. Chicago,

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1964
Levy. J de Bairacli Herbal Handbook for
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Mabey, R
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Mabey, R
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McW-gue.

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Food for Free Collins,
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|

Plants with a Purpose

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Of Men and

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October

History of British Gardening

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Jackson. G The Making of Medieval Spain
1

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Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York
197a
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Moldenke, H N and A L Plants 0/ the Bible

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Founde Wor/di
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K N

The Complete Book

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Macmillan, New York 1971

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Science

and

David

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S Botany:
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Watson. Academic Publications.

New York

Stearn, \V

New York

latei

development oj cultivated plants'

Royal

Horticultural Society Journal, vol. go. 1965

Biology and chemistry

Armstrong. E The Simple Carbohydrates and
Glucosides (Longmans, Green & Co..

London

19191

AJ

The Living Plant

University

Edinburgh 1964
Clapham, A R et al. Excursion Flora of the
British Isles - 2nd edition Cambridge
University Press, 1959
de Wit. H C Plants of the World - 3 volumes
Thames & Hudson. London 1965: E P

Dutton

&

Co.,

New York

1963

M Cryptogamic Botany -

1969
Everard, B and Morley, B D Wild Flou
of the World Ebury Press & Michael
Joseph, London 1970)
Fahn, A Plant Anatomy Pergamon Press.

Volume

McGraw-Hill.
Maidenhead. Berkshire, and New York
Algae and Fungi

<

'955
Steward, F C Plants at Work AddisonWesley, London 1964
Tortora, C J et al. Plant Form and Function
Collier-Macmillan. London 1970
Trease, C E and Evans,
C A Textbook of
Pharmacognosy (Bailliere Tindall, London

1970

Willis. J
Dictionary oj the Flowering Plants
and Ferns Cambridge University Press.

")73

Medicinal uses
British

Herbal Medicine Association

London

British Herbal Pharmacopoeia

'973
Brooker, S G and Cooper, R C New
Zealand Medicinal Plants Unit) Press.

Auckland 1961
(

AT

Struik.

^u/u Medicine and Medicine-Men

Cape Town 1966

Burlage. H
Index of Plants with Reputed
Medicinal and Poisonous Properties Austin
Press. Austin. Texas 1968
Chopra, R N Indigenous Drugs of India
Croizier,

R C

New

Delhi 1973

Traditional Medicine in

Modern

Harvard University Press,

Cambridge. Mass. 1968
Culbreth, D M R A Manual of Materia
China

Medica and Pharmacology

1972
"7 he origin and

Arts Press,

Society in the

and Seventeenth Centuries

Sixteenth

Brook,

Press

New York

Bryant,

Press,

1977

The Concise

Polunin,
Flowers of Europe Oxford
Lniversity Press, 1969
Roberts.
B Biology: A Functional Approach
Nelson, London 97
Ronald Press.

Smith,

1961

Meal

1965)
Kreig,

1965;

Press

AbelardYork, Toronto

and Spices

Schuman, London. New

Singer,

Allen Lane.

C Of Herbs

Macdonald

Harmondsworth, Middx. 1966

Cambridge Universitv

1938)
Clair,

Sanecki,

Pyramid Books. London 1973

'975
Martin,

London 1577

'97*
HefFern,

Huxley.

236*,

Herbals, their Origin and

Evolution

Clarkson.

American, vol.

1977

Arber,

Scientific

Kingdom

Altschul. S von Ries 'Exploring the

Herbarium'

19291

Hamlyn, London 1976

Karlson P Introduction to Modern
Biochemistry Academic Press. New York
(

Colour

History

London

Press, 1973
Encyclopedia of the Plant

Huxley,

Ebury
London 1969

Greek Medicine, being extracts

illustrative of medical writers from

Dent,
Hippocrates to Galen J

Oxford, 1969
Hutchinson, Sir J The Families of Flowering
Plants - 2 volumes Oxford University

Lea

Philadelphia, Penn. 1927

Fliick. H Medicinal Plants and

&

their

Febiger.

Foulsham, Slough 1970

Gunther, E Ethnobotany of Western
Washington L niversity of Washington
Press. Seattle. Wash. 1973
Gunther, R T The Greek Herbal of
Dioscorides Oxford University Press 1934:
Hafner Press 1959 - distrib. CollierMacmillan. Riverside. NJ.
Chinese Medicine
Huard. P and Wong.
McGraw-Hill. Maidenhead. Berks., and

New York
Keys. J

1968

Chinese Herbs: their Botany.

Chemistry and Pharmacodynamics

Charles

E Tuttle. Rutland. Yermont 1976

Kowaro. J O Medicinal Plants of East
(East African Literature Bureau,

Nairobi 1975)

Krochmal,

and

CA

Guide

to the

Africa

Dover Publications.

Medicinal Plants of the United States

Quadrangle 1975,

Harper

distrib.

& Row.

Scanton, Penn.)
and Elvin-Lewis,
Lewis,
Medical Botany Wiley-Interscience,
Chichester, Sussex 1977; John Wiley
1

Sons,

&

New York

1976)
The Extra Pharmacopoeia.

Martindale.
26th edition - ed.

The

\V Blacow

Pharmaceutical Press, London 1972;

Rittenhouse Book Distributors,

distrib.

Philadelphia. Penn.)

F American Medicinal Plants

Dover Publications, New York 1974'

Millspaugh,

Nelson, A Medical Botany Churchill

Livingstone, Edinburgh 1951
Palaiseul. J Grandmother's Secrets Penguin,

Harmondsworth, Middx. 1976; G P

Putnam's Sons, New York 1974)
Revolutionary Health Committee of Hunan
Province, The A Barefoot Doctor's Manual
Routledge & Kegan Paul, London 1978
Schauenberg, P and Paris, F Guide to
Medicinal Plants Lutterworth Press,
Guildford, Surrey 1977
Schendel, G Medicine in Mexico University
of Texas Press, Austin, Texas 1968
Schneider.
Lexicon zur Ar zneimittelgeschichte Govi-Verlag, Frankfurt 1974)

Selection du Reader's Digest Secrets

des Plantes Medicinales (Paris 1977

F and Jirasek,

Stary,

London

Herbs

et

Food

in

London

Jane's,

MPF

WH

Hartley,

New York

New York

and

1953)

Loewenfeld, C and Back, P Herbs for Health

and Cookery (Pan Books, London 197
Universal Pub. and Distr. Corp.,
1

A Handhuch der Pharmakognosie

volumes
3 Tauchnitz, Leipzig
'99-'927)

Happauge, NY. 1970

McKenzie, E Dining with Herbs The Herb
Societv of America, Boston, Mass. 197

New York 1950

Rohde, E S Culinary and Salad Herbs (Dover
Publications, New York 1972
Sass, L To the King's Taste John Murray,
London 1976; Metropolitan Museum of
Art, 1977

L To
London

the Queen's

Sass,

Conn.

Taste

David

1970; International Pubns. Service.

Arlott.

Oklahoma
Wallis,

Britain

in

l.dmburgh [962

Webb. L

Guide

Poisonous Plants of Queensland

232, Center lor Scientific

Bulletin

and Industrial

Research, Melbourne 1948

Wilson, A and Schild,
Applied
Pharmacology J & A Chun hill. London

HO

1968

Wren, R C

Potter's .Sen

Buchman,
London
I

I) I)

Munch

1973; Harper

& Row. New York

1972

Culinary uses
Apicius: I he Roman Cooker Hook.vth.
Flower, B and Rosenbaum, E (Harrap,
London 1974; British Book Center,
\

'(7",

and Recipes from Rome

Allen Lane, London.

the Renaissance

to

Spires. Salt

and Aramalics

English Kitchen (Penguin,

in the

Harmondsworth.

Middx. [970]

he Complete

Book

0/ Gurries

'

Kaye &

Ward, London 1975

Grange,

The Complete Book

Preservation (Cassell,

Grieve,

Sante"

Opera

Ritchie,

A
3

Co..

Perfumes. Cosmetics and Soaps

Chapman &

Hall,

London

oj

Home hood

London 1949)

Culinary Herbs and Condiments

KN

&

Bell

Practical

Sons,

London

969)
Hunter, B

Gardening without Poisons

(Hamish Hamilton, London 1965)

Loewenfeld, C Herb Gardening (Faber &
Faber, London 1964)
Perring, F (ed.)/ The Flora of a Changing
Britain (Botanical Society of the British Isles
Conference Report No. 11, 1972)

Sanecki,
N Discovering Herbs (Shire
Publications, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire

973

A B

Herb Growing and

Profitable

(Country

Collecting

Life,

London

1916)

Periodicals

ACTA PHYTOTHERAPEUTICA,

ten

mersjed with the Quarterly Journal of Crude

Drug Research. Back copies. Swets & Zeitlinger
B V, Publishing Dept., 347 b Heereweg,
Lisse, The Netherlands.
BOTANY, quarterly; economic
and medicinal plants, including food crops.
Available from The Societv for Economic
Botany, The New York Botanical Garden,
he Bronx. NY 10458. U.S.A.

ECONOMIC

HIS LORY,

horticultural

quarterly; historical,

and etymological information;

Dr Christopher Thacker, French

I

Studies,
University, Reading, Berkshire,

lie

England.

PLANTS AND GARDENS,

quarterly; some

on domestic and

editions contain data

horticultural aspects of herbs. Available

from: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn.

NY 1225, USA
(QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF CRUDE
DRUG RESEARCH, quarterly; scientific
aspects of crude drugs, both animal and

and

plant,

their derivatives. Articles in

and German; published

and subscriptions:
Swets & Zeitlinger B V, Publishing Dept.,
347 b Heereweg. Lisse, The Netherlands.
RIVISTA DI ERBORLSTERIA, quarterly;
English, French

since-

&

London 1867

Candle Making

Hodder &

StOUghton, Sevenoaks, Kent 1976)

LJphof, J C T Dictionary of Economic Plants
Wheldon & Wesley, Hik Inn,
Hertfordshire 1970

Cultivation
Aichele, I) Wild Flowers Octopus Hooks,

London 1975,
L H Manual of Cultivated Plants
(Macmillan, London 1949)
Brownlow, M E Herbs and the Fragrant
Garden (Darton, Longman & Todd.
London 1^78
Bailey,

and Sanecki,

Redgrove, H S Scent and all about it

lleinemann, London 1928
Rimmel. E Book of Perfumes Chapman
Hall,

DG

Herb Growing

[961. Back copies

medical herbalism. Editor: Dr Angiolo

Via E S Piccolomini 159, 53100

Severi,

Siena, Italv.

THE HERB GROWER,

quarterly; mainly

horticultural aspects. Available from:

Grower,

'974
David, E

Day,

Plummer, B Fragrance Robert Hale &

London i()7*)

1936

Hewer

often of relevance to herbalism. Editor:

1974)
on Herbier de
S A. Paris i<)7")

Science Press,

Duckworth.

New York
Mcssegue,

Pouc her,

Cyclopaedia of

(stoking

1973
Feed four Pace

(Lutterworth Press, Guildford,

Delights

1977)

GARDEN

Pol Pourris and Oilier Fragrant

volumes

Beautepar

i<)~3

iteau,

Health
Holsworthy, North Devon

NYv\ York

et

New York

Gardens

Botanical Drugs and Preparations

Barber,

Sante

Surrey 1975
Huson, P Mastering Herbalism Abacus,
Tunbridge Wells, Kent [977; Stein & Day,

Medicinal and

to the

Michael Joseph.

Longman,

1969
(.
and Brcyer-Brandwijk,
Watt, J
Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 0) Southern
and Eastern A/rita Churchill Livingstone,

Snuff Shop

London 197
Audy, J and Fondin, J
Its

& A
New York

editions per year 1954-1972. Scientific

journal on botanical medicine. In 1973

PlanUi Ldita SA, Lausanne 1968

Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record Plants and

1970)
E Textbook of Pharmacogv
Churchill, London 1962;

I he

Twentieth Century

the

1977)

Domestic and cosmetic uses

Vogel, V J American Indian Medium

University of Oklahoma Press. Norman,

191 7)

Gardening for

(John Murray, London 1923

The Dictionary of
Hay, R and Synge, P
Garden Plants (Ebury Press & Michael
Joseph, London 1973)
Herb Society, The Growing Herbs London

John Murray,

Tschirch,

Teetgen.

T Herbs. Spices and Flavourings.

& Charles. Newton Abbot. Devon

Stobart,

London
Eley,

New York Graphic

distrib.

Herbs, their Culture and Uses

(Macmillan, New York 1966)

Day, A Vegeculture (Methuen & Co.,

1)

Medsger, O P Edible Wild Plants

Macmillan, New York 1966
Miloradovich,
The Art of Cooking with
Herbs and Spices Doubleday & Co.,

New York 1972

Wilson, C A Food and Drink
Constable. London 1973

1976)

&

1975)

Society. Greenwich,

R E

Clarkson.

Hayes, E Herbs, Flavours and Spices (Faber &

Faber, London 1961)
Hogner, D C Herbs from the Garden to the
Table (Oxford University Press, London

Vertus

Hamlyn.

197

England (Macdonald

Falls Village,

Herb

Conn. 06031, U.S.A.

THE HERBAL REVIEW,

quarterly; all
herbs and herbalism. Available
from: The Herb Society, 34 Boscobcl Place,

at

pe<

tS ol

London SWi, England.

THE HERBARIST,

annually; non-medical
of herbalism. Available from: The
Herb Sex iety ol America, 300 Massachusetts
Avenue, Boston, Mass. 021 15. I'.S.A.

aspei

ts

2 93

General index

bronchodilators 61
bruises, herbs to treat 66

digitalis

Buchu brandy 145

dioecious plants 36
Dioscorides 18, 18, 21, 49

bulb 35

Burgundy
Vole

numbers

Page

in

Italia

refer

bold type

illustrations. Entries in

to

distillation

pitch 238

burns, herbs to treat 66

refer to

calyx 36

recipes.

absorption, extraction of oils

cambium 41
Candied Angelica 88

12

candle-making 94

adaptogens 56
adrenergic drugs 63
Adrianople Red 254

Canon Medicinae

aerial roots 35

cardenolides 56
cardiotonic glycosides 56
cardiotonics 56

After-bath Cologne 105

Aioli French Garlic Mayonnaise 84
air fresheners

95

alcoholic beverages 82, 83, 89

Cardamom Cake

87

Alexandrian School of medicine

algae 31. 32
alkaloids 42. 58. 59, 61,

108
Almond water 248
American medicine ji
anabolism 53
anaemia, herbs to mat

<>

17.

cell,

48

powder 166
China, medicine

Ancient Rome-, medicine

Chin Nong

11.

18,

pi

hlorophyll 29,

angina pectoris 56
Anglo-Saxon herbals >i
Angostura bitters tg
animal medicine 103
animal repellents and traps

enflcurage

cholelithiasis

m/\ mes

choleretic

61

>

Christmas Day Pudding 86

hromatograph)

limine brimc lulls 6

i~,.
1

120. 132, 134, 136,

138

chutne

\ s.

herbs

in

c(ei.

11

Cinnamon Spinach
Circa m\tan\

anther 36
anti-asthmatic agents 61
antibacterial agents 6a
anti-bilious herbs 76
1

84

plan)

lass,

Clove oranges 97
Cocoa-butter neck smoother 109
Cold cream 108. 109
enlds. herbs to treat 67, 76

Arab world,

compound

medicine

hi.

pi

aromatherapists 104
Aromatic beads 98

56

aspirin 190

asthma 61
atropine 42, 59

Aubergines with Herbs

Avicenna 19, 15.
axillary buds 35

81

41)

infei

Barilla 257

Basswood Tea 273

104
Bath salts 104
bayberry tallow 226
beef, herbs to go with 82, 83
betel chewing mixture 156
beverages, herbs in 82. 83
biennials, herbs 39, 120, 132, 134. 136. 138
oils

crgotamine 63
ergotism 176
serine 63

Herball by

nuns

herbals, history of 21-24

1.2

extracts ol plants 43. 44.

herb, definition of 7

indoors 122

Inns herbes

Conservation of Wild Creatures and Wild

Plants Act of 1975 129
Constantine the African 20. 20
constipation, herbs to treat 59, 67
container growing ol herbs 120, 122
convergent evolution 38
cooking with herbs 75 91. 123

Fish au Poivre Vert 79

fish, herbs to go with 79, 82, 83.

flatulence, herbs to treat 60, 68

r

,7

herbicides 128

Cruydboeck 2

Franco's Dip 84
Frangipani aroma 106

herb pillows 97

Cucumber

freezing herbs 74

Fruit sundae special

fungi 32

cultivar 34
cultivation of herbs 132-9

dairy foods, herbs in 82. 83. 90. 91

garlic

Garlic Bread 88
powder 90
garlic salt 90
Garlic Soup 78

22

Botanic Beer 89

Dandelion Wine 89
De A rboribus coniferis 42
1

De Caum Planlarum

Gazpacho

-'/

77
Genera Plantarum 24
generic name 34. 141
Gerald of Cremona 20
Gerard, John 21, 22. 50

Simplicibw 19

I),

bouquet garni 7-,, 77

bouquet simple 75
British Herb Tobacco' 102

diabetes

bronchitis

digestive system 54,

2 94

garnishing, herbs for 90. 91

gastric hyper-acidity 59

decoction 44. 64. 65

De Materia Medica 18. 21.
depressants 63

Botanologia 24

f>i

~)8

diarrhoea, herbs to treat 60, 67

digestion 44
;/.

55,

7;.

germination 41
-,8

60,

58

Gill

Tea iq8

Herb Omelette
Herb Rice

face

cytoplasm 40

bitter tonics

herb honeys 88

oil 108
Culpeper, Nicholas 22. sj

19

soil-conditions 120, 32 -9
stocking a garden 1 19
window -boxes 121. 122

fragrant herbs 76

counter-irritants 63
Critica Botanica 24

siting 115

Fragrant cleansing lotion 107

Fragrant herb pillow 97

bitters

\ature 2

selecting plants

Forcemeat 85

gall-bladder disorders 60
gargles, herbs in 68

of

knot gardens 123, 124, 125

paths 16
perennials 39, 120, 132 9
plans 118. 122. 123. 124. 126
plants for walls and pavings 120

propagation and cultivation 125. 132-9

Flour of Mustard 163

flowers, structure of 34, 56
fly papers 102
Foot powder 106

Cynar 89

Book

90. 91

95

biosynthesis 42

Body powders 195

bonne- femme soup 245

151 39

-1,

Conjunctivitis, herbs to treat 67

corolla 36
cosmetic herbs 76. 103-1 13
cotyledons 36
coughs, herbs to treat 61, 67. 76

84

herb gardens
1

103

fever-allaying herbs

flavonoids 42.

Herb Dredge

birdlime 102

bleeding, herbs to treat 66

annuals 20, 132-9

beds 16
biennials 120, 132-9
container growing 120, 122
edging plants 120
for blind people 122
hedge plants 20
herbs for cooking 75 91. 123

Gale Beer 226

Galen 8, 18, 19, 49

59
blackhead removers 107
101
Black ink

curry powder 82, 90

cuts, herbs to treat t>7

43

herbal tobaccos 102

herbaria 130, 131, iji

herb bouquets 75
Herb butter 84

fixatives

Herbal butter-milk cleanser 107

John Gerard 21

Europe, early medic ine '1

exocarp 36
expel torants 6l, 67
expression of essential oils 13

fertilizers

ferns 32

leaf 36
88, 90, 91

to

lattoush salad 245

mj

compost accelerators

to

facultative parasn

59

harvesting herbs 129. 132-9

headache, herbs to treat 68
head lice, herbs to repel

411

06
reams 108
face masks 107

corm 35

bacteria 31
baking, herbs used in 82. 83. 86, 90, 91

bath

nllc

heart diseases 56 58
hedge plants 20
herbal baths 04

face cleansers

collecting herbs from the wild 128

harmine 63
harmol 63

Eye baths 105

Coles, William 22
c

arrhythmia 57
arteriosclerosis

hair rinses

antispasmodics gg
anti-tussive agents tu
Anti-wrinkle lotion 109
apothecaries 22, 50
appetite, lack of, herbs to Ileal 66
earls

i,

halitosis,

lassilu alion 33.

hair 109, log

hair and scalp conditioners

12

essential oils

211

71

61

plants

42, 102

hair dyes

cleaning agents 93
leansing lotions 107

anti-cough agents
67, 76
antidepressants 63
anti-emetics 59
antiseptic herbs 66, 76
( >

cirrhosis 60
e

108

epiphytes 39

Guild of Grocers 71
Guild of Pepperers 23.

herbs to treat 68
hallucinogens 47. 63
halophytes 38

Hager-Handbuch 259
Hahnemann. Samuel 51

ephedrine 61, 63
ephemerals 39
epigeal germination 36

6c

in

23. 50.

guayacan 199

haemolysis 42
80. 82. 83. 90. gt

mask

48

15.

Company, The

edging plants 120

egg dishes, herbs in

endocarp 36

|.o

37,

Grocer's

gynoecium 36

emetics 59
je>.

Grand Herbier 1 6
Grappa con ruta 257
Greece, medicine 11,

gums

113

Elderflower Wine 89

11, 13

3c),

'17

.)<>

cholagogues 60
holcc \siitis 60

246

Egypt, medicine to. 14. 48

Ehrlich, Paul 54
Elderflower Fritters 86

sail ejn

hloroplasts

glycosides 42, 60. 62

glycyrrhizin 59

Ebers Papyrus 14, 71, 263

Eclectic Materia Medica 262

emphesyma

hive

Gooseberry Fool 86
Goulash 79

21,

Eggplants with Herbs 81

Egg white and cucumber

13

Ancient 'spice' perfume 113

androecium \i<

annuals, herbs
antagonists 63

_fo

chili

til,

Dodoens, R.

Eau de Portugal

76

90

plant 30. 40.

chilblains, herbs 10 treat

anaesthetics 63
analgesics 63

glues 102

>

8.

81

12

diuretics 57, 76
division, classification of plants 34
Doctrine of Signatures 19. 22

'

Chicken Legs Hunter's Style 78

Chicken Paprika 79
Chicken with Rosemary 78

oil

Gingerbread 87
Ginger Jelly 86
Globe Artichokes

druids 49, 49
dr\ ins; herbs 43, 74 I2 9- 3- '3> '33- '35.
'37- '39
dy es 93 99. lo
:
dyspepsia, herbs to treat 68

cardiovascular system 56
carpel 36
catabolism 53
celery salt

ale 90, 91

Almond

20

Capillaire 143

16

15, 16,

19,

gin 89, 209

1

drugs, administration of 54
drugs, effect of 54

Abulcasi* ig

Aesculapius

25

Diodes Carystius

mask

108

herbs

80

81

see also

herb gardens

collecting from the wild 128

cooking 75-91, 123

cosmetic use 76. 103 -13
cultivation

15-39
drying 43, 74. 129. 130. 130. 132-9
dyeing 93. 99. 100
fragrant herbs 76
1

freezing 74
harvesting 129, 132-9
pests and diseases 128

pot-pourris 95

Herb Sauce

85
herb sugars 88
herb teas 44. 75. 82. 83. 90. 91
Herb Vinegars 82. 83. 86. 90. 91

Herb wines

89. 90. 91

Herophilus 17
Hippocrates 16. 16. 48
Hippocratic Oath 16

Mint and Grapefruit

Historia .Vaturalis 18

by Ray 223
Plantarum, by Theophrastus

Hisloria

17

monoecious plants 36
mordants 99
morphine 25, 42, 51. 233

Huang-ti 13
112. 113

mosses 32
moth bags 99
moulds 32
Mrs Tritton's Dandelion Beer 89
mucilages 42

hypogeal germination 36

Mushrooms

hypotensives 57

Mustard

Ibn Baitar 49

Mycophyta 32
myrica wax 226

mushrooms 32
a la Grecque 84
Dressing 85

Mss. Appolonius 17

identification of plants 44
Ignis sancti Antonii 76
1

mhotep 14, 14
ndia. medicine 13
ndigestion, herbs to treat 59. 68
nflammauons. herbs

to treat

68

Jarmo

Oatmeal

10

jaundice 60
H'orlde 24

olivette

234

<>il

lamina

herbs

lar\ ngitis,

ureal

t<>

me

Big

48

..1

.1

parasites 30

Lemon Verbena

scented ink

pedii

lichens 42.

Linden
n in

; j.

10

2 1.

liqueurs, berbi

31

4.

.'

el

Ii

pei fumes,

5I)

liverworts 32

pi 111

;li

London Pharmacopoeia 50

peristalsii

Lonitzer'l Kreuterbufh

Pesto 85

/',

.11 |i

and

pests
12

Magnus. Alberius

-"

'

<

u-

petioli

it-

j6,

38

ation

"i

113

diseases ol herbs ihj, 128

aweeds
(

sessile leal

mi rin 111.1I hei Ii

medii inc men
Menei rata 18

physii gardens 23,

")

ph\

)i|

in'

11

em

|ilnitns\ nthesis

6l
{

pilin

microscopical examination of plants

.ilisin

ilii

.Hies

'.i"
7

Pi

|.|..

;'

(5

mile 40

vegetable dishes, herbs in 81, 82, 83, 90, 91

vegetative organs 53
veterinary medii ine 103
\ Hilai
63

mm

|6

shellfish,

simple

vir.il inlci

.11

herbs to go with 9

leal

|)

/,

cell

plan)

plant

}o

1.

and

plan

i"

1
1

-,

lion

I12

niilii
11

press

lodium algjnati

ation

.n

69

von Liebig, Justus 3

\ on
Megenberg, Koni

ai

Warburg's Fevei

ture

soil-conditions

on
3

planl siriK Hires 34

foi

window -boxes
\\ in

ini

London

14

121.

estershire saui e

Worshipful

herbs 120. 13a

<i

Society
23. 2

\,

22
1

90

ol

Apothecaries

ol

31

138

1'

ion

I111 lis

Whole Wheat Herb Bread 86

i"

ation

laasifii

i'l'

omiting,

leep-indui ing herbs 76

imoking mixtures 102
snulls 34. 02
Soap balls 105

11 1.

plan)

Simple scented powder 106

181

plant null
of

(13.

.11

valepotriotes 63
Vanilla sugar 88

shampoos 109

30

pisti

ii

mildi

Ministry

Pimpernel water
di<

m
lati

mi tabolism

seeds, slim line nl

Pickled Mackerel 80

mid. 11

sedatives

(8

ulcers 59
unorthodox medicine 48

41

methyl sain

-in -1111

Piccalilli

mcvii arp
mesoph ytes 38
M> lopotamia mi
inii.ilx.il

(7,

tussie-mussiea

jo,

phloem

let

-,

oikI.im meristem

mead, berbi in 89, 90 9

237
medies al medii inc 9, pi

65

I>2

opolamini

si

20

iropane alkaloids 59
tuber 33
iirkc\ Red 254
Turkish lamb 79
iirner, William 2

Sea-Bream with Fennel 80

ea s.ih (>8

sepal

rrie<li(

histor) of 24

transpiration 35

savour) butters 75
si aids, herbs to treat 69
si ented notepapei
109

>

sjiii is.

Trattato de Prestilentia

ti

Philosophiea Botanica 24

uana

toxic dose 57
trade of herbs and

()l

)2.

saproph)

teed dispi

toothache, herbs to treal

106

Tooth powder

g6

tranquillizers 63

phai in.ii opoeia \u

pharmacopolist!

tii

waters I 13
tonics 56, 59, 69, 76
toilet

Marigold Wine 89

iikini

pharmai olog)

tincture 44
tisanes 44. 75

.1

phai

materia

238
Anthony's Fire 7*1
s.ilr of food .Hid Drugs Act 1873
Salmon. William 2 1. 32

si

31

thorn 35
Tinctura antiperiodica 191

herbs in 82. 8

\t

111.11

Thompson, Samuel

Tragus, Hieronymus 21

Mai-Bowl<
Manilas 7
1

35

Sage and Onion Stuffing 85

petal

17, 31. 71

therapeutic dose 37
the rouge 231

238

mis
in-

laasifii

pi n. mill

^>

11 11 1.1

11

The Englishman's Flora 258

The \ames of Herbes 260

'1

Al,

1.

36
thalamus 36

Theophrastus

Si

ii

(ration 44,

50

<>

liver diseases 58

111.11

pen olation 44
H
Is. berbi
2
perfumer)

Linnaeus. Carl

pepperi orn rent 71

ea 273

hi

'

13.

rii.i

testa

257

Sage

in

t;

pedum

simplui medinnn 20

I.iher dr

Pea Soup 77

101

ushlights

s.l,

Ii

lepra

P.lfsll

terminal bud 54

Rome

lent

Irdicinae 2

passiflorini

Leech Book oj Bald

tendril 35
/

Rosehip Soup 86
rosella hemp 201
Rosemary herb pillow 97

101

pancakes 270

herbs in 44. 75, 82. 83, 90, 91

teas,

Ant

s.n In Is 113,

tansies,

|g

tee

I'. 11 kitisnn. John

32
Parsley and Garlic Eggs 80
,

37

talcum powder 105

Para< elsus 22

33.

tannins 43

root-gatherers 15
Rosa Angina 2

lavender bags 97
lavendei doiliei 97

nergism

tahini 263

root, structure of

paper-making

v.it

eda

Rome

(Ii

lateral root 34

l.i

s\

rhizotomists

Lavender Powder 106

Lavender-scented pomander beads 98
Lavender Water 113

quinine 25. 51

Rhazes 19. 4(1

rheumatic fever 56
rhizome 35

pain-killing herbs 63, 76

Pamphilos 18

bud 34

lateral

sweet dishes, herbs in 86. 90, 91

sweetmeats, herbs in 88. 90. 91

\<,

<>

of Hungars's water 234

quinidiiu 37

union

o\.ir\

34, 35

Queen

respiratory system 60 2,60

36

suppressants, herbs 67
sweat-inducing herbs 76

74

Onion Kuchen 87
sail

style 36,

reserpinc 37, 63
respiration 4

ovules 36

Lacnunga

strewing herbs 95
strychnine 51

137. 139

receptor theory 54
Regimen Samtatis Salerno 20
reproductive organs of plants

facial 108

orthodox media

89, 167

stomach soothing herbs 76

stomata 30
'Strassburg Turpentine' 142

radicle 36
receptacle 36

40

ell

Krtuterbueh

stolon 35

S\rupus de Mcconio Mesuae 233

Oregano Flan 80
Organs Tea 22

stipule 34, 35

stigma 36
stimulants 63. 76

77

Orange-flower water 113

khcllinbi
knot gardens 123, 124. 125

poudre de chipre 106

poultice 64. 64, 65
primary meristem 41
primary metabolism 41
primary root 34
Primrose Tea 247
propagation 126, 133. 135.

stem, structure of 35
steroids 42

Sweet and Sour Tomato Salad 84

oil

juleps 88

stamen 36
steam distillation 44

Pun-tsao-kang-muh
purgatives 59

obligate parasites jo
of Serpolei 27 2

21

pomanders 95
Poppyseed Sauce 84
Porgy with Fennel 80
pot-pourris 95-6
Potted Shrimps 79
Poudre a la Mousseline 106

Pulque 14b

nucleus,

kummel

spice trade 24, 71. 72

spike lavender oil 21

13

Nettle Beer 89
by William Turner 21
nicotine 63
Night cream 109
Nikander 7
node 34
nomenclature 31, 141
nosegays 95

spice sugars 88

polypharmacy 49

1 ,

sublingual drug administration 34

suppositories 54

Jackson, Lewis 32
jams, herbs in 90, 91

kr. M ins

pollution 128

Plantarum 3

specific epithet 34, 141

psychotherap) 47

Norwegian Caraway Soup

internode 34

Meat Founde

Species

stuffings 85. 90, 91

nsect repellents 69, 1 03

nsomnia. herbs to treat 69

Joyfull .\ewes out of the

plumule 36
pneumatophores 38

81

34
34

prothallus 33
Pseudo-Apuleius herbal 48

.\'ew Herball

nfusion 44, 64, 65

nks 101
nsect bites, herbs to treat 69

John of Gaddcsden

species, classification

nausea, herbs to treat 69

Last, agriculture 10
nervous system 62. 62. 63, 63

Near

nfluenza, herbs to treat 68

Rosmarino

Spaghetti

Pliny 18. 71

pomade

hvbrids 34, 141

hydrophytes 38
hyoscine 42, 59
hyoscyarhine 63
hypertension 56
hypnotics 63

Malthaeus 20

Platearius.

homeopathy 51
Horehound candy 219
Horseradish Sauce 84

Hungary Water

Cflcktail 84

Mithridates 7. 48
modern medicine, history of 25
Modern washballs 105
Monardes, Nicholas 24

Historia plantarum.

1.M..

11

herb

Sorrel Soup 78
Soused Fish 80

to

ti

eai '",

Yeast face
\\

l(

in

;</.

mask

57,

108

41

295

Index of plants
Page
illustrations.

numbers in Italia refer to

Page numbers in bold tvpe

refer to the entry in the reference section.

Amadou

142
Abies alba cv. Columnar
xlba c\
Compacta

Amaranthus hypochondriacus L. 151

Amaranthus retroflexw 15:
1

Amber

42

Abies balsamea Marshall 244

abrotonon 260
Absinthe 158
Acacia see Acacia Senegal
Willd. 112. 142. 212

Acacia catechu

L.

Gum

142

Acacia

Acacia Senegal

Willd. 101, 102. 142

L.

Acanthus mollis L. 142

acchannum

Acet

;/

Achillea millejolium L.

107.

104.

103,

132. 143

10.

102,

ackeley 154

Aconite 143

Acomlum
I

napellus

143. 154

2(1

Acorus calamus

59, 95, 117. 08.

[02,

13a,

43
Actaea racemis longtssimw

Adder's Tongue 230

Adiantum capilluAdonis annua 144

1,

143

<

Aethusa nnapium

AJramomum

144.

I..

{6

Agai

156

Armeria maritime

Willd. 156

Mill.

Centaurv

Artemisia 98. 120. 122

Artemisia abrotanum L. 95. 158
Artemisia absinthium L. 88. 103. 132. 158
Artemisia dracunculoides L. 132. 158

=,q

Cranesbill 196

Ginseng 233
Linden 273
Liverwort 152
Mandrake 242
Pennvroval 221,
Sea Lavender 5b
Sloe 280
L'pland Cotton <j8
Valerian 63. 181
\\ hite Hellebore 278
White Pond Lil\ 228

Artemisia dracunculus

Wormseed

Asaraban

Acanthus

Artist's

Arum

75. 132. 158.

agno ast<
Agnus ( a^tu* 282
Agnmonia 60
Agrimoma eupaloria
c

189
a 160

Beile Pepper

asaro;

Betonica

Asarum canaden- I. 159

Asarum europaeum L 160

Betony 52. 69. 89.

Maton 285

Asclepias tuber osa L.

Ash

160

52.

6b.

officinalis

Asparagus

officinalis

subsp.

Asparagus

officinalis

subsp. prostralw ibi

161

06

151

Beauv

L.

Ailanthus alli^ima

A)uga replc

188

146

Anemone acuttpetala Hon i-,i

Anemone alpina I. 151
Anemone alpina subsp. sulphurta

Seingle 146

Mill.

I03.

akalyphe 276

161

<jb.

see /satis

tmctoria

~
1

2i>.

Anise

I20.

iq.

122.

/->/.

132.

22,

}.

anisoi

Birthwort 156
Bishops-weed 144
Bistort 66,

Biting Stonecrop 262

roi us

177

172

Cavara

L.

Hoffm.

75, 132. 153

rusticutn 144

Allium cepa L. 100. 103. 132. 148

Allium satnum L. 62. 75. 103. 132. 148
Allium schoenopr asum L. 74. 75. 103. 132. 149
Allium tuberosum 149
Allspice 77. 80. 82. 90. 95. 96. 102. 239
Almond 15. 107. 108. 109. Ill, 248

Alnus glutinosa Gaertn. 149. 192

Miller 60,

97. 101, 104. 105.

10.

5<-|.

162

13

Balsamodendron opobalsamum

BaKam Poplar
Bamboo 93
Band Plant

see

Kunth 244

Populus candicans

Vine a major

set

banillen 278

Banjawi 267
barbe de bout 273
Barberrv 60. 162. 218
Barlev 10. 101 202
Barnacle Tree, fabled
Barometre 167
.

Blackcurrant 82. 252

Black Cutch 142
Blackeye Root see Tamus communis
Black Haw 280
Black Hellebore 53. 201. 278
Black Horehound 69. 162
Black Indian Hemp 154
Black Lovage 265
Black Mulberrv 225
Black Mustard 163. 264
Black Pepper yj. 82. 241
Black Peppermint 223
Black Radish 251
Black Root 280
Black Sampson 184
Black Snakeroot 173
Black Walnut
1. 208
Bladder Cherrv 237
1

tree 52

82. 84. 85. 8b.

Basil 30. 38. 68. 69. 75. 7 9. 8
90.98. 104. 105. 119. 120. 122. 123. 127.
1

Bladderwrack 192
Blazing Star 214
Blessed Thistle 120. 176. 264

Aquilegia ;ulgaris cv. Alba Plena 154

Aquilegia lulgaris cv. Flore Pleno 154

aquilinae 154
Arabian Coffee 177

Bav Laurel 39
Bav Tree 71. 73.

Arachis hypogaea L. 108. 109. 154

90,95. 104. 106.

134. 211
Beans 10. 37. 82. 83
Bearberrv 155
Bears Breech 142

Bluebell 102. 129

Blueberry 277
Blue Bothem 168
Bluebottle 168
Blue Cohosh 168
Blue-Devil see Echium vulgare
Blue Flag 207

Arbutus 185
Arbutus unedo L. 155

255

Black Brvonv bb. 269

Black Cohosh 134. 173

22

Alnus glutinosa

see

Blind Nettle 210

Bloodroot 67. 69. 138. 259
Bloodwort 201

araruta 219

Aloe lera L. 149

Balsam

Alder

Bla< kberrv 68. 75. 77. 89. 104.

229
basilikon phuton 229
Bavberrv 67. b9. 226

Araco aromatico 278

Aloe perryi Baker

(entaurea nanus

let

Balm of Gilead 67. 69, 244

Balm of Mecca 244
Balmonv bo. 171

Aphanes arsensis agg. 153

Aloe 60. 145. 149

Blai k

68. 69, J
76, 82. 88. H
120. 122. 123. 127. 136, 197, 222. 22^

Gaerm. 153
L.

Orange 175

Bittersweet 168. 265

Bitter Wood of Jamau a 248
Bitter Wood of Surinam 238

22C1
1

243

haris

Ballola

29.

166
Fennel 191
Bitter Milkwort

Balm

apiastrum 222
apium 236
Apium crispum Mill. 236
Apium graitolens L. 154
Apium petroselinum L. 236

apium

<

Ballota nigra

Apocynum cannabmum L. 154

Apple 67. 68.82. 83. 108
Apple Mint 123. 224
Apricot 15. 82. 83
Aquilegia vulgaris L. 154

triphylla Brill

90

239

anvsum 239

& Grande

bat

Almond 248
Ash 238

Bitter

ae lauri 21

bachbung.

Bitter
Bitter

Bitterc res*

ballot'

Anthriscus cerejolium

47
Allium ascalomcum L. 148

bak

Anogeissus latijolia 102

Alliaria officinalis Bieb. 148

bai

123,

Bitter

.,,,.

126,

Anise

Antennaria dioica

algae 31. 32
Alkanet 111,1 20. 147
Alkanna tmctoria Tausch. 147
Al Kenna 2 12
al-kharsuf 181
Bieb.

see

107, 161

162

Avens t>7 197

\\ncddo 108

anisum 230
anneson 239
Annual Marjoram 230

2i,U

12=,.

18. bo. b7. t>8. 69, 76, 82. 88.

Aniseed

147

Alehoof 34. 1Q7

Alexander* 95, 120. 265
Alexandrian Senna 167
Alfalfa 73. 220

jirr,x

123.

277

Autumn

Bachelor's Button

102. 106. 120. 20b.

Alder 37, 67. 149. [92, 2.1= zyj

Alder Buckthorn 60. 67. 192

Alliaria petiolata

(17.

Birch 66. 93. 100, 162

Birch wort 156
Bird Pepp<

161

angiosperms 33
Angostura 194

Alchemilla recutita 104

Alchemilla vulgar.
gjj

Alecost 82. o

Bilberrv

auril ula muris 2112

trill'

Alchemilla alpina L. 147

Alchemilla mollis 48

49

<-> 153
127,
Angelica archangelica L. 88. 103. 132. 153

2=,(i

Alchemilla

Aloe

11

rose' 150

Mace 172
tripartita L 163

Bigarade 175 see Citrus auranlium var. amara

Bigarreau Cherries 248
Big Barlev 202

Alrupa belladonna

.146

161

258

atrix

bevondsea
Bidens

officinalis

Asthma Weed 189

266

Bible-leaf

jrbata Ib2

7b. 80. 90, 146.

(17.

Agroprron reptns

akte

160

Asparagus 82. 83. 161

Asparagus

9V

266
102. 138.

Betula lenta 195

Betula pendula Roth. 162

R Dahlgr

Burm.hl.

Asperula odorala L.
\sp-ol-)i rusalem

L.

officinalis

Betula 93. 100

192. 238

7. (17.

nthus linearis

Anemone hepalna 1. 152

Anemone Pulsatilla L. 152
Anemone Pulsatilla var. alba
Anemone Pulsatilla var rubra 152
Anethum graveolens L 74. 75, 1,2. 152
Angelica 38. 66. 67. 6
82, 88.

L. 89, 146

Piper belle

see

Amnmum

nsnaga 61
cardamon L 185
r,um compadum Soland ex
Amomum Zerumbeih 28^
Amomum zingiber I. 285
Ampelos agria z6g

catechu

betODJca 266

Amm

Agnmonv

263

Bethlehem Sage 120

Anemone

145

Bergamot Mint 223

Betel 240
Betel Leaf 240
Betel Nut 112. 156
Betel Palm see Areca

Bethroot 274

Agaricus 191
Agathosma betultna
1.

244

Astragalus gummijer 98. 102. 110

AgOVt ameruana

75. 76. 82. 88. 90. 95. 96. 97. 102.

106, 113. 120. 122. 127. 136. 225

L. 159. 244

athanasia

145

Bergamot

Acanthus mollis

see

A ndropogon
,7

Bere 202

Betel Plant 156

Asa dulci*
\-al< tida

197

Berberis vulgaris var. atropurpurea 162

159

Arum maculatum

171

Herb

Berbens vulgaris L. 60. 162

Artemisia redouskti 158

Artemisia lulgaris L. 52. 132. 159
Artie hokr bo. 66, 82. 83. 88. 181.

04

Benzui 267

219

10.

Benedict's

Atropa belladonna

set
1

tripartita

Benjamin 267
Benne 263
Benzoin 108. 109. 267

Arrowroot

Anchiiso officinalis 111. 147

Pillans

Scherb.

Bittersweet 168

Agar-Agar 195
Agaru 191
Berg

&

Arnica angusli/olia 157

Arnica montana L. 102. 157

Hypericum prforalum

Agave 145

Belladonna

Beilis perennis

Aloe 145

miliguita Rose. 145

Aristolochia serpentana L.

armoracia 157
Armor acta rusticana Gaertn. Mev
57
Arnica 66. 102. 115. 120. 15-

Amygdalus communis L. 248

Anacardium occidentale L. 151
Anagallis aquatu
Anagalhs aritn^K I. 151
08
Ananas salnus 101

Aescutus hippocastanum L. 144

Beetroot 82. 83
Beggar's Buttons 155
Beggar Ticks see Bidens
Belene 203

Anstolochia clematitis L. 156

ampelos melana 269

amugdalr 248

emails L. 144
Aegopodium podagraria L. 144
indium podagraria variegalum 144

Adonis

Argentaria 245
Argentina 245

151

see

American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American
American

bechion 275
beckpunge 279
Bedstraw 67. 100. 194. 256
Bee Balm 225

Areca Nut 156. 240

191

Amaranth

ilba cv. Pendula

Arctium lappa L. 89. 107. 155

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L. Spreng. 155
Areca catechu L. 156. 240

Aaron's Rod 278

Abata Cola see Cola acuminata
:!ba Mill.

'

Alpine Anemone 151

Alpine Lady's Mantle 147
Alpine Plantain 67
Alpine Windflower see Anemone alpina
Alpima officmarum Hanre 59. 150
Althaea officinalis L. 59. 60. 150
Althaea rosta L. Ca\ 150
Althea 150
Althea Rose we Althaea rosea

136. 169.

75. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 84.

1

13.

20.

21. 123.

27

Gum

Lungwort

Pulmonana

see

Cactus 226
Cajuput Tree 220
Calabar Bean 237
Calahualae 244
Calamint 120. 132. 164

Centranthus

Calamintha ascendens Jord. 164

Cephaelis ipecacuanha

Calamus

Ceratonia siliqua

officinalis

Rocket 143
Sailors see Cichorium intybus

Weed

Bog Rhubarb 235

Bokhara Clover 221

Calluna vulgaris
Caltha palustris

Boletus laricis Jacq. 191

Borage 67. 68,

76. 82. 88. 90.

19. 120.

L. 88. 132. 163

officinalis

Bosuellia serrata 63

Bottlebrush 186

Buxus sempenirens

Bra'sica nigra

Capparis \pinosa 75. 165

Capsella bursa-pastons L

Koch

L.

75,

163

Capsicum 166
Capsicum annuum L

Braunella 247
Brauneria anguslijolia 184
Breakstone see Aphanes anensis

Agai

M\rrh 227

Cardamtne

.iidamom 68.
Cardoon 181

^8. 93,

Cardttui sanctus

22.

196. 256.

103

Brunei!
11-' ii-

<

ommune

Bin

hinese

hinese Lantei n 237

at

\\

32.

Herb

\\

<

ai rot

.1

Sagrada

.1

Bean

01

astoi

Im

Bullet Gall 101

asuarina 37

Bull's Ears

an

Bunny

Calharanlhus roseus

278
Bars 278

Burdot k 'i'i -<>. Hi). 107. 155

Bui Mangold 163
Burnet

76, 8

11

;6

246

'

ai

ao

Ill

henhrnma COtOO

G Don

tao, 122. 127. 136,

1

'

'
'

281

dai

../"/

95,

1,

<,H.

228

Mi< hx

|.

Celei

i'

tntaun

,1

77

27.

h Sii

166

pies

172. 195

146

154

103

I.

136

|6

168
169

8<|.

Basil

Ocimum

set

Bearberry

set

Bittersweet

basilicum

Arctostaphylos

.-

Bonesel

lommon Bugle 146

Common
ommon
Common
Common
ommon
Common

Calamint 164
(

lommi

lelandine 170

lentaury 169

Ihen

Laurel 248

Chicory

(.ilastms scandens

Eupatorium perfoliatum
Buckthorn set lihamuus catharticus
><<

in

ommon
Common

loflee

<

lomfi ey

177
1

Dandelion

Cichorium intybus

set

38
wi

aiaxtuum

n/ficinalt

Fig 190

('ommon Foxglove 183

lommon Hoik 205
ommon Hoik hoi k 150
Common Horehound set Marrubium

I.

21,2

Common
1

hi

10^.

st

n nu

Horse Chestnui

set

ruhjnn

lesculus hippo-

Common
ommon
Common
(

Is
|

200

unipei 209

Mallow 218

lommon Mas -apple 242

lommon Melilot 221
lommon Milkwort 243
( lommon Mulbei
225
(

Nutt

134, 173

'

Cinnamomum
c innamomum
i|8.

68. 69. 73. 76. 8g. 104. 108.

29,

Cinnamon

1(18

Centaurium erylhraea Kaln

165

90

74
( in, bona "Jin ninhs L.
174
Cinnamomum camphora Nees

168
'1".

hi

120,

275

20,

im

Endl. 177

lira

32. 149

Cichorium intybus var, Wittooj 173

11 ula
78

"ii.

Common
Common
Common

Cimicifuga racemosa

I.

84,

103,

|i

as ed Parsley

tana

168

78. 79, 82, 90,

sinndrns

7''.

hoisya term

Celastrus orbiculalus 168

Celery

138.

Common
Com im >n

171

I.

78. 80, 82, 84, 90,

23.

el

38. 268
Commiphora molmol Engler tot, 106, 178
Common Alder 149
( lommon Alkanet
147
( ommon Anise see Pimpinella anisum
Common Asparagus set Asparagus officinalis
( lommon Balm 222
Common Barberry set Berberis vulgaris

landine 170. 250

IU

Schotl

57

Columbine 154
Comfrey 66. 67,

olate 27

(at rls

Ht

22.

122,

173

Cichorium intybus L. 134, 173

Cichorium intybus sar Brunswick 173
Cichorium intybus sai Magdeburg 173

<|8.
1

.iiiliniim

Peppet 67, 72.

',

11

Ihoisya 93

Chun

'53

aiula equina

In

228

36,

(.rntaurrn munliiriii
'/

I.

(.auliiphyllum Ihalutintiiis

Cabbs

60

142. 2

2.

34.

Chrysanthemum anemifolium 63
(.hnsanthemum halsamita I. 99, 172
inthemum cincrarii/ohum Vis 99, 103,
172
Chrysanthemum parthenium I.
Bernh. 173
Beinh
inthemum vulgart I.
69

nip 228

in

Broom 256

Butterbur 235
Butterfly Milk Weed 160
Butterfly \\>>d .. \sclepias tuberosa
Butternut 208
Button Snakeroot 2 \
BUXUS srmperi irrns I. 164

'

>ai

'

Basil 22<i

Butt In

Catnep 104

Bush

Illl

Catmint 68.

Saxilra^c 240
Bui rage 163
Burr ( iar\
Bui

laatoi Oil

cassia

mi. 253

Plant

ill

Christophonana canadensis racemosa 173

Chry lanthemum 38

Rieinus communis

see

23,

hopnui let Physostigma enenosum

Christmas Ros. 201

144, 168

Castanet lativa Mill

2-,o

75,

173

Colombo 208
Colombo Root

Vahl 167
In'
Cinnamomum

Barl

06

Cole

Rhubarb 252
74,

34. 168.

Colchicum autumnale L. 177

niton ui8

til.

20.

anguilijolia

Ihinghai

jl>

'17

Ihinese

122,

pi

let Jattorhiza palmata

Coltsfoot 21. 67. 68. 69, 76, 89. 102.

Chondrus crispus Stackh

1

a acutifolia

Ins es

Chionanthus virginicus

251

2 18.

m Nul 151
lassia /
|g 60 95

120,

linnamon 174

Radish

(
(

('Ins.-

in

.1

'

Meliliilus nlha

inn. 182

{.

167

(2.

60

.'

Bulbous Violet 193

H2. H

8<i.

inum petriisthnum Benlh

at sophs Hun .''hi

I.

17

\juga replant

<>8.

,-

'/1

-.1

146

see

at

eed 143

Bugle "
rageen 172

lai |

2~,2

ecd 146. 217

Bugloss 147. 184

Bukhara Clovei

20

(.mum inn

Bugbane 173
Bugle
Bugle

mi

pentei

j.

2311

But kbean 39, m; 224

Bui kthorn \J. 251
Bu< kwheai 57, 75

'1

Ihinese

<

Bin barest K hubai !

Bin Iiii ,7 145

102

himalati 200
Ihinese Anise 206.

Ihinese

145

183

166

<to.

177

Cola Nut 68. 69. 177

Colchicum 177

Ink

Cohosh

20,

buboniou 19a

69, Hj,

ii)(.

arolina I'mk 266

Bryony 66, 103, 163. 269

Br sophs la 32

151

Cola acuminata Beaus

267

66, 68.

Coffee 177

(-'

aroiella

2 \~

82. 83
o j. 163
(\

Pea

Chili Peppers

13.

02
Agrimonia eupaloria

cocum 237

coca

Coconut Palm 35. 95. 176

Cocoj nucifera L. 95. 176
Cocowort see Capsella bursa-pa

>" Saliconda europaea

dioica Ja<

Im

see

Coflea arabica L.

.'-,li

Brunch Sprouts

Gum

arob

Cocklebur

Cocoa-Plant 109. 271

76

Cochlospermum gossypium

Cockscomb

Chickweed

264
Cocaine-Plant see Erythroxxlum
Coca Leaf 187
Cochlearia armoraaa 75, 157

96

Chicken-Claws

71.

I.
69, 167
Carlinc
histle 167
( arnation
95, 96, 97, 10a, 105,

260

274

Brown Muitard

185. 283

<|o.

'

Club Moss 216

Chervil 75, 78. 79, 82, 90,

126, 127. 132, 153
( Ihestnui 144. 168

166

I.

Cnicus benedutus L. 176.

Chcrrs 61. 8.-. 83, 248

Cherrs Bas 248
Cherry Laurel 248

89

(arlinn maulis
120.

16.

Binussonelia papirijrra 101

n Belh

8k

Chelbenah 190

Chenopodium bonus-henricui

167

32.

81. 82. 87. 88.

Carduus benedutus

Cloves 49. 68. 69. 82. 85. 86. 88. 89. 90.
I2
'3- a6 9
95- 9 6 97- 9 8 '5- lo6
see also Sy-ygium aromaticum
Clo\ e-Tree 269

'67

25,

pratensis

<

Bronze Fennel 191

Brooklime 279

27.

119.

7"

79, 82.

76

25,

( laraway Seed
can out 179

Brombn m

Brunelle

23.

Broad Beans 82. 83

Broad-leaved Do< k ..'-,"
Broad-leased Saye 2 r-,H

Broom

66. 68

ill.

Chenopodium 20
Chenopodium album L. 128. 54. 171
fodium ambrostoidis var. anthilmintium

166

13

Chelidonium majus L. 170

Chelone glabra L. 60. 171

166

I.

DC

Carawa\

110.

109.

Capsicum microcarpum
(.apsuum minimum 166

Briar 253
brionia ni^ra 269
British

Medic. 166

166

urn fruteSCCni

Breakstone Paroles 153

British

Cheiranthus 95.

Caper Bush 165

Brassica juncea 163

107.

104.

Chaste Tree 52. 282

Chaulmoogra 270
Chaiica siriboa Miq. 240
Checkerberry 195
Cheese Rennet 194
Cheeses see Malta sylvestris

Cape Aloe 149

Cape Gum see Acacia Senegal
Caper 72. 75. 82. 90. 165

brahmi 203
Brake Root 244
Bramble 255
Brank Ursine 142

103.

Charitx 243
Charlock 250. 264

Cannabis indica L. 165

Cannabis satiia L 165

10,

Clove Pink 76. 90. 134. 183

Clover 35. 103. 13. 221. 274
Cloveroot see Geum urbanum

68. 69. 75. 76. 89. 90.

120, 122, 127. 134. 170. 220

see

134.

chapeau du diable 235

Boxwood

102.

175

12.

Clivers 194

chamaimelon 220
Chamomile 18. 67.

Cananga odorata 96. 06

Candleberry see Myrica cenfera
Cane Apples 155
Cannabina aqualica 88
Cannabis 165

Bouncing Bet 7. 138. 260

Bowles Mint 123. 224
Bowman's Root 280
Box 23. 124. 127. 164
Box Holly 256
Box Tree 20. 164

89.

170. 220

Canadian Fleabane 186

Canadian Hemp 154
Canadian Snakeroot 159

122. 123. 127. 132. 163

Borago

Ach. 59. 170

Ceylon Cinnamon 175
Chamaemelum nobilc L. All. 59.

Link 175

L.

Cise see Allium schoenoprasum

Clary 122, 127. 138. 258
Oars Sage 258
Claiiceps purpurea Fried. Tulasne 63. 176
Cleavers 68. 194
Clef de St Pierre 247
Clematis 122
Climbing Bitterssseet 168

Cetraria islandica [L.)

amara

95. 96. 97. 107, 108.

Cilrus sinensis 95, 97,

A. Rich. 59. 169

Brot.

Cervi spina 192. 251

Camphor 49
Camphor Tree 174
Canada Balsam 244

Boneset 67. 188

Bookoo see Agathosma betulina

Cereus grandiflorus Mill. 170

00
Calumba 66. 208

Boldu 236

Burm.

Cilrus limon

02

106

c.17.

Citrus auranlium var.

Cereus 170

Hull 93. 165

L.

DC. 169

L.

83

am milium

Citrus

Century 169
Century Plant 145

California Fern see Conium maculalum

California Poppy 35

Gay 236

Boldoa fragrans

Citrus 82,

Centranthus ruber var. albus 169

L. 104. 108. 109. Ill, 164

officinalis

108

Citrullus lanatus

66. 69. 169

5
Centranthus ruber

132. 143

Calendula

Boldo 236

Br

Centaury 59,
Centella 203

Eucalyptus globulus

see

184
Bocksbohnen 224
Bog Bean 66. 224
Bog Myrtle 226

Brow

cacauatl 271
cacho 142

Ginseng 168

Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue
Blue

cassia

Blumi

el

95,

Eberm
106, 174

teylanicum Nees 88, Bg

1

3.

Im

go 95 96

174

96

175
18,
>if;

^5,81,82,84,87,^,
102,

1
1

3.

175

Common
(

lommon
lommon

)al

lommon

>x

Common

cum thapsus

227
Nettle 276
1

Common
(

Mullein

Ii

tie

[01

p 247

lYons 232

;<)7

Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common
Common

Pigweed 171
Plantain

see

Plantago major

Polypody 244

Rue

see

Ruta graveolens

Sage see Salvia officinalis

St John's Wort 204

Snowdrop

see

Tansy

101

conferva 268
conifers 33

Conium maculatum L. 178

Consolidae maioris 268
Consolida Saracenia 266
ullaria ma/alis

L. 57, 95, 97.

113,

34,

178

Cool-Tankard see Borago

Copal Tree 146

79

123. '34-

sativum L. 88.

106, 134, 179

<-,.

Cornflower 67. loj. 168. 169

Corn Poppy 233
Corn Salad 39. 120, 122, 123, 127. 158
corona regis 22
Costmar) 90,99, 120, i172
Cotton 101, 198
Cotton Lavender 99, 259
Cotton Root 198
Cotton Weed 53

dents

Dei

<1<

lion

83

Duns

-'.

malaccensii 103

Dianthus plumanus 95,

Parsnip 201
Cowslip 61. 66, 67.

Digitalis lanala
76. 82. 89.

120.

B26,

Digitalis lutea

Mate 20
Mandrake 163
1

Oak 250

Equisetum

103, 105,

97

113. 134. 183

183

(|t>.

57

Digitalis purpurea L. y>.

1^4. 183. jyi

'

Fagopyrum esculentum 57
Fall Crocus see Colchicum autumnale
False Bittersweet 168
False Chamomile 220
False Hellebore 144
Fat Hen 28. 134. 171
Featherfew 173
February Daphne see Daphne mezereum
Felon Herb 159
Female Regulator 262
Fennel 60. 67. 68. 69. 77. 74. 76. 79. 80.
82. 84. 88. 90.

104.

10.

120.

122. 123.

127. 134. 191

Fennel Wood 261

Fenugreek 66. 274
Fern-leaved Parsley 236
ferns 32. 115
Ferula foettda Re gel 189

Buhse 190

Ferula galbamflua Boiss. et

Slapl 185

Ferula rubricaulis Boiss. 190

Fevcrbush 205
Feverfew 115. 120. 122. 123. 173
Ficaria major 261

7,110, 186

Ficus Carica L. 190

Balm 197

Equisetum hyemale 93
Equisetum sylvaticum 100

Field Larkspur 183

Erba pagana 266

Field Pansy 281

Ergot 176
Ergot of Rye 176
erigeron 262

Field

Field

Poppy 233

Fig 67. 190

Figwort

Erigeron canadensis

57

Everma 00
Everma purpuracea
Eionymus europaea 187
Eionymus europaeus 187
Eyebright 67. 102. 105. 189

Ephedra nebrodensis 185

Ephedra smica 185
Epigaea repens L. 185

103

Dianthus barbatus 96
Dianthus caryophyllus L.

Cow

English Holl\ 205

English Ivy iff Hedera helix
English Laurel see Prunus laurocerasus

Ephedra equiselina 185

Wall.

Bn Scabious 268
Dewberr) ut Rubusjruh

Basil 169

Endymion nonscnptus 102

English Alder 149
English Hawthorn see Crataegus monogyna

Ephedra gerardiana

Devil's

67. 146

73

cnulc-campane 206
Ephedra 39. 61. 63. 185

103

is

English Primrose see Primula vulgaris

English Rhubarb 252
English Violet set Viola odorala
English Walnut jff Juglans regia

270

liplica

Cow

42. 161

Delphinium consolida L. 183

Delphinium Staphisagna L. 103. 183

Couch Grass

ajacis

276

67.

English
English
English

carota ssp. fativui 183

Everlasting 198
Everlasting Thorn 249

elifagus 258

English Lavender 211

carota ssp. carota 183

Evening Primrose 229

Evening Star 229
Evergreen Alkanet 147

Eleutherococcus senticosus 232

Elm

stramonium L. 39. 59. 182

carota L. 57, ion. 182

Delphinium

elelisphakon 258

Endive

Dense Button Snakeroot 214

Denla Leonis 270

Corn 109

270

Dead-Nettie 210
Deer's Tongue 214

84. 88. 90, 95, 106, 120.

120.258.259
206

10. 111.

62. 67. 120. 127. 134.

185
67. 68. 69

101

Deadk Nightshade

officinalis

Coreopsis 100

Coriander 68. 82.

Datura
Daucus
Daucus
Daucus

90. 95. 100.

cardamomum 88
Elettana cardamomum var. mimscula Maton

Daphne 120
Daphne mezereum L. 182
Daphne mezereum var. alba West. 182
daphnoides 182
Date 67

Achillea millejolium

62. 184

#<?.

Elettaria

82. 89. go. 100. 103. 104. 129.

Danube Weed
iff

Euryale jerox Salisb. 228

Elettari 185

Danewort 258

Artemisia

absinthium

Cone Flower

Chrysanthemum

><

cinerarifolium

Wild Cherry 248

Common Yarrow

Flower

Insert

European White Birch see Betula pendula

European White Hellebore 278
European Wood Sorrel see Oxalis acetosella

Arctium lappa

see

104. 107. 108.

Elecampane

Daisv 104

Dalmatian P\rethrum 172

Dalmatian Sage 258
Damiana 275
Dandelion 35. 39. 57. 60. 66.

272
Tormentil 246
Valerian 277

Conundrum

Egyptian Onion 148

Egyptian Privet ;/;. 212
Elaterium Fruit 184

Dalmatian

see Tanacelum vulgare

Wormwood

182
Cypripedium pubescens Willd. 63. 181
Cytisus scopanus L. Link 260

Daikon 250

officinalis

Thvme

Wheat

Edible Burdock
Eglantine 253

Elder 67. 69. 73. 76. 82. 86.

Galanlhus nivalis

Speedwell see Veronica

Sunflower 200

Cypripedium calceolus L. 182

Cypripedium calceolus var. pubescens Correll

see

Scrophulana nodosa

ulmana L. 59. 89. 100. 104. 190

Finnocchio 191

186

I.

Ftlipendula

Cowslop 246

Digitalis purpurea var. alba 183

Eruca vesuaria L. 187

Eruca vesicaria ssp. saliva

Cramp Bark 280

Digitalis purpurea var. campanulata 183

Eruscus 256

Fir

Cranberry 277
Cranberry Bush set Viburnum opulus
Cranberry Tree 280

Digitalis purpurea var. maculata 183

Ervatamia dichotoma 63
Eryngium maritimum L 187

Firelhorn 249
Flag 66, 67. 68. 95. 97. 98. 102. 132. 143

Eryngo 187

see also

Cranesbill 35. 66. 68. 196

Crataegus monogyna J acq. 57. 179. 273
Creeping Bugle 146

Dill

129. 246.

249

",7.

Dill 18. 60. 68. 6q. 73. 74. 75, 76. 79, 82, 86.
90. tig, 120. 121. 123. 127. 132. 152

Seed 152

Thvme

Honk 268

I.

272
Cress 122. 166. 79. 275
Crithmum maritimum L. 179. 257
Crocus 134. 177. 179
crocus indicus 180

Dipteryx odorala 102. iot>

Erylhrnxylum coca

Di\inr Flower

Km

Crocus sativus L. ill. 134. 179

Dog Poison sec Aethusa

Dog Rose 69, 86, 253

Creeping

set

Dianthus caryophyllus

Dock 67. 89. 256

Dogbane 54
Dog Briar 253
cynaputm

Crowfoot 154

Drosera rotundifolia 61

Cubeb 241
Cubeb Pepper

Dryobalanops aromatica

74
Dryopteris filix-mas L. Schott 33. 184
Dryopteris spinulosa O. Kuntze 184
Dulcis amara 265

Cuckoo-flower 166
Cuckoopint 66. 159

Cucumber

66. 68. 82. 83.

103.

105.

107.

108. 109

Cucumis satuus 103. 105. 107. 108

Cucurbita Pepo var. ovijera 107

Cudweed

153
see also Gnaphalium uligmosum
Culver's Physic see Veronicastrum iirgimcum
Culver's Root 280

Cumin

15, 68. 71. 76. 82. 89. 90.

134. 180

Cuminum cyminum L.
Curacao Aloe 149

89. 134. 180

120. 123.

Dver's

\<

ads 33

Weed 208
Woad see lsatis

Eau de Cologne Mint

123. 136.

Ecballium elaterium A. Rich

(.inara scohmus L. 6p, 88, 181

Echinacea 66

rvperus

298

i8r>

L. 181

Echinacea angusltjolia

Echium vulgare L. 184

europaeus cv. Burtonn 188

Eupatonum cannabinum L. 188

DC.

Hayne

223

184

62. 184

see

Sambucus nigra
see

Solidago viragaurea

Holly see Ilex aquijolium

Horse Chestnut see

Fluellen 279
Foemculum vulgare Mill.

74.

88.

103.

127. 134. 183. 259. 261

105. 189

Centaury 66. 69
Crowfoot 154
Elder

Ins germanica var. florentma

110.

Foenugreek 274
Fomes Jomentanus L. Fries. 191
Fomes officinalis Vittadini Bresadola 191
Fool's Parsley 144. 236
Forking Larkspur 183
Fountain tree of water, fabled tree 52
Foxglove 25. 26. 42. 52. 56. 57. 119. 120.

Eupatorium perfohalum L. 188

Eupatonum purpureum L. 188

Goldenrod

see

'34- >9

Eurasian Chestnut 168

European Angelica 153
European Barberrv 162
European Birthwort see Anstolochia clematitis
European Blackcurrant see Ribes nigrum

ebulus 258

officinale

L 187

euphrosinum 163

East Indian Rhubarb 252

East India Root 150

Plantago psyllium

Florence Fennel 120. 191

Florentine Iris 207
Flores stoechado- . Flowering Ash 192

europaeus cv. Aldenhamensis 188

European
European
European
European
European
European

226

see

Fleur-de-Lis

104. 187

46
europaeus

Wood

Fleawort

europaea 187

Euphrasia rostkoviana

tinctoria

(.tnara cardunculus 181

Cjmoglossum

Euonymus
Euonymus
Euonymus
Euonymus
Euonymus

Club Moss 216

Flea

Euphorbia lathyrus 103

Euphorbia resimjera Berg. 182. 189
Euphrasia officinalis 102. 189

Dyer's Bugloss 147

Dyer's Greenweed 100. 196
Dver's Madder 120. 254

Curcuma longa L. Ill, 180

Curcuma Zedoana Roscoe 181
Curled Dock 256
Currants 82. 83
( usparia Bark 194

63. 187

Nut 237

Euphorbia 189
Euphorbia heplagona L. i8q
Euphorbia hirta L. 61. 189

Dwarf Elder 258

Dwarf Lavender 120. 123
Dwarf Mountain Pine 240
Dwarf Thistle 167
Dver's Broom 196

Dyer's

Durmast Oak 250

Dutch Parsley 236
Dutch Rhubarb 252
Dutch Rush 93
Dwale 161

curcuma 180

Lam.

Fir 33. 142

Ins versicolor 207

Flag Lily 207
Flanders Poppy 233
Flannel Plant jff Verbascum thapsus
Flax tot. 120. 215
Fleabane 186
Flea Seed 242

Eugenia pimento D<

Double Chamomile 170

Cubebs 241

ir

Eucalyptus globulus Labill

Donke\'s Ears 278

Piper cubeba

186

Eucalyptus 67. 104. 187

Croton tiglium L. 180

see

II

esob 204
Esparto 101

Croton 180
Croton Seed 180

Tin

rr\simon 264
Erysimum officinale 264
Erwhrodanon 254

Dioscora tnllosa yi

Dipsacus tativus

Mill.

Aesculus

hippocaslanum

European Polypody see Polypodium vulgare

European Spindle Tree 187
European Vervain see Verbena officinalis

Fox's Brush 169

Fragana vesca L. 107. 108. 191

Frangipani 106
Frangula alnus Mill. 192

Frankincense 267
Fraxinus excelsior

Fraxinus ornus L. 192

French Beans 82, 83

French Lavender 211. 259
French Lilac 193
French Rhubarb 252
French Sorrel 123. 231. 256
French Tarragon 86. 122. 132. 158
Fringed Lavender 211
Fringe Tree 171
Fucus vesiculosus L. 103.
Fuller'^ Teasel 268

10.

192

Fumaria

Golden Ragwort 262

Golden Rod 66, 67. 69. 266
Golden Seal 66. 67. 68. 69. 202
Good King Henrv 171
Goora Nut 177

L. 193

officinalis

Fumitory

67. 193

fungi 30. 32

Galanga 150

Gooseberry 82. 83
Goosefoot 128. 171
Goosegrass 194
Goose Grass see Potentilla

Galangal 69. 150

Galanthus Elwesii Hook. 193
Calanlhui nivalin L. 193

Galbanum

190

Gale 226
Galega

L. 193
Galega officinalis var. albiflora Boiss. 193
Galega officinalis var. Harllandu Hon. 194
officinalis

galion 194
Galipea cuspana St Hilaire 194

Chervil 153
Heliotrope see Valeriana

officinalis

Garden Lettuce 210

Garden Marigold 164
Garden Mint 224
Garden Nasturtium 275
Garden Pans\ 282
Garden Purslane 245
Garden Sorrel 256
Garden Thyme 75. 272
Garde robe 158
Garlic 62. 66, 67. 68. 69. 74. 75, 77. yS. 79.

Gourds 10
Goutweed 144
Gractlaria confenoides 195

herba benedicta 197

Grains of Paradise 145

grana paradi--i 43

Herba chamaedryos
Herba erysini 264
Herba fullonis 260

Ground

Gelidium 195
Gelidium amansn Kutz. 195
Gelidium carlilagmeum Gaill

Ground-nui 154

Mustard 147
Gaullhena procumbens L. 63. 195
Garlic

Km/

Bi uni

Sond 195

mn An

Gelsemium semper,

Gemeini

Ground Pine tee I.ycopodium

Ground Raspberr\ 202

195

195

Genista 260

Genliana lului

y,

I.

96

76, 90, 95,

97, 103, n>>. 181,

Geranium maculatum

102.

<|t>.

I.

robertianum

I.

196

.1

in. in

mini urbanum
Ghatti (linn
I

(,ill

Ovei

\1\
1

'i".

<

//

Haruthorn

283

Parsley

I.

127.

i.

11

'

Healing Herb - Symphytum

Heal ( In
2)8
Hearteate 281
Heath< 93, 165
Hedeoma pulegioides I. Pen

ulirpnrn

ii

.in

llr al

hoke 60,
illhin

I.

66, Ba, 83, B8, 181

-,<).

I98

1112

lull/lull/,
I

Gnaphalium ditricum
Gnaphalium mutticeps Wall

III

]i,V.

Hedge

Garlic

Hi dgi

II

'.niiiiii
1

Soldi

11

Marjoram

10

I'm ilane 245

raa,

2 <,

124

105,

tuckli

216

ill -.hi

hmi

op

hi

<

leel

12,

ut,

II nliarii

u< 67
68 6g

lo\

Hik kleben

I.

108, 110, 134,

200

h 202

22

Hi bin

11

I.

Join! In

202

Helleborui nigti sar

llellebnrus uneiiliilis 201

Hayne

201

Juglans " gia

I.

Warb. 270

iilrnr,

myi

I,

202
203
;(,
y

208

209

03,

ea Mustard 163
Junius conglomerate 9

Julian

king

208

I.
1 1,

ii<

Junipi

//,

,201
Altifotius

) li

'1

II

officinalis

Ephedra gerardiana

sii

Juglans nigra

//,</, int/ui

Hydrocotyli asialica

soi

Java liankmc ense 267

Jei a 90
never 209
Jerusalem Artichoke 82, 83
Jerusalem C lowslip 249
Jerusalem Sage tei Pulmonaria

20, 181

Hypericum mniulalum 100

Hypericum perforatum I. 100, 204
Hy poglosson 1 ;6
'
Hyssop 57 66 6" 69
Ba, Bg

11

Jasminum officinal* 104, 105

Jateorluza palmala Miers 208

120

277

i.in

104,

Jasmini Rool 195

Jasminum 95, 96, 97. 102, 112, 113

Hya< null 95
Hydniu injur

102,

96, 97,
122. 123

so,

Jessamine 195
Jesuits' Tea 305
Jew \ Myrtle 256
Jimsonweed 182
Ji ii-c hen 232
Joe-pye Weed 188

Helltborus foetidus

In)

In.

11 3,

hussopos 204

199
264

69,

is,

Juglans cintrea

I tumulus lupultti

,7,

j<

Hydrastis canadensis

III
1

68

mm ao
ope 277
Hellebore J3, 103, 144. 201. 278
Id

'

66, 67,

hrute 257

147

Hedge Mustard

Hilu

Gnaphalium uhginmum I. 198

K in 193
roal
n-Carpel h Sedum at n

Housi

21MP

Helianthus armuus

153

Hound's

1.

heleio telinon 236

98

Japanese Isinglass 195

Japanese Rose 254

Japanese Star Anise 206
Jasmine 76. 82. 91. 95,

50

["histli

Sorrel r Hibiscus sabdanffa

Jamaica Tea 201

Jambul 68

150

'

1.1

Ann

10

Jamaica Sarsaparilla 265

officinal*

Lonicera caprifolium

see

200

Jamaica

J.

66, (17. tic, 8<,. 127. 162, 219

Horse ( Ihestnui 144
Horseheal 103
Hoi
Pai ley tt Smyrnium olusalrum
Horseradish '17. 7-,. 82 B4 8
90, 157
Hoi tail 7. 93, 100, 10, 186

247

Globe

all

208

103, 205,

-I

eng i'i8. 2-j2. 233

Gipsy Flown 181
(.i|iv\ woi
217
Gladdon 206
Gla vmjii 257
homo hedi racea I. 134, 197
1

Hoik

Hoiehound

179. 373

201

Hordeum ipontaneum Km
Hordeum ulgan I. 202

Hazclworl 160

Woodbine
35. 123,

Jaborandi

(17

236

\grimonia eupatorie

ft,

L.

Hoyw ceil
Hoh

hole

Hi" ileum sativum 101

201

207

L.

L. 207

ixus 259

Lici

Lamk. 207
207

).u

199

2 r,i

spuria

k-ln-lhe-hedge 147
Jacob's Ladder 243
Jamaican Quassia 238
Jamaica Pepper 90, 239

I /milium

pallida

[vy

95 96 97, 33,
Bine 202
Hops yi 68, 69, 76, 83, 89, 90, 97, 103, 123.

Iris
Iris

Iris virginica

201

Dvkcs 207

Moss 66, 67. 68, 172

Shamrock 231

Iris versicolor

Hordeum ischnalherum Schulz. 202

Hambuig

Haw kweed
Haw llioi

Irish

Hop

23

Iround 197

B7, 88,

Irish

202

183

nermanica v ar. florenlina

Iris

18(1

Honey
279

nica officinalis

206

L.

germanica L. L. 95. 96. 97. 98, 102. 105.

106.
10, 207, 281

Italian

Holy
link

L. 207

var. albicans 207

Heidra 273

Holyoke

io

maloxylum tamptchianum

II

59,

02.

Hamamelis virginiana

18. 67, 68, 69, 71.

1

li

195

Gingelli 263

89, 90,

Iris florenlina

Iris

Holm Oak 205

178
agai anth
11

61, 169

Iris florenlina

Iris foet.dissima

HolK Oak 205

Holmi

142

anthinum

.ic

llamamihs

112

Ik

at ac iae

208
Ipecacuanha 59,
Iris 127. 206

Hibiscus sabdanffa L. 201

pilosella L.

206

caulis 52

Ispaghula 242
Italian Ryegrass 274

Holly hot

>

is

[satis Imcloria

habrotanun

197

I.
1

llala

iti

Gill) flowei

Ginger

'

Gummi
Gummi

Io\

Hera biennis

Kliul1.11 b

Gigartina

Gum
Gum

mi, 103, 142

Benjamin 267
Benzoin 95,
98, 106, 107

German Rampioi
<

187

ennel 191

mclegueta

lovis glans

hipposelinon 265

memum

G\ mnospei n
G\ ps\ 'j Rllllllal
d\ ps\ weed 217

197

German ( lhamomilt 220

Germander 121, 13H. 271
in. in

280

Hibiscus 69. 75. 76

hiltil

Gum

(mm
Gum

122. 127. 196

mi

Rom

111, 112

Inula helenium L. 62. 103. 134,

la pastora 275
High-dried Rhubarb 252
Hitili Mallow cm Malta Tftoestris

2I11

Tobacco 215
Water Navel Wort 203

Hervea 205

Hteracium

\i .ilin

una punctata y,
Genliana purpurea y.

199

196

169,

Genliana macrnphi'

urn

199.

H mid

urn

hi. 11. 11

Pink 266
Spice 282

ion agrion 281

herbe a I'oiseau 267

Herb Gerard 144
Herb of Grace 256
Herb Robert 66. 68. 197
Herb) grass 256
HercuU"- Woundwort 247
hcrpvlh^ 27

199

Guinea Gi

100, 196

I.

Mi. 68, 190, 169, 196

Geranium

Guaiacum Resin
Gueldei

Genista linilonn

Gentian

I.

Pennywort 203

campana 206

inula

Herba Trinitatis 281

Herba Urinaria 270
Herba Valerianae graecae 243
Herba veneris 279
Herba Veronica major i^ 2~u
Herb Bennet 197

claialum

Paint 259

lndigojera tincloria

hierba de

Groundsel 262
Guaiacum officinale
(

lli

271

Herba sacra 279

herba salsifica 273
herba Sancti Ioannis 204
herba sanctii ruperti 197
Herba Taraxacon 270

Iv\ 67. 197

Dreamer 165

Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indian
Indigo

herba pedicularia 183

Herba Philippi 260

Geldcrsrhe roCM 280

123, 132. 148

Herba Acetosa 255

Herba Beccabunga 279
Herba bella donna 161

Ginger 158

206

Siebold 206
tllicium reium Hook.f. 206. 239
Indian Corn 01
Indian Cress 275
lllicium religiosum

Heracleum sphondylium L. 201

Gean 248

103. 120.

205

Grav 205

L.

tllicium anisatum L.

Gossypium hirsulum L. lot. 198

Gossypium peruvianum 98

Buckwheat 75

en sis St. Hil. 77.

lien verticillata

Henna 110. II 1. 212

Hennebane 203
Hennibone 203

Hellebore 201, 278

Purslane 245
Grwdelia camporum 6
Groats 161
Ground Elder 144

80. 81. 82. 84, 85, 86. 88. 90,

Hex paraguar

203

39. 63,

aquifolium L. 102, 205

Ili\

Henbell 203

Grandilla 235
Grass 67. 101, 146. 274
Gratia 199
Gratia Dei 199

204
204

L. 74, 103. 134.

officinalis

Iceland Moss 59, 66, 68, 69, 170

188

Gossypium arboreum L. 198

Gossypium barbadense L. 198
Gossypium hnhaceum L. 198

Green
Green
Green
Green

Hyssopus

144, 178

Henbane
anserina

Gravel Plant 185

Gravel Root 188
Great Burdock 155
Great Burnet 246
Greater Celandine 170
Greater Periwinkle 281
Greater Plantain 168. 241
Greater Prickk Lettuce 61. 210
Greek Myrtle 'a Myrtus com munis
Greek Valerian 243

Gardenia jasminoides 113

IO3, 120, 122, I27, I34. I99,

Aconilum napellus

sec

Hemp 154. 165

Hemp Agrimony 66.
Hemp Dogbane 154
Hemp Tree 282

Gratiola officinalis L. 57. 199

Hollyhock 150
Gardenia 13

Gelidium elegant

Hemlock

Asparagus 161
Burnet 246

Gelidium po/ycladium

Helmet Flower

Galium aparine L. 194

Galium mollugo 00
Galium tecum L. 7. 100. 194
Garden Angelica 153

Garden
Garden
Garden
Garden
Garden

Helleborus viridis L. 201

effuSUS
1
,

120, 134,

<i

65 66,

Juniperus communis

I.

82. 89, 91

1,

95,

209
I.

,7.

89, 95,

111,

134,

209

I.

I,

r.

2O3

Juniperus communis ssp

hibernica

Gard.

2011

ommunis ssp nana Syme 209

Juniperus communis vai brostrata Beissen 209
Juniperus snlnna I. 209
Juniperus tabina \.u tamariscifolia Aii 209
Juniperus

90

299

Jumperus sabina var. vanegata Laws. 209

Beard
jusquiamus 203
Jupiter'^

kalumb 208
1

Lycopus europaeus L. 217

Lycopus urginicus L. 217

Lemon Grass 106

Lemon Mint 223
Lemon .Nut 208
Lemon Thyme 91. 120. 138.271
Lemon Verbena 97. 10 104. 105.

Lythrum

68. 69. 73, 75, 76. 82. 88. 89.

90. 119. 120. 122. 123. 127. 1 36. 222

kababe 241

Kami

Lemon Balm

Centranlhiti ruber

see

42

Kapparis 165

Mace

217

salicaria L.

10. 120.

Madder

100. 120.

Magnolia

Maguey

254

Karas a Gum 102

karkade 20!
Kastanea 168

Leonurus deminutus 213

Mahonia aqutfolium

Leonurus glaucescens 213

Ma-Huang

Leonurus heterophyllus 213

Leonurus sibiruus 213

Maidenhair Fern 143

Maidenhair Tree 33
maiorana 230
Maize 10. 101
Male Fern 184
Mallow 67. 69. 102. 218
malum punicum 249

Gum

Katira

Leptandra virginica Nutt. 280

102

Kelp

kerasos J48

Hemlock 144

Lesser

kestron 266

Heaven
Khamaidrys 27
Ke\^

.'47

ill

koamu

lie
I

Km/

iimii

.11

198

also I

Set

.':

22

213

54.

<i

lilium

<

I.il\

Lactuca sativa L. 210

Lactuca seariola
irosa

I.

22.

t>8.

Lad's Love 158

Lady's Bedstravt 7. 194
Lads'- Mantle 48. tit). (17. 75, 77. 104, 107,
132, 147
Lad\ 's Slipper 63, 69, 181
Lady's Smock 166
Lamb's-Quarters set henopodium album

I.inum usitatissimum

Lapathum acutum 256

Lapalhum crispum 256
Lappa 155

Lippia citriodora

Liquidambei

Lapsana communis L. 210

Liquorice 59.

Larch

Liver-leal

i<n

Large-leaved Golden Purslane 245

Large-leaved Lime 273
Large Yellow Lady's Slipper set Cypripedium

Li\ er

decidua Mill. 191

DC

Larix europata
tibirica

Lolium

102.

l(.

Ma\

198

20.

Latherwon 93

11

<h

I.

215

mulliflorum

Lam.

multifiorum

^-.p.

174

Laurus nobilis L. 75,

21

Loosestrife

see

104,

106, 113, 134.

Lorucera marilandua L.

216
266

-,<<

220

Podophyllum peltatum

sit

20.

22.

gale

59. 67. 68.

104.

61

103,

12,

Loranthus europaew L. 282

Lords and Ladies 159

Melnsa

104. 105. 106.

Laiandula

13. 21

sloechas L.

Laiandula iera

DC.

Lovage

123. I2

212

134. 21

Lavender

39. 68. 69. 73. 74. 91. 95, 96, <,;.

101, 102, 104. [05, 106. 113. !2().

98.
12

1.

122.

I23.

125.

68.

I20.

I27.

128.

I34.

211. 212. 259

7-

76. 80. 83. 91.

'34. 2I 3- 2I 4

lucerna 220

Lucerne 103,
Lungwort 67.

Leek 69.

<i

I.crrion 97.

75

3OO

/.

212
213

lupus

1117.

1118.

10.

112. 113.

68.

220

120. 122. 123.

202

-.alictarius

107

216

Lycopodium felage L. 216

/

officinalis

L.

Pall. 95. 96. 105.

Kopsis art ensis

84

127. 136.

221

222

L. 75. 88. 89. 135.

melissophyllon 222
Melist see Melilotus officinalis
Melon 108
menastrum 222
Mauspermum palmatum 208

15.

159

225

Mullein 7. 61, 67. 69. 120. 138. 278

Mu-catel Sage 258
Mu^covitic Rhubarb 252
-

32. 91

63. 71, 75, 83. 87. 91. 163.

Myrica

cordijolia L.

Mynca

gale L.

264

226

226

Msriophyllon 245
Myristicajragrans Houtt. 89. 95. 96. 98. 106.
1

13.

226

Myroxylon 13
Mvrrh Myrrhis odorata
1

15. 49. 66. 68. 69.

101. 106. 178. 227

Msrrha 178

Mentha 74. 88. 89. 102. 104. 105. 13

Mentha aquatica L. 136. 222. 22
Mentha citrata 3b
Mentha odorata 223
Mtiitha palustns 223
Mentha x piperita L. 59. 106. 107. 108. 136.
223
Mentha x piperita var. citrata Ehr. Brig. 223
Mentha x piperita forma pallescens 223
Mentha x piperita forma rubescens 223
Mentha pulegium L. 7. 95. 36. 223
1

rsicon esculenlum

lilotus officinalis

221

112. 212.

dium clavatum L.
97.

26 5

'<

Coe

249

134.

9(1.

120.

Low Cudweed 198

Low Speedwell 279
Luban Jawi 267

Lavender Cotton 138.259

/

119.

Love-lies-bleeding 151
Love Parslev 213

I.asender Mint 223

l.au Mima inermis I.. 110,

Ledum groentandicum Oed.

Ledum latifoliutn J acq. 213
Ledum palustn 1.. 2 13

104.

52. 66. 67. 68. 76. 120. 132.

Mscophyta 32
Mynca cerifera L. 226

Melilotus alba var. annua

Lavandula officinalis Chaix. 21

Lavandula spica L. 95, 96, 97. 98. 101. 102.

12

Melegueta Pepper 145

Loosestrife 68. 217

57

2711

Mustard

Lavandula

dioica

muggia wort 159

mushrooms

220

Melilot, 66, 67, 95. q6. 105. 120, 221

Melilotus alba Medic. 221

Motherwort 78. 213

moulds 32
Mountain Balm 164
Mountain Box 155
Mountain Everlasting set Antennana
Mountain Grape 218
Mountain Mini 164
Mountain Pine 240
Mountain Savory 261
Mountain Tea 195
Mountain Tobacco 157
Mouse Bloodwort 201
Mou^e-ear Hawkweed 201

Melaleuca leucadendron L. 220

Lonicera penclymenum var. Belgica

latijolia Yill. 2

muscus catharticumuscus clavatus 216

Arclostaphylos uia-ursi

saliva L.

143. 154

morarius 225
Morello 248
moron 227
morsus gallinae
Iba L. 227
Minus nigra L. 225
Moss 216
Mm- Beauty 187
mosses 32
Mother Die 178
Mother <il Herbs 159
Mother of Th\ mi a -

Mucor
Passtflora mcarnata

see

190
set

L.

Monk's Pepper 282

Monk's Rhubarb 256
mora agre-.ii- 277

Mugwort

225
227

13. 136.

Moutarde des allemand^

Lonicera penclymenum L. 95, no.

Lonicera penclymenum var. Aurea

216
216

Mouth Smart

Lavandula 74. 104

Lavandula angustijnlia Mill. 211, 212
Lavandula denlala L. 211

216

164. 222.

Mulberrv

Medicago
117.

120. 121.

136.

Meadow F.yebright 189

Meadow Fern see Mynca
Meadow Saffron 177

Mealberry

Lonicera caprifolium L.

119.

128.

mazariyun 182

Lylbrum

salicaria

113.

6g, 150

hamumilln 22"

Meadowsweet

Husnot 274

Camphor

<>H.

Mas Flower 185

Ma\ Lily 178
Maypop 234
Maypop Mas Apple

2711

Long Purple Spiked

95

219

89.

I.

179

May-apple

{2

230

Matl/n

207

110. III.

95

98.

(17.

llysiau Lis wel\

Logwood

Led. 191

Lathyrus odoratus

Laurel

\nemone hepatica

Lobelia inflata

Larkspur 183

Matricaria recutita L. 102, 103, IO4, 107, 109.

HBK

Lobelia nicotianaefotia 61

191

Moeni

205

76.

Matricaria

Lobelia 215

pubescens

77. 76, 79. 80. 81.

Benth 230

Main Herbarum
215

ioi, n>8.

I.

orientalis

set

liverworts

127.

1>8

Marrow 1117
Mamibium tntlgart

Male

ool 147

I.il\

104.

Mastic h 25

123.

anis 18

lingua

Lion's

maronev

limun 177
Linden
Ling 93, 165
lingua

122.

i20,

18. 1)7. 73,

Marsh ( lelei j 236

Marsh < ludweed 198
Marshmallow 7< 117.
Mai^hmarigold 100
Marsh Samphire 257
Marsh ea 213
Marsh Treibil 224

",t>

La pat liu in 256

Lam

76, 91,

77

humana 278
Linseed 66, 67, t>8. 108. 215
Linum biennt Mill. 2 5

Lau\

77.

69,

Laminaria digitala ;#
Lamium album L. 210

'

120.

272

in.

Limonium vulgan Mill

hum

113,

178
\

69. 83. 89. 91.

tig,

iima hull, wis

97.

7/5.

127.

106.

57. 66, 67,

34,

219

20. i2i,
83, 84, 85, 86, 91, 97. 107. lib.
122. 123. 124. 127. 136. 230. 231

95,

210

H.

una onites

Lime Tree

111.

tog,

Marjoram

42,

113.

125.

Mint Geranium see Chrysanthemum balsamita

Mirasol see Heliantbu; annuus
Mistletoe 31. 35. 49. 57. 69. 102. 273. 282
Mole Plant 103
\l'.arda didyma L. 77. 88. 97. qb. 97. 102.

occidental
10.

105.

123.

Monkshood

95

Lily-of-the-Valley

I..

104.

122.

223. 224. 232

i>rnus

Amuardium

set

102.

marchalan
Marian Thistle 263
Marigold 66. 67. 68.

78

242

163. 164

on\ allium

218

Monarda Jistulosa

officinalt

Ligusticum tcoticum L. 214

I. ilium

163.

Marania Starch 219

108.

104

officinalt

Fraxtnus

see

Maranle: urundinacea

[10

>'.

{2,

Ligusticum

17(1

Labradoi Tea

Laburnum

hen-.

262
lignum floridum 26
Lignum \itae see Guaiacum

and Pav. 246

74

Lactuca

Maple ;;
Maranmi

>i

kustumburu
Kutch 142
1

Achillea millejolium

Milk Weed 160

Milkwort see Polygala vulgaris
Mint 60. 69. 74! 76. 83. 84. 86. 88. 89. 91.

55

see

122. 136

Milk-thistle 263

10. 12. 15, 63. 163. 218.

Manna 192
Manna .Vh

Life K\ erlasting 153

kunoglosson 181

kwei

mani

4
Willd. 214
Liatris spuata Willd. 214
Liatris spuata var. alba 214

7 j

Krameria triandra

Milfoil

108

Mandrake

Lialris odoratissima

Kola 177
Korean Ginseng; 232

Mignonette 120. 121.

Mignonette Tree 212
mildews 32

Malm

Liatris iliamparui 2

Microtaena cymosa Prain 243

Malta syloestris L. 102. 218

Mandragora officinarum L. 63.

Mezereum germamcum 182

Nutt. 218

Pursh.

185

Lettuce 61 210
Lettuce Opium 2
Levant Cotton jet Gossypium herbat
cum officinal) Koch 134. 213
Lialris uillilepis 214
.

see

Lesser Periwinkle 281

Kidney wort 152

kinnah [go
Kite hen-garden Purslane see Portulaca
mhi \ ai air, a
Knitbone 268
Knotted Figwort 261
Knotted Marjoram 120, 230

kostos

185

Lesser Centaurv 169

192

10,

Cardamom

Lesser

Lesser Celandine 250

Mexican Tea 171

Mezereon 182

Agave americana

Leonurus cardiaca L. 58. 213

kaukali> 240
ka\ u-puti 220

281

101

karavviya 167

Kat 142

226

106.

77. 78. 79. 83. 8g. 91. 98.

Madagascan Periwinkle

27- '49

Mentha pulegium var. decumben _ _

Mentha rotundifolia L. Huds. 224
Mentha spicata L. 222. 223. 224
Mentha viridis L. 224
menthe Pouliot 223
Menyanthes tri/oliata L. 59. 102. 224
Mexican Damiana 275

L. Scop. 75. 136. 227

Myrtle 52. 136. 226. 227. 256
Mvrtle Flag see Acorus calamus
mvrtos 227
Myrtus communis L. Herm. 52. 136. 227

Myrrhis odorata

Myrtus dioica L. 239

Myrtus pimenta L. 239

Nard 160
Nardus celticus 277
Narrow -leaved Sage

123.

278

Papyrus 10. ;;. 101

Paraguay Tea 205

Aasturcium indicum 275

.\asluraum peruvianumi'jj

Nasturtium

120.

73. 76. 83. 91.

122. 128.

Panetaria

275

Navel Wort 203

Neapolitan Parsley 236
\elumbium nucijera Gaertn. 228
Nenuphar 228
.Xepeta cataria L.
04. 36. 228
1

Neroli

Parsley Piert 153

Parsnip 39, 235

Pasque Flower 152

Passiflora caerulea L.

235
Sims 235

Passiflora edulis

Nerve Root 181

Passiflora incamala L. 63.

Nettle 66. 73. 76. 89. 91. ioi. 103. 104, 109.
10. 123. 210. 276
1

New

236

126, I27, 128. 136. 153.

105. 106

0,7.

Pimento

234

83. 84. 85, 91, 95. 103. I20. 121, 122. I23.

R. Br. 75. 136. 228

officinale

L.

officinalis

Pimento dwica

234

Parsley 39. 68. 69. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80.

.\asturtium indicum 275

Xasturtium

& Koch

Mert.

Parietaria diffusa

Zealand Flax 100

234
Passiflora ligulans Juss. 235
Passion Flower 63, 69. 234
Paslinaca saliva L. 235

.\icotiana tabacum 63. 102. 103. 113

Paslinaca sativa var. saliva hortensis 235

Night Flowering Cereus 170

Nightshade 42. 161. 265
Nipplewort 210
Norwa\ Spruce 238
Nuces graecae 248

Patchouli 97. 106. 242

pavame 261
Peach 82. 83. 108

Nutmeg

79. 83. 85. 89. 91. 95. 96. 98. 113.

226
Ximphaea alba

Oak 43. 66. 67.

Oak Moss 106.
Oak Nut 101

68. 101, 103.

1

205. 250

1.

229

L.

22<i

I.

Oenothera biennis L. 229

Oil-Nut 208

Pistaaa

Olea europaea L. 60. 108. 229

Olive

60

rec

",

omnimorbia 2
in
m 66, 68,

229

Peppermn

Popp)

)|iiiiin

Oi.iiil

8a, 83, 87. 91

25,

",

83

6,

28.

100, 103,

230

I.

;.

97,

15,

223
Perfoliate Honeysui klc 216
Periwinkle 120, 127. 138.281
/'. rsea americana
08
Pei sian \\ alnui 209
36,

Pei a\

175

13.

ange Mini 223

)range Rom 202
Irdeal Bean 237

1.

in Bat k

Pel u\

Oregano Bo, 83.

Oregon Grap<

91

123. 130, 231

S, In

Mahonia aquifolium

<

rat

Ma)

rtn

11

230, 231

(8,

Polemnmum

39 179

03,

\\ man

Mill

7",

radicosum Baile) 236

10,

i-iin

Mtmarda didyma

i.i

118.225

linum horten

hnum

Owlei 149
0\ah<

acelosella

Peh

231

I.

\elinum

lloilm

\o

Klip

\ativum

Polygonum
tuberosum

vai

17

273
I.
232
forma Alba plena 21,2
forma Rosea plena 233
forma Rubra plena 2 \i

inalii

offii

officinalis

Paeonia

officinalis

officinalis

l.i

Peumui boldus Molina 236

Pew lei WOTi
Peyote ' !a< tut 22t>
Phea tani 1 \ e 144
Philadelphui 95
philanthropon 194

mum

.'

Phyllostachj

I'lnm

Pin

van

"

insert

Me)

'

idoginseng \\

Panax quinauejolium
I'lnm

"

Pans)
Papal

Papax

rhoeai

li

232

Rom

Phytolacca americana
Phytolacca
Picea

'li"'

dei
I.

andra

bistorta

km/

um alaguala
1

Purple Loosestrife 68. 217

I'm pie Sage 30, 23. 38. 258

243

60,

I.

109 233

Mulbet

I.

101

>

papillari

63

88,

233

Picrasma

237

69,

238

r
i

''

11111I11

11ns

10.

Populu

it'll 11

Populus

tin

Plant lion 238

Bei

ilai

l'\

1 1

Pyrus

mm

11I,

Quassia

63.7". 83,84,

Gra)

.'
1

amain

Ojiassia

Pigweed tt Chenopodium album

Pilewon 250

Portulaca quadrifida
I'm ill, I' ,1 ,ih

L.

xcelsa

Mill

III.

III.!

.'||

,,

.111/

238

I;

{6,

lilnlil

1I1111,

Qui

1,

us

robm

in,

11

11

robm

\ .11

<

245

lalioa

145

lot,

iliflora
I.

IOI

Matt

'>

2J\

Micha 244

Portulaca oleracea vai

238

1 1,

IO3

i7i

Qjll

238

Queen's Delight 267

Queen's Root 267
I

Soland

03, 172

08

no,

03,

Roem. 249
I

11,1

Qjiassia

I"

I.

136,

tandicans

Rouleau 244

Portulaca oleracea

127.

123,

Queen-Annt -Lact Daunts carota

Queen ol the Meadow 188. 190
Queen ol the Night ,, ertus grandiflorus

123.233

I.

11

omniums

101

122,

120,

inea
J
I'loU II 99,

(till lllll

I'vius

120.

Pigeonberr) 237
k iniii.il 1. -,-,
Pig

39, 83.

111-

Pusle) 'a Portulaca oh racea

Portutaca lutea

Pyracantha

Populus Iremuloides
port

-1.

245

An 244

iimnhiiii

Populus trtmula

Papoose Root 168

Papi ika

SW

Papaoet \omniferum
1

I.

Populus

I'm

244

I.

Populus fileadensis

K.iim

Pap*

in

249

in-

Purple Boneset >" Eupatorium purpureum

I'm pie ( onellowei 184

Populus balsamifera vai

Physostigma venenosum Balfoui 237

68. 82. 83

11

243

I.
>

Populus balsamifera

280

233

I.

Viola tricolm

dubium

allii

Phyaii

Nees 233

ichinseng

233

237

I.

=^

I'm pie Basil 30

I'm pie Bergamot 22")

Populus alba 101

alkekengi

satis

220
Pui ging Ag.u
191

frutu

'

249

136,

Schrank.

Puniia granatum L. 249

Punica granatum var. nana Pers

Punk

Popp) 15,25,35
87.88.91. 109,

237

|llllls,llls

Pumpkin

243

I.

H eatherglass 151
Pool \l
Poplai IOI, 244
Poplai Budi 244

mi

officinalis L.

Pulsatilla alpina

Pomegranate 249
Pond I. il\ 68. 228

Phu 277

Palm. ( 'hriiti
Palmetto 69, 263

lnna\ ion

223

ass

'i

<

iae

.11

Pulmonaria

Polypod) 244
Pol) pod) Rom 244

Phragmile\ communis

Paiglc 246
I

Bernh

95

-'vi

242
puliol ro) ale 223
Pulmonaria 22

amara

DC. Buckheim 248

Buckheim 248

DC:.

dulcis

nilia hit ula

Puccoon
Pudding

Polypodium vulgari

Pl.ini

ticolot

Polygala vulgaris L. 243

um Hollm

sain

Ox-eye 144
Oystei

ala

107. 108.

Psyllium 60, (17. 242

Pteridophyta ;s

Pol) gala
/'

Schubl. and

Pseudocyphellaria thouarsii 100

Polygala tenega

L.

Prunus virginiana 61

caeruleum var. himalayanum B.ikei

Schubl. and

terotina 61

I'liiiius

Pulii

Polianthes tuberosa

polugalon

236

Oswego

Pale

236

36,

L.

248

Prunus dulcis var.

343
/ emonium caeruleum vai lacteum Benth

Pelroselinum crispum vai

hi;. 105, 106,

Ludu.

Prunus laurocerasus L. 248

Pumas persica 108

nuni caeruleum

,m

230

Focke

C.

F.

Webb

D. A.

Mill.

dulcis

oil.

Prunus dulcis war. amara

Oak 273

polemonion

b 235

36, 230. 231

207

&

oulgart

,"

Pi

1 (li

hybridm

Poke R0..1 69, 237

Poke w I'd 237
Polll .11 \\ IC<\ 269

p. troselinoi

in Rli.il.un

Its

oreoselinum
Organ) Origanum
um majorana I.
Origanum 01
Orris 68,

1.

DC.

Martens 248

273

v \

sativa

Primus avium var. Juliana

Clarke 243
160

j2,

Martens 248

I.
242
Blanco Benth. 242
Pogostetnon comosus Miq. .'4.'
Pogoslemon hcyeanui Benth 242
I'lignstcmon patchouli Pellet 1)7. 106, 242

Poison

247

Prunus avium L. 248

Prunus avium var. duiacina

Plantain 66, 67. 68. 69, 105, 168. 241

Poison

205

Prune 67

Prunus cerasus L. 248

174

Pei u\ ian Pol) pod)

verticillata

Prunus

Poison
lag let Ins mi
Poison lb inli k k 178

233

(.
1

91, 241

var. hleynii

veils

Plantago psyllium L. 242

Rom

246

L. 61. 89.

Hon. 247
Primula vulgaris Huds. 247
Prince's Feather see Amaranlhus hypochonPrimula

Focke 248

lemon cablin

8<>.

mis

Hill 247

Hance 247

Primus amygdalus var.

Plumeria rubPodophyllum 60. 242

Podophyllum pel latum

L.

elatior

Primula obcomca

Primula

Plantago major var. asiatica Decne. 241

Plantago ovata Forskal 242

Pleuris)

106,
1

Primula

lent isc us L. 27,1

Plectranthus patchouli

232

( )i

122,123,

71. 72. 82. 83.

107. 108.

Ophit>glo*\um vulgatum
(

111.

'<'>

Peon) 10,
Pepper 18.

148

2.

234
Pellitorv of the Wall 234
Pemcillium 32
Pennyroyal 7, 69, 76, 9;
27,
36, 223
Pennywort
Pensee 281
Pensee Sain age 281

230

18

120.

Penlaglollis sempi

Olea europaea var. oleastm IX

Oli urn Wittncbianum 221

248

Plantago mdica L. 242

Plantago lanceolata I. 105, 241. 242
Plantago major L. 168. 241

rirginieus

Prickh Lettuce 6
2 10
Primrose 76. 129. 247
Primula 42

Prunus amygdalus Batsch. 248

Primus amygdalus var. amara

Plantago 60

15.

Prickly Ash 283

PiunJIa vulgaris var. leucantha Schur. 247

Prunella vulgaris var. rubrifolia Beckhaus. 247
Primus 123

Piper ribesioides 24

Okra 68
Old \I.iu tee Artemisia abrottaum
Old Man's Beard >" Chiotumthui

Haenke Zenari 240

Piper mollissimum 241

Pelargonium graveolens L'Herit. 96. 97. 106.

23

230

120. 123, 136.

Pi urns verticillatus

Piper nigrum L. 241

Marjoram

Pot

Prunella vulgaris L.

Piper muncalum 24

Pelargonium radens 235

Oamum minimum
Oamum fOJlCtum

24

crassipc.s

Rausch. 246

L.

Poterium sanguisorba L. 89. 36. 246

Pot Marigold see Calendula officinalis

driacus

240

12. 156.

Pelargonium capilalum 235

Pelargonium crispum 95

Pellitory

ansenna L. 245

Prinos r //

Piper cubeba L. 241

Oamum

10",

60

Potcntilla

Pimienta de Chapa 239

Pimienta de Tabasco 239
Pimpernel 151, 279
Pimpmella anisum L. 88. 95, 102. 106. 239
Pimpinella sacifraga L. 240
pinang 156
Pine 33. 83. 97. 101. 104. 240
Pineapple 101. 108
Piney see Paeonia officinalis
Pink 76. 90. 95. 96. 115, 116. 120. 123. 128.
134, 183. 266
Pink Root 266

Piper

250

101.

235

104.

Potentilla

Potentilla erecta

piper agreste 282

Pelargonium odoralissimum 235

Pelargonium quercijolium 95

basilicum L. 75. 98.

239

239

90.

Piper belle

Oats 68. 69. tot. 107. 108. 161

Obedience Plant set Maranta arundinacea
229

96. 102.

Lindl. 239

Pinus 97. 101. 104

Pinus mugo var. pumilio

peganon 257
Pelargonium 235

\ymphaea alba var. rubra Lonnr. 228

Xymphaea odorala Aix 228

0.5.

Peas 37. 82. 83

Oak

Merr.

L.

officinalis

Pimento

10

pin-lang 56
pinones de Maluco 180

Pea Mint 224

Peanut 108. 109. 154
Pear 82. 83. 108
Pedunculate

228

L.

Possumhaw Viburnum 280

Pilocarpus jaborandi 63

Pilocarpus microphallus

DC

245

(juilll

Quinine

L e blei n
1, 250
i

1 1

fastigiata

150

101

aponaria 109

Mil
,

m, bona

o/fii itialis

3<

Quinine Tree 174

120. 121, 122, 123. 126, 127.

Rosmarinus

radicula 25

102.

101,

Radish 250

officinalis

104.

109.

Ragwort 262

Rampion

Round-leaved Mint 224

129

ficaria L. 250
Raphanus raphamstrum L. 250
Raphanus rusticanus 157
Raphanus satioul L. 250

Ranunculus

Raspberry 66. 68. 69.

255
Rats and Mice 181

75. 76. 89. 127. 128.

Rat-tail Plantain 241

Rauiolfia serpentina 57. 63
Rauiolfia tomitoria 63

Bergamot 225
Bryony 163
Bush Tea 160

Cockscomb
Cole

set

Cow

Ba-.il

F.lm 276

Korean Ginseng 232

Red-lea\ed Sage 258
Red Pepper 84
Red Pimpernel set Anagallii

Scabwort 103. 206

Scarlet Pimpernel 151
Scarlet-seeded

256

Tea 150
Schlusselblumen 247
-cilia 276
Scorzonera 273

'// 95, 101,

;.

H ilk

en

variegata 277

Lavender

Si

,1

I.d\ ay.

Si

.1

Sabal 263

Sea Squill 52
seaweeds j
32

Rheum rhabtnbtiium

89,

I.

|>i.

60, 67, 82, 8

11-

(8.

l>t>.

28.
I

rixus 230

S.iKifis dev pre-. 27

Rocket-salad 186
Rock Parsley ol Alexandria 265

>

Rosa tglanteria L. 253

Rosa tglanteria v Duplex 254
ftcta tallica 95, 107
/?ia gallica officinalis 120
.

Borrer ex Sm. 25
rubiginosa agg. 253

/?oja micrantha

53

Thunb.

95,

254

8.,. 91, 95,

'96, 97. 98. 102, in-,. 107. 108. 109. 112.
113. 120. 122. 123.253.254
(

Rose-bay willow hei b 7",

Rom- Geranium 76. 96,

102,

7.

106,

235

V' 2

104,

81).

109.

73,

89, 91, 95, 96, '17.

10. in, 113. 116.

76,

74,

101,
1

19.

Oak

104. to6, 107.

Seville

Orange 175
111.
21,

258

259
L. 258

10,

Starchwon

shunis

Statue Armeria L. 156

2 14

Sanicle 66. 68. 69

Santalum album 95, 98. 102. 104. 106. 113
Santolina 95. 120. 123. 124. 126, 127
Santolma chamaecypanssus L. 95, 99, 38. 259

Silybum

Sapaharia 260
L.

officinalis

7.

61.

113.

138.

109,

L.

.1

Wimmer

ex

Koch

260

scoparius var. Andreanus

273

Nutt.

Stillingia syluatica

;;

260

Stinking

Horehound 162

Sinapis atvensil L. 264

Stinking

Iris

Singer's Plant 264

Stipa tinacissima 101

Gaertn. 263

L.

Simsim 263
264

Sisymbrium

officinale

L.

Slippery
Sloe 280

Elm

67. 68,

206

<te

Miliaria media

Stock o^
sioechas arabica 2 2
Stonecrop 262
Storax 95
Strawberry 35, 75, 76. 107. 108. 127. 191
Strawberry Tree 155
Struthion 260
1

Smallage 154. 236

Small-Leaved European

Small-Leaved Lime 272

Small Nettle 77
.

Hellebo;

Stitchwort

Scop. 264

276

cor data

Nees 260

Gard. 267

Benjamin 274
Gladdon 206

Sinapis alba L.

138.

Nettie 276

Stinging
Stinking
Stinking
Stinking

mananum

^2. 8i|.

Stavesacre 103. 183

Stellana media L. Vill. 128. 267
Stemless Thistle =,u
Sm klewort 146

Six-rowed Barlev 202

Skunk Cabbage 269

Sarmentum indicum 263

scoparius

L Trevisan
266
Stall Vine set t elasln
_inish 280
Horn Moss 216
Star Anise 206

Maple

184

Slachys officinalis

23, 148

Shepherd'- Purse 166

Short Buchu 145
Shovelweed 166

Silver

243. 260

Cucumber

Siberian Ginseng
Sicklewort 247
Silver Birch 162

102. 104. 106. 113

2 76

-,2-

Squirting

Shave Grass 186

257
138.

Shamrock

Squill

101, 250

Silverweed 245
<il\ bon 263

Sassefrii

Squaw root 274

Squaw Weed 262

2h<\

Sessile

Shallot 85.

Sassafras albidum

263
88. 263

15, 83. 88. 91,

tm mdicum L.

Sarsaparilla 68. 261, 264

Sassafras 260. 261

102,

Serpentaria 24 \
Serpentaria rubra 24
Serpentar\ 156

Sesame

Roselle 201
68,

Small 263
Michx. Hook 203

Bartr.

Sanguisorba minoi 246

Sanguisorba officinalis L. 246

58. 93, 196,

tea

167

a serrulata

257

23.

inlei lona 251

ulmana
Spotted Cranesbill set (uranium maculatum
Spring Adonis 144
Spring Onion q
Spruie 33, 238
Spurge Olive 182
Squash 10

Spinus

Serenoa repens

Sarothamnm

42.

Silver Fir 142

Saponaria

262
262

I.

Sangumaria canadensis L. 61. 138. 259

Sanguinaria canadensis cv. multiplex 2311

Sarothamnm
<

lis

Serpvllum 272

rove hips 73, 86, 9

78. 81, 83,

Senna

Rosa wichuraiana Crep. 234

Rose 67, 69, 75, 7
83, 86, 88.

Spinai h 66, 67, 78. 82. 83

Spindli Iih /- 187

in, 258. 259

Samphire 179. 257
Sandalwood 05. 08.

13

20

Hurt

Sambucus ebului
Sambucus nigra L. 89. 95. too. 104. 107.

linearis

Rosa 75, 88. 89, 08. 102, 105,

Rosa canina L. 253
Rosa damascena 95

tectorum 52

Sesamun

a sclarea L.

Rooibosch 160
Rooitea see Aspalathus

UWIH

Semperinum

&

IO, III, 138.

Sambucus

Nettle 277

39,

27.

257

.S/;; officinalis L. 74. 88. 95,

Fennel 191

Rosemary

Saltwort 257
Salvia 258
I

a marilandica L. 266
Spiked Loosestrife 217
Spike Lavender q6. q8. 105
Spina cervatis 25
Spina Ccrvina 251

Heal 121, 247

273

Salsola soda L.

Rock Samphire 179

Roman Chamomile 134. 220
Roman Common Chamomile 170

/c&sa rugosa

Salsola Kali

I.

1.

265

Parill.i

Salsify 2

|6

143. 186

/foia rubtginosa

Salsa

I.

Sperat;

262

Semsem 263

uto turopaea agg.

Sahx 10!

/cVmo

Salicornia herbacea

204
Si Mary's rhistle set Silybum mariattum
ih. 246
Salad Burnet 7b. 83. go, 120,

76

15, 121

Semsemi

nigrum L. 252
communis L. 60, 104, 253
River Tea Tree r Melaleuca leucadendron

Roman
Roman

122,

257

Ricinti)

-/.

ee 282

/ctoej

Rocket

M-lba 258

John's Herb 159

Wort Hypericum perforatum

toxicodendron L. 275

Rock Celer\

20.

acre L.

cereale L. tot.

S.dum
Srdum

177. 179

34. 179

iit>.

38. 2411.

1,

117. t)8. t>(,. 73, 74, 75, -U.

86, 88, 91. 95. 104. lot). 107.

8-,.

III,

10,

100,

255. 252

I",.",.

Rhus radicans L. 27

Mm

101

St John's

18. 42.

Ill, 120,

JO,

71, 76, 83. 91,

5,

79, 83.

St

Rhododendron 100

Rhubarb

S.itlion

Sage
-'",.'

Sa-fa-lang 180

'ticum

)nion 276

66. 95, 120. 122. 158

Sowberry 162
Sow
at Strawberry see Fragaria
Spanish Buglo" 147
Spanish ( Ihestnui 168
Spanish Lavender 212
Spanish Psv Ilium set Plantago psyllium
Spanish Si orzonera
Sparrow ( rrass 161
Spearmint 69, 23. 224
dwell 279
I

KM

'

/ igk

..

Sea Parsley 214

Sea Pmk 156

Sai red Bark 251

Southernwood

j6

Ryegrass 274

Sabatia angularu

Southern Pricklv A-h 283

Sea Island Cotton 198

R, seda lulea

101,

Saffron

261

I.

Inngium marilimum

Holm

R\e

Maxim

266
266

Sour Cherrv 248

Sour Dock set Rumex acetosa
Sour Orange i Citrus aurantium var. amara
Southern Black Haw 280
hern Maidenhair set Adiantum capillus

93

hulana nodosa

Sea

diiaruiilti

Ru-.li

vulgaris

l.iguslicum scoticum

see

Scullcap 68. 69
Si \ thian Lambc \2
Sc \ thian Root 198
Sea Fennel 179
Sea Hollv 187

\2

Lovage

Scouring

Lycopodium elaiatum

set

Rutu

I.

DC

Solidago nrgaurea L.

Siottish

256
256
obtusifolius I. 256
scutatus L 231. 255, 256

Kim

var. tangulicum

Solidago microglossa

crispui L. 89,

Sc.i

-'.V-'

Solalrum mortale 161

alpinus L.

Red Valerian 169

Rhtum palmatum

Soft

Son-before-lather 275

Ruta graieolens var.

Socotrine Aloe 149

Hemp see Cannabis satna
Solanum dulcamara L. 265
Solanum sommferum 161

Iris set Iria Joetidissima

Sorrel 38. 76. 78. 83. 91, Q3. 120. 122. 123.
127, 231. 255. 256

Red-spurred Valerian 169

Red Squill 276

Rhamnui cathartictu I. 192, 251

Rhamnus frangula 60
Rhamnus puishiana DC. 60, i<2, 251
Rhamnus solutions 25]
rheon
Rhtum 60
Rheum officinale Bail). 93, m, 252
Rheum palmatum I. 93, 252
Rheum patmalum var palmalum I. Maxim

120. 138.

Scotch Broom 260

Scotch Heather see Calluna

I.

Russian Dandelion 270

Russian Tarragon 132. 158
Rula graieolens L. 136. 256

ea 201

in).

Scorzonera hispanica L. 273

255

0,3.

I.

acelosella

Ruscus aeulealus L. 256

Rush

260

Schloss

256

Running Pine
fli

Snowdrop.Tree 171
Snow flake see Lamium album
Soapbark 109
Soapwort 7. 61. 67. 93. <y.i.

268

Scabious 268

2^=,

bistorta

Snowdrop 193

69. 263
Pimpinella saxijraga

see

Scabiosa succisa L.

39. 66. 67. 6q. 120. 122. 123. 126. 127.

Red Puccoon 259

Red Robin 197
Red Sage 68. 258

Saxifrage

Snake's Rhubarb 155

Snakeweed see Polygonum

Snowball Tree 280

Saw Palmetto

Rue

acetosa

120. 122. 123. 127. 138. 261

19.

ruchetta 186

Rumex
Rumex
Rumex
Rumex
Rumex
Rumex

169

68. 69. 76. 83. 85. 86. 88. 91, io 5

Scented-leaved Geranium*
Schin-seng 232

Rumex

Armoracia rusticana

Smyrnion 265
Smyrmum olusatrum L. 95. 265
Smyrmum perjoliatum L. 265
Snake Root 61. 156. 159. 173. 214. 243

Satureja montana L. 105. 138. 261

Savon

Ruizia fragrans Pa von 236

151

Smilax ornata Hook.f. 261. 264

Satureja hortensis L. 261

258
Savin 209
Savin Tops 209

Rubia peregrina L. 254

Rubia tmctorum L. 100. 254
Rubus 104
Rubus jructicosus agg. 255
Rubus idaeus L. 60. 89. 255
Rubus occidentals L. 255
Rubus ulmijolius Schott 255
Rubus ursinus Cham and Schlechtend

138.

Clover 274

Satureia hortensis 88. 261

saulje

254
Rosmarinus prostratus Hort. 254
Round Buchu 145
Round Cardamom 283

radix 25
radix dulcis 198

Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red
Red

136.254

74. 89, 9^. 96. 97.

1 to.
in, 113. 136.

Lime

set

Tilia

Sirxehnon 161
Slrychni's niis-romica 51

Thymus
Thymus
Thymus

Strsgium 161

Tiglio 273

Vegetable Oyster 273

Vegetable Sulphur 216
Venus Hair 143
Veratrum 20
Veralrum album L. 103, 278

Sudanese Tea 201

Tilia 63, 273

Veratrum eschscholtzii A.

Summer Savon

Tilia

amencana L. 273
Tilia cordata Mill. 272
Tilia x europaea L. 57. 104. 106. 107. 110.

Veralrum nigrum L. 278

Veratrum uride Ait. 278

Dryander

benzoin

Stjrrax

106.

95. 96. 98.

267

107, 108, 109.

Moench. 268

Succisa pratensis

69. iuj, 119. 120. 123. 127.

261

Sundew 67
Sunflower 83. 108. 110. 120. 134. 200
Surinam Quassia 238
Swamp Cypress 38, /jo
Swedish Myrtle see Myrtus communis
Sweet Almond see Prunus dulcis
Sweet Basil 229
Sweet Bav 211
Sweet Briar 253
Sweet Cherrv 248
Sweet Chestnut 144. 168
Sweet Cicely 76. 83. 90. 120. 122. 123. 127.
36. 227
Sweet Clover 221
Sweet False Chamomile see Matricaria

Verbena
Verbena

Tobacco

vermicularis 262

102, 103. 113. 215

108

230

Roman

Sweet-scented

Geranium

Toxicodendron toxicaria

Salisb.

38. 281

\\mphaea alba

let

Hemp

08.

Symphytum
268

89. 95, 96, 97-

112. 113,

88.

269

nnacelum vulgart

lum
l.lll-s

I tnnera

IOO,

lulgan sar

crilpum

taragonii

76

J'.

95

'1!

.1

Taraxacum
1

oo,

"Hi. 122. 127.

/'/

King 270

Willd.

122.

191,

270

Webei

15

60, 89.

,7

aphrndisiaca

var.

Bo,

123.

'<',

86 91,
19,
$2. 158 159
1

127.

atmanian Blm Gum 187

ilium Hutu hum 38
/

I
/
I

.'/.

89.

1112.

138.

276

H.iki

I.

,2.

6|,

276

89.

101,

H'l-

In).

109. IMP.

I r lira
I.

is

>H

Pi

271

I
I

Hi

cacae

I.

09, 271

hi

hoi

horoughwon 188

hrifi

1(17

Appli

11

'/I

176.

263

182

(2.

156

193

272
tnlira 272
-hi 16 66
n

iti\
1

78.

8...

i"|
1

(.

73, 7

'

127

melaea 182

ih\

mum
ui

Si

1.
j

1,0.

19,

|3f,

272

mum

cilriodom
A-

Korn

I.

Pei

Schreb

277

illillnna irltu

ah liana

iln,n a I.

277
277

Valeriana

officinali

I.

122.

11

I.

I.

63,

\.i\

w
W
W

169.277

[8,

203
Hydi

hi* asialica

279

Andrews 95,

\\

Melaleuca leucaJenaron

Vanilla 278

nili. hi

heal in.
lnii

mi,

Bisons

io8.

09,

inn

>,.

278

102. 106, 113.

\\

Inn

\\

hiu
Inn

\\

\\

-Man

s-iooi

278

Ycss 33

Ylang-Ylang

Planlago majot

Si|iiill

White Swe<

223
68 228

276
(

m./,

96, 106

,~aiitliu\\lum

americanum Mill. 283

lliiilills

I.

283

65

Zarza-Parrilla 26

141
in in

I. .Is

103.

officinalis

An zapai ills

102.

20. 132. 143. 2 V)

127.219

Mustard 264
'

lnii

\et

.~anlli

hiu Pi |i|h
Inn Peppei

lloss Alder 275

Yellow Bedstravi set Galium verum
Yellow Dot k 67, 256
Yellow Flag 190
Yellow Foxglove 57
Yellow Gentian 196
Yellow Ginseng 168
Yellow Jasmine Root 195
Yellow Jessamine 195
Yellow Lady's Slipper 181
Yellow Portulai a 245

Meliloi 221

White Pond

10,

Yellow Purslane 245

Yellow Stonei rop 262
Yellow Sweel ('loser 221
Yei da Matt 77. 205

roosefooi 171

in

103, 163

\\

li"

',8

White Hellebore 03, 20

\\ lnii Hon hound 66 6
\\ Inn Mallow '( Althaea

277

214
anil a pnmpima 278
\ ariegated Sage 258
Varnish
ree 146

'

247

Vaw-rool 267

251

143.

Y(

Myrtle 226
ad 241
as broad 19
l"ea

158

-,9

107,

222

Won

66. 68. 69. 83. 88. 91, 103, 120,

20.

108

Pirn pei in

228

36,

32.

Yarross 67. 68, 76. 83. 91,

White Dead-Nettle 210

103

Viih minella laeusta 138

Vanilla 83. 88. 91, 95, 10a, 106,

138. 271

Wermul

277

138. 169. 181. 243.

278
272

\\ .hi

\\ as llinl n

m)rlilliis

\ anilla Pl.nn

tapilalus l.k

Mini

\\

Vanilla planifolia

272

heigg

277
155

Valeriana ruhn 169

Valmana 11 allaihn 63

86 88,91, 95.97
16,

138, 271.

ili\

-1.

;;-,
",

\\ .in

76. 83. 91

75

\\ a\ lni

urens

ursi

Valeriana i>hu

83 K,

I"',

277

Valerian i\ 63 68 69, 103, 120. 128. 129.

.",

.111

Weeping

rakrion 27

nm

I.

271

1-11,1 111 111

208.

112.

\\ .i\

I'rtica piluli/na

etterwon 259
nm hnmatili
'in ehamaedn

\\

Xanthoxylum americanum 283

73

Wata Pennywort
L

III.

188

I.iK 38,

Chenopodium ambrimmdis s.n

Wrai k 103
Wurstkraul 230

Vain

Hemp
\lrliill

19

tee

Woundwort

228

(i).

mi

42

dunta

66 68

11

Wati
Watei
1

11I1

IO3,

192,

276

.1

11

69. 73. 76. 91. 96. 161

anthelminticum

Wormwood

in 66
'17.
1112.
209
an AgiiniiiMN 163

Lonicera periclymenum

Sorrel 231

Wormseed

\\

11

Woodbine see
Woodruff 68.

W oods

Alba W'csin. 282

allwnri MS Sambucus rhulus

1

Tree 253
Avens 197
Betony 38

Strawberrs 191
Nightshade 265
Woolls Foxglove .57
W 01 in ( .r.iss 266

282

52,

1.

\\

officinalis

mantimn

rgiiua

Ireine

-Rnhlli 27

\\ ,iki

275

11

mhiluaiia

agnus-caslus

Wallflowei g

lmu\ iampcstrn 60
Imus fuli
M11 ti

Trtliei

268
I

ilex

Wood
Wood
Wood
Wood

Wall Germander 121. 138. 271

Wall-peppei 262

nip Rooted Parale) 236

1111I1 -head 171

'ngulwa

Wiesb.

Wonder

Waldmeisler Tea 161

.'7",

M11I1I1

>

Vogelmien

ui

llmus rubra

Witch Grass see Agropyron repent

Witch Hazel 66. 199
Woad mi. 120. 126. 127.208
Wolfsbane 143

album L. 7/. 35. 57. 102. 273. 282

album L. ssp. abnti
Wiesb. Abrom.

lilix agnus-castiis \,ir.

127, 138, 261

22.

Vollm 282

82. 83

7 ussilagn /ar/ara I.
I win h Crass 146
/

Rodm

270

).

ragon 66

I20,

sr urn

\\ .in

officinali

03,

.'7"

)(

napellus

59

Taraktogenoi kurgit

:n

269

(8.

282

Urb 275
I.

282

Viscum album ssp. album L. 282

1'iwium album L. ssp. austriaeum

(usilago 27',

Taraxacum kok-sagkyt

IV 269

(8. 2

Turnip

269

I.

consolida

Winter Cherry see Physalis alkekengi

Wintergreen 63, 66. 195
Winter Savor) 68. 85. 105. 120. 122. 123.

Murr. 281

Viper's Bugloss 184

Virginia Bugle Weed 217
Virginia Snakeroot 156

Whitethorn 179
White Walnut 208
White Water Lily 228
Whortleberrv 277
Wild Artichoke 263
Wild Bergamot 225
Wild Carrot 57, 182
Wild Celery 154. 265
Wild Chamomile 220
Wild Charlock 250. 264
Wild Cherry 61. 248
Wild Clematis 35
Wild Delphinium see Delphinium
Wild Fennel 191
Wild Geranium 196
Wild Ginger 159
Wild Iris see Iris versicolor
Wild Laburnum 221
Wild Lettuce 61. 210
Wild Madder 254
Wild Marjoram 91. 120. 231
Wild Nard 160
Wild Pansy 281
Wild Parsnip 235
Wild Pepper 282
Wild Purslane 245
Wild Radish 250
Wild Strawberrs 76, 191
Wild Succory 173
Wild Tanss 245
Wild Thyme 138. 272
Wild Yarn 59
Willow 67. 101
Windflosser 152
Winterberrv 205

281

123. 128. 129. 138. 193. 281

-,.

diffusa

Ward

<fi

7(

1'iirum

I urnera ulmi/olia

12

(,i

amu mmmunis

turmcrackc 180
Turmrrii
83. 91. 111. 180
Turmem hizome 180
Turmerii Rum 180
Turnera 67 68. (19. 275

officinalis

09.

|\

Tailed Pepper 241

ralewon
Baraga

Merr & Perry

I.

int).

<|8.

61.269

Null

I.

280
280

purpurea 281

viola

Quercus robur

see

Tunhool k, 7
TurkcMan Rum 254
Turkey Rhubarb 252
Turk
\11n1tum

Simplorarpus fncttdus

DC

sterile

Viola x uittrockiana ssp. tricolor

Tuberose

lyriacan 251
urn arumatiium

opulus var.

Viola odorata L. 61, 95, 102. 138.

t (.annabis satna

Oak

Truffle

}8.

opulus var. roseum L.

Violet 67. 76. 83, 91. 95. 102. 115, 121.

Syi a

262

flore flavo

prumfolium L 280
rufidulum Raf. 280
Vmca major L. 138. 281
Vmca minor L. 281
Vinca peruinca 281
viola blaucia 281

Tropaeolum ma)us L. 275

89. 101. 108. mi,.

279

triphyllon 274
Trilicum ulgare 101.

True

officinale L.

o.

Viola tricolor L. ssp. arvensii

Weed

Woodruff 93, 161

more 102
Ssmphoniaca 203

Trillium erectum L. 274

Trillium pendulum 2 7 5

150
William 96

Vervain 68. 69. 76. 91. 279

Vetch 35
vettonica 266
Viburnum 280
Viburnum nudum L. 280
Viburnum opulus L. 280
Viburnum
Viburnum
Viburnum
Viburnum

143

Water Lih

Tangles

273

Tnjolium pratense L. 103, 13. 274

Tngonella Joenum-graecum L. 274

Viburnum 280

Tamarind

Gillis

Trailing Arbutus 185

Trce-of-Heaven 146

graieolens

04.

Veromcastrum virginicum Farwell 280

Tormentil Potentilla erecta 67. 68. 246

Tormentilla 246
Touch and Heal 247
Toute-venue 262
Toxicodendron radicans L
O. Kuntze 273

Pelargonium

see

279
Veronica officinalis L. 279
Veronica virginica L. 280

Tree Onion 132. 148

Trefoil 224
Tricolor Sage 258

166
Fennel 191

73,

L. 95. 96.

Veronica beccabunga L.

Tragacanth 98

120. 127. 136.

91. 95. 96. 104. 110. 120. 127. 149

officinalis

Vermicularis

Tonquin Bean 106

Toothache Tree 283
Top Onion 132

66. 67. 68. 95.

Gray 278

Verbascum 119, 127

Verbascum phlomoides L. 278
Verbascum thapsiforme Schrad. 278
Verbascum thapsus L. 7, 61. 138. 278

Tinnevelly Senna 167

Laurel 21

273

Tragopogon porrijolius L. 264. 273

Tragopogon pratensis L. 273

Marjoram 105.
Orange 75

Violei

Tilia x vulgaris 95. 104. 106. 107. 110

Tilleul 273

Gale 226

Sweet
Sweel
Sweet
Sweel
Sweel
Sweel

102.

272

Tomato 82. 83. 107.

Tonka Bean 102

97. 98. 102. 132. 143

Sued Sedge

vulgaris L. 74. 75. 88. 95. 97.

Tilia platyphyllos Scop.

recutita

Pea 95
Pepper

272

38.

273

Sweet
Sweet
Sweet
Sweet
Sweet
Sweel
Sweel

serpyllum L.

104, 105, 271,

Succory 173

Sweet Fennel 191

Sweet Flag Acorus calamus

pulegioides L. 271

Ins ei

221

ea mays 101 105, lod. 107. 109

Zedoary 181
Zingibei ii 283
^ingibei officinali Roscoe 88, 89, 283
.

:}<>a

Library; 151

Acknowledgments

APPaterson;

(left)

right

151

AP

Paterson; 152 centre A P Paterson; 152 right

Pat Brindley; 153 left Pat Brindley: 154 left
Pat Brindley: 154 (right A P Paterson: 155 left
P2/IGDA; 155 (centre A P Paterson: 155 right
A P Paterson; 156 (left) P2/IGDA; 156 centre
A P Paterson; 157 centre A P Paterson; 157
Bavestrelli; 158 left A P Paterson;
right
(

We

Mark

are grateful to

Day

Constantine, Ivan

and Ian Tribe for their kind assistance, and to

Michael Stringer and Roberto Campagna for the

drawings on pages 142-283.

We

are grateful to the following for the pictures

on the following pages: 6-7

Iris

11 A-Z Collection
13 Wellcome
Snark International: 15 Mansell
Collection; 16 (topi Mary Evans Picture
Library; 16 below left) Mary Evans Picture
Library; 16 (below right) Mary Evans Picture
Library; 17 Ronald Sheridan; 18 top Bodleian
Library; 18 (below) Mary Evans Picture
Library; 19 Snark International; 20 (top
Mansell Collection; 20 'bottom) Prague

International:

_>

Institute; 14

National Library Dagli Orti; 21 IGDA; 22

Bodleian Library; 23 (below left Radio
Times Hulton; 23 (right Mary Evans
Picture Librarv: 24 Ann Ronan Picture Library
24 25 Iris Hardwick Library 26 IGDA;
27 Ronald Sheridan; 28 Bruce Coleman
Stephen Dalton; 30 (top left) C Bevilacqua;
30 top right) C Bevilacqua ; 30 [Harry
Smith Collection; 37 A Z Collection; 38 Heather
Angel: 39 Heather Angel; 41 Dr S F
Buczacki; 42 Gene Cox; 43 Paul Brierley Orbis;
44 Paul Brierley /Orbis; 45 (top left Paul
Brierlev Orbis; 45 (top right Paul Brierlev
:

46-47 Michael Holford; 48 (top Pal Brindley

48 (below Snark International; (<) Mary Evans
Man
Picture Library 50 Ronald Sheridan:
Evans Picture Library; 52 Iris Hardwick
Librarv: 53 (top) RJ Corbin; 53 below
Pat Brindley; 54 Gene Cox: 55 IGDA; 57 IGD \
i); A P Paterson; (14 Mike Leale/Orbis; 66 Iris
:

-,

71 Mike Leale/Orbis;
Mansell Collection; 72 right
Mansell Collection; 73 Leslie Johns; 71 Zefa;
75 Syndication International; 77 Ann Ronan
Picture Librarv; 78 IGDA; 7c) IGDA ; 80 Orbis
81 IGDA; 85 left IGDA; 85 right A P
Paterson; 86 Bernard Allien: 87 IGDA; 88
right Mansell
(left) Mansell Collection; 88
Collection; 89 Brian Eurner; 92 93 Orbis; 9
left
A P Paterson 94 oilier 4 National
Museum of Wales; 96 Angelo Hornak; 97 Leslie
Johns and Associates 98 3 Leslie Johns and
Associates; 99 top) Mansell Collection 99
bottom; Ann and Bury Peerless; tot Michael

Hardwick Library 70
;

72

Bavestrelli; 159 left A P

158 centre
Paterson; 159 (centre A P Paterson; 159 right
Ba\estrelli: 160 left topi A P Paterson; 160
A P Paterson; 160 centre A P
left bottom
Paterson; 161 left APPaterson; 161 centre
A P Paterson; 161 right A P Paterson; 162

Hardwick

Library; 8 topi IGDA; 8 bottom!

Bodleian Library; 9 IGDA; 10 Snark

left

top A P Paterson; 162 (left bottom A P

Paterson; 162 centre C Bevilacqua; 162 right
P2/IGDA; 163 left A P Paterson; 163 centre
left

A P
A P

G E

Hyde: 164

left top
Pat Brindley:
1(34
right APPaterson: 165 centre
Paterson; 165 right A P Paterson; 166 left
A P Paterson; 166 centre A P Paterson: 167
Bavestrelli; 167 centre A P Paterson:
left

Paterson; 163
Paterson; 164

right
left

bottom

AP

168

A P

left

Paterson: 169

AP

top
P Paterson;

left

ltnj
Paterson; 169 (left bottom A
centre A P Paterson; 70 G E Hyde: 171 left
A P Paterson; 171 centre A P Paterson: 171
right A P Paterson: 172 Pat Brindley; 173 left
APPaterson; 173 centre APPaterson: 174
1

P.>

IGDA;

left

[75

right

Bavestrelli; 175

A P Paterson; 7b left A P Paterson: ;t> centre

A P Paterson: 176 right IGDA; 1 77 left IGDA;
177 right A P Paterson; 178 centre A P
Paterson; 78 right APPaterson: 17c) left
A P Paterson; 17c) centre \ P Paterson; 179
right A P Paterson; 181 centre Harry Smith
Collection; 181 (right A P Paterson; 182 (centre
A P Paterson: 182 right top P2 IGDA: 182
right bottom A P Paterson; 183 left and right
A P Paterson; 18) left A P Paterson; i8j centre
A P Paterson; 185 left P2 IGDA; 185 right top
A P Paterson; 185 right bottom A P Paterson:
186 left APPaterson; 186 centre APPaterson:
187 left APPaterson; 187 centre IGDA; 187
right G I. Hyde; 188 A P Paterson: l8e, A P
Paterson; C)o A P Paterson ten centre Pat
Brindley; 191 right Dr Derek Reid; ic|2 left
H Veillcr: 192 right Iris Hardwick Library;
1

193

Giorgio Negri

centre-

Johns and Associates; i<m

ie)4

centre

ie)6

right

right

193

Leslie

APPaterson;
96 (left APPaterson:

left

APPaterson;
Hardwick Library;
1

Iris

197

right top

P Paterson; 197 right bottom A P Paterson;

198 left A P Paterson; 198 centre APPaterson:

Holford: 102 IGDA; 104 A P Paterson: 10;, A P

Paterson; 106 P2 IGDA; 107 centre Syndication
International: 107

right

IGDA;

108

Roger- Yiollet; 114-5 Leslie Johns and

20-1 21 Brian Furner; 121 A

Collection; 125 Ronald Sheridan; 127 both
Orbis; 128 left NRVS; 128 centre ICI Ltd:
129 Iris Hardwick Library; 130 Brian Furner:
131

left

Snark Edouard Rousseau:

131

right

Kew
142 A P

Brian Matthew/Royal Botanic Garden.

140 141 Leslie Johns and Associates:

Paterson; 143 left P2/IGDA: 143 centre
P2/IGDA; 143 right Brian Furner; 144. centre
Brian Furner: 44 right Iris Hardwick Librarv:
[45 Harry Smith Collection: 146 left A P
1

Paterson: 146 centre Weed Research

Organisation: 147 left A P Paterson; 147
centre A P Paterson; 148 left A P Paterson:
1(8 right APPaterson; 14c) left Harry Smith
Collection; 149 centre G I. Hyde; 149 right
A P Paterson; 150 hit A P Paterson: [50
centre A P Paterson 150 right Iris Hardwick
;

3O4

19c)

right

P2IGDA:

Associates; 116 Mansell Collection: 119 Paul

Miles;

APPaterson:

left

200 centre Pal Brindlev 200 right Pat

Brindley; 201 IGDA; 202 centre APPaterson;
202 right A P Paterson: 204 left APPaterson:
204 centre A P Paterson: 205 left top Pat
Brindley: 205 left bottom A P Paterson; 206
Bavestrelli; 207 centre A P Paterson; 207
right A P Paterson; 208 Pat Brindley; 209 left
\ P Paterson; 209
right G E Hvde: 210 A P
right
centre) A P Paterson: 21
Paterson; 21
A P Paterson; 212 A P Paterson: 213 top A P
Paterson; 213 bottom: A P Paterson; 214
centre Pat Brindley 2 14 right Harry Smith
Collection; 217 centre A P Paterson; 217 right
H Yeiller: 218 left A P Paterson; 218 centre
A P Paterson; 218 right A P Paterson: 219
A P Paterson; 220 Pat Brindley: 222 left Pat
Brindlev; 222 right A P Paterson: 223 lett
1

Syndication International; 10 left Ann and

Bur\ Peerless; 110 right IGDA;
Mansell
Collection; 112 Snark Edouard Rousseau; 113
1

[99

A P

Paterson: 223

A-Z

centre-

Collection: 224

Pat Brindley; 224 right Pat Brindley:

225 centre! Pat Brindlev: 225 right A P
Paterson; 226 centre A P Paterson: 226 right
Brian Furner; 227 centre A P Paterson: 227
right R J Corbin; 228 centre A P Paterson;
228 right A P Paterson; 229 left A P Paterson;
centre

229 right Brian Furner; 230 deft AP Paterson; 230

centre A P Paterson: 231 A P Paterson: 232 Pat
Brindlev 233 A P Paterson 234 top A P Paterson
1

234 bottom Pat Brindley: 235 G E Hyde: 236 top

Paterson: 236 bottom Pat Brindley: 238 A P
Paterson; 240 A P Paterson: 241 Brian Furner:
242 left top A P Paterson; 242 left bottom
A P Paterson: 242 right A P Paterson: 244
A P Paterson: 245 left A P Paterson: 245 right
A P Paterson; 246 top A P Paterson; 246
bottom A P Paterson: 247 left A P Paterson;
247 centre Pat Brindley: 247 right A P
Paterson; 248 left A P Paterson: 248 right
A P Paterson; 249 left A P Paterson; 249 right
G E Hyde; 250 centre Iris Hardwick Library:
250 right A P Paterson; 251 centre A P
Paterson: 251 right A P Paterson 252 left
Brian Furner; 252 right P2 IGDA: 253 top
A P Paterson; 253 bottom A P Paterson: 254
left
Pat Brindley; 254 centre A P Paterson:
254 right A P Paterson: 255 left A P Paterson;
255 centre A P Paterson: 255 right Pat
Brindley; 256 left A P Paterson: 256 centre
A P Paterson: 256 right A P Paterson: 257 Pat
Brindlev: 258 left A P Paterson: 258 right
A P Paterson: 259 left Iris Hardwick Librarv
259 right Pat Brindley: 260 centre A P
Paterson: 260 right A P Paterson; 261 centre
A P Paterson; 261 right A P Paterson: 262 left
A P Paterson: 262 centre A P Paterson: 264
A P Paterstm: 265 centre A P Paterson: 265
right A P Paterson: 266 A P Paterson: 267
left
IGDA; 267 centre A P Paterson 268
A P Paterson: 26c) left A P Paterson 269 right
Brian Furner; 270 left A P Paterson 270 right
A P Paterson: 271 Bernard Alfieri: 272 left top
Pat Brindlev 272 left bottom C Bevilacqua:
273 centre A P Paterson: 274 A P Paterson:
275 left A P Paterson: 275 centre Brian Furner:
276 left A P Paterson: 276 right APPaterson:
277 left A P Paterson; 277 right APPaterson:
278 Giorgio Negri 279 A P Paterson; 281 left

A P

P Paterson; 281 right Harrv Smith Collection:

282 top A P Paterson: 282 bottom APPaterson:
283 lett A P Paterson; 283 righl A P Paterson.

"*r

Malcolm Stuart is Director of the Herb

and was formerly Assistant to the

Society

director of Research at the National Institute

Medical Herbalists. Dr Stuart contributes

and television programs, is
the author of numerous articles on medical and
regularly to radio

horticultural subjjects

and is the

editor of

Herbal Review.

was formerly Head of the

ment of Nutrition and Home Economics
at tnc
Advisory Bureau in London.
Translate*
!:tor and author, Mrs Ellison's
iJrey Ellison

ivcj

'

publications include The Great Scandinavian

Lookbook

Dr

and Growing/or the Kitchen.

Peter Hylands

pharmacognosy
and
teaching the chemistry of natural compounds.
He has also taught in East Africa and has
numerous research publications to his credit.
is

lecturer in

at the University of London, studying

Allen Paterson trained in horticulture at

Cambridge University Botanic Garden and the

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. He is Curator of

Chelsea Physic Garden, and has written on
horticultural and botanical subjects for a range
ofjournals and books.

Kay Sanecki
worked

trained as a horticulturist

for the

and has

Royal Horticultural Society and

in horticultural publishing for 25 years.

Her

books include Wild and Garden Herbs,

Discovering Herbs, The Complete Book of Herbs
and Discovering English Gardens. She has also
contributed to numerous journals and
encyclopedias.

GROSSET&DUNLAP
\

HI

MWAYS COMPANY
New York

Publishers

|r* .**

A
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*
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