PhysicalScienceStandards

PhysicalScienceSYLLABUSANDMODELCURRICULUMCOURSEDESCRIPTION
Physicalscienceisahighschoollevelcourse,whichsatisfiestheOhioCorescience
graduationrequirementsofOhioRevisedCodeSection3313.603.ThissectionofOhiolaw
requiresathreeunitcoursewithinquirybasedlaboratoryexperiencethatengagesstudents
inaskingvalidscientificquestionsandgatheringandanalyzinginformation.Physicalscience
introducesstudentstokeyconceptsandtheoriesthatprovideafoundationforfurtherstudyin
othersciencesandadvancedsciencedisciplines.Physicalsciencecomprisesthesystematic
studyofthephysicalworldasitrelatestofundamentalconceptsaboutmatter,energyand
motion.Aunifiedunderstandingofphenomenainphysical,living,Earthandspacesystemsis
theculminationofallpreviouslylearnedconceptsrelatedtochemistry,physics,andEarthand
spacescience,alongwithhistoricalperspectiveandmathematicalreasoning.SCIENCE
INQUIRYANDAPPLICATIONDuringtheyearsofgrades9through12,allstudentsmustuse
thefollowingscientificprocesseswithappropriatelaboratorysafetytechniquestoconstruct
theirknowledgeandunderstandinginallsciencecontentareas:Identifyquestionsand
conceptsthatguidescientificinvestigationsDesignandconductscientificinvestigations
UsetechnologyandmathematicstoimproveinvestigationsandcommunicationsFormulate
andreviseexplanationsandmodelsusinglogicandevidence(criticalthinking)Recognize
andanalyzeexplanationsandmodelsandCommunicateandsupportascientificargument.
COURSECONTENTThefollowinginformationmaybetaughtinanyorderthereisno
ODErecommendedsequence.STUDYOFMATTERClassificationofmatter
Heterogeneousvs.homogeneousPropertiesofmatterStatesofmatteranditschanges
AtomsModelsoftheatom(components)Ions(cationsandanions)IsotopesPeriodic
trendsoftheelementsPeriodiclawRepresentativegroupsBondingandcompounds
Bonding(ionicandcovalent)NomenclatureReactionsofmatterChemicalreactions
NuclearreactionsENERGYANDWAVESConservationofenergyQuantifyingkinetic
energyQuantifyinggravitationalpotentialenergyEnergyisrelativeTransferand
transformationofenergy(includingwork)WavesRefraction,reflection,diffraction,
absorption,superpositionRadiantenergyandtheelectromagneticspectrumDopplershift
ThermalenergyElectricityMovementofelectronsCurrentElectricpotential(voltage)
ResistorsandtransferofenergyBACKTOINDEXOHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSI
Science276FORCESANDMOTIONMotionIntroductiontoonedimensionalvectors
Displacement,velocity(constant,averageandinstantaneous)andaccelerationInterpreting
positionvs.timeandvelocityvs.timegraphsForcesForcediagramsTypesofforces
(gravity,friction,normal,tension)FieldmodelforforcesatadistanceDynamics(how
forcesaffectmotion)ObjectsatrestObjectsmovingwithconstantvelocityAccelerating
objectsTHEUNIVERSEHistoryoftheuniverseGalaxyformationStarsFormation
stagesofevolutionFusioninstarsBACKTOINDEXOHIOSNEWLEARNING
STANDARDSIScience277CONTENTELABORATION:STUDYOFMATTERClassification
ofMatterMatterwasintroducedintheelementarygradesandthelearningprogression
continuedthroughmiddleschooltoincludedifferencesinthephysicalpropertiesofsolids,
liquidsandgases,elements,compounds,mixtures,molecules,kineticandpotentialenergy

andtheparticulatenatureofmatter.Contentinthechemistrysyllabus(e.g.,electron
configuration,molecularshapes,bondangles)willbedevelopedfromconceptsinthiscourse.
Mattercanbeclassifiedinbroadcategoriessuchashomogeneousandheterogeneousor
classifiedaccordingtoitscompositionorbyitschemical(reactivity)andphysicalproperties
(e.g.,color,solubility,odor,hardness,density,conductivity,meltingpointandboilingpoint,
viscosityandmalleability).Solutionsarehomogenousmixturesofasolutedissolvedina
solvent.Theamountofasolidsolutethatcandissolveinasolventgenerallyincreasesasthe
temperatureincreasessincetheparticleshavemorekineticenergytoovercometheattractive
forcesbetweenthem.Waterisoftenusedasasolventsincesomanysubstanceswill
dissolveinwater.Physicalpropertiescanbeusedtoseparatethesubstancesinmixtures,
includingsolutions.Phasechangescanberepresentedbygraphingthetemperatureofa
samplevs.thetimeithasbeenheated.Investigationsmustincludecollectingdataduring
heating,coolingandsolidliquidsolidphasechanges.Attimes,thetemperaturewillchange
steadily,indicatingachangeinthemotionoftheparticlesandthekineticenergyofthe
substance.However,duringaphasechange,thetemperatureofasubstancedoesnot
change,indicatingthereisnochangeinkineticenergy.Sincethesubstancecontinuestogain
orloseenergyduringphasechanges,thesechangesinenergyarepotentialandindicatea
changeinthepositionoftheparticles.Whenheatingasubstance,aphasechangewilloccur
whenthekineticenergyoftheparticlesisgreatenoughtoovercometheattractiveforces
betweentheparticlesthesubstancethenmeltsorboils.Conversely,whencoolinga
substance,aphasechangewilloccurwhenthekineticenergyoftheparticlesisnolonger
greatenoughtoovercometheattractiveforcesbetweentheparticlesthesubstancethen
condensesorfreezes.Phasechangesareexamplesofchangesthatcanoccurwhenenergy
isabsorbedfromthesurroundings(endothermic)orreleasedintothesurroundings
(exothermic).Whenthermalenergyisaddedtoasolid,liquidorgas,mostsubstances
increaseinvolumebecausetheincreasedkineticenergyoftheparticlescausesanincreased
distancebetweentheparticles.Thisresultsinachangeindensityofthematerial.Generally,
solidshavegreaterdensitythanliquids,whichhavegreaterdensitythangasesduetothe
spacingbetweentheparticles.Thedensityofasubstancecanbecalculatedfromtheslopeof
amassvs.volumegraph.Differencesindensitiescanbedeterminedbyinterpretingmassvs.
volumegraphsofthesubstances.AtomsContentintroducedinmiddleschool,wherethe
atomwasintroducedasasmall,indestructiblesphere,isfurtherdevelopedinthephysical
sciencesyllabus.Overtime,technologywasintroducedthatallowedtheatomtobestudiedin
moredetail.Theatomiscomposedofprotons,neutronsandelectronsthathavemeasurable
properties,includingmassand,inthecaseofprotonsandelectrons,acharacteristiccharge.
Whenbombardingthingoldfoilwithatomicsized,positivelycharged,highspeedparticles,a
fewoftheparticlesweredeflectedslightlyfromtheirstraightlinepath.Evenfewerbounced
backtowardthesource.Thisevidenceindicatesthatmostofanatomisemptyspacewitha
verysmallpositivelychargednucleus.Thisexperimentandotherevidenceindicatethe
nucleusiscomposedofprotonsandneutrons,andelectronsthatmoveaboutintheempty
spacethatsurroundsthenucleus.Additionalexperimentalevidencethatledtothe
developmentofotherhistoricatomicmodelswillbeaddressedinthechemistrysyllabus.All
atomsofaparticularelementhavethesameatomicnumberanelementmayhavedifferent

isotopeswithdifferentmassnumbers.Atomsmaygainorlosevalenceelectronstobecome
anionsorcations.Atomicnumber,massnumber,chargeandidentityoftheelementcanbe
determinedfromthenumbersofprotons,neutronsandelectrons.Eachelementhasaunique
atomicspectrumthatcanbeobservedandusedtoidentifyanelement.Atomicmassand
explanationsabouthowatomicspectraareproducedareaddressedinthechemistrysyllabus.
PeriodicTrendsoftheElementsContentfromthemiddleschoollevel,specificallythe
propertiesofmetalsandnonmetalsandtheirpositionsontheperiodictable,isfurther
expandedinthiscourse.Whenelementsarelistedinorderofincreasingatomicnumber,the
samesequenceofpropertiesappearsoverandoveragainthisistheperiodiclaw.The
periodictableisarrangedsothatelementswithsimilarchemicalandphysicalpropertiesare
inthesamegrouporfamily.Metalloidsareelementsthathavesomepropertiesofmetalsand
somepropertiesofnonmetals.Metals,nonmetals,metalloids,periodsandgroupsorfamilies
includingthealkalimetals,alkalineearthmetals,halogensandnoblegasescanbeidentified
bytheirpositionontheperiodictable.ElementsinGroups1,2and17havecharacteristic
ionicchargesthatwillbeusedinthiscoursetopredicttheformulasofcompounds.Other
trendsintheperiodictable(e.g.,atomicradius,electronegativity,ionizationenergies)are
foundinthechemistrysyllabus.BondingandCompoundsMiddleschoolcontentincluded
compoundsarecomposedofatomsoftwoormoreelementsjoinedtogetherchemically.In
thiscourse,thechemicaljoiningofatomsisstudiedinmoredetail.Atomsmaybebonded
togetherbylosing,gainingorsharingvalenceelectronstoformmoleculesorthree
dimensionallattices.Anionicbondinvolvestheattractionoftwooppositelychargedions,
typicallyametalcationandaBACKTOINDEXBACKTOPHYSICALSCIENCEOUTLINE
OHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience278nonmetalanionformedbytransferring
electronsbetweentheatoms.Anionattractsoppositelychargedionsfromeverydirection,
resultingintheformationofathreedimensionallattice.Covalentbondsresultfromthesharing
ofelectronsbetweentwoatoms,usuallynonmetals.Covalentbondingcanresultinthe
formationofstructuresrangingfromsmallindividualmoleculestothreedimensionallattices
(e.g.,diamond).Thebondsinmostcompoundsfallonacontinuumbetweenthetwoextreme
modelsofbonding:ionicandcovalent.Usingtheperiodictabletodetermineioniccharge,
formulasofioniccompoundscontainingelementsfromgroups1,2,17,hydrogenandoxygen
canbepredicted.Givenachemicalformula,acompoundcanbenamedusingconventional
systemsthatincludeGreekprefixeswhereappropriate.Prefixeswillbelimitedtorepresent
valuesfromoneto10.Giventhenameofanionicorcovalentsubstance,formulascanbe
written.Namingorganicmoleculesisbeyondthisgradelevelandisreservedforanadvanced
chemistrycourse.Predictionofbondtypesfromelectronegativityvalues,polarcovalent
bonds,writingformulasandnamingcompoundsthatcontainpolyatomicionsortransition
metalswillbeaddressedinthechemistrysyllabus.ReactionsofMatterInmiddleschool,the
lawofconservationofmatterwasexpandedtochemicalreactions,notingthatthenumber
andtypeofatomsandthetotalmassarethesamebeforeandafterthereaction.Inthis
course,conservationofmatterisexpressedbywritingbalancedchemicalequations.Atthis
level,reactantsandproductscanbeidentifiedfromanequationandsimpleequationscanbe
writtenandbalancedgiveneithertheformulasofthereactantsandproductsoraword
descriptionofthereaction.Stoichiometricrelationshipsbeyondthecoefficientsinabalanced

equationandclassificationoftypesofchemicalreactionsareaddressedinthechemistry
syllabus.Duringchemicalreactions,thermalenergyiseithertransferredfromthesystemto
thesurroundings(exothermic)ortransferredfromthesurroundingstothesystem
(endothermic).Sincetheenvironmentsurroundingthesystemcanbelarge,temperature
changesinthesurroundingsmaynotbedetectable.Whilechemicalchangesinvolvechanges
intheelectrons,nuclearreactionsinvolvechangestothenucleusandinvolvemuchlarger
energiesthanchemicalreactions.Thestrongnuclearforceistheattractiveforcethatbinds
protonsandneutronstogetherinthenucleus.Whilethenuclearforceisextremelyweakat
mostdistances,overtheveryshortdistancespresentinthenucleustheforceisgreaterthan
therepulsiveelectricalforcesamongprotons.Whentheattractivenuclearforcesand
repulsiveelectricalforcesinthenucleusarenotbalanced,thenucleusisunstable.Through
radioactivedecay,theunstablenucleusemitsradiationintheformofveryfastmoving
particlesandenergytoproduceanewnucleus,thuschangingtheidentityoftheelement.
Nucleithatundergothisprocessaresaidtoberadioactive.Radioactiveisotopeshaveseveral
medicalapplications.Theradiationtheyreleasecanbeusedtokillundesiredcells(e.g.,
cancercells).Radioisotopescanbeintroducedintothebodytoshowtheflowofmaterialsin
biologicalprocesses.Foranyradioisotope,thehalflifeisuniqueandconstant.Graphscanbe
constructedthatshowtheamountofaradioisotopethatremainsasafunctionoftimeandcan
beinterpretedtodeterminethevalueofthehalflife.Halflifevaluesareusedinradioactive
dating.Otherexamplesofnuclearprocessesincludenuclearfissionandnuclearfusion.
Nuclearfissioninvolvessplittingalargenucleusintosmallernuclei,releasinglargequantities
ofenergy.Nuclearfusionisthejoiningofsmallernucleiintoalargernucleusaccompaniedby
thereleaseoflargequantitiesofenergy.Nuclearfusionistheprocessresponsiblefor
formationofalltheelementsintheuniversebeyondheliumandtheenergyofthesunandthe
stars.Furtherdetailsaboutnuclearprocessesincludingcommontypesofnuclearradiation,
predictingtheproductsofnucleardecay,massenergyequivalenceandnuclearpower
applicationsareaddressedinthechemistryandphysicssyllabi.EXPECTATIONSFOR
LEARNING:COGNITIVEDEMANDSThissectionprovidesdefinitionsforOhiosscience
cognitivedemands,whichareintrinsicallyrelatedtocurrentunderstandingsandresearch
abouthowpeoplelearn.Theyprovideastructureforteachersandassessmentdevelopersto
reflectonplansforteachingscience,tomonitorobservableevidenceofstudentlearningand
todevelopsummativeassessmentofstudentlearningofscience.VISIONSINTOPRACTICE
Thissectionprovidesexamplesoftasksthatstudentsmayperformthisincludesguidancefor
developingclassroomperformancetasks.Itisnotanallinclusivechecklistofwhatshouldbe
done,butisaspringboardforgeneratinginnovativeideas.Visuallycomparetheinside
structureofvariousballs(tennisball,golfball,baseball,basketball/kickballandsoccerball).
Determinewhatmakestheballbouncethehighest(and/ortravelfarthest),compare,analyze
thedata,drawconclusionsandpresentfindingsinmultipleformats.Explorethebenefitsof
radiationandhowitcanbeusedasatooltosustainlife(sterilizationandfoodirradiation
processes,nuclearmedicine).Includedetailsabouthowtheradiationworkstoaccomplishthe
benefitandtheextent(limitorrange)thatthebenefitwillcontinueasopposedtobecominga
harmtolife(plants,animalsorhumanbeings)onEarth.Drawconclusionsandpresentan
argumentbasedonsupportingdataastowhenradiationposesathreatasopposedtobeing

beneficial.Presentfindingsinmultipleformats.BACKTOINDEXBACKTOPHYSICAL
SCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience279
INSTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIESANDRESOURCESThissectionprovidesadditionalsupport
andinformationforeducators.Thesearestrategiesforactivelyengagingstudentswiththe
topicandforprovidinghandson,mindsonobservationandexplorationofthetopic,including
authenticdataresourcesforscientificinquiry,experimentationandproblembasedtasksthat
incorporatetechnologyandtechnologicalandengineeringdesign.Resourcesselectedare
printedorWebbasedmaterialsthatdirectlyrelatetotheparticularContentStatement.Itis
notintendedtobeaprescriptivelistoflessons.TheRutherfordexperimentisasimulation
thatshowshighspeedparticlesbombardingathinfoil.Whilethesimulationisnottoscale,it
doesprovideadynamicvisualtohelpstudentsunderstandwhatishappeningattheatomic
levelthatexplainstheexperimentalevidence.COMMONMISCONCEPTIONSStudentsmay
thinkthatmodelsarephysicalcopiesoftherealthing,failingtorecognizemodelsas
conceptualrepresentations.(AAAS,1993)Studentsknowmodelscanbechanged,butat
thehighschoollevel,theymaybelimitedbythinkingthatachangeinamodelmeansadding
newinformationorthatchangingamodelmeansreplacingapartthatwaswrong.(AAAS,
1993)Studentsoftendonotbelievemodelscanduplicatereality.(AAAS,1993)Students
oftenthinkthatbreakingbondsreleasesenergy.(Ross,1993)Whenmultiplemodelsare
presented,theytendtothinkthereisonerightone.(AAAS,1993)DIVERSELEARNERS
Strategiesformeetingtheneedsofalllearnersincludinggiftedstudents,EnglishLanguage
Learners(ELL)andstudentswithdisabilitiescanbefoundattheOhioDepartmentof
Educationsite.ResourcesbasedontheUniversalDesignforLearningprinciplesareavailable
atwww.cast.org.CLASSROOMPORTALSTeachingHighSchoolScienceisaseriesof
videosondemandproducedbyAnnenbergthatshowclassroomstrategiesforimplementing
inquiryintothehighschoolclassroom.Whilenotallofthecontentisalignedtophysical
science,thestrategiescanbeappliedtoanycontent.BACKTOINDEXBACKTOPHYSICAL
SCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience280CONTENT
ELABORATION:ENERGYANDWAVESEnergyandWavesBuildinguponknowledgegained
inelementaryandmiddleschool,majorconceptsaboutenergyandwavesarefurther
developed.Conceptualknowledgewillmovefromqualitativeunderstandingsofenergyand
wavestoonesthataremorequantitativeusingmathematicalformulas,manipulationsand
graphicalrepresentations.ConservationofEnergyEnergycontentlearnedinmiddleschool,
specificallyconservationofenergyandthebasicdifferencesbetweenkineticandpotential
energy,iselaboratedonandquantifiedinthiscourse.Energyhasnodirectionandhasunits
ofJoules(J).Kineticenergy,Ek,canbemathematicallyrepresentedbyEk=mv2.
Gravitationalpotentialenergy,Eg,canbemathematicallyrepresentedbyEg=mgh,.The
amountofenergyofanobjectismeasuredrelativetoareferencethatisconsideredtobeata
pointofzeroenergy.Thereferencemaybechangedtohelpunderstanddifferentsituations.
Onlythechangeintheamountofenergycanbemeasuredabsolutely.Theconservationof
energyandequationsforkineticandgravitationalpotentialenergycanbeusedtocalculate
valuesassociatedwithenergy(i.e.,height,mass,speed)forsituationsinvolvingenergy
transferandtransformation.Opportunitiestoquantifyenergyfromdatacollectedin
experimentalsituations(e.g.,aswingingpendulum,acartravelingdownanincline)mustbe

provided.TransferandTransformationofEnergyInmiddleschool,conceptsofenergy
transferandtransformationwereaddressed,includingconservationofenergy,conduction,
convectionandradiation,thetransformationofelectricalenergy,andthedissipationofenergy
intothermalenergy.Workalsowasintroducedasamethodofenergytransferintooroutof
thesystemwhenanoutsideforcemovesanobjectoveradistance.Inthiscourse,these
conceptsarefurtherdeveloped.Aslongastheforce,F,anddisplacement,x,areinthe
sameoroppositedirections,work,W,canbecalculatedfromtheequationW=Fx.Energy
transformationsforaphenomenoncanberepresentedthroughaseriesofpiegraphsorbar
graphs.Equationsforwork,kineticenergyandpotentialenergycanbecombinedwiththelaw
ofconservationofenergytosolveproblems.Whenenergyistransferredfromonesystemto
another,someoftheenergyistransformedtothermalenergy.Sincethermalenergyinvolves
therandommovementofmanytrillionsofsubatomicparticles,itislessabletobeorganized
tobringaboutfurtherchange.Therefore,eventhoughthetotalamountofenergyremains
constant,lessenergyisavailablefordoingusefulwork.WavesAsaddressedinmiddle
school,wavestransmitenergyfromoneplacetoanother,cantransferenergybetween
objectsandcanbedescribedbytheirspeed,wavelength,frequencyandamplitude.The
relationshipbetweenspeed,wavelengthandfrequencyalsowasaddressedinmiddleschool
EarthandSpaceScienceasthemotionofseismicwavesthroughdifferentmaterialsis
studied.Inelementaryandmiddleschool,reflectionandrefractionoflightwereintroduced,as
wasabsorptionofradiantenergybytransformationintothermalenergy.Inthiscourse,these
processesareaddressedfromtheperspectiveofwavesandexpandedtoincludeothertypes
ofenergythattravelinwaves.Whenawaveencountersanewmaterial,thenewmaterial
mayabsorbtheenergyofthewavebytransformingittoanotherformofenergy,usually
thermalenergy.Wavescanbereflectedoffsolidbarriersorrefractedwhenawavetravels
formonemediumintoanothermedium.Wavesmayundergodiffractionaroundsmall
obstaclesoropenings.Whentwowavestravelingthroughthesamemediummeet,theypass
througheachotherthencontinuetravelingthroughthemediumasbefore.Whenthewaves
meet,theyundergosuperposition,demonstratingconstructiveanddestructiveinterference.
Soundtravelsinwavesandundergoesreflection,refraction,interferenceanddiffraction.In
thephysicssyllabus,manyofthesewavephenomenawillbestudiedfurtherandquantified.
Radiantenergytravelsinwavesanddoesnotrequireamedium.Sourcesoflightenergy
(e.g.,thesun,alightbulb)radiateenergycontinuallyinalldirections.Radiantenergyhasa
widerangeoffrequencies,wavelengthsandenergiesarrangedintotheelectromagnetic
spectrum.Theelectromagneticspectrumisdividedintobands:radio(lowestenergy),
microwaves,infrared,visiblelight,Xraysandgammarays(highestenergy)thathave
differentapplicationsineverydaylife.Radiantenergyoftheentireelectromagneticspectrum
travelsatthesamespeedinavacuum.Specificfrequency,energyorwavelengthrangesof
theelectromagneticspectrumarenotrequired.However,therelativepositionsofthedifferent
bands,includingthecolorsofvisiblelight,areimportant(e.g.,ultraviolethasmoreenergy
thanmicrowaves).Radiantenergyexhibitswavebehaviorsincludingreflection,refraction,
absorption,superpositionanddiffraction,dependinginpartonthenatureofthemedium.For
opaqueobjects(e.g.,paper,achair,anapple),littleifanyradiantenergyistransmittedinto
thenewmaterial.Howevertheradiantenergycanbeabsorbed,usuallyincreasingthe

thermalenergyoftheobjectand/ortheradiantenergycanbereflected.Forroughobjects,the
reflectioninalldirectionsformsadiffusereflectionandforsmoothshinyobjects,reflections
canresultinclearimages.Transparentmaterialstransmitmostoftheenergythroughthe
materialbutsmalleramountsofenergymaybeabsorbedorreflected.Changesinthe
observedfrequencyandwavelengthofawavecanoccurifthewavesourceandtheobserver
aremovingrelativetoeachother.Whenthesourceandtheobserveraremovingtowardeach
other,thewavelengthisshorterandtheBACKTOINDEXBACKTOPHYSICALSCIENCE
OUTLINEOHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience281observedfrequencyis
higherwhenthesourceandtheobserveraremovingawayfromeachother,thewavelength
islongerandtheobservedfrequencyislower.ThisphenomenoniscalledtheDopplershift
andcanbeexplainedusingdiagrams.Thisphenomenonisimportanttocurrent
understandingofhowtheuniversewasformedandwillbeappliedinlatersectionsofthis
course.Calculationstomeasuretheapparentchangeinfrequencyorwavelengtharenot
appropriateforthiscourse.ThermalEnergyInmiddleschool,thermalenergyisintroduced
astheenergyofmovementoftheparticlesthatmakeupmatter.Processesofheattransfer,
includingconduction,convectionandradiation,arestudied.Inothersectionsofthiscourse,
theroleofthermalenergyduringheating,coolingandphasechangesisexplored
conceptuallyandgraphically.Inthiscourse,ratesofthermalenergytransferandthermal
equilibriumareintroduced.Thermalconductivitydependsontherateatwhichthermalenergy
istransferredfromoneendofamaterialtoanother.Thermalconductorshaveahighrateof
thermalenergytransferandthermalinsulatorshaveaslowrateofthermalenergytransfer.
Therateatwhichthermalradiationisabsorbedoremittedbyasystemdependsonits
temperature,color,textureandexposedsurfacearea.Allotherthingsbeingequal,inagiven
amountoftime,blackroughsurfacesabsorbmorethermalenergythansmoothwhite
surfaces.Anobjectorsystemiscontinuallyabsorbingandemittingthermalradiation.Ifthe
objectorsystemabsorbsmorethermalenergythanitemitsandthereisnochangeinphase,
thetemperatureincreases.Iftheobjectorsystememitsmorethermalenergythanis
absorbedandthereisnochangeinphase,thetemperaturedecreases.Foranobjector
systeminthermalequilibrium,theamountofthermalenergyabsorbedisequaltotheamount
ofthermalenergyemittedtherefore,thetemperatureremainsconstant.Inchemistry,
changesinthermalenergyarequantifiedforsubstancesthatchangetheirtemperature.
ElectricityInearliergrades,theseconceptswereintroduced:electricalconductorsand
insulatorsandacompleteloopisneededforanelectricalcircuitthatmaybeparallelorina
series.Inthiscourse,circuitsareexplainedbytheflowofelectrons,andcurrent,voltageand
resistanceareintroducedconceptuallytoexplainwhatwasobservedinmiddleschool.The
differencesbetweenelectricalconductorsandinsulatorscanbeexplainedbyhowfreelythe
electronsflowthroughoutthematerialduetohowfirmlyelectronsareheldbythenucleus.By
convention,electriccurrentistherateatwhichpositivechargeflowsinacircuit.Inreality,itis
thenegativelychargedelectronsthatareactuallymoving.Currentismeasuredinamperes
(A),whichisequaltoonecoulombofchargepersecond(C/s).Inanelectriccircuit,thepower
sourcesuppliestheelectronsalreadyinthecircuitwithelectricpotentialenergybydoingwork
toseparateoppositecharges.Forabattery,theenergyisprovidedbyachemicalreaction
thatseparateschargesonthepositiveandnegativesidesofthebattery.Thisseparationof

chargeiswhatcausestheelectronstoflowinthecircuit.Theseelectronsthentransferenergy
tootherobjectsandtransformelectricalenergyintootherforms(e.g.,light,sound,heat)inthe
resistors.Currentcontinuestoflow,evenaftertheelectronstransfertheirenergy.Resistors
opposetherateofchargeflowinthecircuit.Thepotentialdifferenceorvoltageacrossan
energysourceisameasureofpotentialenergyinJoulessuppliedtoeachcoulombofcharge.
Thevolt(V)istheunitofpotentialdifferenceandisequaltooneJouleofenergypercoulomb
ofcharge(J/C).Potentialdifferenceacrossthecircuitisapropertyoftheenergysourceand
doesnotdependuponthedevicesinthecircuit.Theseconceptscanbeusedtoexplainwhy
currentwillincreaseasthepotentialdifferenceincreasesandastheresistancedecreases.
Experiments,investigationsandtesting(3Dorvirtual)mustbeusedtoconstructavarietyof
circuits,andmeasureandcomparethepotentialdifference(voltage)andcurrent.Electricity
conceptsaredealtwithconceptuallyinthiscourse.Calculationswithcircuitswillbe
addressedinthephysicssyllabus.EXPECTATIONSFORLEARNING:COGNITIVE
DEMANDSThissectionprovidesdefinitionsforOhiossciencecognitivedemands,whichare
intrinsicallyrelatedtocurrentunderstandingsandresearchabouthowpeoplelearn.They
provideastructureforteachersandassessmentdeveloperstoreflectonplansforteaching
science,tomonitorobservableevidenceofstudentlearningandtodevelopsummative
assessmentofstudentlearningofscience.VISIONSINTOPRACTICEThissectionprovides
examplesoftasksthatstudentsmayperformthisincludesguidancefordeveloping
classroomperformancetasks.Itisnotanallinclusivechecklistofwhatshouldbedone,butis
aspringboardforgeneratinginnovativeideas.Design,buildandtestarampsystemonto
whichaballcanbeplacedsothatitrollsdownarampandcontinuesaspecificdistanceon
thetable.Describewhatpropertiesofthesystemwereimportant(andthosenotimportant)in
thedesign.Providedifferenttargetdistancesforthelaunchedballtotravelonthedesigned
courseandhitagiventargetwithinthreetrials.Investigatetherelationshipbetweenspeed,
frequencyandwavelengthforatransversewavetravelingthroughaSlinky.Makeclaims
aboutwhathappenstothespeedandthewavelengthofthewaveasthefrequencyis
increasedandgiveevidencetosupportanyclaims.Forexample,useinformationfromthe
investigationtoexploretheimplicationsofcellphoneusage.Includebeneficialandharmful
aspectsoftheuseofthistechnologyforamodernconvenience.Presentfindingsanddrawa
conclusionusingdataandresearchinmultipleformats.BACKTOINDEXBACKTO
PHYSICALSCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience282
INSTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIESANDRESOURCESThissectionprovidesadditionalsupport
andinformationforeducators.Thesearestrategiesforactivelyengagingstudentswiththe
topicandforprovidinghandson,mindsonobservationandexplorationofthetopic,including
authenticdataresourcesforscientificinquiry,experimentationandproblembasedtasksthat
incorporatetechnologyandtechnologicalandengineeringdesign.Resourcesselectedare
printedorWebbasedmaterialsthatdirectlyrelatetotheparticularContentStatement.Itis
notintendedtobeaprescriptivelistoflessons.Waves,Light,andSoundfromThePhysics
Zonelinkstomanyanimationsofwavesthatcanbeusedwithabsentstudentsorstudents
whoneedmorereinforcement.Simulationsalsomaybegoodtoslowdownsomeofthe
phenomenathatstudentsobserveinclasssotheycanmakeobservationsthataremore
detailed.Someofthesimulationscanonlybeaccessedbymembers,butmanyofthe

simulationshaveunrestrictedaccess.Modelingworkshopsareavailablenationallythathelp
teachersdevelopaframeworkforusingguidedinquiryintheirinstruction.CareerConnection
Asstudentsexploretheflowofelectriccurrent,resistors,andtransferofenergy,theywill
identifyissuesfoundafteraseverestormdisruptselectricityacrossanarea.Studentswill
lookintohowcurrentflowsandwhatoccursduringastormthatinterruptsorinterfereswith
thetransferofelectricity.Studentswillidentifypotentialproblemscausedbythestorm.Then,
theywillgenerateaplantorestoreelectricitybydeterminingwhichcareersareneededand
theirrespectiverolesintheprocess.Studentswillresearchaspectsofcareers,suchas:job
outlookforthesecareersinOhiocurrentdemandeducationandtrainingrequirements(high
schoolandbeyond)andwages,workingconditions,andtypicaltasks.COMMON
MISCONCEPTIONSStudentsoftenthinkthat:Potentialenergyisathingthatobjectshold
(likecerealstoredinacloset).Theonlytypeofpotentialenergyisgravitational.Doubling
thevelocityofamovingobjectwilldoubleitskineticenergy.Storedenergyissomethingthat
causesenergylateritisnotenergyuntilithasbeenreleased.Objectsdonothaveany
energyiftheyarenotmoving.Energyisathingthatcanbecreatedanddestroyed.Energy
isliterallylostinmanyenergytransformations.Gravitationalpotentialenergydependsonly
upontheheightofanobject.Energycanbechangedcompletelyfromoneformtoanother
withnolossofusefulenergy.DIVERSELEARNERSStrategiesformeetingtheneedsofall
learnersincludinggiftedstudents,EnglishLanguageLearners(ELL)andstudentswith
disabilitiescanbefoundattheOhioDepartmentofEducationsite.Resourcesbasedonthe
UniversalDesignforLearningprinciplesareavailableatwww.cast.org.CLASSROOM
PORTALSTeachingHighSchoolScienceisaseriesofvideosondemandproducedby
Annenbergthatshowclassroomstrategiesforimplementinginquiryintothehighschool
classroom.Whilenotallofthecontentisalignedtophysicalscience,thestrategiescanbe
appliedtoanycontent.BACKTOINDEXBACKTOPHYSICALSCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOS
NEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience283CONTENTELABORATION:FORCESAND
MOTIONForcesandMotionBuildinguponcontentinelementaryandmiddleschool,major
conceptsofmotionandforcesarefurtherdeveloped.Inmiddleschool,speedhasbeendealt
withconceptually,mathematicallyandgraphically.Theconceptthatforceshaveboth
magnitudeanddirectioncanberepresentedwithaforcediagram,thatforcescanbeaddedto
findanetforceandthatforcesmayaffectmotionhasbeenaddressedinmiddleschool.At
thehighschoollevel,mathematics(includinggraphing)isusedwhendescribingthese
phenomena,movingfromqualitativeunderstandingtoonethatismorequantitative.Forthe
physicalsciencecourse,allmotionislimitedtoobjectsmovinginastraightlineeither
horizontally,vertically,upaninclineordownanincline,thatcanbecharacterizedby
segmentsofuniformmotion(e.g.,atrest,constantvelocity,constantacceleration).Motionsof
twoobjectsmaybecomparedoraddressedsimultaneously(e.g.,whenorwherewouldthey
meet).MotionThemotionofanobjectdependsontheobserversframeofreferenceandis
describedintermsofdistance,position,displacement,speed,velocity,accelerationandtime.
Position,displacement,velocityandaccelerationareallvectorproperties(magnitudeand
direction).Allmotionisrelativetowhateverframeofreferenceischosen,forthereisno
motionlessframefromwhichtojudgeallmotion.Therelativenatureofmotionwillbe
addressedconceptually,notmathematically.Noninertialreferenceframesareexcluded.

Motiondiagramscanbedrawnandinterpretedtorepresentthepositionandvelocityofan
object.Showingtheaccelerationonmotiondiagramswillbereservedforphysics.The
displacementorchangeinpositionofanobjectisavectorquantitythatcanbecalculatedby
subtractingtheinitialpositionfromthefinalposition(x=xfxi).Displacementcanbe
positiveornegativedependinguponthedirectionofmotion.Displacementisnotalwaysequal
tothedistancetravelled.Examplesshouldbegivenwherethedistanceisnotthesameasthe
displacement.Velocityisavectorpropertythatrepresentstherateatwhichpositionchanges.
Averagevelocitycanbecalculatedbydividingdisplacement(changeinposition)bythe
elapsedtime(vavg=(xfxi)/(tfti)).Velocitymaybepositiveornegativedependingupon
thedirectionofmotionandisnotalwaysequaltothespeed.Provideexamplesofwhenthe
averagespeedisnotthesameastheaveragevelocity.Objectsthatmovewithconstant
velocityhavethesamedisplacementforeachsuccessivetimeinterval.Whilespeedingupor
slowingdownand/orchangingdirection,thevelocityofanobjectchangescontinuously,from
instanttoinstant.Thespeedofanobjectatanyinstant(clockreading)iscalledinstantaneous
speed.Anobjectmaynottravelatthisinstantaneousspeedforanyperiodoftimeorcover
anydistancewiththatparticularspeed,especiallyifthespeediscontinuallychanging.
Accelerationisavectorpropertythatrepresentstherateatwhichvelocitychanges.Average
accelerationcanbecalculatedbydividingthechangeinvelocitydividedbyelapsedtime
(aavg=(vfvi)/(tfti)).Atthisgradelevel,itshouldbenotedthataccelerationcanbe
positiveornegative,butspecificsaboutwhatkindofmotionsproducepositiveornegative
accelerationswillbeaddressedinthephysicssyllabus.Theworddecelerationshouldnotbe
usedbecausestudentstendtoassociateanegativesignofaccelerationonlywithslowing
down.Objectsthathavenoaccelerationcaneitherbestandingstillorbemovingwith
constantvelocity(speedanddirection).Constantaccelerationoccurswhenthechangeinan
objectsinstantaneousvelocityisthesameforequalsuccessivetimeintervals.Motioncanbe
representedbypositionvs.timeandvelocityvs.timegraphs.Specificsaboutthespeed,
directionandchangeinmotioncanbedeterminedbyinterpretingsuchgraphs.Forphysical
science,graphswillbelimitedtopositivexvaluesandshowonlyuniformmotioninvolving
segmentsofconstantvelocityorconstantacceleration.Motionmustbeinvestigatedby
collectingandanalyzingdatainthelaboratory.Technologycanenhancemotionexploration
andinvestigationthroughvideoanalysis,theuseofmotiondetectorsandgraphingdatafor
analysis.Objectsthatmovewithconstantvelocityandhavenoaccelerationformastraight
line(notnecessarilyhorizontal)onapositionvs.timegraph.Objectsthatareatrestwillform
astraighthorizontallineonapositionvs.timegraph.Objectsthatareacceleratingwillshowa
curvedlineonapositionvs.timegraph.Velocitycanbecalculatedbydeterminingtheslope
ofapositionvs.timegraph.Positiveslopesonpositionvs.timegraphsindicatemotionina
positivedirection.Negativeslopesonpositionvs.timegraphsindicatemotioninanegative
direction.Whileitisimportantthatstudentscanconstructgraphsbyhand,computergraphing
programsorgraphingcalculatorsalsocanbeusedsomoretimecanbespentongraph
interpretationandanalysis.Constantaccelerationisrepresentedbyastraightline(not
necessarilyhorizontal)onavelocityvs.timegraph.Objectsthathavenoacceleration(atrest
ormovingatconstantvelocity)willhaveastraighthorizontallineforavelocityvs.timegraph.
Averageaccelerationcanbedeterminedfromtheslopeofavelocityvs.timegraph.The

detailsaboutmotiongraphsshouldnotbetaughtasrulestomemorize,butratheras
generalizationsthatcanbedevelopedfrominterpretingthegraphs.ForcesForceisavector
quantity,havingbothmagnitudeanddirection.The(SI)unitofforceisaNewton.OneNewton
ofnetforcewillcausea1kgobjecttoexperienceanaccelerationof1m/s2.ANewtonalso
canberepresentedaskgm/s2.Theopportunitytomeasureforceinthelabmustbeprovided
(e.g.,withaspringscaleoraforceprobe).Normalforcesandtensionforcesareintroduced
conceptuallyatthislevel.Theseforcesandotherforcesintroducedinpriorgrades(friction,
drag,contact,gravitational,electricandmagnetic)andcanbeusedasexamplesBACKTO
INDEXBACKTOPHYSICALSCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSI
Science284offorcesthataffectmotion.Gravitationalforce(weight)canbecalculatedfrom
mass,butallotherforceswillonlybequantifiedfromforcediagramsthatwereintroducedin
middleschool.Inphysicalscience,onlyforcesinonedimension(positiveandnegative)will
beaddressed.Thenetforcecanbedeterminedbyonedimensionalvectoraddition.More
quantitativestudyoffrictionforces,universalgravitationalforces,elasticforcesandelectrical
forceswillbeaddressedinthephysicssyllabus.Frictionisaforcethatopposessliding
betweentwosurfaces.Forsurfacesthatareslidingrelativetoeachother,theforceonan
objectalwayspointsinadirectionoppositetotherelativemotionoftheobject.Inphysical
science,frictionwillonlybecalculatedfromforcediagrams.Equationsforstaticandkinetic
frictionarefoundinthephysicssyllabus.Anormalforceexistsbetweentwosolidobjects
whentheirsurfacesarepressedtogetherduetootherforcesactingononeorbothobjects
(e.g.,asolidsittingonorslidingacrossatable,amagnetattachedtoarefrigerator).Anormal
forceisalwaysapushdirectedatrightanglesfromthesurfacesoftheinteractingobjects.A
tensionforceoccurswhenanonslackrope,wire,cordorsimilardevicepullsonanother
object.Thetensionforcealwayspointsinthedirectionofthepull.Inmiddleschool,the
conceptofafieldasaregionofspacethatsurroundsobjectswiththeappropriateproperty
(massforgravitationalfields,chargeforelectricfields,amagneticobjectformagneticfields)
wasintroducedtoexplaingravitational,magneticandelectricalforcesthatoccurovera
distance.Thefieldconceptisfurtherdevelopedinphysicalscience.Thestrongerthefield,the
greatertheforceexertedonobjectsplacedinthefield.Thefieldofanobjectisalwaysthere,
eveniftheobjectisnotinteractingwithanythingelse.Thegravitationalforce(weight)ofan
objectisproportionaltoitsmass.Weight,Fg,canbecalculatedfromtheequationFg=mg,
wheregisthegravitationalfieldstrengthofanobjectwhichisequalto9.8N/kg(m/s2)onthe
surfaceofEarth.DynamicsAnobjectdoesnotaccelerate(remainsatrestormaintainsa
constantspeedanddirectionofmotion)unlessanunbalancednetforceactsonit.Therateat
whichanobjectchangesitsspeedordirection(acceleration)isproportionaltothevectorsum
oftheappliedforces(netforce,Fnet)andinverselyproportionaltothemass(a=Fnet/m).
Whenthevectorsumoftheforces(netforce)actingonanobjectiszero,theobjectdoesnot
accelerate.Foranobjectthatismoving,thismeanstheobjectwillremainmovingwithout
changingitsspeedordirection.Foranobjectthatisnotmoving,theobjectwillcontinueto
remainstationary.Theselawswillbeappliedtosystemsconsistingofasingleobjectupon
whichmultipleforcesact.Vectoradditionwillbelimitedtoonedimension(positiveand
negative).Whilebothhorizontalandverticalforcescanbeactingonanobjectsimultaneously,
oneofthedimensionsmusthaveanetforceofzero.Aforceisaninteractionbetweentwo

objects.Bothobjectsintheinteractionexperienceanequalamountofforce,butinopposite
directions.Interactingforcepairsareoftenconfusedwithbalancedforces.Interactingforce
pairscannevercanceleachotheroutbecausetheyalwaysactondifferentobjects.Naming
theforce(e.g.,gravity,friction)doesnotidentifythetwoobjectsinvolvedintheinteracting
forcepair.Objectsinvolvedinaninteractingforcepaircanbeeasilyidentifiedbyusingthe
formatAactsonBsoBactsonA.Forexample,thetruckhitsthesignthereforethesign
hitsthetruckwithanequalforceintheoppositedirection.Earthpullsthebookdownsothe
bookpullsEarthupwithanequalforce.Thefocusofthecontentistodevelopaconceptual
understandingofthelawsofmotiontoexplainandpredictchangesinmotion,nottonameor
reciteamemorizeddefinition.Inthephysicssyllabus,alllawswillbeappliedtosystemsof
manyobjects.EXPECTATIONSFORLEARNING:COGNITIVEDEMANDSThissection
providesdefinitionsforOhiossciencecognitivedemands,whichareintrinsicallyrelatedto
currentunderstandingsandresearchabouthowpeoplelearn.Theyprovideastructurefor
teachersandassessmentdeveloperstoreflectonplansforteachingscience,tomonitor
observableevidenceofstudentlearningandtodevelopsummativeassessmentofstudent
learningofscience.VISIONSINTOPRACTICEThissectionprovidesexamplesoftasksthat
studentsmayperformthisincludesguidancefordevelopingclassroomperformancetasks.It
isnotanallinclusivechecklistofwhatshouldbedone,butisaspringboardforgenerating
innovativeideas.Researchtherangesofhumanreactiontimeandbrakingaccelerations.
Designatrafficlightpattern(e.g.,howlongthelightshouldstayyellow)foraparticular
intersection,giventhespeedlimits.Presentthedesignandrationaletotheclass.Compare
theresultsfordifferentspeedlimits.Explainanypatternsandtrendsobserved.Investigate
therelationshipbetweenpositionandtimeforacartthatrollsdownarampfromrest.Graph
theresults.Makeaclaimabouthowpositionandtimearerelatedanduseevidenceto
supporttheclaim.Presentthefindingstotheclass.Basedonthepresentationsofother
investigations,proposesourcesoferrorandprovidesuggestionsforhowtheexperimentscan
beimproved.BACKTOINDEXBACKTOPHYSICALSCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOSNEW
LEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience285INSTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIESAND
RESOURCESThissectionprovidesadditionalsupportandinformationforeducators.These
arestrategiesforactivelyengagingstudentswiththetopicandforprovidinghandson,
mindsonobservationandexplorationofthetopic,includingauthenticdataresourcesfor
scientificinquiry,experimentationandproblembasedtasksthatincorporatetechnologyand
technologicalandengineeringdesign.ResourcesselectedareprintedorWebbasedmaterials
thatdirectlyrelatetotheparticularContentStatement.Itisnotintendedtobeaprescriptive
listoflessons.Forcesin1Dimensionisaninteractivesimulationthatallowsstudentsto
exploretheforcesatworkwhentryingtopushafilingcabinet.Anappliedforceiscreatedand
theresultingfrictionforceandtotalforceactingonthecabinetarethenshown.Forcesvs.
time,positionvs.time,velocityvs.time,andaccelerationvs.timegraphscanbeshownas
canforcediagramsrepresentingalltheforces(includinggravitationalandnormalforces).
MotionDiagramsisatutorialfromWesternKentuckyUniversitythatshowshowtodraw
motiondiagramsforavarietyofmotions.Itincludesananimatedphyslet.Motiondiagramsin
physicalsciencewillonlyshowpositionandvelocityandwillnotshowacceleration.The
PhysicsClassroomsupportsthistutorialononedimensionalmotionthatgivesathorough

explanationofacceleration,includingananimationtousewithstudentswhomaystillbe
havingdifficultieswithacceleration.Modelingworkshopsareavailablenationallythathelp
teachersdevelopaframeworkforincorporatingguidedinquiryintheirinstruction.COMMON
MISCONCEPTIONSItisoftenthoughtthattheexertionofaforcerequiresaconscious
decisionbyathinkingentity.Usingthecommontermsactionandreactionwhen
designatingforcesfromtheperspectiveofNewtonsthirdlawcanreinforcethis
misconception.Usingthedescriptorinteractingforcepairdoesnotperpetuatethis
misconceptionandhonorsthefactthatthetwoforcesaremutuallyimportant.Studentsoften
thinkthat:Ifthespeedisconstant,thenthereisnoacceleration.Highvelocitiescoincide
withlargeaccelerationsandlowvelocitiescoincidewithsmallaccelerations.DIVERSE
LEARNERSStrategiesformeetingtheneedsofalllearnersincludinggiftedstudents,English
LanguageLearners(ELL)andstudentswithdisabilitiescanbefoundattheOhioDepartment
ofEducationsite.ResourcesbasedontheUniversalDesignforLearningprinciplesare
availableatwww.cast.org.CLASSROOMPORTALSTeachingHighSchoolScienceisa
seriesofvideosondemandproducedbyAnnenbergthatshowclassroomstrategiesfor
implementinginquiryintothehighschoolclassroom.Whilenotallofthecontentisalignedto
physicalscience,thestrategiescanbeappliedtoanycontent.BACKTOINDEXBACKTO
PHYSICALSCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOSNEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience286
CONTENTELABORATION:THEUNIVERSETheUniverseInearlyelementaryschool,
observationsoftheskyandspacearethefoundationfordevelopingadeeperknowledgeof
thesolarsystem.Inlateelementaryschool,thepartsofthesolarsystemareintroduced,
includingcharacteristicsofthesunandplanets,orbitsandcelestialbodies.Atthemiddle
schoollevel,energy,waves,gravityanddensityareemphasizedinthephysicalsciences,and
characteristicsandpatternswithinthesolarsystemarefound.Inthephysicalsciencecourse,
theuniverseandgalaxiesareintroduced,buildinguponthepreviousknowledgeaboutspace
andthesolarsystemintheearliergrades.HistoryoftheUniverseTheBigBangModelisa
broadlyacceptedtheoryfortheoriginandevolutionofouruniverse.Itpostulatesthat12to14
billionyearsago,theportionoftheuniverseseentodaywasonlyafewmillimetersacross
(NASA).Accordingtothebigbangtheory,thecontentsoftheknownuniverseexpanded
explosivelyintoexistencefromahot,densestate13.7billionyearsago(NAEP2009).After
thebigbang,theuniverseexpandedquickly(andcontinuestoexpand)andthencooleddown
enoughforatomstoform.Gravitypulledtheatomstogetherintogascloudsthateventually
becamestars,whichcompriseyounggalaxies.Foundationsforthebigbangmodelcanbe
includedtointroducethesupportingevidencefortheexpansionoftheknownuniverse(e.g.,
Hubbleslawandredshiftorcosmicmicrowavebackgroundradiation).Adiscussionof
HubbleslawandredshiftisfoundintheGalaxyformationsection,below.Technology
providesthebasisformanynewdiscoveriesrelatedtospaceandtheuniverse.Visual,radio
andxraytelescopescollectinformationfromacrosstheentireelectromagneticspectrum
computersareusedtomanagedataandcomplicatedcomputationsspaceprobessendback
dataandmaterialsfromremotepartsofthesolarsystemandacceleratorsprovidesubatomic
particleenergiesthatsimulateconditionsinthestarsandintheearlyhistoryoftheuniverse
beforestarsformed.GalaxyformationAgalaxyisagroupofbillionsofindividualstars,star
systems,starclusters,dustandgasboundtogetherbygravity.Therearebillionsofgalaxies

intheuniverse,andtheyareclassifiedbysizeandshape.TheMilkyWayisaspiralgalaxy.It
hasmorethan100billionstarsandadiameterofmorethan100,000lightyears.Atthecenter
oftheMilkyWayisacollectionofstarsbulgingoutwardfromthedisk,fromwhichextend
spiralarmsofgas,dustandmostoftheyoungstars.ThesolarsystemispartoftheMilky
Waygalaxy.Hubbleslawstatesthatgalaxiesthatarefartherawayhaveagreaterredshift,
sothespeedatwhichagalaxyismovingawayisproportionaltoitsdistancefromtheEarth.
RedshiftisaphenomenonduetoDopplershifting,sotheshiftoflightfromagalaxytothered
endofthespectrumindicatesthatthegalaxyandtheobserveraremovingfartherawayfrom
oneanother.DopplershiftingalsoisfoundintheEnergyandWavessectionofthiscourse.
StarsEarlyintheformationoftheuniverse,starscoalescedoutofcloudsofhydrogenand
heliumandclumpedtogetherbygravitationalattractionintogalaxies.Whenheatedtoa
sufficientlyhightemperaturebygravitationalattraction,starsbeginnuclearreactions,which
convertmattertoenergyandfusethelighterelementsintoheavierones.Theseandother
fusionprocessesinstarshaveledtotheformationofalltheotherelements.(NAEP2009).All
oftheelements,exceptforhydrogenandhelium,originatedfromthenuclearfusionreactions
ofstars(CollegeBoardStandardsforCollegeSuccess,2009).Starsareclassifiedbytheir
color,size,luminosityandmass.AHertzprungRusselldiagrammustbeusedtoestimatethe
sizesofstarsandpredicthowstarswillevolve.Moststarsfallonthemainsequenceofthe
HRdiagram,adiagonalbandrunningfromthebrighthotstarsontheupperlefttothedim
coolstarsonthelowerright.Astarsmassdeterminesthestarsplaceonthemainsequence
andhowlongitwillstaythere.Patternsofstellarevolutionarebasedonthemassofthestar.
Starsbegintocollapseasthecoreenergydissipates.Nuclearreactionsoutsidethecore
causeexpansionofthestar,eventuallyleadingtothecollapseofthestar.Note:Namesof
starsandnamingtheevolutionarystageofastarfrommemorywillnotbeassessed.The
emphasisisontheinterpretationofdata(usingdiagramsandcharts)andthecriteriaand
processesneededtomakethosedeterminations.EXPECTATIONSFORLEARNING:
COGNITIVEDEMANDSThissectionprovidesdefinitionsforOhiossciencecognitive
demands,whichareintrinsicallyrelatedtocurrentunderstandingsandresearchabouthow
peoplelearn.Theyprovideastructureforteachersandassessmentdeveloperstoreflecton
plansforteachingscience,tomonitorobservableevidenceofstudentlearningandtodevelop
summativeassessmentofstudentlearningofscience.VISIONSINTOPRACTICEThis
sectionprovidesexamplesoftasksthatstudentsmayperformthisincludesguidancefor
developingclassroomperformancetasks.Itisnotanallinclusivechecklistofwhatshouldbe
done,butisaspringboardforgeneratinginnovativeideas.Investigatefeaturesofasolid
planetarybodyusingtheWorldWideTelescope.Identifyfeaturesthatareoldestversesthose
thatareyoungestanddrawconclusionsaboutthereasonsforthedifferencesusingcurrent
theorytosupporttheconclusions.Investigatetherelativeagesofstarclustersbyplotting
dataandanalyzingtheBACKTOINDEXBACKTOPHYSICALSCIENCEOUTLINEOHIOS
NEWLEARNINGSTANDARDSIScience287resultsofthegraphcreated(creatinganHR
diagram).Drawconclusionsbasedontheresultsofthegraphanddiscusspossible
implicationsoftheinformationlearned(seeStudentInstructionsandStarGauge).Evaluate
dataanalyzingthepenetrationabilityofGammaradiation,Xrays,UV,visiblelight,infrared
andradiowavelengthsinEarthsatmosphere.Basedontheanalysisandpertinent

wavelengthstudyconsiderations(e.g.,certainwavelengthsoflightareblockedfromreaching
Earthssurfacebytheatmospherehowefficientlytelescopesworkatdifferentwavelengths
telescopesinspacearemuchmoreexpensivetoconstructthanEarthbasedtelescopes)
recommendtoafederalfundingagencywhichtelescopeprojectshouldreceivefundsfor
construction.Thetwoprojectstoconsiderare:Project1AUVwavelengthtelescope,
placedhighatopMaunaKeainHawaiiat14,000ft.abovesealevel,whichwillbeusedto
lookatdistantgalaxies.Project2Avisiblewavelengthtelescope,placedonasatellitein
orbitaroundEarth,whichwillbeusedtoobserveapairofbinarystarslocatedinthe
constellationUrsaMajor(BigDipper).(Prather,Slater,Adams,&Brissenden,2008)Use
realtimedatafromtheNASAHubbleMissiontoresearchanddocumentthehistoryofthe
mission,markingthetime,discoveriesandimpacttohumans.TherearelinksattheNASA
sitetoconnectstudentstoastronautsandscientiststoallowforprimaryandsecondary
resourcesintheresearch.Presentafinalproduct(canbeaneportfolio,presentationor
formalpostersession)toanauthenticaudience.INSTRUCTIONALSTRATEGIESAND
RESOURCESThissectionprovidesadditionalsupportandinformationforeducators.These
arestrategiesforactivelyengagingstudentswiththetopicandforprovidinghandson,
mindsonobservationandexplorationofthetopic,includingauthenticdataresourcesfor
scientificinquiry,experimentationandproblembasedtasksthatincorporatetechnologyand
technologicalandengineeringdesign.ResourcesselectedareprintedorWebbased
materialsthatdirectlyrelatetotheparticularContentStatement.Itisnotintendedtobea
prescriptivelistoflessons.AcollectionofvideosisprovidedbyNASAabouttheJames
WebbTelescopethelargestspacebasedobservatoryeverbuilttodate.Fromgalaxy
evolutiontoplanetaryformation,theWebbtelescopewillequipscientiststoseefarbeyond
previousendeavors.Investigatethestarlifecyclewithinteractivemediaorgainanoverview
ofastronomicalspectroscopyinstudiesofstellarspectra.Itisimportanttokeepthe
evidencesupportingthebigbangmodelatthegrade910level.Studentsshouldunderstand
wheretheevidenceforthetheoryisfoundandtheimportanceofdatathatsupportthe
expansionoftheuniverse.Thisarticleprovidesahigherlevelofdetailthanisrequiredforthis
course,butsectionsofthearticlearehelpfulandappropriateinunderstandingthe
foundationalsupport.NASAprovidessciencemodulestosupportteachingaboutredshift
andDopplereffectsfromacosmologyviewpoint.TherealsoareNASAdocumentsthatcan
assistinteachingaboutstellarevolution.UseaninteractiveHRDiagramtoexploredifferent
patternsthatcanexistonthechartandtheevolutionofspecifictypesofstars.Astronomy:
ElicitingStudentIdeasisaworkshopproducedbyAnnenbergthatusesconstructivismby
examiningstudentbeliefsonwhatcausestheseasonsandtheirexplanationsforthephases
ofthemoonthatareexploredinthevideoondemandAPrivateUniverse.TheQuantum
MechanicalUniverseisavideoproducedbyAnnenbergaboutacurrentlookatwherewe
havebeenandapeekintothefuture.DyingstarsandBirthofElementsisa
computerbasedexercisewherehighschoolstudentsanalyzerealisticallysimulatedXray
spectraofasupernovaremnantanddeterminetheabundancesofvariouselementsinthem.
Intheend,theywillfindthattheelementsnecessaryforlifeonEarththeironintheirblood,
thecalciumintheirbonesarecreatedinthesedistantexplosions.AStarisBorn...but
How?andStarsaretwotutorialsontheWindowstotheUniversefromtheNationalEarth

ScienceTeachersAssociationthatgivedetailsaboutstarformation.ExploringMarsisa
videoproducedbyAnnenbergthatshowsstudentsinagrade11integratedscienceclass
whoexplorehowtheMarslandscapemayhaveformed.COMMONMISCONCEPTIONS
NASAprovidesgeneralstudentmisconceptionspertainingtotheuniverseandthebigbang
theory.Studentsunderstandingofthemagnitudeoftheuniverseneedstodevelopedwhere
theycanmakesenseofhowlargeisabillionoramillion.Keely,Eberle&Tugel(2005)
suggeststeachingthenotionofscalewithfamiliarobjectsthatstudentscansee,likethe
moonandsun.Graduallyintroducethenearbyplanetsandthenplanetsfurtheraway(p.182)
DIVERSELEARNERSStrategiesformeetingtheneedsofalllearnersincludinggifted
students,EnglishLanguageLearners(ELL)andstudentswithdisabilitiescanbefoundatthe
OhioDepartmentofEducationsite.ResourcesbasedontheUniversalDesignforLearning
principlesareavailableatwww.cast.org.CLASSROOMPORTALSTeachingHighSchool
ScienceisaseriesofvideosondemandproducedbyAnnenbergthatshowclassroom
strategiesforimplementinginquiryintothehighschoolclassroom.Whilenotallofthecontent
isalignedtophysicalscience,thestrategiescanbeappliedtoanycontent.