Cognitive Theory

versus Psychoanalytic
Theory
Eric Erikson vs. Jean Piaget

Hussein El Haj Ahmad

Paper # 1: Cognitive Theory versus Psychoanalytic Theory

Hussein El Haj Ahmad

EDCO 600: Learning and Human Development
Fall 2014: November 19, 2014

Cognitive Theory versus Psychoanalytic Theory

I.

Introduction

Educators and parents lives become easier when theories of child development and applications to everyday
practice are fully understood. Many theories including psychoanalysis, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic and
socio-cultural have contributed to child development from their own perspectives. From my experience, I believe
that there is no single theory that is completely right or wrong, but a blend of these theories should be used to
raise and educate children successfully. Mental, social, and emotional development of children are interlinked. In
this paper, I will compare and contrast child development in the cognitive theory represented by Jean Piaget and
the psychoanalytic theory represented by Eric Erickson noting their basic philosophical assumptions, major
concepts, and applications to modern teaching. As more children are educated, the population will have a higher
growth rate, a productive workforce, and lower levels of poverty. By time new social, environmental, and cultural
changes are observed, so its our challenge to find creative methods in children education to adapt to these
changes.

II.

Psychoanalytic theory of child development

Any writer cant discuss the psychoanalytic school without talking about Sigmund Freud (1856 1939), the
founding father of psychoanalysis. The Austrian neurologist proposed that physical symptoms are often the
surface manifestations of deeply repressed conflicts in the unconscious mind that governs our behavior to a great
extent. Freud developed three states of mind including the id, ego, and superego. The id operates at the
unconscious level according to the pleasure principle. It contains two kinds of instincts: Eros (life instinct helping
an individual to survive) and Thanatos (death instinct viewed as a set of destructive forces in all human beings
expressed as aggression and violence). The ego follows the reality principle operating in both the conscious and
the unconscious mind. Its goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a socially safe way. The superego operates
on the morality principle that motivates us to behave in a socially responsible way. It allows the individual to feel
guilty if rules are not followed. As a result, if conflicts occur between the id and superego, the ego acts moderately
by applying defensive mechanisms. For Freud, the childs first five to six years are important for the formation
of the individuals personality structure. He developed five psychosexual stages: Oral (birth-1 year), Anal (1 -3
years), Phallic (3-6 years), Latency (6-12 years), and Genital (12+ years). In each stage, there is a unique conflict
that the individual must resolve before passing on to the next stage. If he/she fails to do so, a fixation process
occurs that show unresolved problems and unmet needs. Freuds theory was criticized for many issues including
a) his predictions about the unconscious state that cant be tested by any scientific operation, b) his conclusion
that early childhood is the most important stage of development even though his observations were on adult
patients, and c) his negligence to study womens development and psychological difficulties.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was born in Germany and relocated to Vienna to pursue a career in arts and teaching.
He was introduced to the Freudian circle and then became a child analyst after studying in Vienna Psychoanalytic
Institute alongside with Anna Sigmund Freud (Miller, 2002). Erikson supported Freuds theory but redeveloped
it by introducing stages of development through the whole life. In contrast to Freuds theory which emphasizes
on the development during infancy, Eriksons model identified eight critical periods occurring from infancy to

P a g e |1

Paper # 1: Cognitive Theory versus Psychoanalytic Theory

adulthood focusing on the effects of the surrounding social environment (Harms, 2010). The eight stages
explained in Table 1 includes the key social relationships needed to progress through life with applications to
teaching in class (Erikson, 1968 cited in Mooney, 2013; Santrock, 2009). Eriksons wife, Joan, published after
his death the ninth stage that Ericson experienced himself in a very old stage.
Table 1: Eriksons of Psychological Development (Modified)

Age

Stage

Strength Developed

1.

Birth to 12
months

Trust
vs.
Mistrust

2.

1-3 years

Autonomy
vs. Shame &
Doubt

3.

3-6 years

Initiative vs.
Guilt

4.

6-11 years

Industry vs.
Inferiority

Hope; the infant is dependent on parents

& caregivers. Trust is established if infant
feels safe under care. Mistrust & minimal
attachment of the child creates an
environment of fear.
Willpower; the child feels secure by
accomplishing this stage via developing
some sense of independence through
learning basic life skills.
Purpose; children are aware of the social
environment which affect them by
exerting authority whenever needed.
Competence; Competition between
children bring out their abilities and
skills. Feeling of competency for victors
and doubts for unsuccessful children.

5.

Adolescence

Identity vs.
Role
Confusion

Fidelity; the individual forms an identity

& understands his/her role in society.
Unsuccessful individuals have feelings of
insecurity of the future.

6.

Young
adulthood

Intimacy vs.
Isolation

7.

Middle
adulthood

8.

Late
adulthood

Generativity
vs.
SelfAbsorption
Integrity vs.
Despair

9.

Very old age

(late 80s &
beyond)

Despair vs.
Hope
&
Faith

Love; success depends on healthy &

secure relationships. Lack of identity
leads to higher rate of depression and
lower self-esteem.
Care; people are productive through
family, work and career. Failure leads to
stagnation in life and unproductive lives.
Satisfaction; successful people in this
stage look into their lives and
accomplishments with feelings of
contentment while failures have feelings
of disappointment at the wasted
opportunities.
Wisdom; integration of all the positive
knowledge learned throughout the stages.

Application to Class

Never criticize a child in front of

others; dont punish children for
doing things on their own.
Children are given responsible duties
such as being corridor, anti-bullying
prefects, etc.
Teacher can give easier questions to
weaker students to feel more
confident when they solve it correctly.
Students should learn from their
mistakes and move forward.
Provide range of assignments rather
than a solid rigid one.
Introduce students to many career
choices, field trips, & shadow jobs to
decide their roles in society.
Pay attention when grouping students
by gender, race, or socioeconomic
status; help students identify their
strengths & weaknesses.
Educate the students in life skills to
increase
self-sufficiency
and
confidence.

In Eriksons psychosocial theory, the individuals identity is developed when the ego progresses from
birth influenced by the surrounding social demands (Pinker, 2003, cited in Harms, 2010). Although the eight
stages of development are the same for each individual, different cultures influence ones behavior differently in
each stage. So it will be the societys responsibility to fulfill all the individuals needs for his/her successful
development. Each generation is affected by the events during its period such as industrialization, urbanization,
immigration, war, depression, and civil right movement (Miller, 2002). According to Erikson, developing a
healthy ego and identity depend on the successful completion of each crisis stage for the succession of the next
P a g e |2

Paper # 1: Cognitive Theory versus Psychoanalytic Theory

stage. (Erikson, 1978, cited in Harms, 2010). Failure to deal with each crisis may lead to disorder, dysfunction
and overall psychopathology.
Eriksons theory is criticized for a) being written from a limited purely psychosocial perspective, b)
having rigid life span development failing to face the changing world and societies, c) being difficult to be
understood by the general public (Roazen, 1976), d) being cultural bias despite of Eriksons attempts to be aware
of the different social and cultural expectations (Kroger, 1996), and e) being inaccurate when womens identity
is compared to that of a man. Kroger (1996) stated that Erikson contradicted himself when he said that women
faced problem of finding their identity until they found a suitable partner. In contrast, in todays society, women
delay marriage to pursue a career. Despite this criticism, Eriksons theory model is still recognized as a key theory
of understanding the development of an individual. It has been useful to counselling and therapy especially for
adolescents who are going through the identity vs role confusion stage.

III.

Cognitive theory of child development

The cognitive theory of child development is represented mainly by Koffka, Kohler, Lewin, Piaget, Ausubel,
Bruner and Gagne. In this paper, the Swiss epistemologist- as he called himself- Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is
compared and contrasted with Eric Erikson. Piaget is considered the father of developmental cognitive
psychology. He dealt with the interpretation of sensory events: how they register (perception); how they are stored
in memory and retrieved; and how we learn from our experiences by using images, symbols, concepts and rules
in thinking, reasoning and problem solving. He used clinical observation to discover how children construct their
concepts about their environment (calling it schemes- the building blocks of learning). Through the learning
process, children use their old schemes to deal with new objects by assimilation and/or change the old schemes
when new objects cant fit into them by accommodation. When there is a balance between assimilation and
accommodation equilibrium is attained. Piaget - as Montessoris student- believed that children create their own
understanding when they do the work themselves. He believed that all children pass through the stages
sequentially throughout their lifetime. These stages are defined by the level of abstraction that the individual is
capable of, and chronological age is not important. Piagets periods of cognitive growth and applications to classes
are explained in Table 2 (Piaget, 1973 cited in Mooney, 2013).
Table 2: Piagets Cognitive Theory of Development (Modified)

Age

Stage

Behaviors

Applications to Class

1.

Birth to 24
months

Sensorimotor

Learn through the senses;

learn
through
reflexes;
manipulate materials.

2.

2-7 years

Preoperational

3.

7-11 years

Concreteoperational

Form ideas based on their

perceptions; can only focus on
one variable at a time;
overgeneralize based on
limited experience.
Form ideas based on
reasoning; limit thinking to
objects & familiar events.

4.

11 years early
adulthood

Formaloperational

Provide rich stimulating environment; use

toys that squeak when squeezed; use a rattle
that makes a noise when the baby shakes it
(cause-and-effect relationship).
Allow the child to dress up and take on a
character; play housing; be involved in
hands on activities; play with toys that
change shape such as clay, sand, water; &
use cut-out letters to build words.
Do simple experiments with participation
of students; avoid lessons that are different
from the childs world; & use analogies to
show relationships of new objects to
already acquired ones.
Use complex charts & illustrations; give
step by step explanations & materials; work
in groups; work in pairs (mentor-mentee);
teach broader concepts rather than facts; &
use lyrics from a popular song to teach
poetry.

Think hypothetically; think

conceptually.

P a g e |3

Paper # 1: Cognitive Theory versus Psychoanalytic Theory

According to Piaget, teachers can design classrooms as learning centers including all the materials that
engage childrens curiosity. He said that the best curriculum is to keep children curious and offer them realproblem solving challenges, rather than give them information. As children interact with their environment, they
build their knowledge of their world through a process of creative invention known as constructivism (Puss, 2004,
cited in Ornstein, 2011). Piagets theory can still help us plan curriculum to challenge childrens minds (Mooney,
2013).
Piagets theory was criticized for: a) being difficult to be read, b) giving less importance to language (as
opposed to Lev Vygotsy) and social interaction (as opposed to Erikson), c) his rigid schemes that cant be applied
to every aspect of cognitive development, and d) his equilibration where some cognitive changes can only be
explained in terms of the changing capacities of the brain itself.

IV.

Cognitive versus Psychoanalysis

A.
Similarities

The cognitive and psychoanalytic theories of child development have some issues in common that can be
summarized as follows: a) both use phases to explain the process of developmental psychology, b) each stage
within the development has different challenges that should be completed successfully, c) consecutive stages
build upon each other to the extent that failure in the preceding stage precipitates failure in the next stage, d) both
agree that personality development takes place across a persons lifespan, e) they emphasize on scientific method
of enquiries through controlled experiments, and f) both have profound impact on society, especially in early
childhood education.

B.

Dissimilarities

The differences between the two theories can be observed in several issues summarized in Table 3.
Table 3: Differences between Eriksons and Piagets Theories of Development
Issue Compared

Erikson

Piaget

School of theory
Basis of theory

Psychoanalytic school.
Social setting in personality development.

Number of stages in life development

process

Eight stages obtained from experience,

observation, questions and clinical
methods.
Naming represents the psychosocial skills
attained at different age levels.
The passage of an individual through all
the stages up to the old age is seen
essential in order to explain the
development processes.
Development of personality is influenced
by the interaction of an individual with his
environment. The ego changes constantly
thus changing the individuals personality.
Emphasis occur in the lifespan from
infancy to older age of an individual.
First stage ends at one year old.
Challenges are bound to occur in every
stage.

Cognitive school.
Cognitive development through mental
processes based on assumption of a childs
senses and capability.
Four stages obtained from research and
observation where questions were asked
and then followed up by other questions.
Naming represents the cognitive skills
attained in the child and adult.
It is not necessary for a person to go
through all the stages of the theory;
individuals influence their world; &
experiences determine development.
Development looks into thought processes
of a person. The ego was totally ignored
and changes occur depending on the four
stages of the theory.
Emphasis is mainly in the earlier stages
below the age of twelve.
First stage ends at two years of age.
Piaget focus ends in adulthood while
assuming the advent of old age.

Naming of stages
Development through the different stages
of the theory

Development of personality

Time Emphasis
Timing aspect
Challenges

P a g e |4

Paper # 1: Cognitive Theory versus Psychoanalytic Theory

Skills development

Development of late teens

V.

Successful completion of each stage

depends on how an individual deals with
its challenges. The skills acquired decrease
the feeling of insecurity.
The teenager focuses on independence in
decision-making, relationships and selfdiscovery.

Development of skills occurs from infancy

to the formal-operational phase (above 12
years of age) where abstract thoughts
make sense.
The adolescent is a rational being with
rational thoughts.

Conclusion

In this paper, I have selected the cognitive and psychoanalytic theories of child development. Piaget showed
us how children develop in terms of thinking, intelligence, and memory capabilities. On the other hand, Erikson
explained how they develop emotionally. In reality the two theories go hand in hand where a secure emotional
base allows learning and exploration to take place, and vice versa is true. Piagets model is not ideal, but his
contributions on how children think systematically in a different way than adults do at different stages remain
valuable. Both Piagets and Eriksons contributions cant be ignored in the field of development psychology.
Erikson wrote his theory from a limited purely psychosocial perspective, but due to the gradual changes in the
twenty-first century many factors such as culture, community, health, wellness, and changing family structures
should be discussed. We must apply a broader lens when viewing the many variables (Mooney, 2013). The most
important thing is how to apply these theories in our classes (as shown in Table 1 & Table 2).
Finally, we should not forget that these theories showed child development in relation to Western countries
(Europe and North America) in the first half of the twentieth century. Many changes have occurred since that
time and new discussions should be taken to modify or finely adjust these theories. In the Arab world, culture and
environment are different and they influence child development in a different way. Islam, which is the
predominant religion in the Gulf and Mediterranean regions, discusses all the issues of child development and
teaching. Islam divided the life of a child from the age of infancy to 21 into three stages, each lasting seven years.
During the first stage (from birth to 7 years), the child should be given complete freedom for his exploration about
the world. The child should be treated with grace and respect, and punishment is forbidden. Children in this stage
are not able to grasp complex issues. Simple Islamic concepts should be introduced. Fear and shame should not
be used to abide by Islamic laws. In the second stage (8-14 years): the child has the highest activity in terms of
learning and building skills. The child act as an empty cup to be filled with all type of knowledge and skills.
Islamic laws and values should be implemented. During the third stage (15-21 years), parents and educators
should be friends with their children rather than teachers. After the hard work in the previous stage, issues of
higher skills should be introduced and discussed. At this time, the individual is ready now to be an effective
member in society. The similarities and differences of these theories with Islamic child development and the
application of the latter in modern teaching and child development can be discussed in future articles.

VI.

References

Beckett, T., Taylor, H. (2013). Human Growth and Development (2 nd e.d.). SAGE Publications.
Harms, L. (2010). Understanding Human Development A multidimensional approach (2nd e.d). Melbourne, Victoria. Oxford
University Press.
Kroger, J. (1996). Adolescence as identity synthesis: Eriksons psychosocial approach. Identity in Adolescence The balance between
self and other (pp.13 47). NewYork. Routledge.
Miller, H, P. (2002). Theories of Developmental Psychology (4th e.d.). United States of America. Worth Publishers.
Mooney, C.G. (2013).Theories of Childhood (2 nd e.d.). United States of America. Redleaf Press.
Ornstein, A.C., Levine, D.U., Gutek, G.L. (2011). Foundation of Education (Ch.4 pp. 119-121; 11th edition). Wadsworth, USA.
Cenegage Learning.
Roazen, P. (1976). Erik H. Erikson. The Power and Limits of a Vision. New York. The Free Press.
Santrock J.W. (2009). Educational Psychology (4 th e.d.) Mc. Graw-Hill Higher Education.
P a g e |5