URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT COURSE Local Government and Sustainable Urban Environmental Management: A Case Study of Thailand By Choen Krainara Email: Choen@nesdb.go.th Urban Environmental Management Field of Study School of Environment, Resources and Development Asian Institute of Technology March 12, 1998Local Government and SustainableUrban Environmental Management:A Case Study of Thailand 1. Introduction Local government plays an important role in providing basic services to urban people.These basic services include social services, public protection, public utilities, trunk roads and environmental management, (Kenth, 1989), It is worth noting that local government as lowest administration is the organization, which is close contact with people. Local government also serves as important mechanism to facilitate the implementation of relevant strategies and program by planning, coordinating and controlling by the central government, (Eropa, 1980). Megacities in Asia have been and continuing to be driven by economic and social development. As a result of this development, many people from rural areas are attracted to the cities. Thus, local government administration becomes complicated because social and economic growth. The city growth also generates urban environmental problems, i.e., traffic congestion, and air pollution, a lack of safe water as well as inappropriate Land use. These increasing problems play important roles in reducing the quality of life of urban people primarily due to local government is lacking capacity to handle these challenges. This paper explores the urban environmental challenges faced by local governments and attempt to examine decentralization policy and local government reform as an instrument for promoting sustainable urban environmental quality. 1.1 Objectives of the Research The objectives of this research are as follows 1) To explore the role and function of local government concerning urban environmental management (UEM); 2) To determine how to translate Global Agenda 21 to Thailand’s local Agenda 21; 3) To identify strengths, weaknesses, and trends of Thailand local government for dealing with urban environmental management; and 4) To identify the proper policy for solving’ Thailand’s urban environmental problems. 1.2 Methodology The methodologies employed for this research were as followed: 1) Studies concept of local government and evolution of local goverment and its development in Asia, type and its function. 2) Investigate status, role, functions and urban environmental problems in Thailand. 3) Analyzes strengths, weaknesses of local government dealing with urban environmental problems in Thailand. 4) Recommends appropriate local urban environmental planning and management in Thailand. 2. Principles of Local Government In Asia, most principles of local government were to promote the political participation and decentralization, (Eropa, 1984, pp.147). In addition, local government itself was planned to contribute the balance in development between regional areas, and the socio- economic disparity among the population especially amongst the major ethnic groups. 1Thus, local government is the unit nearest to the citizens and able to distribute assistances and respond to their needs. 3. Evolution of Local Government and Its Development in Asia In Asia, local government was initially established by the United Kingdom, and spread to other countries by the colonial era, (V Subramaniam, 1980, pp.584). In the beginning of this era (1858), the British tried to generate an educated middle class in their colonies and introducing administrative centralization, which subsequently constrained their administration. As a result, the British alternatively introduced local “self-government” exactly at the stage when it would be ignored by the centralized nationalist movement. In India, for example, after independence (1947), India attempted to establish local government authorities in rural areas, In Malaysia, the local government system, which was first introduced in the country in 1801, can be considered as the legacy of the colonial era, (Eropa, 1984, pp.146-150). The development of local government i Malaysia can be described into two distinct periods, namely, before and after restructuring of local authorities. The local government body was initially given the task to undertake the planning and development of Penang asmunicipality, and later expanded to Sabah and Sarawak. In Japan, modernization began with the “Meiji restoration” in 1868, (Eropa, 1984, pp.115-116). The major goal of the government was through modemization of its government, economic and defense system to construct a modemized and centralized nation that could cope with westem countries in international society. In 1889, Japan enacted the Municipality Act and also “the Prefectance Act” in 1988 for promoting local administration. Whereas in Thailand, initiation a form of local government was occurred in the reign of King Chulalongkorn (1868-1901), who tried to introduce the system of democracy and the system of good management from western countries particularly the British style to the Thai Government and administration, (Eropa, 1984). With regard to development of local government in the Philippines, its criteria used in the creation of the local government consisting of (1) population; (2) average estimated annual income for the last 3 years; (3) land area; (4) approval of the majority of the vote cast in a plebiscite,Bropa, 1984, pp.1 80-187), 4.Types of Local Government Generally, local government was divided depending upon the size of the country and the state. There are 2 types of local governments comprising (1) the local government, which is the lowest unit and their administration close to the citizens and (2) the local government, which deal with large metropolitan areas, (Donald C., pp.596).. In Malaysia, the local government is the lowest in the hierarchy. It was divided into the Municipal Council and the District Council. Similarly in Thailand, it was divided into 2 types namely (1) Provincial Government or Local State Government including Province, District, Sub-District, Commune Authority and village (please see Figure 5).; Local Self Government including Provincial Authority, the Municipal Government, the SanitationDistrict, the Special Local SelfGovernment units eg. the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration and the City of Pattaya, (Eropa, 1984, pp.225-235). Please see Figure 1-4. Whereas in the Philippines, there are five types of local government, which depend upon criteria in the creation of the local government unit. These are (1) the barangay; (2) the municipality; the city; (4) the highly urbanized areas and (5) the province. 5. Function and Revenue of Local Government 5.1 Function Davey (1989)indicated that “the duties of municipalities vary enormously. There are a few things, which most local government does: refuse collection, market administration, minor road maintenance, cleaning, drainage and lighting, provision of parks and recreation, What varies widely is municipal involvement in the following areas: (a) Public utilities, chiefly water and sewerage and electricity; (b) Social services Local government often provides primary schools and clinics, less frequently, secondary education and hospitals. They sometimes provide building and ancillary staff, but not professional personnel. (©) Public protection. Fire services are frequently municipal responsibility. (@) Trunk roads, which can be a national, provincial or local responsibilities, (¢) Rental or purchase housing or servicing sites. This is sometimes a municipality activity, sometimes that of a special purpose authority. (), Regulation of land use and development. This is usually a local government function, but occasionally that of a provincial or metropolitan authority.” 5.2 Revenue Structure of Local Government In Asia, the revenue structure of local government is fairly similar. In Thailand, for example, every provincial government, municipality and sanitary district is authorized by Jaws to obtain funds from similar finaneial sources as follows: 1) Tax revenue was collected from house and land tax, local development tax, signboard and animal slaughtering tax as their ineome. 2) License, fee and fine; 3) Income from property; 4) Miscellaneous and trading income: 5) Central government grants and loans 6) Other incomes. 6.Relationships between Local Government and Central Government Relationships between local government and central governmentmay be divided into (1) cooperation and assistance; (2) direction and (3) control, (DOLA, 1994, pp.6-1-6-8) are as follows: 6.1 Cooperation and Assistance Cooperation and coordination between the central government and local government encompass technical and financial assistances by the central government and advice and guidance to the local government for smooth operation, which generally cover the followings: ‘© Promoting the improvement of the local government's public services; * Fostering the inter-ministerial coordination on the improvement of public services;© Organizing technical advice for promoting occupational, administrative, legal and financial aspects; «Direct and indirect training of local government officials, through local coalition, eto.; + Providing loans, equipments and assistances for carrying out public works; © Apportioning taxes appropriately between the central and local government and among local governments, as well as, providing subsidies to the locality; * Assisting local government during crises, e.g. floods, outbreak of contagious diseases, other natural diseases, which may cut the income of the local government. 6.2 Direction and Control ‘Direction and control measures adopted by the central government are classified in to 3 types consisting of (1) administration and personnel; (2) finance and (3) operation. 6.2.1 Administration and Personnel Control Administration control means that the central government and its officials have the power to dissolve local councils or dismiss the local administration when the behavior or failure to perform duties of administrators is considered disadvantage to the locality or the government. Also, personnel control related to control of officials working for local administration organization, 6.2.2. Financial Control ‘The financial control is similar to that of administration and personnel control. The central government lays down criteria for financial control covering revenue and asset, budget, keeping of money, disbursement and auditing, etc. 6.3.3 Operation Control Operation control includes the direction and control of the administration of local government to follow the right path and conform to laws, as well as, the control of performance of the legislative branch, i.c. enactment of laws of local government. 7. Potential and Constraints of Local Government in terms of Urban Environmental Management 7.1 Potential According to its role and function, local governments have been faced with the problem of enlarging the unit at this local government system in order to cope with major change at the local level, i.e. demographic change as a result of urban centers of all well beyond the existing boundaries of their local government. L.J. (1994) considers that, “the expansion of local government’s service responsibility was not only in relation to the new spatially determined function related to urbanization but also to the expansion of the state itself e.g. social welfare. New local services and strategic or master planning could be created to solve social and environmental problems and balanced growth. Meanwhile, it depends on the existing local government structure in terms of economies of scale, externalities and scale of local government.7.2 Constraints LJ. (1994) also argues that even though local government could be isolated, central government still limits its authority as an interloper. He also indicates some local government determines where their local government should be drawn. According to the tenet of the externality principle, the boundary should encompass the core’s city influence area because of geographical spread. Therefore, local government is the strongest organization in the context of local government modemization. In the real world, however, political interest is always likely to count far more in the long run than administrative rationality and social justice. 8.Decentralization and Local Government Reform The current wide concern to enhance the roles and performance of local government is part of wider interest in decentralization, (Davey, 1989).He also points out that greater devolution to state and local representative bodies is only one of the changes pursued under this banner. Others include greater delegation to field officials, cooperation with voluntary and communal bodies, and more involvement of the private sector through privatization, joint venture of outside contracting. In his paper, urban populations in developing countries are continuing to grow at an average of 3.80 % per annum, Increased rate of investment in infrastructure and improved maintenance are needed both to meet basic human need for water, shelter, etc., and to increase the efficiency of industrial and commercial enterprises. To date, investment was heavily dependent upon national government resources. Therefore, there is a need to improve the efficiency of existing levels of services and investment, to get more out of current resources and to mobilize additional resources particularly from local tax payers and users who benefit most directly from urban infrastructure, He finds that decentralization policy can help improve local government responsibilities because: + Local preference and knowledge will improve investment choice; © Given the diversity of physical, economic and social conditions in most countries, no centrally determined program can fully reflect the pattern of local needs and demand; * Centralized agencies of government lack of the capacity for close and incorrupt supervision of operation in scattered towns; © Local government can provide a focus for consideration of sectional investment with each other; + Local government is usually responsible for operation and maintenanes 9.Solution and Recommendations The trend of utilizing space and contribute to the growth of metropolis and to suburban sprawl is still continuing; at the same time, migration from rural to urban areas are considerably expanding. So, urban areas are agglomerating, which need much more basic services but were still lacking. To consolidate this phenomenon, local government in charge with providing basic services must therefore manage to increase quality of life of the local inhabitants. However, central government itself should decentralize to local ‘government in terms of finance, personnel and authority for promoting local capacity. Thus, the strategic or master planning is the way to successfully achieve local ‘government management.10.Local Government and Urban Environmental Management: A Case Study of Thailand 10.1 State of the Urban Environment Kruger (1996) indicated that signs of urban environmental degradation are no longer exclusive features of Thailand’s primate city. A common voiced worry in provincial cities is their fear of becoming “another Bangkok” referring to its reputation for congestion, polluted canal water, unbreatheable air and high traffic jams. Although overall environmental quality is generally better in provincial towns, cities and suburbs, the environmental trend are worrisome with some urban areas already facing crises in one or more environmental areas. This study identified Thailand state of the urban environment to eight major environmental issues as follows: 10.1.1 Air Quality Suspended Particulate Matters (SPM) and Carbon Dioxide (CO) levels are rising in all major cities, Remarkably, Bangkok’s serious air pollution is getting worse. SPM and CO in the air have reached critical levels, including regional cities e.g. Chiang Mai, Hat Yai and any other provinces. The principal sources of air pollution are vehicle emission and industrial emission, particularly in the Eastern Seaboard Development area and Saraburi province. 10.1.2 Water Quality Organic degradable and toxic substances in waterways are posing serious pollution problems. The Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the main rivers, including Chao Praya, Bangpakong, Ping and Tachin are higher than standard level. Also, the coastal sea water in main tourist areas, ie. Pattaya and Phuket has fallen well below swimming standard, The principal sources of water pollution, about two-thirds of BOD levels, derive from uncontrolled dumping household and community wastes, as well as, industries i.e. food processing and textiles. 10.1.3 Water Supply Water consumption in urban areas is continuously rising at the same time it must also share utilizing among agricultural, industrial, residential sectors and irrigation supply. It was predicted that chronic water shortage will be occurred. The principal sources of shortfall are largely the result of inadequate water management system and increasingly urban and industrial water requirements. 10.1.4 Solid and Hazardous Waste ‘The accumulation of uncontrolled solid waste and improper disposal are always seen in urban areas. In addition, hazardous toxins are released into soil, groundwater and surface water cause risky for the inhabitants. The principal sources of solid and hazardous waste are household, commercial and industrial origins. 10.1.5 Ground Pollution Some parts of soil contamination are disasters waiting to be discovered as a result of leakage of uncontrolled landfill. It could cause health impact with food and ground water contamination. The main sources of soil contamination are from present and old factories, old pump sites and some commercial and service activities i.e. gas station and auto.6 Traffic Problems jams are a daily occurrence in Bangkok and inereasingly in vicinity and some regional areas, i.e. Chaing Mai, Phuket and Hat Yai, Traffic congestion cause health, noise, economic and social effects. The main sources of traffic congestion are from dramatically increase in vehicle ownership, ribbon-like development, poorly designed network and lack of mass transit and other public transportation services. 10.1.7 Slum In most cities of Thailand, the number of slum communities is proliferating. There are over 1.50 million urban poor residing in a total of 2,000 slum communities is Thailand.Greater than I-fifth of the slum population live in Bangkok. In addition, it is spreading to regional areas, i.e. Chaiang Mai and Hat Yai. The main causes of the slum are urbanization, industrialization and economic growth. 10.1.8 Inappropriate Land Use ‘As economic growth increases and land value changes, speculation and the protection of private property right has taken precedence over public interest. As a result, land use problems are occurred, i.e., ecologically unsustainable development, incompatible mixed and use, as well as, loss of greenery, public amenities and unique identities. 10.2 Summary of Impacts The NESDB Study also found that the objective and subjective impact of environmental problem on health, economy, amenity and other factors, which constitute quality of life serve as a measure by which to prioritize amongst environmental issues. Declining or degraded environments often have distressing social impacts. The health of urban population depends on sanitation, and clean water and economic activities require good infrastructure. 10,3 Existing Urban Environmental Management Capacity In Thailand, urban environmental management is the main responsibilities of local government. Since urban was driven by economic and industrial development, more and more people migrate to city. Their responsibilities become high burden and more complicated due fo lack of capacity. As a result, they have still faced bottleneck point toward those specific constraint and barrier that are blocking or are expected to block the implementation of the program. Typical bottlenecks include: «Lack of financial resources to cary out the program, particularly after initial starting up or pilot phase, and most commonly lacking in support of operation and maintenance over the long term; © Lack of either sufficient decision making authority given the program management for carrying out their assigned responsibilities or sufficient authority at higher levels to effectively coordinate action across bureaucratic boundaries; + Insufficient personnel, particularly in terms of technical competence for the Program; © Lack of monitoring and evaluation procedures, which prevents learning, from experience as the program proceeds; ‘* Insufficient incentives for joint action with private sector or civie organization, even when participatory mechanisms are in place.10.4 Potential of Thailand Planning Context to Promote Local Government in Implementation There are positive aspects that drive local government of Thailand to successfully achieve in managing and administering urban environmental problem. Civil service and planning bureaucracy of sufficient diversity and scale to support important environmental program. In addition, the Royal Thai Government is trying to strengthen local capacities in planning and management of urban affair, including environmental coneems, This research, at the same time, proposes that open public media, including free press help building public interest, In addition, the trend of decentralization in terms of growth, development and authority outside the extended Bangkok Metropolitan Region will relax the regulation for local government finance and joint action with private sector. Furthermore, the major environmental legislation and ministerial body and the royal deerce are gradually corrected for supporting municipal environmental plans. 10.5 Decentralization Policy Decentralization of administration to local level has been accepted by the Royal Thai Government, when local administration was established for all provinces of the country, (Eropa, 1984), The office of local administration is the administrative arm of the elected local administration council, who in turn elects its chairman and vice-chairman and appoints its officers including provincial manager. But in practice, due to the lack of funds and manpower, the provincial governor assumes also the position of provincial manager. At municipal level, the mayor of a municipality is elected by the population of that particular municipality, and so is the member of the municipal council. At village and hamlet level, the headman of the village-a kamnan-, and the headman of a hamlet -a poo yai ban-are elected. However, local government still lacks personnel who clearly know about environmental context. Also, local government official sometimes did not strict to enforce the law due fo problem in understanding about the law and political interference. In addition, Thailand also lacks urban environmental planning and management as a result of compartmentalized system that span numerous ministries, department and agencies. Therefore, Thailand should be focused on planning and implementation strategic plan by strengthening and building local capacity. 10.6 Local Governments Capacity Building In the Thai context, local governments are still weak. There is a short to medium-term need for a wide range of central supports in such areas as urban finance, manpower training and monitoring and evaluation. This study proposes local capacity building areas as follows: 10.6.1 Strengthening local government Royal Thai Government should substantially broaden the revenue base for local government finance (block grant, cost recovery schemes, local taxes) and decentralize decision making power to local government. To enhance the capacity, Royal Thai Govemment should also enforce law and regulations related to managing the environment. In addition, collaboration among governmental agencies is the way to reduce replication.10.6.2 Improving the interface between local government and non-government actors Local government and local people are the main groups, which is in close concerned with urban environmental problems. So, it local institution can function by having rights to deal with the problems. It can make sure that the problem would be solved. The methods to improve interface are promoting regulation, establishing the legal and judiciary system for citizen participation, which can include the establishment of environmental courts and public EIA hearings, as well as, ascertaining positive incentives for good environmental practices. 10.6.3 Fostering joint program and collaborative management Working with business owners to minimize pollution, promote recycling and establish on site treatment facilities could support environmental quality. Also, organizing workshops with communities on environmental management and expanding community enabling program specially targeted at environmental management are potential way to initiate joint cooperation. In addition, developing participatory approaches for neighborhood (slum) improvement could promote awareness of improving quality of life of the urban poor. 10.7 Urban Environmental Stakeholders In the NESDB Study, Thailand can be categorized the key stakeholders, who participate in urban environmental improvement. They are local residents and investors, who are directly impacted by the environmental quality and legislation. Also, they represent a determining factor in the successful implementation of environmental policy and plan. Their opposition can be an obstacle to implementation; whereas their compliance and support can speed up the plan. The key stakeholders are as follows: 10.7.1 Private Sector The private sector has played a number of roles in urban environmental management, e.g, hotels and tour agencies for promoting resource conservation and eco-tourism. ISO 14000, green labeling and other promotional efforts have well-known promoted environmental awareness to create a market for environmentally-friendly product and process. For instance in Associations of business and industries, the Thailand Business Council for Sustainable Development (TBCSD) work in conjunction with government to formulate environmental policies and disseminate information on cleaner technologies. Furthermore, private corporations are also. a major contributor to NGO. and environmental funds. 10.7.2 NGOs and CBOs There are a number of civic organizations involved in various aspects of urban environmental improvements, These include: «National Societies and NGOssuch as the Siam Society and the World Wildlife Fund, are collaborated in supervising and public campaigns to inform and educate the public and the government about heritage conservation and environmental issues. Professional Associations including Siamese Architects, the Thai City Planner Society and the National Engineering Institute of Thailand,have been involved in, 1g environmentally responsible and preservation of significant urban structure * Local NGOs such as the Bangkok Forum, Duang Prateep Foundation, the For Chiang Mai group and YMCA, perform government watch dog function andundertake studies and protect to improve the quality of life in their urban neighborhoods or slum communi © Community-Based Organization (CBOs) and Networks such as the United Community Development Association in Bangkok, comprising 37 low-income communities, have succeeded in delivering small-scale infrastructure and service, which supported by community development organizations. * Local government has been relatively limited. * Universities and Training Centers Regional universities have been important in providing consulting in research and technical studies on environment for the government and private sector. Research centers such as Thailand Development Research Institute and Thailand Environment Institute concern in policy research and analysis. These institutions also organize seminars and disseminate information more widely and deliver training and education courses in environmental studies and technical skills. ‘© Media The media have a substantial role in the direction of political change in raisingpublic awareness on the environmental externalities of projects and activities. 10.8 Urban Environmental Improvement According to the Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan of Thailand, the local government could be carried out to promote environmental sound management and green areas by setting out clear policy and implementation guidelines for the conservation of natural environment, green area, vacant plots and urban public parks. The proper areas of available land communities and landscape characteristics should all be major considerations, 10.9 Local Agenda 21 Initiative Currently, Local Agenda 21 is quite new for Thai society. Meanwhile, the Thai local government is trying to educate the Thai people to be aware about environment, In Bangkok, for example, a number of awareness building methods were promoted to the public by using mass media, A number of campaigns for protecting environment, questionnaire, display, formal and informal education, training course, seminar, as well as, research were already used. It is not that easy to build their awareness because of relating to the level of education. However, the extension of primary education to be nine years is somewhat ensured that this attempt might be succeeded. 11.Conelusion In Thailand, local governments were the main actors facing with urban environmental problems, ice. air pollution, lack of safe drinking water, water pollution and slum. These problems have impacted on human health, social, economic and quality of life issues, particularly of urban poor people. Also it has seriously been increasing. But local governments themselves, the lowest administration level, can'tthoroughly solve the problems because of lack of authority, budget, personnel, public participation, as well as, monitoring and evaluation. To manage urban environmental problems, local government should play most important role due to their geographical advantage. However, to reach this goal is needed several enabling factors, which involve various stakeholders. In conclusion, decentralization policy, privatization, various command and control, as well as, economic base management tools should properly be used to protect 10environment e.g. user charges, Polluter Pay Principle (PPP), contracting out, EIA, as well as zoning. Most importantly, public participation should be continuously enhanced for making sure that everybody becoming aware about environmental issues. 12. Recommendationscover three major aspects as follows: 12.1 Urban Environmental Action Plan In Thailand, the ten principles of sustainable urban management should be taken into account, (DOLA, 1994). This must be used as guidelines for solving urban environmental problems. Furthermore, all levels of administration, including central and local government, politicians and staff, NGOs, community organizations and local interest should contribute as follows: «© Self-reliance Local government should not rely on the central government to take initiative or provide resource, but should think and act creatively to address local needs. «Interdependence Central government should be seen as a resouree for local activity, providing expertise and some finance. © Training In achieving to solve urban environmental problem, local government must have adequately trained personnel. © Data collection Collection and using information on local condition and needs is an important task of local staff. © Involvement of the community Community and other local organization must be involved both determining what is to be done and mobilizing local resources for carrying out work. «Information dissemination All media should be used to educate the community about the environmental management. © Empowerment of local communities Local government should act as a facilitator to promote local communities to solve their own problem. * Coordination and integration The coordination between related organizations could be promoted toward high capacity in servicing basic needs. ¢ Effective implementation Clear environmental policies and plans could be supported to succeed in implementing the plan, In addition, continuous evaluation could also be undertaken to evaluate the further progress. 12.2 Monitoring and Evaluation In achieving successful urban environmental management in Thailand, local government should be high priority for capacity building. There are at least three ways that enhancement can be pursued. First one is to create local government agencies specifically in charge with the duties of collecting data on key environmental indicators. ‘A second is to create a number of joint monitoring and evaluation programs with private and civic organization. A third approach is to build monitoring and evaluation procedure into strategic program and project particularly for the outcome and impact of the program. 12.3 “Contracting out”should be introduced in Thailand to improve efficiency in order to compete and counter the low productivity of direct labour. Contracting out has a number or potential advantages. Contracting companies may offer economies of scale, greater discipline in maintaining labour productivity, sharing of risk in the trial of new technology, as well as, infusion of capital and relief the local official from much managerial preoccupation. aReferences Department of Local Administration (DOLA).1994.The Study on Function of Local Administration in Thailand. TIS Consultants Co.Ltd. studied for DOLA, Bangkok, ‘Thailand, The Policy and Plan Office, Bangkok Metropolitan Office.1996.The Fifth Bangkok Metropolitan Development Plan, Bangkok, Thailand Eropa Local Government Center. 984. Comparative Study on the Local Public Administration in Asian and Pacific Countries. Daichi-hoki Shuppan Co., Japan. GTZ-DOLA Urban Environmental Management Guideline Project.1997. Manual for Urban Environmental Management. Bangkok, Thailand. Davey, K.1989.Strengthening Municipal Government: Discussion Paper, Report INU 47, World Bank Press. USA. Hongvivatana, T.1972.Master Thesis: Local Government Finance in Thailand, ‘Thammasat University. Bangkok, Thailand. LJ. Share.1994. The Government of World Cities: The Future of the Metro Model. John Wiley &Son Press, United Kingdom. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB).1996.The Eighth National Economic and Social Development Plan (1997-2001).Bangkok, Thailand. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board.1996.Final Report: Urban Environmental Management in Thailand: A Strategic Planning Process, Kruger Consult studied for the NESDB. Bangkok, Thailand. Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board.1997. Final Report: Strengthening Policy and Programming for Decentralization and Regional Development. The Padeco (Thailand) Ltd. In association with Development and Plan Consultant Company Limited studied for the NESDB.Bangkok, Thailand. Rowat, Donald C.1980.International Handbook on Local Government Reorganization. Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut, USA. 2Appendices 2BSanitary District a | |raniesparty | [—Nakorn hunies palit APPENDIX B (lig.2) Central Supervision over Local Self-Governmonts = -++ Supervision Authority Source : Thavitong Hongvivat ua, 1972, Master Thesis: Local government Finance In Thailand, Thammasart University Bangk6, ThailandlL. |covernor District K: Ronintetras J Ltdon Municipal Council, [Baucation |* puRTyy, UY souRULY TUDEREERAOD ROOT: SOUL ISH “ZL6I “WUMEALTUOH Buortaays ¢ somos - y 91 aed | a . --—-EStqouystupery. T2pros Asay go. uo Ty veaeTAREDY- Tero epAnag (CFM) a XIGNTLEY kyqzouanw aaryesqequyapy ageypeqay --------- wean | greet [iS aean | Tersaag pre qu. oddy ——___ | - (seamy) i Toamey, © 2 wong | facrveoces oang tnorsd a3 Ted, eortod 7 ang Tnoya3 49 53235 30073409 aoqatase | peada2y3 gone 1 1 T t | i | roposrscze] I | |Cee 1 ipteemage on meng et Lane APPENDIX alles) Urban Environment Agenda: Priorities, Sources and Locations Environmental Principle Causes & Sources Known Priority ISP levels + CO levels Concern Urban Areas tie Quality + vehicle emisions + Bangkok & ESB industrial emissions construction Chiang Mai & Hat Yai Lampang & Saraburi Khon Kaen & Rayong | ree Onan eves cieated damping of household waste untreated consmeril& industrial waste Bangkok, Chiang Mai, Khon Kaen Samut Prakam, Samut Sakhon, Pathum Tani Chonburi Bay, Pattaya, Phuket excessive depletion (subsidence & salination) Teakage & Tack of integrated water resource management steadily increasing urban water requirements locating of water consumptive activi arid regions * Pattaya, Phuket, Chiang Mai + BMR + ESB & WSB coast & arid Northeast urban areas ‘Solid & Hazard. Waste Pollution: * accumulation of uncollected wastes ‘improper dispo toxic wastes released cunmreated | Ground Pollution: + food contamination, + groid water * growing number ‘unhealthy locations + lack basic infrastructure increasing household & commercial solid ‘waste and industrial hazardous waste to0 few vehicles for waste collection insuificient disposal capacity for solid & bnazardous waste inappropriate disposal methods virtually no separation of waste at source, ecially hazardous waste IBY prot all urban areas (er, Ayutthaya, Chiang Mai, Nakhom Ratchasima, Khon Kaen) + industrial areas (eg, Eastern Seaboard, Samut Prakarn) vesisting ind old Factories + old and open dumps + pas stations, auto repairs, photo shops, ahry-cleaning shops: all urban areas (eg., Bangkok, Khon Kaen, Rayong) industrial areas + Tnerease in vehicle ownership + ribbon expansion along arterials + dispersal of employment & housing + poor road networks adequate alternative tansportat nd prices rising faster than GNP/eapita + insecure Jand entitlement + inappropriate housing options (far from sources of liveliood; inapprop. designs) + Tack of access to eredit + inadequate provision of serviced land for Joy BMR: Bangkok, Nonthaburi, Chiang M Hat Yai Bangkok Meirepalitan Aves ongklla Province Chiang Mai Province Saraburi Province Narathiwat Province + borderline: Phoket, Khon Kaen) Land se ecologically ussustainable uses + incompatible land use + lag in environmental infrastructure + oss of greenery, amenities, & unique [ identities + unguided & unregulated development practices: general plans breached, lack of Specific Plans, pill-over development uncoordinated land development: conflicting plans by government agencies + ineffective land valuation methods: lack of value capture + inability to obtain easeways + conservation narrowly defined + Rapidly developing cities (eg, Nakom Ratchasima, Khon Kaen) + Bengkok, Ayutthaya, Chiang Mai, Phuket, Resort towns + new economic development areas Source : National Reononie Urban Bavitoumental Management : A steategie Planning Process, Final Repovt, Kruger Consult studied for NESDB, Bangkok, ‘aul Social Deveopient Board (NESDB), 1996, hata Page 17 ©a ar APPENDIXS (Fig.7) S, [Seantinns Selection of | [Faas Wonttoring © ‘tes, connate a fl proqsanes to” | Lteakvough | e¥ing evil National Economic and Special Plans tant [| sa bap Pn (new economic Zones Level _ & regional plans) Nationa Environmental tvanagement Plan Level | Plan Provincial Environmental ‘Action Plan Fy) Municipal Comprehensive Plan municipal | { shrine Development : i Phan ‘Municipal Environmental Action Plan APPENDIXH (Fig) Jvategic Environmental Phunning as Interactive Cycles of Problem Solving and Capacity Building rdoatity hey | Vnitiative presse points | L_, a sinwsasnantuccioa Problem Solving Capacity Building cata in avira rages cuinitions and programs inplewentation 1 ey Government Aasesament of | [Fucus ont tnelusion of Government! Locitl level," stakehokler? | existing westattnat | {priate actr,| {revatescetor | | ansrent citizen cote ut | [Itanarsand | {Noewenos | Jeomnniy joint | | montoring & ce | [amen | punta at | [in ram | oer, craton twiking meget | ot fenel | [development | ieneniaion | progr ‘Source : National Economie and Social Development Board (NESDB), 1996, Urban Bavironmental Kruger Consult studied for NESDIB, Bangkok, Thailand 1 Management : A strategic Planning Process, Final Report, Page 18