Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

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Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jort

Combining attitude theory and segmentation analysis to understand

travel mode choice at a national park
Kourtney K. Collum a,n, John J. Daigle b,1
a
b

Department of Anthropology, University of Maine, 5773 South Stevens Hall Room 234B, Orono, ME 04469, USA
School of Forest Resources, University of Maine, 221 Nutting Hall, Orono, ME 04469, USA

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Received 3 September 2014
Received in revised form
3 March 2015
Accepted 26 March 2015

Transportation management is one of the most salient challenges facing managers of national parks and
public lands. In order to determine strategies to increase voluntary use of alternative transportation
modes, this study explores the factors that inuence travel mode choice in recreation settings.
We combine the theory of planned behavior and segmentation analysis to determine distinct segments
of national park visitors in regard to their beliefs about transportation. Using cluster analysis, we identify
three distinct segments of visitors to a popular national park in Colorado, USA. The segments are
statistically similar in regards to sociodemographic variables, yet signicantly different in terms of
attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control and intentions to use shuttles. This study
demonstrates the utility of combining segmentation analysis and attitude theory to inform messaging
for travel information sources, such as intelligent transportation system (ITS) technologies. Combining
attitude theory and segmentation analysis allows researchers and managers to identify specic types of
visitor groups for targeted marketing campaigns in the context of nature tourism.

Keywords:
Theory of planned behavior
Segmentation analysis
Alternative transportation systems
Rocky Mountain National Park
Travel mode choice
Intelligent transportation systems

M a n a g e m en t i m p l i c a t i o n s
This research can help managers design alternative transportation systems to alleviate congestion caused
by private automobiles. Our research found that:

Alternative transportation must be frequent, dependable, and provide ample space to attract
loyal users.

Direct routes between parking and popular attractions as well as special opportunities such as pickup/drop-off for one-way treks may increase alternative transportation use.

Promotional materials and messaging should focus on the ability of alternatives to enhance
sightseeing opportunities, reduce stress caused by driving, and simplify parking.

When incentives fail to increase voluntary alternative transportation use, mandatory systems may be
necessary at the most popular visitor attractions.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Transportation management is one of the most salient challenges
facing managers of America's national parks, wildlife refuges, national
forests, and other public lands (Dilsaver & Wyckoff, 1999; Louter,
2006; White, 2007). In the past, as visitation increased and trafc
n

Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 734 625 0794.

E-mail addresses: kourtney.collum@maine.edu (K.K. Collum),
jdaigle@maine.edu (J.J. Daigle).
1
Tel.: 1 207 581 2850.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jort.2015.03.003
2213-0780/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

congestion worsened, managers expanded transportation infrastructure to accommodate more private automobiles (Dilsaver & Wyckoff,
1999). Consequences of the automobile-dominated transportation
culture within America's public lands include congestion and crowding at popular park attractions, air and noise pollution, erosion caused
by parking outside of designated areas, and threats to the safety of
visitors and wildlife alike (Hallo & Manning, 2009; Sims, Hodges, Fly,
& Stephens, 2005; Youngs, White, & Wodrich, 2008).
In an effort to alleviate transportation issues, several public lands
have implemented alternative transportation systems (ATS). Indeed,
with the establishment of the Alternative Transportation Program in

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K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

1998, the National Park Service (NPS) committed to invest in ATS

rather than new roads. ATS may include any mode of travel other
than the private automobile, such as buses, trains, trams, ferries and
hiking and biking trails (White, 2007). ATS integrate traditional travel
modes (e.g., hiking and biking trails) and alternative travel modes
(e.g., trains, trams, buses, etc.) into comprehensive transportation systems to offer visitors the experiences and access they expect on public
lands, without the need for a private vehicle (White, 2007). ATS
typically offer transportation to and within public lands to reduce
automobile use in both the recreation area and the gateway community. The NPS now has 147 alternative transportation systems in 72
park units throughout the United States (National Park Service, 2014).
Some parks, such as Denali and Zion National Parks, have implemented mandatory shuttle systems at the most popular recreation
areas. Several early studies revealed greater public support for
mandatory systems than anticipated (Harrison, 1975; Sims et al.,
2005). Yet demand for reduced trafc congestion and public support
for mandatory systems is not always sufcient to result in adoption of
mandatory ATS (Sims et al., 2005). In general, visitors prefer incentives, such as free voluntary shuttles, to disincentives, like restricted
automobile access (Anable, 2005; Holly, Hallo, Baldwin, & Mainella,
2010). Owing to the strong inuence of public opinion in park
management, the majority of ATS on U.S. public lands are optional.
It is therefore all the more important that visitors are aware of ATS
and that the services provided by these systems are comparable to
those of private automobiles. Visitors desire frequent, uncrowded
service to popular visitor attractions (Holly et al., 2010) and are more
willing to use ATS that are spatially and temporally exible (White,
2007). Furthermore, visitors are more willing to use alternative travel
modes that are family friendly and provide adequate space for gear
(White, 2007).
Many researchers and managers have looked to intelligent transportation systems (ITS) as tools to decrease the negative impacts of
automobiles and increase the use of alternatives. ITS employ information technologies to provide pertinent travel information to visitors.
Managers can combine various ITS technologies to meet specic
needs and preferences. For example, route guidance systems are used
to keep shuttles on schedule, highway advisory radio provides visitors
with shuttle information and trafc and weather conditions, and
electronic message signs are placed along approach roads to display
short messages informing motorists of parking conditions and alternate travel options. Other ITS technologies include: global positioning
systems; electronic signs that display real-time arrival and departure
of shuttles; websites and social media that provide trip-planning
information; and Smartphone applications that offer general recreation and real-time travel information (Daigle & Zimmerman, 2004a;
Sheldon, 1997). ITS technologies are currently in use at Acadia, Arches,
Grand Canyon, and Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, among
others (Daigle & Zimmerman, 2004a, 2004b; Dilworth & Shafer,
2004; Lawson, Manning, Valliere, & Wang, 2003; Strong, Eidswick,
& Turner, 2007). Studies of these systems discuss some of the benets
and weaknesses of ITS as tools for travel management. In general, ITS
provide visitors with access to travel information and help them avoid
parking and trafc congestion. However, ITS are not a panacea.
If managed improperly, ITS can exacerbate crowding by directing
visitors to alternative travel modes that service only the most popular
visitor attractions (Daigle & Zimmerman, 2004a, 2004b). The best
systems combine ATS and ITS to provide visitors with the right
information and access to distribute visitation spatially and temporally throughout a recreation area. Furthermore, information technologies differ in their applicability to different park settings and
environments. For example, highway advisory radio (HAR), while
effective in some urban areas, transmits poorly in rural and especially
mountainous areas (Dilworth & Shafer, 2004).
This paper presents the results of a survey that applied the
theory of planned behavior to better understand the motivations

behind travel mode choice at Rocky Mountain National Park in

Colorado, USA. According to Holly et al. (2010, p. 75), As park
planners and managers shift toward enhanced public transportation systems, it is increasingly important to gather visitors input
to help maximize the incentives and minimize the disincentives
for use of this increasingly relevant and needed mode of travel.
By understanding the factors that inuence travel mode choice, we
can determine who is likely to use alternative transportation and
how to motivate them to do so. This knowledge can help managers
maximize the value of ITS technologies as well as other travel
information tools such as websites and Smartphone applications.

2. Conceptual framework
2.1. Mode choice and the theory of planned behavior
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein &
Ajzen, 2010) is one of the most commonly used theories for exploring
the factors that inuence travel mode choice. According to the TPB,
human behavior (so long as it is under an individuals volitional
control) is guided by reason. Three kinds of beliefs inuence human
reasoning. First, individuals hold beliefs about the positive and
negative outcomes associated with performing a behavior. These
beliefs are referred to as behavior beliefs and are assumed to inuence
attitudes toward a given behavior. Second, individuals form normative
beliefs, which are beliefs about whether important people and groups
in their life will approve or disapprove of their performing the
behavior in question, and whether those important people/groups
would perform the behavior themselves. Normative beliefs produce
subjective norms, which are the perceived social pressures to perform
or not perform a behavior. Finally, individuals form control beliefs
about the internal and external factors that will aid or inhibit them
from performing a behavior, resulting in perceived behavioral control,
or the perceived ease or difculty of performing a behavior. Once
formed, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control
(PBC) inuence an individual's intention to perform a behavior. The
more favorable an individual's attitude, subjective norm, and PBC
regarding a given behavior, the stronger their intention to perform
that behavior. Intention is therefore the immediate antecedent of
behavior. Given a strong degree of actual control, intention is a strong
predictor of behavior. According to the TPB, it is possible to inuence
intention (and thereby behavior) by introducing a structural intervention to affect attitude, subjective norm, and/or PBC regarding a
given behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010).
2.2. Segmentation analysis
Segmentation, or the act of dening meaningful sub-groups of
individuals, is widely used in consumer studies to identify homogenous groups in order to tailor specic marketing campaigns and
policies (Wedel & Kamakura, 2000). For a given behavior, individuals are grouped into specic segments using sociodemographic
characteristics or by using multivariate statistical analysis to
categorize unique clusters based on psychological factors
(Anable, 2005). While ample literature exists on the psychological
determinants of travel mode choice, few transportation studies
have combined segmentation and attitude-theory.
Early studies almost exclusively used sociodemographic variables
to assign segmentation, but over the last two decades researchers
have demonstrated the value of segmenting based on attitudes
(Hunecke, Haustein, Bohler, & Grischkat, 2010; Jensen, 1999; Pas &
Huber, 1992; Redmond, 2000). In a survey of potential rail travelers in
the United States, Pas and Huber (1992) identied ve distinct groups
based on attitudes toward various transportation services. Jensen
(1999) used qualitative interviews to determine segments and their

K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

differing attitudes and motivations for using cars, bicycles and other
public transportation. These studies demonstrate the efcacy of
segmentation for simplifying the complex structure of travel markets.
More recently, Redmond (2000) used cluster analysis to segment
daily mobility behavior based on lifestyle and personality traits, and
their predictive power was superior compared to sociodemographic
variables such as age, gender, and income. In another study of daily
mobility behavior in three large German cities, Hunecke et al. (2010)
used the TPB and showed that segmentation based on psychological
variables has more predictive power than segmentation based on
sociodemographic variables.
Although the application of attitude theory and segmentation
analysis to understand daily travel behavior is growing, few studies
combine segmentation and attitude theory in the context of recreation
management. Yet those that do offer valuable information. In a study
of National Trust lands in the United Kingdom, Anable (2005) applied
an expanded version of the TPB (which tested ve new variables:
moral norm, environmental attitudes, efcacy, identity, and habit) to
categorize 666 mail-survey respondents into six distinct segments.
The segments ranged from Die Hard Drivers to Car-less Crusaders,
and the individual members varied widely in terms of sociodemographic characteristics. One segment, Complacent Car Addicts,
believed they had the ability to switch from cars to alternative travel
modes but felt no moral obligation to do so. On the other hand, the
segment Aspiring Environmentalists had already reduced their car
use for environmental reasons but were reluctant to give up cars
entirely. Anable's study demonstrates the utility of segmentation
analysis for identifying specic groups for targeted marketing campaigns in the context of nature tourism.
Our study builds on this research by combining the TPB and
segmentation analysis to identify unique segments of travelers in a
recreation setting. Based on our ndings we offer empirically
sound strategies to promote the use of alternative travel modes
to a diverse range of tourists. Information technologies are gaining
prominence in popular recreation settings, but only by determining the psychological factors behind travel mode choice will
managers be able to implement the most effective technologies
and determine the most persuasive messaging to broadcast via ITS
and other travel information sources.

3. Methodology
3.1. Study context
Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) receives more than
3,000,000 visitors a year, the majority of whom access the park
from the eastern gateway community of Estes Park, Colorado. Over
half of the annual visitation is concentrated within the summer
months of June, July and August, frequently leading to trafc jams
in downtown Estes Park. The NPS implemented a visitor transportation system within RMNP in the 1970s to mitigate crowding and
congestion caused by the profusion of private automobiles. The
transit system has since gained popularity, evolving into a regional
transportation system. Several routes now provide visitors with
free, frequent access to lodging, shops, and restaurants within
Estes Park and many of the most popular areas within RMNP.
Overnight visitors can leave their cars at their lodging and dayvisitors can park at one of several park-and-ride lots located in
town and within the park. The transit system provided nearly half
a million rides in 2010 (Villwock-Witte & Collum, 2012); however,
cars remain the preferred travel mode by a majority of visitors.
RMNP and Estes Park managers are working to improve the
regional transportation system, increase ridership, and improve
the overall visitor experience. In the summer of 2011 a pilot study
was conducted to explore the potential of an ITS consisting of two

19

componentsdigital message signs (DMS) and highway advisory

radio (HAR)to increase awareness and use of the shuttle system.
The DMS were placed along a major route on the approach to Estes
Park from the east. Messages were displayed on the signs informing motorists of parking conditions and recommending the use of
a newly constructed park-and-ride located just before downtown
Estes Park. The DMS also displayed the radio station number for
the HAR where motorists could tune-in and listen to a recorded
message detailing parking and transportation options and directions to the park-and-ride lot. Once at the park-and-ride, visitors
could board a free shuttle to the Estes Park Convention and
Visitors Bureau where they could then connect to various shuttles
servicing the town and park.
3.2. Sampling procedure
The data used for this analysis were collected as part of a larger
effort to evaluate the effectiveness of the pilot ITS at RMNP and Estes
Park. During the summer of 2011, visitors were asked to participate in
an on-site survey to evaluate their awareness and use of the ITS
components (the DMS and the HAR) and the shuttle system.
Sampling for the survey took place at three locations: on-board the
shuttle that transported visitors from the new park-and-ride to the
Estes Park Convention and Visitors Bureau (CVB); outside of the CVB,
where visitors could park and catch a shuttle or simply gather
information before driving their own vehicle into RMNP; and at a
small community park located amid shops and lodging in downtown
Estes Park. The research team chose these locations because they are
popular stopping points for visitors approaching the park from the
east, allowing us to capture a variety of visitors who were exposed to
an ITS component (a DMS or the HAR) on their approach to the area,
but may or may not have used the ITS. Those respondents sampled on
the shuttle from the park-and-ride lot must have used the ITS, and
those sampled at the CVB and downtown park may or may not have.
After completing the on-site survey, we invited respondents to
participate in an extended mail survey designed to yield in-depth
information about visitor attitudes and beliefs toward travel modes
and travel information sources. The analysis described in this paper
draws only on the results of the mail survey.
Visitors who agreed to participate in the mail survey provided their
name and mailing address on a card and were sent a survey within
three weeks. We administered the survey using the Dillman Tailored
Design Method (Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2008). We implemented
a four-wave treatment over a seven week period consisting of (1) an
invitation letter, the survey, and a postage-paid return envelope; (2) a
post-card reminder and thank you; (3) a replacement questionnaire for
participants who had not yet completed the survey; and (4) a nal
appeal to non-respondents. In total, 558 people completed an on-site
survey and of them, 233 people, or 41.8%, agreed to participate in the
extended study. Only 68 of the 558 respondents were sampled on the
new park-and-ride shuttle, therefore, we do not believe the survey
results are biased toward shuttle users.
3.3. Questionnaire
The questionnaire was divided into four sections: (1) use of visitor
shuttles, (2) opinions about shuttle use, (3) planning for trips, and
(4) demographic information. The questions in the rst three sections
were designed to measure the components of the TPB: attitude,
subjective norm, PBC, intention, and behavioral beliefs. These questions
were adapted from Bamberg, Ajzen and Schmidt (2003) and the
variables used to measure the components were developed using
previous TPB studies (Bamberg et al., 2003; Hrubes, Ajzen, & Daigle,
2001). The questionnaire also asked respondents about their past
experiences using shuttles at home and in recreation settings. In the
nal section, respondents provided demographic information including

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K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

age, gender, education, number of previous visits, type of travel group,

and accommodations used.
To explore potential interventions, the survey asked respondents to indicate how their future use of visitor shuttles might be
inuenced by eleven hypothetical scenarios. Respondents used a
4-point categorical scale (not at all increase my use, somewhat
increase my use, strongly increase my use, not sure) to evaluate such
scenarios as rising gas prices, vouchers for discounts at shops in
downtown Estes Park, and extended hours on all shuttle routes.
These data are used in our analysis to evaluate potential strategies
to increase shuttle use, as well as to recommend interventions that
could be tested as part of a future study.
3.3.1. TPB constructs
The mail survey used two questions to measure each TPB construct
on a 5-point Likert scale. For attitudes towards shuttle use, respondents were asked to evaluate whether they believed taking the visitor
shuttle on their next visit to Estes Park/RMNP would be extremely
pleasant-extremely unpleasant and extremely good-extremely bad. For
subjective norms, respondents indicated on a scale from extremely
likely-extremely unlikely their belief that most people who are important to them would support their decision to take a visitor shuttle next
time, and most people who are important to them think they should
take the visitor shuttle next time. To measure PBC, respondents rated
their beliefs about their ability to take the visitor shuttle next time
(extremely high-extremely low) and the difculty of taking the visitor
shuttle next time (extremely easy-extremely difcult). For behavioral
intention, respondents indicated the strength of their intention to take
the visitor shuttle next time (extremely strong-extremely weak) and the
likelihood of their taking the visitor shuttle next time (extremely likelyextremely unlikely).
3.3.2. Behavioral beliefs
The mail survey measured behavioral beliefs by asking respondents to assess the likelihood of different outcomes that could
potentially result from using visitor shuttles at Estes Park and
RMNP. Respondents rated ten outcomes, both positive and negative, on a 5-point scale (extremely likely-extremely unlikely). Outcomes included reducing tension and stress caused by driving,
feeling crowded and touristy, saving money by not using gas, and
feeling rushed or short on time. Respondents also rated the
desirability of each of the potential outcomes on a 5-point scale
(extremely desirable-extremely undesirable).
3.3.3. Behavior and past behavior
To measure actual behavior, the survey asked: during your
most recent visit to Estes Park/RMNP, did you use a visitor
shuttle? As a measure of past behavior, two questions were asked
using a 5-point bipolar response scale. The rst asked respondents
to indicate how often they use ve different modes of transportation (car, visitor shuttle, bicycle, walking, group tour bus) when
visiting parks and recreation areas (never-always). The second
question asked how often they use public transportation at home
(never-almost every day).

a score of 1 for each mode used and a score of 0 for each mode they
did not use. We focus on planned and actual use of cars and visitor
shuttles in this analysis.
3.4. Data analysis
Using SPSS 16.0, we examined descriptive statistics of the
survey data including mean, standard deviation, frequency and
variance. We used K-means cluster analysis to perform segmentation analysis. Differences between visitor segments were analyzed
with Pearson's chi-square test for categorical data and one-way
ANOVA. For all analyses using ANOVA, we performed post hoc
comparisons using Tukey's honestly signicant difference (HSD)
test. The acceptable probability level for rejecting the null hypothesis for all statistical tests was set at po .05.
To estimate the internal consistency of the item-pairs used to
measure attitude, subjective norm, PBC, and intention regarding
shuttle use, we used Cronbach's alpha. The resulting alpha for each
item-pair is sufciently high (.85, .80, .82, and .96 for attitude,
subjective norm, PBC and intention, respectively). By convention,
.80 or higher constitutes a good scale.
To measure non-response bias we used Pearson's chi-square
(2) test of independence. Late respondents have a tendency to be
similar to non-respondents (Armstrong & Overton, 1977), therefore, we divided the data into groups of rst and last wave
respondents and made comparisons for ve variables of interest.
These comparisons reveal no signicant differences between rst
and last wave respondents on age (2 49.1, 56 df, p .731), gender
(2 .371, 1 df, p .543), education (2 .259, 3 df, p .968), rst
time or return visitors (2 .256, 1 df, p .613), or use of shuttles at
Estes Park/RMNP (2 .043, 1 df, p .835).

4. Results
4.1. Survey response rate and demographics
The survey was mailed to 222 RMNP and Estes Park visitors and
received a response rate of 72.4% (N 155), with 8 surveys returned as
undeliverable. Eleven respondents requested to complete the survey
on-site rather than have the survey mailed to their home, resulting in
a total of 166 complete surveys. Demographics of survey respondents
are shown in Table 1 and are consistent with the ndings of a
previous study of RMNP visitors (Blotkamp, Boyd, Eury, & Hollenhorst,
2010).
Forty seven percent (N 78) of respondents reported that they
used a visitor shuttle on their most recent visit to Estes Park/
RMNP. These respondents were asked to indicate to what degree
the price of gasoline inuenced their decision to use a visitor
shuttle, the idea being that if the price of gasoline has a signicant
inuence on visitors decisions to use shuttles, the cost savings
associated with shuttle use could become an effective marketing
tool. However, 78% (N 59) of those who used shuttles indicated
that the price of gasoline did not inuence their decision to do so.
4.2. Segmentation analysis

3.3.4. Use of travel information sources

The survey used three questions to evaluate visitor use of travel
information. First, respondents rated the usefulness of thirteen travel
information sources on a 5-point bipolar scale (very useful-not at all
useful). Information sources included websites, printed material,
electronic technologies, and human resources. Next, respondents
indicated which mode(s) of transportation they planned to use and
which mode(s) they actually used on their most recent visit to Estes
Park/RMNP. Five transportation modes were evaluated: car, visitor
shuttle, bicycle, walking, and group tour bus. Respondents were given

To determine unique segments of respondents, we performed

K-means cluster analysis using the eight TPB survey questions. Cluster
analysis yields statistically signicant and distinct segments of respondents in terms of the heterogeneity of responses toward the questions
included in the analysis. We examined two-, three-, and four-cluster
solutions and selected the three-cluster solution because it yielded the
most distinct respondent segments. We then used ANOVA and
Pearson's chi-square to explore how the three segments differ in
demographics, use of transportation modes, perceptions of shuttles,

K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

Table 1
Demographic characteristics of survey participants.
Demographic Characteristics

Gender
Male
Female

83
81

Age in years
Mean

48.1

Education
High school or less
Some college
Bachelor's degree
Graduate degree

8
41
58
58

4.8
24.8
35.2
35.2

48
111
6

29.1
67.3
3.6

51
25
24
66

30.7
15.1
14.5
39.7

107
19
21
9
3

67.3
11.9
13.2
5.7
1.9

78

47.0

Length of stay
Day-visitor
Overnight visitor
Local resident
# of previous times visiting area
First time
1 time before
23 times before
4 or more times before
Type of travel group
Family
Friends
Mix of family and friends
Alone
Organized group or club
Used shuttles on most recent trip
Yes

50.6
49.4

and information source preferences. We refer to these three segments

as Shuttle Shunners, Bus Backers, and Potential-Mode Shifters.
Shuttle Shunners are the smallest segment (Table 2) of our sample.
Members of this segment have the most negative attitudes towards
shuttles, believe that it is unlikely that friends or loved ones feel they
should use shuttles or would support their decision to use shuttles,
and feel they have little control over their ability to use shuttles.
Overall, Shuttle Shunners reported the weakest intent to use visitor
shuttles on their next visit to Estes Park/RMNP.
In contrast, members of the group Bus Backers reported the
strongest intent to use visitor shuttles on their next trip (Table 2).
Members of this group have positive attitudes toward shuttles and
nd them to be pleasant. They also believe it likely that people
who are important to them would support their decision to use
shuttles, though they are slightly less condent that these important people feel they should use shuttles. It is important to note
that this group reported the highest perceived behavioral control
in regard to shuttle use, indicating that they have high ability to
use shuttles and that engaging in the behavior would be easy.
The third segment, Potential Mode-shifters, includes respondents
who are largely neutral in their beliefs about and intentions to use
shuttles (Table 2). These respondents lack strong attitudes toward
shuttles and are uncertain of how important people in their life feel
about their using shuttles. This group holds the best hope for travel
mode change, as they lack strong opinions one way or the other.
Because this group is neutral in their attitudes, subjective norms, and
PBC concerning shuttle use, they are assumed to be the most
susceptible to interventions designed to encourage shuttle use.
The questions pertaining to the TPB constructs were summated to
create an aggregate measure for each construct. Table 3 shows the
aggregate measures by segment. The three segments are statistically
different on all four TPB constructs (attitude, subjective norm, PBC,
and intention); however, the three groups are statistically similar in
their past use of shuttles. All three groups indicated that they never
or hardly ever use public transportation at home. Additionally,

21

Bus Backers are signicantly different from Shuttle Shunners and

Potential Mode-shifters in that they reported higher use of shuttles
when visiting national parks or other recreation areas.
We compared the mean desirability strength for potential
outcomes associated with shuttle use to the mean belief strength
for each of the outcomes, by segment. The three segments are
statistically similar in their levels of desire for potential outcomes
resulting from shuttle use, with only two exceptions. Bus Backers
rated the desirability of reducing the tension and stress caused by
driving and of alleviating the stress related to nding parking
signicantly higher than Shuttle Shunners and Potential Modeshifters (Table 4).
Interestingly, despite similarity in desires across segments, the
segments are quite disparate in their beliefs about the likelihood
of outcomes associated with shuttle use (Table 5). Bus Backers are
signicantly more likely than the other segments to believe that
using shuttles would: reduce their tension and stress caused by
driving; alleviate stress related to nding parking; allow them to
explore at their own pace; and provide enough space for their
gear. Shuttle Shunners on the other hand are signicantly more
likely than Bus Backers and Potential Mode-shifters to believe that
using shuttles would make them feel crowded or touristy. Shuttle
Shunners are also signicantly less likely than Bus Backers to
believe that using shuttles would enhance their sightseeing ability
and more likely to believe that it would make them feel rushed or
short on time. Potential Mode-shifters are signicantly less likely
than Bus Backers to believe that shuttle use would allow them to
save money on gas. These results show that while the segments
largely desire the same outcomes, they differ in their beliefs about
whether using shuttles will allow them to realize these outcomes.
All three segments are statistically similar in their evaluations of
the majority of travel information sources. Online and the RMNP
website received the highest usefulness ratings by all three segments. Park brochure or map was also rated as a somewhat to very
useful information source by all segments, though this source was
rated signicantly higher by Bus Backers. Bus Backers found the park
newspaper to be signicantly more useful than did Shuttle Shunners.
The same is true for the highway advisory radio (HAR), although this
information source was not rated as very useful by any of the
segments. Interestingly, Potential Mode-shifters and Bus Backers rated
other visitors as a signicantly more useful source of information
than did Shuttle Shunners (Table 6).
In exploring the potential utility of different scenarios to increase
voluntary shuttle use, several scenarios appear to have promise.
Due to the relative consistency of responses to these scenarios across
the segments, we analyzed them using the entire survey population.
The scenario that was rated as having the potential to strongly
increase use by the highest percentage of respondents (40%) was
special recreation opportunities, such as pick-ups and drop-offs for
one way hikes. Thirty three percent of respondents indicated that
direct shuttle routes between parking and park attractions would
strongly increase their use, and 22% said their use of shuttles would
increase if electronic message signs showing real-time arrival and
departure were available. Three scenarios were rated as having only
negligible ability to increase future use among all three groups: an
interpretive program played onboard the shuttles; information about
the environmental benets associated with shuttle use; and shuttles
that operate on alternative fuels (Table 7).

5. Discussion
Intelligent transportation technologies have the potential to signicantly increase visitor awareness and use of alternative travel
modes on public lands (Daigle & Zimmerman, 2004a, 2004b; Ye,
Albert, Eidswick, & Law, 2010). However, to realize the full potential of

22

K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

Table 2
Means by visitor segments
Potential mode-shifters (N 47)

Shuttle shunners (N 24)

TPB constructs
Attitude 1
Attitude 2
Subjective norm 1
Subjective norm 2
PBC 1
PBC 2
Intention 1
Intention 2

2.75a
2.58a
2.38a
1.96a
1.75a
2.42a
1.57a
1.48a

Demographics
Female (%)
Age
First visit (%)
Day visitor (%)
Used shuttles (%)
Bachelor's degree or higher (%)

Bus backers (N 93)

3.40b
3.53b
3.60b
2.96b
3.38b
3.33b
2.93b
3.11b

56.5
51.11
25.0
30.4
12.5
70.8

4.40c
4.56c
4.61c
3.86c
4.55c
4.51c
4.37c
4.46c

46.8
46.01
23.4
40.4
25.5
60.9

49.5
48.41
35.5
23.7
67.7*
76.3

Note: Items measured on a 5-point Likert scale with 5 indicating a more positive response. Superscripts (a to c) indicate between-group differences signicant at po .05.
n

p-Value o .05
Statistically similar.

Table 3
Means and standard deviations for aggregate. TPB constructs related to shuttle use.

Attitude
Subjective norm
Perceived behavioral control
Intention
Use of public transportation at home
Use of shuttles when visiting a national park or recreation area

Shuttle shunners

Potential mode-shifters

Bus backers

2.67a
2.20a
2.08a
1.52a
1.92a
1.53a

3.47b
3.28b
3.38b
3.02b
1.72a
1.89a

4.48c
4.23c
4.53c
4.42c
1.87a
2.95b

(.73)
(.73)
(.65)
(.49)
(1.21)
(.74)

(.48)
(.62)
(.45)
(.65)
(.85)
(.89)

(.48)
(.53)
(.45)
(.53)
(1.01)
(.99)

Note: Standard deviations in parentheses. All variables measured on a scale from 1 to 5 with higher numbers indicating more positive attitudes and norms, higher
perceptions of control and intentions, and more frequent use of public transportation. Superscripts indicate between-group differences signicant at p o.05.

Table 4
Desirability of potential outcomes associated with shuttle use.

Table 5
Belief strength for potential outcomes associated with shuttle use.

Outcome

Shuttle
shunners

Potential modeshifters

Bus
backers

Outcome

Shuttle
shunners

Potential mode- Bus

shifters
backers

Reducing my tension and stress

caused by driving
Reducing my environmental impact
Experiencing infrequent buses with
long lines
Feeling crowded, touristy
Alleviating my stress related to nding
parking
Feeling rushed or short on time
Saving money by not using gas for my
own vehicle
Enhancing my sightseeing ability
Exploring at my own pace
Having enough space for my personal
belongings

4.00a

3.82a

4.42b

3.22a

3.28a

4.21b

4.23a
2.23a

3.98a
2.34a

4.24a
2.60a

3.83a

3.68a

4.15a

3.52a

3.47a

3.22a

2.10a
3.82a

2.34a
3.91a

2.43a
4.41b

2.05a
4.00a

2.55a
3.70a

2.65a
4.06a

3.91a
3.41a
3.55a

3.84a
3.77a
3.64a

4.05a
3.90a
3.67a

Reduce my tension and stress caused by

driving
Allow me to reduce my environmental
impact
Make me experience infrequent buses
with long lines
Make me feel crowded, touristy
Alleviate stress related to parking
Make me feel rushed or short on time
Allow me to save money on gas
Enhance my sightseeing ability
Allow me to explore at my own pace
Provide enough space for my personal
belongings

4.09a
3.09a
3.70a
3.52a,b
3.00a
2.26a
2.65a

3.32b
3.48a
3.21a,b
3.28a
3.34a,b
2.68a
2.98a

2.96b
4.49b
2.77b
3.99b
3.78b
3.39b
3.56b

Note: Outcomes were rated on a 5 point scale ranging from 1 (extremely undesirable) to 5 (extremely desirable). Superscripts indicate between-group differences
signicant at p o .05.

these technologies, it is essential that we understand who is likely to

use alternatives and what factors inuence their travel mode choices
(Holly et al., 2010). This study set out to explore the factors inuencing
travel mode choice in a recreation setting in order to determine
potential strategies for increasing voluntary shuttle use. We combined
the theory of planned behavior and segmentation analysis to determine distinct segments of visitors in regard to their beliefs about
transportation. Using cluster analysis, we identied three distinct segments of Estes Park/RMNP visitors. Consistent with previous literature

Note: Outcomes were rated on a 5 point scale ranging from 1 (extremely unlikely) to
5 (extremely likely). Superscripts indicate between-group differences signicant at
po .05.

(Anable, 2005; Hunecke et al., 2010), the three segments identied in

our study are statistically similar in regards to sociodemographic
variables such as age, gender, and education, yet signicantly different
in terms of attitudes, subjective norms, PBC and intentions to use
shuttles. Thus, we compared segments on a number of issues related
to transportation in recreation settings to inform future travel information messaging. Following this model, managers can develop
theoretically informed messaging to broadcast using ITS technologies
and other travel information sourcessuch as websites and

K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

23

Table 6
Mean responses for usefulness of travel information sources.
Source

Shuttle shunners

Potential mode-shifters

Bus backers

RMNP website
511
Park brochure/map
Park newspaper
Host of campground/hotel/B&B
Traveling guide/tour book
Chamber of commerce or state visitors bureau
Text updates for cellular phones
Apps available for Smartphones
Online
HAR
Family or friends
Other visitors

4.21a
2.26a
4.21a
3.29a
3.17a
3.71a
3.61a
2.87a
3.00a
4.38a
2.43a
3.71a
3.04a

4.60a
2.74a
4.51a,b
3.62a,b
3.64a
3.80a
3.70a
2.78a
2.96a
4.62a
2.85a,b
3.74a
3.62b

4.63a
2.83a
4.68b
3.96b
3.51a
4.09a
3.70a
2.72a
3.12a
4.37a
3.21b
4.08a
3.96b

Note: Outcomes were rated on a 5 point scale ranging from 1 (not at all useful) to 5 (very useful). Superscripts indicate between-group differences signicant at p o .05.

Table 7
Inuence of potential scenarios on future use of shuttles.
Scenario

Extended hours on all shuttle routes

Increased frequency of shuttle pick-ups and drop-offs
Interpretive program onboard shuttles
Vouchers for discounts at shops in Estes Park
Additional space for gear
Information about the environmental benets of shuttles
Special recreation opportunities
Rising gas prices
Electronic signs showing real-time arrival/departure
Direct shuttle routes between parking and park attractions
Shuttles that operate on alternative fuels

Strongly increase my use

Somewhat increase my use

Not at all increase my use

25
28
14
27
20
10
61
27
34
50
24

18.5
20.0
9.9
18.0
13.7
6.8
39.6
17.6
22.2
33.1
16.7

71
78
55
75
53
47
71
74
78
74
46

52.6
55.7
38.7
50.0
36.3
32.0
46.1
48.4
51.0
49.0
31.9

39
34
73
48
73
90
22
52
41
27
74

28.9
24.3
51.4
32.0
50.0
61.2
14.3
34.0
26.8
17.9
51.4

brochuresin order to increase alternative transportation use and

mitigate auto-related challenges.
We can draw a number of useful conclusions from comparisons
between segments on beliefs about the likelihood and desirability of
outcomes associated with shuttle use. For example, while all three
visitor segments largely desire the same outcomessuch as reduced
tension and stress and enhanced sightseeing abilitythey differ in their
beliefs about whether using shuttles will allow them to realize these
outcomes. Shuttle Shunners hold the most negative views about shuttle
use; therefore it will be difcult to convince members of this segment
to try shuttles. However, Potential Mode-shifters are neutral in their
evaluations of shuttles. Researchers and managers can take steps to
change this segments attitudes about shuttles and their perceptions of
behavioral control. Potential Mode-shifters expressed strong desires to
reduce their tension and stress caused by driving and to alleviate stress
related to nding parking. The messaging employed by ITS technologies and other travel information sources should emphasize that by
using shuttles visitors can relax and not worry about nding parking or
driving in congestion. In another recent study of RMNP transportation,
Pettebone et al. (2011) found that visitors are more inclined to take
shuttles from Estes Park into RMNP if they are aware of congested
driving and parking conditions near popular park attractions. Information about parking and driving conditions should be broadcast using
ITS technologies and other travel information sources to encourage
Potential Mode-shifters to use alternative transportation.
Potential Mode-shifters also expressed strong desires to enhance
their sightseeing ability. Managers can promote shuttles or similar
alternativessuch as trams or trainsas ways for visitors to focus on
the scenery and landscape while leaving the navigating to the vehicle
operators. Such messages would also work to encourage use of
alternatives among Bus Backers, who likewise strongly desired these

outcomes. While the majority of Bus Backers reported that they are
already using visitor shuttles, more than 30% reported that they did
not use shuttles on their last visit to the area, despite their positive
attitudes and high intentions to use shuttles. Above all other segments, Bus Backers desire reduced tension and stress related to driving
and parking, therefore, promoting those outcomes has strong potential to shift any laggard Bus Backers from automobiles to alternatives.
All three segments indicated that feeling rushed or short on
time is undesirable, as is feeling crowded or experiencing infrequent buses with long lines. Unfortunately, neither Bus Backers nor
Potential Mode-shifters were condent that these outcomes were
unlikely. To assuage this concern, shuttle service must be frequent
and reliable, giving visitors the ability to access the most popular
park attractions without excessive wait times for shuttle pick-ups.
Frequent and reliable service is consistently found to be one of the
most important factors inuencing alternative transportation use
(Daigle & Zimmerman, 2004b; Holly et al., 2010; White, 2007).
ITS technologies and other travel information sources should
prominently advertise the frequency and hours of shuttle operation.
In a park such as RMNP, avoiding crowds is often impossible in the
front country, so this should not be advertised as a benet of shuttle
use. However, managers can inform visitors of off-peak hours when
shuttles and park attractions are less crowded. This information must
be available through multiple information sources, such as ITS
technologies if available, and especially town and park websites and
other trip planning tools such as brochures, as many visitors have
itineraries planned before they arrive to the area (Villwock-Witte &
Collum, 2012).
Our analysis also identied a number of scenarios to increase
shuttle use. The scenario with the highest potential to increase shuttle
use is special recreation opportunities, such as pick-ups and drop-offs

24

K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

for one-way hikes. Another scenario is to offer direct shuttle routes

between parking locations and park attractions. A park-and-ride lot
already exists in Estes Park; however, visitors must transfer between
shuttles at the Estes Park Convention and Visitors Bureau in order to
connect to the RMNP shuttle routes. A direct route from the park-andride to RMNP would increase the appeal of using the park-and-ride,
and based on our results, strongly inuence Bus Backers and Potential
Mode-shifters to use shuttles. A third high-ranking scenario is the
implementation of electronic signs that display the real-time arrival
and departure of shuttles. Real-time arrival signs have tested well in
other park settings (Daigle & Zimmerman, 2004b).
The results of our study raise the question of which ITS technologies are most useful and appropriate for different recreation settings.
The pilot ITS tested in our study used digital message signs (DMS) and
highway advisory radio (HAR). Although the DMS inuenced visitors
use of park-and-ride lots and shuttles (see Villwock-Witte & Collum,
2012), the HAR had little effect. Few visitors reported using the HAR,
and many of those who did reported transmission issues, a likely
result of the mountainous landscape. Furthermore, survey respondentsespecially Shuttle Shunners and Potential Mode-shiftersrated
the HAR as least useful compared to the other travel information
sources (Table 6). Although ITS undoubtedly have potential to improve
transportation management and visitor experiences (Daigle &
Zimmerman, 2004b; Strong et al., 2007; Ye et al., 2010), not all
technologies are appropriate or useful in all recreation settings. It is
clear that HAR is not ideal for Estes Park and RMNP. However, a
combination of DMS broadcasting parking information, trafc information, and real-time arrival/departure for shuttles may be ideal,
especially when linked with information on websites, park brochures,
and Smartphone applications.
Interestingly, survey respondents rated Smartphone applications and text updates for cellular phones as only somewhat
useful, on average (Table 6). Yet Smartphone applications appear to
be the future of intelligent transportation (Dickinson et al., 2014;
Wang, Park, & Fesenmaier, 2012). It is possible these travel information sources received low usefulness ratings from respondents
because at the time of the study they were not common, and
therefore visitors were unfamiliar with them. However, several
Smartphone applications have launched in the last few years for
many of the most popular parks around the United States, including
RMNP. These applications include real-time shuttle information,
parking information, and interactive maps for hiking and biking
trails, and have the potential to offer much more. Chimani (https://
www.chimani.com/) is one company offering these applications.
Undoubtedly, future research on ITS will focus heavily on the utility
of Smartphone applications.
Previous studies show (Holly et al., 2010) that visitors respond
more positively to incentives to use alternative transportationsuch as
useful travel information sources and free shuttlesthan disincentives
such as restrictions on automobile use. We therefore focused here on
messaging incentives to increase shuttle use. Further research is
necessary to determine if appropriate combinations of ITS and
messaging can in fact mitigate crowding and congestion and increase
alternative transportation use in popular recreation settings. However,
in any given park or protected area, if combinations of alternative
transportation and empirically informed travel information do not
decrease the environmental degradation caused by private automobiles in a practicable timeframe, disincentives may be necessary. And
as previously mentioned, successful models exist of mandatory shuttle
systems in parks throughout the country, such as Denali and Zion
National Parks. In some of America's most popular parks, mandatory
ATS may be the only ecologically sound solution.
While our study provides a number of recommendations concerning the promotion of alternative transportation, it is not without
limitations. Foremost, the theory of planned behavior offers the most
utility when applied to a longitudinal study to evaluate the effect of

an intervention on a specic behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). Time

and resource constraints made a longitudinal study impossible,
therefore, we were unable to fully evaluate the potential for ITS at
RMNP by gathering data before and after the implementation of the
pilot ITS. Our study was also limited by a small sample size. Our
relatively small sample size was a result of combining this analysis
with a larger data collection effort to evaluate the pilot ITS. The
respondents of our survey had already made a time investment by
lling out an on-site survey to evaluate the ITS; therefore, participation in the mail survey required an additional investment of time and
added additional burden to respondents. To minimize the time burden to respondents, we designed the survey instrument to be short
and concise. However, there is much more to learn about the factors
that inuence mode choice. Future research should evaluate the
efcacy of other ITS technologies, such as real-time arrival signs and
emerging Smartphone applications. Additional lifestyle and personality traits should be considered in segmenting visitors, including
reasons for visiting the area, preferred recreation activities, and willingness to change plans and try new travel modes. This information
would further inform management strategies, making ITS a highly
effective tool for travel management.
Finally, as park managers move toward intelligent transportation
systems, they must proceed carefully and consider unintended
consequences. As Pettebone et al. (2011) stress, managers should
seek to implement systems that reduce trafc congestion without
compromising visitor experience or the environmental quality of an
area's resources. Increased alternative transportation use can have
the unintended consequence of negatively impacting visitors experiences, as it can increase crowding and congestion both on the
alternative travel mode and at popular attractions that those modes
service. For this reason, Holly et al. (2010) recommend more
frequent, uncrowded service, as opposed to less frequent, more
crowded service. This can ensure that visitor satisfaction remains
high by decreasing both trafc congestion and crowding issues.

6. Conclusions
In the coming decades the managers of America's parks and
public lands will continue to grapple with increasing visitation and
growing pressure on natural and managerial resources. One of the
foremost challenges for managers will be transitioning from the
auto-dominated park infrastructure of the past to the alternative
transportation systems of the future. ITS have the potential to
vastly improve transportation management, but only if appropriate technologies are coupled with meaningful travel information.
Despite the unique character of individual visitors, similarities
exist that can help managers determine appropriate ITS technologies
in which to invest and effective messaging to employ via these
technologies (as well as more traditional travel information sources).
Our study demonstrates the utility of the theory of planned behavior
as a conceptual framework for segmenting visitors based on their
beliefs about shuttle use. Segmentation analysis proved valuable for
exploring the divergent beliefs about shuttles held by park visitors.
By combining theory and market segmentation, park managers can
identify and implement empirically sound travel management
strategies.
Although ITS are gaining popularity in park and recreation
settings, inherent differences exist in travel for tourism purposes as
opposed to everyday travel. These differences must be considered
when identifying appropriate technologies. By employing technologies that cater to the needs and desires of park visitors and t with
the natural environment of recreation settings, there is potential for a
new park culture to emerge that is characterized by smart, alternative transportation options that lay lighter on the land.

K.K. Collum, J.J. Daigle / Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism 9 (2015) 1725

Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the staff of the former Paul S. Sarbanes
Transit in Parks Technical Assistance Center for their assistance and
feedback, particularly Natalie Villwock-Witte for her leadership on
the RMNP ITS pilot study. Additional thanks to the great people at
RMNP, the Town of Estes Park, and all the volunteers who helped
with the project. This research was funded by the Paul S. Sarbanes
Transit in Parks Technical Assistance Center, led by the Western
Transportation Institute.
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Dr. John J. Daigle is a Professor in the Parks, Recreation

and Tourism Program at the University of Maine,
Orono, USA. He has worked on alternative transportation and traveler information studies at Acadia, Rocky
Mountain, and Grand Canyon National Parks. He is a
founding member of a committee with the Transportation Research Board of the National Academies of
Sciences and Engineering that identies transportation
research needs for national parks and public lands.
Prior to his University of Maine position, John served 10
years with the National Park Service as a Park Ranger
and U.S. Forest Service as a Research Forester.

Kourtney K. Collum is a doctoral candidate in the

Anthropology & Environmental Policy Program in the
Department of Anthropology at the University of
Maine, Orono, USA. While completing her M.S. in Forest
Resources at the University of Maine, she studied
alternative transportation projects at Acadia and Rocky
Mountain National Parks, and at Grand Island National
Recreation Area in Michigan. Collum is currently completing her doctoral dissertation which examines the
intersections of social capital, agricultural policy, and
bee conservation in the blueberry industries of Maine
and Atlantic Canada.