Pollution

Pollution is any substance that is added to

air, water, soil or food that threatens the
health, survival or activities of humans
and/or other organisms.
It could be in the form of matter or energy,
e.g. nitrates which cause algal blooms or
an increase in temperature which will
cause a decrease in the dissolved oxygen
in bodies of water.

Point and non-point source

Pollution

Point source pollution

Point source pollution

Point source pollution (as seen above) comes
from a single, identifiable source e.g. a
smokestack, drain pipe or car exhaust.
For these reasons it is generally easier to
manage this type of pollution as its impact is
more localized and legal action and
responsibility can be more easily assigned.
However because point sources may be
scattered and extremely numerous (tailpipes
of millions of cars) it is a difficult task to
manage.

Non-point source pollution

Non-point source pollution

Non-point source pollution (see
above) on the other hand comes
from dispersed and not easily
identified sources, e.g. run-off from
farm land, suburbs, rural areas,
livestock, and cities.
This is much harder to identify and
therefore to manage and to assign
responsibility

Major
Sources of
Pollution
1) Fossil Fuels

TheEraofFossilFuels
Fossilfuels:petroleum,naturalgasandcoal(organic)
Currently90%ofcurrentUSenergyfromfromfossil
fuels
Expectedoilproductionpeak:20202030
Consumptioncurrentlyincreasing
Projectedworldoilproductionwillbeexhaustedby
2100
Producessignificantanddiversepollutionproblems
o Greenhousegasses
o GaseousSulfurandnitrogenoxides
o Landbaseddisturbances

Crude Oil
Crude Oil is a liquid mixture of
thousands of organic chemicals
found underground. It is the result of
organic matter decaying over
thousands of years; hence the name
fossil fuel
Crude oil is found all over the world
and varies tremendously in its
density, sulfur, and metals content

VPeertyroSlceihmuepmliaifcneadl
Flowchart

Conversions
S
e
p
a
r
a
t
i
o
n
s
n
d
Purifcations

WeOil CrOiudle Separations

THE REFINERY

PRuXr=ifcCahteiomnsicarelmRoevaectsiounlfsurandheavymetals

NGaatsural RX Ethylene RX Polyethylene(GladGaBasgSs)tove

PBrouptane&RX Polymers(7UPBotles) (BarbeqFuelGrils)
N(Ca5p-hCth10a) RRXX MoOrrgeaPnoiclyCmheermsical(sFotb(AaslpHirenlm,GaHeats,iorAliSsntperroay)
T
u
r
f
,
N
y
o
n
)
KGaersoOiselnse(C&10+)
JDeietsFeuleFluels
HOiol,mLWaeubHxreicating
(CarbConokMaeterialSimilartoCoal) FSGruteealplhMaitekFinibgers
Asphalt Roads PotHoles (TenisRacquets)

Proven world oil reserves in 1998.

2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Coal
Worlds most abundant fossil fuel,
but dirtiest!
Coal provides 25% of worlds
commercial energy; 22% of US
energy
Dangerous to mine, harms land,
water and air causes smog, acid
rain and global warming.
Burning coal releases thousands of
time more radioactive particles per

Fig 17.9 World

coal reserves in
1999.

2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Pollution
Health Impacts
More than 131 million Americans live in areas
where smog pollution makes their air unsafe to
breathe, and every year over 45,000 lives are
cut short by air pollution.

Pollution
Oil Spills
31,000 gallons are
spilled into waterways
every day
Between 1973 and
1993 there were
200,000 oil spills in U.S.
waters, spilling more
than 230 million
gallons of oil.

Pollution
Land Destruction
Mountaintop removal in
West
Virginia
Tens of thousands of
coalbed
methane wells in the
Powder River Basin in
Wyoming

Pollution
Global Warming
With only 4 percent of the world's population,
we produce 25 percent of the carbon dioxide
pollution
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
projects that the Earth's average surface
temperature will increase between 2.5 and
10.4F (1.4 to 5.8C) between 1990 and 2100 if
no major efforts are undertaken to reduce the
emissions of greenhouse gases (the "businessas-usual" scenario).

Total energy consumption for the

United States, 1950-1999.

2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

This [U.S. oil] is an industry that

probably has larger tax incentives
relative to its size than any other
industry in the country.
Statement of Hon. Donald C. Lubick, former Assistant
Secretary for Tax Policy, U.S. Department of Treasury

Taxes for 1 gal

of gasoline in
U.S. dollars
equivalent for
selected
countries, 1995.

2003 John Wiley and Sons Publishers

Current Energy Tax Breaks

Fiscal Years 2003-2007
1%
1%
2%

2%

12%
6%

76%

Nuclear

Tax Exempt Energy Bonds

Oil and Gas

Coal

Energy Conservation

Geothermal and Solar

Wind and Biomass

Historical Research and

Development Dollars
Department of Energy Research and Development
(Fiscal Year 1948-1998)

Energy Efficiency Renewables

7%
11%
$12 Billion
$8 Billion

$66 Billion
$26 Billion

Nuclear Energy
59%
Fossil Fuel
23%

Nuclear Energy

Fossil Fuel

Energy Efficiency

Renewables

2) Eutrophication

What words can you come up with

that start with eu

Some examples of eu words are:

eulogy
euphonic
euphoria
euthanasia
eureka
euphemism
eugenics
eukaryote (versus prokaryote)
utopia (originally eutopia) (there is some argument that
Utopia is derived from Ou topia from Ou meaning nowhere.
Therefore the meaning is a place that does not exist.)

Eutrophication is the natural process of

the aging of a body of water over time.
As more nutrients enter the body of water
and more organisms live and die they add
their organic matter.
Over time this causes the body of water to
become eutrophic (turbid, shallow, warm,
nutrient rich, with complex food webs) and
then become a swamp and then dry up
completely.

 Even though eutrophication is a

natural process it can be accelerated
greatly by human activities such as
increasing levels of nitrates and
phosphates from detergents, sewage
and fertilizers from agricultural
runoff.

 The death of Lake Erie in the mid

1960s is a classic example of
eutrophication as a direct result of
mans dumping of huge amounts of
detergents and fertilizers into the
lake over a relatively short period of
time.

 The following photographs are from

http://www.umanitoba.ca/institutes/fi
sheries/eutro.html
and give an excellent description of
eutrophication and experiments that
were done showing the effects.

Aerial view of Lake 227 circa 1975, showing the many marker
floats used
for intensively studying this small, experimentally fertilized
lake.

Aerial view of Lake 227 in 1994. Note the bright green colour
caused by algae stimulated by the experimental addition of phosphorus
for the 26th consecutive year. Lake 305 in the background is unfertilized.

 ELA Lake 226 was the site of a visually

spectacular experiment. The lake was divided into
two approximately equal portions using a plastic
divider curtain. Carbon and nitrogen were added
to one half of the lake, while carbon, nitrogen
and phosphorus were added to the other half.
For eight consecutive years, the side receiving
phosphorus developed eutrophic algal blooms,
while the side receiving only carbon and nitrogen
did not (see photo, below). However, after only
two years, this experiment convinced even the
skeptics that phosphorus is the key nutrient. A
multi-billion dollar phosphate control program
was soon instituted within the St. Lawrence Great
Lakes Basin. Legislation to control phosphates in
sewage, and to remove phosphates from laundry
detergents, was part of this program.

View from above Lake 226 divider curtain in August 1973. The bright green
colour results
from bluegreen algae (Cyanobacteria), which are growing on phosphorus added
to the near side of the curtain.

3) Domestic Waste

 Domestic waste sources can be broken

down into various categories:
sewage (treated and untreated)
run-off from roads, lawns
landfill
air (incineration, cars)
paper, glass, metal, plastics, packaging
organic waste from the kitchen or garden
anything not related to industry

 One well-established (but in some

instances controversial) strategy for
managing solid domestic waste such
as paper waste, is recycling

The Great Recycling Debate

Deficits

Benefits

vermicomposting

When compared with soil, worm

casts also contain
:

times more nitrogen;

7
times more phosphorus;
1.5 times the calcium;
11 times more potassium;
3

times more exchangeable magnesium.

Comparison of recycling versus virgin paper

production and incineration
Area for
comparison/
Process

Recycling

Virgin Paper and

Incineration

Energy in the
process

Less (could be renewable)

-25% more but could be

renewable
- incineration generates
energy and replaces fossil
fuels (toxin removal)

Energy in
transport

More

-less since it tends to be

shorter distances but not
always the case

Pollution

-toxins to landfill
-CO2 from transport supports
forest growth

- toxins to landfill
- CO2 from transport and
emissions support forest
growth
-air and water pollution
from pulp and paper

other

-inhibits attempts to use

incineration as alternate energy
source
- what could be better forest
management than to reduce the

- stimulates responsible
forest management
- inhibits attempts to
improve energy efficiency

Domestic Waste Incinerator

Domestic Waste in a Landfill

4 Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dQPyNY2WIdw

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k2kpz_8ntJY

the progression of the Ozone hole over the

antarctic from 1970 to 1997.

CFCs can (and in some cases used to) be found in:

aerosol sprays
cleaning fluids
freezers
air conditioners
refrigerators
industrial solvents
dehumidifers
foam insulation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fliWB6u772g

Some effects on plant and animal tissue as UV

radiation increases

decrease in agricultural yields and a decrease in

overall forest productivity
cellular/DNA damage to fish larvae, plankton and
other organisms at the bottom of food webs thus
affecting all higher trophic levels in the food web.
Increase in the rate of skin cancer (a decrease in
1% in the ozone layer is predicted to increase
skin cancers by 10%.)
Increase in cataracts and changes in the retina, in
mammals. Sheep and cattle in Argentina and
Chile are already suffering from this effect.
Suppresses and depresses the immune systems
in mammals.

HCFCs

The hydrogen atom makes the molecule susceptible to attack by the

hydroxyl (OH) radical, so a large fraction of the HCFC's are
destroyed before they reach the stratosphere. Molecule for
molecule, then, HCFC's destroy much less ozone than CFC's, and
they were suggested as CFC substitutes as long ago as 1976.

HCFC's are found in:

heat pumps
air conditioners

Brief history and status at this point in time:

1978- U.S. banned CFC's as propellants in aerosol

products
1987- "Montreal Protocol on Substances that
deplete the Ozone Layer"
International conference to control these
chemicals. Signed by U.S. and 22 other countries.
Limited production and use of CFC's
50% reduction in CFC production worldwide by
2000
Now signed by over 90 nations
Revised to require the virtual phaseout of CFC
production by 1996
1990 In U.S. "Clean Air Act Amendment" passed

Alternatives and replacements for CFCs with pros and

cons.
HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
Positive aspect -break down more quickly in the
atmosphere posing less danger to the ozone layer
Negative aspect -if overused they could cause damage to
the ozone layer in the same way as CFCs. Redesigned
appliances could use more energy than the original models.
HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons)
Positive aspect-do not contain chlorine and are therefore
safe for the ozone layer
Negative aspect -safety questions such as flammability and
toxicity still unclear
Hydrocarbons (such as butane and propane)
Positive aspect they are relatively cheap and readily
available
Negative aspect -can be flammable and poisonous and
some increase ground-level pollution
Ammonia
Positive aspect -a simple alternative for refrigerators
Negative aspect -must be handled carefully
Water (and Steam)

5 Urban Air Pollution

Major Chemical Pollutants in Photochemical Smog:

Sources and Environmental Effects
Toxic Chemical

Sources

Environmental Effects

Tropospheric Ozone
(O3) (ground-level
ozone)

-formed as a by-product of
photochemical smog
- sometimes results from
stratospheric ozone moving
into troposphere (intrusion)

- eye and respiratory irritation

- decreased agricultural yields
- slows plant growth
- deteriorates plastics
and rubber
- sharp odor

Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOCs)

- evaporation of fuels and

solvents
- incomplete combustion of
fossil fuels
- naturally occurring
compounds like monoterpenes
and sesquiterepnes from trees

- respiratory and eye irritation

- some are carcinogenic
- decreased visibility due to bluebrown haze (Blue Ridge
Mountains)

Nitrogen Oxides
commonly called
NOx as there are
many possible
combinations such
as NO and NO2,
N2O2 etc.

- combustion of fossil fuels eg.

oil, coal, gas in both
automobiles and industry
- bacterial action in soil (see
nitrogen cycle Topic 2.2.3)
- forest fires
- volcanic action
- lightning

- decreased visibility due to

yellowish color of NO2
- NO2 contributes to heart and
lung problems
- NO2 can suppress plant growth
- decreased immune response
- may increase risk of cancer

Peroxyacetyl
Nitrates (PANs)

- formed by the reaction of NO2

with VOCs (can be formed
naturally in some
environments)

eyes, nose and throat irritation

high toxicity to plants
respiratory irritation
damage to proteins

6 Acid Deposition

pH Scale

 PRIMARY POLLUTANTS (sulfur dioxide &

nitrogen oxides) are emitted by combustion.
Primary pollutants can travel as far as 1,000
kmthe primary pollutants react with H2O vapor and O2 and
As
become
.
SECONDARY POLLUTANTS (nitric acid vapor,
droplets of sulfuric acid, and particles of acid-forming sulfate
and nitrate salts).

Acidic substances descend to the earths surface in

two forms:
1. Wet deposition (as acid rain, snow, fog, and cloud
vapor).
2. Dry deposition as acidic particles.
.

Most dry deposition falls near the emission sources.

Most wet deposition falls in more distant downwind

areas.

Soils and lakes vary in their ability to buffer or remove

excess acidity.
movie
Wind
Transformation to
sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
and nitric acid (HNO3)

Nitric oxide (NO)

Acid fog
Ocean

Windborne ammonia gas

and particles of cultivated soil
partially neutralize acids and
form dry sulfate and nitrate salts

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

and NO

Dry acid
deposition
(sulfur dioxide
gas and particles
of sulfate and
nitrate salts)

Wet acid deposition

(droplets of H2SO4 and
HNO3 dissolved in rain
and snow)

Farm
Lakes in
deep soil
high in limestone
are buffered

Lakes in shallow
soil low in
limestone
become
acidic

Buffering
Soils that contain basic compounds such as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) or limestone can neutralize or
buffer some inputs of acids.
Soils that dont have basic compounds (granite &
depleted soils) are more sensitive to acid deposition.
Coral reefs contain CaCO3, pH in saltwater
environments doesnt change much.
Freshwater ecosystems are more sensitive to acid
deposition.

Effects on Humans
Contributes to human respiratory diseases.
Can leach toxic metals into drinking water.
Damage statues, buildings, metals and car finishes.

Decreases atmospheric visibility.

Can lower profits and causes job losses because of
lower productivity.

Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems

Fish kills below pH 4.5.
Al3 from soil can stimulate production of excess
mucus which clogs gills.
Toxic shock is the damage caused sudden runoff
of large amounts of highly acidic water and Al 3.

Water
boatman
Whirligig
Yellow perch
Fish and
other
aquatic
organisms
vary in
their
sensitivity
to acidity.

Lake trout
Brown trout
Salamander
(embryonic)
Mayfly
Smallmouth
bass
Mussel
6.5

6.0

5.5

5.0
pH

4.5

4.0

3.5

Effects on Plants & Soil Chemistry

Can harm forests and crops (pH below 5.1).
Damage leaves directly.
Leaching reduces plant productivity and buffering
abilities of soil.
Al3 can hinder uptake and use of soil nutrients and
water by plants.
Dissolving insoluble soil compounds and ions of
metals are toxic to both plants & animals.
Promoting growth of acid resistant competing and
parasitic mosses.

Emission

Acid
SO2
deposition H O
2 2
PANs

NOX
O3
Other
s

Direct damage
to leaves
and bark

Reduced
photosynthesis
and growth

Increased
Susceptibility
to drought,
extreme cold,
insects, mosses,
and disease
organisms

Soil acidification

Leaching of
soil
nutrients

Acid

Release of
toxic
metal icons

Tree death

Root
damage

Reduced
nutrient
and
water
uptake

Air
pollutant
s are one
of
several
interacti
ng
stresses
that can
damage,
weaken
or kill
trees.
movie

Prevention
Reduce air pollution
by improving energy
efficiency
Reduce coal use
Increase natural gas
use
Increase use of
renewable resources
Burn low-sulfur coal
Remove SO2
particulates, and NOx
from smokestack gases
Remove Nox from
motor vehicular exhaust
Tax emissions of SO2

Cleanup
Add lime to neutralize
acidified lakes
Add phosphate
fertilizer to neutralize
acidified lakes

Methods
for
reducing
acid
depositio
n.

Reducing Primary
Pollutants
Sulfur dioxide emissions have been
reduced by installing smokestack
scrubbers in coal-fired power plants.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEJKiUYjW1E

Using low-sulfur coal reduced sulfur

dioxide, but increased CO2 emissions.
Nitrogen oxide emissions have not
declined due to more motor vehicles
traveling farther.

Using limestone to neutralize (buffer) acids

Temporary and expensive.

Limestone can kill some types of plankton.
Can harm wetland plants that need acidic water.
It is difficult to know how much lime to put where.

The Great Industrialization Debat

es the UN have the right to mandate that China reduces its carbon emiss
NO

YES

Detection and Monitoring of

Pollution
http://www.njtvonline.org/news/video/off
icials-investigate-fish-kill-in-shark-ri
ver/

 Direct measurement is performed by

monitoring the level of the pollutant itself,
e.g. nitrates in a lake or temperature
levels in a lake or stream.
An indirect method would monitor the
effects of the pollutants on other factors,
e.g. dissolved oxygen, B.O.D., presence or
absence of indicator species.

Some direct measurements might include:

measuring temperature in several locations along
the length of a river, or at different times during
the year with thermometers as an indication of
thermal pollution. Take baseline measurements
and then monitor in a systematic manner to
determine changes.
measuring nitrate levels/ammonia levels/chloride
levels as an indication of nutrient overload. Use
the same process as above
measuring TSS (Total Suspended Solids) or TDS
(Total Dissolved Solids) as an indication of
material entering the lake or stream. (see next
slide)

TSS (Total Suspended Solids) or TDS

(Total Dissolved Solids)

BOD
BOD is the measure of the amount of
dissolved oxygen that is used by aerobic
bacteria to break down the organic matter
in a specific volume of water.
Therefore the greater the amount of
organic matter (sewage, agricultural runoff, fertilizer etc.) in the body of water, the
higher the BOD will be. The less organic
matter, the lower the BOD. It is not
uncommon for the BOD of incoming water
to a sewage treatment plant to be in the
range of 120. After treatment the BOD of
the same water is around 5.

 The standard technique for

measuring the BOD of body of water
is the 5-Day BOD test or BOD5. This
is done by measuring the DO
(dissolved oxygen) on day 1 and and
again on day 5 while keeping the
samples at 200C in the dark during
that time. This ensures that only
respiration is going on and not
photosynthesis. Refer to Topic 2
under Gross and Net primary

Factors Controlling BOD and DO

A major source for DO comes from the atmosphere
When the surface of the water is disturbed as in rapids or
water falls, then a greater the amount of oxygen will
become dissolved in it.
Temperature is a major factor. An increase in temperature
a decrease in DO. i.e the colder the water the greater the
concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water.
Low DO from man-made source of heating bodies of water
(effluent from nuclear power plants used to cool the
reactors)
BOD is affected by respiration or lack of respiration by
microorganisms and by the increase in organic matter
(plant and animal) and organic waste and sewage.
Organic effluent can be treated by pumping it with large
volumes of air.

BOD Level
BOD Level
(in ppm)

Water Quality

1-2

Very Good
There will not be much organic waste present in
the water supply.

3-5

Fair: Moderately Clean

6-9

Poor: Somewhat Polluted

Usually indicates organic matter is present and
bacteria are decomposing this waste.

100 or greater

Very Poor: Very Polluted

Contains organic waste.

Indirect measurement
Indirect measurement involves the
monitoring and measurement of
organisms in the ecosystem and
more specifically indicator species or
index species. These are species that
by virtue of their abundance or
absence will indicate the level of
pollution in that ecosystem.

Some important indicators are:

fish
bottom fauna
algae
bacteria

Stonefly Adult

Sludge Worm

 Comparison of diatoms to blue-green

algae provides similar information
Measuring the coliform levels can
also indicate the presence of sewage
dumping in the ecosystem.

Diatoms

Fecal Coliform

Blue-green algae

 Overall the diversity of the whole

system is often the best indicator
while a general rule to follow is that
presence is better evidence than
absence.

5.3 Approaches to Pollution

Management

5.3 Approaches to Pollution Management

Approaches to Pollution Management

1. the altering of human activity, which will
prevent the production of the pollutant in
the first place
2. regulating and reducing quantities of the
pollutant, which will reduce the negative
impacts
3. cleaning up the pollutant and restoring
the ecosystems, which will mitigate the
negative impacts and restore.