Automatic Phase Selector

AUTOMATIC PHASE SELECTOR

A project report Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement
For the award of degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
Department of Electrical Engineering

Delhi Technological University
(Formerly Delhi College of Engineering)
New Delhi, India
Submitted By:
Saurabh
Shubham Singh
Supriya Azad
Sushil Singh
2K12/EE/120
2K12/EE/126
2K12/EE/134
2K12/EE/137
Under the esteemed guidance of
Mr. D.C. Meena

Assistant Professor
EE Department DTU
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project report entitled
which is submitted by
Saurabh
(2K12/EE/120)
Shubham Singh
(2K12/EE/126)
Supriya Azad
(2K12/EE/134)
Sushil Singh
(2K12/EE/137)
For the partial of the requirement for the award of degree Bachelor of
Technology in Electrical Engineering from DTU is a record of the candidates
own work carried out by him under my supervision. To the best of my knowledge,
the matter embodied in thesis has not been submitted to any other
university/institute for the award of any degree or diploma.
..
Date: 6th December
2014
Project Guide
Mr. D.C Meena
(Assistant Professor)
New Delhi, India
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that this submission is our own work and that to the best of our knowledge &
belief. It contains no material published previously or written by other person. Also, it does not
contain any material that to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree
or diploma of the University or other institute of higher learning except where due
acknowledgement has been made in the text.
Sign:
Name: Saurabh (2K12/EE/120)
Sign:
Name: Shubham Singh (2K12/EE/126)
Sign:
Name: Supriya Azad (2K12/EE/134)
Sign:
Name: Sushil Singh (2K12/EE/137)
APPROVED BY
Mr. D.C Meena

(Assistant Professor)
New Delhi, India
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project by far the most significant accomplishment in our life and it would have been
impossible without people who supported us and believe in us.
We would like to extend our gratitude and our sincere thanks to our honorable, esteemed
supervisor Mr. D C Meena, Assistant professor. He is not only a great teacher professor
who guided and encouraged us towards the successful completion of this project. His trust
and support inspired us to extend our horizons of knowledge and we are really glad to work
with him. Our special thanks go to Prof. Madhusudan Singh, Head of Department
Electrical Engineering, and Delhi Technological University for providing us with best
facilities in the department and his timely suggestion.
We would like to thank all our friends and especially our classmates for all the thoughtful
and mind simulating discussion we had, which prompted us to think beyond the obvious.
Last but not the least we would like to thank our parents, who taught us the value of hard
work by setting an example themselves. They rendered us enormous support during the
whole tenure of our studies at the college.
Saurabh
Shubham Singh
Supriya Azad
Sushil Singh
CONTENTS
1.
INTRODUCTION..1
2.
OBJECTIVE...1
3.
REQUIRED COMPONENTS...1
4.
BLOCK DIAGRAM...2
5.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM3
6.
PICTORIAL VIEW4
7.
LITERATURE SURVEY..5
8.
CIRCUIT DESIGN.5
9.
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION.6
9.1
OP AMP....6
9.2
Comparator9
9.3
PNP General Purpose Transistor.11
9.4 Transformer.13
9.5
Step down Transformer..14
9.6
Windings.....14
9.7
Diode..15
9.8
Resistors..17
9.9
Ohms Law.....18
9.10
Power Dissipation......18
9.11
Color Code............18
9.12
Capacitors......19
9.13
Relays...21
10.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION.....................................................................22
11.
CIRCUIT WORKING....23
12.
CONCLUSION....23
1. INTRODUCTION
Our project 'Automatic Phase Changer' is a simple circuit. It is applicable in three
phase circuits. If anyone wants their equipment works at rated voltage, this circuit
will help him. The circuit provides correct voltage in the same power supply lines
through relays from the other phase where correct voltage is available. Using it you
can operate all your equipment even when correct voltage is available on a single
phase in the building.
2. OBJECTIVE
In three-phase applications, if low voltage is available in any one or two phases, and
you want your equipment to work on normal voltage, this circuit will solve your
problem. However, a proper-rating fuse needs to be used in the input lines (R, Y and
B) of each phase. The circuit provides correct voltage in the same power supply lines
through relays from the other phase where correct voltage is available. Using it you
can operate all your equipment even when correct voltage is available on a single
phase in the building. The circuit is built around a transformer, comparator, transistor
and relay. Three identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases, are used.
3. REQUIRED COMPONENTS
Identical sets of this circuit are used, one each for three phases. Here the IC 741
working as the comparator is used here is surrounded by all other components. Here
we use transformer, a step down transformer. Transistor BC557 acting as a switch.
Relay is electromagnetic type.
Transformer - 12 V, 300mA
Transistor - BC557 (PNP)
Diode - 1N4007
Zener Diode - 5.1V
Capacitor - 1000mF, 12V & 470mF, 35 V
Resist or - R1 & R2 - 3.3k & R3 10K
Potentiometer - 10k
5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
6. PICTORIAL VIEW
7. LITERATURE SURVEY
The aim behind the project is to improve the professional competency by selecting
those areas which otherwise are not covered in the normal course. This is to enhance
our knowledge into various fields, and thus to gain work experience' confidence' and
logical thinking. Our aim was to select a topic which is simple enough to be done
within the specified time. So we are planned to do a simple project using basic
electrical and electronic concept that we have studied yet. We interested to apply and
modify the basic concept than a new topic to be selected. While selecting a topic for
our project, the first thing which came to our mind was that it should be a product
that has got considerable importance in the modern era.
SELECTION
Our concentration was to develop a system which can reduce the problems or
difficulties in our life. Also one more thing was in mind that to develop a system
which can be applied for several applications associated with modern science and
developments in technology. So the concept of automatic phase selector was selected
which can be used in 3-phase applications. In 3 phase applications, if low voltage is
available in any one of two phases and want equipment to work in normal voltage
this circuit will solve your problem. It is a simple circuit. The circuit consist a
comparator, transistor, transformer and relays. We use 741 op-Amp in 'comparator'
mode. This allows it to compare two input voltages.
8. CIRCUIT DESIGN
The circuit is built around a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay. Three
identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases, are used. Here we used a step
down transformer. Here the IC 741 working as the comparator is used here is
surrounded by all other components. Transistor BC557 acting as a switch. Relay is
electromagnetic type. In automatic phase selector the main processes can be divided
into four.
Stepping down the main supply

Rectification
Comparing
Switching
Main supply R, Y, B is stepped down to desired voltage and current. Each
transformer is individually connected to the phases R, Y, B respectively. In this
case, only one phase work at a time. The diodes (IN40O7) are used to rectify the
ac to dc. The capacitors for removing the noises in the dc. The resistors and
potentiometers of the circuit is gives the specified voltage input to the comparator.
Based on the comparator output, the transistor (8C557) goes to on and off
positions. Thus we can say that transistor work as a switch.
Transformer - 12 V, 300mA; Transistor - 8C557 (PNP); Diode - 1N4007; Zener
Diode 5.1 V; Capacitor - 1.000microF, 12 V; 47OmicroF, 35 V; Resistor R1 & R2
- 3.3k, R3 - 10k; Potentiometer - 1Ok.
Assembling the Project:

Main components needed for the project are resistors, capacitors, diodes, transformer,
comparator and relays. The components were mounted on the bread board and were
wired up. A 12v dc supply was generated. The main circuit consists of comparator,
transformer, transistor and relay. Three identical sets of this circuit connected on the
breadboard. Each one corresponds three phases. Then the output is verified by
connecting a load (bulb) at the output and got the desired output.
9. COMPONENT DESCRIPTION
9.1 OP AMP
Operational amplifiers are important building blocks for a Wide range of electronic circuits.
They had their origin in analog computers where they were used in many linear, non-linear
and frequency-dependent circuits. Their popularity in circuit design largely stems from the
fact the characteristics of the final elements (such as their gain) are set by external
components with little dependence on temperature changes and manufacturing variations in
the op-amp itself.
An operational amplifier is a DC coupled high gain electronic voltage amplifier with a
differential input and, usually a single ended output. An op-amp produces an output voltage

that is typically hundreds of thousands times larger than the voltage difference between its
input terminals.
Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast
array of consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Many standard IC op-amps cost only a
few cents in moderate production volume; however some integrated or hybrid operational
Amplifiers with special performance specifications may cost over $100 US in small
Quantities. Op-amps may be packaged as components, or used as elements of more
complex integrated circuits.
The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier
include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the
instrumentation amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar
to the instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would
destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or
more op-amps and a resistive feedback network.
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown, Where:

Input t1 : Inverting Input (2)
Input t2 : Non-Inverting Input (3)
+V Supply : No. 4 Pin
-V Supply : No. 7 Pin
The power supply pins (and) can be labelled in different ways. Despite different labelling,
the function remains the same - to provide additional power for amplification of the signal.
Often these pins are left out of the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is
described or assumed from the circuit.
The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a input and a input, and ideally the op amp
amplifies only the difference in voltage between the two, which is called the differential
input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp is given by the equation,
Where the voltage at the non-inverting terminal is, is the voltage at the inverting terminal
and AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier. (The term "open-loop" refers to the absence
of a feedback loop from the output to the input).
The magnitude of AOL is typically very large-10,000 or more for integrated circuit op amps
and therefore even a quite small difference between and drives the amplifier output nearly
to the supply voltage. This is called saturation of the amplifier. The magnitude of AOL is
not well controlled by the manufacturing process, and so it is impractical to use an
operational amplifier as a standalone differential amplifier. if predictable operation is
desired, negative feedback is used, by applying a portion of the output voltage to the
inverting input. The closed loop feedback greatly reduces the gain of the amplifier. If
negative feedback is used, the circuit's overall gain and other parameters become
determined more by the feedback network than by the op-amp itself. lf the feedback
network is made of components with relatively constant, stable values, the unpredictability
and inconstancy of the op-amp's parameters do not seriously affect the circuit's

performance. lf no negative feedback is used, the op-amp functions as a switch or
comparator. Positive feedback may be used to introduce hysteresis or oscillation.
LM741 Operational Amplifier:
The LM741 series are general purpose operational amplifiers which feature improved
performance over industry standards like the LIVI709. They are direct, plugin replacements
for the 709C, LM201, MC1439 and 748 in most applications. The amplifiers offer many
features which make their application nearly foolproof: overload protection on the input and
output, no latch-up when the common mode range is exceeded, as well as freedom from
oscillations.
Characteristics of Op Amp (741):

The characteristics of an operational amplifier namely,
1. Input Offset Voltage.
2. Input Bias Current.
3. Intrinsic Input Impedance.
4. The Slew Rate.
5. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR).
6. The closed loop response by calculating the gain bandwidth by the gain bandwidth
produce (GBP).
9.2 Comparator
A comparator circuit compares two voltage signals and determines which one is greater.
The result of this comparison is indicated by the output voltage: if the opamps output is
saturated in the positive direction, the non-inverting input () is a greater, or more positive,
voltage than the inverting input (), all voltages measured with respect to ground. If the
opamps voltage is near the negative supply voltage (in this case, 0 volts, or ground
potential, it means the inverting input () has a greater voltage applied to it than the noninverting input ().
Comparator using Op Amp:

Often two voltage signals are to be compared and to be distinguished which is stronger. For
such situations, a comparator may be the perfect solution. It also forms the basic building
block required for non-sinusoidal waveform generators or relaxation oscillators, so it
deserves priority in discussion over relaxation oscillators.
We have studied that when the op-amp is used in open-loop configuration (or Without
feedback) any input signal (differential or single) which even slightly exceeds zero drives
the output into saturation because of very high open-loop voltage gain (nearly infinity) of
op-amp. lt means that the application of a small differential input signal of appropriate
polarity causes the output to switch to its either saturation, Thus op-amp comparator is a
circuit with two inputs and one output, The two inputs can be compared with each other one
of them can be considered a reference voltage, Vref.
Figure shows an op-amp comparator circuit. A fixed reference voltage Vref is applied to the
inverting (-) input terminal and sinusoidal signal Um is applied to the non-inverting (+)
input terminal. When Vm exceeds Vref the output voltage goes to positive saturation
because the voltage at the input is smaller than at the (+) input. On the other hand, when
Vin is less than Vref the output voltage goes to negative saturation. Thus output voltage
Unit changes from one saturation level to another whenever Vin Vref ,as illustrated in
figure. In short, the comparator is a type of an analog to digital converter (ADC). At any
given time the output voltage Waveform shows whether Vin is greater or less than Vref.
The comparator is Sometimes referred to as a volt-level detector because for a desired value
of Vref, the voltage level of the input voltage Vin can be detected.
Diodes Dl and DZ are provided in the circuit to protect the op-amp against damage due to
excessive input voltage. Because of these diodes, the differential input voltage Vm is
clamped to either 0.7 V or -O.7 V, hence the diodes are called clamp diodes. There are
some op-amps with built-in input protection. Such op-amps need not to be provided with
protection diodes. The resistance R1 in Series with Vin is used to limit the current through

protection diodes D1 and D2 While resistance R is connected between the inverting (-)
input terminal and Vref to reduce the offset
Problem. Inverting comparator circuit:
When the reference voltage Vref is negative with respect to ground, with a sinusoidal signal
applied to the non-inverting input terminal, the output voltage will be as illustrated in
figure. Obviously, the amplitude of Vin must be large enough to pass through Vref for
switching action to take place. Since the sinusoidal input signal is applied to the noninverting terminal, this circuit is called the non-inverting op amp comparator.
Similarly an inverting op amp comparator can be had by applying the sinusoidal input to the
inverting () input terminal to the op amp.
Inverting Comparator Waveform
Figure shows the circuit for an inverting comparator in which the sinusoidal input signal
Vin is applied to the inverting () input terminal while the reference voltage Vref is applied
to the non-inverting () input terminal. In this circuit Vref is obtained by the use of a
potentiometer forming a potential divider arrangement with dc supply voltage Vcc and
VEE. As the wiper connected to () terminal is moved toward Vcc, Vref becomes more
positive; while if it is moved toward VEE, Vref becomes more negative.
The input and output waveforms are shown in figures. Comparators are used in circuits such
as discriminators, voltage level detectors, oscillators, digital interfacing, Schmitt trigger etc.
9.3 PNP General Purpose Transistors:

FEATURES
Low Current (max 100 mA)
Low Voltage (max 65V)
APPLICATIONS
. General Purpose Switching and Amplification.
DESCRIPTION
. PNP Transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.
. NPN Complements: BC546 and BC 547
9.4 Transformer:
A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another through
inductively coupled conductors-the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces
a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
Winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through
The transformer to the load. !n an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as
follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating
current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down"
by making NS less than NP. ln the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils
wound around a ferromagnetic core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.
Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a
stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of
power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is
wide. While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic
circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household
("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which
makes long distance transmission economically practical.
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was discovered independently by Michael

Faraday and Joseph Henry in 1831. However, Faraday was the first to publish the results of
his experiments and thus receive credit for the discovery. The relationship between
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" and magnetic flux was formalized in an equation
now referred to as "Faraday's law of induction":
Where the magnitude of the EMF in volts and OB is the magnetic flux throu$h the
circuit (in Webbers).
Faraday performed the first experiments on induction between coils of wire'
including winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the first toroidal
closed-core transformer.
Induction coils:
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by Rev'
Nicholas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836' He was one of the first
researchers to realize that the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to
the primary winding, the larger is the increase in EMF. Induction coils evolved from
scientists, and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries
produce direct current (DC) rather than alternating current (AC)' induction coils
relied upon vibrating electrical contacts that regularly interrupted the current in the
primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction" Between the 1830s and

the 1g70s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly
revealed the basic principles of transformers.
9.5 Step down Transformers:

This is a very useful device, indeed. With it, we can easily multiply or divide voltage And
current in AC circuits. Indeed, the transformer has made long-distance Transmission of
electric power a practical reality, as AC voltage can be "stepped up" And current "stepped
down" for reduced wire resistance power losses along power Lines connecting generating
stations with loads. At either end (both the generator and at the loads), voltage levels are
reduced by transformers for safer operation and Less expensive equipment. A transformer
that increases voltage from primary to Secondary (more secondary winding turns than
primary winding turns) is called a Step up transformer. Conversely, a transformer designed
to do just the opposite is Called a step down transformer.
9.6 Windings:
This is a step-down transformer, as evidenced by the high turn count of the primary
Winding and the low turn count of the secondary. As a step-down unit' this transformer
converts high-voltage, low-current power into low-voltage, high-current power. The largergauge wire used in the secondary winding is necessary due to the Increase in current. The
primary winding, which doesn't have to conduct as much current, may be made of smallergauge wire. The fact that voltage and current get "stepped" in opposite directions (one up,
the other down) makes perfect sense when you recall that power is equal to voltage times
current, and realize that transformers cannot produce power, only convert it. Any device
that could output more power than it took in would violate the Law of Energy Conservation
in physics, namely that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted. As with the
first transformer example we looked at, power transfer efficiency is very good from the
primary to the secondary sides of the device.
9.7 Diode:
A signal diode is one of many types of diodes, which are small components of electrical
circuits, manufactured from semiconductors that force electricity to flow in only one
direction. Signal diodes which are also sometimes known by their older name of the Point
Contact or Glass Diode are physically very small in size compared to their larger Power
Diode cousins and control small currents up to about 100mA. Generally, the PN-junction of
a signal diode is encapsulated in glass to protect it and they generally have a red or black
band at one end of their body to help identify which end is its Cathode terminal.

Signal diodes are designed to pass very small currents, and have several applications
In the signal processing field. The arrow in the symbol of diode points in the direction
Of conventional current flow through the diode meaning that the diode will only
Conduct if a positive supply is connected to the Anode(A) terminal and a negative
Supply is connected to the Cathode (K) terminal thus only allowing current of low
Through it none direction only acting more like a one way electrical valve,(Forward
Biased Condition). However, we know that if we connect the external energy Source
in the other direction the diode will block any current flowing through it and instead
Will act like an open switch in reverse biased mode as shown in Figure 3.l0.
Diode Characteristics
The characteristics of a signal point contact diode are different for both germanium and
silicon types and are given as: Germanium Signal Diodes - These have a low reverse
resistance value giving a lower forward volt drop across the junction, typically only about
.2-0.3v, but have a higher forward resistance value because of their small junction area.
Silicon Signal Diodes - These have a very high value of reverse resistance and give a
forward volt drop of about 6-0 across the junction have fairly low values of forward
resistance giving them high peak values of forward current and reverse voltage. Signal
Diodes are manufactured in a wide range of voltage and current ratings. There are be
wildering arrays of static characteristics associated with the humble signal diode but the
important ones are as follows maximum forward current, peak inverse voltage and
maximum operating temperature. The diode characteristics are shown in Figure.
9.8 Resistors:
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its
Terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance With
Ohm's law, V = IR.
Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are Ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films,
as well as resistance wire. The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the
tolerance, maximum working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include
temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the
value below which power dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and
above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design,
materials and dimensions of the resistor.
9.9 Ohm's Law:
The behaviour of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law
V=IR. Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current
(I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently,
Ohm's law can be stated: V/R = I. This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage
(V) is maintained across a resistance (R), a current (l) will flow through the resistance. For
example, if V is L2 volts and R is 400 ohms, a current of L2 / 400 = 0.03 amperes will flow
through the resistance R.
9.10 Power Dissipation:

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated using the following: All three equations are equivalent. The first is derived from
Joule's first law. Ohm's Law derives the other two from that. The total amount of heat
energy released is the integral of the power over time.
If the average power dissipated is more than the resistor can safely dissipate, the resistor
may depart from its nominal resistance and may become damaged by overheating.
Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it
burns out, which could cause a fire in adjacent components and materials. There are
flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously. Note that the
nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power that it can safely dissipate in
practical use.
9.11. Colour Code:
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme on Resistors. It
consists of four colour bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The first two
bands encode the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a power-often multiplier or number-of-zeroes, and the fourth is the tolerance accuracy, or acceptable

error, of the value. The first three bands are equally spaced along the resistor; the spacing to
the fourth band is wider. Sometimes a fifth band identifies the thermal coefficient, but this
must be distinguished from the true S colour system, with 3 significant digits. For example
green-blue-yellow-red is 56x104 = 560 k+2%. An easier description can be as followed
the first band, green, has a value of 5 and the second band, blue' has a value of 6, and is
counted as 55. The third band, yellow, has a value of 104 which adds four 0's to the end,
creating 560,000 2% tolerance accuracy' 560'000 changes to 560 k 2% (as a kilo- is
103).
9.12 Capacitors:
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component consisting of
a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator)' When a potential difference
(voltage) exists across the conductors' an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field
stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. The effect is
greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence
capacitor conductors are often called plates. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors and
leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field
strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage.
Capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The nonconductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a
vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from an external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite
charges on their facing surfaces and the dielectric contains an electric field. The capacitor is
a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is
wholly characterized by a constant capacitance c, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each
conductor to the voltage V between them: Sometimes charge build up affects the mechanics
of the capacitor, causing the capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in
terms of incremental changes. The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive
plates separated by a dielectric with permittivity e (such as air). The model may also be
used to make qualitative predictions for other device geometries. The plates are considered
to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge density = Q/A exists on their surface.
Assuming that the width of the plates is much greater than their separation d, the electric
field near the centre of the device will be uniform with the magnitude E = /e. Capacitor is
the fundamental component in ant circuit.

9.13 Relays:
Here we use electromagnetic attraction type relays. Electromagnetic attraction relays
operate by virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a
plunger being drawn into a solenoid such relays may be actuated by dc or ac quantities. Fig
shows the schematic arrangement of an attracted armature type relay. It consists of a
laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil c and a pivoted laminated armature. The
armature is balanced by a counter weight and carries a pair of spring at its free end. Under
normal operating conditions' the current through the relay coil C is such that counter weight
holds the armature in the position shown. However, when a short-circuit occurs, the current
through relay coil increases sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards' The
contacts on the relay armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the relay
frame.
This completes the trip which results in the opening of the circuit breaker and disconnection
of the faulty circuit. The minimum current at which the relay armature is attracted to close
the trip circuit is called pick up current' lt is a usual practice to provide a number of
tapping's, on the relay coil so that the number of turns in use and the setting value can be
varied.
10. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Automatic phase changer works depends on the output of comparator. It compares
two voltage signals and determines which one is greater. The result of this
comparison is indicated by the output voltage. If the op-amp's output is saturated in
the positive direction, the non-inverting input (+) is a greater, or more positive,
voltage than the inverting input (-), all voltages measured with respect to ground. If
the op-amp's voltage is near the negative supply voltage (in this case, 0 volts, or
ground potential), it means the inverting input (-) has a greater voltage applied to it
than the no inverting input (+).
The mains power supply phase R is stepped down by transformer, which is rectified
by diode and filtered by capacitor to produce the operating voltage for the
operational amplifier. The voltage at inverting pin 2 of operational amplifier is taken
from the voltage divider circuit of resistor and preset resistor. Preset resistor is used
to set the reference voltage according to the requirement. The reference voltage at
non-inverting pin 3 is fixed to a particular voltage through zener diode. Till the
supply voltage available in phase R is in a normal range, the voltage at inverting pin
2 of IC remains high, i.e., more than reference voltage and its output pin 6 also
remains high. As a result, transistor does not conduct relay remains de-energized
and phase 'R' supplies power to load via normally closed contact of relay. As soon as
phase-R voltage goes below normal range of supply voltage, the voltage at inverting
pin 2 of IC goes below reference voltage of and its output goes low.
As a result, transistor conducts and relay energizes and load is disconnected from
phase 'R' and connected to phase 'Y' through the second relay. Similarly, the auto
phase change of the remaining two phases, viz, phase 'Y' and phase 'B,' can be
explained. Switch is mains power 'on / off' switch.
Use relay contacts of proper rating and fuses should be able to take on the load
when transferred from other phases. While wiring, assembly and installation of the
circuit make sure that you:
1. Use good-quality, multi-strand insulated copper wire suitable for your current
requirement.
2. Use good-quality relays with proper contact and current rating.

3. Mount the transformer(s) and relays on a suitable cabinet. Use a Tag Block
(TB) for incoming/outgoing connections from mains.
11. CIRCUIT WORKING

The circuit is built around a transformer, comparator, transistor and relay. Three
identical sets of this circuit, one each for three phases are used. Let us now consider
the working of the circuit connecting red cable (call it 'R' phase). The mains power
supply phase R is stepped down by transformer XL to deliver 12V, 3OO mA, which is
rectified by diode D1 and filtered by capacitor C1 to produce the operating voltage
for the operational amplifier (IC1). The voltage at inverting pin 2 of operational
amplifier IC1 is taken from the voltage divider circuit of resistor R1 and preset
resistor VR1. VR1 is used to set the reference voltage according to the requirement.
The reference voltage at non inverting pin 3 is fixed to 5.1V through Zener diode
ZD1. Till the supply voltage available in phase R is in the range of 200V-230V, the
voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 remains high, i.e., more than reference voltage of
5.1 V, and its output pin 6 also remains high. As a result, transistor T1 does not
conduct relay RL1 remains de-energized and phase 'R' supplies power to load L1 via
normally closed (N/c) contact of relay RL1. As soon as phase-R voltage goes below
2ooV, the voltage at inverting pin 2 of IC1 goes below reference voltage of 5.1V, and
its output goes low. As a result, transistor T1 conducts and relay RL1 energizes and
load L1 is disconnected from phase 'R' and connected to phase 'Y' through relay RL2.
Similarly, the auto phase-change of the remaining two phases, viz, phase Y and
phase B can be explained. Switch S1 is mains power, on/off switch.
During testing in the lab, we used a 12V, 200-ohm, single phase change over relay
with 6A current rating. Similarly, ampere-rated fuses were used. lf the input voltage
is low in two phases, loads L1 and L2 may also be connected to the third phase. In
that situation, a high-rating fuse will be required at the input of the third phase
which is taking the total load.
12. CONCLUSION
By using this circuit we can solve the problem of low voltage in three phase systems'
we can use this circuit in lower cut and upper cut voltage ranges by adjusting the

potentiometer. By adjusting the relay connection and using PNP or NPN transistor
can vary upper and lower cut. Relay operation depends on comparator. If we get a
positive signal at the output of comparator and there use a PNP transistor then it
works on lower cut.

Automatic Phase Selector

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AUTOMATIC PHASE SELECTOR