ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Adeoti, O

(2009), 5 (1):
(1):1 – 5
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Options to Limiting Impact of Gari Production on the Water Resource of Nigeria

Adeoti, O
Department of Agricultural Engineering
The Federal Polytechnic, PMB 5351, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria
e-mail: olusegunadeoti@yahoo.co.uk Tel: +234 (0) 80 34 56 24 76 (mobile)

Abstract
The production of gari (or, roasted cassava granule) is connected to a chain of impacts on the water resource in
the country where cassava crop is grown and processed. This paper takes a look at options that could be put in
place to limit the impact of gari production on the water resource of Nigeria. Using the 2007 cassava
production estimates in Nigeria as baseline, the paper shows that gari production in Nigeria takes about 28.2 x
109 m3 of water, out of which about 0.1 per cent is blue, 37.1 per cent green and 62.8 per cent dilution water.
Options to minimise this water impact include one, yield improvement under the present rainfed agriculture
(more crop per drop); two, minimising losses during processing, and three, instituting in-situ treatment of waste
flows.

Keywords: Water impact; Virtual water; Water resource; Blue water; Green water; Roasted cassava granule
(or, gari); Dilution water; Nigeria.

Introduction Gari is one of the products of cassava (Manihot

The world freshwater resource, about three per cent
of total water on earth (Wikipedia, 2009), is
threatened by climate change, biofuel production,
pollution from both anthropogenic and agricultural
sources, urbanisation and population growth, and
environmental demand. In Nigeria, freshwater
resource is estimated at over 250 x 109 m3 (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 2001) and its availability are
subject to climate variability. Although there is thin
information on the extent to which the freshwater
resource of Nigeria is polluted, but there is clear
indication of the fact that the resource is becoming
scarce due to increase in population and the
subsequent increase in water use and quality damage.
The growing natural resources shortage has posed the
need to assess the amount of natural resources that
are needed in order to produce a certain product. Gari
production is made possible through the use of
human and non-human resources in the producing
countries. One of the non-human resources required
is water. Water is needed for growing the crop, and
water is also needed to process the crop into the final
product, gari, and by extension, to consume it. With
increasing water shortage, there is need to assess
options that could be put in place to limit the impact
of gari production on the water resource of Nigeria.
That is the focus of this paper. As a first step, the
paper examines the impact of gari production on
water resource and takes a look at the green, blue and
dilution water requirement for gari production, next,
it calculates the water impact of gari production in
Nigeria, and finally, it examines options that could
be put in place to limit water impact due to gari
production in Nigeria.
esculenta, Crantz), and various literature exist on its
processing steps from fresh root (see for example –
Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1995; Apea-Bah et
al., 2009; Ogunleye et al., 2008; Oluwamukomi et
al., 2007; Sanni, 1995; Nweke, 1996; Bokanga,
1996; FAO, 1998). Depending on production
methods, gari could be white or yellowish, and its
moisture content varies, but not more than 15 per
cent in most cases, which enables it to store for up to
one year under normal atmospheric conditions. It
swells three to four times its volume when mixed
with cold water (FAO, 1998). In 1994, it was
believed to be consumed by some 500million people
in the Tropics, out of which more than 200million
was from the sub-Saharan Africa (IITA, 1994).
Impact of gari production on water resource
From field to end product, gari production passes
through a number of stages with different impact on
water resource. Under the traditional method
(cultivation and processing), these stages are often
carried out in different locations and processing can
take place as yet in another location. The relationship
between the production stages and their impacts on
water resource is as shown in Figure 1.
Although the chain from crop growth to gari
production can take several distinct steps, there are
two major stages (as shown in Figure 1): one, the
agricultural stage (cassava root production at field
level), two, the processing stage (processing of
cassava root into final product, gari). In the first
stage, one type of impact exists: evaporation of
infiltrated rainwater for cassava growth (refer to in
this paper as green water) (the use of fertilizers and

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 1
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
chemicals for cassava crop production at field level
under traditional farming methods is not yet common
in Nigeria). In the second stage, there are two major
impacts on water: abstraction of process water from
surface and/or groundwater (refer to in this paper as
blue water), and pollution of water as a result of the
waste flows from the cassava processing sites. The
dilution water volumes required to dilute waste flows
(waste flows contain soluble cyanide and organic
acid, starch and some fine particles of grated mash -
over 60 per cent of waste flows, depending on
cultivar and period/age at harvest, is water) to such
extent that the quantity of the resulting water remains
below agreed water quality standards is made in this
paper.
Waste Flows from Cassava Mash at Dewatering
and Fermentation Stage
The root of cassava contains two cyanogenic
glucosides – linamarin and lotaustralin, which upon
hydrolysis release hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
(Bokanga, 1996; Opara, 1999). Upon pressing, after
grating, HCN or prussic acid (which is soluble in
water) is released as part of the waste flows to the
environment. The cyanogenic potential of cassava
root varies from 0.2 to 62.4mg HCNeq/100g
(Bokanga, 1996), or from 6 to 370mg/kg of fresh
root (FAO, 1998), or from 15 to 400mg HCN/kg
fresh weight (Opara, 1999), which depends on
cultivar, growing conditions and age at harvest
(Bokanga, 1996; FAO, 1998; Opara, 1999). In the
rest of this paper, HCN content of 86mg/kg of
pressed juice or liquor after Opara (1999) is used.
Also in the paper, it is moderately assumed that the
applicable dilution water required for the waste flows
(in m3) is the volume of water needed to dilute the
HCN (HCN is assumed as the pollutant that requires
most dilution water) to save level
The volume of dilution water required per ton of
HCN is calculated based on the amount of HCN
expected (in ton/ton of waste flows) and the
permissible limit in ton/ m3 of water bodies. The
mandatory or upper limit of concentration of HCN
recommended by EEC and WHO (for surface waters)
relating to the quality of water intended for human
consumption is 0.05mg/L (or 0.05mg/kg of resulting
water) and has been taken to calculate the necessary
dilution water volume. This is a moderate approach,
since the initial concentration of HCN in the water
used for dilution has been assumed negligible. It is
further assumed that the majority of the waste flows
enter the natural water bodies without prior
treatment, which is certainly true for traditional
processing sites in Nigeria. The total amount of HCN
expected is calculated based on the average (total)
amount of liquor expected from cassava root used for
gari production using 2007 cassava production
estimates in Nigeria as baseline.
Green, Blue and Dilution Water
The virtual water content of gari is the volume of
water required to produce one unit of gari, generally
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
expressed in terms of cubic metres of water per tonne
of gari. According to Adeoti et al. (2009), the virtual
water content of gari was found to be 1668 m3/tonne
(see – Figure 2 for details), which represents the
relative impact of the production of gari on the water
resource (green and blue water use), while that of
fresh (unpeeled) cassava root is 349m3/tonne – which
also represents the relative impact of the production
of fresh (unpeeled) cassava root on soil water
resource (green water use). From the studies of
Adeoti et al. (2009), the amount of waste flows
(liquor) expected at dewatering and fermentation
stage of cassava mash is averaged at 478kg per tonne
of fresh (peeled) cassava root, with HCN content
representing about 86mgkgL. The dilution water
volume required to dilute HCN (at 86 x 10-6 ton
HCN/ton of liquor) to save level (of 5 x 10-8 ton
HCN/ton of resulting water) is about 1720m3 of
water.
Water Impact
Adeoti et al. (2009) have shown that the relative
impact of gari production on the water resource of
Nigeria (using the 2007 cassava production estimates
as baseline) is about 10.5 x 109 m3 of water. This
water volume does not yet include the volume
needed to dilute the HCN–enriched return flows from
the gari processing sites. Under a conservative
average of 60 per cent fresh (unpeeled) cassava root
conversion to gari and peels representing on the
average 22 per cent (Adeoti et al., 2009), peeled
fresh root will amount to about 21.53million tonnes.
At dewatering, about 10.29million tonnes of liquor
are expected, with HCN amounting to about 885
tonnes. To dilute 1ton of HCN to save level of 5 x
10-8 ton HCNeq /ton of water bodies will require 0.02
x 109 m3 of water. The (total) dilution water
requirements translate to about 17.7 x 109 m3. Putting
the dilution water volume into consideration
therefore, Nigeria has a gari-production water impact
of 28.2 x 109 m3, which is 188m3/capita (in 2009
population estimates) in average. About 0.1 per cent
of this impact is due to the use of blue water, another
37.1 per cent to the use of green water and about 62.8
per cent to dilution water requirements. The total
water requirement for the production of gari (under
the assumptions made) is equivalent to about 11 per
cent of the estimated water resource of Nigeria.
Under the traditional farming practices, the major
volume of water needed to grow the cassava plant
comes from rainwater. For the total water needed in
gari production starting from cultivation, the water
used in the processing and dilution is a significant
fraction (about 169%) of the soil moisture used to
grow the cassava plant. However, the impact of this
fraction is often underestimated, because it is the
blue water (abstracted from surface and/or sub-
surface sources) that is scarcely available, and also, it
is this blue water sources that are often polluted by
the waste flows from the processing sites.
Options to Limiting Water Impact
Page 2
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
In the paper, three factors affect water use: one,
cassava crop growth; two, cassava root processing,
and three, waste flows from to processing. Options to
limit water use will have to impact on these factors
as follows:
(i) Improving field level yield of cassava root
from its present average low level of
11tons/ha to over 50tons/ha. To enable such
improvement efforts should target the
provision of high yielding cassava cultivar,
soil nutrient enhancers (e.g., use of organic
fertilizers should be preferred to mineral
fertilizers, since the use of mineral fertilizers
may further limit freshwater availability),
proven pests and diseases control methods,
etc. At say, 50tons/ha, the virtual water
content of gari (following the chart in Figure
2) reduces from 1668m3/tonne to about
369m3/tonne.
(ii) Minimising processing losses through the use
of appropriate techniques and technologies.
For instance, eliminating sieving losses by
milling oversized lumps lowers the virtual
water content of gari by about 8 per cent
(adjusting for milling and other handling
losses). Other stages where losses could be
minimised include grating, dewatering and
fermentation, and roasting, and
(iii) Instituting in-situ treatment of waste flows in
processing sites. At first stage, the starch and
fine particles of cassava mash present in the
waste water could be recovered. At second
stage, the HCN could be removed using
appropriate low-cost technique and the clean
water returned for use at the processing site.
In-situ treatment of waste flows will eliminate
the dilution water requirements, saving about
17.7 x 109 m3 of water. Treating and recycling
process water (about 0.80m3 per tonne of
peeled root) will also lead to significant cut in
blue water requirement, while the peels
(which are also rich in HCN) can be dried and
set as fuel during roasting.
Conclusion
Gari production is responsible for about 11 per cent
of Nigeria water use under the assumptions made. In
the paper, three instruments can be put in place to
limit water use: one, yield improvement under the
rainfed agriculture (more crop per drop); two,
minimising processing losses, and three, instituting
in-situ treatment of waste flows. A major
shortcoming of the paper is that it did not account for
the natural background concentrations of HCN in
dilution water. Also, a conservative estimate was
made by looking at dilution volume required for
HCN, but not at the volume for diluting process
water used.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
References
Adeoti, O. Ayelegun T. A., and Oyewole B.
A.(2009). Impact of gari consumption on the
water resource of Nigeria. African Journal of
Biotechnology, under review
Apea-Bah, F. B., Oduro I., Ellis W. O, Sofo-
Kantanka O (2009). Principal components
analysis and age at harvest effect on quality of
gari from some elite cassava varieties in Ghana.
African Journal of Biotechnology; 8(9): 1943-
1949 [Online].
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB/PDF/pdf2
009/4May/Apea-Bah%20et%20al.pdf (June 9,
2009)
Bokanga, M (1996). Biotechnology and cassava
processing in Africa. IITA Research; 12: 14-18
Codex Alimentarius Commission (1995). Codex
standard for gari [Online].
www.codexalimentarius.net/download/standards
/49/CXS_151e.pdf (June 9, 2009)
FAO (1998). Chapter 5 – Processing of roots and
tubers in the tropics [Online].
http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5415e/x5415e05.ht
m#chapter%205%20%20%20processing%20of
%20roots%20and%20tubers (May 25, 2009)
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2001). Water resources
management reform program, draft 2, Federal
Ministry of Water
Resources, Abuja
IITA (1994). Breeding cassava for “safer”
consumption, higher protein. IITA, Ibadan.
Nweke, F. I (1996). Cassava processing in sub-
Saharan Africa: Implications for expanding
cassava production. IITA Research; 12: 7-14.
Ogunleye, I. O., Adeyemo S. B., and Adeyemi M. B
(2008). Effects of moisture contents on the
physical, thermal and isothermal drying
properties of granular cassava particles. Journal
of Engineering and Applied Sciences; 3(5): 416-
423 [Online]. :
http://207.56.205.141/fulltext/jeas/2008/416-
423.pdf (June 9, 2009)
Oluwamukomi, M. O., Adeyemi I. A., and Odeyemi
O. O (2007). Physicochemical properties of
‘Gari’ fortified with soy-melon blends at
different stages of processing. Research Journal
of Biological Sciences; 2(1): 28-32 [Online].
http://medwelljournals.com/fulltext/rjbs/2007/28
-32.pdf (June 9, 2009)
Opara, L. U (1999). Cassava storage. In: CIGR
Handbook of Agricultural Engineering. Volume
IV Agro-Processing Engineering. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers, USA
Sanni, M. O (1995). The transfer of improved gari
production technology [Online].
http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-
doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques1/43
550.pdf (May 25, 2009)
Wikipedia (2009). Water resources [Online].
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resources#cit
e_note-USGS_dist-0
(September 1, 2009)
Page 3
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Production stages Impacts on water resource

Crop
production Resource use Green water Depletion of water resource
at field
level

Processing Resource use Blue water Depletion of water resource

(field or
off field
level) Return waste flows (HCN-enriched) Pollution of water resource

Roasted cassava
granule (or, gari)

Fig. 1: Impact of gari production on water resource (under traditional production and processing
methods in Nigeria)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 4
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

peel

pf = 0.22

Available crop water Harvesting Cassava root

Peeling
= 384mma V = 349 m3 /tonne
Average yield
= 11 ton/hab
pf = 0.78
Peeled cassava root
V = 448 m3/tonne
Service water (average)
= 0.80 m3/tonne
Washing

pf = 0.99 pf = 0.01

a
evaluated under rainfed agriculture
b
average value
Washed root Waste
V = 453 m3 /tonne water +
V = Virtual water content
pf = product fraction losses

Grating
pf = 0.97 pf = 0.03

Grated pulp Losses

V = 467 m3/tonne

Dewatering
and
pf = 0.54 fermentation pf = 0.46

Dewatered and Drained

fermented lump liquid +
V = 865 m3 /tonne particles

Sieving
pf = 0.91 pf = 0.09

Fine pulp Losses

V = 950 m3 /tonne

Roasting
pf = 0.57 pf = 0.43

Gari Moisture
V = 1668 m3/tonne + particle
losses

Fig. 2: Product tree for gari, showing the product fraction and the virtual water content per processing step
(values are for Nigeria, under traditional processing method, rainfed agriculture) (Source: Adeoti et al., 2009)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 5
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Momoh, J. J
(2009), 5 (1):
(1) : 6 - 16
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Application of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in Nigerian Engineering Education

Momoh, J. J
ICT Coordinator,
Mechanical Engineering Department
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
e-mail: jjmomoh@gmail.com / +2348034155891
Abstract
Educational systems around the world are under increasing pressure to use the latest information and
communication technologies (ICTs) to teach students the knowledge and skills required in the 21st century. In an
effort to inculcate ICTs standards in a variety of coursework taken in School of Engineering, this paper
concentrates on a number of techniques and approaches employed to enhance teaching effectiveness in order to
promote student course comprehension. Lots of these approaches make use of commonly used ICTs productivity
tools such as Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Encarta, Microsoft Visio, WebQuests, and MATLAB.
ICTs utility tools, such as internet-based lessons, multimedia presentation and teleconferencing were also
presented. The presented ICTs techniques and approaches, if well applied in engineering education, will go a
long way in enabling lecturers to achieve targets that are hitherto unachievable using traditional method of
teaching.

Keywords: Information, communication, technology, engineering, education, tools

Introduction communicated among users. Lecturers and students

One of the philosophical goals of education in
Nigeria is the need for functional education towards
the promotion of a progressive, united Nigeria. In
view of this, the school programmes need to be
relevant, practical and comprehensive. In order to
address this philosophical goal and in response to the
present demands on education, the revised National
Policy on Education, Federal Republic of Nigeria
(2004), introduced Information and Communication
Technologies (ICTs) into the Nigerian school system.
Institutions such as polytechnics, universities and
colleges of education, through their lecturers, must
make good use of information and communication
technologies so as to prepare students for the future.
Iloanusi and Osuagwu (2009) identifies Information
and Communication Technologies as the processing
and maintenance of information, and the use of all
forms of computer, communication, network and
mobile technologies to facilitate information.
Communication technologies include all media
employed in transmitting audio, video, data or
multimedia such as cable, satellite, fibre optics,
wireless (radio, infra-red, bluetooth, Wi-Fi). Network
technologies include personal area networks (PAN),
campus area network (CAN), intranets, extranets,
LANs, WANs, MANs and the internet. Computer
technologies include all removable media such as
optical discs, disks, flash memories, video books,
multimedia projectors, interactive electronic boards,
and continuously emerging state-of-the-art PCs.
Mobile technologies comprises mobile phones,
PDAs, palmtops, etc. These technologies have
information as their material object. Information is
not reserved for use in isolation, but, rather
in engineering institutions can lose focus of the
essentials and get distracted by rapidly changing
technologies. This usually results when lecturers and
students especially have not yet understood the
technologies; the role ICTs plays; where, how and
what technology to use in performing various tasks.
When the meaning of ICTs and its unlimited offer to
engineering education are understood, then, rapidly
changing technologies are not seen as overwhelming
issues, but, enablers to more critical thinking and
problem solving in engineering education.
According to Egwu (2009), Nigeria is experiencing a
severe shortage of Information and Communication
Technologies skills and personnel necessary for
taking advantage of new and emerging technologies
in the knowledge society.
The challenge confronting our engineering
educational systems can be classified under the four
major approaches identified by UNESCO (2002) for
effectively employing ICTs in education. They are
the emerging, applying, infusing and transforming
approaches that constitute ICTs optimization stages
in education.
The UNESCO World Education Report, (1998)
describe the radical implications the new information
and communication technologies have for
conventional teaching and learning. It predicts the
transformation of the teaching – learning process and
the way lecturers and students gain access to
knowledge and information.
Information and communication technology is a
phenomenon that fits into the globalization project of
making the world a global village where everyone
enjoys the benefits of modern development. The

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 6
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
globalization process being developed around the
world has brought about the expansion of ICTs and
convergence of information dissemination
(Omoregbee and Sola, 2006). It is a major factor in
shaping the new global economy and producing rapid
changes in society. Within the past decade, new ICT
tools have fundamentally changed the way people
communicate and do business. They have produced
significant transformations in industry, agriculture,
medicine, business, engineering and other fields. It
also has the potentials to transform the nature of
education-where and how learning takes place and
the roles of students and lecturers in learning process
(UNESCO, 2002).
The key thing is not in the knowledge of ICTs itself,
but, in understanding ICT, and effectively employing
it in the delivery of knowledge in teaching and
learning process by reaching goals in less time. ICTs
are used as a means but not as an end.
Moore and Huber, (2001), Warlick, (1998), Watson,
(1999) in their opinion says sometimes, ICTs
employed in education does not reach expected
goals, or at times introduces some type of
complicated educational reform.
In the authors view, optimizing the use of ICTs in
engineering education would depend on
understanding ICTs; how, when and where to use
ICTs and what technology to employ in performing
various task.
Information and Communication Technology has
enhanced lecturer’s professional knowledge, skill,
and capabilities by extending their subject
knowledge, enabling planning and preparation for
teaching to be more efficient (Leach, 2005).
Research has also shown that ICTs enables effective
learning (Sutton, 2006).
The impact of new ICTs has significantly changed
the speed of production, use and distribution of
knowledge. Time was when the principal teaching
resources available to a chief lecturers / professors
were the books in the polytechnic / university library,
his chalkboard and an occasional map on the
classroom. But higher education has exhibited a
trend toward a new kind of support for instructional
services and an extreme development of facilities to
encourage the utilization of new media (Brown and
Thornton, 1963). This is made possible through the
use of ICTs (Philip, 2009). As a result of this, ICTs is
now recognized as an essential ingredient for
creating 21st century learning environment.
Educators worldwide are now harnessing the power
of ICTs to transform learning and enhance results.
According to Philip (2008), lecturers have been
identified to be a major factor in fostering classroom
ICTs integration. This is because lecturers constitute
the facilitators and entrepreneurs in classroom ICTs
learning environment.
In an attempt to contrivance information and
communication technologies in a selection of
coursework taken by lecturers across all courses in
engineering, a number of techniques and approaches
were presented. A lot of these approaches make use
of generally available productivity tools such as word
processing, spreadsheet, database,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
draw/paint/graphics applications, internet browser
applications, email, multimedia applications, and
clipart/media clips etc. These appropriate computer-
based software tools can be utilized in countless
ways to support traditional teaching and learning
process.
Utilization of ICTs in Teaching–Learning Process
Spreadsheet: is a computer program that displays
numerical data in cells in a simulated accountant's
worksheet of rows and columns in which hidden
formulas can perform calculations on the visible
data. Spreadsheet programs use rows and columns of
cells; each cell can hold text or numeric data or a
formula that uses values in other cells to calculate a
desired result. To ease computation, these programs
include built-in functions that perform standard
calculations. Depending on the program, a single
spreadsheet can contain anywhere from thousands to
millions of cells. Some spreadsheet programs can
also link one spreadsheet to another that contains
related information, and can update data in linked
spreadsheets automatically. (“Spreadsheet Program,”
2008). VisCalc is usually considered the first
electronic spreadsheet; lotus 1-2-3 was the leading
spreadsheet when DOS was the dominant operating
system. Excel is now considered the largest used
spreadsheet on Windows and Macintosh.
According to Shahman (2005), Excel is a relatively
inexpensive software component of Microsoft Office
suite which is already pre-installed in many
computers when purchased, and is already available
in many educational institutions through a site-
license. A great advantage of Microsoft Excel is the
relative ease with which the features of this software
can be utilized in formulating the solution of a
variety of routine engineering problems, also another
advantage is that most students already have a
working knowledge of the basics of Excel, and feel
comfortable using this familiar software. In this
paper, Excel was used to determine and plot a normal
stress against shear stress on a face for varying angle
θ to produce a Mohr’s circle for a two-dimensional
state of stress. A simple spreadsheet for the
determination of the minimum and maximum
principal stresses and principal direction, given
normal and shear stresses and varying angle θ is
shown in Figures 1 and 2.
Also, a simple spreadsheet for the determination of
the shear force, bending moment, slope, and
deflection diagram of a beam subjected to its own
load is shown in Figure 3. By modifying the values
of the material properties, geometric properties and
loading characteristics in the appropriate cells in the
spreadsheet, the corresponding values of shear force,
bending moment, slope, and deflection are
immediately updated. This modification also
automatically updates the plots in Figure 4. Further
works are currently going on by the author for
readability and documentation with introduction of
other Excel formatting and drawing tools to simulate
the problem.
Page 7
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
MATLAB
MATLAB (MATrix LABoratory) is a high-
performance interacting data-intensive software
environment for high-efficiency engineering and
scientific numerical calculations (Sergey, 2003).
According to Brian (1997), MATLAB is a powerful
computing system for handling the calculations
involved in scientific and engineering problems. It is
designed specially to work with data arranged in the
form of matrix i.e. the arrangement of data in rows
and columns.
Unquestionably, MATLAB is a great computing tool
which is extremely powerful and effective in solving
many complicated engineering problems. MATLAB
was used by the author in developing the model used
to analyze a two dimensional plane truss problem
shown in Figure 5 and 6. The utilization of
MATLAB for solving structural engineering
problems was discussed in Navaee (2003) and
Navaee and Das (2002).
Word Processor: is a computer program to
manipulate, create, retrieve, modify, store, and print
text (“word processor”, 2008). It is an electronic
equivalent of paper, pen, typewriter, eraser, and most
likely, dictionary and thesaurus. Depending on the
program and the equipment in use, word processors
can display documents either in text mode, using
highlighting, underlining, or color to represent
italics, boldfacing, and other such formatting, or in
graphics mode, wherein formatting and, sometimes, a
variety of fonts appear on the screen as they will on
the printed page. All word processors offer at least
limited facilities for document formatting, such as
font changes, page layout, paragraph indention, and
the like. Some word processors can also check
spelling, find synonyms, incorporate graphics created
with another program, correctly align mathematical
formulas, create and print form letters, perform
calculations, display documents in multiple on-
screen windows, and enable users to record macros
that simplify difficult or repetitive operations.
Microsoft word is the most widely used computer
word processing system. There are many other
commercial word processing applications software
such as Word perfect, which dominated the market
from mid- 1980s to early- 1990s. Open-source
applications such as Abiword, Kword, LyX and
OpenOffice.orgWriter are rapidly gaining popularity.
Most papers in this conference proceedings were
received and processed using ICTs, such as papers
received via e-mail, reviewed by reviewer, comment
were made using Microsoft word as shown in Figure
7. Comment can be inserted in form of a note or
annotation that an author or reviewer adds to a
document. Microsoft Word displays the comment in
a balloon in the margin of the document or in the
Reviewing pane that appear in the document
margins. This was sent as an attachment to the author
via e-mail to effect necessary correction, text
messages was sent using mobile phone to alert the
authors as a follow up to the e-mail. Corrected papers
were sent by the authors to the editor via email. Also
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
student’s project report could be saved on external
drive and edited using this new technology.
Microsoft Encarta is a digital multimedia
encyclopedia published by Microsoft Corporation
since 1993. Complete English version, Encarta
Premium consisted of more than 62,000 articles
(“Encarta”, 2009) numerous photos and illustrations,
music clips, videos, interactivities, timelines, maps
and atlas, and homework tools. Microsoft publishes
similar encyclopedias under the Encarta trademark in
various languages, including German, French,
Spanish, Dutch, Italian, Portuguese and Japanese. As
stated by John (2008), Encarta has both text and
picture, which has an inbuilt search engine that gives
both lecturers and students easy access to materials
that can be used for teaching and learning many
topics. It is an encyclopedia put in the computer and
updated annually.
Draw/Paint/Graphics Applications: is a computer
program for manipulating object-oriented graphics.
Commonly used programs for this purpose are paint,
AutoCAD, and Microsoft Visio. Microsoft Office
Visio is a diagramming program for Microsoft
Windows that uses vector graphics to create
diagrams. Design drawings can be produced faster
and neatly when these graphic applications are put to
use. In the earlier publications of the author,
Microsoft Visio was used to produce all the design
drawings (Momoh et al, 2008 and Momoh et al,
2009) such as tensile testing machine and creep
testing machine as shown in Figures 8 and 9
respectively.
Internet-Based Lessons
Internet-based resources have already begun to
revolutionize the ways in which science and
engineering courses are thought. Lecturers are
recognizing the unlimited potential of the internet as
both an excellent tool for facilitating inquiry-based
instruction and for creating roadmaps to educational
reform. Engineering lecturers are challenged to
consider the internet as contribution to actual
instruction through the followings as identified by
Terese, (2003).

Opportunities for students to interact with real-
time data, a context which engages the students
in applying engineering principles.

Virtual manipulative, which allow students to
manipulate objects onscreen and observe the
effect of the movement.

WebQuest, in which students investigate a real
world problem by finding information on the
internet and reaching conclusion through
engineering application.

A growing repository of shared problem sets,
created by educators as both practice and
challenge for the students.
Also lecturers should see internet as:

Tool for research, by providing means of
carrying out research online and find out nearly
any topic using the search engine such as Ask,
Google, and Yahoo.
Page 8
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Field for research: it is a place of carrying out
research where scholars explore different aspects
of virtual communities

Medium of communication: it is a mode of
interaction which is more efficient and quicker
than the traditional mode where researcher
exchanges materials by post.

Electronic publishing: includes the digital
publication of e-book and electronic articles,
internet provides opportunities for scholars and
researchers to present and share ideas and
research findings to the world through electronic
publishing.
WebQuest: is a learning activity used by educators.
During this activity, learners read, analyze and
synthesize information using the World Wide Web
(“WebQuest”, 2009). WebQuest are designed to use
learners ‘time well, to focus on using information
rather than looking for it, and to support learners’
thinking at the level of analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. The use of WebQuest in delivery of
engineering instructions has been explored by many
engineering educators in recent years. The WebQuest
environment offers a variety of communication,
evaluation as well as other tools that can be utilized
in enhancing the delivery of any engineering course.
The WebQuest model shown in Table 1, has been
effectively applied to all levels of education, from
elementary to postgraduate level, and in many
different courses. The WebQuest provides teachers
an option of reviewing and selecting web-based
learning activities in a lesson type format.
The WebQuest model encourages lecturers to create
for their students new activities and adapt successful
ones to take advantage of the Web’s power. A
higher-level application of this model has students
develop their own WebQuest activities to support the
subject matter they are studying, and share the
WebQuests with their peers. WebQuest may be
created by anyone; typically they are developed by
lecturers following the first part of the model to the
final part.
Multimedia Presentation:
During the last decade, multimedia technology has
been a dominant focus of the computer industry
(Ahmad and Zaman, 2003). In its many forms,
multimedia offers exciting possibilities for education
and entertainment. Multimedia is the integration of
more than one medium into some form of
communication or experience delivered via
computer. Most often, multimedia refers to the
integration of media such as text, sound, graphics,
animation, video, imaging, and spatial modeling into
a computer system (Von Wodtke, 1993). Employing
a relatively inexpensive desktop computer, users are
now able to capture sounds and video, manipulate
audio and images to achieve special effects,
synthesize audio and video, create sophisticated
graphics including animation, and integrate them all
into a single multimedia presentation. Multimedia is
not a form of instruction to learn from, but rather a
tool for constructing and learning with (Lajoie and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Derry, 1993). Learners may create their own
multimedia knowledge presentations that reflect their
own perspectives on understanding of ideas.
Multimedia is considered as a breakthrough in
teaching and learning aids because it allows the user
to be an active participant rather than a spectator
Kanning (1994).
Ahmad and Zaman (2003), highlighted further that
Multimedia technology has been said to be able to
enhance teaching and learning and lecturers and
students can benefit from it tremendously, if the
technology is used well during the design and
development stage of the multimedia courseware.
Among the benefits reported on multimedia
technology used in education according to U.S.
Department of Education (1996) are:

Enhance students’ achievement

Help students master skills required for the
workforce

Serve as a motivational tool, improving attitude
towards learning, confidence, and self- esteem

Enhance ability to remember and understand
material

Enhance organizational and problem-solving
skills

Help students become independent learners and
self-starters

Improve skills and knowledge of lecturers.
Teleconferences
Electronic mail provides sending the message to one
addressee and many addressees as well by copying
the first message automatically to all e-mail
destinations appointed by the user. Mass e-mail
exchange that is purposed for “one-to-many”
information flows is more effective, if it is organized
in a form of teleconferences. Teleconferences are
created for those users, who would like to discuss
some topics together. They are organized in each
telecommunication network, and at the same time
they are accessible for the users from other networks
as they exchange e-mails through the gateways.
Hereby teleconferences are the organized exchange
of information between the network users
(UNESCO, 2003).
Internet teleconferences differ from each other by:
The accessibility – teleconferences can be opened
(opened to all subscribers – users of the network) and
closed (opened to a limited number of subscribers),
The management – moderated (managed,
administrated by the leader, administrator,
moderator, who is responsible for everything that is
going on in the conference) and not moderated
(without a moderator, non-regulated discussions),
The way the information exchange is organized –
delayed (off-line) conferences (discussion groups,
mailing lists, etc.) and real time (online) conferences
(for example, IRC – Internet Relay Chat).
The most widely used and popular teleconferences
are delayed conferences, so-called mailing
conferences.
Page 9
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Limitations to the Infusion of ICTs in Nigerian
Engineering Education
Adewale and Mudasiru (2005), Iloanus and Osuagwu
(2009), in their papers enunciated many factors
limiting the infusion of Information and
Communication Technologies in Nigerian education.
These factors are highlighted below:
• Paucity of Information and Communication
Technologies infrastructure and lack of access
• High cost to the Consumer
• High Cost of Ownership
• Unsteady and Inadequate Electrical Power
Supply
• Lack of technically experienced lecturers
• Limited Information and Communication
Technologies facilities
• Inadequate course content for Information and
Communication Technologies
• Lack of clear direction on teacher training on
Information and Communication Technologies
in the Nigerian National Policy for Information
Technology (NNPIT) on teacher education.
• Lack of leadership by professional organisation
• Lack of access to Information and
Communication Technologies in trainee
teachers’ field experience
Conclusions
ICT application to engineering education enhances
the delivery and access to knowledge, and improves
the curriculum. It produces richer learning outcomes
compared to education without ICT. It encourages
critical thinking and offers unlimited means of
achieving educational goals.
It was established that applying ICTs in engineering
forum will speed up processing time of papers which
could have delayed by post, saves money and less of
paper work.
The infusion of these new technologies to
engineering education has the potential to offer
lecturers and students new practical ways of dealing
with some pressures and challenges facing them.
With the new technology, the role of the engineering
lecturers becomes increasingly that of a guide,
facilitator of students’ access to information and
enabler of the development of students’ skills as
learners. Hence, Computers in Teaching Initiative,
CTI (1998), identifies seven specific benefits in
using Information and Communication Technologies.
Appropriate use of the technologies can release staff
time (allowing more time to be spent in small group
teaching, materials’ development and research.
Interactive and multimedia delivery systems enhance
motivation and if used effectively, reinforce learning.
Information and Communication Technology can
provide a student-centred learning environment
tailored to the pace and learning style of the
individual. The technology provides the potential for
students to receive immediate feedback and for
lecturers to carry out rapid continuous assessment.
Real-time or time-independent communication can
take place among students and staff within and
between institutions. Access to the Internet provides
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
vast resources for assignments and researches. To
achieve these benefits, ICT should be integrated into
the engineering education and programmes to expose
students to new technologies at earlier stages and
allow for much needed integration of the science and
technology.
Recommendations
It is widely acknowledged, by the government,
educational agencies such as National Board for
Technical Education (NBTE), National Universities
Commission (NUC) and National Commission for
Colleges of Education (NCCE) that application of
Information and Communication Technologies for
enhancement of delivery of instruction and
promotion of students’ comprehension are highly
essential in engineering education. Lecturers would
need to possess the required skill to impart
Information and Communication Technologies
training on engineering students. Lecturers must be
made to undergo compulsory Information and
Communication Technologies training to the level of
advanced engineering application. Lecturers need to
be given in-service training to make them relevant to
modern knowledge and skills in the area of
Information and Communication Technologies and
for them to be able to make maximum use of the
potentials of Information and Communication
Technologies in their teaching tasks.
Lecturers must be prepared to empower the students
with the advantages Information and Communication
Technologies can bring. Lecture rooms must have
lecturers who are equipped with ICT resources and
skills and who can effectively teach the necessary
subject matter content while incorporating
Information and Communication Technologies
concepts and skills.
It has been established that Information and
Communication Technologies use and integration in
teaching-learning process is dependent on access
(Anderson and Baskin, 2002; Frederickson, 1999;
Watson, 2001) it is important that Information and
Communication Technologies facilities and
equipment should be made available to lecturers and
students. The Management of institutions should
develop rigid technology planning for the
development of qualitative engineering education.
Since successful use of ICT in engineering education
is important to lecturing, lecturers should be
motivated to develop interest in Information and
Communication Technologies in schools. According
to Michael Fullan (2001), the role of the
organization’s leader is the most important single
factor in bringing about change. Infusions of ICTs
into engineering education will not succeed without
strong leadership and vision. In engineering
education, this leadership and vision must be
initiated, with strong support from the
school/faculty/department heads. The Management
of institutions should constitute Information and
Communication Technologies resource team which
comprises lecturers who have successfully integrated
ICT into their instruction. These lecturers should be
provided with additional training in which the
Page 10
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
resource lecturer would later assist other lecturers in
integrating specific ICTs into their instructional
practices.
References
Adewale O. A. and Mudasiru. O. Y. (2005):
Information and Communication Technologies
(ICTS) and the Nigerian Teacher Education
Programme African Journal of Educational
Studies, Vol. 3 No. 1, pp. 1 – 19.
Ahmad, W. F and Zaman, H. B. (2003): Integration
of Multimedia in Visualising Geometric
Transformations for Mathematics Education: A
Preliminary Review, Platform, Vol. 3. No. 1, pp.
71 - 78
Anderson, N. and Baskin, C. (2002). Can we leave it
to chance? New learning technologies and the
problem of professional competence.
International Education Journal, 3 (3), 126 –
137. Retrieved September 18, 2009, from
http://iej.cjb.net/
Brian, D. H. (1997): Essential MATLAB for
Scientists’ Aid Engineers, John Wiley and Son
Inc. Publisher, New York.
Computers in Teaching Initiative (1998): An
Evaluation of the Computers in Teaching
Initiative and Teaching and Learning
Technology support network. Retrieved
September 18, 2009, from http//www.hefce.
ac.uk/pubs/HEFCE/47.html.
Egwu, S. O. (2009): Roadmap for the Nigerian
Education Sector, Consultaive draft, Federal
Ministry of Education.
Fredrickson, S. (1999). Behind the curve in teacher
preparation. How schools and colleges of
education should be preparing their pre-service
teachers to using instructional technology.
Journal of Information Technology Impact, 1
(2), 73 – 80. Retrieved September 15, 2009,
from http://www.jiti.com/v1n2/fredrickson.pdf
Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004): National Policy
on Education. Abuja: NERDC.
Fullan, M. (2001): Leading in a Culture of Change.
New York: Jossey-Bass
Iloanus, N.O and Osuagwu, C. C. (2009): ICT in
Education: Achievements so far in Nigeria,
Research, Reflections and Innovations in
Integrating ICT in Education,Vol. 3, pp1331 -
1335 Retrieved September 18, 2009, from
www.formatex.org/mitce2009/volume3.htm.
John, O. (2008): Skills for Effective Improvisation
and Utilization of Teaching – Learning
Materials: National Board for Technical
Education Training Manual on Pedagogical
Skills for Technical Teachers in Nigerian
Polytechnics and Monotechnic (Mdgs / Drg)
Kanning, R.G. (1994): What Multimedia Can Do in
Our Classrooms, Educational Leadership,Vol.
51, No. 7, pp. 40 - 44.
Lajoie, S.P. and Derry, S.J. (1993): Computers as
Cognitive Tools, Hillsdale, N.J.:Lawrence
Erlbaum
Leach, J. (2005): Do ICTs enhance teaching and
learning in South Africa and Egypt? Retrieved
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
August 30, 2009 from
http://www.digitalopportunity.org/article/view/1
25462/1/
Momoh, J. J, Ajueyitsi, O.N.A and Onipede, A.I.M
(2008): Development of a Low Cost
Mechanically Operated Tensile and Creep
Testing Machine, Journal of Engineering and
Applied Sciences, Medwell Journals, Pakistan,
Vol. 3, No. 6, pp 491 – 495
Momoh, J.J, Shuaib-Babata, Y.L and Adelegan, G.O
(in press): Modification and Performance
Evaluation of a Low Cost Electro-Mechanically
Operated Creep Testing Machine, African
Journal of Engineering Research and
Development
Moore, C.J and Huber, R.A. (2001): Support for
Environmental Education from the National
Science Education Standards and the Internet.
The Journal of Environmental Education, Vol.
32, pp. 21 – 25.
Navaee, S. and Das, N. K. (2002): Utilization of
MATLAB in Structural Analysis Problems,
Proceedings of the American Society for
Engineering Education, Montreal, Canada.
Navaee, S. (2003): Developing Instructional Modules
for Analyzing Structures, Proceedings of the
American Society for Engineering Education,
Nashville, Tennessee.
Omoregbee, M.U and Sola, O, (2006): ICT and
community Networking: Its Application in the
Millenium Development Programme in Poverty
Reduction, Procedings of 2nd Engineering
Forum, School of Engineering Federal
Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, 10th – 13th Oct., pp 87 –
90.
Philip, O. J. (2008): Age and ICT-Related
Behaviours of Higher Education Teachers in
Nigeria, Issues in Informing Science and
Information Technology, Vol. 5, pp 251 – 266.
Philip, O. J. (2008): ICT Attitudinal Characteristics
and Use Level of Nigerian Teachers, Issues in
Informing Science and Information Technology,
Vol. 5, pp 251 – 266.
Sergey, E. L, (2003): Engineering and Scientific
Computations using MATLAB, A John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., Publication, New Jersey.
Shahman, N. (2005): Application of Technology in
Engineering Education, Proceedings of the
American Society for Engineering Education
Annual Conference and Exposition. pp(15)
Spreadsheet Program. (2008): Microsoft Student
2008 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft
Corporation.
Sutton, B. B. (2006): Pedagogy and Curriculum.
Retrieved September 30, 2009 from
http://www.digitaldivide.net/news/view.php?He
adlineID=701.
U.S. Department of education. (1996): Retrieved
September 18, 2009, from
(http://www.ed.gov/Technology/Plan/NatTechPl
an/ benefits.html)
UNESCO World Education Report, (1998): Teachers
and Teaching in a Changing World, Division of
Higher Education, UNESCO.
Page 11
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
UNESCO, (2002): Information and Communication
Technologies in Teachers Education: A Planning
Guide, Division of Higher Education, UNESCO.
UNESCO. (2003): Internet for Educators. Practical
Course, Internet in Education Support Materials
for Educators, UNESCO Institute for
Information Technologies in Education,
Moscow.
Von Wodtke, M. (1993): Mind over Media: Creative
thinking Skills for Electronic Media, New York:
McGraw Hill.
Warlick, D. (1998): Evaluating Internet-Based
Information: A Goals-Based Approach.
Meridian [online], 1 (2). Available:
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/jun98/index.html.
Watson. (1999): WebQuests in Middle School
Curriculum: Promoting Teechnological Literacy
in the Classroom. Meridian [online], 2 (2).
Available:
http://www.ncsu.edu/meridian/jun98/index.html.
WebQuest, (2009): Wikipedia Online Encyclopedia
2009. Retrieved September 18, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebQuest.html

Fig. 1: Mohr, circle spreadsheet

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 12
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 2: Mohr’s circle construction

Fig. 3: Input interface

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 13
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 4: Plots

Fig 5. Data input intarface.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 14
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 6: Out put Interface

Fig. 7: Peer review comment

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 15
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 8: Tensile Testing Machine Fig. 9: Creep Testing Machine

Table 1: The WebQuest Model

WebQuest Lesson Format
Introduction – orients the learner to what is coming and creates interest in the lesson
Task – describes what the learner should have completed at the end of the exercise
Process – describes the steps the learner should go through in completing the task
Resources – gives a list of Web pages the instructor has located that will help the learner accomplish
the task
Evaluation – provides a rubric for examining six aspects of the student product
Conclusions – presents an opportunity to summarize and reflect upon the experience, examines the
process, generalizes what was learned.
Source: UNESCO, 2002.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 16
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Shuaib-
Shuaib-Babata, Y. L
Alabi, A. G. F
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 17 - 25
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Laboratory Investigation into Corrosion Behaviours of Commercial Mild Steel in Ilorin (Nigeria)
Municipal Tap Water from Asa and Agba Dams

*Shuaib-Babata, Y. L & **Alabi, A.G.F

*Department of Mechanical Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State.
sylbabata2000@yahoo.co.uk / 08033945977

**Department of Mechanical Engineering,

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
* Correspondence Author

ABSTRACT
Ilorin residents are subjected to the problem of acute scarcity of suitable drinkable water and possible health
endangering from water pollution. Corrosion of pipes, storage tanks and other devices, which lead to wastage
and pollution of insufficient available water, is identified to be a major contributing factor. More so, the
commercially available mild steel has been fabricated for many purposes such as pipe, water tank, fuel tank,
grinders and other equipment without recourse to its behaviour and effectiveness in the tested environment. This
paper investigated the nature and extent of corrosion of commercially available mild steel in Ilorin municipal
water, which is of domestic and industrial significance. The steel samples were subjected to different heat
treatments methods, such as annealing, normalizing, tempering and hardening. The samples (10 x 20 x 15mm3)
in its original and heat treated format were exposed to various treated and untreated Ilorin municipal water
from Asa and Agba dams, and distilled water for 720 hours. The research revealed that the heat-treated samples
had better corrosion resistivity than untreated (as received) samples, most especially the annealed and
normalized samples. The impurity nature of untreated water from the two dams caused enhanced corrosion
rates of the steel. This study therefore discovered that annealed and normalized mild steels are better for
production of pipes, storage tanks, machine, equipment and other engineering devices to be used for storage or
supply of water in Ilorin.

Keywords: Ilorin, Municipal water, Agba and Asa dam, Pipes, and Corrosion.

Introduction The significance of corrosion has been a serious

Corrosion, which is known as “breaking down of
essential properties in materials due to chemical
reactions with its surroundings (wikipedia, 2009),
mostly causes remarkable losses of materials, energy,
money and even human lives. It often results in
increased maintenance, partial failures in machines,
unplanned total plant shut down (failure), and
possible serious accidents in engineering works
(Alawode & Adeyemo, 2008). Occurrences of
corrosion in any system that have contributed to loss
of lives and properties, and at times attract spending
huge amount as a result of its effects have been
revealed by different researchers (Shuaib-Babata,
2004; Aluko, 2004; Yasuo & Toru, 1982; Evans,
1971). Similar events are also shown by Das et al
(2004) that corrosion causes rapid failure in marine
systems and very significant of such cases as
reported by them were undetected corrosion that
caused the collapse of the “Point Pleasant Bridge”
over the Ohio River in 1967 and the Minianus River
Bridge of I-95 in Connecticut in 1983 that resulted to
fourty-nine fatalities. More so, it is reported that
millions of dollars are lost each year as a result of
corrosion, which much is lost due to corrosion of
iron and steel (wikipedia, 2009).
matter to governments and other organizations at
different level, most especially in the developed
countries. Such case is that of the Brazilian
government and USEPA that fined two companies a
total of $64.5 Million as a result of failure of
materials in marine systems due to corroded pipes
that polluted streams, lakes and bays, (Ocean
Resources, 2002).
In Nigeria, It is a common event that tap water are
seen wasting on streets, household, neighbourhoods,
industrial sites and even at the dam sites within the
major towns and cities or municipals due to steel
pipes, pumps or steel storage tanks linkages. Ilorin,
the Kwara State capital is not exempted from this
avoidable problem. These linkages are observed to
be caused majorly by corrosion failure of the
systems, as the most abundant and wide spread
corrosive electrolyte is water (Encyclopedia, 1977).
Debris of corrosion products (greenish, blackish or
brownish colour) are found at times in water fetched
directly from the tap. These products are not good for
human consumption as they are likely to be harmful
to human health (Evans, 1971). The treated/drinkable
water is to be free of pollution, suspension and
bacteria (Fotana, 1986). Metal from the pipe

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 17
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
dissolves into water as a result of various causes,
causing pipe failure and corrosion of water heaters,
appliances and fixtures. Corrosion in plumbing is due
to physical and chemical reactions between the pipe
material and water. The main causes of pipe
corrosion include alteration of water pH, high level
of dissolved oxygen, velocity and pressure of the
water in the pipe, temperature of water, high level of
salts dissolved in water, and / or corrosion causing
bacteria such as sulfate or iron bacteria
(aceduraflo.com, 2009).
The tap water from either Agba or Asa dam, which
are major sources of drinkable water in Ilorin, the
Kwara State capital in Nigeria are transported
through steel pipes or stored in tanks made with
commercial mild steel. The common practice of local
fabricators to fabricate domestic implements devices,
public storage tanks and pipes with commercially
available mild steel (plain carbon steel) is ascertained
by various researchers, such as Piccard et al (1987)
and Gerry et al (2004). Low carbon steels such as
mild steel are preferred for container, tubing material
for heat transfer and storage processes. Umoru et al
(2002) are also of the view that “steel is widely used
for reinforcing or stressing concrete of all materials
as a result of the belief that concrete constitutes an
ideal environment for steel” , most especially mild
steel. Mild steel is popular known for a widely used
in most structural engineering works out of about
90% of all steels, like in construction of bridges,
buildings, ships, vehicles, tanks and water systems
(Michael, 1986, Kempster, 1984; Fox, 1982). It is
widely used as a result of its excellent mechanical
properties such as strength, high ductility, toughness,
ease of fabrication, and availability (Rollason, 1984).
It is surprising to hear that a huge proportion of the
State and Federal Governments’ budgets go for
problems of water supply annually, despite the fact
that tap water is seen wasting day-in-day-out on
streets. Kwara State for example has being budgeting
millions of Naira on water supply and dams (Asa and
Agba) rehabilitation for the past four years in order
to alleviate the problem of acute scarcity of drinkable
water. Yet, the residents of these cities face serious
scarcity of drinkable water supply day-in-day-out for
home consumptions and industrial usages.
To alleviate the problem of acute scarcity of water
supply and limit the possibility of endangered health
situation which water pollution and wastage as result
corroded pipes, storage tanks and other devices are
contributing factors. , and to reduce the money spent
by the governments and individuals in the course of
maintaining the pipes or the water storage devices
made of steel, there is need for corrosion testing of
the material.
Various researchers such as Reda, et al (1988), Shreir
(1976), Fotana & Greene (1978) and Uhlig (1948)
have shown that corrosion tests are significant in
making several materials-related decisions, such as
to; determine the best material for service in a
specific environment; determine the quality or
acceptability of a material for a specific application;
provision for an effective way to measure the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
suitability of a specific lot of material, and to identify
corrosive conditions in environments which vary in
corrosivity. Corrosion tests are very useful to
determine quality assurance by materials suppliers
and their customers to ensure that the materials will
meet their ultimate service requirements
(Encyclopedia of Science & Technology, 1977).
Corrosion testing is an important activity for
engineering applications and in evaluating material
and products for use in new processes, applications
and other types of services. Corrosion tests are also
designed to measure resistance to a specific
environment or to measure the corrosivity of an
environment relative to a specific material for proper
understanding of the behaviour of such material in
that environment and to ensure results that are close
as possible to the actual plant service conditions
(Shuaib-Babata, 2004). The results of corrosion tests
also assist producers in adding inhibitors or
modifying condition in the manufacture of such
products.
This study will present results that will aid in
proffering adequate corrosion preventive measures
that will reduce the effects of corrosion of pipes,
storage tanks and other devices used in the cause of
producing drinkable water or its storage to a bearable
minimum level. Thus the hardship and suffering of
Ilorin municipal residents as result of acute scarcity
of drinkable water and the money being spent by
governments and various bodies on repair and
replacement of corroded water storage tanks, pipes
and other devices will be drastically reduced.
Materials And Methods
Specimens and Materials
The commercially available mild steel plates of
thickness 10.0mm were selected to prepare the
coupons for the experiments. The size of the coupons
is in average of 10 x 20 x 15 mm3 and is shown in the
plate 1.
Corrosion Medium
The media used for corrosion test are samples of tap
water from Asa dam and Agba dam, untreated water
obtained directly from both Asa dam stream and
Agba dam stream, and laboratory prepared distilled
water. Some of the properties of the media are
presented in Table 1.
Chemical Composition of the Specimen
The chemical composition of the specimen was
determined as presented in table 2 to aid in
determining the actual class of the steel since
chemical composition plays prominent role in
designation of steel (Khurmi & Gupta, 2005) and at
long run has great influence on mechanical and
corrosion behaviours of any material.
Heat Treatment of Test Coupons/Specimens
The coupons and the test specimens used for
mechanical test which were cut to average
dimensions of 10 x 175 x 200 mm3 were subjected to
normalizing, tempering, hardening and annealing in
an electric furnace with pre-heater as follows:
(a) Annealing: Heated to 920OC/30minutes +
Furnace cooling.
Page 18
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
(b) Quench Hardening: Heated to
920OC/30minutes + rapid quenching in water.
(c) Normalizing: Heated to 920OC/30minutes +
total cooling in still air.
(d) Tempering: Heated to 920OC/30minutes + re-
heating to 350OC/30 minutes + total cooling in
still air.
Mechanical Testing of Specimens
Some selected samples of the materials, both heated
and unheated (as received) were tested on
Computerized Universal Testing Machine shown in
plate 2 and Rockwell Hardness Machine to obtain
some of the mechanical properties of the steel and
the results are presented in table 3.
Corrosion Testing Procedures
On the coupon, a hole of 1.00mm was drilled on each
coupon close to the upper edge for easy hanging and
the edges of the coupons were grinded to reduce edge
effects as previously used in similar research
(Shuaib-Babata, 2006). The surfaces of the
specimens were abraded with 200grit, 400grit and
subsequently 600grit emery papers. Fotana and
Greene (1978) have earlier considered the use of
emery papers to 600 finish as suitable for
experimentation.
The American Standard of Testing and Materials
(ASTM) procedures for coupon surface preparation
were employed to obtain uniformity on the surfaces
of the test metal and to activate the surface ready for
corrosion reaction (ASTM, 1985). The weights (M1)
of the coupons were determined immediately after
the surface preparation before exposure into the
various required test media.
Exposure
A pair of each weighed coupons were immersed in
beakers containing 500 cm3 of the tested media
(closed) by hanging them with inelastic thread
attached to the lid for a period of 720 hours as shown
in the plate 1.
After exposure, the corrosion products were cleaned
using chemical method of cleaning test specimens in
line with the ASTM standards. The cleaned
specimens were rinsed in water to remove excess
acid, dried in methanol, hot air and kept in
desiccators for final weighing, M2.
Assessment of Corrosion Damages
The corrosion damages were assessed by both visual
observation and corrosion rate measurement. The
weight loss method was employed to assess the
corrosion damage and rates since the surface of the
corroded specimen appear, to large extent, uniform.
Weight loss is the measure of difference between the
original mass of the sample before immersion (M1)
and the mass of the same sample after exposure and
cleaning (M2).
The corrosion rate under weight loss method is
calculated in mils per year using the recommended
relation (ASTM, 1985) which have earlier been used
successfully elsewhere (Alabi, 1989 and Shuaib-
Babata, 2004) and is giving by:
Corrosion rate = KW (3)
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
DAT
Where:
K = 534 (corrosion rate constant),
W = Weight loss (gram)
D = Density of the material (g/cm2) = 7.86g
cm-2 for mild steel.
A = Total area of exposure (cm2) =11.5 cm2
T = Exposure time in hours
mpy = mils per year (corrosion rate units)
Results and Discussion
Visual Observations of Corrosion Products
The corrosion products were visually observed to
have started after 24 hours of exposure in all the
media with the formation of greenish colour material
on the surfaces and edges of the steel. The greenish
colour later transformed to brownish colour, though
much earlier in the stream water media than the
treated water media as shown in plates 1&2. The
product was uniformly laid on the surfaces and edges
of the specimen. The brown corrosion products were
always on a dark layer.
Corrosion Rates
The average corrosion rates were calculated using
equation 3 stated above and presented graphically in
figures 1- 6. From the results, the corrosion rates are
highest during initial stages which thereafter reduce
with time. The initial higher corrosion rates might be
due to the availability of fresh activated surface and
high initial oxygen content of the solution. The
reduction might have resulted from the formation of
a product layer which might have shielded the iron
surface from further corrosion. The graphs show
uniform reduction in corrosion rates of the steel
except in some few cases. The uniform reduction in
the corrosion rate is an indication that corrosion
products formed on the edges and surfaces of the
metal are uniformly laid and as such likely to be
protective to a certain extent. The dark layer visually
observed might be magnetite, Fe3O4 which is likely
to be protective to some extent.
In general, the corrosion rates of coupons immersed
in Asa and Agba streams water are relatively the
highest, that of the metal specimens in distilled water
is the lowest, while the tap water sourced or obtained
from Agba and Asa dams are relatively lower than
that of stream medium, but higher than that of
distilled water as shown in the figures. The enhanced
corrosion rate in the stream (Agba and Asa) water is
as result of the presence of impurities, biological
organisms’ debris and other elements in the streams.
The higher pH of the water is also a contributing
factor. The corrosion rates in the tap and distilled
water is believed to have reduced to minimal level as
a result of the water treatment during which chemical
components, biological organisms effects and iron
chloride formation that aid corrosion rates must have
been reduced to minimal level, if not totally
removed. This is in line with the view of Evans
(1971) as reported by Shuaib-Babata (1996) that
corrosion decreases with increase in purity of water
due to less solids, gases and reduction in pH level of
the water. More so, the relatively lower rate of
Page 19
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
corrosion in the distilled and tap water may be due to
the formation of black surface, which is adherent,
non-porous, uniformly laid on the metal. This black
product has been shown to be magnetite (Fe3O4), a
good passivating agent that is protective to some
extent (Alabi, 1986).
In figure 3, there is an arbitrary enhanced corrosion
rate of tempered steel in Agba stream medium at
about 80 hours to 120 hours of immersion. The
arbitrary increase in corrosion rates also feature in
the case of annealed steel in figure 5 at about 50 to
120 hours of immersion in Asa and Agba stream
media. Same feature appear in figure 4 for the
normalized steel between hours of 250 and 480 in
Agba dam tap water. The arbitrary increase in the
corrosion rates could be attributed to exfoliation of
the corrosion products formed on the surfaces and
edges of the specimens. Thus, the surfaces of the test
metal were exposed and thus enhanced further
corrosion.
Figure 6 shows good corrosion resistivity of the
treated steels compared to as received ones. In
general, annealed metal has the lowest corrosion rate,
followed by the normalized, tempered martensite and
hardened-martensite) steel respectively. Though,
tempered steel and hardened (martensite) steel have
appreciable corrosion rates if compared to other
treated steels, but still lower than that of untreated (as
received) steel. This shows positive effect of heat
treatment methods on corrosivity of the test steel in
all the media.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the following facts are derived from
the laboratory test and analysis:
(1) The laboratory test shows that heat treatment
methods, most especially annealing, are
effective to reduce corrosivity of the steel in all
the tested media.
(2) The steel corrodes uniformly in treated water,
which is an indication that the corrosion of the
steel in the environments can be controlled or
prevented with simple corrosion preventive
methods, such as inhibition, appropriate material
selection, pH modifier, among others. No pitting
form of corrosion is observed on surfaces of the
steel for the tested period.
(3) The commercial steel is suitable for Ilorin
municipal storage and transportation of water for
good 720 hours and beyond, if adequately
treated and handled with proper monitoring,
most especially at this period of economy
depression instead of spending huge money in
procurement of imported stainless or galvanized
steel for this purpose.
Recommendations
(1) Proper monitoring should be put in place by the
state government or appropriate water
corporation or agency to keep good pipe and
water storage tanks corrosion records in Ilorin
municipal to enhance adequate management and
proper maintenance of the devices or equipment.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
This will help to reduce the huge money being
spent on water and possibly difficulty or stress
imposed on the residents as a result of gross
inadequate supply of drinkable water supply.
(2) A further research for longer period of time is
recommended for experimentation to obtain
comprehensive reports on corrosion behaviour
of the steel in the tested media.
References
Alabi, A. G. F. & Neil Birks (1986), “Reactions
Leading to the Auto – Ignition of Direct
Reduced Iron”, Iron & Steel Congress, Vol. 5,
pp. 83 – 91.
Alabi, A. G. F. (1989), “The Mechanism of Auto –
Ignition of Direct Reduced Iron”, Ph.D. Thesis,
University of Pittsburgh, United States of
America, pp. 12-13.
Alawode, A.J. & Adeyemo, S.B. (2008),
“Evaluating the Corrosion rates & tensile
Properties of Quenched & Tempered Mild Steel
Rods, Journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, 3(5), pp. 396- 400.
Aluko, F. I. (2004), “The Effect of Heat Treatment
on the Microstructure of grey Cast Iron in Paper
Making Industries”, Nigrian Journal of
Engineering Management, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp.9
ASTM (1985), “Annual Books of Standards’,
Section 3, Vol. 3.02, Designation G1 – 81,
American Standard of Testing and Materials.
Das, J. N., Zand, B. & Hockan, D. (2004), “The
Effect of Corrosion on Shielding Effectiveness
of a Zinc-Coated Steel Enclosure”,
http://www.corrosiondoctor.com
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (1977),
Vol. 3 (chat – cyt), McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, pp. 543 – 949.
Evans, U. R. (1971), “The corrosion and Oxidation
of Metal: Scientific Principles and Practical
Applications”, Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,
London.
Fotana M. G. & Green, N. P. (1978), “ Corrosion
Engineering”, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York.
Fotana, M. G. (1986), “Corrosion Engineering”, 3rd
Edition, McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., New
York.
Fox, J. H. E. (1982), “Materials Engineering Design
Guides”, 4th ed., McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc.,
United States of American.
Gerry, E. Bawa, M. A. & Muhammad, A. S. (2004),
“Case-Hardening Low Carbon Steel Using Non-
Activated Charcoal”, Nigerian Journal of
Engineering Research Development (NJERD),
Vol.3, No. 2, pp.13-15
Kempster, M. H. A. (1984), “Materials for
Engineers”, 3rd ed., ELBS/Hodder & Stoughton,
Kent, pp. 48.
Khurmi, R. S. & Gupta, J. K. (2005), “A text Book
of Machine Design”, Eurasia Publishing House
(PVT), New-Delhi 110055.
Page 20
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Michael, B.B. (1986), “Encyclopedia of Materials
Science & Engineering”, Pergamon Press Ltd.,
U.S.A., Vol.2, CO-E, pp. 891-923.
Ocean Resources, Vol.2, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, pp. 16, http://www.corrosion
source.com (downloaded in July 2002)
Piccard, G.S., Lefebure, M. H. & Tremillon (1987),
Proc. Joint Sympossium on Molten Materials in
salts”, Vol. 81, pp.1028
Reda, R.J, Hana, S.L.A. and Kelly, J.L. (1988),
Intergranular Attack Observed in Radiation-
Enhance corrosion of mild steel, Journal of
Science & Engineering, Vol.4, No. 9, Pp. 632-
637.
Rollason, E. C. (1984), “Metallurgy for Engineers”,
4th ed., Arnold Edward / English Language Book
Society, pp.71-211.
Umor, L. E., Imasogie, B. I. & Olajumoke, A. M.
(2002), “Corrosion Characteristics of NST_37-2
and St-60- Mn Steel Reinforcements in Concrete
Under Different Environmental Conditions”,
Proceeding of the Nigerian Materials Congress
(NIMACON 2002) & Meeting of Nigerian
Materials Research Society, Materials Society of
Nigeria Publication, Akure, pp.35-40 .
Sheir, L.L. (1976), “Corrosion Volume 1,
Metal/Environment Reactions”, Newness-
Butterworths, London - Boston.
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400
Time of Exposure (Hours)
Fig. 1: The Average Corrosion Rates of As Receieved (Untreated) Specimens with Time of Exposure
Fig. 2: The Average Corrosion Rates of Hardened (Martestic) Specimens with Time of Exposure
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Shuaib-Babata, Y. L. (2004), “ Effects of Heat
Treatment on the Corrosion and Mechanical
Properties of Locally Available mild steel”, M.
Eng., Thesis, Mechanical Engineering
Department, University of Ilorin, Nigreria
(Unpublished).
Shuaib-Babata, Y. L. (2006), “Corrosion
Behaviours of Mild Steel in Marine
Environment”, A paper presented at the 1st
National Conference of the Institute of
Environmental Studies, Kwara State
Polytechnic, Ilorin, Nigeria on 16th November,
2006.
Yasuo K. & Toru M (1982) “Outline Proof Test
Program for Heat Affected Zone of Welded
Components (BWR), Predictive Methods of
Assessing Corrosion Damage to BWR Piping
and PWR Steam Generators”, NACE
Publication, Houston, pp 218 – 213.
Uhlig, H. H. (1967), “The Corrosion Hand Book”,
Wiley New York and Chapman & Hall
Publisher, London.
http://www.aceduraflo.com downloaded on 22nd
February, 2009
http://www.wikipedia.com (March 2009)
http://library.kcc.hawaii.edu/external/chemistry/red
ox_title.html (downloaded in March, 2009)
Asa Dam
Agba Dam
Asa Stream
Agba stream
Distilled water
500 600 700 800
Page 21
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 3: The Average Corrosion Rates of Tempered Specimens with Time of Exposure

Fig. 4: The Average Corrosion Rates of Normalised Specimens with Time of Exposure
Corrosion Rates (MPY) x 10-3

Fig. 5: The Average Corrosion Rates of Annealed Specimens with Time of Exposure

Fig. 6: The Average Corrosion Rates of the Mild Steel Specimens Exposed to various media

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 22
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Table 1: Some of the properties of the tested media

Medium PH Colour Odour Taste Statue
Tap water from Asa Dam 6.8 Colourless Odourless Tasteless Pure
Tap water from Agba 6.9 Colourless Odourless Tasteless Pure
Dam
Untreated water from 7.8 Colourless Odourless Tasteless Impure (as it contains
Asa Dam some) impurities
Untreated water from 7.6 Colourless Odourless Tasteless Impure (as it contains some
Agba Dam impurities)
Distilled water 7.2 Colourless Odourless Tasteless Pure

Table 2: Chemical analysis / composition the commercial mild steel in % weight

C Si S P Mn Ni Cr Mo Cu AS Sn Zn Fe

0.2470 0.6113 0.0769 0.0850 0.9114 0.0270 0.0281 0.0031 0.499 0.0002 0.0044 0.0213 95.5853

Table 3: Some of the properties of the tested steel (commercial mild steel)
Specimen Elongation Tensile Yield Strength Toughness Hardness
(mm) Strength (N. mm2 ) (N.m) (Rockwell C)
(N/mm2)
UNTREATED 14.141 362.25 265.80 1.4386 92.60
(AS RECEIVED)
NORMALIZED 17.466 336.20 241.04 2.0689 90.25
HARDENED 8.122 359.55 259.80 2.5667 98.85
MARTENSITE
TEMPERED 17.404 322.25 228.09 1.7698 93.80
MARTENSITE
ANNEALED 20.507 270.35 184.24 1.2669 90.10

PLATE 1a: Specimen in the tested media at 24 hours of immersion

PLATE 1b: Specimen in the tested media after 24 hours of immersion

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 23
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

PLATE 2a: Specimen in Treated water at 720 hours of immersion

PLATE 2b: Specimen in Distilled water at 720 hours of immersion

PLATE 2c: Specimen in stream water at 720 hours of immersion

PLATE 3: Universal Tensile Test Machine (UTM used for the experimental work

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 24
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

PLATE 4: Surfaces of the coupons after post immersion cleaning

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 25
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ajueyitsi, O.N.A

Momoh, J. J
School of Engineering Adeleke, A. E
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 26 - 31

Enhancing the Study of Mechanical Structural Analysis Using MESTAN 321 Model for Solution of 2D
Plane Truss Problems

Ajueyitsi, O.N.A1, Momoh, J. J2 & Adeleke, E. A3

1,2
Mechanical Engineering Department
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
e-mail: jjmomoh@gmail.com / 08034155891
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku, Nigeria
2
corresponding Author
Abstract
Mechanical Structural Analysis course teaches students to analyze, predict and model behaviours of elements
in any mechanical structural systems using mechanics of material, elasticity theory and finite element
approaches. The goal of this research has been the development of an effective tool for analysis of two-
dimensional (2D) plane truss. In the hopes of achieving this goal, the computer program, MESTAN 321 model
was developed. This structural analysis program provides the user with the ability to easily model trusses of
arbitrary size and complexity using a simple user interface. The program is capable of modeling such members
or system characteristics as structural loads, geometry, support conditions, and material properties. The
computational analysis capabilities of the program include; support reactions, internal forces, nature of forces,
strain energy and deformations. The validity of the program is verified with a set of benchmark examples and
results obtained were in perfect agreement with that for hand computation.

Keywords: Structure, Truss, Analysis, MESTAN 321, model, internal force

Introduction construction site (40%) and product failure (10%)

For the purposes of this presentation, structure is
defined, according to Lewis & Richard (1997), as an
assembly of one or more components or elements
capable of supporting forces or other types of applied
loads. Generally, structures are usually referred to as
any large man-made objects permanently fixed to
Earth’s surface or in its orbit, as a result of
construction. These are divided into buildings and
non-building structures and made up the
infrastructure of human society (“Structures,” 2009).
Buildings are structures which serve as shelter for
man, his properties and activities (Ayininuola &
Olalusi, 2004). Bridges are another
common structures designed to provide continuous
passage over an obstacle. Bridges commonly carry
highways, railroad lines, and pathways over
obstacles such as waterways, deep valleys, and other
transportation routes (Schultz and Grivas, 2007).
According to Faluyi et al (2007), it is the desire of
every human being to live comfortably and in safety
without fear of the structure collapsing. Every
engineering structure is built to achieve economy and
structural stability (Schid, 1981). Structural members
are expected to be strong to be able to carry the loads
on them singly and interactively to ensure stability.
Failure of some engineering structures is generally
associated with improper design (Faluyi et al, 2007).
In Nigeria, structural failure, has been attributed to
the following causes; design fault (50%), faults on
(Oyewande, 1992). In order to reduce the design
fault as reported by Oyewande, structures must be
properly designed with the aid of appropriate
structural analysis tools.
The field of structural analysis, like other branches of
engineering, has experienced profound changes in
the past three decades due to the development of
powerful, affordable computers and computational
software (Lewis and Richard, 1997). Structural
analysis is comprises the set of physical laws and
mathematics required to study and predict the
behaviour of structures, which is conducted on
analytical or mathematical model as an idealization
of the actual structure to determine the reactions,
member forces, deformation of the structure and
deflection of the joints due to applied loads and
environmental effects (Sujit and Subrata, 2003).
Within the field of construction, the majority of
structures are supported by several groups of truss
systems working together synergistically (Steeve and
Kurt, 2005).
According to William and James (1980), structures
that are composed of a number of bars pin connected
at their ends to form a stable framework is called a
plane truss or force truss. Warner (2003) and Pollete
(2001) recognize truss as a group of centered and
balanced synergistic element combined to carry a
common load or a group of beams formed into a
rigid frame respectively.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 26
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
A decision support system to get the optimal skeleton
form of the truss that supports the applied loads can
become quite a useful tool for engineers in the design
of a structure. This has motivated an area of intense
research interest (Ghattas et al, 2001; Salajegheh and
Vanderplaats, 1993; Templeman, 1997; Thander and
Vanderplaats, 1995).
The structural design of truss members always begin
with hand calculations, which are considered
approximate and prerequisite to more detailed
computer calculation (Neil and Feng-Bao, 2002).
Hand analysis of large pin joint structure such as the
Eiffel Tower, which is about 300m high and
constructed of about 6,300 metric tons of iron as
shown in Figure 1, is difficult, not because of the
technical complexity but rather because of the size of
the problem hence the matrix formulation of
structural problems becomes necessary. Modern
structural analysis is a subject that is primarily
mathematical in nature, and is based on the
development and analysis of mathematical
representations or analytical models of structures to
simulate their actual behaviour. This numerical
simulation may be used to predict structural response
with sufficient accuracy to permit an assessment of
structural performance (Lewis and Richard, 1997).
The rapid increase in the use of matrix methods for
the analysis of structures and the ready availability of
electronic computers has revolutionized the field of
structural analysis (Nicholas and Williams, 1978).
The direct stiffness method adopted in analyzing this
model using the matrix formulation facilitates use of
electronic computers which enable very fast and
efficient solution of any 2D structural problems. In
attending to structural problems, many Structural
Analysis Softwares that utilize the direct stiffness
method have been developed such as LARSA 4D ,
STAAD.pro , FTool , SAP2000 , Pro/ENGINEER ,
NEiNastran , Multiframe , MaFoDeM , S-FRAME
,GT-STRUDL, MICRO CAD etc (“Direct Stiffness
Method,” 2009).
In the past such programming languages like
FORTRAN and BASIC are very useful tool for
structural analyst designed to run on any computer
from desktop microcomputer to mainframe machine.
Unfortunately, those programmes have two major
short coming: they are severely limited by the size of
structure which can be handled and the speed of the
analysis (John, 1986).
In developing the MESTAN 321 model discussed in
this paper, MATLAB was used; MATLAB (MATrix
LABoratory) is a high-performance interacting data-
intensive software environment for high-efficiency
engineering and scientific numerical calculations
(Sergey, 2003). According to Brian (1997),
MATLAB is a powerful computing system for
handling the calculations involved in scientific and
engineering problems. It is designed specially to
work with data arranged in the form of a matrix that
is, the arrangement of data in rows and columns.
Theoretical Consideration
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Direct stiffness method (DSM), also known as the
displacement method or matrix stiffness method, is
particularly suited for computer-automated analysis
of complex structures. It involves the following
major steps when a simple three-member truss is
considered.
Step 1: Node and Member Numbering
Sketch the truss and assign numbers to the nodes and
members as shown in Figure 2. The nodes are
numbered 1-3 and are indicated in large black dots.
The number associated with each member is
encircled.
Step 2: Individual Members Identification
Identify the individual members which make up the
structure as shown in Figure 3.
Step 3: Define each Member
Once the members are identified, the structure is
disconnected at the nodes, the points which connect
the different members together, as shown in Figure 4.
Draw the local coordinates in the global directions as
shown for a diagonal beam member number 3 in
Figure 5. Each member is then analyzed individually
to develop member stiffness equations.
Step 4: Development of Member Stiffness Matrix
The forces and displacements are related through the
member stiffness matrix which depends on the
geometry and properties of the member. The
resulting equation contains a four by four stiffness
matrix as stated in equation 1.
 f x1   k11 k12 k13 k14   u x1 
f    
 y1  = k 21 k 22 k 23 k 24   u y1 
 f x 2  k 31 k 32 k 33 k 34  u x 2 
    
 f y 2  k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44  u y 2 
(1)
Step 5: Assembly
Once the individual member stiffness relations have
been developed they must be assembled into the
original structure. The first step in this process is to
convert the stiffness relations for the individual
members into a global system for the entire structure
as stated in equation 2.
 f x1   c2 sc − c 2 − sc   u x1 
f    
 y1  = AE  sc s 2 − sc − s 2   u y1 
 f x2  L − c 2 − sc c 2 sc  u x 2 
   2  
 y 2 
f  − sc − s sc s 2  u y 2  (2)
For a truss member at angle θ, s = sinθ and c = cosθ.
Step 6: Development of Global Stiffness Matrix
After developing the member stiffness matrix in the
global coordinate system, they must be merged into a
single “global” stiffness matrix. When merging these
matrices together, two rules must be followed;
compatibility of displacements and force equilibrium
at each node. These rules are upheld by relating the
member nodal displacements to the global nodal
displacements. The global displacement and force
vectors each contain one entry for each degree of
freedom in the structure. The member stiffness
matrices are merged together by augmenting or
Page 27
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
expanding each matrix in conformation to the global In order to demonstrate the basic features of the
displacement and load vectors. Finally, the global developed model, it was used to analyze a two
stiffness matrix is constructed by adding the dimensional plane truss problem shown in Figures 8
individual expanded member matrices together and 9. The result was compared with hand
Once the global stiffness matrix, displacement vector calculation; also, the reactions, internal forces,
and force vector have been constructed, the system displacements, strain energies and percentage
can be expressed as a single matrix equation as stated differences obtained for the trusses in Figures 8 and 9
in equation 3. are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
f = ku
or Conclusion
 f x1   k11 k12 k13 k14 k15 k16   u x1  Computerisation greatly enhances understanding in
f     the study of Mechanical Structural Analysis and
 y1  k 21 k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26   u y1  assists in the design of structures. The MESTAN 321
 f x 2  k 31 k 32 k 33 k 34 k 35 k 36  u x 2  (3) model is a valuable tool for engineering students
 =  
 f y 2  k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46  u y 2  since it provides a means for checking their work,
 f x 3  k 51 k 52 k 53 k 54 k 55 k 56   u x 3  reinforces fundamental concepts learned in class, and
     enhances their learning experience by allowing
 f y 3  k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66  u y 3  students to experiment by building different types of
For each degree of freedom in the structure, either trusses and studying the effects of different loads on
the displacement or the force is expressed by the internal forces in the plane truss members
equation 4. without having to perform tedious and consuming
 f x1   k11 k12 k13 k14 k15 k16   u x1 = 0  computations.
 f    
  k 21 k 22 k 23 k 24 k 25 k 26   u y1 = 0 
y1
(4) Recommendation
 f x2 = 0  k 31 k 32 k 33 k 34 k 35 k 36   u x 2 
 =   An important skill in Mechanical Structural Analysis
 f y2  k 41 k 42 k 43 k 44 k 45 k 46  u y 2 = 0
is the ability to simulate and visualize system
 f x3 = f x  k 51 k 52 k 53 k 54 k 55 k 56   u x 3 
     behavior through computasion. This subject should
 f y3 = f y  k 61 k 62 k 63 k 64 k 65 k 66   u y 3  be enhanced via the addition of numerical solution
After inserting the known value for each degree of using MATLAB and Simulink, so that the students
freedom, the master stiffness equation is complete can develop the ability to correlate system behaviour
and ready to be evaluated. with the equation formulation based on the three
fundamental relations: equilibrium, constitutive, and
Assumptions for the Model compatibility. In order to prepare students for their
i. Loads are applied at the joints only and not at final year projects which may include a numerical
intermediates points along the members. simulation coupled with a graphical animation,
ii. The weight of the members is often insignificant knowledge of MATLAB and Simulink should be
compared to the applied loads and so is often integrated into the engineering curriculum.
omitted. If required, half of the weight of each
member may be applied to its two end joints. References
iii. Provided the members are long and slender, the Ayininuola, G.M and Olalusi, O.O, Assessment of
moments transmitted through the joints are Building Failures in Nigeria: Lagos and Ibadan
negligible and they can be treated as “hinges” or Case Study, African Journal of Science and
pin-joints Technology (AJST) Science and Engineering
Series, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 73 – 78.
Development of MESTAN 321 Model Direct Stiffness Method. (2009): Wikipedia Online
The manual evaluation of the different stiffness Encyclopedia 2009. Retrieved September 10,
matrix equation formulated for the 2D plane truss 2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Direct
problems is tedious and difficult. The use of Stiffness Method.html
computer for the solution becomes necessary. The Faluyi, S.O., Karigidi, O. and Abe, E.O (2007):
software allows users to model a structure and, after Failure in Civil Engineering Structures in
the user defines the material properties of the Nigeria (Building Structural Failures as a Case
members, the program automatically generates Study). Journal of Engineering and Earth
member and global stiffness relationships. When Sciences (JEES) Vol2, No. 1, pp 35 – 43.
various loading conditions are applied the software John, F.F. (1986): Structural Engineering Analysis
evaluates the structure and generates the internal on Personal Computer with Working Programs
load, support reaction, nature of force, strain energy for the IBM PC. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
and deflections for the user. The basic input and New York.
output interface of the model are depicted in figures Lewis, P.F. and Richard, B.N. (1997): Matrix
6 and 7. Structural Analysis, John Wiley and Sons, Inc,
New York
Results and Discussion

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 28
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Neil, W and Feng-Bao, L. (2002): Staggered Truss
Framing Systems: Steel Design Guide,
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).
Nicholas, W. and William, M.L. (1978): Structural
Analysis for Engineers, McGraw-Hill Book
Company, New York.
Oyewande, B. (1992): A Research for quality in the
Construction industry. Builders Magazine,
June/July Edition, Lagos.
Pollete, D and Landers, J. (2001): Construction
Systems. The Goodheart Willcox Company, Inc.
Tinley Park, IL. pp 246 – 250.
Schild, E. (1981): Structural Failures in Residential
Buildings, McGraw-Hill, Newyork.
Schultz, B. C, and Grivas, D. A. (2007): "Bridge
(structure)." Microsoft® Student, Redmond,
WA: Microsoft Corporation.
Sergey, E. L, (2003): Engineering and Scientific
Computations using MATLAB, A John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., Publication, New Jersey.
Fig. 1: Eiffel Tower, Paris
Fig 2. Nodes and members numbering
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Steeve, T. and Kurt, G. (2005): Structural Truss
Elements and Forces, Tech Directions, vol. 65,
No. 2, pp 13 – 15. Retrieved September 17,
2009, from www.techdirections.com.
Structures. (2009): Wikipedia Online Encyclopedia
2009. Retrieved September 10, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure.html
Sujit, K.R and Subrata, C (2003): Fundamentals of
Structural Analysis with Computer Analysis and
Applications, S. Chand and Company Ltd, New
Delhi
Warner, J. (2003): How Structure Perform
[Worksheet]. ITEDU 306 – Construction
Systems. Ball State University.
William, W. and James, M. (1980): Matrix Analysis
of Framed Structure, 2nd edition, DVan
Monstrand Company, New York.
Fig 3. Element identification
Page 29
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 4. Element definition Fig. 5. Assigning element local coordinates

Fig 6. Data input intarface.

Fig. 7: Out put Interface

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 30
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
F E D
1.5m
A C
E

4.5m
100N
0.8m
40,000N
A
C
B

D 4.5m 4.5m
B 0.6m

Fig. 8: Seven members truss Fig. 9: Nine members truss

Table 1: Solution to figure 8

MESTAN HAND Member Internal Force (N) Internal Force
Result Computation MESTAN Result HAND Percentage Difference
Computation (%)
Reaction A(x) 105,000N 105,000N AB 0 0 0
Reaction A(y) 40,000N 40,000N AC 75000 75000 0
Reaction B(x) 105,000N 105,000N AD 50000 50000 0
Reaction B(y) 0N 0N BD 105000 105000 0
Displacement 0.016972m 0.01697m CD 0 0 0
Total strain energy 339.445J 340J CE 75000 75000 0
DE 85000 85000 0
Table 2: Solution to figure 9
MESTAN HAND Member Internal Force (N) Internal Force
Result Computation MESTAN Result HAND Percentage Difference
Computation (%)
Reaction A(x) 0N 0N AF 70.7107 70.71 0.0007
Reaction A(y) 50N 50N AB 50 49.99 0.01
Reaction C(x) 0N 0N BF 0 0 0
Reaction C(y) 150N 150N EF 100 99.8 0.2
Displacement 4.3346 x 10-8m 4.327 x 10-8m CF 70.7107 70.71 0.0007
Totalstrain energy 2..1673 x 10-6J 2.1647 x 10--6J BC 50N 49.99 0.01
CE 1.4211 x 10-14 0 1.4211 x 10-14
DE 100 99.8 0.2
CD 141.4214 141.4 0.0214

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 31
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Alake, T. J.

Iji, A. B.
School of Engineering Osho, S. O.
O.
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 32 - 38

Amelioration of Economic Depression through Effective Telecommunication

Alake, T. J., Iji, A. B. & Osho, S. O.
Electrical/Electronic Engineering Dept.
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
Abstract
Telecommunication and the ancillary computer networks have empowered human beings by the extension of
powers of thinking, influence and productivity just as those in the industrial age were able to extend the powers
of their muscles or physical self through the use of heavy machinery. This paper examines the various
contributions telecommunications has made at ameliorating economic depression in diasporas.
Telecommunication trends and challenges are fully explored with the view to acquaint readers with the host of
new technologies and applications in this vast arena that bring breathtaking new opportunities, particularly in
the industries of entertainment, education, health care, government, advertising, lifestyle, and, sadly, warfare.

Keywords: Telecommunication; Transmission; Electromagnetic waves; Internet Protocol (IP); Optical Fibre;
Backbone Bandwidth; Network

Introduction The word communications, derived from the Latin

Telecommunication is powerful and empowers, with
far-reaching consequences. It has demonstrated the
potential to transform society and business, and the
revolution has just begun. With the invention of the
telephone, human communications and commerce
were forever changed: Time and distance began to
melt away as a barrier to doing business, keeping in
touch with loved ones, and being able to immediately
respond to major world events became more
effective. Through the use of computers and
telecommunications networks, humans have been
able to extend their powers of thinking, influence,
and productivity, just as those in the Industrial Age
were able to extend the power of their muscles, or
physical self, through use of heavy machinery.
Telecommunication is a technology that eliminates
distance between continents, between countries,
between persons. To contact another person by
telephone, only the distance between one’s actual
location and the next telephone needs to be covered.
This distance can be mere centimetres in the
industrialized world and kilometres in the developing
world. For centuries, messages were transported by
messengers, or couriers, who either walked or were
transported by horse, coach, or boat, and when fire,
smoke, or sound signals were sent they simply
confirmed prearranged messages. With
telecommunications a message does not need a
messenger. Telecommunications eliminated a
master-to servant relationship: replacing the service
of a messenger by mechanical telegraph in 1794, by
copper wires in 1837, by electromagnetic waves in
1896, and by optical fibre in 1973.
Telecommunications enormously reduces the time
required to transport messages, accelerates business
transactions, and improves human relationships
(Nadis, (1997)).
word communicatio, the social process of
information exchange, covers the human need for
direct contact and mutual understanding. The word
telecommunication, adding tele (quarter distance),
was created by Edouard Estaunie´ (1862–1942) in
1904 and as in the context of ‘far’ Kennedy and
Davies(1999),Nadis (1997) Communication system
can only be adjudged effective when such a system is
functional, reliable, efficient, available, adequate and
proficient. And when the citizens have access to
information as the need arises then the living
condition can be better. Thus better living hinges on
effective information dissemination which in turn
prima facie lies wholly on the medium or channel
through which the recipient of such information will
be linked (Alake, 2008).
In both developed and developing countries, there is
an intense debate concerning the contributions of
these technologies towards economic development
and consequently human welfare. A cross country
study by the IMF (2001) indicated that the return on
investment in information technology created by
increasing productivity and growth is substantial.
Also the study highlight that IT induced productivity
and thereby economic development is still
concentrated in developing countries and are yet to
gain the same order of benefits as their counterparts
in developed economies. Alake and Iji (2009)
In this paper telecommunication is defined as
‘‘information exchange by means of electrical
signals.’’ In the networks, a number of local
exchanges are connected via transmission links in
transport networks with a tandem exchange (also
called a toll or trunk exchange); all the tandem
exchanges of a region or a nation are also
interconnected by transmission links. A transmission

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 32
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
link can consist of copper wire or optical fibre cable,
radio relay, or satellite (Alake, 2008).
Glisic and Vucetic (2003) noted that, in international
telecommunication networks, telecommunication
users are connected via their local exchanges and one
or more tandem exchanges with international
exchanges in their country. International exchanges
worldwide are interconnected by transmission links
either directly or by means of one or more other
international exchanges. Currently, this vast network
of hierarchically arranged circuit-switching
exchanges is being complemented by a new network
based on packet switching, using the Internet
Protocol.
History of Telecommunications
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
officially recognized the term telecommunications in
1932 as: ‘‘any telegraph or telephone
communication of signs, signals, writings, images
and sound of any nature, by wire, radio, or other
system or processes of electric or visual (semaphore)
signalling.’’ Currently, the ITU defines
telecommunications as ‘‘any transmission, emission,
or reception of signs, signals, writings, images, and
sounds; or intelligence of any nature by wire, radio,
visual, or other electromagnetic systems’’. In this
definition the ITU postulates transmission as a basic
function of telecommunications. The word
transmission, from the Latin transmettere for transfer
or transport in the figurative sense, however, quite
confusingly, is used for many purposes. It was used
in the industrial revolution to represent a
transmission system for the transmission by
mechanical means of power from a central steam
engine to the various production machines in a
factory. In electrical power technology, high-tension
transmission line and high tension-transmission grid
are well-known names for high voltage overhead
electricity distribution lines. In the book
Transmission Systems for Communications
published by members of the technical staffs of Bell
Labs in 1954, which used to be the bible of
transmission, the primary function of a transmission
system is described as being “to provide circuits
having the capability of accepting information-
bearing electrical signals at a point and delivering
related signals bearing the same information to a
distant point.” Nadis, E. T. (1997), transmission
within the context of telecommunications is defined
concisely as the ‘‘technology of information
transport.’’ In the context of telecommunications, a
transmission system transports information between
the source of a signal and a recipient. Transmission
thus stands for the tele part of the word
telecommunications and as such is the basis of all
telecommunication systems. Transmission equipment
serves to combine, send, amplify, receive, and
separate electrical signals in such a way that long-
distance communication is made possible. In terms
of technology, telecommunications transmission
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
systems are divided into line transmission and radio
transmission systems:
• Line transmission is the technology of sending and
receiving electrical signals by means of copper
wire, and nowadays, increasingly by means of
optical fibre, on overhead lines, by underground
cable, and by submarine cables.
• Radio transmission in the context of
telecommunications stands for the technology of
information transmission on electromagnetic
waves by means of high-frequency radio and
mobile radio, including cellular radio systems,
radio relay, and satellites as investigated by
McCloud, Brehler and Varanasi (2002)
Adapting to New Traffic Patterns
Sharing of information can occur in a number of
ways via smoke signals, by letters sent through the
postal service, or as transmissions through electrical
or optical media, for example. Before we get into the
technical details of the technologies in the industry, it
is important to understand the driving forces behind
computing and communications. You need to
understand the impact these forces have on network
traffic and therefore on network infrastructure. In
today's environment, telecommunications embodies
four main traffic types, each of which has different
requirements in terms of network capacity, tolerance
for delays and particularly variations in the delay in
the network, and tolerance for potential congestion
and therefore losses in the network:
• Voice: Voice traffic has been strong in the
developed world for years, and more subscriber
lines are being deployed all the time. However,
some three billion people in the world haven't
even used a basic telephone yet, so there is yet a
huge market to be served. Voice
communications are typically referred to as
being narrowband, meaning that they don't
require a large amount of network capacity. For
voice services to be intelligible and easy to use,
delays must be kept to a minimum, however, so
the delay factors in moving information from
Point A to Point B have to be tightly controlled
in order to support real-time voice streams.
• Data: Data communications refers to the
exchange of digitized information between two
machines. Depending on the application
supported, the bandwidth or capacity
requirements can range from medium to high.
As more objects that are visual in nature (such as
images and video) are included with the data,
that capacity demand increases. Depending
again on the type of application, data may be
more or less tolerant of delays. Text-based
exchanges are generally quite tolerant of delays.
But again, the more real-time nature there is to
the information type, as in video, the tighter the
control you need over the latencies. Data traffic
is growing much faster than voice traffic; it has
grown at an average rate of about 30 percent to
Page 33
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
40 percent per year for the past decade. To
accommodate data communication, network
services have been developed to address the
need for greater capacity, cleaner transmission
facilities, and smarter network management
tools. Data encompasses many different
information types. In the past, we saw these
different types as being separate entities (for
example, video and voice in a videoconference),
but in the future, we must be careful not to
separate things this way because, after all, in the
digital age, all data is represented as ones and
zeros.
• Image: Image communications requires medium
to high bandwidth the greater the resolution
required, the greater the bandwidth required. For
example, many of the images taken in medical
diagnostics require very high resolution. Image
traffic tolerates some delay because it includes
no motion artifacts that would be affected by any
distortions in the network. The
telecommunications revolution has spawned
great growth in the amount and types of traffic,
and we will see even more types of traffic as we
begin to incorporate human senses as part of the
network. This paper equally discurse in detail
about what a network needs in order to handle
the various traffic types.
Trends in Telecommunication Industry.
A quick orientation of how emerging technologies
are affecting industries and lifestyle highlights the
importance of understanding the principles of
telecommunications, and, hopefully, to inspire you to
“think telecom.” The changes discussed here are
ultimately very important to how
telecommunications networks will evolve and to
where the growth areas will be. An enormous amount
of the activity driving telecommunications has to do
with the emergence of advanced applications;
likewise, advances in telecommunications
capabilities spur developments in computing
platforms and capabilities. The two are intimately
and forever intertwined. The following sections
discuss some of the changes that are occurring in
both telecommunications and in computing platforms
and applications, as well as some of the changes
expected in the next several years.
Sensory Technology Development in
Telecommunications
Telecommunications has allowed a virtual world to
emerge as one in which time and distance no longer
represents a barrier to doing business or
communicating. The human mind acts on physical
sensations in the course of its information
processing; the senses of sight, sound, touch, and
motion are keys to our perception and decision
making. Developments in sensory technologies and
networks have allowed a new genre of sensory
reality to emerge, bridging the gap between humans
and machines. One of the most significant evolutions
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
occurring in computing and communications is the
introduction of the human senses into electronic
information streams. The following are a few of the
key developments in support of this more intuitive
collaborative human–machine environment:
• Computers are now capable of hearing and
speaking, as demonstrated by telecommunication
carriers, and ATM machines in Nigeria. They are
voice-activated service that responds to defined
voice prompts and provides free stock quotes,
weather information, and entertainment guides to
Nigerians.
• Glisic and Vucetic (2003) explained that seduction
of smell is also beginning to find its way into
computers, allowing marketers to capitalize on the
many subtle psychological states that smell can
induce. Studies show that aromas can be used to
trigger fear, excitement, and many other emotions.
Smell can be used to attract visitors to Web sites,
to make them linger longer and buy more, to help
them assimilate and retain information, or to instill
the most satisfying or terrifying of emotional states
(now that is an interactive game!). Three
companies providing this technology today are
Aromajet, DigiScents, and TriSenx. Aromajet, for
example, creates products that address video
games, entertainment, medical, market research,
personal and home products, and marketing and
point of sales applications.
• The visual information stream provides the most
rapid infusion of information, and a large portion
of the human brain is devoted to processing visual
information. To help humans process visual
information, computers today can see; equipped
with video cameras, computers can capture and
send images, and can display high quality
entertainment programming. The visual stream is
incredibly demanding in terms of network
performance; thus, networks today are rapidly
preparing to enable this most meaningful of
information streams to be easily distributed.
Era of Miniaturisation
As we distribute intelligence across a wider range of
devices, we are experiencing pervasive computing,
also called ubiquitous computing. We are taking
computers out of stand-alone boxes to which we are
tied and putting them into ordinary things, in
everyday objects around us. These new things,
because they are smart, have a sense of self-
awareness and are able to take care of themselves.
When we embed intelligence into a device, we create
an interesting new opportunity for business. That
device has to have a reason for being, and it has to
have a reason to continue evolving so that you will
spend more money and time on it. To address this
challenge, device manufacturers are beginning to
bundle content and applications with their products.
The result is smart refrigerators, smart washing
machines, smart ovens, smart cabinets, smart
furniture, smart beds, smart televisions, smart
toothbrushes, and an endless list of other smart
Page 34
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
devices.Devices are becoming smaller and more
powerful all the time, and they are getting physically
closer to our bodies, as well. The growing amount of
intelligence distributed throughout the network is
causing changes in user profiles. Breadles (1996).
Machine-to-Machine Communications
Rappaport(2006) in his investigation noted that, we
are moving away from human-to-human
communications to an era of machine-to-machine
communications. Today, there are just over 6 billion
human beings on the planet, yet the number of
microprocessors is reported to be more than 15
billion. Devices have become increasingly
intelligent, and one characteristic of an intelligent
system is that it can communicate. As the universe of
communications enabled devices grows, so does the
traffic volume between them. As these smart things
begin to take on many of the tasks and
communications that humans traditionally
exchanged, they will change the very fabric of our
society. For example, your smart washing machine
will initiate a call to the service center to report a
problem and schedule resolution with the help of an
intelligent Web agent long before you even realize
that something is wrong. These developments are
predicted to result in the majority of traffic up to 95
percent of it being exchanged between machines,
with traditional human-to-human communications
representing only 5 percent of the network traffic by
2010.
New Applications
The new traffic patterns imply that the network will
also be host to a new set of applications not just
simple voice or text-based data, but to new genres of
applications that combine the various media types.
The ability to handle digital entertainment
applications in a network is crucial. In some parts of
the world, such as Asia, education may have primary
focus, and that should tell us where we can expect
greater success going forward. But throughout much
of the world, entertainment is where people are
willing to spend the limited numbers of money that
they have to spend on electronic goods and services.
The digital entertainment realm will include video
editing, digital content creation, digital imaging, 3D
gaming, and virtual reality applications, and all these
will drive the evolution of the network. It's the
chicken and the egg story: What comes first, the
network or the applications? Why would you want a
fiber-optic broadband connection if there is nothing
good to draw over that connection. Why would you
want to create a 3D virtual reality application when
there is no way to distribute it? The bottom line is
that the applications and the infrastructures have to
evolve hand-in-hand to manifest the benefits and the
money we associate with their future.Another form
of application that will be increasingly important is
in the realm of streaming media. A great focus is put
on the real-time delivery of information, as in
entertainment, education, training, customer
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
presentations, trade shows, and telemedicine
consultations. E-commerce (electronic commerce)
and m-commerce (mobile commerce) introduce
several new requirements for content management,
transaction platforms, and privacy and security tools,
so they affect the types of information that have to be
encoded into the basic data stream and how the
network deals with knowledge of what's contained
within those packets Rappaport (2006).
Mobile Internet
Another area in which we want to use our freedom to
be mobile is with the Internet. The mobile Internet is
already a reality in some places, and it will become
more prevalent elsewhere in the near future, as more
and more Internet-ready cellular phones and other
wireless devices make their way into people's
pockets. Eventually, and maybe within just a few
years, there will be more mobile Internet devices
than PCs connected to the Internet; wireless is
predicted to become the dominant form of Internet
communication by 2009. These trends, as well as the
trend toward portable computing in the form of wear-
ables, contribute to our growing interest in wireless.
We tend to think of wire-line facilities as the default
and of wireless as something extra that needs to be
justified. Wireless has often been justified in
situations, such as when wire cannot be physically
applied (for example, in a jungle, in a desert, on a
mountain top); when wire cannot be economically
justified (for example, when the expense of burying
cable is too great); when time is an issue; and when
mobility is a factor. The future will see mixed-media
approaches (including wire-line and wireless
solutions), depending on the given situation. For
example, we may want to bring fibre as close as
possible to an end node, but then to engage in a more
mobile lifestyle, we might rely on a wireless link for
the last few meters. The building blocks for the
wireless world include cellular and PCS (Personal
Communication Services) service providers, cell
phone makers, infrastructure companies, handheld
computer makers, electronic parts manufacturers,
wireless portals, e-commerce companies, movie and
music studios, automobile companies, and satellite
companies. The wireless world will really have a big
impact on transportation. We are reengineering the
way vehicles will operate, and things such as traffic
management systems, smart cars, smart highways,
and navigational systems are very much a part of the
telecommunications sector. Wireless networks will
be a very important part of our future. Wireless
networks fall into the same domains as wire-line
networks wide area networks (WANs), metropolitan
area networks (MANs), local area networks (LANs),
and personal area networks (PANs) and are applied
in support of mobile (such as cellular and PCS
systems), fixed (as in wireless local loop), and
broadcast (television) applications. Wireless has been
with us a very long time, in the form of radio, which
involves inducing an electrical current at a remote
location via the propagation of electromagnetic
Page 35
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
waves, through space, with the intent of
communicating information. This technology is more
than 100 years old, so we could turn things around
and say that wires can be thought of as private radio
spectrum. Ogata (2005),explained that, the key issues
in wireless are technological (for example, standards,
bandwidth, performance, spectrum reuse) and
political (for example regulation, spectrum
allocation). Regulation has a tremendous influence
on what is made available, who can use it, and how it
is allocated among the various competitive providers.
Bandwidth is a huge consideration in anything to do
with telecommunications and in the realm of
wireless, bandwidth refers to the amount of spectrum
available to transport information. Narrowband
wireless applies a baseband, or single-channel,
approach; wideband wireless applies a broadband, or
channelized, approach. Bandwidth is often limited by
regulation, technology, and environmental conditions
in that order.
Bandwidth Requirement
A term that you hear often when discussing
telecommunications is bandwidth. Bandwidth is a
critical commodity. Historically, bandwidth has been
very expensive, as it was based on the sharing of
limited physical resources, such as twisted-pair
copper cables and coax. Bandwidth is largely used
today to refer to the capacity of a network or a
telecom link, and it is generally measured in bits per
second (bps). Bandwidth actually refers to the range
of frequencies involved that is, the difference
between the lowest and highest frequencies
supported and the greater the range of frequencies,
the greater the bandwidth, and hence the greater the
number of bits per second, or information carried.
The analogy of a hose is often used to describe
bandwidth: To be truly useful, wearables will need to
be aware of where you are and what you're doing.
Armed with this information, they will be able to
give you information accordingly. Breadles, J. T.
(1996). Many of the changes discussed so far, but
primarily the changes in traffic patterns and
applications, will require immense amounts of
backbone bandwidth. Table 1.1 lists a number of the
requirements that emerging applications are likely to
make on backbone bandwidth. In addition, advances
in broadband access technologies will drive a
demand for additional capacity in network
backbones. Once 100Gbps broadband residential
access becomes available and there are developments
on the horizon, the core networks will require
capacities measured in exabits per second (that is, 1
billion Gbps). These backbone bandwidth demands
make the revolutionary forces of optical networking
critical to our future
Hinderances to Effective Telecommunication
Service Delivery.
There are a number of key areas to consider when it
comes to the performance of wireless
communications:
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
• Path loss in decibels (dB) represents the ratio of
the strength of the transmitted signal to the
received strength.
• Multipath: is the active fact of reflections and
echoes. For example, with antenna televisions,
there are times when an image has a ghost
figuration about it and that are an echo. Multipath
can create secondary and tertiary signals that
compete with the primary signal.
• Fading: There are a number of propagation
characteristics, and they vary with the different
frequencies. As a mobile station moves through a
cell, the multipath signals abruptly and rapidly add
to and subtract from each other. As a result, very
good signals are interspersed with very poor
signals. This effect is referred to as a Rayleigh fade
(named after the physicist Lord Rayleigh). The
multipath delays can be predicted on a statistical
basis, and components can be designed to handle
the problem.
• Interference and noise: are by-products of
precipitation in the air, metals in the environment,
or a variety of other anomalies. Error-correction
techniques are needed to fix these problems.
• Antenna design, position, and orientation:
Antennas are constantly being developed to better
deal with the problems of wireless transmissions.
Antenna design is as critical as the prevailing radio
conditions in which the antennas are operating.
The following sections cover various aspects of
wireless communications, including spectrum
reuse and the various types of wireless networks
WANs, MANs, LANs, and PANs.
Telecommunication Media: Characteristics and
Applications
It would be convenient if we could construct a
network of only one medium. But that's impractical
for anything but an extremely small network. So, in
general, we use combinations of media types. There
are three main categories of media types:
• Cable: Types of cable include unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP), shielded twisted-pair (STP),
and coaxial cable. Cable is inexpensive
compared to the other media types, but as you'll
learn when we get into the specifics, a major
disadvantage of cable is that it offers a rather
limited spectrum that will not be able to handle
the truly advanced applications of the future.
• Wireless: Wireless media include radio
frequencies, microwave, satellite, and infrared.
Deployment of wireless media is faster and less
costly than deployment of cable, particularly
where there is little or no existing infrastructure
(for example, Asia Pacific, Latin America,
eastern and central Europe). Wireless is also
useful where environmental c1ircumstances
make it impossible or cost-prohibitive to use
cable (for example, the Amazon, the Empty
Quarter in Saudi Arabia, oil rigs). The
Page 36
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
disadvantage of wireless is that it provides slow
data rates.
• Fibre optics: Fibre offers enormous bandwidth
and immunity to many types of interferences and
noise. Therefore, fibre provides very clear
communications and a relatively noise-free
environment. The downside of fibre is that it is
costly to purchase and deploy because it requires
specialized equipment and techniques.
The Need for Network Diversity
None of the three categories of media types can be
considered best. Each is useful in different situations,
and often you need to take advantage of a number of
media types. When you are building a new network
or upgrading an old one, your choice of media type
should be based on the prevailing conditions.
The saying “don't put all your eggs in one basket”
can be applied to networking. Having multiple
pathways of fibres in and out of a building is not
always enough. You need diversity terrestrial and
non-terrestrial facilities combined because in
disastrous events such as earthquakes, floods, and
fires, if one alternative is completely disabled, you
may be able to rely on another medium. You can
assess various parameters to determine which media
type is most appropriate for a given application. This
chapter focuses on the five most commonly used
transmission media formats: twisted-copper pair,
coaxial cable, microwave, satellite, and fibre optics.
Table1.2 provide a quick comparison of some of the
important characteristics of these five media types.
The frequency spectrum in which the medium
operates directly relates to the bit rate you can obtain
with the medium. You can see in Table 4.1 that
twisted-pair affords the lowest frequency spectrum, a
maximum of 1MHz, whereas fibre optics affords
75THz. Another important characteristic is a
medium's susceptibility to noise and the subsequent
error rate. Again, twisted-pair suffers from much
impairment. Coax and fibre suffer less impairment
than twisted-pair because of how the cable is
constructed, and fibre suffers the least because it is
not affected by electrical interference. The error rate
of wireless depends on the prevailing conditions. Yet
another characteristic that you need to evaluate is the
distance required between the repeaters. This is a
major cost issue for those constructing and operating
the networks. In the case of twisted-pair deployed as
an analogue telephone channel, the distance between
the amplifiers is roughly 1.1 miles (1.8 kilometres).
When twisted-pair is used in digital mode, the
repeater spacing drops to about 1,800 feet (550
meters). With twisted-pair, a great many network
elements must be installed and subsequently
maintained over their lifetime, and they can be a
potential source of trouble in the network. Coax
offers about a 25 percent increase in the distance
between repeaters over twisted-pair. With microwave
and satellite, the distance between repeaters depends
on the frequency bands in which you are operating
and the orbits in which the satellites travel. In the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
area of fibre, we see new innovations every three to
four months, around the world, some new
developments promise distances as great as 4,000
miles (6,400 kilometres) between the repeaters or
amplifiers in the network. Correia, L. (2001).
Security is another important characteristic. There is
no such thing as complete security, and no
transmission medium in and of itself can provide
security. But using encryption and authentication
helps ensure security. Also, different media types
have different characteristics that enable rapid
intrusion as well as characteristics that enable better
detection of intrusion. For example, with fibre, an
optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) can be
used to detect potential leaks that could be the result
of unwanted intrusion. The costs associated with the
media types. You need to look at three types of costs:
acquisition cost (for example, the costs of the cable
per foot/meter, of the transceiver and laser diode, and
of the microwave tower), installation and
maintenance costs (for example, the costs of parts as
a result of wear and tear and environmental
conditions), and internal premises costs for
enterprises (for example, the costs of moves, adds,
and changes, and of relocating workers as they
change office spaces). The table above examine
twisted-pair, coaxial cable, microwave, satellite, and
fibre optics in detail.
Conclusion
The development of the telecom industries in Nigeria
has been so rapid coupled with the numbers of
telecom operators in the country as at today and the
level of development so far. The Nigerian
government has made it a challenge by allowing
investors to obtain licence by allocating to them
bandwidth to operate. Due to the large population in
the country today truly speaking the
telecommunications operators in Nigeria are
definitely making a huge sum of money in the
country and as such the operators are able to deploy
various equipment to Nigeria for better service.
Never the less this is not to say that the country
developed in the area of communication but we are
still developing because till date the country has not
been able to have its own company where
telecommunications equipment or Electronics could
be produced so to say we still have to borrow the
technology of developed countries like USA or
France as well as China to survive in the
telecommunication technology of our great country
Nigeria. as a way forward for new technology and
development must be properly embraced by
underdeveloped and developing countries like
Nigeria all hands must be on deck to push the
country to a better way in the communication
industry. The government should endeavour to lunch
more satellite for the purpose of communication and
education as well as developing research groups in
the area of communication to exploit space
technology. The goverment should give license to
more investors of Telecommuncation company to
Page 37
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
come into the country to give room for competitions
and to allow developments in various forms in the
telecommunication industry. They can as well woo
more investors by taxes reduction policies. The
government of Nigeria has a lot to do to make sure
that the country is not completely left in the dark as
referred to the lunching of more satellites for
communication purpose, as this will enhance quick
asses by small and bigger investors in the
communication sector.
References.
Aiello, G. R. and Rogerson, G. D. (2003) Ultra-
wideband wireless systems, IEEE Microwave
Magazine 36 - 47
Alake,T.J.(2008): Sustainable Channel: An
Imperative for Effective Communication for
improved Living Condition. Proceedings of the
4th Engineering Forum Conference, School of
Engineering, Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti.
14th-17th October, Pp 114-116.
Alake,T.J and Iji,A.B. (2009): MDG’S and
ICT:Challenges at Improving Learning in
Learning in Technical Education.Proceedings of
the 2nd National Engineering Conference.Kwara
State Polytechnic Ilorin.8th -10th July 2009.Vol 2.
Pp 113-117.
Breadles, J. T. (1996) Land Based Radio Navigation
Systems, IEEE Transactions On
Communications.
Correia, L. (2001) Wireless Flexible Personalised
Communications Final Report. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., New York.
Glisic, S and Vucetic, B (2003): Spread spectrum
CDMA Systems for Wireless Communications,
Artech House, London.
McCloud, M. L., Brehler, M. And Varanasi, M. K
(2002) Signal Design and Convolutional coding
for non-coherent space-time Communication on
the Block Rayleigh Fading Channel, IEEE
Transactions on Information Theory, Pp (1186 –
1194).
Nadis, E. T. (1997) Guide to Telecommunications
Transmission Systems, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ. Pp35, 36 & 37.
Ogata, J. (2005) Wireless Systems, IEEE
Transactions on Vehicular Technology, VT-33.
Rappaport, T. S. (2006) Wireless Communications:
Principles & Practice, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, NJ. Pp. 755.
Savo G GLISIC (2005): Advanced Wireless
Communications, university of Oulu, Finland,
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Pp37.

Table 1.1 Backbone Bandwidth Requirements for Advanced Applications

Application Bandwidth Needed Examples
Online virtual reality 1,000–70,000 terabits per second Life-size 3D holography; tele-presence
Machine communications 50,000–200,000 terabits per second Smart things; Web agents; robots
Meta-computing 50,000–200,000 terabits per second Weather prediction; warfare modeling

Table 1.2. Transmission Media Characteristics

Frequency
Media Type Spectrum Performance Error Rate Distance BetweenRepeaters Security Cost
Twisted-pair 1MHz Poor to fair (10–5) Short (1.2 miles/2 km) Poor Low
Coaxial 1GHz Good (10–7 to10–9) Short (1.5 miles/2.5 km) Good Moderate
Microwave 100GHz Good (10–9) Medium (up to 45 miles/72 km) Poor Moderate
Satellite 100GHz Good (10–9) Long (up to 22,3000 miles/36,000 km) Poor Moderate to high
Fiber 75THz Great (10–11 to 10–13) Long (up to 4,000 miles/6,400 km) Good Moderate to high

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 38
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Mobolaji, O. G
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 39 – 44
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Application of Facts Devices to Alleviate Power System Problem

Mojibola O. G
e-mail:remimojibola@yahoo.com, 07061078929
Abstract
The present trend of increasing the generating capacity by the introduction of new generating stations
without the existing transmission lines infrastructure, potent a great danger to the infrastructure. Increased
electric power consumption causes transmission lines to be driven close to or even beyond their transfer
capacities. The focus in this paper lies on the introduction of modern control devices (FACTS) to
accommodate the power demand from the generating station without exceeding the rated capacity of the
lines. A digital computer power flow program based on the Newton-Raphson solution technique was
developed and was used for the analysis of power system control. The program was further modified to
include a FACTS device such as Static Var Compensator (SVC) to control the line power flow and bus
voltage magnitude. The programme was then applied to the Nigerian 28-bus, 330kV network. The device,
SVC, was able to maintain the voltage magnitude at specified value by injecting reactive power at
appropriate bus in the network. This also led to improvement of the voltages of the buses around this bus.
The transmission loss was also reduced as a result of the influence of the device on the network and without
compromising system reliability.

Keywords - FACTS - SVC – Phase Shifter – TSC - Power Flow

Introduction These conventional methods of reactive power

Electric Power system is a physical connection of
generation, transmission and distribution facilities
operated as an integrated unit under central
management or operating supervision. For
satisfactory operation of consumers’ appliances,
it is desirable that the supply is substantially
within the acceptable voltage limits. The electric
power flow through a transmission line is a
function of the transmission line impedance, the
magnitude of the voltages at the sending and
receiving ends, and the phase angles between
them.
The complex power flowing in the line is an
inverse function of the line impedance. Large line
impedance results in low maximum power flow
and reactive power demand by such line to
deliver the required active power is large. This
also leads to low voltage and possible voltage
instability (Xiao et al 2002).
To improve the voltage profile, control devices
are installed in the network. Some of these
devices include generator excitation system,
installing series or shunt capacitors and
transformers are installed on the transmission and
distribution systems (ABB Review, 1999).
These methods are operated by electromechanical
devices which may affect the transient stability of
the system (Gotham,1998). The most recent
methods use Flexible Alternating Current
Transmission System (FACTS) devices. They are
able to modify the voltage, phase angle and the
line parameters in a manner that enhances the
performance of the system.
compensation techniques are not suitable enough
for the power system control because of the wear
and tear in the moving part of a synchronous
condenser, their slow response and introduction
of harmonics into the system especially at the
time of switching (Rolf et al, 2003). However, the
breakthrough in solid-state technology which has
brought into existence thyristors and GTOs that
can now handle current and voltages of several
thousands amperes and volt respectively, is a
better power system control method. It has made
an improved method of VAr compensation
possible through switching (Ambriz-Perez, et al
2000). This new method is called Flexible
Alternating Current Transmission System
(FACTS).
Mathematical Model of Power System
A typical bus of a power system is shown in Fig
1. The Transmission lines are represented in -
model equivalent and the impedances converted
to their respective per unit admittances on a
common MVA base.
The power injected to bus i is represented by the
equation
Si = SGi – SLi (1)
Applying the kirchoff current law to bus i in Fig.
1 gives:
IGi = ILi + Σ Iij (2)
For a network with n bus, equation (2 ) becomes:
Ii=yi0Vi+yi1(Vi- V1)+yi2 (Vi- V 2)+---+ yin (Vi-Vn ) (3)
=(yi0+yi1+yi2+---+yin)Vi-yi1V1-yi2V2--- -yinVn (4)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 39
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Equation (8) is the power flow equation and it can
be separated into its constituent real and
imaginary parts as:
Concept of Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS)
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) is a
title used to encompass all newly emerging high
voltage controllers based on leading-edge power
electronics technology. The concept of FACTS
has continued to gain attention in the Electrical
Power World. It is based on the use of high
voltage, high current power electronic devices in
association with communication links and local
automatic controllers.
As defined by IEEE, FACTS is a power
electronic based system and other static
equipment that can provide control of one or more
alternating current transmission system
parameters to enhance controllability and increase
power transfer capability. It is a technology that is
concerned with the ability to control, in an
adaptive fashion, the path of the power flows
throughout the network, where before the advent
of FACTS, high speed control was a problem
(Hingoram, 2000). The ability to control the line
impedance, the nodal voltage magnitude and
phase angle at both the sending and the receiving
ends of key transmission lines, with almost no
delay, has significantly increased the transmission
capabilities of the network while considerably
enhancing the security of the system. FACTS is a
replacement of passive and/or electromechanical
device (for example mechanically switched
capacitors) by active devices.
Static Var Compensator (SVC)
The Static Var Compensator (SVC) is a device of
the Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
using power electronics to control power flow on
power grids. The SVC regulates voltage at its
terminal by controlling the amount of reactive
power injected into or absorbed from the power
system. When system voltage is low, the SVC
generates reactive power (SVC capacitive), and
when it is high, the SVC absorbs reactive power
(SVC inductive)(Ambriz-Perz et al, 200) . The
variation of reactive power is performed by
switching three-phase capacitor banks and
inductor banks connected on the secondary side
of a coupling transformer. Each capacitor bank is
switched on and off by the thyristor switches
(Mathur, 2002).
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Practical Static Var Compensator.
There are two common types of practical static
var compensators (SVC): The Fixed Capacitor,
Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR), and the
Thyristor Switched Capacitor, Thyristor-
Controlled Reactor (TSC-TCR). They are as
shown in Fig. 2, and
Fig. 3.
The FC-TCR is used here because the response of
the TSC-TCR is somewhat slower This is
because the maximum delay of switching in a
single TSC, with a charged capacitor, is one full
cycle, whereas the maximum delay of the TCR is
only half of a cycle which is the maximum
allowable switching out delay.
Assume the system is operating with a voltage of
V0 with reference to Fig. 4. If the system voltage
increases, V will increase to V1 without SVC.
However the SVC moves the operating point to B
by absorbing inductive current and holds the
voltage at V3. Similarly the SVC holds the
voltage at V4 for a decrease in the system voltage
by generating a capacitive current into the ac
system (Mutale, 2000).
Model of SVC.
With reference to Fig. 5, SVC is modelled as a
variable shunt susceptance with adjustable
reactance subject to either firing angle limits or
reactance limits (Mendez, 2004).
In the power flow, the current drawn by the
device is given as:
ISVC = Vk . jBSVC (11)
and the corresponding reactive power at bus k as:
QSVC = - Vk.Vk.jBSVC
= - V2jBSVC (12)
Subject to BSV Cmin < BSV C < BSV Cmax. (13)
Equation (12) is a nonlinear expression and can
be linearised, with the equivalent susceptance
BSVC taken as the state variable, in the form:
= (14)
The value of BSVC is constantly being updated at
the end of each iteration according to equation
(15) =
+ (15)
The resultant susceptance gives total that is
required to maintain the specified nodal voltage
magnitude, and hence the firing angle of the
thyristor can be calculated.
Based on the above expression (equation 12) a
matlab program was developed to incorporate the
SVC, a modeled variable susceptance FACTS
device, within the NewtonRaphson power flow
program.
Simulation
The 28-bus of the Nigeria 330kV network data is
shown in Appendix B.
A base case (reference data) of this network data
was established at a total active and reactive load
demand of 4921.89MW and 3613.30MVAr
Page 40
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
respectively, when analyzed with the Newton-
Raphson power flow program. The power flow
result of this data is shown in Table 1. Column 2
of the table is the voltage magnitude of the bus
data which glaringly manifested voltage violation
on row No 7 (Gombe bus) of 0.8616p.u (against
0.8500p.u. the lower limit of the acceptable
voltage magnitude). The data of the network with
this voltage distress is taken as the base case of
reference. Consequently a method of
compensation with FACTS was simulated, in
order to improve the sag in voltage at this bus.
The results are as discussed below.
Simulation Result with SVC
The voltage at Gombe bus is 0.8616p.u, a value
that is less than the lower of limit of the
acceptable voltage value. This is a term called
voltage violation and it must be corrected in order
to prevent voltage collapse. The SVC was
installed at this to maintain the voltage magnitude
at 0.9p.u. The SVC requires a susceptance (Bsvc)
of 0.955p.u and injected 95.46MVAr to maintain
the 1.0p.u voltage magnitude. In the process of
maintaining the voltage magnitude, the overall
voltage profile of the network was consequently
improved as shown in Table 3. All the generators
in the vicinity of the site of the device reduced
their reactive power generations because of the
influence of abundant reactive power injection by
the device to the bus. As shown in Tables 3 and
4,, the reactive power generation and transfer
capabilities of the SVC device are evident in all
the generators(generators with ‘*’ in Table 3) and
the lines(lines with ‘*’ in Table 4.) that are close
around the site of the device compared with the
base case. The reactive power generation at Afam
was reduced by 44.33MVAr (from 530.85 MVAr
to 486.52MVAr) due to the SVC device at
Gombe. The reactive power generated at
Mambilla and Shiroro generating stations were
also reduced as a result of the same influence.
Table 2 indicated the influence of the device on
power transmission capability where about
102.80MVAr was flowing to Gombe before the
device was installed but with the device, the same
bus is now absorbing just 7.34MVAr. The
influence of this surplus enabled the Jos bus that
was absorbing about 38.06MVAr from Makurdi
to supply the same Makurdi with 1.73 MVAr. The
same gesture was extended to Jos via Jos-Kaduna
line where 62.04MVAr absorption was reduced to
24.14MVAr. The Alaoji bus was supplying
Makurdi with 13.52MVAr, is now absorbing
8.75MVAr via Alaoji - Makurdi line to Makurdi.
In the same manner, Mambilla reduced its supply
to Makurdi by 23.28MVAr (58.64-35.36) MVAr.
Other buses such as: Shiroro, Kaduna, Kano and
Onitsha are equally affected by the surplus
generation of reactive power by the device at
Gombe when compared with the base case.
Conclusion and Recomendation
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
The use of Flexible AC Transmission System
devices was applied in order to effectively control
and improve the power system. The FACTS
device considered is SVC
The device was able to effect control on electric
power system with respect to voltage and electric
power flow because it has characteristics
adjustable mechanism to respond appropriately
and immediately to changes in the power system.
FACTS, a new and functional method with
adequate facilities to enhance power transmission
and consumption with reliability and stability has
been found to provide solution to power system
control to meet the required need of the populace.
This new approach to power system control, if
adopted could be a useful, reliable, and better
option - in contrast to the Federal Government
proposal to increase power generation
infrastructures - to meet up with the rate at which
power demand is increasing.
References
ABB Review. (1999), FACTS – solutions to
power flow control & stability problems,
Sweden, ABB Power Systems.
Ambriz-Perez, A. Acha, E. and Fuerte-Esquivel,
C.R (2000), Advanced SVC models for
Newton-Raphson load flow and Newton
optimal power flow studies, Power Systems,
IEEE Transactions on, 15(1): 129-136
Bakare, G. A.(2001), Removal of Overloads and
Voltage Problems in Electric Power Systems
using Genetic Algorithm and Expert
Systems”, Germany, PhD Dissertation
Gerhard Mercator University, Duisburg.
Gotham, D. J. and Heydt, G. T. (1998), Power
flow control and power flow studies for
system with FACTS devices, Power System,
IEEE Transaction on, 13(1):60-65.
Hingorani, N.G., and Gyugyi, L. (2000),
Understanding FACTS Concepts and
Technology of Flexible AC Transmission
System, New York, IEEE Press.
Medicherla, T. K. P. and Billinton, R. (1981),
Generation Rescheduling And Load Shedding
To Alleviate Line Overloads - System
Studies”, IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, No.
1, January 1981.
Mendez, R. and Rudnick, H. (2004), Congestion
Management and Transmission Rights in
Centralized Electric Markets, IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 19, No.
2, pp. 889-896.
Mutale, J., and Strbac, G. (2000), Transmission
network reinforcement versus FACTS - an
economic assessment, IEEE Transactions on
Power Systems, Vol. 18, 2000, pp. 961-967
PHCN, (2005), Facts and Data - Documentation
on Power Holding of Nigeria, pp 1-5.
Rolf, G. Raghuveer, S. and Jean-Pierre, C. (2003),
Improving the efficiency and quality of AC
Page 41
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
transmission systems (Draft3), Sweden Xiao, Y. Song, Y. H. and Sun, Y. Z. (2002),
Washington DC, USA, Joint World Bank / Power flow control approaches to power
ABB Power Systems Paper, Vasteras, systems with embedded FACTS devices,
Sweden Vasteras. power Systems, IEEE Transactions on 17(4):
Seitlinger, W. (1998), Phase Shifting 943-950.
Transformers Discussion of Specific
Characteristic, Paris, CIGRE.
V

IQ

Ic IL (α )
C

Fig. 1: A simple two-bus power system

Fig. 2. Typical Scheme for SVC, FC-

TCR Model
K Vk

JBSVC

Fig. 5: SVC Modelled as

Fig. 3: Typical Scheme for SVC, shunt connected susceptance
Fig. 4: SVC Characteristics
TCR-TSC Type

Indicates the flow of reactive power

Fig. 6: Sub-network of the Nigeria 28-bus system showing the effect of the SVC at Gombe.

TABLE 1 Base case bus data of 28-bus system.

Voltage Power Generated Bus Load
Station Magn. Angle Real Reactive Real Reactive
Name (p.u.) (Deg.) (MW) (MVAr) (MW) (MVAr)
Oshogb 0.9964 2.0258 - - 211.30 158.50
Afam 1.0244 2.5694 452.60 530.85 55.10 41.30
Alaoji 1.0047 1.8883 - - 448.40 336.20
N-haven 0.8843 -6.1007 - - 186.80 140.10
Onitsh 0.9343 -2.9076 - - 193.80 145.40
Birnin 0.9387 3.6264 - - 120.20 90.20
*Gombe 0.8616 -6.8224 - - 137.10 102.80
Jebba 1.0451 6.1580 - - 11.60 8.70
Jebbag 1.0500 6.4054 520.00 462.01 - -
Jos 0.9724 0.8643 - - 73.80 55.40
Kaduna 0.9917 -5.2375 - - 202.70 152.00

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 42
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Kainji 1.0220 9.7520 656.90 -210.77 7.40 5.60
Kano 0.9364 -9.3152 - - 209.80 157.30
Shiror 1.0359 -3.5021 408.30 762.10 336.10 252.10
Egbin 0.9851 0.0000 540.89 488.90 73.20 54.90
Sapele 1.0500 2.7581 199.80 590.41 21.60 16.20
Delta 1.0324 6.7630 643.40 -27.70 - -
Aja 0.9794 -0.3384 - - 288.10 216.10
Akangb 0.9540 -1.2978 - - 361.90 271.50
Ikejaw 0.9624 -0.7917 - - 664.90 498.60
Ajaoku 1.0217 1.1027 - - 14.50 10.90
Aladja 1.0329 5.1548 - - 101.30 76.00
Makurdi 0.9982 5.7232 - - 101.30 76.00
Mambilla 1.0500 17.5787 750.00 117.29 - -
Papalan 0.9918 1.6697 750.00 398.27 - -
Abuja 0.9996 -5.6755 - - 304.60 228.50
Benin 1.0140 1.3955 - - 402.50 301.80
Ayede 0.9328 -2.2896 - - 289.60 217.20
Total 4921.89 3111.36 4817.60 3613.30
Total real power loss 104.29
Total reactive power loss -501.94
‘*’ indicates the affected bus.

TABLE 2 Base case transmission line power flow results of 28-bus network.
From To No of Ploss Qloss
Station Station Lines PIJ (MW) QIJ (MVAr) PJ I (MW) QJI (MVAr) (MW) (MVAr)
Aja Egbin 2 -144.05 -108.05 144.25 106.68 0.2 -1.37
Akangb Ikejaw 2 -180.95 -135.75 181.34 135.48 0.39 -0.27
Egbin Ikejaw 2 89.59 110.32 -89.08 -117.58 0.51 -7.25
Ikejaw Benin 2 -51.93 -77.78 52.58 28.89 0.65 -48.89
Ikejaw Ayede 1 66.23 49.86 -65.75 -70.22 0.48 -20.36
Ikejaw Oshogb 1 -67.71 -56.33 68.32 13.43 0.61 -42.9
Ajaoku Benin 2 -7.25 -5.45 7.27 -34.09 0.02 -39.54
Delta Benin 1 313.24 20.57 -309.24 -13.09 4 7.48
Delta Aladja 1 330.16 -48.28 -328.91 51.27 1.25 2.99
Aladja Sapele 1 227.61 -127.27 -226.06 125.42 1.56 -1.85
Benin Onitsh 1 199.48 165.86 -195.7 -163.05 3.79 2.81
Benin Oshogb 1 -11.58 0.38 11.66 -49.63 0.08 -49.25
Benin Sapele 2 -200.43 -222.28 202.13 224.4 1.7 2.11
Ayede Oshogb 1 -223.85 -146.98 227.41 152.89 3.56 5.91
Birnin Kainji 1 -120.20 -90.2 122.76 50.77 2.56 -39.43
Oshogb Jebba 3 -172.90 -91.73 175.09 76.39 2.2 -15.34
Afam Alaoji 2 198.75 244.77 -197.79 -242.73 0.96 2.05
Alaoji Onitsh 1 190.61 122.22 -187.32 -125.79 3.28 -3.57
N-Haven Onitsh 1 -186.80 -140.1 189.22 143.44 2.42 3.34
Gombe Jos 1 -137.10 -102.8 141.13 83.36 4.03 -19.44
Jebba Jebbag 2 -259.78 -229.88 260 231 0.22 1.12
Jebba Shiror 2 252.11 -25.11 -246.52 15.17 5.59 -9.94
Jebba Kainji 2 -260.77 136.06 263.37 -133.57 2.61 2.49
Jos Kaduna 1 162.53 -62.64 -160.11 41.85 2.43 -20.79
Kaduna Kano 2 106.38 47.86 -104.9 -78.65 1.48 -30.79
Kaduna Shiror 2 -127.68 -144.79 129.02 135.4 1.34 -9.38
Alaoji Makurd 2 -21.71 13.52 122.83 -43.26 1.12 -29.74
Jos Makurd 2 -88.73 -38.06 190.99 25.3 2.26 -12.76
Mambill Makurd 2 375.00 58.64 -364.47 -20.05 10.53 38.6
Papalan Ikejaw 2 375.00 199.13 -372.04 -186.18 2.96 12.95
Shiror Abuja 2 153.60 104.43 -152.3 -114.25 1.3 -9.82
Total 50 104.29 -406.48

TABLE 3 Bus data results with SVC at Gombe.

Voltage Power Generated Bus Load
Station Magn. Angle Real Reactive Real Reactive
Name (p.u) (deg. ) (MW) (MVAr) (MW) (MVAr)
Oshogb 0.9964 2.1148 - - 211.30 158.50
Afam 1.0244 2.5734 452.60 486.52 55.10 41.30
Alaoji 1.0063 1.8811 - - 448.40 336.20
*N-Haven 0.8853 -6.0695 - - 186.80 140.10
*Onitsh 0.9352 -2.8830 - - 193.80 145.40
Birnin 0.9387 3.7515 - - 120.20 90.20
*Gombe 1.0000 -6.3428 - - 137.10 102.80
Jebba 1.0451 6.2832 - - 11.60 8.70
Jebbag 1.0500 6.5305 520.00 461.90 - -
*Jos 1.0043 0.7624 - - 73.80 55.40
*Kaduna 0.9983 -5.0369 - - 202.70 152.00

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 43
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Kainji 1.0220 9.8772 656.90 -210.78 7.40 5.60
*Kano 0.9436 -9.0585 - - - 157.30
Shiror 1.0359 -3.2951 408.30 - - 252.10
Egbin 0.9851 0.0000 537.19 489.32 73.20 54.90
Sapele 1.0500 2.7961 199.80 589.08 21.60 16.20
Delta 1.0324 6.8009 643.40 -28.01 - -
Aja 0.9794 -0.3384 - - 288.10 216.10
Akangb 0.9540 -1.2778 - - 361.90 271.50
Ikejaw 0.9624 -0.7718 - - 664.90 498.60
Ajaoku 1.0218 1.1402 - - 14.50 10.90
Aladja 1.0329 5.1927 - - 101.30 76.00
Makurdi 1.0114 5.5609 - - 101.30 76.00
*Mambill 1.0500 17.3609 750.00 70.72 - -
Papalan 0.9918 1.6897 750.00 398.24 - -
Abuja 0.9996 -5.4686 - - 304.60 228.50
Benin 1.0141 1.4330 - - 402.50 301.80
Ayede 0.9327 -2.2318 - - 289.60 217.20
Total 4918.19 2970.73 4817.60 3613.30
Total real power loss 100.59
Total reactive power loss -642.57
‘*’ indicates the buses that are affected by the device.

TABLE 4 Line power flow results with SVC at Gombe.

From To No of PIJ QIJ PJI QJI Ploss Qloss
Station Station Lines (MW) (MVAr) (MW) (MVAr) (MW) (MVAr)
Aja Egbin 2 -144.05 -108.05 144.25 106.68 0.20 -1.37
Akangb Ikejaw 2 -180.95 -135.75 181.34 135.48 0.39 -0.27
Egbin Ikejaw 2 87.75 110.53 -87.24 -117.84 0.5 -7.30
Ikejaw Benin 2 -52.30 -77.83 52.95 28.97 0.65 -48.86
Ikejaw Ayede 1 64.80 50.11 -64.33 -70.54 0.47 -20.43
Ikejaw Oshogb 1 -69.21 -56.00 69.84 13.25 0.63 -42.75
Ajaoku Benin 2 -7.25 -5.45 7.27 -34.09 0.02 -39.54
Delta Benin 1 313.25 20.27 -309.25 -12.79 4.00 7.48
Delta Aladja 1 330.15 -48.28 -328.9 51.27 1.25 2.99
Aladja Sapele 1 227.60 -127.27 -226.05 125.42 1.56 -1.85
Benin Onitsh 1 199.92 163.82 -196.17 -161.25 3.76 2.56
Benin Oshogb 1 -12.76 0.73 12.84 -49.95 0.08 -49.21
Benin Sapele 2 -200.43 -221.66 202.12 223.73 1.69 2.07
Ayede Oshogb 1 -225.27 -146.66 228.87 152.8 3.59 6.13
Birnin Kainji 1 -120.20 -90.2 122.76 50.77 2.56 -39.43
Oshogb Jebba 3 -174.28 -91.53 176.51 76.4 2.22 -15.13
*Afam Alaoji 2 198.75 222.61 -197.89 -221.31 0.86 1.3
*Alaoji Onitsh 1 190.14 123.93 -186.85 -127.51 3.29 -3.59
N-Haven Onitsh 1 -186.80 -140.1 189.22 143.37 2.42 3.27
*Gombe Jos 1 -137.10 -7.34 139.38 -34.73 2.28 -42.07
Jebba Jebbag 2 -259.78 -229.83 260 230.95 0.22 1.12
Jebba Shiror 2 249.98 -25.18 -244.49 14.54 5.49 -10.64
Jebba Kainji 2 -260.77 136.06 263.37 -133.57 2.61 2.49
*Jos Kaduna 1 165.84 -24.14 -163.63 0.19 2.21 -23.95
*Kaduna Kano 2 106.36 47.06 -104.9 -78.65 1.46 -31.59
*Kaduna Shiror 2 -125.89 -123.16 126.99 111.85 1.1 -11.31
*Alaoji Makurd 2 -121.38 -8.75 122.42 -22.12 1.04 -30.88
*Jos Makurd 2 -189.51 1.73 191.63 -16.91 2.12 -15.18
*Mambill Makurd 2 375.00 35.36 -364.69 1.03 10.31 36.39
Papalan Ikejaw 2 375.00 199.12 -372.04 -186.17 2.96 12.95
Shiror Abuja 2 153.60 104.43 -152.3 -114.25 1.3 -9.82
Total 100.59 -642.57
. ‘*’ indicates the lines that are affected by the device

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 44
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Akinbinu
Akinbinu V. A
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1):
(1) : 45 - 49
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Application of GIS as a Decision Support Tool for Facility Knowledge Management in Mining Industry
Akinbinu V. A
Dept of Mining Engineering
School of Engineering
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
E-mail: akinbinu_victor@yahoo.com / vaakinbinu@futa.edu.ng

Abstract
Facility management involves maintaining and managing the infrastructure in mines and be able to identify the
locations, sizes and make-up of these assets. It is also beneficial to maintain a running record of inspections,
maintenance work performed and various utility-related events that may occur. The traditional method of
facility management are tasking, retrieving information are delayed and not up-to-date. This paper tend to look
into opportunity of using GIS with facilities data structure behind the various mapping layers to store
information that can be linked to a particular asset for managing, visualizing and exploring the complex
interactions between them in other to resolve the problem encountered with the traditional methods. The data
can be combined with other GIS layers for engineering analysis and future planning purposes. GIS
incorporated with facilities data structure will enhance the potential of retrieving information on them timely
and up-to-date than the traditional methods greatly thereby minimizing the cost of real-time sensing technology
in facility management with increasingly information technology application. These will result in timely
knowledge decision support for management response to facility needs.

Key words: Infrastructure, GIS, engineering analysis, decision support and facility management

Introduction they can be replenished. These tools are not intended

A geographic information system (GIS) is a system
for capturing, storing, analyzing and managing data
and associated attributes which are spatially
referenced to the Earth. GIS is typically comprised of
layers of geo-referenced data, as figure 1 illustrates.
These layers can be raster images (such as land usage
maps, aerial photographs or scanned maps) or they
can be vector representations of real features, as one
in CAD drawings (lines, polygons, points).
Combined, these layers can provide a powerful
informational management tool. In a practical sense,
GIS allows users to create interactive queries (user-
created searches) of topographical data, analyze the
spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the
results of all these operations. GIS can be used for
scientific investigations, resource management, asset
management, Environmental Impact Assessment,
Urban planning, cartography, criminology, history,
sales, marketing, and logistics as shown in figure 2.
In order to achieve long-term sustainability, our
infrastructure systems and the processes to design,
build, and operate those systems must evolve. They
must become more data-rich and able to continuously
monitor their conditions, model and store the
collected data for real-time and future use. They must
become more intelligent and able to perform self-
assessment and support proactive decision making
that improves their performance, increase their life
spans and reduce life-cycle costs and impact. They
must become greener, such that we are confident that
Earth’s resources are being used at a rate at which
to replace the traditional tools. Rather, they have the
potential to enhance them greatly. As the cost of real-
time sensing technology decreases and the volume of
information at our fingertips increases, the future of
infrastructure management will increasingly involve
information technology, advanced numerical and
computing techniques, artificial intelligence and
other exciting emerging technologies.
Knowledge Management
There is probably no segment of activity in the world
attracting as much attention at present as that of
knowledge management. What knowledge actually
was, and how was it differentiated from data,
information, and wisdom. Knowledge is the
appropriate collection of information, such that its
intent is to be useful. Knowledge is a deterministic
process. Data is raw, symbol or discrete number. It
simply exists and has no significance beyond its
existence (in and of itself). It can exist in any form,
usable or not. It does not have meaning of itself.
Information are data that are processed to be useful
and provides answers to "who", "what", "where", and
"when" questions. Knowledge is application of data
and information and answers "how" questions.
Understanding is appreciation of "why" while
Wisdom evaluated understanding.
Knowledge is defined as a justified belief that
increases an entity’s capacity for effective action
Huber, 1999). Knowledge may be viewed from
several perspectives (i) a state of mind (ii) an object

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 45
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
(iii) a process (iv) a condition of having access to
information or (v) a capability. Knowledge has been
describe as “a state or fact of knowing” with
knowing been a condition of understanding gained
through experience or study, the sum or range of
what has been perceived, discovered or learned. The
perspective on knowledge as a state of mind focuses
on enabling individuals to expand their personal
knowledge and apply it to the organizational needs.
A second view defined knowledge as an object
(Zack, 1998). This perspective posits that knowledge
can be viewed as a thing to be stored and
manipulated (i.e an object like GIS). Knowledge
management refers to identification and leveraging
the collective knowledge in an organization to help
the organization. Knowledge management is
purported to increase innovativeness and
responsiveness (Hackbarth, 1998). Knowledge
management system (KMS) refers to a class of
information system applied to managing
organizational knowledge. That is, they are IT based
system developed to support and enhance the
organizational process of knowledge creation,
storage/retrieval, transfer and application.
Decision Support
Decision support systems are built upon established
knowledge discovery and management systems,
which are built upon data management systems,
which are built upon raw data. In the growing field of
knowledge engineering, it is no coincidence that the
Advanced Infrastructure Pyramid management
generally follow the popular Pyramid of Wisdom
model, shown in figure 3 and figure 4. In order to
better understand the Advanced Infrastructure
Pyramid, therefore, it may be helpful to make a direct
comparison with the Pyramid of Wisdom. The D-I-
K-W hierarchy of the Pyramid of Wisdom are best
described as summarized table 1.
Ackoff, 1989 indicates that the first four categories
relate to the past; they deal with what has been or
what is known. Only the fifth category, wisdom,
deals with the future because it incorporates vision
and design. With wisdom, people can create the
future rather than just grasp the present and past. But
achieving wisdom isn't easy; people must move
successively through the other categories. Wisdom is
therefore, the process by which we also discern, or
judge, between right and wrong, good and bad. I
personally believe that computers do not have, and
will never have the ability to posses’ wisdom.
Wisdom is a uniquely human state, or as I see it,
wisdom requires one to have a soul, for it resides as
much in the heart as in the mind (Ackoff, 1989). And
a soul is something machines will never possess (or
perhaps I should reword that to say, a soul is
something that, in general, will never possess a
machine). Personally I contend that the sequence is a
bit less involved than described by Ackoff, 1989.
The diagram represents the transitions from data, to
information, to knowledge, and finally to wisdom,
and it is understand that support the transition from
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
each stage to the next. Understanding is not a
separate level of its own.
Knowledge Management (KM) comprises a range of
practices used in an organisation to identify, create,
represent, distribute and enable adoption of insights
and experiences. (Nonaka, 1991). Such insights and
experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in
individuals or embedded in organisational processes
or practice. KM includes courses taught in the fields
of business administration, information systems,
management, and library and information sciences
(Alavi, 2001). More recently, other fields, to include
those focused on information and media, computer
science, public health, and public policy, also have
started contributing to KM research. Many large
companies and non-profit organisations have
resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a
part of their 'Business Strategy', 'Information
Technology', or 'Human Resource Management'
departments (Addicott et al, 2006). Several
consulting companies also exist that provide strategy
and advice regarding KM to these organisations.
KM efforts typically focus on organisational
objectives such as improved performance,
competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of
lessons learned, and continuous improvement of the
organisation (Alavi, 2001). KM efforts overlap with
Organisational Learning, and may be distinguished
from that by a greater focus on the management of
knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on
encouraging the sharing of knowledge (Alavi, 2001).
KM efforts can help individuals and groups to share
valuable organisational insights, to reduce redundant
work, to avoid reinventing the wheel per se, to
reduce training time for new employees, to retain
intellectual capital as employees turnover in an
organisation, and to adapt to changing environments
and markets (McAdam et al, 2000, Thompson et al,
2004).
Mine Facility and GIS
Facilities management has multiple definitions for
people in an organization. Some might be interested
in the cost to perform a major building renovation,
others might be interested in its location and
proximity to other things, and others might be
interested in the square footage of the rooms within
the building for cleaning purposes or furnishing.
Historically, facility managers have gone to multiple
applications to get the answers to such questions.
These answers however, are easy to come by through
seamlessly integrating GIS with an asset
management system and using scheduled Arc
Objects routines to convert frequently edited CAD
data that has historically been used to manage
building footprints, into a geodatabase to answer
questions such as “how much square footage is in
this room.”
The sitting of ore passes, draw points, ramps, and
other components of the mining operation can also
be successfully managed with GIS. For example, by
overlaying various thematic layers and viewing them
Page 46
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
in combination, GIS software can be used to
determine the best areas to dispose of waste rock and
mine tailings. The same methodology can be used in
planning road networks and determining the optimal
route for vehicles in your fleet. GIS gives miners a
much broader perspective of the work environment
than before. Moving mining equipment, including
dozers, draglines, cranes, and shovels, can be guided
and managed using GIS and advanced GPS
technology. GIS combined with GPS enables
managers to track, for example, the status and
location of dump trucks, providing information about
direction, velocity, and load size. Use GIS to monitor
and dispatch haul trucks and drills and to assess
grade control on shovels. Monitor all your mining
assets in real time. Miners must contend with a
constantly evolving landscape. Using GIS onto a
GPS-enabled data, mine operators are able to
monitor these constant changes and give more
informed instructions to heavy equipment operators.
In addition, GIS and integrated survey analysis tools
provide a fast and accurate solution for replacing and
maintaining control points and calculating the
volume of material moved. Oftentimes, mine crises
are the result of mine operators’ inability to view the
overall picture and plan accordingly. GIS modelling
and network analysis functionality solves this
problem, reducing the amount of guesswork involved
in visualizing the production environment. For
example, the proximity analysis capabilities of GIS
software make short work of sitting refuge chambers
within a safe distance from production stopes. The
distribution of refuge chambers and exits can be
planned using GIS Network Analysis and the shortest
route from production areas can be determined by
creating a distance grid. With its powerful network
analysis capabilities, GIS software can assist in
providing a safe production environment for mining
staff by determining the most feasible sites for refuge
chambers, greatly aiding in the evacuation of mine
personnel in case of an emergency.
Conclusion
The business of mineral exploration and extraction is
inherently spatial. Since most mines cover large
expanses of land, with enormous numbers of
facilities, management require access to volumes of
location-based information to guide the operation.
For this reason, the tasks of mine management are
perfectly suited for geographic information system
(GIS) technology. GIS is a versatile tool for
gathering, storing, and accessing geographic
information quickly and easily. GIS software is
ideally suited to assist mining professionals in
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
meeting the complex challenges of running the mine
operation, with tools to compile, process, display,
analyze, and archive massive volumes of data. From
discovery to production to mine closure and
reclamation, GIS software solutions are increasingly
being applied to the business of mining. Mining
professionals use GIS to increase productivity and
save costs. Engineers and operations staff use GIS
for facility planning applications, helping miners
keep track of existing infrastructure and integrating
up-to-date information with the mine plan. Facility
managers also use GIS to incorporate recent survey
data with block models or design data from other
software packages. Simply put, there is no
component of the mine that cannot be better
managed with GIS technology.
Reference:
Ackoff, R. L. 1989. From Data to Wisdom, Journal
of Applies Systems Analysis, 16, 3-9.
Addicott, Rachael, Gerry McGivern & Ewan Ferlie,
Networks, 2006. Organizational Learning and
Knowledge Management: NHS Cancer
Networks, Public Money & Management 26 (2),
87-94
Alavi, Maryam & Dorothy Leidner, 2001. E Review
Knowledge Management and Knowledge
Management Systems: Conceptual Foundations
and Research Issues", MIS Quarterly 25 (1),
107-136.
Hackbarth, G. 1998. The Impact of Organizational
Memory on IT Systems , in Proceeding of the
fourth Americans Conference on Information
System (E. Hoadly and I Benbezat (eds), 588-
590)
Huber, G. 1999. Organizational Learning. The
Contributing Processes and Literatures.
Organization Science 2(1), 88-115
McAdam, R. & Sandra, M. 2000. A Critique of
Knowledge Management: Using A Social
Constructionist Model, New Technology, Work
and Employment 15 (2). Accepted paper series
of SSRN available at
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_
id=239247
Nonaka, Ikujiro, 1991. The knowledge creating
company, (Harvard Business Review, UK 69 (6
Nov-Dec): 96-104.
Thompson, P.A. Mark and Geoff, W. (2004).
Placing Knowledge Management in Context,
Journal of Management Studies 45 (1) 725-747.
Zack, M (1998). An Architecture for Managing
Explicated Knowledge. (Sloan Management
Review, Massachusetts.
Page 47
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table1: Comparison: Pyramid of Wisdom vs. Infrastructure Management Pyramid
Pyramid of Wisdom
Data
Data is raw. It simply exists and has no significance
beyond its own existence. It can exist in any form,
usable or not, and has no meaning of itself. It is
generally devoid of context and reveals nothing about
its identity or its relationship with other objects
Information
Information consists of data that has been given
meaning by way of relational connection. It relates to
description, definition, or perspective - in other words,
it answers the questions who, what, where and where.
Generally, it does not provide a foundation for why
the data is what it is, nor an indication as to how the
data is likely to change over time.
Knowledge
Knowledge is the collection and organization of
information, so that we may better understand its
intent. Information must generally be analyzed,
evaluated, weighted and filtered, in a process that
traditionally requires significant human judgment,
practical experience. This process is also heavily
dependent on context, and so information from past
scenarios may have substantially different significance
and value in future scenarios.
Wisdom
Through understanding, we make new knowledge and
gain wisdom. Unlike the previous levels, wisdom asks
questions to which there is no easily-achievable
answer, and in some cases, to which there can be no
humanly-known answer. Wisdom is therefore, a
process by which we discern between right and
wrong, and ultimately make decisions.
Fig. 1: Layers of geo-referenced data
Source: Ackoff 1989
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Infrastructure Management Pyramid
Sensing and Data Acquisition: The advanced
infrastructure system utilizes advanced sensors and
continuous state monitoring devices to extract raw
data from the natural world. Once the data is
acquired, it may be processed, organized, stored,
queried and leveraged for future application
Data Management
Raw data is organized so that access and retrieval are
easy and reliable. In advanced systems, databases
and data models provide this level of functionality.
Order to meet the management challenges of
tomorrow, newer and more robust data management
strategies, including geospatial information systems
(GIS) are adopted.
Knowledge Management
For the reasons listed to the left, information alone
does not help infrastructure managers and engineers
make critical and difficult decisions. Decision-
making requires knowledge (and ultimately
wisdom). Advanced infrastructure system, therefore,
strive to capture, represent and store the insight and
previous experiences of the collective masses.
Decision Support
Wisdom is a uniquely human quality - one not easily
obtained and therefore highly revered. As such,
many would argue vehemently that computer
systems can never possess true wisdom. I agree with
this assertion, and so I prefer the phrase "decision
support" when speaking in the context of advanced
infrastructure systems.
Fig. 2: Application GIS for scientific investigations
Page 48
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Decision
support

Knowledge
management

Data management

Sensing and data acquisition

Fig. 3: Infrastructure management pyramid Fig. 4: Facility knowledge management graph

Fig. 5: Graph of knowledge management of facility

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 49
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Agbanigo, A. O.

School of Engineering Oladapo, E. O. J
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 50 - 53

Energy Conservation: A Tool for Solving Problems of Energy Sufficiency

1
Agbanigo, A. O. & 2Oladapo, E. O. J.
1,2
Mechanical Engineering Department,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti,
Ekiti State.
1
e-mail: bagbanigo@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper discusses energy in the light of perceived solution to the energy sufficiency problems. With supply
being the main focus and approach it is observed that demand often exceed capacity of local sources to cope.
Wastage of energy is a common phenomenon with all energy converters, being a condition imposed on them by
thermodynamic, molecular and structural constraints. Energy waste reduction and better management of
available energy can be achieved by employing simple methods like substituting inefficient appliances with
more efficient ones, reduced or complete stoppage of unnecessary use of some appliances by proper and better
planning and designs of buildings to utilize natural illumination and air (wind). Planting of trees to provide
shade from the Sun and provision of shading for external walls and windows to retard heat flow from outside
are also suggested as ways of reducing energy load demands which will ultimately help solve the problems of
energy sufficiency

Keywords: Energy sufficiency, Energy waste, Energy converters, Energy load.

Introduction sufficient quantity of energy is seen to be the central

The survival of human society is dependent on the
continuous supply of energy. Modern man utilises
energy for almost everything, from normal body
metabolism to industrial processes.
The story of the use of energy is more or less the
story of civilisation or modernisation. From the
discovery and control of fire to harnessing the
power/energy of flowing water and wind, energy of
draught animals and the use of coal, steam, oil,
electricity, gas and nuclear energy, man has evolved
from the prehistoric caveman hunter who consumes
his food raw to the industrialised and technological
man that utilises energy to move about, process his
food, communicate, control his/the environment,
recreate and entertain himself.
As pointed out by Mitchel (1983), energy, having the
ability to provide us with comfort, transportation and
the ability to produce food and material goods has
become essential to our way of life, a veritable
ingredient in everyday human life. Its availability
and proper use in a country, according to Ayodele et
al, (2006), can improve the economic life of the
citizens. It is a “universal impute to economic
growth” (Abutu and Adeyemo, 2004).
It is no gainsaying that modern economics depend on
energy for sustenance. As a matter of fact the
magnitude of energy consumed per capital has
become an indicator of a country’s development.
Growth in energy consumption is said to correspond
to growth in gross domestic product, and in turn
development. Little wonder the Iran Daily (2006)
concludes that development is dependent on steady
supply of power (energy). Thus, the provision of
problem of the energy sector.
With supply as the main (if not the only) focus in
approaches to solving energy problems demands
often exceed the capacity of local and available
sources to cope, so much that some nations need to
source for supplements from sources far away. The
United States of America, for instance, imported
about 29% of total energy she consumed in 2007
(EIA 2008).
The primary sources of energy are fossil fuels, whose
supply is limited, and according to analysts, would
be depleted by 2095 (World Energy Outlook, 1995).
Some of the problems associated with the production
and use of coal, Petroleum and Natural Gas are
discussed by Agbanigo and Folorunsho (2006). They
emphasised the problem of urban air pollution and
climate change resulting from the emission of carbon
dioxide, a major greenhouse gas.
A number of suggestions, like change to renewable
sources (Ayodele et al, 2006; Olulope et al, 2008;
Francis, 2008; Ogundele and Emehelu, 2007; Oriaku
et al, 2007; Agagu, 2008), and energy mix (Ogundele
et al, 2008; Afilaka, 2009; Brain, 2008) have been
proposed as possible ways of solving the energy
problem in Nigeria. The government has also gone to
considerable lengths by introducing reforms and
deregulating the power sector, restructuring of NEPA
and establishing a number of related agencies and
bodies (Agagu, 2001; Isoun, 2004), and has
committed huge sums of money. All still geared
towards increasing production and supply.
The supply driven approach to energy problems does
not take into consideration the grave impact

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 50
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
conventional energy production and use has on
plants, animals and indeed, the future of civilisation.
This is probably because decision makers have not
come to the understanding of the link between
flipping a switch and destruction of the environment,
this being a recent realisation.
With world energy consumption increasing at
between 2.5% and 4.0% annually (Hubert, 1982;
EIA, 2007), Ayodele et al (2006) opined that the
current pattern of consumption cannot be sustained.
This is because, according to Adeyemo and Odukwe
(2006), there are indications of severe consequences
for the future in terms of resource depletion, energy
degradation and fuel shortages.
Energy Consumption and Efficiency
Waste Energy production
An important aspect of energy cycle that is little
considered is consumption. Consumption of energy
employs the use of energy converters, devices and
appliances that simply convert energy from one form
to another and in the process satisfy a need or
requirement. For instance, an incandescent bulb
converts energy from electrical form to
electromagnetic or radiant form that is perceived as
light and heat thereby satisfying the need for
illumination.
Incandescent bulbs are primarily designed to produce
light for illumination. This is the case with almost
every energy converter, each is designed a specific
purpose. An electric fan motor is designed to produce
mechanical rotation necessary for moving air and a
loudspeaker to cause vibrations in air that produce
sound, and so on. Whatever else is produced during
the process is undesirable and therefore a waste, just
like the by-product of the conversion done by an
incandescent bulb, that is heat.
Production of ‘wastages’ is a phenomenon imposed
on machines and equipments by thermodynamic,
molecular and structural constraints. The coils of an
electric motor will always warm up because of the
resistance of copper, a factor necessary for inducing
magnetic force needed for moving the armature and
producing rotation of the shaft. The shaft will in turn
warm up because of the friction in the bearings and
so on. Production of heat (warming up) is common to
all appliances.
Energy Efficiency
The effectiveness with which an appliance converts a
given quantity energy (or at a given rate) from
available form to another for a given purpose is given
by its efficiency. This is defined as the ratio of
useful energy output to total energy input. A tungsten
filament (incandescent) bulb has an efficiency of
10%, and converts one tenth of input energy to light
(useful output) and the remaining to heat, which is
released to the surrounding. This implies that using
incandescent bulbs for illumination amounts to
wasting nine times more energy for every
illumination produced. A gas/kerosene cooker,
though designed to produce heat, radiates 35% of the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
fuel energy into the surrounding so that only 65% is
used for actual cooking.
What this portends is that meeting or satisfying
increasing energy demands by increasing energy
supply increases energy waste production. Reducing
waste production implies better utilisation of
available energy and a step toward energy
sufficiency. Relative efficiencies of some household
appliances is given in table 1. It can be seen that
electric Iron with about the highest efficiency (98%)
still wastes 2% of energy.
Energy Conservation Methods
Lighting
As pointed out by Adeyemo and Odukwe (2008), the
current high standard of living is due to energy
utilization, the pattern of which must change in the
light of dwindling energy supplies. Having lights on
during the day was once considered ugly in the
United Kingdom in the late 20th century. It indeed is
a wasteful practice that should be avoided. Lights
should be switched off when not needed, for
example, when nobody is in a room.
Over illumination should be discouraged because
excess lighting produces excess heat, which adds
extra load on the air conditioning system. Lower
light intensities should be used in rooms by using
lower wattage bulbs or fluorescent bulbs. Fluorescent
are greatly improved with colour rendition
comparable to incandescent and ballasts that
eliminate perceptive flickers. They use about 75%
less energy, are twice as efficient, produce about four
times more illumination per watt and the average life
is 10 times longer than that of incandescent bulbs.
Substitution of one compact fluorescent bulb for an
incandescent bulb will save a barrel of oil, keep
907.18kg of carbon dioxide (global warming), and
9.07kg of sulphur oxide (acid rain) from the
atmosphere.
Buildings designed should be such that there are no
hidden areas and rooms that do not permit the use of
daylight illumination. The quality and ambiance of
natural lighting are unsurpassed and it is free.
Lighting design for buildings should be based on
standards of reduced general lighting with
highlighting for specific functional considerations.
Dubin and Long (1980) opined that using light-
coloured carpets and tiles, and painting walls with
bright and reflective colours can increase inter-
reflectance and improve both natural and artificial
illumination.
Cooking
Using electricity for water heating increases energy
wastages as about 35% of fuel energy would have
been wasted (in the case of thermal generating
plants) to produce electricity and, according to
Ayodele et al (2006), 40% of the electricity produced
is lost in the transmission lines. Gas/Kerosene stoves
could be used for water heating instead of the normal
practice of using electric heaters and kettles.
Page 51
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The use of pressure cookers greatly reduces the time
and energy expended on cooking. It saves between
50% to 75% of energy. Foods could be cooked in
large quantities, stored away and warmed up in small
quantities as and at when required, as a way of
reducing energy expenditure on cooking. Matching
pots with burner (with regards to size) also reduces
wastages.
Electronics and Electrical Appliances
Electronics and electrical appliances have relatively
high efficiencies. Energy saving in this area requires
that they be switched off when not in use. Digital
appliances should be unplugged or switched off at
the mains after use because they consume about 10W
each on standby.
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Refrigerators are essential, very efficient and cost
effective. The efficiency can be further improved
upon by ensuring that the condenser coils are clean
and free of dust. This enhances heat exchange to the
surrounding.
Air conditioners are also good and cost effective, but
unnecessary in most cases of domestic use.
Awareness of the cooling sense of moving air and the
connection to the natural resource can enhance the
user comfort. Breezes, the sound of birds and the
smell of flowers are fundamental to the perception of
air. This can be achieved with the use of a ceiling
fan, which consumes far less energy. Having a wide
gap or difference between indoor and outdoor
temperatures is not good on the point of health, since
temperature is not as important as the changes
experienced when entering or leaving a room or
building.
By providing external and internal shading for sun
facing walls and windows (Duffie and Long, 1980)
and finishing walls with light colours, solar heat
gains and cooling requirements can be greatly
reduced. Solar heat gains can also be reduced by
adding insulation on the inside walls to retard heat
flow from outside, and by planting trees around
houses or buildings to provide shade from direct heat
of the Sun.
Power supply from the electricity company is grossly
inadequate. Of the 5900MW (max) installed capacity
only 3200MW has ever been produced, and a
substantial amount of this is lost in transmission
(Ayodele et al 2006). Petirin and Mojibola (2007)
observed that the nation has been suffering from
chronic power outages that result in low voltages,
voltage fluctuations, power offs and load shedding.
Fallout of this is the use of voltage stabilizers to
safeguard appliances from power fluctuations.
An average size (¼ hp) refrigerator requires a
1000VA rated stabilizer to work. It will consume
energy at 321J/sec. while the stabilizer will waste at
679J/sec. as heat in its coils.
Connecting two (2) or three (3) appliances in such a
way that total power rating is about 80% to 90% of
rated stabilizer output minimises wastages.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Conclusion
World energy consumption is on the increase,
implying increase in demand. This is not strange
since world population is on the increase,
underdeveloped countries are becoming
industrialised, rural settlements becoming urban and
individuals’ tastes changing, so that more energy
intensive, labour saving goods and appliances are
being acquired. Meeting or satisfying this ever
increasing energy needs does not depend solely on
increasing supply.
World per capital energy consumption was 65.9 x
106 Btu (6.953 x 104 MJ), 64.3 x 106 Btu (6.784 x 104
MJ), 65.6 x 106 Btu (6.889 x 104 MJ) and 71.8 x 106
Btu (7.575 x 104 MJ) in 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2005
respectively (EIA, 2005). 2005 figures amounts to
each individual having 90 men work continuously all
day doing heavy industrial-type work (the Open
University, 1972). Only a portion of this energy is
actually consumed while the rest is wasted, and in
most cases the largest portion is wasted.
Conservation or more efficient use and management
of energy employing simple methods as discussed
herein will go a long way to solving some of the
energy problem and help to make energy more
available and sufficient.
References
Adeyemo, S. B. and Odukwe, A. O. (2008) “Energy
Conservation as a Viable Pathway Towards
Energy Sustainability”. Journal of Engineering
and Applied Sciences 3(3): 233-238.
Agagu, O. (2001) “Improving Power System in
Nigeria”. URL-
http://www.nigeriabusinessinfo.com.
Agagu, O. (2001) “NEPA: An Update on the
Mandate [1]”. Sunday Tribune, June 17, 2001,
Pp 28.
Agbanigo, A. O. and Folorunsho, D. P. (2006)
“Impact of Energy Use on the Environment”
Citadel Journal Series for Professionals, 2(4):15-
18.
Akinsanya, O. A. (2005) “Electrical Power System in
Ekiti State – Problems and suggestions”. 1st
Engineering Forum, Federal polytechnic, Ado
Ekiti, 7-10 November, 2005. Pp28-32.
Ayodele, T. R., Akinsanya, O. A. and Abe, B. T.
(2006) “Effective Power System – A Panacea to
Millennium Development”. 2nd Engineering
Forum, Federal polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, 10-13
October, 2006. Pp 44-46.
Ayodele, T. R., Akinsanya, O. A. and Familua, A. J.
(2006) “Renewable Energy Sources – A Strategy
for Electricity Generation in the Millennium
Development Programme”. 2nd Engineering
Forum, Federal polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, 10-13
October, 2006. Pp127-131.
Ayodele, T. R. and Osho, S.O. (2008) “Towards
Harnessing the Potential of Biomass for Energy
Stability in Nigeria”. 4th Engineering Forum,
Page 52
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Federal polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, 14-17 October,
2008. Pp 77-81.
Brain, C. (2008) “Closer Look at Nigeria: Smash the
Mirror” (online) URL-
http://www.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/indepth/7426583.stm.
Dubin, F. S. and Long, C. G. (1980) “Energy
Conservation Standards for Building Design,
Construction and Operation” McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
Duffie, J. A. and Beckman, W. A. (1980) “Solar
Engineering of Thermal Processes”, Wiley and
Sons Inc., New York.
Energy Information Administration (2007)
“International Energy Annual 2005” Table
posted on the internet on October 1, 2007, URL
- http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/iea/notes.
Energy Information Administration (2007) “Annual
Energy Review 2007”. URL - “Sustainable
http://www.eia.doe.gov.
Francis, S. I. (2008) “Status of Renewable Energy in
Nigeria”. (online) URL-
http://www.renewablenigeria.org/status_of_rene
wable_in_nigeria%581%5D.pdf.
Hubert, M. K. (1982) “Outlook on Fuel Reserve”. A
Report to the Committee on National Resources,
USA National Academy of Science – Natural
Resources.
Isoun, T. T. (2004) “Assessment of Energy
Resources of the Country”. Electrical News, Vol
2, Nigerin Society of Engineers, Pp 9.
Ogaga (2008) “With Wind turbine, NEPA is in
Trouble”. Daily Sun (online), Wednesday, April
30, 2008.
Ogundele, T. O. and Emehelu, S. O. (2007)
“Potentials of Wind Energy for Power
Generation in Ekiti State”. 3rd Engineering
Forum, Federal polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, 6-9
November, 2007. Pp 61-65.
Olulope, P. K., Okafor, C. E. and Oyedele, T. R.
(2008) “Application of Photovoltaic Solar
Energy as a Cost Effective Means of Rural
Electrification”. 4th Engineering Forum, Federal
polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, 14-17 October, 2008. Pp
94-99.
Oyedele, O. A., Agun, B. J. and Ejiko, S. O. (2008)
“Energy Mix: A Solution to Power Problem in
Nigeria”. 4th Engineering Forum, Federal
polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, 14-17 October, 2008. Pp
20-27.
Petirin, J. O. and Mojibola, O. G. (2007)
Development of Outage
Management System in Nigeria (A Case Study
of 330kVA and 132kVA Outage from 1999 –
2006)”. 3rd Engineering Forum, The Federal
Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State. 6-9, Nov.
2007, Pp 53-56.
Stoker, H. S., Seager, L. S. and Capener, L. R.
(1975) “Energy from Source to Use” Scott,
Foresman & Co. Illinois.
The Open University (1972) “Energy Conversion
Power and Society” Technology Foundation
Course Units 20 – 21.
World Energy Outlook (1995). International Energy
Agency, Paris edition, 1995, Pp 24-30.

Table 1 Average efficiencies of some household appliances

Appliance Ave. Efficiency (%)
Fluorescent Lamp 20
Incandescent (Tungsten) 10
lamp
Electric Heater 85
Electric Iron 98
Ceiling Fan 92
Gas Cooker 65
(Source - The Open University)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 53
 ISSN 1897-
1897-8680

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oyedele, O. A.

Oyewole, B. A
School of Engineering Elegbeleye, K. E
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1):
(1) : 54 - 58

Design and Fabrication of Rice Dehuller

* Oyedele, O. A. Oyewole, B. A. & Elegbeleye, K. E.

Department of Agricultural Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
e-mail: segilayo4real@yahoo.com
+2348034917764
* Corresponding Author

Abstract
Traditionally manual dehulling of paddy-rice has been a tedious, time consuming and laborious operation. Most
of the existing machines for carrying out this operation are mostly imported and expensive. A motorized rice
dehauller was designed and fabricated locally and tested. The power requirement of the machine is 2.25 kW.
The result of the test conducted on the machine shows that the machine has a dehulling efficiency of 87.8%,
dehulling capacity of 60 kg/h and percentage breakage of 14.7%. All the materials used for fabrication were
obtained locally. The total cost of production was estimated to be fifty four thousand naira (N54, 000.00).

Keywords: Dehulling, Rice, Design, Fabrication, Machine

Introduction Rice from the field is harvested and threshed to

In the wake of global food crisis and rise in the prices
of staple food commodities, the Federal government
of Nigeria has called on Nigerians to learn to
conserve and make do with what is available. A
strategic measure has to be taken to mitigate the
crisis and revamp the agricultural system in order to
meet the expected shortfall arising from the export
ban by rice-exporting nations.
Grain processing and storage is a key step in the
grain distribution system. However, Nigeria is far
behind in processing devices compare to developed
nations. Traditional processing techniques have
hindered Nigeria from fully utilizing her grain
resources. The annual output of paddy-rice in Nigeria
is very high. Half of Nigerians regards rice (oryza
sativa L.) as their staple food. However, the main
method of rice distribution is to transport paddy-rice
directly to towns and cities for storage and
processing. This waste about 25% of barn storage
capacity and about 30% of distribution expenses
compared with other developed countries where
grain is dehulled within the production area (Vialle
and Juliano, 1993). Milling enterprises in Nigeria are
managed below standards; they have low
comprehensive utilization rate of by-product and
their production cannot meet market demand.
The basic goal of industrial rice milling is
transforming paddy rice into white rice, while giving
it a good appearance and selecting the best quality
grain for human consumption. When rice is
harvested it has a non-edible husk or hull
surrounding the kernel. At the rice mill, all stalks and
other foreign material are removed from the rough
rice by a variety of specialized machinery.
produce what is most often called paddy rice or
rough rice. Rice is usually harvested at about 18% to
24% moisture and must be dried down to about 12%
to 14% so that it can be safely stored. In most
developing countries rice is somehow air-dried. The
straw and rice can be dried in the field. It is
sometimes stacked in a special manner to allow air to
pass to through it and cause rain runoff quickly. Most
often, the paddy rice is spread on some sort of
concrete or pavement and raked over until dry. In
some developing countries, you will see rice drying
all over the roads during harvest season. In more
developed countries, rice is dried in farm storage bins
that have air chambers underneath that force air to
pass up through the rice, or rice is dried in large
column dryers where the rice makes two to five
passes through the dryer in a continuous flow type
system. Drying of the rice (including while in the
field prior to harvest) is a critical component in
regards to quality. Rice that is cracked during drying
will have a lower percentage of head yield and will
have a poorer quality after cooking (Pechsiam,
2003).
In the olden days, the method for dehulling paddy-
rice is by pounding the parboiled paddy-rice with
mortar and pestle. However, this method introduces
high impurities into the processing operation and it is
slow and laborious. A lot of losses could be recorded
since some of the rice would be broken into pieces
during the pounding process.
Generally, losses in paddy and rice during the post-
harvest operations amount to about 10% of field
production. It is, therefore, necessary to adopt proper
technology after harvesting the crop for the

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 54
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
improvement of the quantity and quality of paddy
and rice.
This work intends to improve the processing of rice
grain resources in the local area. It would promote
grain-milling or dehulling of paddy-rice within the
production area instead of transporting it to towns
and cities for processing and storage. This would
encourage the mass processing of paddy-rice in the
production area.
Materials and Methods
Design Considerations
In this design, the following factors were considered:
physical properties of the paddy-rice like shape,
moisture content, size of rice and machine parameter,
such as the mechanism of the dehulling chamber
with rotating shaft to establish sufficient compressive
force to dehull the paddy-rice with minimum
deformation. Other factors also considered in the
design include: availability of materials locally to
reduce the cost of machine production, the hopper for
the ease loading of paddy-rice; the discharge outlet
based on the angle of repose of rice for effective
discharge of the rice and the chaff. It is desired that
there should be minimum damage (breakage) of rice
grain; therefore the pulley was carefully designed to
meet speed of dehulling unit.
Operation of the Machine
The machine was designed to remove the outermost
cover of the paddy-rice called chaff. The operation is
achieved in the dehulling unit. The hopper serves as
feeding mechanism through which paddy-rice are fed
into the dehulling mechanism. The spiral conveyor
carries the paddy-rice from the hopper end to the
dehulling unit and at the same time exerts pressure to
assist the rods to push out the rice after dehulling.
The dehuller rods rub the incoming paddy-rice
against the stationary wall of the dehulling drum, this
result in the squeezing of the paddy-rice and removal
of the chaff as a result of energy absolved from the
compression. The projection momentum is supplied
by the dehulling rods which throw the rice seed out
to the outlet.
Design Analysis
In determining the volume of dehulling chamber, the
following assumptions were made:
i. The height of cylinder is assumed to be 700mm =
0.7m
ii. The radius of cylinder is assumed to be 80mm =
0.08m
Using the equation of volume of cylinder,
Vd = πr2h (1)
Where, Vd = volume of dehulling chamber,
r = radius = 0.08 m (selected) ,
h = length of the drum = 0.7 m.
The volume of the dehulling drum is calculated to be
0.01407 m3
The diameter of the shaft, ds was determined using
standard procedure and equation 2 (Khurmi and
Gupta, 2004).
(2)
Where, Mb = maximum bending moment; Mt =
maximum twisting moment; Kb = Combine shock
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Description of the Rice Dehuller
The major components of the rice dehuller are the
frame, dehulling unit, hopper, bearing housing,
motor frame and discharge outlet (Figs. 1 and 2).
The frame is made of angle iron of 5 mm thickness.
Dehulling unit forms the brain of the system. It
houses the shaft on which the spiral conveyor and
the dehulling rods were attached. The shaft is made
of mild steel of 25 mm diameter and 900 mm length.
The rods are of equal sizes made of mild steel/
medium carbon steel of 10 mm diameter and length
250 mm. The rods were arranged on the shaft so as
serve as dehulling mechanism. The clearance
between the cylindrical wall (drum) and the dehuller
rods was obtained by taking the sample of 50 pieces
of paddy-rice and measured their diameters. The
average diameters for these samples are 10.40, 3.24
and 2.26 mm for major, minor and medium
diameters respectively. The shaft has 25 mm
diameter and 900 mm long. The shaft (which carries
different attachment) was properly fixed into the
dehulling cylinder and supported at both ends by
plumier type bearings. The hopper, which is
truncated pyramidal in shape, is situated at the top
dehulling housing of the machine. It is made of mild
steel (SWG16).
and fatigue factor for bending moment = 1.5; Kt =
Combine shock and fatigue factor for twisting
moment = 1.0; σs = Allowable stress of mild steel =
55 x 106 N/m2.
The value ds = 23.4 mm. Therefore, 25 mm standard
diameter shaft was used.
In the determination of the critical speed, Ncr, for the
shaft, equation 3 given by (Ogunleru and Olabiyi,
2006) was used.
Ncr = 387 x 103 ds2/ab x √L/P (3)
Where a, b = distances from the load to the bearing. a
= 0.1 m and b = 0.2 m
P = Concentrated load weight of pulley = 23.64 N
(calculated)
L = Length of shaft = 0.9 m ds = 25 mm. the value
Ncr = 2297.81 rpm
Hence, the critical speed is far higher than operating
speed therefore the shaft is safe.
In determining the length of belt, the equation by
Khurmi and Gupta, (2004) below was used:
L = 2C + 1.57(D+d) + (D-d) 2/4C (4)
Where, L = length of the belt
C = Centre distance between the two pulleys
D = Larger pulley diameter
d = Smaller pulley diameter
Length of the belt was calculated as 15042 mm
Belt speed is designed by:
(5) (Khurmi & Gupta, 2004)
Where, V = Speed of belt in (m/s)
D = Diameter of the smaller pulley
N = Number of revolution per minute
Assuming the machine is to be operated at 90%
maximum speed. The value of actual speed was =
1260 rpm = 4.29 m/s
Page 55
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The power, P (kW) required by the machine is
determine as follow:
i . Power, P0 to drive the screw and the shaft under
no load,
P0 = γ (6)
Where, γ = ½ Io 2 (7)
And (8)
Where, n = speed and I0 = Second moment of the
dehulling rods
Using equation 6, the power required to drive the
shaft under no load,
P0 = 0.0480 kW.
ii. Power, PL to drive the screw and the rod under
load by is given equation 9:
(9) (Ogunleru
& Olabiyi, 2006)
Where, Q = Capacity of conveyor,
L = Length of the shaft covered by screw conveyor
and rods,
= Material factor = 2.5, = angle of inclination
of shaft = 0
µ = Efficiency for V-belt transmission = 0.92
Using equation 7, the power required to drive the
screw and the rod under loading,
PL = 1.5256 kW. Therefore, total power PT requires =
P0 + PL
PT =0.0480 + 1.5256 = 1.5735 kW
Therefore, 2.25 kW (3 hp) motor was selected for the
machine.
Performance Tests
The machine was subjected to performance
evaluation under different loads. The quantity of rice
paddy loaded into the machine per batch ranged from
0.5 to 5.0 kg at 0.5 kg increments. The machine was
tested at operating speed of 1260 rpm.
Each quantity of rice paddy was weighed on
sensitive weighing balance. This was pour into the
hopper. The machine was operated until the rice
paddy was completely dehulled. The time taken was
noted and recorded. The chaff was weighed and
recorded. The broken grain and undehulled rice was
separated and weighed and recorded. These
procedures were repeated for other loading levels.
The performance criteria used were Dehulling
Capacity (DC), Dehulling Efficiency (DE) and
Breakage Efficiency (BE). The dehulling capacity is
the rate at which the machine dehulls the rice paddy
and is rated in kilogram per hour. It was calculated
with equation 10, used by (Agbetoye and Oyedele,
2007):
(10)
Where; m = mass of rice paddy loaded into the sifter,
kg; and t = time for dehulling to be completed,
measured in hour. The dehulling efficiency is defined
as the percentage of mass of clean rice separated
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
after dehulling, and is calculated with equation 11,
(Agbetoye and Oyedele, 2007):
(11)
Where, c = mass of rice chaff in kg and m, as defined
above. The breakage efficiency is defined as the
percentage of mass of rice broken to the total mass of
dehulled rice. It determined with equation 12,
(12)
Where, mb = mass of broken rice grain in kg and md
= mass of dehulled rice in kg.
Results and Discussion
The data collected from the tests were tabulated as
shown in Table 1. The results were analyzed
statistically using means of the ANOVA. The
summary of the results is presented in Figure 3 to 5.
The dehulling capacity increased from 25.77 kg/h at
0.5 kg loading to a maximum of 59.59 kg/h at 5.0 kg
loading. The dehulling efficiency of 88.7% is
maximum at 1.0 kg loading where breakage
efficiency recorded at that loading is 23.68%. The
breakage efficiency decrease drastically from 82.2%
at 0.5 kg loading to 23.7% at 1.0 kg loading and
gradually decrease to 14.7% at the maximum
loading.
Conclusion
A rice dehuller was designed, fabricated and tested.
Based on the performance of the machine, it is
concluded that using the dehuller is far better than
traditional method of pounding rice paddy. The
dehulling capacity and dehulling efficiency are
greater than those obtained from traditional methods.
Also the breakage efficiency is within the bearable
limits.
References
Agbetoye, L.A.S. and Oyeele, O.A. (2007):
Development of a Dual Powereed Gari Sifter.
Journal of Agricultural Engineering and Technology
vol.15
Khurmi, R.S and Gupta, J.K (2004): A Textbook of
Machine Design. Eurasia Publishing
House (PVt) Limited, RamNagar, New Delhi-
110055. Pp 102, 243.
Ogunleru. M. K and Olabiyi. J. A (2006): Design and
Construction of Melon Shelling
Machine. Unpublished HND Thesis submitted to the
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Federal
Polytechnic, and Ado-Ekiti. Pp 13-14 and 29-50
Onwuemery, O. (2008): Th Global Food Crisis. The
Punch Newspaper. April 29th, 2008. Pp 6.
PECHSIAM (2003): Rice Mills Processing. [Online]
http://mofpi.nic.in/projectprofiles/EDII_AHMD/
Cereal_Pulse/14%20Rice%20mill.pdf
Vialle, D. and Juliano B. O. (1993): Rice Post
Harvest Processing. [Online]
http//www.fao.org/eb/article-0010000
Page 56
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 1: The isometric view of the Rice Dehuller

1. Hopper 2. Outlet 5. Bearing 7. Belt 8. Frame
3. Dehulling chamber 4. Bolt and Nut 6. Pulley 9. Electric motor

Fig. 2: Orthographic view of the rice dehuller

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 57
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 3: Effect of loading on dehulling capacity Fig. 4: Effect of loading on dehulling efficiency of
the rice dehuller.

Fig. 5: Effect of loading on the breakage efficiency of the rice dehuller

Table 1: The data obtained from Test Performance

Replicate W W1 W2 W3 W4 T
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (sec)
I 0.5 0.334 0.304 0.156 0.250 70
II 1.0 0.907 0.887 0.020 0.210 158
III 1.5 1.201 0.89 0.032 0.320 158
IV 2.0 1.881 0.998 0.035 0.352 167
V 2.5 2.223 1.867 0.080 0.564 182
VI 3.0 2.888 2.201 0.092 0.352 190
VII 3.5 3.321 2.988 0.110 0.365 222
VIII 4.0 3.674 3.008 0.132 0.452 250
IX 4.5 3.894 3.786 0.152 0.562 266
X 5.0 4.345 4.22 0.165 0.620 302
SUM 27.5 24.668 21.149 0.9744 4.047 1965
AVG 2.75 2.4668 2.1149 0.09744 0.4047 196.5
Note: W = Quantity fed into the machine
W1 = Quantity from main outlet
W2 = Quantity of clean grain free from chaff
W3 = Quantity of undehulled grain
W4 = Quantity of broken grains
T = Time of operation in (sec)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 58
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Akinbinu, V. A

(2009), 5 (1):
(1): 59 - 64
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Exploiting Gold Mining for Local Economic Development in a Depressed Economy

Akinbinu, V. A
Department of Mining Engineering
Federal University of Technology, Akure
akinbinu_victor@yahoo.com / 08038520736
Abstract
This paper examines benefits that could be derived through gold mining for bottom-up socio economic and
infrastructural development of local communities. Gold mining activities in Nigeria are entirely neglected
despite the fact that there are good deposits of this valuable mineral in many states of the western Nigeria. Poor
funding of mining sector, lack of technical know how and domination of Nigerian economy by petroleum
contributed to the lack of attention to gold exploitation despite this widespread potential. Gold production in
Nigeria started by 1913 and peaked in the period 1933-1943 when about 1.4t of gold were produced, production
declined during the second world war period and never recovered as mines were abandoned by mostly colonial
companies. However, Gold is the leading commodity export for most depressed economies of Heavily Indebted
Poor and developing Countries. In 2003 for instance gold accounted for 59% goods exports in Mali, Kyrgyzstan
(45%), Tanzania (44%), Ghana (32%), and Nigeria with 0% exports from gold. The paper is of the opinion that
Nigeria can generate huge revenue through gold mining and acted as the foundation industry that provides the
development of physical, social, legal and financial infrastructure that are essential foundations of any economy
through detailed exploration work on the reserves and private investor partnership engineer towards its
exploitation so that maximum benefit could be derived from it.

Keywords: gold production, revenue, depressed economies, development, commodity export

Introduction goods exports and over 6% of exports of goods and

Gold mining is vital to the fragile economies of many
impoverished countries. In addition to generating
export revenue in these countries, gold production
provides royalty and tax income to their
governments, technology transfer, worker training
and the creation of a skilled workforce. Gold mining
can also bring substantial improvements in physical,
social, legal and financial infrastructure. In many
countries where gold mining is a foundation industry,
it provides the critical mass for the development of
electricity, water, road and rail transport in a region
that are the essential foundations of an economy.
According to Responsible Gold (2006), Developing
countries accounted for 72% of global output in
2004. Most of this came from low-income or lower-
middle-income countries that together accounted for
two thirds of global output. The highest rise in
output has been seen in Heavily Indebted Poor
Countries (HIPCs), whose gold production rose by
84% between 1994 and 2004. Of the 38 HIPCs, 14
are significant gold producers with lesser or minor
production in at least another 14 countries. There is
potential for substantial additional production in
several other countries. The rise in HIPCs' output has
been paralleled by rising export dependence on gold.
In 2003, gold accounted for 13% of goods
(merchandise) exports of the 14 significant producers
and 10% of their exports of goods and services. For
HIPCs as a group, gold accounted for nearly 8% of
services. It is one of the most important exports for
HIPCs. Gold is the leading export for Mali (59% of
goods exports in 2003), Tanzania (44%), Ghana
(32%), Guyana (26%) and the second most important
for Guinea (23%). A $10 fall in the gold price would
cause a loss of around $75m in HIPCs' export
income. For the 27 HIPC countries that have reached
decision or completion point (those that receive at
least some debt relief under the HIPC initiative), gold
exports in 2003 amounted to 87% of debt service
payments. Gold is equally important to other low-
income countries that are not HIPCs. Among those
considered by the World Bank to be severely or
moderately indebted, gold is the leading export for
Kyrgyzstan (around 45% of total goods exports in
2003) and Papua New Guinea (36%), the second
most important export for Mongolia (20%) and
Zimbabwe (11%) and one of the two leading exports
for Uzbekistan. Among lower-middle-income
countries, gold is the leading export for both South
Africa (13% of goods exports in 2003) and Peru
(17%).
Large gold deposits are found in many states in
Nigeria; Niger, Osun, Kebbi, Kaduna, Kogi, Kwara,
Zamfara, Katsina, Kano and the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja. Officially recorded gold production
in Nigeria started by 1913 and peaked in the period
1933-1943 when about 1.4t of gold were produced
(NGSA 2006). The gold production declined during

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 59
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
the Second World War period and never recovered as
mines were abandoned by mostly colonial
companies. The Nigerian Mining Corporation was
founded after the departure of the colonial companies
to reopen and explore for new reserves for extraction
of gold. They started exploration for gold in Nigeria
in the early 1980s but failed to be sustained due to
lack of funds. The discovery of petroleum and its
subsequent domination of the Nigerian economy also
contributed to the lack of attention to gold
exploration despite the widespread potentials. Gold
mining can contribute substantially like other nations
that depend on it for generating revenue for the
development of their economy if much funding and
attention is paid to its development in Nigeria. This
paper is of the opinion that maximum contribution
will be derived through local economic development
(LED) initiative to manage deposits and enter into
partnership arrangements with the private sector, or
with each-other, to create new jobs and stimulate
economic activity in this era of economic meltdown
using existing human, natural, and institutional
resources.
Literature Review
Local Economic Development (LED) is entirely new
in Nigeria, what is mostly practiced is
regional/central development which had failed in
concept and practice. In most developed nations LED
has been the deriving motor for economic
emancipation. What is new is the increasing
incidence of such activity, its growing acceptability
and the parallel increase in the importance of various
NGO and community based development initiatives.
The enhanced status of the locality in the global
economy and the importance of local decision
making and democracy have accelerated this trend.
Taylor and Mackenzie, 1992; Binns, 1995 variously
referred to it as self-reliance, local-coping,
endogenous or bottom- up development. An attempt
to define LED has however been made by Blakely
(1994) who defines it as, "...the process in which
local governments or community-based
organizations engage to stimulate or maintain
business activity and/or employment. The principal
goal of LED is to stimulate local employment
opportunities in sectors that improve the community,
using existing human, natural, and institutional
resources". According to Zaaijer and Sara (1993),
LED "...is essentially a process in which local
governments and/or community based groups
manage their existing resources and enter into
partnership arrangements with the private sector, or
with each-other, to create new jobs and stimulate
economic activity in an economic area". Although
these definitions cannot be taken as the final
statement of what LED is, they do provide a broad
insight into the overall orientation of the concept.
Despite this, the topic of Local Economic
Development (LED) and related concepts such as
community economic development, self-help and
self-reliance strategies appear to have received
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
considerable attention from scholars in recent years
(Turok, 1989; Bennett, 1990; Stöhr, 1990; Clarke
and Gaile, 1998) and according to Reese (1993a),
“research on local economic development (has
grown) exponentially”.
The reality of LED has been examined by a wide
range of authors over the last 20 years, as is
witnessed by a significant variety of books and
articles on the topics (Judd and Parkinson, 1990;
Zaaijer and Sara, 1993; Clarke and Gaile, 1998; Nel,
1999). According to Glasson (1992), by the end of
the 1980s regional planning in the North emerged
from the ‘doldrums’ in a revamped, dynamic new
form. ‘Top-down’ approaches have now, partially,
been superseded by locally driven strategies. These
are based in the host community, motivated by a
desire to improve local conditions and encourage that
area’s entrepreneurs. This is in preference to the
more traditional ‘smoke-stack chasing’ approach of
seeking investment by large-scale, external firms
(Daniels, 1989; Stöhr, 1990). The notion that
regional policy was at a ‘crossroads’, both financially
and theoretically, has given impetus to local
initiatives and LED more specifically. In the North
there has been a definite switch to ‘bottom-up’ /
‘development from below’ / endogenous / supply
side strategies characterized by a frequent reliance on
decentralized, flexible production in which local
authorities and actors play a key role (Stöhr, 1990;
Glasson, 1992). The swing in favour of so-called
‘bottom-up’ strategies, which emphasize local action
as opposed to that of the central state, has clearly
marked a significant shift in development thinking.
LED can materialize when local agencies and/or
people seize the initiative and engage in actions
which unify communities, business and other
relevant authorities in their local area in a joint
endeavour to improve their economic and social
conditions (Stöhr, 1990). It appears that LED is
generally a cost-effective and community-
empowering process which has a defined role to play
and which can yield tangible benefits for
participating communities. There is a clear, defined
role for government within this overall context,
namely that of facilitating, supporting, part-financing
and devolving control. Ware (2001) opined that in
the studies of impact of gold mining on the
developed economies of Australia, New Zealand and
Japan and at the other end of the economic scale the
island economies of Papua New Guinea and Fiji, and
other developing countries such as Malaysia,
Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines,; he argues
that gold mining has the potential to make a big
contribution to development of the poorer nations in
the region if they can attract investment. Since 1989,
Ghanaian small-scale mines have produced over
US$117 million worth of gold (PMMC, 2001), a
commendable feat considering that these operations
are only being 20 per cent efficient. Between 1989
and 1994 alone, 30,000 small scale miners reportedly
produced and sold to governmental offices $68.56
million in gold (1996). In fact, as Davidson (1993)
Page 60
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
explains, during the first four years of operation,
some 400 properties registered under the newly
introduced legalization scheme, produced over
45,000oz of gold. In a country where GNP per capita
is $390, as Appiah (1998) explains, the average small
mine worker earns approximately $7 each day,
which, for a five-day work week, amounts to $1,820
annually.
Gold Occurrence in Nigeria
Gold in Nigeria is found in alluvial and alluvial
placers and primary veins from several parts of
supracrustal (schist) belts in the northwest and
southwest of Nigeria. The most important
occurrences are found in the Maru, Anka, Malele,
Tsohon Birnin, Gwari-Kwaga, Gurmana, Bin Yauri,
Okolom-Dogondaji and Iperindo areas, all associated
with the schist belts of northwest and southwest
Nigeria (NGSA 2006). In the absence of any
systematic exploration and development, the
Nigerian goldfields have experienced intense
artisanal workings which target both the primary
gold-quartz reefs and their associated alluvial
occurrences.
Gold Mining & Processing
After a gold ore deposit is located either by satellite
surveys and geochemistry, the mine is design, which
requires precise and accurate measurement of the ore
deposit. Construction begins following the lengthy
process of receiving permits. Samples of ore are
examined to determine grade and metallurgical
characteristics. Broken rock is marked by type for
efficient processing. Based on its metallurgical
makeup, a dispatcher directs truck operators to
deliver the ore to the correct processing location. The
low grade Ore is roughly broken into small chunks
and placed on carefully lined pads where a dilute
cyanide solution is distributed over the surface of the
heap. The solution percolates through the heap and
the cyanide dissolves the gold. This solution
containing dissolved gold is then collected. High
Grade Ore is delivered to a grinding mill, where the
ore is pulverized to a powder. Depending on its
metallurgical characteristics, the ore may be treated
in one of three recovery circuits that follow.
Refractory ore containing carbon is roasted to over
1,000 degrees Fahrenheit, burning off the sulphide
and carbon. The product of this process is an oxide
ore, which is routed to the leaching circuit. Oxide ore
is sent directly to the leaching circuit where cyanide
dissolves the gold. Sulphide refractory ore without
carbon is oxidized in an autoclave to liberate the gold
from sulphide minerals, and then it is sent to the
leaching circuit. The gold is absorbed (collected) out
of solution onto activated carbon. The remaining
cyanide solution is recycled. The gold loaded carbon
is moved into a vessel where the gold is chemically
stripped from the carbon which is then recycled.
Gold is precipitated from the solution electrolytically
or by chemical substitution. The pure gold is then
melted into dore' bars containing up to 90 percent
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
gold. Dore' bars are then sent to an external refinery
to be refined to bars of 999.9 parts per thousand pure
gold (Rapson, 1991). Gold can also be produced as
part of the process of mining and refining other
metals, such as copper. At those operations, gold is
refined to an acceptable purity as part of the copper
production process. At most gold mines, the gold
"dore" is sent to a refinery for further processing. A
chart illustrating this process is shown in table 1
Micro-economic Effects and Local Commerce of
Gold Mining
Most gold deposits are located in rural communities.
Gold mining in these areas often constitutes the
principal motor for development, creating
complementary opportunities for national micro-,
small- and medium size enterprises, providing the
required infrastructure to the miners and their
families. Gold mining in these areas has a direct
effect on the local economy, as most of the revenues
are reinvested in the region. Depending of the extent
of mining there is a substantial contribution to
economic and social development, particularly at the
local level. Gold mining can generate significant
local purchasing power and lead to a demand for
locally produced goods and services (food, tools,
equipment, housing, and infrastructure).
Nevertheless, apart of the auto generated demand,
appropriate framework conditions are necessary to
exploit this potential at full scale to bring the
required benefit to Nigeria economy through LED
strategies in providing financial support, land and
building development, information and marketing
assistance, new planning and organizations
structures, and training and employment.
Learning from the experience provided by the
Sadiola Gold-Mining Project Western Mali
demonstrates that the gold mining needs to be
approached in a holistic manner that takes into
account all socio-economic systems in order for it to
become an instrument for development in the fight
against poverty. Mining activity should serve as an
economic anchor point for stimulating the
development of complementary, sustainable, revenue
generating activities. The revenues generated by the
mining communities will allow for the emergence of
small businesses which should be integrated into the
local economic structure and which can contribute
significantly to the sustainable development of the
region.
In much of Asia, the Middle East, and the Indian
subcontinent, gold is the best possible protection
against upheaval, both political and economic. For
men and women throughout the developing world,
gold is still one of the most liquid and widely
accepted forms of exchange, quite simply the most
efficient store of value they possess. Around two
thirds of the jewellery purchased in the Middle East
and Asia is used as a means of saving in addition to
its function as an adornment. The use of jewellery as
savings is often important in rural areas where access
to a reliable and appropriate banking system is
Page 61
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
difficult or impossible. Gold also offers protection
against a weak currency or high domestic inflation
levels, which are prevalent and persistent problems
in the developing world. Around two thirds of all
jewellery manufacture takes place in the developing
world and the proportion is rising. While inflation
has essentially been non-existent until recently in
most developed countries, in many developing
countries, inflation and the attendant currency
depreciation have been rampant, causing hardship to
millions, if not billions, of people. The US dollar
price of gold did not perform well for 20 years from
1980 to 2000, but gold was an excellent investment
in terms of for, example, the Indian rupee, the
Turkish lire, or the Vietnamese dong. Where men
and women do not have easy access to liquid markets
in company stock or government bonds, to US dollar
bank accounts, or even any bank account at all, gold
has proved over and over again to be the most
valuable financial asset to own.
Macroeconomic Effects and Foreign Income from
Gold Mining
At macroeconomic level, the production gold can
make a major contribution to foreign exchange
earnings. As gold for instance is more or less a
standard “currency” the produced value is equivalent
to extra foreign income. This is particularly the case
for artisan small-scale mining, where no
considerations of “repatriation of utilities” of foreign
investors are taken into account, as the “investors”
are the very own local miners. In this case the value
of artisanally produced gold can be considered as a
net contribution to foreign income, as freely training
and employment convertible “currency” is produced
with pure local input. It does not really matter if
payment is received if form of converted currency
(“dollars”) or in form of imported goods
(“refrigerators”). In any case the livelihood and
wealth of the involved communities, and herewith
the wealth of the national economy is beneficiary
Gold is still considered an important reserve asset by
most central banks, even though it is no longer the
centre of the international financial system. The most
important reason is that gold is the only reserve asset
that is no one's liability. This means that, unlike a
currency, the value of gold cannot be affected by the
economic policies of the issuing country or
undermined by inflation in that country. Gold has a
track record of holding its real value over the
centuries. Gold also brings much needed diversity to
a central bank portfolio due to its low correlation
with key currencies and its strong inverse correlation
with the US dollar. The central bank of Argentina,
for example, when diversifying a portion of its
reserves away from 100% reliance on the US dollar
in 2004, included gold in its purchases.
Conclusion
LED both reflects and manifests the contemporary
forces of globalism and localism. As local areas look
inward at their own resources and skills to promote
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
local level development, they often seek a unique
place for themselves in an increasingly globalized
economy and society. We live in an era of rapid
change which is encouraging important, major shifts
in society and economic activity and the way in
which we understand them. If government wishes to
see the local councils actively engaged in
developmental activities then LED has to be
provided greater levels of support and funding. LED
clearly is being viewed and adopted as a perceived
new growth and development catalys
Reference:
Appiah, H. (1998): Organization of Small-Scale
Mining Activities In Ghana. The Journal of the
South African Institute Of Mining and
Metallurgy 98(7): 307–10.
Binns, T. (1995): People and Environment in Africa.
Chichester (Eds) John Wiley.
Blakely, E.J. (1994): Planning Local Economic
Development: Theory And Practice (Second
Edition). Newbury Park: Sage
Bennett, R.J. (1990): Decentralization, Local
Governments, and Markets: Towards A Post-
Welfare Agenda. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Clarke, S.E. And Gaile, G.L. (1992): The Next
Wave: Post-Federal Local Economic
Development Strategies, Economic Development
Quarterly, 6, 2, Pp.187-198.
Daniels, T.L. (1989): Small Town Economic
Development: Growth or Survival? Journal of
Planning Literature, 4, 4, Pp .413-429.
Davidson, J. (1993): The Transformation and
Successful Development of Small-Scale Mining
Enterprises in Developing Countries. Natural
Resources Forum 17(4): 315– 26
Glasson, J. (1992): The Fall and Rise of Regional
Planning in Economically Advanced Nations,
Urban Studies, 29, 3/4, Pp.505-531.
Judd, D. and Parkinson, M. (1990): Leadership And
Urban Regeneration: Cities In North America
And Europe. Newbury Park: Sage.
Nel, E.L. (1999): Regional and Local Economic
Development In South Africa: The Experience of
The Eastern Cape. Aldershot: Ashgate.
NGSA (2006): Exploration Opportunities in The
Nigerian Gold Deposits. Published by Nigerian
Geological Survey Agency available at
http://ngsa-ng.org/gold.pdf
PMMC, (2001): Company Profile: Precious Minerals
Marketing Corporation. PMMC, Accra, Ghana.
Reese, L.A. (1993a): Categories of Local Economic
Development Techniques: An Empirical
Analysis, Policy Studies General, 21, 3, Pp. 492-
506.
Stöhr, W. B. (1990): Global Challenge And Local
Response: Initiatives For Economic
Regeneration In Contemporary Europe. London
(Eds.) Mansell
Taylor, D.R.F. and Mackenzie, F. (1992):
Development from Within: Survival in Rural
Africa. London (Eds): Routledge
Page 62
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Turok, I. (1989): Evaluation and Understanding in Zaaijer, M. and Sara, L.M. (1993). Local economic
Local Economic Policy, Urban Studies, 26, Pp. development as an instrument for urban poverty
587-606. alleviation: a case from Lima, Peru, Third World
Ware, D. (2001): Vital Role of Gold on the Planning Review, 15, 2, Pp.127-142.
Economies of Developing Nations Presented at
World Gold Council, Publish by Business Wire
Thursday, September 27. Available at
http://www.allbusiness.com/trade-
development/economic-development/6125671-
1.html

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 63
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Figure 3: Schematic steps of low and high grade gold processing

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 64
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oloruntade, A. J

Philip. G. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 65 - 71
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Effective Water Resources Management as a Panacea for Climate Change Problems in Nigeria

*Oloruntade, A. J & Oguntunde, P. G.

*Department of Agricultural Engineering Technology
Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria.
johntades@yahoo.com / 08064407690
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.

Abstract
Recent studies and reports all over the world indicate that climate change will increase rainfall variability and
impact on the world economy through water, especially in the developing countries. In view of the agrarian
nature of the Nigerian economy, this calls for concern. Hence analyses of the last 5 decades (1950-2000)
rainfall, an important climatic factor in the tropics and source of water, were carried out over Nigeria. Results
of the analyses showed high hydrological variability, with the wet decades of 1950s and 60s terminated by the
drought of the last three decades (1980-2000). Possibilities of droughts in some areas and flood elsewhere,
which are capable of plunging the nation into acute food scarcity as a result of low agricultural activities, high
rate of unemployment and ultimately, low Gross Domestic Product (GDP) were also examined. It is therefore
concluded that investments in water storage, watershed management, sound economic policy, irrigated
agriculture and integrated water resources management will help solve, to a large extent, the problems that may
arise from climate change.

Keywords: Climate Change, hydrological variability, GDP, Water Storage and Irrigated Agriculture

Introduction agricultural and hydrological activities, which are

In developing countries where economies are
majorly agrarian in nature, managing water is a sine
qua non for sustainable economic growth. In Nigeria
for instance, NPC (2004) rated agriculture as the
second largest source of national wealth, after oil, as
cocoa and rubber account for 60 percent of our non-
oil merchandise export. In recognizing the
importance of agriculture, President Umar Musa
Yar’Adua includes in the 7-point agenda of his
administration, food security which emphasizes on
the development of the agricultural sector. The
government intends to make more land available and
resuscitate idle irrigation facilities around our
dammed water bodies to provide excellent
opportunities for increased farm output and
employment prospects in rural areas (FMI&C, 2008).
Water, being a limited resource, its efficient use is
basic to the survival of ever increasing population of
the world (Michael, 1988). The basic source of water
is precipitation in the form of rainfall, dew, frost or
fog. Rainfall in most parts of the country is confined
to few months in a year and maximum river flows
occur during that period. During the non-rainy
months, the river flows dwindle to a fraction of their
flood flows and some streams dry up altogether. As
the rainy season continues, flood flows cannot be
fully utilized during that short period, water has to be
stored in reservoirs for subsequent use.
Rainfall is the most important climatic element
especially in the tropics because it determines many
dominant in the economies of the developing
countries (Oumal et al., 2005). However, the recent
dusts raised by climate change all over the world
have aroused the interest of all as to its effects on
rainfall and indeed water resources. No doubt, with
climate change a lot of rainfall anomalies will
continue to be experienced all over the world. This
will in no small mean affect water supply and
invariably food production, especially in the
developing countries of the world like Nigeria.
Sadoff and Muller (2008) noted that water is a
primary medium through which climate change will
have an impact on people, ecosystems and
economies. Water resources management should
therefore be an early focus for adaptation to climate
change as water is both a key part of the problem and
an important part of the solution.
Grey (2002) noted that Africa’s water resources
endowment has natural legacy of extremely high
variability of rainfall and river flow, much higher
than in more temperate climates. One highly visible
consequence of this variability is frequent droughts
and floods of which economic impacts can be a
significant proportion of GDP and social impacts are
incalculable. Furthermore, Africa’s economies are
still largely agrarian, yet agricultural production is
highly susceptible to Africa’s natural legacy of
extreme hydrological variability and associated
landscape vulnerability. This threatens the survival of
the subsistence farmer at one level; the

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 65
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
competitiveness of agri-business in a globalizing
world at another level; and the structure and
performance of national economies, at a third level.
The incomes and expenditures of much of Africa’s
population will depend on agricultural production,
amplifying the effects of hydrological variability
throughout the economy.
IPCC (2008) stated that globally, the negative
impacts of future climate change on freshwater
systems are expected to outweigh the benefits (high
confidence). By the 2050s, the area of land subject to
increasing water stress due to climate change is
projected to be more than double that with
decreasing water stress. Nevertheless, improved
understanding of the dynamics of climate change as
it affects water supply and demand and the broader
impacts on all water using sectors will guide better
water resources management. This will in turn build
resilience to current climate variability, while
building capacity to adapt to future climate change.
Tarhule and Woo (1998) stated that because rain-fed
agriculture is the most important mode of
employment and food production in West Africa,
records of several rainfall variables are used
extensively in planning for agricultural and water
resources projects. The aim of this paper therefore is
to proffer solution to the problems of climate change
on the economy of Nigeria through water resources
management. The specific objectives are to:
(i) present an analysis of rainfall patterns and
changes for the past 5 decades (1950- 2000) all
over Nigeria;
(ii) examine the implications of effects of the rainfall
patterns and changes on water resources
over the years to the economy of Nigeria; and
(iii) proffer possible solutions to the effects of
changes in rainfall patterns on the economy of the
nation through water resources management.
The study area
Nigeria, the study area is located on the latitude 40_
140 north of the equator and longitude 30 – 150 east
of the Greenwich Meridian (approximately). It lies at
the southern edge of the West African region,
covering an area of about 923,200km2. The climate
of Nigeria is more varied than those of any other
country in West Africa. This is as a result of its great
length from south to the north (1100km), which
covers virtually all the climatic belts of West Africa
(Iloeje, 1981). The climate is dominated by the
influence of three main wind currents. These are the
tropical maritime (TM) air mass, the tropical
continental (CT) air mass and the equatorial
easterlies (Ojo, 1977). The first air mass (MT)
originates from the southern high-pressure belt
located off the Namibian coast, and along its way
picks up moisture from over the Atlantic Ocean and
is thus wet. The second air mass (CT) has the high-
pressure belt north of the Tropic of Cancer as its
origin. This air mass is always dry as a result of little
moisture it picks along its way. The first two air mass
(MT and CT) meet along a starting surface called the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Intertropical Discontinuity (ITD). The third air mass
(equatorial easterlies) is a somehow erratic cool air
mass, which comes from the east and flow in the
upper atmosphere along ITD. This air mass
penetrates occasionally to actively undercut the MT
or CT air mass and give rise to line squalls or dust
devils (Iloeje, 1981).
The ecological zones of the country are broadly
grouped into three, which are; Sahel, Savannah and
the Guinea zones as shown in Figure 1. The climate
is semi-arid in the north, humid in the south and also
humid strip along the coast with rainfall averages
over 2000mm. Rainfall commences at the beginning
of the raining season around March/April from the
coast (in the south), spreads through the middle belt,
reaching its peak between July and September, to
eventually get to the northern part very much later.
The reverse of the situation also holds for the rainfall
retreat period (Ojo, 1977).
Methodology
Data Sources
Annual Rainfall data utilized for this study was
obtained from the Nigerian Meteorological Services
(NIMET), Oshodi Lagos, Nigeria; a department
under the Federal Ministry of Aviation. The data
collected covers 26 stations well spread over Nigeria
spanning 5 decades (1950-2000).
Data Analysis
The simple statistical analyses performed on the data
are annual means, decadal means, total decadal
means, and mean of the decadal means. To obtain the
point estimator for the 50 year period, the mean of
total decadal mean was also evaluated. The point
estimator (Grand Mean- the mean of all decadal
means) for the 50 years period was subtracted from
the mean of decadal means for each station to
generate the deviation from the mean. The
corresponding mean deviation for each decade was
calculated by subtracting the grand mean (mean of
all decadal means) from the mean of total means for
each decade.
Results Presentation and Discussion
Climate Change and Rainfall Pattern over
Nigeria
The pattern of rainfall for the 26 stations covered by
the study for 5 decades show that reduction in
rainfall received over the area is significant. As
shown in Table 1 and Figure 2, deviation of rainfall
from the Grand Mean is negative for most stations in
the Savanna and Sahel zones of Nigeria. These
stations include (in Savanna) Kaduna, Bauchi, Jos,
Yola, Ilorin, Ibi, Bida and Minna; and (in Sahel)
Gusau, Maiduguri, Sokoto, Yelwa, Kano, Nguru,
Potiskum and Zaria. Worst hit in the Sahel are
Nguru, Sokoto, Potiskum and Maiduguri in that order
(all in the extreme of Sahel). However, the situation
is such that Ibadan, Lokoja and Makurdi that are
close to the Savanna (Fig. 1) also showed little
negative deviation, whereas Jos which is at the far
Savanna recorded the smallest negative deviation; a
Page 66
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
situation that could be attributed to its localized
altitudinal effects on rainfall as earlier observed by
Fasona and Omojola (2005). Down south of Guinea
and close to the coast (Warri, Calabar, Portharcourt
and Lagos), deviation from the Grand Mean is highly
positive which signals excessive rainfall and possible
flood condition.
The decadal mean deviation of rainfall in the decades
1950s to 2000 is shown in Table 2 and Figure 3. The
wet decades of 1950s and 60s were followed by two
decades (1970s and 1980s) with severe drought. The
past decade (1990s) also recorded a relatively small
drought less severe than that of the 1980s. The result
shows that rainfall recorded in the past 3 decades is
far less than that of the 1950s and 60s, a situation
that signals impending drought conditions especially
in the Savanna and Sahel.
Implications of the Rainfall Pattern for Water
Resources and Nigerian Economy
Kiely (1999) stated that climate change and its
impact on water resources are basic questions that
need to be addressed in terms of science and
engineering as well as public policy. In places like
Nguru, Sokoto, Potiskum, Sokoto, Maiduguri and
Kano where high negative Mean Deviation has been
recorded, the implication is that less rainfall are
being received recently. This will necessarily reduce
the volume of water available in various water bodies
and reduction in agricultural practice and output.
Except with irrigation, agriculture, which hitherto
had been the major source of employment for the
people in the Sahel (especially the extremes), and
Savanna will be greatly hindered. This may also
mandate the Fulani cattle farmers to embark on long
journey down south to find grasses for their animals
at additional cost. Importation of foods will
definitely increase as the food basket of the nation (in
the Savanna) may not have enough rain to grow their
crops. On the other hand, places like Calabar, Warri,
Benin, Lagos and Portharcourt, which recorded high
positive Mean Deviation, may soon witness serious
flood as a result of increased water volume in various
water bodies. Ultimately, fishing which is the
mainstay of the people in the riverside and the
coastal areas will be hampered if not made
impossible, leading to high level of unemployment.
Besides, negative effects of flood may also include
diseases outbreak, devastation of cropland, houses,
roads and other social and economic facilities.
Presently, agriculture contributes 42% of Nigeria’s
GDP and engages over 65% of the country’s
workforce (FMI&C, 2008). However, with high
hydrological variability, investment in agriculture
and related activities is discouraged as earlier
asserted by Grey (2002). It is no gainsaying,
therefore, that the recent change in climate with its
attendant rainfall changes portends danger for the
country’s GDP as agriculture may from now
contribute less.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
This paper has presented a picture of recent rainfall
pattern and changes over Nigeria. All the stations in
the Sahel and Savanna zones recorded deficit (less
than the total average) rainfall over a 5 decade (1950-
2000), while stations in the lower Guinea zones
recorded surplus (higher than the total average)
rainfall over the same period. The decade 1950s
recorded the highest rainfall while the decade 1980s
had the least rainfall from the decadal mean; the last
decade (1990s) also recorded less rainfall compared
with the 1950. This rainfall pattern has generated a
hydrological variability that will impact negatively
on the country’s agriculture, the GDP and the
economy at large. Consequently, the following
recommendations are made:
(1) Investments in water storage should be a priority
in the coming years, to reduce the impacts of
hydrological variability, hence development of
large dams and the challenge to minimize its
social and environmental impacts through
appropriate storage solutions, including watershed
and wetland conservation, as well as artificial
surface water and groundwater storage should be
pursued.
(2) Investments in watershed management should
also be emphasized with re-afforestation and soil
conservation on a large scale in upland areas. In
floodplains, land zoning to provide space for
inevitable flooding will be preferable to
enormously costly (and often eventually
unsuccessful) efforts to control floods.
(3) Sound economic policy which ensures
development paths that minimize water-related
risks and promote water-resilient behaviour by
farm families, villages, towns, cities, industries
and nations should be adopted. Although water
shocks will never be totally eliminated, sound
economic policies will help to insulate the
economy from its impacts.
(4) Agriculture should be intensified through
irrigation. Diversification of the structure of
economies beyond agriculture should also be
embarked upon, to generate an increasing share of
income and employment from manufacturing and
services.
(5) There is the need to embark on an integrated
water resources management of all the
hydrological basins/units in Nigeria. However,
prior to this, is the need to conduct a
comprehensive inventory of water resources
facilities such as dams, surface reservoirs,
groundwater, irrigation infrastructures, irrigable
lands, aquatic resources, etc.
References
Fasona, M. J. and Omojola, A. S., 2005: Climate
Change, Human Security and Communal
Clashes in Nigeria. Human Security and Climate
Change, An International Workshop, Holmen
Fjord Hotel, Asker, near Oslo, 21-23 June, 2005.
Page 67
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Federal Ministry of Information and
Communications, (FMI&C), 2008: Executive
Summary of the 7-Point Agenda, Abuja,
Nigeria. pp13.
Grey, D., 2002: Water Resources and Poverty in
Africa: Breaking the Vicious Circle. Inaugural
Meeting of African Ministerial Council on
Water (AMCOW), Abuja, Nigeria, 30th April,
2002.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (IPCC),
2008: IPCC Technical Paper on Climate Change
and Water, April, 2008.
Iloeje, N.P. 1981: A New Geography of Nigeria.
New Revised Edition. Longman, Great Britain.
Kiely, G., 1999: Climate Change in Ireland from
Precipitation and Streamflow Observations.
Advances in Water Resources, 23: 141-151.
Michael, A. M., 1998: Irrigation Theory and
Practice. First Edition, Vikas Publishing House
PVT LTD., New Delhi, India. pp 3.
National Planning Commission, (NPC), 2004:
National Economic Empowerment and
Development Strategy (NEEDS), Abuja,
Nigeria. pp36.
Ojo, O., 1977: The Climates of West Africa
Heineman, London, Ibadan, Nairobi, Lusaka.
Oumal, G.O., Adafre, C. and Muthama, N.J., 2005:
Validation of Satellite-Derived Rainfall
Estimates: The Ethiopian Case Study. Proc. 7th
Kenya Meteorological Society Workshop on
Meteorological Research, Applications and
Services, Nairobi, 17-21 October, 2005.
Sadoff, C. W. and Muller, M., 2008: Better Water
Resources Management- Greater Resilience
Today, More Effective Adaptation Tomorrow. A
Perspective Paper contributed by the Global
Water Partnership (GWP) through its Technical
Committee.
Tarhule, A. and Woo, M. K., 1998: Changes in
Rainfall Characteristics in Northern Nigeria. Int.
J. Climatol. 18:1261-1271.

Fig. 1: Map showing the three major ecological zones and some meteorological stations

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 68
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 2: Mean Deviation of rainfall over stations in Nigeria

Fig. 3: Decadal Mean Deviation of rainfall over Nigeria (1950-2000)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 69
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 1: Mean Decadal Rainfall (1950-2000) for 26 stations over Nigeria

Mean Deviation
Decade50 Decade60 Decade70 Decade80 Decade90 Total Decade Averagefor from
S/N Station Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean all Decade Mean

1 Bauchi 1081.42 1002.94 1039.86 1044.33 1092.10 5260.64 1052.13 -274.38

2 Benin 2136.08 2225.48 2265.76 2209.82 2274.96 11112.10 2222.42 895.91

3 Calabar 3028.28 3013.39 3104.02 2877.27 2788.38 14811.34 2962.27 1635.76

4 Enugu 1674.24 1691.56 1679.19 1877.89 1667.50 8590.38 1718.08 391.57

5 Gusau 1060.14 1043.41 903.98 947.85 1028.85 4984.23 996.85 -329.66

6 Ibadan 1205.79 1001.38 1147.25 1254.95 1286.02 5895.39 1179.08 -147.43

7 Ikeja 1577.76 1805.72 1792.61 1516.24 1621.71 8314.03 1662.81 336.30

8 Lagos 1909.64 1702.19 1924.26 1584.25 1572.54 8692.88 1738.58 412.07

9 Maiduguri 732.34 655.43 755.56 755.30 784.19 3682.82 736.56 -589.94

10 Minna 1273.23 1170.01 1201.74 1241.50 1198.21 6084.69 1216.94 -109.57

11 Portharcourt 2287.82 2202.24 2114.91 2145.29 2173.63 10923.88 2184.78 858.27

12 Sokoto 778.56 708.50 611.84 601.63 761.81 3462.34 692.47 -634.04

13 Warri 2847.26 2929.68 2588.42 2553.57 2913.35 13832.28 2766.46 1439.95

14 Yelwa 1074.58 1117.13 935.20 1025.79 1108.01 5260.70 1052.14 -274.37

15 Yola 993.34 901.77 936.26 790.53 809.38 4431.28 886.26 -440.25

16 Lokoja 1246.65 1243.52 1160.80 1121.23 1153.42 5925.62 1185.12 -141.38

17 Makurdi 1289.96 1380.21 1225.51 1120.10 1225.51 6241.29 1248.26 -78.25

18 Ilorin 1352.51 1245.52 1181.57 1155.31 1254.65 6189.56 1237.91 -88.59

19 Ibi 1193.43 1246.57 1083.57 1064.34 1174.02 5761.93 1152.39 -174.12

20 Bida 1008.74 1246.86 1118.06 1111.19 1122.64 5607.49 1121.50 -205.01

21 Jos 1430.07 1214.04 1325.69 1227.47 1186.55 6383.82 1276.76 -49.74

22 Kaduna 1469.57 1269.62 1020.09 1116.15 1202.02 6077.45 1215.49 -111.02

23 Kano 781.39 909.51 837.44 706.16 613.98 3848.48 769.70 -556.81

24 Nguru 586.12 518.82 449.11 335.24 431.46 2320.75 464.15 -862.36

25 Potiskum 864.60 772.14 623.65 591.41 706.32 3558.12 711.62 -614.88

26 Zaria 1136.53 1056.47 1000.40 911.98 1087.01 5192.39 1038.48 -288.03

GrandMeanfor26Stations 1326.51
Source: Computed from NIMET rainfall data

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 70
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 2: Decadal Mean and Mean Deviation of rainfall for Nigeria (1950-2000)

Decade Mean of total mean Dev. From Mean

51-60 1385.39 58.88
61-70 1356.70 30.19
71-80 1308.72 -17.79
81-90 1264.88 -61.63
91-2000 1316.85 -9.66
Average 1326.51

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 71
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Alake, T. J

Iji, A. B
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 72 - 77
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Satellite Communication System: A Gateway to Nigerian Development in a Depressed Economy

*Alake, T. J & Iji, A. B

Electrical/Electronic Engineering Dept.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti.
*alaketope@yahoo.com +2348035652087
ayobamibabs@yahoo.com +2347062307049

Abstract
In the Nigerian context Satellite communication is new and this paper provides an introduction to satellite
concepts, specifications, frequency bands, and mode of operation. A short history is provided in order to set the
context for understanding the satellite system. Satellite is a globally accepted standard for information and data
communication around the globe. The inherent needs for a virile and effective satellite system for the country
through various merits were thoroughly explored. An interesting design parameter associated with satellites is
that as you increase the number of locations, the economic benefit of using satellites increases. With leased
lines, logic dictates that the more locations you have and the greater the distances between them, the more
expensive the network will become. But when using satellite technology, the more locations you have that are
sharing the hub station and transponder, the cheaper the network becomes for all concerned. Thus, satellite
technology presents a very attractive networking solution for many customers. Also, the development and the
present status of the NigComSatI were discussed.

Keywords: Satellite; Communication Service; Earth Orbit; Internet development gateway; International
Telecommunication Union (ITU).

Introduction There are 700 or so satellites in space and on top of

Communications satellite is referred to as any earth –
orbiting space craft that provides communication
over long distances by reflecting or relaying radio
frequency signals (Encarta, 1998)
The satellite's footprint refers to the area of earth that
the satellite's beams cover. Much of the progress in
satellite developments has been in new generations
of antennas that can provide more spot beams that
can deliver higher-quality service to targeted areas,
rather than simply one big beam with which users at
the fringes of the footprint begin to see degradation
in service.
Satellite communication is unique because of its
broadcast property. After sending data to uplink
satellite, it comes back over the entire footprint to
downlink. So point-to-multipoint communications in
a manner that is cost-effective can be achieved. This
has a dramatic impact on the media business.
Consider a big newspaper that has seven regional
printing presses within the United States. Before
satellites, the paper would have had to send a
separate transmission to each of those printing
locations that local advertisements could be inserted
and such, but with a satellite you beam it up once,
and when it comes down, it rains over the entire
footprint of the United States. If each of the printing
presses has a satellite station properly focused on the
satellite and knows what frequency to receive on, it
will get the information instantaneously.
those 700 satellites, there are about 250,000 pieces of
debris that have been catalogued by the space
agencies, though there are increase in comet and
solar flare activities. A solar flare can decommission
an entire satellite in one pulse, and a little speck of
comet dust can put a baseball-size crater into a solar
panel. Because of all these hazards, strategies have to
be put in place to protect the satellites that are
currently lunched into space.
Satellite can provide great capabilities; it possesses a
great frontier to explore, even when fibre options is
another solution on the planet, satellite
communication is extremely important in exploring
the advances in space.
A Short History of Satellite Systems in the World.
In 1947, Arthur C. Clarke 2001: A Space Odyssey
presented a paper to the scientific community in
Washington, DC. Clarke suggested that the orbit is
explored to higher elevations above the earth, an
orbit at which a satellite would be able to serve as a
communications broadcast tool could be achieved.
Until that point, there were beginning of early
explorations of satellites, but they were what we
today would call low-earth-orbiting satellites, which
means they were at relatively low altitudes over the
earth and revolved around the earth much faster than
the earth rotates on its own axis. Clarke theorized
that if we sent a satellite into a higher orbit, it would

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 72
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
encounter a geosynchronous orbit, meaning that the
satellite would rotate around the earth at exactly the
same rate at which the earth rotates on its axis; the
orbiting device would appear to hang stationary over
a given point on earth. Clarke's hypotheses were
supported and thus began the development of the
communications sector for the space industry.
NASA launched the first experimental satellite in
1963. The first commercial satellite was launched in
1965 and it marked the beginning of the use of
satellite communications to support public telephony
as well as television, particularly international
television. Since then, large numbers of satellites
have been launched. At this point, there are more
than 250 communications based satellites in space, as
well as hundreds of other specialized satellites that
are used for meteorological purposes, defence,
remote sensing, geological exploration, and so on,
for a total of more than 700 satellites orbiting the
earth. And it seems that many more satellites will be
launched in the future.
There are still approximately three billion people
who are not served by even basic communications
services, and it is not possible to deploy enough wire
line facilities in a short time frame to equalize the
situation worldwide. Therefore, satellites are very
important in bringing infrastructure into areas of the
world that have previously not enjoyed that luxury.
Satellites are beginning to see increased investment
and, in fact, other facilities in space are as well.
According to "The New Space Race," (November 8,
1999), companies in United States of America are
expected to invest as much as US$500 billion in
space by the year 2010, and this is causing some
military analysts to believe that the military will be
called on to defend U.S. interests in space, much as
navies were formed to protect sea commerce in the
1700s.
In descriptions of satellite services, we will
encounter three abbreviations that relate to the
applications that are supported:
• FSS: Fixed satellite services (FSS) refers to
the conventional fixed services. They are
offered in both the C-band and the Ku-band
allocations.
• BSS: The second set of services is broadcast
satellite services (BSS). BSS includes standard
television and direct broadcast. These largely
operate in the Ku-band, at 18GHz. Because the
general application of television so far has
been one way, 18GHz shows just the downlink
frequency allocation. As technologies begin to
move toward interactive television, the use of
two different bands in BSS will be observed in
the new technology.
• MSS: Mobile satellite services (MSS)
accommodates mobility. MSS makes use of
either Ka-band satellites or L-band satellites.
Satellite Communication Development in Nigeria.
NigComSat I (Nigerian Communication Satellite I)
was to be vanguard of African Communications
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
revolution installed to cover other parts of the globe
like middle east and Asia for the provision of
telephone services, broadband internet and
broadcasting services to the extent of intelligence and
security surveillance (www.nigerianmuse.com
,2009).
The Nigerian satellite was built by China Space
Technology as part of a $311 million deal signed by
China and Nigeria in 2004 and was finally launched
to the orbit in China by Great Wall Industry
corporation atop a long march 3-B rocket on 14th
May 2007. However, the joy of owning a satellite
was short lived on 17th November 2008 eighteen
months after the launching. although the expected
life span is fifteen years.The failure was attributed
due to power failure because the solar energy wing of
the satellite malfunctioned for lack of backup power
(Guardian,2008).
The consequence of the failure include the interim
measure of migrating NigComSat I customers to
other leased Satellite pending the reconstruction and
relaunching of a new satellite. Organisations affected
by the failure include NOUN (National Open
University of Nigeria), Zenith Bank, Diamond Bank,
Skye Bank, Visafone, Etisalat, Security Exchange
Commission and other similar outfits. The only
consolation Nigeria has is that the failure came
before the formal handing over of the technical
maintenance of the satellite by the Chinese to
Nigerian government, being within the warranty
period.
Satellite Network Segments
Satellite networks have three major segments:
• Space segment The space segment is the actual
design of the satellite and the orbit in which it
operates. Most satellites have one or two designs: a
barrel-shaped satellite that is normally used to
accommodate standard communications or a
satellite with a very wide wingspan that is generally
used for television. Satellites are launched into
specific orbits to cover the parts of earth for which
coverage is desired.
• Control segment The control segment defines the
frequency spectrum over which satellites operate
and the types of signaling techniques used between
the ground station and the satellite to control those
communications.
• Ground segment The ground segment is the earth
station, the antenna designs and the access
techniques used to enable multiple conversations to
share the links up to the satellite. The ground
segment of satellites continues to change as new
technologies are introduced.
Frequency Bands for Satellites.
The frequency spectrum in which satellites operate is
the microwave frequency spectrum. Therefore,
microwave and satellite signals are really the same
thing. The difference is that with satellite, the
repeaters for augmenting the signals are placed on
platforms that reside in high orbit rather than on
terrestrial towers. And, of course, this means that the
Page 73
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
power levels associated with satellite
communications are greater than those of terrestrial
microwave networks. The actual power required
depends on the orbit the satellites operate in
(geosynchronous orbit satellites require the most
power and low-earth-orbit satellites require the least).
A number of factors are involved in the bandwidth
availability of satellite. First, it depends on what
spectrum the regulatory agencies have allocated for
use within the nation. Second, it depends on the
portion of the frequency spectrum in which you're
actually operating. Finally, it depends on the number
of transponders you have on the satellite. The
transponder is the key communications component
in satellite. It accepts the signal coming from the
earth station and then shifts that signal to another
frequency. When the signal is on the new frequency,
it is amplified and rebroadcast downlink.
In satellite communications, the frequency
allocations always specify two different bands: one is
used for the uplink from earth station to satellite and
one for the downlink from satellite to earth station.
Many different bands are specified in the various
satellite standards, but the most dominant frequency
bands used for purposes of satcoms are C-band, Ku-
band, Ka-band, and L-band.
(i) C-Band
With C-band, you transmit uplink around the 6GHz
range and downlink around the 4GHz range. The
advantage of C-band, as compared to other bands, is
that because it operates in the lower frequency bands,
it is fairly tolerant of adverse weather conditions. It
has larger wave forms, so it doesn't suffer as much
disturbance as do smaller wave forms in the presence
of precipitation, for instance.
The disadvantage of C-band is that its allocation of
frequencies is also shared by terrestrial systems. So
selecting sites can take time because you have to
contend with what your neighbors have installed and
are operating. Licensing can take time, as well.
(ii) Ku-Band
Ku-band was introduced in the early 1980s and
revolutionized how we use satellite communications.
First, it operates on the uplink at around 14GHz and
on the downlink at around 11GHz. The key
advantage of Ku-band is that this frequency band
allocation is usually reserved specifically for satellite
use, so there are no conflicts from terrestrial systems.
Therefore, site selection and licensing can take place
much more rapidly. Second, because it doesn't
interfere with terrestrial systems, it offers portability.
Therefore, a Ku-band dish can be placed on top of a
news van or inside a briefcase, and a news reporter
can go to the story as it is breaking to broadcast it
live and without conflict with surrounding systems.
The disadvantage of Ku-band is that it is a slightly
higher frequency allocation than C-band, so you can
experience distortions under bad climatic conditions
for example, humidity, fog, rain.
(iii) Ka-Band
The new generation of satellite, the broadband
satellites will operate in the Ka-band. The key
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
advantage of Ka-band is that it offers a wide
frequency band: about 30GHz uplink and about
20GHz downlink. The difference between 20GHz
and 30GHz for Ka-band is much greater than the
difference between 4GHz and 6GHz for C-band.
This expanded bandwidth means that Ka-band
satellites are better prepared than satellites operating
at other bands to accommodate telemedicine, tele-
education, telesurveillance, and networked
interactive games.
A disadvantage of Ka-band is that it's even higher up
in the frequency band than the other bands, so rain
fade (that is, degradation of signal because of rain)
can be a more severe issue. Thus, more intelligent
technologies have to be embedded at the terminal
points to be able to cost effectively deal with error
detection and correction.
(iv) L-Band
L-band operates in the 390MHz to 1550MHz range,
supporting various mobile and fixed applications.
Because L-band operates in the lower frequencies, L-
band systems are more tolerant of adverse weather
conditions than are other systems. It is largely used
to support very-small-aperture terminal (VSAT)
networks and mobile communications, including
handheld terminals, vehicular devices, and maritime
applications
Satellite Orbits
Another sector that affects the use and application of
satellites are the orbits in which they operate. As
shown in Figure 1 there are three major orbits:
geosynchronous orbit (GEO), middle earth orbit
(MEO), and low earth orbit (LEO). GEOs are
currently the most traditionally used. MEOs and
LEOs are relatively new developments that offer
possibilities for supporting advanced applications.
Shrinking Earth Stations
Satellite history has progressed very quickly. The
first earth station that accompanied the Early Bird
satellite in 1965 had a massive facility. The dome on
the building was 18 stories high, the antenna weighed
380 tons, and the entire building had liquid helium
running through it to keep it cool. This was not
something an end user could wheel into a parking lot
or place on top of a building. But as the sizes of earth
stations are being shrink, and today many businesses
use VSATs in which the dish diameter is 2 feet (0.6
meters) or less. You can literally hang a VSAT
outside your window and have a network up and
running within four hours assuming that you have
your frequency bands allocated and licensed.
(Kärcher and Baars, 2000)
GEO Satellites
A GEO satellite is launched to 22,300 miles (36,000
kilometers) above the equator. A signal from such a
satellite must travel quite a distance; as a result, there
is a delay. It is a 0.25-second delay in each direction,
so from the time you say "Hello, how are you?" to
the time that you hear the person's response, "Fine,"
there is a 0.5-second delay, and that results in some
type of a stilted conversation. Many data
Page 74
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
applications, especially those that involve
entertainment such as games, cannot perform with a
delay as much as this.
GEO satellites have the benefit of providing the
largest footprint of the satellite types. You can cover
the entire world with just three GEO satellites, but
the delay factor in getting to that orbit inhibits its use
with the continuously growing range of real-time
applications that are very sensitive to delay.
The fact that it is launched at such a high orbit also
means that a GEO satellite requires the most power
of all the satellite systems. More satellites are
launched at the lower orbits because it delivers more
data as well as interactive services (which are very
delay sensitive) directly to the user.
Technological development shows that data rates of
up to 155Mbps with GEO systems, particularly in the
Ka-band. That data rate is not commonly available
today, but it is feasible with the new generation of
broadband satellites. Going to higher data rates,
however, necessitates larger antennas, more so for
GEO systems than for satellites in other orbits.
Parabolic satellite antennas 33 feet (10 meters) in
diameter can now be built, and it should soon be
possible to extend them to 66 feet (20 meters) or 98
feet (30 meters).
The main applications of GEO systems are one-way
broadcast, VSAT systems, and point-to-multipoint
links. With GEO systems, there are no delay factors
to worry about with one-way broadcasts. As a result,
international television is largely distributed over
these satellite networks today.
MEO Satellites
MEO satellites orbit at an elevation of about 6,200 to
9,400 miles (10,000 to 15,000 kilometers). MEO
satellites are closer to the earth than GEO satellites,
so they move across the sky much more rapidly in
about one to two hours. As a result, to get global
coverage, you need more satellites (about five times
more) than you would with GEO systems. But
because the altitude is lower, the delay is also
reduced, so instead of a 0.5 second delay, it has a 0.1
second delay.
The main applications for MEOs are in regional
networks, to support mobile voice and low-speed
data, in the range of 9.6Kbps to 38Kbps. The
companies that use MEOs tend to have their
movement within a region rather than over the entire
globe, so they want a larger footprint over, for
example, the Asia-Pacific region, to support mobility
of mainly voice communications.
LEO Satellites
LEOs are a lot like cellular networks, except that in
the case of LEOs, the cells rather than the users are
moving. With LEOs a provider could bypass the
global Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
Because LEOs are in such low orbits, they greatly
reduce the transit times, so the delays are comparable
to what you'd experience on the PSTN, and therefore
delay sensitive applications can survive. Their low
orbits also mean that power consumption is much
lower than with a higher-orbiting satellite, so that it
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
can be directed into user's handheld equipment.
LEOs offer greatly increased network capacity
overall on a global basis.
LEOs orbit at about 400 to 1,000 miles (640 to 1,600
kilometers) and can be used with smaller terminals
than the other satellites because they are much
closer to the earth (40 times closer). Many more
LEOs, than satellites are required to get the same
coverage because they are closer to earth (about 20
times more LEOs than GEOs and 5 times more LEOs
than MEOs). A user must always be able to see at
least one LEO satellite that is well clear of the
horizon.
As mentioned earlier, the early satellites rotated
around the earth so fast that we couldn't use them for
communications. But we've added switching into the
satellite platform. So, as a LEO satellite begins to go
out of view, a call is switched that is, handed over to
the next satellite coming in. Therefore, it works very
much like the cellular system, where you are handed
off to different frequencies during a conversation. Of
course, a benefit of being lower in the sky means that
the delay with LEOs is reduced only about 0.05
seconds and this makes LEOs very appealing for
interactive services.
The key applications planned for LEOs are support
for mobile voice, low speed data, and high speed
data. There are three categories of LEOs, and each
category is optimized for certain applications:
• Little LEOs; offer 2.4Kbps to 300Kbps and
operate in the 800MHz range. They are ideal for
delivering messaging, paging, and vehicle
location services.
• Big LEOs; offer 2.4Kbps to 9.6Kbps and
operate in the 2GHz range. They provide rather
low data rates and are largely designed to
provide voice services to areas that aren't
currently served by any form of terrestrial or
cellular architecture.
• Broadband LEOs; offer 16Kbps to 155Mbps
and operate in the Ka-band, at 20GHz to 30GHz,
and they support data and multimedia files at up
to 155Mbps.
The Importance of Satellite Communications.
The traditional applications for satellites have been to
serve remote areas where terrestrial facilities were
not available; to provide the capability for point-to-
multipoint communications for cost-efficiencies; to
provide disaster-recovery support; to provide remote
monitoring and control; to facilitate two-way data
messaging, vehicle tracking, mobile
communications, and maritime and air navigation; to
distribute TV, video, and multimedia; and to provide
for defense communications. Other merits included
coverage of large geographical areas with its
insensitivity to topology and distance costs. Also the
high frequency of its operation coupled with
variations in the uplink and down link frequencies
has made the SATCOM to be less vulnerable to
noise. The inherent constraints to the availability of
SATCOM services include high initial cost, licensing
Page 75
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
requirements especially availability of frequency
bands cum regulatory constraints in some regions.
Propagation delays with GEO systems and the
danger posed by space debris solar flare activity and
meteor showers.
Emerging Applications and Innovations in Satellites
include automotive navigation and digital audio
radio, such as the SIRIUS system, with which you
can receive more than 100 radio stations throughout
the footprint of the satellite. Not only do you receive
the music or programming you want, but you can
immediately determine who the artist is and what
compact disc is from, and can even compile a
customized version for itself. Use of satellite in
Internet backbones is another emerging application,
because of the huge growth in traffic levels.
Terrestrial facilities can't handle all this traffic alone,
so we have to rely on some satellite backbones,
especially to reach into places such as Africa and
Latin America. Additional emerging applications
include Internet access, satellite caching, and
multimedia. The farther you are from the point at
which an application resides, the worse the
experience you have. So, if we put applications on a
satellite, everybody within the footprint is always
only one hop away, thereby greatly reducing the
latencies or delays encountered in ultimately drawing
on the content. Again, what may make a difference
here is whether it's an interactive application and
what orbit that satellite is in, but this is one
application that merges the Internet Service Provider
and satellite industry together. Other emerging
applications of satellites include telemedicine,
distance learning, remote imaging, and weather
information.
Satellites have seen a number of innovations and are
facing yet more in the future. The most significant
change in the coming years is that satellites will
increasingly deliver information directly to the
consumer rather than to a commercial data hub. This
might mean that aerospace corporations become
major competitors of traditional telecom carriers.
Conclusion
The key challenges for satellites today are related to
power and offering mobile services, because the
small antennas now used in portable transceivers
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
intercept only a tiny fraction of the satellite signal,
satellites must have a lot of power and sensitivity; a
typical solar array on a GEO satellite increased in
power from 2kW to more than 10kW in just several
years. Another innovation involves moving further
up the frequency spectrum, to make use of extremely
high frequencies (EHF). The highest-frequency
satellite systems today use wavelengths that are
comparable to the size of a raindrop. Consequently, a
raindrop can act as a lens, bending the waves and
distorting the signals. But these ill effects can be
mitigated by using error-correction techniques, by
applying more power when necessary, or by using
more ground terminals so data can follow diverse
paths. When wavelengths are smaller than a
millimeter, there are yet more obstacles. Infrared and
optical beams are easily absorbed in the atmosphere.
So, in the near future, they may very well be
restricted to use within buildings, but there have been
some new developments on Free Space Optics.
With the numerous merits of satellite
communications, and considering the economic
meltdown, the government of Nigeria should
intensify effort to restore the NigComSat I to
enhance the economic activities of the citizenry.
References
Clarke A. C. (2001); A Space Odyssey, Satellite and
Space Communication, Washington, DC
Ernest B. G, Lernard Kelv D. ( 1999); The New
Space Race, a magazine published in
November 8. 1195, pp 127 – 131.
Guardian (2008): Nigerian Satellite Breaks down in
Orbit Affecting Broadband Internet Services.
Friday 21st, 2008.
Kächer, H.J and Baars, W. M. (2000); “The Design
of the Large Millimetre Telescope/Gran
Telescopio Milimetrico (LMT/GTM),” pp.
102-111, pp 443-448.
Saph J. K. (1997); The Satelite Transmission
Technique, 1997 pp12 - p18. Publication of
Astronomy society of the percific. 119, pp
1245-1250.
Ukita, N. and Saito, M. (2004); “Design and
performance of the ALMA-J Prototype
Satellite,” proceedings SPIE, 5489, pp 400.
www.nigerianmuse.com.2008.
Page 76
 ISSN 1897-
1897-8680

Fig. 1: Satellite orbits

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 77
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Adebanji B
Olulope P.K
School of Engineering Okafor C.E
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1):
(1): 78 - 82

Energy Demand and Supply in Nigeria- A Ten Year Projection (2008 – 2018)

Adebanji B, Olulope P.K. & Okafor C.E.

Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

Abstract
Appropriate technological know-how of people and correct utilization of available different types of energy is
one of the most important indexes for measuring the standard and material quality of people. In resolving the
present energy and food arises, the problem to be addressed first is that of power supply for without it nothing
meaningful could be achieved. This paper examines the available energy supply and demand trends in the
recent past (1997– 2007). It also makes a good forecast for the next ten years (2008 – 2018) for effective
preparation towards bridging the current energy balance. Relevant data were sourced from PHCN, NPC and
CBN, studied and analyzed. The current energy growth rate is not sustainable for the economic growth rate.
Appropriate strategies for meeting the projected demand like Renewable energy technology, diversification of
energy, distributed generation and others were suggested.

Keywords: Energy, demand, supply, Renewable, energy balance

Introduction be well utilized and diversified with appropriate

Energy is a source of power and in almost every
country all over the world, the standard of living of
every individual is directly related to the availability
of energy. As the population of people continues to
rise, the demand pressure on energy is on the
increase. The country has indeed transformed from
agricultural dominated economy into an oil
dominated economy where almost every individual is
now consuming more than what is being produced
locally. Hence, this explains why almost half of our
energy needs are being sourced abroad with high
dependence on oil importation from our allied
friends. This is a reflection and a poor show of our
technological know-how.
Despite its abundant energy sources-crude oil,
natural gas, coal, hydropower, renewable energy
sources e.t.c, the country, Nigeria continues to suffer
from acute power shortage. Efforts made by past and
present administrations have yielded little or no
significant improvement on the power sector. Some
of the major problems that can easily be identified
are: the relentless struggles by the Niger Delta
militants in vandalizing gas pipelines almost every
month; massive corruption by staff and government
officials; old and decayed infrastructures and high
level of inefficiency that has engulfed the system
(Owolabi, 2008).
The perpetual epileptic power supply in the country
explains the slow pace of development in the
industrial and manufacturing sectors. Thus a reliable
electric power supply has a multiplier effect on
springing up of industries. Suffix to say that irregular
power supply is one of the greatest challenges facing
the sectors (Okafor, 2008).
However, it should be noted that for any country to
develop technologically her energy resources must
protection for the future. It is therefore very pertinent
to examine our available energy sources in order to
meet the demand in the nearest future. In all, the
situation of electricity supply inadequacies show the
emergence of a crisis situation whereby electricity
supply could not meet up with the demand
requirement, creating an imbalance as we experience
daily in Nigeria.
Energy Situation in Nigeria
Nigeria is endowed with various energy resources
which are very abundant in both renewable and non-
renewable form. The country has an estimated 36.2
billion barrels of proven oil reserves as of January
2009.The majority of the reserves are found along
the Niger River Delta and offshore in the Bight of
Benin, the Gulf of Guinea and the Bight of Bonny. In
2008, Nigerian crude oil production averaged
1.94million bbl/d, making it the largest crude oil
producer in Africa.
The nation has four refineries with a capacity of
refining 445000bpd of crude oil but it was marred by
multiple corruptions, inefficient maintenance,
sabotage by the militants, and poor management
team among other factors. Table 1 shows the refining
capacities. At present, virtually none of the refineries
is in operation and even when in operation, they
operate at 40% at the best of times. The Nigeria’s
energy infrastructure is outdated and needs to be
renewed. Thirty six percent of them are over twenty
five years old, 48percent are over twenty old.
Throughout the military administration, they did not
build a single power station whether thermal or
hydro. Frankly speaking, there is low investment in
power generation over the years (Okafor, 2008).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 78
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The country is at a very low edge of development.
Critically looking at the current trends, the country
may fail in meeting up with the Millennium
development struggle of poverty reduction by year,
2015!
Data and Methodology
The data on electricity consumption, electricity
generation, and population were obtained from the
Central Bank of Nigeria statistical bulletin (2005)
and PHCN news. The past energy consumption data
for the past eleven years were collected from IEA.
The forecast for the next ten years was made by
using the least square regression analysis method.
The annual growth rate of the major energy sectors
were also found to arrive at a reliable forecast. In
evaluating the total energy consumption, the total
energy consumed in a particular location x, in terms
of kWhr, in a particular year, t can be said to be the
total summation of the different energy types in
terms of transportation, residential, industrial and
commercial components of energy consumption.
The total energy consumed in year, t becomes
(1)
Where E TC is the total energy consumed during the
year, t. This is with respect to the number of
consumers in each major energy sector with the
different types of energy source. For effective
conservation of energy, a comprehensive study of
energy best suited for each particular sector need to
be done. The different energy utilization sectors are
as given in Table 2
Energy Consumption Patterns in Nigeria
Energy consumption mix is dominated by oil, with
about 53% followed by Natural gas, which accounts
for about 39% and hydroelectricity 7%.Other energy
sources such as coal and renewable are currently not
part of the country’s energy consumption mix. In
2006, the total consumption for Nigeria was
approximately one quadrillion Btu. Most of the
natural gas is flared due to the lack of enough
infrastructures to develop the sector. However, the
decision of government to ban gas flaring and
expand the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)
infrastructure is expected to boost exportation and
domestic use in electricity generation (Omisakin,
2008).
Fig 1 gives the past trend in energy consumption mix
from 1980-2005.It is observed that there is a little
decrease in the percentage of oil with a
corresponding increase in consumption of natural
gas.
Enibe and Odukwe in 1990 did some studies on
patterns of energy consumption in Nigeria and
submitted that the forms of energy consumed in
Nigeria have increased in diversity and intensity with
innovations in science and technology along with
social economic changes. Prof. Owolabi in 2008
concluded that the country needs to generate about
30000MW of electricity to barely satisfy the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
yearnings of Nigerians. Currently, the amount being
generated is about 2000MW (about 7% of the
minimum required) as against 3000MW generated in
the year 2003, when the population was less.The
energy consumption in Nigeria for Petroleum and
Electricity is as given in Tables 3 and 4.It could be
noted that consumption of certain energy type has
experienced very rapid growth rate.
Impact of Energy Shortage on Industrial and
Agricultural Sectors
A reliable supply of electricity affects all other
areas of human endeavour. For instance, the rising
cost of AGO (diesel) which is the major energy
source to so many industries has forced the Nigerian
made goods out of the international standards, so
many Nigerians now depend on imported goods
because of the high inflation rate and bad economic
policies. Proper energy coordination or conservation
is a sure way of stepping down the high inflation rate
and ensure high economic growth. Adeyemi (2007)
classified the present state of the manufacturing
industries in Nigeria as follows: 30 percent have
closed down, 60 percent ailing and 10 percent
operating at sustainable level. This is as shown in
Table 5.
Agricultural commodity prices will continue to be
influenced in as much as there is increase in energy
prices. Rising commodity prices will mean higher
prices for agricultural producers. Somehow, it needs
to be noted that a well planned energy policy need to
be formulated in order to enhance food security.
However, the availability of adequate food supplies
could be threatened by biofuel production to the
extent that land water and other productive resources
are diverted away from food production ( Pradeep,
2007).
The Projections
Nigeria’s demand for energy is expected to increase
by at least 3% annually over the next 10-18 years.
Using the methodology above, Table 6 shows the
energy supply projections for year 2008-2018.
Energy demand for electricity requires how
determinants like (Agriculture, manufacturing, etc),
energy intensities will vary in the future. Using the
population growth rate of 1.8% by 2018 the
electricity projections will be 19000MW while
35500MW and 85000MW was projected for 2014
and 2018 respectively. Moreover by 2018, Nigeria’s
per capita electricity demand will be 1514kWh
(optimistic), 1367kWh (high growth) and 1153kWh
(reference).This is as shown in Table 7
Meeting Up With the Projected Demand
Renewable Energy Technology
In order to meet up with the challenges posed by
projected energy demand, concerted effort need to be
made in the area of renewable energy. . Renewable
energy sources are energy sources that do not get
depleted with time; they have environmental benefit
over the use of fossil fuels. In Nigeria, part of the
Page 79
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
generated electricity is produced from hydropower.
However, demand greatly surpasses the available
power supply in Nigeria, hence the need for micro-
generating power stations and renewable energy
sources should be explored to reduce the gap
between demand and available supply as well as to
reduce dependence on the national electric grid.
Besides, the renewable energy sources reduce too
much dependence on fossil fuel and help to diversity
the energy supply. In Nigeria the most feasible
sources of renewable energies are wind energy, solar
energy, biofuels and fuel cells.
Energy Efficiency and Conservation
Energy efficiency is the ability to use less energy to
produce the same amount of useful services.
Improved energy efficiency will indeed strengthens
energy security and energy consumption in our
homes and offices. With energy conservation
techniques in place, we may be able to attain some
level of stability in the power sector. The prominent
areas of opportunities for energy conservation
generally and particularly in office and residential
buildings, industrial set-up are in ventilating air –
conditioning equipment for space cooling, lighting
and illuminating devices e.t.c (Adeyemo,
2008).Since some of the Nigeria’s energy deposit are
not renewable (fossil fuels coal, gas and crude oil), it
is reasonable to say that more exploration activities
should be generated towards discovering more oil
deposit. It is believed that proper co-ordination of
these services could help in saving energy
consumption hence its conservation.
Distributed Generation
Distributed generation is a technology that produces
power outside of the utility grid. Distributed energy
encompasses a range of technologies includes fuel
cells, micro turbines reciprocating engines, load
reduction, and other energy management
technologies. Despite the vast resources of coal,
hydro, solar, Nigeria is bless with, the generation of
energy is still very low to be able to cope with
various needs. Industries are shut down, environment
is not as well conducive for learning, research etc
because of pollution problem. As such, death rate
has increased in the past 10-20 years. However, our
method must be changed to improve power supply to
meet the need of 140 million Nigerians.
Increased demands in the nation’s electrical power
systems and incidences of electricity shortages,
power quality problems, rolling blackouts, and
electricity price hikes have caused many utility
customers to seek other sources of high-quality,
reliable electricity. Distributed generation provides
an alternative to or an enhancement of the traditional
electric power grid.
It is faster, less expensive option to the construction
of large, lateral power plants and high-voltage
transmission lines. They offer consumers the
potential for lower cost, higher service reliability,
high power quality, increased energy efficiency, and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
energy independence. Renewable distributed
generation (RDG) are solar, wind, geothermal
biomass, and hydro electric power. RDG provides a
significant environmental benefit. The developments
of renewable energies also enhanced the generation
of energies through distributed generators. The cost
incurred on pollution and fuel is not involved.
Conclusions and Recommendation.
It is essential to diversify the energy sources being
sold for power production particularly where there is
abundant energy resource like oil, natural gas and
coal. It may also be seen that technological
development and its advancement preferably from
within is of primary importance if we really mean to
improve the overall quality of life in our society.
Effort should be geared towards diversification of
energy. For instance, greater use of natural gas
should be encouraged since it is in abundance.
For a proper management of energy resources, the
ever-growing population growth rate must be
controlled. If this is not done, it can lead to more
serious demand pressure which may lead to shortages
and inefficiency. Linkages between public and
private sectors must be increased to leverage the
resources of the private sectors. Succinctly put, the
country needs to religiously formulate effective
energy conservation and management policies for a
sustainable energy development.
References
Adeyemi B ( 2007) : Eight years of Obasanjo:
Foundation laid for Industrial Revival The
Guardian, May 30,2007 p.54.
Adeyemo S.B. (2008):“Improving Power Stability
through Energy Conservation in Nigeria” Paper
at the 1st National Engineering Conferences,
University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti 7th-9th 2008.
Central Bank of Nigeria (2005): Nigeria Statistical
Fact Sheets on economic and social
development,
1999-2003. www.cenbank.org.
Enibe S.O. and Odukwe A.O (1990): Patterns of
Energy Consumption in Nigeria, Energy
Conversion Management, Vol. 30,No2, pp69-
73,Pergamon press.
Esan A.A. (2008):“Moving towards a sustainable and
secure supply of energy” Paper at the 1st
National Engineering Conferences, University of
Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti 7th-9th 2008.
National Population Commission Report
(2005),Annual Energy Outlook pp 12-15.
Okafor C.E.(2008): Crisis of Power Supply and
implications for Industrial Sector in NigeriaStud
Tribes Tribas,6(2):83-92.Kamla-Raj.
Omisakin A.O.(2008):Energy Consumption and
Economic Growth in Nigeria: A bounds Testing
Co integration Approach, Journal of Economic
Theory 2(4):118-123
Owolabi I.E.(2008):“Solar Photovoltaic(PV) as a
viable, sustainable electrical power source for
Nigeria” Paper at the 1st National Engineering
Page 80
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Conferences, University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti Journal of intelligent and Robotic
7th-9th 2008. systems,vol31,no1-3,pp129-147(19).
Pradeep.C.(2007): Paper for the International Energy Sam I. Gepke (2006): “Electricity Generation and
Conference organized by the World Federation Social-Economic Development in Rural Areas”
of Engineering at RIODE-Janeiro. National Workshop on Capacity Building in
Ringwood,J.V.,Bofelli,D,Murray,F.T.(2001):Forecas small River planning and Design for Isolated
ting Electricity Demand on Short, Medium and /off-Grid Electricity Generation at Calabar,
Long Time scales using Neural Networks. Cross River State, 14th November, 2006.

Fig 1: Nigerian energy consumption mixed (1980-2005).

Source: Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2005)

Table 1: Nigerian Domestic Refining Capacity

Refinery Installed Capacity Actual Production Capacity (bpd)
(bpd)
Warri 125,000 35,000
Port-Harcourt(new) 150,000 100,000
Port-Harcourt(old) 60,000 25,000
Kaduna 100,000 31,250
Total 435,000 191,250
Source: Energy Information US Department of Energy, 2007.

Table 2: Sector Energy usage.

Sector Energy types & source
Residential Wood, electric energy, solar energy .
Commercial Oil, natural gas, electric power, coal
Transportation Oil, petrol, kerosene, diesel oil coal electric power.
Industrial Oil (petrol, diesel oil) natural gas, electric power .

Table 3: Petroleum Production and Consumption 1997-2007 (Thousand barrels per day,Tbd)
S/N Year Total oil production Consumption Proved Reserves (BillionBarrels)
1 1997 2139.79 277.25 15.5
2 1998 2160.04 260.10 16.8
3 1999 2136.31 251.97 22.5
4 2000 2169.14 245.57 22.5
5 2001 2261.42 305.69 22.5
6 2002 2123.32 303.95 24.0
7 2003 2278.59 288.47 24.0
8 2004 2331.70 277.07 25.0
9 2005 2630.17 300.0 35.3
10 2006 2442.60 312.03 35.9
11 2007 2352.38 312.00 36.2
Source: International Energy Data and Analysis(2007)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 81
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 4: Electricity Production and Consumption 1997-2007 (Billion kilowatt-hours)
S/N Year Production Consumption
1 1997 4.8 0.9
2 1998 4.9 0.8
3 1999 4.9 0.9
4 2000 5.2 0.9
5 2001 5.5 0.9
6 2002 5.2 1.0
7 2003 5.7 1.0
8 2004 5.9 1.0
9 2005 6.5 1.1
10 2006 6.4F 1.0F
11 2007 6.6F 1.0F
Source: International Energy Data and Analysis (2007)

Table 5: State of manufacturing industries in Nigeria

Industries that have Ailing Industries Industries at Sustainable level
closed down
Chalk manufacturers, Textile Firms, vehicle assemblers, food, beverages
candle, dry cell and cable manufacturers, paint and tobacco sector, leather sub-sector
Automobile batteries, manufacturers, steel and and household products such as
shoes polish, matches, etc petrochemical firms detergents and cleaning materials, and
toothpaste among others,
Source: Adeyemi (2007)

Table 6: Energy Supply Projections 2008-2018

Energy Source 2010 2014 2018
Petroleum 45.0 50.0 94.0
Natural Gas 10.0 15.0 41.0
Electricity 25.0 50.0 68.0
Coal 10.0 15.0 10.0
Total 90 120 213
Mtne-Million ton of energy equivalent

Table 7: Per capita demand, kWh

Scenario 2010 2014 2018
Reference 548 782 1153
High Growth 556 842 1367
Optimistic 588 875 1514

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 82
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Shuaib-

Shuaib-Babata, Y. L.
Alabi, A.G.F
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 83 - 89
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Inhibiting Effect of Ammonia-Water Solution on the Corrosivity of Commercial Mild Steel in Cassava
Extract Medium (Juice)

*Shuaib-Babata, Y. L & Alabi, A.G.F

*Department of Mechanical Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State.
Sylbabata2000@yahoo.co.uk
08033945977
Department Of Mechanical Engineering,
University Of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
* Correspondence Author

Abstract
Cassava is one of the most important economic viable root crops produced in Nigeria that has tendency to
cause steel corrosion. This adversely affects the smooth operation and lowers the efficiencies of agricultural
implements, machineries and equipment used in the process of cassava. This paper studies the corrosion
behaviours of commercially available mild steel in the medium. The effectiveness of ammonia/water solution as
an inhibitor to prevent/control or curtail the consequences of corrosion on steel-made agro-equipment and
machineries was also investigated. This is to provide relevant information to assist Nigerian fabricators,
Agriculturalists, Engineers and users of such engineering products on effective use of the material products in
cassava extract medium (juice) environment. The mild steel coupons (30 x 20 x 0.8 mm3) were prepared in line
with ASTM guidelines. The coupons were immersed in cassava juice and ammonia/water solution for a period
744 hours (31) days. These coupons were later interchanged from one medium to another (i.e. ammonia/water
solution and cassava) for another period of 744 hours to test for tenacity and protectiveness of the oxide films
formed on the surfaces of the coupons. Weight loss method was adopted to assess the corrosion effect on the
material. This research discovered that Ammonia/water solution does not completely stop corrosion but has
significant effect to retard corrosion of commercial steel in cassava juice with inhibition efficiency of 36.3%.
The passivating oxide formed on the coupons in ammonia/water solution is not effective to resist further
corrosion if the steel is transferred to an uninhibited medium.

KEYWORDS: Corrosion, Ammonia, Cassava Extract (Juice), Machineries and Inhibition

Introduction The impact of corrosion is being felt in all facets of

Corrosion, which is referred to as “breaking down of
essential properties in a material due to chemical
reactions with its surroundings”
(www.wikipedia.com/corrosion, 2009), is known to
have contributed to partial or wholly failure of
materials which resulted to loss of lives and
properties (Aluko, 2004; Yasuo & Toru, 1982; and
Evans, 1971). Obikwelu (2008) in his view referred
to corrosion as a recognised and an inevitable
process of material degradation through chemical or
electrochemical reaction and microbiological
metabolism. Previous studies have shown that
corrosion is very costly and has a major impact on
the economies of industrial nations (Shuaib-Babata,
2008a). Based on the Battelle-NBS study the cost of
corrosion in the United States alone was
approximately $70 billion, which was 4.2 percent of
the gross national product (GNP) as at 1975. A
limited study in 1995, updating the 1975 figures
estimated the total cost of corrosion at approximately
$300 billion (Shuaib-Babata, 2008a).
human endeavour. Thus, it becomes a major problem
globally in all areas of economic sectors. The
agricultural sector of the economy share its own from
the corrosion menace. The operation and efficiencies
of agricultural implements, tools and machineries
equipment are adversely affected. These tools and
machineries corrode day-in-day-out in different
environments. Thus, the quantities and quality of
agricultural outputs processed with these machines
are greatly adversely affected through the effect of
corrosion. The costs of replacement of corrosion
damages to materials (such as agricultural equipment
and tools) are substantially higher (Shuaib-Babata,
2008b). Again, much more is being spent day-in-day-
out to check the effect of corrosion, like in United
States, the cost of the replacement of corroded
structures and the protection of existing structure is
estimated to be about $15,000,000,000 per year
(Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 1977).
Nigerian government at all levels encourages
Nigerians’ involvement in huge investments to boost
the quantity and quality of agricultural products in

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 83
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
the country. Planting and processing of cassava at
large scale by Nigerian farmers are mostly
encouraged, especially during Chief Olusegun
Obasanjo’s regime, to boost the country’s economic
statue. President Yar’ Adua’s drive through in his
seven-point agenda also makes huge investment
towards agricultural production in Nigeria.
Reduction in efficiency or total failure of agro-
machineries as result of corrosion among other
factors hinders the success of the drive.
Agricultural products such as cassava, rice, fruits, etc
are processed domestically and industrially to
provide adequate food for consumption and for other
uses. Dorish (1998) revealed that cassava is the third
largest source of carbohydrates of human food in the
world, with Africa its largest center of production
(www.wikipedia/cassava.com,2009). Meanwhile,
Nigeria is known to be one of the world’s foremost
producers of cassava and his largely due to the
federal government’s policy on agricultural reforms
(www.kwarastate.gov.ng, 2009). Ugwu et al, (1992)
and Igbeka et al (1992) revealed that cassava is the
most important root crop in Nigeria, being major
source of carbohydrate for up to 80% of the
population (Nwagugu & Onwualu, 2004). Bolarin et
al (2004) also had the view that cassava is one of the
most important root crops produced in Nigeria.
Cassava is eaten on daily basis in different form in
Nigeria (Nwagugu & Onwualu, 2004). Animal feed,
industrial products such as starch, adhesives, textiles
and paper, among others are also derived from the
root crop. Asiedu (1984) made it known that gari is
considered to be the most popular form in which
cassava is consumed in West Africa (Akande, et. al,
2004) . It is a cheap source of carbohydrate food for
human and livestock. Cassava processing to produce
gari involve peeling, washing grating of cassava
roots, fermentation, pressing, sifting, frying and
cooling. These processes are done manually and
industrially. Nwagugu & Onwualu (2004) revealed
that some machines are used for the unit operations
in processing cassava. The manual or industrial
processing of cassava are carried out through the use
of hand tools, containers, steel pipe, storage devices
and equipment with their components made from
steels, especially mild steel. Mild steel is widely used
for most structural engineering works out of about
90% of all steels (Shuaib-Babata, 2005), most
especially by the local fabricators. Piccard et al
(1987) revealed that low carbon steels such as mild
steel are preferred as the container, tubing material
for heat transfer and storage processes below partly
due to the ease with which they are fabricated.
Umoru et al (2002) are of the view that “steel is
widely used for reinforcing or stressing concrete of
all materials as result of the belief that concrete
constitutes an ideal environment for steel” , most
especially mild steel.
Cassava contains hydrocyanic or pussic acid (HCN)
called cyanide. The acid which is an organic solvent
is known to be good corrosive medium for steel
(Alagbe, 2009). The corrosion reaction in organic
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
solvents can occur either through electrochemical or
chemical reaction. Several forms of corrosion such as
pitting, crevice, uniform or general, intergranular,
erosion, fretting, stray-current, etc could be formed
on the steel made devices in cassava extract solution.
The degradation or destruction of corroded
agricultural machineries and equipment (devices) in
cassava extract and its consequences on the quality
and quantities of the agro-products has called for the
need to find an adequate and highly effective means
of curtailing the corrosion rate to a bearable
minimum level, if not totally stopped.
Several methods to prevent/control or curtail the
consequence of corrosion on engineering
components or devices, like agro-machines,
equipment, etc. are being employed. These methods
include: alteration of environment for improvement,
use of materials with resistance to corrosion, coating,
anodic and cathodic protections, corrosion
design/planning against corrosion and so on. The
method of modification of corrosive environments
such as gas, liquids and solid phases to reduce any
form of the environment’s aggressiveness is a
common method of anti corrosion measure
(Armentano & Murphy, 1979). Corrosion processes
in different types of environments have been solved
with the use of inhibitor (Attar & Scantlebury, 2001
and Shuaib & Kareem, 1997).
Inhibitor is known as a substance, when added in
small concentration to an environment, especially
liquid (water or aqueous solution), decreases or
diminishes the corrosion rate or forming a protective
corrosion product and inhibits further corrosion
(Evans, 1971, Fotana, 1986 & Material Performance,
1998). Inhibitors could be either retardant or
deterrent, or both (Armentano & Murphy, 1979 and
Fotana, 1986). By laboratory evaluation, inhibitors
could also be volatile or non-volatile. Ammonia as an
inhibitor is in the class of volatile inhibitor for which
corrosion protection is enhanced even at high
temperature. The volatile inhibitors according to
Armentano & Murphy (1979) are of special interest
because they may be used in both drainable and
sections of a boiler system with equal case,
especially a time during which a boiler is not in use,
known as standby. It has also been widely shown by
various researchers that the use of inhibitors is good
in solving metal systems corrosion problems, among
whom are Alagbe (2009), Oyetunji (2000), Oni
(1997), Shuaib & Kareem (1997), Alabi & Neil Birk
(1989), among others.
This work wishes to investigate the effectiveness of
ammonia as an inhibitor for control/prevention of
corrosion of mild steel in cassava extract (juice)
medium.
Experimental Procedures
Specimens and Materials Preparation.
Media Preparation
Ammonia/water solution was prepared in the
laboratory at room temperature (25o C). To obtain the
required cassava extract (juice), fresh cassava was
Page 84
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
obtained, peeled and grinded with motorized grinder.
The product was sieved and squeezed in a clean
white cloth. The solution (juice) obtained was kept in
desiccators.
Specimens Preparation
Commercially available mild steel plates of thickness
(guage) 0.8mm were used to prepare the coupons
(specimens) for the experiments. The mild steel
samples (coupons) were cut into average dimensions
of 30mm x 20mm x 0.8mm, which were used for the
corrosion experiment. A hole of 1.00mm was drilled
on each coupon close to the upper edge for easy
hanging and the edges of the coupons were grinded
to reduce edge effects. The arrangement of the
coupons for the experiment (experiment set up) is as
shown in figure 1a.
Mechanical and Chemical Testing of the
Specimen
Chemical Composition Determination
The Chemical composition of the steel was
determined in laboratory to ascertain the steel
class/group; to reveal other alloy elements present as
they are significant in determining the properties of
steel and whether the composition is in agreement
with the International standard chemical
composition. The result is presented in Table 1.
Mechanical Test
The major mechanical properties of the steel were
also determined using a computerized Universal
testing machine (UTM) made by Testometric Co.
Ltd., Rochadale, England; Type – DBBMTCL –
5000kg (M 500 – 50 KN) with serial number –
17819 and a Rockwell hardness machine. The result
is also presented in Table 1.
Specimen Surface Preparation
The American Standard of Testing and Materials
(ASTM) procedures for coupon surface preparation
were employed to obtain uniformity on the surfaces
of the test metal and to activate the surface ready for
corrosion reaction. This method has been
successfully used elsewhere (Shuaib-Babata, 2005,
2006 & 2008b). The weights (M1) of the coupons
were determined immediately after the surface
preparation before exposure to the varying required
test media
Exposure
The weighed coupons (test metals) were fully
immersed in beakers/bottles containing 300 cm3 of
different test environments (tested media) in
duplicates by hanging them with inelastic thread
attached to the lid for a period 45 days. The
experiment set up is as shown in figure 1a.
The different test environments are as stated below:
(i) Ammonia solution of pH between 10.5 and
10.9
(ii) Cassava extract solution (juice)
(iii) Some test coupons initially immersed in
NH3 solution were transferred to cassava
solution (juice)
(iv) Those coupons initially in cassava solution
(juice) were re-immersed in the NH3
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
solutions in order to test for tenacity and
protectiveness of possible passive layers
formed.
Post Immersion Cleaning
The corrosion products were cleaned using chemical
method of cleaning test specimens. The cleaning
solution contained 1.5 ml organic inhibitor (Diethyl
amine, DEA), 1.5 ml sulphuric acid (H2SO4, sp.gr.
1.84) and water to make 1 litre solution in line with
the ASTM standards. The cleaned specimens were
rinsed in water to remove excess acid, dried in
methanol, hot air and kept in desiccators for final
weighing.
Assessment of Corrosion Damage / Corrosion
Rate Measurement
The corrosion damages were assessed through
corrosion rate determination. The weight loss
method was employed to assess the corrosion
damage and rates since the surface of the corroded
specimen appear, to large extent, uniform. Weight
loss is the measure of difference between the original
mass of the sample before immersion (M1) and the
mass of the same sample after exposure and cleaning
(M2).
The corrosion rate under weight loss method is
calculated in mils per year (mpy) using the
recommended relation (ASTM, 1985) which had
earlier used elsewhere (Alabi, 1989 and Shuaib-
Babata, 1997 & 2005) and is given by:
KW
Corrosion Rate = (1)
DAT
Where:
K = 534 (corrosion rate constant),
W = Weight loss (gram)
D = Density of the material (g/cm2) =
-2
7.86g cm for mild steel.
A = Total area of exposure (cm3) = 20 cm3
T = Exposure time in hours
Determination of Percentage Inhibition Efficiency
The percentage inhibition efficiency equation earlier
used by Lawal et al (2006) was also used to calculate
the inhibition efficiency of NH3 at various selected
pH and the result is depicted graphically as figure 3.
The inhibition efficiency equation is given in
equation 2 as:
(C ru − C r1 )
% Inhibition efficiency, η = 100 x (2)
C ru
Where:
η = Inhibition efficiency
C ru = Corrosion rate of uninhibited samples
C r1 Corrosion rate of uninhibited samples
Results and Discussion
Specimens immersed in Cassava Juice
The average corrosion rates of the test specimens
immersed in cassava juice are presented in figures 1
Page 85
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
& 2. The corrosion rate is highest during the initial
stage which thereafter reduces with time. The high
initial corrosion might be due to the availability of
fresh activated surface, and high initial oxygen
content of the solution. It is known fact that oxygen
contents, temperature, biological organisms and
velocity affected corrosion reaction (Shuaib-Babata,
2006). The reduction in the corrosion might have
also resulted from the formation of a product layer
which might have shielded the iron surface from
further corrosion. The pH of cassava medium (juice)
during corrosion test was found to change from 4.2
to 8.4 as shown in table 2. The change in pH is also
another contributing factor to the reduction in the
corrosion rate.
Meanwhile, there is arbitrary further increase in the
corrosion rate at about 210 hours, which later
reduced at about 315 hours. This arbitrary increase in
the corrosion rate could be attributed to exfoliation.
Visually, the corrosion product formed on the
surfaces and edges of the coupons was blackish in
colour which later transformed to light brownish
colour. The blackish corrosion products formed are
fairly uniformly laid.
Specimens immersed in Ammonia/Water solution
(NH3 /H2O)
In Ammonia/Water solution, the test metals were
visibly unaffected by corrosion up to 744 hours (31
days). The average corrosion rate of the test steel
immersed in NH4/H2O is relatively low (0.8762 x 10-
3
mpy) as shown in figure 2.
Through visual observation, it was found that some
greenish substances formed on the surfaces and
edges of the test metals in the medium were settled at
the base of the test beaker. The greenish substance
may be ferrous hydroxide (FeOOH). None of the
specimens in the test beaker was observed to have
had its corrosion product transformed to Fe3O4
(magnitite) while in NH3/water solution. Moreover, it
could be due to the fact that none of the specimens
stayed in NH3 solution up to the aging period for
transformation to Fe3O4 (magnitite) which is likely to
be more than 744 hours (31 days). The formation of
Magnetite (Fe3O4) depends on rate of hydration and
due to low oxygen content of the solution (Shuaib-
Babata, 2005).
The lower corrosion rate of mild steel (in NH4/H2O
solution) indicates the effectiveness and tendency of
ammonia as possible inhibitor apart from being a pH
modifier.
Re- Immersion of Test Metals (Coupons)
To test for tenacity and protectiveness of the oxide
films formed on the surfaces of the test coupons in
NH4/H2O solution, the coupons initially immersed in
NH4/H2O solution were transferred to cassava extract
medium (juice). More so, those coupons initially
immersed in cassava extract medium (juice) after
non-adherent corrosion debris had been washed off
by exposure to running tap water were also
transferred to NH4/H2O solution following the same
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
processes to determine the effectiveness of Ammonia
(NH4/H2O) medium on corroding mild steel coupons.
No visible corrosion attacks were observed on the
test coupons transferred from cassava extract
medium (juice) and re-immersed in NH4/H2O
solution up to 744 hours (31 days). The surfaces and
edges of the test metals showed fairly bright surfaces
when the corrosion test was concluded. Meanwhile,
through gravimetric approach (corrosion rate
determination), the corrosion rate of the coupons
transferred from NH4/H2O solution (re-immersed) to
cassava medium reduced significantly from 2.5480 to
1.6761mpy (see table 3).
The corrosion reaction occurred on the coupons from
NH4/H2O solution and re-immersed in cassava juice
with formation of bubbles of gases. This gas formed
through the bubble formation is identified to be
hydrogen. More so, corrosion rate marginally
increased from 1.6231 to 1.8816mpy (see table 3).
The effectiveness of Ammonia (NH4/H2O) solution
as a passivating/inhibiting agent of mild steel
corrosion is shown from the analysis above. Thus,
NH4/H2O solution can effectively inhibit corrosion of
fresh mild steel and also inhibit the corrosion
reaction on corroding mild steel, provided the
corrosion products are washed off.
Statistical Analysis of Corrosion Rate after Re-
Immersion
The calculated differences in the corrosion rates of
the test metals as shown in table 3 actually
corroborate the findings as earlier discussed on
effectiveness of ammonia as a passivating/inhibiting
agent of mild steel corrosion in NH4/H2O solution.
Table 3 shows reduction in the corrosion rates (from
2.5480 to 1.6761) of mild steel initially immersed in
cassava juice and later re-immersed NH4/H2O
solution. The corrosion rate of the test steel initially
immersed in NH4/H2O solution and later re-
immersed in cassava juice is lower compared to the
corrosion rate of the steel only exposed to cassava
medium (i.e. with difference of 0.6664).
Analysis of Inhibiting Efficiency of
Ammonia/Water Solution
The results of calculated percentage inhibiting
efficiency are shown in figure 3. The figure show
progressive increase in the inhibiting efficiency of
ammonia/water solution on all test metals exposed,
either freshly or transferred from cassava juice.
The inhibiting efficiency of ammonia/water solution
on mild steel coupons is 36.3%, which is
significantly high. Mean while the efficiency of those
metals transferred from cassava juice to
ammonia/water solution and that from
ammonia/water solution to cassava juice is 34.2%
and 13.7% respectively.
Conclusion
Through this study, the following conclusions are
drawn:
Page 86
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Ammonia/water solution has significant effect on the
corrosion of commercial mild steel in cassava extract
medium (juice) with inhibition efficiency of 36.3%.
Thus, Ammonia/water solution can effectively
inhibit/passivity corrosion of mild steel in cassava
medium up to 744 hours.
Ammonia/water solution does not completely stop
corrosion. The passivating oxide formed on the
coupons in ammonia/water solution is not effective
to resist further corrosion if the steel is transferred to
an uninhibited medium, but the rate can be retard.
References
Alabi, A. G. F. (1989), “The Mechanism of Auto –
Ignition of Direct Reduced Iron”. PhD. Thesis,
University of Pittsburgh, United States of
America, pp. 12-13.
Alabi, A. G. F. & Neil Birk (1986), “Reactions
Leading to Auto Ignition of DRI”, Iron & Steel
Institute Congress, Vol.5, pp. 83-91.
Alagbe, M. (2009), “Changes in Microstructure of
NST-44 Mild Steel in Cassava & Lime Water
Caused by Some Amino Acids Inhibitors”,
Accepted for Publication in Nigerian Journal of
Engineering Research & Development.
Aluko, F. I. (2004), “The Effect of Heat Treatment
on the Microstructure of grey Cast Iron in Paper
Making Industries”, Nigerian Journal of
Engineering Management, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp.9
Armentano, J.A. & Murphy, V.P. (1979), “Standby
Protection of High Pressure Boilers”,
Proceedings of American Power Congress,
Vol.40, pp. 1-10
Attar, M.M. & Scantlebury, J.D. (2001), “Polyamine
as a Possible Inhibitor for the Corrosion of Mild
Steel”, The journal of Corrosion Science and
Engineering, Vol.1, Paper 8, pp.1-10
Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (1977),
Vol. 3 (chat – cyt), McGraw Hill Book
Company, New York, pp. 543 – 949.
Evans, U. R. (1971), “The corrosion and Oxidation
of Metal: Scientific Principles and Practical
Applications”, Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,
London.
Fotana, M.G. (1986), “Corrosion Engineering”, 3rd
ed., McGraw-Hill Inc. Book Company, New
York, pp. 1 - 504
Loto A. (1992), “The Effect of Inhibitors on the
Corrosion of Mild Steel in Acidic and Seawater
Environments”, Corrosion Prevention and
Control, 39(5), pp. 99-124.
Materials Performance, MP (January 1998), National
Association of Corrosion Engineers
Publications.
Obikwelu, D.O.N. (2008), “Metallurgical Review of
the Modern Trends in Materials Corrosion &
Prevention”, Journal of Research in Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Science Technology, Vol. No.3, No.2, pp. 121-
127.
Oni, A. (1997), “Inhibition of Stress Corrosion
Cracking of a Low Steel in Sulphuric Acid by
Potassium-Chromate-Sodium Nitrate Mixture
Due to Syunergism”, Nigerian Journal of
Technical Education (NJTE), Vol. 14, pp.93-
100.
Oyetunji, A. (2000), “Effects of Some Inhibitors on
the Corrosion Rate of Low Carbon Steel
Submerged in Seawater”, Journal of Science,
Engineering & Technology, pp. 2849 –2859.
Piccard, G.S., Lefebure, M. H. & Tremillon (1987),
Proc. Joint Sympossium on Molten Materials in
salts”, Vol. 81, pp.1028
Shuaib-Babata, Y.L. (2008a), “Significance of
Corrosion: A Case Study of Nigeria”, Journal of
Engineering & Science Technology, Vol.3,
No.2, pp.52-55.
Shuaib-Babata, Y.L. (2008b), “Comparative
Analysis of Corrosion Behaviours of
Commercially Available Mild Steel in Ammonia
and Sulphuric Acid”, JORTEM Vol.1, No.1,
pp.52-56.
Shuaib-Babata, Y. L. (2006), “Corrosion Behaviour
of Commercial Mild Steel in Marine
Environment”, Paper presented at the First
National Conference of Institute of
Environmental Studies, Kwara State
Polytechnic, Ilorin (November, 15 -16), Pp. 38
of Book of Abstract.
Shuaib, Y.L.B. & Kareem, Y.A., (February 1997):
Corrosion inhibition of mild steel in
ammonial/water solution, pH 10.5 – 10.8.
B.Eng. Project Report, Mechanical Engineering
Department, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Umor, L. E., Imasogie, B. I. & Olajumoke, A. M.
(2002), “Corrosion Characteristics of NST_37-2
and St-60- Mn Steel Reinforcements in Concrete
Under Different Environmental Conditions”,
Proceeding of the Nigerian Materials Congress
(NIMACON 2002) & Meeting of Nigerian
Materials Research Society, Materials Society of
Nigeria Publication, Akure, pp.35-40 .
Yasuo K. & Toru M (1982) “Outline Proof Test
Program for Heat Affected Zone of Welded
Components (BWR), Predictive Methods of
Assessing Corrosion Damage to BWR Piping
and PWR Steam Generators”, NACE
Publication, Houston, pp 218 – 213.
http://www.kwarastate.gov.ng, 28th July, 2009:
Investment Opportunities Cassava Processing
Plant.
http://www.wikipedia.com/corrosion (downloaded
inn February, 2009).
http://www.wikipedia/cassava.com, 29th July, 2009.
Page 87
 ISSN 1897-
1897-8680

Figure 1a: Experimental Setup

Figure1: Average Corrosion Rate of Commercial Mild Steel Immersed in Cassava Juice (Extract)
Corrosion Rates (MPY) x10-
3

Figure 2: Average Corrosion Rates of Commercial Mild steel in Various Test Media
Inhibition Efficiency Percentage (%)

Figure 3: Percentage Inhibiting Efficiency of Ammonia at various stages of exposure

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 88
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 1: Some of the properties and Chemical analysis/composition of the commercial mild steel in % weight

Yield Strength

(Rockwell C)
Elongation

Toughness

Hardness
(N. mm2 )
Strength
(N/mm2 )
Tensile

(N.m)
(mm)
Mn

Mo
Cu

Zn
Cr

Sn

Fe
Ni
Si
C

P
S

95.5853
0.2470
0.6113

0.0769
0.0850
0.9114
0.0270
0.0281

0.0031

0.0044
0.0213

14.141

362.25

265.80

1.4386
0.499

92.60
Table 2: pH variations during corrosion of mild steel in various media
S/N MEDIUM pH

Initial Final
1 Ammonia/water solution 10.5 10.9

2 Cassava Extract Medium (Juice) 4.2 8.4

Table 3: Average Corrosion Rates (with time of exposure) of mild steel coupons at different stages of exposure.
S/N Time of Re-Immersion Average Average Corrosion Rates Difference in
Exposure Corrosion Rates (MPY) x 10-3 in former Corrosion Rates
(MPY) x 10-3 media of exposure (A-B)
(A) (B)
1 744 1.6761 2.5480 -0.8719

2 744 1.8816 1.6231 0.2585

3 744 - 0.8762 -0.8762

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 89
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Adebanji B.
Abe A.
School of Engineering Fashina E.T
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 90 - 94

Energy Supply and Management in a Depressed Economy-Nigeria a Case Study

Adebanji B., Abe A., & Fashina E.T.

Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.
paullade001@yahoo.com / bankrem1@yahoo.com
08035605051

Abstract
The country, Nigeria needs adequate supply of energy to drive her economy and power her domestic and
industrial sectors. Successive governments in the country have found it difficult, if not impossible to meet these
requirements. Nigeria’s refining capacity for instance is currently inadequate to meet domestic demand forcing
the nation to import petroleum products and other energy services.
This paper takes a look at the energy outlook of the country vis-à-vis the world energy outlook and
recommended various measures to attain energy security in a depressed economy like ours.
It also presented strategies of energy management to achieve an optimal result to safeguard the next generation
from total extinction.

Keywords: Energy, management, depressed economy, energy security.

Introduction integrating it into our energy policies for a

Nigeria is now in a state of emergency, a situation
where she cannot find her feet in terms of social,
economic, technological, and industrial life. The
theme for this conference “Depressed Economy:
Engineering and Technological opportunities” is
therefore very pertinent to salvage our dear beloved
country from the present energy crisis. The country
continues to face critical challenges related to her
energy sector despite abundant energy sources. Over
the last twenty years, the gap between energy supply
and demand is getting wider every day (Makoju,
2007).
Ease of access to energy services is a key
determinant of economic growth and a measure of
the standard of living of the people. Thus, the
provision and use of energy is directly linked to
sustainable development considering the impact on
economic growth, poverty, population, health,
education, e.t.c. Sustainable energy solutions
inevitably create employment at different levels and
especially in the villages and rural remote
communities (Esan, 2008). Some of the major
problems, confronting the energy sector are
unreliable supply system, inefficient energy
utilization, technological incapability, financial
constraints, mass corruption by the leaders e.t.c.
The problem addressed here is how to create an
energy system where supply is matched with demand
in a secured environment. A sustainable energy
system evolves from harmonious transformation of
primary energy resources for productive purposes
utilizing efficient technology, (Nwanya, et al, 2008).
There is a clear need to achieve energy security by
meaningful development (Ebiojumore, 2006).
Recent Developments In The Energy Sector
Nigeria’s energy sector has not undergone any
meaningful change over the years. The approach to
energy production and distribution is becoming bad
every day.
Government Efforts
The Federal government has shown its commitment
to the energy sector in Nigeria by formulating
various energy policies like the National Energy
policy, National Electric Power Policy 2001, The
Electric Power Sector Reform Act 2005, The Draft
Rural Electrification Policy 2005, Solar Energy
Reform Acts e.t.c. The present administration has
even declared a state of emergency on the power
sector. Nevertheless, are they sincere? Moreover, the
Federal government with the objective of boosting
the electricity generating capabilities has successfully
wooed some investors in independent power projects.
This is as shown in Table 1. The IPPs are expected to
help stimulate the growth of gas industry and create
more job opportunities.
The power generation development plan for the
country is as shown in Table 2. The expansion plan
for power generation in Nigeria by December 2009
will be 1483MW. This is to be made possible
through rehabilitation of existing generating units,
installation of new generating plants and the
procurement of power from independent operators
(Makoju, 2002).In order to achieve these goals the
Federal government has awarded seven more new
projects in the Niger Delta to deliver about 2562MW

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 90
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
to the national grid. However, despite all these huge
investments, power supply situation has not
improved at all. Some of the problems are due to
constant vandalisation, massive corruption by the
officials, indebtedness of PHCN to the Natural Gas
Commission and usual gross inefficiency in the
sector (Okafor, 2008).
Niger Delta Issue
Energy security cannot be achieved in a volatile
political environment where there is socio- political
disorder. Since December 2005, Nigeria has
continued to experience increased pipeline
vandalisation, kidnappings of the oil workers and
takeover of oil facilities by the Niger Delta militants.
Most recently, the militants attacked the following
oil facilities: Atlas Cove Jetty- a major oil
distribution facility located in Lagos; Chanomi Greek
pipeline supplying crude oil to the refinery from
Clerran’s production platforms; a wellhead oil field
operated by the shell Petroleum Development
Company and two pipelines at Adama kiri and Kula
in Rivers State. The ceaseless violence has serious
implication for the nation’s polity and the economy.
The failure of government to curb the rampant
violence in the region partly explains why the
country is always referred to as a failing state,
(Punch editorial, July 15th, 2009).
Assessment of Major Energy Sources
It is now very imperative to do a comprehensive
compilation of all the known energy sources to
produce a suitable framework for national energy
planning purposes and comparisons with other
countries as shown in
Table 5.
Energy Developments in Nigeria
Crude Oil
As a prominent OPEC member, Nigeria is one of the
world’s largest oil exporters. The country has 36.2
billion barrels of proven oil reserves as at Jan. 2007.
The Nigerian government plans to expand its
reserves to 40 billion barrels by next year, 2010.
According to the June report of the International
Energy Agency 2009, the country’s daily oil output
currently stands at 1.8 million barrels, which is
considerably lower than the 2.6 million barrels a day
in 2006. The country has four refineries with
installed capacity of refining 435,000 bpd of crude
oil as shown in Table 4. This was crippled by mass
corruption, poor management and the activities of the
Niger Delta militants.
Table 4 shows what was obtained as at July 2003, but
partly owing to the crisis in the Niger Delta, the
nation’s four refineries with a total capacity of
435,000bpd are virtually out of business now. The
grim reality is that Nigeria faces a bleak future unless
the crisis is brought under control.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Electricity Generation
In the area of power generation, gas accounts for
57%; petroleum products 33%; hydropower 10% of
the electric consumption. The country with a
population of over 140 million people is battling with
about 6900MW-installed capacity for power
generation with only 4000MW available as shown in
Table 5. The power Holding Company of Nigeria
(PHCN) at peak performance generates about
3000MW, which is grossly inadequate and results in
constant outages. A recent survey by UNIDO
revealed that textile industry in Nigeria, which used
to employ over 250,000 workers as at year 2003, has
been forced to downsize to about 50,000. This is the
aftermath of epileptic power supply.
Natural Gas
Nigeria is the seventh largest natural gas reserve
holder in the world and the largest in Africa. The
majority of the natural gas reserves are located in the
Niger Delta. Nigeria’s flares 40% of its annual
natural gas field but lacks the infrastructure to
produce natural gas. The government plans to raise
earning from natural gas exports to 50% of oil
reserves by next year, 2010.
Coal
The country possesses a sizeable coal reserves of
about 2.7 billion tones but with low production
capacity (Mitchel, 1983). The government is making
frantic effort to increase coal consumption in order to
reduce deforestation.
Renewable Energy
Renewable energy sources like solar, wind, nuclear,
waste heat recovery, reuses, and biomass, which
could have formed a vital part of the energy system,
are yet to gain popularity among homes and
industrial consumers. Nigeria receives about
4.851x1012kwh of energy per day from the sun. This
is equivalent to about 1.082 million of oil equivalent
(mtoe) per day. Biomass serves as a major energy
source to about 80% of the villages. The total
consumption is about 56.8 million cubic metres of
round wood energy in Nigeria. This reliance on fuel
to meet domestic consumption need has resulted in
deforestation.
Moreover, the total technically exploitable
hydropower potential based on the country’s river
system is conservatively estimated to be about
10,000MW of which only 19% is currently been
tapped or developed.
Global and Nigerian Supply and Demand
Patterns
Energy demand will continue to increase as the
population grows. This is as reflected in Table 6. It
shows the projected energy demand on a fuel basis.
Nigeria energy supply is majorly used for heating
and cooking, modern combustion, solar power and
hydropower. Currently renewable energy
technologies supply 13.1% of the world’s primary
energy supply (IEA, 2007).
Energy Security and Management in a Depressed
Economy
Page 91
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Energy Security
An effective and efficient energy infrastructure is a
pre-requisite for rapid industrial and economic
development. Energy security encompasses supply
side and demand side options. Not having access to
energy services is an obvious case of energy
insecurity. For some years now, the gap between
energy supply and demand in Nigeria has been
increasing continuously (Esan, 2008). Energy
security problems need to be addressed with all
seriousness considering its importance as a tool for
poverty reduction. Some of the noble initiatives to be
used in achieving these objectives are: diversification
of energy supply and demand; development of
decaying energy infrastructure; effective national
energy policy and equitable access to modern
technology.
Energy management
Energy management involves conservation of energy
resources, minimization of losses during the process
of conservation, supply and utilization. Energy
conservation is concerned with ways of reducing
energy demand but yet achieves the same objectives,
thus serving as a means of attainining energy
efficiency. Some prominent areas where energy
conservation can be applied are in the lightning and
illuminating devices, pumps, fans, ventilating air
conditioning equipment for space cooling e.t.c
(Garba and Bashir,2002)..
Demand side management programme can also be
used in order to conserve energy as it is done in U.S.
The program consists of planning, executing and
controlling of electric utilities that are primarily
designed to change their behaviour in electricity
consumption. It thus helps in avoiding losses in
energy conservation by the consumers. This program
automatically switch off supply when not needed
(Mithulanthan et al, 2004).
Energy conversion must be done with increasingly
demanding requirements imposed on modern energy
stations. Means of reducing both technical losses on
our generation, transmission and distribution systems
must be well analyzed. It must involve thorough
monitoring, measuring and analyzing energy flow
through systems.
Energy audit needs to be done to assess the
performance of an establishment in order to achieve
a higher utilization capacity, detect areas of energy
losses with the aim of enhancing energy efficiency.
Assessing each stage of energy management one by
one will reveal the inadequacies in the energy flow
system by proper functioning of the measuring
instruments (Makoju2007).
The Strategies
Cogeneration Technology
This technology involves the production of both
electricity and thermal energy from the same
equipment. With cogeneration, the energy supply
mix is diversified to meet various domestic needs,
which currently depend on the national grid. Nigeria,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
as a tropical country has the need for their
presumptive waste heat, especially for space cooling,
food products e.t.c. A well-diversified energy supply
mix is a key determinant of energy security,
(Nwanya, 2008). It is economically attractive and
environmentally friendly. Potentials for this mode of
electricity exist in most rural areas of the country.
Some of the basic advantages are less fuel
consumption, less pollution, recycling of waste
products and reduced distribution losses.
Distributed Generation
Distributed and dispersed generation can come from
a variety of sources and technologies. It can be from
renewable sources such as wind, solar, low-head
hydro and biomass. It includes fuel cells and so
called micro-turbines. Distributed generation is a
solution to the high power loss on transmission lines.
The large amount of money being spent in design,
construction, operation and maintenance can be
saved by making the generations closer to the load
centres. It is hoped that distributed and dispersed
generation applications will have a favourable
market, if the government shows more serious about
her privatization policies.
Building Skilled Human Capacity
Nigerian’s ability to meet the 2015 Millennium
Development Goals is doubted with her low number
of high quality human resources to meet
development challenges of building a knowledge-
based economy. Government must set her priorities
right by investing substantially in engineering
education. Some industries are dynamic and with
technology advancing everyday, there is need to
reassess our curricula with the current global change
in order to make it relevant to the industries and
economy at large.
Discussion and Recommendation
The need to provide affordable energy services to
Nigerians should be treated as a national priority.
Energy security must be integrated into our energy
policy bearing in mind policy objectives such as
development and environmental goals.
Apart from the concern that the revenue generation
projections for the 2009 fiscal year may not be met,
statistics released by the department of petroleum
resources raised the fear that the resistance may deter
the country from achieving its targets of 4 million
barrels per day by 2010 (Punch, editorial, July 15,
2009).The issue of the militants should be solved
finally to avoid losing oil investors from the regions.
In addition, all stakeholders in the energy sector must
participate actively in providing the necessary
supports to human capacity building. The Federal
Government needs to show more seriousness in the
power reform program.
Finally, the electric tariff structure needs to be
reviewed upward in order to give more room for
competition by private investors.
Page 92
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Conclusion
Energy conservation, enhancement of energy
efficiency for industrial growth coupled with
building skilled human capacity are tools of choice to
protect the climate, boost the Nigerian economy and
become independent of foreign oil supplies. In
addition, integrating cogeneration technology into
our energy system will create employment
opportunities for our restless youth, reduce wastes
and enhance energy security. Finally, for a proper
management of energy resources, the present
population growth rate is very high. If this is not
controlled, it can lead to more serious demand
pressure, which may lead to shortages and
inefficiency. It is high time we place energy at centre
of plans for a dignified environment.
References
Central Bank of Nigeria (2004): Nigeria Statistical
Fact Sheets on economic and social
development,1999-2003.www.cenbank.org.
Ebiojuomore O.E (2006):”Electric Power Sector and
Sustainable Environment”,Proceedings of the
Nigerian Society of Engineers,Gateway
2006,Abeokuta.
Esan A.A. (2008):“Moving towards a sustainable and
Secure supply of energy” Paper at the 1st
National Engineering Conferences, University of
Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti 7th-9th 2008.
Garba,B and Bashir A.M.(2002):”Managing Energy
Resources in Nigeria” Studies on Energy
consumption pattern in selected rural areas in
Sokoto State.Nigerian Journal of Renewable
Energy, Vol.10, nos1&2,pp97-107.
Inuogunum T(2006): “Eliminating Load-
Shedding”,PHCN News,September-December.
Makoju J.O.(2007):”Power Sector in
Nigeria:Past,present and Future”.PHCN
News,September-December.
Mitchel J.W. (1983): Energy engineering, John
wiley&sons, NY.
Mithulanthan N., Than O. Lee Van Phu
(2004):“Distributed Generator placement in
Power Distribution Systems using Genetic
Algorithm to Reduce losses”. Tharmassat
International Journal of Science and Technology
Vol. 9, No. 3
Nwanya S.C.; Taccani R. Mairo R
(2008):Cogeneration and sustainable
EnergyDevelopment in Nigeria” Paper at the 1st
National Engineering Conferences,University Of
Ado-Ekiti, Ado-Ekiti, 7th-9th Oct., 2008.
Okafor C.E.(2008): Crisis of Power Supply and
implications for Industrial Sector in NigeriaStud
Tribes Tribas,6(2):83-92.Kamla-Raj.
Sam I. Gepke (2006): “Electricity Generation and
Social-Economic Development in Rural Areas”
National Workshop on Capacity Building in
small River planning and Design for Isolated
/off-Grid Electricity Generation at Calabar,
Cross River State, 14th November, 2006.

Table 1: Status of IPPs in Nigeria

Name of Station Installed Capacity Available

S/N
Fuel type (MW) capacity (MW)
1 Agip (1) Okpai National gas 480 480
2 AES, Lagos National gas 300 300
3 NESCO Hydro 32.5 10
4 GSHL, Ajaokuta Natural gas 100 50
912.5 840
Source: Sam I. Gepke, 2006.

Table 2: Nigeria’s Electricity Generation Expansions Plans (2006-2010)

Plan Dec., May, Dec, Dec., Dec.,
2006 2007 2007 2008 2009
Existing PHCN Power stations 3,357 4,027 4,027 3,880 3,780
Existing IPPs 750 750 750 750 750
On-going FG. Project 1,001 1,452 1,496 2,511 3,528
Proposed Niger Delta power station 0 1,315 2,203 2,264 2,624
Proposed JV-IPPs 0 876 1820 2790 2790
Other IPPs 90 510 510 1265 1,365
Grand total 5,198 8,940 10,806 13,820 14,837
Source: Sam I. Gekpe, 2006.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 93
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 3: Nigerian Energy Statistics
Energy Quantity
Coal consumption 5.2 mtne
Commercial energy use 710.49mtne
Electricity consumption 17710,000000kwh
Electricity production 19,060,000,000kwh
Natural gas consumption 9210,000,000cum
Natural gas production 21,800,000,000cum
Natural gas reserves 4,007,000,000,000cum
Oil consumption 290,000bbl/d
Oil production 2,451,000bbl/d
Oil exports 1,900,000bpd
Oil refinery ability 435,000bpd
Oil reserves 36,000,000,000barrels
Sources: Energy Information US Department of Energy 2003.

Table 4: Nigerian Domestic Refining Capacity

Installed Capacity Actual Production
Refinery (bpd) Capacity (bpd)
Warri 125,000 35,000
Port-Harcourt(new) 150,000 100,000
Port-Harcourt(old) 60,000 25,000
Kaduna 100,000 31,250
Total 435,000 191,250
Source: Energy Information US Department of Energy, 2007.

Table 5: Generating and Consumption Capabilities

Country Population Generating Handling Per Capita
Served (million) Capacity walts/person
USA 293.6
(2002) 848,300MW 2,889.30
Germany 82.6
(2002) 115,000MW 1,392.25
U.K 59.7
(England & Wales) (2001)
76,300MW 1,265.90
South Africa 42.7
(2001) 44,650MW 1,046.70
Brazil 179.1 86,020MW 480.30
China 1300.1 338,300MW 260.00
India 1,086 106.31
(2002) 115,520MW
Ghana 20.7 1,762MW
(2001) 85.12
Nigeria 137.3
(2001) 4,000MW 29.33

Table 6: World primary energy demand, 2005, 2015, 2030.

2005-2030
Energy Type 2005 2015 2030 % p.a.
Coal 2892 3988 4994 2.2
Oil 4000 4720 5585 1.3
Gas 2354 3044 3948 2.1
Nuclear 721 804 854 0.7
Hydro 251 327 416 2.0
Biomass & Waste 1149 1334 1615 1.4
Other renewable 11429 14361 17721
Source: I.E.A. (2007)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 94
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oyewole, B. A.

Oludu, D. T.
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 95 - 97
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Information Technological Innovation in Agriculture and the Need for Adult Education among Rural
Farmers in Nigeria

*Oyewole, B. A. & Oludu, D. T.

*Department of Agricultural Engineering
The Federal Polytechnic
Ado – Ekiti, Nigeria
Tundeoyewole2006@yahoo.co.uk
Ipe High School, Ipe Akoko
Ondo State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
The world is a global village where technology is a major tool of interacting among its citizens. The paper took
a look at the importance of information technology in agriculture in globalize world and the impact the adult
education will create/produce among the rural farmers that are predominantly illiterate. For the Nigeria
farmers to be able to compete favourably with their counterparts in a globalize market, the paper recommends
adult literacy among the rural farmers with institutionalized support from the all tiers of government.

Keywords: Information Technology, Innovation, Rural Farmers, Global Market.

Introduction
In September 2009, 189 heads of states ratified the
Millennium Declaration. The declaration is an
unprecedented global commitment and one of the
most significant United Nations documents of recent
time. It offers a common and integrated vision on
how to tackle some of the major challenges facing
the world. Agriculture is central to achieving most of
the Millennium Development Goals if the potentials
in Agriculture is fully harnessed. Agricultural sector
of the economy in Nigeria is besotted by many
problems. Low adoption of innovation among the
rural farmers who formed the bulk of the farming
population is one of the numerous problems
confronting agriculture in Nigeria. No nation can
survive, let alone without the ability to feed her
people. According to Uwakah (1985), agriculture in
Africa is not providing adequate livelihood to the
people, neither is it producing enough food to feed
the continent’s rapidly growing urban population.
The low level of the continent’s agricultural
productivity with its consequently low standard of
living among the farmers is a continuing problem
calling for solution through the use of Adult
Education. Adult education has been defined by
Okafor et al (1987) as “that form of educational
enterprise which is properly planned and
methodological applied for the training primarily of
those who had not benefited from the regular form of
educational programmes at the primary and post-
primary levels of education, in functional literacy
and some post literacy knowledge acquisition
whether the beneficiaries are adults properly so
called or adolescent”. This type of education was
embraced by Akubuilo (1987) when he opined that
“for the simple fact that majority of the populace lack
one type of education or the other, the need arises for
education and appropriate skills for use in improving
the quality, quantity and varieties of farm products”.
Williams (1987) in his own contribution maintained
that “Adult education is a major means of sharing the
latest and the most pertinent knowledge with the
people and through it, human resources can be
developed to match effectively what seems an
avalanche of technological improvement”. Uwakah
(1985), posited that the adoption of new technique
may have secondary effect on the way the people live
while to adopt and successfully use improved
farming techniques, rural farmers must understand
them through effective teaching by a change agent
Adult education or Agricultural Officer”.
Akubuilo (1987), further postulated that “Agriculture
is the life wire and the mainstay of our economy. The
greater percentages of our industries are agro based.
It is also very obvious that almost 70% of Nigerian
labour force engaged in agricultural activities
especially among the rural dwellers and yet these
rural dwellers or farmers suffer terribly from
hunger”. The ideal was shared by Okeke (1983)
when he stressed that “most of the crops and animals
that are produced by these farmers are not enough for
the family consumption” so they have to still buy
more from the market to supplement the little they
produced:. In this light, it is not over statement to
affirm that meaningful changes can only take place
in agricultural development and the farmers through
agricultural extension programme and the education
of her adults. This view was collaborated by
Omolewa (1981) when he said “the government
should encourage the development of continuing and

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 95
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
higher education and play a leading role in the adult
education”. Gills (1977) stressed that “one of the
ways to develop peasant agriculture is to educate the
farmers’ families in improving techniques of
farming”.
This is done by an out of school system of non
formal adult education whereby agricultural
technicians bring the results of research to the
farmers and educate them how to apply the findings
on their own farms. There is therefore the need for a
re-awakening towards agricultural production and
education for the farmers to ensure a high yield.
The farmer’s role in providing for our needs
agriculturally has never been doubted, what is in
doubt is their level of education when considered
with the responsibility of feeding the nation which
rests on them.
One can observe that during the last decade progress
in information technology is affecting all spheres of
our life. Due to the progress in hardware
technologies, we are able to procure high speed
reliable computer with huge storage capacities at
affordable cost. Also, database and data warehousing
technologies can be used to store and retrieve large
amount of information, which can be couple with
internet technology to deliver information instantly
to the need. According to Krishna Reddy and
Ankaiah (2005), recent information technology
developments enable the maintenance of huge
information (text, image, audio and video)
repositories with legible down-time. The stored
information can be quickly extracted by millions of
users simultaneously.
Reddy and Ankaiah (2005), submitted that internet
speed is doubling every nine month. Wiederhold
(2002) posited that data mining technology can be
used to extract useful knowledge from huge
databases and stimulation technology can be used to
predict into the future. Krishna Rebby and Ankaiah
(2005) agreed that such information technology
based developments provide new opportunities to
improve the utilization and performance of live hood
technology such as agriculture. Information
technology doubtlessly contributes much to
agriculture and rural development. Firstly, it can
facilitate rural activities and provide more
comfortable and safe rural life with equivalent
services to those in the urban areas, such as provision
of distance education, tele-medicine remote public
services, and remote entertainment.
Secondly, information technology can initiate new
agricultural and rural business such as e-commerce,
rural tourism and small-scale farms. It can support
policy making and evaluation of optimal farm
production, disaster management, agro-environment
resource management, using tools such as geographic
information systems (GIS). It can also improve farm
management and farming technologies by efficient
farm management, risk management, effective
information or knowledge transfer, realizing
competitive and sustainable farming with safe
production. For example, farmers must make critical
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
decisions such as what to and when to plant, and how
to manage pests, while considering off farm factors
such as environmental impacts, markets access, and
industry standards. Ninomiya (2004), posited that
information technology can provide systems and
tools to secure food traceability and reliability that
has been an emerging issue concerning farm products
since serious contamination such as BSE and chicken
was detected.
Benefits of Information Technology in
Agriculture
Information Technology is now widely used in the
Agricultural Commodity Auctions. During the last
years, several innovative applications have emerged
around the world that promise to bridge the digital
divide:. According to Upton and Fuller (2004), e –
Chou pal project in India, and information
technology based platform was used by farmers to
sell their agricultural produce. Other examples
includes Online cooperative of trades in South
America where people sell directly to end consumers
(Anoymous, 2000), trading websites for cattle
ranchers in the United States (Bearden, 2004), and
online coffee auctions in Brazil (Scholer, 2003).
According to Banker and Mitra (2005), the common
purpose of these initiative is to link the rural
communities to the internet, provide timely price
information and disseminate farming knowledge,
allow producers to executive trades and transactions,
eliminate intermediaries, reduces unscrupulous
trading and consequently transform the global
agricultural supply chain that support the livelihood
of billions of people around the world. In the study of
the Impact of Information Technology on
Agricultural Commodity Auctions conducted in India
by Banker and Mitra (2005), the price of coffee was
approximately 4 percent higher in the online auction
when compared to the price of the same grade in the
physical.
They established that the online format increases the
bargaining power of the seller by providing
continuously updated information on international
selling prices. Further in their study, they established
that the buyer is willing to pay a higher price because
the daily operations of the online format allow the
buyer to complete transactions quickly and take
advantage of variations in international coffee price.
According to them, online higher price is
encouraging to producers.
Food Traceability
After the Avian flu came out, traceability becomes a
big issue. Traceability is the requirements which
required farmers and exporters in the south to
painstakingly record everything they do in their
fields. What seeds were used? When were they
sown? What fertilizer and pesticides were applied?
And even, when was the harvest? It is tantamount to
making farmers to keep a logbook for their land. But
without such records these farmers’ products will
never reach the European consumers. Several
Page 96
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
systems have been developed and information
technology in traceability. One simple example is the
VIPS developed by Sugiyama. The system provides
consumers farming records on crops that they
purchase by using a code number and URL printed
on the product label, the system also provides
information on distribution route of products to
realize true traceability. Field data is the basis of
farm product traceability and the importance of field
data acquisition should be emphasized in this regard
as well, considering reduction of farmer’s workload
on recording. A mobile phone – based recording
system that is linked to traceability has already been
operational in a region of Japan for some crops.
The Need for Adult Education among Rural
Farmers in Nigeria
Agriculture had been taken to new heights in the
manner unprecedented in the history of mankind.
Many issues that are emerging in agriculture demand
that farmers of whom the large proportion of them
are illiterate in the art of reading and writing required
that they are literate in order to properly understand
the emerging issues.
The entering of the Information Technology into
Agriculture poses more challenges to these illiterate
farmers. For them to be able to take advantages
offered by information technology in Agriculture
there is the need for mass adult education among the
rural farmers.
With adult education in place among the rural
farmers, human resources can be developed to match
effectively with technological improvement
especially information technology application in
agriculture. This however, could only be achieved by
institutional support by governments of all tiers.
Conclusion
The world is a global village made possible by the
breakthrough in technology. In future, Nigeria
farmers would have has to compete with those from
the rest of the world to sell their agricultural
produces in the local and the world markets. In this
situation, information technology assumes
importance, as scientific advice is essential to harvest
the different kinds of crops based on the demand in
the globalize world market. For the farmers, to be
able to compete with their counterparts in other parts
of the world in a globalize world market, there is a
need for adult educational system among the rural
farmers.
References
Akubuilo, C. J. (1987): Adoption of Innovations
Among Farmers in Anambra State
(Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis). University of
Nigeria, Usukica Pp. 87 – 89.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Anonymous (2002): “Weavers go dot.com and elders
move in”. The New York Times. March
28,2000. Pp.2
Banker, R. D and Mitra, S. (2005): Impact of
Information Technology on Agricultural
Commodity Auctions in India. Twenty-sixth
International conference on Information
system.
Bearden, R, (2004): “Internet Site Helps Cattle
Marketing” Southeast Farm Press (31:25),
Number 3, P.10.
Gills, S. (1987): “Importance and Contribution of
Rural Sociology to Extension System in
African” Journal of Agricultural Extension
vol.2 No 5, Pp.115.
Krishna Reddy, P. and Ankaiah, R. (2005): A
Framework of Information Technology
Dissemination System to Improve Crop
Productivity Current Science. Vol. 88. No
12,June 2005.
Ninomiya, S. (2004): Successful Information
Technology for Agriculture and Rural
Development. FFTC Publication Database,
National Agricultural Research Center,
National Agricultural Research Organization,
Kannondal, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8666, Japan.
Education” in foundation of education.
Okafor, F. C., Okeem, E. and Mereni, J. (1987):
Philosophical Basis of Adult Education in
Foundation of Adult of Adult Education.
Uruowulu Obosis Pacific printers. Pp. 8 – 10.
Okeke, H. E. (1983): “Approach to Rural Extension”.
A paper presented at Rural Extension Training
Workshop, Umodike Umuahia.
Omolewa, M. (1981): Adult Education Practice in
Nigeria. Ever Brother Nig. Publishers Ltd. Pp.
58-60.
Scholer, M. (2003): “Gourmet Coffee Makes
Premium Prices Online” International Trade
Forum (3), 2003, P. 27.
Upton, D. M. and Fuller, V. A. (2004): “The ITC e-
choupal Initiative”. Harvard Business School
Case (9-604-016), January 15, 2004, Pp. 1 -20.
Uwakah, C. T. (1985): The Agricultural Approach to
Rural Development in West Africa. Memoirs of
faculty of Agriculture, Nsukka. Pp. 29 – 37
Wiederhold, G. (2002): Information Systems that
also Predict into Future. In lecture Notes in
Computer Science, Springer-verlag. Pp. 1 – 14.
Williams, S. K. T. (1987): “The Role of Adult
Education in Raising Productivity and
Improved Rural Development” in Role of Adult
Education in Community Development. Paper
presented at Jos. P. 140.
Page 97
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ejiko S. O.,

Ukachi, P.
School of Engineering Ajewole, P.
P. O
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 98 -101

Optimization of Production Units of a Foundry Shop Using Linear Programming

1
Ejiko S. O., 1Ukachi, P. & 2Ajewole, P. O.
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
jcdatjiko@yahoo.com / 08032317506
2
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
ajepet2005@yahoo.com
1
Corresponding Author
Abstract
This paper explores the possibility of maximizing the profit of a mechanical product manufacturing business by
optimizing the production units using linear programming tool under varying constraints. A Visual Basic
program was also developed to solve the linear programming problem. The foundry shop at the Mechanical
Engineering Department of the Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti was used as a case study. The foundry produces
three major components which include 5 litre pot, 3litre jug and grinding teeth plate of aluminium respectively,
all by casting. Time for varying operations such as moulding, casting (pouring and solidifying) and finishing
were collected for each product. A mathematical model equation for profit was developed based on the previous
profit data of the foundry and subjected to constraint equations based on the time required to finish each of the
three products denoted X, Y and Z. The profit function was analysed both manually and by using Visual Basic
program in order to obtain the quantity of each product that will give maximum profit. The result obtained
revealed that 100 units, 40 units and 60 units of pot, jug and grinding teeth plate respectively will have to be
produced per day in order to obtain a maximum profit of N18,800.00 in a day. This reflects that the business is
highly profitable if the resources and time available are efficiently utilized.

Introduction allowed to transform into a solid (Piwonka, 1986).

In production engineering where the objectives of a
firm are centred around the increment in profit and
reduction in the cost of production, it becomes
imperative to evaluate the equivalent units of
production that benefits the company’s goal. The
mathematical tools are of varying form such as
economic order quantity, break even method, and
optimization techniques to mention but a few from
several. The data obtained with respect to the
formulated model will determine the technique to be
utilized.
The application of linear programming techniques
into the production of Aluminum component through
casting will go a long way in the expansion of the
workshop activities (The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ekiti Foundry Workshop), knowing every much that
Aluminum is one of the most abundant metals on
earth (Abass, 2000; Ramsden, 1994). The basic
processes such as mould preparation, pouring and
solidification and finishing were considered against,
the time for varying products such as pot, jug and
grinding teeth plate with respect to the available time
per day. The case study foundry shop largely
depends on Aluminum alloy for casting which has
properties such as compressive strength, corrosion
resistance, fatigue strength, creep strength to mention
but a few is use in metal casting. This is a liquid
shaping process in which the liquid is made to
conform to a desired geometry in a mould and then
The case of solidification as treated by Apelian
(1986) which implies that the transport mechanism,
kinetics of heat, fluid and mass flow during liquid to
solid transformation of the alloy directly control the
resultant cast structure which dictates the properties
and performance of the cast components. At the end
of simulation process the numbers of component are
obtained which will go a long way in optimizing the
company objective. This tool is not limited to
production process only, it can also be applied to
other social function in life provided the initial
modelling conditions are met.
Linear Programming
Linear programming (L.P.) is a tool for solving
optimization problems. It is a mathematical tool
(model) for determining the optimal (maximum or
minimum) value of a given function called the
objective function, subject to a set of stated
restrictions, or constraints, placed on the variable
concerned (Stroud 1996). Also, optimization can be
referred to as the act of obtaining the best result
under given circumstances. Again, it can be defined
as a process of finding the conditions that give the
maximum or minimum value of a given function
(Beighter et al, 1979). The L.P. is a tool for project
evaluation and selection which we adopt for decision
aiding model, there are various project selection
model for deriving varying solutions such as that of

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 98
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
economic batch/lot size, pay back period, regression
analysis and so on. There are criteria for selecting an
appropriate model.
We live in the midst of what has been called the
“knowledge explosion. We frequently hear such
comments as “90 percent of all we know about
physics has been discovered since Albert Einstein
published his original work on special relativity”;
and “80 percent of what we know about the human
body has been discovered in the past fifty years:' In
addition, evidence is cited to show that knowledge is
growing exponentially. Such statements emphasize
the importance of the management of change. To
survive, firms must develop strategies for reassessing
the use of their resources. Every allocation of
resources is an investment in the future. Because of
the complex nature of most strategies, many of these
investments are in projects. The proper choice of
investment projects is crucial to the long-run survival
of every firm. Daily we witness the results of both
good and bad investment choices. On the front pages
of our newspapers we read about the success or
failure of past decisions made by Ashland Oil
regarding the maintenance of its fuel Storage tanks,
by IBM concerning the timing of introducing its PS/2
line of computers, and by General Motors about
building and marketing the Cadillac Allante. But can
such important choices be made sensibly? Once
made, do they ever change and if so how? These
questions reflect the need for effective selection
models.
Within the limits of their capabilities, such models
can be used to increase profits, to select investments
for limited capital resources, or to improve the
competitive position of the organization. They can be
used for ongoing evaluation as well as initial
selection, and thus are a key to the allocation of the
organization's scarce resources. When a firm chooses
a project selection model, the following criteria,
based on Souder (1973) are most important.
1. Realism: The model should reflect the reality of
the manager's decision situation, including the
multiple objectives of both the firm and its
managers. Without a common measurement
system, direct comparison of different projects is
impossible. For example, Project A may
strengthen a firm's market share by extending as
facilities and Project B might improve its
competitive position by strengthening staff.
Other things being equal, which is better? The
model shows the realities of the firm's
limitations on facilities, capital, personal etc.
The model should also include factors for risk-
both the technical risks of performance, cost,
and time and the market risk of customer
rejection.
2. Capability: The model should be sophisticated
enough to deal with multiple time periods,
simulate various situations both internal and
external to the project (e.g. interest rate
changes), and optimizing model will make the
comparisons that management deems important;
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
consider major risks and constraints on the
projects and then select the best overall project
or set of projects.
3. Flexibility: The model should give valid results
within the range of conditions the firm might
experience. It should have the ability to be easily
modified, or to be self-adjusting in response to
changes in the firm's environment; for example,
tax law change, new technological
advancements alter risk levels, and, above all,
the organization’s goals change.
4. Ease of use: the model should be reasonably
convenient, neither should it take a long time to
execute, but be easy to use and understand. It
should not contain interpretation data that are
hard to acquire, excessive personnel, or
unavailable Model's variables should also relate
one to one with those real word parameters the
managers believe significant to the project.
Finally, it should be easy to stimulate the
expected outcomes associated with investments
in different project portfolios.
5. Cost: Data-gathering and modelling costs
should be low relative to the cost of production
and must surely be less than the potential
benefits of the project. All costs should be
considered, including the costs of data
management and of running the mode (Jack and
Samuel 1988).
Base on the data available and the intended solution
to be obtained, which is the optimum value for
profitability, the linear programming tool is selected
for determining the optimization value for the
particular Foundry Workshop under study.
Methodology
The Foundry Shop of the Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ekiti was selected as the case study workshop. The
shop produces three major components which
include 5 litre pot, 3 litre jug and grinding teeth plate
of aluminium by casting. Data were collected during
the workshop operation. Time of varying operations
were determined by the use of diamond stop watch
through observation and monitoring of the product
processes (Moulding, Casting and Finishing)
respectively. The data gathered as shown in Table
1.0 which includes an average moulding time of 40
minutes, 30 minutes and 20 minutes, casting time of
20, 10, and 40 minutes, finishing time of 10, 20 and
10 minutes for the 5 litre pot, 3 litre jug and grinding
teeth plate of aluminium respectively. The data were
tabulated and analysed by linear programming
method in order to determine the optimum units of
production and profit which when adopted by the
workshop will go a long way to increase the financial
capability of the shop hence bring about the
expansion of the Foundry business.
Formulation of Mathematical Model
Decision variables x, y and z are stated as follows:
X = Number of 5 litre Pot produced in a day
Y = Number of 3 litre Jug produced in a day
Page 99
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Z = Number of Grinding Teeth Plate produced in a
day
The target is to maximize the company profit.
Considering the above table the objective function is
now
P = 80x + 120y + 100z
Subject to
40x + 30y + 20z = 640
20x + 10y + 40z = 480
10x + 20y +10z = 240
with x, y, z > 0 constants
Problem Solving Procedure
In solving this problem, each equation above was
divided through by 10 and slack variables were
introduced to the, constraints. This becomes
4x + 3y + 2z + W1 = 64
2x + y + 4z + W2 = 48
x + 2y + z + W3 = 24
p – 8x – 12y – 10z
Setting up the simplex tableau
Starting Basic Solution: The three constraints now
contain six variables, but if we start by letting x, y
and z each be zero, then we have the temporary
solutions, W1 = 64, W2 = 48 and W1 = 24, we indicate
these variable at LHS column.
Note:
(i) The columns with the slack variable form a unit
matrix
(ii) There are now six variables, x, y, z, W1, W2,
W3. (n = 6)
(iii) There are three constraints (m = 3).
(iv) We put (n – m) variables, i.e. three variables (x,
y and z), equal to zero as a start.
The objective function is move across the equal sign
so as to obtain a function that corresponds to the
simplex tableau.
Procedure for Analyzing
Firstly, the column containing the most negative
entry in the index row was selected and enclosed.
Secondly, the value in the b column was divided by
the positive entry in the key column and the smaller
ratio determines the key row. The number that
intersects both the key column and key row then
becomes the pivot. Thirdly, the pivot was made unity
by dividing is row with this value. Fourthly, to obtain
new number for other row it becomes old number
minus the corresponding entries in the main row and
the key column. Fifthly, the process 1 to 4 was
applied continuously until the x, y, z column form a
unity matrix and the value at b becomes the
corresponding optimized value.
Results and Discussion
The result of computation shows the optimized
quantity of product to be produced to obtain the
maximum profit. This includes 100 units of Pot (X)
per day, 40 units of Jug (Y) per day and 60 units of
Teeth plate (Z) per day with a maximum profit of
N18,800. This reflects that the business is highly
[profitable considering the fact that an average of 7
components of each product can be produced daily.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Where the total products are sold, a daily profit of
N2,100.00 will be made compared to the sum of
N18,800.00 daily that will be if the optimum units
are produced and sold with the resources and time
available are efficiently utilised. This result also
shows that greater attention should be given to
production of pot because of its volume and its profit
generating almost half of the entire profit.
Conclusion
The result reflects clearly the optimized value of the
product which a layman can easily understand and
apply to maximize his profit. With the linear
optimization tool, a lot relating to economic value
can be evaluated; this includes deducing the number
of components to be produced, the number of
workers to be employed, the capacity of equipment
to be purchased.
Recommendation
Based on the result, it is recommended that the firm
should employ more hands for the moulding
operation. The company can also mechanize its
moulding process considering long term investment;
this will go a long way in reducing the production
time, overhead cost, labor and then maximizes its
production unit for greater profitability.
Reference
Abass A. Olajire (2000): Introductory Organic and
Inorganic Chemistry. 2nd Edition OGFat
Publications, Ibadan. P.417
Apelian, D (1986): Encyclopedia of Materials
science and engineering Cast structure of Alloys
vol 1 page Bros Ltd, Uk
Beighter, C.S., Philip, D.T and Wilde D.J (1979):
Foundation of Optimization 2nd Edition Prentice
– Hall Englewood Pg 1-2
Croucher, J.S. (1980): Operation Research: A First
Course 1st Edition Pergamon Press Pty Ltd.
Australia
Ikechukwu, J.M. (1989): Economic Optimization of
a Refinery using Linear Programming.
Unpublished Project, University of Benin.
Jack R.M. and Samuel J.M (1988): Project
Management a Managerial Approach. 2nd
Edition John Wiley and Sons Publisher New
York Pg. 35,36
Stroud, K. A. (1994): Further Engineering
Mathematics 2nd Edition ELBS Publisher, China.
Piwonka, Y.S (1986): Encyclopedia of Materials
Science and Engineering Casting of Metals. Vol.
1, Page Bros Ltd, UK.
Ramsden, E. N. (1994): A-level Chemistry. 3rd
Edition, Stanley Thornes Publishers Ltd. P 380.
Richard, A.J., William, T.N. and Roger, C.V. (1974):
Production and Operation Management, A
System Concept Houghton Mifflin Boston
Souder, W.E. (1973): Utility and Perceived
Acceptability of R&D Project Selection Models
“Management Science”.
Page 100
 ISSN 1897-
1897-8680

Table 1.0: Data gathered from the production process

Moulding Casting Finishing Profit Per
(Mins) (Mins) (Mins) component (N)
5 Litre Pot 40 20 10 80
3 Litre Jug 30 10 20 120
Grinding Teeth Plate 20 40 10 100
Available Time/day 640 480 240

Table 2.0: Simplex Tableau

Basis X Y Z W1 W2 W3 B Check
W1 4 3 2 1 0 0 64 74
W2 2 1 4 0 1 O 48 56
W3 1 2 1 0 0 1 24 29
P –8 – 12 – 10 0 0 0 0 – 30

Table 3.0: Optimisation Table

Basis X Y Z W1 W2 W3 B Check
W1 4 3 2 1 0 0 64 74
W2 2 1 4 0 1 O 48 56
W3 1 2 1 0 0 1 24 29
P –8 – 12 – 10 0 0 0 0 – 30
W1 5/2 0 ½ 1 0 -3/2 28 61/2
W2 3/2 0 7/2 0 1 -½ 36 83/2
Y ½ 1 ½ 0 0 ½ 12 29/2
P –2 0 –4 0 0 6 144 144
160/7 172
W1 16/7 0 0 1 -1/7 -10/7 /7
72 83
Z 3/7 0 1 0 2/7 -1/7 /7 /7
48 60
Y 2/7 1 0 0 -1/7 4/7 /7 /7
1296 1340
P –2/7 0 0 0 8/7 38/7 /7 /7
172
X 1 0 0 7/16 -1/16 -10/16 10 /16
116
Z 0 0 1 -3/16 5/16 2/16 6 /16
88
Y 0 1 0 -2/16 -2/16 ¾ 4 /16
3112
p 0 0 0 2/16 18/16 84/16 188 /16
X = 100, Y = 40, Z = 60 and P max = 18,800 = N18,800

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 101
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Balogun, A. L

Olanrewaju, T. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 102 - 104
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Entrepreneurship and Engineering:
The Way out of the Nation’s Economic Crisis

Balogun, A. L. & Olanrewaju, T. O.

Agric. Engineering & Water Resources Dept.
Institute of Technology, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin.
balogun2al@yahoo.com
olanyinks26@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Economic development/progress is an essential component of development that is conceived of as a multi
dimensional process involving changes in structures, attitudes and institutions as well as the acceleration of
economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of absolute poverty. This paper examines how
entrepreneurship and engineering has contributed in revitalizing the Nigerian economy. Entrepreneurship and
engineering brought forward new discoveries and theories that challenge us to rethink our fundamental world
view; a new world that is rich with possibilities and destinations.

Key words: Entrepreneurship, Engineering.

Introduction In relation the term “Technopreneur” arose from

In its wider sense, an enterprise is any identified idea
that is translated into a planned and satisfactorily
implemented activity. In its narrower sense, it refers
to a business venture or undertaking (NBTE, 2007).
Shuaibu (2005) said it is the ability to think of new
activities or ideas and make them work profitably.
Robert (2002), defined entrepreneur as one who
brings resources, labour, materials and other assets
into combinations that make their value greater than
before, and also one who introduces changes,
innovations and a new order.
Entrepreneurship can then be defined as the capacity
for creativity, innovation, investment and expansion
in new markets, products and techniques, also is the
process of creating something new with value by
devoting the necessary time and effect, assuming the
accompanying financial, psychic, and social risks,
and receiving the resulting rewards of monetary and
personal satisfaction and independence. (Shuaibu,
2005 and Robert, 2002).
Conversely, Engineering cannot be appropriately
defined without defining science and Technology.
Science can be said to be the body of, and quest for,
fundamental knowledge and understanding of all
things natural and man-made; their structural
properties and how they behave.
Technology is an enabling package of knowledge,
devices, systems, processes and other technologies,
created for specific purpose. The word technology is
used colloquially to describe either a complete
system, a capability or a specific device (Robert,
2000).
Faborode, (2005) defined technology further as any
practical art which utilizes scientific knowledge. The
object is usually in the positive, to advance and
enhance human society and conditions.
within Singaporean culture to describe an individual
whose entrepreneurial endeavors focus on a
technology-centered enterprise.
Engineering can be defined as the knowledge
required, and the process applied, to conceive, to
design, make, build, operate, sustain, recycle or
retire, something with significant technical content
for a process, a system, a service, a technology
(Robert, 2000)
The definitions of entrepreneurship and engineering
indicates that both requires “creativity” i.e.
innovation, hence, there is a relation.
Innovation is the successful introduction of
something new. In the context of economy, it relates
to something of practical use that has significant
technical content and achieves commercial success.
In the context of society it relates to improvements in
the quality of life i.e. entrepreneurship and
engineering require innovation which enhances the
quality of life.
Innovation can be of various types which are:
- Ordinary innovations – new products with little
technological change
- Technological innovations – new products with
significant technological change
- Breakthrough innovations – new products with
some technological change
Entrepreneurship in Developing an Economy
According to Godfrey (2008), it is a general belief
that when a community or nation is not in position
or incapable of internally generating the forces and
capacities (knowledge, skills, human values) to
continually face and meet her needs and desires it has
run into a logic poverty or underdevelopment.
It is generally agreed that what a country produced

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 102
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
(or what determines productiveness of people)
depends on its endowments in terms of physical,
natural and human resources including the quality
and efficiency of institutions: however, the quality
and efficiency in production of goods and services
can also be stimulated with modern production
process (and new ways of doing things) expanding
country’s production frontier (Hausmann and
Rodrick, 2005).
To eliminate poverty and underdevelopment, the
following is recommended for an economic growth:
product evolution process and Interactive synthesis.
i. Product evolution process: This is the process
through which innovation develops and
commercialize through engineering and
entrepreneurial activity, which in turn stimulates
economic growth. It is simply the process of
developing and commercializing an innovation.
ii. Interactive synthesis: It is the intersection of
engineering knowledge and need that starts the
product development process. It requires
matching the technology with the appropriate
market and making the needed adjustments.
Government as an Innovator
This is a government active in commercializing
technology. The government is one conduit for
commercializing results of research and
developments in engineering. Government has the
financial resources to successfully transfer
technology to market place; it lacks the business
skills, necessary for commercialization. In addition,
government bureaucracy often inhibits business from
being formed in a timely manner.
To address such problem, it is recommended that the
NSE, COREN and other engineering bodies should
discuss with government to encourage
commercializing engineering products.
The contribution of entrepreneurship in the
promotion of economic development should not be
underestimated and therefore the need to highlight it
is essential. The entrepreneurs are the change agents
and the prime movers of the economy. It has been
established that no country can grow economically
without the positive support of the entrepreneurs and
entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs are experts in the
use of resources both in their personal life and in
business situations such as the following: money,
equipment, energy, skills, knowledge and time.
Entrepreneurs make the economic system work and
make life better for everyone concerned by creating
new and efficient methods, and offering lower prices
through effective competition.
International Entrepreneurship
International entrepreneurship is the process of an
entrepreneur conducting business activities across
national boundaries. It may consist of exporting,
licensing, opening a sales or production unit in
another country. The activities necessary for
ascertaining and satisfying the needs and wants of
target consumers often take place in more than one
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
country. When an entrepreneur executes his or her
business in more than one country, international
entrepreneurship is occurring.
In the same vein, this is very much possible in the
case of engineering i.e. international engineering but
mostly come in the form of technology transfer.
Technology transfer can be said to be the transfer or
movement of a machine (product) from a place
(country) to another place where it is used/needed.
Rather than just moving such machines a plant/unit
can be established for the production of the machines
in their countries of request e.g. Peugeot automobile
Plant in Kaduna and Volkswagen place in Lagos.
Encouraging international entrepreneurship and
engineering can significantly lead to an economic
growth.
The Future of Entrepreneurship
Though entrepreneurship has some common aspects
i.e. risk taking, creativity, independence and rewards
which hopefully will continue to be driving force
behind the notion of entrepreneurship in the future.
Same goes for engineering. Engineering has been in
existence for long and has got the required publicity
over time that engineering products only publicize
engineering as a profession but entrepreneurship
does not get much publicity and awareness as other
profession. One thing is clear: the future for
entrepreneurship appears to be bright.
We are living in the age of entrepreneurship, with
entrepreneurship endorsed by educational
institutions, government units, society and
corporations. Entrepreneurial education has never
been so important in terms of programme and
academic research. This increase in course offerings
has been accompanied by an increase in research in
the area of academic endeavour.
Governments are taking an increased interest in
promoting the growth of entrepreneurship.
Individuals are encouraged to form new businesses
and are provided with government supports in terms
of grants and loan from Nigeria Development Bank,
Bank of Industry etc.
Encouragement by the Federal, State and Local
Government should continue into the future as more
law makers understand that new enterprises create
jobs and increase economic output in the area.
Conclusion
Environment that encourages entrepreneurs to invest
in new technology, engineering products and new
activities critical to the required economic growth in
Nigeria should be encouraged.
The engineering products and services created must
meet the needs of the rural people, that is, those at
the base of the pyramid. This will mean developing
traditional and rural markets. But this will not happen
unless native capacities and sustainable technologies
are in place to harness the opportunity set in these
regions through entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship is the dynamic process of creating
incremental wealth. Wealth is created by individuals
Page 103
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
who assume major risks in terms of equity, time
and/or career commitment or provide value for some
product or service.
Entrepreneurship and engineering has assisted in
revitalizing the rural areas. Individuals in rural areas
can relate to the concept and see it as a possibility for
changing their present situation and the Nigerian
economy.
References
Faborode, M.O. (2005): Technology, Life and
Living: An inaugural lecture delivered at
Oduduwa Hall, Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ile-Ife. Pg 2.
Godfrey Nzamujo, O.P. (2008): Fighting poverty
through the promotion of sustainable
entrepreneurship and functional and appropriate
human resource development: A challenge for
Agricultural Colleges. 2nd – 5th December,
2008. Pg 4.
Hausmann, R. and Rodrick, D. (2005): What You
Export Matters, CID Working Paper No. 123.
Harvard University, USA. Pg 7.
NBTE, (2007): Training Manual on Entrepreneurship
for Polytechnics and Monotechnics in Nigeria.
National Board for Technical Education,
Kaduna Hamitle Consults Nigeria Limited Pg.
13.
Robert, M. (2000): The universe of engineering – A
UK perspective. A report prepared by a Joint
Royal Academy of Engineering/Engineering
Council Working Group. The Royal Academy
of Engineering London. Pp 4-8.
Robert, (D.H. 2002): Entrepreneurship. McGraw-Hill
Companies. New York. Pp 10-23.
Shuaibu, M.J. (2005): Modalities for teaching
entrepreneurship in technical institutions. A
paper presented at the Education Tax Fund
(ETF) capacity building workshop for lectures
of Polytechnics and Monotechnics in Nigeria.
August-October, 2005. pg 1.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 104
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oni, D. O
(2009), 5 (1) : 105 - 110
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Issues and Challenges of Power Sector Reform in a Depressed Economy

Oni, D.O.

Department of Electrical/Electronics Engineering

Federal Polytechnic, Ede,
Osun State
e-mail: onidavid@yahoo.com / +23480666442507
Abstract
Electricity as a source of energy is vital to the growth and development of any economy. Its significance arises
from the impact it has on infrastructure, a range of secio-economic activities and consequently on the country’s
standard of living. However, the slow growth in economic activities in recent years, the demand for electricity in
Nigeria has continued to increase hence the government power sector reforms. There is no doubt that expensive
and unreliable power remains a major concern to Nigeria’s industrial sector and household consumers alike.
This paper discusses issues and challenges of the power sector reforms in Nigeria. The issues of privatizing
electricity supply; deregulation of the downstream sector of the oil industry and participation of independent
power project in the country, the challenges are many and some of them include uncertainty in continuity of
energy policies, politicizing of the energy and power sector. Others are poverty and consumers’ inability to pay
an economic and appropriate electricity tariff, youth restiveness, compensation Extortion and vandalisation of
gas pipelines, and insufficient transmission and distribution line capacities. The papers also proffer solutions to
the challenges.

Keywords: privatization, deregulation, power reform. generation, transmission.

Introduction The World Bank (1993) assessment study

The economic independence of any country as
related to electrical power system depends mainly
on the supply of this electrical power in abundance
and its reliability. The extension of this power to
cities, towns and villages equally plays a vital role.
In spite of Nigeria’s huge resources endowment in
energy and the enormous investment in the
provision of energy infrastructure the provision the
performance of the power sector has remained
poor, in comparison to the other developing
economies. The slow growth in economic activities
in recent years, the demand for electricity in
Nigeria has continued to increase there is no doubt
that expensive and unreliable power remains a
major concern to Nigeria’s industrial sector and
household consumers alike. Multiple and
unpredictable power outages while become a daily
occurrence in Nigeria, often results in equipment
malfunctioning in all sector of the economy and
make it difficult to produce goods and provide
services efficiently.
As a result of this fundamental problem, industrial
enterprises have been compelled to install their own
electricity generation plants and transmission
equipment, thereby adding considerably to their
operative and capital costs. Enweze (2001) has
estimated that about 25 percent of the total
investment in machinery and equipment by small
firms, and about 10 percent by large firms, were on
privately installed infrastructure.
conducted on energy development in Nigeria,
which compared the performance of Nigeria’s
power sector with those of 20 other developing
countries. The study reveals that the sector had the
highest percentage of system losses at 33-41
percent, the lowest average factor at 20 percent, the
generating capacity revenue at 8 percent and the
longest average accounts receivable period of 15
months. Perhaps, the worrisome picture depicted by
this assessment and other negative considerations
informed government’s decision on power sector
reforms.
This paper traces the historical background of
electrical power system in Nigeria to enable it
discusses on issues of power sector reforms. The
challenges of the power sector reforms and proffer
possible solutions to the challenges.
Background History
The value and the increase of the awareness of
electrical energy in the perspective of electrical
power supply and utilization in Nigeria can not be
over emphasized.
Some of electrical power was first known in
Nigeria in 1896 exactly sixteen years after its
existence in England. A 30KW 80Hertz single-
phase locomotive generator was installed in Lagos
Ijora (the then seat of government of colonial era)
to give light. The operation, distribution and
maintenance of this generator were solely the
responsibility of Public Works Department (PWD).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 105
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
As a result of increase in population and growth in
development this generator was replaced with two
diesel engines of aggregate capacity of 320KW and
operating at a rating of 40Hertz, two-phase.
The three phase 50Hertz system of power supply
became known in Nigeria in 1924 and by this time
electricity power was transmitted to other cities of
Nigeria. During this same period there was some
local suppliers of electrical power and these include
Cameroon’s Development Corporation (CDC),
African Timber and Plywood Company (AT & P)
and Nigeria Electricity Supply Corporation
(NESCO).
In 1946, the management of electrical power supply
was taken over by Nigerian Government Electricity
Undertaking (NGEU). This new organ of the
government now took care of the distribution and
expansion of electrical power in the country. In
1952, a new body emerged and this was known as
Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN). The
establishment of ECN gave birth to the Ijora Power
Station, which had two 125MW-turbo generators.
This station for a very long time only served Lagos
and its environs before new station were developed
and put in use. The Ijora station was even tagged
THE OLD RELIABLE until very recently that it
has been dismantled.
The hydrological investigations of 1953 for hydro
electrical power station in Nigeria by Netherlands
Engineering Consultants made ECN to carry out
work on the Shiroro Dam on River Kaduna and
Kainji Dam on River Niger. Through this work,
four 80MW hydroelectric plants were ordered to be
installed at Kainji in 1964. The construction of this
Dam gave birth to Niger Dam Authority (NDA).
This authority was saddle3d with the responsibility
of constructing the Dam, power station, substations
and the associated 330KV transmission lines down
to Osogbo the National Control Center. It was also
to take care of the operation and maintenance of the
entire power system so constructed.
By 1968, the Kainji hydroelectric power station
was completed and in 1969, it was commissioned.
Right from the day of commissioning, the station
started to feed all the regions of Nigeria and some
foreign countries e.g. Mali, Bening and Cameroon.
As the load increased the Ijora Power Station had to
be steamed so as to assist Kainji Dam Power
Station. As a result of this, large and small-scale
industries in oil and steel sectors sprang up.
By 1972, Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN)
and Niger Dam Authority (NDA) were merged
together to form a new establishment known as
Nigerian Electric Power Authority (NEPA). This
new Authority (NEPA) was given the power to:
♦ Management, maintain and work the electrical
power undertakings
♦ Establish new electric power undertakings.
♦ Supply electric power and promote economic
and efficient electrical power generation.
♦ Operate irrigation schemes with the approval
of the Federal Government generate, transmit
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
and distribute electrical power either in bulk or
in part to individual consumers in any part of
Nigeria.
Since the inception of NEPA, it had engaged in
planning the expansion of electric power stations at
various locations in Nigeria.
Basic Concept of Electrical Power System
This electrical power system is concerned with its
generation, transmission and distribution. Its
production is right from the generation station
where electrical machines of given aggregate
capacity are installed. For the generated voltage to
reach the consumers it is transmitted at very high
voltage and later stepped down to the required
voltage at the consumer end.
Generation
Generation is where the electrical power is
produced. There are various ways of generating
power but here in Nigeria there are only three
distinct ones, and these are:
Water: This is the process through which the
potential energy of the dredged water and falling on
the turbines is turned into electrical power e.g.
Kainji, Jebba and Shiroro.
Gas: This is the process through which gas is fired
to turn the turbines, which in turn activate the shaft
of the generator to produce electrical power e.g.
Afan, Delta and Fam.
Stream: This is the process of converting water
into stream and is used to activate the operation of
the generator through turbines, e.g. Egbin and
Sapele.
The generated voltage in any of the power stations
in Nigerian is between (10 – 11KV). This of course
is the maximum allowable voltage that a power
station can generate. At the substation by the
generating station part of this generated voltage is
used for local consumption and even distributed to
feed the consumers around.
There are two major ways of generating electrical
power and these are:
Hydro: Water
Thermal: gas, coal, stream, winds and nuclear
Each of these has its own special turbine to propel
the shaft of the generator installed. The generators
that are used are mainly synchronous machines in
which the speed of the rotating magnetic filed is
equal to the speed of the rotor. In most cases
synchronous motor is connected to serve either as a
hydraulic brake or as power factor correction.
In the hydroelectric power station all the machines
are installed vertically and can operate in parallel.
When synchronous machine are connected in
parallel it only means that when one of the
machines is faulty the others can still be in
operation supplying power to the consumers. This
system of parallel operation of synchronous
machines is equally known SYNCHRONISATION.
For this type of operation to take place the
following conditions must be met:
Page 106
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
♦ The voltage of the incoming machine must be
equal to the voltage on the bus bars.
♦ The entire system must have the same
frequency
♦ Their per unit reactance must be the same
♦ They must run at the same speed.
As these machines are very heavy due to the so
many magnetic poles on the rotor (2p ≥ 4), the use
of ball bearing to uphold the down ward force can
not be possible. Hence, powerful thrust bearings are
often employed both at the top and bottom of the
generator shaft so as to withhold the upward thrust
of the weight of the machine. Again as a result of
their weight these machines operate on very slow
speed n = (60 – 500) rpm.
It is no exaggeration if it is said that hydro
electrical station is very economical. It is
economical in the sense that:
♦ It produces electrical power for consumption
♦ The water dammed serves as irrigation for
farming
♦ Fishing is possible
♦ Transportation is enhanced along the dredged
river
As related to thermal stations, the synchronous
machines installed are usually along the horizontal.
By design, they have very long shaft with very
small diameter.
They are usually characterized by:
Less magnetic poles 2p ≤ 4
Very high-speed n ≥ 1000 rpm.
As a theory goes, it is always desirable that
electrical power station is installed very close to the
load centers. This of course is to avoid unnecessary
power losses along the line and also to reduce fund
to be expended on the conductors and materials to
be used during construction, installation and
transmission. It will equally reduce the problems
associated with reactive power compensation.
Transmission
In Nigeria today, the voltage generated by all the
power stations ranges between (10 – 11) KV. This
voltage is then stepped up through step up
transformers for onward transmission to the
National Grid or far distance. The voltage levels for
transmission in the country are 330, 132 and
110KV. The major transmitting voltage levels in
Nigeria are 330KV and 132KV. The transmission
lines linking Lagos, Benin, Ibadan, Osogbo, Jebba,
Shiroro and Kaduna has a mesh system, while those
linking Benin to Onitsha, Enugu, Alaoji and from
Kaduna to Kano, Jos and Gombe have single circuit
radial system. This is to say that any fault between
Benin and Onitsha will cause total blackout in the
whole of the Eastern States and Benue State. So
also, a fault between Kaduna and Jos will cause
total blackout in all the States within that zone.
Similarly, if maintenance is to be carried out, the
whole complexes will have to be switched off.
Distribution
Distribution of electrical power is the process of
getting electricity to the consumers. It is necessary
to state here that the voltage required by consumers
is so low as compared to that on the transmission
line. In industries 11KV enters the switchyard with
415V fed into the various machines instruments and
appliances while 230V is used for lighting and
other low voltage appliances. For domestic use
415V and 230V are often employed.
Issues of Privatization of Power Sector
Power sector reform has become an issue in the
past few years. The key motivations are to achieve
better service, reliable operation, and competitive
rates.
The privatization and commercialization Decree of
1988 recognized the need for NEPA to operate on
tariff structure that would facilitate increased
revenue generation which would reduce its
dependence on government fort funding, support its
cost of operations and fund part of its annual
investment plans. The performance agreement
signed between Government Technical Committee
on privatization and commercialization (TCPC)
now the Bureau of Public Enterprises (BPE) and
NEPA) (now PHCN) also recognized the need to
remove the constraints impost by NEPA’s
inappropriate tariff regimes over the years.
Consequently, the agreement allowed NEPA to set
its tariffs in collaboration with utilities charges
commission (UCC) subject to government
approval. Ezenwe (1988) however, observed that
privatization entails costs in terms of widening
income gap, loss of job, price like of the service,
and upward implication for general price level. He
called for selective privatization of social services
to be pursued only when conditions are favourable
to the economy, and at the same time ensuring that
public interest is not jeopardized. It is further noted
that efficiency to a great extent is determined not
only by ownership structure but by competition of
an industry. Onimode (1988) favoured public
enterprises provided they are operationally
autonomous and at least break even to enhance
efficiency. However, the Nigerian government will
have to outline control measures to regulate the
activities of the emerging private power providers
so as to avoid unfair distribution of electricity
services, inflation and associated problems.
Despite his criticism of privatization of public
enterprises, Adejumobi (1997) argued that
privatization eliminates demand for subsidized
services, enhances efficiency to meet up customer’s
satisfaction as this is crucial in determining the
firm’s market share, production level, sales, and
profit margin.
Other arguments pointed out are that privatization
stimulates choice making and creating new
businesses by encouraging entrepreneurial
development in the country. Therefore, the
privatization processes are desirable for Nigerian

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 107
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
given the numerous problems in her power sub-
sector. There are being argument put forward that
privatization of PHCN will bring about good
development and better services to the nation.
Issues of Deregulation
The government needs to deregulate the oil sector
because it can no longer sustain the huge subsidy
that it pays out for fuel or that it will through
deregulation, reduce the level of distortions or
corruption, involved in oil transactions.
Deregulation will offer more benefits to Nigerians
because the oil market will become more efficient
and the resultant benefits will be passed on to
Nigerians in the form of lower product prices,
better quality services and constant availability of
the product.
Argument against the Product
In the Nation on Sunday of 20th of October the
Nigerian labour congress (NLC) secretary John
Odah said: “the NLC wishes to reassure workers
and the Nigerian people that it remains, as ever
before strongly opposed to the total deregulation of
the downstream sector of the oil industry. Congress
needs to give this assurance following the
government’s unilateral decision to embark on full
fledged deregulation beginning from November 1,
2009 in spite of congress warnings of the imminent
dangers deregulation poses to our economy and our
people”.
Apparently lending its weight behind the NLC, the
president of PENGASSAN, comrade Babatunde
Ogun said it is determined to resist any attempt by
the petroleum marketers to increase the prices of
petroleum products under the planned deregulation
PENGASSAN said the removal of subsidy was
uncalled for as the country has refineries that could
refine a substantial parentage of products to meet
internal consumption.
According to the association the government should
work on the four refineries and ensure that they
work as optimal capacity before removal of the
subsidy or total deregulation of the downstream oil
industry.
Issues of Integrated Power Project (IPP)
According to Accram (2005), about 928 million
people live in slums all over the world and most of
these people are in developing nations, the
challenges are copious, as the slum world brings
with it mass poverty, unemployment and
degradation. The figures according to him are
expected to rise in the next few years. There is
another problem facing city managers in Africa, it
is providing electricity to the poor in order to aid
development but there seems to be no concrete
arrangement in this direction.
Odumosu (2005) states that for a long time now
most role players in the power industry have agreed
that the best way to rapid development is through
adequate provision of electricity. He categorized
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
the Africa continent into four on the basis of
population and land master. There are small
countries with sufficient power such as Lesotho,
big countries with sufficient power such as Eltiopia
and South Africa, small countries with insufficient
power such as Benin republic and big countries
with insufficient power such as Nigeria. It is
therefore imperative for Africa to generate adequate
power for development to take place.
In Nigeria with a population of 150 million we can
only boast of an installed capacity of less than 400
Mega Watt, stile promising to increase to 6,000
Mega Watt by the end of 2009 and 10,000 Mega
Watt by the year 2011. Electricity is an engine of
economic growth. We should begin to consider the
option of an integrated power project (IPP) for our
immediate community to lesson the cost of
production, improve productivity and boost
employment. The cost of doing business in Nigeria
is still high and increasingly burdensome, if local
manufacturers are to survive in a globalize would
the provision of energy cannot be compromised,
particularly in our peculiar situation were the
upgrading of energy production had suffered almost
30 years of neglect.
Challenges of Power Reform
Mwangi (2005) observed that illegal electricity
connections are the bane of the Kenyan power
utility’s life. But it is a symptom of a greater
scourge, in which the poor and the small business
are badly affected. This may not be limited to
Kenya alone, but to almost all the countries on the
continent. Nigeria today has not enjoyed 24 Hours
uninterrupted power supply.
It is one thing that a country operates a power
system but it is another thing for the country to be
able to maintain it for effective operations. The
government power reform in term of privitalization
deregulation and encouragement of the private
sector to be involved in the integrated power
project (IPP) is to bring about development. The
opportunity such as simulation indigenous
technological development, creation of job for
teaming graduates. More importantly the cost of
doing business in Nigeria is bound to go down with
better returns to investors as a result of new reliance
on uninterrupted power supply. The reverse is the
case as the power sector reforms has posed a lot of
challenges to Nigerians and the industries sector in
the country. The recurring problem of the epileptic
power supply in the country has been blamed for
the dwindling fortunes of most business in the last
decade. While many companies are shutting down
their production lines other are relocating in droves
to neighboring countries, where climate is more
favorable. In the Nation on Sunday, the
Manufacturer Association of Nigeria (MAN)
President, Alhaji Bashir Borodo asserted that their
plants shut or temporarily suspended operation
between 2000 and 2008 owing to operational
Page 108
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
constraints accounting for about 100 firms yearly
and about eight in a mount.
The result is that most of these affected industrial
outfits had relocated to neighboring countries,
notably Ghana, South Africa, Togo, to mention just
a few.
The Federal Government’s projection of achieving
the 6,000 mega watts by the end of this year may be
a mirage, analyst has argued. Indications that the
government’s projection may not work out after all,
emerged recently when the Minister of Power, Dr.
Lanre Babalola, visited Lagos or tour of facilities at
Egbin Thermal Station, in Ikorou (The NATION
August 2, 2009) Babablola said, “The lingering
shortage of natural gas supply, whose capacity
ordinarily hovers around 4,000 to 4,500 mega
watts, was now
2, 00 mega watts.” The Egbin plant has installed
capacity of 1,320 current has five units, with
available capacity of 1,000 mega watts but
constrained by lack of gas to 200 mega watts
output. The situation in Egbin, the Minister said is
a reflection of what the authorities in other power
station across the country are facing stressing that
to run the machines on Low Pour Fuel Oil (LPFO)
or industrial fuel is quite expensive to sustain in
Sapele the plant has available capacity of 200 mega
watts but generate zero power since November last
year, while Delta power station is currently
generating between 50 and 100 mega watts as
against 340 mega watts while Afam is generating
38 mega watts from available level of 75 mega
watts. Motosho has installed capacity of 260 mega
watts but constrained to generate 43 mega watts,
while Olorunsogo and Geregu in Ogun and Kogi,
states respectively with available capacities of 300
mega watts and 414 mega watts are actually not
providing anything to the national grid.
Okapi or Agip plant generates 450 mega watts of
475 mega watts into the national grid while Shell
Afam Power Station also generates 258 mega watts
of the 300 mega watts. Kanji, Jebba and Shiroro
Hydro Power Stations, all in Niger State has 305
mega watts, 326 mega watts and 390 mega watts
available capacities but are currently generating
126 mega watts, 160 mega watts and 237 mega
watts respectively.
The challenges are many and some of them include
uncertainty in continuity of energy policies,
politicizing of the energy and power sector. Others
are poverty and customers’ inability to pay an
economic and appropriate electricity tariff.
Ayodele (1998) pointed out that the electricity
crisis in Nigeria makes many inhabitants especially
the poor miserable. There have been great stress,
tension, suspicion, and conflicts between electricity
users and provider officials and this encourages
illegitimate activities such as illegal electricity
connections either to the national grid or the
existing residential/industrial electricity outfit,
over/under billing, and payment via unscrupulous
business collusion and vandalization of equipment
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
resold in most cases to private electricity
institutions.
The problem of youth restiveness especially the
militant group of the Niger Delta and the
vandalisation of pipe lines constitute to the lack of
supply to the thermal stations.
Some Possible Solutions to the Challenges:
1. The issue of privatization of the refineries to
stimulate availability of petroleum products this
should be done with cautions. The government
needs to be careful not to give strategic national
assets to foreigners considering the security
implications.
2. In any country in the world, no nation will give
out her national security to individuals.
Government should continue to invest in
refineries, while encouraging the private sector,
particularly the indigenous marketers to get their
own refineries with certain incentives. That is
how to ensure absolute security for the country.
But once you give refinery business to
expatriates should you have problem with that
country, they will shut you up. So what is the
fate of your economy?
3. Deregulation of the downstream sector of the
Oil Sector should be guided deregulation that
will be done in phases.
4. Federal Government should come up with clear
policy on crude pricing that will encourage
investors.
5. Subsidies should not be removed unless the
government ensures that the nation’s four
refineries are working. These subsidies are
there because Nigeria is importing but if the
refineries are working at optimal capacity,
higher percentage of the fuel consumed in the
country will be produced locally.
6. Federal Government should privatize or
decentralize Power Holding Company of
Nigeria (PHCN) in order to allow individual
states generate their own source of power.
7. Federal Government should give the States
autonomy to generate electricity, they would be
able to improve the source of power to the states
and small scale industries would thrive as
economy growth through the activities of small
scale industries.
8. Government should abolish importation and sale
of generators in Nigeria and explore other
means of electricity generation, e.g. wind, solar
energy, biomass, coal fired power plants,
geothermal e.t.c.
9. The National Assembly needs to transfer
electricity form the exclusive list to the
concurrent to allow both states and private
companies to generate and transmit electricity.
10. The National Assembly should legislate for the
states to have their own police as exclusion
Federal government police force is not adequate
for so much insecurity In the country - the Niger
Page 109
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Delta problem, Boko Haram vandalisation of
power installation etc.
11. The government as matter of urgency should put
in place incorruptible marketing monitoring
committee in the power industry. This is to
ensure efficient power self sufficiency so that
erratic power supply can be eliminated through
diligent monitoring of breakdowns, replacement
of obsolete equipments and decentralization of
power source.
Conclusion
The Federal Government’s power sector reform key
motivations are to achieve efficient services,
reliable operations and uninterruptible electric
power supply to the populace. However, the
restructuring of electric utilities in a depressed
economy like Nigeria has introduced a number of
opportunities and challenges. The challenges are
many and some of which this paper discuss on and
proffer some solution to the challenges which are
enumerated above. If the proffer solutions are
implemented by the government it will usher
indigenous technological development, creation of
job for our teaming graduates. Most importantly the
cost of doing business in Nigeria will go down with
better returns to investors and opening up new areas
of manufacturing that once seemed unattractive for
investors as a result of new reliance on
uninterrupted power supply.
References
Accram, A. (2005) “Dying for Electricity” in
Energy in African, 2(1), pp.22.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Adejumobi S. (1997) “Marketing Public Welfare: A
Theoretical Critique of the logic of
Privatization in the social sector” in Journal of
Economics and Allied Structure, 1(1), pp.2-4.
Ayodele A.S. (1998) “Energy Crises in Nigeria:
The case of Electric Energy” Market in
Bullion, 22 (4), pp.19-33
Ezenwe, u (1988) “The limits of Privatization in a
Developing Economy” Privatization of public
Enterprises in Nigeria. Ibadan; Nigeria
Economic Society Seminar Series.
Enweze, C. (2001) “Restructuring the Nigerian
Economy: The Role of Privatization”
Proceedings, CBN Annual Monetary Policy
Conference held at Nicon Hotel Abuja,
November, 5-6, 2001.
Mwangi, P. (2005) “The poor unlikely to see the
light soon” in Energy in Africa, 2 (1), pp.30
Odumosu T. (2005) “Africa needs Power for NEPA
to work” in Energy in Africa, 2(1), pp.34.
Onimode, B. (1988) “The Political Economy of
Privatization via Depressed Economy”
Privatization of Public Enterprises in Nigeria.
Ibadan: Nigerian Economic Society Seminar
Series.
THE NATION ON SUNDAY: “Erulless battle over
deregulation: pp.41. (18th October, 2009).
THE NATION ON SUNDAY: “Power Outage;
Industries batting to survive pp.41 (2 August,
2009).
World Bank (1993) Nigeria: Issues and Options in
the Energy sector UNDP/World Bank Energy
Assessment of Nigeria.
Page 110
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Bello, K. I

(2009), 5 (1) : 111
111 – 113
113
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Agricultural Engineering Entrepreneurship:
The way out of the Nation’s Economic Crisis.

Bello, K. I.
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
Institute of Technology, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin.
kayjnr@yahoo.com / 08037272024
Abstract
This paper examines entrepreneurship skill in Agricultural engineering for economic development. It discussed
about the application of engineering principles for the advancement of food production, fibres production and
other biological needs. It emphasized on the agriculture that will constitute the engine of rural development and
poverty reduction needed for youth to be self employed, independent, job creator, reduction in crime rate and
ultimately boost the nation’s economy. It also portrays agriculture as the best creative human resources while
emphasizing on need for entrepreneurship in Agricultural Engineering.

Keywords: Engineering, Agriculture, Entrepreneurship, Development, Skills, Economy.

Introduction The practice of engineering for food and agriculture

Agricultural Engineering is defined by Rudiger and
Poesse (1997) and Onwualu (2001) as the discipline
that deals with design, production, utilization and
management of technical means and processes for
production, storage, treatment and processing of
Agricultural goods (plants and animal production,
post-harvest technology). Engineering is the
knowledge required, and the process applied, to
conceive, design, make, build, operate, sustain,
recycle or retire something with significant technical
content for a specified purpose: a concept, a model, a
product, a device, a process, a system, a service, a
technology (Robert, 2000).
Agricultural Engineering deals with the application
of engineering principles and technology in
agriculture. It is concerned with the utilization of any
or all branches of engineering, science and
technology in the art, science and business of crop
production, animal husbandry as well as in handling,
processing, preservation, storage, manufacture and
distribution of products that feed, shelter and cloth
mankind.
Agricultural Engineering is the application of a
variety of engineering disciplines in agriculture to
produce agricultural products and to manufacture
agro-based products. It is dedicated to the application
of engineering principles for the advancement of
food production, fiber production, and other
biological needs (Rezuwan, et al. 2007). Agricultural
Engineering entails physical, chemical and bio-
chemical processes, from simple hand tools over
Draught – Animal – Power – Systems to simple and
more complicated small and big tractors and self-
propelled harvesting machines and automatic,
computer aided control system and robotics in field
and post-harvest operations as well as in animal
production (Rudiger and Poesse, 1997).
can be divided into six Areas of Specialization: Farm
Power and Machinery Engineering, Soil and Water
Engineering, Processing or Post-Harvesting Systems
Engineering, Farm Structures and Environmental
Control Engineering, Food Engineering, Aqua
cultural Engineering, Wood Products Processing and
Forestry Engineering and Emerging Technologies in
Agricultural Engineering.

Farm Power and Machinery Engineering.Farm
power refers to all prime movers and power
sources used for all phases of agricultural
production, processing and distribution. This
area is sometimes referred to as agricultural
power and machinery. Farm Machinery – refers
to the machines used for production, which
may or may not be powered by a Power unit.

Soil and Water Engineering. These areas cover
soil erosion, soil and water conservation,
irrigation, drainage, reclamation, water supply,
hydrology of watersheds and hydraulics. It
deals with harnessing and Management of
natural resources in agriculture i.e. soil and
water.

Processing or Post Harvesting Systems
Engineering. This area deals with the processes
and machines required to convert agricultural
raw materials or products into finished
consumer goods. It involves cleaning, cooling,
drying, size reduction and many other
processing operations in doing all these, the
materials has to be conveyed from one point to
the other especially in processing factories.
Thus, this area includes machines for
conveying, discharging and packaging
products.

Farm Structures and Environmental Control
Engineering. Several structures used in
agriculture include structures for farm families

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 111
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
(residence), animals, storage of farm products
and machinery as well as farm roads. These
structures require specialized design. The
second aspect deals with the control factors in
the structures for their optimum performance.
This area involves agricultural and waste
management, which include waste recycling,
biogas generation, treatment of wastes, and
waste conversion into useful products.

Food Engineering. This is a specialized area
dealing with the processes and machinery
required for processing agricultural products
into consumable foods. This is the operation
and management of food processing industries
which include operation of rice mills, flour
mills, and vegetable oil processing factories,
beverage manufacturing companies that
manufacture biscuits, bread and other
confectioneries. While the food scientists worry
about the process of formulating the food
products, food engineers worry about the
machines for the production.

Aqua Cultural Engineering. This aspect of
agricultural engineering entails fishery which is
either done in ponds, rivers or in the ocean. A
variety of machines are used for catching and
processing fish. Emphasis is on structures and
machines required for fishery operations.

Wood Products Processing and Forestry
Engineering. Though not fully developed in
Nigeria, it deals with machines required for
afforestation projects and for exploiting
forestry products. These include machines for
planting, pruning and felling trees and those for
logging.

Emerging Technologies in Agricultural
Engineering. Emerging technologies is an
aspect of Agricultural Engineering currently
undergoing major and important changes as it
responds to perturbations in the global
economy. These include – Information
Technology (IT), Biotechnology,
environmental engineering and renewable
energy.
Rudiger and Poesse (1997) explained further that –
Agricultural Engineering extends over the branches
of research, education, training, extension as well as
production, maintenance, repairing, managing,
testing and evaluation of on and off – farm
machineries/equipments. Agricultural Engineering is
an integrating discipline that tries to realize and
implement ideas (innovation) identified as useful and
necessary by other disciplines and to strengthen
interdisciplinary cooperation, hence, the need for
entrepreneurship in Agricultural Engineering.
Entrepreneurship
Enterprise which is the embodiment of
entrepreneurship can be said to be a commercial,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
organized business activities aimed specifically at
growth and profit or a new, often risky, venture to
involve confidence and initiative.
This is the capacity for creativity, innovation,
investment and expansion in new markets, products
and techniques. Also, it is the process of creating
something new with value by devoting the necessary
time and effect, assuming the accompanying
financial, psychic and social risks and receiving the
resulting rewards of monetary and personal
satisfaction and independence (Shuaibu, 2005 and
Robert, 2002).
Karki(2007) simply defines entrepreneurship as the
process of new venture and an entrepreneur as an
individual who has an innovative and creative mind.
Though there exists virtual consensus in
contemporary literature that entrepreneurship
revolves around the recognition and pursuit of
opportunities which is believed that there is need for
a shift from this traditional view which must go
beyond ‘seeing and acting on opportunities’. In fact,
further posits that opportunities can be endogenously
created by purposeful and dedicated investments and
efforts by entrepreneurs. This indeed, is what is
required to sustain any entrepreneurial activity to the
point of success.
In May 2004, the Federal Government launched the
National Economic Empowerment and Development
Strategy (NEEDS) as a means of poverty reduction
strategy in order to achieve the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). The similar strategies
are being developed across the 36 states of the
nation, called SEEDS. Both the NEEDS and SEEDS
are focused on achieving growth, better service
delivery, reform of government institutions, generate
employment and political system, it is also aimed at
eliminating waste and inefficiency and
transformation of value to overcome corruption and
inefficiency.
In spite of the massive turnout from our tertiary
institutions, unemployment opportunities in the
private and public sectors are virtually non-existent.
The Federal Government in a bid to improve
efficiency in the public sector recently embarked on
right-sizing (down-sizing) exercises that threw many
out of their jobs. This exercise has also foreclosed
opportunities for fresh appointment into the public
sector. Vacancies declared for all cadres of staff and
eventual placements have continued to be on the
decline. The case for the private sector is even more
pathetic, hence, the need to adopt entrepreneurship.
Results of recent researches have shown that
entrepreneurship in the form of new and small firms
serves as a driving engine of industrial restructuring
and economic growth.
Most of the classes of enterprise above are
agriculture and engineering related which if
embarked on is simple, easy and requires less skills,
hence, agricultural engineering entrepreneurship
Page 112
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

could be a suitable way out our Nation’s economic
crisis. Though, when engineering is applied in
Agriculture, more food is produced (variety/type of
food in the economy) than what is needed for
consumption which fuels the development of
industries for processing the excess food into
industrial raw materials either for local consumption
or for export as required in Entrepreneurship.
Conclusion
With the exploration of saleable skills that are
available in agricultural engineering, there is the
need to de-emphasize white collar jobs in favour of
blue collar jobs and put in place some specific
training objectives that will avoid industrial misfit
syndrome. Godfrey (2008) reported that sustainable
agriculture could become a “weapon of mass
construction,” which is the reason for encouraging
agricultural engineering practices and a revival of the
entrepreneurial aspect of agricultural engineering to
ensure rural growth and economic development.
The clamour is for the type of agriculture that will
constitute the engine of rural development, and
poverty reduction which is not just farming. It is one
which is inventive, inspiring and requiring the best
creative human resources. One that entails
marketing, financing, training, mentoring; one that is
about food production in an efficient and profitable
way and also about technology, techniques and
innovations (storage, processing and packaging).
This is the kind of agriculture required for a proper
economic growth and development.
References.
Godfrey Nzamujo, O.P., (2008): Fighting poverty
through the promotion of sustainable
entrepreneurship and functional and appropriate
human resource development: A challenge for
Agricultural Colleges. 2nd – 5th December,
2008.
Karki, B. B. (2007): “Role of Entrepreneurship and
Small Business in National Development”. The
Journal of Nepalese Business Studies. Vol. IV.
NO. 1
NBTE Document, (2007): Training Manual on
Entrepreneurship for Polytechnics and
Monotechnics in Nigeria. National Board for
Technical Education, Kaduna Hamitle Consults
Nigeria Limited Pp. 13.
Onwuala, A.P., (2001): Agricultural Engineering
Practice in Nigeria: NIAE book of
achievements. Snapp Press Limited, Enugu. Pp.
1-3.
Robert, M., (2000): The universe of engineering – A
UK perspective. A report prepared by a Joint
Royal Academy of Engineering/ Engineering
Council working group. The Royal Academy of
Engineering London Pp. 5.
Robert, D.H., (2002): Entrepreneurship. McGraw-
Hill Companies. New York.
Rudiger, K. and I.R.G.J. Poesse, (1997): The role of
Agricultural Engineering in the development
process. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia,
Africa and Latin America. Vol. 28 No. 2. Pp. 48.
Shuaibu, M.J., (2005): Modalities for teaching
entrepreneurship in technical institutions. A
paper presented at the Education Tax Fund
(ETF) capacity building workshop for lecturers
of Polytechnics and Monotechnics in Nigeria.
August-October, 2005.

Table 1: Classification of enterprises

Retail Food and Manufacturing Services Other
recreation
- Newspaper stand Grocery store Machine shop Computer services Farming
- Clothing store Restaurant Manufacturer’s Landscaping Distributorship
boutique representative
- Bicycle shop Bar/cocktail Food processing/ Warehousing & Wholesaling
lounge home products storage
- Analogue shop Fashion Industrial Real estate agency Transportation
equipment/
components
- Camera shop Motel Cosmetic and Auto repair shop Design work
beauty products
- Drug store Brokerage
- Gift shop Building contractor
- Liquor store
- Florist
- Auto dealership
Source: NBTE, (2007).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 113
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oluwasola, E.A
Olulope, O.R
School of Engineering Ogunsola, A.O
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 114
114 - 121

The Roles of Transportation Engineering Industries towards Industrial Development

1
Oluwasola, E.A, 2Olulope, O.R & 3Ogunsola, A.O
Department of Civil Engineering:
1
Federal Polytechnic, Ede, akinnolu@yahoo.com, 08036151941
2
Federal Polytechnic, Ado, omoladeolulope@yahoo.com, 07038485872
3
Oscotech, Esa Oke Ikire Centre, dapogunsola@yahoo.com, 08023733142

Abstract
Mobility is a basic human need. From the times immemorial, everyone travels either for food or leisure. A
closely associated need is the transport of raw materials to a manufacturing unit or finished goods for
consumption. Transportation fulfills these basic needs of humanity. Transportation plays a major role in the
development of the human civilization., One could easily observe the strong correlation between the
transportation engineering industries and industrial development, evolution of human settlement and the
proximity of transport facilities. Also, there is a strong correlation between the quality of transport facilities and
standard of living, because of which society places a great expectation from transportation facilities. In other
words, the solution to transportation problems must be analytically based, economically sound, socially
credible, environmentally sensitive, practically acceptable and sustainable. This paper examines the role of
transportation engineering industries towards industrial development.

Keywords: Transportation Engineering, Industrial development, Mobility, Humanity, Correlation, Transport

facilities

Introduction values, resource availability, climate, etc. (Carter,

Few people would argue with the suggestion that
transportation improvements contribute to industrial
development. Inadequate transportation limits a
nation's ability to utilize its natural resources,
distribute food and other finished goods, integrate the
manufacturing and agricultural sectors, and supply
education and medical services. However, there is
little actual evidence linking transportation
improvements to industrial development. Generally,
it is not known whether investments in transportation
infrastructure are more productive than investments
in other sectors of an economy, nor is it known
whether capital expenditures on one mode of
transportation are more productive than those spent
on another. When resources are scarce, is it better to
develop the rail network, highway network, airports,
or what?
Transportation planners in developing countries need
guidance to aid them in making decisions regarding
spending on transportation improvements. Addus
(1989) suggests that there is a serious need for
improved road transportation service in developing
countries, and that improving the efficiency of road
transport would have a beneficial impact on
industrial and agricultural production and distribution
(Addus 1989, p. 429). On the other hand, Carter,
Chadda and Schonfeld (1984) suggest that
developing countries may actually over invest in
transportation improvements. In many cases, this is
due to applying solutions to problems in developed
countries such as the U.S. to problems in developing
countries with little concern for differences in "need,
Chadda, and Schonfeld 1984, p. 79)." This comes
about in part from using imported consultants and
local planners who want modern solutions such as jet
aircraft, automated factories, modern highways, etc.
If developing countries follow the pattern of U.S.
development, they would invest first in railroads.
This would appear to be a logical progression given
the natural economies of railroads vis-a-vis trucks
and other forms of transportation. However, the
developing nations of the World today exist in an
environment which is dramatically different from
that in which the U.S. and other countries developed.
Technological and social differences provide an
environment which may require a completely
different approach to growth and economic
development than that which led to the development
of the U.S. and other developed nations of the World
today.
Industry, agriculture, education, and health all are vi-
tal to economic growth, and they all compete with
transportation for a share of a nation's limited
resources and foreign aid. It is crucial to develop
transportation systems which are efficient and make
the most of the resources required to develop them,
avoiding the consumption of excessive amounts.
Officials and planners in developing countries must
make decisions regarding the use of limited financial
resources. If capital improvements in transportation
facilities lead to greater development than when
capital is used in other areas, then planners should
realize the benefits to be gained by developing the
transportation infrastructure. If on the other hand,

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 114
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
capital improvements in transportation facilities
cannot be linked to industrial performance, then
scarce resources could, perhaps, be put to better use.
Additionally, if certain modes of transportation are
related industrial growth more than others, then it
would be prudent for officials and planners to
develop first those portions of the infrastructure
which permit the development of those modes of
transportation.
In this paper, the relationship between industrial
growth and transportation in developing countries of
Africa were examined. Major differences exist
between African countries, but they also have several
common problems which suggest the need for study.
These include poorly developed industrial sectors,
high population growth rates, severe shortages of
professionals, managerial, technical, and financial
resources, and an inefficient transportation system
(Carter, Chadda, and Schonfeld 1984). Africa has a
large number of developing countries with varied
backgrounds and varying levels of infrastructure
development. Many of its nations are characterized
by sparsely populated rural areas which are virtually
inaccessible by motor vehicles. Frequently, pack
animals (mules, donkeys, horses, and camels) are a
major means of transportation. Thus, leaders of
African nations face serious problems with respect to
using available resources to foster industrial growth
and improve the quality of life.
Transportation and Industrial Development
Industrial development occurs when the income level
and productive output of an industry increase
(Forkenbrock 1989). The benefits of transportation
improvements are related to the reduced costs
associated with transportation. That is, if a
transportation improvement is provided, the result
should be reduced transportation costs to the
industrial area (Forkenbrock 1989). Reduced
transportation costs, then, should lead to greater
productivity and increased industrial growth.
Typically, transportation has been viewed as an
enabling, but insufficient factor leading to industrial
development (Owen 1964; Meyer, et al. 1971).
Historically, transportation's contribution to
industrial development has been through providing
access to markets and raw materials, and by
alleviating congestion. These benefits allow an
industry to maximize its comparative advantages
(Bell and Feitelson 1989,). Once raw materials and
markets are made accessible, attention turns to
relieving congestion in these sectors which then
facilitates productivity improvements.
Most of the research attempting to actually link
transportation to industrial development has been
focused on the U.S. and other developed nations.
Even so, the relationship is not well-defined. Bell
and Feitelson (1991) examined the implications of
structural changes taking place in the U.S. economy
on future demand for transportation services and
noted that "research has not yet fully explained the
relationship between the level and quality of
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
infrastructure services and private sector industrial
performance’’.
Finn (1993) analyzed annual data for the U.S.
covering the period from 1950 to 1989 and attempted
to address prior questions concerning causality and
the effects of individual components of public capital
on productivity. She controlled for reverse causation
through her methodology and found highway capital
expenditures to provide significant (and very large)
returns to the private sector. Cullison (1993) used a
similar data set covering 1953 through 1991 which
contained 21 categories of government expenditures,
including transportation. He used Granger-causality
tests to control for direction of impact, and found that
transportation spending was not significant.
However, his measure of transportation included
expenditures for air, rail, water, and transit as well as
for highways.
As noted above, most of the research in this area has
been focused on developed nations, the U.S. in
specific, and evidence is conflicting. Little empirical
research has been done to determine the role that
transportation should play in aiding industrial growth
in developing countries or just how much
transportation improvements contribute to industrial
development. Cook and Cook (1989) reviewed
much of the literature on rural transportation impacts
in developing countries and noted that industrial
models have shown little explanatory power in
predicting the effects of rural transportation
investments. They cite a separate review of rural
road research in India which also reveals a lack of
tangible results (p.107). Their conclusion was that
the problem lies in the lack of an explicit model to
establish causal linkages and the use of incomplete
databases. Thus, their attention was directed to the
development of a comprehensive and complex model
of rural transportation impact. However, the
complexity of the model stands in stark contrast to
the availability of data and remains untested.
In many instances, transportation infrastructure
improvements are justified on the basis of intangible
benefits. The view held by many officials and
planners of developing countries is that road
programs are valued as necessary components in
programs to improve human welfare in rural areas. It
was this view that led to the development of the
Rural Access Roads Program in Kenya (Lele 1975).
Moreover, development of infrastructure for such
purposes seems to accomplish that objective.
Research on rural road transportation in China at-
tempted to link agricultural production to road
improvements. However, rural roads generally did
not lead to increased agricultural output. Instead,
they showed significant increases in nonagricultural
traffic and rapid growth in personal mobility (Cook
and Cook 1991, p. 109). Levine and Renelt (1992)
examined data across 119 countries to test the effects
of a large number of variables suggested within the
literature to affect growth rates. The results were
disappointing, and like most of the variables,
Page 115
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
government investment in infrastructure was not
found to be significant.
Addus (1989) examined road transportation in 15
African countries for 1982-83. Presented was an
overview of facilities which when compared to the
U.S. highlighted the severity of an inadequate road
network and a severe shortage of vehicles. However,
no linkage of improvements to industrial devel-
opment was provided. He explored the reasons for
the inadequate road conditions indicating the
problems presented by climate, terrain, difficult
roadway engineering, high construction costs, and
circuitous routes. Additionally, the problems of
political instability were noted. Not only do regional
conflicts and civil wars divert important resources
(financial and human) away from road construction,
they also have resulted in the destruction of existing
bridges and roads.
Lionjanga and Raman (1989) discussed the
development of transportation in Botswana since the
country's independence in 1966. At the time of
independence, there were just 12 km of tarred roads
in the entire country. Transportation was not
considered to be a prime determinant of industrial
growth, but because of Botswana's dispersed
population and overwhelming dependence on
neighboring countries for transportation services, it
was seen as a prerequisite to "stable population
growth and balanced industrial development". Thus,
transportation was included as an element in the
National Development Plan which called for 15 to 20
percent of annual investments to be in the
transportation sector. In many years, the
commitment exceeded this level. While
transportation development in Botswana has
accompanied the nation's growth since independence,
the authors provide no direct evidence of the role that
transportation played in that development.
Feltenstein and Ha (1995) studied the relationship
between the public infrastructure and private output
in sixty-three sectors in Mexico, aggregated into
sixteen groups over the years 1970-1990. The
dependent measure was sectoral gross domestic
product. Independent measures included wages, the
cost of capital, and the nominal values of the stocks
of three types of infrastructure: electricity, transport,
and communications. Public expenditures on
infrastructure in electricity and communications tend
to reduce sectoral production costs whereas
expenditures on transportation infrastructure increase
those costs. They note that they can offer, “no good
explanation for the counterintuitive results for
transport (Feltenstein and Ha 1995, p. 298).”
Canning (1999) studied the productivity of
infrastructure in 57 countries for the period covering
1960 through 1990. His dependent variable was
GDP per worker, and independent variables were
human capital per worker, telephones per worker,
electric generating capacity per worker, and
transportation routes per worker. The coefficients of
electric generating capacity and transportation
infrastructure were not statistically significant; that
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
is, they had the average productivity level of overall
capital. However, telephones were found to have a
very large statistically significant impact on
productivity, suggesting that investment in
telephones is more productive that investing in
electric generation or in transportation infrastructure.
When the sample was split into higher and lower
income countries, results were similar except that
transport appears to be more important to developed
countries. While Canning (1999) used lagged data in
some of his analyses, his purpose was to assess
direction of causality.
Methodology
If transportation contributes to the industrial
development of a nation, then we should expect to
see improvements in certain indicators of industrial
activity and well-being following improvements in
transportation. This generally is the relationship that
researchers in the works referred to above attempted
to identify. However, in those analyses transporta-
tion infrastructure and industrial performance were
measured within the same time periods. Researchers
have not differentiated between the time that
transportation improvements are made and the time
that industrial activity increases. For this study, the
relationship between industrial performance and
transportation developments from prior periods were
examined.
To examine the relationship between transportation
and industrial performance, data from the Central
Intelligence Agency's World Factbook were analyzed
over a twelve year period from 1981 to 1993. Table
1 provides selected industrial variables for the
sample of 44 African countries for 1993. South
Africa was not included in the sample since it is not
considered a developing country. Four other
countries were omitted due to insufficient data.
Table 2 provides selected measures of transportation
infrastructure for the sample of countries during
1993.
A multiple regression analysis was performed using
1993 Gross Domestic Product per Capita as the
dependent variable. Changes in independent
variables of interest were measured from 1981 to
1987 to see if infrastructure changes in prior periods
were related to today's GDP/Capita. The
independent variables included 1993 population, and
the average annual percentage changes from 1981-
1987 of population, kilometers of railroad,
kilometers of highway, kilometers of paved highway,
the number of usable airports, the number of airports
with permanent runways, the number of TV stations,
and the literacy rate. Unfortunately, there
The World Factbook, (Washington, D.C.: Central
Intelligence Agency, various editions). was not
sufficient data available to include other variables
which may have added to the overall explanation of
GDP/Capita. As noted above, industry, agriculture,
education, and health all are vital to economic
growth. However, insufficient data restricted our
ability to adequately analyze these measures. The
Page 116
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
number of TV stations and the literacy rate were used
as surrogates for industrial development and
education and were included to help specify a more
complete model. As can be seen from Table 1, very
little data on unemployment was available.
Similarly, data on industrial development and
agriculture was too limited to include appropriate
variables.
Limited data from previous years for water ways,
ports, and pipelines also hampered the analysis.
Moreover, as can be seen from Table 2, many
countries have so little of this type of infrastructure
that these variables were not included, and the
impacts of these modes were not analyzed. Some
analyses were performed with variables adjusted for
land area; kilometers of highway per square
kilometer, for example. However, none of these
analyses yielded more productive results than those
reported below.
Results
Table 3 provides the results of the regression
analysis. The results are exceptionally good
considering the limited specification of the model.
The overall fit of the model is quite good (R-Squared
= 52%; F = 4.035, significant at 0.001).
Population, changes in population, changes in the
number of TV stations, and changes in the literacy
rate were not significant. The change in kilometers
of rail line was highly significant (p = 0.004). The
total kilometers of highways was not significant, but
the kilometers of paved highways was (p = 0.066).
Similarly, the number of usable airports was not sig-
nificant, but the number of airports with permanent
runways was highly significant (p = 0.023). Of these
significant variables, all three were positively related
to GDP/Capita.
Provided in Table 3 also are standardized coefficients
of the independent variables. Standardized
coefficients provide a means of comparing data with
large differences in values and different bases such
as kilometers of road vs the number of airports.
Examining these standardized coefficients reveals
that changes in railroad facilities yields the greatest
GDP/Capita. Next is the number of airports with
permanent runways, and finally, although certainly
not small, is the contribution made by increases in
paved highways. The order of these variables
together with the fact that regular highways and
regular airports were not significant suggests that
larger investments in infrastructure may bring higher
yields with respect to improved industrial perform-
ance.
This is particularly important since there is a
tendency to invest in minimum levels of facilities
such as unpaved roads to merely gain access to
certain areas to link various areas of an economy.
Conclusion and Recommendations
While there is little doubt that transportation
improvements contribute to industrial growth, there
is little empirical evidence to support that premise.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Transportation planners in developing countries need
guidance to aid them in making decisions regarding
spending on transportation improvements to assure
the efficient utilization of scarce resources.
However, there is a lack of research which clearly
identifies how transportation contributes to the
industrial growth of developing countries. Part of the
problem may have been the failure to measure the
impact of changes in the transportation infrastructure
in periods prior to the period in which industrial
performance is measured.
This paper examined the relationship between
industrial growth and transportation in 44 developing
countries of Africa. Gross Domestic Product per
Capita was regressed on a series of variables which
reflected changes in transportation from previous
years. The significance of the rail network, paved
highways, and airports with permanent runways in
explaining current GDP/Capita suggests that
transportation is of vital importance to developing
nations.
The present research, however, is limited by a lack of
adequate data which would perhaps permit a more
robust analysis. The model which was tested should
be specified more completely. No doubt this would
increase the overall R-Square and give planners a
better understanding of how transportation fits into
an overall planning process together with measures
of industrial development, agriculture, health, and
education. Use of the literacy rate and the number of
TV stations provides surrogates for some of these
variables, but their lack of significance suggests that
better measures should be used.
Additionally, a more complete analysis of industrial
activity should be examined in light of transportation
improvements from prior periods. While
GDP/Capita is a widely accepted measure of
industrial performance, other measures such as
unemployment, growth in GDP/Capita, industrial
growth rates, etc., should be examined.
Finally, future research should focus on determining
a more exact time horizon in which to measure the
results of transportation improvements. This study
looked at changes over a 12 year period, with an
arbitrary division taking place at 6 years. Measuring
changes from 1981 to 1987 may not accurately
reflect the cumulative benefits of transportation in-
vestments. What is the appropriate time horizon in
which such investments fully mature and yield the
maximum benefits to the society they serve?
In today's global economy, it is not surprising that
high quality infrastructure improvements are more
important to industrial development than traditional,
more economical facilities such as paved roads vs.
regular roads and airports with permanent runways
vs regular airports. Today, few countries are
developing in the isolation of a self-contained
economy. Not only are countries trading with their
neighbors, but they participate in the industrial
growth of developed nations as their cheap labor and
other resources are exploited by modern industry and
a growing global economy. To the extent that de-
Page 117
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
veloped nations do business with developing nations,
it is only to be expected that we would see the need
for advanced transportation facilities and systems to
meet the needs not of the developing nation, but of
the "exploiter."
References
Aschauer, David Alan (1989), "Is Public Expenditure
Productive?" Journal of Monetary Economics,
Vol. 23, pp. 177-200.
Addus, Abdussalam A. (1989), "Road Transportation
in Africa," Transportation Quarterly, Vol. XLIII,
no. 3 (July), pp. 421-450.
Bell, Michael and Eran Feitelson (1989),
"Bottlenecks and Flexibility: Key Concepts for
Identifying Economic Development Impacts of
Transportation Services," Transportation
Research Record, No. 1274, pp. 53-59.
Bell, Michael E. and Eran Feitelson (1991), "U.S.
Economic Restructuring and Demand for
Transportation Services," Transportation
Quarterly, Vol. XLV, no. 4 (October), pp.
517-538.
Canning, David (1999), “Infrastructure’s
Contribution to Aggregate Output,” World Bank
Development Research Group, Ref. no. 680-89
(November).
Canning, David (1998), “A Database of World
Stocks of Infrastructure, 1950-1995,” The World
Bank Economic Review, Vol. 12, no. 3
(September), 529-547.
Carter, Everett C., Himmat S. Chadda, and Paul M.
Schonfeld (1984), "A Comparison of
Transportation Planning in Developed and
Developing Countries," Transportation Quarter-
ly, Vol. XXXVII, no. 1 (January), pp. 69-85.
Cook, Peter D. and Cynthia C. Cook (1989),
"Methodological Review of Analyses of Rural
Transportation Impacts in Developing
Countries," Transportation Research Record,
No. 1274, pp. 171-178.
Cullison, William E. (1993), “Public Investment and
Economic Growth,” Economic Quarterly
Review, Vol. 79, no. 4 (Fall), pp. 19-52.
Directorate of Intelligence (1994), The World
Factbook, (Washington, D.C.: Central
Intelligence Agency, various editions).
Feltenstein, Andrew and Jiming Ha, “The Role of
Infrastructure in Mexican Economic Reform,”
The World Bank Economic Review, Volume 9,
Number 2, May 1995.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Finn, Mary (1993), “Is All Government Capital
Productive,” Economic Quarterly Review, Vol.
79, no. 4 (Fall), pp. 53-80.
Forkenbrock, David J. (1989), "Putting
Transportation and Economic Development into
Perspective," Transportation Research Record,
No. 1274, pp. 3-11.
Gramlich, Edward M. (1994), “Infrastructure
Investment: A Review Essay,” Journal of
Economic Literature, Vol. XXXII, no. 3
(September), pp. 1176-1196.
Holderman, Karen, “Improved Marketing Research
Programs Help U.S. Exporters Find
Opportunities Abroad,” Business America,
October 1996, pp. 7-9.
Holtz-Eakin, Douglas (1994), “Public Sector Capital
and the Productivity Puzzle,” The Review of
Economics and Statistics, Vol. LXXVI, no. 1
(February), pp. 12-21.
Johnson, Jay L., “Why American Retailers are Going
Global,” Discount Merchandiser, September,
1995, pp. 37-39.
Kraft, G., J.R. Meyer, and J.P. Valette (1971), The
Role of Transportation in Regional Economic
Development, (Lexington, MA: Lexington
Books, Inc.).
Lele, U. (1975) The Design of Rural Development:
Lessons from Africa, (Baltimore, MD: Johns
Hopkins University Press).
Lionjanga, A.V. and V. Raman (1989),
"Transportation and Economic Development in
Botswana: A Case Study," Transportation
Research Record, No. 1274, pp. 211-219.
Lynde, Catherine and J. Richmond (1993), “Public
Capital and Total Factor Productivity,”
International Economic Review, Vol. 34, no. 2
(May), pp. 401-414.
Munnell, Alicia H. (1990), "Why Has Productivity
Growth Declined? Productivity and Public
Investment," New England Economic Review,
(January/February), pp.3-22.
Otto, Glenn D. and Grahm Voss (1996) “Public
Capital and Private Production,” Southern
Economic Journal, Vol. 62, no. 3 (January), pp.
723-738.
Otto, Glenn D. and Grahm Voss (1998) “Is Public
Capital Provision Proficient?” Journal of
Monetary Economics, Vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 47-66.
Owen, Wilfred (1964), Strategy for Mobility,
(Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution).
Brookings Institution).
Page 118
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 1: Selected Industrial Variables for 44 African Countries, 1993
Area in Square Population Literacy GDP per Inflation Unemployment
Country[a] Kilometers [b] Rate[c] GDP[d] Capita[d] Rate Rate
ALGERIA 2381740 27.256 57 42000 1570 55.0 35.0
ANGOLA 1246700 9.545 42 5100 950 1000.0 NA
BENIN 110620 5.167 23 2000 410 3.4 NA
BOTSWANA 585370 1.326 72 3600 2450 16.5 25.0
BURKINA 273800 9.853 18 3300 350 -1.0 NA
BURUNDI 25650 5.985 50 1230 205 9.0 NA
CAMEROON 469440 12.756 54 11500 1040 3.0 25.0
CENTRAL AFRICA 622980 3.074 27 1300 440 -3.0 30.0
CHAD 1259200 5.351 30 1100 215 2.5 NA
CONGO 341500 2.389 57 2500 1070 -0.6 NA
COTE D'IVORIE 318000 13.808 54 10000 800 1.0 14.0
DJIBOUTI 21980 0.402 48 358 1030 7.7 30.0
EGYPT 995450 59.586 48 41200 730 21.0 20.0
EQUATORIAL GUINEA 28050 0.399 50 144 380 1.4 NA
ETHIOPIA 1119683 53.278 62 6600 130 7.8 NA
GABON 257670 1.123 61 4600 4200 0.7 NA
THE GAMBIA 10000 0.930 27 292 325 12.0 NA
GHANA 230020 16.699 60 6600 410 10.0 10.0
GUINEA 245860 6.237 24 3000 410 19.6 NA
GUINEA-BISSAU 28000 1.072 36 210 210 55.0 NA
KENYA 569250 27.372 69 8300 320 30.0 NA
LESOTHO 30350 1.896 59 620 340 17.9 55.0
LIBERIA 96320 2.875 40 988 400 12.0 43.0
LIBYA 1759540 4.873 64 26100 5800 7.0 NA
MADAGASCAR 581540 13.006 80 2500 200 20.0 NA
MALAWI 94080 9.832 22 1900 200 21.0 NA
MALI 1220000 8.869 32 2300 265 1.4 NA
MAURITANIA 1030400 2.125 34 1100 555 6.2 20.0
MOROCCO 446300 27.955 50 28100 1060 6.0 19.0
MOZAMBIQUE 784090 16.342 33 1750 115 50.0 50.0
NIGER 1266700 8.33 28 2300 290 1.3 NA
NIGERIA 910770 95.060 51 35000 300 60.0 28.0
RWANDA 24950 8.139 50 2350 290 6.0 NA
SENEGAL 192000 8.463 38 5400 780 2.0 NA
SIERRA LEONE 71620 4.511 21 1400 330 5.0 NA
SUDAN 2376000 28.730 27 5200 184 150.0 30.0
SWAZILAND 17200 0.907 55 700 800 13.0 NA
TANZANIA 886040 27.286 46 7200 260 22.0 NA
TOGO 54390 4.105 43 1500 400 0.5 2.0
TUNISIA 155360 8.571 65 13600 1650 6.0 15.7
UGANDA 199710 19.344 48 6000 300 41.5 NA
ZAIRE 2267600 41.346 72 9200 235 40.0 NA
ZAMBIA 740720 8.926 73 4700 550 170.0 NA
ZIMBABWE 386670 10.838 67 6200 545 45.0 35.0
Source: Directorate of Intelligence (1994)
[a] South Africa was not included because it is the only African nation which is considered to be developed. Four additional
nations were omitted due to insufficient data. These were Eriteria, Nambia, Somlia and Western Sahara.
[b] Population in Millions.
[c] Literacy rate is in percentage of population 15 years and older who can read and write.
[d] GDP is in millions of equivalent U.S. dollars. GDP/Capita is in equivalent U.S. dollars.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 119
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
TABLE 2: Transportation Infrastructure: African Countries, 1993

Country Kilometers Kilometersof Kilometersof Number of Airportswith Kilometersof Kilometers of

ofRailroad Highway Paved Usable Permanent Inland Pipeline
Highway Airports Runways Waterway
ALGERIA 4060 90031 58868 124 53 0 9858
ANGOLA 3189 73828 8577 173 32 1295 179
BENIN 578 5050 920 5 1 0 0
BOTSWANA 712 11514 1600 87 8 0 0
BURKINA 620 16500 1300 38 2 0 0
BURUNDI 0 5900 400 4 1 NA 0
CAMEROON 1003 65000 2682 51 11 2090 0
CENTRALAFRICA 0 22000 458 51 3 800 0
CHAD 0 31322 32 55 5 2000 0
CONGO 797 11960 560 41 5 1120 25
COTED'IVORIE 660 46600 3600 37 7 980 0
DJIBOUTI 97 2900 280 11 2 0 0
EGYPT 5110 51925 17900 82 66 3500 2227
EQUATORIALGUINEA0 2760 331 3 2 0 0
ETHIOPIA 781 39150 2776 82 9 0 0
GABON 649 7500 560 56 10 1600 284
THEGAMBIA 0 3083 431 1 1 400 0
GHANA 953 32250 6084 9 5 1293 0
GUINEA 1045 30100 1145 15 4 1295 0
GUINEA-BISSAU 0 3218 2698 15 4 NA 0
KENYA 2040 64590 7000 208 18 NA 483
LESOTHO 2.6 7215 572 28 3 0 0
LIBERIA 480 10087 603 41 2 0 0
LIBYA 0 19300 10800 124 56 0 6773
MADAGASCAR 1020 40000 4694 103 30 0 0
MALAWI 789 13135 2364 41 5 NA 0
MALI 642 15700 1670 27 8 1815 0
MAURITANIA 690 7525 1685 29 9 800 0
MOROCCO 1893 59198 27740 65 26 0 1094
MOZAMBIQUE 3288 26498 4593 131 25 3750 565
NIGER 0 39970 3170 26 9 300 0
NIGERIA 3505 107990 30019 63 34 8575 5542
RWANDA 0 4885 460 7 3 NA 0
SENEGAL 1034 14007 3777 19 10 897 0
SIERRALEONE 84 7400 1150 7 4 800 0
SUDAN 5516 20703 2000 56 10 5310 815
SWAZILAND 297 2853 510 21 1 0 0
TANZANIA 3555 81900 3600 92 12 NA 982
TOGO 570 6462 1762 9 2 50 0
TUNISIA 2115 17700 9100 26 13 0 1625
UGANDA 1300 26200 1970 23 5 NA 0
ZAIRE 5254 146500 2800 235 25 15000 390
ZAMBIA 1266 36370 6500 104 13 2250 1724
ZIMBABWE 2745 85237 15800 403 22 0 212
Source: Directorate of Intelligence (1994), The World Factbook, (Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, various
editions).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 120
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 3: Regression of 1993 GDP/Capita on Transportation Variables
Standardized
Standard Regression Regression
Variable[a] Mean Deviation Coefficient Coefficient P-Value
Pop 93 14.226 18.418 -3.290 -.057 .674
Pop 81-87 22.297 11.120 -13.681 -.144 .376
RR 81-87 9.697 41.467 11.496 .451 .004
Hwy 81-87 31.024 79.910 -.756 -.057 .691
Pav 81-87 10.153 17.464 15.156 .250 .066
Air 81-87 -6.728 19.439 9.999 .184 .309
Run 81-87 10.147 37.307 9.875 .348 .023
TV 81-87 45.278 147.067 .759 .105 .505
Lit 81-87 164.185 241.078 .417 .095 .494

Dependent:
GDP/Cap 93 761.23 1058.197

R-Squared = 51.6%; F-Value = 4.03; P Value = .001

[a] The variables used include 1993 population (Pop 93), and the average annual percentage changes from 1981-1987 in: population (Pop
81-87), kilometers of railroad (RR 81-87), total kilometers of highway (Hwy 81-87), total kilometers of paved highway (Pav 81-87), the
number of usable airports (Air 81-87), number of airports with permanent runways (Run 81-87), the number of TV stations (TV 81-87), the
literacy rate (Lit 81-87).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 121
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oladebeye, D. H

Omidiji, B. V
School of Engineering Ajaino, K. O
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 122 – 129
129

Engineering Entrepreneurship: Addressing the Depressed Nigerian Economy

*Oladebeye, D. H, *Omidiji, B. V & **Ajaino, K. O

*Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
tunde_omidiji@yahoo.com
** Department of Mechanical Engineering
Delta State Polytechnic, Ogwashi-Uku, Nigeria

Abstract
Nigeria has been passing through economic struggle for many decades without concerted efforts to address the
causes and the attendant evil results that is has brought. People are languishing in poverty and our leaders do
not foresee any danger that this trend may bring. Virtually all our infrastructures are dead but we would not sit
down to see everything collapsed. This is reason this paper addresses the economy of this nation having in view
factors that can revamp the economy, thereby putting smiles on the faces of the populace. It suggests that
entrepreneurship principles should be integrated into engineering education given to our students and the
necessary infrastructures put in place, one day we shall wriggle the nation out of the economic crisis

Keywords: Entrepreneurship, engineers, engineering education, economic struggle and infrastructures

Introduction applicable in all facets and sectors of the economy is

In 1970s to 1980s, there was appreciable engineering
entrepreneurship in Nigeria. Manufacturing
companies, industries, and small-scale producing
outfits were here and there. In fact the period
provided Nigeria with good revenue in automotive
sector of the economy. Mandalas, SCOA, Mercedes,
Breisco motors, to mention a few, were all on ground
providing employment opportunities to Nigerians.
The rate of turn over, revenue generation and
exportation; all these as indices of good economy
were healthy. As 1980s was winding up we noticed
the setting in of economic recession, Naira
devaluation, loss of job opportunities, close down of
the few manufacturing companies and the take home
pay of workers could no longer take them home.
What could be attributed to sudden taken-over of the
economy that led to recession? A lot of factors, of
course. Unfortunately we have not been able to
recover from the sudden twist of the economy.
Rather than recover, we daily somersault into
depression which will make recovery almost
impossible.
All hope is not lost as there are nations of the world
that have recovered from their economic
recession/depression. China is one. Singapore would
have even gone into extinction but today, it is one of
the economies to reckon with. Nigeria can achieve
the same feat. All we need to do is to harness our
potentials, integrating engineering entrepreneurship
for provision of products and services. As it is now
Nigeria is a consuming nation, consuming almost
every thing and not producing anything, even the
agriculture which is our natural endowment.
Engineering entrepreneurship, therefore which is
the answer to our economic struggle.
A number of factors which have contributed to the
depressed economy we are presently experiencing
have been there a long time ago and must be roundly
addressed. Our leaders did not prepare for the
astronomical increase in the Nigerian population,
massive enrolment in schools at all levels,
employment opportunities needed to be generated for
school levers and graduates as well as the basic
infrastructures that would aid engineering
entrepreneurship and total economic development.
Moral values that were there those days faded away
in the twinkling of eyes when the youths that would
have inherited them saw the nature and evil order of
the day handed down by the so called leaders. A real,
sincere turn around must happen to get out of these
depressed economy.
What is engineering entrepreneurship?
Entrepreneurship is an activity that involves the
discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of
opportunities to introduce new goods and services,
ways of organizing, markets, process, and raw
materials through organizing efforts that previously
had not existed (Refaat, 2009). Given this definition,
the academic field of entrepreneurship incorporates,
in its domain, explanations for why, when and how
entrepreneurial opportunities exist; the sources of
those opportunities and the forms that they take; the
processes of opportunity discovery and evaluation;
the acquisition of resources for the exploitation of
these opportunities; the act of opportunity
exploitation; why, when, and how some individuals
and not others discover, evaluate, gather resources

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 122
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
for and exploit opportunities; the strategies used to
pursue opportunities; and the organizing efforts to
exploit them.
Vocational and technical education and
apprenticeship provide entrepreneurial activities;
goods and services but they have been played down
as a result of ‘’order of the day in Nigeria’’.
Entrepreneurial Process
The following provides entrepreneurial process as it
happens in day to day activities:
• Stage 1: Discovery or invention that provides
opportunity for “new combinations” (Knowledge
expert)
• Stage 2: Recognition of the opportunity
(Entrepreneur)
• Stage 3: Organization of resources to exploit the
opportunity (Entrepreneur)
• Stage 4: Redeployment of resources to “new
combinations”.
Description of Successful Engineering
Entrepreneurs
Entrepreneurs are not a Unique Personality Type.
Research has not demonstrated a difference in
personality between successful entrepreneurs and
successful corporate executives (John, 2004). The
general attributes of an engineer according to
Crockett (2004) are as stated below:
• Misuse/Over-reliance of Precision
• Tendency to Over-analyze
• Focus on Technology
• Severe Discomfort with Open-Ended/Vague
Problems
• Withhold use of data until Complete Solution
However, the following attributes describe a
successful eengineering entrepreneur:
• Confident, decisive
• Intelligent, creative, optimistic
• Driven (determined, high energy)
• Willing to take initiative and responsibility
• Willing to take calculated risks
• Can influence others
• Tend to redefine failure
Do engineers have a choice not to be
entrepreneurial in the 21st century?
The following provide answers to this pertinent
question. I do not think that any engineer would like
to sit on the fence or show any kind of indifference in
this new age because of these few points:
• Rapid technological and business changes
• Compressed product development times
• Cross functional teams
• Technically- best does not mean commercially-
successful
Factors that encourage engineering
entrepreneurship
There are factors that encourage engineering
entrepreneurship which can be called necessary
infrastructures. The outline is given below;
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
a) Engineering infrastructures:
Engineering infrastructures refer to those capacities
and physical plants which are required to enable a
prolific machine design and production to take place
in an economy (Adewoye, 2005). Underscoring
production in the meaning of engineering
infrastructures, Nigeria is seen as a Country where
not much production that can sustain the economy
happens. This is quite unfortunate. Many machine
designs never see the light of the day. There are
many machine designs of course, but the constraints
of materials (engineering) and necessary machinery
to transform the designs into practicality are not
present or too obsolete to be used or not functional.
Production of goods and services which the
engineering infrastructures provide actually refer to
the engineering entrepreneurship that can rescue this
Nation from the depressed level it is currently
experiencing.
Below are some of the necessary engineering
infrastructures
• Steel development
Over time it has been said that steel technology is the
basis of technological development. The machine
designs that would be transformed into practicality to
meet the needs of citizenry and transform society
into comfortable one need steel of varying properties.
As at today, all the steel industries in the Country are
moribund and as such most of the steel products are
imported. It has, therefore, placed a constraint on the
extensive use of steel even in the workshop practices
carried out by students of tertiary institutions.
Limitations have been placed on the use of steel
products; leading to structural failure, collapsed
buildings, imperfection in machinery construction.
Total value for money is preferred to safety of lives
and property. This is one of the indices to recognize
an economy that is not growing. Limitations have
restrained our Government from funding research in
steel technology development. The few steel
companies that are existing in Nigeria are moribund,
whereas if they have been operating well, they would
be money-minting! Improved transportation, as one
of the seven point agenda of our Government, is not
achievable without steel. Rail system will be almost
impossible and automobile development will still be
far away. Then where is the improved transport
system?
• Electricity
This is basic in developing any economy. The
astronomical increase in Nigerian population has
negatively affected the total supply of electricity to
villages, towns and cities, while our government at
the local, state and federal levels have been very
insincere as per the replacements of transformers,
generators and others infrastructures that provide
electricity. Electricity is needed by almost all
engineering entrepreneurs in their daily assignments
either they provide goods or services. As at today in
any village, town or city of Nigeria, one is not sure of
Page 123
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
steady one hour availability of electricity, there is
always power outage. Entrepreneurs running
generators do not find it easy; this adds to the cost of
little production of goods and services. This accounts
for the reason imported materials are cheaper than
indigenous ones, even though the raw materials are
taken from the Country.
• Transportation
The non-functionality of rail system in this country is
contributing to the downward trend of the Nation’s
economy. A chain reaction has been the result of the
non functionality. The road networks have been
destroyed by heavy trucks. Lives are lost daily. The
roads so damaged are not repaired and if repaired
shoddy jobs are done to cut corners: too bad for our
so called Government! This trend has added to the
cost of transporting the needed goods and services to
points of need and hence a big discouragement to the
few entrepreneurs in the country. Rail system must
be put back to shape to encourage entrepreneurship.
The importance of good roads and transport
networks in accelerating the pace of economic
development of a nation cannot be belittled. For the
supply and demand of goods and services to be met,
Nigeria requires efficient transportation system. A
transportation system may be defined as consisting of
fixed facilities, flow entities, and control systems that
permit people and goods to overcome the friction of
geographical space efficiently in order to participate
in timely manner in some desired activity.
The major transportation systems are:
Land Transportation (a) Highways and (b)railways
Air Transportation (a) Domestic and (b)International
Water Transportation (a) Inland (b) Coastal (c)
Ocean
Pipeline Transportation (a) Oil (b) Gas, (c) Others,
e.g. water. Etteh, (2009)
a) Highway transportation
The total length of the road network in Nigeria is
estimated between 196,000 to 200,000km. Tables 1
below illustrates the lengths by category and
jurisdiction given in Road Vision (RV), 2000.
Lengths of Nation Road Network
b) Functional education
The present system of education cannot produce high
technical skilled people that would turn to be
entrepreneurs. The system is deficient. Technical and
vocational education has remained a window
dressing for long if at all they are existing in the
technical colleges. Then training of engineers and
technologists only attract lip service from the
proprietors of the tertiary institutions. The
laboratories and workshops that should be equipped
with modern day machines and apparatus are empty
or rather filled with old dilapidating ones. If quality
training is given to students while in school, a little
entrepreneurial skill would make them the desired
entrepreneurs that would transform the society.
c) Easy access to credit facilities
It provides good room for entrepreneurial activities.
Soft loans given by the Federal Government through
poverty alleviation programs and National
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Directorate of Employment (NDE) do help in the
same line. Unfortunately, the corrupt nature of our
leaders has corrupted the ‘’help’’ being provided. At
least our Government is commended for the little the
NDE and poverty alleviation programs were able to
do before the final ‘’corruption’’.
We have been operating within terrible high interest
rates of Nigerian banking system. It behooves the
regulatory body (The Central Bank of Nigeria, CBN)
to correct this ugly trend so as to disallow restriction
of borrowing from banks to create a ground for
entrepreneurial activities. For the interest rates of
banks are placed at not less than 22% of whatever
capital borrowed. In this face, it is pertinent to ask a
simple question, how would the entrepreneur survive
and make gains to make his business going?
The Bank of Industry that is saddled with the
responsibilities of providing funds for would-be
entrepreneurs has its interest rate above a single digit.
This is quite ugly. This trend should be addressed by
the appropriate authority. The recent sanctioning of
the Managing Directors and Chief Executive Officers
of some banks by the Governor of CBN, Mr Lamido
Sanusi has lent credence to this assertion in our
Country.
d) Eradication of multiple taxation
The three tiers of Government in our Country
(Federal, State, and Local), all come to collect taxes
from companies, industries, retail outlets and so on.
So long that the entrepreneurial activities exist in
their domain they would want to collect taxes.
Eventually, a good percentage of the gains of the
entrepreneurs go into taxes, multiple so to say. This
has been the trend in Nigeria. For the fact that it is
not checked by the appropriate authority, thugs and
unauthorized people are now collecting taxes with
receipts of either State or Local Governments.
Entrepreneurial activities cannot thrive well.
e) Proactive nature of Government
Government should be proactive in all respects,
foresee possible challenges and be prepared to plan
for necessary solutions to problems even when they
have not been noticed as problems. If our
government had been proactive, the increase in
enrolment in schools in 1960s was a signal which a
proactive Government should have used to foresee
coming challenges/problems. This they did not do
and led to eventual collapse of the basic
infrastructure: road networks, communication
systems, transportation systems, electricity,
education and so on because high demands were
placed on them by the increasing population and no
adequate expansions were provided. Rather than
making adequate provisions for expansions, the
government showed an attitude of having money but
lacked that wherewithal to expend it judiciously in
the desired direction. Had the government the
proactive nature, the country would have not been in
this mess.
f) Security
The security situation in the country is at zero level.
Lives and property are at the mercy of thugs, armed
Page 124
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
robbers and militants. Presently, Nigeria is loosing
some of its multi-national companies to Ghana,
South Africa all because of the security situation in
the country. What are the law enforcement agents
doing? This question is begging for answer.
Engineering Education
The existing engineering programmes in Nigerian
Universities: Federal, State and Private as outlined
by the JAMB Brochure, 2008 are presented in the
table below. However Lih, (2003) opined that
engineering programs must demonstrate that their
graduates have
(a) ability to apply knowledge of mathematics,
science, and engineering principles
(b) ability to design and conduct experiments, and to
analyze & interpret data
(c) ability to design system, component, or process to
meet desired needs
(d) ability to function on multi-disciplinary teams
(e) ability to identify, formulate, and solve
engineering problems
(f) understanding of professional and ethical
responsibility
(g) ability to communicate effectively
(h) broad education necessary to understand the
impact of engineering solutions in a global and
societal context
(i) recognition of the need for, and ability to engage
in life-long learning
(j) knowledge of contemporary issues
(k) ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern
engineering tools necessary for engineering
practice.
Ekeh, (2009) opined that one definition of
engineering is the practical application of science to
commerce or industry. This is exactly what
engineering entrepreneurship is addressing. Not until
we come to this level, we are nowhere.
Engineering education and business differences
There is a wide gulf between engineering education
and business. Engineering education provides the
technical skills required but lacks in the provision of
the basics of entrepreneurship. The following are
some of the differences identified:
• Pursuing Truth Is Not the Same as Pursuing Profits
• Academic Time Is Different From Business Time
• Business Allocates Resources for Value, Not
“Fairness”
• Business Values Ambitious Failures Much Less
Importance of engineering entrepreneurship to
Nigerian economy
Entrepreneurs make critical contributions to our
nation's economic development, at least the few
successful ones (Bordogna, 2004). They bring
technology intensive, often risky, innovations to the
commercial market - and in the process, even help to
develop whole new industries. A number of these
exist. Fruit and juice drinks, noodles makers are
relatively new in the market. Those in mobile
telecommunications have brought wide market and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
employments to people; thereby reducing poverty.
Entrepreneurs are risk takers, implementers, rule
breakers, adventurers; or in a word: innovators.
Innovation moves forward hand-in-glove with the
fresh science and engineering knowledge that drives
it. Discovery and innovation will be twin pillars of
21st century progress. They bring with them the
potential for an era of breathtaking transformation.
But innovation is not an abstract force. It's what
people do to drive change. Innovators break the
"rules." It may be a leap of faith to trust them, but
trust them we must, or we suffer the quagmire of the
status quo.
New ideas, like all revolutions, alter the fabric of
society; that is if the ideas are realized. Innovators,
those who apply knowledge to tasks that are new and
different, who turn ideas into reality, keep us fresh
and moving forward. An idea lying fallow does not
make an entrepreneur.
Imagination is more important than knowledge.
Imagination in the hand of entrepreneurs brings the
ability to connect the results of research to society,
i.e., to envision. The ability to understand the larger
context, in which we work - the sector, the society,
and even the time in history, the moment in
civilization, is crucial to any form of entrepreneurial
leadership to transform our economy. Learning to
read the larger context provides a path for imagining
the future. As engineers, part of our task is to mentor
others in scanning the big picture for the relevant
signals. We must develop acumen for such thinking
in our students. We cannot graduate talented
engineers from our tertiary institutions with
supremely specialized expertise that exists in a
vacuum.
The ability to read the subtle signals will often make
the difference between being the industrial leader or
laggard. Reading the tealeaves, so to speak, is not
just for mystics anymore. It's a job for mentors,
managers, entrepreneurs, and every kind of leader.
The astute "readers of the context" and imaginers of
possible futures have proven to us that envisioning is
a worthwhile endeavor. Envisioning combined with
risk taking is a supercharged combination on the
personal level as well as on the level of the economy.
We need to educate our engineers beyond their
technical expertise. The best technical training must
be combined with the understanding of how that
expertise fits into the larger societal environment,
into our overriding national goals (The President
Yar’dua’s seven-point agenda), is a good reference
here and indeed, into the goals of other nations.
Nigeria, as the giant of Africa, should at least be able
to control West Africa economy. Today, the trend in
science and engineering research is much more
cross-boundary-centered. Many disciplines are
converging in surprising ways to generate the new
knowledge needed for the increasingly-complex
challenges we face as a society.
Engineers and scientists must be able to see
functionally beyond the boundaries of their
disciplines; this single factor can gear up
Page 125
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
entrepreneurship atmosphere. After all, nature knows
no disciplinary boundaries. In the past, when the
tools for discovery and application were rudimentary,
innovative progress across the frontier of science and
engineering was possible only by parsing the frontier
into doable pieces, named disciplines. But today's
increasingly- exotic tools allow more holistic attack
along the frontier. Today's engineering graduates
must be capable of integrating knowledge from a
variety of disciplines and working with industry
partners, the few one that we have to advance that
knowledge into innovations. In the larger sense,
innovation depends upon a mutual, synergistic set of
interactions that includes not only science,
engineering and technology, but social, political and
economic interactions as well.
Conclusion
Entrepreneurs make critical contributions to our
nation's economic development, at least the few
successful ones. They bring technology intensive,
often risky, innovations to the commercial market -
and in the process, even help to develop whole new
industries.
Our engineers need be educated beyond their
technical expertise. The best technical training must
be combined with understanding how that expertise
fits into the larger societal environment, into our
overriding national goals (The President Yar’dua’s
seven point agenda), and indeed, into the goals of
other nations. Nigeria as the giant of Africa should at
least be able to control West Africa economy. Today,
the trend in science and engineering research is much
more cross-boundary centric. Many disciplines are
converging in surprising ways to generate the new
knowledge needed for the increasingly complex
challenges we face as a society.
Today's engineering graduates must be capable of
integrating knowledge from a variety of disciplines
and working with industry partners, the few one that
we have to advance that knowledge into innovations.
In the larger sense, innovation depends upon a
mutual, synergistic set of interactions that includes
not only science, engineering and technology, but
social, political and economic interactions as well.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are made to be
considered by those in the helm of affairs:
• Technical and vocational education has been
neglected for so long, no emphasis, no
encouragement from any quarter to these ‘’young
shall grow’’ that are coming up. Drop outs from
schools should be encouraged to go and learn in
these technical colleges instead of joining politics
that will never provide hand work that will sustain
them through life. Very unfortunately it is these
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
drop outs that are in politics, ruling the country.
How can we have head way in this?
• Less honour, funds/funding, privileges, etc, should
be attached to political offices. Those going there
would already know that they are going there for
selfless service unlike now that it is used to enrich
and perpetrate evil. Some do see politics as
work/occupation. What an ugly situation? The
trend should be reversed, few people would go
there and the rest would have meaningful hand
jobs; providing entrepreneurial activities.
• The basic infrastructures that would encourage
engineering entrepreneurship should be addressed
with all seriousness.
References
Adewoye, O.O. (2005). ‘’Development and
Maintenance of Nigerian Infrastructures.
Proceedings of the Nigerian Society of
Engineers. National Engineering Conference and
AGM, Kano
Bordogna, J. (2004). ‘’Importance of Entrepreneurs
to the U.S.Economy’’. Conference on Teaching
Entrepreneurship to Engineering Students
Monterey, Ca, USA.
http://services.bepress.com/eci/teaching/
Crockett, R. (2004). ‘’Reaching out to
Entrepreneurial Engineers’’. Conference on
Teaching Entrepreneurship to Engineering
Students Monterey, Ca, USA.
http://services.bepress.com/eci/teaching/
Ekeh, J.C (2009). ’’Reinvigorating Engineering
Education in Nigeria for Sustainable
Development’’. A Conference paper delivered
during the 18TH Coren Engineering Assembly
Etteh, E.I.I. (2009). ‘’Challenges of Infrastructural
Development - The Need for Adequate
Engineering Capacity.” A Conference paper
delivered during the 18TH COREN Engineering
Assembly
Extract from 2009/2010 JAMB Brochure, 2008
John, C.H. (2004). ‘’Attributes of Entrepreneurs:
Personality Versus Perspective’’. Conference on
Teaching Entrepreneurship to Engineering
Students Monterey, Ca, USA.
http://services.bepress.com/eci/teaching/
Lih, M.M. (2003). ‘’Recapturing and Conveying the
Excitement of Engineering Through Practice,
Innovation and Integration’’. Conference on
Teaching Entrepreneurship to Engineering
Students Monterey, Ca, USA.
http://services.bepress.com/eci/teaching/
Refaat , A.A. (2009). ’’The necessity of engineering
entrepreneurship education for developing
economies’’. International journal of education
and information technologies issue2, volume 3,
2009
Page 126
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 1: Road network
Category Federal (Km) State (Km) LGA Total (Km)
Paved main road 26 500 10 400 - 36 900
Unpaved main road 5 600 20 100 - 25 700
Urban roads - - 21 900 21 900
Main rural roads - - 72 800 72 800
Village access roads - - 39 500 39 500
Total 32 100 30 500 134 200 196 800
Source: Etteh, (2009).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 127
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Existing Engineering Programmes in Nigerian Universities as at December 2008
S/No Programmes Federal State Private Total
Univ. Univ. Univ.
1 Agricultural & 1 - - 1
Biosciences
Engineering
2 Agricultural & 2 - - 2
Environmental
Engineering
3 Agricultural 13 6 - 19
Engineering
4 Chemical 14 4 4 22
Engineering
5 Chemical/Petrol - 2 - 2
eum/Petrochem
ical Engineering
6 Civil Engineering 20 12 3 35
7 Civil Engineering - 1 - 1
& Hydrology
8 Computer 7 2 2 11
Engineering
9 Computer - 1 - 1
Science &
Engineering
10 Electrical & 15 11 4 30
Electronics
Engineering
11 Electrical 5 2 - 7
Engineering
12 Electrical, 1 1 - 2
Electronics &
Computer
Engineering
13 Electronics 1 - - 1
Engineering
14 Environmental - 1 - 1
Engineering
15 Environmental 1 1 - 2
Management
Technology
16 Food 1 - - 1
Engineering
17 Food Science & - 1 - 1
Engineering
18 Food Science & 4 - 2 6
Technology
19 Food 1 - - 1
Technology
20 Gas Engineering 1 1 - 2
21 Industrial 2 1 - 3
Production
Engineering
22 Information & - - 4 4
Communication
Technology
23 Information 2 1 5 8
Technology
24 Irrigation 1 - - 1
Engineering

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 128
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
25 Marine 1 2 - 3
Engineering
26 Material & - 1 - 1
Production
Engineering
27 Mechanical 21 10 3 34
Engineering
28 Mechanical/ 1 - - 1
Production
Engineering
29 Metallurgical & 5 3 - 8
Material
Engineering
30 Metallurgical 1 - - 1
Engineering
31 Mining 1 - - 1
Engineering
32 Petroleum & 1 - - 1
Gas Engineering
33 Petroleum 7 3 3 13
Engineering
34 Polymer & 2 1 - 3
Textile
Engineering
35 Production - 1 - 1
Engineering
36 Production - 1 - 1
Technology
37 Software - - 1 1
Engineering
38 System 1 - - 1
Engineering
39 Water 1 - - 1
Resources &
Environmental
Engineering
40 Wood Product 1 1 - 2
Engineering
41 Total 135 (56.96) 71 (29.96) 31 (13.08) 237 (100)
(%)
Source: Extract from 2009/2010 JAMB Brochure

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 129
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering

Engineering Forum Adebimpe, R. A
(2009), 5 (1) : 130
130 – 134
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Using small- scale mining approach to grow the mining sector in Nigeria

Adebimpe, R.A
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Department of Mineral Resources Engineering

Abstract
The Nigerian mining sector has in recent times been the focus of attention by the Federal government which
anxious to diversify the economic base of the country .Mining in Nigeria has suffered serious setback in the last
four decades despite the various reforms implemented to advance the exploitation of solid minerals both as high
income earner and employer of labor. This paper suggests the use of small-scale mining approach to the mining
sector which can further act as catalyst to increase productivity in the sector. Additional suggestions include the
need to have a comprehensive ore reserve database for all the mineral deposits already identified in Nigeria.
Also efforts should be made to form the small-scale miners into cooperatives so that a central mineral
processing unit can be provided in each mineral producing zone delineated.

Keywords: Nigeria; Small-scale mining; Productivity; Diversify; Employment

Introduction • inefficiency in the exploitation and processing of

Organized mining began to crystallize in Nigeria
about 1910 with the development of the coal and
cassiterite mining sector. Because mining of
mineral deposits is highly capital intensive, the
bulk of the financing of this sector was done by the
Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN).During the
early part of the last century, the trend was state
financing of business, and however in recent times
the attention has shifted to private public
participation. Presently the mining industry in
Nigeria is at comatose level and former dominant
mines have been closed. For instance the Itakpe
Iron Ore Mine is closed as a result of the
mismanagement of the company which had gone
through three management teams in about five
years. The cassiterite mining companies are at
near-zero level of operation while the Enugu Coal
Mine is at present closed. The Government is
looking for foreign investors to revive the ailing
coal company. Also the government as part of the
reform package in the mineral sector has included
the small-scale miners in the revitalization of the
mining sector. Broadly speaking artisanal and
small-scale mining refers to mining by individuals,
group, families or cooperatives with minimal or no
mechanization, often in the illegal sector of the
market (Hentschel et al.,2002). In Nigeria,small-
scale mining is mainly restricted by finance and
technology. Artisanal small scale mining (ASM) is
characterized by a number of conditions, which are
given below(Hentschel et al.,2002):
• lack or very reduced degree of mechanization,
great amount of physically demanding work
• low level of occupational safety and health care
• deficient qualification of the personnel on all
level of the operation
the mineral production (low recovery of values)
• exploitation of marginal and/or very small
deposits, which are not economically exploitable
by mechanized mining
• low level of productivity
• low level of salaries and income
• periodical operation by local peasants or
according to the market price development
• lack of social security
• insufficient consideration of environmental
issues
• chronically lack of working and investment
capital
• mostly working without legal running titles
The artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) sector
which employs an estimated 13 million people
worldwide (ILO, 1999), faces myriad poverty-
related challenges (Childs,2008). The most recent
International Labour Organisation (ILO) research
undertaken in a global scale estimated that 13
million people are engaged directly in small-scale
mining activities throughout the world mainly in
developing countries and the livelihoods of a
further 80-100million people are affected by
it(Hentschel et al.,2002)Throughout sub-saharan
Africa,ASM is a poverty-driven activity that is self-
perpetuating: the sector’s participants are caught in
a poverty trap that is being furthered by mining
sector reforms(Noetstaller,1996). Most small-scale
miners in Nigeria operate illegally and are involved
in the mining of minerals that can be mine
manually and easy to market. The miners involved
in this business are regarded as small-scale miners
or artisanal small-scale miners (ASM)(Akande and
Adebimpe,2008).In Africa, factors that drive
artisanal small-scale miners(ASM) are

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 130
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
retrenchment, commodity prices, environmental
and rushed/migratory miners(D’
Souza,2004).However owing to technological,
financial and operational constraints most active
mineral production in Nigeria is currently from
small operations(Amoka and
Ogunbayo,2003)..Classification of small-scale
mining varies from one country to the other,
however Susapu and Crispin (2001) in a
comprehensive study on small-scale mining used
the following classification :
- production: 12,500-100,000 tons per year or
50-5,000tons per day
- employment: 10-100 persons employed
- capital investment: US$120,000-$10million
- revenue : $120,000-$10million
- mine life: 1-10years
In the early 1990s, it was estimated that ASM
produced 15-20% of the world non-fuel mineral
(Jennings, 1993).About 400,000 Nigerians are
estimated to be involved in artisanal mining
(D’Souza, 2004). Included in this figure are a
sizeable number of women. Hinton et al (2003)
estimated that less than 10% of miners in Asia are
women .Above all, most women come from
indigenous and similarly marginal ethnic
communities such as low castes (Lahiri-Dutt,
2003).In India’s patriarchal society, women
normally do not own small or artisanal mines, nor
even cut the minerals themselves, but to tend to
work as transporters or loaders and as processors of
minerals (Lahiri-Dutt, 2006). The objective of this
study is to examine mining in Nigeria and ways the
sector can improve. As a result of the tremendous
achievement of small-scale miners and their role in
the growth of mining in some developing countries,
it is also necessary to review small-scale mining in
some developing countries.
Review of small-scale mining in some countries
India
Small-scale mining in India is in most places
carried on with acquired mining right under some
statutory control and (Minerals Regulation and
Development (MMRD) Act of 1957) is the main
legal framework governing the mines (Deb et
al.,2004).
In India, small-scale mining (SSM) is mostly
organized mining carried on with acquired mining
rights under some statutory control although
unlicensed or informal activities are not uncommon
on many occasions e.g. straying into unlicensed
areas from existing mines and working in disputed
territory (Chakravorty, 2001).Artisanal mining
however becomes important together because these
mines employ a very large number of people living
at a low level of income (Deb et al., 2004).
Artisanal mining is generally considered as
unauthorized or illegal mining operation although
not seriously prevented by the Government mainly
because such activities provide at least some
sustenance to the local people living below the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
poverty line and the government is unable to
provide regular employment to all of
them(Chakravorty,2001).
Papua New Guinea (PNG)
Susapu and Crispin (2001) summarized small-scale
mining in PNG as follows:
In PNG, SSM applies equally to alluvial and hard
rocks that are covered by mining permits such as an
Alluvial Mining Lease (AML) and Mining Lease
(ML). As at present SSM is recognized as legal
cash earning activity and it is given importance by
the Government which is using donor funds. There
are 3 types of SSM in PNG.First is mechanized
mining which uses heavy earth-moving equipment
such as bulldozers, excavators and high capacity
ore processing kits. This category accounts for only
1% of the operation in PNG. The second group
includes simple mechanized union who used hand
held portable equipment such as pontoon dredges,
hydraulic sluice pumps and sluice boxes. This
group accounts for approximately 10% of this
sectors operation. The last group includes the
individual artisanal miners who use simple panning
dishes, shovels and rudimentary sluice boxes and
comprises 90% of this study.
Ghana
The 1989 small-scale Gold Mining Law established
an official, legal permitting system for ASM,
provided seven regional district support centers for
ASM, and created the Precious Minerals and
Marketing Corporation(PMMC) to buy ASM
produced gold at close to market prices from
permit holders(DeLeone,2006). In Ghana, on the
average one person’s earns about $7.00 per day
from SSM activities (Appiah, 1998).
Small-scale mining in Ghana is characterized by
inadequate capital inputs, low level and
inappropriate technology (Baya,1997).An area of
25 acres is the maximum allowable area that is
allocated to each person or group of persons as a
concession(Appiah,1998). No precise small –scale
mining employment figures can be found for
Ghana, although it is estimated some 200,000 are
involved directly in gold and diamonds (Appiah,
1998).
Mining in Nigeria
The Nigerian mining sector is not well developed
as a result of high level of attention towards the oil
sector and the highly centralized economic
structure where the Federal Government is the
major player. This led to decline in productivity.
To counter this decline Ministry of Solid Minerals
Development was created and this was later
changed to Ministry of Mines and Steel. A new
Mineral Acts was signed into law in 2007 and is
expected to provide the right push for the sector.
The Ministry of Solid Minerals Development
(1999) has worked out a package of attractive
incentives for potential investors in the solid
minerals sector. These include: (i) a 3-5 year tax
Page 131
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
holiday,(ii)deferred royalty payments depending on
the magnitude of the investment and strategy
nature of the project,(iii) possible capitalization of
expenditure on exploration and surveys,(iv)
extension of infrastructure such as roads and
electricity to mining sites,and (iv) provision of
100% foreign ownership of mining companies or
concerns. Minerals so far discovered in Nigeria
include iron ore, tin, lead ores and industrial
minerals such as limestone dolomite, clays, baryte,
salt, gypsum, phosphate and kyanite. Other
minerals discovered in Nigeria are coal, bitumen
and precious metals such as gold.
The following mineral titles are available in
Nigeria(Aelex,2007):
-Reconnaissance Permit
-Exploration License
-Small-scale Mining Lease
-Mining Lease
-Quarry Lease
-Water Use Permit
The profile of the licences available is as indicated
in Table 1.The duration of the licenses varies from
1 year to 25 years. Out of the minerals so
discovered in Nigeria, only coal and iron ore have
been mapped extensively and the ore reserves
determined. The Itakpe iron ore deposit has ore
reserve of 200million tons of 36%Fe content
average. Iron ore deposits have so far been
discovered at Ajabanoko,Chokochoko,Agbaja and
Agbade-Okude. Coal was discovered in Enugu in
1909.The national coal reserve as at now is more
than 2billion tonnes while about 632 million tonnes
are indicated in-situ reserves(Mines
Department,1993).All the minerals except coal and
iron ore identified above were only discovered as
outcrops ,however their ore reserves were not
determined. This did not encouraged participation
of the private sector and direct foreign investment
in the mining sector, hence mining could not
contribute meaningfully to the economy of the
country.Countribution of mining in Nigeria to the
GDP is 1%(D’Souza,2004).
In Nigeria, small-scale miners are only involved in
the mining of sand, gravels, gemstones and gold.
Gemstones mining is dominated by small-scale
miners in Nigeria in locations such as Ijero-Ekiti,
and Shaki and environs .In addition the gold
deposit at Itagun in Ilesha is being mined by small-
scale miners and their output is usually very low.
Most small-scale miners in Nigeria are operating
illegally therefore it is very difficult to gather
accurate information about their activities. Because
SSM is not monitored in Nigeria, the
environmental hazard occasioned by their
operations is enormous. This includes several
small excavations that resulted into gulley which
encourage the washing away of topsoil that is
necessary for plant growth.
In Ekiti-State for instant ,the minerals discovered
so far are granite(Ikere-Ekiti), talc(Ijero-
Ekiti),kaolin(Ikoro-Ekiti),clay(Ire-Ekiti) and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
gemstones(Ijero and Ikoro-Ekiti) while granite and
charnokite are available in large quantities in Ado-
Ekiti.All these minerals in Ekiti State so identified,
their ore reserves have not been determined.
Most of the minerals being mined in Ekiti-State are
produced by small-scale miners whose production
are limited by crude production methods and in
most cases are operating illegally. However if the
government is able to support the small-scale
miners technically and financially their output
could be enhanced. Because they are operating
illegally, could not pay any royalty to the Nigerian
state. Also the few granite quarries in the state are
operating a captive market in which most of what
they are producing is meant for use either in road
or building construction project being executed by
the parent company.. As at present in Nigeria, SSM
are about 400,000 with many migrant workers
from Camroun,Chad, Niger and
Benin(D’Souza,2004).
The major problems of ASM in Nigeria are:
-Lack of adequate database for SSM in Nigeria
-Lack of financial and technical support from the
Federal Government of Nigeria
-In ability of FGN to coordinate the ASM for
enhanced production
-Inadequate legislature framework that recognizes
the limitation of ASM
Conclusion and Recommendations
Mining in Nigeria is at comatose level and most of
the mines are at this level due to high cost of
equipment and lack of transparent management
policy. Also, there is also the absence of
appreciable foreign direct investment. Mining
being a capital intensive venture the government
should encourage the use of small-scale mining to
grow the mining sector. The small-scale miners
should be encouraged to form association through
which they will be able to access loan for the
enhancement of their operation. A central
processing processing unit should also be provided
for each production zone .Their throughput could
be put together for sale thereby generating adequate
data for future planning.
The ore reserves of identified minerals should be
determined and demarcated into small blocks
which can be managed by small-scale miners. In
addition easy means of registration should be
provided for small-scale miners.
References
Aelex Legal Practitioners & Arbitrators(2007):The
current mineral licensing regime in Nigeria.
Aelex Legal Practitioners & Arbitrator.Ikoyi,
Lagos.
Akande,J.M. and Adebimpe,R.A.(2008): An
economic assessment of artisanal small-scale
mining of sand and gravel in Ado-
Ekiti,Nigeria.Journal of Engineering and Earth
Science.3(1):37-42
Page 132
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Amoka,I.S and Ogunbajo,M.I.(2003):From waste
to wealth: Improving the viability of small-
scale mines in Nigeria. Nigerian Mining
Journal.4 (1):45-51
Appiah,H.(1998): Organisation of small-scale
mining activities in Ghana.The South African
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.South
Africa.
Baya, J.T.(1997): Small-scale Mining Experiences
from Ghana and Guyana.Expert Group
Meeting on UNIDO High Impact Programme:
Introducing New Technologies for Abatement
of Global Mercury Pollution Deriving from
Artisanal Gold Mining. Vienna, July, 1997.
Chakravorty,S.L.(2001): Artisanal and small-scale
mining in India. International Institute for
Environment and Development,England. No
78
Childs,J (2008): Reforming small-scale mining in
sub-saharan Africa:Political and ideological
challenges to a fair trade gold initiative.
Resource Policy. In press.
Deb,M.,Twari,G and Lahiri-Dutt,K(2004):
Artisanal and small-scale mining in
India:Selected studies and an overview of the
issues .International Journal of
Mining,Reclamation and Environment
DeLeone,S.D.(2006):Golden Opportunity in
Ghana: A negotiation case study and
analysis.Environmental and Conflict
Resolution.Ghana.p.4
D’Souza, K.P.(2004):Changing government and
international perspectives on ASM. Federal
Ministry of Solid Minerals
Development,Abuja. p.5
Hentschel,T.,Hruschka,F. and Priester,M.(2002):
Global report on artisanal and small-scale
mining. International Institute for Environment
and Development,England. No 70.
Hinton,J.,Veiga,M.M and
Beinhoff,C.(2003):Women and artisanal
mining:Gender roles and the road ahead. In
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Gavin Hilson(ed).The social-economic impacts
of artisanal and small-scale mining in
developing countries.AA Balkema,Swets
Publishers,Netherlands.
International Labor Organisation(ILO)(1999):
Social and labor issues in small-scale
mines.Report for discussion at the tripartite
meeting on social and labor isssues in small-
scale mines.Sectorial activities program.
International Labor Office,Geneva.
Jennings,N.I.(1993):Small-scale mining in
developing countries:Addressing labor and
social issues.Guideline for the development of
small/medium scale mining.New York,United
Nations. Pp.90-99
Lahiri-Dutt,K(2003):Not a small job:Stone
quarrying and women workers in the Rajmahal
traps in eastern India.In Gavin Hilson(ed).The
social-economic impacts of artisanal and
small-scale mining in developing countries.
AA Balkema,Swets Publishers,Netherlands.
Lahiri-Dutt,K(2006):Gender livelihoods in small
mines and quarries in India:Living on the
edge.The Australian National
University,Canberra,Australia
Mines Department (1993): Inventory of Nigerian
minerals, mines and miners. Federal
Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resources,
Lagos.
Ministry of Solid Minerals Development (1999):
Annual Report. Ministry of Solid Minerals
Development,Abuja,Nigeria, pp1-9
Noestaller,R. (1996):Keynote
address.In:Barry,M(ed),Regularising informal
mining:a summary of the proceedings of the
international roundtable on artisanal
mining.IEN Occassional paper No 6
Susapu,B and Crispin,G.(2001):Report on small-
scale mining in Papua New
Guinea.International Institute for Environment
and Development,England.No 81
Page 133
 ISSN 1897-
1897-8680
Table 1: Information on type of license
Description of license Size Duration of title Title renewal
i.Reconaissance Permit No area limit 1 yr Annually

ii.Exploration License 200km2 3yrs 2 further periods of 2years

iii.Small-scale Mining 3 km2 5yrs Every2yrs(Alluvial/Artisanal)

Lease Every 5yrs(SSM)

iv. Mining Lease 50 km2 25yrs Every 20yrs

v. Quarry Lease 5 km2 5yrs Every 5yrs

vi. Water Use Permit Not Applicable Period of Period of underlying title
underlying title

(Aelex,2007)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 134
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Adeosun, E. O

(2009), 5 (1) : 135
135 – 138
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Towards Finding Solution to Effective Water Resource Management in Meeting the Vision 2020 in
Nigeria

Adeosun, E.O.
Department of Agricultural Engineering
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
adeosunmmnl@yahoo.co.uk / 08035063590
Abstract
There are a number of existing urban water supply schemes with varying degree of performance, the rural
dwellers especially women and children are busy trekking several kilometers daily in search for potable water.
For instance, less than 5% of Nigerian’s estimated population of about one hundred and forty million people
have access to potable water despite the fact that a lot of water schemes have been put in place to take care of
the people’s water needs. This paper, therefore, examines some of the water schemes, factors that militate
against their success and has recommended strategies that can guide against such failure as the government is
planning for a better economy in the year 2020.

Keywords: potable water, urban areas, borehole

Introduction through administrating of questionnaire, telephone

Water supply inadequacy is a widespread problem in
developing nation and the demand for it is growing
everyday. Water plays a strong cultural role in
societal sanitation, recreational practices etc. In order
to create sustainable solutions for water-related
problems and account for the needs of people, a
thorough understanding of the water culture
interactions seems necessary to adapt actions to the
cultural-emotional, intellectual, moral and spiritual-
dimension of different users (UNESCO, 2002).
Less than 5% of Nigeria’s estimated population of
about one hundred and twenty million people (NPC
1991) has access to potable water, and in most cases
of questionable quality and quantity (Ogunrombi,
1998). Given the importance ascribed to water and its
availability in adequate quantity and quality, one
would expect that serious and sustained efforts would
be made to provide the essential good. Unfortunately,
over the years, there has been relative decline in
government effort to provide water supplies.
During 1955-60, and the national development plan
periods 1962-68, 1970-75, 1975-80 and 1980-85, the
capital expenditure on water represented 7.7%, 4%,
5%, 2.8%, and 2.5% of the total budgets during the
respective periods. Yet the latter periods were those
when greater demands for water occurred as a result
of expanding population and rising living standards,
increasing urbanization as well as significant
expansions in other sectors of the national economy
(Mustapha, 1990).
Methodology
For the purpose of effectiveness of this study, survey
research was adopted. Information were gathered
questionnaire, personal interview using question
inquiry etc.
The questionnaire contained questions on the profile
of respondent, source(s) of water available in his/her
present location, domestic in-house water demand,
expected level of satisfaction through improvement..
Results
Table’s 1-3 shows the sources of water that are
prevalent in the Urban, Semi-Urban and Rural areas
of Ekiti state.
Comparing Tables 1, 2,and 3 with each other, the
percentage of people that have access to tap water in
Semi-Urban areas is higher (35%) than that of Urban
settlers (24%). Also the percentage of people that
have access to boreholes in rural areas is higher
(28%) than that of urban areas which is just 16%. It
is also shown from the Tables that Semi-Urban and
Rural areas are more focused in water development
schemes than the urban areas, and this makes
accessibility of portable water in urban areas more
problematic.
Table 4 shows that each Urban family uses an
average of 321 litres of water per day. Table 5 shows
an average of 285 litres per day for Semi-Urban areas
while Table 6 shows that each family in Rural areas
uses an average of 234 litres of water per day. On
improvement, these will be increased to an average
of 359litres for Urban, 352litres for Semi-Urban, and
292litres for Rural areas.
Discussion and Recommendation
The responses obtained have been carefully
evaluated and analyzed to provide the information
discussed below
1. National Borehole Programme

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 135
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The United Nations Organization’s proposal of
international drinking Water Supply and Sanitation
Decade (IDWSSD, 1981-90) which is part of the
health for all by the year 2000 said that by 1990,
potable water must be available to all especially in
the third world countries. It is in response to this that
the Nigerian civil government in the second republic
launched the national borehole programme. This
programme was in two phases, which started in
August 1981. The first phase involved the sinking of
760 boreholes at the average of 40 boreholes per
state. As at 1983, out of the ones sunk and
monitored, 228 were productive while 23 were
abortive. The percentage of this figure looks
reasonable to each other, but however it can be seen
that some technical and economical errors were
committed in the decision making.
There was no rationale in sinking the same number
of boreholes in each state even for the sake of
Federal character, if the aim behind it was to supply
potable and adequate water to the populace.
2. National Water Supply Rehabilitation Project
The national water supply rehabilitation project was
initiated in 1984. The objective of this project is to
raise the level of water supply in urban and semi-
urban centers. Under the rehabilitation project, the
existing facilities were to be brought up to full
capacity utilization instead of building new ones.
The World Bank is assisting this project under the
National Water Supply Rehabilitation Fund
(NWSRF). The rehabilitation project would involve
overhaul , repair or replacement of plant and
equipment as well as strengthening institutional
weakness that is persistently reaping the level of
water supply low. It is expected too to put into proper
shape the inadequacy in operation and maintenance,
poor logistics, inappropriate institutional framework,
poor billing and collection system. However, it was
revealed recently in a workshop held in Abuja that
the current level of water supply is estimated at 40
and 30 litres per capita per day in urban and semi-
urban centers respectively. This is grossly below the
standard five years after the initiation of this project.
It was also revealed that less than 10% of existing
water supply infrastructure was not fully utilized.
3. Directorate of Foods, Roads and Rural
Infrastructures.
Realizing the importance of the rural dwellers on the
overall development and survival of the country, the
Federal Government of Nigeria established in 1986,
a Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure
{DFRRI}. One of the key programmes being pursued
by the directorate is the Rural Water Supply and
Sanitation {RUWATSAN}.The main objective of
RUWATSAN is to provide potable water to the rural
communities and to promote better sanitary habits
especially of human waste disposal so as to improve
the health of people.
RUWATSAN programme, like most of the DFRRI’s
programme is in phases. For phase 1, the Directorate
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
allocated #100 million. From this, each state,
including the Federal Capital Territory, was allocated
#5 million to provide water for at least 250
communities. Actual project started in October 1986
when each state was granted #1.5 million. Each state
received #2 million in February 1987 as the second
tranche while in July 1987 every state got its last
installments.
Under this phase 1, apart from providing water for at
least 250 communities, each state should provide
Ventilated Improved Pit latrine {VIP}. Various
options of implementation were to the states to
ensure that the communities actually benefited and
projects were properly implemented. Some specific
instructions were also given to cater for the diversity
of geological and structural condition in different
parts of the country, pollution, simplicity of
Technology and reliability.(Anthony, 1986).
Factors Militating Against Successful Water
Supply Projects and Programme.
Quite a number of factors militate against success of
water both in Urban and Rural areas and these
includes:-
a. Lack of reliable and sufficient data for planning,
designing and development of water supply
projects.
b. Lack of technical knowledge on the appropriate
technology especially for water supply
alternatives in rural areas such as land pumps,
windmill pumps etc.
c. Insufficient time for planning major rural water
supply schemes and for mobilizing the
communities for their involvement and
contribution.
d. Poor implementation and monitoring of planned
projects and programmes. The success of any
project depends on the commitment of the
executors and the interest of the planners to see it
through. Most at times, executors pay more
attention to personal gains rather than national
interest.
e. Problems in securing adequate funding to execute
most of the planned programmes. Most of the
government programmes are hoped to be funded
under external loans and most of these loans are
attached to certain conditions, which are
detrimental to the success of their execution.
f. Inadequate number of well trained personnel, for
example water engineers and technicians to
handle and manage most of the water projects and
programmes.
g. Problem of revenue generation: Quite often, the
general public, which constitutes the highest
number of consumers, are the greatest defaulters.
Because the government regards portable water
supply as a social amenity and has agreed to
subsidize it, Babalola(jnr.) J.O. (1990) says that
water charges and rates are ridiculously low.
Despite this, it is still very difficult for water
works and boards to collect this amount from the
public on monthly basis.
Page 136
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
h. Maintenance Constraints: Virtually all items of
mechanical and electrical installations used in
water boards are imported from abroad. This
makes it more difficult if not impossible to stock
spare parts of such variety to ensure continuous
and regular supply of water. Most at times delays
occur in the delivery of such items. Worse still, in
most cases, second-hand refurbished equipment
are imported into the country while money for
new equipment is being paid by the government.
i. Inflation: The present value of our money has
encouraged serious inflation. Foreign exchange is
very meager and difficult for water boards to
obtain.This hinder proper maintenance and
consequently un-interrupted water supply. Within
few years, the cost of sinking a borehole has gone
up tremendously while the cost of maintenance of
such a borehole is unaffordable.
j. Inconsistence in programs initiation: Initiation of
so many programmes at a time for the same
purpose and result, for example the national
borehole programme and hand pump programme.
The result is that none of these programmes are
even completed. There are several other retarding
factors such as fund, illegal connections wastage in
distribution and at headworks, and more executive
staff than the actually needed staff and so on.
Recommended Strategies
Below are some recommended strategies which, if
adopted, will help in coping with the growing water
demand as we are planning for vision 2020.
i. Population Census: Population census is the
main source of demographic statistics in many
developing countries. Though, it is a costly
exercise and requires thorough planning and
training of enumerators for success, it is very
important and inevitable for planning any
meaniful national water supply project. Forecast
should be made of a target data and determine
urban and rural population.
ii. Water Supply Legislation: Water supply
legislation which should serve as a policy
instrument should address the following; Water
supply regulation, water quality standards,
waterworks regulations, equipment
standardization and funding.
iii. Identification of Community’s Water Demand
and Available Resources: It is quite necessary
and useful that the water requirements of
different communities in different parts of the
country be correctly determined and their
available resources be surveyed before
embarking on any programme. This should serve
as a yardstick for allocation and it will help to
determine which technology will be more
appropriate and for which community.
iv. Suitable Qualified Staff: To execute any of the
government programmes successfully, there is
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
need for a certain level of staff standard to be
met. There is need to replace the imported staff
with few indigenous ones, train more at all
levels and give a new and appropriate
orientation to our professionals.
v. Community Participation: For a successful
implementation of any water supply programme,
be it urban or rural, the active participation of
the community is very vital at every stage of the
programme. The community should be able to
contribute to the cost of construction, labour or
cash, and should be able to manage the operation
and maintenance of the scheme after completion.
vi. Maintenance and Services: Most of the
installations in waterworks presently are
obsolete. To maintain these equipment is very
difficult due to lack of spare parts and it is
almost impossible to purchase new ones for
replacement. So many boreholes are no more
productive in rural areas because of lack of
maintenance. Cost of chemicals for water
treatment is rising everyday. Government needs
to do a lot to encourage local production of
chemical materials for water treatment as well as
production of spare parts.
vii. Further Research: Developing economies need
also to carry out research into ways of reducing
domestic water consumption. Unnecessary
consumption should be discouraged so that pilot
studies should be carried out in different parts of
the country.
Conclusion
Research should be directed towards optimization of
water distribution systems to reduce the capital cost
of design and installation and to improve water
supply as a way of meeting the growing demand.
References
Anthony O. (1989): Towards Water Supply for All.
New Nigerian 11th September, 1989 Vol.3 No. 5:
Pg 27
Babalola (jnr.) J.O. (1990): Coping with Water
Supply Demands and Growth in the
1990’s.Journal of Nigerian Association of
Hydrologists (NAH) Volume 2 No.1: Pg 30
Mustafa S. (1990): Proposed National Water Supply
Policy. Paper Presented at the International
Seminar on Water Resources Management
Practices, Ilorin. Pg.34
National Population Commission (NPC),(1991).
Ogunrombi J.A. (1998): Water Supply and Treatment
in Rural Communities. Paper Presented at the 2nd
National Workshop/Exhibition on Water
Resources and Sanitation, Kaduna. Pg.67
UNESCO (2002): Water and Cultural Diversity.
Report on the Involvement of International
Hydrological Programme (IHP) in the third World
Water Forum.ttp//:www.unesco.org/water.
Page 137
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 1: Sources of Water (Urban)
TOWN WELL BOREHOLE TAP RIVERS (%) STREAMS (%) SPRINGS (%)
(%) (%) (%)

Ado-Ekiti 88 13 33 0 5 0
Ikole-Ekiti 65 23 33 08 18 0
Ise-Ekiti 100 10 08 05 5 0
Average 84 16 24 04 10 0

Table 2: Sources of Water (Semi-Urban)

TOWN WELL BOREHOLE TAP RIVERS STREAMS SPRINGS
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Itapa-Ekiti 8 03 05 08 88 03
Aisegba-Ekiti 88 0 95 0 02 0
Igbemo-Ekiti 88 45 05 0 05 0
Average 62 16 35 03 31 01

Table 3: Sources of Water (Rural Area)

TOWN WELL BOREHOLE TAP RIVERS STREAMS SPRINGS
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Erio-Ekiti 78 68 03 0 80 55
Ikogosi-Ekiti 40 15 02 0 53 43
Isaoye-Ekiti 88 0 58 0 68 0
Average 69 28 21 0 67 33

Table 4: In-house Water Demands in Litres/day (Urban)

TOWN DRINKING COOKING BATHING WASHING FLUSHING LAUNDRYING
Ado-Ekiti 11 24 124 42 51 130
Ikole-Ekiti 10 23 83 27 46 117
Ise-Ekiti 11 27 82 24 43 82
Average 11 25 97 31 47 110

Table 5: In-house Water Demands in Litres/day (Semi-Urban)

TOWN DRINKING COOKING BATHING WASHING FLUSHING LAUNDERING
Itapa-Ekiti 17 27 73 21 67 140
Aisegba-Ekiti 15 23 47 18 16 94
Igbemo-Ekiti 09 17 75 22 42 125
Average 14 23 65 21 42 120

Table 6: In-house Water Demands in Litres/day (Rural Area)

TOWN DRINKING COOKING BATHING WASHING FLUSHING LAUNDERING
Erio-Ekiti 07 26 69 22 16 94
Ikogosi-Ekiti 09 26 44 22 24 62
Isaoye-Ekiti 14 38 68 36 20 100
Average 10 30 61 27 20 86

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 138
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ejiko, S. O

Oladebeye, D. H
School of Engineering Oyedele, O. A
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 139 – 145

Development of a Multiple Regression Model in Determining Machine Tool Sensitivity.

Ejiko, S. O.1, Oladebeye, D. H.1 & Oyedele, O. A2

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering
2
Department of Agricultural Engineering
The Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State.
email:jcdatjiko@yahoo.com / 08032317506
1
Corresponding Author

Abstract
The selection of appropriate machines is one of the most critical decisions in the design and development of an
efficient production environment. In this paper, a multiple regression model for machine tool sensitivity has
been developed that has a correlation factor of 0.977 for determining the machining time. This machine time
will enable an operator to predict the most appropriate delivery time that will enhanced the customer and
operator relationship. The model developmental process considered parameters such as finishing time in
relation to the machine properties and component design through experimental procedure from the machine
workshop of the Mechanical Engineering Department of The Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti with respect to
metal volume removed, machine motor power at specific speed, feed and unit depth of cut. Lathe model with
smaller capacity show lower sensitivity as compared to that with higher capacity. From the work carried out it
is recommended that models with lower capacity be utilized in workshops were there are no inventories of jobs
while higher capacity models be employed where jobs are in queue and are highly demanded due to their higher
sensitivity. The inclusion of the machine hour rate will also facilitate selection based on economic criterion.

Keyword: Multiple regression, Sensitivity, Model, Selection, Conventional lathe, Efficient, Delivery time.

Introduction Cyert and March (1963), Kareem (2006), Palik

A product can be produced through various
manufacturing processes. The choice of a production
process will however depend on specific parameters
and consideration (Bruce, 2002).The operation to be
carried out on a work piece determines the tool to be
used. The use of tools is pivotal to the development
of man which started as far back as the Stone Age
(Onipede, 2004).
The advancement of tool usage led to the invention
of machine tool (Bradley, 1972). Machine tools are
power-driven device designed to produce a
geometrical surface either by cutting away metal
through turning, shaping, milling etc (Kareem,
2004). Machine tools are basic mechanical
machinery used to produce or repair other machine
parts which includes lathe, milling and drilling
machine etc.
Sensitivity is the measure of output change with
respect to input change of a given system. The global
market is filled today with various categories of
conventional lathe machine tools, in consideration
for determining machining sensitivity which is a
measure of time changes in the completion of a
turning task based on different machine model. Tos
M300, M350 and M500 lathe machines made by
Czech republic having motor power rating of 2.2KW,
6.0KW and 7.5KW respectively were selected
towards estimating the most efficient one required
for production through mathematical modeling in
order to meet the five firm objectives as stated by
(2006) that is, profit, production, stock levels, sales
and market share considerations. Raw material,
equipment/facilities conditions and power supply
inputs which have led to the closure of so many
industries have been considered by Ogomudia
(2008). Lathe, being one of the most important and
multipurpose machine tools which are useful in
performing several operations including turning,
drilling, facing and so on (Sackey and Amoakohene,
1996), is selected as case study.
A multiple regression model was formulated which
established an output in terms of time with respect to
input as operations, metal volume removed, machine
motor power which represents machine capacity
involved in turning/step turning process; hence the
sensitivity of the machine tool (Lathe) can be
determined which will aid in determining the
appropriate delivery time by an operator.
Equipment/machine tool procurement is a vital
aspect in the production of a component/product for
an establishment. Most managers believe that with
the boom in companies’ profits, companies should
acquire more sophisticated machine tool without
making proper consultation concerning the
effectiveness as it concerns the tool which involves
the operations, maintainability, reliability and the
forms/mass of production. Several works involving
machining processes from the perspective of tool
deformation and chip formation mechanism in the
machine tool industry has been treated by some

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 139
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
authors (Byrne et al, 2003; Tonshoff et al, 2000).
Laurent and Anne (2005) worked on sensitivity of
punching machine with numerical model which is for
predicting the force that will generate a profile.
Boothroyd and Knight (1989) derive machining time
as a sum of loading, machining and tool changing
time. All these works have been limited to the
working principle and design factor of the machine
tool without consideration of the machine capacity
which is the function of individual machine model
sensitivity. This study is intended to tackle machine
sensitivity from its capacity angle (Motor power).
Materials and Method
In order to formulate a multiple regression model,
some of the basic aspects of production process,
operating type, machine class/grade, and metal
volume removed for mild steel material will be
simulated in relation to the time taken to complete a
job which is a function of the machine sensitivity.
Extensive experiment was carried out on product
machining in the Machine Workshop of Mechanical
Engineering Department, the Federal Polytechnic
Ado-Ekiti involving the use of conventional lathe
machines of Tos M300, M350 and M500 having
motor power rating of 2.2,6.0 and 7.5KW
respectively. Experimental time data generated from
operations such as facing, turning, step turning, and
volume of metal removed on several lathe models are
documented. Based on past authors works,
Machining time is believed to be linear in relation to
volume of metal removed, speed and feed. In order to
develop an appropriate model that will relate the
multiple variable factors such as lathe model motor
power, metal volume removed and total machining
time for specific speed, depth of cut and feed,
Multiple Regression tool was selected for analysis.
Theoretical Background
Considering the fact that object to be turned are
usually cylindrical in shape therefore the velocity of
the tool movement (Cutting speed) is the product of
the work piece circumference to the rotational speed
of the machine spindle.
Where Circumference = 2πR or πD (1)
V = Velocity (m/min) also know as cutting speed
πDN
V= (2)
1000
D = diameter of the work piece (mm)
N = Spindle speed in rev/min
The volume of metal removed in cm3 per minute
when turning is given as the product of depth of cut,
feed and cutting speed.
3
Vol (cm / min) = fdV (3)
Where f = feed rate (mm/rev), d = depth of cut
(mm). Other symbol is as defined before.
Machining time is the time taken to machined a
particular length L (mm) of bar depending on the
feed and speed using lathe as given by (Adejuyigbe,
1997; Adejuyigbe, 2007)
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Time of machining = Tm = L (4)
fN
Combining equation 3.1 and 3.3 machining time
Tm becomes
πDL
Tm = (5)
1000 fV
Machining time is shown as the function of volume
of metal removed, velocity of cutting speed and feed
which does not posses relationship with machine
capacity hence the need for model development that
gives a combine relationship between the above
factor at depth of 1mm, feed of 0.22rev/min and
175rpm for mild steel machining as shown in Table 1
and 2.
Multiple Regression Analysis
Regression is the process of estimating one of the
variables (the dependent variable) from the other (the
independent variable) for curve fitting purposes by
means of some equation. Within two variables least
square method can be applied, but for more variables
the multiple regression method comes to play
(Gujarati, 2007). In the case of three variables where
it seemed that there is a linear relationship between a
dependent variable time (Z) and two independent
variables volume machined(Y) and motor power (Y),
hence the need to seek for an equation connecting the
variables that have the form below
Z = a + bx + cy (6)
This is regression equation of Z on x and y
The above equation represents a plane in three
dimensional rectangular coordinate systems, which is
called the regression plane (Murry et al, 1998). In
finding the least square regression plane, the values
a, b and c determine from the normal corresponding
equation in equation 7, 8 and 9.
∑ z = na + b∑ x + c∑ y (7)
∑ xz = a∑ x + b∑ x + c∑ xy
2
(8)
∑ yz = a∑ y + b∑ xy + c∑ y 2
(9)
Where,
Z is the machining time (min)
X is the machine motor power (KW)
Y is the volume of metal machined (cm3)
N is the number of sample experimented on
a, b and c are parameters of the regression equation
The standard error of estimate showing the measure
of scatter point about the regression curve is given in
equation 10
Sz =
∑ (Z − Z est )2
(10)
n
The degree of agreement of the model equation with
real data is determined by the coefficient of
correlation r, which is given in equation 11
Page 140
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Experiment was carried out on three conventional
∑ (Z − Z ) − ∑ (Z − Z )
2 2

r=
est (12) lathe machines in Mechanical Engineering
∑ Z − nZ
2
2
Department the Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti.
Where, These machines are designated as Tos M300, M350
and M500. The data obtain were subjected to
Z is the mean observed time multiple regression analysis which gave the model as
Zest is the model estimated time stated in equation 15.
Table 3.0 gives the interpretation of various ranges of The model developed is a function of time as against
the values of correlation factor. the other variables (lathe machine motor power and
13a + 66 .5b + 96 .55c = 240 .5 volume of metal removed) as the predictor variables
66.5a + 413.45b + 614.502c = 1353.65 (13) with respect to completion time. Correlation factor
96.554a + 614.502b + 1608.9c from analysis of data in Table 6.0 gives the factor as
(14)
0.977 which shows high degree of the result linearity
= 3263.77
(Oladebeye and Ejiko, 2007). The standard error of
 13 66.5 96.55  a   240.5  3.07 reflects the amount of time in minutes that
 66.5 413.45 614.5  b  = 1353.65 
      brings about the differences in the estimated
96.55 614.5 1608.9  c  3263.77 sensitivity. Material handling process based on
13(413.45 × 1608.9 − 614.5 × 614.5) − 66.5 interpersonal operation will also contributes to the
error experienced. The result shows that increase in
(66.5 × 1608.9 − 614.5 × 96.55) + 96.55 volume of metal removed favours increase in
(66.5 × 614.5 − 413.45 × 96.55) machining time while increase in machine motor
3738662.9 − 3169514.7 + 91302.7 = 660451 power favours time reduction. Figure 3.0 shows that
lathe machines with higher capacity possesses
 287589.5 − 47661.9 945.7 
 − 47661.9 11593.8 − 1567.9 greater sensitivity.
 
 945.7 − 1567.9 952.6  Conclusion and Recommendation
Conclusion
 287589.5 − 47661.9 945.7 
CT = 1  This study has been used to successfully develop a
− 47661.9 11593.9 − 1567.9
660451   multiple regression model for machine tool
 945.7 − 1567.9 952.6  sensitivity in determining the most appropriate
machining time involving the production of mild
7756811.12 11.7447 
1  steel component using data generated from
− 885869.2  =  − 1.3413 experimental procedure. The Lathes in machine shop
660451 
1214120.32  1.8383  of Mechanical Engineering Department of The
This implies, Federal Polytechnic Ado Ekiti was used as a case
study. The resulting model possesses high correlation
a = 11.7447 , b = −1.3413 , c = 1.8383, and the required
factor showing high level of linearity among the
regression equation is variables (Machine motor power and Metal volume
Z = 11.74 − 1.34 x + 1.84 y (15) removed) relationship as input with respect to the
In order to obtained the correlation coefficient the time of completion as output. Developed model is
explained and total variation needs to be calculated also useful for machining time estimation that is of
and then applied to equation 3.10 help in planning, managing, financing and upgrading
Unexplained variation =  our machine tool industries.
2

∑Z − Z est  = 122.51
 The implementation of the model will enhance

2
utilization of available resources and lathe machines
Total variation =  2

∑  Z − Z 
− −
= ∑Z2 −nZ that will establish good interrelationship between
 customers request, operators’ available time.
Educational institutions where practical are
= 7122.43 − 13(18.5 ) = 2673.18
2
conducted giving preference to the number of student
Explained variation = per department can effectively plan their workshop
2673.18 − 122.51 = 2550.67 activities through strategy scheduling with the model.
Multiple correlation coefficient of z on x and y
Explained − var iation 2550.67 Recommendations
r= = = Considering the nature of the model in this study, the
Total − var iation 2673.18 following recommendations are hereby suggested:
0.977 (i) During the generation of data effort should be
The standard error from equation 10 is given as made to ensure that accurate data are
122.5 collected to developed model that are highly
SZ = = 3.07
13 effective.
(ii) Model with lower capacity should be utilized in
Results and Discussion workshops where there were low inventories of
jobs while higher capacity models are employed

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 141
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
where jobs were in queue and highly demanded
due to their higher sensitivities.
(iii) These models were highly recommended for use
in small, medium and large scale machine tool
industries for effective operational service.
(iv) The application of this procedure on different
material will give different result due some
parameters that varies during operation such as
feed, speed and depth of cut.
(v) The application of machine charge rate will go a
long way in selecting the most economical
machine tool.
References
Adejuyigbe S. B. (1997) Metal Cutting Machine
Tools, 1st Edt Topfun Publication Akure, Nigeria
Chapter 5, Pp108-165 (220)
Adejuyigbe, S. B. (2007): Applied Manufacturing
Engineering Processes 1st Edt Topfun
Publication Akure, Nigeria Chapter 9 Pp.135-
138
Boothroyd, G. and Knight, W. A. (1989)
Fundamentals of machining and Machine Tools
2nd Edt. New York: Dekker.
Box G.E.P. and Jenkins G.M.(1976) Time Series
Analysis; Forecasting and Control, Holden Day,.
San Francisco. P32
Bradley Ian (1972): A History of Machine Tools 1st
Edt., Model and Allied Publications Ltd
Hempstead. Chapter 2 Pp 23 – 45
Byrne, G., Dornfeld, D. and Dekena, B.
(2003)”Advancing cutting technology”. Annals
of the CIRP, STCC, 52/2/2003, Pp 483-508
Cyert, R.M. and Marich, J.G. (1963): A Behavioural
Theory of the firm Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
Pretice – Hall.
Gujarati Damodar N. (2007): Basic Econometrics, 4th
Edt Tata McGraw Hill, Publishing Company
Limited New Delhi.
Kareem B. (2004): Manufacturing Processes Vol. 11
Besade Publication Akure
Kareem, B. (2005): Assessment of the maintenance
Performance of the Cocoa processing Plant in
Fig 1.0 Turning process diagram
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
Akure, Proceeding of 1st Engineering Forum,
Federal Polytechnic, Ado – Ekiti, Nigeria
Kareem, B. (2006): Productivity Performance of
Machinery in Selected Manufacturing Industries
in Ondo State, Journal of Engineering and Earth
Sciences, Vol.2, pp 1-16
Laurent, B and Anne, S. (2005)” Analysis of the
sensitivity of FEM predictions with numerical
parameter” Vol IV European Journal of
Mechanics-A/Solids Pp 614-629
Mundel M. E (1978) Motion and time study 5th Edt
Englewood Cliffs, N.J
Prentice Hall, Inc P620 – 661 Chapter 39 (750)
Murray R. Spiegel ; John J. Schiller and Srinivasan
R. Alu (1998): Theory and Problems of
Probability and Statistics 2nd Edn Schaum’s
Outline Series McGraw –Hill, New York.
Chapter 13 Pp 299 – 302
Ogomudia A.O. (2008): The Challenge of National
development in Nigeria: Technology as a way
forward Annual Lecture Series 4 delivered at
F.U.T.A Pp. 13-17.
Oladebeye D.H. and Ejiko O.S.(2007) Predicting
future Sales Volume using some selected
forecasting model, International Journal Of
Sciences, Engineering and Environmental
Technology (IJOSEET) 2nd Edt. Imperial Binder,
Federal Poly Ede. P186 - 193
Onipede A.I.M. (2004): The role and practice of
engineering in society 2nd Edt, R.R.R. Press Nig.
Ltd. 2B, Off Adesida Road, Akure. Pp. 1 – 14.
Palik, M. (2006): Total productivity Model (TPM),
http//www.ask.com
Roberts and Lapidge (1977) Manufacturing
Processes. McGraw-Hill New York:
Sackey J.K.N. and Amoakohen, S.K. (1996): Metal
Work technology 1st Edt., Macmillan Education
Ltd. Basingstoke P. 158 – 185 Chapter 13,
Timings R. L. (1980) Processes and Materials 2nd
Edt. longman New York
Tonshoff, H.K., Arendt, C. and Ben Amor, R.
(2000)”Cutting of hardened Steel”, Annals of
the CIRP, STCC, 49/2/2000, Pp 547-551
Page 142
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Table 1: Feed for drilling, reaming and turning – HSS Drill

Material Drilling Reaming Turning
rev/min rev/min rev/min
Aluminum 250 - 600 100 - 300 400 – 1000
Brass free cutting 150 - 300 130 - 200 225 – 350
Bronze soft 100 - 250 75 - 180 150 – 225
Cast iron soft 75 - 150 60 - 100 100 – 150
Cast iron medium 70 - 110 35 - 65 75 – 120
Cast iron hard 60 - 100 20 - 55 50 – 90
Copper 60 - 100 40 - 60 100 – 200
Magnesium 300 - 650 150 - 350 600 – 1200
Stainless Steel free machining 65 - 100 35 - 85 100 – 150
Stainless Steel other 15 - 50 15 - 30 40 – 85
Steel free machining 100 - 145 60 - 100 125 – 200
Steel under 0.3 Carbon 70 - 120 50 - 90 75 – 175
Steel 0.3 – 0.6 Carbon 55 - 90 45 - 70 65 – 120
Steel with over 0.6 Carbon 40 - 60 40 - 50 60 – 80
Titanium 30 - 60 10 - 20 25 – 55
Zinc die casting 200 – 400 125 - 300 300 – 1000
Source: Roberts and Lapidge (1977)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 143
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 2: Feed for turning –HSS or Carbide cutters
Feed rate
Material Millimeters per revolution
Aluminum 0.18 – 1.27
Cast iron 0.28 – 0.64
Copper alloys 0.13 – 0.56
Nickel alloys 0.13 – 0.46
Stainless steel 0.13 – 0.56
Steel 0.25 – 2.30
Titanium 0.18 – 0.46
Source: Roberts and Prentice (1977); Timings (1980)

Table 3: Rule of Thumb for interpreting coefficient of correlation

Value of r Interpretation
0.9 – 1.0 Very high correlation
0.7 – 0.9 High correlation
0.4 – 0.7 Moderate correlation
0.2 – 0.4 Low correlation
0 – 0.2 Slight correlation
Source: Box and Jenkins (1976)

Table 4: True time based on volume removed and motor power

S/№ Power in(KW) Volume (cm3) Time (min)
1 7.5 3.739 5.5
2 7.5 2.765 5
3 7.5 32.52 59
4 7.5 6.504 11
5 7.5 17.633 36
6 6.0 5.058 14.2
7 6.0 3.801 12.3
8 6.0 8.859 28
9 2.2 4.398 15
10 2.2 3.456 12
11 2.2 2.529 13.5
12 2.2 0.88 9
13 2.2 4.412 20

Table 5: Parameter used for model development

S/№ Z y x z2 x2 y2 xz yz xy
1 5.5 3.739 7.5 30.25 56.25 13.98 41.25 20.565 28.043
2 5 2.765 7.5 25 56.25 7.645 37.5 13.825 20.738
3 59 32.52 7.5 3481 56.25 1057.6 442.5 1918.68 243.9
4 11 6.504 7.5 121 56.25 42.3 82.5 71.544 48.78
5 36 17.633 7.5 1296 56.25 310.92 270 634.788 132.248
6 14.2 5.058 6.0 201.64 36 25.58 85.2 71.824 30.348
7 12.3 3.801 6.0 151.29 36 14.45 73.8 46.752 22.806
8 28 8.859 6.0 784 36 78.48 168 248.052 53.154
9 15 4.398 2.2 225 4.84 19.34 33 65.97 9.676
10 12 3.456 2.2 144 4.84 11.944 26.4 41.472 7.603
11 13.5 2.529 2.2 182.25 4.84 6.396 29.7 34.142 5.564
12 9 0.88 2.2 81 4.84 0.7744 19.8 7.92 1.936
13 20 4.412 2.2 400 4.84 19.466 44 88.24 9.706
∑ 240.5 96.554 66.5 7122.4 413.45 1608.88 1353.65 3263.77 614.502

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 144
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 6: Parameters used to determined the Correlation factor
S/№ Zest (Z – Zest)2
1 8.56 9.3636
2 6.78 3.1684
3 61.53 6.4009
4 13.66 7.0756
5 34.13 3.4969
6 13.01 1.4161
7 10.69 2.5921
8 20.00 64
9 16.88 3.5344
10 15.15 9.9225
11 13.45 0.0025
12 10.41 1.9881
13 16.91 9.5481
∑ 122.5092

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 145
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oyedele, O. A
(2009), 5 (1) : 146–
46– 150
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Hunger in Nigeria: Why and Proposed Solution

Oyedele, O. A
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
e-mail: segilayo4real@yahoo.com
+2348034917764

Abstract
Hungry person listens not to reason nor cares for justice, nor is bent by any prayers. Hunger is an enemy to any
living being. The havocs caused by hunger in any society is more than the cost of servicing it. This paper
examines the causes of hunger in Nigeria. It was found that Nigerians are groaning in hunger despite the
abundant resources to feed her citizens. The findings revealed that Nigeria has abandoned agriculture which is
the bed rock of any economic development. The paper then suggests solutions to curb hunger in Nigeria.

Keywords: Hunger, Nigeria, Agriculture, Solution, Resources

Introduction unemployment and poverty continue to take a turn

Hunger, as defined by the Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English and Encarta 2008 Dictionary,
is the lack of food for a long period of time that can
cause illness or death. Daily Independent (2009),
technically defined hunger as a situation whereby a
person consumes less than 2,000 calories per day, or
in the case of acute hunger, below 1,800 calories.
According to Okunmadewa (2002), food security
connotes access by all people at all times to sufficient
food for a healthy and productive life. Food
insecurity is corollary which is lack of access. These
definitions imply that hunger is a result of not having
access to sufficient food of an appropriate quality
and quantity. Hunger is usually caused by a
breakdown in the food security mechanisms of a
society and lack of purchasing power (Igbedioh,
1996).
In Nigeria, food shortages have become common
since 1972, culminating in the food crises of the
1980s, made worse by the implementation of a
macroeconomic adjustment policy in 1986 (Igbedioh,
1996). Thousands of people in Nigeria are driven by
hunger to sell their bodies and souls to live;
thousands of people, wretched and living in misery
and appalling squalor, struggle to earn just enough to
keep themselves alive; willing to work and begging
for a chance, yet starving, condemned to hunger, dirt
and diseases (Didi, 2005). It was further reported that
UN’s Human Development Index places Nigeria
among the world’s poorest countries. Millions of
Nigerians, the world’s 154th poorest country faces a
life of poverty, unemployment, hunger, and early
death and about 50% are illiterate while some 40
millions people go hungry or are living in a hand-to-
mouth basis. Adenegan et al (2004) stress that
despite the involvement of Sub-Saharan Africa
countries in internal trade, hunger, malnutrition,
for the worse thereby leading to food security
problems. There is no doubt that Nigerians are
groaning in hunger. Nigeria’s position on food
security is highly insecure and deadly. A sizeable
percentage of the Nigerian population is left with
only the bilious taste of poverty. A member of the
Nigerian House of Representatives in his comment
on hunger said that people are dying and hunger is
simply unbearable. He said truly; there is hunger in
the Land. People go to bed with empty stomachs
(Ifeancho et al, 2009).
Ironically, Nigeria is blessed with abundant resources
to feed her citizens. Nigeria is the largest country in
Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) with an estimated
population of about 150 million. The country has a
total land area of 98.3 million ha out of which 71.2
million ha are cultivable while, only 34.2 million ha
are actually being cultivated (Aladejimokun and
Omonona, 2008). Adegboye (2004) stated that
agriculture is a key sector that affect majority of
Nigerians and the nation’s economy, because about
60-70% of the populace are involved in farming.
Also agriculture’s contribution to GDP is about
41.5%. It was further stated that agriculture accounts
for over 70% of non-oil exports and perhaps most
importantly, provided over 80% of the food needs of
the country. Aladejimokun and Omonona (2008)
assessment is also similar to Adegboye (2004), that
the agricultural sector contributed over 60% of the
GDP in the 1960s and despite the reliance of
Nigerian peasant farmers on traditional tools and
indigenous farming methods, these farmers produced
70% of Nigeria’s exports and 95% of its food needs.
Nicholas (2009) posited that Nigeria is blessed with
both human and natural resources and has never at
any given time lacked the desire for successful
agricultural production. It was further argued that,

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009 Page 146
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
presently, virtually, all food items imported to the
country have their traditional abode in the states
across Nigeria, where soil and weather conditions are
particularly favourable for the cultivation of such
crops.
Despite the abundant human, natural resources and
favourable climate with which Nigeria is endowed;
the country has not been self-sufficient in food. The
question that then comes to mind is “why is, Nigeria,
blessed with both natural human resources find
herself in this ugly situation of hunger?” This paper
therefore examines the causes of hunger and suggests
possible solutions for eradicating hunger in Nigeria.
Causes of Hunger in Nigeria
Hunger is implicated by a low level of agricultural
production. Many research works have been done on
the causes of hunger in Nigeria for example: Daily
Independent (2009) opines that hunger in less
developed countries, in which Nigeria is among, is as
a result of absence of mechanized farming,
unchecked environmental degradation, drought,
floods and poor policy frame-works characterised by
the lack of political will to match words with action.
According to Okuneye (2002), the boost in the
agricultural sector took down turn with the advent of
massive importation of luxury goods. Ekpu (2009)
and Ajaero (2009) identify the menace of hunger in
Nigeria as a result of oil discovery of 1956 and
commencement of it exportation in 1958, which
resulted in leaving the farm for our aged parents with
their back-breaking hoes and machetes. As the oil
prices went up, the interest in agriculture went down.
Agricultural plantation was abandoned and soon
hunger was staring us in the face in spite of the huge
arable land and good weather. Aladejimokun and
Omonona (2008) and Ifeancho (2009) also share
similar view with Ekpu (2009) that, Nigerian
agriculture suffered many reverses during the past
couples of decades from period of booming export
trade in agricultural commodities to an import
dependent and mono-cultural economy based on oil.
While this was being done, agricultural production
depleted to dangerous levels. Chigbo (2009) opines
that hunger is as a result of lack of storage facilities
which result in food wastage. It was reported that
more than 70% of perishable and 30% of durable
food produced in Nigeria are lost to non-availability
of preservation facilities.
Apart from the above mentioned factors, other roots
of hunger in Nigeria identified by this paper include:
(i) Corruption and insincerity: many programmes
on agriculture were promulgated by past
governments to encourage the production of
food in Nigeria such as: Operation Feed the
Nation (OFN), 1976–1979; Green Revolution
and National Agricultural Credit Guarantee
Scheme 1979-1983 and Directorate of Food,
Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), 1986-
1983 among others. These programmes could
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
not see the light of the day due to corruption.
Taking for instance a situation whereby loans
were given to “pen farmers” who never know
how to plant maize and distribution of fertilizers
and agricultural inputs were done on the basis of
politics, cannot make agricultural sector to grow,
it only leads to frustration. No wonder, there is
no defined mechanized farms in Nigeria.
(ii) Failure to value agriculture as a profession: it is
sad to notice that many people in Nigeria do not
want to be addressed as farmers; even those that
went to study agriculture in higher institutions.
This is simply because it is generally believed in
Nigeria that farmers are poor and wretched.
This scenario has gone deeply into the society to
the extent that Farmers Associations command
the least respect and little attention is paid to
them. Until government gives due regards to
farmers and the profession, people will continue
to shy away from it; hence, few hands will
continue to provide food for the ever increasing
population.
(iii) Failure to diversify gains from oil to agriculture:
there is no doubt that government makes a lot of
profit from the oil sector; but instead of using
the money to develop agriculture which was the
pioneer source of foreign exchange, government
believed in importation rather than production.
(iv) Low percentage of total budgetary allocation for
agriculture: The annual budgetary allocation for
thirteen years in Nigeria is as shown in Table 1
and Figure1, which indicate that agriculture had
not got up to 10% of total budgetary allocation.
This is ridiculous; it would be difficult to meet
the MDG target of food security. When there is
no substantial fund for agriculture, it will be
difficult to attain technological development
needed for high food production. It should be
noted that technological input to agricultural
production is not only a necessity, but also a
factor that determines the effectiveness of other
inputs.
(v) High level of dependence on food import: The
yearly record of food import to the country for
eighteen years (1986 to 2003) is as shown in
Table 2. It shows that the imported foods
continue to increase almost geometrically. The
percentage of imported foods presented in
Figure 2 gives a clear picture of the pattern of
food importation for the eighteen years in
Nigeria which is almost linear in nature.
(vi) Unavailability of disposable income: It is one
thing to have the food around; another thing is to
have the purchasing power. The market reports
Page 147
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
from dailies in recent years reveal that cost of
food items is skyrocketing. Average Nigerian
reportedly living below $1.00 income per day
find difficult it to meet the pace at which the
food price rises.
Results of Hunger
A hungry person listens not to reason nor care for
justice, nor is bent by any prayers. Hunger is an
enemy to any living being. The havocs caused by
hunger in any society is more than the cost of
servicing it. The following are identified as results
that hunger pose to any society:
• Risk of peaceful living
• Treat to country’s security
• Increase in crime rate
• Rampant in diseases
• Increase in death rate of the young ones
• Increase in emigration
• Economic instability
• Increase in begging
• Poor psychological development
The Way Forward
There is no time waste, Nigerians must wake up and
fight hunger. There is no other dose for hunger than
food. There is need for solid framework to be put in
place for food production in this country. Nigeria
should crawl like the prodigal son and return to
agriculture which has been our traditional profession.
Nigeria government should count oil money as
additional blessing and use it to develop agriculture
instead of adopting food importation policy. History
and contemporary experts have always identified
agriculture as the bed-rock of the economic
development of any people. Nigeria should consider
herself fortunate of being endowed with resources
essential for the development of her agriculture. True
greatness, however, does not lie in mere possession
of resources, but in their profitable exploitation.
The yearly appropriation vote for agriculture should
be increased and implementation effectively
monitored. All tiers of governments and institutions
should be compelled to establish farms. In addition,
farming should be made attractive to the youths.
References
Adegboye, R.O. (2004): Land, Agriculture, and Food
Security in Nigeria. 3rd Faculty Lecture, Faculty
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
2009
of Agriculture, University of Ilorin, 25th
February, 2004.
Adenegan K.O; Oladele O.I and Ekpo M.N. (2004):
Impact of Agricultural Export on Food
Security in Nigeria. Journal of Food,
Agriculture and Environmental 2 (1) Pp 107-
112
Ajaero, C. (2009): The Boom that Became our
Doom. Newswatch August 3, 2009. Pp 13-
14.
Aladejimokun O. A. and Omonona B. T. (2008):
Hunger in Niger: Policy Implication for
Water Resources Management in Nigeria.
The Social Science 3 (8) Pp 626-630
Medwell Journals
CBN (1997) Statistical Bulletin 8 (1) Central Bank of
Nigeria, Abuja.
CBN (2003): CBN Statistical Bulletin and Annual
Report, 2003.
Chigbo M. (2009): Tragic Tale of Wasted Foods.
Newswatch August 3, 2009. Pp 22-24.
Daily Independent (2009): Nigeria: Curbing Global
Hunger. [Online] allAfrica.com
Didi, (2005): Hunger in Nigeria: ‘The Price of
‘Forgiveness.’ [Online] International Marxist
Tendency, Thursday, 8 December 2005.
Ekpu, R. (2009): A Harvest of Hunger. Newswatch
August 3, 2009. Pp 12-13.
Ifeancho M. I; Nte N. D. and Nwagwu J. (2009): The
State, Politics of Poverty and Food
Insecurity in Nigeria. International Bulletin
of Business Administration. EuroJournals,
Inc. 2009. [Online]
htt//www.eurojournals.com/IBBA.htm.
Igbedioh S. O. (1996): Policy Considerations for a
realistic to Hunger in Nigeria.Journal of
Nutrition and Health. 10 (4) pp 341-358.
Okuneye , P. A. (2002): Rising Cost of Food Prices
and Food Insecurity in Nigeria and
its Implication for Poverty Reduction. CBN
Economic and Financial Review. 39 (4).
Okunmadewa F. (2002): Food Security and Poverty
in Nigeria. Proceeding of the First
International Conference of the West Africa
Society for Agricultural Engineering,
Abuja, Nigeria. 24-28 October, 2002.
Nicholas E .J. (2009): Agriculture in Nigeria.
[Online] http://twitter.com/234next
Monday, 20 July 2009.
Page 148
 ISSN 1897-
1897-8680

Fig. 1: The Anual Budgetary Allocation for Agriculture (1990 to 2002)

Fig. 2: Food Import as % of Total GDP

Table 1: Summary of Agriculture’s Annual Budgetary Allocations, 1990 - 2002

Year Total Budget Allocation to Agric % of Total
N’b US $’b N’b US $’b
1990 39.76 4.94 1.96 0.24 4.95
1991 38.66 4.80 0.67 0.08 1.74
1992 52.03 6.47 0.92 0.11 1.78
1993 112.10 13.94 2.83 0.35 2.53
1994 110.20 13.71 3.71 0.46 3.37
1995 153.49 19.09 6.92 0.86 4.51
1996 337.21 41.95 5.71 0.71 1.69
1997 428.21 53.27 8.66 1.07 2.02
1998 487.11 60.60 9.04 1.12 1.86
1999 947.69 117.90 12.15 1.15 1.28
2000 701.05 87.21 13.60 1.69 1.94
2001 1,018.02 126.65 64.94 8.07 6.38
2002 1,018.15 126.67 44.80 5.57 4.40
Source: CBN, (1997), Dollar Conversion is in 1990 constant factor.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 149
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 2: Nigeria’s Food Import Indicator from 1986 to 2003 (in billion naira)
Year GDP at Food Total Food Import Food Import
current market Import Import as % of Total as % of Total
price Import GDP
1986 73.0 0.92 5.98 15.3 1.3
1987 108.8 1.93 17.86 10.8 1.7
1988 145.2 1.75 21.44 8.2 1.2
1989 244.7 2.09 30.86 6.8 0.8
1990 260.6 3.89 45.71 8.5 1.4
1991 324.0 8.50 89.48 9.5 2.6
1992 549.8 13.74 143.15 9.6 2.5
1993 697.0 15.28 166.10 9.2 2.2
1994 914.9 18.39 162.78 11.3 2.0
1995 1960.7 96.65 755.12 12.8 5.0
1996 2740.5 83.26 562.62 14.8 3.0
1997 2834.8 112.48 845.71 13.3 4.0
1998 2721.5 113.05 837.41 13.5 4.1
1999 3377.3 115.56 862.52 13.4 3.4
2000 3614.2 128.07 962.97 13.3 3.5
2001 5178.2 160.2 1357.6 11.8 3.1
2002 5454.2 176.9 1580.5 11.2 3.3
2003 7180.1 226.1 1956.1 11.5 3.1
Source: CBN Statistcal Bulletin and Annual, 2003.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 150
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ladeinde,
Ladeinde, M. A
Atanda, E. O
School of Engineering Ageh, A. J
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 151–
51– 156

Training of Agricultural Machinery Operators and Mechanics in Nigeria: AMMOTRAC Perspective

Ladeinde, M.A. Atanda, E.O. & Ageh, A.J

Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC),
Federal Department of Agriculture, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
mabayojeladeinde@yahoo.com
olugbenga_atanda@yahoo.com
doyinageh@yahoo.com.
08035637321; 08087845814; 08038588145; 08034732265

Abstract
The establishment of the Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC)
in the late 80s was borne out of the need for trained personnel to cater for the upkeep, operation, maintenance
and repair of agricultural machinery and equipment in Nigeria. Consequently, the establishment of the
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) was sequel to the inability
of agricultural practice in Nigerian to cope without sophisticated mechanization activities in the very late 70s.
And as a result, more agricultural machinery and equipment from overseas were introduced into the Nigerian
agricultural sector. This paper, therefore, look at AMMOTRAC in perspective on the training of agricultural
machinery operators and mechanics in Nigeria. It captures the genesis of Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) and its rationale towards agricultural mechanization
development in Nigeria. The objectives, training programmes, training scope and approach to training by the
AMMOTRAC were elucidated. It also highlights the achievements of AMMOTRAC as a mechanization training
institution in Nigeria. Recommendations for the way forward on the training of agricultural machinery
operators, mechanics and other stakeholders in Nigeria are highlighted in the paper.

Keywords: Training, Agricultural Machinery Operators, Mechanics, AMMOTRAC

Introduction has been found that most tractors and implements in

The farm tractor is one of the basic sources of
mechanical power that is useful in performing
various agricultural activities like land clearing,
ploughing, harrowing, planting, fertilizer application,
chemical spraying, harvesting and transportation of
harvested crops. Utilization of tractors for farming
operations enhances faster operational activities and
increases output per farm worker (Akinoso and
Mijinyawa, 2001).
The high cost of ownership of farm tractors in
Nigeria presently militates against the use of tractors
by majority of the farmers (Babatunde, 1996;
Akinoso and Mijinyawa, 2001). This is further
compounded by the fact that the tractors that are
available for direct use or hiring services are often
grounded due to several problems (Anazodo, 1982;
Anazodo et al., 1987; Ezeike et al., 1992; Oni, 1994;
Onwualu, 1996; Babatunde, 1996). Principal among
the problem is the lack of adequate training and
education of agricultural machinery operators and
mechanics which are the direct consequences of the
high frequencies of farm tractors and implements
breakdown before they reached their useful service
life span.
Under normal circumstances, tractors and
agricultural field implements are supposed to last for
at least ten years, if proper care is ensured in
maintaining and handling them (Culpin, 1975). It
Nigeria do not serve up to five years before they
become scrap or non functional (Anazodo et al.,
1987; Onwualu, 1996; Haque et al., 2001).
Agricultural Mechanization in Nigeria is still
characterized by low competence level of
machinery operators and mechanics. This is
further compounded by the technological changes in
the machinery and equipment that were imported into
the country in the past years as most operators and
mechanics finds it difficult to operate, maintain and
repair some of them (Ladeinde et al., 2008). This
heavy investment outlay will not achieve its desired
result, if these tractors and implements are not well
operated and maintained to achieve its useful service
life span. It is also important to guard against
premature failure or early breakdown right from the
time of planning for purchase to the time of usage
and storage.
Although the importance of highly-competent
agricultural machinery operators and mechanics to
effective mechanization practices cannot be over-
emphasized, the non-charlant attitude of some
managers of agricultural establishments and other
stakeholders involved in mechanization practices in
Nigeria towards training and retraining of their
operators and mechanics constitutes serious bane to
advancement of agricultural mechanization in
Nigeria (Ladeinde et al., 2008). If agricultural

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 151
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
mechanization would develop at a pace that would
meet food demand for the population growth in
Nigeria, we must change our orientation as well as
our attitude towards training (Ladeinde et al., 2008).
Against this background, it becomes necessary for
personnel in maintenance and repair to continue to
upgrade their knowledge of agricultural machinery
trends and innovation. All categories of manpower,
operators and mechanics, technical officers,
technologists and engineers, are required to
periodically attend training courses and workshops.
The Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery
Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC),
located in Akure and Misau in Nigeria, provide such
training.
This paper presents AMMOTRAC perspective on the
training of agricultural machinery operators and
mechanics in Nigeria. To accomplish this objective,
the paper outlines the genesis of Agricultural
Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training
Centre (AMMOTRAC) and its rationale towards
agricultural mechanization development in Nigeria,
and illustrates the objectives, training programmes,
training scope and training approach of Agricultural
Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training
Centre (AMMOTRAC). It also highlights some
achievements of Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) at Akure as a mechanization
training institution in Nigeria and then makes some
recommendations for the way forward on the training
of agricultural machinery operators, mechanics and
other stakeholders in Nigeria.
Genesis of Agricultural AMMOTRAC and its
Rationale towards Agricultural Mechanization
Development in Nigeria
It was in the very late 1970s that it became clear that
Nigerian agriculture could no longer cope without
sophisticated mechanization activities. Thus more
agricultural machineries and equipment from
overseas were introduced into the country’s
agricultural sector. This increase in agricultural
mechanization activities, without due consideration
and concern for trained personnel to cater for the
upkeep, operation, maintenance and repair of such
huge investments, were leading to huge losses and
wastages which became associated with the
ownership and management of agricultural
tractors/machinery in the country (AMMOTRAC,
2003).
This prompted the engineering division of the
Federal Department of Agriculture in the early ’80s
to come up with the concept of establishing
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators
Training Centre (AMMOTRAC). This move was
aimed at achieving maximum profitability of the
machineries as well as realizing their full service life
span. However, due to some setbacks, Agricultural
Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training
Centre (AMMOTRAC) could not take off until late
1988 when the centre in Akure began operation. This
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
centre initially took care of trainees from all the
states of the federation including the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja. In August 1992, another branch of
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’
Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) was established at
Misau in Bauchi state to take care of trainees from
the northern states including the Federal Capital
Territory, Abuja while Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC), Akure handles the training
programme for trainees from the southern states of
the federation (AMMOTRAC, 2003).
Objectives of the Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
The objectives of the centre are as follows:
 Train agricultural machinery mechanics and
operators on the techniques of operation,
maintenance and repair of agricultural machines
and equipment.
 Train personnel on the techniques of operation
and maintenance of animal traction equipment as
well as management of work animals.
 Train agricultural machinery mechanics and
operators on the techniques of operation,
maintenance and repair of agricultural land
development and bush clearing equipment.
 Train personnel on the operation and
maintenance of food storage machines and
equipment.
 Train personnel on the installation, operation,
maintenance and repair of agro-processing
machinery for grain crops, root crops, oil crops
and so on.
 Train personnel on the installation, operation,
maintenance and repair of irrigation equipment.
 Train personnel on the operation, maintenance
and repair of livestock and fishery production
equipment.
Training Programmes of the Agricultural
Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training
Centre
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’
Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) will realize the
above listed objectives through the following training
programmes:
 Short Term Training Programme
This will not be more than two weeks duration.
The participants will be drawn from States
Ministries of Agriculture and Natural Resources,
Agricultural Development Projects, River Basin
Development Authorities, National Agricultural
Land Development Authorities; Private
mechanized farms as well as Agricultural
Machinery and Equipment Marketing
Companies in all the southern states of Nigeria.
It is however designed for experienced
agricultural machinery operators and mechanics
in such establishments.
 On-the-Spot Training Programme
Page 152
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
This will be carried out through the use of well-
equipped mobile workshop manned by skilled
technical personnel. They will visit large
mechanized government and private farms
where they will conduct on the spot training and
correct common mistakes that might be observed
during the trip.
 Train the Trainers Training Programme
Trainers for this programme will be drawn from
existing agricultural institutions and large scale
mechanized government and private farms. The
aim of this programme is for the trainers from
such institutions to acquire new skills and
refresh their knowledge through Agricultural
Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training
Centre (AMMOTRAC) programme and be able
to transfer same skills and knowledge to trainees
and personnel in their various places of work.
 Long Term Training Programme
This is a programme that will commence when
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery
Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) is
fully established. It will draw participants from
the students with equivalent of at least Junior
Secondary School (JSS) certificate holders as
well as students with equivalent certificates. It
will be organized in separate classes for
agricultural machinery operators and mechanics
respectively. The duration of the programme
will be about eighteen months for operators and
twenty four months for the mechanics. At the
completion of the course, the graduates will be
awarded Government Grade II and III trade test
certificates. This is to be worked out in
conjunction with the National Board for
Technical Education (NBTE).
Training Scope of Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’
Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) training topics have
been specifically packaged in line with her
objectives. Each topic has been tailored to meet the
demand of participants nominated to attend such
training programmes and courses. Some of the
Centre’s training programmes and courses cover the
following major topics namely:
 Basic Tractor Operators’ Training
 Repair and Management of Farm Machines and
Implements
 Hydraulics and Transmission Systems
 Economic Management and Operation of Farm
Machinery and Equipment
 Training on Irrigation Pump Operation,
Maintenance and Repair
 Cassava Mechanization training
 Rice Mechanization tillage training
Besides the regular training programmes and courses
organized by the Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) has the potentials to arrange and
conduct training programmes and courses even in
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
collaboration with client organizations/
establishments.
Training Approach of Agricultural Mechanics
and Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
Knowledge is widely believed to be acquired by
training which can be either practical or theoretical.
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery Operators’
Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) training approach
falls into the following categories (AMMOTRAC,
2003):
 Practical: Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) training programmes are
designed to provide practical assistance to all
categories of participants and officers involved
in agricultural mechanization practices. In
addition, 75% of the training duration will be
practical in nature.
 Participation: The training methods emphasize
shared learning experiences, case studies, role-
plays and syndicate discussions to ensure that
course subject matter is applied to what prevails
on the field of operation. Agricultural Mechanics
and Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) training approach is enriched
by modern training technology such as audio-
visual training aids like overhead projector and
slides with computer and resourceful study
tours.
 Responsive: Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) training programmes have been
developed to meet the training needs identified
in a systematic survey of client organizations
/establishments, and are regularly revised in the
light of changing technological demands.
 Follow-up: A follow up system has been
adopted to help participants apply what they
have learned in the classroom to their job
situations. In all cases, client organizations /
establishments are visited after training, to give
further instruction and assistance to participants,
and to also measure the impact of the training
received from the centre.
Achievements of (AMMOTRAC) as a
Mechanization Training Institution in Nigeria
Training and Manpower Development
Shortage of skilled manpower is a crucial problem
that hinders agro-industrial development in Nigeria.
For this reason, Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) at Akure attaches considerable
importance to training in its annual plans. The centre
is also blessed with a team of well experienced
Agricultural Engineers and Technical Officers
saddled with the responsibilities of impacting
knowledge and practical skills to participants during
training. The centre has succeeded in conducting
series of training programmes in the past, mostly for
employees of Federal Ministry of Agriculture and
Page 153
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Rural Development (FMARD), State Ministries of
Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD),
Agricultural Development Projects (ADP), River
Basin Development Authorities (RBDAs),
Educational and Research Institutions, Local
Government Councils (Department of Agriculture)
and Private Mechanized farms. The Centre has so far
trained two thousand, five hundred and twenty
(2,520) engineers, technical officers, technologists,
workshop managers, farm managers, agricultural
machinery operators and mechanics in the twenty
one (21) already conducted training sessions. The
sponsorship which often covers tuition fees,
accommodation, training facilities and materials,
local field trips and so on has all been provided free
of charge by the Centre while the client
organizations/establishments provide transportation
cost to and from Agricultural Mechanics and
Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) Akure for their participants.
Engineering Consultancy Services
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery
Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC) also
provide engineering consultancy services to both
public and private sector
organizations/establishments engaged in the
practice of agricultural mechanization. Such
consultancy advice and services are based on an
in-depth diagnostic study of the client’s
organization/establishment problems that are in
line with her objectives. Agricultural Mechanics
and Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) can also provide professional
advice in the area of procurement, operation,
maintenance and even effect repair on different
range of farm machinery and equipment.
Conclusion
It is worthy to say that efficient operation and
maintenance of all agricultural machinery and
equipment is of paramount importance in Nigeria,
considering the fact that mechanization is a major
contributor to Nigeria’s drive towards self
sufficiency in agricultural production for domestic
and industrial uses as well as for export. In order to
avoid breakdown of agricultural machines due to
abuse, bad customs or habits and insufficient
maintenance and service work, operators and
mechanics need good and regular training. It is of
great importance to train the users of agricultural
machinery on adherence to manufacturers’
instructions (manual), proper handling and the
specifics of maintenance and repair of all power
sources in agriculture. It is also necessary to improve
the skill of the mechanics that are effecting the repair
of these power sources. To achieve these skills, the
two AMMOTRACs at Akure and Misau, both in
Nigeria have the capabilities for training and
retraining agricultural machinery operators and
mechanics including the potential to conduct training
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
programmes on mechanization that covers all areas
of agricultural activities.
Recommendations for the Way Forward
The following recommendations are hereby
suggested for the way forward on the training of
agricultural machinery operators, mechanics and
other stakeholders in Nigeria.
a. In order to accelerate the rate of food and fibre
production in Nigeria, there is an urgent need to
improve on the present level of agricultural
machinery utilization by farmers across different
states of the federation. To achieve this aim,
agricultural machinery have to be handled by
trained operators who have adequate knowledge
and skill in agricultural machinery operation and
maintenance as this will further minimize the
frequency of its breakdown. Also, agricultural
machinery operators require special knowledge,
skill and training as careful handling of the
machinery is much cheaper than having to go for
corrective maintenance due to poor handling.
b. In a rapidly changing technological environment,
for instance, agricultural machinery and equipment
continue to improve in design outlook. New brands
of machines and new models of existing names are
placed in the market, at times, old ones are
rendered obsolete or market forces prevent further
production of a particular model. In addition, farm
machinery and equipment are getting more and
more sophisticated, automated with the use of
more electronic gadgets. Mechanization
supervisors and their operators’ including
mechanics need to undergo periodic retraining at
relevant institutions like AMMOTRACs at Akure
and Misau, both in Nigeria in order to be updated
on the mode of operation, maintenance and repair
of such machinery and equipment.
c. It is very essential that agricultural machinery and
equipment supplied locally or imported from
overseas should be backed up with training of
staff. In this direction, there are different levels of
training that should be organized. At the pre-
shipment or installation stage, for example, on-
the- spot training of staff on minor details of the
machine and how to conduct trouble shooting
should be undertaken. The next phase of training
may be on the operation, preventive maintenance
and repair of the equipment. Manufacturers’
should, therefore, make provision for backup
training package for staff whenever new
agricultural machinery and equipment are being
supplied.
d. Operators of farm machinery and equipment
including mechanics must be basically competent
in their jobs. They must also be regularly “tuned
up” just like their machines so that they can keep
abreast of changes and new concepts in
agricultural machines. Moreover, when there are
changes in a job description or the addition of new
responsibilities in the present position of an
employee, for example, a bulldozer operator or
Page 154
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
motor driver slated for conversion to the position
of a tractor operator due to major establishment re-
organisation should be made to undergo formal
training on the basis of the new trade in order to be
proficient on the new job. On no technical ground
must the converted operator be placed on the
tractor with implement to start operation on the
field.
e. Manufacturers’ and dealers of agricultural
machinery and equipment transacting business
with Nigerian government, individuals, public and
private sectors should be made to accompany their
product with operator, service and spare parts
ordering manuals. This will ensure local capability
to train, correctly operate, maintain and service
such machinery and equipment. The Standards
Organization of Nigeria (SON), the Nigerian
Society of Engineers (NSE), the Nigerian
Institution of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE) in
conjunction with the National Centre for
Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM) at Ilorin in
Kwara state of Nigeria should intensify efforts to
compel dealers to adhere strictly to this provision.
f. Some of the participants (Workshop
Superintendent, Agricultural Machinery Operators
and Mechanics) attending Agricultural Mechanics
and Machinery Operators’ Training Centre
(AMMOTRAC) training programmes are semi-
illiterates, thereby making it extremely difficult for
the Training Officers to impact the knowledge and
skills during theory and practical sessions
effectively. In addition, these categories of
trainees may be found to be practically good on the
job but the challenge remains that they need to
acquire the basic education to be able to fit into
future training programmes of Agricultural
Mechanics and Machinery Operators’ Training
Centre (AMMOTRAC). The possession of either
the Senior Secondary School Certificate or
Technical College Certificate as the entry
requirement for future trainings will also ensure
better service delivery. The need to embrace adult
education by these categories of agricultural
machinery operators and mechanics is of
paramount importance.
g. Manpower development and capacity building
would also require engineering personnel
(Engineers, Engineering Technologists,
Engineering Technicians and Engineering
Craftsmen) and other engineering outfits to keep
abreast with current trends and emerging
technologies in the profession by attending
approved training courses/workshops/conferences
and subscribing to reputable engineering journals.
In view of this fact, the Nigerian Society Engineers
(NSE) and Council for the Regulation of
Engineering in Nigeria (COREN) should make it
mandatory and if possible enforce it for employers
in both the public and private sectors in Nigeria to
sponsor engineering personnel on regular basis to
both short and long term training
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
courses/workshops with the aim of enhancing their
proficiency on the job.
References
Akinoso, R. and Mijinyawa, Y. (2001). Assessment
of Tractor Hiring Services in Lagos state.
Proceedings of the International Conference and
Annual General Meeting of the Nigerian
Institution of Agricultural Engineers (A division
of the Nigerian Society of Engineers),Volume
23 pp 71.
AMMOTRAC (2003). Information Bulletin of the
Agricultural Mechanics and Machinery
Operators’ Training Centre (AMMOTRAC),
Federal Department of Agriculture, Akure, Ondo
State, Nigeria, pp 10.
Anazodo,U.G.N.(1982).Investigative Surveys on
Farm Tractors and Equipment Hiring Services in
Nigeria. Proceedings of the Nigerian Society of
Agricultural Engineers (NSAE),Volume 6 Pp10-
28.
Anazodo, U. G. N., Abimbola, T. O. and Dairo J. A.
(1987). Agricultural Machinery in use in
Nigeria: The experience of a decade.
Proceedings of the Nigerian Society of
Agricultural Engineers (NSAE), Volume 11 pp
406 – 429.
Babatunde, O.O. (1996). An appraisal of the problem
of wheeled tractors used in Nigerian
Agriculture. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia,
Africa and Latin America. Volume 27 No 3,
Pp23.
Culpin, C. (1975). Profitable farm mechanization.
3rd Edition, Granada Publishing, London.
Ezeike, G.O.I., Odigboh, E.U., Anazodo, U.G.N.,
Idike, F.I., Akubuo, C.O., Onwualu, A.P and
Echiegu, E.I. (1992). National Survey of farm
tractors and machinery rehabilitation programme
in Nigeria. Zone 4: Akwa-Ibom, Anambra, Imo,
Rivers. Report Submitted to Federal Department
of Agriculture, Abuja, Nigeria.
Haque, M. A., Mohammed, S. U and Bobboi, U.
(2001). Performance of state owned Tractor
Hiring Units in Nigeria: A Case Study from
Taraba state. Agricultural Mechanization in
Asia, Africa and Latin America, Volume 32,
Volume 1, pp 55-58.
Ladeinde, M. A., Atanda, E. O., Ageh, A. J., Idowu,
S. O and Olayemi, S. O.( 2008). Agricultural
Machinery Operators and Mechanics Training in
Nigeria: An overview of contributions. Journal
of Agricultural Engineering and Technology
(JAET), Special Issue (In press), pp13.
Oni, K. C. (1994). Rehabilitation of Agricultural
Tractors and Equipment in Nigeria. Paper
presented at the National Workshop on
Commercialization of Agricultural Machinery
and Refurbishment of Agricultural Tractors held
at the National Centre for Agricultural
Mechanization (NCAM), Ilorin, Nigeria.
Onwualu, A. P. (1996). Sustainable Strategies for
Prevention of Premature failure of Agricultural
Page 155
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Machinery and tools in a distressed Economy. Mechanization practices held at the National
Proceedings of the National Workshop on Centre for Agricultural Mechanization (NCAM),
Appropriate Agricultural Mechanization for Ilorin, Nigeria, pp 222-234.
Skill Development in Low Cost Agricultural

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 156
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ejiko, S. O
Maliki, O. B
School of Engineering Adelegan, G. O
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 157–
157– 162

The Effect of the Downstream Oil Sector Deregulation on Vehicle Fuel System Components Purchased
Before and After Its Implementation from 2000 - 2007

Ejiko, S. O.1, Maliki, O. B & Adelegan, G. O.

Mechanical Engineering Department
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State
1
email: jcdatjiko@yahoo.com/08032317506
1
Corresponding Author

Abstract
Deregulation; the lifting of Government control and letting market forces work in business, has an effect on the
quantities of fuel system component purchased before and after implementation of the policy in Nigeria .
Considering the sales made at Shanu Auto Supply Shop in Ado, Ekiti State from the year 2000 to 2007, the mean
difference show that there is significant difference between the periods. At 97.5% confidence interval, it was
discovered that the policy has an effect of 97.625+41.65 which is either 55.975 or 139.275 from analysis
involving pair t test with pool variance, showing that there is significant difference on the purchase quantities
before and after deregulation based on selected hypothesis. This is largely associated with the number of fuel
system components /vehicles purchased, rate and quality of maintenance, gross income per person and the
quality of fuel supply between the periods. Recommendations as to optimize the benefit of the policy are made.

Keyword: Deregulation, Vehicle fuel system components, Variance, Significant difference, Purchase, Mean

Introduction Historically, deregulation began in Nigeria in 1987

Regulation of the downstream sector where prices of
fuel are controlled by the government gives room for
monopoly, power abuse, mismanagement,
smuggling, bureaucratic bottleneck and excessive
subsidizing which greatly affect the economy
negatively. In other to check mate the crisis and
attained the goals as set by the group managing
Director of the NNPC Kupolokun (2005). First is to
dismantle the natural monopoly of the street owned
enterprise by privatizing and Deregulating price
control. Secondly, creation of competition in the
downstream sector by encouraging more companies
to get involved and eventually supplying the market
at competitive pricing levels. Thirdly, to reduce cost
of subsidy thereby allocating more resources toward
the socio-economic and welfare needs of the
Nigerian people. Fourthly, to boost foreign direct
investment to the Nigerian economy and lastly, to
reduce the transportation costs of products and
people. In obtaining these objectives, Deregulation
comes into play; this is the art of removing
government rules and controls from some types of
business activity. Deregulation generally means the
lifting of government control and letting market
forces work in the business, for the case of local oil
downstream industries it covers price decontrol and
removal of restrictions on establishment, operation of
facilities as well as the importation and exportation
of crude oil and petroleum products (Hornby, 2001).
The removal of this government interference from
the oil sector is expected to have an effect on the
quantity of spare part purchased during vehicle
maintenance.
during Gen. Ibrahim Babangida's regime as the
military president. Records have it that, the pump
price of petrol in particular was hiked from 20kobo
per litre to 39.5kobo. In the following year, 1981,
there was also sudden increase that brought the price
to 45kobo per litre. However, in March 1991, the
price was hiked to 70kobo per litre. During the
period, the masses posed certain questions on
whether deregulation only mean an incessant hike in
oil prices without any amelioration of the standard of
living of the populace. Despite that, the price was
raised from 70kobo per litre, to N3.25k representing
more than 300% increase. In October 1994, the
petrol price was again hiked from N 3.25k to
N11.00k per litre (Mba-Afolabi, 1999).
There is no gainsaying that during these periods, the
world had seemed turned upside down for the
masses, considering the untold economic hardship
that then downed on them. Nevertheless, little did
they know that worse days were ahead? Therefore,
on December 21st, 1998, the price of petrol rose
from N11.00k per litre to N25.00k per litre. At that
period, the whole sectors of the country were brought
to stagnation. However, after a widespread industrial
strike action by the NLC to threaten the government,
the price was brought down to N20.00k on January 6,
1999. In 2000, the federal government revisited
petrol price issue; the price stood at N25.00 after the
NLC’s corrective industrial strike action. From 2000
to 2003, however the price of petrol was hiked from
N 25.00k to N 40.00k per litre (Modu, 2003).
Today, the main news is that petrol is available but
not without an attendant increase in the cost of a litre

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 157
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
of petrol. Petrol now sells for N70.00k. This was due
to the timely intervention of the new president of
Nigeria, Alhaji Umar Ya’Adua who saved Nigeria
from another horor of fuel price increase by the else
while leader, Obasanjo.
The Effect of Deregulation on Nigerian Economy
How has the deregulation of the oil sector influenced
national fuel crisis? Observers have debated that the
impact of deregulation moves on in Nigeria. Many
have argued that the situation is getting better while
others lay claim on facts that reveal that deregulation
does not in any serious way affect the economy.
According to an article by Iyoha (2003), there are
three different words that could best capture the
feelings of most Nigerians over incessant increase in
fuel pump price that is pains, anguish and
disappointments. The pain was as a result of peoples’
experience as the attempt, then, led to about 200%
increase in transport fares and long standing at bus
stops. The anguish explains the mental and
psychological trauma and the fear that the country is
becoming terribly volcanic. The disappointment
aspect is the branch of contract of president Obasanjo
due to the fact that over N40 billion naira was lost to
protest and strike actions.
Professor Soludo Charles, who was the then chief
Economic Adviser to the president, maintained that
price increase does not means deregulation of the
down stream sector in any way. His view was also
shared by the DG of Nigeria Economic summit
group (NESG), Professor Anya O. He argued that"
deregulation would entail that market forces dictate
the prices of commodities”.
In his own submission, the managing director of
Deperraco, Mr. Dienye Peterside said full
deregulation of the sector would lead to shortage of
different products because of inadequate facility.
This in turn will lead to adulteration of products,
which have a resultant effect on the fuel system of
machineries.
Guided Deregulation of 1994 – 1998
Some gains were undoubtedly achieved during the
period of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP).
However, the programme brought about number of
problems, some of which were unbearable for the
populace. Actually, SAP was intended to be a long-
term programme that would gradually restructure the
economy and set it on the path (stability and
sustainable growth. Unfortunately, the operators of
the programme lacked commitment to its long-term
achievable goals. The programrne was hastily
implemented and this brought about endemic
inflation, storage of foreign exchange, increased
unemployment, low capacity utilization, fiscal deficit
and an overall degeneration of the poverty situation
in the country. This made an immediate review of the
policy imperative.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Deregulation and the Economy
The dual exchange rate regime was introduced in
1995 as an attempt to redress the continued
depreciation of the domestic currency. The essence
was to achieve a stable and realistic value for the
Naira As a follow up action, the Central Bank of
Nigeria, in 1996, intervened in the operations of the
autonomous market to ensure that it was adequately
funded between 1994 and 1998, real GDP grew
steadily from N1 01.0 billion to N113.0 billion. The
annual growth rates were 1.3% in 1994, 2.2% in
1995, 3.3% in 1996, 3.8% in 1997, and 2.4% in
1998. Given the estimated population growth rate of
2.83%, the GDP growth 2.4% in 1998 implied that
the average Nigerian citizen was worse off in terms
of well-being than in 1997. In terms of per capita
income, there was fluctuation in this index of welfare
between 1994 and 1998(Orubu, 2003).
Deregulation and Inflation
The rate of inflation rose from 57.0% in 1994 to
72.8% in 1995, but fell to 29% in 1996. It reduced
drastically to 8.5% in 1997, but rose marginally to
9.5% in 1998. Prices were therefore generally
unstable during the period of glided deregulation.
The improvements recorded in 1997 and 1998 might
have been due to the demand management strategy
of government, whereby demand was sup pressed
through the payment of poverty wages and salaries,
and due to reduction in government spending
generally. However, if the economic fortunes of
Nigeria must improve, then the perennial problems
of the exchange rates, inflation, unemployment,
corruption, and low capacity utilization must be
tackled.
The Nigerian economy appears to have performed
well during the 1960s. During the period, agriculture
was the main stay of the economy despite
fluctuations in export prices. The oil boom period
witnessed remarkable growth rates. Yet, the boom
had no impact on the real sector since the industrial
sector remained relatively weak. The windfall from
oil appeared not to have been utilized in shoring up
the industrial sector. Therefore, when the recession
of the 1980s set in, the economy found itself unable
to absorb the shocks from declining oil prices. The
subsequent economic reform programme, even after
12 years, still had serious problems (Ifiok, 2007).
The objectives of this paper are to;
i) Determine by analysis, the effect of
deregulation of the oil sector on vehicle fuel
system componentsnpurchase before and after
deregulation.
ii) State the implications
Methodology
Data were collected from Shanu Auto supply shop
located in the central of Ado-Ekiti town of Ekiti State
reflecting the daily sale of the vehicle fuel system
components such as carburetor, Injector, Fuel filter,
Fuel pump and so on from year 2000 to 2007 as
Page 158
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
tabulated in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 which were further 2 (N A (
− 1)S A2 + N B − 1)S B2
added together and tabulated on three-monthly basis SP = NA + NB − 2
(Donald, 1980)

for analysis as reflected in Table 5.The result of pool

variance is estimated to determine if there is 15(1919 .18 ) + 15(5303 .58 )
S P2 = = 3611 .38
significant difference before and after deregulation. 30
Analysis of Data
S P = 60.09
Sales data obtained for the years between 2000 and Applying the three quantities together with 95%
2003, being the period before deregulation, are confidence interval for NB – NA is
1
contained in tables 1 and 2 while those after
deregulation are in tables 3 and 4, indicating sale  1 1 2
X B − X A ± t 30 ,0.975 S P  +  (Frank and
from 2004 to 2007. Let XA reflect the quantities of NB NA 
fuel system components sold before deregulation and Jones, 1994)
XB be quantities sold after deregulation 1
2708  1 1 2
XA= = 169 .25 97.625 ± t30, 0.975 (60.1) + 
16 16 16 
4270 97.625 ± 1.96 × 21.249
XB = = 266.875
16 97.625 ± 41.65 or 55.975 to 139.275
Based on census result, Nigeria population is as
follow
Result and Discussion
1991 – 88.5 million (Nigeria, 2006)
The census carried out 1991 has it that Nigeria has a
2007 – 135 million (“Nigeria”, 2008)
population of 88.5 million (Nigeria, 2006) and at
From interpolation year 2000, 2003, and 2004 are
2007 the population was estimated to be 135 million
114.6, 123.4 and 126.3 million respectively.
(Nigeria, 2008). By interpolating for year 2000 to
Comparing the mean population before and after 2003 and 2004 to 2007 a multiplying factor of 1.1
deregulation which is 119 against 131million gives was attained. The factor was utilized to multiply the
the multiplying factor of 1.1.This implies that the mean sales of the years before deregulation for
new mean sales before deregulation is 186.175.
effective comparison for sales before and after
238156 deregulation. The new mean sales of years before
Var d = = 14884.75
16 deregulation which is attain by multiplying the
σ = 14884.75 = 122 former by the multiplying factor has X ANew as
97.625 186.18 which is lesser than X B shows that there is
t= = 4. 6
1 1 significant difference the periods. For one sided test
60.09 +
16 16 with 30 degree of freedom the critical value of t is
Difference in mean = + 97.625 2.042 at 97.5% and 3.385 at 99.99% confidential
interval. Based on differences in mean from two
 Nj  Nj
 
2
independent samples using sampling statistic criteria
Sj = ∑ Xij −  ∑ Xij   N − 1
2 2
 
 i =1  i =1   by Donald(1980).The null hypothesis Ho: t >
2.042.With t of 4.6 implies rejecting the null
2
(2708) hypothesis showing significant difference exist
486440 − between them.The pair t test at 97.5% confidence
S A2 = 16 = 1919.18
15 interval for quantities of vehicles component
purchased before and after deregulation shows a
(4270) 2 great deviation from the probability mid point of a
1219110 −
S B2 = 16 = 5303.58 normal distribution chart. Also the range of the
15 variance exclude zero this portrays that there is
significant difference between the periods (before
Where X A and X B are independent statistics it
and after deregulation) Robert and Johannes (1987).
implies that This goes along way to show that there is a wide
(
Var X B − X A ) = range of differences in maintenance of vehicle after
deregulation compared to the period before it was
Var( X B ) + Var( X A ) (Bajpai et al, 1986) implemented, leading to greater purchase of fuel
δ A2
( )
Var X A =
NA
system components, so as to put the vehicles in good
condition.
S A2 S B2
(
Var X B − X A = ) −
NA NB
Conclusion
The result shows that there is significant
2 2 difference between the levels of maintenance after
For S A ≡ S B we use the pool variance significant deregulation than before deregulation. This may
test to prove its assumption validity. result from high purchasing power of consumers,

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 159
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
increase in salaries of the civil servants, the inability
to determine the multiplying factor affecting the
purchase of vehicles and insufficient monitoring of
the fuel quality supply to the consumers. The result is
inconclusive due to the improper implementation of
the deregulation policy.
Recommendation
For proper verification more work should be carried
out on the multiplying factor involve in quarterly
purchase of vehicle. Proper monitoring as to the
quality of fuel supply should be given a greater
attention so as to maximally benefit from the effect
of deregulation.
It should be recommended that the government
should intensify efforts on the proper maintenance of
our refineries and also see to how more can be built.
This will reduce if not end the unnecessary waste on
the importation of substandard petrol. The
government should also ensure a commensurate
compensation for the citizens whenever there is need
for fuel price hike.
References
Bajpai, A.C., Caalus I.M. and Fairly J.A. (1986)
Statistical Methods for Engineers and Scientist
(2nd Edition) John Wiley and Sons, New York
Donald R.B.(1980); Element of Statistis 3rd Edt.
D.Van Nostrand Company. New York. Pp 212 -
220
Frank O. and Ron J. (1994) Statistics 4th Ed.
Longman Group U.K. Limited Pp 362
Hornby A.S. and Sally W (2001); Oxford Advanced
Learners Dictionary. 6th Edition, Oxford
University Press.
Ifiok Ibanga
http://www.florin,com/valov/ifiokibangahmtl
retrieved 8th Dec. 2007
http://www.nigerdetalcongress.com/marticles/modes-
of-deregulation-in-the-dowhtm
Iyoha, M.A. (2003); An overview of leading issues in
the structure and development of Nigeria
economy since 1960.
Kupolokun, F. “Liberalization: The Experience of
the Nigerian Petroleum Section”. Alexander’s
Gas and Oil, Connections Volume 10, issue N.
2, 27 Jan. 2005.
Mba-Afolabi, J. (1999); The oil Price of hike
blunder. Newswatch, Jan. 18, pp 8-16 Modu, D.
(2003); Oil war in Aso Rock; Insider No 42
October 20, pp 19-21
Orubu, C.O.(2003); The development and the
contribution of the Petroleum Industry to the
Nigeria Economy. Nigeria/browse-
thread/daf2796c7440c 75
Robert V. H. and Johannes L. (1987); Engineering
Statistic 1st Edition Macmillan Publishing
Company 866 Third Avenue, New York, 10022.
Pp397 - 427
Nigeria, (2006):
http://www./voanews.com/english/archive/2006-
11-6-vol41.cfm.
[
Nigeria, (2008): Microsoft Student 2008 DVD . ]
Redmond W.A: Microsoft corporation.

Table 1: Sales made from 2000 to 2001 on vehicle fuel system parts
Vehicle fuel System Parts Sales in 2000 Sales in 2001
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Carburetor __ __ 1 __ 1 1 1 __
Injector 1 1 2 __ 2 2 2 1
Fuel filter 71 83 60 107 86 80 177 67
Fuel pump 11 8 18 8 7 9 10 24
Fuel hose 10 22 11 30 31 10 15 5
Tank cover 20 22 20 30 15 23 14 8
Fuel gauge 1 1 1 1 1 __ 1 __
Throttle cable 5 7 10 5 25 7 20 10
Carburetor Jet 20 10 16 14 10 10 10 10
Carburetor kit 4 4 6 4 4 4 5 5
Choke cleaner 2 3 3 1 __ __ __ __
Injector cleaner __ 4 __ __ __ __ __ __
Total 145 165 148 200 182 146 255 130

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 160
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 2: Sales made from 2002 to 2003 on vehicle fuel system parts
Vehicle fuel Sales in 2002 Sales in 2003
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Carburetor 1 __ __ __ 1 1 1 __
Injector 2 2 3 1 2 3 2 1
Fuel filter 72 76 125 124 42 52 79 181
Fuel pump 8 10 25 __ 8 35 6 7
Fuel hose 10 22 16 30 1 2 30 5
Tank cover 20 23 15 13 35 22 70 47
Fuel gauge 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 __
Throttle cable 25 8 10 20 __ __ __ __
Carburetor Jet __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Carburetor kit 5 5 6 5 2 3 3 2
Choke cleaner __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Injector cleaner __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
Total 144 148 202 195 93 119 193 243

Table 3: Sales made from 2004 to 2005 on vehicle fuel system parts
Vehicle fuel System Parts Sales in 2004 Sales in 2005
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Carburetor 1 1 1 __ __ __ __ __
Injector 2 1 1 1 1 __ 2 __
Fuel filter 163 210 120 88 99 83 103 111
Fuel pump 9 11 13 15 33 38 33 35
Fuel hose 23 10 30 12 10 10 2 1
Tank cover 21 37 27 37 60 54 65 86
Fuel gauge 1 1 1 1 1 __ __ 1
Throttle cable 10 3 10 10 16 12 12 20
Carburetor Jet 20 14 20 25 10 4 10 80
Carburetor kit 4 4 5 6 5 3 10 5
Choke cleaner __ __ __ __ 5 6 5 4
Injector cleaner 12 12 24 36 24 24 18 60
Total 266 304 251 232 264 234 260 403

Table 4: Sales made from 2006 to 2007 on vehicle fuel system parts
Vehicle fuel System Sales in 2006 Sales in 2007
Parts
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 1st 2nd 3rd 4th
Carburetor 1 1 1 __ __ 1 1 2
Injector 2 1 2 4 1 3 4 8
Fuel filter 70 45 120 70 89 50 135 117
Fuel pump 15 20 18 35 29 30 24 44
Fuel hose 2 5 5 20 2 10 10 60
Tank cover 20 70 10 70 26 79 10 77
Fuel gauge __ 1 __ 1 1 __ __ 1
Throttle cable 10 20 20 20 16 33 26 2
Carburetor Jet 5 5 2 2 __ 10 __ __
Carburetor kit 2 5 1 2 5 7 2 4
Choke cleaner 25 15 __ 15 40 24 __ 60
Injector cleaner 20 15 15 40 27 24 24 60
Total 172 203 194 279 236 271 242 459

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 161
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 5: Parameters for determining significant difference between before & after deregulation.
XA XB d = XB – XA d2 XA2 X B2
145 266 121 14,641 21025 70756
165 304 139 19,321 27225 92416
148 251 103 10,609 21904 63001
200 232 32 1,024 40,000 53824
182 264 82 6,724 33124 69696
146 234 88 7,744 21316 54756
255 260 5 25 65025 67600
130 403 273 74,529 16900 162409
144 172 28 784 20736 29584
148 203 55 3025 21,904 41209
202 194 -8 64 40804 37636
195 279 84 7056 38025 77841
93 236 143 20,449 8649 55696
119 271 152 23,104 14161 73441
193 242 49 2,401 37249 58564
243 459 216 46,656 59049 210681
∑ 2708 4270 1562 238156 487096 1219110

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 162
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oyewole, B. A
Agun, B. J
School of Engineering Adeoti, O
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 163–
63– 167
167

Effect of Salt and Garlic Treatments on Meat Processing

Oyewole, B. A, Agun, B. J. & *Adeoti, O.

Department of Agricultural Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti
Ekiti State, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: email- olusegunadeoti@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract
To assist in the production of high quality meat free from undesirables that are capable of causing injury to
health in Nigeria, investigation into the effect of salt and garlic treatments on dried meat was carried out in this
study. Fresh strips of beef, pork, chicken and goat meat were subjected to salt treatment, garlic, and combined
salt and garlic treatment. The samples and the untreated (or control) samples were oven dried at a temperature
of 1100 C for 12hours after which the meat samples were examined. Quality assessment and microbial count
under scale 106 were carried out to determine which of the four treatments gives the best result. An arithmetic
average of physical examination of weight and sizes shows that untreated meat has 43.4 – 72.1% reduction in
weight, for species of meat strip used. Salt treated 52-74.0%, garlic treated 55-75.4% and combine salt and
garlic treatment 53-69.8%. Specifically, garlic was more potent on pork than do salt or a combination of salt
and garlic. The microbial count was much lower in pork treated solely with garlic. The moisture reduction in
meat treated solely with garlic was higher than those treated with salt and garlic combined and in the control.
However, the microbial counts in beef, chicken and goat meat treated solely with salt were much lower than
those treated with garlic, combined salt and garlic and the control. Furthermore, meat treated solely with salt
and solely with garlic gave better weight reduction, higher quality and lower microbial counts when compared
with other treatments used in the study.

Keywords: - Salt; Garlic; Combined Salt And Garlic; Meat Processing; Nigeria.

Introduction poverty remain a major threat to many people

“We are what we eat” is an old proverb. Our
nutritional status, health, physical and mental
faculties depend on the food we eat and how we eat
it. Safety of food is a basic requirement of food
quality. Food safety implies absence or acceptable
and safe levels of contaminants, adulterants naturally
occurring toxins or any other substance that may
make food injurious to health on acute or chronic
basis (FAO, 1999). Increasing awareness that a good
quality food reduces the incidence of food induced-
health problem, the emphasis is mainly on making
safe food. Unfortunately, the death of public
veterinary inspectors, a major regulatory body that
ensures consumers’ food (or meat products) safety,
has not helped matters in Nigeria. The influx of
unhealthy animals into abattoir is on the increase.
The unhealthy practices of slaughtering diseased
animals for consumption endangered the health of
the people. Tuberculosis and diseases related to
unhealthy practice of consuming meats from
diseased animals is on the increase in Nigeria. Of 9
millions new cases of tuberculosis in 1995 with 3
million deaths, 25% of all available deaths were in
developing countries. Further, the report put 95% of
tuberculosis cases and 98% of tuberculosis deaths in
the developing countries of which Nigeria is part
(WHO, 1996). 600,000 African deaths were
attributed to tuberculosis yearly where hunger and
(Nkuhlu, 2003). World Health Organization data on
the tuberculosis epidemic released in 1998, Nigeria
topped the lists of the epidemic cases in Africa with
estimated number of 255,344 tuberculosis cases out
of the 1,276,341 cases reported in the continent
(Brigitte et al., 2004). The figure represents 20.01%
of the total estimate for the continent. The situation is
further compounded by the downturn of economic
situation, which impoverished the people. About 300
millions Africans live on less than $1 a day and
about 200 millions are chronically hungry (Nkuhlu,
2003). In worsened economic situation, the
impoverished poor will consume “anything” to
mitigate their hunger.
Statistics relating to other meat-induced diseases are
bound to be high for the region due to lack of basic
hygiene and handling practices – a prerequisite for
meat processing. A variation in quality due to little or
no attention given to hygiene or good handling
practices with attendant result in the insect
infestation of meat and fish have been reported in
developing countries (Barrie et al., 2003).
To assist in the production of high quality meat free
from undesirables that are capable of causing injury
to health in Nigeria, investigation into the effect of
salt and garlic treatments on dried meats is necessary
thereby increasing safety in meat consumption.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 163
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Materials and Method
Materials
In order to achieve the objective of this study, the
following materials were obtained;
(i) Meat: Beef, Goat, Pork and chicken meats were
obtained from the local abattoir in Ado – Ekiti
town of Ekiti state in Nigeria. The meats were
fresh and in good condition at the time they were
obtained.
(ii) Garlic: Garlic in appreciable quantity was
obtained in an open market from the local seller
of herbs.
(iii) Other materials: These include salt, knife,
distilled water, conical flask, test tubes, pipettes,
Petri-dish, oven, incubator, weighing balance
test-tube racks, reagent, colony counts, autoclave
and thermometers were sourced from the
Department of Agricultural Engineering and
Food Science Technology.
Cutting of Meats into Strips
The preparation of meats into stripes was as follows:
(1) The meats were washed in clean water
(2) The enclosed membranes of the meats were
removed.
(3) Following the anatomical lines, the meats were
cut into smaller pieces, and
(4) The smaller pieces of meats were cut into long
strips of about 1cm thick
Preparation of Meats for Salt Treatment
The meats were prepared for salting by adopting the
following procedure:-
(1) Four separates half-litres of clean water were
prepared
(2) 75gm of very fine salt was dissolved in each of
the prepared clean water and thoroughly stirred.
(3) Freshly prepared strips of meats, viz beef, goat,
pork and chicken were immersed separately in
each solution of brine.
(4) Each of the meat immersed was allowed to stand
in the brine solution for 8 minutes.
(5) The meats were taken out at the expiration of 8
minutes, and were drained using a strainer.
(6) The drained meats were dried in the oven at a
temperature of 1100c for 12hours
Preparation of Meats for Garlic Treatment
The garlic solutions were prepared as follows:-
(1) 36gms of fresh garlic for each strip of meats;
beef, goat, pork and chicken, was prepared using
laboratory mortal and pestle.
(2) The thoroughly pounded 36gms of garlic was
dissolved in a vessel containing 250ml of clean
water. Four solutions were made.
(3) Freshly prepared strips of meats; beef, goat, pork
and chicken, were immersed in each of the
vessels containing a solution of garlic.
(4) The meats were immersed in the solutions of
garlic for 8 minutes.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
(5) At the expiration of the 8 minutes, the meats
were taken out and allowed to drain using a
strainer.
(6) The thoroughly drained meats were dried in the
oven at a temperature of 1100C for 12hrs.
Preparation of Meats for a Combined Salt and
Garlic Treatment
Mixture of salt and garlic solutions was prepared
using the following procedure: Four vessels, each
containing half-litre of clean water, were prepared.
(1) 75gms of clean salt together with 36gms of
pounded garlic were mixed with half a litre of
clean water in each of the vessel.
(2) Each solution was stirred for a thorough mix.
(3) Fresh pieces of meat strips; beef, goat, pork and
chicken, were each immersed in the solution of
salt and garlic.
(4) The immersed strips of meats were allowed to
stand in the solution for 8 minutes.
(5) At the expiration of 8 minutes, the meats were
taken out and drained using a strainer.
(6) The thoroughly drained meats were dried in the
oven at a temperature of 1100C for 12hrs.
Preparation of Untreated Meats (control)
The preparation of untreated meat strips (or control
samples) was carried out as follows:
(1) From the strips of meats prepared in 2.2 above,
strips of meats for control were selected.
(2) The selected strips of meats were washed
thoroughly in clean water.
(3) The thoroughly washed strips of meats were
drained using a strainer.
(4) The drained meats were put in the oven and
dried at a temperature of 1100C for 12hrs.
Experimental Procedure for Determining
Microbial Count
Also, the experiment was conducted to determine the
microbial count. The procedure followed are:-
(1) The glass wares were washed and sterilized
(2) The culture media was prepared. A 10.4gm plate
count agar (P.C.A) was weighed and diluted in
2000ml of distilled water. 9.7gm of Erosin
methylene blue sugar (E.M.B) was also weighed
into 200ml of distilled water.
(3) The cultured media was sterilized in auto clave
at a temperature of 1210C for 15minutes
(4) A serial dilution of meat samples was prepared
with a 10gm of meat sample in 90ml of distilled
water.
(5) 9ml of distilled water was put in each of the ten
sterile test–tubes on the test tube rack. The test–
tubes were serially labeled; 10-1, 10-2, 10-3 , 10-4,
up to 10-10
(6) From 90ml distilled water in step 4 above, 1ml
was withdraw with the aid of sterile pipette into
the first tube labeled 10-1
(7) From the test-tube labeled 10-1, about 1ml
sample was taken and placed into test–tube
labeled 10-2.
Page 164
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
(8) From the test–tube labeled 10-2, about 1ml
sample of the content was removed with the aid
of a pipette and placed in the third test–tube
labeled 10-3 . The procedure was repeated till all
the test tubes on the test- tube rack were fully
treated.
(9) 1ml from the least diluted series (i.e. 10-10) was
withdrawn with the aid of another pipette and
was placed in a sterile petri-dish plate.
(10) The prepared molten agar was poured into the
petri-dish plates and allowed to solidify.
(11) The solidify Agar was incubated at a
temperature of 37 0C for 48 hours by inverting
the petri dishes. The plates were observed after
incubation for colonial growth count.
(12) The numbers of colonies that developed on the
Agar surface were counted with a colony
counter. The analysis of the results of both
drying and microbial count was presented in
tables 1 and 2.
Results and Discussion
Speaking generally, it is observed that salt and garlic
have different effects when used on different types of
meats. With the exception of pork, meats treated with
salt yielded the best quality. Pork responded well
and better to garlic than to salt.
a) Effect of Garlic on Meats
From Table 1, it is observed that garlic has
tremendous effect on pork. When pork is treated
solely with garlic, the microbial counts reduced
drastically. The Plate Count Agar (PCA) reading was
zero compared with 4 x 108 count for pork not treated
with garlic or salt. Further observation revealed that
the quality of pork obtained from the treatment with
garlic was better than those treated with salt. The
plate count agar (PCA) reading for pork treated
solely with garlic was 2 x 10 8. The Erosin Methylene
Blue (EMB) reading was 3 x 108 for pork treated
with garlic. Also, the loss in weight of meats treated
with garlic was much higher than those treated solely
with either salt or with solutions of salt and garlic.
The exception, however, is that of goat meat. The
weight loss of goat was 57% when treated with
solution of salt and garlic. Treated solely with garlic,
the weight loss in beef, pork, goat and chicken were
73.1%, 75.4%, 55% and 60.6% respectively. These
values are however higher compared with 68.6%,
74.0%, 52% and 60% for beef, pork, goat and
chicken treated with salt. The weight loss in pork
was higher than the weight loss in beef, goat meat
and chicken. Many reasons could be attributed for
the potency of garlic.
Firstly, garlic is a natural antibiotic (Garlic-Central,
2006). Garlic has been reported to subdue
Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci (VRE) and
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aurerus
(MRSA) (GCS, 2006). Allicin, the antibiotic
properties of garlic is potent against Vancomycin
Resistant Enterococci (VRE) in vitro. Also, in
another study, the potency of Allicin liquid and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
cream formulations against clinical isolates of
Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aurerus
(MRSA); including those resistant to Mupirocin – the
agent commonly used to eradicate Methicillin
Resistant Staphylococcus aurerus (MRSA) carriage
have been established (GCS, 2006).
Secondly, garlic has effect on fat deposit. Garlic
reduces cholesterol and triglycerides, the two
constituents of animal fat. This may be probable
reason for the greater loss in weight of meats treated
only with garlic. Again, fat forms a barrier to salt
penetration and thus prevent the loss of moisture.
This informed the reason for lesser weight loss in
pork when salt was used.
b) Effect of Salt on Meats
From Table 1, it is observed that salt has effect on
weight of meats. The loss in weights was according
to meat types. A greater weight loss occurred in pork
with 73.7% weight loss. The least was in goat meat
with 52%. The weight loss in meats treated solely
with salt was higher than those not subjected to any
treatment. Also, the microbial counts in treated meats
were low thus showing that meats treated with salt
were better in terms of microbial counts than meats
not subjected to any treatment. On the plate count
agar, the colony for beef was zero. The counts for
goat meat and chicken were 1 x 108 and zero,
respectively.
Also, on the Erosin Methylene Blue (EMB), the
colony count for beef, pork, goat meat and chicken
were 1 x 108, 3 x 108, and 1 x 108, respectively. From
observations, it could be seen that salt exact some
effect on meats. The degree of effect exacted by salt
varied according to the type of meat. The following
reasons could be attributed to this:
i. Salt:
The role of salt was two – fold; Firstly, it rapidly
removed moisture from the flesh to a point at
which microbial growth was retarded. Secondly,
many spoilage responsible organisms could not
grow in salt concentration above 6% of salt,
since beef consists of 65% water and pork 60%
of water on the average (Brigitte et al., 2004).
When the water content is reduced to 25%,
bacterial growth and spoilage cease. Lowering
the water content to 15% will, in addition, stop
the growth of moulds altogether. By removing
moisture, salt retarded the action of enzymes,
most importantly those that cause rancidity.
ii. Heat Generated at Elevated
Temperature:
The heat generated at a temperature of 1000C
reduces the moisture content to a level that
prevented the growth of microorganisms. At
temperature above 650C, it became very difficult
for most microorganisms to survive.
Microorganisms slowly die off when meats were
heated for longer period at a temperature greater
than 1000C.
Page 165
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
c) Effect of Combined Salt and Garlic on
Meats:
There were striking observations on the effect of
combined salt and garlic treatment on meats:
i. First, the weight loss in meats treated with salt
and garlic solution was higher than meats not
subjected to any treatment but lower than those
treated with either of salt or garlic only.
Secondly, the microbial counts were high in
untreated meats than meats subjected to garlic
and salt treatment combined. Dried meats from
the combined garlic and salt treatment yielded
very good quality meats than those not subjected
to any treatment, but perform poorly when
compared with meats treated with only garlic or
salt only
ii. Significantly, there was a striking observation on
the values of the microbial counts and the weight
loss in all types of meat when a solution of salt
and garlic was used. The microbial counts for
meats treated with salt and garlic solution were
higher than the microbial counts obtained in
either of the meats treated solely with salt or
with garlic solution. Also, the weight loss in
meats treated with solution of salt and garlic
were significantly lower compared with the
weight loss of meats treated solely with salt or
garlic. There was, however, an exception to goat
meat in that, the weight loss in goat meat treated
solely with salt was lower than that treated with
solution of salt and garlic. One major reason that
could be given for this striking observation is:
Interference of Garlic. Garlic interferes with the
operation of some other agents when combined.
Garlic is known to interfere with the operation of
some medical drugs, in particular anticoagulant
(Wright, 2006). The phenomenon observed in
meats treated with the solution of salt and garlic
could be ascribed to the interference of garlic
with salt. This reduces the potency of salt in
meats thereby significantly affecting the values
of microbial counts and weight loss in meats.
The major issue in food is safety. Food safety implies
absence or acceptable and safe level of contaminants,
adulterants, naturally occurring toxins or any other
substance that may make food injurious to health on
acute or chronic basis. This means that the additive
and the preservative agents that are fit for use in meat
processing should not cause harm or produce
discomfort in the body of the consumer. Salt, a major
preservation and seasoning agent have been linked
with several physiological disorders in humans.
Several studies have linked increase in blood
pressure, osteoporoses, asthma, stomach cancer,
kidney problems and weight gain with too much salt
intake (Coleman, 2001). With research findings
associating salt with many physiological disorder in
human, garlic, therefore appears a better alternative
than salt for processing of meats. Aside from the
high quality meat obtained from garlic treatment in
the study, other studies on garlic attested to the
credibility of garlic. Health benefits of taking garlic
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
include reducing cholesterol and triglycerides while
increasing high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Garlic
decreases the incidence of cancer, especially the
cancer of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) (Wright,
2006). Also, garlic lowers diastolic blood pressure.
In addition, it prevents the formation of clots caused
by vascular damage and does not leave any side
effect on humans (GCS, 2006), which essentially is
one of the good attributes of meat additive and
preservative.
Conclusion
From the study, both garlic and salt have some
effects on the values of microbial contents and
moisture loss in meat, but the degree of the effect of
garlic and salt on meat varies according to meat types
under processing. As seen from the study, garlic
exerted greater effect on pork than do salt. Salt, in
turn, exerted greater effect on beef and goat meat
than do garlic. Garlic interferes with salt action in
meat when jointly used in the treatment of meats.
This interference had some significance on the level
of microbial on meats. In addition, the moisture level
was equally affected by this interference.
In essence therefore, garlic is better than salt for meat
preservation. Besides the exhibited traits of garlic as
exposed in the study, garlic does not have traceable
side effects or any link with physiological disorders
in humans as do salt.
References
Barrie A., Fellow P., Gedi L., Lubin H, Oti–Boating
P. and Zulu R. (2003): Opportunities in Food
processing; setting up and running a small meat
or fish processing Enterprises CTA publication,
Wageningen, Netherlands.
Brigitte MB, Brigiet VB and Corlien H. (2004):
Presentation of fish and meat. Agromisia
Foundation, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Coleman N. (2001): How salt affects the body
[Online].
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/h
ealth/dietfitness.html. in_article_id = 6229&
in_page_id = 1798 (2006, April 24).
FAO (1999): The importance of Food quality and
safety for Developing Countries. Committee on
World Food Security. 25th Session Rome, 31
May – 3 June, 1999.
Garlic-Central (2006): Garlic: A natural antibiotic
[Online]. http://www.garlic-
central.com/antibiotic.html (2006, Feb. 6).
GCS (2006): Garlic: A natural antibiotic [Online].
http://pubs.GCS.org/subscribe/journals/mdd/V05
/i04/html/04news4.html. (2006, April 6).
Nkuhlu M. (2003): Emerging Global issue in
sustainable Development and the response of the
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
(NEPAD). Proceeding of the Global Forum on
Agricultural Research (GFAR) Conference, 22 –
24 May 2003, Dakar, Senegal, 50p.
WHO (1996): TB/HIV. A clinical manual. Global
Tuberculosis Programme, Geneva, Switzerland.
Page 166
 i
t
r

e
c
a

n
k
h
o
k
o
P
F
E
E

C
B

G
99.10 53.50 29.8 109.8 Wt before drying (gm) MEAT
TYPE OF

41.10 30.30 11.00 30.6 Wt after dry (gm)

epidemic

67.00 23.20 18.8 79.2 Wt loss (gm)

58.52 43.40 63.0 72.1 % wt loss
NO

4 x 108 2 x 108 4 x 108 2 x 108 PCA

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

8 8 8 8
TREATMENT

3 x 10 1 x 10 3 x 10 1 x 10 EMB
1998

134.10 62.60 47.1 85.8 Wt before drying (gm)

_TB_98.247.pdf (2006, April 3).

53.30 30.20 12.5 26.9 Wt after dry (gm)

80.80 32.40 34.9 58.9 Wt loss (gm)
http://whq.libdoc.who.int/hq/1998/WHO-

ONLY

60.00 52 74.0 68.6 % wt loss

PCA = Plate Count Agar

8 8 8 8
WHO (1998): WHO report on the global tuberculosis
[Online].

0 x 10 1 x 10 2 x 10 0 x 10 PCA
TREATED WITH SALT

8 8 8 8
1 x 10 1 x 10 3 x 10 1 x 10 EMB

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009

123.40 71.70 47.2 114.2 Wt before drying (gm)
ISSN: 1974 - 9005

48.50 32.50 11.6 30.7 Wt after dry (gm)

74.90 59.20 34.8 83.5 Wt loss (gm)
[Online].

60.60 55.00 75.4 73.1 % wt loss

GARLIC ONLY

8 8 8
2 x 10 3 x 10 0 x 10 3 X 10 PCA
MEAT TREATED WITH

2 x 108 1 x 108 1 x 108 1 X 108 EMB

119.5 69.9 38.2 89.5 Wt before drying (gm)
56.70 29.8 11.5 29.0 Wt after dry (gm)
TABLE 1: MICROBIAL COUNTS OF TREATED AND UNTREATED MEATS

62.80 40.1 26.7 60.5 Wt loss (gm)

EMB = Erosin Methylene Blue Sugar

53 57.0 69.8 67.5 % wt loss
y/popular_nremedies.html (2006, April 6).

8 8 8 8
TREATED WITH

1 x 10 3 x 10 1 x 10 4 X 10 PCA
GARLIC AND SALT

8 8 120- 8 8
1 x 10 2 x 10 0 x 10 2 x 10 EMB
http://www.Wright.edu/admin/fredwhite/phymac
Wright (2006): Popular Natural Remedies, Part 1.

Page 167
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ademiloye, I. B
Akinsanya, O. A
School of Engineering Ogunlowo, M
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 168
168– 172
172

Opportunities and Challenges of Renewable Energy in a Depressed Economy

Ademiloye, I. B, Akinsanya, O.A. & Ogunlowo, M.

Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department,
Federal Polytechnic, Ado -Ekiti.
e-mail: ibrahimademiloye@yahoo.co.uk
Abstract
Power system plays a major role in meeting the requirement of energy demand for both domestic commercial
and industrial use. In the world today, fossil fuels are the major sources of electricity with its attendant
problems on the environment. One of the greatest challenges today is to move away from our heavy dependence
on fossil fuels and utilize the renewable energy resources more fully. This paper reviews the opportunities and
challenges of renewable energy sources in depressed economy for a sustainable development.

Keywords: Renewable energy, Opportunity, Challenges, Economy.

Introduction energy to meet the demand of the consumers at any

There are many residential, commercial, and
industrial customers of electrical power systems in
Nigeria today. To meet this vast demand for
electrical power, power companies work in
combination to produce tremendous quantities of
electrical power. This vast quantity of electrical
power is supplied by power generating plants.
Individual generating units that supply over 1000
megawatts of electrical power are now in operation
in homes. Electrical power can be produced in many
ways, such as from chemical reactions, heat, light, or
mechanical energy. The great majority of our
electrical power is produced by power plants located
throughout our country, which convert the energy
produced by fossil fuel or natural gas or by falling
water. Electrical generators at these power plants are
driven by steam or gas turbines, or by hydraulic
turbines in the case of hydro electrical plants. Most
electrical power in Nigeria is produced at power
plants that are either fossil fuel steam plants, or
hydroelectric plants. Fossil fuel and nuclear fission
plants utilize steam turbines to deliver the
mechanical energy needed to rotate the large three
phase alternators that produce massive quantities of
electrical power. Hydroelectric plants ordinarily use
vertically mounted hydraulic turbines. These units
convert the force of flowing water into mechanical
energy to rotate three-phase alternators. The power
plants may be located near the energy sources, near
cities, or near the large industries where great
amounts of electrical power are consumed. The
supply and demand situation for electrical energy is
much different from that of other products that are
produced by any organization and later sold to
consumers. Electrical energy must be supplied at the
same time that it is demanded by consumers. There is
no simple storage system that may be used to supply
additional electrical energy at peak demand times.
This situation is unique, and it necessitates the
production of sufficient quantities of electrical
time. In the attempt of the Nigerian government to
meet up the challenges of energy production, various
Independent Power Producers (IPP) and National
Integrated Power Producers were encouraged to add
power to the national grid. All these various
initiatives across the country are making use of the
fossil fuel especially gas. However, the effort of
generating electricity is associated with other bigger
problem of global warming as a result of CO2
emission into the atmosphere. Nigeria can achieve
her energy stability while taking into consideration
the reduction of green house gasses with the
exploitation of renewable energy. Renewable energy
sources such as wind, solar power, geothermal,
biomass, and hydropower are becoming an
increasingly important part of any nation’s electricity
fuel mix. The electric power industry, working with
industrial and governmental stakeholders, has
expanded the use of renewable energy sources for
electricity generation over the past 30 years.
(Chukuezi, 2009). Renewable energy produces
minimal environmental impact and generally has
little or no fuel costs. It also helps the electric power
industry maintain a diverse fuel mix for electricity
generation. Fuel diversity helps to ensure reliable,
affordable electricity for our nation’s households and
businesses.
Opportunities of Renewable Energy Resources
Wind Power:
Wind flow is generated from the heating and rotation
of the Earth’s surface and is largely determined by
weather patterns, the surface of the Earth, and bodies
of water. The flow of air masses is harvested by wind
turbines that capture the kinetic energy in surface
wind and transform it into electrical power. The
amount of electrical output is largely determined by
the size of the turbine and the speed of the wind. A
small turbine, generating 100watts or less, is
commonly used on farms and rural areas. A single,

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 168
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
small 10-kilowatt (kW) wind turbine is capable of
generating enough electricity to power a house.
Larger systems, known as wind farms, use multiple
turbines that can each generate from 700 kW to 1.8
megawatts (MW) of power. These utility-scale
turbines, feed power directly into a utility’s electric
grid system
Wind generation currently accounts for
approximately a third of the nation’s non-hydro
renewable energy. This technology continues to grow
at an unprecedented rate. Since 2000, wind
generating capacity has been growing at an average
annual rate of more than 35 percent. Newer state-of-
the art facilities have greatly decreased the cost per
kilowatt-hour relative to other technologies, making
wind power increasingly competitive with other fuel
sources.
Wind energy used to be relied upon in the 1950s and
1960s for provision of water in many locations of the
northern part of the country. However this was
largely abandoned when the development of
petroleum products reached advanced stages. The
development of the Poldow wind pump in Bauchi
using locally available materials is surely a move in
the right direction. Of course it should be mentioned
that there a few modern wind water pumps in some
parts of the country. There is also one wind
electricity generator currently supplying electricity
from wind energy at Sayya Gidan Gada in Sokoto
State (Sambo, 2009)
Hydro Power
The energy of flowing water may be used to generate
electrical power. Water, which is confined in a large
reservoir, is channeled through a control gate, which
adjusts the flow rate. The flowing water passes
through the blades and control vanes of a hydraulic
turbine, which produces rotation. Although there are
substantial undeveloped resources in the United
States and it produces no emissions, hydropower’s
share of the nation’s electric generation is predicted
to decline due to environmental issues, regulatory
complexity, and energy economics. Hydropower
plants capture the kinetic energy of falling water to
generate electricity. Projects are generally operated
in a run-of-river, peaking, or storage mode.
The most common type of hydroelectric power plant
is an impoundment facility. Typically, a large
hydropower system uses a dam to store river water in
a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows
through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates
a generator to produce electricity. A diversion
(sometimes called run-of-river) facility channels a
portion of a river through a canal or penstock and
through a turbine to generate power. When the
demand for electricity is low, pumped-storage
facility stores energy by pumping water from a lower
reservoir to an upper reservoir. During periods of
high electricity demand, the water is released back
through a turbine to the lower reservoir to generate
electricity.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Tidal Power
Tidal energy is produced from the power of changing
tides, which are created by the gravitational force of
the sun and the moon, and the Earth’s revolution.
The technology required to convert tidal energy into
electricity is similar to traditional hydroelectric
power plants. Barrages (dams) built across a coastal
bay, or estuary, capture the tidal power created by
high and low tidal activity. When the tide rises, water
flows through turbines and generates power. The
water is held behind the barrage until the tide falls.
At that point, the gate is raised and the water flows
out, first transferring its energy through the turbines.
Off-shore turbines are another way to capture tidal
power. These generators use low-head hydroelectric
generating equipment and standard power
transmission methods. However, there are limited
numbers of sites throughout the world that can take
advantage of tidal power and only a few are
operational. Tidal power technology has manageable
maintenance costs.
Bioenergy
Bioenergy is created from organic matter, or
biomass, through the conversion of the complex
carbohydrates in organic matter into energy. The use
of biomass energy, which accounts for 10 percent of
the world’s primary energy supply, has the potential
to greatly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
While the combustion, harvesting, and transporting
of biomass products creates approximately the same
amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) as fossil fuels, some
of it is offset by the absorption of carbon by trees and
rapidly growing plants, a natural form of carbon
sequestration. (Sambo, 2005) The net emission of
CO2 from the burning of biomass is zero as long as
plants continue to be replenished for biomass energy
purposes. These energy crops, such as fast-growing
trees and grasses, are called biomass feedstock.
Biomass also includes other plant matter, agricultural
crops, the organic component of municipal,
agricultural, or industrial wastes; or other biological
material. Even the methane from landfills, or biogas,
can be used as a biomass energy source. The
transformation of this feedstock into combustible
material and its transportation to power plants,
however, is a net source of CO2 emissions.
(Akinbami et al, 2009) Biomass has achieved
widespread acceptance in the paper and pulp industry
as a power source. Looking forward, the wide
accessibility of biomass in both developing and
industrial nations and its many applications creates
the potential for it to be a significant source of future
renewable energy.
Biomass has various means of technological
application, including direct firing, gasification, and
utilization with coal in fluidized bed boilers. Biomass
can be used as a solid fuel, or converted into liquid or
gaseous forms, for the production of electric power,
heat, chemicals, or fuels. Biofuels include ethanol,
biodiesel, and methanol. (Sambo, 2005)
Page 169
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Geothermal Energy
Approximately 8,000 MW of geothermal electric
power is produced worldwide, but energy produced
by the direct use of geothermal resources, which
includes a wide range of applications—such as space
and water heating—has been estimated at more than
15,000 MW. Geothermal energy comes from the heat
beneath the Earth’s surface. Through a process called
“radiogenic heat production,” geothermal energy is
available directly for heat and power generation.
Geothermal resources range from shallow ground to
hot water and rock several miles below the Earth’s
surface, and even farther down to the extremely hot
molten rock called magma. Wells with a depth of a
mile or more can be drilled into underground
reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be
brought to the surface for use in a variety of
applications. In the United States, most geothermal
reservoirs are located in the western states, Alaska,
and Hawaii.
Power plants using dry steam systems were the first
type of geothermal power generation plants built.
They use the steam from the geothermal reservoir as
it comes from wells, and route it directly through
turbine/generator units to produce electricity.
Flash steam plants are the most common type of
geothermal power generation plants in operation
today. They use water at temperatures greater than
360˚ F (182˚ C) that is pumped under high pressure
to the generation equipment. Upon reaching the
generation equipment, the pressure is reduced,
allowing some of the hot water to convert or flash
into steam. This steam is then used to power the
turbine/ generator units to produce electricity.
Solar Energy
The sun has been tapped as an energy source in the
form of passive solar heating for thousands of years.
More recently, technologies have been developed
that use the sun’s radiant energy to provide steam for
industrial processes, to heat fluids through
concentration to temperatures that produce electricity
in thermal-electric generators, and to produce electric
power through photovoltaic cells.
Passive solar energy provides numerous societal
benefits: it is cost-effective, readily available, and
can have a positive economic impact as the
development of technologies creates new industries.
Simple applications of passive solar energy are
inexpensive and widely used around the world.
(Sambo, 2005)
Photovoltaic (PV) technology converts sunlight into
electricity by PV cells made of semiconductor
material. This direct use of solar radiation is a rapidly
developing technology that is growing worldwide.
PV modules are very versatile and can be used
independently from an electrical grid. Modules are
commonly used on rooftops to provide electricity to
homes and buildings, to power electric cars, and to
provide light and power to rural homes. (Bernard et
al 1988).
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) increases the
energy intensity, heating fluids to high temperatures
in receiver that can be transferred to generate electric
power in thermal-electric generators. CSP
applications are relatively expensive, but the
technology can also be used to increase the
efficiency of fossil fuel generation.
Solar Hot Water and Space Heating has been used
for centuries and is one of the most popular uses of
solar energy. This form of power is cost-effective
and helps to provide hot water to many parts of the
world that lack other power options.
Hydrogen Power
Hydrogen is one of the most plentiful elements on
Earth, and can be found in water, biomass, or fossil
fuels. A significant advantage for the development of
hydrogen as a fuel source is that it can be produced
from a wide variety of resources. It is also emissions-
free if it is produced using a clean source of energy.
Hydrogen is considered by many to be the fuel of the
future. The production of this energy source has the
potential of moving our country from a
“hydrocarbon” to a so-called “hydrogen economy.”
Today, hydrogen is widely used for the production of
chemicals and petroleum products. It is also being
used to power distributed generation units and a
variety of end-use technologies (mobile phones and
laptop computers as well as automobiles and other
motor vehicles). However, cost-effective, efficient,
and safe methods of production, storage, and delivery
of hydrogen as a fuel to generate electric power or as
an energy carrier are not fully developed.
Using an energy source, such as a fossil fuel, pure
hydrogen is formed and converted into energy
through a traditional combustion process or through
electrochemical processes in fuel cells. Currently,
about 95 percent of the hydrogen produced annually
in the United States uses a thermal process with
natural gas as the “feedstock.” However, the future
of hydrogen lies in the development of efficient clean
technologies using methods such as electrolysis from
other sources to produce the required energy.
Fuel Cells: This is a conversion technology used to
produce an electrical current when hydrogen gas and
oxygen are combined in a catalyzed electrochemical
reaction. Fuel cells can be highly efficient, quiet, and
pollution-free. The scalability of this technology
makes it easily adaptable to a wide variety of
applications, from computers to central power
generation.
Challenges of Renewable Energy
Recently, the Energy Commission of Nigeria (ECN)
reported the country’s plan to produce about 15903
MW of electricity from renewable energy sources by
2015 (This day, 2005). It was even reported that the
nation has about 15 sources from which it can
expand its existing power generation capacities and
that government is developing a master plan that
would enable the exploitation of renewable energy
Page 170
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
sources in the areas of solar energy, small hydros,
wind and biomass energy generating systems.
Despite these efforts on renewable resources, many
challenges could affect wider deployment of these
resources in the supply and delivery of electricity:
(i) Reliability: A reliable supply of electricity must
be available around the clock to provide power
to consumers whenever they demand it. The
most popular renewable resources—wind and
solar are not always available and require
dispatchable back-up generation, especially from
natural gas and hydropower.
(ii) Transmission and Distribution: The availability
of renewable resources varies among regions, so
not all areas of the country have abundant
renewable resources. Even in those areas where
renewable energy can be utilized, they are often
found in remote locations, so significant
transmission and distribution systems will need
to be built to transport the power to the
population centres where it is needed. However,
public opposition to new power lines in local,
remote, and pristine areas makes it difficult to
build this necessary infrastructure. Assembling
rights-of-way and gaining regulatory approvals
for new transmission is time-consuming and
difficult. Additional investment in bulk power
transmission is particularly crucial to wind and
solar power development because of the distance
between where the high levels of resources are
located and the large population centres where
the power is needed most.
(iii) Integrating Renewable energy on the Power
Grid: Small-scale wind and solar photovoltaic
systems create the potential for adding thousands
of generating sources to the nation’s distribution
system. This would change fundamental
engineering calculations about maintaining the
delicate balance between supply and demand
that must be constantly maintained in order to
ensure the reliability and integrity of the electric
system. This requires special steps to manage the
power swings, new peak, and requires additional
balancing units.
(iv) High Capital Cost: The cost of building
renewable energy facilities has decreased over
the years. Yet, some of these technologies
remain relatively costly and are not competitive
with other fuel sources. Recently, construction
costs for all generating technologies, including
renewable energy have increased considerably.
Solar energy for power generation, however,
remains one of the most expensive generating
technologies.
(v) Expanding the nation’s electricity infrastructure
system to transport the power generated from
typically remote renewables to population
centres where it is needed;
(vi) Sustaining financial incentives and other forms
of necessary federal support to encourage capital
investment in renewables; and,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
(vii) Ensuring the integrity and reliability of the
supply and delivery of electricity.
(viii) To help manage renewable construction costs,
improvements in R&D, as well as the
commercialization of these technologies, is
needed. If traditional fuel and commodity costs
remain high, however, renewable technologies
may become a more cost-competitive option for
electric utilities. Other challenges include public
acceptability, safe methods of production,
Storage and non proliferation of Iron and steel
industry as main source of raw materials
Conclusion
In this paper an attempt has been made to study
mainly the sources of renewable energy, challenges
and opportunities. The renewable energy is affected
by their sources, and it is characterized by wide
spread challenges such as reliability, transmission
and distribution, integrating renewable on the power
grid and high capital cost.
The electric power industry, in conjuction with
renewable energy organizations, will improve the
nation’s economic growth and rural areas
development, create more employment, and will
deliver sustainable energy to the national grid.
Recommendation
(i) Government should endeavour to make a policy
relating to the integration of renewable energy to the
National Grid.
(ii) Enough funds should be made available for more
findings and research work on sources of renewable
energy in Nigeria to guarantee its reliability.
(iii) Tax credit should be put in place for investors
and developers who want to participate in the
provision of renewable energy.
Reference
Akinbami, J.F; Akinloye Lawal, A (2009):
Opportunities and Challenges to Electrical
Energy Conservation and CO2 Nigeria Building
Sector.
Bernard M, Anthony D&Micheal S (1988): Overview
of photovoltaic technology and applications.
International Technology Publications.
Chukuezi C. O.( 2009): Gender and renewable
energy in rural Nigeria International NGO
Journal
Vol.4 (7) pp333- 336
Etiosa Uyigne (2008) “Renewable Energy and
Energy Efficiency and Sustainable Development
in Nigeria”
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/windandhydro/win
d_ad.html
Sambo A.S (2005): “Renewable Energy for Rural
Development: The Nigerian Perspective”
www.isesco.org.ma/ISESCO_Technology.../A.S.../A.
S.Sambo.pdf
Sambo A.S (2009) : “ Strategic Developments in
Renewable Energy in Nigeria”
Page 171
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
www.iaee.org/documents/newsletterarticles/309s This Day (2005) - African Views on Global News]
ambo.pdf Renewable Energy: Nigeria Targets 16,000 MW
by 2015

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 172
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ojo, A. J
Akinsanya, O. A
School of Engineering Yusuf, B. M
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 173– 177
177

Challenges and Opportunities of Power Sector Reform in a Depressed Economy

Ojo, A. J, Akinsanya, O.A & Yusuf, B.M
Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department,
Federal Polytechnic, Ado -Ekiti.
E-mail:ojamesalaba@yahoo.com

Abstract
Power sector reform has become an issue in the past few years. The key motivations are to achieve better
service, reliable operation and improved standard of living. However, repositioning the power sector in a
depressed economy like Nigeria has introduced certain number of new opportunities and challenges. Some of
the challenges include politicising of the power sector, insufficient transmission line capabilities and unrest in
the Niger-delta region as indicated from empirical studies. These challenges require urgent solutions to
facilitate the actualisation of the objectives of the reform. The opportunities available include creation of jobs
for teeming graduates, investment opportunities and technological advancement. This study identifies sincerity
of purpose and effective planning by power system engineers, managers, energy policy makers and the
government in order to achieve the opportunity provided by the power system reforms.

Keywords: challenges, opportunities, power sector reforms, depressed economy

Introduction Earlier before that, an Act was passed in 1998 setting

Discussion on Power Sector reform in a depressed
economy like Nigeria would not be complete without
having the knowledge of its origination at its early
stage. Nation Electric Power Authority (NEPA) was
created by Government Decree No 24 of 1972 from
the merge of the previous Electricity Corporation of
Nigeria (ECN) and Niger Dams Authority (NDA)
(Ayodele e-tal, 2008). Since ECN was mainly
responsible for distribution and sales and the NDA
created to build and run generating stations and
transmission line, the primary reasons for merging
the organisations were:
• It would result in the vesting of the production
and the distribution of electricity power supply
throughout the country in the organisation which
would assume responsibility for the financial
obligations.
• The integration of the ECN and NDA would
result in the more effective utilization of the
human financial and other resources available to
the electricity supply industry throughout the
country (Ekeh, 2008).
Despite the merging of ECN and NDA, NEPA was
unable to tackle Power Supply problem in the
country over the years. It was the above reason, that
prompted the Obasanjo administration’s attempt at
reforming the power sector on assuming office in
1999 who started with the appointment of Chief Bola
Ige as the Minister in charge of this important sector,
Chief Bola Ige of blessed memory, on assumption of
office promised to make epileptic power supply in
Nigeria a thing of the past. This was not so as the
problems with the sector were more profound and
monumental than the honourable minister thought.
up the Power Holding Company of Nigeria Plc in
order to break the monopoly of NEPA and to
encourage private participation in the sector.
Nigeria as a Depressed Economy
Depressed Economy simply indicates that the
economy is not buoyant.(Oyedeji, 2005) It is a
situation in which there is little or no economic
activities such as trade, industries . Many of the
citizenry under this economy are poor and jobless. It
is also being characterized by lack of basic
infrastructure, collapse of home industries and
relocation of those multimillion industries to other
country.
It is the state in which an enforced idleness is
imposed on wage earners who are able and willing to
work but cannot find jobs and which most people
cannot earn their living due to unemployment.
Lack of adequate and efficient electricity power
supply is responsible to the collapse of some
industries; this is because all industrial sectors and
many aspect of the country economy depend on
electrical energy to sustain their existence.
Manufacturing companies such as Michelin and
Dunlop relocated to Ghana because of the unstable
nature of power supply in Nigeria. Obtaining
profitable level of production through the use of
generators is naturally a wishful thinking and of
course uneconomical. Without doubt constant power
supply as well as the provision of other
infrastructural facilities usually facilitates the
industrial development of any economy. In Nigeria,
the near absence of these has affected most industries
negatively (Emeka, 2008).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 173
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The Power Sector Reform
The electricity Power Sector Reform Act was passed
in 2005 setting up the Nigerian Electricity
Regulatory Commission (NERC) (Akhere, 2008),
with the powers to license companies to generate,
transmit and distribute electricity in Nigeria. The
Electric Power Sector Reform Act in 2005 among
other things sets out to achieve the following five
objectives:
• Unbundled NEPA;
• Privatize the unbundled entities;
• Establish a regulatory agency;
• Establish Rural Electrification Agency and Fund;
• Establish Power Consumer Assistance Fund.
(Akinsanya e-tal)
Other key components of the electric power sector
reform bill include
• Powers of the Nigeria Electricity Regulatory
Commission (NERC) to regulate tariffs and quality
service and powers to oversee the industry
effectively
• Powers of NERC in relation to anti-competitive
behaviour including mergers and acquisitions
licensed electricity companies
• Institutional and enforcement requirement of the
regulatory regime
• Requirement for licensing by the NERC of the
Generation Companies, System operator,
transmission services, distribution companies and
to acting companies that will be created from the
restructuring and unbundled NEPA.
• Legislative authority to include special conditions
in licenses
• Provision relating to public policy interest in
relation to fuel supply environmental laws, energy
conversation, management of scarce natural
resources, promotion of efficient energy,
promotion of renewable energy and publications of
reports and statistics,
• Providing a legal basis with necessary enabling
provisions for establishing, changing, enforcing
and regulating technical rules, market rules and
standards (Ekeh, 2008).
The Extent of the Reform
With the Power Sector Reform Act, it was expected
that by the end of 2007 PHCN would have been
broken up into 18 companies in a takeover that was
expected to involve private sector in the generation,
transmission and distribution of electricity and
further improve on the performance of the sector. At
present the current nation’s energy demand is
estimated at 10,000MW. However, existing power
stations and their installed capacities are as shown in
Table 1 which shows the total installed capacity to be
6237MW while the country’s recent maximum
output has been about 3000MW of electricity
To further demonstrate its commitment towards
provision of electricity, the Federal Government in
August 2003, established the National Integration
Power Plant (NIPP) and in 2007, it started the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
construction of 2600MW Mambilla Plateau
hydropower Station in addition to the seven Power
Stations in the Niger Delta with total estimated
Power output of 2562MW as shown on Table 2
(Emeka, 2008)
With the nearly one hundred and forty million
(140M) Nigerians in need of constant supply of
electricity today, coupled with an unprecedented
surge in industrial activities, the need for efficient
and steady Power Supply in Nigeria should be a top
priority. Although several reasons have been adduced
to why the various efforts made over the years have
not yielded any significant improvement on the
Power Supply in Nigeria, however, the power sector
reforms in a depressed economy such as Nigeria
would introduced a number of new opportunities and
challenges.
Challenges
1. Politicising of the power sector: This is one of the
factors militating against the effective actualisation
of the power sector reform. Most people who are
policy makers in this sector have been those who
do not have any technical background in the sector.
On the assumption of office of President Umar
Musa Yar’Adua who is presumed to be seriously
concerned about the situation of Power Sector in
Nigeria appointed Mrs Fatimah Balarade Ibrahim
as minister of state on energy (Power), a linguist
who holds BA from Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria and Master degree in French from Bayero
University Kano (Ayodele e-tal 2008). A lot of
such improper appointment abounds in Nigeria
today even when qualified professionals are
neglected. Lack of basic background/operations of
the power sector by appointed ministers has
constituted a challenge that will require fast
attention in order to place the nation on proper
pedigree.
2. Vandalization of Power structure: The constant
vandalization and attack on gas pipelines by
militant groups in the Niger-Delta region has also
constituted itself into a severe challenge to the
ongoing Power Reform. Other forms of
vandalization on transmission lines, towers,
transformer substations and distribution system
requires the prompt attention of the security
persons, government and the utility company if
true power sector reform is to be achieved. The
amnesty granted to militants and recorded progress
of voluntary surrender of ammunition and the
recent pace of rehabilitation are commendable.
However, it is hoped that Government will pursue
the current development in the Niger Delta with
the sincerity of purpose and the required political
will to improve the lives of people in the zone,
thereby preventing a reoccurrence of crisis in the
area.
3. Insufficient transmission capabilities:
Transmission system comprises conveyance of
bulk generated power at high voltages from power
station to load centres. It involves the use of
Page 174
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
structures like poles, conductors, insulators and
other equipments and accessories. The content of
power that can be carried by the transmission lines
affected by ratings of the components, temperature
and other characteristics. The capacity of the
present transmission system is not adequate and
therefore a major challenge is in improving the
transmission capability in order to accommodate
the proposed increase and improvement in the
generation of power system. It is not just enough to
generate adequate power; it should conform to the
strength of the existing transmission line
capabilities. Efforts to construct new transmission
lines, sub-stations and rehabilitation of old ones
would compliment the anticipations of the power
reform Act.
4. Corruption: This is another cause of setback in
the power sector reform. Some of the contractors
in the power sector connive with the government
officials in the sector to influence their due process
certificate. Some even gave estimate without
visiting the site and some got certificate of
completion for the projects that were never
executed (Ayodele e tal 2008). It has been argued
that beside Nigeria Police Force the next
government parastatal that is ridden with the
cankerworm is PHCN (Emeka, 2008). Therefore,
corruption is a major vice that must be curtailed if
favourable response is expected from the power
reform efforts.
5. Poor planning: Adequate planning and proper
forecast are invaluable tools to effective strategy
for power system services delivery. Unfortunately,
while Nigerian population is rapidly increasing
with rising demand for electrical power usage,
there was no corresponding improvement in power
system provision. There was no integrated
planning between gas and electricity usage and this
has resulted into gas shortage for power
generation. Most of the generating stations in
Nigeria are thermal plants which use gas to fire
their boilers. However, largest proportions of the
locally made gas have been sold for export for
revenue generation at expense of power generation
(Ayodele 2008, e-tal).The implication is that even
if the various national integrated power projects
are completed, they may suffer from shortage of
gas to run them.
6. Reliance on standby generator: Non availability
of clean electric power has forced virtually all
consumers to purchase generators. The PHCN
offices also relied on standby generators while
government offices and houses and endeavours
now use generators permanently. A lot of money is
regularly spent on purchase of fuel and services,
apart from cost, the deafening noise, hazardous
bye-products like carbon monoxide, sulphur oxide;
particulate matters are threats to health and the
environment. These bye-products can cause
asthma, lung cancer, breathing difficulties etc and
hence it constitutes challenges to the power sector
reform that must be addressed.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
7. Over used distribution capabilities: Distribution
system conveys power form transmission ends to
the consumers using low voltage lines and
equipment like transformers, circuit breakers,
insulators, conductors, poles, etc. These
components are in different stages of disrepair due
to over usage. The transformers are usually
overloaded while usage of sub-standard conductors
is rampant. Poor tools, illegal connection,
consumer attitude, theft, lack of replacement parts,
lack of maintenance strategy among others, are the
challenges that will require adequate attention.
Opportunities
The section above has highlighted some of the
challenges involved in the power sector reform
going-on in Nigeria. However, there are several
opportunities derivable from such laudable reform
which includes creation on jobs for the teeming
graduates, improvement on power stability and
efficiency, investment opportunities and
technological development.
Employment opportunities: The power sector
reform will in the long run create reasonable
employment opportunities for Nigerians. This is
because, the participating companies will employ
both skilled and unskilled labour in the event of
executing their businesses (Ekeh, 2008).It is
expected that when the reform is fully implemented,
the emerging independent power producers will
absorb many graduates and the unemployed youths.
Efficiency and reliability of services: introducing
private sector participation can greatly improve
quality, efficiency and ensure reliability in power
supply (Adoghe, 2008). The evidence can be seen in
the form of better telecommunication services in
Nigeria brought about by private sector participation
in the provision of GSM services.
Investment opportunities: power sector reform has
the ability to massively expand personal share
ownership in the sector. More importantly the cost of
doing business in Nigeria is bound to go down with
better returns to investor and opening up new areas
of manufacturing that once seemed unattractive for
investor as a result of new reliance on uninterrupted
power supply. Small and medium scale business will
flourish and there will be improvement in the health
status since the hazardous products from generator
fumes will ceased.
Technological Development: The companies that
will compete in the sector, which some of them must
be foreign companies, have to come with their
expatriates; and in a bid to set up their operational
structure will impact knowledge and skill to
Nigerians through these expatriates and these will go
a long way in developing the nation in terms of
technology.
Conclusion and Recommendation
This paper has highlighted the on-going power
reform in depressed economy like Nigeria. The
extent of the reform, the challenges as well as the
Page 175
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
opportunities has also been discussed. It is believed
that if the reform is well implemented. It will usher
in a competitive power sector that breaks the
monopoly enjoyed by PHCN and create employment
opportunities as well as increasing the rate of
technological development. However, for Nigerians
to enjoy the above positive changes through this
reform, the following recommendations are
suggested.
1. Government should endeavour to allow a level
play ground for all the independent power
producers and other investors in the power
production.
2. Consumers of electricity should be effectively
educated on how to make efficient use of energy in
order to avoid unnecessary wastage of electricity.
3. Additional transmission system should be
constructed to complement existing ones.
4. Nigerian Engineers should be adequately
represented in the planning and implementation at
all levels of the reform.
5. Competent persons should be allowed to handle
the power sector reform while government should
provide fund, supervision and adequate evaluation
to enforce the reform plan.
6. In view to reduce transmission and distribution
losses and to ensure availability of reliable power
supply to consumers, the reform in the distribution
network should be considered by establishing
distribution companies in different regions of the
nation.
References
Adoghe A.U (2008):”Power Sector Reform in
Nigeria- Likely Effects on Power Reliability and
Stability in Nigeria”.
http://www.weathat.com/power-sector-reforms-
in-a2219.html.
Akhere J. I. (2008):’’Power Sector Reform in
Nigeria, Plan, Progress and Challenges”.
www.npf-usa.org.
Akinsanya O. A, Familua A.J &Ayodele T.R. (2006)
“Electric Power System Reforms- A Strategy for
Sustainable Environmental Development”
Environ-Link, Journal of Environmental
Development Vol.1 No. 2 pp151-156
Ayodele T R, Akinsanya O A & Olulope
(2008):”Decaying Power System in Nigeria: The
Challenges and The Way Forward”. Proceedings
of National Engineering conference,7th -9th
October,2008, University of Ado Ekiti. Pp 26-
31.
Ekeh J C (2008):”Issues and Challenges of Power
Sector Reforms in a Depressed
Economy”.www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all
.jsp?arnumber=4579111. Pp 1-7
Emeka E.O.(2008):”Development Crisis of Power
Supply and Implications for Industrial Sector in
Nigeria”. www.krepublishers.com. Pp 83-92.
Oyedeji S.O (2005): “The Role of Engineering
Personnel In Vehincle maintenance in Depressed
Economy” Proceedings of Engineering Forum,
7th-10th November,2005, The Federal
Polytechnic,Ado Ekiti.

Table 1: Old power stations and their installed capacities

Station Type Inauguration Installed Current Output
Date Capacity MW MW
Oji Thermal 1956 30 --
Delta Thermal 1966-1999 900 366
Ijora Thermal 1978 60 --
Sapele Thermal 1978-1981 1,020 62
Kainji Hydro 1968-1978 760 445
Jebba Hydro 1983-1984 578.4 339
Afam Thermal 1978-1982 969 85
Egbin Thermal 1985-1987 1320 241
Shiroro Hydro 1989-1990 600 281
Total 6237.4 1819
Source: Emeka (2008)

Table 2: Seven New Federal Government Power Projects in the Niger Delta
S/N Power Station State location Units Total Output Commissioning Dates
1 Calabar Cross River 5 561MW July 2007 Nov 2007
2 Egbema Imo 3 338 MW July 2007 Dec 2007
3 Ihovobor Edo 4 451 MW Jun 2007 Sept 2007
4 Gbarian/Ubie Bayelsa 2 225 MW Jun 2007 Sept 2007
5 Sapele Delta 4 457 MW May 2007 Dec 2007
6 Omoku Rivers 2 230 MW Dec. 2007
7 Ikot Abasi Akwa Ibom 3 300 MW Yet to be awarded
Total Output 2562MW
Source: Emeka (2008)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 176
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 3: Comparative analysis of consumption of electricity worldwide
Country Population Power Generation Per capital Consumption
United states 250.00 Million 813,000MW 3.20KW
Cuba 10.54 Million 4, 000MW 0.38 KW
United Kingdom 57.50 Million 76, 000MW 1.33 KW
Ukraine 49.00 Million 54, 000MW 1.33 KW
Iraq 23.60 Million 10, 000MW 0.42 KW
South Korea 47.00 Million 52, 000MW 1.09 KW
South Africa 44.30 Million 45, 000MW 1.015 KW
Libya 5.50 Million 4,600MW 1.015 KW
Egypt 67.90 Million 18, 000MW 0.265 KW
Nigeria 140.00 Million 4, 000MW 0.03 KW
Source: Emeka (2008)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 177
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Adewale, P. O
Anthony, P
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 178–
178– 182
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Towards a Historical Model for the Teaching of Sustainable Architecture in Tropical Countries:
The Case for Hausa Traditional Architecture

*Adewale P. O. & Anthony, P.

Department of Architectural Technology
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
efformass@yahoo.com
07033685242, 08051620455
* Correspondence Author

Abstract
Sustainable development has, in recent times, emerged as the most acceptable approach to checking the
preponderant negative environmental consequences of developmental activities. This new approach, which is
applicable in virtually all sectors, advocates for policies that would allow for economic growth, while at the
same time minimizing damages to the environment. In architecture, this finds expression in the evolution of new
design thoughts and forms which focus on conservation of water, material, energy and biodiversity.
Traditionally, a historical, knowledge-based model is required to articulate these new ideas in the schools of
architecture, especially in the tropical countries. This has, however, not been given much consideration in the
literature. The aim of this paper therefore, is to give a functional analysis of Hausa traditional building with a
view to determining its suitability for the above purpose. The paper identifies certain qualities in the style which
make it suitable for the much needed pedagogical model. It then concludes by highlighting strategies that can
facilitate the use of the model and the entire learning process.

Keywords: architecture, education, historical, model, sustainability.

Introduction through soil erosion in Nigeria as 30 million tones

At no time in history has the world witnessed the
amount of degradation currently being unleashed
onto the environment by man himself as the last two
centuries. Eighty-nine percent (89%) of global
anthropogenic sulphur emissions, sixty-four percent
(64%) of global anthropogenic carbon dioxide
emissions, and seventeen percent (17%) of global
anthropogenic methane emissions are reported to
have occurred between 1850 and 1990 alone
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change- IPCC,
2007). All these are from fossil fuel energy-systems
which also release significant quantities of nitrogen
oxide and trace heavy metals such as mercury,
selenium and arsenic (Najam and Cleveland, 2003).
These emissions drive a range of global and regional
environmental changes, including global climate
change, acid deposition and urban smog (IPCC,
2007).
Continuous exploitation of marginal lands for
building, farming, etc., is also found to be
aggravating the process of drought and
desertification, especially in the northern part of
Nigeria. According to Salami (2006), Sokoto- a
major Nigerian city- is already losing about 11.43%
of its total land area. Kio and Ogirigiri (1989) draw
attention to the effect of erosion on buildings, roads
and farmlands in parts of Southeastern States of
Nigeria with adverse social and economic
consequences for the predominantly farming
populations. They give estimates of total soil losses
with more than 50% of this occurring in Imo,
Anambra and Cross River States with Plateau State
accounting for up to 6 million tones annually.
Building as one of the most conspicuous forms of
socio-economic activity is not left out in this
degrading practice. Research evidences show that
energy consumption in the building industry amount
to one-third of the current annual fossil fuel
consumption (Deut and Schade, 1979). It has, indeed,
accounted for a greater proportion of natural resource
depletion and atmospheric pollution. This is
corroborated by the Nigerian Stock Exchange’s
report which reveals that building industry accounts
for half of all resource usage and up to 40% of
energy consumption (The Nation, 2007a).
All these developmental activities have placed
enormous pressure on the global ecosystem,
culminating in the drop of quality of life of people,
extensive damage and colossal loss of lives.
According to World Health Organization, a quarter
of all diseases affecting mankind are attributed to
environmental related diseases. More than 47 million
children under the age of 5 are reportedly dying
yearly from environmental related diseases (The
Nation, 2007b). Over the past few years, there have
also been severer cases of ocean surge, desert
encroachment, hurricanes, earthquakes, tsunamis etc
which have claimed many lives and rendered several
millions homeless (Awake, 2005; Zimmerman,
2006).

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 178
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
This environmental trend and its socio-economic
consequences have elicited world-wide concern over
the years (Oyesiku, 2003; Olurin, 2003; UN-Habitat,
2002). There was, for instance, in 1972, United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment
(UNCHE) which brought together the world leaders
for the common purpose of articulating the rights of
the human family to a healthy and productive
environment. This culminated in the creation of the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Since then, there have been several national and
international conferences where dozens of
agreements were reached (Aina, 1989; Oyesiku,
2003; Mba, 2005). Some examples of these include:
the 1987 Montreal Protocol; the 1992 Earth Summit
in Rio de Janeiro; the 1996 City Summit in Istanbul;
the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, etc. (Uwejamomere, 1997).
From the outcomes of these conferences, there seems
to be widespread agreement that combating
environmental degradation would mean the adoption
of policies and programmes which lead to sustainable
development. This new approach advocates for
policies that would allow for economic growth while
at the same time minimizing damages to the
environment ( Zubairu, 2006; Okpoechi, 2006). The
role of architect in this regard is very crucial, as he is
involved not only with the design of individual
buildings, but also with aspects of urban design and
planning. As a matter of fact, the pursuit of
sustainable city structures is traditionally predicated
on the architect’s core duty of ensuring a qualitative
built environment (Moughtin, 2000).
Towards this end, a number of sustainable design
concepts/criteria have been formulated over the
years. These include: optimal use of natural raw
materials; low consumption of energy resources;
release of environmentally harmful emissions; access
to building either by public transport, bicycle or
pedestrian traffic, increased service life; indoor
conditions; barrier to free use by the physically
challenged people; costs over entire life; low
maintenance requirement; conservation of biological
diversity and flexibility. Clearly, this new approach
will require a historic and scientific knowledge base
that provides skill, techniques and methods for the
teaching of these environmental design goals. The
aim of this paper is to show by identifying its
sustainable qualities, that Hausa traditional building
can be used to achieve this purpose. The Hausas are
one of the ethnic groups located in the Northern part
of Nigeria. They have rich oral traditions and
architectural heritage.
Architectural Education, Theories and Historical
Model: Conceptual Linkages
Education has been defined as a social process by
means of which a community, a society or a nation
seeks to transmit to the emergent generation those
traditional and current aspects of its culture. Such
aspects are those considered fundamental and vital
for the stability and survival of that society. By so
doing, education regulates the attitudes, emotions,
wants and actions of the recipients. To achieve these
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
social goals, educational institutions have dual needs
for theory. They are obligated to equip the students
with the best available theory as a guide to their
practice (Abdulkarim, 2005). They also need theory
to guide or search for better understanding of a
concept or idea.
By definition, theories are a set of interrelated
concepts that give a systematic view of an observable
fact that is explanatory and predictive in nature. They
help man to make valid analysis and decisions. They
are particularly useful to the architects who are
always confronted with the problem of making
choices at various points in the design process. They
provide order and direction to architectural design
practice. But, theory in architecture tends to be less
rigorous and precise than it is in science (Attoe,
1979). Scientific theories typically represent sets of
laws that have been derived empirically and self-
evident truths. They are verifiable and open to direct
inspection (Osuntokun, 2007). To gain wide
acceptance among scientists, a theory must be
supported with clear evidence, and the derivation of
that evidence must be explained in detail. This
rigorous proof is not feasible in architecture. The
impossibility of employing an objective and
scientifically explicable theory and the necessity to
cope with continuous change make the architectural
theorists to resort to history in order to support their
argument with facts. This use of historical method
not only provides evidence for the theorists but also
militates against the elaboration of theoretical
speculation that is characteristic of unscientific
theory. Although it is not accessible to direct
inspection, history has left ample traces of itself in
the present in the shape of buildings and other
historical documents.
One of the most striking characteristics of the use of
this method in architectural education is that it
documents buildings of exemplary character (Cowan,
1977). It demonstrates how a great thinker operated
on the margin of contemporary thought to create a
new synthesis. In essence, the method provides
inspiration and a knowledge base from which a man
thrown into the great unknown of architectural
invention can draw. Attoe (1979) further contends
that architectural history does not study the
characteristics of a style alone but also explain the
circumstances or events that produce the style. A full
understanding of the historical styles of each
civilization can then help man to establish constancy
and change in design patterns which, in turn,
provides a basis for prediction of future changes
(Rappoport, 1979). This equips the architect with the
knowledge that helps him in playing his “prophetic”
role as prescribed in the statement of Frank Lloyd
Wright:
“The architect must be a prophet…a
prophet in the true sense of the term…if he
can’t see at least ten years ahead, don’t call
him an architect”.
It is instructive to note that in establishing the pattern
in architectural development, history promotes the
Page 179
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
habit of serious and critical examination of design
variables and contexts or the criteria the design
decisions were based. This ultimately offers
opportunity for a special intellectual experience
which trains the mind and sharpens the imagination
of those who take part in it, which is widely accepted
as an essential tool for the grooming of artists,
particularly the architects.
All these functions, among others, explain the
reasons the study of history has been part of
architect’s training since formal programmes were
developed in the eighteenth century. In this view, for
a nation to effectively transmit new concepts or ideas
to the emergent generation of architects, a historical
model that embodies the features of those concepts is
inevitable.
Analysis of Hausa Traditional Architecture
Confronted with the challenges of providing shelter
for himself, his goods, animals and farm produce, the
homogeneous society in the grassland south of the
Sahara evolved a style of building that conforms to
their cultural lifestyles and geographical conditions.
The dwelling unit of each family in this culture
consists of functional areas which are under different
roofs within a surrounding fence, hedge or wall. The
most distinguishing feature of this compound is
zaure. This is the entrance hall and gateway to the
walled compound. It is usually circular, sometimes
rectangular or square in plan. It is located along the
kantaga and projected onto the street. The zaure
serves as the courtesy reception for a guest before he
is received. Of sustainable interest of this spatial unit
is its location which usually faces Eastern direction.
This provides a shaded frontage from the setting sun
in the West which enhances the Hausa culture of
relaxing in front of their houses in the evening.
Oftentimes, the sizes of the functional areas are the
same. It is even the name that suggests the difference
in the use of the space (Eyong, 1987). Though, this
idea may seem to be crude, it enhances the
interchangeability of the use of the space which
facilitates their functional adaptability. This is further
enhanced by the movable types of furniture the
traditional Hausa people use. The lack of space
hierarchy also tends towards egalitarianism, which
Adewale, et al (2008) consider as one of the
fundamental ingredients for ecological sustainability.
Builders of these traditional buildings relied on the
use of local materials at their disposal. Walls were
made of sun-dried bricks (tubali) from mud and
mixed with dried grass and animal dung. They were
processed into a malleable mass by threading it with
bare feet and fashioned into the shape of a rounded
cone and allowed to dry before they were used in
wall construction. They are then laid vertically with a
thick mortar resulting in battered walls which
spanned lofty spaces with reinforced mud arches
with several configurations. The use of battered walls
helps in upsetting the structural weakness of the
mud-work. It enabled the walls to resist abrasion and
breach action. Battlements and pitch holes were
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
added on the city walls to shelter the defenders of the
city from the missiles of their assailants. At the same
time they could use pitch holes to fire at their
assailants. Opening for windows and doors are small
almost always set in the uppermost part of the walls
on the lee side of the building which were less
affected by driven rain. Inside the wider rectangular
windows were set of grilles of azaras occasionally
plastered to a baluster shape. At times, the rectangle
of the window is filled with a decorative lattice.
These were done to exclude the intense solar
radiation during the day and the dust blown off the
desert during harmattan.
The mud walls are covered with either flat or domed
roofs which were also designed for defence as well
as prestige. The domed construction is supported on
either ribs or pendentives of split palm (azara)- a
naturally termite and rot-proof material. A mud roof
provides a measure of protection against
conflagrations started by the flaming arrows of the
enemy. The thermal mass effect of the heavy
construction also maintains an almost constant
interior temperature at no cost to the client.
The ceilings of the roofs are often finished with a
series of bamboo poles overlaid with straw mats,
which sometimes carry a thin layer of mud. The
walls and floors are, on many occasions, plastered
with a fine soil, which is trowelled to a smooth finish
with the smooth surface of a broken calabash. The
floors are regularly painted with non-polluting cow
dung as binder and certain green leaves to improve
the resistance of the floor against insects. According
to Fielden (2001), Jolaoso (2001) and Ifesanya
(2004), all these materials are non-polluting, reusable
and recyclable/reclaimable thereby contributing less
to the solid waste stream. Additionally their
processing consumes less energy and is non-
polluting.
The whole building project was manual. Digging the
earth, fetching water for mixing and building were all
manually done. Even the tools like galma, gatari and
sangwami used in digging and mixing were manual.
It must be stressed here that all the construction
works are carried out through an occupational guild
with a hierarchy of officials. This construction
technique requires no heavy equipment, thereby
minimizing the impact of construction activity on the
site. Biodiversity and soil structure are intact.
Conclusion and Suggestions
From the foregoing analysis, there is a firm basis to
conclude that traditional Hausa dwelling house is
energy-efficient, non-polluting, and flexible. It has
also been established that it preserves biodiversity. It
can thus be reasonably considered as the archetype of
sustainable architecture and hence, a good
pedagogical model. It must , however be noted that
for this educational objective to be attained, learners
must have experience and contents that will give
them opportunities to practise the kind of behaviour
implied by the objective.
Page 180
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
By learning experience, it is meant a form of activity
the learners perform which will ultimately lead them
to gain experiences. It is a kind of interaction
between the learner and the external condition in the
environment to which he can react. This learning
activity, or what may be termed field experience in
this context, should be the type that are within the
range of mental, emotional and psychological state of
the learner’s present attainment, his likes,
predispositions and general interest. This is necessary
because psychology has shown that learners come in
different forms. While some are slow learners, others
are fast. While others are above average, some are
just average while others are below average. Those
various differences determine the type of activities
that can help learners. When learning activities
selected are based on the nature of the learners, the
learning experiences will be satisfying to them and
learners will be helped to exhibit the behaviour
expected. It also follows that when the activities are
fulfilling, learning will progress smoothly. However,
when such learning activities are unsatisfactory, the
required learning will not take place because learners
will not show interest and they will not operate at
their best.
In order to make sure that selected learning activities
are satisfying, the educator needs information about
the learners, their interest, background experience,
needs and other things that will engender basic
human satisfaction. Architectural educators are not
just expected to select learning activities that suit
their fancy. They are expected to be guided by
availability, nature, relevance and utility. This will
not only help learners to be at their best, they will
help to make the learning process stable and relevant
to the learners.
References
Abdulkarim, M. (2005): “Between Theory,
Education and Practice of Architecture”, Journal
of the Association of Architectural Educators in
Nigeria,Vol 3, No 2, October-December, pp 65-
71.
Adewale, P.O., Fasasi, M.B. and Asimi, M.A.
(2008): “Global Politics and the Agenda for
environmental Sustainability: Imperatives and
Daunting Realities”, Environ-Link, Vol 2, No 1,
June, pp. 71-81.
Aina (1989): “New Directions for Sustainable
Development in Nigeria”, In: The Environment
and Sustainable Development in Nigeria,
Proceedings of Workshop Held at Abuja, FCT,
Federal Environmental Protection Agency, Abuja,
pp 27-36.
Attoe, W.O. (1979): “Theory, Criticism, and History
of Architecture”, in Snyder, J. O. and
Catanese, A.J. eds Introduction to Architecture,
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York
Awake (2005): “Natural Disasters and the Human
Factor”, Awake! Vol 86. No 14, July 22, pp 3-10
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Conway, H.J. (1977): An Historical Outline of
Architectural Science, Applied Science
Publications Limited, London.
Deut, S.D. and Schade, J. (1979): “Energy,
Architecture and Buildings” in Snyder, J. O.
and Catanese, A.J. eds Introduction to
Architecture, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York
Eyong, S.O. (1987): “Folk Architecture: A
Challenge to Contemporary Urban
Architecture”, Nigeria Magazine, Vol.55, No 3, July-
September, pp 49-53.
Fielden, B.M. (2001): Conservation of Historic
Buildings, Architectural Press Oxford.
Ifesanya, A.O. (2004): “Housing Building
Technology in Time and Space and its
Implications on Housing Production in Nigeria: A
Case Study of Southwestern Nigeria” an
Unpublished MURP Dissertation, Department of
Urban and Regional Planning, University of
Ibadan, Ibadan.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC,
2007): “Summary for Policy Makers” In: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of
Working Group II to The Fourth Assessment
Report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change, Parry, M.L.: Carzini, O.F.; Palutikaf,
J.P.; van de Linden, P. J.; and Harrison, C.E.
Eds., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Jolaoso,A.B.(2001): Housing and Indigenous
Building Technology: An Introduction DES-
GGA, Abeokuta.
Kio, P.R.O. and Ogirigiri (1989): “Controlling the
Threat and Menace of Desertification and Erosion
in Nigeria” In: The Environment and Sustainable
Development in Nigeria. Proceedings of
Workshop Held at Abuja, FCT. Federal
Environmental Protection Agency, Abuja , pp 62-
73
Mba, H.C. (2005): “Physical Development Planning
Standards and Environmental Sustainability in
Nigeria”, Journal of the Nigeria Institute of Town
Planners, Vol XVIII, November, pp 18-
30
Moughtin, A. (2000): Urban Design Methods and
Techniques, McGraw-Hill Inc. New York
Najam, A.and Cleveland, C. J. (2003): “Financing
Sustainable Development: Crises of Legitimacy”,
Progress in Development Studies, Volume 2 No
2, pp 153-160.
Olurin, T.A. (2003): “Gender Participation and the
Environmental Planning and Management (EPM)
Process: A Case Study of Water Supply in
Bodija”, Journal of the Nigerian Institute of
Planners, Vol XVI, October, pp 1-17.
Okpoechi,C.V.(2006): “Sustainability in the Built
environment and the Challenges to Architectural
Education in Nigeria”, Proceedings of Year 2006
Annual Conference of Association of
Architectural Educators in Nigeria, Federal
University of Technology, Minna, October 25 –
27.
Page 181
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Osuntokun(2007): “The Use of History III”, The
Nation, Wednesday April, 18, pp 25.
Oyesiku, O. K. (2003): “Sustainable Transportation
Strategies for Intermediate Cities in Nigeria”,
Journal of the Nigeria Institute of Town Planners.
Vol XVI, October, pp 35-43
Rapoport, A. (1979): “Cultural Origins of
Architecture”, in Snyder, J. O. and Catanese,
A.J. eds Introduction to Architecture, McGraw-
Hill Inc., New York.
Salami, I.O. (2006): “Urbanization and Urban
Poverty: Salient Threats to Greenery in Nigerian
Cities”, Proceedings of Year 2006 Annual
Conference of Association of Architectural
Educations in Nigeria, Federal University of
Technology, Minna, October, 25-27.
The Nation (2007a): “The Construction Industry- A
Review of Impact on Nigerian Stock Exchange”,
The Nation, Wednesday April, 11, pp 28.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
The Nation (2007b): “Shocking Conditions at Kenya
Trash Dump”, The Nation, Tuesday, October 16,
pp 28
UN-Habitat (2002): “Sustainable Urbanization;
Achieving Agenda 21” UN – Habitat, Nairobi,
Kenya.
Uwejamomere, T. (1997): “Adegoroye Counts
Blessings of Kyoto Conference”, The Guardian,
Monday, December 22, pp 37-38.
Zimmerman, M. (2006) ‘Environment’, Microsoft
Encarta Encyclopedia.
Zubairu, M. (2006): “Urbanization, Environment and
Poverty: Breaking the Vicious Cycle of Rising
Urban Poverty and Environmental Degradation in
a Nigerian City” Proceedings of Year 2006
Annual Conference of Association of
Architectural Educations in Nigeria, Federal
University of Technology, Minna, October, 25 -
27.
Page 182
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Yusuf, B. M
Akinsanya, O. A
School of Engineering Ojo, A. J
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 183– 186
186

Opportunities and Challenges of Solar Power Generation in a Depressed Economy

Yusuf, B.M, Akinsanya, O.A & Ojo, A. J

Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department,
Federal Polytechnic, Ado -Ekiti.
E-mail:tundezobo2003@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT
Electricity is one of the major problems of economy development in Nigeria. Energy is an essential part of our
daily life which is a measure of living standard of the citizenry of any Nation. Most of the energy used in Nigeria
are under generated and under distributed thereby having adverse effect on the small, medium and large scale
enterprises in Nigeria the recent unimpressive performance of manufacturing, Agriculture, science and
technological sector is attributed to this problem of electricity which is epileptic in Nature. This is sending the
potential foreign investor out of the country thereby having negative impact on the economy. Since we know that
energy sector is of great important in every economy that will continue to attract the utmost attention of
economy development planner worldwide, we all know that Nigeria is endowed with abundant energy
resources, both conventional and renewable which provide her with immense capacity to develop an effective
natural energy. The potential solar energy programme cannot be underestimated. This will go along way
solving the problem of power sector in Nigeria. This paper briefly reviews the importance of solar energy as a
renewable energy source in a depressed economy like ours.

Keywords: - opportunities, challenges, solar power, generation, depressed economy

Introduction are not enough to carter for 140million Nigerian and

Energy is a free gift of nature and it is an essential
ingredient for socio-economic development and
industrial growth. The demand for energy today is far
greater than ever in our highly technological world. It
is well known fact that high rate of industrial growth
of any country is a function of the amount of energy
available in that country and the extent to which this
energy can be utilized. Nigeria is an energy resource-
rich country blessed with fossil resources such as
crude oil, natural gas, coal and renewable energy
resources like solar, wind, biogas, biomass, nuclear
(Okoro et al, 2007).
Energy can be classified into nuclear, chemical,
physical, potential, wind, thermal, light, geothermal,
mechanical and electrical energies that are
convertible from one form to the other. The integral
part of any development of a nation is based on the
steady supply of power which is an elixir to
industrialization (Iran daily, 2006). But this is not
applicable to Nigeria where power supply is erratic
in nature unlike the developed countries where
availability of electricity is ensured almost
throughout the year and it has helped in making
remarkable growth in their economy. Power
generation in Nigeria is mostly depending on the use
of depletable energy (fossil fuel) such as coal, crude
oil and natural gas which are easily available but
highly depletable with time. We generate about
11KV – 25 KV in Nigeria, a step up transformer is
employed to transform the voltage to a large value
that is suitable for transmission (Gupta, 2005). All
the generated power through the depletable resources
it also constitutes an environmental hazard and health
related problems as well global warming crisis
through the production of greenhouse gasses.
Unfortunately, not only do these fossil fuels pollute
the environment with carbon dioxide, their supply is
not renewable, the cost of exploration is high and the
treat to the climate from greenhouse gasses and
carbon dioxide impose global constraints (Ayodele et
al, 2006).
However, there abound clean and renewable energy
sources that are equally good in the generation of
electrical energy. These renewable energies are
driven by the natural energy flows of the planet.
They do not deplete the energy resource and do not
destroy the environment when sensibly used. They
also have environmental benefits over the use of
fossil fuels. In Nigeria most of the feasible
alternative sources of renewable energy are wind,
biomass, fuel cells and solar. It reduces carbon
dioxide emissions which cause global warming and
reduce the air pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxide that cause acid rain and health
problems.
The Economic situation of Nigeria can be classified
as a depressed economy because it is characterized
by low value of currencies, poor exchange rate, low
per capital income, high cost of living, low gross
domestic product (GDP), relocation of multinational
industries, and difficulty in setting up small and
medium Enterprises. There is high rate of inflation in
Nigeria and this disrupts the normal economic
activities, create high rate of unemployment and low

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 183
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
level of investment. Currently, foreign investors are
reluctant to invest in Nigeria economy while existing
foreign investors like Dunlop Plc and Michellin Pl c
are relocating to the neighboring countries because of
enabling environment occasioned by predictable
power supply. This paper therefore, presents
opportunities and challenges of solar power
generation as mean of alternative for power supply
for sustainable development.
Solar Power Energy Potential in Nigeria
Solar Energy has been described as the most
promising energy source of generation in view of
apparent limitless potential. The sun radiates its
energy at the rate of about 3.8 x 1023KW per second.
Most of this energy is transmitted radically as
electromagnetic radiation which comes to about 1.5
KW/m2 at the boundary of the atmosphere. After
traversing the atmosphere a square meter of the earth
surface can receive as much as 1KW of solar power;
averaging to about 0.5 over all hours of day light
(Sambo, 1988). The availability of solar energy in
Nigeria has fully indicated it viability for generation
(Doyle et al 1988). Nigeria receives 5.08 x 1012
KWh of energy per day from the sun. Iran Daily
(2006) reported that Nigeria being in the tropic
region where there is so much solar energy potential
though, lack of awareness has stalled the
manifestation of the potential. According to Francis
(2008) Nigeria is endowed with an annual average
daily sunshine of 6.25 hours, ranging between about
5.25hours at the coastal area and 9.0 hours at the far
northern boundary. It has an annual average daily
solar radiation of about 5.25 kW/m2/day varying
between about 3.5 kWm2/day at the coastal area and
7.0kW/m2/day at the northern boundary. Nigeria
receives about 4.851x1012 kWh of energy per day
from sun. This is equivalent to about 1,082 million
tones of oil. Based on land area of 924x10 3km2 for
the country and an average of 5.535kWh/m2/day.
Nigeria has an average of 1.804x1015 kWh of
incident solar energy annually.
Solar power energy is an intermittent energy source
and is normally supplemented by storage or another
energy source such as wind power and hydropower.
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into
electricity using photovoltaic (PV) cells solar power
is the earth most available energy source, easily
capable of providing many times the total current
energy demand. Solar power has great potential,
though the earliest significant application of solar
cells was as a back up power source in 1958. The
successful operation of solar cells was later extended
to telecommunication, agriculture, engineering and
technological sector which remain vital to those
infrastructure today. Other applications include
drying, cooking, heating, distillation, cooling and
refrigeration as well generation of electricity from
thermal plant. (Sambo, 1998)
In solar photovoltaic application, the solar radiation
is converted directly into electricity. It is used in
power generation when the solar module consisting
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
of several cells electrically linked together on a base
plate. The major components of photovoltaic system
consists of conversion devices, interconnection and
support, power equipment that convert the dc to ac
and provides regulated output of voltage and current,
the controller manages the operation s of the total
system.
Photovoltaic Power Systems and Energy Storage
The sun delivers a constant stream of radiant energy.
The amount of solar energy coming toward the earth
through sunlight in one day equals the energy
produced by burning many millions of tons of coal.
The first method uses parabolic mirrors to capture
the energy of the sun. These mirrors concentrate the
energy from the sun by focusing the light onto an
opaque receiving surface. If water could be made to
circulate through tubes, the heat focused onto the
tubes could turn the water into steam. The steam,
then, could drive a turbine to produce mechanical
energy.
The second method uses a flat-plate solar collector.
Layers of glass are laid over a blackened metal plate,
with an air space between each layer. The layers of
glass act as a heat trap. They let the rays of the sun
in, but keep most of the heat from escaping. The
heated air could be used to warm a home. The first
widespread use of solar energy will probably be to
heat homes and other buildings. To heat a home, a
flat-plate collector may be mounted on the part of the
roof that slopes in a southward direction. It should be
tilted at an angle to receive the greatest amount of
sunlight possible.
The photovoltaic system consists of direct
conversion device which depend directly on sunlight
on the solar module for onward conversion into
power. Cells make use of concentrating collectors
that focus the solar energy on them, this produce low
voltage. The modules are combined to form Arrays.
Solar-electric (photovoltaic) system is made up of
PV modules, mounting structural for modules, power
equipment, and tracking system, concentrator system
and storage devices. The life span of these cells is
estimated between 25years and 30 years. The PV
modules are integrated into system designed for
specific application. Such components added to it to
constitute a balance of system are batteries, inverter,
controller and protective devices.
Challenges
Energy Storage: Solar energy is not available at
night, making energy storage an important issue in
order to provide the continuous availability of
energy, since solar energy is intermittent energy
source, meaning that all available output must be
taken when it is available and either store for when it
can be used transported over transmission lines, to
where it can be used. Solar energy can be stored at
high temperature using molten salts provides an
effective storage medium because they are low cost,
have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver
heat at temperature compatible with conventional
Page 184
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
power system. This is one challenge that will
continuously require attention in the quest for solar
energy use.
Grid Connected System: there has been much
discussion of the possibility that photovoltaic will
eventually become cheap enough to be economic for
grid connected applications at the commitment to
encourage the use of renewable energy source is
commendable because grid connected systems are
simpler and less expensive than stand alone systems
since they require little or no batteries storage. The
grid itself can serves as storage with the photovoltaic
plant supplying power or drawing power from the
grid depending on the load and solar irradiances.
Initial Cost: The initial cost of installing solar power
system is high therefore, it may be beyond the reach
of average income earners particularly that the panels
and other main components are imported into
Nigeria. The challenges of funding will remain a
constraint to contend with.
Large Land Space Requirement for PV Modules:
The output of the solar cells is usually very small and
to obtain a sizeable output, numerous numbers of the
cells have to be connected. The implication is that
vast land will be required in order to deliver required
output. Land that could have been used for other
purposes like agriculture, and infrastructure would
have to be dedicated to installation of solar modules.
The challenges of improving output per cell and
reducing surface area requirement for radiant energy
is awaiting global redress.
Poor Knowledge and Technology: The necessary
understand of the governing technology and
particularly, the requirement of regular maintenance
is a salient bottle neck.
Non Availabilty of PV Modules
Opportunities
(a) It is simple and easy to operate.
(b) Small and medium scale business can thrive.
(c) Improved security of life and property because
of solar street lighting
(d) It is a reliable back up.
(e) Employment opportunities abounds:
There are three main market categories for
photovoltaic systems. Firstly there is the large and
growing consumer market. For calculators and other
small electronics devices, cooling fans, battery
chargers, lights and other PV system. Sales in these
markets largely depend on good design, effective
marketing and reasonable price. Secondly there is a
market for professional systems such as generators
for telecommunication links, cathodes protection,
navigating lights, military equipments. Thirdly, there
is a very large potential market for system which
primarily has a social benefit such as the provision of
electricity for remote houses, water supply pump for
villages, emergence telephone links. These are
generally expensive, but in place where diesel
generator or grid extension would be impracticable
the photovoltaic solution can provide important
social benefits to the community.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
The other main application of photovoltaic system is
in rural development area like pumps for portable
water supplies, livestock watering and irrigation,
vaccine storage in refrigerators, medical applications,
water treatment, lighting system for domestic and
commercial uses, electrifications, agricultural
applications, radio telephone links, educational
television, mechanized milling of rice and other
grains, and electric cattle fencing.
Other applications are hazard warning light on tall
structures, navigation lights at harbor entrances and
light houses, remote metering stations, such as river
ganging stations and meteorological recording
stations can also be PV powered economically.
Conclusion
The major source of concern to use of solar power
generation is the initiating high cost of installation
compared to fossil fuel but its long term gain and
maintenance cost are of tremendous advantage over
the fossil fuel. Solar energy is economical viable and
environmental friendly. It is difficult to generalize on
the economic viability of photovoltaic system though
each of the application has to be considered based on
its merits, taking into account the local conditions
and the cost of alternatives. Although the PV systems
have a high initial cost, they require no fuel and little
maintenance and last for years. In many remote area
diesel generators, the main alternative to PV
generators would be impracticable due to fuel supply
costs and uncertainties together with the problem
associated with maintenance and the supply of spare
parts.
The PV system is not noisy; emit no toxic and
harmful fumes that pollute the environment and wont
to contribute to the undesirable green house effects,
global warning and ozone depletion.
The reliability of the power sectors is an essential
factor for keeping the economy to be viable with
solar power as a necessary supplement for
development in a Nigerian depressed economy.
References
Ayodele T.R, Akinsanya O.A. And Familua A.J
(2006): Renewable Energy Resources: A
Strategy for Electricity Generation In The
Millennium Development In Nigeria.
Proceeding of 2nd Engineering Forum. Federal
Polytechnic, Ado- Ekiti.
Boyle G (1996): Renewable Energy: Power For A
Sustainable Failure. Oxford University Press,
England.
Doyle, M. D. C and Sambo, A. S (1988) Correlation
of diffuse solar radiation with air mass, solar and
wind Technologies
Francis, S.I (2008): Status Of Renewable Energy in
Nigeria www.renewable nigeria.org/status
Gupta, B. R (2005) Power System analysis and
design: S. Chand and Chand Company ltd Ram,
Niger, New Delhi.
Iran Daily (2006): Solar Energy Potential in
Nigeria. www.irandaily.com
Page 185
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Sambo, A.S (1998) Wind energy assisted solar
electricity generating schemes for rural areas of
Nigeria.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 186
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oloko, S. A
Omotayo, K. F
School of Engineering Oyedele, O. A
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 187
187– 192

Determination of Force Required to Uproot / Harvest Cluster Cassava: A Case Study of the Federal
Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti Demonstration Farm

*Oloko S. A, Omotayo, K. F. &. Oyedele, O. A

Department of Agricultural Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic,
P. M. B. 5351, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
*Corresponding Author.

Abstract
An investigation was carried out to generate a data required for design and fabrication of a medium scale
cassava harvester. The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Department of Agricultural Engineering Demonstration
Farm located on Latitude 3º 16” and on Longitude 5º 12” was used. Soil data collected were – moisture content
at 16% dry basis; soil classification; cohesion at 45.1 kN/m; angle of Shear Resistance (φ) at 0.372kN/m; depth
of cassava clusters and width at an average of 13.6 and 90cm respectively and the average unit weight of 14.9kg
of cassava tuber. A simple lifting mechanism was improvised for the purpose of this experiment. Results show
that under different soil conditions such as sieve analysis, determination of moisture content, mechanical
properties, the average lifting force per stem were found to be 500, 800 and 1600N for sandy, loamy and clayey
soil respectively. Field conditions where the experiment was carried out required an average force of 96N to
lift cassava cluster of about 10 tubers.

Keywords: Design parameters, cassava harvester, soil data, clusters, force.

Introduction many farmers, families are turning to crops which

Cassava is a popular root crop from which products
like garri, fufu, achicha, and puruku are prepared
(Adepoju and Akhuemonkhan, 2001). It is however
low in protein and many attempts have been made to
improve the protein content of its derived products
(Akinrele, 1967). Cassava is a plant widely cultivated
in the tropical regions of the world. It is a perennial
plant. It is propagated exclusively from stem cutting,
but because of improvement in plant breeding,
propagation by seed is now possible. (Oloko, et al,
2006). The economic potential for cassava – a crop
crucial for food security especially in Africa –
remains largely untapped, despite constant growth in
and out. Nevertheless, a range of markets, including
consumer, industrial, local and international are
important as this tuber strives to become competitive
(Spore, 2005).
According to Food Agricultural and Organization
(FAO) figures, Africa produced 103 metric tones of
cassava tubers on 18 million hectares of land in
2004. This shrub, with its long stems and parasol-
shaped leaves is now as common in Sahelian
countries as it is in the more humid climes of Central
Africa and Gulf of Guinea, where it has traditionally
thrived. Output varies greatly between regions,
ranging from 1.8t/ha in Sudan to an average of 10.6t
in Nigeria (which still falls behind the yields
achieved in the Caribbean 16.6t in Barbados alone).
Well established in countries such as the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC), which for a long time
was Africa’s leading producer, the crop has now
spread to Southern Africa (Malawi, Zambia) at the
expense of maize. Here, where HIV/AIDS is killing
require less labour (spore,2005).
Most of the cassava produced in Nigeria still comes
from peasant farmers who depend on manual tools
for their field operation. To increase cassava
production, there is need to mechanize its cultivation
and harvesting.
The objective of this work is to determine parameters
needed in the development of harvester for cassava
and to determine the value of these parameters.
Attempts have been made towards the development
of cassava harvester by engineers at home and
abroad. They include manual and semi-mechanized
methods. Apart from manual method which includes
hand uprooting, cutlasses, and hoes, some harvesting
aids have been designed to assist manual harvesting
of cassava. The aids include the hand operated levers
by Sar .T .Van Der (1979), the wooden Crowbars by
Hossne Gag (1971) and manually operated fork
lifter designed by IITA (1978); Odighoh and Ahmed
(1991) and Agbetoye (1987): Agbetoye et al (2000)
reported the development of a lifting force
production model for cassava.
The desired parameters generated in this work would
improve these designs when the values obtained are
incorporated.
The investigated parameters for the cassava harvester
are force required to lift a cassava cluster, depth and
width after harvesting, soil test and moisture content.
Materials
The moisture content, soil classification, cohesion,
angle of shear resistance, depth and width of cassava
cluster and the average unit weight of cassava tuber

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 187
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
data for this work were collected on a cassava field
plot within the Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti and
through laboratory test conducted on the soil samples
collected from the farmland in order to determined
the textural and mechanical characteristics of the
soil. No specified procedure was employed for
selecting the farm or heap to use but solely
dependent or the heaps the farmers were ready to
harvest.
The Cassava Field
A bitter cassava variety was planted in the month of
April, 2006 and matured between the period of
fourteen (14) months after planting (i .e April, 2006
to May, 2007). The features of the cassava field are
indicated as follows: it was well weeded, slashed
and heaped, the soil types were clayey, sandy and
loamy and the experiment was carried out during the
dry season.
Description of the Test Rig Used.
Figure 1 shows the pictorial representation of the test
rig used. The test rig has the following features
namely, the frame and scale balance. The frame is
made up of two parallel pipes of 35mm diameter.
The rigid frame was used in the construction of the
system. It is made up of two parallel pipe of the same
length joined together by three other pipes of the
same distance apart running horizontally, midway
across the two parallel pipes while the scale balance
has two concave like anchors with the upper one
clamped to the middle one of the three horizontal
pipes and a lower anchor which provide a contact
between the scale and the base of the cassava stem
with the aid of a rope wound round it.
Other equipments used for this experiment were :
Speedy moisture meter; Measuring Tape; Spring
balance; cutlass and hoe.
Methodology
Force required to lift a Cassava Lifter.
Test rig was set up to lift one cassava stand at a time
using simple lever mechanism. As the test rig is
being lifted up at one end, a force is exerted at the
other end with the horizontal frame on which the
scale balance was clamped before forming a contact
with the base of the cassava stem in order to uproot
the cassava cluster.
The incorporated scale was to measure the maximum
lifting force.
Determination of Depth and Width.
The depth and width of the soil left after harvesting
was measured relative to the depth and width of
cassava cluster with the aid of a measuring tape.
Determination of Cassava Soil Site
In this study, two laboratory tests were carried out
under the British Standard Laboratory Soil Test 1377
(1975). These are: Mechanical size (textural) analysis
and Mechanical properties determination.
(i) Cassava Soil Site-Mechanical Size Analysis
The cassava soil site mechanical size analysis
was done to give the size textural characteristics
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
and to determine the degree of finess and
coarseness of the soil. The results obtained is
shown in Table 1.
(ii) Cassava Soil Site Mechanical Properties
Determination
The values of cohesion and the angle of shearing
resistance were obtained using equation 1 as
shown below:
Shear Stress = (1)
The size of particles of soil greater than 150µm was
determined by sieving on a bed of British Standard
Sieve accordingly and arranged in a descending order
with sieve numbers 19.00; 9.50; 4.75; 2.36; 1.18;
0.60; 0.425;. 0.300; 0.15; to 0.075. The mechanical
sieve shaker when connected to the switch sorted out
the soil into the various sizes and it was recorded.
(iii) Determination of Moisture Content
Moisture content determination was carried out
on soil samples collected at random around the
experimental plots and farm area. This was
done using a speedy moisture tester. All the
values were obtained using Equation (2) below.
1
00 (2)
This can also be expressed as:
M (CTA, 2003)
Where:
M = Moisture Content (%).
Wm = Weight of the moist soil.
Wd = Weight of the (oven) dry soil.
Alternatively, Equation (3) can be used to obtain the
moisture content.
(3)
Where:
M = expected moisture content
X = moisture content reading from the
dial gauge.
Results and Discussion.
The results are presented in Tables 1 to 5 below.
From Table 5, it is observed that the clayey soil
required high lifting force to uproot cassava cluster
while in the case of sandy soil, it requires less forces
to uproot.
The maximum width cassava cluster is obtained in
loamy soil is greater than sandy and clayey soil and
this can be as a result of the organic composition of
the soil.
The maximum depth of root cluster is greater in
clayey soil and closely followed by Loamy soil while
sandy soil has lesser maximum depth of root cluster.
The energy required for the harvesting of the cassava
cluster is high in the clayey soil due to the texture of
the soil which its sticks together and followed by
loamy soil but less in sandy soil because of the
looseness of the sandy soil.
The moisture content of clayey soil is high because it
absorbed more water than loamy soil which is very
close to it but low in sandy soil because sandy soil
has no ability to retain water.
Page 188
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Figures 2 to 4 shows the lifting force, cluster weight
and unit weight against number of tubers
respectively.
Conclusions
Parameters such as lifting force, Energy required,
moisture content and size analysis on cassava
tubers/clusters. The results showed that greater force
would be needed to uproot cassava clusters in clayey
soil than loamy and sandy soil. Also, more energy
would be required to harvest cassava cluster in
clayey soil than the remaining soil. However, clayey
soil has high moisture content than the other two
soils. Based on the data generated so far, it is
therefore recommended that a cassava harvester can
be developed to work effectively on sandy soil while
more research should be done on how effectively can
the machine work on the three soils without
encountering any hindrances.
Acknowledgement
The authors hereby acknowledge the support of Mr.
Akintogunde, R.O. and Miss Akintomide, R.A., all
of the Department of Agricultural Engineering, The
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti who had assisted in
the research work of this project and Engr. Adeoti,
O. for his assistance.
References
Figure 1: Pictorial representation of the equipment used.
2500
Lifting Force (N)
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1 2
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Number of Tuber
Fig. 2: Graph of Lifting Force against Number of tubers
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Adepoju, P.A. and Akhvemon Khan, I.A. (2001):
Production and Evaluation of Cassava Based
Flour Enriched with Soyabeans. Proceedings of
the 25th Annual Conference of Nigerian Institute
of Food Science and Technology, 9th – 11th
November. Pp. 117 – 118.
Agbetoye, L.A.S. (1987): Design and Construction
of a two-row cassava lifter. B. Tech. Degree
Thesis; Department of Agricultural Engineering,
The Federal University of Technology, Akure,
Pp. 32.
CTA (2003): Storage of tropical agricultural
products. Agrodok-series No. 31. Printed by:
STOAS Digigrafi, Wageningen, the
Netherlands. Pp. 79 – 80.
Odigboh, E.U. (1991): A single-row model II
cassava harvester. Agricultural Mechanization
in Asia, Africa and Latin America. 22(2): 63 –
66.
Oloko, S.A; Falegan, T. and Agbetoye, L.A.S.
(2006): Investigation into the present status of
Gari Processing in Ondo State. Nigerian Journal
of Industrial and Systems Studies. Published by
Besade Publishing Press, Ondo. Pp. 13 – 18.
Sar. T. Van Der (1979): Hand Operated Cassava
harvester. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia,
Africa and Latin America. 10(1): 64 – 68.
Spore (2005): Cassava – Booming Outputs meet
flagging markets. Issue 120; December. Pp. 4 –
5.
clay soil
loamy soil
sandy soil
Page 189
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Table 1: Cassava Soil Site Mechanical Size Analysis.

Type of Soil Size Distribution (mm)
Coarse sand 1.0 – 0.50
Sand 0.50 – 0.25
Fine sand 0.25 – 0.50
Silt 0.50 – 0.002
Clay Less than 0.002

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 190
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Table 2: Estimated Parameters obtained in Sandy soil.

S/N of Lifting Weight of No of Cassava Min. width Max. width Max. diameter Max. diameter Max. depth Energy Moisture
Cassava force (N) Cassava tubers per of Cassava of Cassava of biggest of smallest of root require content of each
selected cluster (kg) plant cluster (cm) cluster (cm) tuber (cm) tuber (cm) cluster (cm) (KJ) heap (%)
1 630 5.7 10 48 84 6.86 3.59 38 0.239 6.8
2 640 5.5 8 38 66 5.44 2,98 38 0.2432 6.4
3 600 6.8 5 14 22 7.90 3.65 23 0.138 3.4
4 640 5.0 9 63 71 6.03 3.88 35 0.224 5.3
5 560 4.5 6 66 91 8.33 4.33 38 0.2128 3.3
6 250 1.5 6 36 51 4.23 2.15 20 0.05 4.8
7 550 3.0 6 61 71 5.47 3.06 20 0.11 3.6
8 390 4.5 7 58 74 6.13 1.96 36 0.140 4.6
9 300 1.5 6 30 33 5.9 1.83 30 0.09 5.9
10 610 6.8 10 14 22 8.05 3.61 28 0.171 3.4
11 630 7.0 13 26 36 6.32 2.4 28 0.176 2.4
12 560 6.2 7 68 82 8.2 5.1 38 0.213 5.6
Average 526.7 4.8 8 41.6 58.6 6.8 3.2 31.6 0.167 4.6

Table 3: Estimated parameters obtained in clay soil.

S/N of Lifting Weight of No of Cassava Min. width Max. width Max. diameter Max. diameter Max. depth Energy Moisture content
Cassava force Cassava tubers per of Cassava of Cassava of biggest of smallest of root require of each heap (%)
selected (N) cluster (kg) plant cluster (cm) cluster (cm) tuber (cm) tuber (cm) cluster (cm) (KJ)
1 1300 9.8 13 38 57 8.92 2.5 50 0.65 5.0
2 1580 27 16 84 109 8.12.2008 4.14 64 1.0112 4.7
3 2200 21 13 58 145 3.0 2.05 38 0.836 5.5
4 1400 10 9 34 42 9.2 3.0 52 0.728 4.6
5 1320 11.5 10 20 40 8.95 2.7 32 0.4224 5.4
6 1510 11 8 40 71 8.09 4.10 25 0.3775 6.4
7 720 7 7 17 33 6.20 2.32 27 0.194 5.6
8 1950 12.5 15 22 31 4.31 3.10 41 0.7995 7.4
9 2300 14.3 11 38 61 5.47 2.81 27 0.621 5.2
10 1000 9.2 6 29 26 6.55 3.51 31 0.31 5.8
11 1100 9.8 7 26 31 6.81 2.53 51 0.561 5.9
12 2200 18 12 24 30 6.83 3.1 23 0.506 5.6
13 1150 24 14 17 21 8.08 3.9 30 0.345 7.0
14 1400 23 16 38 27 7.92 3.94 20 0.28 5.8
Average 1509 14.9 11 35 54 7.03 3.12 36.5 0.546 5.73

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 191
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Table 4: Estimated parameters of obtained in loamy soil

S/N of Lifting Weight of No of Min. Max. width Max. Max. diameter Max. depth of Energy Moisture
Cassava force (N) Cassava Cassava width of of Cassava diameter of of smallest root cluster require content of
selected cluster tubers per Cassava cluster (cm) biggest tuber (cm) (cm) (KJ) each heap
(kg) plant cluster tuber (cm) (%)
(cm)
1 1000 12 13 71 81 7.10 2.82 43 0.43 4.2
2 720 4.8 9 40 71 6.64 2.42 30 0.216 6.4
3 690 5.0 9 63 71 6.03 3.88 35 0.2415 6.8
4 820 5.5 8 56 61 6.02 2.64 20 0.164 6.2
5 910 6.5 10 64 92 5.92 3.10 3.3 0.3003 4.8
6 650 7.5 12 61 84 6.70 2.43 33 0.215 4.9
7 710 6.0 8 40 81 6.88 2.53 38 0.2698 6.6
8 850 6.5 6 22 60.5 6.20 2.84 25 0.2125 6.4
9 800 7.0 14 51 71 5.62 2.92 36 0.288 5.3
10 850 8.5 9 21 32 5.34 3.20 29 0.2465 6.8
11 800 7.2 6 16 21 8.95 3.25 19 0.152 6.2
12 730 6.9 8 40 72 6.42 2.64 43 0.314 5.4
13 840 8.6 9 56 66 6.04 2.41 42 0.353 4.0
14 730 5.2 10 66 76 6.92 3.85 3.3 0.241 4.7
Average 792.9 6.9 9 47.6 67 6.46 2.90 32.8 0.250 5.6

Table 5: Summary of the parameters obtained in Sandy, Clayey and Loamy Soil respectively (Average Values only)
Parameters Sandy Soil Clayey Soil Loamy Soil
Lifting force (N) 526.7 1509.0 792.9
Weight of Cassava Cluster (kg) 4.8 14.9 6.9
No. of cassava tuber per plant 8.0 11 9
Min. width cassava cluster (cm) 41.6 35.0 47.6
Max. width cassava cluster (cm) 58.6 54.0 67.0
Max. diameter of smallest tuber (cm) 3.2 3.12 2.90
Max. diameter of biggest tuber (cm) 6.83 7.03 6.46
Max. dept of root cluster (cm) 31.6 36.5 32.8
Energy Required (KJ) 0.167 0.546 0.250
Moisture content of each heap (%) (dry basis) 4.6 5.73 5.6

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 192
 ISSN 1897-
1897-8680

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ayelegun, T. A

Oloko,
Oloko, S. A
School of Engineering Akinola, M. O
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 193–
93– 197
197

Biogas Technology and Application in a Depressed Economy:

Agriculture, Its Challenges and Prospects.

*Ayelegun, T. A. Oloko, S. A & Akinola, M. O.

Department of Agricultural Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado – Ekiti,
Ekiti State, Nigeria.
E-mail:- saoloko 2003 @ Yahoo. com.
*Corresponding Author.

Abstract
The nation’s agricultural sector is important in the economics of nation; this is reflected in the association
between the growth of agriculture and of the economy as a whole. Majority of the people living in the rural
areas in the nation are farmers responsible for the Nation’s food production. However these farmers have been
facing power failure to process their agricultural products. Bio-energy is no longer a “transitional energy
source” as often portrayed in the past. In fact, many countries around the world have introduced policies in
support of bio-energy in the past few years. This paper examines some of the benefits of agriculture in a
depressed economy through the use of some of agricultural products as bio-gas to replace power failure in
agricultural processing. It also Suggest ways whereby bio-gas technology can be sustain in this economic
meltdown.

Keywords: Bio-gas, Technology, Applications, Economics, Agriculture, Energy, Growth.

Introduction growth and sluggish agricultural growth (Akintunde

Nigeria has a dual economy with a modern segment
dependent on oil earnings, overlaid by a traditional
agricultural and trading economy. At independence
on 1960 agriculture accounted for well over half of
GDP, and was main source of export earnings and
public revenues. The oil sector, which emerged in the
1960s and was firmly established during the 1970s, is
now of overwhelming important to the point of over-
dependence: it provides 20% of GDP, 95% of foreign
exchange earnings, and about 65% of budgetary
revenues.
Agricultural sector has suffered a relative decline
because of the dominance of oil in the economy, but
it still accounts for 33% of GDP and provides
employment, both formal and informal, for a large
majority of the population.
Agriculture is still dominated by traditional
smallholders raising subsistence crops such as
sorghum, maize, cassava, yams, millet, rice and
increasing quantities of wheat (up to 70% of which is
for their own consumption). Arable potential has
been put at 25% of total area, of which about 12% is
cultivated.
The continuing importance of agriculture in the
economics of developing countries is seen in the
association between growth of agriculture and of the
economy as a whole. A survey carried out by the
World Bank indicated that 11 out of 15 countries
experiencing moderate growth had a difference in
growth of Agriculture and GDP of less than 2%
while Nigeria was an exception due to its fast GDP
and Akintunde, 2000).
Throughout human history biomass in all its forms
has been the most important source of all our basic
needs, often summarized as the six “f”: food, feed,
fuel, feedstock, fiber, and fertilizer. Biomass
products are also frequently a source of a seventh “f”
–finance. Until the early 19th century biomass was
the main source of energy for industrial countries
and, indeed, still continues to provide the bulk of
energy for many developing countries (CTA, 2007).
According to late Anil Agarwal (CTA, 2007), for
most people in the developing world “life is a
struggle for biomass”. For the three-quarters of the
world’s population who live in developing countries
biomass energy is their number one source of
primary energy. Some countries, for example
Burundi, Ethiopia, Nepal, Rwanda, Sudan and
Tanzania, obtain 95 percent of their primary energy
from biomass. Biomass is not only used for cooking
in households and many institutions and service
industries, but also for agricultural processing and in
the manufacture of bricks, tiles, cement, fertilizers
etc.
For the majority of the world’s people, biomass will
continue to be the prime source of energy for the
foreseeable future. A study by the IEA (2002) states
that: over 2.6 billion people in developing countries
will continue to rely on biomass for cooking and
heating in 2030, an increase of more than 240 million
(in 2030) biomass use will still represent over half of
residential energy consumption.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 193
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Biogas is actually a mixture of gases, usually carbon
dioxide and methane. It is produced by a few kinds
of microorganisms, usually when air or oxygen is
absent (the absence of oxygen is called an “aerobic
conditions”) (My Documents/ Re-energy ca, 2003).
Biogas is composed of 60 – 65% methane (CH4) and
35 – 40% carbon dioxide (Co2) plus traces of H2S,
NH3, H20.
Benefits of Biogas Technology
The sustainable production and conversion of plant
residues into fuel offers a significant opportunity for
alleviating the pressure on forests and woodlands for
use as fuel. Along with agricultural clearances, these
pressures have been the major threats to forest and
tree resources, wetlands, watersheds and uplands and
ecosystems.
Biomass fuels also have an important role to play in
the mitigation of climate change. Using modern
energy conversion technologies it is possible to
displace fossil fuels with an equivalent biofuel.
When biomass is grown sustainably for energy, with
the amount grown equal to that burned for a given
period, there is no net build-up of Co2 released in
combustion is compensated for by that absorbed by
the growing energy crop.
Below is the summary of the benefits of Biogas
technology in a depressed economy:
(i) Production of cheap renewable energy in the
form of digester gas, electricity and heat;
(ii) Reduction of local air pollution;
(iii) It is cost efficient technology;
(iv) Reduction in the release of the important green
house gas methane to the atmosphere;
(v) Protection of local ground water by collecting
the organic waste at the source;
(vi) Turn the digested organic matter into an added
value fertilizer;
(vii) Biogas burns excellently in a power plant;
(viii) Biogas can be easily used on site or piped to a
remote user location.
Challenges of Biogas Technology
(i) Influent Solids Content
Production of biogas is inefficient if
fermentation are too dilute or too concentrated,
resulting in, low biogas production and
insufficient fermentation activity respectively.
(ii) Toxic Materials
Waste and biodegradable residue are often
accompanied by a variety of pollutants that
could inhibit anaerobic digestion.
(iii) Economic Problems
Economic problems are associated with costs of
the systems, breakdowns and repairs, and the
difficulties in establishing a system for the
inputs, as well as the biogas outputs where
community systems are established. Fuel supply
problems include the availability of domestic
animals.
(iv) Policy Inconsistency
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Policy inconsistency is a bane of Nigeria’s
growth. Lack of continuity, Inconsistency of
visions and programmes by successive
governments, were responsible for the country’s
dwindling growth.
Biogas Technology and Applications
Biogas is a renewable, non-polluting and inexpensive
source of energy which must be introduced into the
lives of the world’s people, particularly in Nigeria
and Africa in general (Spare, 2004).
Household waste, for example, is an important
source of biogas. It is in everyday use in China where
some six (6) million methane production units have
been built. In Cameroon, provincial hospitals have
seen a reduction in their gas bills since they started
using biogas produced from household waste, animal
faeces and the contents of septic tanks, “Bacteria, in
the absence of oxygen, decompose organic material
into biogas, a mixture of methane and carbon
dioxide” (Spare, 2004).
In an effort to reduce deforestation and the use of
charcoal in Haiti, a development project funded by
Brazil, India and South Africa is turning household
refuse into fuel briquettes. (Spare, 2008).
Paper is separated from the rest of the refuse, soaked
in water then mixed with sawdust.
The resulting paste is moulded into a cylinder. Once
dried in the sun, the briquettes is ready for use. The
briquettes make a substitute for charcoal.
Biogas is produced in a digester by anaerobic
bacteria acting on a mixture of dung and other
vegetable matter mixed with water. The supply of
biogas c an be estimated by counting the number and
capacity of digesters in a district or region, noting
how many of them are actually functioning and any
variations in production through the annual cycle. A
quick count of digesters can be made if necessary
and conversion factors applied to give an estimate of
production.
Biogas production and use can be grouped into three
main categories:
- Small domestic production/applications;
- Small cottage industrial application;
- Industrial production/uses.
A significant change in biogas technology,
particularly in the case of large industrial plant, has
been a shift away from energy alone towards more
“environmentally sound technology”, which allows
the combination of waste disposed with energy and
fertilizer production, in both developed and
developing countries. This has been helped by
financial incentives, energy efficiency advances,
dissemination of the technology and the training of
personnel (CTA, 2007).
Various countries have large biogas programmes (e.
g China, Denmark, India, etc ) and many more are
emerging as more and more countries consider the
production of biogas from MSW, landfills, etc,
viable for reasons stated above.
One advantages of biogas is that it can use existing
natural gas distribution systems and can be used in
Page 194
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
all energy applications designed for natural gas.
However, a major disadvantages is its low calorific
value, currently, one of the most widely uses is in IC
engines to generate electricity.
Biogas is also compressed for use in light and heavy
– duty vehicles. In the past decade important
breakthroughs for biogas production and
technologies have been made in many countries,
particularly in industrial nations, that will allow
greater use of biogas in modern applications.
Contributions of Agriculture to Biogas
Technology
There is no gain saying that agricultural growth is a
catalyst for broad based economic growth and
development in most low-income countries.
Agriculture’s linkage to the non-farm sector alone
generates considerable employment, income and
growth in the rest of any economy. In fact very few
countries have experienced rapid economic growth
without agricultural growth proceeding or
accompanying it. (Amalu, 2005). Economic growth
is strongly linked to regular supply of power for
industrial growth.
Nigeria and other sub-Saharan Africa countries have
less than 25 percent access to electricity supply
(Godwin, 2006). According to the world Bank report
(Godwin, 2006), 60 percent of sub-Saharan Africa
would lack access to power in 2020.
Current generation of power in the country is less
than 3,000 MW, creating a demand gap of bovver
9,000 MW, a situation that has made cost of
production of goods and services one of the highest
in the continent (Nwachukwu and Godwin, 2006).
The national demand of electricity is over 12,000
NW.
For the Nigerian government to meet this demand,
below are the areas where agriculture can be of help
through the use of biogas technology and its
applications;-
(i) Fuel from water hyacinth
A water Hyacinth Eichhornio crossipers plant
can be used to make fuel. A Filipino engineer
has developed a process for using such plant.
(Spore, 2009). The plants, which are a real
scourge in many lakes and rivers, are first
shredded. Enzyme-producing microbes are
added to the mixture, which is then dried in the
sun before being compacted. The solid fuel
obtained from this process can be used as a
substitute for gas, especially for cooking.
(ii) Rice
Rice is a cereal that remains the staple food of
many African and Eastern nations and is the
major source of food for nearly half of the
world’s population. The husk is easily removed
and brown rice often results. The husk contains
up to 20% silica. The hulls are used for fuel and
cellulose (Afolayan et al, 2000).
(iii) Sugarcane
The Senegalese sugar company CSS has
invested more than £6 million in a new distillery
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
that will produce an annual 10 to 12 million
liters of ethanol from bagasse. A cement factory
has also moved into bio-fuel production, based
on jatropha (spore, 2008). Also, bio-fuel sugar
producers such as Brazil, France and Mauritius
are into the business (spore, 2007).
(iv) Cassava
According to FAO figures, (spore, 2005) Africa
produced 103 m t of cassava tubers on 18
million ha of land in 2004. This shrub, with its
long stems and parasol- shaped leaves is now as
common in Shelian countries as it is in the more
humid climes of Central Africa and the Gulf of
Guinea, where it has traditionally thrived.
Cassava produces one of the environmentally
friendly fuel. Ethanol that is being processed
from it is environmentally friendly. Other
products from cassava are medium sodium
glutamate, mushroom for total crop utilization,
raw material for enzyme production and biogas
(Ojeme, 2007).
Ethanol is the most important short-to medium –term
alternative to petrol. In 2004/2005, the two largest
world producers were Brazil and the United State
with over 15 and 14 billion liters respectively.
Bearing in mind the current world-wide interest, it is
expected that world production could reach 60- 70
billion Liters by the end of the decade (CTA, 2007).
Ethanol can be produced from any is currently
produced from any sugar-containing material and is
currently produced from more than thirty (30) feed
stocks such as sugarcane, molasses, corn, and
cellulose –containing materials. Tables 1 and 2
shows the methane production from typical
Agricultural Waste and Energy and Biogas
requirements respectively.
Conclusion and Recommendations
In Nigeria, electricity, petroleum products and
firewood are conventional forms of energy for
domestic, industrial and agricultural applications.
(Nwoke and Okonkwo, 2006).
Modern societies are now dependent upon large
energy values for their industrial and other activities,
which are supplied from a variety of sources that are
categorized into conventional (e.g coal, petroleum,
nuclear etc) and unconventional (e.g solar, hydro,
biomass etc) energy forms (Yisa and Manga, 2004).
However, the main driving force in biogas
production is not energy, but the necessity of
addressing environmental and sanitary problems.
Thus biogas, rather than an alternative energy source,
should be considered even more as a potential
solution to environmental problems posed by excess
manure handling, water pollution etc. Future biogas
applications will be primarily in modern rather than
traditional uses.
For agriculture to play a vital role in the production
of biogas in a depressed economy, below are
recommendations suggested:
(i) The Nigerian agriculture is calling for a re-
engineering, a re-structuring, a re-direction, a re-
Page 195
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
modelling and a holistic re-invention. This can
be done through appropriate budgetary
allocation, adequate macro economic stimuli and
a conscious effort on the part of the government
to grow, preserve and sustain the sector on a
marathon basis instead of a “quick fix” “make
shift” approach.
(ii) Federal Government should begin land
reclamation programme to boost agriculture.
Land is a critical factor of production. Today
only about thirty-two (32) million hectares out
of the arable land are under cultivation.
(iii) Potential Investors in agriculture must seek
expert guidance before venturing into biogas
production. The risk in biogas production could
be reduced to the barest minimum if it is well
managed.
(iv) Governments should embrace E-Agriculture
programme. E-Agriculture is a global initiative
to enhance sustainable agricultural development
and food security by improving the use of
Information, Communication and associated
Technologies in the sector.
(v) The policy brief on biofuel should be adhered to
which states that more research is required on
sources, harvesting, processing, storage and
quality standards if this sector is to advance as
rapidly as it could. ACP governments should
implement national biofuel strategies, institute
legal and regulatory framework and promote
integrated agro-energy farming policies.
(vi) Federal Government should wake up to the
challenges of climate change as it has
implications on the social, economic and
environmental development on the nation. The
impact of climate change on many African
countries took the form of reduced agricultural
productivity, heightened water insecurity;
increased exposure to extreme weather events;
collapsed ecosystem; and increased health risks.
(vii) With the rise in oil prices, the manufacture of
cassava based ethanol, already widely used in
Brazil to replace additives in petrol or as a
biofuel, could constitute another interesting
outlet in Nigeria.
(viii) Since President Umaru Yar’Adua had said
that Nigeria might not have regular power
supply until 2011 (Ketefe et al, 2008), there is
need for the government to encourage Nigerians
to grow cassava, rice and sugar cane since
enough biogas can be obtained from these crops
which will serve as an alternative to power
supply.
(ix) Government has to utilize its immense
agricultural potential, which accounted for 35
percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
and supported over 70 percent of the population.
Although agriculture recorded 5.6 percent
national growth, Nigeria was far from realizing
its full potential.
Nigeria needs to de-emphasize the importation of
goods, so that local industries in the country can
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
grow. No country in the world that depends so much
on importation can witness development.
References
Spore (2009): Fuel from water hyacinth.
Published by CTA. No. 140, April. Page 5.
Ketefe Kayode: Affe Mudiaga; Chiedozie Ihuoma;
and Opara Stanley (2008): No regular power
till 2011, says Yar’Adua. Published by the
Punch Newspaper, Friday, May 30. Page 7.
Spore (2008): Fuel from Refuse. Published by CTA.
No. 135, June. Page 7.
CTA (2007): The Biomass Assessment Handbook –
Bio-energy for a sustainable Environment.
Published by Earthscan in the UK and USA.
Page XIV – 123.
Ojeme Sunday (2007): How to create wealth from
cassava. Published by the Punch Newspaper,
Friday, June 22, page 4.
Spore (2007): Sugar as fuel ---- but what next?
Published by CTA No. 131, October, page 12.
Godwin Atser (2006): Nigeria, Others have less than
25% access to electricity – World Bank.
Published by the Punch Newspaper, Thursday,
November, 23, page 32.
Nwachukwu Clara and Godwin Atser (2006): Power
generation, the new goldmine. Published by the
Punch Newspaper, Sunday, October, 22. Page
A9.
Nwoke, O.O. and Okonkwo, W.I. (2006): Biogas
Technology – A sustainable energy and Waste
Management option for Rural Development in
Nigeria. Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference and 28th Annual General Meeting of
the Nigerian Institution of Agricultural
Engineers. Vol. 28, November 6 th – 10th Pp. 433
– 436.
Amalu, Uche C. (2005): Poverty alleviation and
agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: The Nigerian
experience. Journal of Food Agriculture and
Environment. Vol. 3(2): 230 – 236.
Yisa, M. G. and Manga, M.A. (2004): Development
of a Biogas Generation Plant. Proceedings of
the 5th International conference and 26 th Annual
General Meeting of the Nigerian Institution of
Agricultural Engineers. Vol. 26, November 28 –
December 2. Pp. 438 – 444.
Spore (2004): At home with Biogas. Published by
CTA. No. 114, December Page 6.
IEA (2002): Energy Outlook 2000-2030, IEA,
Paris, www.iea.org, in Biomass Assessment
Handbook – Bioenergy for a Sustainable
Environment. Published by Earthscan, UK and
USA. Page (xviii).
Afolayan, S. O.: Igbeka, J. C and Iluyomade, O. N.
(2000): Evaluation of an Appropriate
Technology Rice Parboiler. International Journal
of Engineering Technology (FUTA JEET). Vol.
2, No. 2. December. pp. 22-28.
Akintunde – Tunde, T. Y and Akintunde, B. O.
(2000): Role of Agro-Allied Industries in
Rural Development. Proceedings of Nigerian
Page 196
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Institution of Agricultural Engineers at Ibadan. Table 1: Methane Production from Typical
pp. 26-29. Agricultural Wastes
Type of Waste Methane Methane
Yield 1/kg. Concentration
vol. of solids in Biogas (%)
Cow manure 180 – 250 60 – 70
Pig manure 210 – 300 58 – 60
Poultry manure 350 – 400 58 – 65
Rumen content 160 – 300 60 - 65
Green plant 250 – 450 55 – 62
Straw 150 – 180 58 – 60
Potato pulp 350 – 450 60 - 65
Source: Yisa and Manga (2004)

Table 2: Energy and Biogas Requirements

Activity Energy Biogas
Requirement Requirement
Crop Drying 2.93 Mj 1.2 m3/hr
Lighting of Structures 2.24 – 3.30 Mj 0.11 – 0.15 m3/hr
Domestic Cooking/Lighting 6.6 Mj/Pers/Day 0.28 – 0.42 m3
Source: Yisa and Manga (2004)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 197
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Uthman, F

Olanrewaju, T. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 198–
98– 201
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Design and Fabrication of a Tomato Fruit Dryer

Uthman, F. & Olanrewaju, T.O

Department of Agricultural Engineering and Water Resources
Institute of Technology
Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin.
E.mail: faosiat@yahoo.com / Olanyinks26@yahoo.com

Abstract
A tomato dryer was designed and fabricated at the department of Agricultural Engineering and Water
Resources, Institute of Technology, Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin which is aimed at providing a means of
preserving highly perishable tomato fruit which disappear from the market almost immediately after harvest.
The source of heat is an electric heater and the dryer consists of fan with five blades, the drying chamber and
heat supply unit. The machine was tested and results reveal that a drying temperature of 70oC for 10 hours is
appropriate; the dryer could dry the tomato fruit from 89% moisture content wet basis to 25.5% moisture
content. The test also reveals that the closer the product to the heat source, the higher the rate of moisture
removal.

Keywords: Tomatoes, Dryer, Moisture Content, Temperature, Perishable.

Introduction The optimum temperature required by tomatoes for

Vegetables are usually succulent and edible plant or
part of plants which is eaten with staples to serve as
supplementary food either in raw form or cooked.
Fruits and vegetables are quite suitable to each other
in terms of their mode of cultivation and harvest,
storage properties, composition and processing,
hence, egg plant, tomatoes, pepper etc. can be
classified as fruits.
Vegetables are classified as leaves, stems, buds, roots
etc because they are derived from various parts of
plants.
Potter and Hotchkiss (1995) reported that the need
for vegetables in human diet cannot be over
emphasized as a significant amount made to the
human diet by vegetables in terms of starch, fat,
vitamins, essential minerals, energy and dietary
fibers. Eating plenty of fruits and vegetables can help
ward off heart diseases and stroke, control blood
pressure and cholesterol, prevent some types of
cancer and avoid painful intestinal ailment called
diverticulitis, also guard against cataract and
muscular degeneration which are two common
causes of vision loss. Dietary fibres in vegetables are
important in preventing severe human diseases.
When other energy foods produce acid substances,
vegetables help to neutralize them (Hui et al, 2004).
Vegetables not only form essential parts of a well-
balanced diet, but the flavor, aroma and colour also
make them important in human diet and appetite.
Tomato fruit is a highly perishable food due to its
high moisture content of 94.1% (Sule, 2008). It is
rich in ascorbic acid (vitamin c), B-vitamins and
carotene.
germination is between 25oC to 30oC while the
daytime temperature is within the range of 25 to
30o C and night temperature falls within 16oC to
20o C. These are optimal for growing flowering
plants. Ripe tomatoes can be eaten raw in salad
(fresh form) or cooked in soup and stew. It is
commonly eaten in fresh forms or processed into
dried, puree, paste, sauce, canned and whole-pealed
forms.
Since fruits and vegetables are grown every year and
are highly perishable crops, there is need for
preserving them to provide these materials during the
off-season to allow farmers have all year round
availability of tomatoes, hence, why this paper
focuses on dryer that will conveniently dry tomato
fruits. The materials were sourced locally and require
no skill to operate the machine.
According to Henderson and Perry (1980), drying is
the removal of moisture content that is not
favourable for mould growth, enzyme action and
insect infestation. It is the oldest preservation method
known to man making it a process copied from
nature. In order to prevent the action of enzymes on
agricultural product, it will be safe to reduce the
moisture of the farm products to a safe level by
drying it to moisture content wet basic of 12-14%.
Drying Technique
Air can absorb water up to a certain maximum level
which is dependent on the air temperature and
humidity. The maximum Moisture Content of the air
increases sharply with increased temperature
The final quality of any dried product is determined
by a large number of factors, which is divided into 4
groups

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 198
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
 The quality of the product to be dried
 The pre-treatment of the product
 The drying method used and
 The packing & storage conditions
Materials and Methods
Description of the Machine
The operational principle of the machine is by a
forced convention via centrifugal fan, where a stream
of air is directed over the heat source (electric
heating element) in the heating chamber. There after
the heated air by virtue of its less density moves to
the drying chamber and pick up moisture from the
product to be dried placed on the drying trays before
leaving the drying chamber through the top cover
(chimney) above the drying chamber. The product is
placed in the drying chamber through a door at the
front side of the dryer which must be shut when
dryer is in operation to avoid heat loss essential for
drying. The orthographic view of the machine is
shown in Figure 2.
Design Consideration
The material selections for the fabrication of this
machine were based on cost, availability of the
material and physical properties of the machines. The
major components of the machine are drying
chamber which houses the drying trays, the moisture
migration unit, heat supply unit (electric heating
element), diverging unit to direct the flow of air, and
the fan (back ward curved centrifugal fan). The entire
machine is supported by a square box. The fan is
connected to the element which is electrically driven.
The diverging unit houses the electric heater and the
fan, and then delivers the hot air coming from the
electric heater into the drying chamber. The drying
chamber comprises the centrifugal fan, drying trays,
regulator and heating element.
The description of the various components is given
below.
Drying Chamber: It houses other components found
in the machine, such as the drying trays, the heating
element and the fan. It was constructed with plywood
of ½” thick and the wall is doubled with the inner
part made of lagging material. The space between the
lagging material and the ply wood is 1” thick with
sawdust used as the lagging material.
Door: serves as an opening for the drying chamber
which is also made of plywood and is a double wall
of 1” thick with lagging material between the walls.
Trays: This is where the tomatoes are placed. It is
constructed using a rectangular wood of 750mm X
250mm as the frame and 1mm perforated net used as
the base.
Fan: It a stainless steel of 1mm thick and has 5
backward curved blades for effective air drift.
Top Cover: It was constructed using ply wood of ½”
thick with 80mm X 80mm square hole to prevent
condensation in the drying chamber which allows the
exit of saturated air.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Design Analysis and Development
The design analysis was carried out to determine the
parameters necessary for the selection of appropriate
grade and size of materials for the fabrication of the
various machine components.
The power, P in (KW) was estimated using the
expression:
Pheater = Cp ṁ ∆T (1)
Where Pheater = Electrical Power from Heater
Cp = Specific Heat of Air (Kj/KgK)
ṁ = Mass floe Rate (Kg/h)
∆T = Temperature Difference (K)
Fan Design
The peripheral fan Velocity was determined using
Osborne (1966) in the equation stated below:
(2)
Where Vm = Radial velocity
U2 = Peripheral velocity
Ps = Fan Static pressure
ρ = Air density
β = Outlet blade angle
η = Fan efficiency
Design of the volume of each tray.
The drying tray was designed considering the amount
of tomatoes to be processed. The volume of each tray
is determined from the expression given by:
VT = L X B X H
(3)
Where L = Length (mm)
B = Breadth (mm)
H = Height (mm)
For the purpose of this design, the length and breadth
of the tray is 625mm and 540mm respectively. The
height is also chosen to be 29mm and the total
volume of each tray was evaluated to be 0.01m3.
The moisture contents before and after drying was
taken to determine drying rate and efficiency using
the expression:
Mdb(%) = (m2/m1) X 100
(4)
Where m1 = Mass of Sample before Drying
m2 = Mass of Sample after Drying
Wageningen (1997) reported that drying in the open
air is called “natural drying”, this is when the relative
humidity of the air is too high to dry properly, the air
can be warm to increase its drying power. Drying
with heated air is called “artificial drying” since the
outside air often needs to be warm only a few
degrees to make drying possible and heating it
further, increases the speed at which the product will
be dried because product releases water faster at
higher temperature.
Over 90% of agricultural products are sun dried in
Nigeria and some other developing African countries
(Arinze et al, 1990), but this frequently results in
poorly dried and infested products since sun drying is
subjected to contamination by dust, micro-organisms,
insects, birds, animals and spoilage. The quality of
such products also deteriorates.
Page 199
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The objective of this work was to design and
fabricate a small-scale tomato dryer with the aim of
eliminating the problems associated with sun drying
and to dry tomato at controlled condition for better
products.
Result
An electric tomato drying machine was designed and
fabricated which requires no technical know how to
operate and it is cost effective since the material used
in the fabrication of the machine were sourced
locally which ease repair and maintenance. Test
carried out on the drying reveals a machine
efficiency of 92% with final moisture content of
25.5% wet basis.
Conclusion
An electric tomato dryer was designed and fabricated
in the Department of Agricultural Engineering,
Kwara State polytechnic, Ilorin. The machine
performed satisfactorily in drying tomatoes with
efficiency of 92%. The initial moisture content of the
product was 89% wet basis and the final moisture
content was 25.5% while the drying temperature was
70 oC for 10hours
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Reference
Arinze, E.A., Adefila, S.S, Eke, B.A. and Akani,
O.A. (1990). Experimental Evaluation of
Various designs of free convective solar crop
dryers with and without thermal storage. Paper
presented at the national conference of NSAE,
university of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria,
12th -15th September.
Henderson, S.M. and Perry, R.L. (1980). Agricultural
process Engineering. 3rd edition. AVI Publishing
Company. Pp 302-339.
Hui, Y.H, Ghazala, S. Murrell, K.D, Graham, D.M
and Wai-Kit, N. (2004). Handbook of Vegetable
preservation and processing. Marcel Dekker,
Inc. USA.
Osborne, W. C. (1966). Fans. Porgamon Press
Limited, London. Pg 124.
Potter, N.N and Hotchkiss, J.H. (1995). Food
Science. 5th edition. International Thomson
Publishing, USA. Pp 409-410.
Sule, A.A. (2008). Construction and Performance
Evaluation of an Electric Tomato Dryer.
Unpublished ND Project report Submitted to the
Department of Agricultural Engineering and
Water Resources, Institute of Technology,
Kwara State polytechnic, Ilorin.
Wageningen, A.J. (1997). Preservation of Fruits and
Vegetables. 3rd Edition.
Page 200
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 201
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oloko, S. A

Akinola, M. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 202–
202– 206
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Agricultural Engineering in the Global Economic Meltdown and National Vision 20/2020:
Challenges and Prospects.
*
Oloko, S.A. & Akinola, M.O.
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria.
e-mail: saoloko2003@yahoo.com.
* Corresponding Author.

Abstract
The paper briefly introduced agricultural engineering and classified it into five specialized areas – Farm Power
and Machinery; Soil and Water Conservation Engineering; Agricultural Processing and Storage; Farm
Structures and Environment; and Farm Electrification. The major objective of the Nation vision 20/2020 is for
Nigeria to become one of 20 largest economies in the world by year 2020. The fundamental problems facing
agricultural engineering, global economic meltdown and vision 20/2020 include low level of awareness of
agricultural mechanization by the peasant farmers, poor food processing, inconsistent in government policies
such as non-implementation of 10% cassava initiative, local content, unemployment, infrastructure deficiency,
climate change, and the current financial crisis. It was concluded that for the present government vision
20/2020 to be achieved in the face of global economic meltdown, agricultural engineering should be given
proper role to plan in the Nation’s economy such by rejuvenate the Nigerian agricultural industries and
commence a phase of sustainable development in the industry. Nigerian agriculture must be mechanized using
modern equipment, conversion of agricultural products into more useful bye-products; great reduction should
be made on gas emissions through good environmental management and government should spend less on non-
essential capital projects and cut down on red tape since Nigeria’s ability to achieve vision 20/2020 by year
2020 was being seriously threatened by global economic meltdown.

Keywords: Agricultural Engineering, Global Economic Meltdown, Vision 20/2020, Mechanization, Sustainable,
Equipments, Economic.

Introduction processing and preservation, storage, manufacture

Before we attempt to define the Agricultural
Engineering, it is important we understand the five
key words “Agriculture is the practice of producing
crops and rearing of livestock including fishes, their
processing to varied degrees and products, and
marketing of the end products. Engineering is
defined as the practice of employing the materials
and forces of nature for the benefit of man and
organizing and directing human activities in the use
(Mijinyawa, et al, 2000) hence Agricultural
Engineering is defined as the application of any or all
of the branches of engineering knowledge to the
extent that such knowledge may be used in farming
in all its ramifications and in rural living (Mijinyawa,
et al, 2000).
Agricultural Engineering may be interpreted in
several ways. According to Ogunlowo (2003),
agricultural engineering is the field of engineering
that utilities physical and biological sciences and
mathematics to aid production, handling and
processing of agricultural products while Onwualu
(2001) defined agricultural engineering as the
application of engineering and technology principles
in agriculture. It is concerned with the utilization of
any or all branches of Engineering Science and
Technology in the art, science and handling,
and distribution of products that feed, shelter and
cloth mankind.
Nigeria’s economy is struggling to leverage the
country’s vast wealth in fossil fuels in order to
displace the crushing poverty that affects about 57
percent of its population. Economists refer to the
coexistence of vast natural resources, wealth and
extreme personal poverty in developing countries
like Nigeria as the “resource curse”. Nigeria’s export
of oil and natural gas – at a time of peak prices – has
enabled the country to post merchandise trade and
current account surpluses in recent years. Reportedly,
80 percent of Nigeria’s energy revenues flow to the
government, 18 percent covers operational costs, and
the remaining 4 percent go to investors. However,
the World Bank has estimated that as a result of
corruption 80 percent of energy revenues benefit
only 1 percent of the population. During 2005,
Nigeria achieved a milestone agreement with the
Paris club of lending nations to eliminate all of its
bilateral external debt (Wikipedia, 2007).
President Sheu Musa Yar’Adua had at inauguration
announced that his government would focus on seven
key areas: real sector development; physical
infrastructure; human capital development; security,
law, order and electoral reform; combating

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 202
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
corruption/improving governance; regional
development and cross cutting issues (Osundolire,
2008).
Nigeria dreams to become one of the 20 most
developed countries in the world by year 2020.
Vision 2020 actually began its journey in 2005. It
was a 15-year capacity and competence development
programme. It was flagged off with a one-day career
awareness workshop at the Agip Hall, Muson Centre
and has held similar events in Lagos, Port Harcourt
and Abuja. About 2500 youths have benefited from
the initiative (Ojeme, 2008).
The Federal Executive Council (FEC) at one of its
meetings supported the composition of National
Council on vision 2020. The Council will help in
supervising the implementation of the road map for
the realization of vision 2020. According to Soludo
(2007), Nigerian economy has capacity to sustain
over 10 percent in the medium term and achieve
vision 20: 2020, while also, non-inflationary growth
of non-oil sector and inclusive (broad-based) growth
for poverty reduction and employment creation.
Poverty in Nigeria is deep, widespread and
multifaceted, and Nigerians are all victims of this
condition in one way or the other – the rich elite and
poverty stricken masses alike – although not to the
same degree. A cursory look at the available statistics
paints a very gloomy picture of the nature and
dynamics of poverty in the country. According to the
Human Development Report, 2002, not less than
seventy percent of the Nigerian population lives
below poverty line. In addition, according to
Professor Mbaya Kakwenda, once UNDP’s
Representative in Nigeria, the Country’s poverty
situation initially deteriorated by 25 percent despite
the inception of democratic rule in 1999; compared
with the figure of 28.1 percent two decades ago, this
is a very serious situation. Life expectancy in Nigeria
is 51.7 years and the Human Development Index
ranking places the country as 148 on a hierarchy of
173 countries in 2002 (C.D.C, 2005).
Agricultural Engineering has its merit and demerits
in a developing country like Nigeria. Its merit may
include: reduction of the onerous drudgery of farm
operations, enhancement of stability in the food
production system, and production of some labour
intensive crop at a competitive price. However, apart
from the low level of awareness of agricultural
engineering by the peasant farmers, there are also
attendant problems of high capital investment,
shortage of spare parts and maintenance of the
equipments when there is any major breakdown.
The overall Agricultural Engineering in Global
Economic Meltdown and National Vision 20/2020 is
to provide a conducive working environment for the
farmers and assure him that there is dignity in
farming improve his economic situate and make food
available in adequate quality and quantity, at the
right time of need and at a reasonable cost of the
consumers. Hence, the role of Agricultural
Engineering in the Global Economic Meltdown and
National Vision 20/2020 cannot be over emphasized.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Part of the vision 20/2020 is for the nation to be one
of the 20 biggest economies in the year 2020. The
vision entails to have sufficient green investments, to
pursue renewable energy programme in order to
reduce carbon emissions and to keep the rise in
global average temperature under two degree celcius;
to reduce poverty because of the recession and the
effects of climate change, to be able to achieve the
Millennium Development Goals; to invest in the
restoration and maintenance of our ecological
infrastructure from forests and mangroves to
wetlands and river basins, to improve rail
transportation, water infrastructure, grid expansion
and improve building efficiency and to achieve the
seven (7) points agenda of the President
administration.
Problems Associated With Global Economic
Meltdown and Vision 20/2020.
Nigeria ranks nineteenth worldwide and first in
Africa in farm output (Wikipedia, 2007). Agriculture
has suffered from years of mismanagement,
inconsistent and poorly conceived government
policies, and lack of basic infrastructure. Still, the
sector accounts for over 26.8% and two-thirds of
employment. Nigeria is no longer a major exporter
of cocoa, groundnuts (peanuts), rubber and palm oil.
Cocoa production, mostly from obsolete varieties and
overage trees, is stagnant at around 180,000 tons
annually; 25 years ago it was 300,000 tons. An even
more dramatic decline in groundnut and palm oil
production also has taken place. Once the biggest
poultry producer in Africa, corporate poultry output
has been slashed from 40 million. Import constraints
limit the availability of many agricultural and food
processing inputs for poultry and other sectors.
Fisheries are poorly managed. Most critical for the
country’s future, Nigeria’s land tenure system does
not encourage long-term investment in technology or
modern production methods and does not inspire the
availability of rural credit. Agriculture has failed to
keep pace with Nigeria’s rapid population growth, so
that the country, which once exported food, now
relies on imports to sustain itself (Wikipedia, 2007).
Ever since the Obasanjo administration came up with
the idea of Nigeria being among the top 20
economies by 2020, the sentence has not left the lips
of our ministers and top government officials at any
event they attend or where they are expected to
deliver a speech. Vision 2020 is a sure bet to be at
the top agenda, but the question that requires a
befitting and realistic answer is how realistic is this
vision considering the fact that all those countries
that are already in the top 20 are miles ahead of
Nigeria in terms of development and growth. The
realistic aspect of this vision was best captured by the
World Bank Representative to Nigeria, Mr. Onno
Ruhi in a statement credited to him in September
2008 that the vision is “extremely ambitious” and
“will require a tremendous level of growth to realize”
(Makinde, 2009). Considering our present level of
growth, the vision cannot be classified as being
Page 203
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
tremendous because we don’t even know whether we
are progressing or not, when over 70 percent of the
population are still wallowing in abject poverty and
over 60 percent of the 140 million inhabitants of this
“mere geographical area” (as late Chief Obafemi
Awolowo once termed Nigeria) lack access to
financial service. Our growth is more of snail speed
than that of a jet speed (Makinde, 2009).
Twelve years before December 31st 2020, Nigeria is
rated as one of the poorest nations in the world, 12
years before 2020, Nigeria has the highest Infant and
Maternal Mortality rate in the World beaten only by
India, Nigeria education is in a state of doldrums, 12
years before 2020, education in Nigeria still has less
than 10 percent of the yearly National budget which
falls far below the UNESCO benchmark of 20
percent. The health sector is one of the worst in
Africa getting less than 10 percent of the 2009
budget (Makinde, 2009).
Several economists have described the current global
financial crisis as imposing the greatest challenge to
the world economy since the end of World War 11.
This, most of them argue, is unlike past financial
crisis, which were confined to particular regions. The
current financial turmoil is quickly spreading across
continents so much so that unless serious actions are
taken in a matter of months to share up faltering
economies and restore confidence in the global
economy, the world will face a deep and prolonged
recession.
The reasons for this crisis are varied and complex.
The crisis can be attributed to a number of factors
pervasive in both the housing and credits markets,
which developed over an extended period of time.
Already, the economic recession has ignited a chain
of reactions in the nation’s economy as crude oil
prices are collapsing, the value of the currency
sliding and the capital market melting down. The
drastic fall in crude oil price from a generous price of
$147 per barrel in July, 2008 to about $35 now poses
a major threat to the 2009 budget. The former central
bank governor, Prof. Charles Soludo, says if the price
of oil falls further from $35 per barrel to $ 33,
Nigeria may have to borrow to pay salaries ( the
punch, 2009).
The concept of globalization has, to a great extent,
woven the fate and fortune of humanity together.
Whatever happens in any part of the world seems to
create ripple effects in other areas; though the degree
of impact may differ. Today, all over the world,
global “Siamese twins” that seem to demonise the
fortune and fate of world citizens are climate change
and global meltdown.
Just as climate change is daily taking is tolls on
human affairs, global economy at macro and micro
levels are collapsing even beyond what the best of
brains can conjecture. Who says the value of stocks
are not on the downward trend, that international
monetary exchange is not falling, that trading
activities are getting disadvantageous to many
nations and that fiscal policies do not support the
yearning and aspirations of world citizens?
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Global economic trend is predicated on globalization,
deregulation, liberalization and other market
propelled Indies but which, to Africa, are too
sophisticated to be accommodated in adequate
measurement (Olaniyi, 2009).
African economy, coupled with the ineptitude in
political governance, has justified the statement of
Susan rice that “African is too rich to be poor and too
poor to be rich” (Olaniyi, 2009).
The upsurge and ever changing application of
modern technological devices in both telecoms and a
bit of it in post worsen the situation for any nation in
Africa that refuses to face the challenge of
technological gateway in communication order.
The challenges of economic meltdown that
agriculture will solve includes: food insecurity,
policy inconsistency, power failure, lack of E-
Agriculture Programme, lack of foreign exchange
and unemployment etc.
The Way forward for Agricultural Engineering in
Global Economic Meltdown and Vision 20/2020
Apart from the seven (7) points agenda of President
Umaru Yar’Adua of Nigeria which is the economic
blueprint of his administration which includes: power
and energy; food security and agriculture; wealth
creation and employment; mass transportation; land
reform; security; qualitative and functional education
(Adegbulugbe and Adelakun,2008),according to
Soludo (2007), there are four keys goals to Nigeria’s
vision 20:2020 Declaration. They include:
- Nigeria to become one of 20 largest economies in
the world by year 2020
- Economy has capacity to sustain over 10% in the
medium term and achieve vision 20 2020
while also;
- Non-inflationary growth of non-oil sector such as
agriculture.
- Inclusive (broad based) growth for poverty
reduction and employment creation.
For Nigeria to achieve vision 20:2020, over come
economic meltdown and be one of the largest
producers of agricultural products in the world
according to Odigbo and Onwalu (1994), it has to
take a long look at agricultural engineering in solving
the nation’s problem. These include indigenous
design and development of agriculture machinery
and rural industrial equipment etc.
Other agricultural inputs prospects in solving the
economic meltdown and to achieve vision 20/2020
include the following areas:
(i) Given the economic challenges facing the
country, such as shortage of foreign exchange
and high rate of unemployment, wealth can be
created from cassava. Cassava produces one of
the environmentally friendly fuels. Ethanol that
is being processed from it is environmentally
friendly. Other products from cassava are
medium sodium glutamate, mushroom for total
crop utilization, raw material for enzyme
production and biogas. Biogas can also be
Page 204
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
obtained from sugar cane, rice, water hyacinth,
household waste.
(ii) Alternative Energy: Nigeria suffered an average
of 60,000 minutes or 41.6 days of power
interruptions every year. There is a need to
diversify the Earth’s energy supply away from
fossil fuels. The challenge lies in creating new
technologies to supply the world’s ever
increasing energy needs. This can be achieved
through renewable energy with examples of
solar, wind-powered and biomass sources used
to fuel transport and other sectors.
(iii) E-Agriculture: Knowledge is power, and
agriculture is no exception. The past decade has
been remarkable progress in the use of ICTs in
the agriculture sector of developing countries
such as Nigeria, especially in the area of
farmers’ access to market information. Mobile
phones, e-mail and the internet are strengthening
the bargaining power of small holder farmers
whose biggest headache is often how to sell their
produce for a decent price.
Below are some recommendations on how
agricultural engineering can be of help in achieving
vision 20:2020 and overcoming the current economic
meltdown:
(1) Since between 15 and 50 percent of Nigeria’s
agricultural produce is lost annually as a result
of poor processing technology and inadequate
storage facilities, there is need for the provision
of agro-processing and storage equipments by
the government to improve the production,
processing and storability of agricultural
products for good of the economy of this
country.
(2) Nigerians must go back to farming to overcome
economic meltdown. Unless, Nigerians returns
to the farming, it would be difficult for it to
survive the current global economic meltdown.
It was sad for a country with abundant natural
resources to run a monolithic economy that
relied only on oil. Nigeria must, as a matter of
urgency, devote more time and greater
resources to agricultural development on a
commercial basis to shore up our revenue
profile.
(3) Nigeria should annex its local resources to
achieve vision 20:2020. Mobilization and
allocation of both financial and human
resources for the development of the country
would play a crucial role in realization of the
objectives of the vision 20:2020.
(4) It is generally believed that attainment of food
security requires reform of land ownership
arrangements. Food security and land reforms
were needed to achieve vision 20:2020. The
spreading global shortages of food vividly raise
the challenges for Nigeria to transform its
agricultural sector that is characterized by low
productivity, low technology and its rain
development.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
(5) Federal government should embark on E-
agriculture for food security. E-agriculture is a
global initiative to enhance sustainable
development and food security by improving
the use of information, communication and
associated technologies in the sector.
(6) Since vision 2020 is an economic blueprint
conceived by the federal government to place
Nigeria among the 20 largest economies in the
world by 2020, power and transportation
should be given urgent attention in realizing the
vision.
(7) Government should put in place the right
infrastructure like roads, railway and water
supply; create an investment friendly policies
and institutions, and ensure patronage of
Nigeria products by government procurement
departments at all levels of government.
(8) Government should ensure patronage of
Nigerian professionals like architects,
consultants, engineers, among others, ensure
macro-economic stability with low inflation
and stable exchange rate, and create an
investment friendly financial infrastructure that
would guarantee long-term funds, access of
small and medium scale enterprises to credit
and low interest rates.
(9) Nigerian agricultural engineers should be
properly recognized and get accustomed to the
existence of the profession in the
implementation of vision 2020 in the nation
and in the current global economic meltdown in
general.
(10) The World Bank should encourage the
developing nations, especially Nigeria in
mutually beneficial investments instead of
relaying on aid.
(11) The World Bank should assist Nigeria
especially in the Agricultural sector, since the
bank itself in a recent study admitted that the
sector had three times the potential of reducing
poverty in Africa than anything else (Alechenu
and Ababa, 2009).
(12) For Nigeria to be among the top 20 economies
of the world in the year 2020, her per capita
income must increase to more than $10,000
percent annum with economy growth rate of
between 10 and 15 percent annually. To
achieve this, the country needs to tackle the
current unemployment level that is above 45
percent of the labour force. Also, the rate of
corruption must be reduced.
(13) The recent amnesty programme embarked upon
by the Federal Government to put an end to
Niger Delta crisis should be pursued to its
logical conclusion to avoid been a source of
doom for the realization of the vision 2020.
Conclusion
This paper gives an overview of agricultural
engineering and presents it as “Engineering of
Agriculture” which involves several kinds of
Page 205
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
definitions. Agricultural Engineering has so many
roles to play in vision 2020 and the global economy
meltdown which include indigenous design and
development of agricultural machinery and rural
industrial equipment etc.
Problems associated with global economic meltdown
and vision 2020 were analysed in this paper while the
way forward were mentioned.
Finally, the turmoil in the global economy is a
clarion call on the present administration to look
inward-especially in the areas of developing
infrastructure with a view to boosting the capacity of
the productive sector, including agriculture – to
generate employment and guarantee food security.
Government must exhibit genuine commitment and
selflessness in the implementation of the reforms and
refuse to yield to pressure form any clique that may
be benefiting directly or remotely from the chaos to
achieve a lasting solution in achieving vision 2020.
References
Alechenu, John and Ababa Addis (2009): World
Bank Seeks partnership with N/Assembly.
Published by the Punch Newspaper, Tuesday,
April 7: page 20.
Centre for Democracy and Development (CDC)
(2005): Poverty Eradication in Nigeria. Pp. 1-7.
Makinde Tosin (2009): The Phantom of Nigeria’s
vision 2020. Published by the Nation
Newspaper, Sunday, January, 11. Page 12.
Mijinyawa, Y; Ogedengbe, K. Ajav, E.A. and
Aremu, A.K. (2000): Introduction to
Agricultural Engineering.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Odigboh, E.U and Onwualu, A.P. (1994):
Mechanization of Agriculture in Nigeria: A
Critical Appraisal. Journal of Agricultural
Technology., 2(2): Pp.1 – 37.
Ogunlowo, A.S. (2003): Appropriate Agricultural
Mechanization Technologies – Bedrock for
Industrial Renaissance in Nigeria. An Inaugural
Lecture Series 34 delivered at the Federal
University of Technology, Akure August, 26th.
Pp. 1-7.
Ojeme Janice (2008): Vision 2020 redefines the
future of Nigerian Youth. Published by The
Nation Newspaper, Friday, June, 20. Page 24.
Olaniyi Taiye (2009): Africa in the face of global
meltdown. Published by the Punch Newspaper,
Wednesday, May, 6. Page 14.
Onwualu, A.P. (2001): Agricultural Engineering
practice in Nigeria: NIAE Book of
Achievements. Published by Nigerian
Institution of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE).
Pp. 1-10.
Osundolire Tonia (2008): Market Operators seek
Ways of Financing Government’s
7 – Point Agenda. Published by The Nation
Newspaper, Friday, July, 4. Page 34.
Soludo, Chukwuma C. (2007): Nigeria Economy:
Can we Achieve the vision 20:2020? Pp. 14-15.
The Punch (2009): Nigerian and Global Recession.
An Editorial Comment Published by The Punch
Newspaper, Monday, January, 26th . Page 14.
Wikipedia (2007): Economy of Nigeria. Published
by Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Pp. 1-13.
Page 206
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Akingbade, K. F
Okereke, C. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 207 – 212
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Application of Medicine in distressed economy

Akingbade K. F & Okereke, C. O*

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
Federal University of Technology Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
email: akingbadedupe@yahoo.com, kfakingbade@futa.edu.ng

Abstract:
Routinely recorded Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are often corrupted by artefacts; these artefacts make the visual
interpretation and analysis of the ECG signal difficult. This paper describes the application of Engineering
technique in removing the artefacts caused by embedded objects in the body which generate high frequency
electromagnetic waves from the ECG using independent Component analysis (ICA) as an algorithm of blind
source separation.

Introduction The first assumption is fundamental to ICA.

This paper is on Engineering in Medicine.
Engineering, mean the Electrical and Electronics
aspect of Engineering and to be precise, it is narrow
down to Digital signal processing. Here, I am
discussing an important tool, namely blind signal
separation (BSS) in Digital signal processing.
By Blind signal separation, I mean the separation of
a set of signals into a set of their component signals,
such that the regularity of each resulting signal is
maximized, and the regularity between the signals is
minimized (i.e. statistical independence is
maximized). Because temporal redundancies
(statistical regularities in the time domain) are
‘’clumped’’ in this way into the resulting signals, the
resulting signals can be more effectively
deconvolved than the original signals.
Blind signal separation could be done through
different methods as listed below:
• Principal components analysis (PCA)
• Singular value decomposition (SVD)
• Independent component analysis (ICA)
• Dependent component analysis (DCA)
• Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF)
• Low-Complexity Coding and Decoding (LCCD)
• Time-Frequency Component Analysis (TFCA)
• Multichannel Blind Deconvolution (MBD)
The goal of blind source separation in signal
processing is to recover independent source signals
after they are linearly mixed by an unknown
medium, and recorded by N sensors.
Blind Source Separation is distinguished from other
approaches to source separation in that it requires
relatively few assumptions on the sources and on the
mixing process. The assumptions essential to BSS
includes:
1. The sources being considered are statistically
independent;
2. The independent components have non-Gaussian
distribution;
3. The mixing matrix is invertible.
Statistical independence is the key feature that
enables estimation of the independent components
yi(t) from the observations xi(t), where i = 0, 1…n
and t is the discrete time.
The second assumption is necessary because of the
close link between Gaussianity and independence. It
is impossible to separate Gaussian sources using the
ICA framework because the sum of two or more
Gaussian random variables is itself Gaussian. That is,
the sum of Gaussian sources is indistinguishable
from a single Gaussian source in the ICA framework,
and for this reason Gaussian sources are forbidden.
This is not an overly restrictive assumption as in
practice most sources of interest are non-Gaussian.
The third assumption is straightforward. If the
mixing matrix is not invertible then clearly the
unmixing matrix we seek to estimate does not even
exist.
If these three assumptions are satisfied, then it is
possible to estimate the independent components
modulo. It is clear that these assumptions are not
particularly restrictive and as a result we need only
very little information about the mixing process and
about the sources themselves.+
1 
xi = ∑  Ai (si β i ) (1)
i  βi 
Where si is the source signals, Ai is an unknown
matrix which is the mixing matrix and βi is an
arbitrary constant. Due to (1), it is impossible to
know the variances of the independent components.
Since the variance is arbitrary, ICA algorithms can
only estimate independent components up to some
arbitrary scaling factor.
Secondly, there is a permutation ambiguity in BSS in
that the source estimate vector y will be an arbitrary
permutation of si. This can be stated formally as a
permutation matrix, P, and its inverse, P−1, can be
substituted into (2)
x (t ) = As (t ) (2)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 207
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
to give:
x = AP−1Ps (3)
Here the elements of Ps are the original sources,
except in a different order, and AP−1 is another
unknown mixing matrix. (3) is indistinguishable
from (2) within the ICA framework, demonstrating
that the permutation ambiguity is inherent to Blind
Source Separation. This ambiguity is to be expected
– in separating the sources we do not seek to impose
any restrictions on the order of the separated signals.
Thus all permutations of the sources are equally valid
Blind Source Separation is a recent chapter in the
development of signal processing. The field began at
neural networks conference in Utah with a paper by
Jutten and Herault (1986). Source separation has
long been a topic of interest in electrical engineering.
Many algorithms; Non-negative Matrix Factorization
(NMF), Multichannel Blind Deconvolution (MBD),
Topographic ICA, Multidimensional ICA, Kernel
ICA, Tree-dependent Component Analysis, Subband
Decomposition -ICA); have been developed to
perform separation, but prior to BSS major
assumptions were always required on the nature of
the sources. The Jutten and Herault (1986) technique
was revolutionary in that it did not require
assumptions on the nature of the signals being
separated. Despite this, however, their technique did
not initially attract much attention. This is primarily
because in the 1980s, neural network research
focused on Hopfield networks and Jutten and
Herault’s work went largely unnoticed. It was only
with a much clearer formulation of BSS by Comon
(1994) that BSS became a mainstream topic of
research.
Algorithms developed to perform blind separation of
sources were given the name Independent
Component Analysis (ICA) algorithms and the term
ICA is used interchangeably with BSS. In this paper,
BSS refers to the entire body of knowledge relevant
to blindly separating signals, whereas the term ICA is
reserved more specifically for algorithms that
perform this separation. Separation techniques were
named ICA to highlight the fact that independent
components were being separated from mixtures of
signals.
Following Comon’s (1994) paper, there was a rapid
proliferation of ICA algorithms. Algorithms were
formulated based on a wide variety of principles,
including mutual information, maximum likelihood
and higher order statistics, to name just a few of the
more popular approaches. Despite such wide variety,
all ICA algorithms are fundamentally similar. ICA
algorithms invariably obtain estimates of the
independent signals by adopting a numerical
approach (e.g. gradient descent) to maximizing an
“independence metric”; i.e., a measure of the signals’
independence. The main difference between different
ICA algorithms is in the metric that is used.
Bell and Sejnowski (1995) approach to ICA became
the most popular choice due to its simplicity and its
favourable convergence properties. However, this
algorithm involved matrix inversion, which
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
significantly hindered efficiency. Amari (1998)
improved on the Bell and Sejnowski (1995)
algorithm (using “natural” gradient descent) which
eliminated the matrix inversion. This gave a
significant performance improvement and made ICA
more practical for real world problems, especially in
separating large numbers of sources.
FastICA algorithm developed by Oja and Hyv¨arinen
(1997 ) demonstrated a very good alternative to Bell
and Sejnowski’s (1995) algorithm, and is probably
currently the most widely used ICA algorithm.
With the explosion of interest in BSS, there came
many different approaches to solving the source
separation problem. A great deal of progress was
made in showing that seemingly unrelated
approaches were, in fact, equivalent. Bell and
Sejnowski (1995) made a major contribution to this
movement by proposing a unifying framework for
BSS based on information theoretic considerations.
Continuing on the work of Bell and Sejnowski, BSS
researchers showed the equivalence of many
different approaches to BSS leading to a convergence
onto a small set of well understood principles. In
some situations, however, the instantaneous mixing
model is inadequate. An obvious case is in the
separation of speech signals recorded in a real
environment where it is necessary to account for time
delays in signal mixing. Sound wave propagation is
relatively slow and the sound waves are subject to
reflections so that time delays are introduced in the
mixing process. To separate sources mixed in this
way, a technique called convolutive Blind Source
Separation was developed, which extends the
standard instantaneous BSS model by treating signal
mixing as a convolution, allowing time delays to be
accounted for.
The primary motivation for the development of
convolutive ICA algorithms was to treat the speech
separation problem mentioned above. This separation
problem is refered to as the “Cocktail Party
Problem”. The name itself conjures the familiar
image of a crowded, noisy room, but a room in
which people can still communicate since the human
brain is effective at isolating signals. It has been an
intriguing problem in signal processing and artificial
intelligence to try to develop algorithms to simulate
this ability of the human brain. Convolutive BSS is
one approach that has shown some promise.
The first solution to the convolutive BSS problem
was developed by Bell and Sejnowski (1995), who
proposed a feedforward neural network structure
using Finite impulse response (FIR) filters. The
improvement on this approach by Torkkola (1996)
employing a similar network, but with feedback
structure. Both of these approaches, Torkola (1996)
and Bell and Sejnowski (1995) are limited in their
practicality, primarily because they involve
computationally expensive convolutions of long
filters. To overcome the shortcomings of these time
domain algorithms, Smaragdis (1998) proposed
moving into the frequency domain. Smaragdis (1998)
realized that by moving to the frequency domain, the
Page 208
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
problem of convolutive mixing simplifies to
instantaneous mixing, thus allowing standard
instantaneous ICA algorithms to be employed. This
approach has since been refined by many
researchers, including Ikeda and Murata (1999) and
Davies and Mitianoudis (2003) and demonstrated
that the frequency domain approach is superior to the
time domain algorithms proposed initially.
Evolution of Blind Signal Separation
One of the most successful application areas of BSS
has been in biomedical signal processing. Signals
exhibiting crosstalk are commonplace in biomedical
signal processing and it is often beneficial to isolate
these interfering signals to give insight into
physiological processes. BSS has proven to be an
effective approach to achieving separation of
biomedical signals in many cases. Consider a
situation in which we have a number of sources
emitting signals, which are interfering with one
another. Familiar situations in which this occurs are a
crowded room with many people speaking at the
same time, interfering electromagnetic waves from
mobile phones, or crosstalk from brain waves
originating from different areas of the brain. In each
of these situations, the mixed signals are often
incomprehensible and it is of interest to separate the
individual signals. This is the goal of Blind Source
Separation.
Application of Blind Signal separation
BSS has been applied to a diverse array of problems
including, telecommunications, econometrics, image
processing, cryptography, audio signal separation
and biomedical signal processing which is the focus
of this technical paper. One of the earliest biomedical
applications of BSS was in separating foetal
electrocardiogram (ECG) from maternal (ECG).
Electrocardiograms are electrical signals from the
heart and are routinely used in clinical settings for
diagnostic purposes. Foetal ECGs are important in
determining the health of a baby.
BSS can also be applied to individual ECG signals
since different parts of the heart (such as the atria and
the ventricles) can be treated as independent and
spatially separated sources and as a result these
signals can be separated using BSS. One of the most
widely examined biomedical applications is to
electroencephalography (EEG) signal analysis. EEG
signals arise from electrical activity in the brain and
can be modeled to fit the assumptions of BSS. ECG
data often contains many contaminating artifacts due,
for example, to eye movement or muscle activity and
BSS has been shown to be effective in removing this
noise from the data of interest.
Also, BSS algorithms have been successful in
isolating important features from EEG data, which
are buried in the EEG channels and are often difficult
to identify by inspection. Since EEG is a widely used
diagnostic test and research tool, the success of BSS
in isolating features from the channels of EEG data is
an impressive application of BSS and demonstrates
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
its potential as a technique to improving clinical
methodology in physiology.
Also a great challenge in biomedical engineering is
to non-invasively assess the physiological changes
occurring inside the human brain. These variations
have often been modeled as biomedical source
signals that can be measured by several types of non-
invasive techniques such as electroencephalography
(EEG), magneto encephalography (MEG),
anatomical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
functionalMRI (fMRI), positron emission
tomography (PET) and others. All these signals are
usually weak, nonstationary signals and distorted by
noise and interferences. Moreover, they are usually
mutually superimposed. This fact makes very
complicated and challenging to extract the relevant
information for diagnosis and therapy. The focus of
this research is to develop a signal processing
methods for the extraction of this relevant
information.
BSS can also be applied to individual ECG signals
since different parts of the heart (such as the atria and
the ventricles) can be treated as independent and
spatially separated sources and as a result these
signals can be separated using BSS. One of the most
widely examined biomedical applications is to
electroencephalography (EEG) signal analysis. EEG
signals arise from electrical activity in the brain and
can be modeled to fit the assumptions of BSS.
Application of Blind Signal Separation to
Electrocardiogram (ECG) Signal.
This paper is focused on the extraction of
Electrocardiogram (ECG) signals using Independent
component analysis technique (algorithm for Blind
signal separation) from contaminated signals which
could be classified into the following categories:
• Electromyographic (EMG) noise
• Power line interference
• Electrode pop of contact noise
• Baseline wandering
ECG signal processing can be roughly divided into
two stages by functionality: preprocessing and
feature extraction (as shown in Fig. 1). The
preprocessing stage removes or suppresses noise
from the raw ECG signal and the feature extraction
stage extracts diagnostic information from the ECG
signal.
Heartbeat rate measurement is based on monitoring
cardiac function. When contracting, a heart produces
a series of electric pulses, which can be measured in
a body. The measurement and analysis of such a
signal is referred to as electrocardiography (ECG) .
The actual signal is referred to as an ECG signal. In
an ECG signal, it is possible to distinguish phases
resulting from different operational stages of the
heart. These portions are the so-called P, Q, R, S, T
and U-waves.
The surface ECG is obtained by recording the
potential difference between two electrodes placed
on the surface of the skin. A single normal cycle of
the ECG represents the successive atria
Page 209
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
depolarization (contraction)/repolarisation
(relaxation) and ventricular
depolarisation/repolarisation, which occurs with
every heartbeat. These can be approximately
associated with the peaks and troughs of the ECG
waveform labeled P, Q, R, S and T as shown in Fig.
2. Extracting useful clinical information from the real
(noisy) ECG requires reliable signal processing
techniques. These include R-peak detection Q-T-
interval detection and the derivation of heart rate and
respiration rate from the ECG. The RR-interval is the
time between successive R-peaks; the inverse of this
time interval gives the instantaneous heart rate. A
series of RR-intervals is known as a RR tachogram
and variability of these RR-intervals reveals
important information about the physiological state
of the subject. At present, new biomedical signal
processing algorithms are usually evaluated by
applying them to ECGs in a large database such as
the Physionet database. While this gives the operator
an indication of the accuracy of a given algorithm
when applied to real data, it is difficult to infer how
the performance would vary in different clinical
settings with a range of noise levels and sampling
frequencies. Having access to realistic artificial ECG
signals may facilitate this evaluation.
This paper presents a model for generating a
synthetic ECG signal with realistic PQRST
morphology and prescribed heart rate dynamics. The
aim of this model is to provide a standard realistic
ECG signal with known characteristics, which can be
generated with specific statistics such as the mean
and standard deviation of the heart rate and
frequency-domain characteristics of heart rate
variability (HRV), such as the Low Frequency/High
Frequency ratio, defined as the ratio of power
between 0.015 and 0.15 Hz and 0.15 and 0.4 Hz in
the RR tachogram (Malik and Camm, 1995). By
generating a signal, which represents a typical human
ECG, this facilitates a comparison of different signal
processing techniques. A synthetic ECG can be
generated with different sampling frequencies and
different noise levels in order to establish the
performance of a given technique. This performance
can be presented, for example, as the number of true
positives, false positives, true negatives and false
negatives for each test. Such performance assessment
could be used as a ``standard'' and would enable
clinicians to ascertain which biomedical signal
processing techniques were best for a given
application.
Each beat of the heart can be observed as a series of
deflections away from the baseline on the ECG.
These deflections reflect the time evolution of
electrical activity in the heart, which initiates muscle
contraction. A single sinus (normal) cycle of the
ECG, corresponding to one heart beat, is traditionally
labeled with the letters P, Q, R, S and T on each of
its turning points (Fig. 2b). The ECG may be divided
into the following sections:
The P wave: The duration of the P wave is
measured from the beginning of the P wave to the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
end. In normal adults, this period is usually less than
0.12 second; in neonates, it is less than 0.08 second.
This is the time interval required for the wave of
depolarization to spread through the atria and to
reach the atrioventricular node. The amplitude of the
P waves of the normal adult is less than 0.25 mV in
the extremity leads and smaller than this in children.
The PR interval: The PR interval represents the
amount of time required for the depolarization
process to spread from its origin in the sinus node,
through the atria, to and through the atrioventricular
node (where the impulses are delayed), down the
bundle branches and their sub-branches (including
the Purkinje fibers), and to the ventricular muscle. It
is measured from the beginning of the P wave to the
beginning of the QRS complex. In reality, this
interval should be called the PQ interval, but
convention holds that it is called the PR interval.
When there is no Q wave, the measurement is made
from the beginning of the P wave to the beginning of
the R wave. The difference between the intervals as
measured to the beginning of the Q wave, and as
measured to the R wave, is usually about 0.02 second
but may be as much as 0.04 second. The PR interval
is less than 0.20 second in the normal adult and much
less than this in normal children.
The duration of the QRS complex: The duration of
the QRS complex represents the amount of time
required for the depolarization of the ventricular
musculature. It is measured from the beginning of the
Q wave to the end of the S wave. In normal adults,
the QRS duration is usually 0.10 second or less and
in children, it is usually less than 0.08 second. When
the QRS duration is greater than 0.10 second in
adults, it is proper to consider the presence of some
type of ventricular conduction defect.
QRS amplitude: The normal QRS voltage may be
as small as 0.5 - 0.7 mV, but it is usually greater than
this. It is generally accepted that the QRS voltage is
definitely small, when it measures 0.4 mV or less in
all the extremity leads. When this occurs, it is wise to
consider certain abnormalities as possible causes.
The duration of the ST segment: The duration of
the ST segment represents the amount of time during
which the ventricular musculature is depolarized.
The depolarization process ends with the end of the
QRS complex, and the repolarization begins with, or
before, the beginning of the T wave. In some
patients, the repolarization process begins during the
ST segment. The ST segment duration is determined
by measuring the interval of time from the end of the
S wave to the beginning of the T wave. In practice,
detecting a prolonged QT interval, while the duration
of the T wave remains normal identifies a prolonged
ST segment.
The QT interval: The QT interval represents the
amount of time required for depolarization of the
ventricles, plus the amount of time during which the
ventricles are excited (ST segment), plus the amount
of time required for their repolarization (T wave).
This interval represents the duration of electrical
systole, which is different from the duration of
Page 210
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
mechanical systole. The QT interval is measured
from the beginning of the Q wave of the QRS
complex to the end of the T wave. The duration of
the QT interval varies with age, gender, and heart
rate. It should not exceed 0.40 second, when the
heart rate of an adult is 70 depolarizations per
minute.
The duration of the T wave: the repolarization
process produces The T wave. The duration of the T
wave is measured from the beginning of the wave to
the end. The repolarization process undoubtedly
begins before the T wave and is sometimes quite
visible as a displaced ST segment, which is referred
to as "early repolarization." Although the duration of
the normal T wave has been studied, and tables have
been constructed using the data, the actual
measurement is rarely performed in practice.
The magnitude of the T wave: The area
encompassed by the T wave may be a little smaller
or a little larger than that encompassed by the QRS
complex; it is usually about two-thirds that of the
latter. Characteristically, the upstroke of the normal
T wave is less steep than the down stroke.
The TQ interval. The TQ interval is measured from
the end of the T wave to the beginning of the next Q
wave. During this period the ventricles are polarized
and waiting for the stimulation that initiates
depolarization.
Conclusion
From the above discussion, it could be concluded
that the Medical sector could be well developed in
the nation if Engineering is properly applied in to this
sector. Most of the difficulties encountered in our
medical sector could be easily solved by the
application of digital signal processing.
References.
Amari, S., Cichocki, A., and Yang , H. (1996): “A
new learning algorithm for blind signal
separation,” in Advances in Neural Information
processing 8, pp. 757–63.
Choi, S., Cichocki, A., and Amari, S. (1998):
‘’Flexible independent component analysis. ‘’In
Proc. of the 1998 IEEE Workshop on NNSP,
pages 83–92, Cambridge, UK.
Cichocki , A. and Amari, S. (2002): Adaptive blind
signal and image processing. John Wiley and
Sons.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
component analysis,” Neural Computation, vol.
9, no. 6, pp. 1483–92,.
Davies , M. and Mitianoudis, N. (2003) “Audio
source separation of convolutive mixtures,” in
IEEE Transactions on Speech and Audio
Processing, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 489–497.
Hyvarinen ,A. and Oja, E. (1997): “A fast fixed-
point algorithm for independent
Hyvarinen, A., Karhunen, J., and Oja, E. (2001):
‘’Independent Component Analysis’’. John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Ikeda, S. and Murata. N. (1999): “A method of ica in
time-frequency domain,” in International
congerence on independent component analysis
and signal separation, pp. 365–71.
Jung, T., Makeig, S., Lee, T., McKeown , M.,
Brown, G., Bell, A., and Sejnowski, T. (2000):
“Independent component analysis of biomedical
signals,” in Second International Workshop on
Independent Component Analysis and Blind
Signal Separation, pp. 633–44.
Makeig, S., Jung, T., Bell, A., and Sejnowski, T.
(1996): “Independent component analysis of
electroencephalographic data,” Advances in
neural information processing systems, vol. 8,
pp. 145–51.
Malik , M. and Camm, A. J. (1995): ‘’Heart rate
Variability, Futua Publishing, Armonk, NY,
1995.
Parra , L. and Spence, C. (2000): “Convolutive blind
separation of non-stationary
Pham, D., Garrat , P., and Jutten ,C (1992):
“Separation of a mixture of independent sources
through a maximum likelihood approach,” in
Proc. EUSIPCO, pp. 771–4.
Pingbao, L. and Jianying, X. (2002): “A novel
stochastic blind adaptive multiuser detector for
cdma systems,” in Proceedings of the
International Conference on
Telecommunications, pp. 595–8.
pp. 320–327.
Smaragdis, P. (1998): “Blind separation of
convolved mixtures in the frequency domain,”
Neurocomputing, vol. 22, pp. 21–34..
sources,” IEEE Transactions on Speech and Audio
Processing, vol. 8, no. 3,
Torkkola, K. (1996): “Blind separation of convolved
sources based on information maximization,” in
Proceedings of the IEEE Signal Processing
Society Workshop, 1996, pp. 423–32.
Page 211
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 1: Typical ECG signal processing flowchart

Figure 2: Morphology of a mean PQRST-complex of an ECG recorded from a normal human.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 212
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Ogunlowo, M
Alake, T. J
School of Engineering Ademiloye, I. B
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 213 – 216

Harnessing Solar Power for Sustainable Electricity in a Depressed Economy

Ogunlowo, M, Alake, T.J & Ademiloye, I. B

Electrical & Electronic Engineering Department,
Federal Polytechnic, Ado -Ekiti.
E-mail:jide4tees@yahoo.co.uk

Abstract
This paper presents technological solutions to the problem of unavailability of power supply in a depressed
economy like Nigeria because the growth of any Nation is basically on energy and power available for use in
that country. Energy is a basic requirement for the existence and development of human life. Both domestic and
industrial consumers are greatly affected by the syndrome of erratic power supply. Its adverse effect denies
citizenry the good standard of living and also affects the inflow of foreign investors. This poses a major threat to
the economy which must be resolved for our economy to attain a desirable potential growth rate.

Keywords: Renewable energy, PV, hybrid system, on grid, power supply, depressed economy.

Introduction of multinational companies are being witnessed as a

Solar Energy is an ancient concept that has benefited
man immensely and brought reasonable development
to modern technology. The oldest forms of solar
power used sunlight as a direct source of heat energy.
The most common source of renewable energy in
Nigeria households is solar because it is reliable,
pollution free and environmental friendly.
The introduction of solar power has reduced the
problem of epileptic power supply in the country to
certain extent. A large number of Nigerians have no
access to power supply because of perennial load
shedding, pipeline vandalization resulting to shortage
of gas supplied to run thermal power plants, constant
power outages and total system collapse. Most
industries have also closed down productions
because of the escalating sum of money they spend
daily on fuel. The power sector reform policy of the
Federal Government has not yielded any appreciable
result for the rural dwellers to enjoy power supply as
they should; consequently, government has put
forward concerted effort at involving private
investors to be involved in power generation,
transmission and distribution. The Federal
Government is also trying to focus on solar system as
an alternative means of solving power problem.
Energy has become an essential part of our daily
lives and it is also important in the socioeconomic
progress of our country. Most of the energy we use in
Nigeria is produced by burning fossil fuels (Ayodele
et al, 2008). Energy from the sun can be harnessed to
deliver electrical energy for domestic use as well as
industrial needs.
The renewable energy sources do not depend on
purchase of fuel and their cost are usually known as
stable. This has stabilizing effect on the cost of
energy (NWCC, 1997)
The basic element of a depressed economy such as
unemployment, collapse of industries, and relocation
result of inadequate power supply from the energy
sector. The non impressive performance exhibited by
other sectors of economy such as agriculture,
education, water resources, mineral resources and
industrial sectors are signs of energy problems faced
by the country. However, Nigeria is blessed with
abundant energy resources both depletable (fossil
fuel) and renewable which provide the capacity to
develop an efficient and effective natural energy
plan.
The energy crisis of 1973 has created a global
awareness for alternative energy sources to fossil
fuels necessitating the need for energy sources to be
diversified. We all acknowledge the fact that the use
of fossil fuel as energy source is adversely affected
by infrastructural failure, negligence and lack of
maintenance culture. The use of stand by generating
sets does not help matter either as exhaust gas
produced by them constitute environmental hazard.
Features of a Depressed Economy
A depressed economy is the situation in which there
are little or no economic activities such as trade,
industries and a development where the country’s
wealth is grounded. Many of the citizenry under this
economy are poor and jobless. It is also being
characterized by lack of basic infrastructure, collapse
of home industries and relocation of those
multinational industries to other country.
It is the state in which an enforced idleness is
imposed on wage earners who are able and willing to
work but cannot find jobs. In situations in which
most people can earn a living only by working for
others being unable to find a job is a serious problem
because human costs and in deprivation and feeling
of rejection and personal failure, the extent of
unemployment is widely used as a measure of
economy activity index.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 213
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Lack of adequate and efficient electricity power
supply is responsible to the collapse of industries;
this is because all industrial sectors and many aspect
of the country economy depend on electrical energy
to sustain their existence. Manufacturing companies
such as Michelin and Dunlop relocated to Ghana
because of the unstable nature of power supply in
Nigeria. Obtaining profitable level of production
through the use of generators is naturally a wishful
thinking and of course uneconomical.
Setting up of cottage industries and other medium
enterprise will be impossible when there is no stable
electricity supply; these in turn have negative effect
on any economy.
Why the use of Photovoltaic System in a
Depressed Economy?
Energy is needed for practically all the activities that
are basic to human survival as cooking, water
pumping, food production and preservation. When
those basic needs have been satisfied, energy is still
required to improve the quality of life. Hence, energy
is required for lighting transportation,
telecommunication and consumers goods such as
refrigerators, radio sets, and television sets.
As a country develops further more energy is
required for industrial and commercial purposes. For
urban areas, the necessary energy supplied may be
readily provided through fossil fuel, coal, and natural
gas. However, in rural areas, traditional sources of
energy principally; firewood, agricultural residues,
and cattle’s dung, continue to be of major importance
supplemented by commercial sources such as
electricity and petroleum products in areas where the
physical infrastructure makes this possible. But the
greater part of the population of all Developing
countries of the world live in the rural areas, this
bring about the combined effect of population growth
and commercial supply problems for traditional
fuels which consequently experiences ever increasing
demand pressure.
Deforestation resulting from over dependence on
trees, sometimes aggravated by long term climatic
changes is becoming a major problem in many
countries like Nigeria. The use of agricultural residue
and cattle dung as fuel reduces the amount of nutrient
returns to the soil (Sambo, 2009)
Photovoltaic systems are widely recognized as an
attractive means to address some of the rural energy
problems, since they offer the following advantages:
- It is being built up from solar cell modules; they
are able to provide relatively small amount of
electrical power at close to the point of demand.
- No fuel requirements.
- Relatively simple operations and maintenance
requirements within the capability of unskilled
users.
- No harmful pollution at the place of use.
- Long life with little degradation in performance.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Photovoltaic Technology
The photovoltaic effect was first observed by the
French scientist Becquerel in1839 who noticed that
when light was directed on to one side of a simple
battery cell, the generated current could be increased.
Work on the photovoltaic properties of Selenium in
the 1870S led to first selenium photovoltaic cell in
1883. The photo-sensitive properties of copper and
cuprous oxide structures were discovered in 1904
(Sambo, 2005). By 1905, it was known that the
number of energy level of electrons emitted by a
photosensitive substance varied with the intensity
and wavelength of the light shining on it. After the
research work started on how it was developed to be
practicable device.
By 1941, Selenium device has been developed with a
light-to-electricity efficiency of about one per cent. A
new technology was later developed known as a
grown p-n junction which led to the production of
simple crystal cells. American research workers in
the mid-1950S were able to achieve solar conversion
efficiencies up to six per cent. However, the
crystalline silicon solar cells were developed with
high enough conversion efficiencies for their use in
power generators. The first solar- powered satellite,
Vanguard was launched in1958 by the USA and
since then photovoltaic cells has been in use to power
satellite.
Electricity Supply and Solar Energy
It has been described as the most promising source of
energy of the years to come while the uses of fossil
fuel are depletable with time. Nigeria is blessed with
abundant of sunshine energy round the year. Solar
radiation data across the country are available from
the metrological services department, Lagos. This
shows that Nigeria lies in tropical region of latitudes
4- and 14- with mean irradiance of 22.4MJ /m2 per
day. Nigeria is having a total land mass of 983 x 109
m2, and annual mean conservation of irradiance is
15MJ m2 per day this land area, the solar energy gain
in Nigeria will be of the order of 14.745 x 1012MJ or
4.070 x 1012 MWh per year.
The efficiency of conversion of solar energy to
useful high-grade heat or electricity could be low
especially with flat plate collectors but improved
with concentrating dish or tracking collectors.
The photovoltaic system which comprises of solar
cells, inverter, battery and charge controller
combination has shown prominence in the Nigeria
energy market to provide electrical power for
household. (Adeyemo,2008). Since the electricity
generation is the conversion of other forms of energy
into electrical energy. In Nigeria the total installed
capacity from both thermal and hydro power station
is 5,860MW. 67% of this which is 3,920MW is from
thermal generation station, this constitute
environmental hazard and it is friendly to the society
due to the complexity of the process and input
involved. This supply is threatened by the unrest in
the Niger Delta belt due to vandalization of oil
installations and kidnapping of foreign investors. The
Page 214
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
use of generator is not of help because of its
environmental hazard such as air and noise
pollutions. This makes it uneconomical for a
depressed economy. The hazard also has effect on
green house as global warning because of heat that
radiates from the earth to be increasingly absorbed
and retained to the lower atmosphere its effect is that
earth climate is getting warmer. The electricity
supply through photovoltaic power system refers to
the generation of electricity from sunlight using
photovoltaic (PV) cell made mostly from silicon. PV
generation operate with no moving part, no noise and
it is pollution-free. This makes a very appropriate
renewable energy source for both urban and domestic
use. In recent time there has been rapid progress in
the development of PV cells, increasing their
efficiency while decreasing their cost and weight.
The generation of electricity through PV can be on-
grid or off -grid system. Each functions to improve
the reliability and security of the power system.
In the case of on-grid, excess power generation can
be fed and sold to the operators of the grid system at
an agreed tariff.
The energy from the sun can be harnessed to deliver
electrical energy for the benefit of mankind.
Challenges
High Initial Cost: One of the factors militating
against the use of solar energy in a depressed
economy like Nigeria is the relative exorbitant initial
cost of purchase and installation of solar panels.
According to (Owolabi, 2008), the cost of providing
power supply for a small household is about one
thousand naira watt-peak (Wp), which means for one
Kilowatt of power, about one million naira would be
required for the solar panel excluding other
accessories. Comparing this to the total cost of a
generator, it is far below the cost for the same power
output.
Seasonal Availability of Sunshine: Since solar
power depends on energy from the sun, then an
adequate sunshine must be available for the solar
panels to produce sufficient electricity for use.
Therefore, it would be impossible to totally rely on
solar power during cloudy conditions. For example,
there are states in Nigeria such as Lagos, Ekiti,
Ondo, Ogun, Delta, Bayelsa, Rivers, Akwa-Ibom and
Cross-River, where there would be no sunshine
within the month of June/ July.
Low Efficiency: Another factor affecting the
usability of solar power is its low efficiency.
According to (Abe et al 2008), a photovoltaic panel
has about 40% efficiency. This means that single
solar panel is not a sufficient power producer, unlike
hydro, nuclear and coal which approximately have
80% efficiency.
Opportunities
Technology Transfer: Donor agencies and
international organization are invited to developed
technology transfer programmes on solar power.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Job Creation: Local, State and Federal government
would need the services provided by experts on solar
power for a sustainable energy derivable from solar
energy.
Power System Expansion: Programmes aimed at
providing stable electricity to the rural dwellers will
witness a remarkable achievement as rural dweller
will be connected to stable electricity supply.
Recommendations
To harness solar power for sustainable electricity in a
depressed economy the following proposals are
recommended:
1. Research efforts should be intensified on how to
develop solar power that is capable of meeting the
needed electrical energy to power our industries.
2. Tax on solar panels and its components/parts
should be reduced.
3. Federal Government should provide incentive to
independent power companies and encourage them
to explore solar power as a valuable alternative
power source for the energy need of the country.
4. Subsidies withdrawn from premium motor spirit
should be invested on making solar electricity
available to every citizen of this country.
Conclusions
Solar electricity may be used for power supply to
remote villages and locations not connected to the
National grid and as the market for PV becomes
increasingly competitive there will be a decline in its
cost. This will remove the problem of initial
exorbitant cost of purchase and installion of solar
panels.
Solar power is dependable renewable energy source
which when compared to the epileptic power
supplied by the Power Holding Company of Nigeria
is definitely preferred.
References
Abe, A. and Adetan, O (2008): “Development of
solar power system in Nigeria: challenges and
Prospests”. Proceedings of National Engineering
conference, 7th - 9th October, 2008, University of
Ado-Ekiti. Pp 26-31.
Abubakar S.Sambo (2009): Strategic Developments
in renewable energy in Nigeria- International
Association for Energy Economics, Third
Quarter, 2009. (www.iaee.org/documents/
newsletterarticles/309sambo.pdf -)
Ayodele T R, Akinsanya O A & Olulope
(2008):”Decaying Power System in Nigeria: The
Challenges and the Way Forward”. Proceedings
of National Engineering conference, 7th - 9th
October, 2008, University of Ado Ekiti. Pp 26-
31.
Owolabi 2008: “Solar Photovoltaic (PV) As A
Viable, Sustainable Electrical Power Source For
Nigeria”. Proceedings of National Engineering
conference, 7th-9th October, 2008, University of
Ado Ekiti. Pp 26-31.
Page 215
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Royal Society of Chemistry (Registered charity www.isesco.org.ma/ISESCO_Technology.../A.S
number-207890) –Harnessing light, Solar energy .../A.S.Sambo.pdf
for a low carbon future.
Sambo A.S (2005): –Renewable energy for rural
development, the Nigeria perspective.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 216
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oladebeye, D. H

Momoh, J. J
School of Engineering Aladenusi, Y. E
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti Olaleye, T. O
(2009), 5 (1) : 217 - 228
228

Assessment of Awareness, Attitude and Willingness of People to Participate in Household Solid Waste
Recycling Programme in Ado-Ekiti

Oladebeye, D. H, *Momoh, J. J, Aladenusi, Y. E & Olaleye, T. O

Mechanical Engineering Department
School of Engineering
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
e-mail: jjmomoh@gmail.com / +2348034155891
*
Corresponding Author
Abstract
Indiscriminate dumping of household solid wastes on our streets, rivers and drainages has contributed in no
small measure to drainage blockage, flooded road and the spread of offensive odours and diseases. Recycling
has been viewed as a veritable tool in minimizing the amount of household solid wastes that enter the dump
sites. It also provides the needed raw materials for industries. More so, it has been established that, it is the
best, efficient and effective method of solid waste management system. Awareness and attitude of people in the
community appear to be crucial as their points of understanding of household solid waste management
ultimately play an important role in providing answer to environmental problem. For a successful recycling
programme, householders’ support cannot be ruled out. In this study, the success of Ado–Ekiti Plastic Bag
Waste Recycling Innovation (APBWRI) was tested and gauged by investigating the awareness, attitude and
willingness of householders to participate. The research methods employed include questionnaire, interviews,
and observational study within the administrative boundary of Ado – Ekiti. Chi–square test was carried out,
using WINKS SDA Statistical Data Analysis Software Package. It was discovered that awareness of household
solid waste recycling activities in Ado-Ekiti was still at its lowest ebb. There is a positive attitude towards
recycling in Ado-Ekiti with an inclination towards a pro-environmental attitude and ecological motives for
participation in the programme.

Keywords: Solid waste, recycling, APBWI, attitude, willingness, householder, environmental.

Introduction immediate action for improvement of this appalling

The issue of waste disposal and management were
not problems to early man, due to the fact that there
were no population explosion and technological
advancement at that time. However, with the
growing population at an alarming rate coupled with
technological advancement over time, waste disposal
and management began to constitute serious problem
to human race (Olufayo and Omotosho, 2007).
In urban areas, especially in the rapidly urbanizing
cities like Ado-Ekiti, the problems and issues of solid
waste management are of immediate importance.
However, it has been discovered that most
households are struggling with how to manage their
waste. Waste is accumulating day-in day-out, as
there is no waste management. In Ado- Ekiti, the
methods of solid waste disposal as indicated by
Adebayo et al (2006) include dumping of refuse to
gutters, drains, roadside, unauthorized dumping sites
and stream channels during raining season and
burning of wastes on unapproved dumping sites
during the dry season as shown in Plates 1, 2, 3 and
4.
The problem of waste management in Ado-Ekiti,
when combined with rapid urbanization and
unplanned development is expected to be of such
magnitude that significant reasons exist to initiate
situation. It was on this note that the Ekiti State
Government has recently procured waste disposal
equipment worth Four Hundred Million Naira
(N400m). These equipment include fifteen 30-tons
Waste Bins, three Dino Bin Trucks, three 20-tonnes
tippers, 21 motor cycles and radio communications
(Olayinka, 2009). According to Ekiti State
Commissioner for Environment, about 128 metric
tons of waste is being generated daily in Ado Ekiti,
and in furtherance to the realization of the Waste to
Energy Project of the Ekiti State Government, more
wheeling Bins would be provided for households in
the state (Lade, 2009). The essence of this study is to
educate and encourage the people of Ado-Ekiti to
reduce the rate of solid waste generation by
cultivating the habit of waste recycling
It has been established that for a nation to attain an
improved sustainable environment that is devoid of
nuisance, pollution etc., the participation of the
citizens must be encouraged and promoted. The
problem of waste management has arisen recently in
developing countries where there is little history of
the implementation of formal and informal
community environmental education awareness
program (Ehrampoush and Moghadam, 2005). The
initiation of such program in Ado-Ekiti is essential to

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 217
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
rapidly educate the public and facilitate the
development of environmental friendly community
waste behaviour. The program is designed to engage
the public not only in increasing their environmental
awareness but their environmental skills, attitudes
and behaviors as well. The initial stage in this
program was to assess the awareness by age group
covering level of awareness and its sources (Palmer,
1995, Caneer, 1997, Turker et al., 1998). Assessment
was also carried out on attitude and willingness to
participate.
According to Ellis (1998) and Kamara (2006),
household is defined as a social unit comprising
people living in the same house, with a head, and
pooling their incomes together for the management
of their dwelling unit.
Oftentimes the word “waste” is used interchangeably
with “refuse”. For clear understanding, it is
imperative to differentiate the two words. According
to Ojeda et al (2000), when waste is disposed of in
the same container and mixed together, causing
unpleasant odour and pollution, and making it
impossible to reuse, it is called “refuse”. Conversely,
when the disposed objects are handled correctly, they
can have value and are called “waste”. Waste
generally refers to all unwanted and economically
unusable materials that result from human activities,
discarded purposefully or accidentally into the
environment (UNEP, 1994; Gerrans, 1994; Van
Beukering et al, 1999). Therefore, household solid
waste is defined as the day-to-day rubbish, garbage
and other forms of waste such as kitchen waste, food
packaging etc originating from the household.
Waste generation describes those activities in which
materials identified as no longer of value are either
thrown away or gathered together for disposal.
Although, there are numerous types of wastes
generated from human activities, but for the purpose
of this study, the focus will be on household solid
waste.
Segregation of waste is the separation of waste into
different categories. It is believed that larger portion
of waste generated from household can be reused. It
is only a smaller portion of a real waste that is
considered useless and has to be thrown away.
Waste composition is the identifiable component of a
typical waste collection from a specific household.
The generation and composition of disposed wastes
usually vary with household and location. According
to Oyaide (2007), the quantity of solid waste
generation and composition depends upon factors
such as standard of living, nutritional habits and
degree of commercial activities and the quality of the
waste also varies with season as quality of waste in
dry season is not the same with quality of waste in
raining season. Table 1 shows solid waste generation
and composition from selected regions in the world.
Waste collection describes the activities involved in
picking–up waste from their point of generation and
transfer to the disposal site. According to Oluwasola
and Ogunsola (2008), the collection system is
influenced by storage method, pick–up point’s
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
requirement, type and composition of waste and kind
of equipment, labour availability and cost. Waste
collection is one of the most costly functional
elements of solid waste management. Full waste
collection coverage is a key to a hygiene
environment. If wastes are not fully collected from
the neighborhood, it will provide a breeding ground
for pathogens. This situation portends great health
hazards and also constitutes a public eyesore as
shown in Plate 5.
Waste recycling is often seen as an important aspect
of an efficient and effective solid waste management
system (Rabinson, 1986). Many substances in refuse
have value. They include glass, wood, fiber, paper
products and metals. Scientists have developed ways
of recycling many wastes so that they can be used
again. Schultz et al (1995) defined recycling as the
process through which materials previously used are
reused.
Recycling program can only be successful if people
support and actively participate in it. As pointed out
by Thomas (2001), diversion of waste to recycling
will depend not only on the number of people who
participated, but on how well they do so and how
effectively they participated.
A review by Schultz et al (1995) showed that past
studies had focused on personal factors that influence
recycling behaviours. The personal factors also
investigated include attitude, knowledge,
demographic variables, and personality variables.
According to Spencer (1994) and Thomas (2001), it
is difficult to measure quantitatively the performance
of recycling programmes on a consistent and
standard base. However, four useful performance
measures have been defined, capture rate,
participation rate, recycling rate and diversion rate.
In household waste recycling programme, success is
likely to be measured by participation rates and
recycling rates. High participation rate will translate
into high capture and diversion rates.
The results of some studies show that virtually 50%
of solid wastes are recyclable (Rahmani and Elyasi,
2000) and recycling of solid waste before disposal is
economical (Omrani, 1995). The organization of
Solid Waste Disposal predicts that if half of the
papers in solid waste are recycled, it will be equal to
maintaining 8 million hectares of forests (Payam,
1995).
Materials and Methods
The present Ado Local Government was created on
4th October, 1989 out of the erstwhile Ekiti Central
Local Government which consisted of both the
present Ado and Irepodun/Ifelodun Local
Governments located in Ekiti State South-West
geopolitical zone in Federal Republic of Nigeria.
Ado-Ekiti town assumed the status of a state capital
with the creation of Ekiti state on 1st October, 1996.
The town has long been a commercial and industrial
centre among towns and villages in Ekiti state.
According to 2006 National Census figure, Ado-Ekiti
Local Government is the largest town in Ekiti state
Page 218
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
with population of about 308,626. Map of Ado-Ekiti
township, village and farmsteads is shown in Figure
1.
The data of this study were gathered through oral
interview and questionnaires. 500 questionnaires
were administered within Ado-Ekiti metropolis; 364
of the questionnaires administered were filled and
returned. The study covers major streets in Ado-Ekiti
Township. Although, there are numerous residential
areas and streets in Ado-Ekiti, but for simplicity and
the purpose of this study, residential areas in Ado-
Ekiti were grouped as: North, South, East, West, and
Central residential areas. The major streets under
each group are shown in Table 2:
Questionnaire survey data about the awareness of,
attitudes towards and participation in household
waste recycling were analyzed using descriptive
statistical methods in the WINKS SDA Statistical
Data Analysis Software Package which was used to
find the relationship between the householders’
willingness to participate in the household solid
waste recycling programme, namely Ado–Ekiti
Plastic Bag Waste Recycling Innovation (APBWRI),
and their socio–demographic and socio–economic
characteristics. The willingness of householders in
different residential areas is also compared.
The relationships were analyzed by performing cross
– tabulations and chi–square test. A five percent level
of p–value was used as a guideline for determining
the significance of the relationships, when the value
of p > 0.05, there is no significant relationship and
when p ≤ 0.05, there is some significant relationship
between a particular variable and willingness in the
APBWRI.
Results and Discussion
General Information about Respondents
This section focuses on the inter-relationships
between the socio-demographic characteristics
(gender, age, education and number of persons in a
household) and the socio-economic characteristic
(employment status, income, housing tenure and type
of housing of respondents). All these variables were
investigated and analyzed vis-à-vis the respondents’
attitude and their willingness to participate in the
APBWRI. The chi-square test is used to determine
the significance. The results and findings are set out
below.
From table 3, it was observed that the south
residential area was the area where high level of
responses was recorded with about 24.7%. The chi-
square test (p = 0.543) shows that the willingness to
participate is not dependent on the residential area.
The population of men is about 52.7%, which is
more than that of women and the chi-square test (p =
0.853) indicated that respondents’ willingness to
recycle is not significantly related to their sex. There
is no significant relationship between respondents’
willingness to participate and age. It was revealed
that the middle aged of 22-50 years old with 53.6%
response is most willing to participate in the
recycling programme, while the younger and older
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
respondents are less willing. In some instances it has
been found that young people of 18-21 years age
bracket recycle more when they receive money in
exchange for recycling products (De young, 1991).
Also it has been argued that geographical location
and level of development may have impact on the
way people of different ages participate in recycling
(Cooper, 2002; Taylor, 2004).
It was discovered that the respondents with
university degrees, constituting 52.5% response; are
most willing to participate, closely followed by the
respondents with Diploma/Nigerian Certificate of
Education (NCE) of 28.8% response. The p-value of
the chi-square test (p = 0.638) shows that respondent
willingness to participate in APBWRI is not
significantly dependent on the educational level.
According to Scott and Willits (1994), the
educational level is a great determinant of
responsible consumption with people having higher
education levels investing great effort in recycling
activities.
The p-value of the chi-square (p = 0.01) indicates a
significant relationship between the number of
persons in respondents’ households and willingness
to participate. The middle-sized families of 5-7
people seem to be more willing to participate in
recycling programme, with about 25.3% response.
Table 4 shows that the majority of the respondents
were civil servants with about 36.8%. The p-value of
the chi-square test (p=0.01) indicates that the
relationship between employment status and
willingness is significant. All of the students and job
seekers surveyed and the majority of the self-
employed and civil servants are willing to participate
in the APBWRI. The chi – square test (p=0.432)
shows that there is no significant relationship
between income and willingness to participate in the
recycling programme. The majority of respondents
are willing to participate, but interestingly, it is the
medium-income earners with about 46.7%, who tend
to be more willing to participate than the low and
high income earners.
According to Oskamp et al, (1991) a useful socio-
economic factor which explains recycling behaviour
is housing tenure, which is sometimes compiled with
type of housing or / and household composition. In
this study, it was discovered that tenants were
predominated with about 65.1% of the total
responses. The chi-square test (p=0.792) indicates
no significant relationship between households’
willingness to recycle and housing tenure. It is
notable that home owners showed a lesser
willingness to participate in APBWRI than tenants.
The chi-square test (p=0.276) shows that the
willingness to participate is not dependent on the
type of housing. The residential housings were
predominated with about 67.9%. The commercial
and institutional housings showed a greater
willingness to participate than the residential housing
The p-value of the chi-square test (p=0.243) shows
an insignificant relationship between the respondents
housing period and their willingness to participate in
Page 219
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
recycling programme. It was noted that the
respondents with 1-10 years housing period were
predominated in this study with about 36.8%.
Participation in and Attitude towards Solid Waste
Recycling in Ado-Ekiti
For the purpose of this study “attitude” means the
extent to which people are aware of, care about and
view household waste recycling in their areas. In
order to determine householder’ participation in
household solid waste recycling, it became necessary
to find out how much respondents are actually aware
of the recycling initiatives in their areas.
Respondents were asked if they were aware of any
household waste recycling activities in Ado-Ekiti
town, the source of information about recycling if
any, and if the respondents have been participating in
any form of recycling.
In Table 5, it was revealed that when the respondents
were asked about their awareness of any household
recycling activities in Ado-Ekiti, 96.7% were not
aware and 3.3% were aware. Initially, only 12
respondents consented that they had learnt about
recycling through one means or the other. After
follow-up questions and explanations, 15.4% claimed
that they recycled their household solid wastes.
When asked the reasons for practising and not
practising recycling. The reasons adduced are spelt
out below:
According to Li (2003), the reasons for individual
participation in household recycling are determined
by several factors, which related to environmental
motivation, social pressure and economic incentives.
In this study, the reason given by respondents for
their participation in recycling can be classified into
three categories, namely, ecological, environmental
and economic and the results are discussed as
followings.
(a) Ecological Arguments
Some respondents recycled because of the
benefits that recycling offers the natural
environments; most importantly it tends to
conserve our natural resources.
(b) Environment concern
Other respondents recycled in order to keep their
environments clean and unpolluted. They
explained that the more they maintain a cleaner
environment, the more they keep germs and
diseases abated.
(c) A few respondents mentioned that they earned
income from selling recyclables like bottles,
plastics, textiles, paper, etc. to either rag pickers
or buy-back centers. It is also worth mentioning
here the cases of scavengers and itinerant waste
merchants who buy scraps and other recyclables.
They eke out a living by selling to the buy-back
centers as shown in Plates 6 and 7.
(d) According to Schults et al (1995) and McDonalds
and Oates (2003), the most common reasons
provided for not participating in recycling
programmes are inconvenience, lack of time,
effort required for recycling, and lack of
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
incentives or general commitment. In this study,
the reasons cited for non-participation are (i)
recycling requires too much time (ii) it requires
too much effort (iii) lack of knowledge about
recycling and (iv) lack facilities for recycling.
According to Judais (1986) composting is a method
of handling and processing organic wastes at a
domestic level, to produce humus-like material
which may be used as soil-conditioner for gardens or
as top dressing for lawns. The practice is not very
common as only about 0.8% of respondents made
compost from their wastes. The separation at
household level by householders themselves is called
“source separation”. In this study 6.9% respondents
indicated that they separate newspapers, books,
plastics, bottles from other household wastes for
recycling.
Willingness to participate in Ado-Ekiti Plastic
Bag Waste Recycling Innovation (APBWRI)
In this section, householders’ willingness and
perception were investigated and analyzed through
some designed questions like;
• Are you willing to participate in APBWRI?
• Are you willing to sort your recyclable?
• What type of sorting option will you prefer?
• Are you willing to buy two household waste
plastic bags? (One waste plastic bag for
recyclable and one for non recyclables).
In Table 6, 76% of the respondents indicated that
they are willing to take part in the recycling
programme while about 24% of the respondents said
that they are not willing to take part in the recycling
programme. The chi-square test (p=0.003) shows
that there is a statistically significant positive
relationship between respondents’ willingness to sort
household waste and willingness to participate in the
APBWRI. Hence, the respondents who are willing
to participate in APWRI are also willing to sort their
household waste.
About 74.7% of the respondents declared their
willingness to sort. Respondents were asked to give
reasons why they are willing or unwilling to sort
householder waste into recyclables and non-
recyclables. The reasons given are spelt out below:
Reasons for willingness to sort waste are:
(i) For the purpose of recycling
(ii) If separate bags for recyclables and non-
recyclables are provided
(iii) For benefits to the natural environment to avoid
litter and maintain cleaner and unpolluted
surroundings
(iv) Because of environmental awareness which
emphasizes reduction of waste and recycling.
(v) If the cost or charges that accrued to it is
affordable.
Reasons for unwillingness to sort waste are:
(i) It is time-consuming
(ii) It is also requires some effort
About 83.1% of the respondents preferred sorting
into two bags that is one for recyclables and one for
non-recyclable while 16.9% of the respondents
Page 220
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
preferred sorting into different bags that is, one for • Governments should introduce and enforce the
each recyclable. This result looks promising for the laws and regulations which the community
APBWRI. The respondents were asked whether they should observe.
were willing to procure two waste bags, one for • Fine should be levied on any householder that
recyclables and one for non-recyclable waste. 67% violates the recycling regulations
of the respondents agreed to buy two waste bags, • Governments should promote house– to–house
while 33% of the respondents did not subscribe to the awareness campaign about recycling and its
idea of buying two waste bags. The respondents who importance.
did not support the idea of buying two waste bags • Provision should be made for at least a sorting
were asked for any reasons that motivated their centre in each residential area.
actions. The reason adduced majorly is the cost of • More buy–back centers should be created.
the additional household waste bag for recyclables. • The householders must be sensitized and
56% of respondents showed preference for the educated through mass media about waste
recycling company to collect recyclables, 20.9% management programme.
preferred self-delivery to community recycling bins,
• Private bodies who are interested in recycling
because it signifies the right to and responsibility to
programmes should be encouraged by the
participate in solid waste recycling; Preferences are
government, by providing enabling ground for
given to municipality and the recycling company,
them to operate.
because they are better characterized by less effort
• The government should focus on providing all
and trolley people are said to be cheapest of all waste
the necessary means and incentives to improve
collectors. When the respondents were asked how
voluntary recycling.
often they would prefer to have their recyclables
collected, nearly 59% cited once a week, about 31%
References
preferred collection twice in a week. More so, about
Adebayo, W. O, Bamisaye, J. A, Akintan, O. B and
63.7% of the householders preferred the collection of
Ogunleye, O. S. (2006): Waste Generation,
their recyclables and non recyclables to take place on
Disposal and Management Techniques in an
the same day.
Urbanizing Environment: A case study of Ado-
The responses of the survey revealed that more than
Ekiti, Nigerian Research Journal of Applied
three quarter of the respondents were unwilling to
Science. Vol. 1, No. 1, pp 63 – 66.
pay any extra service charge for their household solid
Attahi, F. (1999): Abidjan, Coted’Ivoire (Chapter 2).
waste removal. When asked the reasons that
In: A.G. Onibokun (Ed.) Managing the Monster:
motivated their responses, they reasoned that paying
Urban Waste and Governance in Africa. IDRC,
extra service charge will constitute additional strain
Pp. 11 – 48.
on their meager income.
Caneer, B. (1997): What recyclying means to me?
Survey at the Marshal Space Flight Center.
Conclusion
Available
The householders’ willingness to participate in the
www.recycle.mcfc.nasa.gov/survey/survey/html.
APBWRI was used to gauge their potential co-
Cooper, J. (2002): Rio 10 Years on and we are still
operation and commitment to a household solid
Wasting Resources. Local Environment, Vol. 7,
waste recycling programme. About 77% respondents
No. 3. Pp. 325 – 330.
showed their willingness to participate in the
DeYoung, R. (1991) Some Psychological aspects of
programme. It was found that willingness to
Living Lightly: desired Lifestyle Partens and
participate in the recycling programme is not reliably
Conservation Behaviour. Journal of
explained by socio – demographic and socio –
Environmental Systems. Vol. 20. No. 1, Pp. 215
economic variables. However, middle – sized
– 227.
families and employment status showed a significant
Ehrampoush, M.H and Moghadam, B.M.H. (2005):
relationship with both groups being more willing to
Survey of Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of
participate. Willingness to sort household waste at
Yard University of Medical Sciences Students
home by householders is directly related to
about Solid wastes Disposal and Recycling,
participation in the programmes. Willingness to buy
Iranian Journal of Environmental Engineering,
two waste bags, one for recyclables and one for non
Vol. 2, No,2, pp. 22 – 30.
– recyclables showed no significant relationship to
Ellis, F. (1998): Peasant Economics: Farm
willingness to participate in the APBWRI.
Households and Agrarian Development. Wye
Studies Agricultural and Rural development,
Recommendation
Cambridge University Press. UK.
For a successful implementation of a household solid
Gerrans, G.C. (1994): Waist Deep in Waste –
waste recycling programme in Ado–Ekiti the
Reduce, RE- Use, Recycle. Spectrum, Vol. 32,
followings must be put into consideration:
No: 1 Pp. 32 – 36.
• Governments should make adequate provision
Imohiosen, S., (2007): Still on Solid Waste
for recycling facilities and infrastructure. Management and Our Environment. URL:
http://www.nigeriavillagesquare.com/articles
(status16 June 2009)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 221
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Judais R.S. (1986): Whiel South African knowledge
about attitudes towards, and practice in respect
of the Voluntary recycling of domestic solid
waste. Report No. S – 137. Pretoria: Human
Sciences Research Council.
Kamara, J.A. (2006): Household Participation in
Domestic Waste Disposal and Recycling in the
Tshwane Metropolitan Area: An Environmental
Education Perspective. MED Thesis.
Department of Environmental Education,
University of South Africa.
Lade, N. (2009): Ekiti State Government Information
Portal, Retrieved Octber 5, 2009 from
http://ekitinigiria.net/latest/EKSG-PROCURES-
N400M-WASTE-DISPOSAL-
EQUIPMENT.html.
Li S. (2003): Recycling behavior under China’s
Social and Economic transition: The case of
Metropolitan Wuhan. Environment and
Behaviour. Vol. 35, No. 6, Pp. 784 – 801.
Lusugga, K.J.M. (1999): Dares Salaam Tanzania. In:
A.G Onibokun (Ed.) Managing the Monster:
Urban Waste and Governance in Africa. IDRC,
Pp. 101 – 172.
McDonalds, S. and Oates C. (2003): Research for
non – participation in a curbside recycling
scheme. Resources, conservation and recycling.
Vol. 39, No. 1, Pp. 369 – 385.
Ojeda, B S, Armijo, V. C. and Ramirez, B. M.
(2000): The Potential For Recycling Household
Waste: A case study from Mexicali, Mexico.
Environment and Urbanization 2, 12: 163 – 173.
Olayinka, L. (2009): Ekiti State Government
Information Portal, Retrieved Octber 5, 2009
from http://ekitinigiria.net/latest/EKITI-
GOVENRMENT -BUY-N291.3-MILLION-
WASTE-MANAGEMENT-EQUIPMENT.html.
Olufayo, O and Omotosho, B. J. (2007): Waste
Disposal and Waste Management in Ado-Ekiti
Nigeria. The Social Science Vol. 2, No. 2, pp
111 – 115.
Oluwasola, E.A., and Ogunsola, A.O., (2008):
Assessment of Solid Waste Management in
Osun State. A Case Study of Osogbo.
Proceedings f 4th Engineering Forum Federal
Polytechnic, Ado – Ekiti. October 14 – 17, Pp.
50 – 54.
Omrani, G. A. (1995): Solid Waste, The Center of
Scientific Publication of Islamic Azard
University, Iran.1st edition, vol 2.
Onibokun, A., and Kumuyi, A. J., (1999): Ibadan,
Nigeria (Chapter 3). In A.G Onibokun (Ed.)
Managing the Monster; Urban Waste and
Governance in Africa. IDRC, Pp. 49 – 100.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (1993) Environmental Data,
Compendium 1993. OECD, Paris.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (1997) Environmental Data,
Compendium 1997. OECD, Paris.
Oskamp, S., Harrington, M.J., Edwards, T.C.,
Sherwood, D.L., Okuda, S.M., and Swanson
D.C. (1991): Factors Influencing the household
recycling behavior. Environmental and behavior.
Vol. 23, No. 4, Pp. 494 – 519.
Oyaide, A. E. L. (2007) Solid Waste Management.
The Nigerian Institute of Mechanical Engineers,
Vol. 3, No. 2, pp 3 – 4.
Palmer, J.A. (1995): Environmental thinking in the
Early Year: Understanding Misunderstanding of
Concepts related to Waste Management. Journal
of Environment Urbanization, Vol. 11, No. 2,
pp.145
Payam, E. S. (1995): Efforts to Protection of Natural
Resources, 2nd Issue, Isfahan Industrial
University, Iran.
Rabinson, W. D. (1986): The Solid Waste
Handbook: A Practical Guide. John Willey, New
York, USA.
Rahmani, H and Elyasi, H. (2000): Physical
Combination of Yazd Waste. 4th national
Congress of Environmental Health, Yazd, Iran.
Schultz, P.W., Oskamp, S., and Mainjeri, T., (1995):
Who Recycles and when? A Review of Personal
and Situation actors. Journal of Environmental
Psychology. Vol. 15, No. 1, Pp. 105 – 121.
Scott, D and Willits, F. K, (1994): Environmental
Attitude and Behaviour. A Pennislavia Survey.
Environmental and Behaviour. Vol. 26, No. 1,
pp 239 – 260.
Spencer, D. B. (1994): Recycling. Handbook of Solid
Waste Management. Kreith, F (ed) MaGrawhill,
New York.
Taylor, L. (2004): International lessons in Municipal
solid waste recycling. Resources and Waste
Management. Vol. 7, No. 1 Pp. 21 – 23.
Thomas, C. (2001): Public Understanding and its
Effects on Recycling Performance in Hampshire
and Milton Keyenes. Resources. Conservation
and Recycling. Vol. 32, No. 4, pp 259 – 274.
Tucker, P, Murney, G and Lamont, J. (1998):
Predicting Recycling Scheme Performance: A
process Simulation Approach. Journal of
Environmental Management. Vol. 52, No. 1, pp.
31 - 48
UNEP, United Nations Environmental Programme
(1994): Environmental Data Report 1993/1994.
A Report for Global Environmental Monitoring
System. Brazil. Blackwell, Oxford, UK.
Van Beukering, P., Sehker, M., Gerlagh, R., and
Kumar, V. (1999): Analyzing Urban Solid
Waste in Developing Countries: A Perspective
on Bangalore, India. International Institute for
Environmental and Development (IIED).
Working Paper No. 24 CREED Working Paper
Series. Amsterdam.
Page 222
 MAP OF ADO-EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT IL
O
R
IN
Local Govt Bo und ary
TO
Federal Road

State Road
Local Govt Ro ad
Rivers / B ri dge

Ad o-Ekiti Loca l G ovt Secretaria t

N Important Farm

Farm Settleme nt
Technical Scho ol
Hotel

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Important Plac es
Seconda ry Sch ool

Pol ice Stati on

Churches

Stadium
TE G
A IN Rock
ST US
O
H Higher Ins titutio n

Round About
Staff Qua ters
Factory

Hospi tal / Med i cal Centre

A
GR
Pri vate Health Care Establ ishme nt

Fig 1: Map of Ado-Ekiti Local Government

Ad o-Ekiti City Map B oundary
Vil lages
ISSN 1897-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009

XT
NE
GA
1897-8680

LE
FA
ADO -EKITI LOCAL GOVERNMENT
(TOWNSHIP MAP, VILLAGES AND FARMSTEADS)
(PREPARED BY: OJO ASSOCIATES.
TO AKURE

Regd Building Designe rs & Builders.

Ado-Ekiti

Jul y 1990

Page 223
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Plate 1:Ajibade Lane Drainage

Plate 2: Ajilosun Drainage

Plate 3: Ojumose road side waste disposal

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 224
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Plate 4: Unauthorized waste disposal site

Plate 5: Odo-Ado waste disposal truck

Plate 6: Metal scraps separated at Sabo buy-back centre.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 225
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Plate 7: Used bottle separated at buy-back centre

Table 1: Solid Waste generation and composition from selected regions in the world.
Rate
Location (kg/person/year)
Paper Food Plastics Glass Metals Textile Others
China 285 3 60 4 1 0 2 -
Denmark 520 30 37 7 6 3 17 -
France 560 30 25 10 12 6 17 -
Iran 324 8 74 5 3 1 2 -
Mexico 320 14 52 4 6 3 20 -
Poland 290 10 38 10 12 8 23 -
USA 730 38 23 9 7 8 16 -
Abidjan 24 4 63 5 1 1 1 25
Ibadan 153 15 42 4 6 21 1 10
Sources: OECD, 1993, OECD, 1997; Attahi, 1999, Onibokun and Kumuyi, 1999, Lusugga, 1999

Table 2: Residential Areas

NORTH RESIDENTIAL SOUTH EAST WEST RESIDENTIAL CENTRAL
AREA RESIDENTIAL RESIDENTIAL AREA RESIDENTIAL
AREA AREA AREA
Adebayo Ajilosun Odo-Ado Basiri Ijigbo
Sinmiloluwa Moferere Igirigiri Egbewa Okeyinmi
State hospital Omolayo/Olujoda Olokemeji Falegan Ojumose
School of nursing Bamgboye Bola clinic Ile-Abiye Okesa
Nova Gbajumo Immigration Govt Reserve Area (GRA) Irona
Opopogbooro Oke-Oniyo Ureje Textile Oke-Ila
Federal/State Housing Oke-Bola Poly road New Iyin Road Dallimore/Stadium
Adehun Ekute Bank Street
Pathfinder
Sources: Author fieldwork, 2009

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 226
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 3 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Variables Frequency Percentage
%
Residential Area
North residential area 71 19.5
South residential area 90 24.7
East residential area 64 17.6
West residential area 67 18.4
Central residential area 72 19.8
Gender
Male 192 52.7
Female 172 47.3
Age
18-21 84 23.0
22-50 185 53.6
Older than 50 85 23.4
Education
Standard 6/primary school Education 37 10.2
Modern school/Secondary School 31 8.5
Diploma/NCE 105 28.8
Degree 191 52.6
Household size
1-2 people 52 14.3
3-4 people 75 20.6
5-7 people 92 25.3
8-10 people 67 18.4
More than 11 people 78 21.4
Sources: Author fieldwork, 2009

Table 4: Socio-economic characteristics of respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage
%
Employment Status
Civil servant 134 36.8
Self employed 112 30.8
Applicant 46 12.6
Student 72 19.8
Income rate
Low level income 160 44.0
Medium level income 170 46.7
High level income 34 9.3
Housing tenure
Owner 127 34.9
Tenant 237 65.1
Housing type
Residential 247 67.9
Commercial 75 20.6
Institutional 42 11.5
Period of tenement
Below 1 year 90 24.7
1 – 10 years 134 36.8
11 – 20 years 91 25.0
Above 21 years 49 13.5
Sources: Author fieldwork, 2009

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 227
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 5: Participation in and attitude of the respondents towards solid waste recycling in Ado-Ekiti
Question and Response Frequency Percentage %
Knowledge about and awareness of domestic waste recycling in Ado-Ekiti
Yes 12 3.3
No 352 96.7
Sources of waste recycling information
Media 5 1.4
Municipality 4 1.1
Friends and neighbor 3 0.8
No information at all 352 96.7
Whether they recycled their solid waste or not
Yes 56 15.4
No 308 84.6
Method of participating in recycling
Make compost 3 0.8
Separate waste into different recyclables for collection 25 6.9
Take recyclables to community bins 28 7.7
Non participation 308 84.6
Collection method
Individual / trolley collectors 226 62.1
Self deposit in community bins 138 37.9
Collection Frequency
Once in a week 242 66.5
Twice in a week 122 33.5
Whether they were paying monthly charges for the removal of household
solid waste
Yes 12 3.3
No 352 96.7
Sources: Author fieldwork, 2009

Table 6: Perception and Willingness of respondents towards APBWRI

Question and Response Frequency Percentage %
Willingness to participate in APBWRI
Yes 278 76.4
No 86 23.6
Willingness to sort recyclables
Yes 272 74.7
No 92 25.3
Preferred Sorting option
Sorting into two bags 226 83.1
Sorting into different bags 46 16.9
Willingness to buy waste plastic bags
Yes 244 67.0
No 120 33.0
Preferred collection method
Individual / trolley collectors 34 9.3
Municipality 13 3.6
Recycling Company 202 55.5
Self – delivery to sorting site 39 10.7
Self delivery to community recycling bins 76 20.9
Doyou prefer collection of recyclables and non recyclables to be carry out the same day
Yes 323 63.7
No 132 36.3
Willingness to pay extra service charge for the recyclables collected
Yes 44 12.1
No 320 87.9
Sources: Author fieldwork, 2009

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 228
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Omidiji, B. V

Ajaino, K. O
School of Engineering Omojokun, S
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti Okoro, A. I
(2009), 5 (1) : 229 - 235
Investigation into Safety Principles and Precautions at Engineering Construction Sites in Western Nigeria
1
Omidiji, B.V. 2Ajaino, K.O, 3Omojokun, S. T & 4 Okoro, A. I
1,3,4
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
tunde_omidiji@yahoo.com
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Delta State Polytechnic
Ogwashi-Uku
Abstract
Safety principles and precautions are often over looked in construction industry. Construction activities are not
limited to civil engineering but cover mechanical, manufacturing, shop floor practices etc, and safety must be
observed in other to avoid accidents and injuries. A number of factors are responsible for not adhering strictly
to the principles and precautions. This research looks into the necessary principles that should be observed, the
causes of accidents at construction sites and proposes some recommendations that could make the construction
industries better

Key words: Safety, construction industry, accidents, average index, motivational factors

Introduction urban drift, most noble cities can be as rough as

The Nigerian construction industry is one of the
largest markets of construction products in Africa,
with over 140 million populations, 969,000km2
landmass and 5.6 Gross Domestic product growth
in the year 2008. The construction industry is
responsible for an average of 5 - 7 improvement of
the gross domestic product (GDP) growth and over
42 of the fixed capital formation over the last four
decades (Olatunji and Bashorun, 2006). The
construction industry has divisions, civil, electrical,
mechanical, design, manufacturing etc. Because of
the cross boundary of discipline and the failed
structures occurring frequently, the research is
important to identify the causes of failure and likely
solutions that can curtail it. Building Constructions;
public and private, roads bridges, tanks, pipelines to
carry petroleum products, shop floor designs and
constructions are few examples of activities where
hazards, failures, accidents can happen and they were
looked into in this research to determine the level of
awareness of safety principles and precautions and
adherence to them.
Although, there are evidences of acute skill shortage
in the industry, over 70 of the populace mainly
depends on their construction industry employment
(both as skilled and unskilled manpower) for
livelihood. Unfortunately, United Nations records
puts it that 900 million people globally are either
homeless or live in grossly uncomfortable habitation
and environment. In a place like Nigeria with the
range of 2.5 - 9.3 (or an average of 3.2 ) annual
population growth, housing need is seriously
pertinent (NPC, 2006). Population and Housing
Census (2006) figures show that because of rural –
having tenant to landlord ratio 90 to 10 .
However, with serious population increase in Africa,
more of Africa’s skilled workforces always find their
ways out of the continent to other parts of the world,
due to poor economic situation in their countries.
Inadvertently, the subsequent shortage of skill, (due
to manpower reduction without corresponding or no
replacement at all) coupled with poor spirit of
technology transfer in relation to other parts of the
world, the cost of construction products has always
grown beyond its value.
Construction industry in Nigeria has always suffered
from poor image, for instance, high cost, poor quality
and hazardous working conditions. Learning from
Singapore, the safety standard within construction
industry is better applied. In dealing with safety
standards in the construction industry, Singapore has
a Board to handle all safety aspects within
construction which is absent in Nigeria. Although
safety practices in Nigeria always tend to improve by
adopting international standards; lack of
implementing certain safety principles and
precautions in all sectors of the industry still aid
often accidents that occur.
Safety standards have been set up as contained in
Ministry of Labour, Employment and Productivity
(MLEP) on safety and Health Act 1974, which
clearly states that safety shall be put on first priority
before instructing a worker or a group of people to
work or to carry out activities in hazardous condition
or environment. The safety standard, which describes
specifically the safety practices as stipulated in
Safety and Health Act, has met national standard, but
few of them meet international standards. However,
those standards do not include the safety regulations
for construction industry in particular.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 229
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Construction safety has always been a main
discussion of the local authority yet often ignored by
Contractors. Ardan, (1997) stated that although
workers were covered with insurance as provided by
the Contractors, safety has become a common sight
in all regions in Nigeria due to cultural background
and their work habit, lack of safety controls and
sanctions.
Although, safety policy and regulation have become
a legal requirement, which regulates all industrial
sectors in Nigeria, safety concern has always been
neglected. The main reason concerns cost, believed
to be troublesome, waste of time and very little
attraction to safety particularly to workers. The
government has always been aware that safety is an
important factor in development. Unfortunately,
there has not been a significant research to approach
safety principle and precautions that can be
implemented in Nigeria which this research intends
to tackle.
In the verge of recessionary economy, South-
Western (and indeed Nigeria at large) is also loosing
its skilled workforce into accidents at
engineering/construction sites due to various reasons.
Poon (2004) argues that the construction industry is
10 times more hazardous than any other industry in
our economic world. This is because workers are
constantly exposed to adverse technical, economic,
material, social, psychological and environmental
conditions. The construction industry in Nigeria
looses 5–7 of its workforce annually to
construction accidents, while relative number of
people deserts the industry due to motivational
factors. This research explores causes of accidents in
South-Western, Nigeria construction sites, evaluates
the certainty of the use of registered engineers and
other professionals, and determines the level of
adherence to safety principles and precautions in
construction sites in South-Western, Nigeria.
Statement of the problem
This study seeks to investigate adherence to safety
principles and precautions at construction sites in
South-Western, Nigeria.
The specific objectives of the research are:
(1) To determine the level of adherence to safety
principles and precautions at construction sites
in South-Western, Nigeria.
(2) To identify construction sites accidents and
causes.
(3) To identify the certainty of the use of registered
professionals.
Other important issues associated with safety will be
unraveled in the course of discussion.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study cannot be over
emphasized; it contributes to the human and capital
developments. Also, it clearly defines the
responsibility of workers, contractors, professionals
and even government towards the proper
implementation of safety principles and precautions
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
at construction sites as a way of impacting
development in the industry.
Research Questions/Hypothesis
1. Have causes of accidents in construction sites been
eliminated?
2. Are there adequate use of registered engineers and
other professionals at construction sites in South-
Western, Nigeria?
3. Are there training and re-training programmes
given to construction workers?
Scope of the Study
As the scope of safety is very large, it is not possible
to cover every aspect of safety. This research
concentrates on how to build up a system and
adherence to safety principles and precautions at
construction sites in South-Western, Nigeria. The
study investigates and places emphasis on
construction accidents due to unsafe practices, unsafe
condition, types and causes of accidents, sources of
accidents, and amount of accidents. Construction
herein refers to activities that relate to the
construction of building and other civil, mechanical
and electrical, manufacturing works, etc. Hence,
construction accidents refer to accidents that occur
before or during the aforementioned activities have
taken place.
Research Methodology
Flow chart showing elements of the research
methodology
The research was done through the use of
questionnaire. The data analysis of the questionnaire
survey result was computed using statistical
approach by applying the average index in order to
obtain data ranks resulting from interviewing
respondents regarding safety principles and
precautions and construction sites accidents and
causes. The output of the study was then compared to
the output of the questionnaire survey. At the end,
safety principles and precautions and the
construction sites accidents and causes were
identified.
In achieving the aims and objectives, a research
methodology is required; Figure 1 highlights the
essential stages of conducting this research. This
figure shows the three essential stages in conducting
research which include the following:
• Discussion with the respondents (skilled and
unskilled workers)
• Two stages main survey (case study and
questionnaire survey)
• Analysis of data.
Besides using questionnaire, direct interview and
direct observation are also conducted to functionary
officials, and workers involving in operational works
to complete the research study in order a thorough
study.
Validation of the Instrument
Instruments would be valid should it measure
accordingly to requirements, and capable to detect
data precisely. Low or high the validity of the
Page 230
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
instrument, indicates that the data collected does not Method of Data Analysis
deviate from its variable. In statistical ways, validity The method used for the data analysis is very
test is done by internal techniques. Internal validity important in studying safety principles and
can be achievable if there are appropriate parts of precautions and accidents and causes at the
instrument within the instrument. This indicates that construction sites. The method needs to closely relate
an instrument owns its internal validity if the overall the respondents’ educational background, culture and
instrument is capable to express data from its their social problem in environment. In general, data
variable. scaling in non-parametric statistics were categorized
Validity of the indicator will be determined into four types, which are normal or categorical
according to how large the average index among scale, ordinal or ranking scale, interval scale and
indicator scores upon its dependent variable. The finally ratio scale.
bigger the average index, the more valid the indicator Within this research, the ordinal or ranking scale
is. measurement was used to collect most of the
Reliability of the Instrument variables relevant to the study. In measuring the level
A measuring tool may be reliable if the result of the for most of the variables, the method of likert scale
measurement is consistent at any symptoms was used, in particular was five likert scale for the
conducted in different time. This is to be sure that the entire questionnaire.
instrument used for the research is reliable. Therefore The objective of the questionnaire, which also affect
various questions asked have strong correlation to the statistical method used, was to establish the
one another. impact of individual factors or each groups of causes
According to Rea and Parker (1997), research should in term of their relative ranking and whether any
use experience and professional judgment in relation among the respondents responses. The
constructing a series of questions that can maximize ranking was based on the average index as will be
the advantages and minimize the potential discussed in the next section.
drawbacks. In designing the questionnaire for this Average Index
research, the factors of the safety principles and Instrument that applied to measure the best safety
precautions and construction sites accidents and principles and precautions is questionnaire based on
causes were converted into measurable variables. scaling adopted from valuing system of likert scale.
The variables for the questionnaire are as follow: This method is behaviour scaling that uses
• Safety principles and precautions variables distribution of response as the basis to determine the
X 1 variable represents A: safety support scale of value. The responses are classified into five
X 2 variable represents B:Equipment maintenance types of scale, which are: absolutely not important
X 3 variable represents C: Safety Education and (1), not important (2), quite important (3), important
Training (4) and crucial to be executed
X 4 variable represents D: Work Instruction and More so, respondents were made to assess the causes
Planning of construction accidents using a scale of 1-5, which
X 5 variable represents E: Work place Layout are: very often (1) often, (2) not often (3), occurred
safety system (4), rarely occurred (5)
X 6 variable represents F: Inspection Every question answered alternatively in this
X 7 variable represents G: Conducting High research, will be scored in the condition as follow:
Level Safety Programme • Respondent answering first alternatively, will be
X 8 variable represents H: Risk Protection and scored 1;
Risk Causes • Respondent answering second alternatively, will
X 9 variable represents I: Workers attitude and be scored 2;
Discipline • Respondent answering third alternatively, will be
X 10 variable represents J: Supporting and Safety scored 3;
Measuring Devices • Respondent answering fourth alternatively, will be
X11 variable represents K: Firm Management scored 4;
X 12variable represents L: Professional • Respondent answering fifth alternatively, will be
Contractors and Sub-Contractor. scored 5;
• Construction sites accident and causes variables Therefore, indicators within the variables were
Y1 variable represents A: Health problem spelled out and expressed by scoring. According to
Y2 variable represents B: Tool problem Al-Hazmi (1987), to establish the ranks for all the
Y3 variable represents C: Contingencies factors, the average index was calculated to reflect
Y4 variable represents D: Psychological problem the rating of likert scale as follow:
Y5 variable represents E: Workmanship and
material factor Average Index (I) =
Y6 variable represents F: Corporation health and In the study the expression is 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Where
safety orientation of organization ai constant expressing the weight given to i; xi =
The above variable are applied for data analysis, Variable expressing the frequency of the response for
which denote X(n) and Y(n) represent in the , I = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and illustrated as follows: x1 =
questionnaire as variables. frequency of the “very low” response and

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 231
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
corresponding to a1=1;x2 =frequency of the “low”
response and corresponding to a2=2; x3; = frequency
of the “average” response and corresponding to a3=3;
x4;= frequency of the “high” response and
corresponding to a4=4; x5 = frequency of the “very
high” response and corresponding to a5= 5;
1 = very low, 2 = low 3 = average
4= high, 5 = very high
The result of each value of the average index or
mean score were shown later .this average index
could be further interpreted to reflect respondents
rating. Initially the researcher use a discrete scale
converted to a continues index (average index) which
then can be split into a discrete categories (Abd.
Majid and Mc Caffer, 1997). In this case of the
discrete categories were classified as follows:
Crucial to be executed
: 80 < 1 100
Important to be executed
: 60 < 1 80
Quite important to be executed
: 40 < 1 60
Not important to be executed
: 20 < 1 40
Absolutely not important to be executed
: 0 < 1 20
The same classification can be established for the
other rating scale and the computed average index
from the analysis can be reflected in the above
categories. The calculated mean score could also be
converted to a percentage index as suggested by Abd.
Majid and Mccaffer (1997). In this case of the
discrete categories were classified as follows:
Rarely occurred
: 80 < 1 100
Occurred
: 60 < 1 80
Not often
: 40 < 1 60
Often
: 20 < 1 40
Very often
: 0 < 1 20
Findings and Analysis
Respondents
From the survey, eighteen construction companies
were selected for this study. However only twenty
one (21) respondents responded to the questionnaire.
The attitude was not good enough. Analysis was
carried out on the adherences to safety principles and
precautions and also accident and causes at the
construction sites were obtained from the data
gathered. From the analysis the findings on important
factors were observed. The results on the details of
the respondents profile, their perception and ranking
were tabulated.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Respondents Profile
Educational Background
Level of education is one factor that influenced the
level of safety principles and precautions at
construction site. Respondents at management level
having higher education, generally should have
broader knowledge of implementing, generally
should observe precautions. The results of the
analysis are shown in Figure 2.
From the data collected 8 people or 3.8.1% of
respondent are having first degree education while 5
people or 23.8% are having masters qualification and
8 people or 38.1% with diploma degree.
Respondents Working Experience
In addition to the level of education, other factors
which determine the quality of safety principles and
precautions is working experience. Experience
management personnel generally understands
perfectly well their working environment therefore
them to identify accident and accident prevention.
Result from the analysis shown in Figure 3.
Respondents whom participated in the research is
predominating having 5-10 years working experience
which is 57.1%,23.8% having more than ten years
working experience, lastly 1 respondent or 4.8%
having less than 2 years working experience.
Analysis of Safety Principles and Precautions
Factors
This section explains the analysis on the factors of
safety principles and precautions and its degree of
importance in preventing work accidents at
construction sites. There are twelve factors of safety
principles and precautions that were analyzed in the
research which include safety support, maintenance
of project equipments, workers education and
training programming, work instruction and
planning, work place security, system inspection,
implementation of high standard safety programme;
protection by preventing the risk, disciplinary and
workers attitude, emergency support and safety
measuring devices, strict management, and offering
jobs to professional contractors and sub –
contractors.
Discussion of Results
From this analysis the highest rank is protection by
preventing the causes of risk with an average index
of 76.95. Therefore fulfillment of this requirement is
a priority. Respondents’ point of view that safety
supports is another important consideration which
ranked second and considers it more important than
inspection which ranked third. A complete analysis
of results are tabulated in table 1
Conclusion and Recommendations
This study is based on interview with construction
workers from the construction sites in South-western,
Nigeria. The analysis of the interviews showed that
construction workers do not have enough knowledge
about safety principles and precautions at
construction sites. Analysis shows that tools
problem, psychological factor, health problem,
Page 232
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
workmanship and material standard factor,
contingencies and corporate code of health and safety
management are the major factors causing
occupational hazards. Further analysis shows that the
awareness level of the industry is very poor. About
5 of the industry’s workforce is lost annually due
to death and permanent injuries suffered on site.
Regrettably, the industry continues to witness
depreciating quality of its practitioners, while influx
of workers has dropped beyond 17 recently. It is
thereby recommended that:
1. Establishment of standards for material and
labour based on current forms of materials and
labour as peculiar to the industry even when they
are closely related to those in other countries.
Professional bodies and construction
multinationals should be involved in researches
and create standard reference literature / analysis.
2. There should be special focus on formal training
programmes regarding safety principles and
precautions to minimize construction accidents.
Moreover, the companies can interact with the
worker’s and control their behaviours towards
safety principles and precautions. This action can
help to improve their attitudes towards safety
issues.
3. Safety should be integrated into contractor
selection and procurement laws. Constructors
should not bid if adequate measures or
commitment is not provided. Clients should be
avoided if not omitted too.
4. Worker’s motivation should be proactively
looked into and address situation of cultural
misalignment cocooning or polarizing the
industry toward unreasonable bias for
professionals only.
5. Planning safety equipment, safety supports,
system and facility including the budget should
be made at the design stage.
6. There are also financial problems, which often
become an excuse for contractors to ignore their
obligations toward providing safety equipments
and executing safety procedures. Therefore,
allocation concerning safety must be included at
the design stage and Engineer Estimate.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
7. It is imperative to establish a Government Agency
to supervise and control the implementation of
safety principles and precautions in construction.
Such agency, which is attributed with bigger
authority to take stern measures and give
sanctions against contractors/companies violating
the rules.
References
Abd. Majid, M. Z, and Mc Caffer, R. (1997):
Assessment of Work Performance of
Maintenance Contractors in Saudi Arabia.
Journal of Management in Engineering, ASCE.
13(5):91
Al-Hazmi, M. (1987): Causes of Delay in Large
Building Construction Projects. MS Thesis, King
Fahd Univ. of Pet .& Minerals, Dhahram, Saudi
Arabia.
Ardan, M. (1997): Indentifikasi dan Analisis
Kecolakaan Kerja Fatal Proyek Koustmks,
Geding di Indonesia. Institut Teknologi
Boundung: Thesis Ph.D.
Olatunji, O. A., and Bashorun, N. (2006): A System
View of the Labour Profile Structure of the
Construction Industry in the Developing
Countries; Nigeria, a case study. Accepted for
presentation and publication as proceedings at the
International Conference in the Built
Environmental in the 21st Century (ICIBE 2006),
Renaissance Kuala Lumpur Hotel, Mlaysia (13th –
15th June 2006).
National Population Commission (2007): 2006
Population and Housing Census Result.
http://www.onlinenigeria.com/404.asp?404;
http://www.onlinenigeria.com/news/nigpopulatio
n.asp. Access Feb., 10, 2009.
Poon, J. (2004): Development of an expert system
modeling the Construction Process. Journal of
Construction Research, 5(IP), 125-138.
Rea, Louis, M., and Parker, Richard, A. (1997):
Designing and Conducting Survey Research.
Second Edition. San Francisco: Jossey Bass
Publisher.
Safari A. (2003): Procedure Penelitian. Jakarta: PT.
Rineka Gpta.
Page 233
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Problem Formulation

Determine the Objective

and Purpose Research

Safety Principles and Precautions

Pilot Study

Case study:
• To determine the level of
adherence to safety principle
Questionnaire Survey
and precautions.
• To identify construction sites
accidents and causes. Develop Questionnaire
• To identify the certainty of the
use of registered engineers and
Data Collection and
other professionals.
Spreading Questionnaire

Data Analysis
Likert Scale
Average Index
Qualitative & Descriptive Method

Develop List of Depth Question

In-depth Interview & Observation

Data Analysis
Descriptive Analysis

Discussion

Research Conclusion and Recommendations

Figure 1: The Research Methodology

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 234
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 2: Respondents Educational Background Group (N = 21)

4.8%
23.8% 14.3%

57.1%

Fig. 3: Respondents’ Work Experience (N = 21)

Table 1: Respondents’ rating of safety principles and precautions factors in construction.

S/N Factor Average Index Ranking
1 Providing Safety Supports 75.62 2
2 Maintenance of Project Equipment 66.91 12
3 Workers Education & Training Programme 67.62 11
4 Work Instruction and Planning 72.62 8
5 Work Place Security System 75.00 5
6 Inspection 75.62 3
7 Implementation of High Standard Safety Programme 74.92 6
Protection by Preventing the Cause of Risk
8 Disciplinary and Workers Attitude 76.92 1
9 Supporting of safety and Safety 75.24 4
10 Measuring Devices 73.14 7
Strict Management
11 Offering jobs to Professional Contractors and Sub- 70.48 10
12 contractors 72.38 9

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 235
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Egunlae,
Egunlae, O. O
(2009), 5 (1) : 236
236 - 240
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Electro-Winning of Zinc from Abakaliki Lead-Zinc Sulphide Ore
Egunlae O.O
Mineral Resources Engineering Department
Federal Polytechnic, P.M.B 5351, Ado Ekiti
e-mail: olawaleegunlae@yahoo.com
Abstract
The result of the laboratory investigation on the electrowinning of Zinc from the Abakaliki complex lead-Zinc
sulphide ore is reported in this paper. The report covers the mineral processing and hydrometallurgical
extraction processes involved, from the crushing of the ore to the electrolysis of ZnSO4 pregnant solution. The
chemical analysis shows that the ore contains sulphides of Pb, Zn, Cd, As, Ag, Cu as the major constituents
while SiO2, Na2O and K2O are present in quartz. The ore was concentrated by froth flotation and ZnS
concentrate was roasted in abundant air atmosphere. The roast was leached in sulphuric acid for two weeks
with periodical heating. The electrolytic cell was set up using graphite anode and pure rolled Zinc rod cathode
and was operated at varying conditions of 1~3M concentration of electrolyte, 5~25cm anode – cathode
separation distance and 4~12V applied voltage, from which an optimum deposition of 0.83g of Zinc (98.97%
purity was obtained after 10 minutes of electro-winning at 1Ampere and 12V applied voltage. The method could
be found suitable in boosting the local production of Zn metal, as to meet with the high daily demand and hence
bring down the cost of zinc alloys and zinc coated materials such as galvanized steel sheets.

Keywords: Electro-winning, Zinc, sulphide ore, flotation, roasting, leaching

Introduction excess of air in order to effect chemical

Zinc does not occur in the natural state. Very often,
zinc and lead are found together in the complex
sulphide ore. The lead bearing ore is galena (PbS)
while the zinc ore is sphalerite (ZnS). Zinc metal can
also be found in zincite ZnO, calamine ZnCO3,
smithsonite (ZnCO3), hemimorphite (Zn4Si2O 7),
franklinite ZnO.Fe2O3 and siliceous zinc ore
Zn2S1O4. H2O. Sphalerite and galena do occur
separately but are generally associated as in the case
of mineralised Abakaliki sulphide ores (Hicks 1978,
Gill, 1980; Fayose, 1987; Onyemaobi 2001). The
commonest source of zinc and lead in Nigeria has
been the recycling from discarded battery cells. This
accounts for the high cost of the metals and their
products in the country (Onyemaobi, 1995; Egunlae
et al, 2002). Zinc metal is of crucial importance and
commands large industrial demand in the iron and
steel industries especially for galvanizing, die-casting
and alloying with cooper. Zinc die castings are used
in automobile carburettors, pumps and hubcaps.
Rolled zinc is used for glass jar tops, dry cell cans
and in precipitating gold. To this end, investigations
are made on finding various suitable and profitable
metallurgical processes (Egunlae et al, 2006a;
Adeloye et al, 2006; Oluwaseyi and Egunlae, 2007;
Egunlae and Oluwaseyi, 2007) to exploit the
abundant mineral reserves that are only mined for
exportation.
Production of zinc usually involves an interwoven
route involving pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy and
electrometallurgy. The complex Zinc ore is best
concentrated by froth flotation (Onyemaobi 1989 and
1990; Egunlae et al, 2006b). The roasting process
involves heating the ore below its fusing point with
transformation from Zinc sulphide to Zinc oxide
which usually takes place at temperature about
1200oC~ 1300oC suitable for leaching in dilute acid
(EMSE, 1986; Adeloye et al, 2006)
In the hydrometallurgical method, the key processes
or steps take place in liquid phase usually
predominantly of aqueous solution. The method
involves two basic unit processes leaching or
dissolution of valuable metal containing solid and the
subsequent isolation and recovery of these metal
values (Egunlae et al, 2006a; Adeloye et al, 2006;
Oluwaseyi and Egunlae 2007; Egunlae and
Oluwaseyi 2007). The products may be of a high
purity like Zinc as produced in a leached – electro
winning circuit or as impure, requiring upgrading as
in the Merrill – Crowe using Zinc dust to cement.
The purification or concentration of leaching of leach
liquor may be achieved be decantation, thickening or
filtration. The process of electro-winning of Zinc was
developed as early as 1915 for leaching complex ores
(Blick 1982, EMSE 1986).
Like other sphalerite ores, Abakaliki ore can be
treated by gravity concentration methods such as
jigging, froth flotation and tabling, since the ore is
predominantly of galena and sphalerite with other
mineral associates including, mica, feldspar, biotite,
talc and quartz. (Onyemaobi 1989 and 1990; Egunlae
et al, 2006b). Pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy
are both applicable to lead and zinc which occur
together. In the former, the ore is roasted and smelted
in either a blast furnace or retort; zinc is volatised
and condensed to liquid before it is cast into slab.
Based on the established works of Smitt et al, 1979;
Cole et al, 1981 and 1983; and Lee, 1985 using three

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 236
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
types of electrolytes: as-leached solution, solution
purified with H3PO4 and the solution purified with
H2SO4 to understudy the effectiveness of purification
method. Though, Dahnke et al, 1986 had discussed
on the suitable method for Fe removal as an insoluble
ferric phosphate (FePO4) compound. An effective
oxidative leaching- electro winning method to
recover high purity Pb and elemental sulphur So from
PbS concentrate was developed by Lee et al, 1986 in
which PbS concentrate was leached in waste H2SiF6
with H2O2 and PbO2 was used as oxidants. Lee et al,
1990 reported the electro winning of Pb from PbSiF6
electrolyte.
Electro-winning is an electro-deposition method of
depositing metals by the principle electrolysis, such
as in electroplating (Egunlae et al, 2005; Egunlae and
Adewuyi, 2008; Adewuyi and Egunlae, 2008),
anodising (Egunlae and Kutelu, 2008), and
electroforming.
In this work, electrolytic extraction of zinc is
approached by digestion of pre-roasted zinc
concentrate in sulphuric acid. The electrolytic cell is
set up using graphite anode and pure rolled Zinc rod
cathode and operated at varying conditions of
concentration of electrolyte, anode – cathode
separation distance, current density, applied voltage
and time. All other impurities were removed from the
solution when the zinc was electrolytically won and
deposited. The objective of the study therefore is to
process and extract zinc metal from
Materials and Method
Experimental Procedure
The as-mined complex lead-zinc sulphide ore was
obtained from Minerallex Ltd. Abakaliki in Ebonyin
State. The graphite anode is got from scrap of
transistor radio component, zinc cathode was cast
from the discarded zinc cans from dry cells.
5000g of the as-mined ore was weighed, crushed and
ground by using the Denver jaw crusher and ball mil
respectively. The ore was sieved and separated to -
212 +75µm particle sizes and -300 +212µm particle
sizes using a set of five sieve apertures (425µm,
300µm, 212µm, 150µm and 75µm). About 10g of
the ore was weighed out for chemical analysis
3000g of ore was weighed and separated by froth
flotation using Denver D.12 flotation machine. The
flotation was done at 35% pulp density while frother
SS, copper sulphate solution, NaOH and potassium-
amyl-xanthate were used as floating reagents.
Sphalerite was recovered as concentrate while galena
and other impurities were depressed as tailings,
whereas about 87.6% separation efficiency was
obtained. 800g of -212 +75µm (regarded as fine size)
concentrate was roasted to a constant weight in an
electric furnace at 700~800oC for 3hrs under air
atmosphere. The ore was removed from the furnace,
cooled to room temperature and reweighed. The
weight loss method was used to assess the volatile
matter content of the ore. About 720g of the roasted
concentrate was weighed out and divided into four
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
portions designated as A, B, C and D, each
containing about 180g of fine ore roast.
The leachant H2SO4 (s.g =1.835, 98% purity) was
prepared into four different molar solutions of 1M,
2M, 3M and 18.35M. Four portions of 180g of
samples designated as A, B, C, and D were weighed
and leached in plastic cylinders containing 1M, 2M,
3M and 18.35M of H2SO4 solutions respectively and
maintained at pH = 3~3.5. Agitation and heat were
applied intermittently to enhance faster leaching
process. The leached ZnSO4 liquors were filtered
after 14days and were taken for chemical analysis.
A simple electrolytic cell for the experiment was
designed and constructed with the following features;
anode (graphite rod), Cathode (zinc rod) and a cell
(Vat) of 300mm x 100mm x 100mm electrolytic bath
made of Poly-vinyl-chloride material containing
1000cm3 of leached liquor. From the result of
analysis of the four acid leached liquors (A, B, C and
D), the solution with the highest Zn dissolution value
was selected and used as electrolyte in the
subsequent electro-winning processes. The
electrolysis was set up at room temperature. The
initial weight of cathode was measured to 2 decimal
places using the chemical balance, before the
terminals of the d.c power source were connected.
The electro-winning cell bath was filled with the
pregnant solution and organic additives. Gum-Arabic
was added to improve on the throwing power of the
electrolyte and the adhesion of zinc metal to cathode.
The circuit was closed for 10 minutes after which the
cathodes was removed and reweighed to determine
the weight gain (g). The Zn concentration in leached
(pregnant) solution, spent (barren) solution and
electro-won metal were analyzed using the AAS. The
optimum parameters for electro-winning zinc metal
from Abakaliki ore were determined by repeating the
experiments varying electrode separation from
5cm~25cm, voltage of 4V~12V using three molar
solutions (1M, 2M and 3M) of leached liquor.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 presents the result of the chemical analysis of
the ore sample using AAS method. The analysis
shows that the ore contains high quantity
(225.32ppm) of ZnS. The report of petrological
studies of the ore (Egunlae et al, 2006b) revealed
large content of Zn and Pb, and in addition; Cd, As
and Ag were identified as the components of the ore
from the AAS analysis. The amenability of the ore to
roasting is presented by the fine particle sizes used in
the work. The roasting released about 3.1% volatile
matters. The report (Adeloye et al, 2006; Egunlae et
al, 2006a; Oluwaseyi and Egunlae, 2007) had
revealed that the process could be assed as been
efficient since most previous records sulphide
roasting varied from 2.85~3.85% weight loss after
roasting. The environment (air atmosphere) under
which the roasting was done allowed high
oxygenation of the sulphide ore to be obtained.
Hence, three possible reactions might have occurred
during roasting operation which are oxidizing
Page 237
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
roasting (the burning out of sulphur from sulphide
ore which are then replaced wholly or in part by the
oxide), sulphating roast (the conversion of certain
metallic sulphides to sulphate) and volatizing roast
(which eliminates all other elements with volatile
oxides As2O3, Sb2O3) as represented in the equations
below.
2ZnS (s)+ 3O2 (g) =2ZnO(s)+2SO2 (g) (1)
ZnS (s)+2O2 (g)= ZnSO4(s) (2)
2As (s)+ 3/2O2 (g)= As2O3 (3)
The 700oC~800oC roasting temperature was found
suitable in the present case, heating to higher
temperatures of about 1200oC~1,300o C becomes
insignificant on Zinc dissolution since zinc sulphide
concentrate may be leached directly as indicated in
the chemical equation.
ZnS(s)+H2SO4(aq) =ZnSO4(aq)+H2S(g) (4)
Observation revealed that the leaching environment
was saturated with the repulsive rotten egg odour
suggesting the release of poisonous H2S. H2S should
be controlled.
Table 3 compares the leaching behaviour of PbO
and ZnO in the three different molar concentrations
of H2SO4. More of zinc dissolves into the solution at
increasing concentration of the acid up to 3M while
less of Pb was dissolved. The leaching became
optimum at 3M as more Zinc dissolves into the
leachant.
Though, both metal oxides PbO and ZnO are
amphoteric in nature, they can react with both acids
and bases yielding salt and water, the reaction of
PbO with sulphuric acid yields lead sulphate salt
which is very much insoluble in water. This forms
layer of coat around the oxide particle. The formed
salt is not permeable to the acid; hence the reaction is
retarded and aborted before substantial amount
dissolution takes place. The use of high pressure and
temperature in the sulphuric acid leaching can reduce
this effect. Also, the low dissolution of lead is due to
its lower position in electrochemical and activity
series. Since lead is lower than zinc, zinc therefore
shows more aggressiveness in sulphuric acid than
lead. This accounts for the reason why Zinc oxide
dissolved more in the leachant than lead oxide. The
dissolution of both metals was not favoured when
concentrated (11.5M) acid was used. This evidently
revealed that activity of ion increases at lower
concentrations of the aqueous solutions than
concentrated solutions.
From the result of the chemical analysis of the spent
solution and the electro-won metal in Table 4, it is
evident that the resulting spent solution contains
more of the associated metal impurities than zinc.
This was characterized by the position of Zn in the
electrochemical series. In this case metal of higher
electro potential enters into solution while those of
lower electro-potentials are deposited as sludge. And
for the fact that cold, concentrated H2SO4 in the
complete absence of water is not attacked by metals.
The use of intermittent heat makes H2SO4 (when hot
and concentrated) acts as an acceptor of electrons
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
while the electron are supplied by the reducing
agents concerned in the reaction.
H 2SO4 (aq )+2e-= SO4- (aq)+2H2O +SO2 (g) (5)
The present study incorporates the use of graphite
anode and Zinc cathode in a PVC plastic vessel as
compares with the lead – Silver alloy anode, and
cathode of aluminium sheet in lead – zinc
concentrate cell generally common on commercial
practice (Egunlae et al, 2005; Egunlae and Adewuyi,
2008; Egunlae and Kutelu, 2008))
In an electrowinning cell, non metal (anion)
generally undergoes oxidation at the anode to give
gaseous product there is dissolution o impure anode.
The theoretical voltage require to deposit Zinc from
Zinc Sulphate solution in about twice the voltage
usable to compose water, and the electrolysis at the
voltage may result in the generation of H2 gas at the
cathode. Since Zinc cathode is used in this study, the
over- voltage prevents the release of hydrogen gas
and hence Zinc is favourably deposited.
Though, purification of ZnSO4 is a critical step
before electrolysis to eliminate or reduce the effect of
impurities (such as Cu, Cd, Co, and host of others
which are largely present in the leached liquor),
which could interfere with the electrolysis or
contaminate the Zinc product, the products and
course of electrolysis may also depend largely on the
following factors such as: the nature of electrode use
(anode and cathode), the concentration of electrolyte
and the position of ions in the electrochemical series.
Hence the overall results will be largely controlled
by the preferential discharge of ions in the
electrolytic process. Metallic and non metallic ions
of elements higher in the activity series become more
stable in solution are there below then. It becomes
more evident that in a multi-component as-leached
liquor as it was obtained from the Abakaliki Zinc
ore, some metals such as Al, Mg, Ca, Na and K
which are more electropositive than Zinc enter into
solution as the electropositive metals such as Pb,Cu,
Fe, Ag, Sn and Cd are precipitated as sludge.
In Table 5, the effect of varying the working
electrode distance (Es) on the weight gained by
cathode when an applied voltage of 6V was used was
examined on the three different concentrations of
acid leached solution. The result shows that at lower
H2SO4 concentration (1M) of acid leached solution,
there was decrease in the cathode weight gain as the
anode- cathode separation increases. Though,
solutions possess high ionic activity at lower
concentrations, the amount of metal deposition tends
to be affected and controlled by the increasing
polarization resistance of the solution as the Es
increases. Higher values of weight gain were
obtained when the cell was operated at higher H2SO4
concentrations (2M and 3M) of acid leached
solution. This is because amount of dissolved metals
are higher than that obtained in the lower H2SO4
concentration of acid leached solution which
balances up the effect of increase in polarization
resistance at higher Es values.
Page 238
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 6 presents the result of the effect of increasing
applied voltage (4~12v) on the electro-winning of
Zinc from the solution when the operation condition
was set at 1.0 ampere, 2M concentration of leached
solution.
Es = 20cm and 10minutes electro-winning time at
room temperature.
The results reveal that the deposition of Zn at the
cathode increases with increase in applied voltage.
This conforms to the ohm’s law V=IR and Faraday’s
law M ∝ Q, knowing that Q =It. Where Q= electric
charge, I= current, t= time and R= resistance
Observation during the experiment showed that as
the applied voltage exceeded 6V, though, the
deposition increased, but were of powdery form
rather that metallic Zinc as compared with the lower
voltages of 4V and 6V.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The result revealed that the H2SO4 leachant favoured
the digestion of Zinc oxide more than that of lead
oxide hence giving more advantage to Zn recovery.
Different leachants should be used with more
oxidants and catalysts to increase the digestion of
zinc oxide. Also, more electrometallurgical
techniques should be used as this, will help in
increasing the local research information available on
lead production in the country. Since the recycling of
zinc from discarded dry cell cannot meet the demand
for zinc metal in Nigeria, more efforts should be
shown toward zinc production by hydrometallurgical
route and electrometallurgical processes.
References
Adeloye A.O, Egunlae O.O, and Oloruntoba D.T.
(2006) Recovery of Lead and Zinc from
Abakaliki Complex Ore Using HF, HCl And
H2SO4 Agitation leaching Method. Journal of
Engineering and Earth Sciences (JEES), (1): 17-
23.
Adewuyi B.O and Egunlae O.O (2008) Corrosion
characteristics of copper plated steels in active
corrosive media. Journal of Engineering and
Earth Sciences (JEES), 3(1):29-35.
Blick J (1982) Electro-winning of Non Ferrous
Metals 2nd Edition Macmillan Press, London.
Cole E.R. Lee A.Y and Paulson D.L (1981)
Production of lead from sulphides U.S Patent
4,500, 398, June 9, 1981.
Cole E.R, Lee A.Y, Paulson D.L (1983) Recovery of
Lead From Battery Sludge. Journal of Metallurgy,
35(8) [42-46]
Dahnke D.R, Twidwell L.G and Robins R. G. (1986)
selective flotation of iron from process solution
by phosphate precipitation. C.I.M 16th Annual
Hydro.Met Int.Symp. on Iron control Toronto,
Canada Oct 19 – 22, 1986.
Egunlae O.O, Adeloye A.O And Oloruntoba D.T.
(2002) Thermal recovery of lead from scrap
battery. Proceedings of Nigerian Materials
Congress and NMS meetings (NIMACON-2002
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Akure) Nov 11-13, 2002. 1(1): 117-119, EMDI,
Akure.
Egunlae O.O, Fasuba O.A, and Oloruntoba D.T.
(2005) Influence of chlorides and organic
additives on maintaining the brightening
characteristics of copper electroplate on Nigerian
low carbon NST50 2 Steel. Proceedings of 1st
Engineering Forum Nov 7-11,2005, SOE,FPA
Ado Ekiti.
Egunlae O.O, Obisesan P.O and Adeloye A.O
(2006a) Lithium recovery from Ekiti clays.
Nigeria Journal of Engineering Management
(NJEM) 7(4): 46-52 NIEM/Besade
Egunlae O.O, Adeloye A.O And Oloruntoba D.T.
(2006b) Selective Flotation of Galena from
Abakaliki Lead-Zinc Sulphide Ore using Local
Plant Oils. Journal of Engineering and Earth
Sciences (JEES), 1(1): 57-65.
Egunlae O.O and Oluwaseyi A.O (2007). Leaching
Ilesha gold-silver ore with NaCN, Thiourea And
Agro-Cyanide under similar hydrometallurgical
conditions. Journal of Engineering and Earth
Sciences (JEES), 2(1): 96-102.
Egunlae O.O and Kutelu B.J (2008). Design and
construction of a laboratory size anodizing cell.
Proceedings of 4th Engineering Forum Oct, 14-
17,2008. 4(1): 109-113.
Egunlae O.O and Adewuyi B.O (2008)
Determination of plating parameter of steels in
acid sulphate bath. Journal of Engineering and
Earth Sciences (JEES), 3(1):42-48.
Encyclopaedia of Material Science and Engineering
(ESME) (1986) vol. 2. pg 1444
Fayose E. A (1987) Mineral Raw Materials in
Nigeria’s National Development Annual Lecture
Series No 5, FUT, Akure
Gill C.B. (1980) Non Ferrous Extractive Metallurgy,
Willy And Sons Inc. Canada.
Hicks J (1978 ) Comprehensive Chemistry. 3rd
Edition, Macmillan, U.S.A.
Lee A.Y (1985) Electrowinning Of Lead From
H2SiF6 Solution, U.S Patent 4,500,340 Feb. 19,
1985.
Lee Agnes. Y, Ann. M Wethington . Ernest R. Cole
Jr (1986) Hydrometallurgical Process for
Producing Lead And Elemental Sulphur From
Galena Concentrate, Bureau of Mines RI9055,
Pp13.
Lee A. Y Wethintingbon A.M and Cole E.R.Jr.
(1990) Pressure leaching of galena concentrate to
recover lead metal and elemental sulphur,
BuMine RI 9314, USA
Oluwaseyi A.O and Egunlae O.O (2007). Alkaline
leaching characteristics of Nigerian lead-zinc
sulphide ore. Journal of Engineering and Earth
Sciences (JEES), 2(1): 6-11, SOE, FPA Ado
Ekiti.
Onyemaobi O.O (1989) Flotability of Ishiagu galena
as raw materials for smelters, Nigerian Journal of
Applied Science, Vol 8, pp93-101
Onyemaobi O.O (1990) Evaluation of flotation
performance of Nigeria’s (ZnS) sphalerite w/o
Page 239
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
action by copper, Ife Journal of Technology, Vol The Nigeria Society Of Engineers, 2001 National
2, No 2, pp21-25 Conference and Annual General Meetings. Port
Onyemaobi O.O (1995) Production processes for Harcourt, Nov 5-9, 2001.
lead recycling from lead battery scraps Nigeria Smitt L.L. Sandberg R.G and Cole E.R.Jr. (1979)
Society Of Engineers Tech Transactions, Vol 30 Method of production a lead oxide coated anode
No 3, pp 1-7 Us. Pat 44,159, 231 June 16,1979.
Onyemaobi O.O (2001) Sustainable National
Mineral Resources Development Proceedings of

Table 1. Chemical analysis of ore using Atomic absorption spectrometer.

Metals Sb Pb Zn Fe As Cd Cu Au V
Conc.ppm 50.25 517.43 225.32 194.8 12.4 99.26 38.37 46.61 6.85
Metals Co Ni Ag Sn Na Mg K Al Ca Si
Conc.ppm 4.9 36.2 12.4 22.6 136.9 3.21 205.6 701.0 63.6 1587.8

Table 2. Effect of roasting on the fine ore concentrate.

Particle size Initial wt (g) Final wt (g) Wt loss (g) %Volatile matter.
(-212+75µm) 800g 774.0 26.0 3.1

Table 3. Chemical analysis of Pb and Zn in pregnant solutions (leach liquor) prepared from 1M, 2M, 3M and
18.35M H2SO4.
H2SO4 molarity Concentration (ppm) Concentration (ppm)
Zn Pb
1M 62.50 10.39
2M 65.78 10.11
3M 66.61 9.22
18.35M 47.67 8.06

Table 4. Chemical analysis of spent solution and electro-won metal.

Metals Concentration (ppm) Concentration (%)
Ss Em Ss Em
Zn 6.06 579.44 6.45 98.97

Pb 75.56 5.72 81.72 0.97

Cu 1.50 0.01 0.0001 0.002
Ag 0.56 0.001 0.009 0.0002
As 2.78 0.001 0.0001 0.0002
Cd 5.22 0.02 0.003 0.003
Ss = spent solution (barren electrolyte Em = Electro-won metal (metal deposition on cathode)

Table 5. The effect of Electrode separation on weight gain of cathode using 6V, 1M, 2M, and 3M solutions
Electrode separation (cm) 5.0 cm 10.0 cm 15.0 cm 20.0 cm 25.0 cm
Weight gain (g) at 1M 0.66 0.61 0.56 0.53 0.41
Weight gain (g) at 2M 0.71 0.68 0.63 0.59 0.44
Weight gain (g) at 3M 0.74 0.71 0.67 0.60 0.51

Table 6: The effect of Applied voltage on weight gain of cathode, using 20cm separation, 1A, 2M leached
solution, time = 10 minutes.
Applied voltage (v) 4V 6V 8V 10V 12V
Weight gain (g) 0.48 0.61 0.68 0.72 0.83

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 240
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Jimoh, B. O

Egunlae, O. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 241 - 244
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Treatment of Waste Sludge from Local Mineral Processing Plants using HMP as Flocculants.

Jimoh, B. O & Egunlae, O. O

Mineral Resources Engineering Dept
Federal Polytechnic P. M. B 5351, Ado – Ekiti.

Abstract
The result of a work done on the treatment of stream water and sludge (effluents) collected from a sand mining
deposit and some mineral processing plants using high molecular polymers (HMP) as flocculants is being
reported in this paper. The water samples were treated with common conventional dewatering methods such as
the use of lime and bentonite. High molecular polymers such as Nalco 7110® and PEO® were also used to
dewater these waste effluents. With the use of 0.02g/l PEO, 0.07g/l Nalco 7110® and 0.05 Percol 333®, the
water clarity and %dewatering were brought to 88, 16, 280 NTU and 55%, 43% respectively after 24hrs. The
dewatered solid could be handled mechanically, was not thioxotropic and hence suitable for landfill.

Keywords: Treatment, sludge, processing plant, high molecular polymers, flocculants, water

Introduction running into the street waterways, while very small

Nigeria is blessed with many mineral resources,
some of which processing have reached the advanced
stages (Onyemaobi, 2001). Iron ore mining and
beneficiation plants are located at Itakpe; cement
industries are found in some parts across the country
such as Ewekoro, Sagamu, Obajana, Sokoto and
Bauchi (Egunlae and Oloruntoba, 2002), glass
industries are located at Igbokoda, Ikorodu etc,
barryte is mined and processed at Azara (Nwoke,
1997), coal at Enugu, tin and kaolin processing at
Jos, limestone and marble cutting and polishing at
Jakura and Lokoja, and vast of many other
metallurgical, mineral processing and extraction
plants.
Many operations in mineral processing and metal
extraction make use of water in very large quantities.
Mineral industries source for water and locate very
close to it. And in the processing of minerals and
some other industrial products, wastewaters
containing ultra – fine particles which have very poor
response to the known conventional physical
separation techniques used in water treatment are
discharged into the water bodies (surface and
underground). These metals and minerals bearing
effluents often result in losses of metal values and on
the other hand, when discharge into water bodies
result to environmental pollution.
The method of impoundment in settling ponds has
not fully helped in the recovery of valuable minerals
and metals, nor the water associated with it. It is also
unfortunate that only few industries in Nigeria use
the impounding and settling ponds, and where these
are constructed, they occupy very large area of land
which are afterward difficult to be reclaimed and
pose environmental hazard such as breeding of
ecologies like bacteria, mosquitoes (carrier of
malaria parasites) and host of others. In the industrial
state like Lagos, Industrial effluents are often seen,
quantities are channelled for treatment.
The vitality and scarcity of good naturally existing
water resources and the need to recover many
valuable metals lost into the industrial effluents, and
the need to meet the standard regulation of WHO on
water have continuously led to many research works
on the determination of the quality and quantity of
unwanted hazardous elements (metals and minerals)
naturally found or resulting from processing
industries and thus also concerned about
investigation on various methods of water treatment
and dewatering method. Among such works were
reported by Pahlman and Khalafalla 1988, Holland
1988, Baker and Siple 1989, Jong et al 1989, Hood
and Smelley 1991, Nilsen et al, 1991, and Jeffers et
all 1991.
The present study considers the treatment of natural
stream water and waste sludge (effluents) from
Nigerian based mineral processing plants using high
molecular polymers as flocculants.
Materials and Methods
Materials collection
Waste effluents (sludge and waste water samples)
were obtained from some quarriable mineral
processing plants such as WAPC Plc, Ewekoro
works, Azara baryte processing plant NMC, Ceramic
workshop of the GCT Department and Mineral
processing workshop MRE Dept Federal Polytechnic
Ado – Ekiti while a water sample was gotten from a
sand mining deposit. The sample were designated as
A, B, C, D and E respectively. Treatment chemicals
such as Mg(OH)2, Lime, alum, bentonite and CaCl2
were supplied by Calgon corporation USA. While
PEO®, Nalco 7110® Percol 333® were obtained from
Oshogbo Steel Rolling Company water scheme,
Oshogbo.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 241
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Experimental Procedure
Small sample of about 5ml were taken from each
water source for chemical analysis by atomic
absorption spectrometric method and the result is
presented in Table 1.
100ml of sludge or water samples were measured in
each case for small scale treatment. The weighed
sample was pre-treated by the addition of specified
quantities of additives and catalysed by mechanical
agitation in a beaker using an impeller. The drops of
aqueous solution of the flocculants were added using
graduated burette.
The mixture was transferred to a magnetic stirring
bar for thorough stirring and to get a consolidation
points for flocculation (The point at which the flocs
move in the beaker as a unit solid mass). The
supernatant water is screened until flocs could be
handled, squeezed or filter-pressed and the volume of
water loss was measured and the solid content of the
flocculated solid was determined. The consumptions
of the flocculants were determined from the burrette
reading and the dosage is calculated in gm/litre of the
effluent.
The mixtures of the samples collected were treated
with various dosages of chemical additives such as
lime, CaCl2, bentonite and with high molecular
weight polymers (Nalco 7110®, Percol 333® and
PEO®). The parameters that were determined include
the water clarity, Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
(NTU), chemical dosage (g/l) and the dewatered
solid waste (%).
Results and Discussion
Results of chemical analyses of as – collected sludge
and water sample are presented in Tables 1a and 1b.
The waste effluents and sludge sample (A, B and C)
were obtained from ceramic-based industry hence
solids in the samples consist mostly of clay, feldspar,
frit silica and baryte. The sludge sample initially
containing about 67% solid was diluted 25% solid
prior to testing. This tend to stimulate the sledge and
to allow the flocculant to structure the floc into a
stronger tougher sludge. The pre-treatment of sludge
with various dosages of bentonite, lime and CaCl2,
readily flocculate with high – molecular weight
polymers and hence there was improvement in
flocculation of the fine solids.
Table 2 shows the result of flocculation using lime,
bentonite and CaCl2. The result shows a similarity in
the behaviours of lime and CaCl2 having equal
dosage consumption. With the application of
bentonite, (9.5g/L) 0.15g/L PEO was used up
bringing the clarity of water from 1320 (NTU) to 560
NTU after 24hrs at 44% dewatering of solid. The
best result was obtained from the use of 0.05g/L PEO
without other additives. The water clarity improved
to 982 NTU at 52% solids.
Table 3 the improvement of water clarity was
perfected by the PEO treatment of the four (4)
effluent samples. They were pre-treated with CaCl2
and bentonite before dewatering with PEO. The rest
results obtained in Table 4 show that the high –
polymer. Flocculation process was effective over the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
sampling range, as sludge containing 48 to 61%
solids and 6 – 8 NTU clarity was produced from the
four water / sludge samples. This result compares
favourably with a close range of conclusion the
similar field test by Hood and Smilley (1991) which
produced a result of 47 – 58% solids and water
clarity or 4 – 20 NTU from set of seven water and
sludge samples used. From the present study, the
results show that these additives can be used in
treating waste effluents from minerals and
metallurgical industries. The dewatered solid could
be handled mechanically was not thioxotropic and
hence suitable for landfill purpose.
Table 3 compares the result of polymer flocculation
test on the four-sludge mixture using PEO®, Nalco®
and percol®. The result shows that PEO® has the best
flocculation result on this mixture based on the
dosage effectiveness. At 0.02g/L PEO® consumption
clarity of 220 NTU and 88 NTU were obtained at
55% dewatering solid immediately and after 24hrs of
treatment. Nalco 7110 shows highest dosage
consumption 0.07g/l and at the least % dewatering of
43%. The use of percol 333® in sludge treatment will
actually produce dewatered solid of high quality
suitable for land fill purpose.
In Table 4, the result of the effect of optimum dosage
of the additives (bentonite and CaCl2) and PEO® in
the treatment of the four sludge samples and a water
sample were examined and compared.
Conclusion
Base on the data obtained from the laboratory
dewatering tests conducted on lime treated sludge
from these mineral plants, three polymers were tested
as flocculants to determine their ability to dewater
the effluents. Among all, PEO® was found to be most
effective and also other additives such as clay,
bentonite and CaCl2 were effectively utilized in pre-
treating the waste sludge prior to dewatering by
PEO® thus improving the water clarity. Based on the
laboratory results obtained, a designed research is
currently proposed for a continuous on – site
dewatering test using these dewatering techniques to
be conducted in these plants.
References
Baker D. A. and Siple J. W. (1989): Method for the
analysis of Mineral chromite and ferrochrome
slag. Bu Mines RT 9240, pp 2 – 16.
Egunlae O.O and Oloruntoba D .T (2002) possibility
of slag cement production in Nigeria.
Proceedings of 2002 Nigeria materials congress
and AGM 2002, NMS- EMDI, Akure Vol1. Nol.
November 2002.
Holland P. W. (1988): An improved method for
Determining Helium in water. Bu Mines PA
28933, pp. 2 – 9
Hood G. D. and Smilley A. G. (1991) : Dewatering
of waste Effluent from a tile manufacturing plant
Bu Mines RI9376, pg 2 - 3
Jeffere T. H., Ferguson C. R., and Bennelt P. G.
(1991): Bio-sorption of metal contaminants
Page 242
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
using immobilized Biomass – A laboratory
study. Bu Mines RI9340
Jong B. W., Rhoads S. C., Stubbs A. M. and
Stoelting T. R. (1989): Recovery of principal
metal values from waste Hydro processing
Catalysts. Bu Mines RI 9252, pp 2 – 3
Nilsen D. N., Jong B. W. and Stubbs A. M. (1991):
Copper Extraction from aqueous solution with
liquid Emulsion membranes: A preliminary
study Bu Mines RI 9375, pp 2 – 7.
Nwoke M. A. U. (1997): Application of some
Nigerian plant oils as fatty acid collectors for
recovery of barite from tailing at Azara. Nig.
Mining Journal Vol. 2, No 1. April 1997
Onyemaobi O.O (2001) Sustainable National
Mineral Resources Development Proceedings Of
The Nigeria Society Of Engineers, 2001
National Conf, And Annual General Meetings.
Port Harcourt, Nov 5-9, 2001
Pahlman J. E. and Khalafalla S. E. (1988): Use of
ligno chemicals and Humic acids to remove
Heavy metals from process waste streams. Bu
Mines RI 9200, pp 1 - 2

Table 1: Chemical analyses of sludge and waste water samples

S/N Constituents Sample Sample Sample Sample
(mg/l) B A C D
1 BaSO4 (mg/l) 60.40 - N.D - N.D - N.D
2 Fe2O3 (mg/l) 4.23 2.29 0.94 1.98
3 S1O2 (mg/l) 17.7 13.37 21.61 32.68
4 Al2O3 (mg/l) 3.83 3.79 4.13 2.31
5 T1O2 (mg/l) 0.004 N.A. 0.012 0.06.
6 MgO (mg/l) 0.35 1.79 0.84 0.73
7 Na2O (mg/l) N.A 0.68 0.92
8 CaO (mg/l) 0.12 41.41 40.2 3.8
9 S1O2 (mg/l) 0.001 N.A N.A N.A
10 K2O (mg/l) N.A 0.31 0.64 N.A
11 Pb+ (mg/l) - N.A 1.01
12 Zn +(mg/l) - N.A 0.42
13 Trace metals - 0.27
14 Total CO3 - 77.67
15 SO3 - N.A -
N.A = Not Available. N.D = Not Detected

Table 1b: Analysis of natural stream water sample from sand mining site (Ado, WHO)
Sample SO4 TUR Colour pH Alkalinity K Na Ca Mg Cu Fe Cl TDS
WHO 500 50 50 6.5-9.2 500 20 200 200 150 0.1 0.1 250 1000
Ado 49 10 40 6.9 90.1 22 10.2 15.24 25.79 0.09 0.05 200

Table 2: Result of lime tests on sludge mixture

Additives Additive PEO Separation Separation Dewatered
dosage (g/l) (g/l) Immediate After 24hrs solid (%)
Lime 2.40 0.4 NS NS NS
(Clay) bentonite 9.50 0.15 1,320 560 44
CaCl2 2.40 0.2 NS NS N.S
No-additive - 0.05 1,380 982 52
N.S. = No Separation.

Table 3: Result of polymer flocculation test on sludge mixture

Polymer Polymer dosage Separation Separation Dewatered solid
additive (g/l) Immediate After 24hrs (%)
PEO® 0.02 2.20 88 55
Nalco 7110® 0.07 400 16 43
Percol 333® 0.05 640 280 74

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 243
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Table 4: Results of the optimum dosages of additives on the four sludge samples
Sample Initial Additive Dosage PEO® NTU NTU Dewatered
solids bentonite CaCl2 g/l Immediate After solid (%)
(%) (g/l) (g/l) 24hrs
A 2.1 1.2 1.2 0.02 125 7 53
B 3.1 1.2 1.2 0.04 480 6 61
C 0.7 1.2 1.18 0.03 98 8 48
D 0.8 1.2 1.16 0.02 32 8 50
E 0.3 1.2 1.2 0.02 15 2 7

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 244
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Egunlae, O. O
(2009), 5 (1) : 245 - 250
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Assessment of Foundry Slag for Cement Production in Nigeria

Egunlae, O.O
Mineral Resources Engineering Department
Federal Polytechnic, P.M.B 5351, Ado Ekiti
e-mail: olawaleegunlae@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The development of cement industry is one of the vital machinery for the growth and development of a
developing nation such as Nigeria. In the recent years, there is daily hike in the price of cement, resulting from
the shortage of production, increased demand and the limitation to the single type of ordinary Portland cement
(OPC) produced in the country. This study discusses the need for the diversification, in sourcing and the use of
to other locally available raw materials for the production of other cement production types such as slag cement
and so on. The study also presents some of the local source, types, estimated quantity of slag and the chemical
analyses of some selected slag products from some metallurgical industries in Nigeria. The paper compares the
chemical characteristics of selected local foundry slag (LFS) samples with some existing commercial cement
products. The result obtained indicates that some of the slag samples possess very close and similar chemical
composition to commercial OPC and blast furnace slag (BFS). Therefore, the present study presents LFS as
suitable raw material for foundry slag cement (FSC) manufacture or as an admixture to OPC prior to the iron
and BFS production from the Ajaokuta Iron ands Steel Complex plant.

Keywords: Foundry slag, Foundry Slag Cement, Portland cement, Production, Nigeria

Introduction Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) cement, High Alumina

Cement and mortal are very important building
materials. Cement is the general name given to
various mixtures of aluminates, silicates and clay
while mortal is produced, by mixing slaked lime with
sand and water. The historic application of mortals in
building is as old as man and some ruins of such
ancient archaeological monuments could still be seen
in some countries till date. The trend of development
of cement began with the detection of a typical
mortal referred to as Ordinary Portland Cement, the
patent granted to Joseph Aspidin (a builder of Leeds
in England in 1824) for the cement produced by
firing a carefully proportioned mixture of limestone
and clay. The modern Ordinary Portland Cement first
produced in 1845 was in every respect different from
Aspidin’s product, which was produced at higher
temperature to complete the chemical and physical
transformation (Taylor 1964; Halley 1965)
In Nigeria, the Ordinary Portland Cement is covered
by the Nigeria Standard (NIS II), the only type of
cement produce by all cement manufacturers in
Nigeria apart from WAPC Plc, which also
manufacture coloured cement. The Ordinary Portland
Cement is obtained by pulverizing clinker (partially
fused materials consisting CaO, SiO2, Al2O3 and
Fe2O3) and gypsum as the only additives.
Conferences have been called at various times by the
association of cement manufactures in Nigeria on
discussing the need to revise specification of (NIS II)
for more flexibility and introduce the manufacture of
other types of cement in Nigeria. In the developed
countries, other special cement such as rapid
hardening Portland cement, Sulphate resisting P.C.,
Cement (HAC), Super Sulphate cement (SSC),
Magnesium Oxychloride cement (MOC), white and
coloured cements, all which in most case differ
mainly in their processing rather than their raw
materials. In India, the Central Road Research
Institute CRRI developed a Rapid Setting
Magnesium Phosphate Cement RSMPC for quick
repair (work) of concrete pavement which can be put
to use after 4~5 hours of amendment.
Phosphogypsum (PG) is an industrial bye product
from phosphoric acid production which was
integrand with blast furnace slag (BFS), anhydrate
gypsum and O.P.C clinker or lime supersulphated
cements, which show very high resistance to
seawater (Agbazue 1988 and 1992; Seehra et al,
1993; ACI 1995; ASTM 2001; Eldem and Olmez,
1993). The blast furnace slag is commonly and
conventionally used in the making of slag cement
with various combinations of other additives. In
some slag cements certain salts may be added to
accelerate the setting time (Matusinovic and Curlin
1993). The Portland type blast furnace cement is
made by inter-grinding cement clinkers and
granulated blast furnace slag in stipulated proportion.
Agbazue (1992) discussed that slag based cement can
be used for general concrete construction having
economic advantages such as low cost, and low heat
of hydration in application.
In recent years, the cost of production of cement has
continued to increase, which is associated with many
economic and technical factors such as the rising cost
of industrial inputs, spare parts and mining
machinery. Perhaps due to escalated foreign

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 245
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
exchange of Nigeria currency, many Nigerian cement
manufacturing and allied companies have witness
hardship in survival while some are out of operation.
Most Nigerian cement manufacturing industries
production reports go below the daily demand of the
customers or consumers and this result in shortage
and price skyrocketing of cement products in
Nigeria. (Daggash 1997, Agbazue 1992)
It seems that not so much work and focus have been
given to the development of other cement product
type such as slag cement, HAC, SSC and Pozolanas
which could be made from the vast raw materials
available in the country. This might not be far fetch
from the problem such as lack of technical expertise
and equipment. Ali 1997 and Dagash 1997 identified
many other problems that associate with the sourcing
of raw materials for cement industries which include:
(a) capital (b) mining and processing (c) existing
cumbersome mining laws and NIS-specification, and
(d) environmental factors.This has made building of
houses and other industrial infrastructure become
serious problems for low-income workers. Hence the
urgent need to source other locally available
materials and develop them to produce other cement
products to compliment Ordinary Portland Cement.
Nigeria geological surveys exploration and other
reports since early 1900 revealed the discovery of
many large deposits of basic raw materials necessary
for cement manufacturing (Fayose 1987; Onyemaobi
2001; Arogundade 2004). Over 2 billion tones of
calcareous materials (limestone, marbles, chalk,
dolomite, calcite) are widely distributed across the
country. The argillaceous materials such as clays are
available in various forms as feldspar, kaolin,
fireclay, potash clays and shale, silica, quarts and
glass sands.
The availability of slag could be traced to nearly all
communities (towns-rural or urban cities) in the
country. Slag is waste product obtained from
smelting foundry, remelting and firing processes.
There are many small-scale local foundry and
smithers’ shops working on non-ferrous metals and
ferrous metals. These shops produce several tones of
slag from their operations per annum, which are
discarded as wastes (Egunlae and Oloruntoba, 2002)
Larger quantities of slag from bigger metallurgical
firms are sometimes used in land refill. The summary
of the local sources of slag in Nigeria and the partial
estimated quantity per annum is presented in Table 1.
Then, the operation of pig iron production blast
furnace is expected to yield not less than 725,000
thousand tonnes/yr of blast furnace slag annually,
which may initiate the large commercial production
of different types of blast furnace slag cements (The
Crust, 2003). Until then, there is need to have
developed, manufacture and study the application of
slag cement from over hundred to million tones of
our wasting local foundry slag. The objective of the
study therefore is to assess the foundry slag in view
to exploiting it for slag cement production prior to
commencement of operation of the pig iron
production from the blast furnace at Ajaokuta.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Materials and Method
Questionnaires were prepared and sent to some
metallurgical industries to know the types of raw
materials handled and to determine the estimated
quantity of the by-products (slag). In addition, slag
samples were collected on-spot during the skimming
and from the slag pits after the casting operations at
six company and are designated as samples 1,2,3,4,5
and 6. The skimmed slags were granulated and water
cooled.
The sample were crushed and ground to -63µm fine
size using the Denver type laboratory jaw crusher,
ball mill and electric sieve shaker respectively. 20g
of each of the six samples was measured out and
analysed to know the chemical composition using the
atomic absorption spectrometric (AAS) method.
Discussion
The results of chemical analysis of six slag samples
using AAS method are presented in Table 2. Fifteen
metallic oxides were identified to be present in large
quantity in the slag samples. Other oxides were
regarded as trace metallic oxides.
The seven major and minor essential oxides that
controls the chemistry of cement clinkering are SiO2,
Al2O3, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, Na2O and K2O. Hence, the
reaction of these oxides at high temperature control
the chemical behaviours of both BFS and OPC
(Agbazue 1988, Gillot and Wang 1993). The analysis
show that of all the slag samples, sample 1 contains
the highest contents of SiO2, Fe2O3 and alkali oxide
(Na2O and K2O) to the tune of 1.69%, 10.26%, 16.52
and 9.02% respectively, with a substantial amount of
Al2O3, CaO and MgO.
Sample 2 has the highest quantities of Al2O3, CaO,
(28.81%) with large amount of SiO2, Fe2O3, Na2O
and K2O. sample 3 and 4 are essentially rich in high
quantities of these vital metal oxides, while sample 5
is noted for the highest MgO (16.12%), K2O(7.99%)
and the least content of other essential five oxides.
The wide variations identified in the chemical
composition of the six slag sample are traceable to
the diversities in the chemical compositions of the
raw materials and assorted metal scraps (usually
obtained from a variety of assorted machine parts,
automobile, agricultural and domestic utensils) , and
in treatment of melt (fluxes, fuels e.t.c.) from which
the slag samples were obtained. (Egunlae et al, 2002;
Lawrence, 1982; Bensted 1993)
The study of the results of chemical analysis in
Table 2, 3 and 4 is an indication that there are wide
differences in the chemical compositions of the
foundry slag in Table 2 as compared with that of
BFS in Table 5 and OPC in Table 4.
Table 3 and 4 show chemical composition (%) of
oxides present in some foreign BFS and a typical
OPC made in Nigeria respectively. The tables reveal
that the amount (%) of the essential oxide SiO2 and
Al2O3 present in the foundry slag is higher than the
required limit in any OPC (Table 4) but compares
Page 246
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
favourably with the limit in the foundry base BFS
(Table 3).
The lower contents of Al2O3 in all slag samples is an
indication of their suitability in mitigating sulphate
attack. It has been established that most common
ways of protecting against sulphate attack is to
reduce the alumina content by limiting Tri-calcium -
aluminates (C3A) in OPC. The use of slag is also an
extremely effective way of reducing the potential
sulphate attack. (ACI 1995; ASTM, 2000; SCA,
2002)
Though the CaO content of all slag sample are high
(16.2 to 28. 81%) yet they are from any commercial
BFS (Table 3) and OPC (Table 4). This may not
likely pose any difficulty on the use of such slag
sample since the CaO contents could be easily raised
to higher values by the addition of calcareous
materials such as lime (CaO) (Gillot and Wang
1993,)
All the slag specimens could be assessed to contain
very high amount of heavy metal such as Zn, Pb, Cd,
Cu, Mn, Ni As and Cr. The presence of large
amount of metals such as Cr, Cd, Cu, Mn, Ni in the
slag are traceable to their uses as alloying elements
and coating (steels and stainless steel). In non-ferrous
metals alloying, Zn, Pb, and Cu are commonly used.
The effects of large quantities of these heavy metals
in cements have been reported to be favourable to
cement properties. Yet, their impact could be reduced
by different methods such as the recovery of the
metals into solution by leaching and by using various
inhibitors such as addition of oxygen entraining
agents, accelerating and retarding agents, freezing
and thawing resistance agents etc ( API 1991.
Bensted 1993, Erdem and Olmes 1993)
As discussed earlier, the use of slag cement protects
concrete from sulphate attack by reducing the total
amount of C3A in the system since slag cement does
not contain C3A. it is known that, slag cement
reduces concrete permeability, making it harder for
sulphate to penetrate into concrete and will react with
excess Ca(OH)2 to form additional calcium silicate
get (that provides further strength) and hence
decreases the total amount of Ca(OH)2 in the system.
Also, CO2 is known to be the primary effluent gas
contributing to global warning. In OPC
manufacturing, approximately one tonne of CO2 is
generated per tonne of OPC made. Hence, one way
of reducing this emission is by partial replacement of
OPC in concrete mixtures with alternative
cementitious substances (such as slag and slag
cements) and this will reduce the green house gas
emissions by one tonne per one tonne OPC used.
In view of the energy saving characteristic, slag
cement requires nearly 90% less energy to be
produced than the equivalent amount of OPC, hence
reducing the use of OPC in concrete by substituting a
portion of it with slag or slag cement and will
significantly reduces the embodied energy in cubic
meter of concrete since OPC constitutes 70% or
more of the embodied energy in concrete (SCA
2002). In addition slag cement is whiter in colour
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
than OPC or other cementitious materials such as
flash, silica fume and flue dust. This generally results
in higher coloured products with higher reflectivity.
Lighter coloured concrete has multiple
environmental benefits such as the reducing the heat
Island effect in large metropolitan areas. Urban areas
have a higher concentration of structures and heat
absorbing surfaces. Hence, there is experience of
higher temperature in cities than rural areas.
(Ichikawa and Komukai 1993)
Conclusion and Recommendations.
Slag samples were sourced and analysed. The slag
contains suitable component for cement making.
Considering the major roles of slag cements for
specialized applications as discussed, the
establishment of slag cement production pilot plant
cannot be over-emphasized for national technological
advancement and rapid industrialization. In order to
achieve this noble objective, the following
recommendations are made:
(i) Physico –chemical characterization of more
Nigeria slag sources should be embarked
on.
(ii) National policy on slag –cement production
should be vigorously pursued.
(iii) National Agency for Science and
Engineering Infrastructure (NASENI) and
National Metallurgical Development Centre
(NMDC) should be charged with the
responsibility of producing the process
design for the production of slag cement.
(iv) Plans should be made to establish foundry
slag cement pilot plants at various locations
across the country.
References
Agbazue V.E (1988) Role of quality control in
productivity improvement in the cement works.
National seminal on cement. NSE June 28-30,
1988, Lagos.
Agbazue V.E. (1992) ‘A guide to cement
industry and quality control in Nigeria.’ F.D. Press,
Nigeria.
Ali H.K. (1997), ‘Policies of federal government of
Nigeria on solid mineral sub-sector’, Nigeria
Mining Journal. Vol. 2, Pp 1-11.
America Concrete Institute. ACI 1995 ground
granulated blast furnace slag as a cementitious
constituent in concrete Farmington Hills
Michigan.
American Petroleum Institute. API (1991).
Specification for well cements, API specification
10A, 21st Ed. 1991.
America Society for Testing and Materials. ASTM
(2001) standard specification for ground
granulated blast furnace slag for use in concrete
and mortals, West Conshocken P.A.
Arogundade B. A (2004). The cursed earth is the fall
credible?, Prof. E. K Obiakor lecture
series (No 4). Federal Polytechnic, Ado –Ekiti
22nd July, 2004. pp 1-49
Page 247
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Bensted J (1993): The value of ICPMS in heavy
element trace analysis of oil well cements for
environmental monitoring purposes. Cement and
concrete research. Vol 23 No 1. pp994.
Daggash M.M (1997), ‘Problems and prospects of
sourcing raw materials for the cement
industry in a depressed economy’, Nigeria Mining
Journal Vol. 2, Pp 31-35
Egunlae O.O and Oloruntoba D .T (2002) possibility
of slag cement production in Nigeria.
Proceedings of 2002 Nigeria materials congress
and AGM 2002, NMS- EMDI, Akure
Vol. Nol. November 2002.
Egunlae O.O, Oloruntoba D.T and Adeloye A.O
(2002) Thermal recovery of lead from scrap
battery. Proceedings of 2002 Nigeria Materials
Congress and AGM 2002, NMS- EMDI,
Akure Vol. Nol. November 2002.
Erdem E and Olmes H (1993) mechanical properties
of super sulphate cement containing
phospho-gypsum. Cement and concrete research.
vol 23 No1 Pergamon press USA
Fayose E.A. (1987) Mineral raw materials in
Nigeria. National Development Lecture Series
No 5, Federal University of Tech. Akure.
Nigeria.
Gillot J. E and Wang H (1993) improved contro oif
alkali silica reaction by combined use of
admixtures Cem.Con Res. Vol 23 No1 pp973 –
980, Pergamon press USA.
35
30
%composition
25
20
15
10
5 sample 6
0
CaO Al2O3 MgO K2O ZnO MnO NiO
oxides in slag
Fig. 1: Chemical analysis of slag samples
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Halley H.A (1965) ‘Halley’s Bible Handbook,
Zondervan Pub. Michigan. Pp 83.
Ichikawa M and Komukai Y (1993): Effect of
burning conditions and minor components on
the colour of Portland cement clinker. Cement and
concrete research. Vol. 23. pp 933- 938
Pergamon press USA.
Lawrence H. V (1982) Materials for engineering:
Concepts and Applications. wack Addision –
Wesley pub. USA
Matusinovic T. And Curlin D. (1993) Lithium
salts as salt accelerator for high alumina
cement, Cement and Concrete Research Vol.
23. pp885-895.
Onyemaobi O.O (2001) Sustainable national mineral
resources development. Proceedings of
the NSE 2001 National Engineering Conference
and AGM, Port- Harcourt Nov. 5-9, 2001.
Sehra S.S., Saroj G. And Santade K. (1993): Rapid
Setting Magnesium Phosphate Cement for
quick repair of concrete pavement. Cement and
Concrete Research Vol 23 Pp 254-266.
Taylor W.F.W. (1964): The chemistry of cements.
vol.2, Academic Press, London.
The Crust (2003): Focus on Ajaokuta iron and steel
plant (The Crust; News letter of NMGS
March 2003 Vol 26 (1), Edited by A.A Elueze,
Fab)
sample 1
sample 2
sample 3
sample 4
sample 5
UO CoO
Page 248
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Average %composition
60

50

40
slag
30
clay
20
clinker
10

0
CaO Al2O3 MgO K2O ZnO MnO NiO UO CoO
-10
oxides in slag, clay and clinker

Fig. 2: Average %composition of oxides in slag, clay and PC clinker

Table 1: Local Source of Slag in Nigeria and Estimated Quantity per annum
Industry, Place Type of slag Estimated capacity (tones/year)
Ajaokuta Iron/Steel Complex Ferrous Above 725,000
Nigerian Machine Tools Oshogbo Ferrous/non ferrous 200,000
Nigerian Machine works Kaduna Ferrous/non ferrous 200,000
Delta Steel Complex Aladja Ferrous 400,000
Nigeria Foundries Lagos Ferrous/non ferrous 75,000
DICON Kaduna Ferrous/non ferrous 25,000
EMDI Akure Ferrous 5,000
Tower Aluminium Companies Non ferrous 2,000
Nigeria Railway Corporation Ferrous/non ferrous 3,000
Adebowale Foundry Ferrous/non ferrous 4,000
Continental Steel Ferrous 3,000
Nigeria Port Authority Apapa Ferrous 2,000
NIGALEX Non ferrous 7,000
ALSCON Ikot Abasi Non ferrous 8,000
Source: Egunlae and Oloruntoba, 2002

Table 2. Result of chemical analysis of slag using Atomic absorption spectrometer

Oxides % composition of oxides in slag samples
1 2 3 4 5 6
SiO2 1.69 1.02 1.51 0.38 0.64 5.90
Al2O3 1.60 1.71 1.67 0.92 1.01 2..97
CaO 22.47 23.81 17.60 14.56 16.20 5.30
MgO 10.06 8.69 12.75 16.12 11.71 18.70
Fe2O3 10.26 9.47 5.49 3.67 7.92 4.33
Na2O 17.52 14.32 15.38 12.71 14.12 9.20
K2O 9.02 6.13 7.11 7.99 7.56 5.90
ZnO 7.17 6.44 7.87 6.07 10.80 14.20
PbO 2.43 2.51 1.52 2.14 1.48 1.90
CdO 0.85 0.62 0.64 0.94 1.08 1.30
CuO 14.36 10.93 6.10 5.97 8.67 22.40
MnO2 1.86 1.72 1.51 1.69 2.07 1.50
NiO 0.94 0.81 0.40 0.49 0.92 1.60
A s4O6 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.93
Cr2O3 0.38 0.31 0.13 1.10 0.2 1.15

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 249
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 3: Composition of Blast Furnace Slag. (BFS)
Source Type CaO SiO2 Al2O3 MgO Fe2O3
Britain Basic 37-42 30 -36 12-22 3 - 11 0.3 -2.1
Britain Heamatite 38 -42 32-37 10 -22 3-9 0.4-1.3
Germany Thomas 38 - 46 29 -35 11-16 4 - 12 0.2 -1.0
Germany Foundry 35 - 43 30 - 40 11 - 16 5 -11 0.2 -1.0
Germany Heamatite 40 -44 34 -35 11-13 6-8 0.2 - 1.3
France Heamatite 40 - 48 29 -36 13 - 19 2-8 0.5 -3.8
USA Heamatite 36 - 45 33 - 42 10 - 16 3 - 12 0.3 -.0
S/Africa Heamatite 28 - 39 28 - 38 10 -22 7 21 0.4 -3.0
Source: Taylor, 1964

Table 4: The major and minor components of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
Component % composition of oxide Range
CaO 64.0 62 - 66
SiO2 20.7 18 - 24
Al2O3 5.75 4 -8
MgO 1.0 0.7 -4
SO3 2.75 1.5 -3
K2O 0.60 0.1 -1.5
Na2O 0.20 0.1-0.5
Mn2O3 0.05 0.03 - 0.1
P2O5 0.15 0 - 0.25
TiO2 0.03 0 -0.2
IR 0.5 0.5 -1
ROI 1.5 1.5 -4
Source: Agbazue, 1988

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 250
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Adewale, P. O

Asimi, M. A
School of Engineering Siyanbola, A. B
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti Fasasi, M. B
(2009), 5 (1) : 251 - 257

Public Housing and users’ Satisfaction: Perspectives on the Residential Unit of Akufo Farm Settlement,
Akufo via Ibadan
1
Adewale, P. O, 2Asimi, M. A, 3Siyanbola, A. B & 4Fasasi, M. B

Department of Architectural Technology,

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
efformass@yahoo.com
07033685242, 08051620455
2,4
Department of Agricultural Engineering,
The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Saki Campus
Department of Architecture,
The Polytechnic, Ibadan, Saki Campus
1
Correspondence Author
Abstract
Since the beginning of self-rule in Nigeria, the activities of the governments have been geared towards
promoting the living and working conditions of the rural populace with a view to stemming the rural-urban
drift. However, these have witnessed consistent failure. Although, various studies have been carried out to
unearth the causes, majority of them are focused on management and operating details only. No attempt has
been made to assess the physical facilities that support the programmes, which is one of the best indices of
success of such schemes. The objective of this paper therefore, is to evaluate the performance of the residential
facilities of farm settlement schemes originated by the erstwhile Western Government of Nigeria using Akufo
Farm Settlement as an empirical focus. It employs structured questionnaires, document review, interviews and
direct observation. A modified Likert-type five-point scale, percentages and Chi-square test are used to analyze
the result. The evaluation shows that the facilities are grossly inadequate. The paper traces the inadequacy to
wrong assumptions of the designers, which are at variance with the users’ preferences and values. It
recommends that the target users of such public building be involved in the design process and brief
development. Flexible and innovative design that integrates urban character with the naturalness of farm setting
is also emphasized.

Keywords: architecture, design process, farm settlement, user’s preferences

Introduction by the defunct Western Nigeria Government and

The propensity for urban living is on the increase
these days. More and more people are leaving the
natural and peaceful setting of the rural areas for
cities in order to look for white-collar job and better
housing conditions. Although this population
redistribution is affecting many facets of the society
(producing social and physical degradation and
ecological imbalance), the agricultural sector is
bearing the brunt of the trend. Farming, the pivot
upon which all other human activities balance is
being jettisoned, left to the dying old and the less
privileged rural folk to continue (Alao, 1980). The
aftermath of this attitude is the acute shortage in food
production which is militating against the effort of
the food agencies in meeting reasonably the food-
related targets of Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs).
Since the beginning of self-government in 1959,
various rural development programmes have been
initiated to reduce the “push” forces in the rural
areas. The farm settlement schemes embarked upon
resuscitated in 1999 by the civilian administration,
fall within this category. These schemes were
designed to provide facilities that will encourage the
rural dwellers to stay put in their area and embrace
farming as an economically–viable and prestigious
profession. It is, however, sad to note that despite the
huge amount expended on the schemes and as
laudable as the projects are, little or no positive result
has been visibly recorded. Instead, the cities appear
to have become more congested, the housing
conditions more terrible, and unemployment and its
attendant problems worsened. As this trend
continues, the skepticisms about the goals and
objectives of the farm settlement become stronger.
Several authors such as the Food and Agricultural
Organization, FAO (1973), Aribisala (1961), Roider
(1971), Olatunbosun (1969) and Nigerian Joint
Agency Limited (1974) have on separate occasions
carried out a study on the possible causes of the
failure of the schemes. Their evaluation has,
however, been that of management–focused analysis.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 251
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The assessment more often than not, addressed the
operating details of the scheme such as funding,
administration and settler performance with little or
no emphasis on the design/ planning aspect of the
physical facilities that support the programme, which
Freedman, et al (1978) consider as one of the best
indicators of success or failure of such programmes.
The principal focus of this paper is to assess the
users’ satisfaction with the residences in Akufo Farm
Settlement in a manner that gives an insight into the
implication of architectural design decisions on farm
settlement schemes in Western Nigeria.
Planning and Architectural Elements of Farm
Settlements
The history of farm settlements dates back to the pre-
historic period when enterprising individuals,
families and communities were moving from one
area to another seeking new land for agricultural
settlement. The ancient Egyptians around 3 000 B.C.
settled along the fertile bank of River Nile which was
suitable for agriculture both in the rainy and dry
seasons. Just like the ancient Egyptian, the Yoruba
people of Western Nigeria in ancient days carried out
their farming activities outside the town and built
huts around their farm lots. The huts were usually
built in groups for security reasons and for
communal services (Adewale, 2004).
In recent times, national governments often with
international assistance have begun to sponsor their
own settlement projects as one of the variety of ways
to realize their economic, social and political goals.
Sponsored settlers “are recruited from established
communities according to a relatively narrow set of
criteria and are required to follow a closely
supervised agricultural development” (Scuddler,
1991).
In Nigeria, the erstwhile Western Nigeria
Government introduced farm settlement scheme in
1959 after the return of Dr T.S.B Aribisala (the then
commissioner for agriculture and natural resources)
from Israel - the place where the idea was borrowed.
Thirty farm settlements were established across the
region. Adewale (2004) identifies three types of farm
settlements: integrated farm settlement (livestock and
crop farm settlements) and arable or crop farm
settlement. Irrigated farm settlements rely solely on
the artificial application of water to the soil. The
settlement is usually sponsored by the government,
owing to huge initial cost of setting the irrigation
system on the farm. Its architecture, according to
him, is often technical in both design and
construction. Good examples of irrigated farm
settlement are the River Basin Development Projects,
which are still in their infant stage. In the integrated
farm settlement, livestock farming is practised
alongside crop farming. Each of these farming
activities often complements the other. For example
the waste products from the poultry may be
channelled to crop feed as manure while the crop
farm may at the same time provide the necessary
feed for the stock (Sayce 1966). The design and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
construction of this type of farm settlement requires
careful and thoughtful planning regarding the need
for proper waste control. Arable farm settlement on
its own involves only crop farming. Apart from the
residential quarters, farm and communal buildings,
its architecture requires only the store (Noton, 1982).
Whatever type is adopted, the central goal of a farm
settlement is the achievement of maximum efficiency
in the farming activities when other factors of
production (physical and human component, the
stock as well as the managerial skills) are combined
within the limits of environmental and technical
challenges. All the architectural components of the
settlement should be arranged in a manner that will
ensure:
i. compatible relationship between different work
areas or functions
ii. minimum travel distances between areas
iii. low frequency of trips within the functional areas
to improve labour efficiency (Ashby, 1959:Barret
and Sammet, 1950; De-Chiara, 1973: Noton, 1982)
According to Scuddler (1991), housing block is the
basic unit in all types of farm settlement; and over
the years, grouped housing has been the favourite of
the designers for its ability to enhance social
interaction and community services (Adewale, op cit;
Colquoun, 1991). History has shown that this design
type has been considerably influenced by social
ideologies and by particular planning and design
concepts such as symbolism, size of development,
image, harmonious relationship of site, e.t.c (Attoe,
1979). For instance, Colquhoun (op cit) contends that
though image as a major requirement of satisfaction
comprises a number of factors such as layout, degree
of openness, the quality of planting, etc., the
appearance of the dwelling is the most critical.
According to him, a degree of aesthetic complexity
that enables people to identify their own dwelling
within the group must be provided. Closely related to
this, is the people’s desire for detachment and their
preference for individual identity: the greater the
individuality of the location and of the form and
appearance of the dwelling, the greater the dwelling
acceptability. A good housing proposal is therefore
considered as the one that also reflects the status of
its owners or occupiers (Bourne, 1981; Mabogunje
and Hardey, 1978).
In the opinion of Salau (1990) and Abdulkarim
(2005), the satisfaction people derive from housing is
mainly a function of the availability of essential
services and infrastructure facility. This probably
explains the reason why the quality of these
infrastructures and the proximity of the
neighbourhood services have become a major
concern in housing design and policies. One of such
policies is the Town Planning Act of 1959, which
stipulates that standard house should have shower
bath, a flush toilet, electric light, pipe-borne water,
adequate ventilation and durable material. This is
corroborated by the recommendations of National
Council on Housing which adds a kitchen to the list
of minimum requirements for a standard house.
Page 252
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
When a housing design fails to satisfy these
aforesaid aspirations and wishes of the users,
optimization theory suggests that people will tend to
modify their environment to achieve their goals. And
this inability of a design proposal to satisfy people’s
desires can oftentimes, be linked to low level of
participation of residents in the design and
construction process (Gyuse, 1981). The study in
question finds its root in this theory.
The Study Area
The study area is located in the sub- urban area of
Ibadan city- a rainforest region. It is bounded on
three sides by Eruwa- Ibadan road to the east, to the
north by a landmass, which shares boundary with
Apete community, and to the west by the untarred
road that leads to Akufo community. It is one of the
thirty farm settlements by the government of the
erstwhile Western region of Nigeria in 1959 to
encourage young school leavers to take up farming
as a satisfying and lucrative means of attaining their
livelihood. It is a gently rolling mass covering a total
area of 9000-hectare. Lying within a humid region,
the settlement used to experience two major seasons:
warm rainy season between April and October, and
cold dry season between November and March. The
average annual rainfall is 200mm. The settlement is
surrounded by two villages, Ido and Akufo with a
population of 1 003 and 690 respectively (National
Population Census, 1991). The villages are
characterized with box- like building made of mud
bricks and covered with corrosive, corrugated iron
roofing sheets. Each building houses patrilineal
related families. The two villages comprise of mainly
Yoruba speaking settlers of southwestern Nigerian
sub-region whose major occupation is farming. The
study area is about eight and twelve kilometers away
from the nearest communities, Akufo and Ido
respectively.
Research Methodology
Methods employed in this study include document
review, on the spot observation, interview with
designers and the staff, and the use of structured
questionnaires. Document review involved an
analysis of the plans and other building drawings of
the settlement to abstract some of the obvious design
intentions and to provide antecedent data for
interview with the designers. The data collected are
grouped into two main classes. The first class deals
with the housing conditions in the settlement.
Specifically, data on building material and facilities
were collected. A point system similar to that devised
by Segynola (1987) was used for the quantification
of the quality of the houses in the settlement. It
allocates points to each type of building material and
facility. An overall score is then secured for each
house. The houses were subsequently classified into
groups according to their scores. Table IV and V
constitute the scoring chart and classification of
buildings respectively. Durability, convenience and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
cost of materials and facilities were used as major
criteria for allocation of points. Thus glass, long span
aluminum roofing sheet, flush toilet (en suite), built-
in garage, etc have score of 4 each, while materials
and facilities like grass, timber frame work, etc have
scores of one each. To a considerable extent, these
conditions can largely influence users’ satisfaction
with the environment.
The second class refers to the evaluation of the users’
satisfaction with the architecture of the settlement.
The degree of modification of the original building
was assessed. In this respect, the number and types of
modifications were taken as an index of the users’
satisfaction with the original buildings. To lend
credence to the findings obtained from the above
methods, structured questionnaires were used to
obtain the user’s assessment of the building in the
settlement. The questionnaires included a set of
modified Likert-type five-point scale. In the
questionnaire, the settlers were asked to rate each of
the critical design variables in the settlement. Five
ratings, out of which a respondent will indicate one
for each variable, were provided. These ratings are
“Excellent”, ‘’ Good’’, “Average’’, “Below
Average” and “Poor’’. In analyzing the data
collected, the above ratings were assigned weighted
value of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1respectively. The total
weighted value (T) is then calculated for each of the
design variables from which average weighted value
(A) is obtained. The total weighted value is obtained
from the summation of the product of the number of
responses and the respective weighted value for each
rating. Average weighted value (A) is then obtained
by dividing the total weighted value (T) by the
number of responses for the rating of each of the
design variable. For example, the average weighted
value for the design variable, lighting, is obtained
thus:
T= (0 x 5) + (6x 4) + (0 x 3) + (5 x 2) + (37 x 1) = 71
A=T/ total number of responses =71/48=1.5
Average weighted values of 4.00-5.00; 3.50-4.49;
2.50-3.49; 1.50-2.49; 1.49 and below indicates very
strong satisfaction, optimum satisfaction,
indifference, dissatisfaction and strong dissatisfaction
respectively. Fifty questionnaires (50) were
distributed using a random sampling technique, out
of which forty-eight (48) were returned.
Administration and completion of questionnaires
were done on the spot by the investigators
themselves on Sundays and Fridays when the settlers
were expected to be around. X2 test was conducted
on the data to check whether the observations were
by chance or true reflection of the population.
Research Findings
The Users
Two household categories were identified which
relate primarily to stage in the family life cycle:
1. Family households- families made up of parents
and children under 16
2. Adult households – all members 21 or over but
no one of retirement age (60 years).
Page 253
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table I shows the number of households in each
category.
The predominance of adult household as indicated in
Table 1, and the absence of the customary roles of
women and the aged couples made it impossible for
integrated community to develop. Settlers were
predominantly classified farm settlers: 80 arable crop
farmers, 20 livestock farmers, 20 technical staff,
supervising staff and 50 labourers. This one-sided
pre- occupation of the settlers that are virtually of
similar age has resulted into the formation of a highly
artificial society of peers. This may be the reason
most of the single individuals and adult household
living in the building do not stay regularly in the
room as it was observed during the fieldwork.
Design Process
The architectural programme for the settlement was
jointly established by the Department of Building,
Ministry of Works and Housing (designer) and the
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (the
supervising ministry). Records show that the opinion
of the target users was not sought to ascertain their
values and preferences. These were rather assumed
by the designers. The major assumptions, which
conditioned the design of the settlement, appear to
be:
i. The vernacular style in vogue could be good
enough to reflect a comfortable family living
similar to what is obtained in other settings
where other professionals are living.
ii. The building should sympathetically relate to the
surrounding villages both in materials and form.
iii. A simple two- bedroom unit would suffice for
the comfortable living of a typical farm settler’s
household especially the young school leavers.
Hence, irrespective of differences in the categories of
users and sizes of household, a 2-bed-romm unit was
provided for each settler’s household. The rating of
the settlement by the respondents as can be seen in
Table II, however contradicts these assumptions.
Residents were dissatisfied with all the aspects of the
design, indicating disparity between the designer’s
assumptions and the actual need of the users. The
aesthetic quality of the residences in particular, is a
far cry from the yearnings and aspiration of the users.
Sixty-three per cent (63%) of the respondents rated it
poor. Residents in the settlement found the spaces in
the building to be equally inadequate. Sixty percent
of the respondents rated it poor. This is evident in the
manner the rooms were arranged. There is lack of
hierarchy in the spatial organization: the living room,
which also doubles as lobby is of the same size with
the bedrooms.
X2 model was significant for all the observations.
The ratings for all the design parameters cannot
therefore be attributed to chance.
The Setting
The settingscape is dominated by buildings that are
substandard. As revealed in table VI, 96% of the
buildings are in poor condition. Only 4% could be
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
said to be fair. These ones are even those that have
largely been modified by their occupants. There are
roof leakages, arising from the rust and disintegration
of galvanized iron sheets; inadequate drainage; and
sewage and refuse disposal systems. Majority of the
buildings have pit latrine and their building materials
are of low quality. Communal and infrastructures
such as health centre, shops, post office, good roads,
electricity, potable water, etc, which could enhance
comfortable living, are conspicuously absent.
Majority of the residents therefore got their water
from the surrounding streams and dug wells.
Examined against the stipulation of Town Planning
Act of 1959 and the recommendations of National
Council on Housing, it is clear that there is a case of
substandard housing in the area. This poor condition
of the housing units cannot encourage people to live
in them. Attempts by the settlers to improve upon
these conditions and to make the building adaptable
to their needs have led to various degrees of
modifications. Table VIII shows that 10% of the
buildings have been largely modified and 39% are
moderately modified. Only 32% of the buildings are
not modified and most of them are even unoccupied.
It was also discovered that those settlers that have not
modified their buildings are also willing to do so but
are economically incapacitated. Interviews granted
by the President of the Settlers’ Association and the
Site Manager reveal that there are additions to the
original buildings in the settlement. These include a
feed mill built by one of the settlers, two poultry
houses, a worship centre, restaurant and various
forms of service industry around the housing units.
These modifications and additions indicate the
unfitness of the original buildings, which can be
attributed to lack of users’ input in the design
process.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The study has evaluated the conditions of the
residential facilities in the settlement. It has also
examined the degree of satisfaction the resident
derived from the facilities. It was established that the
housing condition in the settlement is sub- optimal
and the residents’ ratings of the selected design
variables are very poor. The paper noted a wide gap
between the designer’s assumptions and the actual
needs of the users. It is evident from the foregoing
that the users’ input in the decision – making process
is essential for psychological adaptation of the
residents to any planned environment. This approach
will enrich and ensure public acceptability of the
design and help create a sense of possession by
bringing the house and the occupants together. It will
also enable the users to assume responsibility for the
decision, action or inactions which concern them and
in which they play active part. According to Turner’s
third law of housing, deficiencies and imperfections
in housing are infinitely more tolerable if they are the
responsibility of the owner than if they are somebody
else’s (Abdulkarim, op cit).
Page 254
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Changes in public values and preferences are,
however, inevitable. Lifestyles and needs keep on
changing as the society witnesses growth and
development. It was established from the previous
studies that when community projects could not
accommodate such changes, the citizens tend to
display apathy towards them. Therefore, for such
buildings to be relevant, strategies must anticipate
impacts of change, which are induced or encouraged
by designs that are sympathetic with public values
and blend with those changes. In specific terms, the
function of rooms in such speculative building
should be as interchangeable as possible to cater for
future changes.
The design can further be enhanced by integrating
urban character with the naturalness of rural setting.
The settlement should therefore be provided with
essential services and infrastructures such as crushed
gravel feeder road, potable water, electricity, health
facilities, sports field and other recreational facilities,
site for halls, mosques, cemetery, shop, etc. These, in
a sense, will encourage people to take up their
residence in the settlement.
Finally, to mitigate the boredom that is associated
with this kind of settlement where residents of
similar background are grouped together, it is
essential that future housing designs consider all
household categories in the neighbouring villages.
Moreso, societies, by definition, are specialized and
stratified by sex, age, occupation and status. Each
group of dwellings should be made up of a mix of
settlers with different occupation, socio-economic
status and age to promote social cohesion and
control. These will, to a considerable extent,
guarantee the growth of a viable community.
Accordingly, residents would be encouraged to see
the settlement both as a place of work and future
home.
References
Abdulkarim, M. (2005): “Policy Issues on Mass
Housing Delivery and Aspects of Assisted Self-
help Schemes”, Journal of the Nigerian Institute
of Architects, Vol. 4, No 4, September.
Adewale, P. O. (2004): “The Design of Ipapo-Iseyin
Farm Settlement” An M.Arch Design
Dessertation, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-
Ife.
Alao, J. (1980): “Understanding Small farmer
Adoption Behaviour: The Nigerian Experience”
Inaugural Lecture Series 44, University of Ife,
Ile Ife.
Aribisala, T. S. B. (1961): Farm Settlement Scheme
in Western Niogeria: A Report to a Technical
Conference at Wyne College, Government Press,
Ibadan
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Ashby, W. (1959): Modern Farm Buildings, Estate
Gazette, London
Attoe, W. O. (1979): “Theory, Criticism and History
of Architecture” in: Introduction to Architecture,
McGraw-Hill Inc., New York.
Barret J.J.and Sammett L.L. (1950): Farm
Structures, College of Estate Management
London.
Bourne, L. (1981): The Geography of Housing,
Edward Arnold, London.
Colquohoun, I. (1991): Housing Design: An
International Perspective, Bastford, London.
De-Chiara, J. (1973): Time-saver Standards for
Building Types, McGraw-Hill, New York,
U.S.A.
Friedmann, A et al (1978): Environmental Design
Evaluation, Plenum Press, New York
Gyuse, T.T. (1981): “Functional Adaptability in Tiv
Traditional Architecture”, Journal of Tropical
Architecture, October/ November.
Mabogunje A.L.and Hardey, J.E. (1978): “Shelter
Provision in the Developing Countries:
Influence of Standards and Criteria”, John
Willey and Sons, Chichester
Nigerian Joint Agency Limited (1974): Western State
of Nigeria Farm Settlement: A Review and
Recommendation, Government Press, Lagos.
Noton, N.H.(1982): Farm Buildings, College of
Estate Management, London.
Olatunbosun, D. (1969): Farm Settlement and School
Leaver, CSNRD Paper No 9
Onibokun, A. (I973) cited in: Urban and Regional
Planning Policy Formulation in Developing
Countries, U. I. Press, Ibadan
Roider, W. (1971): Farm Settlements for Socio-
economic Development: The Western Nigeria
Case, Government Press, Lagos.
Salau, A.T. (1990): “The Environmental Context of
Urban Housing: Public Services and
Infrastructural Facilities in Nigerian Urban
Areas “in Onibokun, Poju (ed), Urban Housing
in Nigeria, NISER, Ibadan
Sayce, R. B. (1966): Farm Buildings, Estate Gazette,
London
Scuddler, T. (1991): “A Sociological Framework for
the Analysis of New Land Settlement” in:
Putting People First: Sociological Variables in
Rural Development by International Bank for
Construction and Development/World Bank,
Washington D.C., U.S.A.
Segynola, A.A. (1987): “Some Factors Influencing
Housing Conditions (Quality) in Rural Areas:
The Case of Okpameris in Akoko-Edo”,
Nigerian Magazine, Vol 55, No 33
United Nations Organization (1973): Farm
Settlement Scheme in the Western Region of
Nigeria, FAO Report No 1720.
Page 255
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table I: Number of Household
Household Category Number Percentage
Family household 10 20.8
Adult household 38 79.2
Total 48 100
Source: Authors compilation (2008)

Table II: Users’ Ratings of Selected Design Variables

Design Variables Ratings A B C D E T A X2
Weighted Value 5 4 3 2 1
1. Adequacy of Spaces - (0) 4(8) 7(15) 5(10) 32(67) 79 1.64 67.97**
2. Lighting - (0) 6 (13) - (0) 5 (10) 37(77) 71 1.5 100.95**
3. Thermal Comfort 6(13) 1 (2) 23(48) 1 (2) 17(35) 120 2.0 41.17**
4. Privacy 1 (2) 11(23) 16(33) 7 (15) 12(25) 113 2.3 13.48*
5. Aesthetics - (0) 4 (8) 4 (8) 6 (13) 34(71) 66 1.4 107.84**
6.Functional Adjacency of Spaces - (0) - (0) 19(40) 11(22) 18(37) 97 2.0 35.96**
7. Compatible Land Use - (0 6 (13) 12(25) 6 (13) 30(63) 102 2.1 56.25**
8. Landscaping - (0) 6 (13) 24(50) 10(21) 8 (17) 102 2.1 43.5**
9. Quality of Fixtures & Fittings - (0) - (0) 11(23) 7 (15) 30(62) 7 1.6 63.46**
10. Neigbourhood Services 6 (13) 1(2) 23(48) 1(2) 17(35) 120 2.0 41.17**
Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2008)
NOTE: Row percentages are in parentheses
A=Excellent; B =Good; C = Average; D = Below Average; E=Poor; T= Total Weighted Value;
A = Average Weighted Value; ** Significant at P < 0.01; * Significant at P < 0.05

Table III: Summary of Users’ Ratings of Selected Design Variables

Level of Satisfaction (Average Weighted Value) No of Variables Percentage
Strong Satisfaction (4.00-5.00) - -
Optimum Satisfaction (3.50-4.49) - -
Indifference (2.50-3.49) - -
Dissatisfaction (1.50-2.49) 9 90
Strong Dissatisfaction (0.00-1.49) 1 10
Total 10 100
Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2008)

Table IV: Scoring Chart for the Houses

Housing Condition
Items Good (4.0) Fair (3.0) Poor (2.0) Very Poor (1.0)
1. Roof Material Aluminium Sheets Asbestos Iron Sheets Thatch
ii. Wall Blocks Bricks Mud Poles & Sticks
iii. Ceiling Gypsum Plaster/ Wood Panelling Asbestos Chipboard Mud/Log
iv. Kitchen facility Kitchen within building Kitchen detached Shed Undefined
v., Door Glass Panel/Flush Match boarded Mat
vi. Window Sliding/Pivoted glass Louver Casement Mat
vii. Toilet facility Flush toilet (ensuite) Flush toilet(shared) Pit Latrine Bush
viii. Parking facility Built-in garage Shed Street parking Not available
x. Drainage Underground drainage Surfaced Channel Unsurfaced channel Not available
xi. Means of Access Tarred road Untarred Footpath Undefined
Source: Authors’ Construct (2008)
NOTE: Using this chart, a relatively fair building that is worthy of living, should have a score of not less than
30 points made up of:

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 256
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
i. roof covered with corrugated asbestos sheets (3.0)
ii. brick walls (3.0)
iii. ceiling with asbestos ceiling sheets (3.0)
iv. kitchen detached (3.0)
v. panel/flush door (3.0)
vi. louvre window (3.0)
vii. flush toilet (shared) (3.0)
viii. street parking (2.0)
ix. surfaced channel (3.0)
x. tarred road (4.0)
30.0

Table V: Range of Classification of Houses

Scores Housing Condition
35 – 40 Good
30 – 34 Fair
20 – 29 Poor
10 – 19 Very Poor
Source: Authors’ Construct (2008)

Table VI: Housing Condition in the Settlement

Housing condition No of houses Percentage (%)
Good - -
Fair 3 4
Poor 77 96
Very Poor - -
Total 80 100
Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2008)

Table VII: Criteria for Classfiication of Current Status of Buildings

Types of modifications (criteria) Classification
i. Total overhauling/alteration of partition and change of some building materials Largely modified
ii. Major alteration of partition only Moderately modified
iii. Minor alteration of partition only Slightly modified
iv. Untouched Not modified
Source: Authors’ Construct (2008)

Table VIII: The Current Status of Buildings in the Settlement

Status No of buildings Percentage
Largely modified 8 10
Moderately modified 31 39
Slightly modified 15 19
Not modified 26 32
Total 80 100
Source: Authors’ Field Survey (2008)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 257
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Oladipo, I. O

Adeosun, E. O
School of Engineering Omotayo, K. F
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 258-
58- 262

Adapting Yam Cultivation to Climate Change a Means of Mitigating Global Economic Meltdown Effects

Oladipo, I. O*., Adeosun, E. O. & Omotayo, K. F.

Dept of Agricultural Engineering
Federal Polytechnic Ado Ekiti, Nigeria
Email: oladipo_isaacola@yahoo.com / 08033888989,
* Corresponding author

Abstract
This paper presents the report of assessment of adapting yam production to climate change in the Southwestern
Nigeria. Observations of the experiment of performance of yam under irrigation were presented which showed
that optimum stem development was acheved under irrigation at 80 days after planting. Much of the vegetative
growth were faster for irrigated yam than the rainfed yam. The report shows that yam tuber development for the
two treatments was not significantly different. But the justification for recommending irrigation to support yam
in the region of experiment was based on the time gained by irrigated yam over the rainfed yam. The market
price and patronage enjoyed by irrigated yam further showed that the farmers will be able to enjoy higher
return on investment if they support their yam production with irrigation.

Keywords: Climate change, Green House Gases (GHGs), Rainfed, Day After Planting (DAP),

Introduction strategies and mechanisms for International

Yam belongs to annual tuber crop widely grown and
consumed in the Southern and middle belt regions of
Nigeria. The tropical climate of this region favours
yam production and it responds well to it. It accounts
for more than 40 % of the staple food of Nigerians
hence its cultivation is highly significant to the
economic and socio-political development of the
country.
The productions of yam have been seasonalized over
the years. Planting is done in October, the seed
remains inactive in the heap for about 3-4 months
before emergence is sighted and no major vegetative
growth is seen until rain begins in the New Year.
During this period of hibernation the yam farmer is
less busy because there will be less weed growth, and
other farm operations are not really pressing because
the environment is dry.
The significant change of climate recorded in the last
30 years is fast causing great concern to the nation.
The Northern states at the frontier of Savanna had in
the last 20 years been experiencing dangerous desert
encroachment with the means of livelihood such as
water, arable and pasture land being threatened.
Further down the South, the change and eroded the
double cropping system and even the cultural
practices of farming are not easy to plan again
because the weather cannot be adequately and
accurately forecasted. The Federal Government of
Nigeria is looking for means of finding lasting
solution to the problem of climate change and its
effect in the country. It called on the shipping
industry to put in place a mechanism to reducing CO2
emission from their operation by using renewable
energy sources that are climate sensitive and
environmentally friendly and to develop GHG
Shipping. (Anonymous, 2009) saying the entire
world was facing sever threat orchestrated by climate
change (Ogah, 2009) claimed that the scientists have
warned that climate change was affecting patterns of
life and general living conditions of people all over
the world; availability of water, food production,
health, culture, economic well being. Many people in
Nigeria will be confined to perpetual poverty and
precarious condition of living as a result of
food/water scarcity, coastal flooding and extreme
change in weather due to global warming as the
likely symptom of climate change.
(Ogah, 2009) attributed the current rainfall pattern in
the country to the effect of climate change, He
claimed that Nigeria is warming resulting in
variability and changes in the rainfall patterns, which
affects agriculture, water supply. He equally said
now is the time to make tough decisions to address
climate change, and to act with total and undivided
commitment. Because climate change will affect
everybody without regards to anyone.
Concerted efforts are being made at the global level
to confront the issue of climate change using many
approaches. The first major move to stem climate
change was the coming together in Rio de Janerio in
June 1992 by many concerned nations throughout the
world to discuss means of stabilizing the
concentration of Green House Gases (GHG), in the
atmosphere without setting a boundary limit on GHG
emission by individual countries. About 192
members and 4 observers attended about 14
conference of parties (COP) at different times and
places around the world to consolidate on the Earth
summit. in Rio; The Kyoto Protocol on climate
change (COP-3) in Dec.1997, the Montreal Protocol

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 258
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
(COP-4) took place in Nov 28-Dec 9 2005, The Bali
Protocol (COP-13) came up in Dec 2-15, 2007. The
Copenhagen Protocol is scheduled for Dec 2009
where about 8000 delegates representing 170
countries are expected to attend and come up with
new resolutions and regulations to replace the Kyoto
accord due to lapse in 2012 (Bate et al., 2008). All
these are happening at the same period when the
global economic melt down is all over the place
taking a great toll on virtually every aspect of human
life, agriculture being the most affected (Bate e al.,
2008).
One of the fundamental strategies of business
investment is to concentrate on consumer goods
when there is an economic depression. People will
want to eat at least and clothe themselves if capital
development becomes difficult. In Nigeria to
mention food is to talk of yam. So in the mid of
economic depression, it is wise to invest in yam
production.
The major condition that characterizes yam
cultivation is that it is heavily dependent on nature to
provide water. So it will begin any serious vegetative
growth until rain begins to fall in the new year when
it would have spent about 3-4 months of hibernation
in the heap.
An experiment conducted to evaluate the
performance of yam under irrigation showed that
yam can actually begin its growth immediately after
planting if the seed is allowed to cure under shade. It
shows that planting can be done in
November/December and expect sprouting in late
December/early January.
Methodology:
The experiment was conducted on the Dept of
Agricultural Engineering student demonstration farm
site of the Federal Polytechnic Ado Ekiti between
October 2007 and August 2009. And a repeat
experiment was conducted in 2008/2009 planting
season. Yam seed weighing 0.5kg + 0.05 was used.
To plant an average heap of volumetric size of 1.0
m3. Planting was done in November of both years.
And all the cultural practices due for yam cultivation
were observed.
The complete randomized experiment was subjected
to variable water application treatment of 0.4-1,12
litre per row of ten heaps and the 10th row that was
centrally positioned among the treatments was used
as control experiment i.e. rainfed (Akindele,1996).
The following Day after Planting (DAP) data were
collected for emergence, stem elongation, primary
branch elongation, secondary branch elongation
canopy size, and average leaf size, food formation
and the final tuber weight.
Results and Discussion:
Fig.1 below shows the plot of the stem axial growth
(elongation) measured immediately after emergence
to stabilization against DAP. It can be seen that the
data of the ten plots of different irrigation treatments
produced a statistical noise with the dispersed portion
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
spanning between 10 and 40 DAP. The stem growth
data tapered to a focal point at 80 DAP and thereafter
stabilized at about 450 and 500 cm. It is difficult to
see the mean growth and optimal irrigation treatment
with this graph.
Fig. 2 shows the trendline of the graph shown in Fig
1. The trendline which is linear is defined by a model
y = 5.7981x + 91.319 and R2 = 0.8292. This means
that the average stem growth (y) varies directly as
DAP with a growth constant of 91.319 (which could
be due to environmental, managerial and time of
curing factors and an average growth per day being
5.7981 cm.
The inference deduced from data source of Fig 2
assisted the identification and isolation of the optimal
irrigation treatment which was experimented in
second year hereafter referred to as (repeat
experiment). The plot of the stem growth against
DAP of 2009 (fig. 3) data was similar in pattern to
that of 2008 (fig 2). However, the irrigated plot (ISL)
emerged later than the rainfed plot (RSL) of about 10
days’ difference. The trendline of the ISL showed a
steeper gradient (stem growth/day) is greater than
that of RSL with more gentle slope. At 75 DAP the
value of growth of ISL met that of ISL and surpassed
it thereafter until RSL stabilized 70DAP while ISL
stabilized at 80 DAP. The trendline of ISL produced
a linear line with graph model of y = 6.9562x –
28.926 and R2 = 0.8551 while that of RSL has model
y = 5.7267x + 62.113 and R2 = 0.8121 The
interpretation of these models are similar to that
earlier stated for fig.2. The growth pattern of
irrigated plot and rainfed plot departed significantly
at node formation stage. Fig 4 which shows the graph
of node count against DAP revealed that the Node
count for irrigated plot (I node) commenced at 32
DAP (about 10 days behind that of rainfed plot. But
within 10 days the value of I-node had caught up
with and thereafter significantly surpassed R-node
This is expressed with a trendline that has a steeper
gradient. Again the model of I-node is y = 0.7238x –
11.327 and R2 = 0.8529 as compared to a lower R-
node model of y = 0.3747x + 0.5655. (where: y = no
of nodes counted and x = DAP). The node count
increment did not stabilize until it reached a value of
45 nodes at 65 DAP in case of I-node, whereas, the
R-node stabilized at 25 nodes at 60 DAP.
Fig. 5 shows the plot of leaf formation for both
irrigated and rainfed plots hereafter referred to
respectively as I-leaf and R-leaf. Again for both
treatments leaf emergence started at about 40 DAP.
But while the I-leaf value rose significantly up to 90
at 55 DAP that of R-leaf did not change. However,
both values tallied at 65 DAP with leaf count value
of 120 and continued steadily unto 80 DAP. The
major departure between the leaf formation pattern of
both treatments is the leaf size and eventual canopy
size which is depicted in table 1 and 2 below: Leaf
size which was categorized into 5 groups i.e. small,
¼, ½, ¾ and full were presented against DAP. For
irrigated plot the leaf size (I-leafsize) started to
become visible after 40 DAP Thereafter some leaves
Page 259
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
at different stages of growth were present on the
plant. The number of leaves in the 5 categories bagin
to change as the size of leaf underwent
transformation from one size to another and another
new leaves emerging. This transformation continued
until 120 DAP where it begin to stabilize. Again in
the Rainfed plot the leaf size (R-leafsize) started at
52 DAP. However, a large number of leaves emerged
at DAP between 72-100. This significant change in
pattern owned to rainfall that was recorded in the
previous week. Nevertheless, many of the leaves
were still small and tender as 120 DAP, when the
number of full sized leaves was 136. The effect of
these developments on the crop was that the canopy
formation and size emerged from the value of leaf
formation (Fig. 6). The canopy size in the Irrigated
plot (I-canopy) begin to grow at 94 DAP. It reached
½ size at 100 DAP, ¾ size at 120 DAP and full size
at 130 DAP. The canopy-development stabilized at
140 DAP. For rainfed plot (R-canopy), the growth
started at 98 DAP got to ¼ at 118 DAP and
progressed to ½ size at 126 DAP. A full size was
reached at 150 DAP and did not stabilize until 170
DAP (Mid-June).
Since yield of yam depends on the leaf area index,
photosynthesis, soil and water environment and
many other cultural and natural parameters, to which
the two treatments were equally exposed due to their
close location, the yield in the irrigated plot was
supposed to be greater than that of rainfed plot. But
the actual yield of the tuber at harvest of average
value of 2.8kg and 2.74kg for irrigated plot and
rainfed plot respectively showed a very little
difference in tuber yield.
However, all the statistics presented above showed
that Irrigated plot stated and completed its growth
characteristics: emergence, leaf formation, canopy
formation earlier
Between 3-5weeks than rainfed plot. If this is
translated to real life situation, it means, irrigated
yam will spend less time (5 months Jan-May) on the
field compared to rainfed yam (7 months Jan-July).
Irrigated yam will require less cultural practices
particularly weeding. It will experience less water
stress, heat scourge and less risk of infection and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
infestation that will reduce seed viability because the
greater proportion of the period of growth reported
here falls into the peak of dry season in the
experiment site. The irrigated plot was weeded twice
while the rainfed plot was weeded 4 times. If the yam
was harvested to target the early yam market, the
irrigated yam will be in the market 3 weeks before
rainfed yam and that way a tuber will attract over
100% monetary value and over 1000 % patronage
compared to rainfed yam.
Conclusion
Judging from the market return of irrigated yam and
the lower risk of crop failure owing to heat-induced
decreased seed viability, risk of unpredictable
weather in the climax of climate change, the
patronage of yam in the earlier market, and the
potential of yam becoming an export commodity,
and the reduced farming drudgery associated with
rain season farming, farmers return on investment is
higher in irrigated yam than that of rainfed yam. The
fact that irrigated yam can start producing leaf and
canopy size suggests that irrigating yam will be a
useful practice to mitigate climate change from two
fronts; reduce the earth’s libido and increase the
biomass that is needed to abstract CO2. Harvesting
yam on time will release the farmland to other
farming activities or allow the plot to go fallow under
weed cover that will reduce erosion.
References
Akindele, S. O. (1996): Statistics and Biometrics in
Agriculture. Odusote Publishers. Ibadan. P7
Anonymous, (2009): World celebrates Maritime day
amid fear over climate change. The Nigerian
Guardian Newspaper. September 30. p59
Bate, B. C., Kundzewicz, Z. W., Wu, S. and
Palutikof, J. P. (2008): Climate Change and Water
Technical paper of the International Panel on Climate
Change, IPCC Geneva, p210
Fodeke, V (2009): Fear over climate change. The
Nigerian Guardian Newspaper. September 30. p58
Ogah, D. (2009): Climate change: Govt moves to
reduce emission from ships. The Nigerian Guardian
Newspaper. September 30. p57
Page 260
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
600
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL9,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL4,
ISL9,
ISL5,
ISL2,
ISL3, 90,
91,
92,
87,
88,
89,
86,
85,
84,
86,
87,
88,
89,
90,
91,
92, 533
534
532
531
529
530
528
527
525
526
524
520
519
518
516
517
500 ISL9,
ISL8,ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL8,ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL7,
ISL6,ISL6,
ISL7,
ISL6,ISL6,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,71,
ISL5, ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL4,
ISL2,
ISL3,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL9,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL1,
72,
ISL5,
69,
70,
ISL4,
ISL4,
ISL4,73,
ISL5,
ISL4,74,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL1,75,
ISL4,
ISL3, 78,
ISL4,
76,
ISL4,
ISL3, 79,
77,
ISL3,
ISL1,
499
497499
498
497
ISL1, 499
497
ISL1,
ISL2, 83,
85,
84,
81,
82,
80,
499
497500
497499
497 505
503
83,
501
90,
91,
92, 504
503
504
503
502
501
499
498
497500
84,
85,
86,
87,
498
498
81,
82,
497 515
514
513
512
510
509
508
505
506
506
505
507
504
502
88,
89, 503
501504
503
501.5
501.9
502.3
502
501
502
499
500
497
497501
499
500
498
498
497
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL3,ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL3,ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4, ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,ISL5,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,ISL5,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL6,
ISL5, ISL5,
ISL5,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL4,
ISL4,
ISL4,
ISL4,
61,ISL5,
62,
ISL4, 65,
ISL5,
63,
ISL4, 66,
ISL4,
64,
ISL4,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL3,
ISL3,
ISL3,ISL3,
ISL3,
ISL3,
60,
ISL2,
ISL1,
ISL2,
ISL2,
ISL3, ISL2,
ISL2,
ISL2,ISL2,
ISL1,
58,
ISL2,
ISL2,
ISL1,
61, 67,
ISL4,68,
ISL4,
ISL4,
494
493
490
488
ISL3,
ISL1,
ISL3,
ISL1,
ISL3,
ISL1,
ISL3,
ISL1,
ISL1,
ISL1,
ISL2,
62,
ISL2,
63,
64, 495
494
493495
494
493
ISL2,
ISL2,
65,
66, 495
ISL1,
ISL3,
494
493
ISL1,
ISL3,
492
492
ISL2,
69,
ISL2,
ISL2,
ISL2,
484
484
483
481
480
478 484
484
70,
68,
478
479
479
67,
479 496
495
494
493
ISL1,
ISL3,
492 496
495
494
493
73,
485
71, 495
494
ISL2,
ISL2,
493
ISL2,
491
491
491
492
492
74,
72,
485 496
494
492
75,
485
480
479480
479480 496
494
76,496
495
77,
489
487
486
486 496
78,
80,
79,
489
487
484
482
481
479 488
489
485
484
483
482 489
487
484
483 490
484 495
496
493
494
493
492
487
484
485 493
494
491
489
490
ISL9,
ISL3,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL2,
RSL,
ISL9,RSL,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL9, RSL,
RSL,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL4,
RSL,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL5,
RSL,
ISL7,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
RSL,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL2,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL4,
RSL,
ISL3,
ISL2,53, 59,
ISL1,
RSL,
RSL,
RSL,
RSL,
RSL,
ISL1,
57,
56,
54,58,
55,
ISL1,
57, RSL,
62,
63,
61,
58,
60,
60,
59,
ISL1,
59,
459
57, 477
475
RSL,476
66,
RSL,
64,
471
464
461
58, 474
RSL,
65,
RSL,
66,
RSL,
67,
RSL,
474
68,
472
65,
464
462 RSL,
474
69,
471
470
469
469
469
468
465469
467
467
465
64,
466
465
463
462
459462
461
459462
460
459
63, 477
RSL,
474
70,
RSL,
475
71,
RSL,
475
72,
RSL,
475
73,
RSL,
475
472
466
460 74,
RSL,
475
75,
475
76,
475
77,
475
78,
475
79,
475
80,
475
81,
475
82,
475
83,
84,
85,
86,
87,
88,
89,
90,
91,
92,
475
475
475
475
475
475
ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL8, ISL8,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL4,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3, ISL7,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL7,
ISL7,
ISL9, ISL6,
ISL9,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7, ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
RSL,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL2,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL6,ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,46,
ISL2,
44,
43, 47,
ISL2,
45,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL4,
ISL4, 50,
ISL3,
49,
ISL3,
ISL2,
48,
ISL2,
RSL,
RSL, ISL1,
51,
52,
448
444 56,
449
448
447
446
445
444
442
441 56,
452
54,
ISL1,
450
451
53,
449
448
447
446
445
444
443
441 448
ISL1,
447
446
445
443
441 449
448
55,
447
ISL1,
445
444
442
440443
54,
ISL1,
439 458
448
446 457
452
451
450448
447
447 456
455
453
55, 452
451
449458
458
456
62,
454
453
452 455
454
455
453
452
451453
61,
451
450
450
450
451
449
60,
59,
443
58, 457
453
449
446
439
ISL5,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL4,
ISL7,
ISL3,
ISL6,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2, 42,
41,RSL,
43,
RSL,
42, 437
429438
436
435
436
433
430
429
428
427
ISL1,
426 53,
ISL1,
434
431
432
52,
ISL1,
428 436
57,
430
55,
56, 433
426
428
Stem growth (cm)
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL2,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL8, RSL,
RSL,
RSL,
39,RSL,
RSL,
40,
41,
RSL,
40, ISL1,
420
417
47,
415
ISL1,
46,
409
410
409
408 50,
422
421
418
ISL1,
48,51,
49, 54,
424
418
53,
416
412
52, 425
422 424
418
412
400 ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL9,
ISL5,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL4,
ISL6, RSL,
39,
38,
37,
RSL,
RSL,38, 406
45,
405
ISL1,
403
ISL1,
402
401
400
399
ISL1,
397
394
ISL1,396
44,
393
392
43,
391
389 406
51,
50,
49,
48,
394
390 404
402
399
395
ISL9,
ISL5,
ISL8,
ISL4,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,RSL,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL7,
ISL5,
ISL3,
ISL6,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2, 36,
RSL,37,
35,38,
36,
37, 387
42,
384
ISL1,
41,387
385
381
380
381
375
ISL1, 381
378
376
376
373
371
370 387
47,
383
46, 385
369
ISL9,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL8,
ISL3,
ISL7,RSL,
ISL2, 34,
RSL,
ISL2, 35,
36, 368
367
40,
365
361
39,
ISL1,
34,
35, 361
360
351
351 366
356
45, 353
ISL6,
RSL,
ISL5,
RSL,
RSL,
ISL4, 34,38,
37,
36,
34, 345
341346
342
338
332
ISL3,
RSL,ISL1,ISL1,
34,
ISL1,
35,
ISL1, 323
313 44,311
43,
42, 326
319
300 RSL,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
RSL,
ISL2,
ISL4,
ISL9,
RSL,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL9,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3, 34,
33,
33,
34,
32,
32,
31,
ISL1,
33, 303
41,
302
301
299
298
300
294
292
292
290
289
288
287
40, 275304
287
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL7,
ISL8,
ISL3,
ISL4,
ISL2,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL2, 30,
32,
31,
ISL1,
29,
30,
32,
31,
ISL1, 282
281
282
281
281
271
271 282
278
275
273 39,
272
268271
269
266
266
266
38, 265
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL4,
ISL3,
RSL,
ISL9,
ISL2,
ISL8,
ISL3,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL4,
ISL6,
ISL3,
ISL2, 29,
30,
31,
28,
ISL1,
29,
27,
ISL1,
28, 262
261
261
260
259
259
257
256
255
25137,
251
249
248
247
24636, 248
246
245 256
ISL9,
ISL9,
ISL6,RSL,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL5,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL4,
RSL,
ISL2,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL5,
RSL, 26,
24,
25,
26,30,
27,
29,240
239
237
236
229
229
228
228
227
226
28,227
226
225 242
239
237
238
232
231
225
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL4,
ISL2,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL3,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL2,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL8,RSL, ISL1,
24,
25,
23,26,
24,
23,
22, 222
221
219
219
218
216
212
27, 220
218
211
210
209
208
204
ISL1, 21035, 205
34, 221
200 ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL2,
ISL4,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL9,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL5,
ISL4, RSL,
ISL2,
ISL6,
ISL3,RSL,20,23,
22,
21,
22, 202
201
201
198
196
ISL1,
195
194
192
26,
192
189
190
189
187
187
ISL1,
25,190 33,
192
32,
185 196
187
ISL9,
ISL5,
ISL2,
ISL8,
ISL4,
ISL7,
ISL3,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL2,
ISL7,
ISL3,
ISL8, RSL,
RSL, 19,
20,
21,
19,
20, 181
24,181
181
180
180
178
178
174
172
171
171
168
169
164
23, 173
164
ISL9,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL7,
ISL5,
ISL6, RSL,
RSL, 18,
19,
17,
18,22,
21, 162
161
161
ISL1,
151
152
151
150
149
148 15631, 155
145
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL8,
ISL7,RSL, 17,
17,
16,20, 141
134
131
ISL1,
128
126
ISL1,
ISL1,129 30,126
28,
29, 130
127
ISL9,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
RSL,
ISL2, 16,
19,
16, 121
116
112
112
105
100 ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL6,
RSL,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL8,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL2, 15,
14,18,
15, 99
98
ISL1,
96
93
91
90
90
87
88
8896 27, 98
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL8,
RSL,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL7,
ISL6,
ISL5,
ISL2,
ISL4, 14,
13,
13,17,
14, 81
78
80
76
77
74
ISL1,
71
69
69
67
ISL1, 78 26,
25, 64 74
RSL,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL6,
RSL,
ISL8,
ISL5, 12, 16,
13,
15, 59
56
47
45
ISL1,
44 6224,
46 45
ISL7,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL6,
ISL9,
RSL,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL9,
ISL6,
RSL, 10, 12,
11,14,
13, 42
41
39
37
ISL1,
34
32
33
31
30
ISL1, 34 23, 2537
0
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL5,
RSL,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL6,
RSL,
ISL5,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL4,
ISL6,
ISL3,
ISL2,
ISL2,
RSL,
ISL6,
ISL9,
ISL8,
ISL7,
ISL5,
ISL4,
ISL3,
ISL9,
ISL7,
ISL5,
ISL3,
RSL,
ISL8,
ISL4,
ISL2, 10,
8,
7,
9, 5
3
1
12,
10,
11,
9, 8
ISL1,
5
4
ISL1, 9 725
15
ISL1,
12
6211
10
2ISL1,
8 26
22
21
18
1425
22
19
17 22,
21,
20,
19,
18, 15
1711
0 20 40 60 80 100
DAP
Fig 1: Graph of stem growth against DAP

700
y = 5.7981x + 91.379
600 R 2 = 0.8292
Stem growth (cm)

500
RSL
400 ISL1
ISL2
300
ISL3
200 ISL4
ISL5
100
ISL6
0 ISL7
0 20 40 60 80 100 ISL8
DAP ISL9
Fig 2: Graph of stem growth against DAP Linear (ISL9)

Table 1: Leaf size of Irrigated plot (I-leaf size)

Leaf size
DAP
small ¼ ½ ¾ full Remark
40 5 1 4 5 0
44 4 3 6 7 4
48 13 12 14 14 12
Leaf growth transformation until stabilization

52 36 16 22 30 12
56 35 18 30 32 23
60 38 25 31 33 33
64 40 37 28 38 43
68 35 40 35 39 48
72 32 42 35 40 56
76 36 41 37 38 62
80 38 40 38 36 64
84 45 30 34 36 64
88 40 30 36 38 64
92 35 20 36 40 64
96 31 17 32 42 78
100 22 10 21 44 80
104 16 6 21 34 90
108 3 4 10 32 140
112 2 4 10 21 140
116 2 2 10 11 141
120 2 2 10 11 142

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 261
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 2: Leaf size of Rainfed plot (R-leaf size)
DAP Leaf size
small ¼ ½ ¾ full Remark
40 0 0 0 0 0
44 0 0 0 0 0
48 3 0 8 0 0

Leaf growth transformation until stabilization

52 9 4 12 5 0
56 18 4 16 7 2
60 40 7 21 14 8
64 35 7 21 20 12
68 32 9 21 22 14
72 90 9 31 21 23
76 120 14 28 31 23
80 90 20 35 31 28
84 100 30 35 32 36
88 135 30 37 32 42
92 131 40 38 34 44
96 122 35 34 36 44
100 116 21 32 38 44
104 65 16 21 40 54
108 60 14 10 42 68
112 66 14 10 21 90
116 44 12 10 11 120
120 40 5 6 11 136

full
Rainfed plot ¾
Canopy size

½
¼

Irrigated plot full

¾
¼ ½

90 120 180 200

Fig. 6: Canopy size of yam against Day After Planting

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 262
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Obisesan, P. O

Jim
Jimoh, B. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 263 - 268
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti

Assessment of Nigeria’s Gas Wealth: A Panacea for the Nation’s Depressed Economy

Obisesan, P. O & Jimoh, B. O

Mineral Resources Engineering Department
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti.
Abstract
Nigeria as it were has an estimated 180 billion cubic feet of proven natural gas, making it the ninth largest
concentration in the world. As a result of unsustainable exploration practices coupled with lack of gas
utilization infrastructures, the country flares 75% of the gas it produces and re-injects only 12% to enhance oil
recovery. It is estimated that about 2 billion cubic feet of gas is currently being flared in Nigeria, this figure
signifies the highest in any member nation of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Consequently and going by current statistics, Nigeria accounts for about 19% of the total amount of gas flared
globally in the more than 2,000 oil fields scattered within the Niger Delta region of the country. The method
adopted in this study includes field survey, review of available and current literature both printed and
electronic. The paper is poised to refocusing the view of Nigeria’s decision makers on these vast natural
resources which could serve as succour for the ailing economy and equally serve as buoy for Nigeria amidst the
current global economic depression.

Keywords: Economic depression, gas utilization, exploration, natural resources and natural gas

Introduction Area, were inland, swamp and offshore

Oil Exploration and Exploitation in Niger Delta
In 1956, shell British petroleum (now Royal Dutch
Shell) discovered crude oil at Oloibiri, a village in
the Niger Delta, of which 360 are on-shore and 246
off-shores. (Nigeria Country Analysis Brief, 2005).
Nigeria is now the largest oil producer in Africa and
the sixth largest in the world, averaging 2.7 million
barrels per day (BPD) in 2006. Nigeria’s economy is
heavily dependent on earnings from oil sector, which
provides 20% of GDP, 95% of foreign exchange
earnings, and about 65% of budgetary revenues (CIA
world fact book, 2005).
Oil and Gas Journal (2005) estimates Nigeria’s
proven oil reserve at 35.2 billion barrels. The Nigeria
government plans to expand its proven reserves to 40
billion barrels by 2010. Oil and Gas Journal (2005)
further stated that Nigeria has an estimated 176
trillion cubic feet (TCF) of proven natural gas
reserves, making the country one of the top ten
natural gas endowment in the world and the largest
endowment in Africa.
According to the Department of Petroleum
Resources (DPR), between 1976 and 1996 a total of
4647 incidents resulted in spill of approximately 2.4
billion barrels of oil into the environment. Of this
quantity, an estimated 1820410.5 barrels (77%) were
lost to the environment. A total of 549,060 barrels of
oil representing 23.17% of the total oil split into the
environment was recovered. The heaviest recorded
spill so far occurred in 1979 and 1980 with a net
volume of 694,117.13 barrels and 600,511.02 barrels
respectively.
Available records for the period of 1976 to 1996
indicate that approximately 6%, 25%, and 69%
respectively, of total oil spilled in the Niger Delta
environments. Also, between 1997 and 2001, Nigeria
recorded a total number of 2,097 oil spill incidents.
Thousands of barrels of oil have been spilt into the
environment through oil pipelines and tanks in the
country. This spillage is as a result of lack of regular
maintenance of the pipelines and storage facilities
tanks. Some of these facilities have been in use for
decades without replacement.
Sabotage is another major cause of oil spillage in the
Niger Delta. Some citizens of this country in
collaboration with people from other countries
engage in oil bunkering. They damage and destroy
oil pipelines in their effort to steal oil from them.
SPDC claimed in 1996 that sabotage accounted for
more than 60% of all oil spilled at its facilities in the
Niger Delta Area, stating that the percentage of
sabotage incidents has increased and because spills
due to corrosion have decreased with programs to
replace oil pipelines (SPDC, 1996).
Pirates do steal Nigeria’s crude oil at a phenomenal
rate, funneling nearly 300,000 barrels per day from
our oil and selling it illegally on the international
trade market. Nigeria lost about N7.7 billion in 2002
as a result of vandalisation of pipelines carrying
petroleum products. The amount according to PPMC,
a subsidiary of NNPC represents the estimated value
of the products lost in the process.
Illegal fuel siphoning as a result of the thriving black
market for fuel products has increased the number of
oil pipeline explosions in recent years. In July 2000,
a pipeline explosion outside the city of Warri caused
the death of 250 people. An explosion in Lagos in
December 2000 killed at least 60 people. The NNPC
reported 800 cases of pipeline vandalization from
January through October 2000. In January 2001,

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 263
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Nigeria lost 4 billion dollars in oil revenues in 2000
due to the activities of vandals on oil installations.
In Nigeria, fifty percent (50%) of oil spills is due to
corrosions, twenty eight percent (28%) to sabotage
and twenty one percent (21%) to oil production
operations. One percent (1%) of oil spills is due to
engineering drills, inability to effectively control oil
wells, failure of machine and inadequate care in
loading and unloading oil vessels.
Objectives of the Project
The general objective of this project is to assess the
environmental impact of oil spillage and Gas flaring
in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria, meanwhile the
specific objective is:
i. Impacts assessment and management of oil
spillage and Gas flaring in the Niger Delta Area.
A lot has been documented about the implications of
exploration of Petroleum in the Niger Delta Area of
Nigeria and its consequent effects on the
environment. Oil spillage and Gas flaring are the
major environmental problem facing the Niger Delta
Area.
Oil and gas are most likely of organic origin and
derived mainly from certain compounds found in
marine organism and terrestrial plants. The most
important organic compound with respect to
formation of Petroleum are lipids, that are made up
of fats, steroids and pigments, proteins and
carbohydrates. The formation of oil and gas reservoir
from the original organic source is a complex and
geologically slows process.
Oil production has been going on in the Niger Delta
Area of Nigeria for over fifty years together with the
flaring of associated natural gas. Understanding why
this unhealthy practice has lasted for such a long time
in the country entails unraveling the dynamics of the
influences of Multinational Corporation over natural
resources management in developing countries. It
must be emphasized that the entire issues of curbing
gas flaring or terminal gas flares boils down to one
question: Who controls natural resources exploitation
in Nigeria – the government or multinational
corporations? (Gab, 2005).
Nigeria is widely known for its richness in oil but the
country is probably richer in gas than oil. Gas was
first discovered in Nigeria at Afam in 1956, the same
year that the first commercial oil discovery was made
at Oloibiri in present day Bayelsa State. Since than
the trend of gas discoveries, mostly in association
with oil, has been on the increase to the extent that
today the volume of gas reserves in the country is as
significant as that of oil (Obaseki, 2000). The first
shipment of crude oil in Nigeria started in 1958 with
initial shipment of five thousand one hundred barrels
of crude oil per day.
Oil is one of the world’s most important forms of
energy which is essential to economic development
and human progress. The history of an oil producing
nation can never be complete without reference to
the attendant impact of oil exploration. One thing
that had been proved conclusively across the globe is
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
that oil never leaves a nation as it met it. Oil is the
watershed for economic breakthrough and pillar of
wealth creation. And that is why an oil producing
nation always enjoys international spotlight and
recognition very few things put nations in a position
of prominence on the world map, making for it more
friends. Oil may be hidden, but oil wealth cannot
because, the discovery of the resource makes
countries rich overnight. Saudi Arabia was once a
poor province before the second war. Norway was a
relatively nondescript country in Europe. But the
discovery of oil changed the fortunes of Norway, and
indeed the economics of oil in the world (Gab, 2005).
Gab went further to say that some nations have
successfully converted the underground resource to
real wealth. Many others have been groping in the
dark. Oil, when it leads to wealth, brings about
liberation from poverty and its attendant negative
effects.
When oil does not result in wealth, it has often been
a case of lamentation. This is the case with oil and
gas exploration in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria.
There is no gain saying the fact that many years of
explorations in the Area have taken devastating toll
not only on the environmental but on people oil
spillage and Gas flaring has become a common term
in the Area since the commercialization of oil
prospecting. Oil spillage is the accidental discharge
of petroleum products into the environment while
Gas flaring is the burning off of the natural gas
produced along side with crude oil from the
operation of oil fields.
The oil industry in the Niger Delta of Nigeria has
brought impoverishment, conflict, human rights
abuses and despair to the majority of the people in
the oil – producing areas, according to a new
Amnesty International report.Pollution and
environmental damage caused by the oil industry
have resulted in violations of rights to health and a
healthy environment, the right to an adequate
standard of living (including the right to food and
portable water) and the right to gain a living through
work for hundreds of thousands of people (Kadir,
2008). Oil companies have been exploiting Nigeria’s
weak regulatory system for too long. They do not
adequately prevent environmental damage and they
frequently fail to properly address the devastating
impact that their bad practice has on the lives of
people (Audrey, 2008).
According to (Kadiri, 2008) the Niger Delta is one of
the world’s ten most important wetland and coastal
marine ecosystems and is home to some – thirty
million people source. It is also the location of
massive oil deposits, which have been extracted for
decades by the government of Nigeria and by
multinational oil companies.
The United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
describes the region as suffering from administrative
neglects, crumbling social infrastructure and
services, high unemployment, social deprivation,
abject poverty, filth and squalor, and endemic
conflict. Oil spills and waste Gas flaring dumping
Page 264
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
have seriously damaged agricultural land. Long –
term effects include damage to soil fertility and
agricultural productivity, which in some cases last
for decades. In numerous cases, these long – term
effects have undermined a several families sources of
livelihood. The destruction of livelihoods and lack of
accountability and redress have led people to steal oil
and vandalize oil infrastructure in an attempt to gain
compensation or clean – up contracts.
The oil industry in the Niger Delta Area involves
both the government of Nigeria and subsidiaries of
multinational companies. The Shell Petroleum
Development Company a subsidiary of Royal Dutch
Shell, is the main operator on land (Audry, 2008).
Oil spillage and gas flaring are notorious and
endemic. Oil spills result from corrosion of oil pipes,
poor maintenance of infrastructure, leaks and human
error and at times are as a consequence of vandalism,
theft of oil or sabotage. The scale of pollution and
environmental damage has never been properly
assessed. The figures that do exist vary considerably
depending on sources, but hundreds of spills occur
each year.
According to the UNDP, more than 6,800 spills were
recorded between 1976 and 2001. According to the
National oil spill Detection and Response Agency
(NOSDRA) some 2000 sites require treatment
because of oil – related pollution. According to the
Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR), between
1976 and 1996 a total of 4647 incidents resulted in
the spill of approximately 2,369, 470 barrels of oil
into the environment of this quantity, an estimated
1,820, 410.5 barrels (77%) were lost to the
environment.
A total of 549,060 barrels of oil representing 23.17%
of the total oil split into the environment was
recovered. The heaviest recorded spill so far
occurred in 1979 and 1980 with a net volume of
644,117.13 barrels and 600,511.02 barrels
respectively. Records from DPR for the period of
1976 and 1996 indicate that approximately 6%, 25%,
and 69% respectively, of total oil spilled in the Niger
Delta Area, were in land, swamp and offshore
environments. Also, between 1997 and 2001, Nigeria
recorded a total number of 2,097 oil spill incidents.
Nigeria has laws and regulations that require
companies to comply with internationally recognized
standards of good oil field practice, and laws and
regulations to protect the environment but these laws
and regulations are poorly enforced. The government
agencies responsible for enforcement are ineffective
and, in some cases, compromised by conflicts of
interest (Kadir, 2008). Some of these laws and
regulations are:
1. Oil Pollution Act (OPA) of 1990
2. The Environmental impact Assessment (EIA)
decree No. 86 of 1992.
3. Petroleum Related Laws and Regulations
Methodology
The methodology adopted for this study is mainly
literature review, and site survey. Whereby data /
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
information collected were processed and statistically
analyzed to reach a valid conclusion and making
reasonable and accurate recommendations on the
basis of such statistical analysis.
The methods of research adopted include the
following:
Desk Top Research
Desk top research was used to establish an
environmental information data base for the
environmental impact assessment. Consulted
materials include: text books, articles, reports, maps,
internet facilities and site photographs.
Filed Research
Field Research was carried to verify and compliment
information gathered from desktop research. The
field survey covers all relevant aspects of the study
like the biophysical, socio-economic and the
environment and health.
Consultation with Stake Holders and Experts
Experts in relevant fields, leaders of thought in
environmental matters, non-governmental
organizations and some members of the community
in the concerned community’s local Government,
Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR) were
consulted. Equally, Focus Group Discussions (FGD)
was carried out at some instances within the affected
communities to get first-hand information.
Result and Discussion
From figure 5, between 1976 – 1980 the rate of oil
spill was very low, because then most of the
pipelines and oil infrastructures were relatively new
and there were few oil field. But between the years
1981 and 1985 the rate of spill increased and then
decreased a little between 1986 and 1990.
However, the rate of spill increased steadily between
the year 1999 – 1995, 1996 – 2000 and 2001 – 2005.
This was as a result of lack of regular maintenance of
pipeline and storage tanks. Most pipelines from the
flow stations are aging and affected by rusts. By
international standards, oil pipes ought to be replaced
after 15 to 20 years after installation. But, most
pipelines in use are 20 to 25 years old, making them
subjected to corrosion and subsequently, leakage.
Some of these pipes are laid above ground level
without adequate surveillance, exposing them to
wear and tear and other danger.
Figure 6, indicates the number of occurrence of
pipeline vandalization which increases from 497 to
984 in the year 1999 and 2000 respectively. This
could be as a result of unemployment among the
youth and then most of the youth involves
themselves in pipeline vandalization as a means of
livelihood.
The number of occurrence reduced in the year 2001
and then increased steadily between year 2002 and
2004. Nigeria lost about 3.2, 10.1, 7.7, 12.9 and 19.7
billion Naira in the years 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002,
2003 and 2004 respectively. This was as a result of
vandalization of pipelines carrying petroleum
products. The amount according to NNPC represents
the estimated value of the products lost in the
Page 265
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
process. The Nigeria government and oil companies
say up to 15% of the country’s two million barrel per
day oil production is taken illegally from pipelines in
the Niger Delta and smuggled abroad.
In figure 7, the Gas production increases steadily
from year 1996 to 2005. Nigeria has an estimated
180 bn cf of proven natural gas, making it the ninth
largest concentration in the world (Gab, 2005). Due
to unsustainable exploration practices coupled with
lack of gas utilization infrastructure in Nigeria, the
country flares 75% of the gas it produces and re-
injects only 12% to enhance oil recovery. From the
year 1996 to 2006, Nigeria flared an estimate of 2.5
bn cf gas each year, the highest in any member
nation of OPEC (Gab, 2005).
The gas utilized increased from the year 1998 to
2005 due to the establishment of some subsidiaries to
NNPC like the Nigeria Gas Company (NGC) in
1998, with the objectives of gas storage, treating and
marketing within and outside the country. The most
significant Gas project to date is the Nigerian
Liquefied Natural Gas (NLNG). The project being
undertaken by NNPC, shell, Elf and Agip.
Conclusion
Since the discovery of oil and Gas in the Niger Delta
Area of Nigeria, the region has been suffering the
negative environmental consequences of oil and Gas
development.
Oil spill incidents and Gas flaring have destroyed the
coastal vegetations, polluted drinkable water. This
has led to ethnic and regional crises and even
militancy across the Niger Delta.
Several oil spill management policy and efforts are in
place to reduce the menace of oil spill incidents in
the country. Some of these policies and efforts
include:
a. The formation of the National oil spill Detection
and Response Agency (NOSDRA) by the Federal
Executive Council of Nigeria.
b. The putting in place of relevant acts and
regulations on oil spill pollution.
c. The passing into law of the Niger Delta
Development Commission (NDDC).
Table 1: Oil Spill Rate from 1996 to 2005
Year Number of Spill Number of spill (%)
1976 - 1980 784
1981 – 1985 1001
1986 – 1990 847
1991 – 1995 1939
1996 – 2000 2030
2001- 2005 2506
Source: (John, 2006)
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
d. The establishment of the Niger Delta
environmental Survey.
In addition, the languid response to the issue of Gas
flaring and the need to encourage its utilization and
make it a fuel of choice in the country apparently
informed the establishment of the Nigerian Gas
Company (NGC) in 1998, with the objectives of
storage, treating and marketing natural gas in the
country.
All these efforts have assisted in detection and
management of oil spills and reduction of Gas flaring
in the Niger Delta Area of Nigeria.
References
Audry, S. (2008): The control of oil pollution on the
sea and inland waters. Graham and Trotman
limited,United kingdom p. 50.
Bellonwu, V. (2009): Gas Flaring. Carl Bro.
International Gnostrup, Denmark Pp. 50-55.
Folabi (2000): Petroleum Biodegradation and Oil
Spill Bioremediation. Marine pollution Bulletin.
Vol 31 Pp. 178 – 182.
Gab, E. (2005): Saving the Niger Delta from oil
pollution. Ibadan University Press, Ibadan Nigeia
Pp 15 – 20
John, L. (2006): Petroleum Spill in Marine
Environments. Critical Rev. Micobiol Pp 217 –
242.
Kadir, V. (2008): The Adverse Effects of crude oil
spills in the Niger Delta. Urhobo Historical
Society, Nigeria P. 16.
NGC (2000): The House Journal of Nigeria Gas
Company Limited, 3rd Edition Vol. 8 No. 1 Pp 23
– 25.
NNPC (2006): National Gas production. NNPC
Annual report Pp. 60 – 70.
Nwilo, P. C. and O. T. Badejo, (2008): Oil spill
problems and management in the Niger Delta.
International oil spill conference, Miami, Florida
USA.
Obaseki, G. (2000): The future of Gas. Public Affairs
Department of Nigeria Gas Company Limited Pp
25 – 30.
SPDC (1996): SPDC Oil Spill Contingency Plan. 5th
Edition Vol 10 Pp 32 – 40.
8.61
10.99
9.30
21.29
22.29
27.52
Page 266
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

30

25

20

15 Percentage No of spill

10

0
1976 - 1981– 1986 – 1991– 1996 – 2001-
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Fig 5: Oil Spill Rate from 1996 to 2005

Table 2: Pipeline Vandalization

Year Number of occurrence Value loss N million
1999 497 3,159.10
2000 984.00 10,123.30
2001 474.00 3,867.75
2002 516 7,661.06
2003 779 12,990.00
2004 895 19,660.00
Source: NNPC Report, 2006

25000

20000

15000

Value loss N million

Number of occurrence
10000

5000

0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004

Fig 6: Pipeline Vandalization from the Year 1999 to 2004

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 267
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 3: Natural Gas Production and Disposal
Year Gas produced (mm3) Gas utilized (mm3) Gas flared (mm3)
1996 35,450.00 8,860.00 26,590.00
1997 37,150.00 10.383.00 24,234.00
1998 37,039.00 13,407.00 23,632.00
1999 43,636.00 21,274.00 22,362.00
2000 42,732.00 18,477.00 24,255.00
2001 52,453.00 25,702.00 26,759.00
2002 48,192.00 23,357.00 24,836.00
2003 51,766.00 27,882.00 23,943.00
2004 58,964.00 33,882.00 25,091.00
2005 59,285.00 36,282.00 23,003.00
Source: NNPC report, 2006.

70,000.00

60,000.00

50,000.00
Gas produced
40,000.00
Quantity of Gas (mm3)

Gas utilized
30,000.00
Gas flared
20,000.00

10,000.00

0.00
96

97

98

99

00

01

02

03

04

05
19

19

19

19

20

20

20

20

20

20

Fig 7: Natural Gas Production and Disposal (1996-2005)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 268
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Okereke, C. O
Adeoti, O
School of Engineering Akingbade, K. F
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti (2009), 5 (1) : 269 - 274

Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and it’s Prospects in a Depressed Economy
(Ekiti-State as a Case Study)

Okereke, C. O1, Adeoti, O.2 & Akingbade, K. F3

1
Electrical/Electronics Engineering Department,
2
Agricultural Engineering Department,
Federal Polytechnic, Ado- Ekiti.
3
Electrical and Electronics Department,
Federal University of Technology, Akure.

Abstract
The foundation of human culture and society has always been communication. The importance of
communication cannot be over emphasized for it forms a vital tool on which human race exists. This paper
discusses the prospects of Global system for mobile communication (GSM) in a depressed economy. Data for
this paper was obtained through personal interview of subscribers and questionnaire which was distributed
within three towns in Ekiti State. The result of the study showed that GSM has positive impact on the user, in
terms of improved communication, exposure and above all improved economy.

Keywords: GSM, Prospects, Depressed and Economy

Introduction telecommunication services to chronically under

The pace of change brought about by “Global
System for mobile communication” (GSM) has had
a significant effect on the way people live, work and
play worldwide. This new and emerging
technology has aided and increased access to
information technology (IT) in the home, at work
and in educational establishment (Elegbeleye,
2005). Looking back to what life used to be for all
of us before the evolution of GSM; it gives one a
clear understanding of the positive impact GSM has
on the society. GSM has improved the life of
common people in different way; it cuts across
every face of life (Omeruo, 2007)
Global system for mobile communication
(originally from group special mobile) is a second
generation mobile phone system. It is the most
popular standard for mobile phones in the world.
According to the GSM Association (2007) reports,
estimated that, 85% of the global mobile market
uses the standard. It is used by over two billion
people across the more than 212 countries and
territories. GSM is a digital system based on a
narrow band Time Division Multiple Accesses
(TDMA) technology. This choice was based on
spectra efficiency, subjective voice quality, cost of
mobile unit, ability to support new services,
feasibility of a hand portable mobile unit, cost of a
base station and ability to co-exist with existing
systems (Dunlop and Smith, 1998).
Jekins (2004), in his report to GSM Association on
the economic contribution of mobile service, he
opines that “the deployment of GSM has helped to
bridge the gap digital divide and bring modern
served communities in Africa, Asia and Latin
America“. The report examines the impact that GSM
can have in developing nations’ economies.
As reported by Nigerian Communication
Commission (NCC), (2007), GSM made its first
appearance in Nigeria, in 2001, when ECONET
wireless, (Now ZAIN), MTN and MTEL, a
subsidiary of Nigeria Telecommunication (NITEL)
were awarded licenses by NCC. Prior to GSM,
Nigerians could not boast of an effective system of
communications and had only 400,000 lines to a
population of over 120,000,000. However, the
entrance of GSM technology has brought about such
a revolutionary transformation that millions of
Nigerians with no access to telecommunication now
use mobile phone in their millions.
Today, GSM phone has been in almost every palm,
pocket, handbags, offices, school hostels, shopping
centers, beer parlours etc. Just listen to the various
ringing tones coming from different GSM phones
which are amazing and highly excited
(Atajeromavwo and Obenobe, 2007). These and
many one are happening with such case that many
people seem to have forgotten what communication
was before the advent of GSM.
Information and communication technology can
generate employment both directly and indirectly,
thus reducing the number of unemployed in the
nation. This is evident in the introduction of GSM,
thousands of Nigerians are working in the
telecommunication companies like the MTN,
GLOBACOM, ZAIN, ODUATEL, MTEL, etc. and
some are employed indirectly by selling handsets and

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 269
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
its accessories, simpacks, and some have commercial
centers where people can make calls. (Ogundipe,
2006).
History of GSM Technology
In the early 1980s, as business was becoming
increasingly international, the communication
industries extensively focused on local cellular
network. The European countries developed their
own forms of communication which consist of lots of
lapses. When the Europeans quickly realized the
demerits of the country operating on its own mobile
network, i.e. cell phones not allowed to cut across
countries within Europe prevents mobile phone user
from country to country within Europe and with the
emerging of European Union and high travel volume
between countries in Europe this was seen as a
problem.
To address this situation, the European; conference of
postal and telecommunication (CEPT) in 1982
created the “Group Special Mobile” (GSM) to
develop a standard for a mobile telephone system that
could be used across Europe.
The GSM carried out field trials of a number of
competing systems in 1986 and chose as the standard
a digital system based on a narrowband Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Technology. The
choice of the GSM standard was based on the
following ranked criteria; (Dunlop and Smith, 1998).
• Spectra efficiency (the number of simultaneous
conversation/MH2/km2)
• Subjective voice equality
• Cost of mobile unit
• Feasibility of a hand portable mobile unit
• Cost of a base station
• Ability to support new services
• Ability to co-exist with existing systems
The standard which has been developed is known as
GSM, and has been renamed from “Group Special
Mobile” to “Global System for mobile
Communication”.
In 1989, a memorandum of understanding was signed
by thirteen countries. There were fifteen signatories
in total; France, Germany, Italy, Sweden, Norway,
Denmark, Finland, Spain, Netherlands, Belgium,
Portugal, Ireland and from United Kingdom, two
independent operators cell-net and Rascal –
Vodafone.
In 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the
European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI). And phase 1 of the GSM specifications were
published in 1990. The first GSM network was
launched in 1991 by Radiolinja in Finland with joint
technical infrastructure maintenance from Ericsson.
By the end of 1993, over a million subscribers were
using GSM phone networks being operated by 76
carriers across forty – eight countries. Several other
countries were on the rise to adopt this new mobile
technology and participate in what was becoming a
worldwide standard. At the same time, GSM also
became widely used in the Middle East and Australia.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
In 1995, GSM had expanded beyond Europe and
Australia, Establishing a presence in India, Africa,
Asia and the Arab world. By June 1995, the
memorandum of understanding (m0u) was formerly
registered as an association in Switzerland.
History of GSM Technology in Nigeria
The revolutionary GSM technology that transformed
the communication system in the country began in
2001.
Prior to the advent of GSM, Nigerians could not
boast of an effective system of communication and
had about 450,000 lines for a population of over 120
million. Then having a telephone was a class thing
and only the rich could afford the luxury. It was also
common to see the technicians asking for cables and
ladders to fix a line anytime a problem arises. One
could easily recall the stress of keeping vigil at the
offices of NITEL in a bit to make cells. However, the
entrance of the GSM technology has brought about
such a revolutionary transformation that most of
Nigerians with no access to telecommunications now
clutch mobile phones in their millions.
According to NCC (2007), In January 2001, Nigeria
Communication Commission (NCC) conducted an
auction for Digital Mobile Licenses. This auction was
acclaimed locally and internationally as one of the
best in the world due to the high level of transparency
associated with the exercise. The auction brought
about the emergence of three mobile operators;
ECONET Wireless now (ZAIN), MTN and MTEL, a
subsidiary of the incumbent operator. The Nigerian
Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) which was
also awarded an operating license as a National
carrier. In 2002, a fourth Digital mobile license
(DML) was issued to GLOBACOM through another
auction process.
The transparent manner in which the commissions
handled the DML gave the impetus to other licensing
auctions that followed. Through the award of these
licenses the NCC facilitated a phenomenal expansion
of telephone lines in Nigeria, from about 45,000
connected lines in May 1999 to over 38 million lines
in July 2007.
Technical Details of Gsm
GSM is a cellular network, which means that mobile
phones connect to it by searching for cells in the
immediate vicinity. And it operates in different
frequency bands.
Material and Method
The data used for this study was obtained through
i. Literature review
ii. Personal interview of subscribers and
iii. Questionnaire.
The survey was carried out by administering a well
structured questionnaire to telephone subscribers,
operator and professional in the field. A total number
of 201 copies of questionnaire were distributed in
three towns; Ado, Ikere and Ire Ekiti. The
questionnaires were based on some of the networks
as MTN, Global COM, Zain, and O’net. Out of the
Page 270
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
number administered 194 were returned by the
respondents making 96.5% of the total questionnaire
administered as shown in table 1,
Data Analysis
The instruments used in the analysis of data in this
research work include:
• Percentage
• Multiple Bar-chart
• Chi-square:
It tests whether the observed frequency of a given
phenomenon differs significantly from the
frequencies which might be expected according to
some assumed hypothesis.
Result and Discussion
Question 1 required about the age range of
subscribers. Answer is provided to this question in
Table 2 which describes the age range of respondents.
From the table, age 18-25 has the highest percentage
(40.20%) followed by 26-35 (19.07%), 36-45
(19.07%) and 56 and above (2.06%). It can be
deduced that the major age range of subscriber fall
within 18-45 years which is within the age of
workforce.
In providing answer to question 2, which sought an
answer whether availability of GSM network in a
town has positive impact on the income of users
Table 3shows the income level of respondents within
the towns investigated
Hypothesis Statement
HO: Availability of GSM network has no significant
impact on the income of users
H1: Availability of GSM network has significant
impact on the income of users
Test Statistics
Xo2 = E(O1 – E1)2
E1
Where O is the observed frequency
E is the expected frequency
Note: The expected frequency is in the square
bracket [ ]
Xo2 = 44.74
To find df (degree of freedom)
df = (c - 1) (r - 1) = 6
X2tab = X2 (r – 1) (c - 1)
Where Significant level = 0.05
r = number of row
c = number of column
X2tab = X20.05 (6)
= 12.59
Decision:
Since the calculated value (44.74) is greater than the
table value (12.59) i.e, X02(44.74) > X2tab (12.59), we
reject H0, hence the availability of GSM network has
significant impact on the economy of users.
Question 3 inquired to know the quality of service
provided by GSM network operators. The following
results were obtained as follows
In providing answer to question 4 which sought to
know the economic effect of GSM. The following
results were obtained as shown in the figure 1 and
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
table 4, 44 out of 194 subscribers use GSM for
various businesses (i.e. 22.68%)
Fig. 1 show that before the use of GSM greater
percentage (63.64%) income falls below 25,000, and
for 25,000–50,000 naira, (22.73%). Lowest
percentage falls in 50,000 - 75, 0000 naira (2.27%),
indicating low income.
When subscribers begin to use GSM, it can be seen
that income below25, 000 naira falls to 25%. While
for others; 25,000 – 50,000 naira (29.55%), 50,000 –
75,000 naira (27.27%), and 75,000 naira and above
(18.18%) there are increment in income. Therefore it
can be deduced that there is increment in income of
subscribers when using GSM phones.
As shown in the table 4, great percentage (84.6%)
believe that GSM is the major contributing factor in
the increment of their monthly income while 15.3%
believe that GSM rather decrease their daily income
through money spent on recharge cards.
In providing answer to question 5 which sought to
know whether GSM can empower business. The
following results were obtained as shown in the table
below.
Greater percentage of users (69.6%) has encountered
positive change in their business while (21.6%) have
not. From the table 6, greater percentage (70.1%) of
people and customers have made enquiry about
business through GSM phone.
From the table 7, GSM has helped 72.7% users
(business owners) in making efficient decision while
18% have not made any efficient decision in their
business through the use of GSM phones.
Discussion
The results of the findings showed that the
availability of GSM in a town has positive impact on
the economy of users. It also provides services such
as Short Messages Service (SMS), General Packet
Radio Service (GPRS) and Multimedia Messages
Service (MMS). Finally, GSM has been a
contributing factor to the increment in income of
users using it for business and has also empowers
business, hence GSM can be seen as a positive
contributor in a depressed economy in a nation like
Nigeria.
From table 8, it can be seen that GSM has not only
improved economy of the users but has also
improved their communication skill.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The introduction of global system for mobile
communication (GSM) has positive impact on the
lives of the users. This cut across almost every
spheres of life ranging from improved state of
economy of the user to his communication skill. It is
recommended that for individual subscriber society at
large to enjoy the benefits brought by GSM, a
standard law should be made which will enhance the
continual functionality of GSM network. This can be
done if;
i. government should enact policies on
telecommunication bills which will ensure
Page 271
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
competition, regulations for social and economic
development.
ii policies that will encourage more investors should
be formulated by government.
iii service provider should bring about reduction in
tariff for special service provided such as General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS), SMS, Multimedia
Message Service (MMS) which will improve
socio-economic state of the community.
iv service provider should make their customer care
service more accessible to subscribers who might
be interested in asking questions from them.
Reference
Atajeromavwo E.J. and Obenobe I. (2007);
Information and communication
Technology (ICT) Development for economic reform
in Nigeria proceedings of 3rd engineering forum,
school of engineering,
Federal polytechnic, Ado –Ekiti State, Nigeria. Pp39-
42
Dunlop, J and Smith, D.G (1998),
Telecommunication engineering. Stanley
Thornes (publishers) ltd, U.K
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Elegbeleye, O.S (2005); prevalent use of global
system of mobile phone (GSM)
for communication in Nigeria; A break through in
interactional Enhancement or a Drawback?
Nordic journal of African Studies (14c2); 193-207
Gsm Assocaition, (2007) Gsm worid statistics,
Retrived on line at http;www.Gsmworld.com/
gsmstats.shtml
Jekins, G (2004), The economics contribution of
mobiles services. A report to The GSM
association. available on line at
http;//www.gsmworld.com/using
/public.policy/esb/index.html.
Ogundipe, O.M (2006); the pole of information and
communication technology (FCT)in the
millennium Development programme.
Proceedings of 2nd Engineering forum, School of
Engineering, The Federal polytechnic Ado –Ekiti,
Ekiti- state, Nigeria. Pp 73-77
Omeruo, k (2007), The impact of GSM Mobile
phone on Nigeria. Ezines Articles, Retrieved April
28, 2008; from http// ezinearticles.com/?The-
impact-of-Gsm—Mobile-phones-on-Nigerians $id
=516198
Page 272
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Below 25 25 - 50 50 - 75 Above 75

INCOME (‘000 N )
Key
Income of subscribers
Before the use of GSM phones
Income of subscribers
as a result of using of GSM phones

Fig 1: The effect if GSM on the Income of the Respondents

Table 1: Total Questionnaires Administered

Towns Investigated No of Questionnaires No of completed and collected
Distributed questionnaires
Ado 67 66
Ikere 67 63
Ire 67 65
Total 201 194

TABLE 2: Age Range of Respondents

AGE ADO IKERE IRE TOTAL PERCENTAGE
18-25 41 22 15 78 40.20
26-35 16 20 20 56 28.86
36-45 6 13 18 37 19.07
46-55 3 6 10 19 9.77
56 AND ABOVE - 2 2 4 2.06

TABLE 3: Income Level of Respondent within the Towns Investigated

INCOME LEVEL ADO IKERE IRE TOTAL
Low 16[18.03] 18[17.21] 19[17.76] 53
Middle 27[32.66] 35[31.18] 34[32.17] 96
High 12[8.85] 6[8.44] 8[8.71] 26
Indifference 11[6.46] 4[6.17] 4[6.37] 19
Total 66 63 65 194

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 273
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
TABLE 4: Result of Increment in Income
Factors ADO (%) IKERE (%) IRE (%) TOTAL (%)
GSM 85.7 75 100 84.6
OTHERS 14.2 25 - 15.3

Table 5:
Have you encounter any ADO (%) IKERE (%) IRE (%) TOTAL (%)
positive change in your business
YES 68.2 71.4 69.2 69.6
NO 18.2 22.2 24.6 21.6
INDIFFERENCE 13.6 6.4 1 8.8

Table 6: Business
Do people make enquiry ADO (%) IKERE (%) IRE (%) TOTAL (%)
about your business through
GSM phones?
YES 69.7 71.4 69.3 70.1
NO 21.2 19.1 23.1 21.1
INDIFFERENCE 9.1 9.5 7.7 8.8

Table 7
Has GSM helped you in ADO (%) IKERE (%) IRE (%) TOTAL (%)
making efficient decision on
your business?
YES 78.8 73.0 66.2 72.7
NO 13.6 14.3 26.3 18.0
INDIFFERENCE 7.6 12.7 7.7 9.3

Table 8: The Improvement on Communication Skill

Has GSM improve your ADO IKERE IRE TOTAL %
communication skill
YES 61 58 62 172 93.48
NO 2 4 3 8 4.35
INDIFFERENCE 3 1 - 4 2.17

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 274
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Omotayo, K. F
Oladipo, I. O
School of Engineering (2009), 5 (1) : 275 - 279
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
An Alternative Income Generation Source: A Look at a Small Scale Wagon Wheel Irrigator

Omotayo, K.F.* & Oladipo, I.O.

Department of Agricultural Engineering
The Federal Polytechnic,
P.M.B. 5351, Ado-Ekiti
Ekiti State Nigeria.
Email: omotayokf2008@yahoo.com
Mobile Phone No.: +2348066423480
*Corresponding Author

Abstract
An existing wagon wheel irrigator was modified from originally design capacity of 200htres to 400 litres
storage capacity for the purpose of water delivery through emitters point for vegetable production. The study
under a two year programme was carried out at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, The Federal
Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti between October, 2007 to October, 2008, covering only the dry season period. A
demonstration plot measuring 16m by 16m was cleared and seedbed of about 35cm height and flat top of about
20 wide was prepared to form hexagonal or radial outlet for the water drum. Six water delivery outlet through
the emitters with the drum at the centre of oven water spread. An early maturing vegetable variety Amaranthus
spp was source from Ekiti State Agricultural Input Agency Ado Ekiti. The seed has a viability rate of 95% -
97%. It was planted in two phases: Phase I: planting in 20th of October, 2007 – 30th of November, 2007 thin
was repeated every 6 to 7 weeks to end the Phase 1: programme on 26th of May, 2008, the phase II was repeated
and value of harvest were measured. Water application was done according to design format, harvested
vegetable were measured which was done 5 times per life cycle of Amarathus spp. For each operation about
233.5kg of leafy vegetable was harvested with a market value of N40, 862.50 total water application per cycle
was 300 litres. For phase I and II an income generation of about ₦49,602 on the average/cycle was released
making a total income for the two phases as 238.9kg was harvested = N41,807.50k. The results suggests that in
times of less farming activities, the wagon wheel irrigator is a sure way of making additional income through
vegetables production.

Keywords: Alternative, Income generation, wagon wheel, irrigation cycle of operation

Introduction facilities such as Dam construction, diversion

It has become imperative for every worker within the
economy to have more than one streams of income in
order to stabilize at all time through the ever
increasing cost of daily hing. With the world bank
statistics that describes poverty index as income per
day below $1.00. (World Bank, 2002). The majority
of the population of sub-Sahara African falling within
this range of definition. Nigeria account for about
50% of the population in this region, hence the needs
to source for an effective way of making addition
income to make up for whatever steady income ones
made.
Wagon wheel irrigation was constructed in the
department of Agricultural Engineering, The federal
Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti Nigeria. It is a known fact
that irrigation, which comes in different shapes, sizes
and form of operations, can be source today in the
market, some of this system as highly efficient and
can significantly increase farm output. Some other
advantages of these irrigators are low-input,
adaptability to many land area and increases yield of
crop per stand.
In Nigeria irrigation farming has been largely
financed by Central Government in the provision of
structures and farmland preparations. The
Government always builds this into the Budget of the
country under FADAMA, irrigation scheme, River
basin development, Agricultural development
Programme etc. (National Rolling plan 2000 – 2010).
It must be noted has a facts that Development of
irrigation facilities in term Dam facilities has been
sited mostly in the Northern part of the country
reason is the low rain recorded in that region, long
period of dry season and other climatic consideration
peculiar to this region. Reigi et al 1996 said farmers
can grows more crops/cropping season using the
gardeners approach in planting high yield horticulture
and vegetable to increase income. According to
(Babatola, 1993) output are boosted, maximized and
yield are higher of good quality when efficient
irrigation system are employed.
An example of an efficient irrigation system is wagon
wheel irrigation which was constructed in the
department of Agricultural Engineering Federal
Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti. The drum carrying capacity
of irrigation water as at initial design was 200 litres
of water which was further modified to 300 litres of
water. Babatola, 1993; collaborated by Omotayo,

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 275
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
(2007), said that scarcity of water and poverty in the
land has lead some of our farmer to the use
inefficient mean of water application to their crop
during the dry seasons. When this method are used
smaller holding can be irrigated which is not
profitable considering an average farm family of six
person (FOS, 2004). As a result of the above stated
problem there has been a setback in the production of
vegetable and fruit crops in order to generate
additional income for our farmers during the off
season activities (Oyegoke, 1998).
Vegetable production is an alternative source of
income generation which can be harness to argument
main income from major farm activities such as cash
crop production, food crop production and animal
husbandry.
Natural rainfed agriculture has been seen as not
adequate enough in meeting water needs of farmers
for dry season farming (FAO, 1994), the problem of
water availability for Agricultural produce which in
turns reduce the food production in the Agrian areas
of the country. It therefore call for proper attention
in the use of simple and low cost irrigation system at
home level or farm gate level to enhance income
generation and to reduce poverty among our farmers.
Therefore, the objective of this work is to see how
small scale wagon wheel irrigators can enhance
additional income generation to would be vegetable
farmer as an off session, activities.
Materials and Method
The project field studies was carried in The Federal
Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State Nigeria, which
lies within latitude 7°971N and longitude 5°181E
East, it has a tropical humid climate with an average
temperature of 32°C. The three year average 2006,
2007 and 2008 cropping season as measured in the
institutions meteorological station which is in
conformity with (FOS, 2007) now Bureau of
Statistics. The data measured at the station include
average rainfall, relative humidity and temperature.
SOIL AREA
The soil of the studied area was light ion texture well
drained loamy soil which is rich in organic matter.
The soil contained more of fine sand at about 45cm
deep, with a good infiltration rate of 11.27cm/hr. this
allow for ease of drainage without excessive
overflowing.
Determination of Infiltration Rate: was done using
doubling infiltrometer constituted in the Department
of Agricultural Engineering of the Institution. Field
study report as shown in table.
Moisture Content Determination
Soil sample were collected from the experiment site
and gravimetric method was used to determine the
M.C on the sample collected.
The physical analysis is as follows:
Weight of can = a.
Weight of can + wet soil = x.
Weight of can + dry soil = y.
Weight of wet soil = x – a.
Weight of dry soil = y – a.
Weight of moisture = (y – a) – (x – a).
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Moisture Content = Weight of moisture x 100
Weight of dry soil 1
Results from the above are as presented in table.
The Wagon Wheel Indicator
It is a simple locally design and fabricated in the
department of Agricultural Engineering of the
Institution by the Author. It is a modified small scale
irrigation apparatus. It has a drum size capacity of
about 300litres of water, delivery outlet are radial and
spread out from the base. The 4m long pipe (PVC)
are linked to the main line on which there are emitter
to water the vegetables planted alongside the
emitters.
Emitters Uniformity Delivery Rate
The apparatus was placed on a fairly uniform flat
surface within the 16m x 16m experimental plot. The
application rate for each emitter was computed using
equation 2 below.
Q = 0.61 x 10-3a √2gh
Where Q = Quantity of water release in m3/s.
a = Cross sectional area of emitters in m2.
h = The head of water in the drum.
Seedbed Preparation
The seedbed were prepared on a uniform land surface
manually, they are made alongside each laterals for
effective water delivery to the planted seedling.
Planted Material And Consumptive Use.
The planning was Amaranthus spp which was source
for Ekiti Agric. Supply Input Agency, in Ado Ekiti.
The materials has a viability rate of 80 – 95%
consumptive use of the crops were obtained from
Blaney Morin Nigeria fomula.
Cu = Kp x Etp (3)
Where Etp = Evapotranspiration.
Cu = Consumptive use (mm/day).
Kc = Crop Consumptive Coefficient
But Etp = rF(045T + 8(520 – R1.31) (4)
100
T = Air Temperature (Average for the month).
R = Relative Humidity (Average for the month).
rf = Radiation Factor.
Planting, Conditioning of Soil and Harvest
In order to ensure more harvest per stand of crop, in-
organic fertilizer was applied uniformly (cow drug)
and was worked into the soil and water was applied
planting of vegetable seeds of Amaraghus spp was
done under the 1st phase which span between 20th of
October, 2007 to 26th of May, 2008 and the 2nd phase
18th of October, 2008 to 20th of May, 2009.
The planting, seedbed preparation and water
application were done in sequence of about five week
in cycle. The result and monetary term/yield are as
presented in the table of result.
Result and Discussion
The infiltration rate of the soil as done by the double
ring infltrometer was 11.10cm/hr the wagon wheel
irrigator irrigated 20m2 of vegetable garden. Other
results as obtained from the project were presented
below.
The system when fully utilize as state in table 1 and
table 2 above, yield per phase = ₦40,862.50 and
₦41,807.50 in monetary term respectively.
Page 276
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Discussion
The Wagon wheel irrigators is design to irrigate
about 20m2 of Amaranths vegetable garden where it
is possible to irrigate three time per week. Table 7
shows that an average of 300 litres of water is needed
per cycle of complete irrigation of the vegetable beds.
The total water consumption rate is about 900
litres/week. The irrigation cycle was reduce to two
times per week after the second and third harvest.
The table 8 & 9 of harvested vegetable/yield shows
that the first phase yielded about 233.5kg of
vegetable Amaranthus spp value at N40,862.50
BETWEEN THE GROWING PERIOD OF October,
2007 to May 2008. The second phase span October,
2008 to May, 2009 with total yield 238.9kg market
value of N41,807.80.
The cost benefit analysis and ratio will be based on
cost of water use and delivery, field work and other
miscellaneous expenses.
On the average from “Dupriez and Learner, (1997):
1000 litres of water will produce 1kg of water. But
water for Agricultural production is not cost in this
part of the world.
Conservatively, total harvest = 472.4kg @ 1.0 x 103
litres therefore if water cost is 20% of the total yield,
10% for field preparation and 10% for labour cost for
harvesting and marketing/sale.
From the appendix, market value less other services
such as cost of water, labour for land preparation and
marketing about N49,602:00 could be generated on
one single cycle of irrigation.
The wagon wheel irrigator make use of simple
mechanism to deliver water at the root zone of plant
at an efficient rate thereby minimize water use whose
cost cannot be determine.
In conclusion: Baring all on for seen losses and
circumstances, wagon wheel irrigator can serve as an
alternative sources of income generation to farmer
and other servant who love vegetable gardening at
their back yard.
Recommendations
the research was done making use of fast growing
and early mating vegetable Amarathus spp. It is
recommended that other vegetable that are of high
market value should be used.
Government Agency and Private individual can
venture into this business and less risky and
marketing/sale.
References
Babatola 1993: Design of Appropriate Tools for
waste water refuse for irrigation purpose.
Nigeria Journal of Water Resources: Vol. 1 No.
2.
Duperiez, H. and Learner, P.D. (1992): “Ways of
water runoff, irrigation and Drainage”.
Macmillan Press Ltd. London Pp: 137-140.
FOS, 1994: Federal Office of Statistics; Pp 209 –
212.
FOS, 2004: Federal Office of Statistics; Pp 197 –
203.
National Bureau of Statistics (2007) Pp. 300 – 320.
National Rolling Plan 2000 – 2010: the Nation
Newspaper 6th of October, 2008.
Omotayo, 2007: Development of simple system
wagon wheel irrigation for vegetable production
in South Western Nigeria Proceeding of 3rd
Engineering Forum School of Engineering. The
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti. Pp. 77 – 80.
Oyegoke O. W., (1998): Design and continuation of
A wagon wheel irrigator for small vegetable
Garden. Unpublished HND – Project Department
of Agric. Engineering, The Federal Polytechnic,
B’ds Nigeria.
Reij, C.I., Scoones and C. Toulmin (1996):
Sustaining the soil-indigenous soil and water
conservation in Africa. Earthscan Publication
Ltd. London Pp. 196 – 201.
World Bank, 2002 Annual Report.

Table 1: Climatic Data Average for 2006, 2007 and 2008

MONTH Temperature 0°C Humidity (%) Rainfall mm
JANUARY 24.8 58.6 -
FEBRUARY 26.8 54.5 120
MARCH 28.6 65.4 280
APRIL 29.2 74.4 510
MAY 28.9 79.7 410
JUNE 27.4 83.1 605
JULY 27.0 86.2 549
AUGUST 26.2 87.0 550
SEPTEMBER 26.0 87.1 680
OCTOBER 26.1 83.5 380
NOVEMBER 27.3 73.0 250
DECEMBER 27.5 63.6 -
Source: Agricultural Engineering Department Metrological Station, Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 277
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 2: Potential evapotranspiration (Etp) at the study area with the consumptive of vegetable for different
month of the year. As calculated from table 1.0.
Year/Month ET2 CU
Averages 2006, 2007, 2008 mm/day mm/day
JANUARY 4.19 2.10
FEBRUARY 6.56 3.31
MARCH 5.86 3.51
APRIL 4.00 2.59
MAY 3.90 2.74
JUNE 1.96 1.47
JULY 1.06 0.47
AUGUST 1.36 0.95
SEPTEMBER 1.35 0.81
OCTOBER 2.26 1.36
NOVEMBER 3.47 1.91
DECEMBER 3.37 1.85

Table 3: The Moisture content of water spread area of emitters of the wagon wheel.
Distance from Emitters Average M.C. Average M.C.
(cm) Before irrigation (%) Irrigation (%)

10 14.20 16.40
15 14.00 16.05
20 14.30 14.75
25 14.40 14.42
30 14.10 14.11
40 14.12 14.10

Table 4: Average moisture content in situ of the seedbeds taken by moisture meter before and after
each application of water by the wagon wheel.
Seed bed Dimension M.C before M.C. after % difference
Irrigation irrigation (%)

1 4m by 0.8m 13.80 15.20 10.1

2 4.2m by 0.8m 13.40 15.60 16.4
3 4.1m by 0.7m 14.90 16.00 7.4
4 4.2m by 0.9m 14.00 15.60 11.4
5 4.2m by 0.8m 15.30 16.50 7.8
6 4.1m by 0.8m 15.20 16.55 8.9

Table 5: Show the volume of water application from the wagon wheel in unit time.
Volume of water
Application in M3 Time (Sec)

40 50
80 100
120 150
150 200
200 250
240 300
280 350
300 400
360 450
400 500

Table 6.0: The result of the infiltration rate of soil

Time Time interval Initial water Final water Infiltrated Infiltration Infiltration
(min) (Min) level (cm) level (cm) water rate (min) rate (hour)
0-10 10 12 9.9 2.1 0.21 12.60
10-20 10 12 10.1 1.9 0.19 11.40
20-30 10 12 10.3 1.7 0.17 10.20
30-40 10 12 10.3 1.7 0.17 10.20

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 278
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 7: The amount of water used and the irrigation time per day
Week Date Irrigation time Volume used (Litre)
1 30/11/07 Once per day 300
- 300
- 300
2 2 times per week 900
3 3 times per week 900
4 3 times per week 900
5 2 times per week 600
6 2 times per week 600
7 2 times per week 600

Table 8: Sequence of Harvest from Planting date (Phase 1)

Planting Date Harvest Date Cycle Operation Weight of yield Market Value
(kg) ₦: K
20/11/2007 30/11/2007 1 48.5 8,487.50
06/12/2007 15/01/2008 2 46.5 8,137.50
20/01/2008 28/02/2008 3 44.5 7,787.50
05/03/2008 15/04/2008 4 46.5 8,137.50
20/04/2008 26/05/2008 5 47.5 8,312.50
TOTAL 233.5 40,862.50

Table 9: Sequence of Harvest from Planting date Phase II

Planting Date Harvest Date Cycle Operation Weight of yield Market Value
(kg) ₦: K
15/10/2008 30/11/2008 1 50.1 8,767.50
04/12/2008 16/01/2009 2 48.2 8,435.00
24/01/2009 03/03/2009 3 46.4 8,120.00
08/03/2009 19/04/2009 4 48.2 8,435.00
24/04/2009 30/05/2009 5 46.0 8,050.00
TOTAL 238.9 41,807.50

Appendix 1
This will translate to Profit =
Total market value – (cost of water + cost of labour preparation 0.2 (Total Mv 0.1 Total Mv + cost of labour for
harvest and sales 0.1% Total Mv) ……(5)

Phase 1 + Phase 2 = ₦40,862.50 + ₦41,807.50 ……(6)

= 82,670.00

Net Profit (NP) = Total Mv – [0.2 Total Mv + 0.1 Total Mv + 0.1

Total Mv] ……. (7)

= ₦82,670 – [16,534 + 8267 + 8267] ……. (8)

= ₦82,670 – [33,068]

= ₦49,602

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 279
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Onipede, A. I. M
Aluko, F. I
School of Engineering Abere, G. O
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti Olowookere, O. T
(2009), 5 (1) : 280 - 290

Development of a Linear Programming Model (Optimiza®) for Production System Optimization

(Plastic Company in Ibadan as a Case Study)

Onipede, A. I. M, Aluko, F. I, Abere, G. O. & Olowookere, O. T

Mechanical Engineering Department
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
Abstract
All organisations, big or small, have at their disposal, men, machines, money and materials; the supply of which
may be limited. If the supply of these resources is unlimited, the need for management tools like linear
programming would not arise at all. Supply of resources being limited, the management must find the best
allocation of its resources in order to maximize the profit, minimize the loss or utilize the production capacity to
the maximum extent. However, this involves a number of problems which can be overcome by quantitative
methods, particularly linear programming. This situation prompted the development of the Optimiza® software
package capable of dealing with these tasks in a single program environment. The Optimiza® package is
presented for the model definition, analysis and optimisation of a production system. It starts with a given model
definition that is directly translated to its equivalent standard form. Once the model quality assessment is
performed, the program determines the parameter profile that yields the optimized response compatible with a
predefined set of constraints. Data were modelled into a linear programming standard form and solved by the
Optimiza® software. The results were validated by comparing them with hand-solved problems. The Optimiza®
software package, when tested was found to be more accurate, better and highly efficient.

Keywords: Optimization, linear programming, operations research, constraints, optimiza® software, modeling.

Introduction programming problem. To verbally summarise and

Linear Programming is a mathematical model
generally employed in solving, mostly problems that
arises as a consequence of the necessity to allocate
scarce resources among a number of competing
activities in a best possible (i.e. optimal way).
(Simmonard, 1966).
The development of linear programming has been
ranked among the most important scientific advances
of the mid-twentieth century. Today, it is a standard
tool that has enabled many companies in the
industrialised world to save lots of money and
unnecessary losses. Its impact since 1950 has been
extraordinary and its use in other sectors have been
spreading rapidly.
Linear programming uses a mathematical model to
describe the problem of concern. The adjective
‘linear’ means that all the mathematical functions in
this model are required to be linear functions. The
word ‘programme’ does not refer to computer
programming. It is essentially a synonym for
planning. This linear programming involves the
planning of activities to obtain an optimal result. That
is, a result that reaches the specific goal best
according to the mathematical model among all
feasible alternatives. (Dantzig, 1963).
A linear programming problem may be defined as the
problem of maximizing or minimising a linear
function subject to linear constraints. The constraints
may be equalities or inequalities.
Although allocating resources to activities is the most
common type of application, linear programming has
numerous other important applications as well. In
fact, any problem whose mathematical model fits the
format for the linear programming model is a linear
briefly provide perspective, the most common type of
application of linear programming involves the
general problem of allocating limited resources
among competing activities in a best possible (i.e.
optimal way). More precisely, these problems involve
selecting the level of certain activities that compete
for limited resources that are necessary to perform
such activities. The choice of activity level then
dictates how much of each resource will be consumed
by each activity. The variety of situations to which
this description applies is diverse, indeed, ranging
from the allocation of production facilities to
products to the allocation of national domestic needs,
from portfolio selection to the selection of shipping
patterns, from agricultural planning to the design of
radiation therapy and so on (Jullio and Nestor, 2003).
Linear programming has had tremendous impact and
proved to be a veritable and remarkable tool for two
good reasons. First, a great many physical problems
can be adequately represented by means of linear
mathematical methods. Thus, from an application
standpoint, linear programming is very far reaching.
Second, the simplicity of linear programming models
has made it possible to analyse such problems
thoroughly. This has resulted in highly efficient
computational procedure popularly called simplex
algorithm, which is able to solve linear programming
problems of different nature and even enormous size.
(Dantzig, 1963).
Operations Research
A common misconception held by many is that
operations research is a collection of mathematical
tools. While it is true that it uses a variety of
mathematical techniques, operations research has a

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 280
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
much broader scope. It is in fact a systematic
approach of solving problems, which uses one or
more analytical tools in the process of analysis.
Perhaps the single biggest problem with operations
research is its name; to a layperson, the term
“operations research” does not conjure up any sort
of meaningful image! This is an unfortunate
consequence of the fact that the name that A. P.
Rowe is credited with first assigning to the field was
somehow never altered to something that is more
indicative of the things that operations research
actually does. (Hamdy, 2006).
Sometimes operations research is referred to as
Management Science (M. S.) in order to better reflect
its role as a scientific approach to solving
management problems, but it appears that this
terminology is more popular with business
professionals and people still have slight criticism
about the differences between operations research
and management science. Compounding this issue is
the fact that there is no clear consensus on a formal
definition for operations research. For instance,
Churchman et al, (1957), who was considered one of
the pioneers of operations research defined it as the
application of scientific methods, techniques and
tools to problems involving the operations of a system
so as to provide those in control of the system with
optimum solutions to problems. This is indeed a
rather comprehensive definition, but there are many
others who tend to go over to the other extreme and
define operations research to be that which
operations researchers do. Regardless of the exact
words used, it is probably safe to say that “operations
research” is here to stay and it is therefore important
to understand that in essence, operations research
may simply be viewed as a systematic and analytical
approach to decision-making and problem-solving.
The key here is that operations research uses a
methodology that is objective and clearly articulated,
and is built around the philosophy that such an
approach is superior to one that is based purely on
subjectivity and the opinion of “experts” in that it will
lead to better and more consistent decisions
(Frederick and Gerald, 2005).
However, operations research does not preclude the
use of human judgment or non-quantifiable
reasoning; rather, the latter are viewed as being
complementary to the analytical approach. One
should thus view operations research not as an
absolute decision making process, but as an aid to
making good decisions. Operations research plays an
advisory role by presenting a manager or a decision-
maker with a set of sound, scientifically derived
alternatives. However, the final decision is always
left to the human being who has knowledge that
cannot be exactly quantified, and who can temper the
results of the analysis to arrive at a sensible decision.
(Gupta and Hira, 2008).
Out of the various applications of operations research
techniques, the only one to be considered in this
research work is “Linear programming”. Others are:
Dynamic Programming
Inventory Control
Queuing Theory
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Decision Theory
Simulation
Replacement Theory
MATLAB
MATLAB (MATrix LABoratory) is a high-
performance interacting data-intensive software
environment for high-efficiency engineering and
scientific numerical calculations (Sergey, 2003).
According to Brian (1997), MATLAB is a powerful
computing system for handling the calculations
involved in scientific and engineering problems. It
was designed specially to work with data arranged in
the form of matrix i.e. the arrangement of data in
rows and columns.
Unquestionably, MATLAB is a great computing tool
which is extremely powerful and effective in solving
many complicated engineering problems. MATLAB
was used by the author in developing the model used
to analyze and solve the production problem shown
in Figure 5.
Relevance to the field of Mechanical Engineering
The Optimiza® model is relevant to the field of
Mechanical Engineering in that it can be employed in
the production industries to optimise its production.
This can be done by carrying out feasibility studies
on the product, form a model, determine the
constraints and then try to maximise profit, machine
efficiency; minimise production cost and minimise
production time.
Relevance to National Development
Linear programming can be applied to various fields
of study. Most extensively it is used in business and
economic situations, but can also be utilized for some
engineering problems. Some industries that use linear
programming models include transportation, energy,
telecommunications, and manufacturing industries. It
has proved useful in modelling diverse types of
problems in planning, routing, scheduling,
assignment, and design.
Linear programming helps in the following areas:
1. It helps in attaining the optimum use of productive
factors. Linear programming indicates how a
manager can utilize his productive factors most
effectively by a better selection and distribution of
his resources.
2. It improves the quality of decisions: the individual
who makes use of linear programming methods
becomes more objective than subjective.
3. It helps in providing better tools for adjustments to
meet changing conditions.
4.It highlights the bottlenecks in the production
processes. When bottlenecks occur, some machines
cannot meet demand while others remain idle at
least part of the time.
Historical Perspective
Linear programming according to Simmons (1972)
deals with the optimization i.e. maximization and
minimization of a function variable known as the
objective function, subject to linear equations and/or
inequalities known as constraints. The objective
function may be the profit, production cost,
production time, production or any other measure of
effectiveness, which is to be obtained in the best
Page 281
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
optimal or possible manner. The constraints may be
imposed by different resources such as market
demand, production process and equipment, storage
capacity, raw material availability etc. Linearity is
meant to be a mathematical expression (model) in
which the expressions among the variables are linear
e.g. the expression,
a1
is linear. Higher powers of the variables or their
products do not appear in the expressions for the
objective function as well as the constraints. The
variables obey the properties of additivity and
proportionality.
The problem of solving a system of linear inequalities
dates back at least as far as Fourier, after whom the
method of Fourier-Motzkin elimination is named.
Linear programming arose as a mathematical model
developed during the Second World War to plan
expenditures and returns in order to reduce costs to
the army and increase losses to the enemy. It was
kept secret until 1947 post-war; many countries found
its use in their daily planning.
Dantzig (1963), a Russian mathematician developed
the simplex method for solving linear programming
problems. The linear programming problem was first
shown to be solvable in polynomial time by Leonid
Khachiyan in 1979, but larger theoretical and
practical breakthrough in the field came in 1984
when Narendra Karmarkar introduced a new interior
point method for solving linear programming
problems.
Dantzig’s original example of finding the best
assignment of 70 people to 70 jobs exemplifies the
usefulness of linear programming. The computing
power required to test all the permutations to select
the best assignment is vast; the number of possible
configurations exceeds the number of particles in the
universe. However, it takes only a moment to find the
optimum solution by posing the problem as a linear
program and applying the Simplex algorithm. The
theory behind linear programming drastically reduces
the number of possible optimal solutions that must be
checked.
A Danish mathematician, Erlang (1917), published
his work on the problem of congestion of telephone
traffic. The difficulty was that during busy periods,
telephone operators were unable to handle the calls
the moment they were made, resulting in delayed
calls. The formula he developed on waiting time is of
fundamental importance to the theory of telephone
traffic. An American astronomer, Levinson (1930),
applied scientific analysis to the problem of
merchandising. His included scientific study of
customers’ buying habits, response to advertising and
relation of environment to the type of articles sold.
However, it was the first industrial revolution that
contributed mainly towards the development of
operations research. The name ‘operations research’
was apparently coined in 1940 because the team was
carrying out research on military operations. The
encouraging results of those efforts led to the
formation of more of such teams in British Armed
Services and the use of such scientific teams soon
spread to Western Allies in the United States. The
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
progress of industrial operations research in USA was
due to the advent of the second industrial revolution
which resulted in automation (i.e. the replacement of
man by machine as a source of control). The new
revolution began around 1940s when electronic
computers became commercially available. These
electronics brains processed tremendous
computational speed and information storage.
Operations research helps in decision making. It is
thus a decision science which helps management in
making better decisions.
While there is no clear date that marks the birth of
operations research, it is generally accepted that the
field originated in England during World War II. The
impetus for its origin was the development of radar
defence systems for the Royal Air Force, and the first
recorded use of the term Operations Research is
attributed to a British Air Ministry official named A.
P. Rowe who constituted teams to do “operational
researches” on the communication system and the
control room at a British radar station. The studies
had to do with improving the operational efficiency
of systems (an objective which is still one of the
cornerstones of modern operations research). This
new approach of picking an “operational” system and
conducting “research” on how to make it run more
efficiently soon started to expand into other arenas of
the war. Perhaps the most famous of the groups
involved in this effort was the one led by a physicist
named P. M. S. Blackett which included
physiologists, mathematicians, astrophysicists, and
even a surveyor. This multifunctional team focus of
an operations research project group is one that has
carried forward to this day. Blackett’s biggest
contribution was in convincing the authorities of the
need for a scientific approach to manage complex
operations, and indeed he is regarded in many circles
as the original operations research analyst (Jayant,
2008).
Operations research made its way to the United States
a few years after it originated in England. Its first
presence in the U.S. was through the U.S. Navy’s
Mine Warfare Operations Research Group; this
eventually expanded into the Antisubmarine Warfare
Operations Research Group that was led by Phillip
Morse, which later became known simply as the
Operations Research Group. Like Blackett in Britain,
Morse is widely regarded as the “father” of
operations research in the United States, and many of
the distinguished scientists and mathematicians that
he led went on after the end of the war to become the
pioneers of operations research in the United States
(Jayant, 2008).
Maurice (1998), researched into how mathematical
models can make farmers more efficient. He stated
that many of the problems faced by farmers in Sub-
Saharan Africa can be solved analytically.
Mathematics modelling, mathematical theory,
operations research and practical applications are
useful tools for predicting crop yield or for planning
how much land should be cultivated. Some of these
methods could be included as practical examples in
mathematics curricula, allowing students to gain
interest in these topics. He looked into a case study to
Page 282
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
illustrate how a real life problem can be modelled as
a set of mathematical equations and used to advise
farmers on how best to cultivate their land.
Operations Research is an interdisciplinary branch of
applied mathematics and formal science that uses
methods such as mathematical modelling, statistics
and algorithms to arrive at optimal solutions to
complex problems. It is typically concerned with
optimizing the maxima (profit, assembly line
performance, crop yield, etc) or minima (loss, risk,
etc) of some objective function. The field of
operations research is closely related to industrial
engineering. Industrial engineers typically consider
operations research (OR) techniques to be a major
part of their toolset. An operations researcher faced
with a new problem is expected to determine which
techniques are most appropriate given the nature of
the system, the goals for improvement, and
constraints on time and computing power. For this
and other reasons, the human element of operations
research is vital. (Joseph et al, 2005).
Operations research or management science as the
name suggests, is the science of managing. As is
known, management is most of the time making
decisions. It is thus a decision science which helps
management to make better decisions.
Decision-making can be improved and in fact, there
is hope of large scale improvement. The objective
characteristics of all decisions are:
(i) objectives,
(ii) alternatives,
(iii) influencing factors (constraints).
Once these characteristics are known, one can think
of improving the characteristics so as to improve
upon the decision itself.
This decision making gives rise to certain
mathematical models. The decision-maker is not only
faced with a large number of interacting variables,
which at times do not lend themselves to meet
quantitative treatment but also finds them too
numerous and dynamic. This complexity of decision-
making made the decision-makers look for various
aids in decision-making. It is this situation that
fostered the development of operations research.
(1) Problem identification
Diagnosis of the problem from its symptoms
if not obvious (i.e what is the problem?).
Delineation of the sub-problem to be studied
i.e. we have to ignore parts of the entire problem.
Establishment of the objective.
(2) Formulation as a Mathematical Model
It may be that a problem can be modelled in
differing ways, in addition to algorithm
considerations for solving the model (i.e. can we
solve the model numerically?). We must also
consider the availability and accuracy of the real-
world data that required as input to the model.
Essentially an algorithm (for a particular model) is a
set of instructions which, when followed in a step-
by-step fashion, will produce a numerical solution to
that model. The model has an objective, i.e. to
optimize the profit. Having obtained the numerical
solution of our model, we have to translate that
solution back into a real-world situation. One thing
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
worthy of note and emphasis about operations
research is that it typically deals with decision
problems.
Terminologies used in developing the Optimiza®
To properly illustrate this, a simple example is hereby
discussed. A plastic company produces two products,
these products are processed on three different
machines viz: M1, M2 and M3 respectively. The time
required for producing one batch of each product and
the weekly capacity of the machines is given in the
table below.
It is required to determine the number of batch per
week of each product to be produced. The profit per
batch of each product is N2,000 and N5,000
respectively. In this section, we only consider two
products produced in the plastic company so that it
can be easily solved numerically.
The first column of Table 2 summarizes the
components problem. The second column introduces
more general terms for these same components that
will fit many linear programming problems.
Objective Function: It is the function c1 x1 + c2 x2 +
… + cnxn being maximized. It is the function that
represents the overall measure of performance
mathematically. From the problem, our objective
function is Z = 2x1 + 5x2. The x > 0 restrictions are
called the non-negativity constraints. i.e. in a
company, it is either they produce or not; therefore,
a negative number of products is not possible.
Operations Research: Operational research is the
application of scientific, method by interdisciplinary
teams to problems involving the control of
organized system to provide solutions which best
serve the purpose of the organization. (Alistair,
2003-2004).
Model: A mathematical model consists of a set of
equations which describe the system or problem. It
is an idealized representation of the real life
situation.
Objective Function: this is the function that
represents the overall measure of performance
mathematically.
Constraints: These are the restrictions within which
the extent of realization of the objective function is
confirmed.
Activity: This is the event to be carried out that will
ultimately lead to the realization of the set objective.
In the prototype example, the activity is the
production of the plastic products.
Resources: This is the means with which to perform
the activity. From the example above, the resources
are the available machine capacities. Typical
resources include money, equipment, vehicle and
personnel.
Overall Measure of Performance: This is the
expression of the basis for determining the
performance of the model. Most common overall
measure of performance is profit maximization, as it
is in the case of this example. Other forms of overall
measure of performance are; cost minimization,
manpower requirement, minimizing the available
machine hour in a production process etc.
Level of activity: This is the quantity of the product
that is supported by the resources as determined by
Page 283
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
the model. Hence, allocation of the resources
involves choosing the levels of the activities that will
achieve the best optimal value of the overall measure
of performance.
Constraints: These are the restrictions within which
the extent of realization of the objective function is
confined. The xj > 0 restrictions are called the non-
negativity constraints.
Standard Form of the Model: Linear programming
model seeks to select the values for x1, x2, …, xn so as
to Maximize Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + --- + cnxn ,
Subject to the constraints;
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + …+ a1n xn ≤ b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + … + a2n xn ≤ b2
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ “
“ “ “ “ “ “ “ “
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + …+ amn xn ≤ bn
and x1 , x2, …, xn ≥ 0
The formulation above is the standard form adopted
for linear programming problem in this project. Thus,
any situation whose mathematical model fits this
model is a linear programming problem. The problem
considered fits the standard form with m =3 and n= 2.
Solving Linear Programming Problems
The Simplex Method
Simplex algorithm is a general procedure for solving
Linear Programming problems. It was developed by
Dantzig (1963). It gives the detail perspective for the
understanding of the way it works, proceeding from
the problem in Table 1; we identified the data needed
to be gathered as:
(i) Number of hours of production time available
per week on each machine i.e. machine
capacities.
(ii) Number of hours of production time used on
each machine per batch of the product.
(iii) Profit per batch of each product.
Setting Up the Simplex Method
In the given situation, the key decision is to decide
the number of batches of products 1 and 2, as the
extents are permitted to vary. Let the number of
batches of product 1 and 2 manufactured weekly be
x1 and x2 respectively.
To express the feasible alternatives mathematically,
in terms of variables in the given problem, feasible
alternatives are sets of values of x1 and x2 where x1 ≥
0 and x2 ≥ 0. Since the negative production has no
meaning and is not feasible.
In the present situation, the objective is to maximize
the profit.
i.e. Maximize Z = 2x1 + 5x2
The constraints are expressed as linear equations or
inequalities in terms of variables. Here, the
constraints are on the machine capacity and can be
mathematically expressed as
x1 + 4x2 ≤ 24
3x1 + x2 ≤ 21
x1 + x2 ≤ 9 where x1, x2 ≥ 0
To solve the problem by the simplex method,
introducing slack variables s1, s2 and s3, then the
problem can be expressed in the following standard
form.
Maximize Z = 2x1 + 5x2 + 0s1 + 0s2 + 0s3
Subject to: x1 + 4x2 + s1 = 24
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
3x1 + x2 + s2 = 21
x1 + x2 + s3 = 9 where x1 , x2, s1, s2, s3, ≥ 0
To find the initial basic feasible solution, a basic
solution has the following properties.
i. Each variable is designated as either a non-basic or
a basic variable.
ii. The number of basic variables is set equal to zero.
iii. The values of the basic variables are equal to zero.
iv. The values of the basic variables are obtained as
the simultaneous solution of the system of
equations. These set of basic solutions are often
referred to as the basis.
v. If the basic variables satisfy the non-negativity
constraints, the basic solution is a basic feasible
solution (b. f. s).
The Algebra of the Simplex Method
Initialisation: The decision variables are selected to
be non-basic variables (set equal to zero) and the
slack variables as the basic variables.
i.e. x1 = x2 = 0.
Substituting this values in the constraints, we get the
following initial basic feasible solution, s1 = 24; s2 =
21; s3 = 9; z = 0. The problem in standard form and
its solution are expressed in the form of a table.
Performing the Optimality Test
By performing the optimality test, we can know
whether the current feasible solution can be improved
or not. This is done by computing
cj – zj = ∑ . Here is the matrix element in ith
row and jth column. If cj – 2j is positive under any
column, the current feasible solution is not optimal
and at least one better solution is possible. This is
shown in Table 3.8 above. Since cj – zj is positive
under x1 and x2 columns, the initial basic feasible
solution is not optimal and can be improved.
Iterate towards an Optimal Solution
The marked key column, key row and key element
are shown in Table 3. x2 column is the key column, s1
row is the key row and (4) is the key element. x2 is
the incoming variable which replaces the outgoing
variable si in the next table (Table 4). The incoming
basic variable should appear only in the first (key)
row with unit coefficient. Therefore, key element (4)
is made 1 in the Table. For this, elements of si row of
Table 3.8 are divided by 4 and written as elements of
x2 row in Table 4. The intersected elements 1 and 1 of
key column x2 are now made zero each in Table 4.
For this, first the elements of the key row in Table 3
are multiplied by a proper multiple (called fixed
ratio) and then are subtracted from elements of s2
row. Proper multiple is always equal to intersectional
element divided by key element. This is replaced for
s2 row as well. The Fixed Ratio ¼, ¼, are entered in
the first column of Table 3.8 against s2 row and s3
row. These row operations lead to the following
elements of s2 and s3 row of Table 4.
Check Feasible Solution for Optimality
Zj and cj – zj values for various variable columns
were calculated in Table 3.9. Since the value under x1
column is positive, the second feasible solution is not
optimal.
Iterate Towards an Optimal Solution
x1 column is marked as the key column. x1 is the
incoming variable. Replacement ratios are = 24,
Page 284
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
= , = 4. Since 4 is the minimum non-
negative ratio, s3 row is the outgoing variable and it is
replaced by x1 in Table 3.9. Elements of s3 row in the
Table 3.9 are multiplied by to make the key
element 1 in Table 3.10 and the values are entered as
the elements of x1 row in this table. The intersectional
elements ¼, , of x1 column in Table 3.9 are to be
made zeros in Table 3.10. To make ¼ as 0, elements
of s3 row of Table 3.9 are multiplied by the F. R. =
1/3; and the values are then subtracted from the
elements of x2 row to get the new elements of x2 row I
Check the third feasible solution for Optimality.
Zj row and cj – zj row values were calculated in Table
5. Since all cj – zj values are negative or zero, third
feasible solution is optimal. The optimal solution is
given by: x1 = 4; x2 = 5; Z = 33.
The optimal solution shows that 4 batches of plastics
cups and 5 batches of plastic buckets are to be
produced per week to get an optimal profit of N33,
000.
Figure 1: Program Flow Chart
The figure above presents the organisational structure
of the software, Optimiza® which comprise of the
linstart window which is the welcome page of the
software; the linopti1 window showcasing the output
space and the Button group (input, calculate, reset
and exit buttons); the linimp window where the
optimization parameters would be entered; the
linopti2.
Matlab User Interfaces
There are four(4) interfaces under the above category.
They are:
(1) The linstart window.
(2) The linopti1 window.
(3) The linimp window.
(4) The linopti2 window.
(5) The linopti3 window
The Linstart Window
The linstart window (fig. 4.2) describes the welcome
page of the optimization software. The name of
software is indicated. At the bottom, the user has a
choice either to proceed by clicking next or to
terminate the programme by clicking close. This is
driven by a sourcecode.
The Linopti1 Window
Functional in the linopti1 is the button group which
consist of the input, calculate, reset and exit buttons.
To go further in the programme, the input button is
clicked while the reset and exit buttons can be clicked
to go back to the welcome page and terminate the
programme respectively. This is also drive by a
sourcecode.
The Lininp Window
Number of Objects to Optimise: This refers to the
number of decision variables in the objective function
(must be ≥ 2). This value is typed in the box with the
caption “number of objects to optimize”.
Type of Optimization: It can be indicated what type
of optimization is to be performed. The drop-down
button is clicked and for selecting either
“Maximisation” or “Minimisation”.
Number of Constraints: These specify the number
of restrictions in the model.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
Name of Company: The name of the
company/organisation that requires optimisation of
certain limited resources is typed in.
Unit of Optimized Result: The unit of the optimized
result can be in Naira, Dollars, Euros etc if the profit
is the object of optimization. Other types of
optimized result can be time (hrs, mins or secs), man,
machines or materials.
Press Enter
Constraint: The maximum value of constraints is
entered. This is the maximum machine capacities per
week (hours). Each time the value is entered, the
“enter” button is clicked to register the data and the
box becomes empty for the next maximum machine
capacity.
Press Enter
Object Properties: The object properties button
group consist of: the lower boundary (in this case, it
is always zero (O) because it is practically illogical
for the company to produce negative products); factor
in objective function (which is the coefficient of the
decision variables in the objective function); name of
product (the name of the product for each decision
variable is entered corresponding to xj in the
objective function; where j= 1, 2, 3, ….
Press Enter
Constraint Equation: Here, the value of each
constraint is entered. The enter button is pressed each
time until the constraint values are exhausted.
End: The end button is clicked which leads to
linopti2 window.
The Linopti2 Window
This displays the linopti window where the
“calculate” button can be clicked for the optimisation
results leading to linopti3 window. See Fig. 4.3
above.
The Linopti3 Window
The linopti3 window is the final window of the
optimiza® programme. The optimization results are
displayed. The “reset” and “exit” buttons are clicked
to return to the welcome page and to terminate the
programme respectively.
Validation and Application of the Software to
Sample Problems
Validation
The validity of the solution can be checked by
comparing the results obtained from the manual
solution with the solution using the optimiza®
software. For checking the accuracy, versatility and
subsequent reliability of the software, certain readily
formulated mathematical models were solved with
the software and favourable results were obtained.
These models were selected from examples and
exercises in certain textbooks for the treated
problems.
Table 6: Validation of the Optimiza® Software
From the Table 6, it can be inferred that the software
is 100% accurate. Successful application of the
software depends on the accuracy of the
mathematical model formulation. The software only
works on the data inputs. A wrongly formulated
mathematical model will undoubtedly produce
unwanted results.
Page 285
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
The following problems have been carefully analysed
to assist in the formulation of the mathematical model
before applying the software.
Application to Production Company Problem
Three types of products are produced by a company -
chairs, buckets and cups, using injection moulding,
blow moulding and rotational moulding machines
respectively. The following table along with the
costs, selling prices of each batch of plastics and the
minimum number of hours available on each machine
per week are given in table below.
It is required to determine weekly the number of
batches of each plastic to be manufactured.
Model Formulation
The objective of this problem undoubtedly will be to
maximize the profit accruable from the sale of the
manufactured products. Hence, coefficients are the
differences in the corresponding columns of Table 7
above. Thus x1, x2 and x3 represent the level of
production of each product at the desired state, the
objective function, then, is
Maximize Z = 45x1 + 35x2 + 40x3
Subject to: constraints on production time i.e machine
capacities (hours). The coefficients are the amount of
total time on each machine that will be consumed by
each of the products batch during production process
(production time per batch in hours in Table 5.2) thus
the constraints on machine hours are:
7x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 ≤ 50
2x1 + 3x2 + 4x3 ≤ 40
5x1 + 8x2 + 2x3 ≤ 80
Hence there are a total of 3 less-than-or-equals to
constraints in the model.
Solution Procedure
1. Entering the Data
Start the programme by clicking the linstart
executable icon in the optimisation folder. A DOS
window would be displayed in a moment, then the
welcome page will come up which is the linstart
window. Click the “next” button to go to the linopti
window which shows a button group. Click input to
go to the lininp window where all the data are entered
into the boxes provided. From the problem, the
number of objects to optimize is equal to 3 (chairs,
buckets and cups) corresponding to x1, x2 and x3 in
the objective function. While the objective is to
maximize profit, there are also three constraint
equations.
Fig. 3 shows the lininp data window with the list of
the contents.
The data can be entered through the keyboard. Enter
3 into the box for “number of objects to optimize”.
Click on the drop-down button to select the type of
optimization (maximization). Input 3 into the box for
“number of constraints”; type the name of the
company and put the unit of the optimized profit and
click the “Enter” button.
In the constraint group, the maximum value of
constraints is entered. This is the maximum machine
capacities per week (hours). Each time the value is
entered, the “enter” button is clicked to register the
data and the box becomes empty for the next
maximum machine capacity.
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
In the object properties group, the lower boundary is
always zero because negative production is illogical.
The “factor in objective function” corresponds to the
coefficient of the decision variables x1, x2 and x3. x1,
x2 and x3 are “plastic chairs”, “plastic buckets” and
“plastic cups” respectively. After filling the boxes
for each of the products, the “Enter” key is clicked.
In the constraint equation button group, the
coefficient of the decision variables, (x1, x2 and x3) in
the constraint equations are entered one after the
other. After entering each coefficient, the “Enter”
button is clicked. Then the “END” button is also
clicked. This leads to the linopti2 window where the
“calculate” button is clicked to obtain the optimized
result as shown in Fig. 5 below.
Interpretation of Results
1. As many as 8 batches of plastics buckets
manufactured can be sold per week. This is so
since the maximum permissible limits of the
product is shown in the fig. 5 below.
2. The least 2 batches of plastic chairs should be
manufactured from the result in fig. 5 below.
3. The maximum profit that should be expected per
week is N490, 000 as shown in the value of the
optimized result in fig. 5.
Conclusions
The project is a flexible package of function that
performs optimization of production systems
designed as an open environment that can easily be
modified by users to include new features. Thus the
graphics generated by the software are of high
quality, easy to work with and user friendly.
Calculations are performed quickly and to a high
degree of accuracy. There are also no predictable
limitations in the size of the production systems to be
analyzed. It was designed to be adapted by any user
basically in any field to meet his optimization needs.
Recommendations
Due to the versatility and extensive application of
Linear Programming in day-to-day activities in the
industries, education and management, the following
recommendations are hereby suggested by the
researcher:
1. The entire School of Engineering, especially the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, of The
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti should include
“Operations Research”, which is the mother of
Linear Programming in her curriculum. This is to
ensure that all engineering students are familiar
with operations research.
2. Multinational and developing industries (large
scale), will find the software developed very useful
in allocating their limited resources among
competing activities with greater efficiency.
3. The Optimiza® software can be applied to the
decision problems at the Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ekiti since it is an organisation. The number of
lecturers, classrooms, number of students admitted
and lecture periods, offices available etc, can be
modelled into linear programming for better
decision making.
Page 286
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
References Joseph, G. E., Michael, K, and Wayne W. (2005):
Alistair, C. (2004): Operational Research, Module Operations Research, retrieved on May 20th,
Handbook, Faculty of Computing, Engineering 2009 from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
and Mathematical Science, Bristol. Pp 9. http://www.wikipedia.org.
Bernd, G. and Jiri, M. (2006): Understanding and Jullio, V. and Nestor V. T. (2003): An Integrated
Using Linear Programming, Berlin: Springer. Matlab Package for Analysis and Optimization
Churchman, C. W., Russel, L., Arnoff, E. L. and of Metabolic Systems. Retrieved on August 15,
Ackoff (1957): Introduction to Operations 2009 from http://www.webpages.ull.es/
Research, New York: J. Wiley and Sons. users/sympbst/pag-ing.html.
Dantzig, G. B. (1963): Linear Programming and Levinson, H. C. (1930): Application of Scientific
Extensions, Princeton University Press. Analysis to the Problems of Merchandising,
Erlang, A. K. (1917): Problem of Congestion of Published in the USA.
Telephone Traffic, Dane. Maurice A. V. (2008): Mathematical Models can
Frederick, S. H. and Gerald J. L. (2005): Introduction make Farmers more Efficient, African
to Operations Research, McGraw-Hill: Boston Technology Forum, Vol. 8, No 1. pp 1.
MA; 8th Edition. Neuman, J. V. and Morgenstern, O. (1947): Theory
Gupta, P. K. and Hira, D. S. (2008): Operations of Games and Economic Behaviour, Princeton
Research, S. Chand, India, 5th Edition. University Press, Princeton.
Hamdy, A. T. (2006): Operations Research: An Simmonard, M. (1966): Linear Programming,
Introduction, Prentice Hall, 8th Edition. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs.
Jayant, R. (2008): Principles and Applications of Simmons, D. D. (1972): Linear Programming for
Operations Research; Maynard's Industrial Operations Research, Holden Day, Inc., San
Engineering Handbook, 5th Edition, pp. 11.27- Franscisco.
11.44.
Table 1: Data for the Problem
Processing time
Product (hrs) per batch on
Type
M1 M2 M3
Product 1 1 3 1
Product 2 4 1 1
Machine Capacity
24 21 9
(hrs) per Week

Table 2: Common Terminologies for Linear Programming.

Prototype Example General Problem

Production Capacities of machines Resources

3 Machines m Resources

Production of Products Activities

2 Products n Activities

Production rate of product xj Level of activity xj

Profit Z Overall measure of performance

Table 3: Initial System of Equations

Cj 2 5 0 0 0
F. R CB
Basic x1 x2 S1 S2 S3 b Ѳ
0 S1 1 (4) 1 0 0 24 6
¼ 0 S2 3 1 0 1 0 21 21
¼ 0 S3 1 1 0 0 1 9 9
Zj 0 1 0 0 0 0
Cj – Zj 2 0 0 0 0

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 287
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Table 4: Second Feasible Solution
Cj 2 5 0 0 0
F. R CB
Basic x1 x 2 S1 S2 S3 b Ѳ
5 x2 ¼ 1 ¼ 0 0 6 24

0 S2 0 -¼ 1 0 15

0 S3 0 ¼ 0 1 3 4

Zj 5 0 0 30

Cj – Zj 0 0 0

Table 5: The Final Simplex Table k

Cj 2 5 0 0 0
CB
Basic x1 x2 S1 S2 S3 B
5 x2 0 1 0 – 5
0 S2 0 0 1 4
2 x1 1 0 0 – 4
2j 2 5 1 0 1 33
Cj – 0 0 -1 0 -1
Zj

Table6: Validation of the Optimiza® Software

S/N OBJECTIVE FUNCTION OPTIMIZA® SOFTWARE MANUAL SOLUTION
SOLUTION
1. Max. Z = 2x1 + 5x2 x1 = 4 x1 = 4
subject to: x1 + 4x2 ≤ 24 x2 = 5 x2 = 5
3x1 + x2 ≤ 21 Z = 33 Z = 33
x1 + x2 ≤ 9
2. Max. Z = 9x1 + 12x2 + 15x3 x1 = 2 x1 = 2
subject to: 2x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≥10 x2 = 2 x2 = 2
2x1 + 3x2 + x3 ≥ 12 x3 = 2 x3 = 2
1x1 + 1x2 + 5x3 ≥ 14 Z = 72 Z = 72
3. Max. Z = 30x1 + 20x2 x1 = 10.91 x1 = 10.91
subject to: 5x1 + x2 ≤ 60 x2 = 5.45 x2 = 5.45
3x1 + 4x2 ≤ 60 Z = 436.36 Z = 436.36
4 x1 + 3x2 ≤ 60
4. Max. Z = 3x1 + 2x2 + 5x3 x1 = 0 x1 = 0
subject to: x1 + 2x2 + x3 ≤ 430 x2 = 100 x2 = 100
3x1 + 0x2 + 2x3 ≤ 460 x3 = 230 x3 = 230
x1 + 4x2 + 0x3 ≤ 420 Z = 1,350 Z = 1,350
5. Max. Z = 4x1 + 3x2 x1 = 1.5 x1 = 1.5
subject to: 2x1 + 3x2 ≤ 6 x2 = 1.0 x2 = 1.0
-3x1 + 2x2 ≤ 3 Z = 9.0 Z = 9.0
2 x1 + 1x2 ≤ 4

Table 7: Data Obtained from the Company

Processing Time (hrs per week) Selling

Cost
Plastic Rotation Price
Injection (N,000
Product Blow al (N,000)
Mouldin ) per
Type Moulding Mouldin per
g batch
g batch
Chairs 7 2 5 100 145
Buckets 3 3 8 65 100
Cups 4 4 2 80 120
Max. hrs
50 40 80
per week

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 288
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

START

DISPLAY
WELCOME
PAGE

DO
NO YOU WANT TO YES
CLOSE CONTINUE? NEXT

EXIT
DISPLAY
LINOPTI

DO
RESET YOU WANT TO NO EXIT
PROCEED?

YES

INPUT

DISPLAY
LININP

INPUT VALUES END

DISPLAY
LINOPTI
CALCULATE

RESET DISPLAY EXIT

RESULTS
Figure 1: Program Flow Chart

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 289
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Fig. 3: The Linopti1 window

Fig. 4: The Linimp Window

Fig .5: The Linopti3 window

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 290
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Aminu, A. A

(2009),
(2009), 5 (1) : 291 - 294
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Investigation of Water Quality from Small Diameter Wells (Bore Holes) at Baboko Ward, Ilorin West
Local Government Area, Kwara State.

Aminu, A. A.
Department Of Mineral Resources Engineering,
Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin, Nigeria.
e-mail: aminuahmedayodele@gmail.com

Abstract
Borehole water quality evaluation was carried out in seven locations in Baboko Ward of Ilorin, Kwara State,
to investigate their Chemical and Biological parameters and establish their suitability for domestic use. All
parameters were determined using Standard Methods for the Evaluation of Water and Waste Water (2005).
The results of the analysis are: Total dissolved solids 184-208mg/l, pH is 6.0-6.3, and this value is a little less
than WHO s recommended range of 6.5-9.2. This slight increase in acidity may be due to infiltration from
organic pollutants in the neighbourhood. Sulphate is 8.0-11.0mg/l, Total hardness is 56-68mg/l, Chloride is
2.0-6.5mh/l, Nitrate is 0.3-0.8mg/l, Electrical conductivity is 79.64-94.24 µs/cm, BOD and COD are 0.8-
1.4mg/l, and 2.8-5.6mg/l respectively. Values for other ions are Sodium 0.3-1.2mg/l, Potassium 0.2-0.7mg/l;
Iron 0.2-0.5mg/l and manganese 0.0-0.25mg/l. Lead and Argon are both absent in all samples .Chemical
and Biological parameter concentrations in all the seven borehole water sampled are far below WHO’s
permissible limits, therefore they can be tolerated. The use of open trench surface drainage system or buried
pipe method that will remove runoff water before it can infiltrate, recharge and pollute the ground water is
recommended.

Keywords: Water Sample, WHO, BOD, COD, Parameters.

Introduction: that it is free of all bacteria introduced from outside

Water demand for human consumption is
dependent on an adequate water supply of useable
quality. Water quality concerns have often been
neglected because good quality water supplies have
been plentiful and are readily available. This
situation is now changing in many areas. Intensive
use of nearly all good quality supplies means that
old and new water supply systems are required.
World Health Organization (WHO) reported that an
estimated 1200 million people lack a satisfactory or
safe water supply (Pickering and Owen, 1997).
Environmental legislation relating to water quality
is based largely on quality standards relating to
suitability for a specific use. Standards are usually
mandatory with maximum permissible
concentrations based on health criteria or
environmental quality standards. Ground water is
known to be reasonably safe for domestic use when
it occurs at reasonable depths free of surface
contamination and is exploited by means of
boreholes or any other technically sanitary means.
All boreholes should be designed and constructed
to prevent contamination from surface polluted
waters, or undesirable subsurface waters, like saline
waters. Offodile (1992) stated that during the
construction of a borehole, serious bacterial
contamination is bound to take place through
materials and tools used in drilling or through
rising main and pump. He stated further that when
the borehole is completed, developed and tested it
is necessary to disinfect the whole system to ensure
the borehole. At the end of the whole operation and
before the borehole is commissioned a sample of
the water should be taken for analyses and should
be bacteria free (Offodile, 1992).
This study is aimed at collection of borehole water
samples at seven locations in the study area,
carrying out laboratory analysis to determine their
chemical and biological parameters. This is with a
view to establishing their real suitability for
domestic use and giving recommendations on the
management practices for further improvement.
Hydrogeology of the Study Area
Baboko Ward occupies the central part of Ilorin
town in Ilorin West Local Government Area of
Kwara State and it lies within latitudes 80 and 90 N
and 40 and 50 E. It is underlain by rocks of the
Precambrian Basement Complex.
Rocks of the Basement Complex have been worked
upon by many geoscientists, Rahaman, (1976);
Rahaman (1988), Oluyide (1988), Ajibade and
Wright (1988); Oluyide et al (1998), Odeyemi et al
(1999) among others. The main rock types in the
area are migmatitic gneisses, granitic gneisses,
banded gneiss, shists, pegmatites and quartzites
which are extensive in exposure. The crystalline
rocks of this area contain available and sufficient
groundwater as the yield of the majority of the
boreholes is good. This tends to suggest the
occurrence of fractures and joints in the bedrock
and weathered layer of reasonable thickness.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 291
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Oluyide et al (1998) reported that field observations
and studies of aerial photographs show that faults,
shear surfaces and joints, varying in scale from
microscopic to master features are very common in
the basement rocks of the study area.
Methodology
Seven different borehole water samples were
collected from seven different locations in Baboko
ward, between 6.00 a.m. and 7.00 a.m. The
samples were collected in plastic containers of two
(2) litres which were thoroughly washed and filled
with 5% HNO3 to eliminate impurities present in
the collected sample, left to dry for twenty-four
hours and were rewashed with the water to be
collected. The plastic containers were filled with
the water samples and the containers were tagged
A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6, and A7, for locations 1 – 7
respectively.
Physical, Chemical and Biological analysis were
performed in the laboratory using Standard
Methods for the Evaluation of Water and Waste
Water (2005), to investigate some parameters such
as: Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (mg/L), Methyl
Orange Alkalinity (mg/L), Total Hardness, Cl-, pH,
Acidity, SO42-, Na+, and K+. others are Dissolved
solids, Suspended solids, COD, Electrical
Conductivity, NO3-, BOD, Pb2+, Fe2+, Mn2+and Ar.
From the results, suggested managements practices
were given for sustainable domestic utilization of
water available in these boreholes.
Results and Discussion
The results obtained from the analyses are shown in
table 1. These were compared with the World
Health Organization’s drinking water standards
(1993) in table 2 and (1963) in table 3.
The study area is divided into seven zones for the
analysis of the data obtained from this
investigation.
These zones are Ile-Omo, Eruda, Ita-Onitangaran,
Baboko, Alapata, Isale-Ajasa and Ojodu. Most of
the sampled borehole water appeared to be clean
and clear of dirt.
Values of the total dissolved solids in all the seven
zones range from 184.0 - 202.0mg/l and they are
below the World Health Organization standard of
1,500mg/l maximum allowable concentration
(WHO 1963).
The pH values obtained from the analysis range
from 6.0 - 6.3, for the seven zones (A1 – A7). These
values are a little lower than the World Health
Organization standard guide limit of 6.5 – 8.5. This
little increase in acidity could be as a result of
pollution from domestic solid waste dumps and
effluents from the neighborhood of the affected
boreholes. Khitoliya (2004) stated that solid wastes
are the potential source of contamination as they
are partly burned and partly incorporated into the
soil and pose serious danger to the ground water.
He stated further that effluents from urban areas
contain large concentrations of oils, greases,
nutrients, heavy metals and detergents; the
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
detergents being soluble can pass through the soil
and pollute ground water. The values of
conductance (79.64 - 94.24 µs/cm) are low, Nitrate
(NO3-), (0.3-0.8mg/l) are also very low compared
to WHO standard of 50mg/l. Ions values for Na+,
K+, Pb2+, Fe2+, Cl-, Ca2+, Ar, SO42- and Mg2+ as
given in table 1, are in low quantities compared
with the WHO’s drinking water standards of 1993
and 1963 (tables 2 and 3). Biological Oxygen
Demand (BOD) values across all seven samples
range from 0.8-1.4mg/l. Chemical oxygen demand
(COD) ranged from 2.8 – 5.6mg/l, which are
assumed to be within WHO s standard values.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The results of the analyses show that all the seven
boreholes in the study area may not be totally
pollution free. The little rise in acidity may be due
to infiltration of free hydrogen ions from organic
pollutants in the neighbourhood of the boreholes
and continuous consumption could be deleterious
to human health. Other chemical and biological
parameter concentrations in the boreholes are far
below WHO’s permissible limits, they can
therefore be tolerated. Water from these boreholes
will be totally suitable for drinking and other
domestic purposes when the sources of pollution
(refuse dumps and domestic waste water effluents
drainage) are relocated to safer areas.
Any excess moisture that can recharge the ground
water which can eventually cause some addition of
parameters and increase the levels of concentration
should be controlled. The use of open trench
surface drainage system or buried pipe method
which will remove runoff water before it can
infiltrate, recharge and pollute the ground water is
hereby recommended. It is also recommended that,
in the planning of boreholes, standard well design
applicable to the geological condition of each
location should be used for optimum performance
and good quality water.
References
Ajibade, A.C. and Wright, J.B. (1988): Structural
relationship in the schist belts of Northern
Nigeria in the Precambrian geology of Nigeria
(P.O. Oluyide et al. eds: Proceedings of the
first symposium on the Precambrian geology
of Nigeria, Geological Survey of Nigeria p.
103-109
Khitoliya R.K., (2004): Environmental Pollution
Management & Control for Sustainable
Development. S. Chand & Company Ltd.
7361, Ram Nagar, New Delhi 110055, pp 52-
54.
Odeyemi I.B., Anifowose, Y.B. and Asiwaju-Bello,
Y.A. (1999): Multi technique graphical
analysis of fractures from remote sensing
imeveloage of basement regions of Nigeria.
Journal of Mining and Goelogy. 33(1) 9-21
Ofodile, M.E. (1992): An approach to ground water
study and development in Nigeria. Mecon
Services Ltd. Jos, pp 203
Page 292
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Oluyide, P.O. (1988): Structural trends in the Rahaman, M.A. (1988): Recent advances in the
Nigerian Basement Complex. In Oluyide. (ed) study of basement complex of Nigeria. In
Precambrian Geology of Nigeria. Geological Oluyede (ed.), Pre-cambrian Geology of
survey of Nigeria. 93-98 Nigeria. Geological survey of Nigeria. 11-43
Oluyide, P.O., Nwajide, C.S., and Oni A.O. (1998): Lenore, S., Clescerl, L.(2005): Standard Methods
The geology of the Ilorin area, Geological for the Evaluation of Water and
survey of Nigeria, Bulletin No 42, pp 48-49. Wastewater(Standard methods for the
Pickering, K.T. and Owen L.A. (1997): An examination of waterandWastewater) 2005.
introduction to global environmental issues. Amazon Inc. Britain.
Routledge, London, 2nd ed., pp 187-188 www.amazon.com , 21st Edition
Rahaman, M.A. (1976): Review of the basement (Centinnal Edition)
geology of southwestern Nigeria in Geology of World Health Organisation (WHO) (1985):
Nigeria (C.A. Kogbe, ed.): Elizabethan Guideline for drinking water quality. Vol. 1.
Publishing Co., Lagos, pp 41-58 Recommendations. WHO, Geneva.

Table 1: Result of the Analysis

Parameter (mg/l) A1 B1 C1 D1 E1 F1 G1
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity (mg/l) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Methyl Orange Alkalinity (mg/l) 45.0 45.0 45.0 50.0 50.0 45.0 45.0
Total Hardness (mg/l) 68.0 64.0 60.0 56.0 56.0 60.0 64.0
Ca2+ Hardness (mg/l) 36.0 48.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 40.0 44.0
Mg2+ Hardness (mg/l)) 32.0 16.0 28.0 20.0 16.0 20.0 20.0
Cl- (mg/l) 6.5 4.0 6.0 3.5 2.0 3.0 2.0
PH (mg/l) 6.0 6.0 6.1 6.3 6.3 6.2 6.1
Acidity (mg/l) 50.0 50.0 45.0 50.0 40.0 55.0 50.0
SO4- (mg/l) 9.0 7.5 7.0 10.5 8.0 11.0 8.5
Na+ (mg/l) 0.7 1.2 0.5 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.3
K+ (mg/l) 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.7 0.5
Total Solids (mg/l) 192.0 184.0 208.0 196.0 188.0 202.0 196.0
Dissolved Solids (mg/l) 164.0 160.0 176.0 166.0 162.0 170.0 168.0
Suspended Solids (mg/l) 28.0 24.0 32.0 30.0 26.0 32.0 28.0
COD (mg/l) 4.2 3.6 5.2 4.4 2.8 5.0 5.6
Conductance (mg/l) 86.17 91.20 89.33 79.64 94.24 88.56 90.25
NO3- (mg/l) 0.7 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.5
D.O (1st day) (mg/l) 3.6 3.0 4.4 3.8 2.4 4.4 5.0
D.O (5th day) (mg/l)) 2.8 1.8 3.2 2.6 1.6 3.0 3.8
BOD (mg/l) 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.8 1.4 1.2
Pb2+ (mg/l) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Fe2+ (mg/l) 0.2 0.5 0.05 0.35 0.15 0.10 0.5
Mn2+ (mg/l)) 0.05 0.20 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.00 0.25
Ar (mg/l) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Table 2: WHO’s drinking water standards 1993: WHO’s Guidelines for Drinking –water Quality, set up in
Geneva, 1993, are the international reference point for standard setting and drinking-water safety.
Element/substance Symbol/formula Normally found in fresh Health based
water/surface guideline by the
water/ground water WHO
Aluminum Al 0,2mg/l
Ammonia NH4 < 0,2 mg/l (up to 0,3mg/l in No guidline
anaerobic waters)
Antimony Sb < 4µg/l 0.005mg/l
Arsenic As 0,01 mg/l
Asbestos No guideline
Barium Ba 0,3 mg/l
Berillium Be < 1µg/l No guideline
Boron B < 1 mg/l 0,3 mg/l
Cadmium Cd < 1µg/l 0,003 mg/l
Chloride Cl 250 mg/l
Chromium Cr+3, Cr+6 <2 µg/l 0,05 mg/l
Colour Not mentioned
Copper Cu 2 mg/l

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 293
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005

Cyanide CN- 0,07mg/l

Dissolved oxygen O2 No guideline
Fluoride F < 1,5 mg/l (up to 10) 1,5 mg/l
Hardness Mg/l CaCO3 No guideline
Hydrogen sulfide H2S No guideline
Iron Fe 0,5 -50 mg/l No guideline
Lead Pb 0,01 mg/l
Manganese Mn 0,5 mg/l
Mercury Hg < 0,5µg/l 0,001mg/l
Molybdenum Mb < 0,01 mg/l 0,07 mg/l
Nickel Ni < 0,02 mg/l 0,02mg/l
Nitrate and nitrite NO3, NO2 50 mg/l total nitrogen
Turbidity Not mentioned
pH No guidelines
Selenium Se < < 0,01 mg/l 0,01 mg/l
Silver Ag 5 -50µg/l No guideline
Sodium Na < 20 mg/l 200 mg/l
Sulfate SO4 500 mg/l
Inorganic tin Sn No guideline
TDS No guideline
Uranium U 1,4 mg/l
Zinc Zn 3 mg/l

Table 3: Chemical substances affecting portability of water

Substance Maximum acceptable Maximum allowable
concentration concentration
Total solids 580 mg/l 1,500 mg/l
Colour 5 units 50 units
Turbidity 5 units 25 units
Taste Unobjectionable
Odour Unobjectionable
Iron (Fe) 0.3 mg/l 1.0 mg/l
Manganese (Mn) 0.1 mg/l 0.5 mg/l
Copper (Cu) 1.0 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Zinc (Zn) 5.0 mg/l 15.0 mg/l
Calcium (Ca) 75 mg/l 200 mg/l
Magnessium(Mg) 50 mg/l 150 mg/l
Sulphate (SO4) 200 mg/l 400 mg/l
Chloride (Cl) 200 mg/l 600 mg/l
Flouride (F) 0.5 mg/l 1.5 mg/l
Nitrate (NO3) 50 mg/l 100 mg/l
Nitrate (NO3) 50 mg/l 100 mg/l
CaCO3 - 120 mg/l
pH range 7.0 - 8.5 6.5 – 9.2
Magnesium +Sodium Sulphate 500 mg/l 100 mg/l
Phenoic substances 0.001 mg/l 0.002 mg/l
Carbon chloroform extract 0.2 mg/l 0.5 mg/l
Alky-benzy sulfonates 0.5 mg/l 1.0 mg/l
Lead - 0.05 mg/l
Arsenic - 0.05 mg/l
Selenium - 0.01 mg/l
Chromium - 0.05 mg/l
Cyanide - 0.2 mg/l
Cadmium - 0.01 mg/l
Barium - 1.0 mg/l
Source: WHO (1963)

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 294
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Proceedings of 5th Engineering Forum Aminu, A. A
(2009), 5 (1) : 295 - 297
School of Engineering
Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti
Impact of Industrial Waste Water Effluents Discharge on Physico-Chemical Quality of Asa River in
Ilorin West Local Government Area of Kwara State
(A Case Study)

Aminu, A.A.
Department of Mineral Resources Engineering
Kwara State Polytechnic, Ilorin.

Abstract
Analysis of waste water effluent discharge from a Soap and Detergent manufacturing company on Asa River,
Ilorin, was investigated with a view to establishing the constituents of the effluents as well as its effects on
the environment, as well as on plants, animals and man in the environment. To achieve this, photometric,
gravimetric and titrimetric methods of analysis were employed. Water samples were collected from three
locations along the effluents course. It was found that at the point of discharge that the effluent had the
following characteristics, pH ranged between 8.30 and 11.00 while the total suspended solids (TSS) ranged
from 87.5mg/l to 95.5mg/l which were far from approved FEPA limits of 6 - 9 and 30mg/l respectively. The
electrical conductivity was also discovered to be in the range of 2,100-2,600µmhos/cm, which was found to
be in compliance with the standard limit.

Keywords: Impact, Industrial Effluents, Discharge and River.

Introduction inhabit a given system. It is therefore necessary to

Industrialization is generally viewed all over the
world as the bane of civilization, as it is believed
that an industrialized nation is bound to pave way
for a rise in the standard of living through the
creation of employment for the entire population as
this will generally lead to an increase in national
income (Ephraim, 2001).
Industrialization transforms natural resources and in
so doing produces waste materials and energies
which require disposal. Wastes are generally
referred to as unwanted materials coming out of a
process (Ephraim, 2001).
A number of western countries had foregone
environmental protection in the past in favour of
industrial development. It is only recently that the
significance and necessity for environmental
protection is realized. In most affluent nations, this
concern has led to protecting the quality of
environment as a pre-requisite for enhancing the
quality of life, since degradation of life results in a
deterioration of quality of environment. In striking
contrasts, developing nations of the world having
teeming population and whose quality of life is so
low that they can neither perceive conditions where
the degradation of the environment would result in
deterioration of their standard of living, nor can
decisions be made easily for preserving the
environment at some cost to economic growth. The
same trend is seen in Nigeria whereby industries
have been firmly established before the government
attempts to consider likely pollution problems.
Pollution is considered to be undesirable or
deleterious modification of the environment (Edgar,
1994). The modification may actually or potentially
affect human life and the life cycle of the
indigenous plant and animal communities that
create sufficient pollution control because it has
been observed that in many instances pollution
control lags behind industrial development even in
industrialized countries of Europe (Jenkins and
Chalmers, 1978).
The main sources of water for domestic and
recreational uses in the vicinity of the case study
are pipe-borne water, wells and streams. However,
since most industrial pollution originates from the
“wet” nature of most large industries which require
large quantities of water, most industries are
therefore located near large bodies of water (Quano
et al, 1978).
Since it is known that water from streams and wells
constitute the bulk of water used for domestic and
recreational purposes, it becomes absolutely
necessary to conduct a study of the nature and
effects of the effluents discharged from Soap and
Detergent Industries in order to ascertain the likely
effect, the constituents of the effluents may have on
human, animals and plants.
The investigation was therefore carried out to
ascertain the chemical components of the effluent
discharge and its effects on man, animal, plants and
the environment.
Methodology
Water samples were collected in two litre plastic
containers from three (3) sampling points along the
direction of flow within the early hours of the day
named sample A, B and C. Sample (A) was
collected at the point of actual discharge of effluent
by the company. Sample (B) was collected at
approximately 100m from actual discharge point,
where the effluent has been mixed with sanitary
waste water from the company as well as domestic

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 295
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
waste water from the neighborhood, while sample
(C) was collected at about 2km from actual
discharge point whereby the effluent was
introduced into Asa River.
The sample bottles were corked and immediately
moved to the laboratory where they were stored at a
temperature of about 40c. At this temperature any
changes occurring will not have any adverse effect
on the parameters to be analysed.
i) The laboratory tests were carried out using
Photometric, gravimetric and titrimetric
methods.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 shows the result of the physical and
chemical analyses of the samples collected. The
results obtained were compared with the standard
guide of Federal Environmental Protection Agency
(FEPA) and some values from World Health
Organization (WHO) standards in Table 1.
The pH values of water samples range from 8.30-
11.00. This falls in the range of high level of
alkaline concentration when compared with the
FEPA standard of industrial effluent discharge. For
public water use, the permissible level of pH is
between 6.0 to 8.5, WHO standard for contact
recreation water is between 6.5-8.5.
The values of total dissolved solids ranges from
698.50mg/l - 853.00mg/l. This shows that the water
has a low level of total dissolved solids when
compared with the FEPA standard guide for
industrial effluent discharge of 2000mg/l. For
public water supplies, it is recommended that total
dissolved solids must not exceed 2000mg/l as high
values to TDS may exert harmful physiological
effects primarily osmotic and may impart taste and
odour (Robert, 1994).
The total suspended solids (TSS) ranged from
95.55mg/l - 87.59mg/l. This shows that the water
has a high level of total suspended solids when
compared with the FEPA standards. This is an
indication that the effluent discharge was not
properly filtered during treatment and this must
have had considerable effect on the turbidity of the
waste water, since in most cases turbidity is caused
by suspended clay or silts, dispersed organics,
inorganic and micro-organisms. High turbid waters
are often associated with possibility of
microbiological contaminants as high turbidity
makes it difficult to disinfect water properly
(DWAF, 1998).
The values for calcium, magnesium and sodium
present in the water sample were high when
compared with WHO standards for effluent
discharge as the values for FEPA standards were
not available. High concentration of these elements
may be injurious to soil structure and crops.
Values obtained for sodium ion (Na+) concentration
ranged from 0.27 – 5.27 mg/l. These values are low
when compared to WHO standard limit of 200mg/l.
FEPA maximum concentration for iron (Fe3+) is
0.3mg/l as against the obtained values of <0.01 –
0.05mg/l, the obtained values are within FEPA
The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-
Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009
allowable limit. Chloride ranged from 0.65mg/l –
1.28mg/l which this satisfies the FEPA limit of
250mg/l. Values for Calcium (Ca2+) and
Magnesium (Mg2+) also satisfies the WHO standard
limit of 75mg/l and 50 mg/l respectively as their
obtained values ranges between 1.2mg/l – 3.38 mg/l
and 2.2mg/l -7.42 mg/l. Concentration of Potassium
ion (K+) in the samples ranged from 0.06mg/l –
1.23mg/l. FEPA/WHO maximum values allowed
for Potassium ion (K+) concentration could not be
obtained to compare with the obtained values.
The values for Nitrates (NO3) range from 19.80mg/l
- 44.00mg/l. This is an indication that the water has
a high level of Nitrates. The permissible level of
nitrates and nitrites in public water supply is 20mg/l
(FEPA, 1991). It is desirable that these two
elements may be virtually absent. Nitrite is included
in this investigation because it reacts with the
oxygen carrying pigment in the blood i.e.
heamoglobin, to produce a compound which is a
less effective oxygen transporter and may produce
serious physiological effects. Conversion of nitrates
to nitrites in the stomachs of ruminant animal may
produce this effect at high levels. High nitrate
concentration may also favour the growth of
undesirable plants (Roberts, 1994).
The value of Electrical Conductivity (EC) ranges
from 400µmhos/cm - 2,600µmhos/cm. This shows
that the value is low when compared with FEPA
standard of 4000 µmhos/cm.
Conclusion
The results of the laboratory analysis shows that the
pH values of the effluent discharge ranges from
8.30 -11.00.These are higher than the FEPA
standard limits of 6.00 - 9.00 and this may be
deleterious to aquatic life, plants and man. The
obtained values of total suspended solids (TSS) are
87.59mg/l - 95.5mg/l as against the FEPA standard
limit of 30mg/l which shows that the effluent
discharge was not properly filtered during
treatment. Other parameters analyzed were within
standard limits.
The standard regulatory body (FEPA) should
enforce full compliance with the provisions of the
regulation. This is necessary in order to prevent the
activities of the industry concerned from
constituting a major environmental hazard to its
immediate environment and the inhabitants.
References
DWAF (1998). Quality of domestic water supplies.
Assessment Guide. 1 (2nd ed.) Department of
Water Affairs and Forestry. Derparment of
Health and Water Research Commission.
Republic of South Africa.
Edgar, G.P. (1994). Water pollution control
programmes and systems. (Evolution of
Industrial Pollution Control) Contrell –
Research New Jersy.
Ephraim G.K. (2001). Analysis of Effluents from
United
Page 296
 ISSN: 1974 - 9005
Nigeria Textile Plc Kaduna and Arewa Textile Plc
Kaduna (A Paper presented at National
Engineering conference of Kaduna
Polytechnic, Kaduna, December, 2001.
FEPA (1991). Guidelines and standards for
environmental pollution control in Nigeria
Jenkins, S.H. and Chalmers, R.K. (1978). The
importance of Industrial Effluent Surveys and
Effect in the Economical Control of Water
Pollution. (Paper presented at the International
Conference on Pollution at Bangkok, Thailand;
February 21st – 25th 1978).
Ouano, E.A.R., Lohani, B.N. and Thani, N.C.
(1978): Water pollution control in developing
countries (proceedings of the International
conference on pollution held at Bangkok
Thailand; February 21-25, 1978.
Robert M.S. ( (1994) : Water Quality criteria and
standards for Industrial Effluents; Gulf
Degremont, Inc. New Jersey.
WHO (1984). World Health Organization
Standards for Effluent Water
WHO (1989). World Health Organization
Standards for Effluent Water

Table 1: Results of Laboratory Analysis on Samples A, B, and C

Parameters Sample Sample Sample FEPA WHO
A B C Standard Standard
pH 11.00 11.00 8.30 6–9 -
TDS 698.50 853.00 828.70 2,000 -
TSS 95.50 95.50 87.50 30 -
Total Ca2+ 1.20 1.20 3.38 - 75
Total Mg2+ 2.20 2.20 7.42 - 50
Fe3+ < 0.01 < 0.01 0.05 0.36 -
K+ 1.23 0.32 0.06 - -
Na+ 5.27 4.38 0.27 200 -
Cl- 1.28 1.05 0.65 20 -
NO3- 19.80 35.00 44.00 20 -
Conductivity (µmhos/cm) 2,600 2,100 400 4000 -
Total Hardness (CaCO3) 160.00 147.00 0.12 - 120
* All values are in mg/l unless otherwise stated.

The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-

Ado-Ekiti, 9th – 12th November, 2009 Page 297