Efficacy of Water Users Organizations

and
Water Management in Agriculture:
(A study of Water Crisis and Irrigation System in Pakistan)

Submitted to;

Higher Education Commission Islamabad

Supported by;

Higher Education Commission Islamabad

Submitted by;

Dr. Hafeez-ur-Rehman Chaudhry

Professor of Anthropology &
Principal Investigator of the Project
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad
2013

Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge with gratitude my indebtedness to many people who made this
study possible. First of all I want to express my special thanks to Higher Education
Commission for sponsoring this project. I wish it were possible for me to thank all the
persons/researchers who participated and contributed intellectually in this project.
The completion of this study has been made possible with the assistance and involvement
of many persons. I acknowledge my indebtedness to the research team comprised of the
researchers i.e. Mr. Faqeer Muhammad and Mr. Najaf Ali. They acted as research
assistance in the project and were held responsible for field data collection. They visited
research sites i.e. KPK, Punjab and Sindh along with research team and collected field
data. They very skillfully establish the rapport in the community and collected required
qualitative and quantitative data from the field.
Prof. A. M. H. Kango and Mr. Faiz Rasool deserve special thanks as they helped in the
analysis of field data and report writing. Their contribution in finalizing the report is
commendable. Their personal interest and intellectual input was the driving force behind
the success of this project.

Prof. Dr. Hafeez-ur-Rehman

Principal Investigator

Table of Contents
Chapter No. 1

Page #

Introduction & background of the study

Traditional agriculture

10

Drainage system

12

Management system

12

Water management

14

Organization for water utilization

20

Objectives of the study

25

Chapter No. 2
Review of literature and theoretical framework

26

Pakistans irrigation system

26

Methods of irrigation

28

Farm ownership and land reform

33

Informal water users' associations

38

Institutionalization of water users' associations

40

Functions of water users' associations

41

Operation of the watercourse

41

Rehabilitation, improvement and maintenance

42

Conflict resolution

43

Fund raising

44

Formulation of by-laws

44

Federation at higher levels

44

Powers of water users' associations

45

Responsibilities of water users' associations

45

Effectiveness of water users' associations

45

Impediments of water users' associations

46

Remedies of water users' associations

47

Chapter No. 3
Research Design

Introduction

49

Sampling frame

53

Sample size and its allocation

55

Selection of primary sampling units (PSUS)

56

Selection of secondary sampling units (SSUS)

56

Respondents and survey questionnaire

56

Data quality and reliability measures

57

Selection of respondents

58

Selection of distributries / minors from different districts

60

Chapter no. 4
Analysis of Field Data

Respondents profile

64

Literacy rate of respondents

64

Area wise literacy rate

65

Decision makers educational status

66

Age group of farmers in the fields

67

Farmers as head of their families in different district

68

Ratio of different occupation in rural areas

69

Farmers with membership of different organizations

69

Farmer with membership of more than one organization

70

Numbers of family members

71

Literacy rate in different occupational groups in rural areas

72

Average land holdings of farmers

74

Farm sizes as per provinces of Pakistan

74

District-wise farm sizes

75

Household income

76

Income groups as per provinces / districts

78

Living conditions as per provinces

80

Status of ownership as per provinces

81

Houses locations as per provinces

82

Ownership as per provinces

82

Water user associations

83

Information about water users associations

84

Organization that formed the associations

84

Name by which organization was called

85

How WUA was formed

86

Number of participants in WUA formation

87

Training /capacity building of water users associations

90

Number of training sessions held

91

Training methods applied

92

Benefits of WUA

94

Legal support by the department

96

Nature of support provided by the department

96

Increase in social status of WUA official

97

Nature of leadership of the association

98

Educational level of leadership

98

Moral character of leadership

99

Usefulness of WUA

100

Means of agricultural information

101

Water course lined by agencies

104

Contribution provided by farmers

104

Cleaning of watercourse

106

Maintenance of renovated water course

106

Impact assessment of water user association

113

Impact of institutional reforms

113

Lessons learned from WUA

114

Social impacts of WUA

116

KAP improvement

119

Conflict resolution

122

Economic impact

123

Increase in cropped area

124

Impact on cropping pattern

125

Change in cropping intensity

127

Increase in income

128

Impact on women

129

Facilities made available to women

131

Impact on livestock

133

Impact on environment

135

Control of spillage

135

Reduction of pond formation

136

Availability of open spaces

137

Improvement in health

139

Availability of safe drinking water

140

Improvement in education

141

Chapter No. 4
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

144

Appendixes
o Appendix 1: Questionnaire

159

o Appendix 2: Bibliography

173

o Appendix 3: The On-Farm Water Management and

Water Users Associations Ordinance, 1981
o Appendix 4: The Canal and Drainage Act, 1873

176
185

Executive Summary
This study was undertaken to determine the efficacy of Water Users Associations
(WUA) and water management in agriculture. It is actually a case study of water crises
and irrigation system in Pakistan. The main objectives of the study were to establish a
database on the organizational pattern of water users in different parts of Pakistan,
evaluate attempts to organize water users and monitor the most successful ones, examine
the institutional constraints which have impeded the creation of viable water user
associations and examining the underlying premise that water users associations are
indeed a necessary component of water management activities and determine the extent
to which a research-based extension programme can achieve the same objectives.
The universe of this survey consists of irrigated areas of three provinces of
Pakistan i.e. Punjab, KPK and Sindh. These provinces are depending for their crop
irrigation needs on Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS). In order to make efficient use of
water for crop production, research was undertaken at all stages of water storage and
conveyance except watercourse level. This was considered as farmers' domain. The
sample size of the study was as under;
Province District Outlets # of Respondents
Punjab

36

400

Sindh

11

200

KPK

100

Total

55

700

Open-ended, structured and in-depth interviews were carried out at seven sites
among quota sample of 700 water users at both, the grassroots and leadership levels.
Quantitative and qualitative information were combined to achieve a sufficiently
representative response and at the same time provided meaningful insights into the
thinking and experience of the farmers.

The data generated though this Survey provided insight into the efficacy of water
users association in irrigated agriculture and their sustainability to overcome water crises
in Pakistan as well as ensure food security of nation's exploding population. It will be
used to assist the government in formulating the poverty reduction strategy in the overall
context of MDGs i.e., education, health and quality of life.
Water Users' Associations (WUAs) were organized, one on each watercourse
which was selected for renovation and partial lining under On-Farm Water Management
Project (OFWM) The Water Users' Association Ordinances were promulgated by the four
provinces in early eighties. The primary objective was to take joint action in reduction of
water losses in community water course and to adopt farm planning for optimum use of
water for increased crop production. The renovated watercourses have provision for
crossings (culverts), buffalo wallows and washing bays for the convenience of women.
The WUAs were given legal cover to act jointly to work for removal of poverty
and food security, they were not only to renovate the watercourse, but to maintain it as
well. They were to ensure water distribution equitably to all irrigators. These
organizations showed remarkable results in curtailing water theft and the dispute
resolutions of farmers at their doorsteps. Similarly, the government also got rid of huge
administrative expenditures on the maintenance of these water channels. The farmers'
organizations were also given the mandate to collect water charges from water users and
maintain their canals on self-help basis. These organizations are responsible for the
maintenance of their canals, equitable distribution of water, collection of water charges
and dispute resolutions.
The respondents feel that due to the WUA, they can cultivate crop on right time,
the cooperative model gives successes as forming organization is a good thing. Problems
could be solved jointly and poverty alleviation is possible through cooperation. The
impacts of WUAs encompass all the fields. The study considered the institutional, social,
economic, gender, livestock, environment, health and education. All were found positive.
Institutions are in place, social status is raised, economy has improved, women are better
facilitated, livestock quality is improved, there have been positive change in environment,
people have better access to health facilities and school enrolment has increased besides
this quality education is within reach.

Chapter No. 1
Introduction & Background of the study
The term Water Users' Associations (WUA)1 was first used during the Roving Seminar
(1981) organized by On-Farm Water Management Project (OFWM) to provide a legal
cover to entities that existed informally on every watercourse in gravity flow irrigated
areas of Pakistan. The legal cover was found necessary to transfer some authority to
WUAs to remove bottlenecks in the maintenance and operation of the watercourse, since
those were not considered the responsibility of either Irrigation Department or
Agriculture Departments. Irrigation Department did not agree to own OFWM project as
its area of operation as its primary responsibility was to make water available at the
watercourse outlet (moga) and the water utilization fell in the domain of Agriculture
Department. Thus Agriculture Department created separate Directorate of On Farm
Water Management in each province and a Federal Directorate to coordinate their
activities.
Since this was a new venture in administration, training was required for good
governance by the government officials and the community. The sequencing was agreed
as follows:
a) Research to determine the status of equitable distribution of water among all
irrigators on a water course - This research was conducted by a consortium of
American Universities headed by Colorado State University (CSU). The research
was conducted on the following topics:
i.

Water availability at the head, middle and tail of the watercourse. In other
words this was to determine the water losses in the watercourse and their
causes. The losses measured varied from 25-60% by deferent studies

4-A. Organizations of Farmers. (1) The Provincial Government may constitute an Organization of
Farmers comprising the local cultivators on a water-course, a group of watercourses or a distributary or a
part thereof.
(2) The Provincial Government may entrust any of the functions of Canal Officer under this Act to such an
Organization.
(3) The Provincial Government may frame rules for the formation, operation, functions, jurisdiction and all
other related matters of the Organizations of Farmers.
Added by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of 1975) and substituted by the
Canal and Drainage (Amendment) Act 2006 (XVII of 2006).

depending on soil conditions, gradients, rodents, leakages, etc. These

affected the quality of water available at different points.
ii.

Pattern of water sharing among the irrigators. This was known as

warabandi or fixed timings. The warabandi2 was either kachi (nonpermanent, not approved by canal officer under Water and Drainage Act)
or pakki (permanent and approved by canal officer under Water and
Drainage Act). The warabandi3 was sometimes reverse warabandi, where
the tail ender got the water first.

iii.

Irrigation when required - This practice was not possible under the
warabani system as the water could be available when it was not required
by the crop. This gave rise to bad practices like trading or selling water.

iv.

Types of watercourse lining to make equitable distribution of water. The

research was conducted to determine adequate stretches, proper crosssection and right materials to line a watercourse.

v.

Conjunctive use of surface and ground water in order in increase water

availability at tail end and to meet the consumptive water use by crops was
looked into to improve cropping intensity and crop yields.

Today, two types of warabandi are frequently mentioned in Pakistan. The warabandi which has been
decided by the farmers solely on their mutual agreement, without formal involvement of any government
agency is known as kachcha ( ordinary or unregulated) warabandi, whereas , the warabandi decided after
field investigation and public inquiry by the irrigation department when disputes occurred and issued in
officially recognized warabandi schedules, is called pucca warabandi.
3

Warabandi provides enough scope to the farmers to make intelligent decisions to optimize water
productivity. Judicious use of water resources is sine qua non (prerequisite) for enhanced productivity,
improved economy and health of the environment & of critical importance when water supply is scarce.
Warabandi needs to be understood as a composite socio-technical system comprising a physical
infrastructure and a corresponding institutional arrangement for rationing and sharing water. Warabandi is
a rotational method for distribution of irrigation water, with fixed time allocations based on the size of
landholdings of individual water users within a watercourse command area. The primary objective of the
method is to distribute this restricted supply in an equitable manner over a large command area.
Management of available water resources in an irrigation system has got its utmost importance so as to
make it available to its potential users, i.e. farmers, most judiciously and equitably. "WARABANDI" is a
most appropriate, suitable, and successful method of irrigation water distribution below outlet to maintain
equity and rightfulness among the users and make best and economical use of available water potential.

vi.

Research on the use of saline water for crop production was carried out in
view of the fact that most of Indus Valley has saline underground water.

b) Research to determine the appropriate irrigator community's organization to

implement the finding of preliminary research as mentioned in 'a' above. Since the
research findings at variance with the age-old practices and required financial
investments, it was necessary to study the beneficiary irrigators' knowledge,
attitude and practices; and bring a change in KAP to accept the new approach to
the irrigation problems, like:
i.

Pakistan's engineering marvel of contiguous irrigation had been ageing

and required rehabilitation at heavy cost. The government could not afford
this as the water charges had remained static since the day the irrigation
systems were commissioned.

ii.

The Indus River Treaty signed with India paralyzed the irrigation though
temporarily, till Indus Basin Works were completed.

iii.

The silt deposits in the fields had raised the bed level of the fields and
water levels had to be raised

iv.

The construction of dams made regulation better and made more water
available for distribution, for which canal remodeling was necessary.

c) Institutional Development at Government and Community level was required to

increase public participation in Integrated Water Management (IRM). This was
done by division of responsibilities between Department of Irrigation and
Department of Agriculture. Department of Irrigation was to look after water
regulation and transmission; and Department of Agriculture was to implement
OFWM project, organize WUAs and train them in best practices. For best
practices, Department of Agriculture was to introduce new technologies what
termed as 'more crop per drop of water'.
In order to have better view of the water scenario of Pakistan, it is necessary to realize
that all areas of Pakistan are not irrigated. This could be better understood by having
geographical and historical picture of Pakistan in the context of its anthropological
epochs of civilization. This would give insight in evolutionary model of the rise of the
nation.

i.

Geographically Pakistan is divided in four distinct parts - Northern

Himalayan mountains and their out crops starting with snow peaked
mountains in the North, flanking its West and coming down to Karachi.
This rock formations are unique in their formation, are rich in valleys and
sustain civilizations in almost in their original form.

ii.

Western hilly area that consists of whole of Balochistan

iii.

Eastern sandy desert which is part of Great Indian Desert

iv.

Fertile Indus Plains that are crisscrossed by Indus and its tributaries both
in the East as well as in the West. These originate from the Himalayan
mountains and develop as collection of springs developed by monsoon
rains or snow melt.

Rainfall in Pakistan is markedly variable in magnitude, time of occurrence and its aerial
distribution. However, almost two-thirds of the rainfall is concentrated in the three
summer months of July - September. It may be noted that this is not a cropping season.
The mean annual precipitation ranges from less than 100 mm in parts of the Lower Indus
Plain to over 750 mm near the foothills in the Upper Indus Plain.
There are two major sources of rainfall in Pakistan: the Monsoons and the Western
Disturbances. The relative contribution of rainfall in most of the canal commands is low
when compared with the two other sources of irrigation water i.e., canal water and
groundwater. More than 60% of the kharif season rainfall is concentrated in the month of
July for almost all of the canal commands.
It is clear that Pakistan lies in an arid and semi-arid climate zone. The entire Indus Plains
(canal command areas) receive an average seasonal rainfall of 212 mm (95% confidence
interval 28) and 53 mm (95% confidence interval 8) in the kharif and rabi seasons,
respectively.
The rainfall varies as we move from the north and northeast to the south of the country. It
is only the canal command areas in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and the
northern-most canal commands of the Punjab Province that receive some appreciable
amount of rainfall during the summer as well as the winter season. The canal commands
upstream of the rim stations (i.e., in the NWFP) receive almost 55% of their annual

rainfall during the kharif season. The canal commands in the Upper and Lower Indus
Plains receive 75% and 85- 90% of the annual rainfall respectively, during the kharif
season.
The annual variability of rainfall increases as one moves south. The canal command areas
of Guddu and Sukkur Barrages fall in an area where variability is the highest.

Glaciers
The catchment area of the Indus Basin contains some of the largest glaciers in the world,
outside the Polar Regions. The glacial area of the upper Indus catchment is about 2,250
km2 and accounts for most of the river runoff in summer.
The Kabul River, which is mainly snow-fed, originates from the Unai Pass of the
Southern Hindukush at an elevation of 3,000 m above sea level (masl). It drains eastern
Afghanistan and then enters Pakistan just north of the Khyber Pass.
The Jhelum River rises in Kashmir at a much lower elevation than the source of the Indus
River. It falls much less rapidly than the Indus River after entering Pakistani territory.
The Chenab River originates in the Himachal Pardesh in India, at an elevation of over
4,900 masl. It flows through Jammu in Indian-held Kashmir and enters Pakistani territory
upstream of the Marala Barrage.
The snow and ice melt from the glacial area of the Upper Indus catchment supply
approximately 80% of the total flow of the Indus River in the summer season. The annual
flows in the Kabul River are less than one-third of that in the Indus River. However, the
Kabul River starts to rise approximately a month earlier than the main stem of the Indus.
Its flows are of significance for fulfilling the late-rabi early-kharif (March to May)
irrigation requirements of the canals.
Snowmelt accounts for more than 50% of the flow in the Jhelum River. However, the
Jhelum is much more dependent than the Indus on the variable monsoon runoff. Both, the
Jhelum and Chenab River catchments can simultaneously be influenced by the
Monsoons. Since the Chenab River rises at higher altitudes, snowmelt accounts for a
considerable proportion of its runoff.

Changing Patterns of River System

Before 1947 - The Indus Valley has been the host to one of the most ancient civilizations
of human history, the Indus Valley Civilization. After the extinction of the Indus
Civilization, new settlements especially in doabs grew slowly. New irrigation systems
started to evolve. Inundation canals and small dams were constructed and population
grew all around this area. In order to reduce the occurrence of low irrigation water supply
the British authorities, towards the middle of the last century, started modernizing and
expanding the irrigation system of the Indus Basin.
The embryonic Indus river system, which is the main source of surface water in Pakistan,
most likely was created some fifty million years ago, when the Indian Plate
(Gondwanaland) first collided with Eurasia (Angaraland). Between the two plates was the
Tethys Sea, which was shallow and sandy and up-folded to form the great Himalayan
Mountains in the Mesozoic era. These mountains, there unbroken snow cover, have
become the primary source of water to the Indus system.
The average annual flow-rates of major rivers has been calculated between 1922-61 to
indicate water flows before the Indus Water Treaty, 1985-1995 to indicate the post-treaty
flows and the 2001-02 flows to present the current situation of drought conditions. These
are presented in the table below.

Average
River

Annual Flow
(1922-61)
MAF

Average

Average

Annual Flow

Annual Flow

(1985-95) MAF (2001-02) MAF

Indus

93

62.7

48.0

Jhelum

23

26.6

11.85

Chenab

26

27.5

12.38

Ravi

5.0

1.47

Sutlej

14

3.6

0.02

Kabul

26

23.4

18.9

Total

189.0

148.8

92.62

The history of dam construction in Pakistan is relatively short. The perennial River Indus
fulfilled the irrigation needs and the drinking water supply was served by tapping the vast
underground water reservoir. Before independence, there were only three dams in
Pakistan, and none on the major rivers. Two of the dams were in the water scarce area of
Balochistan i.e. the Khushdil Khan Dam - 1890 and the Spin Karaiz - 1945. The Namal
Dam, 1913 was located in the Mianwali district of the Punjab.
The construction of dams in Pakistan was initiated in 1955, when the country was facing
an acute power shortage. Work on the Warsak Dam on Kabul River near Peshawar was
undertaken.
Later, when India stopped water supplies to the network of canals in Pakistan, it became
imperative to build large storages and link canals to restore water to the affected canal
system. This resulted in the construction of two gigantic dams, Mangla with a gross
storage capacity of 5.88 MAF and Tarbela with 11.62 MAF, as a part of the Indus Basin
Replacement Works. Apart from replacement works, a number of relatively smaller
schemes of irrigation and water supply dams were also undertaken.
The waters of the Indus Basin rivers had been used for irrigation purposes even before
the development of the present canal system by British engineers in the early 19th
century. There were numerous inundation canals in the Indus Valley, which diverted
supplies directly from the rivers during the high flow periods, without any diversion
works across the riverbed. The local community, tribes, or states managed these
inundation canals.
From the middle of the 19th century onwards, irrigation was gradually extended through
the introduction of improved methods and the construction of diversion works across the
rivers. A number of agreements for the sharing of river waters took place. The most
significant of these have been the Indus Basin Treaty (1960) between India and Pakistan
and the Water Apportionment Accord (1991) between the four provinces of Pakistan.
In August 1947, when South Asia was divided into two independent countries, there
existed in the area, one of the most highly developed irrigation systems in the world. The
system catered to approximately 37 million acres of land, supplying it with the waters of

the Indus rivers. All available water supplies were allocated to various princely States and
provinces, in conformity with the principle of equitable apportionment of waters.
At the time of Independence, 31 out 37 million acres in Pakistan were irrigated. The
boundary line between the two countries being partitioned was drawn without any regard
to the existing irrigation works. It was, however, affirmed by the Boundary Commission.
Representatives of the affected zones expressly agreed before the Arbitral Tribunal that
the authorized zones in the common water supply would continue to be respected.
After 1947 - In 1947, the Indian sub continent was partitioned by the British into two
independent states Pakistan and India. After the partition a commission was set up to
resolve any issue that may emerge as a consequence of the partition. The matter of
utilization of water resources of Indus Basin was raised by Pakistan. The boundary
commission, chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliff, awarded control barrages (situated very close
to the border) to India, while 90 percent of irrigated land lay in Pakistan.
After a protracted negotiation of ten years through facilitation of the World Bank, the
Indus Basin Treaty was signed by India and Pakistan in 1960 for distribution of water
resources in the Indus Basin. According to the terms of the treaty India was given the
exclusive use of the waters of the eastern rivers namely Ravi, Sutlej and Beas. Pakistan
was not given its full historic share and was allocated only 75 percent of its legitimate
share of the waters in Indus Basin. Consequently, Pakistan agreed to embark upon a
gigantic project nicknamed as Indus Basin Replacement Works. The extensive
undertaking involved the construction of two major dams, five barrages and eight link
canals.
Water Conflicts Finally, the government annulled the 1994 ministerial water
apportionment formula which had proved to be the main source of hurdle in resolving the
water sharing dispute among provinces, specially Sindh and Punjab. Although it appears
that the issue stands resolved now, there remains much to be done to make the resolution
effective as there still persists differences over the interpretation of two clauses in the
Water Accord of 1991, which will require another attempt to straighten the things.

The water sharing formula has remained a source of bickerings between Sindh and
Punjab since long. On certain occasions the matter would get so warmed up or serious
that the prime minister had to intervene to overcome the problem. Generally the decisions
would be made with due regard to the needs and rights of the provinces, but doubts
would crop up at the stage of implementation when the two main beneficiaries would find
themselves at variance with each and make complaints. The problem still persists for one
or the other reason. The present dispute also emanates from the basic question of how to
share the water.

Traditional Agriculture
Agriculture received water through surface flows, rains and ground water reservoirs.
Surface water is the major source. The waters of the Indus Basin Rivers are diverted
through reservoirs/barrages into canals, classified as Main Canals. These main canals
then distribute the irrigation water into their command areas through a network of branch
canals.
The Indus Basin Irrigation System comprises of three major reservoirs, 16 barrages, 2
head-works, 2 siphons across major rivers, 12 inter river link canals, 44 canal systems (23
in Punjab, 14 in Sindh, 5 in NWFP and 2 in Balochistan) and more than 107,000 water
courses. The aggregate length of the canals is about 56,073 km.
In addition, the watercourses, farm channels and field ditches cover another 1.6 million
km. The system utilizes over 41.6 MAF of groundwater, pumped through more than
500,000 tube wells, in addition to the canal supplies.
Outside the Indus Basin, there are smaller river basins. One on the Mekran coast of
Balochistan drains directly in to the sea and a closed basin (Kharan). These in total
amount to an inflow of less than 4 MAF annually.
Before the introduction of widespread irrigation, the groundwater table in the Indus Basin
varied from about 40 feet in depth in Sindh and Bahawalpur areas to about 100 feet in
Rechna Doab (the area between Ravi and Chenab Rivers). After the introduction of weircontrolled irrigation, the groundwater table started rising due to poor irrigation
management, lack of drainage facilities and the resulting additional recharge from the

canals, distributaries, minors, water courses and irrigation fields. At some locations, the
water table rose to the ground surface or very close to the surface causing waterlogging
and soil salinity, reducing productivity.
In the late 1950s, the Government embarked upon a programme of Salinity Control and
Reclamation Projects (SCARPS) wherein large deep tube wells were installed to control
the groundwater table. Over a period of about 30 years, some 13,500 tubewells were
installed by the Government to lower the groundwater table. Of these, about 9,800 tube
wells were in the Punjab. The projects initially proved to be quite effective in lowering
the water table but with time, the performance of the SCARP tubewells deteriorated. The
development of deep public tube wells under the SCARPS was soon followed by private
investment in shallow tube wells. Particularly in the eighties, the development of private
tube wells received a boost, when locally manufactured inexpensive diesel engines
became available. Most of these shallow tube wells were individually owned.
The Indus Basin was formed by alluvial deposits carried by the Indus and its tributaries.
It is underlain by an unconfined aquifer covering about 15 million acres in surface area.
In the Punjab, about 79% of the area and in Sindh, about 28% of the area is underlain by
fresh groundwater. This is mostly used as supplemental irrigation water and pumped
through tubewells. Some groundwater is saline. Water from the saline tube wells is
generally put into drains and, where this is not possible, it is discharged into large canals
for use in irrigation, after diluting with the fresh canal water.
In the last 25- 30 years, ground water has become a major supplement to canal supplies,
especially in the Upper Indus Plain, where ground water quality is good. Large scale
tubewell pumpage for irrigation started in the early sixties. There are presently more than
500,000 tubewells in the Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS) and the annual pumpage in
all canal command areas has been estimated to be over 50 BCM. According to a study,
the total groundwater potential in Pakistan is of the order of 55 MAF.
Major part of the groundwater abstraction for irrigation is within the canal commands or
in the flood plains of the rivers. However, the amount of abstraction varies throughout the

area, reflecting inadequacy/unreliability of surface water supplies and groundwater

quality distribution.
The quality of groundwater ranges from fresh (salinity less than 1000 mg/l TDS) near the
major rivers to highly saline farther away, with salinity more than 3000 mg/l TDS. The
general distribution of fresh and saline groundwater in the country is well known and
mapped, as it influences the options for irrigation and drinking water supplies.
Gravity Flow Canals was a step forward in the trend of inundation canals. Barrages and
weirs were constructed to hold water and then allow water in canals. The system has
three tiers - primary or main canal, secondary canal or distributaries and tertiary canals or
watercourses.
The major canals and distributaries are controlled, maintained and operated by Irrigation
Department. Before the advent of OFWM, the Irrigation Departments controlled the
misuse of water through Canal and Drainage Act 1873.

Drainage System
For any sustainable irrigation system that is dependent on river water supplies, it is
necessary to have a system of affluent disposal. However, when the British engineers
designed and constructed the barrages and canals in Punjab and Sindh, they did not install
an affluent disposal system. This lack of an affluent disposal system gave rise to the twin
problems of water logging and salinity. The problem is currently being addressed through
construction of a network of disposal drains, many of which have been completed while
more are under execution.

Management System
Water scarcity - The problem of water scarcity in Pakistan does not solely stem from a
shortage of resources. Its roots also lie in the realm of awareness and willingness to find a
participatory solution that is feasible and sustainable. There was a time when the
conventional view was that droughts are natural calamities and are God's way of
punishing the sinners. They were either to be endured or to be escaped by moving away
to somewhere where there was water. This was fine as long as one was a nomad and

could move from one place to another, and there were no international borders. What
most people these days do, however, is to the contrary. They opt to settle down in one
place. Go to the same place to work everyday. Their children go to schools that stay in
one place. Their offices stay in the same buildings, and their agricultural lands do not
sprout feet overnight and take a walk around the country.
Pakistan's economy relies heavily on agriculture. Agriculture accounts for a major
portion of the national product. It is a major source of raw material to the industry and
also of foreign exchange. According to the latest Economic Survey by the Government of
Pakistan, agriculture contributes 25 percent of the GDP and employs 44 percent of the
workforce. Water shortages affect agriculture in a way that not only food security is
threatened, especially in arid and semiarid areas where irrigation is the main source of
water, but also employment and industry. On a global level, growth in food supplies in
recent years has been attributed to increase in irrigation. There have been examples from
other parts of the world, where technology has been used to desalinate water for
municipal and industrial usage in coastal areas. The costs are quite high for agriculture
purposes, and beyond our country's capacity.
Unlike most developing countries of the world, where according to latest estimates 70 to
80 percent of fresh water resources are used for agriculture purposes, Pakistan consumes
up to 98 percent of its fresh water resources for agriculture. This trend of water
consumption in Pakistan, over the last ten years, has been on the rise. From using 37
percent of the water available, we have now almost doubled this quantity by using almost
62 percent. This increase can be attributed to rising demands of a growing population,
The true reason is, however, sadder than that. Pakistan may boast one of the best
irrigation system in the world, but experts say that the water losses from our irrigation
system are the highest in the world.
Pakistan, like other developing countries, is a country where more and more people are
moving to cities with a hope to find a better life. Twenty-five years ago less than 40
percent of the world's population lived in urban areas. 25 years from now, more than 60
percent will be living in large cities. These cities need water for municipal and industrial
purposes. If we only consider the case of Karachi, we will find that a large number of

private water providers are supplying water to houses. The water that is supplied by the
public provider is of poor quality and not enough to meet the needs of city. Islamabad
may be considered as a model city where people think it rains most of the time, but there
also one can find homeowners installing hand pumps. Statistical facts may give numbers
that are either incomprehensible or debatable, but these day-to-day examples sometimes
provide a better picture of the enormity of a problem.
Water scarcity is a problem that affects everyone and in all aspects of life. It is therefore
of utmost importance that we should try to understand the problem in its entirety, Water
must be treated as an economic good, which is priced and taxed. Allocation and usage of
water should be defined according to clear laws and policies that are agreed to by all
stakeholders. If infrastructure is to be built for improving storage and distribution of
water, then this should be done through participation and joint agreements. Any measures
that are taken to resolve this problem, should be co-operative arrangements. Awareness
and participation are two key elements of sustainable development and they should also
apply to finding a solution to the problem of water scarcity in Pakistan.

Water Management
Pakistan is already in a state of water crisis- particularly in southern Punjab, Sindh and its
capital Karachi. It is high time that the people are made fully aware of the grave
implications of the water disaster, likely to occur in a decade or two. These conclusions
are based on the findings of a long-term research programme to improve the empirical
basis of water availability in 118 countries of the world, by the International Water
Management Institute (IWMI). The first abstract was published in 1998.
There is stress on the need and priority for such a long-term research study by IWMI. The
IWMI researchers concluded in 1998 that Pakistan was a water scarce country in the
same category as Afghanistan, Iran, Middle East and North African countries and that the
scarcity of water would accentuate in the near future. They had defined 'water scarcity'
either in term of the existing and potential supply of water or in terms of the present and
future demands or needs of water or both. In pioneering studies on water scarcity, the

IWMI researchers took a supply side approach by ranking countries according to percapita amount of Annual Water Resources (AWR).
The study warned that the water scarcity would be a major constrain on food production,
human health and environmental quality. However the study concluded that around 50
per cent of the increase in demand for water by the year 2025, can be met by increasing
the effectiveness of irrigation. While some of the remaining water development needs
can be met by small dams and conjunctive use of aquifers.

Below Moga
In the backdrop of persistent water shortages in the country, the more efficient use of
water in our agriculture has become a core requirement, as over 70 per cent of the
national food production is produced under irrigation. The dangerous water situation,
developing since mid 1990s, has been proving ruinous for the agricultural economy of the
country.
The agriculture sector in Pakistan uses 90 per cent of the country's available fresh water.
However, irrigation efficiency is only 50-65 per cent. In other words, our agriculture
wasted nearly half of the country's fresh water supply. Although, from a basin
perspective, much of the wasted water is reused, significant amount of water is wasted;
primarily due to irrigation inefficiencies, which results in deterioration of agricultural
fields. With proper Irrigation Water Management, these losses could be avoided and
agricultural production can be increased to that extent.
This could be done by:
i. Reducing the losses at a) distribution level and b) at utilization level. The
distribution level has two stakeholders: managers for canals and
distributaries; and beneficiaries collectively at watercourse level and
individually at farm level.
ii. Though the study here is taking account of WUAs the formal bodies of
irrigators, the members who as individuals are responsible for farms, cannot
be absolved from their joint responsibility to make water available as and
when it is required by the crop.

iii. Farm Plan and Crop Management are the real issues that give positive
results of whole of the WUA sustainability issue.
iv. At this point warabandi poses a question mark. Could there be any
alternatives to warabandi or warabandi could provide a solution to the soilwater-crop stratagem? Warabandi as usually defined temporal/spatial water
apportionment according to the land ownership is the only straight answer to
equality in water distribution.
v. It is observed that water released from rivers to canals, and onward to
farmers' fields, sustains conveyance losses of 40 to 50 per cent, due to
seepage, spillage and topping of the water channels all over the country,
which can be reduced to up to 20 to 25 per cent, if the growers make
efficient application of water at their fields by improving their agronomic
practices and sowing technology. Before any talk about efficient water use,
we must remind ourselves that the irrigation system of Pakistan, an
engineering marvel of the last two centuries, was pouring its waters on
traditionally cultivated lands.
vi. It needs to be analyzed thoroughly, the inefficiencies in our irrigated
agriculture sector. There are five causes of water loss:
a. Choice of crop. Farmers select crops that bring in maximum
benefit to them; and not crops that use less water. The natural
environment also plays an important role in determining how much
water is lost. Soil types, climate and hydrology; all affect water
losses.
b. Technology option. The type of irrigation and delivery systems
determines how efficiently water is used. Drip and sprinkler
irrigation systems are more complex in design, but can be more
easily operated with low losses than surface irrigation methods,
which require a high degree of flexibility in water supply. Pipe
delivery systems generally lose less water, than the more
commonly used canal systems.

c. The type of control structure used in irrigation is also important.

Fixed control structures are less flexible, but require a lower
degree of expertise to operate and maintain. All this lends to the
fact that technology that requires less skill to manage, may often
incur less water loss, than systems that are theoretically more
efficient.
d. Inefficiency of farmers. Farmer characteristics; such as skills,
knowledge, organization and motivation determine their ability to
manage water.
e. Management and the policy. This cause should be recognized as
the most important cause, because it underlies the others.
v. The efficiency of any water management technology is dependent on the
reliability of the water supply. Farmers cannot function effectively without a
reliable supply of water and have no incentive to use water efficiently, if it is
supplied with little or no charge.
vi. In our country water is supplied to the agricultural sector at nominal
charges. Therefore, farmers use as much of it as possible. It has been
observed that our farmers are willing to pay more for the water they receive;
provided that the supply is reliable. Currently, water supply to farmers is
very unreliable. Farmers never know how much water they will get and
when it will come.
vii. Farmers are willing to pay more for timely and reliable water supplies for
irrigation. Hence, those institutional and financing arrangements that ensure
reliable water supplies, are likely to be more sustainable for improving
water use efficiency, than those that concentrate only on cost-recovery.
Breakthrough in economy of the country is possible through agriculture sector provided
the quantity of water available is sufficient. Agronomic practices and knowledge of
efficient application of available water needs to be improved. WUAs can make concerted
efforts to check water conveyance losses, which are around 40 to 50 per cent, and once
these losses are saved, there will be enough water to bring additional land under
cultivation.

Over or under-irrigation means reduction in crop output, and for better crops, proper
application of water is a must. Those few who know about efficient application of water
are having wheat yield of 3200 kg per acre, while the average yield is around 800 kg per
acre. This proves that the country has the potential of higher yield of wheat, but the
common grower is not getting it for the reason that he has less knowledge of efficient
water application.
WUAs addressing water use efficiencies in agricultural sector require a strategic
combination of several interdependent components. There has to be central and state
policy dialogue on water sector reform to develop an effective water conservation
framework. It is also essential to involve the rural consumer in partnership to advance
water use efficiency, thereby improving reform prospects.
We need to work on the philosophy of 'more crop per drop' for coming
out of this severe situation. The strategy and planning will have to include
ecological water assets and ground water. Possibilities for water saving
and substitution need to be stimulated; and it will be better to rehabilitate
the existing system, rather than creating a completely new infrastructure 4

Civil Canals
Civil canals are those canals where there is no government responsibility for management
of irrigation water below the head gate of the system. The role of government is limited
to delivery of a fixed ration of water into the system. There are no standard operational
procedures, either in the main and secondary canal or at watercourse level and each canal
is unique, and it is impossible to characterize them in a more systematic manner (MurrayRust, D.H. 1997).
Bhutta (1990) quoted by Latif and Shahid (1994) studied equity of water distribution and
indicated that discharge at the heads of tertiary canals were less than 75% of the design
value for 40% of the operating time. Average discharge varied from 250% more in head
reaches to zero (of the design value) in tail reaches. The provision and adjustment in the

Aamir Kabir,

http://www.pakissan.com/2002/english/issues/manage.water.shortage.shtml

head gate of a distributary on daily basis can substantially improve discharge conditions
in the tertiary canals of the distributary. Similarly Ahmad et al. (1999) determined the
actual water supply remained below the allocated might be due to variable level of supply
in the system, closing and opening of outlets and rainfall. The coefficient of variation in
the supply, 4-21 % within the watercourses, showed strong variable supply.
Delivery Performance Ratio (DPR) found was very rarely unity. Analysis of status of
water distribution indicated that water users had transformed the official water
distribution to informal water distribution by arranging their turns to their working
schedules, rainfall, staggering and insufficient supply not fulfilling the requirements. The
%age of tenants and size of land holding was variable in the three studied tertiary units.
No formal water user associations existed in the area but the farmers were informally
organized and desilted the watercourses once per year.
Researchers Hanks (1965); Clyma and Corey (1973,74); Johnson et al., (1978); Colorado
State University staff (1979); Thomas and Bower (1980); Ashraf and Munir (1981);
Rehmat et al., (1987); Khan (1995-97); Ahmad and Fakhr-i-alam (1996); Ahmad et al.,
(1996-2006), worked on the magnitude of conveyance losses in Pakistan, and irrigation
water losses found were in the range of 30 - 50 % in the unlined watercourses and 3 - 9 %
in the lined sections of the watercourses. Inadequate capacity, improper cross section,
clogging of watercourse, leaky outlets and field turnouts, channel storage, obstructions
like trees, weeds, debris, sediment, rodent holes and poor alignment are the causes for
water losses in unlined watercourse. Cracks in the plastered side walls and damaged brick
lining and poor maintenance were the main causes of water losses in the lined channels.
Mirza and Qazi (1992) studied the WUAs in Pakistan and found that WUAs are nonfunctional, particularly when the watercourse renovation is over but the need for farmers
water management organization has been felt ever since the informal modes of
organization like the village Punchayat failed. Reasons for failure include factional
tendencies, vested interests, centralized bureaucracy and individual or group izzat
(honor).

Data were obtained from 225 respondents from 15 watercourses in Punjab province. It
was found that disputes and offenses were common but the authorities were deemed to be
unaware or indifferent. Farmers were in the main ignorant of the correct organizational
process in water management.

Organization for Water Utilization

The functions of Water Users Associations (WUA) began to be practiced with the advent
of irrigation from a common water course. We find its evidence in Holy Books. Prophet
Moses came across a common use of water from a well, where daughters of Holy Prophet
(PBUH) waited to water their sheep by their turn. Another example is found with the
water spring when he (Prophet Moses) was asked to strike a mountain with his rod and
the war began to flow in 12 waterways one for each clan of his followers. This was the
finest example of water conflict resolution.
Irrigated agriculture is central to the livelihoods and subsistence of the communities
residing in Indus valley. It is believed that the ancient people of the valley of Indus were
outstanding in the field of agriculture and industry as compared to the civilization of
contemporary period in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The 4 000 year old Indus civilization
has its roots in irrigated agriculture. Canal irrigation development began in 1859 with the
completion of the Upper Bari Doab Canal (UBDC) from Madhopur headworks (now in
India) on Ravi river. Until that time, irrigation was undertaken through a network of
inundation canals, which were functional only during periods of high river flow. These
provided water for Kharif (summer) crops and residual soil moisture for Rabi (winter)
crops. The last inundation canals were connected to weir-controlled supplies in 1962 with
the completion of the Guddu barrage on Indus river (barrages in the IBIS are constructed
to divert river water into canals and the storage capacity is insignificant)5.
The unchecked growth of population has increased pressure on land and water resources
throughout the world; thus, it has become imperative to conserve our water supplies. New
sources of supply are becoming scare and are unlikely to be constructed in the near future

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/pakistan/index.stm

due to geopolitical reasons, naturally, the emphasis must be given on methods that can
salvage the supplies already being lost within the irrigation system in the form of
seepage. Several reports have shown that about 25 to 30% of the water is being lost in the
conveyance system of the different countries of the world. A considerable amount of
water is lost during its conveyance due to seepage in lengthy canals; lining of the system
channels could reduce these losses. As reported by WAPDA, more than 5 MAF of
irrigation water could be saved by lining the minor canals only, and additional amount of
about 3.6 MAF could be saved by water course improvement (see, GOP, Sixth five year
plan, 1983-88), this makes a total saving of over 8.6 MAF. However, due to financial
constrains, it is not possible to line entire canal system thus, the portions with high
potential of seepage and those located in the areas with high salt content could be lined,
by doing so, not only huge quantities of irrigation water could be saved but also the risk
of water logging and salinity could be reduced. 6
The rehabilitation of irrigation system was conceived during early 70s. A White House
Panel visited Pakistan and gave a report that included prioritized research and action for
rural development.
With World Bank funding, the government supported creation of the first Water Users
Associations (WUAs) in 1981. By 1991 there were 17,000 WUAs covering 16% of
watercourses and involving 85,000 farmers. With the support of the ADB, Pakistan
undertook a 7-year Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project. The Ladies First
Accessible Water for Entrepreneurial Women in Punjab Province brought water to 325
remote villages and engaged women to manage and maintain the projects (FAO 1997;
Kamal 2005).7, 8, 9
Even in Colombia, USA, Irrigation Management transfer was unusual, in that it was
initiated by farmer, rather than by government initiative. Since the first two schemes were

6
7

http://www.pakistaneconomist.com/issue2001/issue20/i&e4.htm

FAO. 1997. Aquastat: Pakistan.

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries/pakistan/index.stm
8
Kamal, Simi. 2005. Women and water: Issues of entitlements, access and equity. In Pakistani women in
context, a companion volume to Pakistan country gender assessment, 79 127.
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
9
PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-1146639350561/CGA-Companion-CoverAbstract&Contents.pdf

transferred in 1976, 16 of the 24 medium and large schemes in the country, covering
about two-thirds of the quarter-million hectares under such irrigation, have been
transferred to local associations to manage. Many of the remaining schemes are expected
to be difficult to transfer and the process appears to have stagnated.
In 1991, a national federation of water user associations was formed to represent
association interests. This federation has secured national recognition for itself and a seat
on the top land development policy-making council in the country, but has not been
active in providing services to its member associations. A new law passed in 1993 gave
legal status to water user associations and outlined both their responsibilities and the
supporting and monitoring obligations of the national irrigation agency.
The proper management, efficient application, and uniform distribution of available water
at farm-gate have remained major problems since the existence of the irrigation network.
Increasing water demand, deferred maintenance, siltation of channel prism, excessive
water by tampered outlets and illegal water extraction & theft all lead towards inequity in
the system. It has even become increasingly significant over last two decades. There is
inequity in distribution at all levels in the system. Inequity in water distribution between
head and tail is of the order of between 20 to 50 %. The water is distributed amongst the
farmers "as per turn system" on a watercourse and each farmer receives his share on the
basis of the area owned by him. Each farmer is allotted a specified time period, in
proportion to his land holdings. In other words, this system disregards the crop
consumptive use, frequency, and timely application of irrigation water. The tail enders
however, receive 10 to 12 % less share of water, because the allowance is based on the
theoretical losses, whereas, the actual or operational losses are high due to silt deposits at
the heads, grass growing on banks and in the beds, trees taking their toll of water,
rodents, snakes and other insects having their abodes in the banks, variety of irregular
cuts (nuccas) with borrow bits full of water, overtopping on banks, and seepage through
bed. The present situation is that the head reaches are waterlogged and the tail enders do
not have enough water to meet their minimum requirement which results in low crop
yields. For maximizing crop production, this constraint in the system would have to be
removed. Government should take measures to bring flexibility in the existing system to

meet the crop water requirements. Similarly, outlets on a minor or distributary receive
different amounts of water. Illegal pumping from canals and excessive losses add to the
inequity in distribution. Also, due to poor operation and maintenance of irrigation
systems, the water distribution is not equitable and reliable. This has shaken the
confidence of tail users and has discouraged them to use non-water inputs for increasing
crop yields.
Due to shortage of water, the tail enders have been forced to use poor quality water
without proper mixing, which has given birth to salinity in such areas. This problem
could be overcome by lining the whole watercourse, again the investment becomes a
constraint, it is not possible to line the whole or optimum length of the watercourses. The
logical reaches need priority lining are the head sections where silt deposits and raises the
bed level which reduces the flow of water, the sandy areas where the percolation losses
are too high. The watercourse improvement, proper maintenance, and equal distribution
would result in saving of more than 15 MAF of water.
Water conservation can play an important role in sustaining agricultural development.
This requires substantial improvements in water use efficiency, choice of suitable
cropping pattern, growing water-efficient crops, and introducing modern irrigation
application techniques (trickle. sprinkler etc.). It has been observed that once water
reaches at the farm gate, then, it becomes the responsibility of farmer to use it. Farmers in
Pakistan generally practice basin, border or furrow methods of irrigation but the
application efficiency of these methods is very low and the water applied this way is not
distributed uniformly on their fields. It is quite common to find a combination of over and
under irrigation within a single field. Over and under irrigation conditions results in poor
crop germination that causes yield reductions.
The overall irrigation efficiency in the IBIS is 40 percent (canal efficiency 75 percent,
conveyance efficiency 70 percent and field application efficiency 75 percent). The water
lost during conveyance and application largely contributes towards recharging
groundwater. 10
10

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/pakistan/index.stm

Since, improper management, poor operation and maintenance of irrigation systems,

inefficient application, and inequitable distribution of available water at farm gate have
remained major problems since the existence of the irrigation network. Increasing water
demand, deferred maintenance, siltation of channel prism, excessive water by tampered
outlets, and illegal water extraction all lead towards inequity in the system. Similarly,
outlets on a minor or distributary receive different amounts of water. Thus, it is need of
time that government should take appropriate measures to ensure equitable distribution,
to stop illegal extraction, and to improve system efficiency. One way to overcome these
problems is to empower water users so that they can play effective role in managing the
proper water supplies in their distributaries, minors, and watercourses. The past
experiences show that irrigation department has failed to stop illegal theft and extraction
thus irrigation distribution system needs to be privatized through water users associations.
Also, irrigation water is supplied at negligible cost to irrigators that is why they do not
treat water as a precious resource; therefore, there is a need to increase the water prices to
make irrigators realize the importance of this asset.
Indian experiences with Water User Associations (WUAs) are a good example in
participatory watershed management. Within Rajasthan alone, there are 800 WUAs.
Although these WUAs are less effective in influencing equitable water distribution and
demand management, their positive role in cost recovery, system maintenance and
service quality cannot be denied.11
The crisis of water shortage for irrigation can only be over come through proper
individual farmer for water management practices. Some of the points to be kept in mind
are as: evaluation of available water resources, development and improvement of existing
irrigation systems, judicious and efficient use of available irrigation water, control of
evaporation from water surface in reservoirs and canals conjunctive use of surface and
ground water, evaluation of water requirement of various crops, knowledge of modern
techniques of crop and water management, active participation of farmers in water users
association, better understanding between government and farmers community. The tail

11

www.irs.org.pk/ecosocio/sps11.doc

end farmers on a watercourse do not receive their due share. This is due to prevailing
technological and socio- political conditions. This unreliability of water supply at the tail
ends of canals and watercourses due to the situation and distributaries and the presence of
influential people at the head of canals seriously affects the morale and production of the
tail end farmers. Reliability and equity of water distribution is imperative to provide
opportunities to all farmers in a canal command area to increase crop production.
Massive education in proper use of water along with modern techniques of land leveling
can save substantial quantum of water.12

Objectives of the Study

To obtain the best results, effective co-ordinations between the departments of irrigation
and agriculture is the cardinal point for success and for this purpose, formation of WUAs
is the answer. This study aims to evaluate the efforts already made and the sustainability
of WUAs with the following objectives:
1. Establish a database on the organizational pattern of water users in different
parts of Pakistan;
2. Evaluate attempts to organize water users and monitor the most successful
ones;
3. Examine the institutional constraints, which have impeded the creation of
viable water user associations;
4. Examining the underlying premise that water users associations are indeed a
necessary component of water management activities; and determine the extent to
which a research-based extension programme can achieve the same objectives.

12

http://waterinfo.net.pk/cms/?q=node/168

Chapter No. 2

Review of Literature and Theoretical Framework

Pakistans irrigation system
Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization (see also Mohenjo-Daro) by
around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilization grew as a result of
this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use
of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were
developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated
to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE13.
The use of irrigation to combat aridity is an old tradition in this region. Beginning with
simple lift irrigation, Pakistan has developed one of the most intricate and complex
system of canal irrigation in the world. The development of agriculture in Pakistan is
largely dependent on irrigation. More than 80 percent of the total cropped area is under
irrigation14
Rainfall is a critical factor in the growth of crops, particularly in Pakistan where most of
the land is dry. About 50 percent of the country is arid, 40 percent semi arid and only 10
percent humid. The whole of Sindh, most of Balochistan and a large part of Punjab south
of Sahiwal receive less than 250 millimeters of rainfall a year. North of the arid region, a
large part of northern Punjab, southern NWFP and northern Balochistan experience semi
arid condition. The only area in Pakistan fortunate enough to experience humid
conditions is found in the center towards the north, where rainfall is 750 millimeters in
the plains and 625 millimeters in the highlands. In the arid and semi arid regions,
irrigation is necessary for successful farming. Even in the humid areas, rainfall is not
always adequate during the growing season, with a high year to year variability.

13

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Pakistan 9/25/2013

14

http://pakistanweb.com/html/agriculture.htm

Pakistan, a country of enchanting landscapes offers a combination of beaches, mountains,

beautiful deserts and valleys. Its vast farm lands are sustained by the Indus Basin
Irrigation System (IBIS), the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world. The IBIS
irrigates 45 million acres of farm land which produces wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables,
sugarcane, maize and cotton in abundance for local use as well as for export15.

Irrigation
In Pakistan, because water is scarce, irrigation has become a necessity. Both groundwater
and surface water is used for irrigation. Wells, tube wells and karez tap the groundwater.
Canals, diversion canals and sailaba irrigation through flood water are used to rechannel
the surface water flowing into streams.
This region has a long history of irrigation canals. In the mid 14th century, Firoz Shah
Tughluq dug inundated canals in India for the spread of colonization. They were laid out
in this area up to the middle of the 19th century. These canals were seasonal and supplied
water to the fields in the summer when the donor rivers were in flood, so that they were
beneficial for kharif crops. The rabi crops took advantage of the moisture left in the land
from summer flooding. As a consequence, the emphasis was on the cultivation of kharif
crops.
Inundated canals can only irrigate flood plains where the land is sufficiently level and
slopes downward from the river bank. That is why the main network of inundation canals
was developed in Sindh and is southern punjab, near Panjnad. A limited number of
inundation canals took off from the Upper Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej
Rivers. The bar uplands were not served by inundation canals, as they could not rise up
the 5 to 7 meter high bluffs separating the flood plains and the bar uplands. The bar
uplands were only irrigated and heavily colonized after the introduction of perennial
canals to the region.

15

www.tbl.com.pk/indus-basin-irrigation-system-of-pakistan/

Canals alone account for about 80 percent of irrigation, followed by tube wells at 17
percent. Only 2 percent of the irrigated areas is watered through wells, karez diversion
canals, sailaba16

Lift Irrigation.
One of the oldest methods of irrigation in Pakistan is lift irrigation. In early times, water
was lifted by hand in a bucket attached to a rope from shallow wells and ditches. Because
it involved a considerable amount of labor, only a small area of land could be irrigated.
An improvement in this method was effected with the dhenkli, which is commonly
known as the shaduf. The shaduf consists of a bucket suspended by a rope from one end
of a pole. A weight like a rock, is placed at the other end of the pole. The pole is
suspended on a Y shaped post at a well or a river bank. The bucket is dipped into the
water by hand and the weight at the other end of the pole helps to lift it up.

Tube Wells
The tube well is a fairly new addition to Pakistan's irrigation system. It can tap water up
to depths of several hundred meters and is operated by diesel or electric motors.
In 1947, there were virtually no tube wells in Pakistan. The tube well emerged as an
effective means of irrigation in 1953-4 when 0.2 million hectares of land were irrigated
with this method. Since then, it has made steady progress. From the mid 1960 to today,
tube wells have become the leading means of irrigation after canals. In 1999-2000 tube
wells irrigated 17. 1 percent of the total irrigated area, however, tube wells are not
suitable for the irrigation of very large tracts of land like canal irrigation is 17.

Methods of Irrigation
1. Shaduf: In the shaduf system water is drawn from a well, river or canal by a
bucket which is attached to a pole on one side and weight on the other side.

16

http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Thesis/73S.pdf
HASSAN ALI BROHI ON 9/252013 5:22 AM
http://photooface.blogspot.com/2010/12/irrigation-methods.html

17

2. Charsa : In charsa animal power is used to pull water from the well. The charsa
system is not used by many farmers now.
3. Persian wheel: It is a system of continuous supply of water and irrigates
comparatively larger areas.
4. Karez: A karez is a horizontal underground canal in the foothills that
brings underground water to the surface. The underground canals may be several
kilometers long. This is an old system practiced only in Balochistan, where water
is

scarce

and

evaporation

rate

is

high.

By

building

the

canal,

underground evaporation looses are minimized.

5. Inundation canals: Long canals taken off from large rivers are called inundation
canals. They receive water when the river is high enough and especially when it is
flood.
6. Tank irrigation: Tank irrigation is practiced by constructing mud banks across
streams to make a small reservoir which collect excess water during the rainy
season18.
In the early 1990s, irrigation from the Indus River and its tributaries constituted the
world's largest contiguous irrigation system, capable of watering over 16 million
hectares. The system includes three major storage reservoirs and numerous barrages,
headworks, canals, and distribution channels. The total length of the canal system
exceeds 58,000 kilometers; there are an additional 1.6 million kilometers of farm and
field ditches.
Partition placed portions of the Indus River and its tributaries under India's control,
leading to prolonged disputes between India and Pakistan over the use of Indus waters.
After nine years of negotiations and technical studies, the issue was resolved by the Indus
Waters Treaty of 1960. After a ten-year transitional period, the treaty awarded India use
of the waters of the main eastern tributaries in its territory--the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej
rivers. Pakistan received use of the waters of the Indus River and its western tributaries,
the Jhelum and Chenab rivers.

18

sana harris answered http://www.blurtit.com/q794057.html

After the treaty was signed, Pakistan began an extensive and rapid irrigation construction
program, partly financed by the Indus Basin Development Fund of US$800 million
contributed by various nations, including the United States, and administered by the
World Bank. Several immense link canals were built to transfer water from western rivers
to eastern Punjab to replace flows in eastern tributaries that India began to divert in
accordance with the terms of the treaty. The Mangla Dam, on the Jhelum River, was
completed in 1967. The dam provided the first significant water storage for the Indus
irrigation system. The dam also contributes to flood control, to regulation of flows for
some of the link canals, and to the country's energy supply. At the same time, additional
construction was undertaken on barrages and canals.
A second phase of irrigation expansion began in 1968, when a US$1.2 billion fund, also
administered by the World Bank, was established. The key to this phase was the Tarbela
Dam on the Indus River, which is the world's largest earth-filled dam. The dam,
completed in the 1970s, reduced the destruction of periodic floods and in 1994 was a
major hydroelectric generating source. Most important for agriculture, the dam increases
water availability, particularly during low water, which usually comes at critical growing
periods.
Despite massive expansion in the irrigation system, many problems remain. The Indus
irrigation system was designed to fit the availability of water in the rivers, to supply the
largest area with minimum water needs, and to achieve these objectives at low operating
costs with limited technical staff. This system design has resulted in low yields and low
cropping intensity in the Indus River plain, averaging about one crop a year, whereas the
climate and soils could reasonably permit an average of almost 1.5 crops a year if a more
sophisticated irrigation network were in place. The urgent need in the 1960s and 1970s to
increase crop production for domestic and export markets led to water flows well above
designed capacities. Completion of the Mangla and Tarbela reservoirs, as well as
improvements in other parts of the system, made larger water flows possible. In addition,
the government began installing public tube wells that usually discharge into upper levels
of the system to add to the available water. The higher water flows in parts of the system
considerably exceed design capacities, creating stresses and risks of breaches.

Nonetheless, many farmers, particularly those with smallholdings and those toward the
end of watercourses, suffer because the supply of water is unreliable.
The irrigation system represents a significant engineering achievement and provides
water to the fields that account for 90 percent of agricultural production. Nonetheless,
serious problems in the design of the irrigation system prevent achieving the highest
potential agricultural output.
Water management is based largely on objectives and operational procedures dating back
many decades and is often inflexible and unresponsive to current needs for greater water
use efficiency and high crop yields. Charges for water use do not meet operational and
maintenance costs, even though rates more than doubled in the 1970s and were again
increased in the 1980s. Partly because of its low cost, water is often wasted by farmers.
Good water management is not practiced by government officials, who often assume that
investments in physical aspects of the system will automatically yield higher crop
production. Government management of the system does not extend beyond the main
distribution channels. After passing through these channels, water is directed onto the
fields of individual farmers whose water rights are based on long-established social and
legal codes. Groups of farmers voluntarily manage the watercourses between main
distribution channels and their fields. In effect, the efficiency and effectiveness of water
management relies on the way farmers use the system.
The exact amounts of water wasted have not been determined, but studies suggest that
losses are considerable and perhaps amount to one-half of the water entering the system.
Part of the waste results from seepages in the delivery system. Even greater amounts are
probably lost because farmers use water whenever their turn comes even if the water
application is detrimental to their crops. The attitude among almost all farmers is that
they should use water when available because it may not be available at the next
scheduled turn. Moreover, farmers have little understanding of the most productive
applications of water during crop-growing cycles because of the lack of research and
extension services. As a result, improvements in the irrigation system have not raised
yields and output as expected. Some experts believe that drastic changes are needed in
government policies and the legal and institutional framework of water management if

water use is to improve and that effective changes can result in very large gains in
agricultural output.

Drainage System
The continuous expansion of the irrigation system over the past century significantly
altered the hydrological balance of the Indus River basin. Seepage from the system and
percolation from irrigated fields caused the water table to rise, reaching crisis conditions
for a substantial area. Around 1900 the water table was usually more than sixteen meters
below the surface of the Indus Plain. A 1981 survey found the water table to be within
about three meters of the surface in more than one-half the cropped area in Sindh and
more than one-third the area in Punjab. In some locations, the water table is much closer
to the surface. Cropping is seriously affected over a wide area by poor drainage waterlogging and by accumulated salts in the soil.
Although some drainage was installed before World War II, little attention was paid to
the growing water-logging and salinity problems. In 1959 a salinity control and
reclamation project was started in a limited area, based on public tube wells, to draw
down the water table and leach out accumulated salts near the surface, using groundwater
for irrigation. By the early 1980s, some thirty such projects had been started that when
completed would irrigate nearly 6.3 million hectares. By 1993 the government had
installed around 15,000 tube wells. Private farmers, however, had installed over 200,000
mostly small tube wells, mainly for irrigation purposes but also to lower the water table.
Private wells probably pumped more than five times as much water as public wells19.
Officials were aware of the need for additional spending to prevent further deterioration
of the existing situation. Emphasis in the 1980s and early 1990s was on rehabilitation and
maintenance of existing canals and watercourses, on farm improvements on the farms
themselves (including some land leveling to conserve water), and on drainage and
salinity in priority areas. Emphasis was also placed on short-term projects, largely to
improve the operation of the irrigation system in order to raise yields. Part of the funding

19

http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/49.htm

would come from steady increases in water use fees; the intention is gradually to raise
water charges to cover operation and maintenance costs. Considerable time and money
are needed to realize the full potential of the irrigation system and bring it up to modern
standards20.

Farm Ownership and Land Reform

At independence Pakistan was a country with a great many small-scale farms and a small
number of very large estates. Distribution of landownership was badly skewed. Less than
1 percent of the farms consisted of more than 25 percent of the total agricultural land.
Many owners of large holdings were absentee landlords, contributing little to production
but extracting as much as possible from the sharecroppers who farmed the land. At the
other extreme, about 65 percent of the farmers held some 15 percent of the farmland in
holdings of about two hectares or less. Approximately 50 percent of the farmland was
cultivated by tenants, including sharecroppers, most of whom had little security and few
rights. An additional large number of landless rural inhabitants worked as agricultural
laborers. Farm laborers and many tenants were extremely poor, uneducated, and
undernourished, in sharp contrast to the wealth, status, and political power of the landlord
elite.
After independence the country's political leaders recognized the need for more equitable
ownership of farmland and security of tenancy. In the early 1950s, provincial
governments attempted to eliminate some of the absentee landlords or rent collectors, but
they had little success in the face of strong opposition. Security of tenancy was also
legislated in the provinces, but because of their dependent position, tenant farmers
benefited only slightly. In fact, the reforms created an atmosphere of uncertainty in the
countryside and intensified the animosity between wealthy landlords and small farmers
and sharecroppers.
In January 1959, accepting the recommendations of a special commission on the subject,
General Mohammad Ayub Khan's government issued new land reform regulations that

20

http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/49.htm

aimed to boost agricultural output, promote social justice, and ensure security of tenure.
A ceiling of about 200 hectares of irrigated land and 400 hectares of nonirrigated land
was placed on individual ownership; compensation was paid to owners for land
surrendered. Numerous exemptions, including title transfers to family members, limited
the impact of the ceilings. Slightly fewer than 1 million hectares of land were
surrendered, of which a little more than 250,000 hectares were sold to about 50,000
tenants. The land reform regulations made no serious attempt to break up large estates or
to lessen the power or privileges of the landed elite. However, the measures attempted to
provide some security of tenure to tenants, consolidate existing holdings, and prevent
fragmentation of farm plots. An average holding of about five hectares was considered
necessary for a family's subsistence, and a holding of about twenty to twenty-five
hectares was pronounced as a desirable "economic" holding.
In March 1972, the Bhutto government announced further land reform measures, which
went into effect in 1973. The landownership ceiling was officially lowered to about five
hectares of irrigated land and about twelve hectares of non irrigated land; exceptions
were in theory limited to an additional 20 percent of land for owners having tractors and
tube wells. The ceiling could also be extended for poor-quality land. Owners of
expropriated excess land received no compensation, and beneficiaries were not charged
for land distributed. Official statistics showed that by 1977 only about 520,000 hectares
had been surrendered, and nearly 285,000 hectares had been redistributed to about 71,000
farmers.
The 1973 measure required landlords to pay all taxes, water charges, seed costs, and onehalf of the cost of fertilizer and other inputs. It prohibited eviction of tenants as long as
they cultivated the land, and it gave tenants first rights of purchase. Other regulations
increased tenants' security of tenure and prescribed lower rent rates than had existed.
In 1977 the Bhutto government further reduced ceilings on private ownership of farmland
to about four hectares of irrigated land and about eight hectares of non irrigated land. In
an additional measure, agricultural income became taxable, although small farmers
owning ten hectares or fewer--the majority of the farm population--were exempted. The
military regime of Zia ul-Haq that ousted Bhutto neglected to implement these later

reforms. Governments in the 1980s and early 1990s avoided significant land reform
measures, perhaps because they drew much of their support from landowners in the
countryside.
Government policies designed to reduce the concentration of landownership had some
effect, but their significance was difficult to measure because of limited data. In 1993 the
most recent agricultural census was that of 1980, which was used to compare statistics
with the agricultural census of 1960. Between 1960 and 1980, the number of farms
declined by 17 percent and farms decreased in area by 4 percent, resulting in slightly
larger farms. This decline in the number of farms was confined to marginal farms of two
hectares or fewer, which in 1980 represented 34 percent of all farms, constituting 7
percent of the farm hectarage. At the other extreme, the number of very large farms of
sixty hectares or more was 14,000 both in 1960 and in 1980 although the average size of
the biggest farms was smaller in 1980. The number of farms between two and ten
hectares increased during this time. Greater use of higher-yielding seeds requiring heavier
applications of fertilizers, installations of private tube wells, and mechanization
accounted for much of the shift away from very small farms toward mid-sized farms, as
owners of the latter undertook cultivation instead of renting out part of their land.
Observers believed that this trend had continued in the 1980s and early 1990s.
In early 1994, land reform remained a controversial and complex issue. Large landowners
retain their power over small farmers and tenants, especially in the interior of Sindh,
which has a feudal agricultural establishment. Tenancy continues on a large-scale: onethird of Pakistan's farmers are tenant farmers, including almost one half of the farmers in
Sindh. Tenant farmers typically give almost 50 percent of what they produce to landlords.
Fragmented holdings remain a substantial and widespread problem. Studies indicate that
larger farms are usually less productive per hectare or unit of water than smaller ones.
The agricultural produce, in addition to providing food security constitutes:
A. 23 percent of GDP
B. 70 percent of total export earnings
C. 54 percent employment of labour force

The overwhelming majority of its produce comes from the areas irrigated in the Indus
Basin. The IBIS is therefore essential in sustaining the agriculture and consequently
economic well-being of Pakistan. The Indus Basin now serves as the bread basket of
Pakistan. Its land use is furnished below.
The Indus Valley has been the host to one of the most ancient civilization of human
history, the Indus Valley Civilization. After the extinction of the Indus Civilization, new
settlements especially in doabs grew slowly. New irrigation systems started to evolve.
Inundation canals and small dams were constructed and population grew all around this
area. In order to reduce the occurrence of low irrigation water supply the British
authorities, towards the middle of the last century, started modernizing and expanding the
irrigation system of the Indus Basin. 21
Farmers in Pakistan receive their share of irrigation waters on a rotational basis. To
protect the right of share of their water, the farmers are using more than the optimum
quantity of water required for healthy crops. Lack of modern irrigation techniques and
agricultural practices further add to the wastage of irrigation water.
The future of Pakistans agriculture depends on the future of its irrigation and drainage
system, which currently faces major problems. Increasing water logging and salinity,
overexploitation of fresh groundwater, low efficiency in delivering and use, inequitable
distribution, unreliable delivery, and insufficient cost recovery are some of these
problems. These problems, however, are only symptoms of a deeper problemthe
treatment by the government of irrigation water as a public good. Such a treatment has
caused inefficient pricing of water, misallocation of resources and widespread rentseeking behavior.
Between the periods 16th Century to first half of the twentieth Century, in the wake of
development of large scale irrigation systems under the colonial governance, the onus of
providing irrigation and ownership of infrastructure shifted to the governments. Even in

21

www.tbl.com.pk/indus-basin-irrigation-system-of-pakistan/

the post-colonial periods in many countries, large number of public managed irrigation
schemes built in the second half of the 20th century did not have their roots into the
cultural and social perceptions of the people. Many imposed institutional reforms and
strategies that were expected to improve the performance of the contemporary irrigation
sector. Due to the deteriorating conditions of such infrastructure, one of the major
institutional reforms introduced, especially by the financing agencies like the World Bank
and Asian Development Bank in the eighties was Participatory Irrigation Management
(PIM).
As the name suggests the philosophy of PIM is hinged around developing cooperation
with and involvement of farmers in operation, management, and maintenance of the
irrigation systems at secondary and tertiary levels through the Water User Associations
(WUAs). During last three decades about 60 countries having significant irrigated area
have adopted PIM in varying degrees and ways. The WUAs are considered as the most
appropriate entity to bring together farmers being served by a given infrastructure and act
as an interface between the farmers and the Irrigation Agency towards conflict resolution
and cooperation and also to build synergy among all stakeholders.
Due to mixed results emerged from the experience gained from PIM approach using
various WUA models, presently, there is a passionate debate about, the sustainability and
viability of the PIM approach, including the suitability of various WUA models.
Nevertheless, each country is trying to rectify the weaknesses and reforming the process
within the limits of its social and political setup.
While the suitability of PIM approach in improving the efficiency and performance of
irrigation systems is not in question, the mechanism through which cooperation between
farmers and other stakeholders in irrigation infrastructures on one hand and among
various institutions involved on the other need to be revisited. The goals and objectives in
each case clearly defined and success and failures analyzed dispassionately. Various
water related international organizations and national level institutions need to join their

forces in undertaking this exercise and facilitate a process that supports evolution of
appropriate PIM process/ WUA model for each situation22.

Informal water users' associations

Before provision of irrigation through large scale irrigation systems started in the 19th
Century in US and in British Colonies and subsequently as part of the Green Revolution,
traditional form of local management of water resources for different uses through
cooperation between various beneficiaries was prevalent in many developed countries
like the Netherlands, France, Germany, Portugal, and Spain. The Water Boards of the
Netherlands (11th century), Wateringues (polders/drainage boards) and Association
Syndicate d Agriculteurs (WUA) in France (around twelfth century), Water and Land
Associations (WLA) in Germany (13th century) are some of the examples of wellestablished cooperative organizations of participatory management of water resources in
Europe (Brussel, 1998). These have played a key role in water management and resolving
disputes among stakeholders23
Much effort has been invested in forming water users associations (WUA), unfortunately
often with little result. On their own farmers tend to take a minimalist approach to
irrigation organization, relying where possible on informal, episodic mobilization to
accomplish specific tasks. WUA development will be more successful if it is focused in
the same way. Flexible, responsive intervention and an enabling institutional framework
can provide resources legal, technical and financial to assist WUA in developing just
enough organization to manage irrigation systems well24.
Irrigation is central to Pakistans agriculture; and managing the countrys canal, ground,
and surface water resources in a more efficient, equitable, and sustainable way will be
crucial to meeting agricultural production challenges, including increasing agricultural
productivity and adapting to climate change. The water component of the International

22

www.un.org/.../water_cooperation.../ICID_Paper_Avinahs_Tyagi.pdf

23

http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/water_cooperation_2013/pdf/ICID_Paper_Avinahs_Tyagi.pdf

24

Bryan Bruns " http://www.bryanbruns.com/enough.pdf"

Food Policy Research Institutes Pakistan Strategy Support Program (PSSP) is working
to address these topics through high quality research and policy engagement. As one of
the first activities of this program, the PSSP undertook this assessment of the policy
landscape for agricultural water management in Pakistan, to better understand how to
engage with stakeholders25
Informal water users' associations have existed since early history of mankind. We have
first example in the exile of the Holy Prophet Moses (alaih salam) who helped daughters
of the Holy Prophet Shoeb (alaih salam) get water for their goats from a community well.
The girls were to get the last turn in wake of strong and powerful male members of the
community. Another example also pertains to the Holy Prophet Moses (alaih salam) who,
with the guidance of Allah the Almighty, struck the stone from where appeared spring
twelve stream one for each clan.
The Roman ducts are historical that demonstrate the distribution of water. Such types of
ducts exist in Iran as well. In Jammu and Kashmir, there is a place known as Satnara
meaning seven streams. Each stream was used by each of seven settlements.
Indus Basin is the fertile and prosperous gift of Indus river. The flourishing valley was
cropped on residual moisture left by the flooded plains. Here small streams were dug by
the irrigators jointly and used water in turns.
The Irrigation and Drainage Act left the responsibility of maintaining watercourse below
mogha to the irrigators, who not only cleared the silt annually but fixed rotation for
irrigating fields according to their turns.
This system was acceptable to all because there was no alternative. However the evil
practices like the following did exist:
a. The farmers at head got more water in the same time
b. The tail enders got minimum water

25

http://www.ifpri.org/sites/default/files/publications/ifpridp01265.pdf

c. Farmers tended to irrigate more land than allowed

d. Shallow irrigation was practiced to cover more land
e. The yield per unit of land was very low.

Institutionalization of water users' associations

Disappointing performances of government owned and operated irrigation systems have
compelled a number of countries to transfer rights and responsibilities for management of
irrigation systems from government agencies to private or local persons or organizations.
The Philippines (Wijayaratna and Vermillion 1994, Svendsen 1992), Indonesia
(Soenarno 1995), China (Xu Zhifang 1995) and Sri Lanka (Ratnayake 1995) in Asia,
Mexico (Gorriz et al 1995) and Colombia (Garcia-Betancourt 1994) in Latin America,
and others such as New Zealand (Farley 1994) and Turkey (Devlet su Isleri et al 1996),
have made major efforts in this direction. Transferring responsibilities has come to be
seen as a way to reduce pressures on thinly stretched government finances while at the
same time improving irrigated agricultural production and ensuring the long term
sustainability of irrigation systems (Geijer et al 1996, Vermillion 1991). The intention is
to encourage efforts by individuals to take responsibility for the management of resources
in the belief that individuals have greater stake and better information for making
efficient resource allocations (Brewer et al 1997)26.
Increasing water demand in many countries is forcing water-use institutions to undergo
fundamental changes. Water use institutions1 define relationships among water users and
between water users and water suppliers (governments). To transform traditional wateruse institutions in response to modern social, economic and resource conditions,
institutional reforms in water sectors have recently been implemented in several countries
(Gorriz et. al. 1995; Nakashima 1998). In such reforms, an important feature is the
increased management role of resource users through transfer of responsibilities from the
government. This shift of responsibilities can be substantiated by active user participation
and devolution of government power. There has been considerable accumulation of

26

http://srdis.ciesin.columbia.edu/cases/india-038.html

research made by Ostrom (1992) and others on the role of water users, which will
contribute in the recent and future efforts of the institutional reforms in water sectors.

Functions of water users' associations

For an organization to be successful and sustainable, it has to be self supporting, self
regulating and self governing, so that it has an independent capacity for group action
through its leadership. These WUAs had a great potential to undertake several activities
at the watercourse level to reduce water losses and enhance agricultural productivity.
Some of the possible activities could be:
a) operation of the watercourse;
b) rehabilitation, improvement and maintenance of the watercourse;
c) conflict resolution;
d) fund raising;
e) formulation of by-laws; and
f) federation at higher levels.
Various evaluations of the program have indicated that though the WUAs have
performed a commendable job by undertaking improvements on a cost sharing basis, yet,
it is generally felt that these institutions lost their viability after renovation of the
watercourses. The main reason identified for this problem is that no definite post
rehabilitation, improvement and maintenance of the watercourse; improvement activities
were assigned to the WUAs', except for regular desiltation and maintenance of the
watercourse that is already conducted by the farmers even on the watercourses where
they are not organized. The performance of the associations regarding the aforementioned
activities is briefly discussed below.

Operation of the Watercourse

The operation of the watercourse was initially an activity that was being performed by the
WUs before 1960. Due to emerging conflicts in managing kacha warabandis, the
Irrigation Department started enforcing a pakka (or agreed) warabandi on each
watercourse. By now, almost every watercourse has a pakka warabandi (with a few
exceptions) as a roster of irrigation turns without considering the amount of water in the

watercourse. The water users have to observe the warabandi irrespective of the fact that
whether they get their just share or not. Violation of the warabandi (wara Shikni) is an
offence to be decided by the respective canal officer (SDO). The WUA Ordinance 1981
does not consider watercourse operations as an area of activity for WUAs. Therefore, the
potential of the WUAs could not be exploited in this area.

Rehabilitation, Improvement and Maintenance

To better perform rehabilitation, improvement and maintenance of the watercourse, the
water users can form an association to manage and facilitate the activities. However, it
was perceived somehow that an association is an instrument to obtain the subsidy for
improvement works. Instead of considering it as one of the roles to be performed by the
WUA, it became the sole activity. One of the reasons behind this false perception was
that the staff of the OFWM were themselves not aware due to the lack of proper training
and enough motivation. Another reason was that since the program remained donor
funded since its start, there had always been more emphasis on physical targets (i.e lining
of watercourses) as this was the major indicator for progress.
Besides, to learn and implement improved water management practices was the area that
was to be taken care of by the agricultural officers, who were scarce in the staff compared
to the area covered. Once the watercourse is lined, there is no frequent contact between
the staff of the OFWM and the water users of that watercourse.
The approach, wording and the contents of the ordinance indicate that after the
improvement works have been completed, the field officer was made responsible to
impose future maintenance activities and post-lining works on the associations. The result
of this authoritative approach was that the associations might have been waiting for the
field officer's orders to perform the tasks who is in-charge of a whole tehsil (about 1000
watercourses) and cannot frequently go to the lined watercourses to dictate to them about
what to do next. On the other hand, the Field Officer didn't realize that need and was kept
busy in achieving physical targets.
The following sections of the WUA Ordinance for Punjab pertains to maintenance
activities.

Section 4(1). Future maintenance of a watercourse, etc "Where a watercourse has been
reconstructed or improved by an Association the Field Officer may, subject to such
conditions as may be laid down by him, entrust the future maintenance of the
watercourse to that Association, on behalf of all the irrigators of the watercourse".
Section 5 Field Officer to check maintenance of watercourse
"The Field Officer shall, from time to time, make spot inspection of the watercourse to
satisfy himself that it is being properly maintained and may issue such directions for the
proper maintenance of a watercourse as may be considered necessary".
In fact, the associations should have been made aware for identifying future activities of
their own to make this body sustainable. They are informally engaged in such activities
already, though not uniformly and on a regular basis, such as desiltation of the
watercourses. The need was to let them make it more regular, systematic and including it
in their by-laws of the WUA.

Conflict Resolution
Instead of resolving the conflicts at the watercourses, these associations sometime started
with a conflict regarding the leadership, route of the watercourse, etc. The effectiveness
of the associations in resolving the disputes were limited due to limitations in the
ordinance as it declares the field officer as the "arbitrator". This, in fact would have been
the responsibility of the associations themselves to resolve disputes and they should have
been empowered to do so by the law. The empowerment of the field officer reflects the
bureaucratic spirit of the ordinance and hampers the associations in performing this
function.
Section 9(1-3) Disputes
If any dispute touching the business of an Association arises between:
members, past members, agent or servant of an association, its managing
committee, one Association and another Association etc; The Field Officer
may hear the dispute and decide the matter. The decision of the Field
Officer shall be final

Fund Raising
The organizations can be sustainable if they are financially viable. The WUAs that were
created were limited in scope because the improvement work was provided as a material
incentive that was to be recovered later as arrears of land revenue, again by the field
officer. He was declared as assessee and the collector, but without proper authority to do
so. The result is that in many areas, the recovery rates are dismal. In fact, the associations
themselves were the appropriate for a to recover the costs of lining from their members
with proper legal authority and power. This legal flaw also weakened the performance of
the WUAs and they never could become financially viable. This way, by gaining
experience, fund raising could become a regular activity to perform credit and marketing
functions and become sustainable and self supporting.

Formulation of By-laws
The WUAs were required by law to formulate their own by-laws, but this was never done
in practice as the WUs were organized by a relatively untrained staff who themselves
were not aware of the role of by-laws in the organizations. Mostly, the WUAs were
required to sign the papers without understanding. A set of already prepared bylaws was
used everywhere. This should, instead have been a learning process in order to be more
meaningful and productive. Every WUA should have made its own by-laws considering
its own socio-cultural mileau.

Federation at Higher Levels

Experiences from the countries where farmer organizations are active and productive,
show that they can federate at higher levels. This has two important advantages. Firstly,
they become more organized and enter into a lot of regular and productive activities such
as marketing. Secondly, they remain sustainable because the higher level organizations
require a regular set-up at the grass roots level. Unfortunately, the WUA Ordinance of
Punjab does not provide for that, whereas in other provinces, though there is no legal
barrier, but the WUAs were never encouraged to federate at higher levels.

Powers of water users' associations

Drawing on empirical evidence, an endogenous approach to managing community-based
irrigation systems evolved alongside the provision of community-based irrigation
schemes in Pakistan. This has given meaning to the concept of Endogenous
Development(ED) which requires genuine community involvement and utilization of
local resources. In this approach, external development agencies have facilitated the
formation of Water Users Associations (WUAs) for the management of communitybased irrigation schemes. However, these Water Users Associations (WUAs) draw on the
strengths and resourcefulness of indigenous institutions, particularly traditional
authorities. First, WUAs derive legitimacy and power to function from these traditional
authorities at the community levels. Secondly, the traditional authorities support the
functioning of the WUAs by directly participating in operational and management
functions such as land allocation, water resource management and mobilization of labour
for project maintenance activities. Finally, traditional authorities also support the
functioning of WUAs by direct participation in setting and enforcing project rules and
resolving difficult conflicts.

Responsibilities of water users' associations

Informal Water Users Associations have been discharging their responsibilities since the
earliest know distribution of water by Musa Alaih Sallam. He hit the rock with command
from Allah the Almighty to provide water for drinking and other purposes to the 12
communities of Israelites.

Effectiveness of water users' associations

The institutional reforms are underway in Pakistan to restructure the framework for
irrigation and drainage services of the large

canal system. These reforms aim at

withdrawing subsidy by creating autonomous entities at various levels of the irrigation

and drainage system. Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authorities (PIDAs) have the
mandate to establish financially autonomous Area Water Boards (AWBs) at canal
command levels, responsible for operation and maintenance (O&M) of irrigation and
drainage facilities located within their area of jurisdiction. The AWBs will promote
and encourage the farmers to organize into financially autonomous and self-reliant

Farmers' Organizations (FOs) at secondary canal level to undertake O&M of their

respective distributaries and drainage facilities and also pay for the O&M costs for the
upstream system.

Impediments of water users' associations

Experience suggests that if the WUAs are established using a top-down approach, they
are weak and have a high risk of failure. WUAs should rather be established through a
bottom-up consultative approach working with grassroots level farmers/ water users
(IWMI and SIC ICWC, 2003). Other barriers include legal constraints (such as
appropriate regulatory frameworks, land and water rights), funding constraints if
mobilizing funding from year to year becomes a problem, and lack of effective
coordination between the WUA and other relevant authorities and actors. Likewise a lack
of capacity in the design and implementation of projects can limit the ability of a WUA to
secure funding. In a survey of WUAs in India (UNESCO, no date), members cited
funding constraints water availability and government support as the main obstacles to
effective WUA implementation27
Lack of cooperation among water-users can result in a wide range of problems such as:

Continuous conflict over water among water-users due to lack of an organized

system of equitable water resources distribution.

Degradation of irrigation and drainage systems due to lack of funds allocated by

the government to ensure regular operation and maintenance of the system.

Threat of irrigation shortages due to inefficient use of water that can worsen the
existing environmental catastrophe.

Membership in a WUA enables members to play an active role in the democratic

management and distribution of water within an irrigation system. The formation of a
WUA also enables farmers to collectively resolve common water and agricultural
problems. WUAs benefit from increased crop yields through more efficient water use. As

27

http://climatetechwiki.org/content/water-user-groups

a result, farmers are becoming more confident in carrying out future agricultural
production activities.

Remedies of water users' associations

Water Users Associations (WUA) towards Diversified Activities Experiences of Nepal
and Other Countries28

a. Multifunctional
The recent trend is that WUAs are taking up, besides irrigation and water management,
other activities as well. They have to do with the needs of the members for other services.
As members of WUAs are engaged in many activities in the farming as well as for
domestic work for decent income for themselves and to have a secure and enjoyable
living in the community, irrigation and water management are not always the only
problems for them.
Members of WUA are working in agriculture. The farming profession needs besides
water service, such as supply of farm inputs and credits, transportation and marketing of
products, processing of these products, settling of disputes among themselves, receiving
services and assistance from outside agencies.
Farmers are also engaged in other economic activities, social undertakings and cultural
affairs. These functions and activities are of minor concern. Attention is to be given on
agriculture services in order to have farmers need fulfilled.
Many activities in the agricultural profession are done individually by the farm family.
Other activities need joint actions of farmers to receive the desired and satisfactory
results. One of the services is water supply to the farm land. It needs cooperation with
other water users, joint actions for O&M as well as for small repair works. WUAs get
established because proper irrigation management is the need of the farmers.

28

Prachanda Pradhan www.indiana.edu/~workshop/papers/pradhan091602.pdf

Other functions and activities may be taken up by the WUAs because there is a need for
such services to the members. This can be due to poor access to services, cost
effectiveness of the delivery of services and lower cost to the members. The need for
multifunction organization is due to institutional vacuum, increase in viability and
profitability, need of leverage, credibility and legitimacy, limited managerial capacity in
the village.
These extra-services to the members of WUA are for effective agricultural production.
How can members of WUA receive these services in time, effectively and sufficiently for
agriculture production and marketing of produce? Which major bottlenecks or problems
are there to receive these services effectively and sufficiently? Which agriculture services
may be organized by WUA jointly and what are the advantages for WUA if they organize
these services jointly by themselves? Favorable conditions for a farmer organization to be
become multi-functional and factors which make it more difficult for WUA to become
multi-functional are to be looked into. What support is needed by a WUA?
The Pakistani government started in 1998 the institutional reform of irrigation sector. The
reform requires a water users organization at a distributary (secondary level) as well as
at a watercourse. Associated with the institutional reform policy, the pilot projects have
been implemented by IIMI and the Agriculture Department to organize farmers at the
distributary level. Despite pessimistic predictions, the results of the pilot projects are
positive and already showing some evidence of effective collective action through the
organizations. Conditions of progress in the reforms involve the roles of the water users
and the government.
It is necessary for water users (farmers) to empower themselves to take over some
government duties, including particularly management of the secondary irrigation
systems. For the users to be empowered by rights and responsibilities, the government
has to delegate the responsibilities to the users' organizations.
Organizational sustainability, a critical issue from past experience, depends on the
autonomy of water users organizations, which is guaranteed by a legal means to
substantiate devolution of the government power.

Chapter No. 3
Research Design
Introduction
Nature has blessed Pakistan with the World's largest and most integrated system of
irrigation. This network, usually known as gravity flow irrigation system, began to come
into being in phases almost a hundred years ago and now its efficiency has been reduced
to such an extent that more than 30 per cent of the irrigation-water is lost in transit
through percolation and evaporation.
The irrigation methods used during application to the crops are age-old and another 30%
plus water is wasted on the community watercourse and the individual farm. The
quantum of wastage of precious irrigation-water is not only the limiting factor for
expansion of the irrigated area and realizing the maximum benefits per unit of already
irrigated land, but also has aggravated the severity of the twin menace of water logging
and salinity.
The bottom up approach was adopted by the launch of Precision Land Leveling Project
(PLLP) in early 70s. This project had four components:
a.

Cost sharing for land forming for efficient irrigation;

b.

PLL equipment fabrication on the pattern of that produced by ToprakSu

of Turkey

c.

Train farmers to keep their lands leveled and adopt good agronomic
practices.

d.

Develop contractors for undertaking land leveling tasks on payment.

In the meanwhile, WAPDA's SCARP conducted research on the quantum of water losses
at head, middle and tail of the watercourse; watercourse lining alternatives and the
watercourse reaches that required lining to prevent loss of irrigation water.
At the same time, agricultural universities were engaged in agronomic research and
viable model of water users association to renovate, operate and maintain the watercourse
for equitable distribution of water. It included determination of points where watercourse
crossing culverts, buffalo wallows and washing berths to be constructed. Before a

suitable model of WUA could be decided, USAID hurried to introduce a model WUA act
to initiate a Pilot Watercourse Improvement Project for 150 watercourses.
Water-Users Organizations were not a part of the agricultural system in Pakistan till the
late 1970s. With the onset of the On-Farm Water-Management (OFWM) Pilot Projects,
their involvement was experimented upon, at times when it was considered a politically
explosive and socially vulnerable issue, and it proved successful. Under various OFWM
Programs, efforts were exerted to involve them at tertiary levels of the irrigation-system
and, by now, they are contributing 20 per cent of the cost of the civil works on the
watercourse. The usefulness of farmers participation in other countries fostered the
testing of some pilots on their participation at secondary levels of the system. Thus Water
User Associations Ordinances were promulgated by various provinces.
A few pilot-surveys have been conducted so far and the results have shown that the
WUA's participation can play a promising role in the operation and maintenance of the
already deteriorating irrigation-systems, not only in improving productivity but also in
sustaining the environment. Their performance will, nevertheless, hinge upon effective
organizational efforts, imparting necessary training to them, proper recognition and
adequate legislative support from the government as well as commitment from operating
agencies.
The Government has recently taken strategic initiatives to address the longstanding issues
of irrigation-management that had been reflecting on the performance of the sector. The
new strategies primarily focus on better governance, decentralization, participatory
management and sustainability. Under the

institutional reforms agenda, Provincial

Irrigation Departments (PIDAs) are being transformed into Provincial Irrigation and
Drainage Authority (PIDA). The responsibilities of management would be decentralized
at canal command level to Area Water Boards (AWBs), while most of the existing
functions at the distributary / minor level would be performed by the Farmers
Organizations (FOs). The focus of most of the above activities would initially be on pilot
AWB and pilot FOs on the System. Subsequently, the reforms package will gradually be
extended to other AWBs and FOs, on the basis of the results of monitoring and learningexperience of the pilot programmes.

The Government has enacted the legal framework and the reform agenda is under
implementation, to varying degrees in all Provinces. The strategy consists of the
following interlinked parts:

Restructuring the Provincial Irrigation Departments (PIDs), to form Public

Utilities (PUs) around canal commands;

Actively promoting formation and development of Farmers Organizations

(FOs);

Strengthening federal agencies, notably the Water and Power Development

Authority's (WAPDA's) Water Wing, so as to better implement their federal
responsibilities; and

Formalizing water markets and individual water-property rights.

PIDAs have been established in all the four provinces; Area Water Boards (AWB) in
each province has been notified. Also, Punjab and Sindh have notified rules and
regulations for FOs. NWFP has designated the existing Northern Irrigation Circle Mardan
as Area Water Board, Swat Canals (Pilot) and its Members have already been notified.
The On-Farm Water-Management of the Agriculture Department has already constituted
many FOs in the jurisdiction of AWBs.
The following points regarding institutional and environmental issues were actively
considered by the Government:
i.

Willingness to invest in social mobilization and capacity-building of the

upcoming new institutions (i.e AWBs and FOs) was absolutely essential
for the success of the ongoing institutional reforms. For the new entities to
be sustainable, the upcoming FOs required technical assistance and
support for quite some time, which may account for about 20-30% of the
investment Costs.

ii.

There was pressing need to take steps for expediting the capacity-building
process for the upcoming FOs if the targets, for formation of FOs and
transitioning of the management responsibilities to them, were to be met.

iii.

In order to optimize integrated resource-management, comprehensive and

holistic interventions for rationalizing existing canal-water allowance

needed to be undertaken. Appropriate policy also needed to be developed,

to address the emerging environmental issues in order to preserve the
water-quality and land- base for sustainability of the irrigated agriculture.
Purpose of Study
The donors preferences have created a jigsaw puzzle for executing authorities in
WAPDA, PIDAs, and OFWM regarding simultaneous existence of experimental AWBs,
FOs and WUAs. Since the first USAID funded On-Farm Water Management (OFWM)
pilot program in 1977, attempts have been made to obtain people's participation in lining
and other improvement work in watercourses and post improvement maintenance of the
watercourses, as well as in other on-farm water management activities. The promulgation
of the Water Users Association Ordinance of 1980 helped the OFWM program to form
Water Users Associations. OFWM records indicate that, up to the end of 1994, about
20,000 WUAs were formed. The WUAs participated in the specific task of lining and
improving of the watercourses, but the farmers soon lost interest. It is an open secret that
most of the WUAs exist only on paper29.
This study was undertaken to determine the efficacy of Water Users Associations and
water management in agriculture. It is actually a case study of water crises and irrigation
system in Pakistan. It blends multiple interventions like OFWM, PIM, PIDAs, etc., as
they interact through WUA, AWBs and FOs.

Significance of the Study:

The data generated though this Survey will provide insight into the efficacy of water
users association in irrigated agriculture and their sustainability to over water crises in
Pakistan as well as ensure food security of nation's exploding population. It will be used
to assist the government in formulating the poverty reduction strategy in the overall
context of MDGs i.e., education, health and quality of life.

29

http://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H007939.pdf

The survey has been undertaken to:

Establish a database on the organizational pattern of water users in

different parts of Pakistan;

Evaluate attempts to organize water users and monitor the most successful
ones;

Examine the institutional constraints, which have impeded the creation of

viable water user associations;

Examining the underlying premise that water users associations are indeed
a necessary component of water management activities; and determine the
extent to which a research-based extension programme can achieve the
same objectives.

Universe:
The universe of this survey consists of irrigated areas of three provinces of Pakistan.
These provinces are depending for their crop irrigation needs on Indus Basin Irrigation
System (IBIS). In order to make efficient use of water for crop production, research was
undertaken at all stages of water storage and conveyance except watercourse level. This
was considered as farmers' domain.
The research found that major water losses occurred in watercourses (which were not
properly maintained) and farmers fields (where crops were produced in primitive ways).
Sociology became the focus in formation of the Water Users' Associations Thus farmer
was considered to be the main respondent.

Sampling Frame:
Irrigated areas:
This sampling has never been adopted by any survey. Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS)
has always used administrative units. Some individual surveys like those by International
Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) has selected individual distributaries. There has
been many studies like Monitoring and Evaluation of WUA Activities taking WUA as a
unit. This Survey considers irrigation area as sampling frame.

Rural Setting:
The irrigation is practiced in rural area where most of population lives, Districts are
selected as PSUs - 4 from Punjab, 2 from Sindh and one from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
Now many irrigation reforms have been undertaken and pilot projects were launched to
gauge their success. All aided Pilot Projects were proclaimed successful and loans were
obtained to launch projects in a big way.
Two examples are relevant:

On Farm Water Management (OFWM) - It was a national programme but

was unbundled to give provinces direct access to the international lenders
and donors. This programme formed WUAs for watercourse level under
WUA Ordinances. This was and still continues to be implemented by
Agriculture Departments.

Irrigation and Drainage Authorities in each provinces. These formed Area

Water Boards (AWB) at distributary level. Farmers Organizations (FOs)
are formed to jointly work with Irrigation Departments as partners.

This survey takes three canals from each district, four outlets from each canal and 8
respondents from each outlet. Theoretically, the following have been used as sampling
frame, which is comprised of 672 respondents.
However, during practical survey, 100 respondents were selected per district spread over
the distributaries as indicated in Chapter 3. The numbers of enumeration blocks in
districts/canal circles and distributaries in irrigated areas of the each province are as:
No. Of enumeration districts and distributaries as per sampling frame
Province

District

Outlets

# of Respondents

Punjab

36

400

Sindh

11

200

KPK

100

Total

55

700

Stratification Plan
All Area Water Boards are accommodated. Effort has been made to select respondents on
each outlet from head, middle and tail to represent most advantaged irrigators to most
disadvantage irrigators. Likewise the outlets from each distributary are selected from
head, middle and tail to accommodate outlet that receive full supply level as well as those
with least supply level.
Sample Size and its Allocation:
As a thumb rule and based upon the equitable distribution of irrigated area in each
province, it was decided to select districts as PSUs as shown above and for the sake of
uniformity, it was agreed to determine optimum sample size for this survey based upon
analytical studies based on the agro-climatic zones and anthropology of the areas. Survey
were undertaken, keeping in view the variability that exists within the population for the
characteristics for which estimates are to be prepared, as well as population distribution,
reliability of estimates and field resources available.
Profile of the survey sample
Province

PSU (District/AWB)

SSU (Outlet/WUA)

# of respondents

Punjab

36

400

Sindh

11

200

KPK

100

Total

55

700

NCE 2011-12 PSLM

Sample Design:
A three-stage stratified sample design was adopted for this survey.

Selection of Primary Sampling Units (PSUs):

The districts have been taken as PSUs and the number of districts are based on the
population of each province and the canal irrigation systems earmarked for establishment
of Area Water Boards by PIDAs
In irrigated area, the population of each WUA has been taken as MOS for theselection of
sample organizations using again the random selection method.

Selection of Secondary Sampling Units (SSUs):

Outlets withdrawing water from distributaries within PSU have been considered as SSUs.
WUAs have been selected from each sample distributary and enumeration block
respectively by systematic sampling scheme with a random start.
Respondents and Survey Questionnaire
At both individual and WUA level, the Survey collects information on a wide range of
topics using an integrated questionnaire. The questionnaire comprises a number of
different sections, each of which looks at a particular aspect of respondents personal data,
household welfare, irrigation facility and association with WUA. Data collected includes
individual and family. In detail it collects information about education, awareness,
benefits, commitments and overall opinion about the use and need of WUAs.
Objectives and Scope of Analysis
A separate chapter is devoted to this end. It shows data, figures and respondents opinion.
The objectives and scope of analysis is limited to the declared objectives of the survey,
viz., establishment of a database on the organizational pattern of water users in different
parts of Pakistan; evaluation or attempts to organize water users and monitor the most
successful ones; examine the institutional constraints, which have impeded the creation of
viable water user associations; and examination of the underlying premise that water
users associations are indeed a necessary component of water management activities; and
determination of the extent to which a research-based extension programme can achieve
the same objectives.

Data Quality and Reliability Measures

Questionnaire
The questionnaire was designed to collected the mandatory data to provide answers to all
relevant questions.

Pre-testing
The questionnaire was pre-tested in the survey area and modification were carried out
before printing for data collection.

Training of enumeration
The enumerators and supervisors were trained in, not only, collection of information, but
also the dealing with respondents to assemble clear and candid information. The training
of field staff regarding the purpose of the survey, and the concepts used is an important
area to address as conceptual controversies are the main sources of the data. Several full
days were invested in the field to cover each and every concept of the information. These
trainings were focused on the concepts of sample design, basic principles of research
methodology, organization of field work, collecting information using the questionnaires
through interviews, group interviews, accuracy of the data, organization and supervision
of data collections.

Data Collection
Open-ended, structured and in-depth interviews were carried out at seven sites among
quota sample of 700 water users at both, the grassroots and leadership levels.
Quantitative and qualitative information were combined to achieve a sufficiently
representative response and at the same time provide meaningful insights into the
thinking and experience of the farmers.

Re-check Information
Data quality in this Survey has been ensured through a built in system of checking of
field work by the supervisors in the field as well as teams from the researcher. The data
quality has been ensured through preliminary editing at office level.

Data Entry and Analysis

The entire data entry was carried at Islamabad and the data entry programme used had a
number of in built consistency checks. Efforts were made to develop a multipurpose
database with latest MS ACCESS database packages. Services of the database experts
were utilized in this regards and several changes to understand and utilized this key
informations for ordinary users as well. Full help line keys were also defined and detail
descriptions of abbreviations and codes were provided. Another focus was on helping
tools for data entry to facilitate data entry persons to ensure the accuracy of data with
different aspects.
As per nature of data in which both qualitative and quantitative data sets were used it was
very sensitive to differentiate qualitative and quantitative information in separate columns
and cover full information.

Selection of Respondents
The number of samples has been taken on the basis of irrigated area of each province and
the districts selected proportionately. According to 2010-11 figures provided by the
Provincial Departments of Agriculture as shown in the Agricultural Statistics 2010-11
published by Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan30, the areas irrigated by
government canals in the Punjab was 3.35 million hectares or 56%, in Sindh it was 1.73
MH (29%), KPK accounted for 0.44 MH or 7% and Balochistan had 0.48 MH or 8%.
Balochistan was not included in the survey as most of the area irrigated falls in private
domain.

30

http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/agriculture_statistics/publications/Agricultural_Statistics_of_Paki
stan_201011/tables/Table64.pdf

As the number of respondents was determined to be 700 as per survey design, seven
distributaries were selected with 100 respondents for each distributary. The distributaries
selected were 4 from the Punjab, 2 from Sindh and one from Balochistan as shown in the
graph and chart shown below:
Percentage of samples taken
57.1

60
40
20

28.6
14.3

0
NWFP

Punjab

Sindh

Provinces Name

This graph shows the province-wise distribution of respondents in order to represent the
irrigated area evenly across the country. In KPK irrigated agriculture is practiced at very
small scale as compared to other provinces, hence minimum sample size was taken as
100 respondents for that province. The province of Sindh solely depends on irrigated
agriculture because the rains are scanty and the groundwater is brackish and unfit for
irrigation. Punjab has total irrigated area of 14.41 million hectares of which 3.35 MH
depend on canals and the rest get water from other sources of water like wells, tube wells
and the rains. In Punjab different agro-climatic zones were explored. The main feature of
this selection was the inclusion of various sections of the society from social and
anthropological status of the population engaged in irrigated agriculture.
The new demands and challenges for food production and security combined with the
persistent poor performance of the agency-managed irrigation system in Pakistan has led
the Government of Pakistan to transfer the management of irrigation systems from
provincial irrigation agencies to Farmer Organizations through the Provincial Irrigation
and Drainage Authorities (PIDAs) under Water Sector Improvement Project (WSIP). At
local level, Area Water Boards (AWBs) have been established for Participatory Irrigation
Management (PIM).

Sample taken from different provinces Districts

Pakistan
Punjab Province
Muzaffargarh

Bhakkar
Bhawalnagar

D. G. Khan

Sindh Province
Ghotki
Mirpur Khas

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
D. I. Khan
Selection of Distributries / Minors from different districts
The Irrigation sector / sub-sector main objective of MTDF 2005 10 is to achieve food
security for the people of Pakistan. The concept of more crops per drop is to be pursued
to enforce improved irrigation methods and practices. The concept of participatory
irrigation management of irrigation systems is to be promoted in the shape of Farmer
Organizations (FOs) to enable the irrigation stakeholders to participate effectively in the
decision making process. This will ensure stakeholders and create enabling environment
for active stakeholders consultation and participation at all levels and in all aspects of the
water resources including Irrigation, drainage and other water sector components.
List of Distributaries Province Punjab, District Bahawalnagar,
Canal Division Bahawalnagar, Irrigation Zone Bahawalpur
Distributaries Name

Number of Sample Taken

Hakra 3R

45

Hakra 4R

23

Hakra 6R

32

Total

100

List of Distributaries Province Punjab, District Bhakkar,

Irrigation Department Canal Division Bhakkar,
Distributaries Name

Number of Sample Taken

Bakhar Disty

Hukam Disty

21

Hukam Minor

Kamal Theam

27

Khokhar Canal

Khokar Neher

Khokar nala

Nursingh

26

Patheri Minor

Rajbah Nursingh

Total

100

List of Distributaries Province Punjab, District Dera Ghazi Khan,

Irrigation Department Canal Division Dera Ghazi Khan,
Distributaries Name

Number of Sample Taken

Bja Disty

13

Chanda Disty

12

Deraghazi khan canal

Extension upper hole

Fathirail Minor

Ghazi Distry

Kolla shahani

Kotla sikhani

Laghoor Minor

Laghoor Minor

Link-1

Lower Hote

24

Qasim Minor

Sabhi Wala

13

Shadia Distry

Total

100

List of Distributaries of District Muzaffargarh, Province Punjab

Distributaries Name

Number of Sample Taken

1R

Fathepur Minor

Ganga Minor

24

Ghazanfargarh Minor

18

I L Hassan

13

Lakhari

Munda Minor

11

Muradabad

10

Total

100

List of Distributaries of District Dera Ismail Khan, Province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Distributaries

Sample Taken

Disty-11

10

Disty-14

11

Disty-15

Disty-22

10

Desty-4

11

Dity-5

10

Disty-6

11

Disty-9

28

Total

100

List of Distributaries, District Ghotki, Province Sindh

Distributaries Name

Number of Sample Taken

Bagoo Ways

18

Band Minor

10

Dinger Wa

22

Dingroo Minor

21

Msroo wa

17

Pakka minor

12

Total

100

Province Sindh , District Mirpur Khas

The Nara Canal is an excavated waterway in Sindh province, Pakistan. It was built as an
excavated channel off the left bank of the Indus River into the course of the old Nara
River. The canal runs from above the Sukkur Barrage through the Khairpur, Sanghar and
Tharparkar Districts to the Jamrao Canal. Nara is the longest canal in Pakistan, running
for about 226 mi (364 km). It has a designed capacity of 13,602 cu ft/s (385.2 m3/s), but
actually discharges 14,145 cu ft/s (400.5 m3/s). About 2,000,000 acres (8,100 km2) of
land are irrigated by this canal. Within the Khairpur District, the canal and its associated
wetlands were made into the Nara Game Reserve in 1972.
The Nara Canal Area Water Boards mission is to improve water management in its
command area. It will ensure equitable distribution of irrigation water, efficient removal
of drainage water, management of flood protection infrastructures and promote farmers
participation. The Nara Canal Area Water Board will do so through an integrated
approach in a sustainable manner, using sound business principles and in partnership with
its clients and stakeholders. The objectives of the Area Water Board can best be
described the primary objectives of the Area Water Board are: Equitable and reliable
water distribution Cost effective operation and maintenance - Realization of participatory
irrigation management. The following distributaries were selected from Canal Division,
Mirpur Khas.
List of Distributaries, District Mirpur Khas, Province Sindh
Name of Distributary

Number of Samples

12 Morif

15

78 Mori

17

Bareji

24

Jamrao

22

Jarwri

22

Total

100

Chapter No. 4

Interpretation and Analysis of Field Data

Respondents Profile
Literacy Rate of respondents
The education system in Pakistan is divided into five levels: primary (grades one through
five); middle (grades six through eight); high (grades nine and ten, leading to the
Secondary School Certificate or SSC); intermediate (grades eleven and twelve, leading to
a Higher Secondary (School) Certificate or HSC); and university programs leading
to undergraduate and graduate degrees.
It is widely acknowledged that education is amongst the single most important factor cont
ributing to poverty alleviation. Education plays an overarching role and has a cross cuttin
g impact on all aspects of human life. This is evident in Pakistan's rural life, where
education level in rural areas is much below than in urban areas.
According to the latest Pakistan Social and Living Standards Measurement (PSLM) Surv
ey 20080931, the overall literacy rate (age 10 years and above) is 57% (69% for male a
nd 45% for female) compared to 56% (69% for male and 44% for female) for 200708.
The data shows that literacy remains higher in urban areas (74%) than in rural areas (48%
), and is more prevalent for men (69%) compared to women (45%)32.
Education Level

Number of

Frequency

Percentage

schooling year
Illiterate

236

33.7%

Primary

12

1.7%

.1%

17

3.9%

107

15.3%

.1%

Middle

31

http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/pakistan-social-and-living-standards-measurement-survey-pslm-2008-09provincial-district
32
http://finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_10/10_Education.pdf

14

2.0%

111

15.9%

.3%

10

96

13.7%

FA

12

61

8.7%

BA

14

32

3.0%

M.A

16

10

1.4%

Total

700

100.0

Matric

The table above shows that illiterate percentage is 33.7% and primary with five year
schooling percentage is 15.3% and middle with 8 year schooling percentage is 15.9% and
Matric with 10 year schoolings percentage 13.7% and FA with 12 year percentage is
8.7% and with BA 14 year Percentage is 3.7% and with MA 16 year percentage is 1.4%.
The drop out rate increases continuously with the age as more labour is required for farm
jobs in the family. The literacy rate at primary level is 33.7% and at M.A level it is 1.4%.

Area wise literacy rate

Literacy is an important indicator of education because its improvement is likely to have
an impact, in the longer run, on other important indicators of welfare. The literacy rate for
population 10 years and above is 57 percent during 2008-09, as compared to 55 percent
in 2006-07. Illiteracy remains much higher in rural areas than in urban areas.
Respondents

PUNJAB

SINDH

N.W.F.P

Schooling Year
Bahawalnagar

Bhakkar

Dera

Ghazi

Muzafargarh

Khan

Mir Pur

Ghotki

Khas

Dera Ismail
Khan

35%

25%

44%

25%

39%

35%

74%

10%

4%

15%

3%

18%

4%

6%

19%

19%

14%

18%

7%

17%

9%

2%

21%

19%

16%

9%

12%

1%

10

21%

21%

5%

6%

12%

16%

3%

12

9%

6%

1%

22%

10%

2%

5%

14

4%

4%

2%

10%

5%

14%

2%

100

100

100

100

100

100

100

The level of welfare and quality of life, by visual observation, is lower in Bahawalnagar
and Dera Ghazi Khan districts of the Punjab than Bhakkar and Muzafargarh districts of
the same province apparently because of comparatively low literacy rates. In Sindh,
Mirpur Khas is better off than Ghotki. Dera Ismail Khan ranks the last as literacy rate
there is only 26%. The diagram below depicts the literacy levels at all the level of
educational classification.
Literacy Rate of Farmers in Different Districts
Bhawalnagar

Bhakkar

Dera Ghazi Khan

Muzafargarh

Mir Pur Khas

Ghotki

Dera Ismail Khan

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

12

14

Number of years Education

Decision makers Educational Status

Reliable, accurate and comprehensive database is a prerequisite for any type of
planning. The farmers who make decisions relating to water management at watercourse
level are part of irrigators community now as the authority is being transferred to the
farmers from the official managers appointed for the job here-to-fore. The farmer
decision makers are required to be aware of modernization of the technology of
irrigation, agronomy, soils and crop production. There education affects the quality of
decisions they make.
Poverty is projected to remain overwhelmingly rural until at least 202533, which is why
agriculture plays an important role in poverty reduction and development. Growth in
agriculture is twice as effective in reducing poverty as growth in other areas. Investments
in agriculture and rural development are helping millions earn a better living, grow more

33

http://www.one.org/livingproof/en/article/progress-in-agriculture/

nutritious food, and build better futures for themselves, their families and their
communities.
Thus, education (is not Rs) but relevant to knowledge and awareness and is the key
towards food security. According to this survey, as the graph below indicates, the
majority of decision makers are literate (60%) and are expected to run the affairs of
WUA in a better manner. This is a good omen.

Age group of farmers in the fields

The members of the family actively engaged in agriculture are the persons who can work
hard. In a farming family both men and women work. It could be said that both men and
women are full time farmers. Men look after on farm jobs whereas women take care of
off farm jobs. Since farming is not limited to crop production alone, women tend the
animals, draught as well as milk animals. These farm workers belong to 25-60 year age
group.

Percentage

Age Groups of Farmers in Agriculture Practices

100
50
0

Blow 25
10.9

Series1

25 to 60

Above 60

79

10.1

Age Group

The graph above indicates that age group blow 25 is 10.9 Percentage and 25 to 60 is 79.0
Percentage and above 60 is 10.1%.

Farmers as Head of their families in Different Districts

In Pakistan's rural life, the families are extended, having more than 18 members per
family. This was better since the relationships and land remained consolidated. Over time
economic conditions have forced families to move apart. In Pakistan this moving apart
has been drastic and too sudden for many, with members of even nuclear families spread
out over continents. This meant much less interaction between members, and as a result
less affection and less caring and giving34.
In study area, majority of respondents remain to be head of family which demonstrates
cohesion within the family. In Bhakkar, the majority of respondent were not the head of
family, the reason being that they were younger member of the family.
FARMERS HEAD OF THEIR FAMILIES
Muzaffarghar

DISTRICTS

Mir Pur Khas

Gothki
Yes
No

Dera Ismail Khan

Dera Ghazi Khan
Bhakkar
Bahawal Nagar
0

20

40

60

80

100

The graph above shows that in Bahawalnagar, 81% are the head of their own
families, in Bhakkar is 80%, in Dera Ghazi Khan 69%, in Dera Ismail Khan 84% and in

34

http://rabia-ahmed.blogspot.com/2011/04/family-values-and-virtues.html

Ghotki 59% and in Mirpur Khas 72%, in Muzafargarh 55% are head of families but in
Bhakkar only 20% are head of their families.

Ratio of different occupation in rural areas

In rural Pakistan, agriculture is the major employer. The survey demonstrated this since
83.1% of the respondents indicated farming as their main occupation. The next highest
percentage of the respondents (12.7%) was in government employment. This could be
due to increase in literacy which made individuals eligible for government employment.
Occupations

Frequency

Percentage

Army Civil

.1

Businessman

12

1.7

Contractor

.1

Daily wages

15

2.1

Farmer

582

83.1

Govt. Employ

89

12.7

Total

700

100.0

This table demonstrates that occupation-wise the distribution of respondents is Army

(civil) is 1% and Business, of course small business is 1.7%, Contractor .1%, Daily wage
workers 2.1%, Farmers 83.1% and Govt. Employees 12.7%. It is clear that, the rural
society depends on agriculture which is the only sources of income and livelihood.

Farmers with Membership of Different Organizations

There exist a number of community organizations like mosque committee, village
welfare committee and panchyat, etc., but all of these are informal. There is no regular
membership, but whenever a meeting of such a committee is called every one can attend,
if he chooses. However the decision of such a committee is accepted by every one at the
cost of being alienated.
The formal organizations like Water Users Association (WUA), Farmers Organization
(FO) and Cooperative Society have membership and consist of interest groups. These are
governed by rules and bye-laws. Many are activity specific. WUA deals with irrigation
water management at watercourse level, FO is considered equivalent of WUA but it is

part of 'Participatory Irrigation Management' system where government and farmers are
joint stakeholders. One deals with water supply and the other with its use. Cooperative
Societies often deal with loans for agricultural inputs like seed, fertilizer, power and
storage.
Membership of different organizations

Percentage

Member, WUA

40.7

None

43.0

Other

8.6

President WUA

3.7

Farmers' Cooperative Society

4.0

Total

100.0

The survey shows that there were 40.7% respondents as Members WUA, 43.9% were not
members of any organization, 8.6% held membership of unspecified organizations. 3.7%
were President of a WUA. 4.0% indicated to be member of Farmers' Cooperative
Society.

Farmer with membership of more than one organization

It is customary and it happens quite often that a farmer is member of one or more of the
organizations that exist formally or informally in a village.
Dual membership

Frequency

Percentage

None

587

83.9

Cooperative

.9

Chairman

.1

Ex MPA

.3

Number Dari

.3

Other

101

14.4

Union Council

.1

Total

700

100.0

Respondents replies show that 83.9% were not a member of any organization. The other
membership was that of a Cooperative Society (.9%). There were Chairmen (.1%), ExMPAs (.3%) and Numberdars (.3%). Other unspecified were 14.4% and those of Union

Council were (.1%). It is evident that there is lack of information about the association of
respondent with an organization.

Family
Numbers of Family Members
According to Household Integrated Economic Survey (HIES)35 2010-11 published by
Government of Pakistan, Statistics Division, Federal Bureau of Statistics, Islamabad in
September 2011 average number of members per household in rural areas is. 6.49, that in
the Punjab is 6.15, in Sindh it is 6.9 and in KPK it is 7.17

35

Family Sizes

Frequency

Percentage

15

2.1

16

2.3

35

42

63

76

10.9

10

70

10

11

54

7.7

12

64

9.1

13

64

9.1

14

70

10

15

33

4.7

16

31

4.4

17

29

4.1

18

26

3.7

More than 18

12

1.7

Total

700

100

http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/pslm/publications/hies10_11/tables/table01.pdf

Respondents replies show that there are 3 members in 2.1% households, 5 members in
2.3%, 6 members in 5.0%, 7 members 6.0%, 8 members in 9.0%, 9 members in 10.9%,
10 members in 10%, 11 members in 7.7%, 12 members in 9.1%, 13 members in 9.1%, 14
members in 10%,15 members in 4.7%, 16 members in 4.4%, 17 members in 4.1%, 18
members in 3.7%, more than 18 the members in 1.7%. Highest family size is 10.9.
Family Sizez Number of Persons

50
45
40
35
30
Percentage 25
20
15
10
5
0
Percent

1 to 5

6 to 10

11 to 20

Greater then 21

9.4

43.6

45.7

1.3

The graph above indicates the majority of households (45.7%) have family members
ranging between 11 and 20. Most of these households have joint family system. But, the
breakdown of the family contributes to the breakdown of society, where there has been a
corresponding increase in callousness, and a consequent surge in violence. There has also
been an increase in domestic violence, acrimony between siblings, and increased
intolerance towards the elderly, parents and other family members in many families. With
the decrease in respect for parents and family has come a corresponding lessening of
respect for authority and institutions in general.
The peace and tranquility in rural areas is natural output of extended family system and it
continues to remain so as 16% families belong to this classification.

Literacy Rate In Different Occupational Groups In Rural Areas

The survey restricted its quest to schooling and did not consider vocational training in the
occupation, since the occupations in villages are hereditary. The farmers have experience
of ages behind them but it is not updated and remains stagnant. WUAs are the considered

to be the platform for training and awareness in various issues related to agriculture;
mainly soil, water and the crop.
Number of Occupation
schooling

Army

years

Civil

Businessman Contractor

Daily

Farmer

wages
8.30%

G
Employ

20.00%

38.00%

20.05

1.50%

12.40%

0.20%

4.50%

1.10%

12.70%

30.30%

40.00%

1.10%

4.50%

16.70%

100.00%

6.70%

9
10

17.20%

7.90%

0.30%
100.00%

25,0%

6.70%

12.40%

21.30%

12

33.30%

6.70%

7.60%

13.50%

14

16.70%

3.90%

7.90%

The above figures show that all the Army personnel are educated up to matriculation
level, may be due to recruitment conditions, most of the respondents in Business, 75%
have education up to B.A level and those working as Contractors are totally educated up
to middle level. 80% of daily wage workers are educated. Only 38.0% of farmers are
illiterate, whereas the others are educated to various degrees. Government employees
consist of 12% uneducated and the remaining has education up to B.A.

Average land holdings of farmers36

Respondents replies show that farm holding of 1 ha. to 5.00 ha. is 34.7% and 5.1 ha. to
12.00 ha. is 30.9% and 12.1 ha. to 25.00 ha. is 21.3% and 25.1 ha. to 50.00 ha. is 11.1%.
Greater than 50 ha. is 2.0%
Farm Sizes as per Provinces of Pakistan
KPK

Punjab

Sindh

1 to 5.00

65.0%

34.5%

20.0%

5.1 to 12.00

16.0%

37.4%

25.0%

12.1 to 25.00

11.0%

21.8%

25.5%

25.1 to 50.00

6.0%

4.3%

27.5%

Greater than 50

2.0%

2.0%

3.0%

Total

100

100

100

Farm Sizez as per Province

Greater then 50

25.1 to 50.00

12.1 to 25.00

5.1 to 12.00

1 to 5.00
0.00%

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%
NWFP

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

Punjab Sindh

36

http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files/agriculture_statistics/publications/Agricultural_Statistics_of_Paki
stan_201011/tables/Table65.pdf

The graph above shows that farm size holding of 1 to 5 ha in KPK is 65.0, that in the
Punjab is 34.5% and in Sindh is 20.0%. The farm size holding of 5.1 to 12.0 ha in KPK s
16.0%, in Punjab it is 37.5% and in Sindh it is 25.0%. The data indicates that in general
majority of farmers are small holders. Only 2 to 3% farmers own more than 50 ha. Punjab
and Sindh share considerable number in other categories. Sindh has very big holdings in
comparatively large cases.

District-wise Farm Sizes

There are over five million farms in the country. Most of these farms are small (81
percent below five ha), accounting for 39 percent of the farmed area. Seven percent of the
farms have over 20 ha but occupy 40 percent of the land.
According to FAO37, farm sizes and areas in Pakistan are:
Size
farm

of Percent
farms

of Farmed
area (%)

< 5 ha

81

39

5 - 10 ha

12

22

> 20

40

Source: Agriculture Statistics of Pakistan, 2002.

The farming systems depend on the land types, micro climate, availability of irrigation
water, market access, population density, transport infrastructure and cultural aspects.
Most farms are mixed. Farmers in the crop production regions, whether small or large,
produce not only the major crops but also minor crops, vegetables and fruits. They have
shade trees for fuel or timber; keep cattle or buffaloes for milk, and own goat/sheep and
chickens. Livestock may provide a substantial proportion of the income. There are fifteen
crop production regions (CPRs), grouped according to their major cropping patterns.
There are five in Punjab, three in Sindh, three in KPK and four in Balochistan.

37

http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5460e/y5460e06.htm

KPK

Punjab

Sindh

District
Dera

Bahawal

Bhakkar

Dera

Muzaffargarh

Gothki

Land Holding

Ismail

Nagar

groups (Acres)

Khan

1 to 5.00

65.00%

36.00%

32.00%

23.00%

47.00%

24.00%

16.00%

5.1 to 12.00

16.00%

47.00%

32.00%

26.00%

45.00%

16.00%

34.00%

12.1 to 25.00

11.00%

15.00%

31.00%

33.00%

8.00%

22.00%

29.00%

25.1 to 50.00

6.20%

3.00%

4.00%

11.00%

34.00%

21.00%

More than 50

2.00%

1%

7.00%

4.00%

Total

100

100

100

Ghazi

Mir Pur
Khas

Khan

100

100

100

100

The majority of farmers (65%) own land from 1 to 5 hectares in D.I.Khan and
Muzafargarh districts. Bahawalnagar has 47% farmers in 5.1 to 12 ha bracket. Bhakkar ,
Mirpur Khas, Ghotki and Dera Ghazi Khan have even distribution among first three
categories, but overall it has more percentage 7% of big land holder in 25.1-50 ha range.

Districtwise Land Holding / Farm Sizez

70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
1 to 5.00
5.1 to 12.oo

40.00%

12.1 to 25.00
30.00%

25.1 to 50.00
Greater then 50

20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Dera Ismail
Khan

Bahawal
Nagar

Bhakkar

Dera Ghazi Muzaffar Garh

Khan

Gothki

Mir Pur Khas

The graph above indicates that the findings corroborate the national data. More small
farms are being generated due to division of land to family members.

Household Income
Rural income of Pakistan is derived mainly from farm and non-farm sources. Agriculture
is the primary source of rural income as 60 percent of the rural labor force is engaged in
agriculture sector (GOP, 2008). The main features of agriculture sector in Pakistan are

unequal distribution of landholdings, disguised unemployment, traditional methods of

production and resulting low productivity. Land is the main asset of agriculture sector but
its distribution is highly skewed in Pakistan. It was found that in rural areas of Pakistan,
67 percent households were landless and just 0.1 percent households possessed 1 hectare
and above landholdings (Anwar et al., 2004). There existed a positive relationship
between landholdings and income of the households (Malik, 1996; Chaudhry, 2003).38

Income Groups
Income Groups

Income Range

Frequency

Percentage

Cumulative %

Group-1

Less then Rs. 3000

146

20.9

20.9

Group-2

Rs. 3001 to Rs 5000

192

27.4

48.3

Group-3

Rs. 5001 to Rs 10000

234

33.4

81.7

Group-4

Rs. 10001 to Rs 15000

84

12.0

93.7

Group-5

Rs 15001 to Rs 25000

34

4.9

98.6

Group-6

Rs. 25001 to Rs 40000

.7

99.3

Group-7

Greater than Rs 40000

.7

100.0

Total

700

100.0

INCOME RANGES OF RURAL FAMILIES

Greater then Rs 40000

Rs. 25001 to Rs 40000
Rs 15001 to Rs 25000
Rs. 10001 to Rs 15000
Rs. 5001 to Rs 10000

Percent

Rs. 3001 to Rs 5000

Less then Rs. 3000
0

Less then Rs. Rs. 3001 to

3000
Rs 5000
Percent

38

20.9

27.4

10
Rs. 5001 to
Rs 10000
33.4

15

20

25

Rs. 10001 to Rs 15001 to

Rs 15000
Rs 25000
12

4.9

30

35

Rs. 25001 to Greater then

Rs 40000
Rs 40000
0.7

0.7

Waqar Akram, et.el, " AN EMPIRICAL ANALYSIS OF HOUSEHOLD INCOME IN RURAL

PAKISTAN - Evidences from Tehsil Samundri", Pakistan Economic and Social Review Volume 49, No. 2
(Winter 2011), pp. 231-249

The survey indicates that majority of respondents earn equal to Rs. 10,000 or less from
all sources i.e., farm as well as non-farm products.

Income Groups as Per Provinces / Districts

Respondents replies show that Group-1 is KPK 37.0% and Punjab 18.5% and Sindh
17.5% and Group-2 is KPK 37.0% and Punjab 30.5% and Sindh 16.5% and Group-3 is
KPK 17.0% and Punjab 36.5% and Sindh 35.5% and Group-4 is KPK 6.0% and Punjab
9.8% and Sindh 19.5% and Group-5 is KPK 1.0% and Punjab 2.8% and Sindh 11.0% and
Group-6 is KPK 0% and Punjab 1.3% and Sindh 0% and Group-7 is KPK 2.0% and
Punjab .8% and Sindh 0%.

Income Groups as Per Districts

Q1 Province

Income Ranges

KPK

Punjab

Sindh

District

District

District

Dera

Bahaw-

Ismail

alnagar

Bhakar

Khan

Dera

Muzaffarga

Ghazi

rh

Ghotki

Mir Pur Khas

Khan

Less then Rs. 3000

37.0%

9.0%

29.0%

16.0%

20.0%

20.0%

15.0%

Rs. 3001 to Rs 5000

37.0%

35.0%

31.0%

32.0%

24.0%

18.0%

15.0%

Rs. 5001 to Rs 10000

17.0%

40.0%

25.0%

27.0%

54.0%

37.0%

34.0%

Rs. 10001 to Rs 15000

6.0%

11.0%

10.0%

18.0%

13.0%

26.0%

Rs 15001 to Rs 25000

1.0%

4.0%

3.0%

2.0%

12.0%

10.0%

1.0%

2.0%

2.0%

Rs. 25001 to Rs 40000

Greater then Rs 40000

2.0%

3.0%

2.0%

Income Ranges as per Districts

60.00%
50.00%

40.00%
30.00%
20.00%

10.00%
0.00%
Less then Rs. 3000

Rs. 3001 to Rs 5000

Rs. 5001 to Rs 10000

Rs 15001 to Rs 25000

Rs. 25001 to Rs 40000

Greater then Rs 40000

Rs. 10001 to Rs 15000

The graph above shows that Dera Ismail Khan is the poorest district where 74%
respondents are found to earn below Rs. 5,000. However there are few rich families only
in D.I.Khan and D.G. Khan, whose families are earning more than Rs. 40,000.

In

Bahawalnagar (40.0%) and Muzaffargarh (54%) population earns Rs. 10,000. Poverty is
rampant in the survey area.

A Living Conditions:
HOUSE HOLD CONDITION IN VILLAGESt

40
20
0
Percent

Katcha

Mixed

Pacca

27.1

38.3

34.6

The housing pattern "Katcha 27.1% and mixed 38.3% and Pacca 34.0%" indicates the
living conditions in rural areas.

Living Conditions as per Provinces

Conditions of Houses as per Provinces

Sindh

Punjab

NWFP

NWFP

Punjab

Sindh

Pacca

14.00%

40.80%

32.50%

Mixed

39.00%

37.00%

40.50%

Katcha

47.00%

22.30%

27.00%

Province-wise, most of the house (47%) are katcha in KPK, Punjab has more (40.8%)
pacca houses and Sindh claims more mixed structure houses (40.5%). The standard of
living could be assessed by assets accessibility i.e., ownership, quality, etc. Punjab ranks
first followed by Sindh and KPK. The table shows
Ownership Pattern
All Provinces
Frequency

Percentage

Cumulative %

Owned

646

92.3

92.3

Rented

54

7.7

100.0

Total

700

100.0

Status of Houses

Rented

7.7
92.3

Owned

Percent

Owned

Rented

92.3

7.7

Status of Ownership as per Provinces

Status of Houses as per Provinces
100.00%
80.00%
60.00%
40.00%
20.00%
0.00%

NWFP

Punjab

Sindh

Owned

97.00%

90.00%

94.50%

Rented

3.00%

10.00%

5.50%

Location
LOCATIONS OF HOUSES OF FARMERS

Urban

7.3

On Farm

31.3
61.4

In Village

Province
KPK

Punjab

Sindh

In Village

92.0%

60.5%

48.0%

On Farm

3.0%

33.3%

41.5%

Urban

5.0%

6.3%

10.5%

In KPK 92.0% farmers live in village but inspite of the fact that majority of farmers in
Punjab (60.5%) and Sindh (48.0%) live in village, a large number live on their farms as
well (Punjab 33.3% and Sindh 41.5%)

Location of Houses as per Provinces

100.00%
90.00%
80.00%
70.00%
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%

NWFP

Punjab

Sindh

In Village

92.00%

60.50%

48.00%

On Farm

3.00%

33.30%

41.50%

Urban

5.00%

6.30%

10.50%

Houses Locations as per Provinces

Conditions of Houses as per Provinces

Sindh

Punjab

NWFP

NWFP

Punjab

Sindh

Pacca

14.00%

40.80%

32.50%

Mixed

39.00%

37.00%

40.50%

Katcha

47.00%

22.30%

27.00%

This has been discussed above

Ownership as per Provinces

Ownership

Province
KPK

Punjab

Sindh

Owned

97.0%

90.0%

94.5%

Rented

3.0%

10.0%

5.5%

This has been discussed above.

Utility facilities in the villages

Basic Facilities available

46.9

Yes

Percent
53.1

NO

Percent

NO

Yes

53.1

46.9

This is however pathetic that majority of households (53.1%) have no access to utilities
like health, education, drinking water, sanitation and communications.

Water User Associations:

Water Users Association (WUA)39 is an alien term applied to a farmers' organization.
This has been now translated in local languages. While FOs work at distributary level, the
WUAs act at watercourse level.
A key to success in the institutional reform is the farmers participatory irrigation
management (PIM). The PIM approach manifests itself as a water users organization,
taking over the government responsibility of a distributary system and participating in the
PIDA Board and AWB as farmers representatives. This is the most significant shift of
power from the government to the farmers. The FOs and WUAs are organized water

39

Water Users Associations were created by OFWM Project. The Provincial Irrigation and Drainage
Authority (PIDA) as an autonomous body is responsible for carrying out all the functions of the irrigation
wing of the Irrigation Department, with independent revenue collection and purchasing authority, policy
formulation, legal enactment and supervision of the overall management of the irrigation and drainage
system in the province with emphasis on improving irrigation service delivery, optimizing water use
efficiency, introducing the concept of participatory management, undertaking measures to improve
assessment and collection of water charges, and making the authority a self-sustaining organization.
The Area Water Board (AWB) has to perform most of the aforementioned irrigation management functions
at canal command level, including bulk water supplies to the head of distributaries, and has to adopt such
implementation plans which are aimed at promoting the formation and growth of FOs.
A farmers organization (FO) is a basic farmer-managed unit responsible for operating and managing the
distributaries and subsystems. FO formation focuses on decentralization of irrigation system management
through public and private partnerships, participation of farmers and better resource governance to achieve
equity in distribution of supplies, improve cost recovery and encourage participatory management of the
irrigation system.

users (farmers) who are the basic actors of the institutional reform, together with the
government agencies.

Information about water users Associations

The farmers however know about Water Users Association (WUA) where such
association has been formed to renovate and line up the watercourse.
Information Regarding Water User
Association

23.3

No
Yes
76.7

The graph indicates that the majority of respondents (76.7%) had knowledge about Water
Users Association (WUA)
Organization that formed the associations
Many organizations like IIMI, NRSP, PIDAs, OFWM etc., have launched water
management projects.
Organization Name Information Who made Organization
45
41.1

40
35
30
25
20
17
15
12.4

10.7

10
5

5.7
3.4

4.9

4.7

0
Do not know

IIMI

IIMI & PIDAS

NO Information

NRSP

OFWM

PIDA

Scilent

However, the majority of respondents (41.1%) indicated that PIDA was the agency which
formed the organization. But this was F.O and not WUA.

Name by which organization was called

Organization

Frequency

Percentage

Cumulative Percentage

Do not know

265

37.9

37.9

Khal Committee

183

26.1

64.0

Village Committee

63

9.0

73.0

WUA

189

27.0

100.0

Total

700

100.0

The table above shows clearly that 40% of the people do not the name by which the
organization is identified, some (26.1%) say it is Khal Committee and another 27.0%
recognize it as WUA.
Water User Association Names
40
37.9
35
30
27

26.1

25
20
15
10

5
0
Do not know

Khal Committee

Village Committee

WUA

Respondents replies show that 37.9% do not know the name of organization, 26.1% call
it Khal Committee, 9.0% name it Village Committee and 27.0% identify it as WUA

Who made the organization

There are a number of organizations promoting water management and forming Water
Users Association under Water Users Associations Acts in different provinces. These are
OFWM, IIMI (independently or through SIDA and PIDA contract) and NRSP.
Name of Organization who made Farmer Organization
42.3

28.3

12.6

4.9

5.1

4.7

2.1
Do not know

IIMI

IIMI & PIDAS

IIMI & SIDA

NRSP

OFWM

PIDA

The above graph shows that 28.35% respondent were not aware of the fact as to which
organization formed the organization. OFWM is on the top with 42.3% credits. It is
followed by IIMI (IIMI 2.1%, IIMI & PIDA 4.9% and IIMI & SIDA 12.6%). NRSP
supported (4.7%) and PIDA (5.1%) organization formation.
How WUA was formed
The aim of establishing a water users association is basically to put in place a forum for
all beneficiaries to discuss and agree on the best way of utilizing the water resource in a
sustainable way. A functionally sound association requires the participation of all the
beneficiaries and support groups in a carefully thought through process that is within the
legal framework and ensures sustained interest by the stakeholders.
The mechanism is provided in the WUA Acts, rules and regulations. Since these are legal
entities, all the stake holders are members. They elect executive committee by consensus,
election or selection.
The process to develop a WUA can take 6-12 months, assuming other conditions
are ready. It involves:

Define legal basis for WUA by either establishing specific laws or regulations
or finding common ground among existing laws to clearly define the scope
within which a WUA functions responsibilities, nature of the organization,
membership, relationship with members and government agencies, administrative
and financial arrangements, water rights, etc.

Disseminate information to farmers and their groups, carry out campaigns and
promotional activities, and train candidate farmer leaders

Define physical boundaries of each WUA and water group, and collect base data
(important for contract negotiations, registration and monitoring & evaluation).

Prepare WUA by-laws and elect farmer leaders

Pass by-laws and register WUA

Provide technical support, capacity building, and supervision

WUA represents farmer water users in a command area democratically; have legal status
to enter into contracts and the necessary authority to manage an irrigation system (partial

or whole); operate and maintain irrigation infrastructure that is transferred to them or

under their jurisdiction; and have administrative and financial autonomy.
How made the Association
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Percent

Compromise

Do not know

Election

Nomination

Selection

50.1

8.3

24

1.1

16.4

Though the rules provide for elections, a compromise or a selection is preferred to avoid
biradari based conflict. It is therefore number one choice to compromise the positions
like leadership. It is evident from the graph above that compromise was exercised in
majority (50.1%) cases. Elections were held in 24% cases whereas selection took place in
16.4% cases.

Number of Participants in WUA Formation

The number of participants could be verified from the election records, but in
circumstances where the progress is counted by the efficiency demonstrated in formation
of WUAs, the stakeholders are seldom accounted for. In this survey, 24.3% did not
participate. The rest are highly skewed and except 15 participant (account for 9% of
respondents) others are nominal
0
1-10
11-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
61-70
71-80
81-90

Response
24.3
13.3
27.8
17.7
4.7
1.3
1
1.1
4.3
0.5

3
0.3
0.4
0.1
100

91-100
101-110
111-150
151-200
Total

The significant numbers indicated by respondents are none (24.3%), 15 (9%), 20 (8.4%)
and 80 (4.3%). This indicates that participation was very low.

Election Officer for Supervision of Elections

Information Regarding Election Officers who formed WUA
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Department
-5
Officer

Do not know

IIMI & PIDA

IIMI Officer

OFWM

Patwari

PIDA Officer

Representative

As regards presence of election officer, Department Officer (31.1%) conducted elections.

IIMI & PIDA accounted for 5.0%, IIMI Officer .9%, OFWM .3%, Patwari 6.1% and
PIDA Officer 8.4% cases of presiding elections. In 30.7% cases election officer was
representative of the organization conducting the election. It is evident that most of the
elections were conducted under the supervision of project authority.

Satisfaction with the process

Responses were almost equally divided 52.7% : 47.0%
NO INFORMATION PROVIDED

47.3

Information
was provided

52.7

No Information
Provided

44

46

48

50

52

54

If not satisfied, why?

Information regarding Importance of Association

Percentage

Awareness not provided

3.9

Community not informed

2.1

Excellent opportunity

5.7

Good work so no objection

15.3

It have weaknesses

10.9

Main object was other

Mobilization not done

3.9

No objection

22.9

No proper Method

0.4

Not assessments

9.1

Organization not focused

7.1

People have doubt

People not willing

1.4

Persons motivated should be improved

1.4

Some people authority

7.6

Total

100

Table above does not respond directly to the question but replies show that proper
awareness (social mobilization) 3.9% was not provided and community (2.1%) was not
informed of the activity. 5.7% think that it is an excellent opportunity for good work so
no objection in its formation (15.3%) 10.9% showed concern about WUA weaknesses
and that the main object was other than what was being told (4.0%). Though mobilization
was not done (3.9%) to win support of the irrigators, there was no objection (22.9%). No
proper method (9.5%) was followed and not assessment (7.1%) was made after formation
of WUA. The organization is not focused (4.0%) to declared objectives and people have
doubts (1.4%). The people (1.4%) were not willing 1.4%. Only 3.4% persons were
motivated. Things should be improved (2.1%) as it was game for some peoples' authority
(2.1 %).

Never-the-less, majority of the respondents were of the opinion that there was no
reservations in the process of the formation of Water Users' Associations (WUA) as these
were formed for the betterment of the community.

Training /Capacity building of Water Users Associations

Do u have Training to Run WUA

59.7
Yes

40.3
No

Percentage

10

20

30

40

50

60

40.3% respondents had no training while is 59.7% had benefited from it. As regards the
reason as to why WUA was formed, the majority was of the opinion that they did not
know. However, those who knew, declared that it was formed for construction work of
the watercourse and resolution of water disputes.
Why it was formed

Frequency

Percentage

Construction Works

82

11.7

Dispute resolving

10

1.4

Do not remember

40

5.7

General aspects

40

5.7

Institutional aspects

43

62

Institutional reforms

24

3.4

Joint Socio Economic activities

40

5.7

Kio nahin

39

5.6

Livestocks betterment

0.1

Loaning system

0.9

Meeting mein shamil huwa ha jo khal banana kaliya

0.9

Multi purpose

0.1

No information

0.9

Not

173

24.7

Not training & not give information

0.3

Office ka tareekakar ka liye training de giye hai

0.3

Only concerned persons

0.1

Running organization

1.1

Strengthen Irrigation system

40

5.7

Supervision of Work

23

3.3

Tameeri Kaam ki negranee

1.1

To run Organization

0.4

Training done but no knowledge

24

3.4

Water Course linings

72

103

Other

0.9

Total

700

100

As the figures indicate, 1.4% thought that it was construction work (watercourse lining)
while 5.7% considered that it was for dispute resolving. Joint Socio Economic activities
(5.6%) was also an opinion. This was repeated in one way or other. Training was given
but no knowledge was imparted (2.0%). Emphasis was on water course lining (8.3%).

Number of Training Sessions held

Training is integral part of the formation of WUAs, It is provided to build capacity of
WUA in record keeping, operation and maintenance of watercourse, management of
equitable water distribution, dispute resolution and creating awareness about efficient
water utilization.
Training No.

Frequency

Percent

Valid %

0
1
2
3
4
5
Total

419
204
42
22
5
8
700

59.9
29.1
6
3.1
0.7
1.2
100

59.9
29.2
6
3.1
0.7
1

Cumulative %
59.9
89.1
95.1
98.3
99
100

Numbers of Trainings to work

70
60

59.9

50
40
30

29.1

20
10

3.1

O
1
2
3
Training Training Training Training

1.2

0.7

4
Taining

5
Training

Majority 59.9% respondents did not attend any training session while 29.1% attended
only one session.

Training methods applied

Training for WUA consists both the lectures and field demonstration. A training plan is
prepared and notified in advance. The attendance is not mandatory but absence means
lack of interest. The social mobilizer makes it attractive so that the message is conveyed
in a befitting manner. Non-conventional methods are also applied. Demonstration is part
of training as seeing is believing.
Method of Trainings

Lecture and on ground

In meeting information provided
No comments

14.9
13
72.1

The survey indicates that 72.1% were confused and did not know what to say. 13.0%
thought that it was a meeting in which information was provided while 14.9% indicated
that it was lectures and on ground demonstrations. As regards training subject 86.6% did
not respond. This indicates that the training had little impact on awareness and
knowledge transfer. (See Table below)

Training subject

Frequency

Percentage

No Response

606

86.6

About repair of canals

.3

Fazashanasal ka tareeqa jarhe butieoo pe sparay ka tareeqa

.1

Organization ko chalanay ke method, ajnas ka zakhera karna

.1

Sugarcane and wheat cultivation

.1

Cleaning of land and canal

.1

Concerning only civil workers

.3

Water Conservation

.1

Diesel engine ka estamal aur rabaring ka baray mein

.3

Distribution of water

.1

Don not know

.3

Sheep and goat farming training, seed, selection, storage

.3

Gathering meeting, livestock, pesticide, training, seed selection, storage,

.1

Hafta mein do sa teen dafah chakar lagata tha aur samjaha hata tha

.1

Importance of water course

.1

Improvement of water course

.1

Improvement of water course

1.3

.1

Janglaat, lovestock, zarraat

.3

jiss level ka naala banana tha wahan nahin bana, civil works

.1

Junglaat, livestock

.3

.1

Kabhe nahin huwa

.1

khal ki bhateri kaliya

.1

Khaloo ka barab mein zarayat ka bara mein

.3

Khaloo ki shahee tareeqa sa mazbout banana kaliya

.1

Kuch nehi bataya

.3

.1

Leveling of land about fertilizer etc

.1

Leveling of the land water discustion

.1

Leveling the land

.1

Livestock ka bara mein organization structure ko chalana ka bara mein

.1

Is community mein hissa nahin liya iss liya kou hkas iss tareeqa ka pata
nahin

Kaam ka duran construction ka kaam ka vara main bataba tha eant sa

eant ka fasala bataya tha eantain check ke thein

L.M.S.T kapas ka bara mein, channay ka beej, gandum, ka beej store,

sabzeeya, spray

Livestock, beej

.1

Manager ke responsibility hain

.1

Mawashe ki afzayasha nasel, zarayat ka bara mein

.3

.1

Nalay kipukhtagi ka mutaleq tha

.4

Organization chalana ka bara mein C.M.S.T

.1

Organization ko sadar kaliya method

.1

Overseer

.3

Pacca khal ki afadeyat ka bara mein bataya tha pura pani estamam ho ga

.1

Peter engine ki repairing ka bara mein

.1

Peter engine repairing, organization, ka bara mein

13

1.9

Peter engine training

.1

Peter ki information, livestock

.1

Riping of canals

.3

.3

Sheeps & goat farming

.3

Sheep and goat farming, first aid

.1

To know about the pestisides and their antidote

.1

Tdraining be hoti ha aur mazduri bhe

.3

Training ka kheyyal nahin aya

.3

Training per ya muqah per batay tha

.4

Water management

.1

Water time for different kind of crops

.1

Total

700

100.0

Mehkama na sarway kiya tha community ki majdagee mein durbeen ka

sath marking waghara ki the level waghare ki eantain lagwayee thein

Serway kiya tha durbeen ka sath marking kar de the level ke eantiain
laga de the

Benefits of WUA
The anticipated benefits of WUA are increase in crop production through making more
water available by minimization of the losses at two stages: watercourse and the farm.
The farmers appreciate that WUA has prove beneficial. This is demonstrated by the
statements given below.

Water User Association Benifits

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
No

Yes

Major benefits of WUA are spelt in the following expressions: WUAs lead to farmers'
participation in irrigation system as it is government policy to practice irrigation water
management. It leads to lining of water course and result in self reliance. The water
issues are highlighted and proper solutions are sought.
Major Benefits of WUA

Percentage

Farmer participation in system

Government policy

5.6

Irrigation water management

12.7

It was paper work

11.7

Just paper work was done

1.3

Lining of water course

9.3

Necessary for wc lining

13.9

No benefit, no useful

8.3

No comments

1.7

No proper association formed

People problem facing

0.1

People participation in system

0.1

Self reliance

0.1

To fulfill requirements

28.1

Water issues highlighted

Total

100

However, 28.1% agree that benefit of WUA is fulfillment of legal requirements and
WUA is provided legal cover for implementation and operation of water management
activities.

Legal support by the Department

The legal cover is provided to WUAs through Water User Association Ordinances and
Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Authorities under which WUA/FOs are empowered to
exercise powers of governance for better administration of irrigation issues. However
majority of departments concerned (62.6%) do not provide required legal support.

Legal Support to WUA by

Departments
100
62.6

50

37.4

0
No Support

Yes Support

No Support

Yes Support

Nature of Support Provided by the Department

It is pathetic that once WUA is formed, it becomes just talk and no action (55.1%).
Mostly, the departments end with supervision of civil works (39.1%). This has limited the
WUA activities to watercourse renovation (?) and lining only.
Frequency

Percentage

Cumulative Percentage

Just paper work was done

1.1

1.1

No benefit, no use full

1.1

2.3

No just talk

386

55.1

57.4

People problems facing

1.1

58.6

Self reliance

1.1

59.7

Supervision of worker

274

39.1

98.9

Water issues highlighted

1.1

100.0

Total

700

100.0

Moral support
Moral Support to WUA

47.3

Yes Support Provided

52.7

No Support

Moral Support Provided

Water User Associations get moral support that results in cooperative spirits developed,
disputes are resolved, farmers get encouraged and are happy with this work. Joint
adventures are highlighted and social mobilization gets them to work together.
Water User Associations Moral Support

Frequency

Percentage

Cooperative spirits developed

107

15.3

Disputes were resolved

120

17.1

Encouraged

0.1

Farmers happy with this work

101

14.4

Joint adventures highlighted

106

15.1

Nothing special

73

10.4

Social mobilization

101

14.4

Tell advantages

60

8.6

They work together

31

4.4

total

700

100

Increase in Social Status of WUA Official

Social status is considered as gain in appreciation of services provided and happiness of
farmers. Since most of respondents act as part of WUAs, they express like community
respect my services (13.9%), farmers are happy with this work (20%), people like it
(8.4%) and society appreciated me (7.7%)

Frequency

Percentage

Percentage

97

13.9

13.9

Farmers happy with this work

140

20.0

33.9

Nothing special

142

20.3

54.1

Other reasons does allow to respect

208

29.7

83.9

People like it

59

8.4

92.3

Society appreciated me

54

7.7

100.0

700

100.0

Community respect my services

Total

Nature of Leadership of the Association

It is encouraging that (55.6%) leadership was good.

What Type of Leadership Come from

WUA
7

Poor

37.4

Medium

55.6

Good

Majority of the leadership was from the middle class (58.57%)

LEADERSHIP CLASS
60.00
40.00
20.00
0.00
Series1

Poor

Middle

Rish

21.43

58.57

20.00

Educational level of Leadership

More educated leadership (50%) is leading the WUAs and more than 50% is educated to
middle level. Highly educated is less than 20%. The rest is illiterate.

Leadership Education
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Highly Educated

Middle

Illetrate

Moral Character of Leadership

The moral character is the barometer for justice and fair play. The best of the people are
those who are pious and practice piety. In rural life, character counts more as the
community is simple and innocent. The literacy rate is low and the people believe in their
leaders without asking questions. It is fortunate that WUA leadership (60%) bears good
moral character. This ensures good working of WUA affairs.
Moral Character of WUA Leadership
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Very Good

Good

Bad

Not So Bad

Leadership Involvement in Criminal Activities

WUA Leadership Invole in Water Theft

100
No
50
Yes
0
No

Yes

S1

Data shows that about 100% of WUAs the leadership was not involved in crimes like
water theft.

WUA Usefulness
WUA Useful to solve problems

Not Useful

Yes Useful

20

40

60

80

In 70% of the cases, it has been demonstrated that WUAs have been proved useful in
solving the problems of the water users.

Usefulness of WUA
However, in cases WUA has failed to sole legitimate problems (about 23%), the main
reasons are lack of training, proper procedure was not followed, problem not focused to
WUA obligations, complaint without legal right and it was frivolous.
WUA not solving problems reasons

Trainings not done

Some what batter

Some committees were
better
Proper procedure not done

Problems not focused

Nothing special

Have no legal rights

0

10

15

20

25

30

Means of Agricultural Information

The relevant departments provided information through TV, Radio, Agricultural workers,
friends and relatives.
Agriculture information Means

TV
Relatives
Radio
Friends
Agri workers
0

10

20

30

Credit facility
The credit facility is available to only 31.1% of the population. Water Users' Associations
(WUAs) were useful for the smooth implementation of on-farm water management
projects, they were not meant, by reason of their design to target the poor specifically.
Though subsequent involvement of IFAD in private minor and micro-irrigation
tubewells, through improved access to credit, has contributed to the increase in
agricultural production, particularly in the case of small farmers. WUAs can obtain loan
only collectively and not individually. Thus majority of members can't obtain the credit
as members of WUA.
Creditfacility Available

68.9

Not Available

31.1

Yes Available

20

40

60

80

Livestock
Production risk is inherent in agriculture due to multiple factors including dependence on
weather that can be minimized through proper intervention. Workshops, seminars,
advertisement, distant education, and road shows can enhance awareness among the rural
population majority of which is directly or indirectly associated with the agriculture.
Livestock play an important role in risk control; it improves household welfare through
reduction in income variability. Mixed farming enable rural families to decrease exposure
to risk through diversification. Almost all the members of WUA practice mixed farming.

Sources of Water
The study was carried out in canal irrigated area. The sources of water in area is canal
water, deep tube wells and rain. The canal water comes from the dams where river water
is impounded and released as demanded by irrigation demand and power generation. In
case of deficiency in canal water, tube wells are installed by individual farmers to
augment their irrigation water supplies. WUA philosophy supports conjunctive use of
water by WUA members by installation of tubewell at the head of watercourse.

Watercourse
Watercourse is defined as river, stream or any open ditch that carries water for irrigation
of the farm. Here we are concerned with the man-made ditch dug to take water from a
canal to irrigate farms of one or more farmers. The responsibility to maintain a
watercourse rests with the user(s). Since the farmers in Pakistan are little aware of the
hydraulics of the watercourse, with time, the watercourse deteriorates and loses its proper
alignment i.e., proper slope, cross section and direction, which are necessary for speedy
flow of water. The watercourse is lined in seepage and saline areas to keep quantum and
quality of water in tact.

Was your water course lined

The survey shows that 100% of watercourses are lined in the survey area.
Frequency
No Water Course Not Lined

Percentage

.4

Yes Water Course Lined

697

99.6

Total

700

100.0

If yes, when it was lined. Mention (Year)

Since the institutionalization of Water Users Associations in 1981, the work of lining has
been undertaken by OFWM project. Though one-third of respondents do not remember
the year, (31.4%) remember that it was in 1982 and (69.6%) say that the watercourse was
lined in 2004.
Frequency

Percentage

105

15.0

1981

.1

1982

220

31.4

1983

1.0

1984

.1

1985

10

1.4

1986

31

4.4

1987

.6

1988

.1

1989

1.3

1990

.6

1991

.3

1992

1.1

1993

.6

1994

1.0

1995

.1

1996

.6

1997

.9

1998

.6

1999

41

5.9

2000

.1

2001

.7

2002

.9

2003

.7

2004

487

69.6

Do not know

213

30.4

Total

700

100.0

Do not know

Water course lined by agencies

In the survey are NRSP, OFWM and IIMI undertook the watercourse improvement and
lining work. NRSP did this project through its Partner Organizations and IIMI acted in
association with PIDAs. Most of the work was done by OFWM working under the
Provincial Departments of Agriculture. The chart below shoes that NRSP supported
lining of 13.9% watercourses, OFWM lined 77.6% watercourses and it was unknown
about the remaining 8.6% watercourses as to who sponsored these watercourses.

Organizations Linned Water Courses

NRSP

13.9
77.6

OFWM
Donot Know

8.6

Contribution provided by Farmers

The members of the Water Users' Association (WUA) are, according to the project
agreement, supposed to provide land, free labour and 20% or so of the cost of materials.
The technical support and 80% cost of materials is provided by the OFWM.
Contrubution Time for Water Course Linning
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Donot know Provided Cash Provided Free Provided Land
Payment
Labour

In the graph above, it shows that in the survey area, about 23% WUAs provided cash and
67% provided free labour. No land was provided by any WUA as the watercourse already
existed. 10% respondent did not know about WUA contribution.

Satisfaction of Farmers with the Construction work

The quality of lining determines the life of civil works. The level of satisfaction of the
respondents is determined by the graph shown below. According to the graph, 10% of
respondents were not satisfied with the civil works, 30% were fully satisfied and 40%
were partially satisfied.

Satisfaction with construction work

60
40
20
0
Not satisfied

Yes

Some What

Irrigation Water
The main objective of the watercourse improvement is to get full supply of the canal
water. The survey showed that 42.9% respondent felt that they got more water than
before, 17.6% thought that it was normal flow and 39.6% felt that the losses had been
reduced to greater extent. The water reached quickly at the tail of the watercourse.

Find Canal Water Regularly

50

0
Series1

1.

2. More

3.

17.6

42.9

39.6

Cleaning of Watercourse
The canal water contains lot of silt which gets accumulated in the bed of watercourses
and the bed level rises up. This results in reduction of the water intake from the canal or
distributary. Regular silt clearance is thus necessary to keep the bed level normal.

Cleaning of Water Course

Yes Clean regularly
Not clean regularly
0

20

40

60

80

100

Series1

More than 80% respondents replied that they cleaning the silt regularly while less than
20% respondents confessed that silt clearance was not regular.
Houw Many Time Clean Water
Four Time
Three Times
Twice
One Time
Not Clean
0

50

100

150

When asked as to how many times, they cleared silt, about 125 respondent said that they
cleared 4 times annually. Less than 30 respondents in each case told that they cleaned the
silt 1, 2 and 3 times. There were about 25 respondents who did not clean the watercourse.

Maintenance of Renovated Water Course

Maintenance of renovated watercourse keeps it in good shape. Ditch tender is hired to
pick weeds from kacha section, repair any side cuts, remove rodent holes, etc. This is a
regular job. The survey revealed that 11% respondents indicated that they hired some one
to work

Maintenance of Water Course

Many Times
4%

Hired person
11%
More than three times
3%
No Response
16%

Free labour
66%

Farmers contribution in renovation of watercourse

Maintenance Procedure

Percentage

No Response

16.1

Free labour

64.9

Many Times

3.7

Hired person

11.4

More than three times

3.3

Total

99.41

This table shows the same information as the graph above. It is evident that members of
WUAs provide free labour to undertake the work of watercourse renovation and lining.
Mason is of course hired and can be termed as hired person.

Provide Own Labour

Percentage
Free labour with machinery

36.3

No

10.4

Yes

53.3

Total

100.0

The table corroborated the above information as the respondent (53.3%) say in
affirmative that own labour is provided and that 36.3% confirm that it is free labour with
provision of machinery as well.

How are you maintaining renovated watercourse?

The responsibility for maintenance of renovated watercourse was also entrusted to WUA.
The community was satisfied (46%) as well marginally satisfied (42.9%) with the
watercourse renovation activity.
Community Impression on Renovated Water Course

42.9

Less Useful

46

Fully Useful

11.1

No Response

Maintenance of WC
A watercourse is a community liability and it is joint responsibility of all members, but
there are many, e.g., those at the head who are not taking interest to join hands with tail
enders to maintain the watercourse. A social action becomes ipmerative to convince
every one to cooperate in the whole activity. Three options are there: one if it could be in
traditional manner i.e., by fixing a day just for silt clearance. This does not include
maintenance activities; two by the farmers themselves for the reach that affects them and
the third, by WUA itself to maintain cooperation as well as uniformity. For maintenance
of renovated watercourse, third option is preferable. This is evident from the following
graph and table that farmers choose the third option.
Whow maintain Renovated WC
Through
Traditional
Farmers
Themselves
Through Water
User
Association
0

20

40

60

80

The table below shows that 70.4% respondents indicated that it was through Water
Association that the maintenance work was carried out. 27% were of the opinion that
farmers did it themselves and 2.6% opined that traditional way continued.
There are different opinions about the manner in which WUA decides to get the
renovated watercourse maintained. All options give results but WUA may employ
external labour which many of the members may not agree to, and prefer to do it my
themselves. The traditional manner is blend of both. It fulfils the requirement of the rules
and regulation as well as keep the tradition alive.
Percentage
Through Water User Association

70.4

Farmers Themselves

27.0

Through Traditional

2.6

Total

100.0

Any deficiency in Renovated Water Course

It is but natural that after initial renovation, that maintenance of renovated watercourse
falls in hands that have access neither to technology nor the instrumentation. Thus 86.4%
respondents point out that yes, there is deficiency. The training given by the sponsoring
agency leads to awareness about 'How to do it?'. It does not give experience.
There are 13.6% respondents who consider the renovation work without deficiency.

Any Defficiency Found in WC

100
80
60
40
20
013.6
No deficiency

86.4

Yes Deficiency

Deficiency in Civil work

The majority of respondents (50.7%) had no comments on this subject, but 49.3%
thought the lining had weakened with age. The watercourses lined in early years (198182) must have developed these signs.
Percentage
Lining is weak now

49.3

No comments

50.7

Total

100.0

Earth Work Deficiency

Earth Worka Done
46.3
42

11.7

Earth work was fine

No proper done

No training was done

Unlike lining, the earthwork is more easily broken. In 46.3% cases initial earthwork was
fine, 42% respondents thought that it was not done properly and 11.7% attribute it to lack
of proper training.

Any Problems in Civil Work

The majority of respondents, more than (60%) had no comments on the quality of civil
works, but some around 20% thought that it was some what weak. However 10% were
sure that it was deficient.
Quality of Civil Work

There were some

weaknesses
No comments
Civil work was poor
0

20

40

60

80

Any deficiency in Nacca Installation

Nacca or farm gate outlet is very unsteady as in case pucca nacca is not there, the farmer
has to struggle with eroding earth that he uses for opening or closing of water for
irrigating his field. Pucca nacca is very helpful in this case. Farmer has just to remove the
lid. This is a boon.
Nacca Installation

40.9

No comments

18.4

Nakkas were
short
nakkas were
okay

40.7

There were no comments (40.9%) on this issue, 40.7% respondents okayed the nacca but
18.4% respondent complained about shortage of them.
Benefits of Renovated Water Course
The renovation of watercourse results in reduction of water losses, speed in water flow
and ease of irrigation. Thus cropped area increases and more production results. Use of
tubewell also reduces and there is reduction in operation costs.
Benifits Irrigation from Renovated WC
Increased Cropped Area
Less Silt Deposition
Easier to Clean
Less Time to Irrigate
Less use of Tube well or Other
Water
Decline in Water Losses
0

20

40

60

80

According to majority of respondents (nearly 60%), there was less use of tube well,
decline in water losses was mentioned by about 20% respondents. Other benefits
indicated were less of silt deposits, ease of cleaning the watercourse, less time to irrigate
the land as compared to pre-renovation and ease of access.

Destruction in Water Course

For complete renovation of the watercourse, it is mandatory to demolish the whole
watercourse, remove all vegetation, reconstruct ditch pad, compact it, dig out the ditch
according to the designed X-section before lining. The lining portion is preferably at the
head of watercourse, sandy area or section underlain with brackish water,
Percentage
No Destruction

13.1

Yes Destruction in Civil Work

86.9

Total

100.0

Destruction in Renovated WC

Other

15%

Destruction of
reconstructed
earth section

Damage of
Nacces and
leakage

Destruction of
Lining

40%

25%

20%

The above graph shows the damages once the watercourse is renovated. Since earthen
section is vulnerable to extensive damage, 40% of respondents expressed that it happened
as expected. 25% of respondents reported nacca leakage. Actually nacca and lid are
constructed in matching pairs. Once the set is disturbed, leakage is likely to happen.
Destruction of lining was reported by 20% of respondents. This might have happened due
to age of the watercourse renovation.

Impact assessment of Water User Association

Primary direct benefits of OFWM projects were expected to be increased agricultural
production, resulting from expanded cropping with "saved" water, and a reduction in the
depredations of waterlogging and salinity through reducing seepage from channels. The
avoided costs of new storage reservoirs, in the never-ending search for expanded surface
supplies, were a major secondary benefit. In contrast to channel lining programs
elsewhere, there was no mention of reduced pumping costs as a benefit, with increased
surface supplies at the farm substituting for tubewell supplies in fresh groundwater areas,
because the strategy concentrated on achieving water savings in saline groundwater areas.
The On-Farm Water Management (OFWM) projects aimed to improve the final
distribution of surface supplies to individual farms through watercourse upgrading and
better water management at the farm level, without reference to related supply canal
conditions and the reliability of supplies to watercourses.
The indirect objectives of Project were to improve the productivity of the irrigation
activities in the country.

Improved water productivity would translate into greater

agricultural output per unit of water used, and would be achieved through improved
physical delivery efficiency, irrigation practices, crop diversification and effective
application of inputs. The projects objectives would contribute to increased agricultural
production, employment and incomes, higher living standards and positive environmental
outcomes.
The following major Impacts have been considered by this study:
(a) Institutional Impact
(b) Social Impact
(c) Economic Impact
(d) Gender Impact
(e) Impact on livestock
(f) Impact on Environment
(g) Impact on Health
(h) Impact on Education

Impact of Institutional Reforms

The projects attempted to improve both the identified problems at the government level
and to introduce new institutions at the watercourse level. The OFWM and CWM

projects attempted to tackle the institutional problem of lack of coordination between the
Provincial Irrigation Departments (PIDS) and Provincial Agriculture Departments
(PADs), but the project specific arrangements were not able to overcome long-standing
and deep divisions between the departments. The ambitions of the projects in this respect
were unrealistic, since the degree of institutional change expected was too extreme to be
achieved in the limited context of individual projects.
On watercourses, the major institutional initiative of establishing water users associations
(WUAs) ignored the existence of traditional local institutions. The project designs failed
to recognize the existing watercourse committees, and hence the WUAs were not the
innovation they purported to be and had a limited effective life-mostly functioning only
while the watercourses were being renovated. An unknown number of WUAs were no
more than token institutions formed merely to satisfy the prerequisite that they be
established before watercourses could be renovated. A few WUAs are reported to
continue to function, but in reality it is often the traditional canal committee which is
functioning still, and little incremental institutional growth is attributable to the WUAS.
Understanding of Reforms

Percentage

No Response

21.6

Community and Government

69.6

Devolution

8.8

Total

100.0

The table above shows that in 69.6% cases, it was joint action of the government and
community. 21.6% cases did not understand the reform and 8.8% thought that it was
devolution of, not powers but responsibilities.

Lessons Learned from Water User Associations

Formation of WUA, had mixed perception, mainly that improvement in institutional
reforms was testing a community model, it was a cooperative approach with devolution
of powers, it was a help to the land owner to effect progress and needed improvement.
Majority (30.6%) of respondents thought that it had no effect meaning it was necessary to
replace traditional set up.

Improvement in Institutional Reforms

Percentage

No Response

21.1

Community Model

8.6

Cooperative approach

9.4

Devolution of powers

2.9

Easy and good

14.1

Food approach

3.7

Helping the land owner will take effect on progress

1.6

Need improvement

8.0

No effect

30.6

Total

100

Benefits of Water Users Association

The projected benefits were heroic since the lessons that were learnt were the farmers'
perceptions that it made possible to cultivate crop on right time, cooperative model made
it successful and forming WUA is a good thing (23.4%). Problems could be solved
jointly (27%), poverty alleviation would take place (14%), unity is strength (10.4%) and
so on.
Lesson Learned from Reforms

Percentage

Right time for cultivation of crops

6.7

Cooperative model give successes

forming organization is a good thing

23.4

Jointly we can solve problems

27

No opinion

13

Poverty alleviation through cooperation

14

Union is strength

10.4

Work together is good thing

3.4

Total

100

Alternate options devised

No alternate options were tried and the respondents were not clear as the majority
(59.4%) did not know about it, 15.9% advocated research by government and 24.7%
thought that local solutions must be opted.

Percentage
Don not know

59.4

Govt should research on it

15.9

Locally

24.7

Total

100

Different Models tested internationally, Nationally and locally

The majority (75.7%) had no information and 12.1% each desired international
recognition or local intervention respectively.
Percentage
Do not know

75.7

Internationally recognized

12.10

Locally

12.1

Total

100

Social Impacts of WUA

Most of the WUAs studied helped in the promotion of social equity which is an important
national objective. This had several facets. One was the more equitable distribution of
water between head, middle and tailenders. Another facet was distribution of water
within a reach itself. Distribution was more equitable in the case also. Most of the
farmers expressed satisfaction over delivery schedules worked out by members of WUA
through common consent. WUAs had been specially helpful to small and marginal
farmers who generally constitute the majority in most of the associations and who
thereby got adequate and timely supply of water.
Provision of assured water supply to members brought about a change in social
environment. It reduced social tension in the villages. The transfer of management
responsibilities to WUAs reduced the scope for corruption which reportedly prevailed in
the earlier system. Most of the farmer respondents of this study mentioned this as a factor
which facilitated their acceptance of the new system.40

40

http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/irmed/irm_ch8.pdf

Poverty Alleviation
There was poverty alleviation of 1-25% in most of the cases.
Poverty Alleviation T hrough WC
Renovation

Improvement is
76% to 100 %
Improvement is
51% to 75%
Improvement is
26% to 50%
Improvement is
1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%

How Poverty is alleviated

Percentage
It is better than before

12.1

Agriculture over all is unprofitable

4.7

Gathering do better decisions

2.4

Good houses, clothes and bread

4.1

Food intervention by government

4.1

Increased water play good role

Need legal rights

2.4

No impact. WC does not took water, WC is up than canal

2.9

No poverty alleviation due to lined water course

5.7

No significant impact

12.3

Noe every farmer have good house

5.9

Now every body works hard

1.7

Now we get food

2.3

Now we have good facilities

2.4

Now we purchase land

3.3

Povery and other factors are also involved

3.1

Poverty has finished. Pahlay logoo ko mazduri milte

Poverty have totally alleviated

Significant impacts

7.4

Some weaknesses are visible

1.3

Water course up so not impacts

10.7

Total

100

Poverty alleviation has different meaning with different people as it is their need
fulfillment. Many felt that life is better than before, though agriculture over all is
unprofitable, WUA is a gathering to do better decisions. Now there are good houses,
clothes and bread. It is like food intervention by government. Increased water plays
positive role. Legal rights are needed.
The other side of the coin shows no impact. WC does not draw water as its level is higher
than the canal. There has been no poverty alleviation due to lined water course as there is
no significant impact

Social Impact
Economic and social impacts are mainly changes in work loads for men and women,
health benefits, changes in amenities and communications, and adjustments in equity and
social cohesion.
The substantial labor savings on irrigation management and watercourse maintenance
outweighed the increase needed to expand cropping. Watercourse disputes were also
much reduced, since a lined channel makes illicit activities more difficult. For women the
picture is less clear: labor demands increased for field tasks, because cropped areas
increased, but the domestic amenity value of improved watercourses was much
appreciated by women's groups.
Improvement in Quality of Life
Improvement is
76% to 100 %
Improvement is
51% to 75%
Improvement is
26% to 50%

0.6

3.3

15

Improvement is
1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%

58.3

22.4

The improvement in quality of life recorded by 58.3% respondents shows that it was 1 to
25%, while 22.4% did not visualize any impact. The other 20% respondent felt the
change to higher degree.

How life is improved

Percentage

Agriculture is enjoy full job now

8.9

Enjoying it as beautiful change

3.1

Life is easy now

10.1

No danger of snakes etc

6.1

No fight in desilting

Now we enjoy agriculture profession

11.9

Our lives are easy now

17.7

People are becoming smart

People are quite thoughtful

5.7

So many hardles remove

5.9

very much changed

4.4

We appreciate

10

Worried about irrigation removed

6.1

Total

100

The quality of life has improved in many ways. For example agriculture as a full time has
been enjoyable meaning that there would be population shift to the cities. Life has
become easier, as there is no danger of snakes, etc. Since hurdles are removed, people
have got time to think - they have become smart, cooperative and caring.

KAP Improvement
Pakistan has long history of irrigated agriculture and the farmer has gained that much
knowledge about raising crops by any known way of irrigation. As we know through
history that irrigation practices in Pakistan varied from direct rain on the land to sailaba,
inundation, diversion, weirs, barrages and dams, wells, tube wells and karez; the farmers'
knowledge was limited to getting water without any change in agronomic practices. Thus
the farmers' attitude has been a firm belief in 'no change'. Change in practice has been
brought by his observation of other farmers' change for better.
The survey found that KAP improvement was indicated as zero in case of 28%
respondents. There was some change (1-25%) in 40% responses and this is the peak. The
graph falls down smoothly to 2% respondents who perceive 76-100% improvement.

This is highly discouraging and calls for more social mobilization and knowledge transfer
couple with demonstration to convince the farmers to practice of modern technology at
field level. Farmers are convinced with the benefits of watercourse improvement and
need to take action individually at farm level.
KAP Improvement
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
No Impact 0%

Improvement is
1% to 25 %

Improvement is
26% to 50%

Improvement is
51% to 75%

Improvement is
76% to 100 %

KAP Improvement specify

Percentage
Agriculture development sense have been increased

8.7

Agriculture information and new ways of cultivation

10.4

Have media reasons

12

He who are rich call intelligent

10.3

Information about trees development have been increased

Know about agriculture equipments

8.7

People are changed now and more intelligent

4.2

Personal life have improved

8.7

TV make us intelligent

The people are being conscious and thoughtful

5.7

The people are thoughtful and very conscious

They are happy

They are prosperous

thinking of people is changed

1.4

Use of machinery is increased

We get more attention

8.7

Whole population is wise now

Total

100

The table above shows that in no case respondents exceeding 12% agree on any one
tangible change. They say (8.7%) agriculture development sense has increased, more
agriculture information is available (8.7%) for finding new ways of cultivation (1.4%).
This has been made possible by media (12%). The change has been adopted by rich
(10.3%) who are more intelligent. They know about agriculture equipments, get their
lands leveled and plant in a better manner. TV makes the people more conscious and
thoughtful for positive change.

Use of Machinery
The mechanization has brought speed and reduced drudgery. Tractorization has been
replaced by custom made equipment like bed-shapers, planters, harvesters, loaders, etc.
The graph below indicates the respondents opinions. A little minority (14.7%) perceives
no improvement. However the majority (74.8%) falls in 26-75% bracket. Others see
improvement but to lesser extent.
Improvement in Machinery
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Series1

No Impact
0%
14.7

Improvem Improvem Improvem Improvem

ent is 1% ent is 26% ent is 51% ent is 76%
45.3

29.5

4.2

The table below gives details of machinery use. Increase in resources results in increased
use of machinery. The tractor is common these days (23.6%). Seed drill use has
increased. Tubewells are functional to augment water supplies (23.6%). Increase in
machinery use has been possible due to general trend, media and credit (5.0%).
Use of Machinery

Percentage

More resources more machinery

23.6

Tractor is common now

23.6

Tubewell are functional now

23.6

Use of Machinery increased

29.5

Total

100

Conflict Resolution
Inequitable water distribution caused by unimproved tertiary system has always resulted
in conflicts. The watercourse renovation has caused unhindered flow of water possible,
increased its velocity and reduced time to reach tail end. The reduction of losses has
made more water available and checked thefts.
The graph below shows the impact of watercourse renovation on conflict resolution.
Conflicts Reduced

Improvement is 76%
to 100 %

2.4

Improvement is 51%
to 75%

2.6

Improvement is 26%
to 50%

11.1

Improvement is 1%
to 25 %

No Impact 0%

54.5

29.3

About one-third of the respondent (29.3%) feel that there has been no impact.
However majority of respondent 54.5% think that there has been improvement (1-25%).
One-tenth (11.1%) feel the change of 25-50%. In the ultimate analysis, conflicts continue
to occur.
Conflicts Removal, specify

Percentage

Basis of conflict removed

12.9

Conflict resolved

20

Hasnt made effect

2.9

No water course desilting, no quarrels

14.3

Now people solve problems by talks

12.9

People are busy so they dont fight

24.3

Rich people doesnt like conflicts

12.9

Total

100

The table above demonstrates that basis of conflict (water scarcity) has been removed,
hence conflicts stand resolved. No water course silting takes place and hence there are no

quarrels, people solve problems by talks. People are busy so they find no time for
conflict.

Economic Impact
The OFWM strategy is relatively low cost, it is very popular with farmers and
government staff, and it is technically effective. However, to become fully efficient, the
program needs to move away from subsidies and toward greater private sector
involvement at market prices.
The projects have also had indirect economic impacts. Workloads for men have fallen
significantly. Big labor savings on irrigation management and watercourse maintenance
have outweighed the labor increase needed to expand cropping. Typically farmers
reported that managing irrigation now takes one person where three were needed in the
past. Patrolling watercourses upstream of the farm is hardly necessary now that breaches
are rare andwith lined channelswater theft is so much more difficult. Having fewer
disputes over water has improved social cohesion.41

Increase in Water Availability

Though conditions vary widely throughout the system, watercourse upgrading has
reduced average losses by 25-40 percentdown from about 40 percent to 25-30 percent
of the flows at the watercourse head. The greater estimate implies that, on average, the
improved watercourses are supplying farmers with an extra 230 cubic meters of water
annually. And water supplies have been evened out between farmers at the heads and
tails of watercourses.
The following graph shows the perceptions about the rate of increase in water availability
due watercourse renovation.

41

http://lnweb90.worldbank.org/oed/oeddoclib.nsf/DocUNIDViewForJavaSearch/601AF76831E9A1C08525
67F5005D8D81

Increase in Water Availibility

No Impact 0%
Improvement is 26% to 50%

Improvement is 1% to 25 %
Improvement is 51% to 75%

Improvement is 76% to 100 %

The table below shows the results of increase in water availability. The most important
benefit is the water availability at the tail end of watercourse. This has been expressed by
33.1% of the respondents. 12.1% said that the water was available all the year round.
15.4% feel that water availability has increased. Now more area is cropped according to
14.7% respondents but 13.9% respondents complained that water in canal has decreased.
Percentage
Because we are in Tail which is away from us

2.4

Canal Water is productive so we happy

14.7

Major benefit at tail reach

15

No effect

11.7

Now water is available all the year round

12.1

Water availability increased

15.4

Water in canal decreased

13.9

We irrigate more area

14.7

Total

100

Increase in cropped area

The increase in cropped area is not the logical conclusion of increase in water
availability. It depends upon the availability of additional land for crop production. In
such case a farmer tends to grow crop with higher water requirement or prefer to meet
water deficit to meet full water requirement of the existing crop. If he has no choice, he
tends to sell water.

The graph below shows change in cultivated area. 25% respondent find no impact.38%
find 1-25% increase, 20% respondents envision 26-50% change 5% perceive 51-75%
change and the rest (about 8%) think that there was an increase of 76 to 100%.
Increase in Cultivated Area
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
No Impact 0%

Improvement is 1%
to 25 %

Improvement is
26% to 50%

Improvement is
51% to 75%

Improvement is
76% to 100 %

The table blow dilates upon 5.9% opinions for increase but 25% respondents feels that
other factors are involved in the increase and this may be 100%. Some say that New area
cultivated due to this water course as the water is available in full quantity (11.8%).
Area specify

Percentage

Area of Cultivation increased

8.6

Increased but other factors involved

25

New area cultivated due to this water course

2.9

Now water is available in full quantity which wasnt in past

8.9

Now water reaches to us which has sent in past

32

Same situation

Save of time & increase in water for cultivation

2.4

Save of time & increase in water teen faslain lage

2.3

Twice increase

9.1

Yield increased due to more water

Total

100

Impact on cropping pattern

The additional availability of water and limited landholding has obliged farmers to
change the cropping pattern and raise high value cash crops. 50% of respondents thought
the change in cropping pattern has occurred in 26-50% cases,

Change in Cropping Pattern

60
50
40
30
20
10

Improvement
is 76% to
100 %

Improvement
is 51% to
75%

Improvement
is 26% to
50%

Improvement
is 1% to 25
%

No Impact
0%

Many reasons are forwarded for this change. Agati crops are used. cropping pattern
change has taken place due to higher prices, fertilizers availability have also change
cropping pattern, leveling of the land is also a reason, media has played a role in
production of cash crops.
However there are others who say that there is no major effect but the agriculture is
developed with same crops as better seeds are available. Now less time is consumed and
that power is used in field for the new crop production.
There has a trend towards vegetables, two crops in a year due to increasing use of
machines. Wheat, Rice, Sugarcane and Maize are Cultivated
Percentage
The trend of Agati crops increased

2.6

Cropping pattern change due to prices

15.3

Fertilizers availability have also change cropping pattern

7.7

Land is more leveled

5.2

Media convince to produce cash crop

7.7

Now agriculture is developed

15.3

Same crops

2.6

They have good seeds

5.1

Less time consuming and that power used in field for the new crop production

2.6

Trend has bend towards vegetables

5.1

Two crops in a year

7.7

Increasingly Use of machines

2.6

Use of machinery, fertilizer, plough

2.6

Water availability changed cropping pattern

7.7

Wheat, Rice, Sugarcan, Makai, are Cultivated

7.7

Total

100

Change in cropping intensity

The change in cropping intensity is natural option for farmers who have excess irrigation
water and limited area for cultivation. More short duration crops are grown by such
farmers. 18% respondents did not see any impact on cropping intensity. 48% of them
consider 1-25% change. 23% respondents estimated 26-50% impact. The rest thought the
impact to be 51-100%. Most of the change that has occurred is 50%
Cropping Intensity

Improvement is
76% to 100 %
Improvement is
51% to 75%
Improvement is
26% to 50%
Improvement is
1% to 25 %

No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

The reasons for change in cropping intensity was attributed to the following as shown in
table below. 12.6% respondents thought it due to market demand, 91% consider increase
in expenditure compelled to increase income. 3.7% respondents felt big family size made
it possible. 20.6% respondents consider it as an attraction for more income. 11.4% feel it
possible due to access to more resources. 16% think two crops is better option as there is
risk of loss in one crop. It is not safe. The occurrence of disease or fall in prices can ruin
the farmer.

Change in Cropping pattern, Specify

Percentage
Demand in Market

12.6

Expenditure increase so try to increase income

9.1

Family size is big so do this

3.7

Increased very much

20.6

More resources available

11.4

No special impacts

9.3

Often more two crops

16

One crop is hardly safe

16.1

People need more resources for livelihood

1.1

Total

100

Increase in income
The increase is reported in all cases except 12.4% who say that there has not been any
increase. 37.9% respondents found 1-25% increase while 42.9% saw it as 26-50%. Only
1.7 respondents consider 51-75% increase and 4.3% think it is 76-100%.
Increase in Income
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Series1

No Impact 0%

Improvement
is 1% to 25 %

Improvement
is 26% to 50%

Improvement
is 51% to
75%

Improvement
is 76% to 100
%

12.4

37.9

42.9

1.7

4.3

The table below gives reasons for increase if any. 19.1% respondents said the
agricultural inputs costs may have decreased and crop value is high, so farmers net
income goes high (14%). There were conflicting statements like expenditure has
increased, though income increased but poverty is also increased (9.7%). No impact input/out puts are equal (23.1%). Prices have gone high (8.1%).

Income specify

Percentage

Agricultural inputs may decreased

19.1

Crop value is high, so give some relief

14

Expenditure increased

5.6

Income increased but poverty is also increased

9.7

Income increased so many times

1.9

It make some effects

8.1

No impact input out puts are equal

23.1

Per acre income increased

Poverty is decreased

2.1

Price go high

8.1

Very much increase

2.1

Total

100

Impact on Women
Economic and social impacts are mainly changes in work loads for men and women,
health benefits, changes in amenities and communications, and adjustments in equity and
social cohesion. For women the picture is less clear: labor demands increased for field
tasks, because cropped areas increased, but the domestic amenity value of improved
watercourses was much appreciated by women's groups. They got clothes washing slabs
that made the task easier.

Change in role of women in WM

The role of women as co-workers in the field increased due to increase in the area. They
were needed support in weeding the crop, harvesting, picking tomatoes or chilies, etc.
The graph below indicates the change in demand of female labour.

Change Non Female Labore

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Series1

No
Impact
0%

Improve Improve Improve Improve

ment is ment is ment is ment is
1% to
26% to 51% to 76% to

22.9

60.2

8.9

8.1

0.8

22.9% of the respondent say that there has been no impact. 60.2% of the respondent
consider that there has been 1-25% positive change, 8.9% think it to be 26-50% change,
8.1% opine a 51-75% change and 0.8% declare that there has been 76-100% change. It is
clear that a change has occurred but it is not higher than 25%.
Change in Role, Specify
Percentage
Better

2.1

It is better than before

17

Literacy rate increase is creating awareness

7.4

Now our ladies does not go away from home

10

They give some suggestions

They give us suggestions

8.3

Women also get sense

1.7

Women can not irrigate field

5.4

Women care their Childs

6.9

Women do only livestock caring

14.6

Women help their men in fields

10.9

Women only get involvement in cropping seasons

Women role is getting some changes

8.3

Women have no participation

1.4

Total

100

The table reveals the areas in which women's role has changed. 19.1% respondent say the
change is better and it is better than before. Literacy rate increase is creating awareness
(7.4%) and women do not go away from home for odd jobs (10%). 12% of respondents
think that now they (women) give some suggestions and that is accepted.
Women can not irrigate field (5.4%) but take care of children (6.9%) and livestock
(14.6%). Women help their men folk in fields (10.9%) but get involvement in cropping
seasons (4%). Women role is getting some changes (8.3%).

Facilities made available to women

42% respondents say that no facilities are made available for women under OFWM
Project but 38% respondents insist that 76 to 100% facilities are available to women. The
rest of them agree that facilities have been made available to various degrees.
Facilities made available to women

Improvement is
76% to 100 %
Improvement is
51% to 75%
Improvement is
26% to 50%
Improvement is
1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

50

The kind of facilities made available to women are enunciated in the following table.
Facilities made available to women Specify

Percentage

Better educational facilities

8.6

Health facilities, Fans, electric water pumps available

22.3

General trend, literacy, media, relatives

20.1

Good food and good clothes

4.7

No special impacts

3.9

Live becomes easy water, washing machine available

24

When money come it brings facilities to women

11.9

Women have better environment

4.6

Total

100

These are better educational facilities (8.6% responses), better health facilities (6.9%),
fans, electric water pumps etc (15.4%), general behavioral change, access to literacy and
media, meeting with relatives (20.1%), good food and good clothes (4.7%) and their life
has become comfortable (4.3%). Now water is available at home (14.6%), they have
washing machine (5.1%). Apparently, when money come it brings facilities to women
(11.9%). Now women have better environment at home (there is no violence against
women) (4.6%)

Washing of clothes
There is provision of fixing washing slabs for the convenience of women. There were
42% responses that there were none, however all the others that there existed washing
facilities.
Facility in Washing Clothes

Improvement is
76% to 100 %
Improvement is
51% to 75%
Improvement is
26% to 50%
Improvement is
1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

50

The graph above indicates that 40% respondents testified there was 1-25% improvement,
15% indicated 26-50%, 2% noted 51-75% and the remaining said that were 76 to 100%
facility for washing available.
Washing of clothes, specify

Percentage

Better facilities

7.4

Lined canal water pumps to wash clothes

27

No impact because we have electric pump at home

The washing clothes easily

47.9

There are washing machines in every home

7.6

Water is available so they wash clothes

1.4

Women do easily in home

1.4

Women does wash clothes outside houses

1.3

Total

100

It is evident from the above table that washing facilities are better than before (47.9%).
The other responses indicate better facilities (7.4%), lined canal water pumps to wash
clothes (27%), there are washing machines in every home (7.6%), Clean water is
available so they wash clothes (1.4%) and women do wash clothes easily in home (1.4%)
as well as outside houses (1.3%)

Impact on Livestock
Livestock was the main nuisance that caused deterioration of watercourse. They would
wade through watercourse while grazing the grass grown on the banks, destroy the banks
by regularly crossing it at the same point and sit in the watercourse for bathing causing
water overflows and ponding in the bed of watercourse.
This was rid off by constructing crossings and buffalo wallos.

Buffalo wallows
Facility increase to Livestock

Improvement is
76% to 100 %
Improvement is
51% to 75%
Improvement is
26% to 50%
Improvement is
1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

50

The graph above shows that 50% of the respondents said that it had zero impact. 35%
respondents estimated 1-25% improvement. 15% considered 26-50% improvement. 2%
viewed 51 -75% improvement and the rest said it was 76-100%.
Buffalow wallows, specify
Facility available

Percentage

No pond available,

19.6

problem present

15

Nothing special

19.4

Use canal for animals

46

Total

100

The table above tells about the facilities as no ponds (19.6%), problem persists (15%),
nothing special (19.4%) and canal still being used by animals (46%). There is need for
creating awareness and insisting on practice.

Ditch Crossing
The construction of culverts was provided for ditch cross by humans, animals, cars and
other vehicles like tractor trolleys, etc. to avoid spillage and ponding. The grapg below
gives degree of availability of this facility,
Facility increase to Livestock in Ditch
Crossing

Improvement is 76% to 100 %

Improvement is 51% to 75%
Improvement is 26% to 50%
Improvement is 1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

50

Nearly 50% of respondents deny any impact, while 30% say it was 1-25% improvement,
18% indicate 26-50% improvement and the remaining give figure of 76-100
25.5.2 Ditch Crossing
Percentage
Big problems

40

Bridge required

9.3

Decreased

1.9

Its easy to cross

19.1

No change

11.1

No worries, profit is great

11.1

Problem created

1.9

Road is shared

1.9

We have to cross through bridges

3.7

Total

100

The table above shows the status of ditch crossings. Big problem is solved (40%), the
bridge was required (9.3%), problem decreased (1.9%), it is easy to cross now (19.1%)

and culverts are now used (3.7%). However 11.1% respondents still hold that there is no
change as people cross ditch at their convenience.

Impact on Environment
Lining of watercourses is one the main on-farm water management measures. The lining
results in reducing the seepage from water course. Depending on the type of lining, the
seepage can be reduced to 25% of the original. Reduced seepage results in conservation
of water consequently more water is available for irrigation that can increase the cropped
area and overall production and hence income. The increase in household income
improved affordability for better education and health facilities.
Lining has the added advantage that the water table is lowered and the productivity of the
land increases. There is no spillage of water and hence open spaces are available for other
activities like play grounds for youth and children.
There is no pond formation which becomes breeding field for mosquitoes. The stagnation
causes filth and fly activity. This health hazard is also mitigated by watercourse lining.
Summing up, the positive environmental and social impacts of the project include
increased water conservation, enhanced social mobilization (ie, establishment of WUAs),
and increased employment opportunities for skilled people. In addition, the project
interventions such as high efficiency irrigation techniques will help discontinue usage of
sewage water to irrigate crops particularly vegetables in the peri-urban areas a practice
that poses health risks to the population consuming these vegetables.

Control of spillage
Spillage has decreased because the cross section of the watercourse has been resigned
and formed to allow the allocated water discharge to flow freely. The impact of
watercourse lining, renovation of kacha section according to correct cross section and
strengthening of the banks has been learnt from the stake holders.

Impact on Spillage

Improvement is
76% to 100 %
Improvement is
51% to 75%
Improvement is
26% to 50%
Improvement is
1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

In view of about 35% of the respondents, there has been zero impact. Others have
expressed various degrees of impact. 11% respondents assess it to be 1% to 25%, 25%
think it to be 25% to 50%, 5% respondents were of the opinion that it was 51% to 75%
while 28% opined it to be 76% to 100%.
25.6.1 Control of spillage

Percentage

At other positions problem is same

34.9

Better controlled

3.1

Near unlined canal there is problem

19.9

Need more struggle

8.3

These makes problems but now controlled

33.9

Total

100

The table above indicates the control of spillage as observed by the respondents. 34.9%
were of the opinion that at other positions problem is same, which means that there were
sections of the watercourse which were not renovated. 3.1% opined that the spillage was
better controlled, 19.9% said that near unlined canal there the problem persists. 33.9%
considered these as major problems but now those were controlled.

Reduction in pond formation

The pond formation within the watercourses was due to crossing the watercourse by
wading by men, animals, carts, etc. The buffaloes would sit in the watercourse and cause
not only the pool formation but spillage as well. Provision exists in OFWM to construct
culverts for crossing and buffalo wallows for animal bathing. The extent to which this
provision has worked is clear from the following observations of the respondents. The
graph below shows that except 42% of the respondents to whom there was no impact, the
others visualized it to various degrees. 40% the respondents thought it was 76-100%, a

few considered it as 51-75%, 18% say it was 25-50% and according to the remaining, it
was 1% to 25%.
Impact on Pools in the Village and
Fields

Improvement is 76% to 100 %

Improvement is 51% to 75%
Improvement is 26% to 50%
Improvement is 1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

50

The table below corroborates the opinion expressed above.

25.6.2 Reduction in pond formation

Percentage

No comments, we were no problems

15

No special impact

39.3

Now each pool is straight

25.9

Pool finished

4.1

Some reduced

11

Yes decreased

4.7

Total

100

Except 39.3% respondents who say that there was no special impacts, the rest agree that
there has been impact of varying degree.

Availability of open spaces

Since there has been no pools formed due to spillage of water from the watercourse, open
spaces have become available for youth and children specially for playing games. The
degree of impact on open spaces in the village and the fields is shown in the following
graph.

Impact on Open Space in the Village

and Fields

Improvement is 76% to 100 %

Improvement is 51% to 75%
Improvement is 26% to 50%
Improvement is 1% to 25 %
No Impact 0%
0

10

20

30

40

50

The graph shows that according to 42% respondents there has been no impact. The rest
feel that there has impact. 30% respondents feel that there has been an improvement
ranging from 26% to 50%. 15% think it was 1-25%, the rest consider 51 to 100%.
The advantages of open spaces, according to the respondents are (see table below): canals
are being made properly, now good social atmosphere prevalent, easy to work in canal
for silt clearance, it has a good look and the people are very happy. There is clear and
fresh atmosphere, there is no more grass near canal but there is grass on open space. They
do not know how to use it (open spaces), since very much place is available. The work is
easy due to open space
Availability of open spaces

Percentage

Nothing very special

14.4

Now good atmosphere

3.2

Now in canal we have to work

6.2

Sufficient land is available

13.8

The people are very happy

6.9

There are clear atmosphere

3.4

There is no more grass near canal

6.9

There is grass on open space

6.9

They are selling their crops

6.9

They does not know how to use it

6.9

Very much place is available

20.3

Work easy due to open space

4.7

Total

100

Ease of operation
There have been changes for better in work loads for men and women, health benefits,
changes in amenities and communications, and adjustments in equity and social
cohesion. The respondents feel that the life has been better and easier.
How You feel life is easy

Yes its easy

16.9

Safe and easy to work in fields

20.6

Life become easy

18.3

13.7

Labour person decreased

Irrigation become very easy

Difficulries finished

19.1

11.4

Ease of operation

Percentage

Difficulties finished

11.4

Irrigation become very easy

19.1

Labour person decreased

13.7

Life become easy

18.3

Safe and easy to work in fields

20.6

Yes its easy

16.9

Total

100

Both the graph and table above show the perceptions of the respondents that all the
difficulties faced in crop production related to field irrigation have finished (11.4%),
irrigation has become very easy (33.2%), labour-person need has decreased (13.7%), life
has become easy i.e., time is available for social activities (18.3%) and it is safe and easy
to work in fields (20.6%).

Improvement in Health
Lining of watercourses had health benefits in terms of less malaria and lower fly
populations in nearby villages, since stagnant swampy areas from seepage and overflow
were drained. Even smaller lengths of lining, than the current 15-30 percentage formula,

without regard to irrigation benefits, would be worthwhile when such health related
problems can be reduced
Reduction in incidence of Malaria
Due to watercourse lining, the spillage and pool formation has reduced. This has checked
the mosquito breeding and spread of malaria. 89.6% of the respondents testify that the
malaria has been controlled.
Postitive Impact on Malaria Disease

Yes Conrol Malaria

Series1

No Effect

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Malaria

Percentage

No Effect

10.4

Yes Control Malaria

89.6

Total

100

80

90

Availability of safe drinking water

The number of hand pumps have increased the availability of safe drinking water since,
now the households get filtered water. 36.3% of the respondents expressed that that there
was no impact on drinking water but 63.7% agreed that there had been positive impact on
the quality of drinking water.
Positive Impact on Drinking Water Source

80
60
40
20
0
No Impact on drinking water

Yes Impact on Drinking Water

Impact on Drink Water

Percentage
No Impact on drinking water

36.3

Yes Impact on Drinking Water

63.7

Total

100

Increase in affordability of best health services

There has increase in affordability in health services due to increase in per acre yield as
well as the farm income. The graph below which is below which is based on the table that
follows shows the 40.7% of the respondent did not see any impact on Health Services but
59.3% were convinced that there was positive impact visibly made on health services.
Positive Impact on Health Services
Delivery
Yes Impact is
made on
health
services
No Impact on
Health
Services
0

20

40

60

80

Increase in affordability of best health services

Percentage

No Impact on Health Services

40.7

Yes Impact is made on health services

59.3

Total

100

Improvement in Education
In rural areas, every member of the farming household is one or the other is required to
perform a farm or an off-farm job. For example, the men plough the field, the women do
odd jobs at home and help men-folk in farm chores. The children herd animals to keep
them away from cropped area. Irrigation was a tedious job before renovation of
watercourse, hence the children were also required to help. After renovation, the time is
saved. Instead of taking lathi, lantern and kahi with him, the farmers just takes bicycle or
walks along the clear bank of watercourse, lifts the lid of nacca and sees the water

rushing into the field. The children get time to go to school and hence school attendance
has increased.

Release of Children for admission to Education

The table below shows that except 5.9% respondents, others agree that the children are
now released for admission to schools to various degrees. 4.6% of the respondents opine
that 100% children have choice to attend the school.
Child Education

Frequency

Percent

Cumulative percent

41

5.9

5.9

0.1

0.4

6.1

40

5.7

12.2

0.1

12.3

10

1.4

13.8

0.3

14

10

85

12.1

26.2

12

0.3

26.5

15

20

2.9

29.4

20

100

14.3

43.7

25

10

1.4

45.1

28

0.6

45.7

29

0.1

45.8

30

62

8.9

54.7

31

0.6

55.3

32

1.1

56.4

33

1.1

57.6

34

58.6

35

16

2.3

60.9

36

0.3

61.2

40

91

13

74.2

45

13

1.9

76.1

50

40

5.7

81.8

60

35

86.8

65

0.4

87.2

70

29

4.1

91.4

75

14

93.4

80

0.9

94.3

85

0.1

94.4

90

0.7

95.1

95

0.1

95.3

99

0.1

95.4

100

32

4.6

100

Total

698

99.7

Missing system

0.3

Total

700

100

Affordability for quality education

Affordability of quality education is function of improved incomes that enable farmers to
send their children to better schools which charge higher fees and impart quality
education.
Affordability for quality education
Frequency

Percent

Cumulative
percent

109

15.6

15.6

250

35.7

51.5

333

47.6

99.3

0.3

99.6

0.1

99.7

10

0.1

99.9

12

0.1

100

Total

697

99.6

Missing system

0.4

Total

700

100

The figures show that 692 respondents (cumulatively 99.3%) agree that affordability for
quality education has increased. Of all the respondents 47.6% are the majority to suggest
that quality of education is the result of the gains accrued from better water management
practices.

Chapter No. 4

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations

Water Users' Associations (WUAs) were organized, one on each watercourse which was
selected for renovation and partial lining under On-Farm Water Management Project
(OFWM) The Water Users' Association Ordinances were promulgated by the four
provinces in early eighties. The primary objective was to take joint action in reduction of
water losses in community water course and to adopt farm planning for optimum use of
water for increased crop production. The renovated watercourses have provision for
crossings (culverts), buffalo wallows and washing bays for the convenience of women.
The WUAs were given legal cover to act jointly to work for removal of poverty and food
security, They were not only to renovate the watercourse, but to maintain it as well. They
were to ensure water distribution equitably to all irrigators. WUAs have however turned
to traditional way of operation. Though their efficacy can't be denied, their sustainability
is in jeopardy.
OFWM was part of Provincial Agriculture Department (PAD), but when Provincial
Irrigation and Drainage Authorities (PIDAs) were formed to implement Participatory
Irrigation Management (PIM), the Provincial Irrigation Department (PID) also got
involved. The irrigators involvement was extended from community watercourse to
distributary level. Area Water Boards (AWBs) were created at canal level and Farmers'
Organizations were created at distributary level. The FOs consist of the representatives of
WUAs.

Areas Selected for survey

The data has been collected from Farmers' Organizations (FO) of the Area Water Boards
established under Irrigation and Drainage Authorities Act in Punjab, Sindh and KPK in
1997. AWBs were established to make the farming community an integral part of
irrigation management and produce desired results of food security through the inclusion
of its beneficiaries. The governmental decision of participatory irrigation management
was highly eulogized by the farming community with the declaration to prove the
government trust bestowed upon it.

These organizations were also provided with institutional support in technical,

management and revenue collection aspects of irrigation mechanism. These organizations
showed remarkable results in curtailing water theft and the dispute resolutions of farmers
at their doorsteps. Similarly, the government also got rid of huge administrative
expenditures on the maintenance of these water channels.
The farmers' organizations were also given the mandate to collect water charges from
water users and maintain their canals on self-help basis. The IDA authorities regularly
monitor the functioning of farmer organizations which helps in framing the further policy
regarding participatory irrigation management model as well as to enhance their
professional capacity. These organizations are responsible for the maintenance of their
canals, equitable distribution of water, collection of water charges and dispute
resolutions.
The farmer organizations (FOs) have ushered in a new revolution in the rural areas; they
have developed a sense of ownership and pride among the stakeholders with the
realization that the irrigation system had been set up in the interest of farming community
which is serving to meet the food needs of the whole of Pakistan.
It is expected that irrigation sector reforms program will contribute a lot in fulfilling the
food needs of the whole population of the country and the dream of food autarky will be
fulfilled.
The performance of four AWBs (three in Sindh and one in Punjab) shows that recovery
remained an average of 50% of the assessed amount. The financial performance of
AWBs, which was initially satisfactory, kept on deteriorating with the passage of time
possibly due to lack of consistency in provision of technical, financial and political
support42.

42

http://www.pc.gov.pk/hot%20links/2012/Canal%20Water%20Pricing%20for%20Irrigation%20in%20Pakis
tan.pdf

Respondents
The respondents, majority by profession were farmers (582/700) i.e., 83.1% and hence
the data collected is totally applicable to the objectives of study and fully represents the
view point of beneficiary irrigators.

Association
Around 45% farmers were associated with WUA/FO. Family size in most of the cases is
10 plus. The incomes fall within 3000-10000 bracket. This with family of 10 or more
gives a meager figure of 300-1000 per person per annum and its falls below the poverty
line. Since most of farmers, specially in Punjab, live on the farm, they meet their food
and milk needs themselves; and seem to be satisfied with their lot.

Awareness about belonging

Most of the respondents are unaware of belonging to an organization as the government
policy (OFWM with Department of Agriculture and AWB with Irrigation Departments)
uses different nomenclatures for water user organizations. 37.9% do not know the name
of their organization, 26.1% know it as Khal Committee, some say Village Committee
and 27% identify it as WUA. Majority of WUAs (42.3) were formed by OFWM.

Training of WUA
Though AWBs are managed by Irrigation Departments, their formation (through social
mobilization) and training was done by OFWM of Agriculture Department. It appears
that the farmers took the training for granted and their leaders though educated did not
make any effort to conduct any internal training. They relied on Department for training.

Major Benefits of WU
There was mixed reaction to this query, A few thought it was farmer participation in
system, whereas others thought it was Government policy for irrigation water
management. Many were of the opinion that formation of WUA was paper work. It was
just paper work was done for lining of water course, a necessity for watercourse lining,
no benefit, not useful. Majority thought that no proper association was formed and people

were facing problem. This was for the fulfillment of requirements for WC lining (38%),
people's participation in system leading to self reliance.

Legal Support
There is general impression (55.1%) that it there is no legal support and it is merely a
talk. However 35.1% respondents say that supervision of works is being done by the
department.

Water User Associations Moral Support

There is positive response of respondents. They feel that cooperative spirits has
developed, disputes were resolved, farmers are happy with this work, it is like joint
ventures, due to social mobilization the farmers work together.

Increase in Social Status

From leaders point of view, people respect his services, are happy with his work and they
like it. Leadership from middle class has come forward and is sincere and honest, Water
thefts have decreased.

Farmers Participation in Renovation and Maintenance

Farmers provide free labour during renovation. The responsibility for maintenance lies
with WUA, which is not satisfactory (70%).

Impact assessment of Water User Association

1. Impact of Institutional Reforms
The institutional reforms have created an awareness of local governance as well as
community and government participation in irrigation water management. There has been
devolution of powers and now WUAs are fully empowered to work at community level

Lesson Learnt from Water User Associations

There has been improvement in Institutional Reforms, a community model has been
possible through cooperative approach. There has been devolution of powers, which is a
positive sign in governance. Food security has been possible. Helping the land owner will

take effect on progress. However 30.6% opined that no effect on quality of life was
visible.

Benefits of Water Users Association

The respondents feel that they can cultivate crop on right time, the cooperative model
gives successes as forming organization is a good thing. Problems could be solved jointly
and poverty alleviation is possible through cooperation .

Alternate options devised

Respondent (59.4%) don't know about this issue but the rest were of the opinion that
either government should conduct research on it or the problem should be looked into
locally.

Different Models tested internationally, nationally and locally

The majority of respondents (75.7%) did not know about these but suggested that
internationally recognized model should be adopted. However some preferred local
development of a model WUA.

Social Impacts
Poverty Alleviation
Respondents had mixed views like it is better than before, agriculture over all is nonprofitable, cooperation results in better decisions, now people have good houses, clothes
and bread, there is food intervention by government, and increased water play good role.
However there pessimistic opinions such as no impact. WC did not take water, WC is up
than canal, no poverty alleviation due to lined water course, no significant impact, not
every farmer have good house. There were ifs and but. Now every body works hard. Now
we get food. Now we have good facilities. Now we purchase land. A reservation that
some weaknesses are visible - Water course bed is up hence no impacts are visible.

Social Activities
Life is easy now since agriculture has become an enjoyable job. Irrigation has become
easier as the danger of snakes etc is removed. People have time to sit and enjoy life. They
get more time for collective betterment.

KAP Improvement
Know how agricultural development has increased, new agriculture information is
accessed and new technologies are finding ways in cultivation. Information about
horticulture and agriculture equipments development has been increased The people are
being conscious and thoughtful

Use of Machinery
This is not the result of increase in irrigation water alone, Drill ka estaamaal ziada huwa
hai and since tractor is common now, more resources through general trends, media,
loans are available, tubewell are functional now and one can hire machinery on rent, its
use has very much increased.

Conflict Resolution
Since basis of conflict is removed, conflict if any are resolved quickly. As there is no
water course desilting, there are no quarrels. Now people solve problems by dialogue.
People have become more busy so they doesnt find time for conflict. Prosperous people
doesnt like conflicts

Economic Impact
Increase in Water Availability
Water is available at the tail end and canal water is more productive than tubewell water
so tail enders are happy. Major benefit goes to tail reach and water is available all around
the year. More area is possible to be irrigated. Water availability increased.

Increase in cropped area

The cropped area has doubled due to watercourse improvement but the increase is also
due to other factors involved. Virgin lands are being brought under plough. Now water is

available in full quantity (32%) which wasnt in past and most importantly now water
reaches us which was not the case in the past. There is yield increased due to more water

Impact on cropping pattern

Agati crops are used because cropping pattern has changed due to better prices.
Fertilizers availability have also change cropping pattern. Leveling of the land

and

media stress to produce cash crop has resulted in three crops a year trend as less time
consuming crops and tractor power used in field has resulted in the extra crop production.
Trend has bend towards vegetables. Two crops in a year is due to increasing use of
machinery, fertilizer, plough, etc.

Change in cropping intensity

The cropping intensity is governed by market forces. Expenditures have increase so
farmers try to increase income by crop intensification. Big family size helps to do this.
Increase in demand is very much, more resources available and crop diversification is
must as one crop is hardly safe. People need more resources for livelihood.

Increase in income
The increase in income can't be quantifies as the income is nullified by increase in cost of
agricultural inputs may. Thus farmers go for high value cash crops so that these give
some relief. Income has increased but cost of inputs has also increased.

4 Impact on Women
Change in role of women in WM
There has been little change in women's role but it is has been better than before. They
take better care of home, children and animals. Mechanical gadgets are now available to
make things easier. Literacy rate increase is creating awareness. Now our ladies does not
go away from home

Facilities made available to women

Better educational and health facilities are now available to them. In houses fans, electric
water pumps etc besides access to literacy, media, relatives as well as good food and

good clothes are available to them. The times have changed. There are hand pumps
washing machine at home and when money come it brings facilities to women. Women
have better environment

Washing of clothes
Better facilities are available at home as such those made available lined canal water
pumps to wash clothes are more valid. Thus there is no impact because we have electric
pump at home. There are washing machines in every home. Clean water is available so
they wash clothes

easily in home.

5. Impact on Livestock
Buffalo wallows
Majority of respondents (46%) opined that animals use watercourse as before. No pond
was available and the problem persists. There was nothing special.

Ditch Crossing
Ditch Crossing used to be a big problem and a bridge or culvert was required. There has
been no tangible change. It is still big problem according to 40% respondents

6. Impact on Environment
Control of spillage
The problem persists (34.9%) but according to 33.9% respondents the problem is now
controlled. However 19.9% respondent think that near unlined canal there is problem.

Reduction in pond formation

No special impact (39.3%), but according to rest of respondents, the problem is resolved.

Availability of open spaces

Some land is vacant and work and play is easy due to open space.

Ease of operation
WUAs provided an institutional mechanism to exercise authority invested in it for
renovation and maintenance of the watercourse, collect water charges and get the civil

works done by itself. Prior to formation of WUA, the informal village association got the
desilting job done through collective action by requisitioning labour from every
household; but with time the watercourse had lost its alignment, debris had made
mountain banks, the banks were full of shrubs, these housed snakes, rodents and other
small natural world.
After formation of WUA, the watercourse was fully demolished, cleared of all vegetation
and animal habitat, realigned and partially lined. All the farmers difficulties like approach
to his outlet, danger of snakes, were removed. Irrigation become very easy (19.1%),
Labour person hours decreased (13.7%), Life become easy (18.3%) and above all it was
safe and easy to work in fields (20.6%).

7 Improvement in Health
Reduction in incidence of Malaria
There has been positive impact on malaria. 89.6% respondents vouchsafed that malaria is
now under control and the water velocity in watercourse has increased and there are no
ponds or pools of water formed to provide environment for mosquito breeding.

Availability of safe drinking water

Two thirds of respondents (63.7%) expressed view that that there had been positive
impact on drinking water. The quality of water had improved after watercourse
improvement because the causes of pollution had reduced. Besides, instead of open wells
people had drilled hand pumps which had filters.

Increase in affordability of best health services

There was no impact on health services, was the view of 40.7% respondents while 59.3%
expressed positive impact was visible on affordability of health services, as the
environment had improved to reduce the causes and incomes had increased to get the
better health services.

8 Improvement in Education
Release of Children for admission to Education
Due to watercourse renovation, the help of children was no more needed in agricultural
chores and hence there had been tangible increase in school enrolment as well as
attendance.

Affordability for quality education

The figures show that 692 respondents (cumulatively 99.3%) agree that affordability for
quality education has increased. Of all the respondents 47.6% are the majority to suggest
that quality of education is the result of the gains accrued from better water management
practices.

Conclusion
1. Value of Water is now being appreciated and the farmers are realizing that
Watercourse conveyance losses are as high as 30 percent (Khan et al. 1999). These losses
were recognized in the 1970s and resulted in the creation of provincial On-Farm Water
Management (OFWM) Directorates. By the mid-1990s, approximately 30 percent of the
watercourses in the IBIS had been lined. Watercourse lining still remains a viable
alternative, along with reconstruction of earthen watercourses. The government has
developed policies which are guided by expatriates. These are silently unloved by local
irrigation engineers as these throw aspersions on their ability to manage an engineering
marvel that was Indus Basin Irrigation System. Every action has equal and opposite
reaction - intensive irrigation has resulted in extensive waterlogging.
2. Water sustainably is brought by proper water regulation. Now that off-season monsoon
rains have been stored in water reservoir dams, there is water available all the year round.
Since Pakistan's dams have to strike balance between power generation and irrigation, a
complicated equation has to be solved to meet the needs of both. Water conservation
practices are required to be adopted to meet needs of agriculture. On Farm Water
Management remains to be a forgotten area. If farm planning is properly adopted it will

ensure more crop per drop of water and shall result in less drainage needs as the water
table will remain under control as a precondition for healthy crops.
3. Suitable institutions to manage water is general cry of today. Pakistani engineers in
development, storage and distribution of water are not only experts in their field of duty
but are experience in their occupation. They are familiar with the psychology of the
farmer, nature of soils and ecology of the areas to be irrigated. The farmer on the other
hand tends to bring more area under the crop, may be with less water. Technical
knowhow and social awareness is required for equitable and s per requirement' water
distribution. The second point relates to farm plan, crop rotation, crop grown, etc. This
awareness is wanting in WUAs.
4. Collection and dissemination of information is necessary to absolve farmer perceptions
and to bring about social justice and good governance in distribution of water. At the
time of implementing the On-Farm Water Management Development Project, in each
of the four provinces in Pakistan, namely Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and the North West
Frontier, under the auspices of the OFWM Directorates of Provincial Agriculture
Departments, the main focus was on organizing the farmers in a watercourse command
area to reconstruct their earthen watercourse to reduce the conveyance losses. The
program allowed only 10 percent of the watercourse to be lined with brick and mortar
without telling the farmer that water flowed 85% of time in 10% upper reach of the
watercourse. Other areas that caused seepage were sandy sections or those passing
through villages.
5. Maintenance of a social and cultural perspective of the village community is the first
and foremost imperative of OFWM. It has been designed to develop peace and harmony
among the farmers on the issue of water which the prime cause of conflict in an agrarian
society. WUAs are democratic bodies. As proved by the study, the role of leadership is
now being played by the middle class, which is educated and duty conscious. Now there
are less conflicts, less thefts and less pilferages on a watercourse managed by WUA.

6. Assurance of equitable access to water is now guaranteed as the water reaches every
far. The study shows that those at the tail end also get their share and are fully satisfied.

Prior to this, the tail enders would install a tubewell to augment their water supply. The
tubewell water is quite often brackish one and cause of damage to soil. This situation had
led the researchers in new field of 'the use of brackish water for irrigation'. Water
allocation may be revised on the basis of cropping patterns and/or the level of salinity in
the groundwater. Canal water allocated to areas with saline groundwater may be
increased to prevent pumping of poor-quality groundwater, while it may be decreased in
areas with good-quality groundwater. Kuper (1997) reported that it is technically feasible
to reallocate canal water resources. Applying this method in an area of 14,000 ha, it was
shown that the area threatened by sodicity could be reduced by 40 percent. However,
Kijne (1998) calculated that the cost of reallocation exceeded the expected benefits,
considering the relatively low yields and low market value of the harvested crops.
Another disadvantage is that farmers in the head reaches would pump more groundwater
to compensate for the loss of canal water, which would result in an increase of the
salinity level in the head reaches. Studies undertaken in the 14 canal commands of the
Sindh Province disclosed that some adjustments in the water allocations, along with
modifications in cropping patterns, could reduce groundwater recharge, thereby lower the
groundwater levels (Skogerboe and Bandaragoda 1998).
7. Use of appropriate technology is found to be the best and economic solution of water
problems below mogha on any watercourse. The new social marketing of the idea of the
formation of WUAs has resulted in the advent of Participatory Irrigation Management,
OFWM and PIDAs. These have concentrated on water loss reduction in distribution and
application of the precious water. Farmers likes any entity that helps him get water at
times when needed and in quantity it is needed.
For the program's implementation, village areas were preferred for social and health
reasons.
Lining at the head of the watercourse was preferred as it permitted more water to flow
downstream and benefit more people at the tail reaches. It also secured the support of
head-reach farmers.
A selective maintenance intervention is more cost-effective when compared to other

interventions such as major desilting or lining programs. Irrigation departments could

implement a selective maintenance program by effectively using their limited financial
resources for maintenance and repair (Murray-Rust et al. 1992;Vander Velde and
Murray-Rust 1992).
8. Solution of causes not symptoms (but accept practical solutions) is the need of times.
These solutions must be indigenous. Let the local engineers find solution to causes of silt
accumulation, mis-alignments, head-middle and tailender problems, policies, rules and
regulation that cause tendencies to break the. Is there a constructive agreement between
service providers (managers) and the beneficiaries. Since in no case, all irrigators were
satisfied with WUA arrangements, the causes for such opinions need be removed.
9. An ecosystem approach takes into consideration the soil, climate and vegetation. Crop
production is the best example of ecosystem balance. All the three affect the water
demand. The soil is medium that holds the roots and stores water and nutrients for health
crop. The climate affects evapo-transpiration and determines the water needs of the crops.
WUA technical team works as a multidisciplinary team - social mobilizer, engineer and
agronomist. The presence of this must be ensured.
10. The impacts of WUAs encompass all the fields. The study considered the
institutional, social, economic, gender, livestock, environment, health and education. All
were found positive. institutions are in place, social status is raised, economy has
improved, women are better facilitated, livestock quality is improved, there have been
positive change in environment, people have better access to health facilities and school
enrolment has increased besides this quality education is within reach.

4.2 Recommendations
Water Users' Associations did exist from the time irrigation started at community level
The sense of cooperation is a social norm, because it is the fulfillment of common good.
It has been clearly demonstrated by the outcomes of OFWM Projects. This project has by
and large two major objectives: one is water saving and the other is water use,

Water saving or reduction of water losses in a watercourse is joint work of the irrigators
community, which was never-the-less accomplishing this work prior to OFWM by
clearing the silt. It was however not aware of the losses of water, what caused it and what
could be done to make amends. OFWM created this awareness and demonstrated it.
This awareness could penetrate its roots in the community only through community
organization or water users' association (WUA). Till such time, this transfer of
knowledge becomes fully effective, the presence of OFWM in areas where work has been
done is quite necessary.
It is therefore recommended that OFWM should be made permanent so that project
concept is translated into permanent presence. This will give due sustainability to WUAs.
The other component of OFWM is water use. This is individual farmer's KAP concern.
Knowledge could be provided by many methods of extension services. Attitude of the
farmer is that counts and translates into good practices. It requires persistent effort of the
sociologist the convinces the farmer of new technologies. OFWM was conceived as a
team work and this team's presence in every district is desired.
It is recommended that a team of experts drawn from all vocations influencing crop
production may be made available in each districts.
Water users' Association (WUA) is a united force of the irrigators that can make the
government and its officials aware of the needs of farming community and the
government and its functionaries who care for the welfare of state and the nation would
make all efforts to facilitate the farming community.

Like the PIM action of the government, which is not only shading the responsibility of
canal maintenance but also of drainage provision, government and its employees act as
facilitators, there is no doubt that WUA if made fully conscious of water crises ahead and
trained in mitigation measures shall play their positive role for their own welfare.
It is recommended that farmers should be taken into confidence about the gravity and
consequences of threatening water crises; made to take corrective measures from today.
However they must be supported with technology and other measures on participatory
basis.
Machinery use is on the rise as the farmer's gets educated and aspires for a white collar
job. In a way it is a good sign as the larger farms are being created. Though the
affordability of the farmer has increased, his purchasing power stimulates him to buy
agricultural machinery. It may be noted that the farm machinery utilization factor is 40%
even if it works 24 hours a day. It is not economical for small farmers. This could be
provided by government or machinery vendors on hire basis. But the best solution for
sustainability of WUA is to keep them busy all the year round. They may have machinery
pools, cooperative stores for inputs and crop production support services like cold
storages, quality seed production, etc.
It is recommended that the WUAs should be provided credit facilities for viable activities
like farm machinery pools, grain storages, cooperative stores, etc. to keep the fully
functional all the year round.

Appendix 1
(Questionnaire)
EFFICACY OF WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS
AND
WATER MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE
(A Study of Water Crisis and Irrigation System in Pakistan)

Supported by;
Higher Education Commission, Islamabad
Government of Pakistan

Dr. Hafeez-ur-Rehman Chaudhry

Professor of Anthropology &
Principal Investigator of the Project

Department of Anthropology
Quaid-i-Azam University, Islambad
2004

EFFICACY OF WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS

AND
WATER MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE
(A Study of Water Crisis and Irrigation System in Pakistan)

Respondents Profile
1. Gender: Province: 1. Punjab

2. Sindh

District

3. NWFP

4. Balochistan

Tehsil/Taluka

i. Minor / Distributary / Canal ____________________________________________

ii. W / C Name / Number ____________________________________________
iii. Canal

Head

Middle

Head

Middle

Tail
Tail

iv. Water
Course
v. Name of Union Council ________________________________________________
vi. Name of Village

________________________________________________

vii. Name of Investigator ______________________________ Date of

Interview

2. Personal
i. Name of the Respondent ____________________________ Age (Year)__________
ii. Education of the Respondent
iii. Head of Household
i.

yes=1 no=2

Member of WUA

ii. Member of Cooperative Society

iii. Member of Union Council
iv. Member of District Council
v. Any other (Specify)
3. Family
No. of Family Members

i.

Male

ii.

Female

iii.

Children under 5 year

4. Occupation
1. Govt. Employee
4. Contractor

2. Businessman

3. Daily Wage Labor

5. Farmer

6. Any Other (Specify)

5. Total land Holding (Kanals)

a) Cultivable Land (Acres)
b) Self Cultivator (Acres)
c) Given on Share Basis
d) Given on Contract
6. Household Income
i.

Total Monthly Income ______________________

ii.

Total Annual Income _______________________

iii.

Sources of Income

B4-1

Salary / Wages

B4-2

Business

B4-3

Property

B4-5

Agriculture Land

B4-5

Live Stock
Other

Annual Income

iv.

Power Units and Agricultural Implements

Power Units

A1

Tractor

A2

Electric Motors

A3

Diesel Engine

A4

Tube Well

A5

Chakki

A6

Plow Desi

A7

Drill

A8

Harrow

A9

Thresher

A10

Harvester

A11

Cane Crusher

A12

Forage Chopper

A13

Cart

A14

Trolley

A15

Any other (Specify)

No.

Approximate

Income through

Value Rs.

these Units Rs.

Q8A. Living Condition

i.

1. Katcha

2. Pacca

3. Mixed

ii. 1. Owned

2. Rented

iii. 1. On Farm

2. In Village 3. In Urban Area

iv. Utilities :

1. Yes 2. No

If Yes, specify ___________________

Q9. Water Users Association
i.

Is there any association in the vicinity / village. Yes____ No_____

If Yes, specify
_______________________________________________________________

ii. Who made it:

_______________________________________________________________
iii. How they formed it, through election/selection etc, How
____________________________________________________________________
iv. How many users participated in it
____________________________________________________________________
v. Who was its election officer: How
____________________________________________________________________
vi. Are you satisfied with the process of its formation: Yes_____ No_____
If not, why
not_______________________________________________________________
vii. Composition of the association
____________________________________________________________________
Q10. Training/capacity building of Water Users Association
i.

Did you attend any training/seminar to run this organization? Yes_____ No ______
If yes, specify
_______________________________________________________________

ii. Number of Training attended by you:

iii. Training Topic/
Method______________________________________________________________
iv. Training expertise:
___________________________________________________________
v. Do you think it was sufficient for you to run this business: Yes ____ No _____
If no, why
not_______________________________________________________________

Q11. Which model was run through your organization

i.

Irrigation Management Transfer

ii. Participatory Irrigation Management

iii. Any Other Specify
____________________________________________________________________
iv. You are satisfied with this: Yes_____ No______
If no, why not_________________________________________________________
Q12. What are the benefits of the Association?
i.

Did you get any financial aid, 1. Yes 2. No

If yes, specify
_______________________________________________________________

ii. Lining of canal/water course, specify

____________________________________________________________________
iii. Legal Support, specify
____________________________________________________________________
iv. Moral supports, specify
____________________________________________________________________
v. Increase in social status, specify
____________________________________________________________________
Q13. Leadership assessment of the Association
i.

What type of leadership you get from this process

1. Good____ 2. Medium______ 3. Poor

ii. From which class this leadership (key person) emerged

1. Rich _____ 2. Middle ______ 3. Poor
iii. Education of the leader
1. Highly Educated______2. Middle_____ 3. Illiterate
iv. What is their social status 1. High_____2. Medium______ 3. Low______
v. What is their moral characters, describe
1.Good_____ 2.Very Good______ 3.Bad _____ 4.Not so bad
vi. Are they involved in water thefts/crimes etc.? 1. Yes_____ 2. No______
If yes specify if no, why not

____________________________________________________________________
vii. Is WUA is useful to solve your water problems? Yes____ No_____
If yes
specify______________________________________________________________
If no, why
not_______________________________________________________________
viii. Any special credibility attached with this leadership
____________________________________________________________________
Q14. Means of Agricultural Information
1.Radio

2.Newspaper

3.Friends

4.Relatives

5.T.V.

6.Exhibition

7.Agricultural Extension Workers

8.Local Leaders

9.Any other

Q15. Credit Facilities

a. Did you use any credit facility? Yes=1 No=2
If yes, from
where_______________________________________________________________
Q16.Livestock
S.

Numbers

No.

Expected
Value

Bullocks

Cows

Buffaloes

Sheep

Goats

Donkeys

Income

Horses

Poultry

Other Specify

Q17. Sources of Water

S. No.

Source

Availability of Water
1.Sufficient

2.Some

3. sufficient

What sufficient
1.

Canal

2.

Tube Well

3.

Stream

4.

Kareez

5.

RudKohi

6.

Well

7.

Small Dam

8.

Flood / Ponds

9.

Rain Fed

10.

Sailaga

11.

Other specify

Q18. Watercourse
1. Is your water course lined? 1.Yes____ 2.No____ if yes, when

2. Who made it?

i. Government (OFM) ii.NRSP
v. Community

iii.N.G.O

iv.USAID

vi. Any other specify

3. How did community help in the construction of the watercourse?

i. Provide Cash payment

ii. Provide Labor free of cost

iii. Provide Land

iv. Any other specify

4. Are you satisfied with the construction of watercourse?

i.Satisfied______ ii. Somewhat satisfied_______ iii. Not satisfied______
5. How much length of the lined watercourse is?
a. Towards Head________
b. In the Middle_________
c. Toward Tail__________
6. Does water course get damaged to affect supply of water to your land?
a. Yes_______ b. No__________
If yes, what is the main reason?
a. Rat Holes____________________
b. Blockage due to bushes or mud_________________
c. Illegal cuts as a result of water thefts_____________
7. What are the causes of conflict over maintenance of watercourse?
a. Water thefts_______________________________
b. Non cooperative behavior of some farmers_____________
c. Family dispute___________________________________
d. Time taken by some farmers beyond the schedule________________
Q19. Irrigation Water
Do you find irrigation water;
1. Adequate

2.More than adequate

3.Inadequate

a. Do you clean/maintain watercourse? Yes=1 no=2

a1. If yes, specify
1.Individually clean

2.Joint operation

3.Both

a 2. How many times you clean/maintain the W/C annually?

1.Once a year

2. Twice a year

3. Three time a year

5. Dont clean 6. Any other

4. More than three times

Q20. Farmers Contribution in Watercourse Renovation

a. How did you contribute to the watercourse improvement?
a1

Financial Contribution to the WUA

a2

Your own labor

a3

Someone else labor in your place

a4

Other (specify)

b. What is your impression of the renovated watercourse?

1.Fully useful

2.Less useful

3.Never useful

Q21. How you are maintaining renovated watercourse?

1.Through Water Users Association

2.Farmrs themselves

3.Through traditional khal committee

4.Other (Specify)

a. if WUA is not maintaining the Watercourse give reason(s)

1. WUA is not functioning adequately
2. Farmers can do the job better by themselves
3. Traditional khal committee can do the job better
4. Other (Specify)
b. Do you experience deficiencies / drawbacks (with the passage of time) in the following
works?
Yes=1 No=2

If yes, give main reason

Reason 1

Reason 2

Civil works
Earthen construction
Lining
Nacca installation
Culver construction
Buffalo wallow

Q22. Identify the benefits being received if renovation is useful

Useful=1

Not-useful=2
Rank Order

Decline in water losses

Less use of tube well or other water

Less time to irrigate

Easier to clean

Less silt deposition

Increased cropped area

Increased Yield

Other (Specify)

Q23. Is there destruction of the following constructed works on the watercourse at present?
Yes=1

No=2

Destruction of Lining

Damage of naccas and leakage

Destruction of reconstructed earthen section

Other (Specify)

a. Do you think that increased water supply (from watercourse renovation) has contributed
for increasing yield of the above reported crops?
Yes=1

No=2

Q25. Impact Assessment of Water User Association

1. Institutional impact - community and government - devolution of power
i.

Cooperative models
introduced______________________________________________

ii.

Lessons learnt_____________________________________________________

iii.

Alternate options devised____________________________________________

iv.

Different models tested internationally, nationally and locally

_________________________________________________________________

2. Social Impacts: (Explain)

i.

Poverty alleviation
_________________________________________________________________

ii.

Improvement in quality of life

_________________________________________________________________

iii.

KAP Improvement
_________________________________________________________________

iv.

Use of machinery
_________________________________________________________________

v.

Level of conflicts
_________________________________________________________________

3. Economic Impact
i.

Increase in water availability

______________________________________________________________________________
ii.

Increase in cropped area

______________________________________________________________________________
iii.

Impact on cropping pattern

______________________________________________________________________________
iv.

Increase in cropping intensity

______________________________________________________________________________
v.

Increase in income

______________________________________________________________________________
vi.

Increase in non-farm labor

______________________________________________________________________________
vii.

Increase in off farm professions (like nacca manufacturers, etc.)

______________________________________________________________________________
4. Impact on Women
i.

Change in role of women in WM

______________________________________________________________________________
ii. Facilities made available for women
______________________________________________________________________________
iii. Washing of clothes
______________________________________________________________________________

5. Impact on Livestock
i.

Buffalo wallows

______________________________________________________________________________
ii. Ditch crossings
______________________________________________________________________________
6. Impact on Environment
i.

Control of
Spillage________________________________________________________

ii.

Reduction in pool formation

______________________________________________________________________________
iii.

Availability of open spaces

______________________________________________________________________________
iv.

Ease of operation

______________________________________________________________________________
7. Improvement in Health
i.

Reduction in incidence of malaria

yes=1 no=2

ii.

Availability of safe drinking water

yes=1 no=2

iii.

Increase in affordability of best health services yes=1 no=2

8. Improvement in Education
i.

Release of children for admission to education (increase %)

ii.

Affordability for quality education

___________________________________________
Better education=1 Higher education=2

9. Any other
______________________________________________________________________________
10. Comments and suggestion of the respondents to further improve the situation?
______________________________________________________________________________

Appendix 2
Bibliography
1. Bhattarai, M., D. Pant, V.S. Mishra, H. Devkota, S. Pun, R.N. Kayastha and D.
Molden. 2002. Integrated Development and Management of Water Resources for
Productive and Equitable Use in the Indrawati River Basin, Nepal. Working Paper
41. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
2. Dinar Ariel, Mark W. Rosegrant, and Ruth Meinzen-Dick. 1997. Water
Allocation: Mechanisms, Principles and Examples. World Bank, Agriculture and
Natural Resources Department and International Food Policy Research Institute.
3. Dinar, A Balakrishnan, T. Wambia, J. 1998. Political Economy and political risks
of institutional reforms in the water sector. World Bank Policy research, Working
Paper no. 1987.
4. Samad, M. and D. Vermillion. 1999. Assessment of participatory management of
irrigation schemes in Sri Lanka: Partial reforms partial benefits. Research report
34. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
5. Cornish, G. A. and Perry, C. J. 2003. Water Charging in Irrigated Agriculture:
Lessons from the Field. Report OD 50. HR Wallingford Ltd, Wallingford, UK.
6. Briscoe, Qamar. 2007. Pakistans Water Economy Running dry. Oxford
University Press.
7. Ariyabandu, Rajendra. 2008. Swings and roundabouts: A narrative on water
policy development in Sri Lanka. Working Paper 296. Overseas Development
Institute.
8. Interim National Water Resources Authority of Sri Lanka. 2011. Outline Of The
Strategic Plan To Establish A National Water Resources Authority Of Sri Lanka.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific.
9. Benefits and Second Generation Problems of Irrigation Management Transfer in
Colombia Luis E. Quintero-Pinto

10. Water Users' Associations And Sustainability Of Irrigation Systems, Atef Hamdy
(*) - Cosimo Lacirlgnola (**)
11. Future of Irrigation and Drainage in Pakistan Rashid Faruqee The Pakistan
Development Review 36 : 4 Part II (Winter 1997) pp. 565591
12. WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS IN PAKISTAN: Institutional, organizational
and participatory aspects Doctoral Dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor
Agricultural Sciences of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences Georg-AugustUniversitt Gttingen (Germany) By Waheed Chaudhry born in Liaquat Pur
Gttingen, December 1996
13. Just Enough Organization: Water Users Associations And Episodic Mobilization
Bryan Bruns
14. The role of formal and informal institutions in the water sector - What are the
challenges for development? By Eugenia Ferragina, Mita Marra and Desiree A.L.
Quagliarotti

15. Geography,
climate
and
population
of
Pakistan
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/pakistan/index.stm
Improved Water Management through Effective Water Users Associations in
Central Asia: Case of Kyrgyzstan Jusipbek Kazbekov, Iskandar Abdullaev,
Oyture Anarbekov, Kahramon Jumaboev

16. Wurubundi in Pakistans Canal Irrigation Systems IIMI Country Paper, Pakistan
No. 7
17. Proceedings Of The National Conference On Managing Irrigation For
Environmentally Sustainable Agriculture In Pakistan Islamabad, November 5-7,
1996
18. Participatory Irrigation Management: Understanding the Role of Cooperative
Culture Suresh A. Kulkarni, and Avinash C Tyagi
19. The Policy Landscape of Agricultural Water Management in Pakistan Noora-Lisa
Aberman et el, Environment and Production Technology Division International
Commission on Irrigation and Drainage IFPRI Discussion Paper 01265 April
2013

20. Demonstrating Capacity Strengthening Approach to Enhancing Sustainability and

Accountability of Irrigation Water Users Association through their Federation in
Nepal Project completion Report Submitted by: Rishi Ram Sharma Neupane
Team Coordinating Consultant RITI-Nepal
21. Challenges and Prospects of Sustainable Groundwater Management in the Indus
Basin, Pakistan Asad S. Qureshi1, P.G. McCornick2, A. Sarwar3, B.R. Sharma4
22. GENDERED PARTICIPATION IN WATER MANAGEMENT: ISSUES AND
ILLUSTRATIONS FROM WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS IN SOUTH
ASIA
23. Ruth Meinzen-Dick1 and Margreet Zwarteveen2 Paper prepared for Women and
Water Workshop International Irrigation Management Institute 15-19 September
1997 Sri Lanka
24. Water Users Organization for Institutional Reform in Pakistans Irrigation Sector
Masahiro NAKASHIMA, Faculty of International Studies, Hiroshima City
University, Hiroshima, Japan. E-mail:nakashim@intl.hiroshima-cu.ac.jp
25. Water User organizations for improving irrigated agriculture,: applicability to
Pakistan Radosevich, G.E.
26. Water Users Associations (WUA) towards Diversified Activities Experiences of
Nepal and Other Countries Prachanda Pradhan

Appendix 3
THE ON-FARM WATER MANAGEMENT AND
WATER USERS ASSOCIATIONS ORDINANCE, 1981
(Pb Ord. V of 1981)
CONTENTS
SECTIONS
1.

Short title, extent and commencement.

2.

Definitions.

3.

Field officer to direct irrigators to re-construct, etc. the watercourse.

4.

Future maintenance of a watercourse, etc.

5.

Field officer to check maintenance of watercourse.

6.

Formation and registration of Association.

7.

Association to be a body corporate.

8.

Certificate of registration to be conclusive evidence.

9.

Disputes.

10.

Cancellation of registration.

11.

Liability of persons organising or managing an Association.

12.

Obstruction, an offence.

13.

Power of Collector.

14.

Power to make rules.

15.

Ordinance to over-ride other laws.

[1]THE

ON-FARM

WATER

MANAGEMENT

AND

WATER

USERS

ASSOCIATIONS ORDINANCE, 1981

(Pb Ord. V of 1981)
[22 April 1981]
An Ordinance to provide for on-farm water management, conservation and optimum
utilization of irrigation water sources and formation of water users associations in the
Province

Preamble. WHEREAS it is expedient to provide for on-farm water management,

conservation and optimum utilization of irrigation water sources, formation of water
users associations and matters ancillary thereto;
NOW, THEREFORE, in pursuance of the Proclamation of the fifth day of July, 1977,
read with the Laws (Continuance in Force) Order, 1977 (C.M.L.A. Order 1 of 1977), the
Governor of the Punjab is pleased to make and promulgate the following Ordinance:-1. Short title, extent and commencement. (1) This Ordinance may be called the OnFarm Water Management and Water Users Associations Ordinance, 1981.
(2) It extends to the whole of the Province of the Punjab.
(3) It shall come into force at once.
2.

Definitions. (1) In this Ordinance, unless the context otherwise requires, the

following words and expressions shall have the meanings hereby respectively assigned to
them:(i)

Association means a Water Users Association (Anjuman-e-Abpashan)

registered under the Ordinance;

[2][(ii) Field officer means and includes the District Officer On-Farm Water
Management or any other officer empowered as such by Government;]
(iii) Government means Government of the Punjab;
(iv) irrigator in respect of any land which is irrigated from a watercourse, means
any person for the time being directly deriving benefit by such irrigation, and includes a
land owner, tenant or lessee of such land;
(v) Watercourse means any channel which is supplied with water from a canal,
but which is not maintained at the cost of Government and such subsidiary works
belonging to any such channel.
(vi) prescribed means prescribed by rules framed under the Ordinance;
(vii) improvement means and includes
(a) demolishing of the old watercourse;
(b)

removing of vegetation including trees, etc. growing in the way of a

watercourse sanctioned by Government;

(c) unloading of the banks of the watercourse by physical removal of the silt
deposit;

(d) clearance of silt from the bed of the watercourse;

(e) re-alignment of the watercourse based on engineering survey and design;
(f) installation of pacca nakkas at sanctioned sites;
(g) construction of culverts on the crossings;
(h) brick-lining of weak reaches of the watercourse up to certain fixed limit;
and
(i)

construction, reconstruction or maintenance of buffalo wallows, where

required.
(2) Words and expressions used in the Ordinance but not defined herein shall have
the same meanings as are respectively assigned to them in the Canal and Drainage Act,
1873 (VIII of 1873) and the Punjab Land Revenue Act, 1967 (W.P. Act XVII of 1967).
3. Field officer to direct irrigators to re-construct, etc. the watercourse. (1) Where a
Field Officer, on receipt of an application to this effect or on the basis of his own
observation, is of the opinion that a watercourse needs reconstruction, maintenance or
improvement, he may pass an order directing the irrigators of the watercourse jointly
responsible with others for the reconstruction or maintenance of a watercourse or jointly
making use of a watercourse with others to reconstruct, maintain or improve the
watercourse within the period specified in that order.
(2) Where an order is passed under sub-section (1), every irrigator jointly responsible
with others for the reconstruction, maintenance or improvement of a watercourse, or
jointly making use of a watercourse with others shall be responsible to execute his share
of work necessary for, and be liable to pay his share of the cost of such reconstruction,
maintenance or improvement and if the share of his liability as determined by the Field
officer is not paid by him within such period as is specified by the Field officer the same
shall be recoverable from that person as if it were an arrear of land revenue.
(3)

If on receipt of an order under sub-section (1), the persons to whom it is

addressed do not, within the period specified, reconstruct, maintain or improve the
watercourse to the satisfaction of the Field officer he may take necessary steps for the
reconstruction, maintenance or improvement of the watercourse.
(4) Where the irrigators of a watercourse jointly responsible with others for the
reconstruction, maintenance or improvement of a watercourse or jointly making use of a

watercourse with others, have formed themselves into an Association and the same is
registered with the Field officer under the provisions of the Ordinance, he shall, before
undertaking the reconstruction, maintenance or improvement of the watercourse, provide
an opportunity to the Association to carry out the job of reconstruction, maintenance or
improvement of the watercourse.
(5)

If an Association, to whom the work of reconstruction, maintenance or

improvement of the watercourse has been entrusted by the Field officer does not execute
the work according to the specifications laid down by the Field officer or does not
commence or complete the execution of the work within the time specified by the Field
officer, the Field officer may cancel the entrustment of the job to the Association and take
necessary steps to get the reconstruction, maintenance or improvement of the watercourse
done at the cost of the irrigators.
4.

Future maintenance of a watercourse, etc. (1) Where a watercourse has been re-

constructed or improved by an Association, the Field officer may, subject to such

conditions as may be laid down by him, entrust the future maintenance of the watercourse
to that Association, on behalf of all the irrigators of the watercourse.
(2) Where a watercourse has been re-constructed or improved by an Association or
where the future maintenance of the watercourse has been entrusted to it under subsection (1), it shall carry out the works to the satisfaction of the Field officer and shall be
entitled to recover proportionate cost of reconstruction, improvement or maintenance, as
the case may be, from the members of the Associations as well as the irrigators who are
not members of the Association.
(3) If any of the irrigators, whether he is a member of the Association or not, refuses
or fails to pay to the Association his share of the cost of reconstruction, maintenance or
improvement as determined by the Association, the same shall be recovered by the Field
officer as an arrear of land revenue and paid to the Association.
5.

Field officer to check maintenance of watercourse. The Field Officer shall, from

time to time, make spot-inspection of the watercourse to satisfy himself that it is being
properly maintained and may issue such directions for the proper maintenance of a
watercourse as may be considered necessary.

6. Formation and registration of Association. (1) Where the majority of the irrigators
of a watercourse agree to associate in the work of reconstruction, maintenance or
improvement of the watercourse, they may form an Association to be known as Water
Users Association (Anjuman-e-Abpashan).
(2)

An Association seeking registration under the Ordinance shall make an

application to the Field officer in the prescribed manner and on the prescribed form
containing inter alia, the following particulars:(i) a list of members of the Association with full particulars thereof;
(ii) a copy of the bye-laws of the Association;
(iii) the names and other particulars of the office bearers of the Association; and
(iv)

a list of all the irrigators jointly responsible for the reconstruction,

maintenance or improvement of a watercourse or jointly making use of watercourse with

others.
(3) On receipt of an application under sub-section (2), the Field officer shall convene
a meeting of all the irrigators of the watercourse.
(4) If the Field officer is satisfied that the list of all the irrigators of the watercourse,
as furnished by the Association, is correct and that the Association meets all the
requirements as laid down in sub-section (5), he may register the Association for the
purposes of the Ordinance and shall issue to the Association a certificate of registration
on the prescribed form.
(5) No Association shall be registered under the Ordinance unless
(i) fifty-one per cent of the total number of irrigators of the watercourse are
members of the Association;
(ii)

the bye-laws framed by the Association are not inconsistent with the

Ordinance and the rules;

(iii)

the office bearers and members of the Managing Committee of the

Association have been duly elected in accordance with the bye-laws of the Association;
and
(iv) the Association is maintaining a Bank Account in a scheduled bank.

(6) The decision of the Field officer granting or refusing to grant registration under
the Ordinance shall be final and shall not be called in question in any court or before any
authority.
(7) Where a question arises as to whether a particular person is or is not an irrigator,
the decision of the Field officer shall be final.
(8) The Field officer shall maintain a register containing such particulars as may be
prescribed, of all the certificates of registration issued by him under the Ordinance.
7.

Association to be a body corporate. The registration of an Association under the

Ordinance shall render it a body corporate in the name under which it is registered with
perpetual succession and a common seal with power to hold property, enter into
contracts, institute and defend suits and other legal proceedings and to do all acts
necessary for the purposes of carrying out its functions.
8.

Certificate of registration to be conclusive evidence. A certificate of registration

issued to an Association under the Ordinance shall be conclusive evidence of the fact that
the Association is duly registered under the Ordinance unless it is proved that the
registration of the Association has been cancelled.
9.

Disputes. (1) If any dispute touching the business of an Association arises

between
(a)

members or past members of an Association or persons claiming through

members or past members;

(b) members or past members or persons so claiming and any past or present officer,
agent or servant of an Association;
(c) An Association or its Managing Committee and any past or present member of
the Association or between an Association or its Managing Committee and any past or
present officer, agent or servant of the Association, of a surety of such officer, agent or
servant whether such surety is or is not a member of the Association; and
(d) one Association and another Association;
it shall be referred to the Field officer of the area for decision.
(2) The Field officer may hear the dispute and decide the matter.
(3) The decision of the Field officer shall be final.

10.

Cancellation of registration. (1) The registration of an Association may be

cancelled by the Field officer if

(i) the membership of the Association has been reduced to less than fifty-one per
cent of the total number of irrigators on the watercourse; or
(ii) not less than three-fourths of the members of Association at a special general
body meeting called for the purpose pass a resolution for the winding up of Association
and move an application to the Field officer to that effect and the Field officer after
considering the application, and making such inquiries as he may deem fit, is of the
opinion that the registration of the Association ought to be cancelled;
(iii) the Association has refused or has failed to carry out the work entrusted to it
by the Field officer under the provisions of the Ordinance:
[3][Provided that no order of cancellation shall be passed without giving an
opportunity of being heard to the Association].
(2) The Field officer while ordering the cancellation of registration of an Association
may
(a) order any person, bank or body who holds any money, securities or other
assets of the Association, not to part with such money, securities and assets without the
previous permission, in writing of the Field officer;
(b) appoint a person to wind up the affairs of the Association with power to
institute and defend suits and other legal proceedings on behalf of the Association and to
make such orders and take such actions as may appear to him to be necessary for the
purpose;
(c) order any money, securities or assets, remaining after satisfaction of the
liabilities of the Association to be paid to the members; and
(d)

order any article, vehicle, instrument or other property provided to the

Association by any Government agency or department to be handed over to such other

Association or a person as may be specified.
11.

Liability of persons organising or managing an Association. (1) Where it appears

to the Field officer that any person who has taken part in the organization or management
of an Association or any past or present office bearers or members of the Managing
Committee or an officer of the Association has misapplied, misappropriated or retained

any money or property of the Association or has been guilty of mis-feasance or breach of
trust in relation to the Association, the Field officer may on his own motion and shall, on
the application of any creditor or contributory, examine into the conduct of such person
and make an order requiring him to repay or restore the money or property or any part
thereof respectively with interest at such rate as the Field officer thinks fit or to contribute
such sum to the assets of the Association by way of compensation in regard to the misapplication, misappropriation, retention, mis-feasance or breach of trust as the Field
officer thinks just:
[4][Provided that no order under sub-section (1) shall be passed without giving an
opportunity of being heard to the person to be affected thereby].
(2) If any person referred to in sub-section (1) does not comply with the order of the
Field officer, the amount involved may be recovered from him by the Field officer as an
arrear of land revenue.
(3) This section shall apply notwithstanding that the act is one for which the offender
may be criminally responsible.
12.

Obstruction, an offence. Any person who wilfully causes obstruction in the work

of reconstruction, maintenance or improvement of a watercourse undertaken by an

Association under the provisions of the Ordinance or by any person employed by the
Association for such purpose shall be deemed to be obstructing a public servant in the
discharge of his public functions and shall be punished accordingly.
13.

Power of Collector. Government may, by notification in the official Gazette,

invest a Field officer with the powers of a Collector for the recovery of an amount due
against a person under the Ordinance as arrear of land revenue under the Punjab Land
Revenue Act, 1967 (W.P. Act No. XVII of 1967).
14.

Power to make rules. (1) Government may make rules for carrying out the

purposes of the Ordinance.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power such
rules may provide for
(i) matters which may or may not be provided in the bye-laws of an Association
for purposes of registration under the Ordinance or the standard bye-laws which may be
adopted by an Association;

(ii) the manner in which and the authority by whom the audit of accounts of an
Association is to be conducted; and
(iii) any other matter ancillary or incidental thereto.
15.

Ordinance to over-ride other laws. The provisions of the Ordinance and the rules

made thereunder shall have effect notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in
any other law for the time being in force.

________________________________________
[1]This Ordinance was promulgated by the Governor of the Punjab on 19th April, 1981;
and, published in the Punjab Gazette, (Extraordinary), dated 22nd April, 1981; pages
259-A to 259-H.
[2]Substituted by the On-Farm Water Management and Water Users Associations
(Amendment) Ordinance, 2001 (XXV of 2001), which will remain in force under the
Provisional Constitution (Amendment) Order 1999 (9 of 1999), Article 4,
notwithstanding the maximum limit of three months prescribed under Article 128 of the
Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
[3]Added by the On-Farm Water Management and Water Users Association
(Amendment) Ordinance, 1984 (XXXIV of 1984).
[4]Added by the On-Farm Water Management and Water Users Association
(Amendment) Ordinance, 1984 (XXXIV of 1984).

Appendix 4
II. THE CANAL AND DRAINAGE ACT, 1873

(Act VIII of 1873)

CONTENTS
PART I
PRELIMINARY
SECTIONS
1.

Short title Local extent.

2.

[Repealed]

3.

Interpretation-clause.

4.

Power to appoint officers.

PART II
OF THE APPLICATION OF WATER
FOR PUBLIC PURPOSES
5.

Notification to issue when water supply is to be applied for public purposes.

6.

Powers of Canal Officers.

7.

Notice as to claims for compensation.

8.

No compensation to be awarded for any damage.

9.

[Repealed]

10.

[Repealed]

11.

Abatement of rent on interruption of water-supply.

12.

Enhancement of rent on restoration of water-supply.

13.

[Repealed]

PART III
OF THE CONSTRUCTION AND
MAINTENANCE OF WORKS
14.

Power to enter and survey, etc.

Power to clear land
Power to inspect and regulate water-supply

Notice of intended entry into houses

Compensation for damage caused by entry.
15.

Power to enter for repairs and to prevent accidents

Compensation for damage to land.

16.

Application by persons desiring to use the canal-water

Contents of application
Liability of applicants for cost of work
Recovery of the amount due.

17.

Government to provide means of crossing canals.

18.

Persons using water-course to construct works for passing water across

roads, etc.
If they fail, Canal Officer may construct;
and recover cost.
19.

Adjustment of claims between persons jointly using water-course

Recovery of amount found due.

20.

Supply of water through intervening water-course or change of source of

water-supply.
20-A.

Special powers of Divisional Canal Officer to initiate cases under section

20.
20-B.

Cutting of supply for any land not being irrigated at site.

21.

Application for acquisition of land and construction works thereafter.

22.

Procedure of Canal Officer thereupon.

23.

Application for transfer of existing water course.

24.

Liability to acquisition.

25.

When applicant may be placed in occupation.

26.

Appeal against awards and review.

27.

Collector, Commissioner and Canal Officer to have powers of Civil Courts,

28.

Expenses to be paid by applicant before receiving occupation.

29.

Conditions binding on applicant placed in occupation.

30.

[Repealed]

etc.

PART IV
OF THE SUPPLY OF WATER
31.

In absence of written contract, water-supply to be subject to rules.

32.

Conditions as to
(a) Power to stop water supply;
(b) Claims to compensation in case of failure or stoppage of supply;
(c) Claims on account of interruption from other causes;
(d) Duration of supply;
(e) Sale or subletting of right to use canal-water;
(f) No right acquired by user.

PART V
OF WATER-RATES
33.

Liability when water is unauthorisedly taken from canal or water course.

34.

Liability when water runs to waste.

35.

Charges recoverable in addition to penalties.

36.

Charge on occupier for water, how determined

Occupiers rate.

37.

Owners rate.

38.

Amount of owners rate.

39.

Owners rate, when not chargeable.

40.

[Repealed]

41.

[Repealed]

42.

[Repealed]

43.

[Repealed]

44.

Water-rate by whom payable when charged on land held by several owners.

45.

Certified dues recoverable as land-revenue.

46.

Power to contract for collection of canal-dues.

47.

Lambardars may be required to collect canal dues.

48.

Fines excluded from sections 45, 46, 47.

PART VI
OF CANAL-NAVIGATION

49.

Detainer of vessels violating rules

Liability of owners of vessels causing damage.

50.

Recovery of fines for offences in navigating canals.

51.

Power to seize and detain vessel on failure to pay charges.

52.

Power to seize cargo or goods, if charges due thereon are not paid.

53.

Procedure for recovery of such charges after seizure.

54.

Procedure in respect of vessels abandoned and goods unclaimed

Disposal of proceeds of sale.

PART VII
OF DRAINAGE
55.

Power to prohibit obstructions or order their removal.

56.

Power to remove obstructions after prohibition.

57.

Preparation of Schemes for works of improvement.

58.

Powers of persons employed on such schemes.

59.

Rate on land benefited by works.

60.

Recovery of rate.

61.

Disposal of claims to compensation.

62.

Limitation of such claims.

PART VIII
OF OBTAINING LABOUR FOR
CANALS AND DRAINAGE-WORKS
63.

Definition of labourer.

64.

Power to prescribe number of labourers to be supplied by persons benefited

by canal.
65.

Procedure for obtaining labour for works urgently required.

66.

Liability of labourers under requisition.

PART IX
OF JURISDICTION
67.

Jurisdiction under this Act of Civil Courts.

68.

Settlement of difference as to mutual rights and liabilities of persons

interested in the use of water from a canal outlet.

68-A.
69.

Power of Canal Officer to restore interrupted supply.

Power to summon and examine witnesses.

PART X
OF OFFENCES AND PENALTIES
70.
70-A.

Offences under the Act.

Compensation to persons injured.

71.

Saving of prosecution under other laws.

72.

Compensation to person injured.

73.

Power to arrest without warrant.

74.

Definition of Canal.

PART XI
OF SUBSIDIARY RULES
75.

Power to make, alter and cancel rules

Publication of rules.

SCHEDULE
[Repealed]

[1]THE CANAL AND DRAINAGE ACT, 1873

(Act VIII of 1873)
[11 February 1873]
An Act to regulate Irrigation, Navigation and Drainage [2][* * *]
Preamble. WHEREAS, throughout the territories to which this Act extends, [3][the
Provincial Government] is entitled to use and control for public purposes the water of all
rivers and streams flowing in natural channels, and of all lakes, [4][sub-soil water] and
other natural collections of still water; and whereas it is expedient to amend the law
relating to irrigation, navigation and drainage in the said territories;
It is hereby enacted as follows:-

PART I
PRELIMINARY
1. Short title. This Act may be called the [5][* * *] Canal and Drainage Act, 1873.
Local extent. It extends to [6][the Punjab]; and applies to all lands, whether
permanently settled, temporarily settled, or free from revenue.
[7][* * * * * * * * * * * *]
2. [Repeal of Acts]. Rep. by the Repealing Act, 1873 (XII of 1873), s. 1 and Sch., Pt. II.
3. Interpretation-clause. In this Act, unless there be something repugnant in the subject
or context,
(1) Canal includes,
(a) all canals, channels, [8][tube-wells] and reservoirs constructed, maintained
or controlled by [9][the Provincial Government] for the supply or storage of water;
(b) all works, embankments, structures, supply and escape-channels connected
with such canals, channels or reservoirs;
(c) all water-courses as defined in the second clause of this section;
(d) all parts of a river, stream, lake or natural collection of water or natural
drainage-channel, to which the [10][Provincial Government] has applied the provisions
of Part II of this Act;
[11][but does not include a Kareze not constructed at the cost of the Provincial
Government or the contribution of the provincial Government in the construction
whereof does not exceed rupees ten thousand, and not maintained or controlled by the
Provincial Government]:
(2) water-course means any channel which is supplied with water from a canal,
but which is not maintained at the cost of [12][the Provincial Government], and all
subsidiary works belonging to any such channel:
(3)

drainage-work includes escape-channels from a canal, drains, weirs,

embankments, sluices, groins and other works for the protection of lands from flood or
from erosion formed or maintained by [13][the Provincial Government] under the
provisions of Part VII of this Act, but does not include works for the removal of sewage
from towns:
(4) vessel includes boats, rafts, timber and other floating bodies:

[14][(4A)

Board of Revenue means the Board of revenue established under the

[15]West Pakistan Board or Revenue Act, 1957 (West Pakistan Act XI of 1957)]:
(5) Commissioner means a Commissioner of a division, and includes any officer
appointed under this Act to exercise all or any of the powers of a Commissioner:
(6) Collector means the head revenue-officer of a district and includes a Deputy
Commissioner or other officer appointed under this Act to exercise all or any of the
powers of a Collector:
(7) Canal Officer means an officer appointed under this Act to exercise control
or jurisdiction over a canal or any part thereof:
Superintending Canal Officer means an officer exercising general control
over a canal or portion of a canal:
Divisional Canal Officer means an officer exercising control over a division
of a canal:
Sub-Divisional Canal Officer means an officer exercising control over a subdivision of a canal:
(8) district means a district as fixed for revenue purposes:
[16][(9) Canal Outlet means a work which passes water from a canal, including a
tube-well, to a water course and is constructed, maintained or controlled by Government;
and
(10) Internal Khal means any channel supplied with water from a water-course for
watering fields].
4. Power to appoint officers. The [17][Provincial Government] may from time to time
declare by notification in the Official Gazette, the officers by whom, and the local limits
within which, all or any of the powers or duties hereafter conferred or imposed shall be
exercised or performed.
All officer mentioned in section 3, clause (7), shall be respectively subject to the
orders of such officers as the [18][Provincial Government] from time to time directs.
[19][4-A. The Provincial Government may from time to time, by notification in the
Official Gazette, constitute irrigation committees comprising of not less than three
members from amongst the local cultivators for each outlet, or group of outlets and for a

canal or portion of a canal, for the assistance of the canal officers for matters mentioned
in section 70 of this Act].
PART II
OF THE APPLICATION OF WATER FOR PUBLIC PURPOSES
5.

Notification to issue when water supply is to be applied for public purposes.

Whenever it appears expedient to the [20][Provincial Government] that the water of any
river or stream flowing in a natural channel or of any lake or other natural collection of
still water, [21][or any sub-soil water] should be applied or used by the [22][Provincial
Government] for the purpose of any existing or projected canal or drainage-work, the
[23][Provincial Government] may, by notification in the Official Gazette, declare that the
said water will be so applied or used after a day to be named in the said notification, not
being earlier than three months from the date thereof.
6.

Powers of Canal Officers. At any time after the day so named, any Canal Officer

acting under the orders of the [24][Provincial Government] in this behalf may enter on
any land and remove any obstructions, and may close any channels, and do any other
thing necessary for such application or use of the said water.
7.

Notice as to claims for compensation. As soon as is practicable after the issue of

such notification, the Collector shall cause public notice to be given at convenient places,
stating that [25][the Provincial Government] intends to apply or use the said water as
aforesaid, and that claims for compensation in respect of the matters mentioned in section
8 may be made before him.
[26][8. No compensation to be awarded for any damage. (1) No compensation shall be
awarded for any damage caused by
(a) stoppage or diminution of percolation of water or floods;
(b) deterioration of climate or soil;
(c) stoppage of navigation, or of means of drifting timber or watering cattle;
(d) displacement of labour;
(e) stoppage or diminution of supply of water through any natural channel to any
defined artificial channel, whether above or underground, in use whether constantly or at
intervals at the date of the said notification;

(f)

stoppage or diminution of supply of water to any work erected for purposes of

profit on any channel, whether natural or artificial, in use at the date of the said
notification;
(g) stoppage or diminution of supply of water through any natural channel which has
been used for purposes of irrigation, whether constantly or at intervals, before the date of
the said notification;
(h) interference with any right to a watercourse or the use of any water to which any
person is entitled under the Limitation Act, 1908, Part IV.
(2) No right in respect of any of the matters referred to in clauses (a), (b) and (c) of
sub-section (1) shall be required as against the Government under the Limitation Act,
1908, Part IV; and no right to any such supply of water as is referred to in clauses (e), (f)
and (g) of sub-section (1), in respect of work or a channel, as the case may be, not in use
at the date of the notification shall be required, as against the Government, except by
grant or under the Limitation Act, 1908, Part IV.]
9. [27][* * * * * * * * * * * *]
10. [28][* * * * * * * * * * * *]
11. Abatement of rent on interruption of water-supply. Every tenant holding under an
unexpired lease, or having a right of occupancy, who is in occupation of any land at the
time when any stoppage or diminution of water-supply [29][* * *], takes place, may
claim an abatement of the rent previously payable by him for the said land, on the ground
that the interruption reduces the value of the holding.
12. Enhancement of rent on restoration of water-supply. If a water-supply increasing the
value of such holding is afterwards restored to the said land, the rent of the tenant may be
enhanced, in respect of the increased value of such land due to the restored water-supply,
to an amount not exceeding that at which it stood immediately before the abatement.
Such enhancement shall be on account only of the restored water-supply, and shall
not affect the liability of the tenant to enhancement of rent on any other grounds.
13. [30][* * * * * * * * * * * *]

PART III
OF THE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF WORKS
14. Power to enter and survey, etc. Any Canal Officer, or other person acting under the
general or special order of a Canal Officer,
may enter upon any lands adjacent to any canal, or through which any canal is
proposed to be made, and undertake surveys or levels thereon;
and dig and bore into the sub-soil;
and make and set up suitable land-marks, level-marks, and water-gauges;
and do all other acts necessary for the proper prosecution of any enquiry relating to
any existing or projected canal under the charge of the said Canal Officer;
Power to clear land. and, where otherwise such enquiry cannot be completed, such
officer or other person may cut down and clear away any part of any standing crop, fence
or jungle;
Power to inspect and regulate water-supply. and may also enter upon any land,
building or water-course on account of which any water-rate is chargeable, for the
purpose of inspecting or regulating the use of the water supplied, or of measuring the
lands irrigated thereby or chargeable with a water-rate, and of doing all things necessary
for the proper regulation and management of such canal:
Notice of intended entry into houses. Provided that, if such Canal Officer or person
proposes to enter into any building or enclosed court or garden attached to a dwellinghouse not supplied with water flowing from any canal, he shall previously give the
occupier of such building, court or garden at least seven days notice in writing of his
intention to do so.
Compensation for damage caused by entry. In every case of entry under this section,
the Canal Officer shall, at the time of such entry, tender compensation for any damage
which may be occasioned by any proceeding under this section; and, in case of dispute as
to the sufficiency of the amount so tendered, he shall forthwith refer the same for
decision by the collector, and such decision shall be final.
15. Power to enter for repairs and to prevent accidents. In case of any accident
happening or being apprehended to a canal any Divisional Canal Officer or any person
acting under his general or special orders in this behalf may enter upon any lands

adjacent to such canal, and may execute all works which may be necessary for the
purpose of repairing or preventing such accident.
Compensation for damage to land. In every such case such Canal Officer or person
shall tender compensation to the proprietors or occupiers of the said lands for all damage
done to the same. If such tender is not accepted, the Canal Officer shall refer the matter to
the Collector, who shall proceed to award compensation for the damage as though the
[31][Provincial Government] had directed the occupation of the lands under section 43 of
the [32]Land Acquisition Act, 1870.
16. Application by persons desiring to use the canal-water. Any persons desiring to use
the water of any canal may apply in writing to the Divisional or Sub-divisional Canal
Officer of the division or sub-division of the canal from which the water-course is to be
supplied, requesting such officer to construct or improve a water-course at the cost of the
applicants.
Contents of application. The application shall state the works to be undertaken, their
appropriate estimated cost, or the amount which the applicants are willing to pay for the
same, or whether they engage to pay the actual cost as settled by the Divisional Canal
Officer, and how the payment is to be made.
Liability of applicants for cost of works. When the assent of the [33][Canal Officer
authorized in this behalf by Provincial Government] is given to such application, all the
applicants shall, after the application has been duly attested before the collector, be
jointly and severally liable for the cost of such works to the extent mentioned therein.
Recovery of amount due. Any amount becoming due under the terms of such
application, and not paid to the Divisional Canal Officer, or the person authorised by him
to receive the same, on or before the date on which it becomes due, shall, on the demand
of such officer, be recoverable by the collector as if it were an arrear of land revenue.
17. Government to provide means of crossing canals. There shall be provided, at the
cost of [34][the Provincial Government] suitable means of crossing canals constructed or
maintained at the cost of [35][the Provincial Government], at such places as [36][the
Provincial Government] thinks necessary for the reasonable convenience of the
inhabitants of the adjacent lands.

On receiving a statement in writing, signed by not less than five of the owners of such
lands, to the effect that suitable crossings have not been provided on any canal, the
Collector shall cause enquiry to be made into the circumstances of the case, and if he
thinks that the statement is established, he shall report this opinion thereon for the
consideration of [37][the Provincial Government], and the [38][the Provincial
Government] shall cause such measures in reference thereto to be taken as it thinks
proper.
18. Persons using water-course to construct works for passing water across roads, etc.
The Divisional Canal Officer may issue an order to the person using any water-course to
construct suitable bridges, culverts or other works for the passage of the water of such
water-course across any public road, canal or drainage-channel in use before the said
water-course was made, or to repair any such works.
Such order shall specify a reasonable period within which such construction or repairs
shall be completed;
If they fail, Canal Officer may construct. and if, after the receipt of such order, the
persons to whom it is addressed do not, within the said period construct or repair such
works to the satisfaction of the said Canal Officer, he may, with the previous approval of
the Superintending Canal Officer, himself construct or repair the same;
And recover cost. and if the said persons do not, when so required, pay the cost of
such construction or repairs as declared by the Divisional Canal Officer, the amount
shall, on the demand of the Divisional Canal Officer, be recoverable from them by the
Collector as if it were an arrear of land-revenue.
19. Adjustment of claims between persons jointly using water-course. If any person,
jointly responsible with others for the construction or maintenance of a water-course, or
jointly making use of a water-course with others, neglects or refuses to pay his share of
the cost of such construction or maintenance or to execute his share of any work
necessary for such construction or maintenance, the Divisional or Sub-divisional Canal
Officer, on receiving an application in writing from any person injured by such neglect or
refusal, shall serve notice on all the parties concerned that, on the expiration of a fortnight
from the service, he will investigate the case, and shall, on the expiration of that period,
investigate the case accordingly, and make such order thereon as to him seems fit.

Such order shall be appealable to the Commissioner, whose order thereon shall be
final.
Recovery of amount found due. Any sum directed by such order to be paid within a
specified period may, if not paid within such period, and if the order remains in force, be
recovered by the Collector, from the person directed to pay the same, as if it were an
arrear of land-revenue.
[39][20. Supply of water through intervening water-course or change of source of watersupply. Whenever application is made to a Divisional Canal Officer for a supply of
water from a canal through an existing water-course or change of source of water supply
of any land and he considers it expedient, shall give notice to all persons interested
including the land-owners through whose land any link water-course is to pass, to showcause on a day not less than fourteen days from the date of such notice why the said
supply should not be so conveyed, or the source of supply be changed; and after making
enquiry on such day, the Divisional Canal Officer shall determine, whether and on what
conditions the said supply shall be conveyed through such water-course or that the source
of water supply shall be changed or the link water-course shall be aligned and
constructed. After the expiry of thirty days of the announcement of the decision of the
Divisional Canal Officer, if no objection is received and after giving due opportunity of
hearing if an objection is received, the Superintending Canal Officer may confirm or
modify that decision. The decision of the Superintending Canal Officer shall be binding
on the applicant, the persons responsible for the maintenance of the said water-course, all
the persons affected by the change of course of water-supply, and the land-owners
through whose land the link water-course shall pass.
Such applicant shall not be entitled to use the said water-course until he has paid the
expenses of alteration of such water-course necessary in order to his being supplied
through it, and also such share of the first cost of such watercourse as the Divisional or
Superintending Canal Officer may determine.
The applicant shall not be entitled to use the link water-course, if any, until (a) he has
paid to the land-owner the compensation for the land occupied by such link water-course
in whatever shape if it is determined through mutual agreement or (b) possession of land
for the said link water-course has been acquired under the provisions of this Act.

Such applicant shall also be liable for his share of cost of maintenance of the watercourse as long as he uses it].
[40][20-A. Special powers of Divisional Canal Officer to initiate cases under section 20.
Whenever Government considers it expedient for a specific purpose to empower a
Divisional Canal Officer to undertake proceedings under section 20 on his own initiative,
it may confer such a power by a general or special order issued in that behalf.
20-B.

Cutting of supply for any land not being irrigated at site. Whenever, on an

application or otherwise, the Divisional Canal Officer considers it expedient to terminate

the water-supply of any land which cannot be used for agriculture or has become
unirrigable, he shall give notice of not less than fourteen days to the land-owners and the
persons responsible for the maintenance of the water-course through which such supply is
conveyed, to show cause why such supply should not be cut off, and after making
enquiry, the said Canal Officer may pass orders to stop the complete or partial supply of
water.
(2) After the expiry of thirty days of the announcement of the decision by the
Divisional Canal Officer, if no objection is received and after giving due opportunity of
hearing, if any objection is received, the Superintending Canal Officer may confirm or
modify it. The decision of the Superintending Canal Officer shall be final and binding on
the parties concerned].
[41][21. Application for acquisition of land and construction works thereafter.
Whenever, it is considered necessary to acquire land for construction of a link watercourse sanctioned under section 20, or section 98 or deposit of soil from a water-course
clearances permitted under section 68 and transfer of an existing water course sanctioned
under section 23, the interested person may apply in writing to the Divisional Canal
Officer, stating
(i)

that he has endeavoured unsuccessfully to acquire from the owner, the land

required for the construction of the link water-course, or for the deposit of soil from the
watercourse, or for the transfer of the existing watercourse;
(ii) that he desires the said Canal Officer, in his behalf and at his cost, to do all
things necessary for acquiring such land; and

(iii)

that he is able to defray all costs involved in acquiring such land and

constructing such water course with connected works].

[42][22. Procedure of Canal Officer thereupon. If the Divisional Canal Officer is
satisfied that the statements in the application are true, he shall call upon the applicant to
make such deposit as the Divisional Canal Officer considers necessary to defray cost of
the preliminary proceedings, and the amount of any compensation which he considers
likely to become due under this Act; and upon such deposit being made, he shall mark
out the land which will be necessary to occupy for the said purpose, and shall forthwith
publish a notice in every village that so much of such land as belongs to such village has
been so marked out, and shall send a copy of such notice to the Collector of every district
in which any part of such land is situated].
[43][23. Application for transfer of existing water course. Whenever application is made
to a Divisional Canal Officer for transfer of an existing watercourse from its present
owner to the applicant, and it appears to him expedient that such transfer should be made
in the interest of irrigation, he shall give notice to the person owning such water course to
cause, on a day not less than fourteen days from the date of such notice, why the said
watercourse should not be so transferred, and after making enquiry on such day, the
Divisional Canal Officer shall determine whether and on what condition the said
watercourse shall be transferred.
After the expiry of thirty days of the announcement of the decision of the Divisional
Canal Officer, if no objection is received and after giving due opportunity of hearing, if
any objection is received, the Superintending Canal Officer may confirm or modify that
decision. The decision of the Superintending Canal Officer shall be final and binding on
the parties concerned.
The applicant shall not be entitled to use the said water-course, until
(a) he has paid to the owner, the compensation thereof in whatever shape it is
determined through mutual agreement; or
(b) possession of the watercourse has been acquired under the provisions of this Act].
[44][24. Liability to acquisition. Notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in
the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, or any other law for the time being in force all land

within the province shall be liable to acquisition at any time under this Act for
constructing a watercourse or an internal khal].
[45][25. When applicant may be placed in occupation. (1) Within fourteen days of the
publication of the notice under section 22, any person interested in the land to which the
notice refers, may apply to the Superintending Canal Officer by petition, stating his
objection to the acquisition of land for which the application has been made.
The Superintending Canal Officer may either reject the petition or may make
alteration in the alignment of the proposed watercourse as he thinks fit after hearing the
Divisional Canal Officer or his representative and the applicant or interested persons by
giving them previous notice.
Notwithstanding anything to the finality of orders made under section 20, section 23
and section 68, the alteration made under this section by the Superintending Canal-officer
shall be construed as modification made in the orders already made under the above said
sections to the extent of orders passed under this section.
The Superintending Canal Officer shall record in writing all orders passed by him
under this section and grounds thereof. The orders of the Superintending Canal Officer
shall be final and binding on all the parties.
The Superintending Canal Officer shall inform the Collector of the District,
Divisional Canal Officer and the applicant of the order passed by him.
(2) After the expiry of fourteen days of the publication of the notice under section 22,
if no appeal is preferred to the Superintending Canal Officer and on the announcement of
the decision of the Superintending Canal Officer when appeal is preferred to him as
aforesaid, the Collector shall proceed within fourteen days to acquire such land or
transfer such water-course and determine the necessary compensation; provided that the
Collector shall take possession under this section after giving to the occupier thereof
notice of fourteen days of his intention to do so].
[46][26. Appeal against awards and review. (1) The person entitled to compensation
under the awards may accept the award and intimate acceptance in writing to the
Collector within fifteen days from the date of the announcement of award.
(2) Any person aggrieved by the award of the Collector may within one month of
such award appeal to the Commissioner. Where the affected party had no intimation of

the award, the appeal may be filed within six weeks of the award. The Commissioner
may after giving the person affected an opportunity of being heard make such order as he
may deem fit.
(3) The order of the Commissioner made on appeal shall be final and shall not be
called into question in any Court.
(4) The Collector or the Commissioner either of his own motion or on application
made to him in this behalf by any affected person may at any time review an order made
by himself or his predecessor in so far as it corrects an arithmetical, clerical or patent
error or mistake only].
[47][27. Collector, Commissioner and Canal Officer to have powers of Civil Courts, etc.
The Collector, Commissioner and a Canal Officer making any enquiry or conducting any
proceedings or exercising the powers of appeal or review under sections 25 and 26 of this
Act shall have the same powers in respect of the following matters as are vested in a Civil
Court, when trying a suit, under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (Act V of 1908),
namely
(a) summoning and enforcing attendance of any person, examining him on oath or
affirmation;
(b) requiring the discovery and production of any document;
(c) requisitioning any record from any court or office;
(d) issuing commissions for examination of witnesses, inspection of property or
making any local investigation;
(e) appointing guardians ad litem or next friends;
(f) adding or substituting representatives of deceased parties to proceedings;
(g) adding or dropping parties from pending proceedings;
(h)

dismissal in default of appearance and restoration of cases dismissed for

default;
(i) consolidating and splitting up cases; and
(j)

any other matter connected with the holding of any inquiry or hearing of an

appeal].
[48][28. Expenses to be paid by applicant before receiving occupation. On completion
of proceedings under section 25 and delivery of possession of land, the Divisional Canal

Officer may allow the applicant to construct the watercourse but no such applicant shall
be permitted to make use of such land or watercourse for the requisite purpose, until he
has paid such amount as the Collector determines to be due as compensation for the land
or watercourse so occupied or transferred, and for any damage caused by the marking out
or occupation of such land, together with all expenses incidental to such occupation or
transfer.
If any part of compensation and expenses are not paid when demanded by the person
entitled to receive the same, the amount may be recovered by the Collector as if it were
an arrear of land revenue, and shall, when recovered, be paid by him to the person
entitled to receive the same].
[49][29. Conditions binding on applicant placed in occupation. When any such applicant
is placed in occupation of land or of a watercourse, or an internal khal as aforesaid and
permitted to use the same for the requisite purpose, the following rules and conditions
shall be binding on him and his representative-in-interest.
First All works necessary for the passage across such watercourse or watercourses,
or land acquired for the deposit of soil, existing previous to its construction and of the
drainage intercepted by it, and for affording proper communicators across it, for
convenience of the neighbouring lands, shall be constructed by the applicant, and be
maintained by him or his representative-in-interest to the satisfaction of the Divisional
Canal Officer.
Second Land acquired for the purposes enumerated in section 21, shall be used only
for those purposes.
Third The proposed watercourse shall be completed to the satisfaction of the
Divisional Canal Officer within one year after the applicant is placed in occupation of the
land.
In cases in which land is occupied or a watercourse is transferred on the terms of a
rent-charge.
Fourth The applicant or his representative-in-interest shall, so long as he occupies
such land or watercourse, pay rent for the same at such rate and on such days as are
determined by the Collector when the applicant is placed in occupation.

Fifth If the right to occupy the land ceases owing to a breach of any of the rules, the
liability to pay the said rent shall continue until the applicant or his representative-ininterest has restored the land to its original condition, or until he has paid, by way of
compensation for any injury done to the said land, such amount and to such persons as
the Collector determines.
Sixth The Collector may, on the application of the person entitled to receive such
rent or compensation, determine the amount of rent due or assess the amount of such
compensation; and, if any such rent or compensation be not paid by the applicant or his
representative-in-interest, the Collector may recover the amount, with interest thereon at
the rate of ten per cent per annum from the date on which it became due, as if it were an
arrear of land-revenue, and shall pay the same, when recovered, to the person to whom it
is due.
If any of the rules and conditions prescribed by this section are not complied with,
or if any watercourse constructed or transferred under this Act is disused for three
years continuously, the right of the applicant, or of his representative-in-interest, to
occupy land or watercourse shall cease absolutely].
30. [50][* * * * * * * * * * * *]
PART IV
OF THE SUPPLY OF WATER
31. In absence of written contract, water supply to be subject to rules. In the absence of
a written contract, or so far as any such contract does not extend, every supply of canalwater shall be deemed to be given at the rates and subject to the conditions prescribed by
the rules to be made by the [51][Provincial Government] in respect thereof.
32. Conditions as to. Such contracts and rules must be consistent with the following
conditions
(a) Power to stop water supply. The Divisional Canal Officer may not stop the
supply of water to any watercourse, or to any person, except in the following cases:(1) whenever and so long as it is necessary to stop such supply for the purpose of
executing any work ordered by competent authority and with the previous sanction of the
[52][Provincial Government];

(2) whenever and so long as any watercourse is not maintained in such proper
customary repair as to prevent the wasteful escape of water therefrom;
(3) within periods fixed from time to time by the Divisional Canal Officer:
(b)

Claims to compensation in case of failure or stoppage of supply. No claim

shall be made against [53][the Provincial Government] for compensation in respect of

loss caused by the failure or stoppage of the water in a canal, by reason of any cause
beyond the control of [54][the Provincial Government] or of any repairs, alterations or
additions to the canal, or of any measures taken for regulating the proper flow of water
therein, or for maintaining the established course of irrigation which the Divisional Canal
Officer considers necessary; but the person suffering such loss may claim such remission
of the ordinary charges payable for the use of the water as is authorised by the
[55][Provincial Government]:
(c) Claims on account of interruption from other causes. If the supply of water to
any land irrigated from a canal be interrupted otherwise than in the manner described in
the last preceding clause, the occupier or owner of such land may present a petition for
compensation to the Collector for any loss arising from such interruption, and the
Collector may award to the petitioner reasonable compensation for such loss:
(d) Duration of supply. When the water of a canal is supplied for the irrigation of a
single crop, the permission to use such water shall be held to continue only until that crop
comes to maturity, and to apply only to that crop; but, if it be supplied for irrigating two
or more crops to be raised on the same land within the year, such permission shall be held
to continue for one year from the commencement of the irrigation, and to apply to such
crops only as are matured within that year:
(e) Sale or subletting of right to use canal water. Unless with the permission of the
Superintending Canal Officer, no person entitled to use the water of any canal, or any
work, building or land appertaining to any canal, shall sell or sublet or otherwise transfer
his right to such use:
Provided that the former part of this clause shall not apply to the use by a
cultivating tenant of water supplied by the owner of a watercourse for the irrigation of the
land held by such tenant:

Transfer, with land, of contracts for water. But all contracts made between
[56][Provincial Government] and the owner or occupier of any immovable property, as to
the supply of canal-water to such property, shall be transferable therewith, and shall be
presumed to have been so transferred whenever a transfer of such property takes place:
(f) No right acquired by user. No right to the use of the water of a canal shall be, or
be deemed to have been acquired under the [57]Indian Limitation Act, 1877, Part IV, nor
shall [58][the Provincial Government] be bound to supply any person with water except
in accordance with the terms of a contract in writing.
PART V
OF WATER-RATES
[59][33. Liability when water is unauthorisedly taken from canal or water course. When
the water of a canal be used in an unauthorised manner, the Divisional Canal Officer shall
after holding an enquiry or causing the enquiry to be held including identification of the
person committing the offence and considering the evidence of the Irrigation Committee
wherever it exists, levy charges in the matter and to the extent provided in the rules
framed under this Act from the person by whose act such use has occurred and if such
person cannot be identified from the person on whose land the water has flowed and such
land has derived benefit therefrom:
Provided that where the water so used has been supplied through a watercourse, the
charges shall be levied
(a) from the person by whose act or neglect such use has taken place; or
(b) if such person cannot be identified, from the person on whose land the water has
flowed and such land has derived benefit therefrom ; and
(c) if such person cannot be identified or the land on which the water has flowed has
derived no benefit therefrom, from all persons chargeable in respect of the water supplied
through such watercourse].
34. Liability when water runs to waste. If water supplied through a watercourse be
suffered to run to waste, and if, after enquiry by the Divisional Canal Officer, the person
through whose act or neglect such water was suffered to run to waste cannot be
discovered all the persons chargeable in respect of the water supplied through such
watercourse shall be jointly liable for the charges made in respect of the water so wasted.

[60][35. Charges recoverable in addition to penalties. (1) All charges for the
unauthorised use or for waste of water may be recovered in addition to any penalties
incurred on account of such use or waste.
(2) All questions under section 33 or 34 shall be decided by the Divisional Canal
Officer.
(3) Any person aggrieved by an order passed by the Divisional Canal Officer in
respect of a question under section 33 may, within thirty days of the passing of such
order, appeal
(i) to the Superintending Canal Officer when the special charges levied by the
Divisional Canal Officer are up to [61][ten] times the occupiers rates; or
(ii) to the Commissioner of the Division when the charges levied are more than
[62][ten] times.
The Superintending Canal Officer or the Commissioner after giving such person an
opportunity of being heard, may confirm, modify or set aside the order of the Divisional
Canal Officer.
(4) Any person aggrieved by an order passed by the Divisional Canal Officer under
section 34, may within thirty days of the passing of such order, appeal to the Head
Revenue Officer of the District, who after giving such person an opportunity of being
heard, may confirm, modify or set aside the order of the Divisional Canal Officer.
(5) The Commissioner, on an application made to him by any person aggrieved by an
order passed in appeal under sub-section (4) and the Board of Revenue, on an application
made to it by any person aggrieved by an order passed in appeal under sub-section (3)
within ninety days of the passing of such order, and after giving such person an
opportunity of being heard, may revise the order passed in appeal. The order passed by
the Commissioner or the Board of Revenue, as the case may be, in revision shall be final:
Provided that before filing the revision under this sub-section, it shall be necessary to
deposit the amount of charges and penalties with the revisional authorities which
according to the decision passed in revision shall be liable to be adjusted or refunded].
36. Charge on occupier for water, how determined. The rates to be charged for canalwater supplied for purposes of irrigation to the occupiers of land shall be determined by

the rules[63] to be made by the [64][Provincial Government], and such occupier as accept
the water shall pay for it accordingly.
Occupiers rate. A rate so charged shall be called the occupiers rate.
[65][The rules hereinbefore referred to may prescribe and determine what persons or
classes of persons are to be deemed to be occupiers for the purposes of this section, and
may also determine the several liabilities, in respect of the payment of the occupiers rate,
of tenants and of persons to whom tenants may have sublet their lands or of proprietors
and of persons to whom proprietors may have let the lands held by them in cultivating
occupancy].
37. Owners rate. In addition to the occupiers rate, a rate to be called the owners rate
may be imposed, according to rules[66] to be made by the [67][Provincial Government],
on the owners of canal-irrigated lands, in respect of the benefit which they derive from
such irrigation.
38. Amount of owners rate. The owners rate shall not exceed the sum which under the
rules for the time being in force for the assessment of land-revenue, might be assessed on
such land on account of the increase in the annual value or produce thereof caused by the
canal-irrigation. And, for the purpose of this section only, land which is permanently
settled or held free of revenue shall be considered as though it were temporarily settled
and liable to payment of revenue.
39. Owners rate, when not chargeable. No owners rate shall be chargeable either on
the owner or occupier of land temporarily assessed to pay land-revenue at irrigation-rates,
during the currency of such assessment.
40 to 43. [When occupier to pay both rates: apportionment of owners: when owner to
pay owners rate: effect of introduction of canal-irrigation on landlords right to
enhance]. Rep. by the PunjabTenancy Act 1887 (XVI of 1887), s. 3 and Sch.
44. Water-rate by whom payable when charged on land held by several owners. Where a
water-rate is charged on land held by several joint owners, it shall be payable by the
manager or other person who receives the rents or profits of such land, and may be
deducted by him from such rents or profits before division, or may be recovered by him
from the persons liable to such rate in the manner customary in the recovery of other
charges on such rents or profits.

Recovery of charges
45. Certified dues recoverable as land-revenue. Any sum lawfully due under this Part,
and certified by the Divisional Canal Officer to be so due which remains unpaid after the
day on which it becomes due shall be recoverable by the Collector from the person liable
for the same as if it were an arrear of land-revenue.
46. Power to contract for collection of canal-dues. The Divisional Canal Officer or the
Collector may enter into an agreement with any person for the collection and payment to
[68][the Provincial Government] by such person of any sum payable under this Act by a
third party.
When such agreement has been made, such person may recover such sum by suit as
though it were a debt due to him, or an arrear of rent due to him on account of the land,
work or building in respect of which such sum is payable, or for or in which the canalwater shall have been supplied or used.
If such person makes default in the payment of any sum collected by him under this
section, such sum may be recovered from him by the Collector under section 45; and, if
such sum or any part of it be still due by the said third party, the sum or part so due may
be recovered in the like manner by the Collector from such third party.
47. Lambardars may be required to collect canal dues. The Collector may require the
lambardar, or person under engagement to pay the land-revenue of any estate, to collect
and pay any sums payable under this Act by a third party, in respect of any land or water
in such estate.
Such sums shall be recoverable by the Collector as if they were arrears of landrevenue due in respect of the defaulters share in such estate;
and for the purpose of collecting such sums from the subordinate zamindars, raiyats,
[69][tenants or sub-tenants], such lambardar or person may exercise the powers, and shall
be subject to the rules, laid down in the law for the time being in force in respect to the
collection by him of the rents of land or of shares of land-revenue.
The [70][Provincial Government] shall provide
(a) for remunerating persons collecting sums under this section; or
(b) for indemnifying them against expenses properly incurred by them in such
collection; or

(c) for both such purposes.

48. Fines excluded from sections 45, 46, 47. Nothing in sections 45, 46 or 47 applies to
fines.
PART VI
OF CANAL-NAVIGATION
49. Detainer of vessels violating rules. Any vessel entering or navigating any canal
contrary to the rules made in that behalf by the [71][Provincial Government] or so as to
cause danger to the canal or the other vessels therein, may be removed or detained, or
both removed and detained, by the Divisional Canal Officer, or by any other person duly
authorised in this behalf.
Liability of owners of vessels causing damage. The owner of any vessel causing
damage to a canal, or removed or detained under this section, shall be liable to pay to
[72][the Provincial Government] such sum as the Divisional Canal Officer, with the
approval of the Superintending Canal Officer, determines to be necessary to defray the
expenses of repairing such damage or of such removal or detention, as the case may be.
50. Recovery of fines for offences in navigating canals. Any fine imposed under this Act
upon the owner of any vessel, or the servant or agent of such owner or other person in
charge of any vessel, for any offence in respect of the navigation of such vessel, may be
recovered either in the manner prescribed by the Code of Criminal Procedure or, if the
Magistrate imposing the fine so directs, as though it were a charge due in respect of such
vessel.
51. Power to seize and detain vessel on failure to pay charges. If any charge due under
the provisions of this Part in respect of any vessels not paid on demand to the person
authorised to collect the same, the Divisional Canal Officer may seize and detain such
vessel and the furniture thereof, until the charge so due, together with all expenses and
additional charges arising from such seizure and detention, is paid in full.
52. Power to seize cargo or goods, if charges due thereon are not paid. If any charge due
under the provisions of this Part in respect of any cargo or goods carried in a Government
vessel on a canal, or stored on or in lands or warehouses occupied for the purposes of a
canal is not paid on demand to the person authorised to collect the same, the Divisional
Canal Officer may seize such cargo or goods and detain them until the charge so due,

together with all expenses and additional charges arising from such seizure and detention,
is paid in full.
53. Procedure for recovery of such charges after seizure. Within a reasonable time after
any seizer under section 51 or section 52, the said Canal Officer shall give notice to the
owner or person in charge of the property seized that it, or such portion of it as may be
necessary, will, on a day to be named in the notice, but not sooner than fifteen days from
the date of the notice, be sold in satisfaction of the claim on account of which such
property was seized, unless the claim be discharged before the day so named.
And, if such claim be not so discharged, the said Canal Officer may, on such day, sell
the property seized or such part thereof as may be necessary to yield the amount due,
together with the expenses of such seizure and sale:
Provided that no greater part of the furniture of any vessel or of any cargo or goods
shall be so sold than shall, as nearly as may be, suffice to cover the amount due in respect
of such vessel, cargo or goods.
The residue of such furniture, cargo or goods, and of the proceeds of the sale, shall be
made over to the owner or person in charge of the property seized.
54. Procedure in respect of vessels abandoned and goods unclaimed. If any vessel found
abandoned in a canal, or any cargo or goods carried in a Government vessel on a canal, or
stored on or in lands or warehouses occupied for the purposes of a canal, be left
unclaimed for a period of two months, the Divisional Canal Officer may take possession
of the same.
The officer so taking possession may publish a notice that, if such vessel and its
contents, or such cargo or goods, are not claimed previously to a day to be named in the
notice, not sooner than thirty days from the date of such notice, he will sell the same; and,
if such vessel, contents, cargo or goods be not so claimed, he may, at any time after the
day named in the notice, proceed to sell the same.
Disposal of proceeds of sale. The said vessel and its contents, and the said cargo or
goods if unsold, or, if a sale has taken place, the proceeds of the sale, after paying all
tools, charges and expenses incurred by the Divisional Canal Officer on account of the
taking possession and sale, shall be made over to the owner of the same, when his
ownership is established to the satisfaction of the Divisional Canal Officer.

If the Divisional Canal Officer is doubtful to whom such property or proceeds should
be made over, he may direct the property to be sold as aforesaid, and the proceeds to be
paid into the district treasury, there to be held until the right there to be decided by a court
of competent jurisdiction.
PART VII
OF DRAINAGE
55. Power to prohibit obstructions or order their removal. Whenever it appears to the
[73][Provincial Government] that injury to any land or the public health or public
convenience has arisen or may arise from the obstruction of any river, stream or
drainage-channel, such Government may, by notification published in the official
Gazette, prohibit, within limits to be defined in such notification the formation of any
obstruction, or may, within such limits, order the removal or other modification of such
obstruction.
Thereupon so much of the said river, stream or drainage-channel as is comprised
within such limits shall be held to be a drainage-work as defined in section 3.
56. Power to remove obstructions after prohibition. The Divisional Canal Officer, or
other person authorised by the [74][Provincial Government] in that behalf, may, after
such publication issue an order to the person causing or having control over any such
obstruction to remove or modify the same within a time to be fixed in the order.
If, within the time so fixed, such person does not comply with the order, the said
Canal Officer may himself remove or modify the obstruction; and if the person to whom
the order was issued does not, when called upon, pay the expenses involved in such
removal or modification, such expenses shall be recoverable by the Collector from him or
his representative in interest as an arrear of land-revenue.
57. Preparation of schemes for works of improvement. Whenever it appears to the
[75][Provincial Government] that any drainage-works are necessary for the improvement
of any lands, or for the proper cultivation or irrigation thereof,
or that protection from floods or other accumulations of water, or from erosion by a
river, is required for any lands,

the [76][Provincial Government] may cause a scheme for such drainage-works to be

drawn up and published, together with an estimate of its cost [77][* * *], and a schedule
of the lands which it is proposed to make chargeable in respect of the scheme.
58. Powers of persons employed on such schemes. The persons authorised by the
[78][Provincial Government] to draw up such scheme may exercise all or any of the
powers conferred on the Canal Officers by section 14.
[79][59. Rate on land benefited by works. An annual rate, in respect of such scheme,
may be charged, according to rules to be made by the Provincial Government, on the
owners of all lands which shall, in the manner prescribed by such rules, be determined to
be so chargeable:
Provided that in the case of agricultural land, no such rate shall be charged for the
first two harvests immediately following the completion of the scheme].
60. Recovery of rate. Any such drainage rate may be collected and recovered in manner
provided by sections 45, 46 and 47 for the collection and recovery of water-rates.
61. Disposal of claims to compensation. Whenever, in pursuance of a notification made
under section 55, any obstruction is removed or modified,
or whenever any drainage work is carried out under section 57,
all claims for compensation on account of any loss consequent on the removal or
modification of the said obstruction or the construction of such work may be made before
the Collector, and he shall deal with the same in the manner provided in section 10.
62. Limitation of such claims. No such claim shall be entertained after the expiration of
one year from the occurrence of the loss complained of, unless the collector is satisfied
that the claimant had sufficient cause for not making the claim within such period.

PART VIII
OF OBTAINING LABOUR FOR CANALS AND DRAINAGE-WORKS
63. Definition of labourer. For the purposes referred to in this part, the word
labourer includes persons who exercise any handicraft specified in rules to be made on
that behalf by the [80][Provincial Government].
64. Power to prescribe number of labourers to be supplied by persons benefited by
canal. In any district in which a canal or drainage-work is constructed, maintained or

protected by [81][the Provincial Government], the [82][Provincial Government] may if it

thinks fit direct the Collector
(a) to ascertain the proprietors, sub-proprietors or farmers whose villages or estates
are or will be in the judgement of the Collector benefited by such canal or drainage work,
and
(b) to set down in a list, having due regard to the circumstances of the districts and of
the several proprietors, sub-proprietors or farmers, the number of labourers which shall
be furnished by any of the said persons, jointly or severally, from any such village or
estate, for employment on any such canal or drainage-work when required as hereinafter
provided.
The Collector may, from time to time, add to or alter such list or any part thereof.
65. Procedure for obtaining labour for works urgently required. Whenever it appears to
a Divisional Canal Officer duly authorised by the [83][Provincial Government] that,
unless some work is immediately executed, such serious damage will happen to any canal
or drainage-work as to cause sudden and extensive public injury,
and that the labourers necessary for the proper execution thereof cannot be obtained
in the ordinary manner within the time that can be allowed for the execution of such work
so as to prevent such injury,
the said officer may require any person named in such list to furnish as many
labourers (not exceeding the number which, according to the said list he is liable to
supply) as to the said officer seems necessary for the immediate execution of such work.
Every requisition so made shall be in writing, and shall state
(a) the nature and locality of the work to be done;
(b) the number of labourers to be supplied by the person upon whom the requisition
is made; and
(c) the approximate time for which and the day on which the labourers will be
required;
and a copy thereof shall be immediately sent to the Superintending Canal Officer for the
information of the [84][Provincial Government].
The [85][Provincial Government] shall fix, and may from time to time alter the rates
to be paid to any such labourers:

Provided that such rates shall exceed the highest rates for the time being paid in the
neighbourhood for similar work.
In the case of every such labourer, the payment shall continue for the whole period
during which he is, in consequence of the provisions of this part, prevented from
following his ordinary occupation.
The [86][Provincial Government] may [87][* * *] direct that the provisions of this
Part shall apply, either permanently or temporarily (as the case may be), to any district or
part of a district for the purpose of effecting necessary annual silt-clearances, or to
prevent the proper operation of a canal drainage-work being stopped or so much
interfered with as to stop the established course of irrigation or drainage.
66. Liability of labourers under requisition. When any requisition has been made on any
person named in the said list, every labourer ordinarily resident within the village or
estate of such person shall be liable to supply, and to continue to supply, his labour, for
the purposes aforesaid.
PART IX
OF JURISDICTION
67. Jurisdiction under this Act of Civil Courts. Except where herein otherwise provided,
all claims against [88][the Provincial Government] in respect of anything done under this
Act may be tried by the Civil Courts; but no such Court shall in any case pass an order as
to the supply of canal-water to any crop sown or growing at the time of such order.
[89][68. Settlement of difference as to mutual rights and liabilities of persons interested
in the use of water from a canal outlet. (1) Whenever a difference arises between two or
more persons with regard to the distribution of water from a canal outlet, construction,
use, or maintenance of the water-course supplied with water from that outlet, or deposit
of soil from water-course clearance, or mutual rights and liabilities in that regard, any
such person may apply in writing to the Sub-Divisional Canal Officer stating the matter
in dispute. The Sub-Divisional Canal Officer shall thereupon proceed in the matter as laid
down hereafter.
(2) Such officer shall give notice to all persons interested and liable to be affected
that on a day to be named in such notice, he will proceed to enquire into the said matter
and after such inquiry he shall pass his order thereon, unless he transfers (as he is hereby

empowered to do) the matter to the Collector, who shall thereupon enquire into and pass
his order on the said matter.
(3) Any person aggrieved by an order made by such officer under sub-section (2)
may, within fifteen days of the passing of such order, prefer an appeal against the order to
the Divisional Canal Officer.
(4) Where an appeal has been preferred under sub-section (3), the Divisional Canal
Officer
(a) shall decide the appeal as expeditiously as possible; and
(b) may pending the disposal of the appeal stay the operation of the order
appealed against; provided the stay order does not adversely affect any standing crops.
(5) The applicant shall not be entitled to use the water-course that may be sanctioned
under sub-section (2) or (3) above for conveyance of water to his land or the land
required for the deposit of soil from water-course clearances, until
(a) he has paid to the land owner the compensation for the land occupied for any
of the aforesaid purposes in whatever shape it is determined through mutual agreement;
or
(b) possession of the land has been acquired under the provisions of this Act.
(6) Any order passed under sub-section (2) if there be no appeal preferred against
and an order passed in appeal under sub-section (3) shall be final as to the use or
distribution of water for any crop sown or growing at the time when such order is made,
and shall thereafter remain in force until it is set aside by a decree of a Civil Court].
[90][68-A. Power of Canal Officer to restore interrupted supply. If canal-water supply
of any land is interrupted by dismantling a water-course or internal khal, the Divisional
Canal Officer may, upon application made to him in this behalf and after such enquiry as
he may deem necessary order interim restoration of the dismantled water-course or the
internal khal and the interrupted supply of water at the cost of person who interrupted the
supply, and if necessary by use of such agency or force as may be called for and such
order remains in force until the dispute is finally settled under section 68 and if necessary
a water-course link is constructed under this Act.
Any charge determined for restoration of the water-course or internal khal shall be
recoverable from the person at fault as arrear of land revenue].

69. Power to summon and examine witnesses. Any officer empowered under this Act to
conduct any inquiry may exercise all such powers connected with the summoning and
examining of witnesses as are conferred on Civil Courts by the Code of Civil Procedure,
and every such inquiry shall be deemed a judicial proceeding.
PART X
OF OFFENCES AND PENALTIES
[91][70. Offences under the Act. Whoever, without proper authority does any of the
following acts, that is to say:(1)

cuts through, pierces, damages, alters, enlarges or obstructs any canal or

canal outlet or drainage work;

(2) interferes with, increases or diminishes the supply of water in, or the flow of
water from, through, over or under, any canal or drainage work, or by any means raises or
lowers the level of the water in any canal;
(3)

interferes with or alters the flow of water in any river or stream, so as to

endanger, damage or render less useful any canal or drainage work;

(4)

makes any dam or obstruction for the purpose of diverting or opposing the

current of a river on the bank whereof there is a flood embankment or refuses or neglects
to remove any such dam or obstruction when lawfully required so to do;
(5)

prevents or interferes with the lawful use of a water-course by any person

authorised to use the same;

(6)

being responsible for the maintenance of a water-course, or using a water-

course, neglects to take proper precautions for the prevention of waste of the water
thereof, or interferes with the authorised distribution of water therefrom, or uses such
water in an unauthorised manner;
(7)

dismantles water-course or internal khal thereby interrupting or obstructing

the irrigation of the land of another person;

(8)

corrupts or fouls the water of any canal so as to render it less fit for the

purpose for which it is ordinarily used;

(9) causes any vessel to enter or navigate any canal contrary to the rules for the
time being prescribed by Government for entering or navigating such canal;

(10)

while navigating on any canal, neglects to take proper precautions for the

safety of the canal and of vessels thereon;

(11)

neglects, without reasonable cause, to assist or to continue to assist in

supplying the labourers required of him or being a labourer to supply his labour for the
execution of any work, when lawfully so bound to do under Part VIII of this Act;
(12) destroys, defaces or moves any land or level mark, rain-gauge or water-gauge
fixed by a public servant;
(13) destroys, tampers with or removes any apparatus, or part of any apparatus for
hydrological observations or for controlling, regulating or measuring the flow of water in
any canal, river or stream;
(14) passes or causes animals or vehicles to pass, on or across any of the works,
banks or channels of a canal or drainage work contrary to rules made under this Act;
(15) causes or knowingly and willfully permits cattle to graze upon any canal or
drainage work or tethers or knowingly and willfully permits cattle to be tethered upon
any such canal or drainage work, or up-roots grass or other vegetation growing on any
such canal or drainage work, or removes, cuts or in any way injures or causes to be
removed, cuts or otherwise injures any tree, bush, grass or hedge intended for the
protection of such canal or drainage work;
(16) makes or in any manner voluntarily abets the making of an encroachment of
any kind within the limits of a canal or drainage work, or refuses or neglects to remove
any such encroachment when so required to do by Canal Officer; or
(17) violates any rules made under this Act, for breach whereof a penalty may be
incurred;
shall be liable, on conviction before a Magistrate of such class as the Provincial
Government directs in this behalf, to a fine not exceeding two hundred rupees or to
imprisonment not exceeding three months or both.
(2) Whenever any person is convicted under this section, the convicting Magistrate
may order that the cost, as certified by the Sub-Divisional Canal Officer for removal of
the obstruction or repairing the damage in respect of which the conviction is held, shall
be payable by him; and if such person neglects or refuses to obey such order within the

period to be fixed, the cost of such removal or repair shall be recoverable from such
person by the Collector as arrears of land revenue].
[92][70-A. Compensation to persons injured. (1) Whenever any person is fined for an
offence under this Act, the Court which imposes such fine, or which confirms, in appeal
or revision, a sentence of such fine or a sentence of which such fine forms a part, may
direct that the whole or any part of such fine, may be paid as compensation to the injured
person or as reward to the informant.
(2) If the fine be awarded by a Court, whose decision is subject to appeal or revision,
the amount awarded by way of compensation or reward, as the case may be, shall not be
paid until the period prescribed for appeal or revision has elapsed, and when an appeal or
revision is filed, till the same is finally disposed of.]
71. Saving of prosecution under other laws. Nothing herein contained shall prevent any
person from being prosecuted under any other law for any offence punishable under this
Act:
Provided that no person shall be punished twice for the same offence.
72. Compensation to person injured. Whenever any person is fined for an offence under
this Act, the Magistrate may direct that the whole or any part of such fine may be paid by
way of compensation to the person injured by such offence.
73. Power to arrest without warrant. Any person in charge of or employed upon any
canal or drainage-work may remove from the lands or buildings belonging thereto, or
may take into custody without a warrant and take forthwith before a Magistrate or to the
nearest police station, to be dealt with according to law, any person who, within his view,
commits any of the following offences:(1) willfully damages or obstructs any canal or drainage-work;
(2) without proper authority interferes with the supply or flow of water in or from
any canal or drainage-work, or in any river or stream, so as to endanger, damage or
render less useful any canal or drainage-work.
74. Definition of Canal. In this Part, the word canal shall (unless there be something
repugnant in the subject or context) be deemed to include also all lands occupied by
[93][the Provincial Government] for the purposes of canals, and all buildings, machinery,

fences, gates and other erections, trees, crops, plantations or other produce occupied by or
belonging to [94][the Provincial Government] upon such lands.
PART XI
OF SUBSIDIARY RULES
75. Power to make, alter and cancel rules. The [95][Provincial Government] may, from
time to time [96][* * *] make rules[97] to regulate the following matters:(1) the proceedings of any officer who, under any provision of this Act, is required or
empowered to take action in any matter;
(2) the cases in which, and the officers to whom and the conditions subject to which
orders and decisions given under any provision of this Act, and not expressly provided
for as regards appeal, shall be appealable;
(3) the persons by whom, [98][and] the time, place or manner at or in which anything
for the doing of which provision is made under this Act shall be done;
(4) the amount of any charge made under this Act; and
(5) generally to carry out the provisions of this Act.
[99][Rules made under clause (4) may be made to have effect retrospectively from
any date not earlier than the date on which water has been supplied or the charge has
otherwise become leviable under this Act].
Publication of rules. The [100][Provincial Government] may from time to time
[101][* * *] alter or cancel any rules so made.
Such rules, alterations and cancelments shall be published in the [102][Official
Gazette], and shall thereupon have the force of law.
SCHEDULE
[Rep. by the Repealing Act, 1873 (XII of 1873), s. I and Sch., Pt. II]

________________________________________
[1]For statement of objects and reasons, see Gazette of India, 1872, Pt. V, p. 651; for
Reports of Select Committee, see ibid., p. 747 and ibid., Supplement 1873, p. 223; for

Proceedings in Council, see ibid., Supplement, pp. 919, 956 and 1081; ibid., 1873,
Supplement, pp. 154, 156, 223, 246 and 279.
[2]The words Northern India omitted by the Adaptation of Central Acts and
Ordinances Order, 1949 (G.G.O. 4 of 1949).
[3]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[4]Inserted by the Canal and Drainage (West Pakistan Amendment) Ordinance, 1965
(XXIII of 1965).
[5]The words Northern India omitted by the Adaptation of Central Acts and
Ordinances Order, 1949 (G.G.O. 4 of 1949).
[6]Substituted by the Federal Leased (Revision and Declaration) Act, 1951 (XXVI of
1951), substituted for West Punjab which had been substituted by the Adaptation of
Central Acts and Ordinances Order, 1949 (G.G.O. 4 of 1949), schedule for the territories
[which on the 11th February, 1873, were] respectively under the Govt. of the LieutenantGovernors of the North-Western Provinces and the Punjab and under the Administration
of the Chief Commissioners of Oudh and the Central Provinces. The bracketted words
were substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for for the time being.
[7]Commencement clause repealed by the Repealing Act, 1874 (X of 1874).
[8]Inserted by the Canal and Drainage (West Pakistan Amendment) Ordinance, 1965
(XXIII of 1965).
[9]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[10]Substituted ibid., for Local Government.
[11]Inserted by the Canal and Drainage (Extension) Act, 1964 (XXIV of 1964).
[12]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.

[13]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as

amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[14]Inserted by the Canal and Drainage (West Pakistan Amendment) Act, 1968 (VII of
1968).
[15]Now the Punjab Board of Revenue Act, 1957 (XI of 1957).
[16]Added by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of 1975).
[17]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Local Government.
[18]Ibid.
[19]Added by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of 1975).
[20]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[21]Inserted by the Canal and Drainage (West Pakistan Amendment) Ordinance, 1965
(XXIII of 1965).
[22]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[23]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[24]Ibid.
[25]Substituted ibid., for Government.
[26]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Amendment) Act, 1952 (XIV of 1952).
[27]Deleted by the Canal and Drainage (Amendment) Act, 1952 (XIV of 1952).
[28]Ibid.
[29]The words, in respect of which compensation is allowed under section 8, deleted.
ibid.
[30]Deleted by the Canal and Drainage (Amendment) Act, 1952 (XIV of 1952).

[31]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as

amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[32]X of 1870, subsequently replaced by the Land Acquisition Act, 1894.
[33]Substituted for the words Superintending Canal Officer, by the West Pakistan
(Adaptation of Laws) Ordinance, 1962 (XXV of 1962).
[34]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[35]Ibid., for Local Government.
[36]Ibid.
[37]Ibid.
[38]Ibid.
[39]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[40]Sections 20-A and 20-B added by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act,
1975 (XXXII of 1975).
[41]Substituted ibid.
[42]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[43]Ibid.
[44]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[45]Ibid.
[46]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[47]Ibid.
[48]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[49]Ibid.

[50]Deleted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[51]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[52]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[53]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[54]Ibid.
[55]Substituted ibid., for Local Government.
[56]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[57]XV of 1877, subsequently replaced by the Limitation Act, 1908 (IX of 1908).
[58]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[59]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[60]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[61]Substituted for the word three by the Canal and Drainage (Amendment) Ordinance,
2002 (XXXI of 2002), which will remain in force under the Provisional Constitution
(Amendment) Order 1999 (9 of 1999), Article 4, notwithstanding the maximum limit of
three months prescribed under Article 128 of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of
Pakistan.
[62]Ibid.
[63]For instance of such notifications, see Punjab Gazette, 1993, Pt. I. pp. 223 and 224.

[64]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as

amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[65]Inserted by the Northern India Canal and Drainage (Amendment) Act 1899 (XVI of
1899).
[66]For instance of such notifications, see Punjab Gazette, 1993, Pt. I. pp. 223 and 224.
[67]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[68]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[69]Substituted by the Northern India Canal and Drainage (Amendment) Act, 1899 (XVI
of 1899), for or tenants.
[70]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[71]Ibid.
[72]Substituted ibid., for the Government.
[73]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[74]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[75]Ibid.
[76]Ibid.
[77]The words, and a statement of the proportion of such cost, which the Provincial
Government proposes to defray, deleted by the Canal and Drainage (West Pakistan
Second Amendment) Ordinance, 1970 (IV of 1970).

[78]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as

amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Local Government.
[79]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (West Pakistan Second Amendment)
Ordinance, 1970 (IV of 1970).
[80]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Local Government.
[81]Ibid.
[82]Ibid.
[83]Ibid.
[84]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Local Government.
[85]Ibid.
[86]Ibid.
[87]The words, with the previous sanction of the G.G. in C, repealed by the
Decentralization Act, 1914 (IV of 1914).
[88]Substituted, the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[89]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[90]Added by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of 1975).
[91]Substituted by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of
1975).
[92]Added by the Canal and Drainage (Punjab Amendment) Act, 1975 (XXXII of 1975).
[93]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the Government.
[94]Ibid.

[95]Substituted ibid., for Local Government.

[96]The words, subject to the control of the G.G., in C repealed, by the Devolution Act
1920 (XXXVIII of 1920).
[97]For such rules made under this power for various canals in the Punjab and the
N.W.F.P. see Punjab Local Rules and Orders, and Gazette of India, 1907, Pt. II,
p.1065; ibid., 1908, Pt. II, p.649.
[98]Inserted by the Amending Act, 1891 (XII of 1891).
[99]Added by the Canal and Drainage (West Pakistan Amendment) Ordinance, 1965
(XXIII of 1965).
[100]Substituted by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for Local Government.
[101]The words, subject to the like control, repealed by the Devolution Act 1920
(XXXVIII of 1920).
[102]Substituted, the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Order, 1937 as
amended by the Government of India (Adaptation of Indian Laws) Supplementary Order,
1937, for the words Local Official Gazette.
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