Practical Physics For Students of Science and Engineering 1903

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PRACTICAL
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http://www.archive.org/cletails/cu31924031363108
A OOUESE OF
PEACTICAL PHYSICS
FOR STUDENTS OF
SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
ERVIN
S.''
FERRY
Professor of Physics in Purdue University
PART
FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND PROPERTIES OE MATTER
PART
II
HEAT
PRINTED EXPRESSLY FOR THE STUDENTS OP PURDUE UNIVERSITY
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR

1903
A COURSE OF PRACTICAL PHYSICS

For Students of Science and Engineering,
Bu ERVIN
PART
I.
PART
11.
PART
III.
Wave
PART
IV.
Eleobilcal
S.
FERRY.
Fundamenbal Measuiemenbs and Piopeities of Mabter

Heab.
Parts I and II bound in one volume, price

Mobion, Sound and Lighb.
Measuiemenbs.
Copyright.
1903,
by Ervin
In pieparabion.
S. Ferry.
All rights reserved.
TRESS OP BURT-TERRT-WILSON CO.

LflPHYETTE, IHD.. u.
$2.25.
In pieparabion.
5.
R.
PREFACE.
The aim
of the present
work
.is
to furnish the student with
a laboratory manual of physical processes and measurements in
which the explanation of the theory and the description of the

method of manipulation of each experiment is so complete as to
preclude the necessity of consulting either another book or a labor-
The work is so designed that it can be begun

commencement of the second college year. In the selection
atory instructor.
at
the
of
experiments the plan has been to include only such methods as

are strictly scientific, that have as practical a bent as possible, and
that can be
depended upon
average student.
This
enlists
good
hands of the
the energy of the student and saves
to give
results in the
that of the instructor.
Although the majority of the experiments are quantitative

measurements, some few methods and principles which experience
has found to give difficulty to the average college student have
been illustrated by qualitative exercises.

the experiment
performing
it
is
rare that
is
It
has been assumed that
so important as to justify a student
before he understands the theory involved and the
derivation of the formulae required.
each experiment
is
Consequently the theory of
given in detail and the required formula de-
veloped at length.
'
Since, in general, a student can appreciate
most completely the physical significance of the various steps in

an analytical discussion when couched in terms with which he has
been for some time acquainted, it has appeared desirable to use as
elementary mathematical methods as possible even though brevity
be thereby sometimes sacrificed.
It is
hoped that the numerous
been made especially for

clear
and
interesting.
this
illustrations, all of
which have
book, will assist in making the text
At the end of many of the experiments
is
placed a set of questions designed to test the"studtnt's understand-
ing of the principles involved in the preceding experiment.
collection of
diagrams and engravings
is
placed at the end
of the book so that the student can illustrate his laboratory reports
without the labor of making drawings.
few pieces of apparatus, experimental methods, and proofs

may possess some novelty, although the fixed
purpose has been to use the standard classical forms except in
such cases where a trial of not less than a year by a class of one
have been given that
hundred or more students has demonstrated the superiority of

the proposed innovation.
In conclusion
desire to
acknowledge
my
indebtedness to
Professor Jacob Westlund, of the department of mathematics in
Purdue University, for many scholarly suggestions throughout

work and also to Mr. Lloyd E. King, formerly instructor of physics in Purdue University, who has been so
good as to make many suggestions the incorporation of which into
the text has added materially to its accuracy and clearness. I am
also indebted to Mr. F. L. Shinn of the department of physical
chemistry in the University of Wisconsin for the collection and
verification of the data on vapor densities contained in thf tables.
the progress of the
ERVIN
Purdue University, LaFayette, Ind.
September 15, 1903.
S.
FERRY.
CONTENTS
PART
FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND

PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Chapter
GENERAL NOTIONS
I.
MEASUREMENTS.
PHYSICAL
REGARDING
Page.
Relative accuracy required
Discussion
of
Elrors
Rules for Computation
Plotting of Curves
Chapter
II.
LENGTH.
I.
II.
III.
S
Instruments for the Measurement of Length
of the Diameter of a rod by means of a Microm14
eter Gauge and a Vernier Caliper
Graduation of a glass scale by means of a Dividing Engine. 15
Measurement
Verification
of
barometer
Cathetometer
The Adjustment
rV.
V.
scale
means
by
of
16
of a Cathetometer
17
Radius of Curvature and Sensitiveness of a spirit level ....

Determination of the Thickness of a thin plate by means
19
23
and an Optical Lever
and Scale
25
Determination of the Radius of Curvature of a. Spherical
surface by means of the Spherometer and the Optical
Lever
26
Correction for Eccentricity in the mounting of a divided
of a Spherometer
The Adjustment
VI.
of a Telescope
Vn.
circle
29
Chapter
III.
WEIGHING OE THE COMPAEISON OF MASSES.

The Balance
VIII.
Weighing by
the
32
Method
34
of Vibrations
Reduction to the weight in vacuum

Weighing by the Method of Gauss
Calibration of a set of Standard Masses
37
IX.
38
X.
40
Chapter IV.
TIME.
XI.
Instruments for the Measurement of Time

The Method of Passages
44
The Method
45
Study
42
of Coincidences
46
of Falling Bodies
Chapter V.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION.
XII.
Determination of the Change of Speed of a flywheel during

49
a revolution
Determination of the Speed of a projectile by the Ballistic
Pendulum
50
^The Acceleration of Gravity by means of a Pendulum
52
',
XIII.
XIV.
Chapter VI.
MEASUREMENT OF AREA AND VOLUME.
Determination of the Area of a plane figure with a

Planimeter
XVI. Calibration of a Burette
XVII. Determination of the Volume of a solid by Immersion
XVIII. Determination of the Volume of a solid with
Pyknometer
XIX. IDetermination of the Volume of a solid body by the
XV.
a,
Volumenometer
50
63
64
66
67
Chapter VII.
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
70
Definitions
XX.
Determination
XXI.
Determination
liquid
of
a,
70
with a Pylaiometer
of the Specific Gravity of a liquid vpith the
Mohr-^Vestphal
XXII.
XXIII.
Density and Specific Gravity of
the
72
balance,
Calibration of an Areometer of
^Determination of the Density
variable immersion
ar,d
Specific
74
Gravity of a
78
with a Pyknometer
of the Density and Specific Gravity of a
79
solid by Immersion
Determination of the Relative Densities of gases with
81
Bunsen's Elffusiometer
solid
XXTV.
Determination
XXV.
Chapter VIII.
FRICTION.
XXVI.
Determination
plane
of the Coefficient of Friction
between two
84
surfaces
XXVII. The Friction of a belt on a pulley

XXVIII. Determination of the Coefficient of
86
between
Friction
lubricated journal and its bearings
88
Chapter IX.
MOMENT OF
INERTIA.
91
Definitions
Transformation Formulae for the computation of the
Moment
of Inertia of a
terms of the
Moment
rical
Moment
Moment
body about a given axis in
of Inertia about other axes ... 92
of Inertia of a solid cylinder about its geomet-
93
axis
of
Inertia
of
cylindrical
ring
about
its
94
geometrical axis
Moment
ders,
of Inertia of a system consisting of
two
cylin-
about an axis parallel to the geometrical axes

94
of the cylinders
Moment
of Inertia of a cylinder about
through
XXIX.
Determination
body
its center
of
the
normal to
Moment
of
its
an
axis passing
length
Inertia
of
95
an irregular
97
Chapter X.
ELASTICITY.
99
Definitions
XXX.
Determination
of the Elastic Limit, Tenacity

,
and
Brittle-
100
ness of a wire
Young's Modulus by stretching of a wire

XXXII. Study of Flexure of rectangular rods
XXXIII. Young's Modulus by bending of a rod
XXXIV. Determination of Simple Rigidity (Vibration Method)
XXXV. Determination of Simple Rigidity (Statical Method)
XXXVI. Determination of the Modulus of Elastic Resilience of
XXXI.
101
104
108
... .112
116
a
119
rod
Chapter XI.
VISCOSITY.
XXXVII. study
of
Damped
XXXVIII.
Determination
XXXIX.
Determination
liquid.
(Poiseuille's
(Coulomb's
121
Vibrations
of the absolute Coefficient of Viscosity of a
of
Method.)
the
Specific
of
II.
liquids.
134
Method.)
PART
129
'.
Viscosity
HEAT.
Chapter XII.
THERMOMETRY.
Errors of the Mercury-in-(jilas& Thermometer
Thermometer
a Mercury -in-Ulass Thermometer
The Bi'fkmann
XL.
XLl.
Differential
C'alibration of
The Determination of Unknown Temperatures
Calibration of Platinum Resistfuuce Thermometer
a,
137
140
141
147
148
Chapter XIII.
expansion of SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS.

Fundamental
Reduction
of
Equations
Barometric
153
Readings
155
Deleriiiination of the Coeffieient of Linear Expansion of

Solids
157
Determination of the Coellicient of Absolute Expansion
of a Liquid by the Method of Balancing Columns
162
Determination of the Coefficient of Cubical Expansion of
XLH.
^Llll.
XL1\'.
164
Glass
Chapter XIV.
PKOPKRTIES OF GASES AND SOLUTIONS.
The Fundamental Law
of
Gases
167
Application to Solutions. Van't Hoff's Law

169
External Work done during Expansion under Constant
171
Pressure
External Work done during Vaporization and Solution. .171
The EtHeieney of a perfectly Reversible Thermodynamic
Engine
XLA'.
XLVI.
171
Detei-mination of Coefficient of Expansion of a Gas by

means of an Air Thermometer
170
Determination of the maximum Vapor Pressure of a
tlie
Liquid at temperatures below 100 C, by the Statical
Method
180
the maximum Vapor Pressure of a
Liquid at various temperatures by the Dynamical
Method
184
^Determination of the Density of an Unsaturated Vapor
by Victor Meyer's Method
186
The Relation between Density and Molecular Weight.. 189
Determination
XLVII.
of
XLVin.
Chapter XV.
HYGROMETRY.
and General Equations
191
of the Relative Humidity of the Air with
192
Daniell's Dew Point Hygrometer
Determination of the Relative Humidity of the Air with
the Wet and Dry Bulb Hygrometer
194
Definitions
XLIX.
L.
Determination
Chapter XVI.
CALORIMETRY.
LI.
Thermal Unit. Thermal Water Equivalent

The Correction for Radiation
Determination of the Emissivity and Absorbing Power
Surfaces
Determination of the Specific Heat of
Method of Cooling
196
197
of
204
flifterent
LIL
a.
Liquid by the
20S
LIII.
Determination
of the Specific
Heat
of a Solid
by the Method
of Mixtures
Determination
LV.
212
Heat of a
Method of Stationary Temperature
Determination of Specific Heat with
of the
Solid
by the
Joly's
Steam
Specific
Calorimeter
217
219
'.
Chapter XVII.
CHANGE OF
LVI.
STATE.
The
LVIII.
223
Flash Test, Fire Test and Cold Test of an Oil
22(5
-Determination of the Boiling Point of a Solution
Determination of the Freezing Point and Melting Point of
LIX.
LX.
.230
-Determination of the Heat Equivalent of Fusion of Ice.
-Determination of the Heat Equivalent of Vaporization of
Lvn
228
a Solution
.
Water
233
Chapter XVIII.
THERMOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS.
LXI.
LXII.
LXIII..
LXIV.
LXV.
236
The Gram Molecule and Gram Equivalent
Thermochemical Notation
237
Determination of the Molecular Heat of Solution of a Salt 238
Determination of the Heat of Dilution of a Solution
240
Determination of the Heat of Neutralization of an Acid
and Base
241
Determination of the Heat Value of a Solid or Liquid with
the Combustion Bomb Calorimeter
242
^Determination of the Heating Value of a, Gas with Jun-
ker's.
Calorimeter
LXVIl.
^Determination of the Molecular Weight

the Boiling Point Method
^Determination of the Molecular Weight
LXVm.
^Determination
LXVI.
of a
248
Substance by
2,i2
of
a Substance by
the Freezing Point Method

258
of the Degree of Dissociation of a Substance in Solution by the Freezing Point Method
263
Chapter XIX.
HEAT CONDUCTION.
Fundamental Equations
265
-Determination of the Relative Thermal Conductivity of two
Substances
267
Definitions and
LXIX.
ClIAPTKR
XX.
THERMODYNAMICS.
LXX.
Determination
Puluj's
of the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat by
Method
270
TABLES.
Conversion Factors
Mensuration
3. The Greek Alphabet
Density and Specifie Gravity of Solids and Liquids
Specifie Gravity of Gases and Vapors
Specific Gravity of Water at Diflferent Temperatures
Specifie Gravity of Aqueous Solutions of Alcohol
Specific Gravity of Aqueous Solutions at 15 C
Reduction of Arbitrary Areometer Scales
Elastic Constants of Solids
Coefficients of Friction
Viscosity of Liquids
Corrections for the Influence of Gravity on the Height of
Barometer
Boiling Point of Water under different Barometric Pressures
Pressure of Saturated Aqueous
Pressure of Saturated Mercury Vapor
The Wet and Dry Bulb Hygrometer
Coefficient of Linear Expansion of Solids
Coefficient of Cubical Expansion of Liquids
Heat
of various Fuels
Thermal Emissivity of Different Surfaces
Coefficient of Absolute Thermal Conductivity
23.
Heat of Solids and Liquids
Specific Heat of Aqueous Solutions at 18 C
Melting Points and Heat Equivalents of Fusion
Boiling Points and Heat Equivalents of Vaporization
Cryohydrie Temperatures of various Salts
1.
27i
2.
27(1
276
277
278
279
279
280
280
281
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
281
282
12.
13.
the
283
284
15.
"\'apor
,
285
16.
285
17.
286
18.
287
19.
287
20.
"S'alues
287
21.
288
22.
288
Specific'
289
24.
289
2-1.
290
26.
290
27.
290
28.^Heats of Solution and Dilution of Sulphuric, Nitric and Acetic
Acid
291
29.
291
Heat of Dilution of various Salts
292
.30.Heat of Solution of Chepiical Substances
31.
293
^Heat of Neutralization of dilute Acids and Bases
32.
294
The Atomic Weight and "^'âlencies of the principal Elements
33.
^Degree of Dissociation of various Substances in one per cent.
295
Aqueous Solution
14.
Index
296
Illustrations
299
Chapter
I.
GENERAL NOTIONS
REGARDING PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS.
Physical measurement consists in the comparison of the
nitude of a quantity with the magnitude of the unit of the
kind as the quantity to be measured.
between two points

bar which
is
is
For
magsame
instance, the distance
given in terms of the length of a certain
taken arbitrarily as the unit of length.
Similarly the
mass of a body is determined in comparison with a material standard of mass constructed in accordance with an arbitrary definition of the unit of mass.
In the same way, an interval of time
is measured in terms of a unit arbitrarily defined.
These are examples of direct measurements, but much the larger number of
must be measured indirectly.

Young's Modulus of Elasticity of a certain material cannot be measured directly, but can be determined by applying a force of F units to a wire made of it, of length L and
radius r so as to cause an elongation e. Then from the laws of
quantities
For
instance.
elasticity,
Young's Modulus of
Elasticity
The
meas-
urement of the different quantities entering into the value of Af are

made with equal ease, and an inspection of the equation shows
not
that errors
made
in
measuring the various quantities
affect the re-
sult in different degree.
This leads to the consideration of the relative degree of

accuracy required in the different component measurements entering into the required result.
that the
In the above example,
same percentage error
in the value of P,
affect the result equally, but that the
value of r would affect the result
it is
obvious
ov e would
same percentage error
much more from
in the
the fact that
FuNDAMBNTAI, MeASURBMUNTS
r appears in the equation to the
elongation
e, is
in order that
it
may
greater than that of

in its accurate
second power.
However, the
a very small quantity compared with
or h, and
be measured with a percentage error no
P or
much
L,
greater care must be exercised
In addition, the fact that the two
measurement.
which small errors cause the greatest effect in the

are multiplied together, renders the result more affected by
quantities in
result
their errors than would be the case if they appeared in the

formula in any other manner. As an additional example, con-
sider the
measurement of the
method of mixtures.
The
specific heat of a substance
specific heat of
determined indirectly by heating
M to
mass
z.
of water at a temperature
lent
T and
temperature
In
a specimen of the substance of
then plunging
it
into a
mass
contained in a vessel of water equiva-
common
B, and observing the
the mixture.
by the
a substance can be
temperature
this case the specific heat C, of the
attained by
substance
is
given by the equation
^~
It is
(m
+ A')
(e
<)
K'i^)
M.
obvious that in this equation an error in
affects the
more than an equal percentage error in the value of

of the other temperatures, on account of the fact that, diffrom the other temperatures, Q occurs in both numerator
final result
either
ferent
and denominator, but with opposite
From
these examples,
it
is
signs.
apparent that before beginning
an indirect measurement that requires the determination of several
component
quantities, the
law connecting the quantities must
be examined, and the degree of accuracy deterrriined that

tial
is
essen-
component measurements.
The methods and apparatus best suited to the various meas-
in each of the
urements can then be selected.
Discussion of Errors. Any physical measurement is submany errors, of which some are determinate and can be
eliminated by proper selection of apparatus and experimental
method, or whose value can be computed. But after all precautions
have been taken, there will still be left some indeterminate sources
ject to
Errors
of error which give rise to what are called residual errors.

after all
known
terms in a
-series
of observations of the
same quantity
general be identical, but will vary one from another.
comes necessary
Thus,
determinate errors have been corrected for, the
to determine
from the
will not in
It
thus be-
series of observations the
value that has the greatest probability of approximating most
When
nearly to the true value.
all
the observations are taken
with equal care under the same conditions, the arithmetical mean
of
all
the observations gives the value that has the greatest pro-
bability of
approximating most closely to the true value.
arithmetical
mean
is
best approximation attainable.
observation and the

that observation
mean
The
difference between any single
of the series
from the mean.
is
called the deviation of
The average
deviation (or the
deviation measure) of the single deviations from the mean,

fined as the
mean of
out regard to sign.
This
not, in general, the true result, but is the
is
de-
the magnitudes of the deviations taken with-
By
fractional deviation
(or fractional pre-
an observation is meant the ratio of the deviation of

the observation from the mean, to the observation itself.
Percentage deviation is one hundred times the fractional deviation.
In the case of an extensive series of observations of the same
quantity made by the same method with equal care it has been
shown experimentally that (o) there is an equal number of positive and negative deviations of the same magnitude, (6) small
deviations are more numerous than large ones (c) large deviations are few in number. In fact, in an extensive series, a deviation having a magnitude four times the mean deviation will occur,
on the average, but once in a thousand observations.
cision) of
In a series of observations of the same quantity presumably

taken with equal care, sometimes one term will appear that
widely divergent from
all
the others.
From
is
the laws of devi-
ations given in the preceding paragraph, this would suggest a

mistake due to mental confusion in making or recording the reading, or
due to some accidental disturbance occuring
at the
time
These laws of deviations also suggest a

rule for the rejection of observations differing widely from the
the reading
others.
was taken.
Since in a series of carefully
made
observations
it
is
FUNDAMBNTAI. MEASUREMENTS
improbable that there would be more than one deviation in

a thousand greater than four times the average deviation of the
other terms of the series, one can with propriety assume that
an observation occurs in a short

than this amount, that
series
whose deviation
this observation contains a
is
if
greater
mistake and
should be neglected.
Computation.-
Computation
should
be
so
accurate
that errors thereby introduced are certainly less than the errors
The length to which computations should be carupon the magnitude of the deviations of the observa-
of observation.
ried depends
tions,
and can be conveniently expressed
in terms of the
number of
significant figures that should be retained in the final result.
significant figure
is
any
The number
digit other than zero.
of
significant figures is independent of the position of the decimal
point.
The decimal
point
is
simply a mathematical sign to indi-
Thus the following numbers

21.0, 0.00021.
The
are taken from Holman's Precision of
cate the position of the units place.

all
certain
two
significant figures
following useful rules
2100.0,
Measurements where their proof is derived.

1.
In computing deviations, retain two
For example d:=o.o25, ^^31.0.
significant figures.
In the single observations,
2.
retain enough significant

which the second significant figure
figures to include the place in
of the deviation occurs.
Observations.
46.308
46.503
46.382
46.423
46.402
For example,
Deviations from mean.
Adjusted reading.
46.308
46.50
46.382
46.423
46.402
0.09s
o.io
0.021
0.020
0.0016
232.018
Mean
3.
232.015
46.4036
When two
or
Adjusted mean
46.403
more observations are
to
be multiplied
together, or divided one by another, find by inspection the one

for
which the percentage deviation is the greatest. If the percentthis term is between ten per cent, and one per
age deviation of
cent, use four significant figures in the multiplicand, multiplier
product, or in division, dividend and quotient respectively.
and
Simi-
Computation
larly if the percentage deviation of this
term
between one per
is
cent and one-tenth of one per cent., use five significant figures
For example, suppose the observations given
throughout.
preceding paragraph are to be multiphed by

deviation of the
t.
in the
The percentage
term of this series is 0.20 per cent., so that

term by ^ we should use five figures through-
first
in multiplying this
out,
e.
46.308 X 3-1416
When
= 14548
logarithms are used, retain as
many
places in the
niantissae as there are significant figures in the data.
Above ex-
ample becomes
log 46.308=1.66566
log 3.1416 =0.49714
log 145.48=2.16280
Many measurements
are of such a nature that
ble to obtain a
number of observations
for this reason
it is
it is
impossi-
of the same quantity, and
impossible to determine the deviation required
by the above rule. In this event, the product or quotient should

contain the same number of significant figures as the quantity
entering into the product or quotient that contains the smallest
number of
significant figures.
In the case of an indirect measurement that involves the determination of the ratio of two quantities,
it
is
it
must be noted
inaccurate and usually unallowable to use the
mean
that
of a
numerator of the fraction, and to divide

measurements made of the quan-
series of readings for the

this
by the mean of the
tity
entering into the denominator.
series of
As an example consider
the
formula already adduced for Young's Modulus by stretching
M=
Ordinarily, L, r and
may
"
then a series of observations
by various forces
tions oi e or
it
And
is
T 1-
P.
be considered to be constant, and
taken of the elongation e produced
since
no term of the
series of observa-
will in general be the true value of that quantity,
follows that in general the series of ratios obtained by dividing
the applied force, F, by the corresponding elongation produced, Cj

will not be constant.
If these ratios are not constant it is clear
that the mean value of
will be given by
Fundamental Measurements
(F'
irr''
L
irr^
/F'
F'
(
\
e'
Pi,oTTiNG OP Curves.
vations of
two
F"
e"
F'"
Fn
e'"
+F'"
F'"
+
-\A-
When a
e"'
series
of simultaneous obser-
is
usually rendered
representation or
more apparent from a
made on
on co-
of the observations
"plot"
ordinate axes than from an inspection of the series.

usually
not be expressed by
variable quantities has been made, the relation be-
tween the two variables

graphical
+
A+
e"
M will
and the true mean value of
M=
F"
e'
This plot
is
cross-section paper ruled into centimeters or
inches divided into tenths.
Jn making a
plot, the
following rules
should be observed.
The
1.
size of the plot should
vary directly with the accu-
racy of the observations and inversely with the accuracy of plotting.
The
error oi plotting depends
upon the error made
in locat-
ing the points representing the data on the cross-section paper,
and upon the
size of the plot.
The
fractional deviation of the
plotting equals the ratio of the average deviation
measure of
locat-
ing the points, to the length of the ordinates of the points.
Usually
it is
not feasible to locate a point on cross-section paper
with a smaller average deviation then half a millimeter, so that

if
the cross-section paper
is
20cm
long, the fractional deviation
'
of the plotting will not be less than
quarter of one per cent.
0.0025 or one
Consequently, since errors of plotting
affect the third place of significant figures,
it is
useless
and mis-
leading to carry plotting beyond the third place of significant

If the data includes
figures.
figures, the figures
more than three
places of significant
beyond the third must be neglected
in
making
the plot.
Choose the scale of abscissas so that the largest value

Choose
the scale of ordinates so that the largest value extends through
2.
reaches across the horizontal space assigned to the plot.
the vertical distance assigned to the curve.
Always choose
scales
so that each space of the cross-section paper represents a con-
venient
number
of units, or a convenient fractional part of a unit.
Plotting of Curves
In general the plot should be made on such a scale that the
two co-ordinates will be equal,

and also that the fractional precision of plotting equals the fracfractional precision of plotting the
tional precision of the data.
Thus
if
and
represents one pair
of simultaneous observations of the two variables, and
x and y
magnitude of
and Y measured
off along the axes of abscissas and ordinates of the plot; and if
DX, DY, Dx, Dy represents the precision measure of the data
X and Y, and the precision measure of plotting the lines x and y
respectively, then, the above statement becomes
the distances proportional to fhe
Dx
DX
X
Dy
Fundamb;ntal Measurements
The points
4.
plotted should he plainly indicated by either
a puncture in the center of a small circle, or a small cross intersecting at the point plotted and having its arms parallel to the coordinate axes.
Draw
5.
all
a fine smooth curve or straight line that best
fits
the points plotted.
In general this
plotted.
many
line will not pass
through
all
of the points
This line should be drawn so that there are about as
points on one side of
it
as
on the other
side.
The
points
should not be located mainly on one side of the line at any region
throughout
6.
its
entire length.
Give each curve a
title.
This
title
will usually call atten-
two variable quantities treated and the condition under

which particular values were observed.
tion to the
Chapter
II.
LENGTH.
Instruments for the Measurement of Length. The

Micrometer Screw is of wide application in the
accurate measurement of short lengths. A carefully made screw
principle of the
of a pitch of either one millimeter or one-half millimeter turns in
an accurately
is
fitting
nut.
Attached to one end of the screw
a divided head by means of which
the distance between
is measured the fraction of

two threads through which the end of the
screw advances when the screw
The
the Micrometer
gine,
is
rotated a fraction of a turn.
screw is employed in
Screw Gauge, the Spherometer, the Dividing Enfhe Filar Micrometer Microscope.
principle
of 'the
micrometer
Instruments for the Measurement of Length
The micrometer Screw Gauge (Fig
i), consists of
rately
Â B
Mwi i'^
an accu-
made screw
which can be advanced toward or

away from the
'F'"'"""W---^g!^Xjx>H!a
The
stop
A.
whole number of
d
millimeters
tance
between
s-
and B is indicated
by the millimeter
divisions on the shank C uncovered by the sleeve D, while the fraction of a millimeter is given by the graduated circle on the edge
of the sleeve D. If the pitch of the screw is half a millimeter
and if the head is divided into fifty equal spaces, one division on
the shank will be uncovered by the sleeve for every two complete
turns of the screw, and each space on the divided head corresponds to an advance of the screw of o.oi mm.
Fig. 1
The Spherometer,
(Fig. 2)
is
a micrometer screw with a
very large divided head passing vertically
through a nut mounted at the
center of an equilateral tripod.

the pitch of the screw
is
If
one half
millimeter, the head will be usually
divided into 500 equal spaces so that

a difference of length of 0.00 1
can be read directly.
The
of reading the spherometer
is
than the precision of setting.

instrument
is
especially
mm.
precision
greater
This
useful
in
measuring the radius of curvature of

spherical surfaces
whence its nam'
In the Dividing Engine (Fig. 3) a long micrometer screw
with a large divided head A is mounted horizontally in a massivo
base between a pair of tracks in such a way that it has no longituFig. 2
dinal
movement, but when rotated causes a nut
allel to
the tracks.
Attached to the nut B,
is
to advance par
a carriage C which
lo
along the tracks with the advance of the nut. Fastened to

the base are one or two microscopes M, with cross hairs in the
slides
eye pieces, which can be focussed upon an object resting upon the
sliding carriage.
In making the measurement of the distance be-
tween two points, the carriage is slid along until one point is
under the cross hairs of a microscope and then the micrometer
screw is turned until the other point comes under the cross hair.
Fig.
The
.
3.
difference between the reading of the micrometer screw
when
one point was under the cross hair, and the reading when the
other point was under the cross hair gives the distance between
the two points.
The dividing engine receives its name from the fact that it is
most often used to rule divided scales. Fastened to the base is a
system of levers by which a stylus or tracing point 5" can be drawn
across the sliding carriage in the direction normal to its motion.
By this means a line can be drawn upon an. object fastened to
the top of the carriage, the carriage advanced by a definite amount,
another line drawn parallel to the first, and so on until a scale is
constructed. The mechanism carrying the stylus is often arranged
with cams D which permit lines to be drawn of unequal length,
so that in ruling a scale every fifth and tenth line may be drawn
longer than the others.
The
Filar Micrometer Microscope
is
a microscope having in
the focus of the eyepiece a reticule supporting a cross hair which
can be moved across the
field
of vision by means of a micrometer
Instruments for the Measurement oE Length
ii
Attached to the inside of the tube of the microscope, in
screw.
the focal plane in which
moves the cross
hair, there is usually fixed
a serrated edge whose teeth serve as a scale to indicate the .whole

the micrometer screw.
The distance
on the microscope stage corresponding to one turn of the micrometer must be determined by means of a standard scale.
A filar
micrometer microscope is illustrated at
Fig 3.
number of turns made by
The Eyepiece Micrometer
is
a very finely divided scale ruled
on thin glass that can be placed in the focal plane of a microscope.

After being put into position the eyepiece micrometer is standardized by means of a standard scale placed on the microscope
stage.
Vernier's scale
is
a device employed for the estimation of
fractions of the smallest divisions of a scale.
It consists
of a
short auxiliary scale capable of sliding along the edge of the prin-
The
cipal scale.
precision attainable with the vernier
On
times that attainable with the unaided eye.
direct vernier, a length equal to (n

scale is divided into
n equal
about three
i) divisions of the principal
spaces, so that the difference in length
between a vernier division an^ a scale division
Suppose now that the zero
division.
is
the ordinary or
is
i-^m of a
in coincidence with the zero line of the principal scale

first line
the
will
of the vernier will be distant
first line
line
then the
scale divisions
from
of the scale, or in general, the r th line of the vernier
be distant
Conversely,
l-^
scale
be placed
line of the vernier
?-=-
when
scale divisions
from the rth
the r th line of the vernier
is
line of the scale.
coincident with any
of the scale, then the fraction of a scale division between the
vernier zero and the next preceding line on the principal scale
r
-=-
is
of a scale division.
Obviously a vernier can be constructed for either a linear or
and n can have whatever value is

most convenient. In the case of a centimeter
scale divided into millimeters, the vernier would
usually be nine millimeters long and divided
into ten equal spaces. (Fig 4.) This would percircular scale
f
'
Ji'i'i'i
1
'ill'
I
'
I
I'l
II
mit readings to be
made
in tenths of millimeters.
In the case of a centimeter scale divided into half millimeters,
FUNDAMENTAI, MjJASUREMENTS
12
llie
would usually be 24
vernier
scale divisions in
length and be divided into 25 equal spaces.

5.)
(Fig.
This would permit readings to be made
Fig.
5.
directly in fiftieths of millimeters.
In the case of a scale divided into inches and

inch, the vernier could conveniently be
divisions long
(Fig. 6.)
and be divided
fiftieths
made
of an
19 scale
into 20 equal spaces.
This would permit readings to be made
directly in thousandths of inches.
In the case of a circular scale divided into degrees and thirds of degrees,the vernier
is
often
made
of a length corresponding to 59 scale divisions and

is divided into 60 equal spaces.
(Fig. 7.)
This
arrangement permits readings directly to thirds of

i. e. to 20 seconds.
The figure in the margin shows such a vernier and also illustrates
the manner in which verniers are often numbered so
minutes,
that readings can be read off directly without computation.

this
In
particular case, as each
vernier division corresponds

to one third of a
natural
teenth division
division
10,
As an
minute
number
to
5,
etc.,
the
it is
fif-
the thirtieth
minutes.
exercise the student
is
advised to verify the readings
of the vernier scales illustrated in the text.
The
reading of vernier scale in Fig. 4 is 8.6, in Fig 5

1 1. 10 in Fig. 6 29.111 in Fig.
J 145 48', and
11 14' 40".
Piw.
9.
Instruments for the Measurement op Length
The Vernier
steel scale
Caliper,
at
one end, and a jaw
provided
that can slide along the length of the scale.
The Cathetometer, Fig

tical
(Fig. 9), consists of a finely divided
with a fixed jaw
with a vernier scale
13
10,
is
an instrument for measuring
ver-
distances consisting of a rigid vertical column, accurately
graduated throughout
its
upon a heavy tripod
length, supported
furnished
with
spirit
levels
and leveling screws. A carriage movable up and down

the column supports a telescope on which is a spirit
The
carriage can be
any
at
point along
the length of the column and
level.
clamped
its
means of
column and a
position read by
the scale on the
vernier
riage.
tical
attached to the car-
With
the column verand the telescope horithe
zontal,
vertical
distance
between two points is determined by setting the cross

hairs
of
the
upon one
telescope
point,
first
taking the
reading of the position of the

carriage on the column, then
elevating or lowering the car-
riage
come
until
the
opposite
cross
the
hairs
second
point and observing the
new
reading of the position of the

carriage.
The
difference be-
tween those two readings

it'Mi.
For greater
10.
the
precision, the telescope
is
often provided with
a screw micrometer by means of which a cross hair can be

across the focal plane.
is
distance required.
moved
FUNDAMENTAI, MEASUREMENTS
14
I.
MEASUREMENT OF THE DIAMETER OF A ROD BY

MEANS OF A MICROMETER GAUGE AND
A VERNIER CALIPER.
Object and Theory of Experiment.
The
object of this
measure the diameter of the same object with

two instruments and to compare the precision of measurement
obtained by the two methods. The theory of the two instruments
has been given in the preceding paragraphs.
experiment
is
to
Manipulation and Computation. Before using any

measuring instrument having a divided scale, the position of the
zero point must usually be noted. It is unusual and unnecessary for the zero point to be located at the position marked.
In using the micrometer gauge, grasp the milled head of the
screw loosely with the finger tips and turn the screw until it just
slips between the fingers.
To find the zero point, bring the end
of the screw into contact with the stop and observe the reading
on the sleeve of the screw head. Take the average of five such
readings as the zero point. Then, placing the object to be measured between the stop and end of the screw, take ten readings.
Find the mean of these ten observations, corrected for the zero
point find the deviation of each observation from the mean, and
;
the average fractional precision of the series of observations.
In using the vernier caliper,

for the zero point
The average
first
ascertain the correction
by closing the jaws and noting the
of five readings thus obtained
rection for the zero.
is
reading.
taken as the cor-
Place the same object previously
meas-
ured between the jaws of the instrument, close them gently, clamp
the jaws by
means
of the set-srew,
and take the reading.
Re-
peat this operation ten times and determine the average fractional precision of the series of readings.
Compare
the precision of the two methods of measurement.
Measurement of Length
15
II.
GRADUATION OF A GLASS SCALE BY MEANS OF A

DIVIDING ENGINE.
exercise
on a
is
to construct a millimeter scale
strip of glass.
The theory
The
object of this
by etching
fine lines
of the dividing engine has
given briefly in a preceding paragraph.
The
been
details of the use
of the instrument will be best understood from an actual study of

it.
The pitch of the screw of the dividing

determined by observing the number of turns of
the screw necessary to move the carriage through a known distance. Fasten a standard scale on the carriage in a direction parallel to the screw.
Focus the microscope on one of the divisions of the scale, observe the reading of the head of the screw,
rotate the screw until another division of the scale comes exactly under the cross hairs of the microscope and again observe
the reading of the head of the screw. The distance through
which the carriage has advanced divided by the number of turns
of the screw is the pitch of the screw.
Since a screw turning in a nut always has a certain amount
of backlash, before taking the first reading the screw must be
turned sufficiently to take up any backlash these may be, and
then the direction of rotation of the screw must not be changed
throughout the series of readings.
Clean the glass strip with caustic potash, coat it evenly with
parafifin or beeswax, and fasten it to the carriage parallel to the
screw. Adjust the ruling mechanism to rule lines along the
Manipulation.
engine
is first
middle of the strip of glass of the required length, and regulate
cogged wheels of the ruling mechanism so that every

and tenth line will be longer than the others. Adjust the
stops about the head of the screw A so that when the head is
the
fifth
l6
turned through the distance between the two stops, the carriage
will advance exactly one millimeter.
The proper distance be-
tween the stops
Now
found.
from the pitch of the screw already
deterrnined
is
the dividing engine
the stylus or ruling point
is
set
Draw
ready for ruling.
across the glass strip, rotate the
screw head through the distance between the stops, and make
another mark. This operation is repeated until the required
length of scale
Remove
divided.
is
the glass strip from the dividing engine, repair any
abrasions in the
wax
number the
Cover the ruled surface with
surface with a hot iron, and
divisions with a fine pointed pen.
hydrofluoric acid by
ly etched,
of?,
and
the plate
means
is
finally cleaned
When
of a large feather.
rinsed in running water, the
sufficient-
wax
scraped
with turpentine.
III.
VERIFICATION OF A BAROMETER SCALE BY MEANS
OF A CATHETOMETER.
Object and Theory oe Experiment.
In the ordinary form

lower end of the tube dips into a
reservoir filled with mercury which can be raised or lowered by
a screw.
By this means, before taking an observation, the surof Fortin's barometer, the
face of the
level
mercury
in the reservoir
is
always brought to
The barometric
the cover of the reservoir.
height
of the
mercury column from
to the
meniscus at the upper end of the column.
adjusted so that
its
adjusted
the
barometer tube is
measured from
by the
Not
infrequently this scale
maker,
is
inac-
becomes out of adjustThe object of this experiment is to

or
ment through handling.

measure the barometric height by a cathetometer,
this height
tangent
brass scale
divisions indicate distances
the point of the ivory pin.

curately
the length
is
this point to the horizontal
attached to the metal tube enclosing
the
downward from
of the point of an ivory pin extending
with the barometric reading, and
adjust the scale so as to give correct readings.
if
to
they
compare
differ,
to
Measurement
oif
Length
Manipulation and Computation.
17
Set the cathetometer on

from the
a stand of adjustable height about a meter distant
The adjustments now
barometer.
meter are four
in
to be
made on
the catheto-
number.
First, parallax.
Set the intersection of the cross hairs of
the telescope on the image of a dot, and draw the

in
and out
cross hairs
until there
when
is
the eye
no
is
motion
moved from one
eye
of the dot
relative
piece
and the
side to the other in
front of the eye piece.
The
Second.
intersection of the cross hairs
line of collimation of the telescope.
piece, rotate the telescope
about
its axis."
the cross hairs describes a circle about the
When
adjustment must be made.
must be
With the eye

If
in the
the eye
at
the intersection of
image of the
dot, this
the intersection of the cross
and the image of the dot are farthest apart, reduce the sepway by moving the carriage supporting the telescope vertically by means of the fine adjustment screw B Fig. 10
and then bring the intersection of the cross hairs into coincidence
with the image of the dot by means of the screw of the eye piece
hairs
aration half
Repeat this operation until the intersection of the

and the image of the dot remains in coincidence
throughout a revolution of the telescope about its axis.
Third. The spirit level resting on the telescope must be parallel to its axis.
Bring the bubble to the middle of the level tube
by tilting the telescope. Take the telescope out of its Wyes and
replace it reversed end for end.
If the bubble is now not in the
middle of the level tube, bring it half way back by tilting the telescope by means of screw D, and the remaining distance by
micrometer.
cross hairs
means
of the adjusting screws at the ends of the spirit level.
Repeat
this operation until the
of the tube
The student
when
is
bubble
the telescope
is
will
remain
in the
pointing |n either
middle
direction.
not to change the adjusting screws at the ends of
the spirit level without permission of an instructor.^
Fourth.
The cathetometer column must be
telescope perpendicular to
it.
vertical
and the
If there are spirit levels fastened
to the base of the instrument they are used only for the coarse
adjustment.
Loosen the clamp C so that the column can be
rotated about
its
axis.
While the column
is
being rotated, note
the position of the bubble in the telescope level. If it does not

remain at the middle of the tube, clamp the column at the position where the bubble is most displaced, and bring the bubble
half way back by tilting the telescope and the remaining distance
by means of the tripod leveling screws. Repeat this operation

until the bubble remains in the middle of the tube throughout a
complete revolution of the column.
The cathetometer is now ready for use. Raise the telescope until the horizontal cross hair in the eye piece is tangent
to the meniscus at the upper end of the barometer column. Take
the cathetometer reading by means of the scale and vernier.
Lower
the telescope until the horizontal
coincides
cross hair
with the level of the mercury in the reservoir and again take the
cathetometer reading.
The
difference
ings
five
is
between these two read-
Make
the barometric height.
determinations.
Now, by means
of the screw T, Fig.
bottom of the barometer,

bring the surface of the mercury in the
II,
at the
reservoir to the level of the ivory point,
P.
Read the barometric height by
means of the scale and vernier, V, attached to the case. Attached to the
sliding vernier, there is a similar piece
of metal directly back of the

ter tube.
These
two
barome-
slides
move
In order to avoid parallax,

taking a reading the vernier is
together.
when
moved up and down
until the position
found where the lower edge of the

vernier, the upper surface of the meniscus and the lower edge of the rear
is
slide are in line.
Take
the
mean
of
five readings.
If
FiG. 11.
the
value
of
the
barometric
height obtained by reading the
ba-
rometric scale differs from that
ob-
tained by
means of the cathetometer,
19
Find the error of ad-
the barometer scale is out of adjustment.

justment of the barometer scale by taking the difference between the mean of five determinations of the barometric height
by means of the barometer
scale
and with the cathetometer.
IV.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE AND SENSITIVENESS OF A

SPIRIT LEVEL.
ments in which a
sical apparatus,
spirit level is
it is
In
many measure-
used in connection with other phy-
necessary that the sensitiveness of the level
be of the same order as that of the other apparatus.

is
An
example
the case of the telescope and level of an engineer's transit.
When
used in leveling or in measuring vertical angles, the least "Vertical
motion of the telescope should make
itself
evident both by a
displacement of the level-bubble and of the cross hair.

fore important that the magnifying
power of the
It is there-
telescope
and the
sensitiveness of the spirit level should be of the same' order of
magnitude.
The
suitability of a level for a particular use includes
the determination of the uniformity of the run of the bubble in
the vial and the sensitiveness of the spirit level.
of a spirit level
may
for an inclination of the level of one minute.
ness
is
The
sensitiveness
be defined as the distance the bubble moves

Since the sensitive-
directly proportional to the radius of curvature of the vial,
Fig. 12,
CO
The
often designated by the radius of curvature.
it is
experiment
this
is
make
to
a test of a
object of
spirit level.
by means of a
upon which rests a T
F
shaped casting supported by two projecting steel points B and
screw
micrometer
a
T,
and
Fig. 12, at the end of the arms of the
M, at the foot of the T. The pitch of the micrometer screw must
In the laboratory a
spirit level is usually tested
Level Trier consisting of a base plate
Fig. 13.
be measured and also the perpendicular distance

from the micrometer screw to the line connecting the
points E and F. The level to be tested L is placed
In case
it is
and the position of the bubble in the vial

is noted by means of a scale engraved upon the
glass or by a scale, S, attached to the level trier.
inconvenient to separate the level from a piece of apon the
paratus of which
part, the entire apparatus-,
forms a
it
may be mounted
scope or theodolite,
After the level tube
is
in the
in place, the
grooves
e.
g. a tele-
ABC
or
DBF.
micrometer reading
is
through a small angk by turning the micrometer screw, and readings are again taken of the
micrometer screw and the position of the bubble.
noted.
The
level trier is
In Fig. (13),
let
level trier inclined at
now
tilted
AC
AB,
represent the
two
an angle 6 to one another
positions of the
let
the upper face
(BG) and
of the spirit level be represented by the circular arcs
GJ=FH.
(CF) of radius
Now
since a free liquid surface is
always perpendicular to the direction of the force acting upon

(in
is
this
always
case
at
the
that
point
of
the
plane perpendicular to the force

if
in the diagram,
of
attraction
GJ and
is
gravitation),
arc
of
the
vial
at
tangent to the arc.
BH are vertical lines,
position of the spirit level the bubble
was
and
if
it
bubble
the
which a
Whence,
in the first
at G, then in the
second
position
tance
it
would be
21
having been displaced through a
at E,
dis-
FB.
Prom
When
the figure,
B is small, the arc
5^
FH
radians.
{BD) may be
considered equal to BC.
For purposes of abbreviation, denote BA by

d, and the radius of the vial FH by R.
Since
one
^^36o
radian
and also
/ radians,
x,
BC by
y,
{HF) by
we
=57.296 =3437.75',
transform
radians into minutes by multiplying by 3437.75.
follows from the definition of the sensitiveness of a level that
Sensitiveness
.
Again, since
%l
d
9
-^
x d
.-..
3437.75 y
can
It
, ,
(i)
d.
-77-
'
R =
we have the
radius of curvature
(2)
?/
Whence
it is
seen that the sensitiveness of a spirit level
proportional to
its
is
directly
radius of curvature.
Manipui-ation and Computation. Measure the perpenfrom the end of the micrometer screw to the line
connecting the two pivotal points from an impression of these
three points obtained by pressing them on a piece of paper. The
pitch of the micrometer scfew is obtained in tHe following manner after placing the spirit level on the trier adjust the micromeend of the bubble is directly under a scale
ter screw until one
dicular distance
division near the middle of the vial
then insert under the micromescrew a small piece of plate glass whose thickness has been already measured with a spherometer or micrometer gauge, and
;
ter
again adjust the micrometer screw until the bubble rests at the
same point
as before.
The number
screw necessary to make

of the glass plate
is
this
of turns of the micrometer

adjustment divided by the thickness
the pitch of the screw.
Again, adjust the micrometer screw until one end of the

is directly under a scale division near one end of the vial.
bubble
22
Observe the micrometer screw reading and the scale readings at

rotate the micrometer screw through lo
spaces and take readings as before. Continue this operation until
the bubble has been moved to the other end of its run, and then
return step by step in the same manner. Repeat this series of readboth ends of the bubble
ings three times.
series of
such readings
tabulated in the following form.
Number of
Observation
may
be conveniently
Measurement op Length
an engineer's
23
transit or theodolite, the ra-
dius of curvature of the spirit level can be
calculated from an observed target
ment
move-
produced by
a deflection of the telescope such that the
bubble is displaced by an amount d.
In
/,
at a given distance Lj
this case
prove that the radius of
ture of the level
Fig. 14.
curva-
is
V.
DETERMINATION OF THE THICKNESS OF A THIN

PLATE BY MEANS OF A SPHEROMETER AND
AN OPTICAL LEVER.
The object of
this
measure the thickness of a thin microscope

cover glass by two methods and to compare the precision of
measurement obtained by the two methods.
The spherometer has already been described. The theory
of the optical lever will now be deduced.
The optical lever to
be used in this experiment consists of a piece of sheet brass 3
cms. long and i cm. wide mounted upon four pointed legs, one
at each end and the other two midway between the end legs and
joining them. Fastened on the
in a line normal to the line
upper side of the optical lever, with its reflecting surface in the
plane of the two middle legs is a small glass mirror.
The
length of the four legs may be such that when the optical lever
experiment
rests
is
to
upon a piece
of plate glass all four legs are in contact with
the glass, or the end legs
may
be slightly shortened so that
the optical lever can be tilted forward and backward about the
ends of the middle
legs.
From
the
difference
through which the optical lever can be

legs rest directly
through which
it
tilted
in
when
the
angle
the middle
upon a large plane surface, and the angle

can be tilted when a thin plate is interposed
24
between the middle legs and the plane surface, the thickness of
the thin plate can be determined.
Fig,
15.
Let mna be the optical lever with its mirror approximatenormal to the base mn, T a telescope and O'O" a vertical
First asscale distant about one meter from the optical lever.
sume that the ends of the feet of the lever are all in one plane.
Imagine the thin plate x placed under the middle feet of the opWhen the lever is tilted forward an observer at the
tical lever.
ly
telescope sees the point of the scale at 0' reflected in the mir-
and when the mirror is tilted backward the reflected image of

0" comes opposite the cross hair of the telescope.
Meantime the optical lever has been tilted through the angle
6
consequently the angle between the normals to the mirror
ror,
the scale at
in its
two positions
is
also
Q.
And
since the angle of reflect-
ion equals the angle of incidence, the angle between o'a and o"a'
equals 2
0.
= e,
When
o'
is
very small,
o"
2 6 radians,
and also
consequently
2mm'
oa
Let the thickness of the thin plate be denoted by h, the dismn between the two end feet be denoted by 2I, the distance oa between the scale and mirror be denoted by L and
tance
the scale reading o'o" be denoted by S.
way between
tn
and
n, it
25
Again, since
follows that the distance
Making
the thickness h of the thin plate.
mid-
c is
wm'
twice
is
these substitutions
the thickness of the plate

h
(approx.)
-r-7
(1)
an optical lever having the lower ends

if the end feet are shortened
so that the lever is capable of being tilted enough to produce a
deflection S' when placed upon a plane surface, then the above
value of the total deflection 5 must be diminished by the deflection S'
For this case, the thickness of the thin plate
This
of
is
all
for the case of
four feet in one plane. But
^^^^
(approx.)

ter
In using the spherome-
series of five observations of the zero point
made by
is
must
first
be
placing the instrument on a piece of plate glass and
noting the readings on the two scales
screw
(2)
when
just in contact with the glass plate.
screw, place under
it
the thin plate
the point of the
Now
raise
whose thickness
the
to be
is
measured, lower the screw until it is just in contact with the

and note the reading on the two scales. Repeat five
times.
The difference between the mean of these five readings
thin plate
and the mean zero reading
is
the thickness of the plate.
In using the optical lever, the telescope and scale must

be adjusted
lever
that
is,
first
the telescope, scale and mirror of the optical
must be placed
in such
relative
positions that
on look-
ing through the telescope toward the mirror a reflected image

of the scale will be visible.
In
making
this
adjustment, place
the vertical scale facing the mirror distant about a meter from
it,
then standing behind the scale and looking at the mirror,
move
the eye about until a reflected image of the scale
in the mirror.
If the telescope
is
now
is
placed where the eye
seen
is sit-
the telescope
it is obvious that on looking through
toward the mirror the same image will be visible, as soon as the
If the position in which
this
telescope is properly focused.
would require the telescope to be placed is inconveniently high
uated,
26
or inconveniently low, the mirror
may
be
tilted
with respect to
image of the scale is visiNext adjust the eyepiece of

back and forth, until the cross hairs
the base of the optical lever until the

ble in a
more convenient
the telescope, by sliding
position.
it
move with
are not only distinctly visible but also do not
ence to the image of the scale
When
lever
when
the eye
is
refer-
moved.
the telescope and scale are adjusted, with the optical

of plate glass, observe the scale reading in the
on a piece
telescope
when the optical lever is tilted forward and when it is

The difference between these two readings is S'.
tilted back.
Now
place under the middle legs of the optical lever, the thin
whose thickness is to be measured and take two similar

The difference between these readings is 5.
The distance L, may be measured with a meter stick or steel
The distance / is best obtained from the measurement
tape.
of the distance between prick-marks made by pressing the feet
of the optical lever on a sheet of paper.
plate
readings.
Make
five
determinations of the thickness of the thin plate
by the optical lever method, and compare the precision of the

two methods.
Test Questions and Problems.
I.
Discuss the approximations involved in eq. (2_), showing
which assumptions can be easily fulfilled and under what conditions the optical lever method is most accurate.
VI.
DETERMINATION OF THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE

OF A SPHERICAL SURFACE.
Object and Theory oE Experiment.
There are three prinmethods for determining the radius of curvaure of a spherical
They are by rneans of (a) the spherometer, (&) the
surface.
cipal
optical lever, (c) the reflection of light.
The
last
plicable only to highly polished surfaces
and
be delayed until the subject of light
taken up.
is
its
method
is
ap-
consideration will
The
object of
Measurement oe Length
this
experiment
is
to
27
determine the radius of curvature of a
by means of the spherometer and by means of the

optical lever, and to compare the precision of the two methods.
The theory of the two methods will now be considered.
(a) By means of the sphcroinctcr. The curvature of the sur-
spherical surface
face
is
determined from the dimensions of the
spherometer and the distance through which

the point of the screw
must be moved from
the plane of the ends of the
order that
all
four points
may
three
legs
in
be brought into
contact with the spherical surface.
ABC
L,et
Fig. 16 be the positions of the three fixed feet,
and
when
the position of the point of the screw,
all
four are in one plane.
Let the
dis-
^ny two legs of the tripod be

and the distance between the
points of the screw and any one of the feet be
tance between
denoted by
denoted by
Fig.
/,
d.
Then
if
is
the required
17.
radius,
and h
is
the height of the point of the
screw above the plane of the ends of the three feet when
are in contact with the spherical surface, then from Fig.
7?
But
since
= ^
(R-hr
value of d
Thus from
the diagram.
is
h^
d'
(1)
2 h
cf,
the
usually substituted in this equation.
Fig. 16.
GF^ + il
4
But
Whence
d^
four
17.
can be measured more accurately than can
terms of
in
cP
all
GB
GF = -1" =
w /37^
/3\^
^
V
I
(2)
Substituting value of d from eq. (2) in eq. (i)

(3)
By means of the optical lever. Fig. 18 and Fig. 19 rep'

two views of the optical lever resting on the curved sur
(b)
resent
28
Let the end points of the
one another.
face, at right angles to
F and D, and the
lever touch the spherical surface at
Fig. 19.
Fig. i8.
at
and H.
Let
represent the required radius of curvature of
the spherical surface,

2b, the distance
middle points
2I,
the distance between the end points,
between the two middle points.
From
and
Fig. 18,
R^'zîRACy+CD'2R-AC=2R {AB+BC)=^C''+CD''
Similarly from Fig 19
R-ABÂB'+BH'
But
AC
since
pared with
tievly to
is
and
BH
the above equations
bj
2i?
may
be written,
{AB+BC)=P
(4)
2R-AB=2R-AB=b''
and
since
CD, and AB is small coman approximately equal respec-
small compared with
BH; and CD and
AB
From
in Fig. 18, obviously equals
the theory of the optical lever,
AB
it
(5)
in Fig. 19.
has been shown (eq. 2 Ex-
periment V) that
(SS')
BC--=
and (6)
eq.
AB
and BC
(4) becomes
Substituting for
h'
Whence
R (S-S')
I
is
from
eqs. (5)
,,
Manipulation and Computation,

meter
(6)
their values obtained
(7)
(a)
When
used, observe the zero point of the spherometer
sphero-
by
plac-
ing the instrument on a sheet of plate glass and noting the read-
Measurement op Length
29
ing on the two scales when the point of the screw

tact
with the glass
plate.
Then
meter on a piece of paper or
press
tinfoil
all
is
just in con-
four points of the sphero-
and measure
by means of a
pair of sharp pointed dividers and a finely divided scale.
when
rotate the screw until
whose curvature
Now
placed upon the spherical surface
be determined, the point of the screw and
is to
the points of the three legs will
all
be in contact with the curved
Again take a reading of the two scales of the instrument.

The difference between this reading and the zero reading is h.
Substitute these values of / and h in eq. 3, and solve for R. Obtain
the mean of five values of R determined in this way from five sets
surface.
of observations.
(b)
When
the optical lever is used.
Press the end points
of the lever on a piece of paper or tinfoil and measure 2/ by
means of a
scale.
pair of sharp pointed dividers
In the same way. measure 2h.
surface, adjust a telescope
and
preceding experiment.
of R.
Compare
finely divided
measure L, and observe the
5*
and
S' exactly as described in the
Make
five
distinct sets of observations,
differences of scale readings
substitute value in eq.
scale,
and a
Place lever on the curved
(7)
and take mean
result
for the
value
the precision of the observations taken in the
two methods.
The spherometer method
is
especially useful for finding the
radius of curvature of a surface of considerable

optical lever
method
is
extent, while the
available for surfaces of limited extent
and small curvature.
VII
CORRECTION FOR ECCENTRICITY IN THE MOUNTING OF A DIVIDED CIRCLE.
Object and Theory of Experiment. Angles are often

measured by means of a divided circle and an index or vernier
attached to an arm capable of rotation about an axis passing
through the center of the circle. This method is subject to a source
of error due to the mechanical difficulty of
carrying the vernier so that
its
mounting the arm
axis of rotation accurately coin-
cides with the
normal axis of the divided
experiment
to construct a correction curve for a divided circle
is
The
circle.
object of this
having an eccentrically mounted vernier.
Let
and
be the center of the divided
circle,
two verniers
the zero points of
car-
on an arm capable of rotation about the

If the line AB passes through D
and D coincides wih C, there is no eccentricity in the mounting, and correct angular readings are obtained by means of a
single
vernier.
But in the general case
where neither of these conditions is fulfilled,
ried
point D.
correct angular readings can only be ob-
tained from simultaneous readings of the
Let
through
two verniers
A and 5
be the observed readings.
AB.
parallel to
mounting, that
If there
the points
is if
and
were no
and B.
A.^ B^
Draw
eccentricity in the
coincide
and
if
AB
passes
through D, the readings would be .4i and 5i. In other words

/4i and B-^ are the true readings corresponding to the observed
BB and AF.
AB and AC equals CB, the angle
BCA^=BCB^=ABBBAC=ACA^. Therefore
XCA^=y2(XCE+XCA)
or
A\=y2 {B+A).
readings
A and B
Since A^B^
on the divided
B^=B
of the vernier
the Hues
parallel to
is
If the divisions
in the figure,
Draw through C
i8o.
circle
be numbered as shown
Consequently the corrected reading
is
A\=y2 {B+Bi8o)
This
is
the corrected observation of the vernier giving the
(1)
numer-
ically smaller reading.
In precisely the same manner, since B.^=^'y (B-{-F) and

since B^î8o-\-A
we
obtain for the corrected reading of the
vernier B,
B\=y2 {A+B+i8o)
(2)
Weighing
This
is
31
the corrected observation of the vernier giving the numer-
ically larger reading.
In this manner, by means of two verniers,
is
obtained the
reading of either vernier corrected for eccentricity of mounting.
AND
MANIPU1.AT10N
Computation.
Starting
one
with
vernier at the zero point of the circle take observations of both

verniers.
Then move
verniers.
Repeat
cumference
is
the vernier ten degrees and again read both
at intervals of ten degrees until the entire cir-
traversed.
From
these data- compute the corrections
of the observed vernier readings.
On
of ordinates.
is
on
on the axis
cross-section paper lay off observed vernier readings
axis of abscissas and the corresponding corrections
The curve drawn through
the points thus obtained
From the form of this curve dethrough C and D are coincident, and
the correction curve required.
cide
whether the axes
whether the
line
AB
passes through D.

I
Derive the equation analogous to
graduated
circle
eq.
( i )
that applies to a
having the scale divisions numbered from the
zero point in both directions to 180"
Chapter
III.
WEIGHING, OR THE COMPARISON OF MASSES.

The mass of a body is the quantity of matter it contains in
comparison with the quantity contained in some particular body
arbitrarily
assumed
to contain the unit quantity of matter.
definition, the unit of
mass
is
taken as the mass of one
By
cubic
centimeter of water at the temperature of its maximum density.

In order to realize a practical
is called the gram.
This unit
Borda constructed a cylinder of platinum

which was intended to represent the mass of one thousand
grams. This kilogram is deposited in the Archives of Paris,
standard of mass
32
mass
definition of a
and although
its
kilogram,
constitutes the prototype standard in terms of
which
it
all scientific
slightly differs
from the
measurements of mass are made.
The weight of a body is the force with which it tends to

move toward the earth. Since the weight of a body equals the
product of
its
mass and
its
acceleration,
it
follows that so long
as the acceleration remains constant, the masses of any bodies
Consequently masses of
bodies can be compared by means of a comparison of their
weights. This method of comparing masses is called weigfhing.
are proportional to their weights.
Fig. 21.
The Balance.
In
accurate
weighing,
balance
is
used
having arms of equal length. The beam is capable of rotation

at its middle point upon a knife edge which rests upon an agate
Suspended from knife edges at the ends of the beam are
plate.
.two scale pans in which are placed the masses to be xompared.
Fastened to the beam is a long pointer which swings in front of a
graduated scale when the beam vibrates.
Weighing
The unknown masses
are
compared with standard masses
improperly
popularly through
33
called
"weights."
Ordinarily,
standard masses of one gram and upwards are made of brass,

and fractional masses are made of platinum or aluminum. As
become
lighter by abramasses are sometimes made of quartz. As very small masses are inconvenient
to use, they are usually not made of less than ten milligrams
metallic bodies are liable to gradually
sion through use and cleansing,
Instead of using smaller ones, a ten milli-
(o.oio grms.) mass.
gram mass
made
is
standard
of
aluminum
different points along the
beam
wire,
which can be placed at

by means of a
of the balance
rod extending out through the sides of the balance case.

bent wire
is
called a rider.
The beam
of the balance
This
from the
point directly above the central knife edge to the point directly
above the knife edge supporting one of the scale pans, is divided into ten equal parts. The division directly above the central
and the others are numbered in order

If now, the lo milligram
rider is placed on the beam at the point marked i, it produces
the same moment as would a mass of one milligram placed in
the scale pan
if placed at the point marked 6, the lo milligram
rider produces the same moment as would a mass of six milliknife edge
I,
is
2, 3, etc.,
marked
zero,
to the end of the arm.
grams if placed in the scale pan. Naturally a rider of any other

mass can be used if the beam be divided accordingly.
Usually
each of the numbered divisions of the balance beam is subdivided into tenths, so that by means of the lo milligram rider, differences of mass not greater than o.i milligram (o.oooi gms.) can
be directly measured and by estimating tenths of the small subdivisions of the beam, differences of mass of o.oi
milligrams
:
(o.ooooi gms.) can be measured.
In order to protect the knife edges of the balance when

not in use, and while the masses in the pans are being changed,
a balance is provided with an arrestment by which the weight of
the
beam and
of the pans can be lifted off the thin knife edges.
This arrestment
is
operated by means of a milled head protrud-
ing from the front of the base of the balance case.
FuNDAMENTAIv MEASUREMENTS
34
Precautions in the use of a Balance.

1.
Raise the arrestment whenever
masses
changed.
Never touch the standard masses with the
2.
are
to
be
use
fingers
forceps.
All substances that are liable to injure the pans must

3.
be weighed in appropriate vessels.
Never stop the swings of a balance so suddenly as to
4.
cause a jerk.
When the weighing is finished, raise the arrestment,

5.
put the standard masses in their proper places in the box, dust
off the pans and the floor of the case with a camel's hair brush,
and close the case.
Never stop the swings of a balance
4.
so suddenly as to
cause a jerk.
When
5.
the weighing
is
finished raise the arrestment, put
the standard masses in their proper places in the box, dust off the
pans and the floor of the case with a camel's hair brush, and close
the case.
VIII.
WEIGHING BY THE METHOD OF VIBRATIONS.
Object and Theory of Experiment. The object of this

is to determine the mass of a body in terms of the
masses of bodies taken as standards of mass. The zero point
experiment
of a balance
is
the point of the ivory scale at which the pointer
when
the balance is not loaded. As a rule the

not exactly at the middle of the scale. In the case
of a balance with arms of equal length, when the object to be
comes
to rest
zero point
weighed
is
is
on one pan and the standard masses on the other
are so adjusted that the pointer rests at the zero point, then the
mass of the standards.

would be extremely tedious and in fact it is quite unnecessary to wait until the pointer actually comes to rest in order
mass
of the object equals the
It
WEIGHING
35
to determine the zero point of a balance.
It is
also unnecessary
to continue the adjustment of the standards until the masses in
the
two pans are
By means
equal.
of the
method
of vibrations,
would
the point on the ivory scale at which the pointer
come
finally
to rest can be determined from the observation of a few
oscillations of the pointer.
By
the sensibility of a balance for
any given load is meant the difference in the scale reading produced by the addition of one milligram to one pan, when each
pan has acting upon it a weight equal to the given load. The
Weigh-
sensibility of a balance is different for different loads.
ing by the method of vibrations comprises three

first,
the zero point
weighed
is
is
determined;
second, the
operations
object
to be
placed on one pan and standards of mass placed upon
the other until the point of rest for the loaded balance
two or three
scale divisions of the zero point
is
within
third, a
small
added to one pan and the new point of rest determined. From the second and third operations the sensibility
determined. From the sensibility can be computed the
is
amount of mass that must be added to, or subtracted from, that
upon the mass pan in order to bring the point of rest of the
loaded balance to the zero point. This gives the relative mass
overweight
is
of the body.
The details of the maand computation will be clearly understood from

the consideration of an example. With the balance pans empty
and case closed, release the arrestment so as to cause the pointer to swing back and forth through a small arc.
It will
be
nipulation
noticed the vibration of the pointer

the period of vibration
is
is
like a
pendulum
in that
constant while the amplitude of the
Note the turning points of the

Guard against
parallax in observing the pointer.
In some balances the middle point of the scale is marked zero and the end points
lo
and -(- 10 respectively. The inconvenience of the positive and
negative sign can be obviated by mentally calling the left hand
division o, the middle division lo, and the right hand division
20.
For the determination of the zero point the following turnswings constantly diminishes.
pointer for a
number
of successive oscillations.
ing points of the pointer were observed.
36
Oscillations to the
(I)
left.
Oscillations to the right.
(2)
(4)
13-4
.13-
Weighing
it
37
follows that one milligram produces a deflection of
This number,
divisions.
the particular load on the object pan.
Since
a deflection of 2.1 scale divisions, the nun.'ber of
be taken from the mass pan
from
scale
2.1
the sensibility of the balance for
2.1, is
mg. produces
that must
mg
order to bring the point of rest
in
7.4 scale divisions to the zero point of the balance,
equals
(10.2
7.4)-^2. 1=1.3
mass of the object
in air
24.166
is
10.2
Consequently the apparent
"ig.
0.0013^24.1647 gms.
In or-
der to find the true mass of the object, this apparent mass must
be corrected for the buoyant force of the air acting on the object
and on the standards of mass.

Reduction
body immersed
to the
in air or
weight in vacuum.
any other fluid loses an amount
of weight equal to the weight of the air or other fluid displaced.
Consequently bodies of equal weight

ume, are not of equal mass. Masses
of bodies are strictly pro-
when
portional to their weights only
but of unequal vol-
in air
the weighings are either
performed in vacuum, or the weights reduced

be if the weighings had been actually made
reduction
is
to
in
what they would

vacuum. This
easily effected.
Let / represent the weight of the body in air;

sent the weight of the body in vacuum and let D, d,
;
let
p represent
respectively the density of the body, of the standard masses
the
air.
The volume
of the body
standard masses v^f^^d. The

buoyancy of the air =p Tând the
T'herefore since in
air,
V=F-^D
loss of the
[9
Now
since the density of air,
is
standard masses
= p v.
p^
=f
F
c,
the standard masses balanced the body,
.-.
c.
and of
the volume of the

loss of weight of the body by the
F p V=f pv
F
per
repre-
p^
which
p'
p'
is
about 0.0012 gms.
a very small quantity compared with
or d, the terms
38
in the
above
series containing p=
and higher powers may be negTherefore the weight
lected without affecting the result.
duced to vacuum
In the case of brass standards of mass, 1^=8.4 gms. per

since
p=D.ooi2 gms. per
F=f
re-
is
[2
the above equation
c. c.
+ 0.0012
c. c.
And
becomes
(-1 -0.12)] approx.
Explain the
I.
sibility of a
balance,
effect of the following quantities
(a)
distance between the central knife edge and

of the
on the sen-
length of beam, (b) mass of beam,
(c)
the center of gravity
beam.
IX.
WEIGHING BY THE METHOD OF GAUSS.

Object and Theory op Experiment.
There are four
cipal sources of error to be considered in
weighing.
The
are (i), a difference
bodies on the two scale pans:
in
prin-
making an accurate
density
between
the
(2), errors in the standards of
mass: (3), inequality of the lengths of the arms of the balance;

(4), inequality of the masses of the scale pans. The method of
correcting for the
section
the
first
error has been considered in the preceding
method of determining the second
is
described in the
succeeding experiment entitled Calibration of a Set of Standards

of Mass; while the method of eliminating the third and fourth
sources of error
is
the object of the
method of Gauss now
to be
considered.
In this method the object
is weighed twice by the method of

pan and then in the other. Let R and L
represent the lengths of the right and left arms of the balance
respectively, P and Q the weights of the
right and left scale
vibrations, first in one
pans respectively.
Let an object of true weight
have an appar-
Weighing
parent weight of
/'
when
when
39
placed on the right scale pan, and an ap-
parent weight of f
placed on the
the principle of moments,
left scale
pan.
Then from
{F+P)R={f+Q)L.
iF+Q)L=if'+P)R.
In the case where the balance
is
horizontal,
tions
PR=
QL;
in equilibrium
is
when
the
beam
therefore for this case, the above equa-
become
FR=fL.
(1)
FL=f'R.
Multiplying
eq. (i)
by
F=
eq.
(2)
(2).
^
body
/
(3)
That is, the true weight of the

is the geometrical mean of
the two apparent weights obtained by first weighing the body
in one scale pan and then in the other.

in the
Proceeding
exactly as
preceding experiment find the zero point of the balance.
If this
is
found to be not more than two
scale divisions
the center of the scale, then the requirement that
the
from
beam
must be horizontal when in equilibrium, is fulfilled with sufficient

employment of equation (3). Using the
method of vibrations, weigh the body first in one pan and then
in the other, thus obtaining / and f.
A more convenient form of eq. (3) can be obtained by an apcloseness to permit the
proximation so close as to be nearly always applicable, as
fol-
lows:
F=Vff =
(f+f)
- i (//- ^f')\
In the case of any balance in ordinary adjustment, / and f will

not differ by more than one thousandth of the magnitude of
Wf
Consequently the quantity yi

Vf'f is quite
compared with the quantity V2 (f -\- f). The value
of the true weight then becomes approximately equal to the arithmetical mean of the two apparent weights obtained by first
weighing the body on one scale pan -and then on the other.
either f or
/'.
negligible
That
is,
=
F = f+f
(approx.)
FuNDAMENTAi, Measureme;nts
40
Dividing eq.
I.
of the
arms
(i)
by
of the balance,
R
-77
eq. (2)
obtain the ratio of the lengths
and show that
f
= + f-^y^(approx.)
1
^4)
CALIBRATION OF A SET OF STANDARD MASSES.

fully adjusted set of standard
masses
ous members of the set be equal to

be
strictly
Only
will the
ttieir
in a
marked
value, or even
proportional to their supposed value.
quently necessary in any
accurate
most care-
masses of the vari-
work, to
It
is
compare
consetheir
masses one with another and where absolute weighings are to

be made, the masses in the set must be compared with an ultimate
standard. The object of this experiment is to compare the masses
of the various members of a set and to construct a table of correc;
tions.
The theory
sitive balance,
of the method is to compare, by means of a senmasses or groups of masses supposed to be equal,
forming frofn these results as many separate equations as there

have been weighings performed, and from these equations deducing the ratio of the masses to some convenient unit.
In this
experiment the unit of comparison will be the mass of one of the
standards in the set being calibrated. Ordinarily there must be
many
made
as
to be
compared.
the weighings
tions
but
if
separate weighings as there are standard masses

If the
may
be
arms of the balance are of equal length,

the ordinary method of vibra-
made by
the arms are not of equal length, the
method
of
double weighing must be employed.

Consider a set comprising the
following brass standard

gram, one 2 gram, one 5 gram, two 10 gram,
one 20 gram, and one 50 gram. In addition there will ordinari-
masses,
ly
three
be an equal number of fractional grams, made of aluminum or
Weighing
platinum,
of-
41
masses one hundredth of the corresponding brass
standards.
Distinguish the brass standards by the symbols
i',
i", 1'", 2'
5', 10', 10", 20', 50'.

Let the usual case be considered where the
arms of the balance are of unequal length. Perform a double
weighing with i' in one pan of the balance, and i" in the other.
Suppose that with i" in the left pan and i' in the right scale pan,
a certain small weight / must be added to the right scale pan in
order to bring the balance to its zero point
and that when the
masses are reversed, a certain small weight /' must be added to
the left scale pan in order to bring the balance to its zero point.
Then from the principle of double weighing.
:
In the same manner
is
obtained
2'=i"+i"'+%(/t-|-;j')etc.êtc.
For purposes of abbreviation, represent the quantities )4 (/+/')>

yîg+g'), y2ih+h'), etc., by A, B, C, D, etc. Obviously the
quantities A, B, C, etc., may be either additive or substractive.
Then we have the following equations

i"=i'+^.
i"'=i"+B.
2'=l"+l"'+C.
5'z=i'+i"+i"'+2'+D.
io'= i'+ 1"+ 1"'+2'+5'+.
io"=io'+P'.
20'=I0'+I0"+G.
So'= i'+ 1"+ 1"'+2'+5'+ io'+ 10' '+20'+H.
From this series of equations, the value of all the masses
set
can be determined
if
ple suppose the value of
any one of them

i' is
definitely
I'=l'.
known.
known
an ultimate standard. Then, comparing

masses with i', we have
i"=i'+^.
i"'=i'+^+5.
is
all
in
in the
For exam-
comparison with
the other standard
42
2'=2{l')+2A+B + C.
5'=S{i')+4A+2B+C+D.
iQ'=io{i')+8A+4B+2C+D+B.
io"îo{i')+8A+4B+2C+D+B+F.
2o'=2o{i')
+ i6A+8B+4C+2D+2B+F+G.
So'^So(i')+4oA+2oB+ioC+sD+4B+2F+G+H
This
is
the table of corrections required. If the absolute value
of no standard mass
is
known, then the above
value of various masses in terms of
table gives the
i'.
In precisely the same manner the masses of the
grams and of the
rider are
case of these small masses
compared with
it is
i',
fractional
except that in the
unnecessary to use the method of
double weighing even though the lengths of the two arms of the
balance are not exactly equal.
Chapter
IV.
TIME.
.
all
Instruments for the Measurement oe Time. In nearly

apparatus used for the measurement of time, the principle is em-
ployed that the period of a body vibrating with harmonic motion
is
constant.
measuring time
Examples of vibrating bodies often used for

are, the
pendulum, the "balance wheel" (which

and the tuning fork.
vibrates with circular harmonic motion),
Attached to the vibrating body is usually a mechanism called

"clock-work" for maintaining and counting the vibrations. The
vibrating body may be kept in motion by imparting to it a
slight impulse every time it passes through its position of equilibrium.
The most common laboratory instrument for the measurement of time is the clock having a pendulum which makes one
beat or half of a complete vibration every second. The error of
a clock
is
determined from the transit of a
star.
In the watch
Measurement op Time
43
and the chronometer a spring and balance wheel are used. These
instruments are employed where accuracy must be sacrificed to
portability.
They are sometimes provided with a starting and
stopping device by which the interval between two events can
The chronograph
be easily ascertained.
ment consisting
a recording instru-
is
of a cylinder carrying a sheet of paper which
revolved at a uniform rate by means
of
clockwork.
is
Resting
upon the paper are pens A and B (Fig. 22) attached to armatures actuated by electromagnets fastened to a carriage which
slides on a track parallel to the axis of the cylinder.
When the
clockwork is running, the pen traces on the paper a helical line
_J||||M""'"l!IIIMiiJJhlllJ.lJflfM^^
1.
Fig. 22.
until
an
electric current is sent
displacement of the line
is
through the electromagnet.
then produced.
A clock
dis-
pendulum can
be so connected to the circuit containing the electromagnet that

a notch will be
made
in the line
every second.
By
introducing
a telegraph key into the circuit an observer can produce, in addition, a series of
notches in the trace on the cylinder corres-
ponding to the occurrence of a series of events. The interval of

time between these events is found by comparing the distance
between these notches with the distance corresponding to one second. With this form of the chronograph it is possible to obtain
a precision of measurement of o.oi of a second.
A precision of about o.ooi of a second is possible by the
use of the tuning-fork chronograph in which the record is made
on a drum covered with smoked paper, by means of a stylus at-
44
tached to a prong of an electrically
known
period.
In this case
the trace
driven
a
is
tuning
wavy
line,
fork
of
the time
corresponding to the distance between any two crests being

known. Tlie time of the beginning and end of an event is
marked by minute holes in the blackened surface of the paper
made by
the passage of electric sparks from the stylus to

metal cylinder when a second electric circuit is completed.
the
Measuiêment oe Time. The measurement of a short intertime between two separate events would usually be made
with a stop watch or a chronograph. But for determining the
period of a regularly recurring event there are several methods
of procedure, the choice between which depends upon the magnitude of the period and the accuracy required. The most obvious
method consists simply in noting by means of a clock or stopwatch the interval of time between two recurrences of the event
and dividing this interval by the number of recurrences. For instance, the period of vibration of a body suspended by a long
wire might be found by observing the number of seconds occupied by, say, twenty passages of a mark upon the body past a
val of
This interval divided by twenty gives approximate-
fixed point.
time of oscillation or half vibration period of the body.

Naturally, a closer approximation would be obtained by taking
ly the
the
mean
of
one hundred
the period of a vibrating
oscillations.
It
should be noted that
body cannot be accurately determined
from observations of the instant of turning, as at that moment

the motion of the body is insensible for an appreciable length of
time.
The Method
of Passages
mean
is
a scheme by which the result ob-
number of oscillations is
much smaller number.
To fix the ideas take the same example above considered. Note
the time when a mark on the body passes a fixed point, and
again when it passes the same point, say, twenty oscillations
tained by taking the
of a large
obtained from the actual observation of a
later.
Suppose
15.4 seconds.
this gives
It
is
an approximate time of
evident that
if
this
looth oscillation will occur 1540 seconds after the

actually observing
all
to the observation a
oscillation of
number be
the intermediate passages,
correct, the
first.
Without
we can return
few seconds before the expiration of the
Measurement op Time
45
1540 seconds and note time of the passage that occurs nearest to
this instant.
Suppose it to be 1535 seconds, then the time of
The length of interval to be seoscillation is 15.35 seconds.
precision of the determined
fractional
lected depends upon the
approximate time of
oscillation.
must never be so great that

number of oscillations that
It
there will be any uncertainty as to the
have occurred during the interval.
The Method of Coincidences is a most accurate method for

two nearly equal periods of vibration. Supthe
of
oscillation
of a simple pendulum is to be compose
period
pared with that of a clock pendulum beating seconds. If the period of the simple pendulum is slightly greater than that of the
the comparison of
occur when each is at its lowest

on the simple pendulum until
after a certain interval it has gained a whole oscillation, when
again each is at its lowest point. Let n be the interval between
two such coincidences. Then while the seconds pendulum has
clock pendulum, a
point
made n
tions.
n-^(n
moment
will
after that the clock will gain
pendulum has made n i oscillapendulum is
oscillations, the simple
Whence
the time of oscillation of the simple
i) seconds.
Similarly
if
the period of the simple
pendulum
is
less
than
two coincidences the clock will have made n and

the simple pendulum n-\-i oscillations. That
that of the clock peijciulum, between
is,
the
simple
time of oscillation of the
pendulum
is,
w-=-(n+i)
in this case,
sec-
onds.
One method
of determining the instant
of coincidence employs an electric circuit
containing the two pendulums,
and
a telegraph
shown
lums
sounder
When
in Fig. 23.
are
in
all
coincidence
the
same
instant.
At
er will remain silent.
Fig. 23.
two successive
clicks
battery,
series
will
and
this instant the
The
is
as
two pendu-
they
through the mercury contacts

the
a
in
interval
pass
at
sound-
between
n in the above ex-
pressions for the time of oscillation.
FuNDAMENTAI< MEASUREMENTS
46
XI.
STUDY OF FALLING BODIES.

to fall freely
under the action of gravity,
it
If a body be allowed
would be expected that
some function of the distance passed

through. That is < oi t^ where s, represents the distance passed
through, t, the time of fall, and
If no other
j3
a constant.
variable factor enters, then it may be assumed provisionally
that the law of falling bodies is expressible by the equation
thq.time of falling would be
S ^^
where k and
termined.
whose values are yet
are constants
/8
The
iC
object of this experiment
the relation between the distance a
body
is
\\
to be de-
to ascertain whether
falls
and the time occu-
pied in falling this distance can be expressed by an equation of

the above form, and
if it
can be so
expressed, to determine the
numerical value of the two constants.

If the distance,
body
in the times
t^,
s^,
t^,
s^,
t^,
passed over by a freely falling
s^,
etc.,
be measured, then
we
will
have
etc.
01,
Si
h^
_L.-=1L_
S2
f
S,
Jl!_
i/
_ li-
S3
etc
Putting these equations into the logarithmic form,

log
Si
log- S2
log
log
s,
S3
=
=
p\ (log-
<,
(log
?2
/3|
log
log
t^)
ts)
etc,
in
which P\
denotes the value of
expressing the ratio of s^ to s^.
)3
derived from the equation
Measurement of Time
If
iî
on solving the above
= ^1 = etc.,
47
series of equations,
found that
it is
within the limits of accuracy of the experiment,
then the assumed equation
(i) is verified,
and the mean
of the
values of /8^=j8f = etc., is the value of P in the equation originalnowr be

ly assumed.The numerical value of k can
obtained
from the original equation on the substitution
in
of the value
it
already determinated, together with observed values of s and
of
/8
tj
obtained from any single experiment.
by substituting in
( i )
The
equation obtained
the numerical values of k and
ft
is
called
an
empirical or experimental formula, the verbal statement of which

constitutes the fundamental law of falling bodies.
ManipuIvATion and Computation. In the apparatus used

experiment the falling body is a metal sphere A (Kig. 24)
which is pressed against the end of a longitudinally split brass
tube BB' by means of the wooden rod C and spiral spring B.
The rod C fits into a hole in the falling body with sufficient friction to support the body, and yet with not too much to be easily
withdrawn by a jerk on the cord X. P and G are two flat metal
springs which press against the supporting rod C. At D on the
.
in this
supporting rod
which
sleeve
a metal
is
metallically
connects these two springs
when the rod
is withdrawn
from thehole in the falling
body.
is an electric bat-
tery,
the electromagnet
of a
chronograph,
small
hinged
door
which
is
trap
kept
contract with
in
of the weight
metallic
by means
until the
impact of the falling body.
These various parts of the

Fig. 24.
apparatus
are
connected
by
shown
When
the falling
body
is
electrically
wires
pressed against the end of the
tube BB', the electric current
follows
as
in diagram.
the
route
split
HB'ABKH.
48
The electromagnet
current and the
pulled, the rod
of the chronograph
stylus
is
is
is
now
When
displaced.
actuated by the
the
string
is
in the falling body,
withdrawn from the hole
and the latter drops, breaking the electric circuit at BB'. This
breaking of the electric circuit allows the stylus of the chronograph to return to its normal position, thus producing a sudden displacement of the line being drawn on the cylinder at the
moment the falling body starts to fall. But when the metallic
sleeve
FG,
reaches
the electric circuit
current following the route

stylus. to
ord Hne.
fall
again complete, the
This causes the
be again drawn to one side, making a notch in the recOn the impact of the falling body on the trap door,
the electric circuit
ment
is
HGDfLMKH.
broken at
is
LM. and
chronograph record
in the
of the body
is
line is
a third sudden displace-
produced.
The time of
then equal to the time occupied Ly the chrono-
moving through an arc equal to the distance between

By this
the first and third displacements of the record line.
means, knowing the rate of the chronograph, the time occupied
by the body in its fall is accurately determined. The length of
the fall is the distance from the bottom of the body, to the top
of the trap door when the body is supported against BB' and the
graph
in
trap door
Make
is
closed.
three determinations of the time of
three different lengths of
proximately
1.5,
and
finally,
j8,
fall
for each of
These distances should be
2 and 3 meters.
tain the values of k
equation and
fall.
From
ap-
these observations ob-
substitute these values in the original
give a clear statement of the law of falling
bodies expressed analytically by the resulting empirical formula.

I.
Plot a curve having times of
responding lengths of
fall
fall
for ordinates.
for abscissas
From
this
and cor-
curve find
graphically the velocity of the body at various instants of time

and from these values deduce the magnitude of the acceleration
of the body's motion.
Vei<ocity
and AcceI/ERATion
Chapter
49
V.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION.

XIL
DETERMINATION OF THE CHANGE OF SPEED OF A

FLYWHEEL DURING A REVOLUTION.
as
Object and Theory of Experiment. For many purposes,

when used to drive electrical machinery, it is necessary that
throughout a revolution the angular speed of a flywheel shall be

The object of this experiment is to determine
nearly constant.
the angular speed and the acceleration of a flywheel at different

parts of
its
revolution.
Attach to the same shaft with the flywheel a brass disc in

the edge of which 36 slots of equal width have been cut and then
filled flush with the edge with pieces of hard
rubber. If now
one terminal of an electric circuit including an electric chronograph be pressed against the edge of the disc, and the other
against the revolving shaft, .then during each revolution of the
flywheel the electric circuit through the chronograph will be
made and broken 36 times. That is, at every 10 rotation of
the flywheel a break is made in the record line on the chronograph drum. If- the flywheel revolves through equal angles in
equal times, the length of the notches in the record line will be
equal.
Any irregularity of motion is thus rendered apparent.
Plat
a curve with in-
between any selected notch and each succeeding

notch as abscissas, and the corresponding angles of rotation as
If the angular speed of the flywheel is uniform this
ordinates.
curve will be a straight line.
If a straight line be drawn tangent to this curve at a point corresponding to any particular time, the speed of the flywheel at
that instant equals the tangent of the angle between this tanIn this manner compute
gent line and the axis of abscissas.
tervals of time
FuNDAMIINTAIv MEASUREMENTS
50
the speed of the flywheel at points 20 apart throughout an en-
Construct a second curve
revolution.
tire
as abscissas
and speeds
drawn tangent
to this second curve at a
any particular time,
corresponding to
point
times
as ordinates.
a straight line be
If
by plotting
acceleration
the
of the flywheel at that instant equals the tangent of the angle
between
this
Construct
tangent line and the axis of abscissas.
a third curve by plotting times as abscissas and accelerations as

ordinates.
XIII.
DETERMINATION OF THE SPEED OF A PROJECTILE

BY THE BALLISTIC PENDULUM.
experiment
or
The
object of this
determine the speed of a bullet from an air gun
is to
rifle.
Newton proved
impact
is
two bodies
after
directly proportional to the relative speed of the
same
that the relative speed of
bodies before impact.

of bodies
is
Also, the
sum
of the
momenta
of a system
constant.
Imagine a projectile of mass m and speed v to strike a body

and speed u and that after the impact the speeds are
1/ and u' respectively.
Then before impact the relative speed of
the two bodies is {v u), and after impact it is {u' v').
It follows, then, from the preceding paragraph that
of mass
u'
=
w'
{v
u)
(1)
mv-{-Mu=mv'-\-Mu'
where
(2)
If the bodies
which
were
they were perfectly inelastic
eô.
^ is a constant called the Coefficient of Restitution
depends upon the
elasticity
perfectly elastic e=:i,
Combining (i) and

V
This experiment
and
if
of the bodies.
(2).
v'
(M+m) \-Me
(v
u) Mu
,^^
(i)
m
is
much
simplified
by arranging
it
so that the
Velocity and AccuIvEration

initial
speed of the large mass
pact the
two masses
u)=o.
move
will
51
u=o,, and so that after the im-
is
together giving v'=u', that
is,
In this case the two bodies act like inelastic bodies.

The above equation is now reduced to the form
e (v
,,
The
"'
+m
(M
conditions necessary to fulfill the requirements of this

equation are met by the use of the ballistic
pendulum.
This consists, (Fig. 25) of

wood suspended by
wires so that it can swing freely about c
simply a block of
as a center.
On
the impact of the bullet,
pendulum will be deflected through

an angle
and its center of inertia will
the
be elevated through a distance
h.
Now
body may be raised against

gravity through a distance h, an initial
speed must be given to the body
Fig. 25.
v' =-V 2yh; and this speed is the same
whether the body moves vertically, in the arc of a circle with c
as a center, or in any other direction. Substituting this value of
in order that a
1/ in eq. (4)
of impact,
we
obtain for the speed of the bullet at the
-\-
2gh
moment
(5)
Since the equations derived in this discussion are simply deductions from the laws of motion, they must be true independently
of the amount of kinetic energy transformed into heat by the impact.
In setting up the appathat

the
line
of flight of the bullet
must
be
exercised
ratus care
horizontal
direction
normal,
to the axis of rotashall be in the
through
the center of perpendulum
which
passes
tion of the
cussion of the pendulum. The center of percussion is situated
at a distance from the axis of rotation of the ballistic pendulum
equal "to the length of the equivalent simple pendulum. In
case the pendulum bob is supported by light wires and if its
mass is uniformly distributed about a horizontal axis, then the
52
considered to be situated on this

axis.
In this event the axis of the gun and the geometrical
axis of the pendulum bob should be in the same straight line.
center of percussion
The angle
may be
through which the pendulum moves
on a graduated arc by a small index.
axis of rotation to the center of percussion of the
denoted by
I,
then /i=/
(i
is
registered
If the distance from the
pendulum
be
cos. Q )
weighed before and after the bulMeasure / with a meter stick and observe d
I.
Prove that during the impact of the bullet and pendulum bob of the preceding experiment there is a loss of kinetic
The pendulum bob
let is firfed into
is
to be
it.
energy equal to
Mv'
lii+M
'in
y^
2.
Show
that
if
the horizontal displacement of the
pendulum
hydthenh= l VP d'-
Decide which sign before the radical must be chosen and show how the apparatus can
bob be denoted
be modified so as to measure
3.
Show how
d.
the coefficient of restitution of a material can
be determined by means of the
ballistic
pendulum.
XIV
THE ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY BY MEANS OF A

PENDULUM.
Object and Theory
oif
Experiment.
The
object of this
measure the length and time of oscillation of a

pendulum and from these values to compute the magnitude of the
acceleration of gravity at the locality where the experiment is performed. The length is to be measured with a cathetometer and
the time of oscillation bv the method of coincidences.
experiment
is
to
and Acceleration
Vei-ocity
53
Imagine a pendulum consisting of a heavy particle on the

end of a flexible thread of length /, to be displaced
from the position AB to the position AB. Let the
BAB be denoted by d. and the

BB by d. In the diagram, let
angular displacement
linear displacement
the line
BD,
represent in direction and magnitude
BC
the acceleration of gravity g; then the line

will represent the acceleration of the pendulum's
motion in the direction of

acceleration
by
its
path.
Denoting
this
a ^= g sin e.
If the displacement
Fig. 26.
From
is
small
smd =
&
approximately,
so that
this equation
= gQ= g-^
it is
the motion of a pendulum
is
(1)
seen that for a small displacement
such that the acceleration equals a

Consequently for a small dis-
constant times the displacement.
placement the motion of a pendulum
is
simple harmonic.
But the
acceleration of a simple harmonic motion
when d
is
is
(2)
its
position of equi-
the period of a complete vibration. Consequently,
eqs. (i)
and (2)
9
If /
-^TT-
the displacement of the body from
librium and
combining
=Kt)
^-
(3)
be the time of oscillation or half a complete vibration

g
=i^)
I-
(4)
This equation holds only for the case of a pendulum having its entire mass concentrated at a point on the end of a perfectly flexible suspension vibrating through a very small arc.
These conditions can be sufficiently realized to give a result correct to a very close approximation, by causing a pendulum consisting of a spherical bob not more than two centimeters diameter suspended by a very thin wire from a small balanced knife
edge resting on a hard plane surface, to vibrate through an
angle not exceeding three or four degrees. The length of the
54
pendulum
is
the distance from the knife edge to the center of
the spherical bob.
Manipui,ation and Computation. In finding the period

pendulum by the method of coincidences, the time of coincidence can be observed either by
the electric method described on page 45, or by the optical method
used by Borda.
of oscillation of the experimental
In the appartus used for Borda's method, (Fig. 27) the exis suspended directly in front of a clock
perimental pendulum
pendulum.
Between the two pendulums
is
taining
a screen, C, conslit. Attach-
vertical
ed to the bob of the clock pendulum is a small concave mirror which produces an image
of a portion of the filament of
an incandescent lamp placed at

one side of the two pendulums.
This image is viewed with
a
telescope placed at a distance of
more from the
a meter or
When
clock.
the axis of the telescope,
the points of support of the two

pendulums, the slit in the screen
C, anrl the
light are
flash
will
beam
reflected
all
in
be
of
one plane, then a

seen
in
the
tele-
scope every time the clock pendulum passes its lowest point,
except
when
the
two pendulums
are in coincidence.
To
make
this
adjustmeni,
draw the experimental pendulum to one side, and looking

through the
in
slit
perpendicular
the direction
the
screen,
the incandescent lamp una bright line of light fills the
to
move
til
FiG. 27.
slit
every time the clock pendu-
Velocity and Acceleration

lum
Then
passes.
55
place the telescope in such' a position that
while the experimental pendulum
is
deflected, a bright flash of
pendulum passes the slit, but

when the experimental pendulum is allowed to hang freely no
light is seen every time the clock
flash is seen.
In order that the flash may be bright, the slit must be much
wider than the wire supporting the pendulum bob. This requires
that in order that the eclipse may be total, the wire must be enlarged to the width of the slit.This
around the supporting wire a

site
the
is
accomplished by wrapping
light paper cylinder directly oppo-
slit.
When
the apparatus is in adjustment the observer is to

observe the times- of a series of coincidences. As the clock face
cannot be seen when the eye is at the telescope watching for
the eclipse, the following device can be resorted to. Note the clock
time in hours, minutes and seconds,- and then while mentally

counting clock beats place the eye at the telescope. Continue
thus counting seconds until an eclipse occurs.
The number
of
seconds counted added to the time before noted, gives the time
of the
first
coincidence.
Before another coincidence
is
expected,
again note the clock time, then continue to count seconds until
the next coincidence occurs. In this manner obtain at least
five values for the interval
The mean
between
of these five values
is
successive
the value of
coincidences.
n to be used
in the
computation as explained on page 45.

Of course the interval between two coincidences can be determined without noting the clock time by keeping the eye
steadily at the telescope, waiting for an eclipse and then counting clock beats until the next eclipse. This method is more fatiguing than the preceding method of observation but- is often
used when the interval
is
not too long.
When
the period of the two pendulums is almost the same,

they may remain so nearly in coincidence that for several seconds no flash will be seen. In this event, the time of coincidence is the mean of the time of the beginning and the time of
the end of the eclipse.
By counting the number of beats made by the experimental

pendulum in a given interval of time it can be determined which
pendulum has the longer period.
56
Mount a cathetometer on a stand in front of the experimental pendulum, make the adjustments described on page 17,
and measure the distance from the knife edge to the top of the
Measure the diameter of the bob and so determine the length of the pendulum. Repeat observations for the
length and take the mean for the value of / to be used in eq. 4.
pendulum bob.
Chapter VI.
MEASUREMENT OF AREA AND VOLUME.

AREA.
The
area of a plane figure can be determined (a) by dividing
the figure
by straight
arately computed, (b)
whose area can be
sep-
cutting the figure out of cardboard
and
lines into sections
by
area of the same
mass with the mass of a known

means of Amsler's Polar Planimeter.
The last method is the most exact and expeditions and
the one usually employed in physics and engineering.
comparing
its
material (c) by
is
XV.
DETERMINATION OF THE AREA OF A PLANE

FIGURE WITH THE PLANIMETER.
Object and Theory op Experiment. ^The object of this

experiment is to study the theory and use of the planimeter and
with it to measure the area of an irregular plane curve.
Amsler's polar planimeter (Fig. 28) consists of two arms AC
and BC jointed at C. The point B is fixed while the point A is
carried around the boundary of the figure in the direction of the
hands of a watch. Attached to the arm
is a small roller which
rests upon the same plane that contains the figure whose area is
to be determined. The axis of the roller is in the line AC. As the
point
passes over the boundary of the figure, the roller
will
is entirely in the direction of
rotate unless the motion of
in this latter case the roller will slide.
It will now be proved that
when the point
circumscribes a closed plane figure, the circumference of the roller will rotate a distance proportional to the area
circumscribed by the point A.
AC
D
AC
Area and Volume

V
57
_B
Fig. 28.
L,et
BCA
represent
the
planimeter
ECA'
in
one position and
the planimeter in another posi-
Draw EB and ID normal to

Draw HD' normal to ID: also
draw EA, ED and ED'.
If now the instrument start from
the position ECA, and rotate about E
as a center through a small angle A 6
tion.
AC:
into the
DD'.
While the
roller
slides for a distance
new
position EC'A'^ kefping
ECA
the
angle
will
move through
moves through
HD' and
rolls
constant,
the
this small distance
through the distance
in
This value of
DH will
DD',
it
DH. The
arc through which the circumference of the roller rotates
DH=DD'cos. HDD'.
roller
the small distance
is
then
now be determined
terms of the angle through which the instrument has been
rotated and the dimensions of the instrument.
Since A e
is small,
DH =
Therefore
But since HD
mal arc DD'
angle
A 9
is
is
DD'
YfT
AO ED
s" tât
cos
DD'
A9
ED.
HDD'
normal to AC by construction, and the infinitesinormal to ED, the angle HDD' equals the
BDB.
Sothat,
DH = Ae ED cosBDE
(1)
FUNDAMENTAI< MEASUREMENTS
58
When BDE
The
circle
as center
is
is
BDB=o,
a right angle, cos.
generated by the tracing point
is
and then
"datum"
DH=o.
B
about the pole point
the roller does not rotate, and so
when
called the "zero" or
When BDB
makes no
record,
circle.
not a right angle, then
BD = ^Q
DH= Ae ED -g^
BD
ACB DC
But
BD=BCDC=BC
And
AB^=AO-\-BC''2AC.
cos
DH= Ae
which
is
cos.
since in the triangle
BC
(2J
BAC,
cos.
ACB we
have
ECÂE'
AC E = AC' +2 AC
EC
B 2) = Aef EC
AC^+EC'AE^
DC~\
2 AC
EC
(3)
the value of the roller reading in terms of the dimensions
of the instrument and the angle through which the instrument has
been turned, for the special case where the angle between the two
arms of the instrument remains constant throughout the movement.
Consider two arcs of circles
AA"
and A' A'" having the pole

5 as a center, cut by
radii AB and A"'E.
Let
point
the
tracing
planimeter
to A'
point
be
of
then the record
wheel will move from
D' while a point in

cumference
be
let
to
its cir-.
rotate
will
DH.
through the distance

Again,
the
moved from
the tracing point
moved from A"
to A'"
causing the record wheel

to
move from D"
while a point on
its
to
D'"
circum-
ference will rotate through

the distance D''H'.
the
construction of the diagram
it
is
From
evident that the figure
and Volume
Ari;a
EA'ADD'E
DH equals
is identical
D"H'.
59
BA"'A"D" D"'B,
with the figure
Therefore, while the tracing point passes over
the portion of any radius intercepted between the
having the pole point

through the same arc.
cles
Now
so that
same two
cir-
as a center, the record roller will turn
KLMN,
consider any irregular figure
not enclosing the
number
pole point, to be cut into a large
of infinitely narrow strips by a series of

circles
having
for the center.
Let these
circular strips be cut into indefinitely small
quadrangular areas by
Thus
large
radii
the entire figure
number
drawn from E.
divided into a
is
of infinitesimal areas.
the preceding paragraphs
it is
From
seen that
if
the tracing point traverses one of these
elemental areas, as abb'a', the roller read-
ing
made while
tracing the path bb' will be
exactly neutralized
Fig. 31.
when
So that the
traced.
which the record
the path a'a

arc
entire
roller will
is
through
turn while the
tracing point circumscribes the elemental area abb'a' will be, from
eq- (3)-
rJC^ + ECÂe 2
-Ae
AC
'I
Ae
Now
-DC']
AC
-aE'a'E^
A C
the area of the tra,ngle abE

i(ab) (aE)
iA e (aEy
of the triangle a' b'E=i{a'f^')(a' E)=iAB (a' E)'
and the area
Consequently, the total roller reading produced while abb'a'

traversed equals
"-
is
,^
Area
{ahb'a')
Jc
.
By
applying this method to
succession, the conclusion
is
all
of the infinitesimal areas in
reached that, the
figure circumscribed by the tracing point
is
total
area of the
proportional to
the
arc through which the record roller has turned.
In Fig. 31,
let
QP
be an arc of the zero or datum
circle.
Then
6o
the tracing point traverse the area a'b'b"a" the roller will not
record while the line b"a" is being traversed and the record made
if
and opposite to that made in tracConsequently the arc through which the roller has
in tracing out a" a' will be equal
ing out b'b".
turned while the tracing point has traversed a'V
is
proportional to
Extending this reasoning to the whole area

KLMN, the arc through which the roller has turned while the
tracing point has traversed the circumference of the area from
the area a'b'b"a".
X" to Z, to
traversed
QKLMP ;
proportional to the area
is
through which the
M-N-K
roller
is
while the arc
has turned while the tracing point has
QKNMP- And
since the roller revolves in opposite directions while the tracing
point
is
traversing the paths
ment of the
the areas
KLM and MNK, the resultant move-
roller will be proportional to the difference
QKLMP
and
QKNMP,
that
is,
between
to the area of the figure
KLMN.
In precisely the same manner
figure
is
may
it
cut by the zero circle, or
when
be shown that
it
when
the
situated inside the
is
zero circle but does not enclose the pole point, that the arc through
which the record roller turns when the tracing point is passed
around the circumference of a figure, is proportional to the area
of the figure.
If,
howe-^r, the figure encloses the pole point the above law
requires modification.
There are two cases;
circle is
X^
\.^
w-
when
~i
*,
'
the figure
In the
''
first
the zero circle,

?
first,
when
the zero
enclosed by the figure ,and second,

is
enclosed by the zero circle.
case where the figure encloses

it is
clear
from what precedes
that as the tracing point passes over the small
move
distance
TU,
through
an
arc
RTUS.
And on
tracing out the circumfer-
the
record
roller
will
FiG. 32.
will
gjice
move through an
tween the zero
circle
of the entire figure, the record roller
arc proportional to the area included be-
and the boundary of the
figure.
Conse-
quently in this case, the area of the figure equals the sum of the
from the planimeter
area of the zero circle and the area computed
reading.
Area and VoIvUme
6i
In the second case where the figure encloses the pole
and
is
enclosed by the zero
obvious
circle, it is
point
that
as the tracing point passes over the small distance

///,
the record roller will
move through an
And
portional to the area rsut.
pro-
in tracing out the
entire figure, the record roller will
^^'
arc
move through
an arc proportional to the area included between the

zero circle and the boundary of the figure. Conse-
quently in this case, the area of the figure equals the area of the
zero circle diminished by the area computed from the planimeter
reading.
In conclusion,
it
has
now been shown
that
when
the figure
iWfiose area is to be determined does not enclose the pole point,
then the arc through which the roller has been turned while the
tracing point has circumscribed the figure
area of the figure.
But
if the figure
proportional to the
is
does enclose the pole point
must be modified in the manner shown.

MANIPUI.ATI0N AND COMPUTATION. The numbered divisions
on the edge of the roller are sub-divided into tenths which by
means of the vernier V can be farther sub-divided into hundredths.
The counting wheel B indicates the whole number of revolutions
of the roller.
When constructed to measure areas in square
this lazv
inches, the dimensions of the instrument are so
when
the tracing point has
selected
that
circumscribed a square inch the
record roller has rotated through an arc equal to one of the
numbered
To
divisions
on
edge.
its
find the area of a plane figure fix the pole
point
any-
where outside the figure, and with the tracing point at a marked
point on the curve read the scale of the planimeter, including
Now moving the tracing
roller, vernier and counting wheel.
point in the clockwise direction, carefully follow the periphery
of the figure until the
mark
of the scale as before.
If
structed, the difference
is
again reached.
the
instrument
is
Take
the reading
"accurately
between the two readings
is
con-
numerically
equal to the area of the figure.

In case the figure
is
so large that
it
cannot be circumscribed
by the tracing point unless the pole point is fixed inside the figure, then as seen from the theory of the instrument, the area of
62
sum of the area of the zero circle of the

instrument and the area obtained from the planimeter reading.
When using a planimeter for the first time it must be tested
the figure equals the
This is done by comfor the correctness of its indications.

paring the value of the area of some regular figure obtained
with the planimeter, and by computation from the dimensions of
planimeters must be multiplied
The reading of most
the figure.
by a correction factor
order to give true results.

The student will determine the correction factor
in
of
the
planimeter furnished, by comparing the value of the area of a

carefully
drawn
circle
or rectangle, obtained from planimeter
readings with the value obtained by computation.
The area
is
now
of an irregular figure furnished
by the instructor
to be determined.
In case the figure
is
so large that the area of the zero circle
of the planimeter must be known, this area can

the following manner.
With
the point of
draw two concentric
straight line,
semicircles.
be obtained
compass on
Make
dius of one arc about half the length of the planimeter
and the other about one and a

first
arc will
half times the length of
inside the zero circle,
lie
side the zero circle.
and the second
in
the ra-
arm BC,
BC. The
will lie out-
Place the pole point of the planimeter at
the center of the two arcs, and trace successively the periphery
of the two arcs.
semicircle,
ing readings on the record

circle r.
Then from
The mean
A^
and Bj and B2 the correspond-
Call A.^ the area of the smaller semicircle,
the area of the outer
î
"^
Bi
or
Jj
^+5j
or
of the
zero
Call the radius of the zero
roller.
the theory previously developed,
two values
of
ir
TT
r^
-.rr^
r^ is
=2
Ui-l-5i)
=2{A^B,).
the required area of the
circle.
QR,
Fig. 34, were circumscribed

arrows by the tracing point of
a planimeter, the roller reading would be proportional
In case the curve
in the direction of the
Fig. 34.
to
what area?
Area and Volume
63
VOLUME.
The volume
of a body of simple geometrical shape can he

determined directly by computation from its linear dimensions.
The volume of a body of irregular shape, however, must be determined indirectly.
There are four methods in common use
for the determination of the
volume
of an irregular solid.
In the case of an homogeneous body, the volume can be

obtained by comparing the mass of the body with the mass of
volume of
The volume
a unit
the material of which
composed.
it is
of an irregular solid can also be determined by
an application of Archimedes' principle that when a body is immersed in a liquid it loses in weight an amount equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced.
The volume can

of the
volume
also be determined
of liquid displaced
when
from an observation
body is introduced
the
into a vessel filled with liquid.
Finally by an application of Boyle's law, the volume of a

body can be determined from an observation of the difiference
between the change of air pressure in a closed vessel produced

by altering its volume by a definite amount, first, when empty
and second, when it contains the solid body.
The
selection of the particular
method best
suited
to
given case depends upon the nature of the body under investigation,
The theory anc
and on the degree of accuracy required.
operation of these methods
is
given
in the
succeeding exercise.
XVL
CALIBRATION OF A BURETTE.
Object and Theory op Experiment. A burette is a graduated vertical glass tube used for discharging known small volumes of liquids. The object of this experiment is to test the
accuracy of the graduations of a burette
and
to
construct
table of corrections for use with the instrument.
By
means of
elastic
bands attach to the burette on the side opposite the graduations

a strip of glass mirror in such a manner that on looking through
the burette the reflection of the graduations
is
seen in the mir-
64
ror.
with mercury up to the highest numbered

discharge mercury from the burette into a small
Fill the burette
Now
division.
tared beaker until the horizontal tangent to the mercury

iscus
is
opposite the next lower numbered
beaker and
its
contents.
division.
Discharge more mercury
beaker until the horizontal tangent to the meniscus
men-
Weigh
is
into
the
the
opposite
Again weigh beaker and

contents.
Continue thus until the mass of mercury cor res-,
ponding to each numbered space has been determined. In orthe next lower
numbered
division.
der to avoid the error of parallax
when taking
a reading of the
position of the mercury meniscus, the line of sight
the plane tangent to the mensicus and
its
image
must be in
by the
reflected
mirror.
Knowing
that at 20"
one
c.c.
of mercury weighs 13.546
gms., the volume between any two division lines can be at once
computed.
From
this series of values construct
a table of cor-
rections for the burette.
XVII:
DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF A SOLID BY

IMMERSION.
Object and Theory of Experiment. Since a solid body

immersed in a liquid is acted upon by an upthrust equal to the
weight of liquid displaced by the body, and since the volume of
liquid displaced equals the volume of the body, if the mass of
unit volume of the liquid is known and the magnitude of the
upthrust be measured, the volume of the body can be at once
calculated. The volume of the displaced liquid, i. e., the volume
of the solid body, is obviously equal to the
apparent loss of
weight of the body when immersed in the liquid divided by the
weight of unit volume of the liquid.
The object of this experiment is to determine the volume
of a solid body of irregular shape by the method of immersion.
Manipuiâtion and Computation. The liquid in which

is immersed must be one which will neither dissolve
the body nor act upon it chemically, nor cause it to change its
the body
Area and Voi<ume

Whenever
volume.
possible water
is
freed of dissolved gases by boiling.
65
which
used
has been
If the liquid contains dis-
solved gases, bubbles will collect on the immersed body causing

an increased upward thrust and thereby an error in the result.
Water should be boiled for about half an hour and then cooled
to the temperature at which the experiment is performed. As
water slowly dissolves air, it must be boiled during the same day
it is
used.
In the case of a body heavier than the liquid in which
it is
body by a fine wire from the end of

one arm of a balance and find its weight W. Then weigh again
while immersed in a liquid contained in a beaker supported on a
to be immersed, suspend the
Be
platform overspanning the scale pan.
careful that neither the
beaker nor the platform comes into contact with either the
ance or the suspended body.
weight
W,
If the
bal-
body when immersed have a
then the upthrust of the liquid
is
{W W).
Conse-
quently the volume of the body
W W
OT,
(1)
where
is
the weight of unit
perature of the experiment,
and
the
mass of
unit
nii,
volume of the liquid at the temthe mass of the displaced liquid,
volume of the
liquid at the temperature of
the experiment.
In the case of a body lighter than the liquid in which
it is
must be attached to the body. Three

of the body in air
weighings must be made. Find the weight
Then fasten
fî, the weight of the sinker immersed in the liquid.
the sinker to the body and find W^, the weight of the two toto be immersed, a sinker
gether when immersed. Then if the weight of the sinker in air

be denoted by W^, the weight of liquid displaced by the sinker
alone is {W^
^1). and the weight of liquid displaced by both
body and sinker is (W-j-W^ fâ)- Consequently the weight of
liquid displaced
by the body alone
is
Therefore, if the mass of unit volume of the liquid be denoted by

8 then the volume of the displaced liquid, or the volume of the
body
66
XVIII
DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF A SOLID

WITH A PYKNOMETER.
experiment
is
stance in such a fine state
would be
The
object of this
volume of a mass of a solid subof division that the immersion method
to determine the
inapplicable.
If the
body
is
unaffected by water, alcohol, turpentine or any
volume can be easily determined with

pyknometer consists essentially of a
of constant volume. Various forms are shown in Figs.
other convenient liquid,
its
the aid of a pyknometer.

glass vessel
35-38.
Fig. 35.
Fig.
2,^
Fig. 36.
used for either liquids or
shown
Fig. 37.
Fig. 38.
can be used only for liquids while the others can be

solids.
The most common form
is
that
in Fig. 37, consisting of a small bottle fitted with a perfor-
ated glass stopper that always comes accurately to a seat at the

same point, so that the volume of the bottle is definite when the
Area and Volume;

stopper
is
This form
in place.
is
67
often called a specific gravity
bottle.
In this determination four weighings are necessary.
empty pyknometer;
the
filled
Dry
call its
Weigh
mass M.
with recently boiled water or other liquid
Weigh
the pyknometer
call this
mass M'.
the pyknometer, introduce the specimen and weigh again
call this
mass (M-{-ni).
Fill the
remainder of the space with water
mass M". The differpyknometer and the

mass of liquid at the time of the second weighing, that is, the mass
of liquid displaced by the
introduction of the specimen is
{iii-\-M'
M"). Whence the volume of the specimen is
or other liquid and weigh again;

ence between the mass of liquid
call this
now
in the
where
8 is the
= m+M'M"
,,-
mass of unit volume of the
(>-)
liquid at the tempera-
ture of the experiment.
is
If the masses are taken in grams, and if the liquid employed

water at ordinary room temperature, then since one gram of
the water occupies approximately one cubic centimeter, the vol-
ume
of the specimen
i>z=
is
M")
(m-\-M'
cubic centimeters, (approx.)
Make
all
(2)
weighings by
When filled with liquids, as in the secthe method of vibration.

ond and fourth weighings, be certain that no air bubbles are
present, that the outside of pyknometer is dry, and that the stopper is in place. In order to avoid changes in volume due to
changes of temperature, avoid touching the
filled bottle
with the
bare hand.
XIX.
DETERMINATION OF THE VOLUME OF A SOLID

BODY BY THE VOLUMENOMETER.
Object and Theory of Experiment. The volume of a

alters its condition when immersed in a liquid can
The object of
not be determined by the preceding methods,
body which
68
experiment is to determine the volume of

which is affected by ordinary liquids.
this
is
solid
body
In the use of the volumenometer or stereometer, application

of Boyle's law that when the temperature remains con-
made
stant, the
gas
is
product of the pressure and the volume of a perfect

A convenient form of volumenometer con-
constant.
sists (Fig.. 39)
AB
of a vertical glass tube
ground
the lower end with
the upper end with a
fitted at
glass stopper
S and
at
a flexible rubber tube attached to a
second glass tube

in the vertical
movement
capable of
direction in. front of a
on mirror glass. In the tube

two points made of colored
enamel, and also a glass capsule to
scale ruled
AB
are
The rubber tube
hold the specimen.
and the lower portions
of
the
two
glass tubes are filled with mercury.
The volume
of the space above the
point A, and the volume of the space be-
tween
and B, must
first
be determined.
Denote the former volume by Vj and the

latter volume by V^.
With the stopper
removed, adjust the height of
mercury
When
in
AB
in
just together.
the reading
until the
AB
is at
height of the mercury in C.

h.
A.
and its
the mercury surface come
Clamp
the tube C, take
of the level of the
mercury:
5 and lower C
Again observe the
then replace the stopper
meniscus in
two readings
until the
this is the case, the point
image seen
Fig. 39.
just touches the point
Then
if
the point B.
Call the
the
difference between
barometric
height be
these
H, from
Boyle's law
VH=iV+V^) (Hh)
Vh
Vi =
{H-h)
or
(1)
Area and Vor,UME
Now
69
bring the meniscus back to A, remove the stopper S,
introduce into the capsule a body of l<nown volume V^, replace the
mercury column, lower C until the

and again observe height of mercury
column. Call the difference between these two observed heights
h^.
Then form Boyle's law,
stopper, observe the height of
meniscus in
AB
point
is at
iV-V,)HîV-V,+ V,) (H-h,)
(2)
Combining (i) and (2) we obtain for the volume

space above the point
The volume
and
is
of
the
A
_ V,h, {H -h)
- H (/h h)
of the space
V-^
(3)
included between the two points
obtained by substituting the value of V, already deter-
mined, in eq.
i )
body of known volume, substitute the

and repeat the preceding series of operations. Let v be the unknown volume of the specimen, and let h^ be the observed difference in height of the mercury column. Then, from Boyle's law,
Finally, in place of the
specimen whose volume
is
to be determined
(Fz;) H={V-v+V^) (Hh,)

Whence
= 7_Zi^Zlla2

care must be taken that the air in
that while the experiment
is
experiment,
this
the apparatus
dry,
is
and
being performed both the barometric
height and the temperature of

stant.
^^^
In
the
remain
apparatus
con-
In order to prevent any increase of pressure due to the
insertion of the stopper, rotate
it
until the small hole in its side
registers with a similar hole in the tube
stopper through
180
AB.
and take the reading.
Then
height of the mercury column, the error of parallax
by the use of the
scale ruled
means of the equations
on a
derived,
strip of glass
show how
twist the
In reading the
is
obviated
mirror.
By
the parts of the ap-
paratus should be proportioned to give greatest accuracy.
As
it is
difficult to
obtain the same accuracy by this method

is
only employed when
with the preceding methods, it

the other methods are unavailable.
as
Matter
Properties of
70
Chapter VII
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY.
it.
The density of a substance is

The magnitude of the density
the mass of a unit volume of

of a substance
depends upon
vohime are measured. For example, at 4C, the density of lead is 698.85 pounds per cubic foot,
or 2856.29 grains per cubic inch, or 11.2 grams per cubic centimeter. Since density is a concrete quantity, the units in which
the mass and volume of the body are measured must always be
stated.
Since most bodies change their volume with changes
of temperature, density is a function of temperature; and consequently the temperature at which a determination is made
must always be stated.
The Specific Gravity or relative density of a substance is the
ratio of its density to the density of some standard substance.
Or in different words, the specific gravity of a body is the ratio
of its mass to the mass of an equal volume of a standard substance.
Specific gravity is thus a numerical ratio, or an abstract number which is independent of the units employed.
In
the case of solids and liquids, water at the temperature of its
the units in which mass and
maximum
density (4 C. or 39.2 P.) is arbitrarily taken as the

substance with which the densities of other substances are com-
pared.
Since in the C. G.
mass
of a unit
mum
density,
system of units, the unit of mass is the

water at the temperature of its maxifollows that the density of a body in grams per
volume
it
cubic centimeter
is
S.
of
numerically equal to
its
specific gravity.
XX.
DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY AND SPECIFIC

GRAVITY OF A LIQUID WITH A PYKNOMETER.
The
pyknometer is
Various
essentially a small glass vessel of definite volume.
Density
71
forms of pyknometer suited to the determination of the density

of Hquids are given in Figs. 35, 36, ZT, 38, 40.
The vokime
of the pyknometer
is
obtained from a weighing
pyknometer when
of the
known
density,
e.
filled
water.
g.,
with a liquid of
If the
mass of
water contained in the filled pknometer be denoted by ATi and its density by 8 then the vol-
ume
equals Af ^-^ 8,
L,et
placed by the specimen.
second liquid
noted by
now
the water be re-
mass of this
pyknometer be dedensity by p, then
If the
filling the
and
its
in
''
=^=
^7
(1)
Denoting the maximum density of water

by pj, we have for the specific gravity of the
Fig. 40.
.
specimen,
^^-
'^P-
= S77.
(2)
In the preceding equations no account has been taken of

the buoyant efifect of the atmosphere on the liquids being
weighed and on the brass standards
of
mass used
in the
weigh-
In precise determinations this source of error cannot be

neglected. The method of introducing this correction is obviing.
ous from the following considerations. The true weight of an

object equals its apparent weight, plus the weight of air displaced by
it.
the balance
is
Similarly for the brass mass standards.

in equilibrium the
When
apparent wet^ght of the body
mass standards. So
weighed in air, the true weight of the
body minus the loss of weight of the body due to the buoyancy
of the air equals the true weight of the brass mass standards minus their loss in weight due to the buoyancy of the air.
equals the apparent weight of the brass
that
when
the specimen
Let the density of
is
air be
the brass mass standards by

nometer was filled with the
V S
b,
denoted by
first liquid.
V = Ml
IT
<r
and the density of
then for the case where the pyk-
nil a
IT
Properties of Matter
JT,
and when the pyknometer was

V p
filled
r ^m
<r
Eliminating v from these equations,

"
with the second liquid

<T
-J
we
obtain
+"
VI
{S
ff)
JT,
which isH:he'value of the density of the second liquid
,(3)
at the teih-
perature-"of the experiment.
Manipulation and Computation. Three weighings- are to

each by the method of vibrations. These weigh-
be performed
ings are, the mass, of .the empty pyknometer

the mass, of the
pyknometer filled with the first liquid (Af-)-ilfi) the mass of the
pyknometer filled with the second liquid (Af-j-m). Carefully clean
and dry the pyknometer before the first weighing, and then
;
again before
filling
Use
with either of the liquids.
boiled water at the temperature of
vojlume of the pyknometer.

taken from tables.
The
thfe
room
values of
recently
for determining the

8,
o-
and b are
to be

1.
In eq. (3) it will be noticed that the buoyant eflfect of
the air on the brass mass standards and upon the glass pyknometer does not appear. Explain this.
2.
Even though
were unequal,
if
the lengths of the two arms of the balance
the weighings were always
made on
would
Explain.
side of the balance, eq. (3)
still
hold.
the
same
XXI.
DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF A

LIQUID WITH THE MOHR-WESTPHAL
BALANCE.
experiment
solution
is
The
object of this
to determine the specific gravity of an aqueous
and then by means of Table
tration of the solution.
4, to
compute the concen-
Density
73
f"''"'The specific gravity of liquids can be determined quickly
and with a considerable

degree of accuracy by
the use of
e s
This
Mohr-
the
balance.
ph a
apparatus
(Fig.
1
41) consists of a
mally
divided
beam
one
to
which
deci-
balance
end
suspended
is
glass sinker for
of
immer-
sion in the liquid to be
examined,
while
end
other
the
so coun-
is
terbalanced
that
beam
is
equilibrium
when
balance
sinkdr
with
is
in
the
surrounded
is
air.
the
The balance
provided
with
five
whose
masses
are respectively equal to i.o, i.o, o.i, o.oi and o.ooi of the mass
of water displaced by the si'nker when immersed in water at the
Fig. 41.
temperature of
its
immersed
riders
maximum
density.
It
follows that
when
the
water at 4C., the balance will be brought

into equilibrium by hanging one of the unit riders on the hook
A directly below the tenth division of the beam.
The sinker is usually constructed with a volume of five
sinker
is
in
cubic centimeters and
it
often encloses
a thermometer
as
shown
in figure.
Manipulation and Computation. The instrument is first

beam indicates zero when
The
the sinker is in air and there are no riders on the beam.
sinker is then immersed in the liquid whose specific gravity is to
leveled until the pointer attached to the
be determined, and riders are placed in the notches on the balance
beam
tain
until equilibrium
aqueous
is
obtained.
salt solution the
For instance with a cerin equilibrium when
beam, was
one of the unit riders was hung on the hook A, the tenths rider
Properties op Matter.
74
on the secon<i notch
notch B.
It is
C and
on the third
hundredths rider
the
then evident from the theory
of
moments
of
forces, that the specific gravity of this salt solution is 1.O23.
Again when the sinker was immersed in 90 per cent alcohol,

equilibrium was obtained when one of the unit riders was placed
on the eighth notch, the tenths rider on the second notch, the
hundredths rider hung from the end of the preceding rider, and
Whence
the thousandths rider was placed on the fifth notch.
the specific gravity of the sample of alcohol was 0.8225.
1.
In case it should be found that although the masses of
the different riders are in the correct ratio, the mass of water displaced by the sinker when immersed in water at 4C. is not equal
to the mass of the unit riders, show how the Mohr-Westphal balance can be used for the determination of specific
gravities of
li-
quids.
2.
balance
A
is
solid body suspended from one arm of an ordinary

weighed, and then without changing the suspension,
is weighed when immersed in water, and again when immersed in a liquid of unknown specific gravity. The vessels containing the water and the specimen are not allowed to come into
the body
contact with either the balance or the suspended body.
Show how
the specific gravity of the second liquid can be obtained.

3.
Show how
glass sinker
and
to
make allowance
state clearly
for the expansion of
under what conditions
this
the
would
be necessary.
XXII.
CALIBRATION OF AN AREOMETER OF VARIABLE

IMMERSION.
of the specific gravity of liquids
great accuracy
is
for
In the measurement
technical
purposes where
unnecessary, some form of areometer of vari-
Density
able immersion
is
75
The areometer
usually employed.
consists of
a closed graduated glass tube of uniform cross section with a
weighted bulb on the lower
end of such a volume that when
placed in the liquid whose specific gravity
The
the instrument will float upright.

liquid
is
shown by
is
to be determined
specific
gravity of the
the depth to which the areometer sinks.
give directly the density of the liquid, the instrument
a densimeter.
If
on the stem are so spaced and numbered as
the graduations
is
to
called
Often, however, the graduations are equidistant
and are referred to some arbitrary scale. Thus we have the

scales of Baume, Beck, Cartier and Twaddell.
The specific
gravities corresponding to readings on these various scales are
given in Table 2.
Not infrequently the stem of the areometer contains two or more scales.
When graduated with
especial reference to use with some-particular class of liquids, the
areometer
is
hydrometer,
called the
alcoholimeter,
salinimeter,
saccharimeter, etc.
The
object of this exercise
is
to calibrate
an areometer of
variable immersion having either an equally spaced scale or a

scale purporting to give specific gravities directly.
(a)
Scale with divisions of equal length. Consider. an areo-
immersed to scale division d when placed

Then from Archimedes' Principle the
volume of liquid displaced, that is, the volume of the areometer up
to the scale division d is m-^p. Suppose now that when the instrument is placed in a liquid of greater density p' it sinks to scale division d', then the volume of liquid displaced is
meter of mass
ni
which
is
in a liquid of density p.
where (d d') is the number of scale divisions betwen the two

readings and Vj is the volume of the stem included between two
consecutive divisions. Whence, if the density of the first liquid
is
known
the density of the second

f
,_
is
determined
wp
- m pv(d d')
and if the maximum density of water be represented by

the specific gravit}' of the second liquid is
(2)
pi,
then
Properties op Matter.
76
mp
Scale in which the successive divisions express equal
be the mass of the areometer, V, the
Let
difference of density.
volume of the portion below the lowest scale division, and a, the
(&).
When
area of cross section of the stem.
the instrument
in succession in a series of liquids of densities
sink to distances
p'.p"
above the lowest
etc.,
I"
/',
/,
p,
placed
is
etc., it will
scale
division.
Then, m = (F + la)p = (V+ l'a)p', = {r+l"a)p'' = etc,

whence the volume of the areometer submerged when placed in
succession in this series of liquids
\V+la)
(F+Z'ft)
{V+l" a)
is
etc.
/iiM
/I'M
:
/lyt
:
-^
etc.
For example if the densities of the liquids are i.o, i.i, 1.2, etc.,
then the volumes of the submerged part of the areometer are in
the ratio
Consequently
two
13
=172
'
^^''
the areometer be placed in succession into
if
liquids of different
known
densities,
and the scale readings
be taken, the stem can be completely calibrated to read director in specific gravities. This can be easily accomplished by the following graphical method. As an examnoted
ple suppose that the scale reading of the areometer be
when placed into water of specific gravity unity and when
ly in densities
placed into a salt solution of specific gravity
XY
Divide a Hne
1.2.
(Fig. 42), into lengths aX, bX, cX,
proportional to the reciprocals of the numbers,

1.4, etc.
Through
the points
a, b, c, etc.,
draw
i.i,
i.o,
lines
1.2,
etc.,
1.3,
from any con-
venient center C.
It
follows that
a distance from
verging
lines
it
if
a line
MP
that the length
be drawn parallel to
XY
at
passing through a and c equals the observed dis-
tance on the stem of the areometer between the two readings
placed in the liquids of specific gravities
ond
line
such
MN intercepted between the di-
MP will be
and
1.2
when
then this sec-
divided into spaces equal to the spaces on the
areometer stem corresponding to
specific gravities 1.0, i.i, 1.2, etc.
Density.
17
oS,W
0769
Fig. 42.

the areometer
eye
is
is
floated in a
In taking
narrow jar containing the
reading
liquid, the
placed below the level of the surface of the liquid, and
then gradually raised
until the
surface
of the
liquid
aouears
The point of the scale crossed by this line

reading.
The temperature of the liquid must be
to be a straight line.
is
the required
noted at the time of each observation.
When
changing from one
and thermometer must be

thoroughly washed and dried. Determine the densities of two liquids with either a pyknoraeter or the Mohr-Westphal balance.
Observe the scale readings on the areometer when floated in the
liquid to another, the jar, areometer
two
liquids.
In the case of the areometer with an equidivision

weigh the instrument, place in succession in two liquids of
known density, and then by means of eq. (i) calculate the value
of V.
By means of eq. (3) now calculate the specific gravities corresponding to each of the numbered scale divisions on the stem
(a).
scale,
of the areometer. Plot a curve with these calculated specific gravities as abscissas
and the corresponding
scale readings as ordinates.
j8
Properties of Matter.
This
is
The
instrument.
the calibration curve of the
calibration
curve should be tested by comparing the values obtained by means

of the areometer in connection with the curve, with the values ob-
means of a pyknometer or a Mohr-Westphal balance.
tained by
In the case of the densimeter or direct reading areo-
(&).
meter, construct a diagram similar to Fig. 42, giving the scale
readings corresponding to specific gravities 1.0,1.1, 1.2, etc.

Plot a curve of corrections giving the number of scale divisions
that
must be added or subtracted from an observed reading
in
order to give the true value of the specific gravity.

By means
I.
men
in
of the
hydrometer
find the density of a speci-
From an
of alcohol at a given temperature.
Table
determine the
interpolation
percentage of absolute alcohol
in
the specimen.
XXIII.

GRAVITY OF A SOEID WITH A PYKNOMETER.
experiment
is
The
object of this
to determine the specific gravity of a solid
fine state of division,
per cubic foot.
It
and
also to determine
has been shown in Exp.
by means
of a solid can be determined
its
XVIII how
of a
body in a
density in pounds
the volume
pyknometer.
Then
the density of the specimen
mS
in
/
From
""
m +
M'
M"
(1)
definition
Sp. Gr.
in
""
IT
which
pa is the
in s
maximum
(,
M'
_ M")
p,
(2)
density of water.
This method is capable of very accurate results. In precise

measurements account must be taken of the buoyant effect of
the atmophere on the specimen and on the brass standards
mass used
in the
weighing.
The method
of
of introducing this cor-
Density
rection
was considered
there explained,
79
XX.
Exp.
b,
we
and the
o-
have for the case where the specimen
will
in air,
V p
m
m -J-
0-
--
<r
Similarly for the liquid displaced from the pyknometer
specimen
method
Following the
the density of air be denoted by
if
density of brass by
was weighed
in
when
the
introduced, since the volume of the liquid displaced
is
equals the volume of the specimen,

r d
v<r
(w
+ M'
M") [^
Eliminating v between these two equations,

"
which
ture
is
(5
TO
<r)
M'
TO
-M" +
"
(3)
the value of the density of the specimen at the tempera-
of the experiment.
In case
men
it is
required to determine the density of the speci-
at zero degrees, a farther correction
must be made.
Since
the density at / equals the mass of the body divided by the volume at t, and since vt
the coefficient of
I'o Cl-pÔ where 7 is
cubical expansion of the body, the density of the body at 0 is
obtained by multiplying eq. (3) by

of the specimen at 0
r
ff)
(1+
TO
y^).
That
is,
the density
"1

XVIII and XX.
Proceed exactly
as di-
rected in Exps.
XXIV.

GRAVITY OF A SOLID BY IMMERSION.
periment
also
its
is
The object of
this ex-
to determine the specific gravity of a given solid
density in pounds per cubic foot.
and
8o
weight
air has a
will sink
has a weight
it
body
where
XVII that if a solid body when

W, and when weighed in a liquid
has been shown in Exp.
It
weighed in
in which it
w is the
W W
W,
then the volume of the
m.
weight of unit volume of the liquid at the tempera-
&
ture of the experiment, Wi, the mass of the displaced liquid, and
densithat
the
follows
theliquid.
It
volume
of
the mass of unit
ty of the specimen,
''
since
tv
VW
Since specific gravity

a body to the
liT^^
maximum
^ W W
is
defined as the ratio of the density of
specimen
= (W-W)p,
'
where p^ represents the
maximum
(2)
density of water.
lighter than the liquid in
is
immersed, requiring a sinker to submerge
it,
which it
from
then,
Exp. XVII, in the same manner as in the preceding
''
and
WS
~ {w+ w,
Sp. Gr.
where
sinker
when immersed
is
the
in the liquid of density
beam
it is
tions.
The
is
8,
(4^
the weight of the
W^
is
the weight
when immersed, and
p^
density of water.
Manipui,ation and Computation.

balance
case,
=^^^^^^^^^^,
weighings as explained in Exp. XVII.

a liquid,
to be
eq. (2)
(3)
the weight of the specimen, W.^
maximum
is
n%)
of the specimen together with the sinker

is
0)
'
density of water
.
SP.
If the
tv
WW
= incf.
g and
mS
in
are so
much damped by
values of
and
As
the
required
the vibrations of the
the immersion of the load in

weigh by the method of vibrap^ are obtained from previous exthe end of this volume.
useless to attempt to
periments or from the tables at
Perform
Density
8i
Determine the length of copper wire in a tangled mass
1.
that cannot be straightened.
Assuming
2.
the value of the density of glass, determine the
volume of the cavity in a hollow glass stopper.

Determine the weights of the two constituents of an
3.
compound when
or mechanical
constituents are
known.
constituents be
W, W^ and
If the
the specific gravities of the
respectively,
8)83
= (g^ _ s,)S ^
(5*4
'fâ
^* =
^'^
Using the formula deduced
4.
its
and the respective
lump of wax of known weight and
(S3
{.%
S)S^
- S,)S
in the preceding
termine the density of a small crystal of

a
two
weights of the specimen and of
show that
specific gravities be S, S3 S,,

ITT-
alloy
^-
problem de-
known weight imbedded in
specific gravity.
XXV.
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE DENSITIES

OF GASES WITH BUNSEN'S EFFUSIOMETER.
experiment
is
The
object of this
to determine the density of a gas compared
witli
It is obvious that the density

the density of air or hydrogen.
weighing
a large bulb of known
of a gas can be determined by
volume,
first
when
and then when

But on account of the
quite empty,
under investigation.
filled
with the gas
difficulty in
pletely evacuating the bulb before the first weighing,
and
comin ob-
taining an accurate value of the mass of gas contained by the
bulb at the time of the second weighing, this method requires
unusual care and
many
precautions.
Imagine a gas of density
is
enclosed within a vessel at a
pressure of p dynes per sq. cm. above that of the surrounding

atmosphere. If there be a small opening of area a in the vessel,
then the gas will escape into the atmosphere at some speed s
sec.
That is, in one second there will issue from the
opening a column of gas of length s cms. and cross section a
cms. per
82
Consequently the mass of gas that escapes per second through the opening is p " s grams, and the kinetic energy of
this moving stream is }4 p a a".
Again, since the gas in the vessel is under a pressure exceeding that of the surrounding atmosphere of p dynes per sq.
Consecm., it follows that the force producing the flow is pa.
quently the work done on the escaping gas in one second is
pas.
This is the loss of potential energy of the gas in the vessel.
Since the loss of potential energy equals the gain in kinetic,
sq.
it
cms.
follows that,
i P a s^
= pas.
Therefore the speed of efflux of the escaping gas
-V 2p
if an equal volume of a second gas of density
p^ be allowed to escape through the same opening under the same dif-
Similarly,
ference of pressure,
its
speed of efflux
is
.=v^
(2)
Pi
Dividing eq,
(2)
by
eq. (1)
P
Pi
where
and
t^
.'i'
s^
<=
(3)
t,'
are the times required for equal volumes of the
gases of densities
p.
and
pi
respectively to effuse through the
same opening.
That
when under the same conditions as to pressure, the

two gases are inversely proportional to the squares of
is,
densities of
their speeds of effusion: or, in other words, the densities of
two
gases are directly proportional to the squares of the times required

for equal volumes to effuse through the
same
orifice.
This principle constitutes the basis of Bunsen's effusiometer.

This apparatus consists of a glass tube surmounted by an en-
Density
83
largement containing a diaphragm D pierced

with a small opening about o.oi mm. in diameter.
This tube is inserted in a larger vessel
containing mercury. The gas under investigation
is
that
is
enclosed in the tube and the time
noted
required for a certain volume of gas to
effuse through the diaphragm. C is a three-way

cock by means of which the gas holder can be
put into
direct
communication with the
atmosphere
g's^^^f'-o
diaphragm.
Fig. 43.
in
with
or
P' is
the
the
in
orifice
a float for indicating the change
volume of the gas and
5 is
a glass stopper.
Manipulation and Computation. If the density of a

gas compared with the density of air is to be determined, the
apparatus
is first
put into direct communication with the atmos-
phere by means of the three-way cock C, and then, by raising

the gas holder
it is
filled
with
air.
The
stop cock
is
now
closed
and the gas holder depressed and clamped into position. The
stopper 5" is next removed and the three-way cock turned so as
As the gas
to connect the gas holder with the diaphragm D.
effuses through the diaphragm, observe the interval of time between the instant when the upper point P of float arrives in the
plane of the upper surface of the mercury in the well, and when
the mark on the float at
reaches the plane of the tipper surface of the mercury in the well.
The gas holder

che gas
is
whose density
now
is
to be emptied of air and filled with
to be determined.
holder as far as possible while

the atmosphere.
This
will
it is
in direct
Depress the gas

commimication with
expel most of the
air.
Connect with
the gas being examined and elevate the gas holder.
ation will
the gas holder.
fill
ing the gas holder,

finally filled
ty
is
it
will
By
This oper-
repeatedly refilling and empty-
become thoroughly
freed of air and
with an undiluted specimen of the gas whose densi-
sought.
Proceeding as in the case of air, find the interval of time between the instant when the apex of the float appears above the
surface of mercury in the well and the instant
when
the
mark
at

84
appears.
two
through the same
required for equal volumes of the
The times
gases under the same pressure to effuse

opening have now been obtained. Whence their relative density
is
determined.
Chapter
'
VIII.
FRICTION.
XXVI.
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF

TION BETWEEN TWO PLANE SURFACES.
If a
FRIC-
body resting up-
on a plane surface be acted upon

of such a magnitude that the body is just on the point of slipping,
it is found that the magnitude of this force F varies directly with
the pressure P acting normally at the interface, that is,F=ixP,
in which the constant m is called the coefficient of static friction.
Similarly the force F' that must be exerted parallel to the
plane to keep the body sliding at a uniform speed is F'=:bP, where
by a force parallel to the plane
is
called the coefficient of kinetic friction
bodies.
Since the force
between
required to start the body
the
is
two
greater
than the force F' required to keep it in constant motion after

it follows that
is greater than b.
has been stnrted,
The
of kinetic friction between
The apparatus
is
two plane
to determine the coefficient
surfaces.
consists of a horizontal plate
the length of the plate by
having a small
drawn along
means of a cord passing over the pulley.
pulley fastened at one end, and a block that can be
f(^^
it
/j,
Friction
85
Since the pulley possesses friction,
it
obvious that the
is
weights on the cord do not accurately represent the force required

to
overcome the
friction
pressure p on
its
The
between the plate and the block.
force of friction developed in the pulley
is
proportional to the
bearings produced by the forces P' and P".
It is
obvious that
Now pass the cord
weights
weight X
is
over the pulley as in Fig. 45 and attaching equal

ends,
what
find
required to produce uniform motion.
resent the excess of
come
two
the
to
F" over
P', that
rep-
if x'
the force necessary to over-
is,
when arranged
the friction of the pulley
additional
Then
as in
Fig 44, we
will
have
x'
p'
where p'^2w-\-x.
Consequently
P'^'
P'
X,
r,
Substituting this value of ^ in eq. (i) gives

2-^
(F"F'f
F'^
+ F"
From which
F -F
JY^^.
\_
(2)
obvious by inspection of eq. (2) that the negative sign before
It is
the radical
must be used
since
P"
is
larger than P'.
vious that the quantity within the brackets
is
It is also
ob-
a constant that can
be determined from a single accurate experiment and then applied

P" made with different pressures P.
to all the determinations of
That
is,
eq. (2)
can be written in the abbreviated form

P'
= k F"
where k represents the constant term enclosed by the brackets.
The
coefficient of kinetic friction is thus
F'
&
= T" =
determined
IcF"
-^

the surface of the plate have been
(3)
After
the
cleaned, and the
block
plate
and
made
Properties oe Matter
86
horizontal with the aid of a spirit level, place the block near
one
end and add weights to the pan until the block on being started
keeps in uniform motion. Make not less than five determinations
with different weights on the block. Carefully clean plate and
block before each observation.
Having thus determined
P' necessary to
the actual forces
keep the block in uniform motion when
pressed
it is
against the
showing the relation beThis curve should be uniform and approximateTaking the values of F' and P from the curve,
plate with various forces P, plot a curve
tween F' and P.

ly a straight line.
compute the
coefficient of kinetic friction b, for several values of
P.

I.
Show how
the friction of a line of shafting can be deter-
mined.
XXVII.
THE FRICTION OF A BELT ON A PULLEY.

experiment
is
The object of
to determine the coefficients of static
tion between a belt
and a
and
this
kinetic fric-
pulley.
Let
BGHJ
represent the portion
of the belt in contact with the pulley
whose center
is
On
C.
the friction between the
account of
two
faces, the tension of the
vary
all
Let
ends of the arc
Let
will
the
tensions
GH
subtend-
ing the indefinitely small angle
when
sur-
along the length in contact
with the pulley.

at the
belt
on the point of
Fig. 46.
slipping, be denoted
by / and /'.
and F' represent the tensions of the belt where it leaves the
the belt
is
the forces f and f,
it
just
pulley.
By compounding
is
evident that the
Friction
87
GH
pressure on the pulley due to the element of the belt
is
equal
to
180
2
Therefore
/'
cos
when
Ae=
2 J'
Ae
-^ =
sill
/'
A e
the belt and pulley are in equilibrium, the coeffi-
cient of static friction,
''~/'
or,
whence,
/'
Ai
Ae
/x
Ae
>^
log- (I
the right hand
series
log =
log f
Expanding into a
log /"log /'
Ae
(/i
/*
A 9)
side of this equation,
A 6)2
>^
(,i
A 6)^
etc.
But since A 6 is an indefinitely small quantity, the second and

higher powers may be neglected. That is,
A e.
log f
log / =
|U,
Extending this reasoning to the entire arc of the pulley covered

by the
belt,
we
have,
log.iT'
whence, the
ley is given
_ log F ~
coefficient of static friction
between the
belt
and pul-
by
log
M=-^
ill
11.%
which the angle 9
is
J?"
log J'
^-^
measured in radians.
In precisely the same manner

kinetic friction
"
where
pulley,
when
and F"
(I)
log F"
is
obtained the coefficient of
log F
9
(2)
are the tensions of the belt where
the belt
is
it
leaves the
slipping.
Stretch
the belt over a
means of a crank. To one end of

the belt attach a 10 lb. weight and to the other end a vertically
hanging spring balance whose lower end is fastened to the floor.
Now turn the crank so as to carry the belt away from the spring
balance until the belt is just on the point of slipping. The spring
balance reading is now /'"; F = \0 lb^s. weight ami 9 = 180 = ir
pulley that can be rotated by
Properties oe Matter
88
radians. Consequently a value of
ing
/x
successively equal to 20, 30,
can be computed. Repeat, maketc.,
limit of the spring balance is reached.

jn
thus obtained
is
When
the pulley
while as before,
belt,
is
is
this coefficient for
both the flesh side
rotated until the belt slips
and then the
kept constant, the spring balance reading
F equals
the weight acting
equals u radians.
and
until the
the values of
the coefficient of static friction between the belt
and the pulley. Determine

and hair cide of the belt.
speed of rotation
pounds weight,
The mean of
From
is
F",
on the other end of the
these values, b
is
computed.
XXVIII.
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION BETWEEN A LUBRICATED JOURNAL AND

ITS BEARINGS.
experiment
oils
from
is
their
journal and
its
The object
of
this
compare the lubricating properties of diflferent

relative effect in reducing the friction between a
bearings.
The Thurston Oil Testing Machine to
to
Fig. 47.
Fig. 48.
be used in this experiment consists of a heavy pendulum having

a bearing at one end through which passes a horizontal shaft capable of rotation.
The bearings can be caused
to exert
any given
Friction
89
pressure on the journal by means of a heavy coiled spring and ad-
When
justing screw forming part of the pendulum.
pendulum
rotated the
the shaft
is
through an angle deter-
will be deflected
mined by the moment of the tangential effort at the circumference

of the journal and the moment of the weight of the pendulum.
represent the weight of the pendulum T, the tension
Let
of the spring; P, the mean normal pressure between journal and
bearings R, the effective arm of the pendulum F, the tangential
journal^numerically equal to
effort at the circumference of the
the force of friction;
of the journal and
journal and
If the
angle 6
its
b,
the radius of the journal;
the length
/,
bearings.
pendulum
,the
r,
the coefificient of kinetic friction between the
is
moment
the journal equals the
in equilibrium
of the forces
moment
2
/<V=
when
FF
deflected
at the
W.
of the weight
W Bsin
through an
circumference of
That
is,
e.
(1)
Since the upper bearing exerts a pressure on the journal equal to

the
sum
of the weight of the pendulum and the tension of the
spring, while the lower bearing exerts a pressure due only to the
tension of the spring, the
bearing
mean
pressure between journal
and
is
^Consequently the
bearings
= ^+T
coefficient of kinetic friction
(2)
between journal and
is
WE
F
^-^=
IrT+rW
6
^"^
& sin e
where k represents the constant
(4)
coefficient
of sin
This constant can be determined from a single
made measurements and used

the tension of the spring
is
in
eq.
(3).
series of carefully
any computation of h so long as
unchanged.

2r of the journal with a pair of calipers.
the pendulum.
(3)
Observe the angle
Measure
^
the diameter
Obtain the weight

of
on divided arc attached to
the apparatus.
Place the coiled spring in a testing machine and measure the
go
forces required to produce given compressions. Plot a curve coor-
dinating tensions and resulting compressions.
may be
read off directly the tension
From
curve
this
corresponding to any com-
7"
pression measured by the vernier and scale attached to the side
of pendulum.
The
follows
effective
arm
of the
while the pendulum
pendulum
is still
can be determined as
suspended from the shaft, sup-
port the free end on a knife edge resting on a pair of scales.
Fig 48.
distance
The product
See
of the weight observed / and the horizontal
between the supporting knife edge and the center of
the shaft equals
Compute
WR.
the pressure per square inch
on the journal.
the projection of the journal surface equals 2 (2r)
/,
Since
the pressure
per square inch
p=P-^4ir.
The
constants of the apparatus are
(5)
now
determined.
After cleaning the journal and bearings with benzine, lubricate
with one of the

spring, turn
oils to
be tested, apply a given tension
on the power and observe the
deflection 6
to the
of the pen-
dulum.
With
tions
same
the speed of rotation kept constant observe the deflec-
produced for several values of the tension T.
series of observations
ly clean journal
when
Repeat the
the other oils are used.
and bearings before a different sample
Carefulis
exam-
ined.
On
men
a sheet of cross section paper plot a curve for each speci-
coordinating the force of friction
F and
the pressure per unit
area of bearing surface p.
On
a second sheet of cross section paper plot a curve for each
specimen coordinating the
coefficient of kinetic friction b
and the
pressure per unit area of bearing surface p.
The laws brought out by

cussed.
these curves should be fully
dis-
Moment
oi?
Inertia
Chapter
IX.
MOMENT OF INERTIA.
That property of matter
which force
in virtue of
sary to change the motion of a body
of translation, the force necessary to produce
mass of the body that
varies directly with the
In our units the constant
tional to mass.
unity so that inertia

it is
is
unit
neces-
acceleration
inertia is propor-
is,
of
But
equal to mass.
is
In the case
called inertia.
is
proportionality
is
in the case of rotation,
found that the force necessary to produce a unit angular accel-
upon the mass of the body but also upon

mass around the axis about which the ac-
eration depends not only
the distribution of
its
Consequently in rotation
celeration takes place.
it is
may
moment of
consider not the inertia of the body, but what

rotational inertia,
i.
e.,
the importance or
necessary to
be called the
inertia of the
bod)' in affecting the rotation.
The
moment
general value of the
of inertia of a particle of
mass m about an axis distant r can be easily obtained as follows

In the same way that it is known from experiment that the
,
^.
7
,
Linear acceleration produced
it is
J.
01/
^
a force
known from experiment
also
Anqular
where the
'
acceleration
Force
,.
(trtinq
',
that
Moment of
p-
rr
Inertia of th" body acted upon
..
force nr.thiq
V'^.
jr-;
Iwtational inertia of body
rotational inertia or
moment
of inertia of the body
is
thus far undetermined.
Imagine a massless bar of length r capable

of rotation about the end c to have a parti-
.'f
'
Fig. 40.
rection always
Ar\^
cle of
mass
^ force
normal to the
fastened to the other end. If
be applied to the mass
bar, so that
moves from a
in a dito b, a
linear acceleration in the direction ab will be produced, together
with an angular acceleration counterclockwise about the axis of

rotation
c.
Denoting by
and
the linear
and angular speed,
re-
Properties op Matter
92
spectively, gained per unit of time, the preceding equations
may
be
written.
Linear acceleration
= =
m
CD
acceleration
Anqiilar
^
But
IV
7-
acceleration
we have
Therefore the quantity
moment
particle
of inertia has for
the
its
,,
at distances r^,
moment
r^,,
r.^ -\- OTj
The moment
of inertia
(7\
\^>
~Zf
Fr
g
llie
(fromcq.
])'
called rotational inertia, or the

tlie mass of the
mass from the axis
value, the product of

this
number of particles of masses m^, m-^, m^

etc. from the axis of rotation, then
r^,
of inertia of the system
I^nm^
r-^
^
Consequently
and the square of the distance of
of rotation. If there are a

etc.,
7- =
,.
tRotational inertia
~~r
?/
Angular
Fr
is
m^ r^
etc = 2 mr"^.
(3)
of a body of simple geometrical form can
r^
-\-
be computed, but the moment of inertia of an irregularly shaped

body can only be determined experimentally. The experimental
determination is usually made by a comparison with a body
whose moment of inertia can be computed. A few simple cases
will
now be
considered.
Transformation Formulae for the Computation of the Moment OF Inertia of a Body about a given A.xis in terms
of the Moment of Inertia about other Axes.
Relation between
moments
of inertia about perpendicular axes.
-Denote the moment of inertia of any plane lamina about a

normal axis passing through any point c
Fig. 50-
by /, and the moment of inertia about

two perpendicular axes XX' and YY' lying in the plane of the lamina and passing through c by /i and /j respectively.
Let p be the position of any particle of
mass m distant x and y from the axes
YY' and XX' respectively.
Then the
Moment
moments of
of Inertia
93
m{cp)^, m{bp)^
Consequently the moments of inertia of the lamina
inertia of ni about the three axes are
and m{ap)-.
about these three axes are respectively,

I
I.
Ill
(x'+i/')
= S m if
I^h+h-
/i
'
Whence
moment
Or, in other words, the
and
I^
1,
x^.
(*)
of inertia of any plane lamina
any point is equal to the sum of

its moments of inertia about any two perpendicular axes lying
in the plane of the lamina and passing through the given point.
'about an axis normal to
moments
Relation between
Let D
at
it
of inertia about parallel axes.
be the position of any particle of the body of mass m.
Let the two parallel axes intersect the plane

of the diagram at
DB
Pjg
the
and
Draw
C.
AC.
AD^r, DC^j\, DB=^h,
tance
-J
AC^p. Then
perpendicular to the line
moment
BC^l
of inertia of the particle about
mr'^-=^m
\_hP-\-{,p
the line
Call the dis-
IY\
and
is
Since p, the fixed distance between the two parallel axes, does not
change whatever the position of the particle being considered, we
have for the moment of

X vn
If the axis
1.
Ui^
/=o.
known
Therefore in
2 mi-'
or,
+ i') + j'
'"
JO
S ml.
proposition
is
equal to the
the parallel axis through
in
elementary mechanics
this special case
expressed in words, the
a given axis
the
body about A,
inertia of the
through c pass through the center of mass of the body,
then from a well

2
its
S mr^^
-i-
p''
2 m.
(5)
moment of inertia of a body about

moment of interia of the body about
center of mass, plus the product of
mass of the body and the square of the distance between the
two axes.
Moment
of Inertia of a
metrical Axis.
density
made up
p.
Soud Cylinder about
Let the cylinder have a length
/,
its
radius
r,
Geoand
Consider the circular cross section of the cylinder to be
of n indefinitely thin rings of thickness
r.
The masses
of the concentric rings, starting from the center, are,
/p7rAr^
TT
it2
rf
A r'l
tt
[(3
A r)^ (2 A
r)='],
etc.
94
Consequently
about
Z
moment
the
geometrical axis
its
[A r'(A r')
TT
-\
/=
ZpttA
r^ (2
method of
differences,
= -^
[3 *
But
11
r*
?
+4
=
y'
(n A ry.
32H
where
is
1-
(2
r/
n
\-
1) n^,]
summation obtained by
its
r)'
( A
/)
r^ ]
so that
r"
(li
r,
4 r^ A r
r']
Ar=o
Taking- as Unit
7
cylinder
we have
--^ [3
r=
entire
5 A r^ (3 A
Substituting for the infinite series

the
the
r)=
+ (2 11 V\
of
inertia
P +3X2^ +5X
[IX
of
is
= '-^(3,-^)=(Zp..^)f =
(6)
the mass of the cylinder.
Moment of Inertia ot a Cylindricai, Ring about its= GeoMETRiCAL AxES.^Let r and r' be the external and internal radii respectively of the ring, I the length p the density and let M' and
M" be the masses of cylinders of radii r and r' of the same length
and density as the ring. Then the moment of inertia of the ring is
_ M' r^ M" r"
;
But
M'
IT
But the mass
of the shell is
Moment
r^
OP THE Cylinders.
.1/
:=
ir
and
Ir,
x r'^
therefore
(r^
r'^), cc
nsequently
r'^).
(7)
a System Consisting of Two

the Geometrical Axes
paraleei. to
Let the cylinders have masses M-^ and

let /i
IT
=^ 0' +
an Axis
-^ (r* r").
I
oe Inertia op
Cylinders, about
and M"
M^ and
be their distances respectively
radii r^ and r^ and

from the axis of revolu;
MoMGNT
tion of the system.
der about
its
The value
OF Inertia
of the
own geometrical axis
note these values by I^ and
Jj.
moment
95
of inertia of each cylin-
has been already determined.De-
Denote the moments of
inertia of
by I\ and
the cylinders about the parallel axis through
I\.
Fig. 52.
From
the transformation formula (5) page (93)
obvious
it is
that
I\
I\
= I, + M, k= I, + M, h'
and
Substituting for /^ and /j their values obtained from eq.
we have
the
two
rical
for the
moment
cylinders, about
an axis through
parallel to the
geomet-
axes of the cylinders
1= l\+I\ =
M,
(^+
h')-VM,
(^+
Moment op
Through
its
7,^)
(8)
Inertia op a Cyiînder about an Axis passing

Center normal to its Length. The moment of
inertia of a circular
ter
6,
of inertia of the system consisting of
lamina about an axis passing through
normal to the plane of the lamina has been shown

/
i/^
its
cen-
to be (eq. 6)
mr'^
moment
of inertia is the same about any diameter,

we have, from eq. (4), the moment of inertia of a circular lamina
about a diameter,
/ =: >^
r=
7j
(9)
Since
its
=^
Consider a right cylinder of length I and radius r, to be divided into an infinite number of thin laminae parallel to the base.
If the distance of one of these
laminae from the axis AA' be denoted by p, and the thickness of
the lamina by A p then from eq.
Fig. 53.
of inertia of the
5, the moment
given lamina about a diameter of
the cylinder is given by
y^
r^
-\-
p"^
Properties- of
96
Matter
which the cylinder
If the material of
composed has a den?= p nr^ Ap
is
then the mass of the lamina considered
sity p,
Whence
IT
Consequently
IA
moment
the
AA'
about the axis
"
pTT r'
Now
'Z
T r
4
y.
Ap +
2 A^
pnr r'
/)
Ap V Ap
Ap = o.
r2
TT
(ApY0-
A-^(3Ap)' Ap-\
-4-\-
we
diiiferences,
+ 2^ +
3^
iAp)\
p"
A p^
^
fr
/ Z ''^
(^
p'
A p''
A p
obtain
n^)
6
2 n'
ft'
is
pi
by the method of
SAp+pTr'{
2
A pY a
(n
the series
=^-^
Ap+(2Apy
l(Apy
,'
-.
Ia
\-^M
of inertia of the entire cylinder
passing through a diameter of the base
= ^^^ Âp + PT
Summing
^ 2^
r'
-\-
Ap
Av
^
Ap''
Ap^\
^)
Making- this substition and proceeding
1.
to the limit
Ia
M,
-^
+
p
TT
TT
r'
That
r'
=='"^'"MT +
r'
TJ
Ia=MI-^~+~^\
is
In the case where the
moment
of inertia
(10)
is
taken about an
axis passing through the center of the cylinder in a direction
normal to
its
length, the cylinder
may
be considered to be com-
posed of two parts each of length J4 L and mass

substitution in the above equation we obtain
M. Making
Ic=M'\^+j^\
where M'
=2M
is
the
mass of the
entire cylinder.
this
(10)
Moment
of Inertia
97
XXIX.
DETERMINATION OF THE- MOMENT OF INERTIA

OF AN IRREGULAR BODY.
Object and Theory op Experiment. The moment of inera body or system of bodies can be computed only when ii
has a very simple figure or configuration. But in any case where
tia of
the body can be set into vibration about the axis about which
moment
the
of inertia
The
inertia of a
body
is
a very simple matter to
moment
of inertia of the body.
required,
is
determine experimentally the

of such
is
it
to determine
the
an irregular shape that
it
moment
of
cannot
be
computed.
From
the equation derived to find the simple rigidity of a
body by the vibration method, (eq. 4 p. 114) it follows that if a

body is suspended so that it can "vibrate torsionally, its moment
mak-
of inertia equals a constant times the square of its time of
ing a single vibration.
That
is,
Now
/'
we
some
if
additional
oc
of known moment
moment of inertia is
mass
be added to the body whose
of inertia
required,
have
will
I+r
where
t\
t.^,
is
the
new time
oc t^^
of vibration of the
system.
Conse-
quently
_L_
Whence
/ can be determined
if
^'
the
moment
of
inertia
of
the
added mass be known, together with the time of vibration of

the body, and the time of vibration of the body plus the added
mass.

periment
7
is
performed
it
is
The
first
time this ex-
advantageous to determine the mo-
98
Propertiijs
ment
Matter
oie
of inertia of a
body by
experiment
by computation in order that the student can check the
accuracy of his work. A convenient shape
for the body whose moment of inertia is
to be determined is that of a disc suspended axially by means of a thin wire from a
fixed support.
Focus a reading telescope
on a vertical mark on the edge of the disc.
Being careful to avoid any swinging, set
that can also be determined
By
the disc in small torsional vibrations.

Fi<5- 54-
time of the
means
of a stop watch,
o, loth, 2otli, etc.,
passages of the
cross hairs of the telescope. If
looking through
means of sharp
read accurately the
the telescope
mark
past the
two observers are
available,
will indicate the
passages
one
by
taps on a table with a pencil, while the other ob-
server will note the time.
These readings give the value of
t, i.
e..
the time of half a complete vibration of the vibrating body.
Now
place on the disc a
known moment
of inertia.
This
can be in the form of a massive ring, or a pair of cylinders with

In either case the mass added to the body
must be placed symmetrically with respect to the supporting
wire.
Find the new time of swing f^, as before.
Errors in measuring t and *i, will have least influence on the
their axes vertical.
result if /' is so large as to
make
(t{^
t^)
nearly equal to
t^.
All distances required, are to be measured with vernier caHpers.
the magnitude of the moment of inertia of the

found by experiment with that found by computation.
Compare
disc as
I.
ment of
Why
is
it
necessary to attach the mass of
known mo-
inertia symmetrically about the axis of the wire
Er<ASTiciTY
99
Chapter
ELASTICITY.
"Elasticity
is
the property in virtue of which a
quires force to change
its
tinued application of the

springs back
when
the force
removed and
is
if
with-
left at rest
its
re-
con-
change, and
maintain the
force to
out the force, dees not remain at rest except in
and shape."
A body
body
bulk or shape, and requires a
previous bulk
(Kelvin.)
is
highly elastic which not only offers a great resist-
ance to distortion but which also completely recovers
its
size
and shape on the removal of the deforming force: e. g., steel,

glass.
A body is slightly elastic which is either deformed by a
small force or which can sustain but a small deforming force
without permanent deformation; e. g., rubber, clay.
When a
body is perfectly elastic, a deforming force will develop in it a
force of restitution equal and opposite to it which will not diminish with the lapse of time.
does not completely recover
body
its
is
imperfectly elastic
original shape or size
when
on the
it
re-
moval of the deforming force. It is said to have then received a

permanent set or to have been deformed beyond its limit of
elasticity.
When a body can be deformed through wide limits
without receiving a permanent set, it is said to have great elastic toughness e. g., rubber has great toughness though it is not
;
highly elastic.
it is
So long as a body is not deformed beyond its elastic limit

assumed to be perfectly elastic. In the' case of a perfectly
elastic
body, the force applied varies directly with the
tion produced.
The constant
deformation produced
is
deforma-
ratio of the force applied
called
the Coefficient
of
to
the
Elasticity.
Since forces applied to a bodv in dififerent ways produce different types of deformation, there are various coefificients of elasticity,
as the Tensile
Young's Modulus of
Simple Rigidity, etc.
Coefficient
Elasticity
of
Bulk
Elasticity
often
Coefficient
called
of Elasticity,
loo
Stress is the force applied per unit area.

Strain is the deformation produced per unit length, per unit volume, etc., depending upon the nature of the deformation.
XXX.
DETERMINATION OF THE ELASTIC LIMIT, TENACITY AND BRITTLENESS OF A WIRE.
Object and Theory of Experiment. The elastic limit of

is the point of stress beyond which <#lie material cannot go without becoming permanently set. The tenacity or
a material
tensile strength of a material

it
can bear without rupture.
is
the greatest longitudinal stress
The
brittleness of a material
ratio of the force just sufficient
is
the
words it is the
to produce permanent set to the
ratio of its elastic limit to its tenacity
in other
force just sufficient to proiluce rupture.
The
object of this ex-
showing the relation between the

longitudinal stress and strain of a wire, to determine from this
curve the elastic limit of the material composing the wire, and
also to determine its tenacity and brittleness.
According to Flooke's law, when a force is applied to any
elastic body, the strain produced varies directly with the stress
acting.
Since it is found that the curve showing the relation of
stress to strain of any body is a straight line until the elastic
limit is reached, any body may be considered to be perfectly
This furnishes the
elastic until it has acquired a permanent set.
most accurate means for determining the elastic limit of a maperiment
The
terial.
on the
is
to plot a curve
a straight
is the stress corresponding to the point

diagram where the curve departs from being
elastic limit
stress-strain
line.
MANIPUI.ATI0N AND COMPUTATION. Arrange a wire vertically so that it cannot twist, with one end fastened to a rigid
support and the other end attached to a scale pan. Focus the
cross hairs of the telescope of a cathetometer, or the cross hairs of
a microscope containing an eyepiece micrometer, on a well defined cross engraved on the lower end of the wire, and take the
reading.
Place a kilogram weight on the scale pan and take
Elasticity
loi
Continue adding kilogram
the reading of the change of length.
weights and taking readings of the change in length until the

wire breaks.
Replace the broken wire with a new piece, again
focus on the lower end, add sufficient weight to the scale pan to
insure the straightness of the wire, and then place on top of the
supporting bracket directly over the wire the various loads pre-
Any
viously added to the scale pan.
sinking of the bracket thus
observed must be subtracted from the previous observations in

order to obtain the elongation of the wire under different loads.
On co-ordinate paper plot the stresses applied to the wire as abscissas,
and the
strains
The
produced as ordinates.
stress
responding to the point where the curve departs from
cor-
being a
and bends toward the horizontal axis is the Elastic

is the breaking weight divided by |lie area
of cross section of the wire, and the Brittleness is the elastic limit divided by the tenacity.
1.
Give the elastic limit and tenacity obtained, in terms of
both the C. G. S. and the F. P. S. system of units.
right line
Limit.
2.
The Tenacity
What
is
the greatest brittleness possible
XXXI.
YOUNG'S MODULUS BY STRETCHING OF A WIRE.

Object and Theory op Experiment.When a body
stretched, the stress applied
strain
it.
is
produced so long as the
The constant
for stretching
is
directly
stress
of proportionality
called the
Young's Modulus
length of a wire. A,
tensile
proportional
is less
than the
elastic lim-
between stress and strain

coefficient of
of elasticity of the substance.

its
to
is
the
area of cross
section,
e,
elasticity
or
If L, be the
the elongation
produced by a force F, then the Young's Modulus of

the material composing the wire is
elasticity of
^'^-^
A
e
If the force be
measured
in
dynes,
in centimeters, then the value of
and
the
will be in
other
quantities
dynes per
sq.
cm.
102
The
Young's Modulus
od of stretching.
determine
to
is
of a metal in the
form
Of
value oi
the
of a wire
by the meth-
the quantities required
to
be measured, the only one that

requires considerable accuracy
the
value
of
the
elongation
is
e.
This can easily and accurately be
by means of the optical

lever. The upper end of the wire
is securely clamped to a rigid
support, and to the lower end of
fovmd
the wire
fastened a rectangu-
is
lar piece of metal terminating in
hook for the attachment of a
weight
This
pan.
piece of metal
ing or
rectangular
kept from twist-
is
swinging by being
through a loosely
ular hole
second
in
of the optical lever

Fig. 55.
hook,
bracket
One
fastened to the wall.
rectangular
is
supported by the bracket.
When
two
other
the
the wire
is
leg
supported
in the axis of the wire
while
let
fitting rectang-
by the
are
legs
stretched the optical
which can be easily measfrom which the elongation can be determined as follows
lever will be tilted through an angle Q
ured, and
n b
is
the optical lever with
its
mirror cb vertical,
a telescope
distant a meter or more, 00' a vertical scale divided into centi-
meters and millimeters.
now
will
The
angle* of incidence
is
now
0".
If
the wire be stretched by a small amount, the optical .lever
assume the position m' n
position.
The angle
b'
making an angle
of incidence will
now
be o
6 with its previous
a'
i=
the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection
But tan 2
0=
oo'^âo since the small distance aa'
6.
And
a' 0'
is
since
=^ 2
9,
negligible
Elasticity
103
C:3n
Fig. 56.
comparison with
in
\\'e
also
tan e
ao.
Since the angle
is
necessarily small,
have
= mn
= mn2Xa
Ian 6

and
straight
is
carefully suspended.
00'
(approx.)
See that the wire is

Put the optical lever in place
and adjust the mirror by means of the screw in front of the lever
Clamp the telescope scale veruntil it is approximately vertical.
tical and adjust height of telescope until the scale reading observed on the cross hairs is in the same horizontal plane as the
Starting with a weight in the weight pan sufficient
telescope.
to straighten the wire take the reading in the telescope.
is
Then add kilogram weights one
the zero reading.
weight pan
until the
each
addition.
is
Now
full,
This
at a time
taking the telescope reading after
reverse
process
the
removing
the
weights one at a time taking telescope readings after the removal

of each weight.
same
exceeded-
wire
The readings
of this second set should be the
as in the first set if the elastic limit of the wire has not been
is
Now
test the solidity of the
support from which -the
hung, by adding these weights successively to the top of
Any
the support, noting the readings.
lowering of the supporting
bracket produced by any of these loads must be subtracted from the
readings
made
to determine
e.
The diameter of the wire is

gauge. The length of the optical
to be
lever
upon a
the
two
feet
prick points made by
ing the feet of the lever
measured by a micrometer
m n is
determined by press-
sheet of paper, connecting the

that rested
on the bracket by a
Properties
104
oif
Matter
and then measuring the normal distance between the

this line by means of a pair of dividers
and a vernier scale. The loads added to the weight pan may be
determined with a platform balance weighing to grams. The
fine line,
remaining prick-point and
other measurements
may
be made by means of a meter
stick.
Substitute in the equation of Young's Modulus each separate

value of the elongation and the load producing it, and average
the results thereby obtained to get the final value of Young's
Modulus of
sult in
the material composing the wire.
Give the
final re-
kilograms per square centimeter and also in pountis per
square inch.
XXXII.
STUDY OF FLEXURE OF RECTANGULAR RODS.
Object and Theory of Experiment. If a number of rods of

any material, differing in length, breadth and thickness be supported on a pair of knife edges and loaded in the middle, it would
be expected that the flexure produced, that
/
is,
the displacement
of the middle point of the rods would be a function of the load
F, length between supports L, breadth B, and depth D.

is,
That
the law of flexure of rectangular rods of a given material
would be expressed by the equation
Ic,
a,
|8,
ment.
facts
y and
are
f'^lPb^d'
(1)
constaQts to be determined by expeii-
The object of this experiment is to ascertain whether the

warrant the acceptance of the equation above tentatively
assumed; and
stants.
if
they do, to determine the value of the fWe cona, p, 7, c. can be most easily obtained by
The constants
varying the independent variables one at a time and noting the
change of the dependent variable
/.
When,
in this
constants have been determined, the value of k
way, these four

is
obtained by
solution.
First
*Tliis
let
the load
experiment
Is
taken
"
ual of Physical Measurement
be varied while the other independent
wltli slight
modiflcation from Roed and Guthe's
"Man-
Elasticity
variables remain constant.
This
105
will give a separate equation for
each value of 'F used, thus
k F," L^^
B^
D'
Dividing one equation by another, two by two,
^F^
^-
-F,"
Ah = ^
F^"
^=-
we
get
-^^
"
F,"
Putting these equations into the logarithmic form,

log
log
log
log = o
log = a
h - log = a
l^
Zj
l^
/a
Z,
(log F^
F^
(log F,
(log
log
log
- log F,)
F.,)
7^3)
(2)
etc.
in
which
u\
denotes the value of
expressing the ratio of
l^
to
derived from the equation
c.
The mean
l^.
tained by solving the above equations
is
of the values of a obthe value of a in the
equation originally assumed.
Second
the length
let
be varied while the difference of load
F, and the other independent variables remain constant.

cisely the
same process described above

log l\
log l\
log I',
log
=
=
logl\=\
log
l'^
/3
Z'a
in detail,
we
log L2) log ij)

L, log L,)
By
pre-
get,
(log Li
(log ii
(log
(3)
etc.
The mean
is
of the value of
the value of
Third
let
j8
/8
obtained by solving these equations
in the original equation.
the breadth
be varied while the difference of load
applied F, and the other independent variables remain constant.
Now
will be obtained
log l\
log l\
log
Z" ,
log l\ = y
- log l\ = 7
- log ?% = 7
I
!
log
- log 3)
(log B, - log ,)
(log B,
(log
B.j)
B^
(4)
etc.
These equation^ give the value of y in the original equation.

Fourth let the depth D be varied, and observe the flexure /
when the same force F is applied to rods of the same material,
length and breadth.
This will result in the equations.
io6
log-
W"
log
Zi,'"
log Z,'"
log
/a'"
log W"
el
(log Z),
- log
X>,)
= e^ (log 7)3 - log D,)

= 4 (log K3 - log D,)
^ log Z,'"
(5)
etc:
The mean
of the above values of
exi3onent of
The
is
the value to be given to the
in the original equation.
equation obtained by substituting for
mula.
The statement
stitutes the
Law
of the facts
of Bending.
The
constants will very nearly be, a
p.
7.
their
an empirical forexpressed by this formula con-
values thus experimentally determined
is
called
values obtained for these four
=:i,/8=:3,y=
i,
3.
The
laws of bending would then be expressed analytically by the

equation
^=.4^
The value
(6)
is determined by substitutnig the

from any one of the preceding experiments. If a similar series of measurements be made upon rods
^, t. t,
will be found
of some diflferent material, the values of
previously
determined,
but
the
value
of k will
the
same
as
to be
that
constant
depending
A is a
upbe different. It is thus evident
on the material of the bar and not upon its dimensions, whereas the
other constants depend only upon the dimensions of the bar.
values of
/,
of the constant k
F, L,
and
<*,
In case the various values obtained experimentally for

for
^.
7,
"-
a,
or
or k were found to be not equal one to another, within
the limits of experimental error,
it
would be concluded that the
equation previously adopted involving these quantities as constants is in error.
Manipulation and Computation. The rods to be experimented upon should be about 50 cms. long and their transverse dimensions must be so selected that the same bars can be formed into
two series, one in which the bars have constant depth and variable
width, and another in which they have constant width and variable depth.
The
variable length
is
secured by adjusting the dis-
tance between the knife edges. After a bar
is placed on the supsuspended from the bar half

way between the knife edges and sufficient weight placed in it to
porting knife edges, a weight pan
is
El<ASTIClTY
107
good contact between the bar and
insure
known
addition of a
its
supports.
load the flexure of the bar, that
pression of the middle point
is
On
is,
This measurement
measured.
the
the de-
may
be conveniently made by means of a microscope furnished with a
micrometer eye
piece, or
by means of a micrometer screw fastened
to an adjacent support directly above the middle of the bar.
the
comes
mined
moment
the
case
latter
contact
into
with
when
the
the
bar
micrometer
can
be
In
screw
deter-
by means of a telephone in a battery circuit including

the bar and micrometer screw, or by observing the image of some
fixed object in a small mirror one end of which rests upon the rod
while the other end rests upon some adjacent fixed object.
Following the divisions of the experiment made in the theory,
first
either
make
a series of observations on a single rod by noting the
by different loads placed in the weight pan. Add

grams to the weight pan and observe the flexure, add 50
grams more and observe the flexure and so on until five equal in-
flexures produced
say, 50
crements of load have been added.
moving 50 grams
Then
reverse the process, re-
at a time taking observations of the flexure after
each change of load.
Thus we have two readings
of flexure for
In order to be certain not to load the rod beyond the
each load.
elastic limit, the student will find the actual loads that
may
safely
be applied on inquiring of an instructor. Combine the
five
values
of load and corresponding flexure as in equations (2) so as to get

a, as
n\.
ten values of
a\ ol
In case any value of I, as
etc.
l
has been wrongly determined, then every value of a contain-
ing the subscript n will differ sharply from the

servation
is
rest.
The n
th ob-
then to be repeated.
Second, by moving the knife edges vary the length of a single
rod
five times
and for each length of rod determine the flexure
produced by the same load

five different
of, say,
100 grams.
To
each of the
lengths of rod apply a load of 100 grams, observe
add 100 grams, observe flexure remove 100 grams and

Then we have three observations of the flexure
produced by 100 grams for each length of rod. Combine the
values of / and L as in equations (3) so as to obtain ten values of
flexure
observe flexure.
(3.
The
stick.
distances
L-^,
L2, etc., are to be
measured with a meter
io8
Third, with the distance between the knife edges constant,
produced in each of four bars or the same material

and depth but different breadth, by a constant load of, say, lOO
grams. Measure the breadth of the bars with a micrometer gauge.
find the flexure
Proceed as directed in preceding paragraph, using equations (4)

to find 7.
Fourth, with the distance between the knife edges constant,

find the flexure
produced in each of four bars of the same mate-
and breadth but different depth, by a constant load of, say, 100
grams. Measure the depth of the bars with a micrometer gauge.
Proceed as directed ni precedin gparagraphs, usnig eiquations
rial
(5) to find
...
Insert the final values of
P.
7.
in the general equation
and formulate in words the

expressed by the resulting empirical equa-
originally provisionally assumed,
statement of the facts

tion.
XXXIII.
YOUNG'S MODULUS BY BENDING OF A ROD.

Object AND Theory of Experiment.
lar
Consider
a rectangu-
rod or bar of length L,
breadth
B and
depth
to
be
fixed at one end
the other.
and weighted at
The rod will become
bent as in the figure.
The up-
per portion of the bar
is evi-
dently extended and the lower

5/-
bar
is
portion compressed.
Since the
strained by a longitudinal stress, and since Young's
Modu-
lus is defined as the ratio of the longitudinal stress to the longi-
Young's Modulus
from observations of the amount of flexure of the rod produced
tudinal strain, the possibility of determining
Elasticity
by different forces
is
The
evident.
109
is
to
determine the Young's Moduhis of the material composing a rect-
angular rod by the method of bending.

In the case of a bar of rectangular cross section, there will be
a neutral line gh, half
faces,
which
is
way between
and lower sur-
the upper
neither extended nor compressed.
Let
represent
/'
the lowering of the end of the bar under the action of the force
applied at
very
It.
ac and bd represent transverse sections of the rod
making
and
together
close
with one another.
angle
drawn
parallel to bd, then aa!
very
through
If
a line
<?,
small
a'
c'
be
and cc' represent the lengtljening

and shortening of the upper and lower fibres respectively. Now
it is evident that if all the fibres composing the rod tend to retain
be a couple tending to right
their original length, ihat there will
the bar, that
to
is,
make
a couple due to the force
about
e equals
horizontal.
it
at the
This couple
is
balanced by
end of the bar whose moment
F(eh) when the bending
is
Denote the
small.
dis-
ance eh by x, and the thickness ef of the very thin lamina

(îibrd) b}'
A X.
Consider the portion of the rod between ah and ef to be made

up of a very large number n of layers of depth A O and of breadth
equal to that of the rod.
If
whose distance from the
we
consider a layer of fibres as

axis
neutral
is
wzêf-{- the change in length of the element
The
cross section of this layer
is
/)).
we
0,
Hence
^x
B
if
-\-
ws
have
(AT))
represents
Young's Modulus for the material of the bar, the force of reaction
of this layer
is
E (cross
section)
{change in length)
_ EB
And
since its distance
from the neutral axis
& {A D)'
Ax
original length of element

is
A/J>
the
moment
of this force about e equals
E BejA J>)3
Ax
Similarly the momj^nt about
at a distance of 2
A D from
of the force of reaction in a layer
the neutral axis equals
E Be
(A D)' ^,
Ax
no
Therefore the
total
moment
of the forces of reaction in
the
all
layers above the neutral axis will be
= :|A?j^2.(w
But n
AD
A D)'+
SAD (
Z)^
=:
Z)
in all the layers
the total
o,
moment
above the neutral axis
B)^
(A
(n
(U
A D)]
Therefore, in the
equals half the depth of the rod.
when A
limit
(P+2- + 3^+---^)=
of the forces of reaction
is
E Be>^
24 A.T
moment
the forces of reaction below the neutral axis
But
the
will
be the same as the
moment
of
all
moment
Consequently the
of those above.
of the couple tending to right the rod wiL be
12Aar
Since the bar
ment of
is
about
moment must
in equilibrium, this
e,
that
equal the
mo-
is,
E Be
D^
=
12
p5-r
Ax
,,,
Fx.
(3)
and b draw aj and bk tangents to the curved surface of

Since aj and bk are approximately equal to x, and since
the angle between them is equal to 6, we shall have the distance
jk= X 6 approximately. Let the entire fall of the end of the
At
the rod.
rod
n be
called
/'.
/'
may
be regarded as
made up
of elements similar to jk, which will be denoted by
Therefore,
if Ix
represents the
/j,
/j,
number
/g,.
In
of the end of the rod due to
fall
the bending of an element at a distance
xe =
of a
x from
the end,
(4)
1:^
Let the length of the rod be imagined to be made up of a

very large number n of sections of length
and (4) be applied to the
first section,
E Be
D^
12AX
and
e A X
we
=-^^^
= h
A-*-
will
If
now
eqs.
(3)
have
.,
(^'
(6)
hi
Elasticity
Similarly for the second section from
rom the end,
E Be D^
12 A
2F^x
(7)
a;
and
2 e A
and so on throughout the

Combining (5) and '(6)
entire length of the rod.
a:
/^
(8)
127^(Aa-)^
''
B D'
Combining (6) and (7)

""^
EBD-"
Therefore
T2 /^CA jf")^
_
^
V
2/^
= -EBD^
But w A
when A ;r
The
\2
r
\_2
F (A xY r w
EBD^ V
{n ^
xY
2 ^
1)(2
1) 1
X (
xY
cc
=Z^, the length of the rod.
o,
+ (A ;r)2
{n
A x)j
(9;
Therefore in the limit
eq. (9) becntnes
result just given is for a rod fixed at one
ed at the other, and shows the
fall
made of a material of
downward on the free
length L, breadth B, thickness or depth D,
Young's Modulus B, when a weight
end and load-
of the free end of a rod of
acts
end.
In. the case of a
rod supported at both ends and loaded at
middle point with a force

ing L), the rod
may
be regarded as equivalent to a similar one
fixedatthe middle point acted upon by vertical forces of

end.
Or, in other words, the rod
same material and
Making
is
j4F at each
equivalent to two rods of the
cross-section but of half the length of the
original rod, fixed at one end
of yiF.
its
(the distance between the supports be-
and loaded
at the other
L^
with a force
we have
these substitutions in (10)
TY
112
Manipulation and Computation. Measure B and > at a

number of points along the rod by means of a micrometer gauge or
vernier caliper.
Measure L, the distance between the two knife
edges with a meter stick. Place the rod on the knife edges and
suspend from the middle point a weight pan containing sufficient
load
bring the rod into
contact
with
the
to
good
knife edges.
The flexure / of the rod produced by an additional load F may be measured either by means of a microscope
fitted
means
of
with
a
an
eye
micrometer
center of the rod and
moving
piece
screw
in a
micrometer,
the screw
moment when
comes into contact with the rod can be determined
by means of a telephone in a battery
by
the
nut fastened to a rigid sup-
In case the micrometer screw. is used, the
port.
or
above
placed
circuit including the
either
rod and
micrometer screw, or by observing the image of some fixed object

in a small
mirror one end of which rests upon the rod while the
other end rests upon an adjacent fixed support.
Add, say, lOO grams to the weight pan and observe the flexadd lOO grams more and observe the flexure add lOO grams
more and observe the flexure then reverse the process taking off
lOO grams at a time and observing the flexure produced by each
ure
change of
load.
The readings of
flexure for a certain load should
be the same the second time that they were the
first
time.
In
In order to be certain
case they are not, repeat the observations.
not to load the rod beyond
its elastic limit,
maximum
be applied to the particular rod being
load that
may
the student will find the
used, on inquiry of an instructor.
Give the
also in
final result in
pounds per square
kilograms per square centimeter and
inch.
XXXIV.
DETERMINATION OF SIMPLE RIGIDITY.

(vibration method.)
Object and Theory oE Experiment. The Simple Rigidity

or Slide Modulus of a material is defined as the ratio of the force
developed on unit area of cross section of a rod by a shearing
Elasticity
113
torsional deformation producing
strain, to tlie
That
it.
the
is,
simple rigidity,
sheat ing stress
**
The
shearing strain
is
to determine this
constant for a material in the form of a thin wire.
Consider a cylindrical rod or wire of length
and
/,
radius r with one end fixed and the other end twisted
through an angle
This will cause an element of
</>.
AB
the surface as
From
to be displaced to AB'.
diagram we have
BB'
BB'
=
e
J and
consequently 9
the
<t>r
j-
That is at every point of the cylindrical rod distant /

from the axis and / from the fixed end, there is a
(p
Whence from
shearing strain equal to j

tion, the
shearing stress developed at a point distant
from the axis and
:t^r
Fig. -g
defini-
at a distance
from the fixed end
equals
~ii
<l>
Imagine any hxpss section of the rod to be divided into a

large number, n, of concentric rings of infinitesimal width
The
the rod will be, beginning from the center,

etc.
r.
area of these separate annular portions of the cross section of
And
moments of
the
ttA;-^,
3 ttA?*^, 5 TrA?-^,
the forces developed on these various
annular areas by the distortion, will be
J
lid)
Whence, the
the rod
r=
A ]
(t
it is
'^
[IX
'
r'^)
r,
1^
+3X
2^
T=
T=
<l>
61
>
(Stt
r^) 2
etc,
r,
TT
+5X
(7*
[3 n*
r'
(3 '
^-^-g-^
TT
32
h (2
!)']
summation obtained algebraically by
Substituting for the series its

the method of differences.
/J.
(b
torque action across the entire cross section of

twisted through an angle <^ is
total
when
+4
(m
+ 4 '
,
r)^
- n)
- (w A
r)
r^]
114
But
since
the center
Taking
n is the number of concentric rings of width A r between

and circumference of the rod, n ^r =r, so that
U, d> IT
T=
^-^j-
=o
as limit
r-
[3 ('
+Ar'h.r-ris.
j-^]
which is the moment of the couple that must be applied at the

free end of a rod, having the other end fixed, when the rod has a
length I and radius r, and is made of a material of rigidity
in
fx.,
order to maintain a torsion
<^.
Consequently
if
a massive body
suspended from the lower end of a wire, be turned about the wire
as an axis through an angle of
radians from its position of
</>
zero torsion, the
moment
of the stresses exerted by the lower end
of the wire on the massive body will have the magnitude
T=^'
(1)
This moment will tend to twist the wire toward the position where
the wire has zero torsion with an angular acceleration given by
the equation
""=
where a
is
the angular
ant stress and / the
T-=\-2Tr)'>'
acceleration, T the moment
moment
'^)
of the result-
of inertia of the suspended body.
In equation (2) the quantities within the parenthesis are all

therefore the angular acceleration varies as the angular
constants
displacement.
From which
of the wire
harmonic.
vibration
is
it
follows that the motion of each part
The time
of a single simple harmonic
is
t^^î^ = .{-^^Y^
Whence, the Simple Rigidity of the material composing the wire
(3)
is
Suspend from the lower
end of the wire a massive body of such a shape that its moment
of inertia can easily be computed, for instance, a solid iron cylinder
El<ASTICITY
with
its
IIS
The moment
axis coincident with that of the wire.
of
from eq. 6, p. 94. Focus

mark on the cylinder. Being
inertia of the solid cylinder can be obtained
a reading telescope on a vertical
careful to avoid any swinging, set the cylinder in small torsional
By means
vibrations.
of a stop watch, read accurately the time of
the o, 10th, 20th, etc. passages of the
of the telescope.
observers, one
on a
taps
It will
who
mark
past the cross hairs
be conveniently accomplished by two
by means of sharp
and the other who will observe the
will indicate the passages
table with a pencil
time.
The
radius of the wire can be measured by
As
crometer.
power
it
this
means of a mi-
quantity enters the equation to the foilrth
must be most accurately measured. Measure the diameter
of the wire in not less than ten places distributed about equally
length and take the mean.
Measure the length of the

and the radius of the cylinder
with a micrometer caliper. The mass of the cylinder is to be
measured within o.i gram. Reduce the final value of the simple
along
its
wire with a meter stick or
steel tape,
rigidity to kilograms per square centimeter
square inch.
and
also to
pounds per
Properties o^ Matter
ii6
XXXV.
DETERMINATION OF SIMPLE RIGIDITY.

(statical method.)
Object and Theory of ExPERiMENT.~The preceding method

is
applicable only to wires of such small radius that the time of
Pig. 6o.
vibration of a suspended mass will be
sufficiently great to
The
served.
be accurately ob-
present method
applic-
is
able to heavier rods.
In the method here employed a
massive disc
is
fastened to the lower end
of the rod, having

^
its
upper face grad-
uated into degrees, and having around
i^BsBBBi
its
edge a
series of pins placed ioapart.
In front, and bact of the disc are placed
two horizontal
'
Fig
^q.
couple
tal
is
scales.
The
twisting
applied to the disc by horizon-
forces acting tangentially to
pended by threads which pass in
its cir-
Masses m and m' are susfront of the two horizontal scales.
cumference.
ELASTICITY
The threads can be looped on
117
the pins in the edge of the disc, thus
twisting the disc through an angle which can be read by means
of a pair of pointers fixed above the graduated disc.
tude of the force developed by the twist
The magni-
determined by the
is
weight on the ends of the threads, the deviation of the threads
from the
measured along the horizontal
vertical as
scales,
and the
length of the vertical threads from their point of support to the

horizontal plane containing the pins in the edge of the disc.
Let the magnitude of the forces produced in the horizontal

m and m' be denoted by F and F.' Then, from
plane by the masses

the diagram
tan
When
('
mo
= -^
F
m a
a
F=
fh
or
,1,
(1)
the two masses in and m! are equal and their supporting
threads are looped over diametrically opposite pins, F=^F'.
Call-
ing the normal distance between the supporting threads at the

plane of the pegs
twist
moment
d, the
of the couple developed by the
is
h
It
has been shown in the discussion of the general theory of
simple rigidity, that in the case of a cylinder of length
made
<l>
of a material of simple rigidity
radians, the
(eq.
I,
moment
radius
of the couple developed by the twist
r,
is
p. 114.)
If the twist of the cylindrical wire or
rod be
in radians can be determined as follows. Since

is
/,
twisted through an angle
ju.
;8
degrees,
an angle
its
value
in radians
measured by the arc subtended divided by the radius
3(0=
TT
IT
radians,
and
Combining
measured
eqs.
(2)
^r,
or,
1=
i-ttt;
radians
radians
and (3), and transforming the angle

we have
in radians to degrees,
360
'""
g a d
h^T'r^
(4)
ii8
ManipuIvATion and Computation.
Measure the diameter of
by means
Measure h with a meter stick or steel
tape. Find three values of a and j8 by looping the threads on different pins and by placing different loads in the weight pans. The
loads in the two weight pans must be equal. If the threads are
looped directly over the pins, the value of d must be determined
for each observation. This distance d will, however, remain constant and a single measurement of it will suffice, if instead of loopthe rod or wire with the greatest care in at least ten places
of a micrometer gauge.
ing the supporting threads themselves over the pins, a horizontal

loop of thread about 20 cms. long fastened to each of the support-
ing threads serves to connect them to the pins on the edge of the
These horizontal threads should be of equal length and

With this arrangement d
disc.
looped over diametrically opposite pins.

equals the diameter of the disc.
Give the
final result in
kilograms
per square centimeter and also in pounds per square inch.

I.
For heavy rods the apparatus shown in annexed figure is

most convenient.One end of
the rod
is
fastened
rigid support,
er
end
is
to
and the oth-
fastened
to a
large divided head that can

rotate with very
little fric-
The torque
duced by means
is
weight and
passing
tion.
cord
over the edge

head.
if
pro-
of
the divided
Deduce the equation
for finding the simple rigidity
of a substance with
apparatus and show

what errors are inherent
in this method that do not
this
occur
method.
in
the
preceding
Elasticity
119
XXXVI.
DETERMINATION OF THE MODULUS OF ELASTIC

RESILIENCE OF A ROD.
Object and Theory
the energy
resilience or
when
01?
ExPERiMENT.-^Resilience of a body
possesses due to a strain developed in
it
it.
The
is
ultimate
modulus of resilience is the strain energy of the body

up to the elastic limit. Corresponding to the dif-
strained
erent types of strain are different types of resilience, as tensile re-
The
silience, flexural resilience, torsional resilience, etc.
of a material
volume.
is
The
resilience
usually given either in terms of unit mass or unit
The rod
is
to determine the flexural
on two knife edges

and be distorted by a force applied at the middle point. Let
L^length of rod between supports in cms.
resilience of
a bar or rod.
^^cross
p =
is
to rest
section in sq. cms.
density.
m=mass
F^load
of rod between supports
in dynes necessary to strain
AL
gms.
rod to
its elastic limit.
/=:displacement in cms. of middle point produced by F.
Since until the elastic limit
is
reached, the distortion varies
with the force applied, the average force acting while the distortion
is
increasing from zero to
I is
yi F.
ergy stored up in the specimen, that

silience of the
rod
is,
Therefore, the strain en-
the
modulus of
flexural re-
is
i?=%F/ergs.
The modulus
= -- =^-j
R
and the modulus of
^^
or, if force is
R"
(i)
of flexural resilience per unit of volume

c.
Tn
measured
(-')
c.
flexural resiliance per unit of
mass
=
in
2pAL
^'^^
P^*"
^""''
*^^
grams' weight {F') instead of dynes,
PI
= jy gram-centimeters per gram.
7y
is
Fl
li
ergs per
is
'
,A
(4)
Properties ot Matter
120
Since the dimensions in eq. 4 reduce to a length,
when
force
is
tic resilience
it
follows that
reckoned in gravitational units, the modulus of elas-
per unit mass has the dimensions of length.
For
this
reason tables of values of modulii of resilience are often given in
terms of centimeters or
feet.
MANIPU1.AT10N AND Computation. The apparatus consists

of the rod to be examined with its ends resting upon knife edges,
and a microscope fitted with an eyepiece micrometer to measure the
deflection of the rod. All of the apparatus must be placed upon
a rigid support free from vibration.
Measure the length and
cross section and determine the mass of the bar between the knife
edges. Focus the microscope upon a fine cross engraved upon the
the center of one of the vertical faces of the bar, or upon the point
of a needle fastened rigidly to the middle of the bar.
add weights
Carefully
pan suspended from the middle of the bar taking a reading of the deflection after each addition. During the
progress of the experiment carefully plot weights and deflections
on cross section paper the weights as abscissas and deflections as
ordinates.
As would be expected from Hooke's law, the line
connecting these points is straight from the point of zero load up
to the
and from there it bends

Thus, from the curve one readily
to the point representing the elastic limit,
toward the axis of
abscissas.
obtains the value of the load necessary to strain the bar to
its
and the deflection produced by this load. All the

now at hand for determining the value of the modulus of
elastic limit,
data
is
flexural resilience per unit volume, or per unit mass.
ally
less
1.
Find he modulus of flexural resilience of the rod graphicfrom the curve plotted, without the use of any equation.
2.
Would the modulus of flexural resilience be greater or
than the modulus of tensile resilience? Give fully reasons
for the difference.

3.
If a wire of length L,
made
of a material of density p
and Young's Modulus B be elongated by an amount e when

stretched up to the elastic limit, show that the modulus of tensile
resilience per gram, when forces are measured in gravitational
units
is
Viscosity
E e'
B,
=:
-pz
121
pj centimeters.
Using the same nomenclature
4.
as in previous question,
equate the work required to stretch the wire a distance e with the
work required
to raise
it
against gravity to a height h, and
show
that
From an
5.
= Ti2e
rrg L'
centimeters.
inspection of the equations given in the preced-
ing two problems deduce a definition of modulus of tensile
resil-
ience.
By what
6.
in
gms. per
c. c.
factor
must the Modulus of Resilience expressed
be multiplied in order to give the modulus in cen-
timeters length?
By combining
7.
the
equation
of
Young's Modulus by
stretching, with the value of the tensile resilience per unit volume,
show
that
where
represents the tensile stress at the elastic limit and
represents Young's
Modulus of the
material.
Chapter
XL
VISCOSITY.
XXXVII.
STUDY OF DAMPED VIBRATIONS.

Object and Theory 0? Experiment.
When a body
harmonic motion encounters
ly vibrating with simple
retarding force, the period, amplitude and form of the
altered.
motion that
effect of friction or
motion
ment
is
is
called a
may
original-
friction or
any
wave
is
be considered to be produced by the
any retarding force upon a simple harmonic
damped
to determine
vibration.
from a
The
object of this experi-
series of observations
made on a
122
damped
damping constant and also to construct two

curves, one representing the damped vibration actually observed,
and another representing the simple harmonic motion from which
vibration, the
the latter
may
periment
is
phenomena
it
The theory
be considered to be derived.
of this ex-
many
of such great importance in the consideration of

in Elasticity, Electricity, Heat,
Sound and Light,
that
should be performed and thoroughly understood' by every stu-
dent specializing in Physics, Electrical or Civil Engineering.
Al-
now to be developed cannot be completely followed by a student who has worked through less than one semester of calculus, still, such a student can obtain much good by
thought the theory
accepting the final equations and making the required observations
and
calculations.
In the case of a simple harmonic motion

I'
where V
is
A' sin
ypr
the displacement of the
equilibrium at time f, A',
is
we have
(")
body from the position of

and
the
the amplitude of vibration
period.
Our object is now to determine the corresponding equation

when there is a retarding force acting on the body producing a
damped vibration. Whenever such a retarding force produces a
damped vibration, the eifect or magnitude of this force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body.
In the case of simple harmonic motion,
if
the displacement
of the particle "from the center of
denoted by
its
the phase reckoned
path be
from the
same point be denoted by 6 the amplitude

of vibration by r, the maximum acceleration
of the particle by a', then the acceleration at
any time t is given by
pj(5_ 52.
dU
when
/,
the displacement
the retarding force
is
is
a sin 6
small.
But when there
a
is
damping, since
proportional to the velocity, the acceleration
diminished by an amount proportional to the velocity. Therefore, in the case of damped vibrations, the above equation becomes
is
Viscosity
dU
df -
"-
where k
123
I
"'
dl
rfP
dl
dt
,-)<
^^-Tt
This being a linear equation with constant

ceed to solve
by making lê'"' where
it
termined, and e
.
since
tlie
'"^
coefficients,
is
we
will pro-
a constant to be de-
the base of the natural or Naperian logarithms.
is
dl
mi
e
-rr
dt
me
dH
,nt
-rrr
dV
'
^n e
preceding equation becomes
)"
m +
is
greater than
1,1
o
a'
motion
the
Ik''
a'
k^
When -3-
"
a constant depending upon the retarding force.
is
d'l
whence
is
non oscillatory;
d'
tlie roots of the above equation are

less than
r
4
itniginary, so that above equation m:iy be put into the form
_ll_ is
^jjgn
>
m =
fi
(3)
where
II
k^
=-\j
and
has
usual mathematical significationi/ 1.
its
We have now two values of m
denoting them by m^ and m^, they
are
)!
Hence
if
'"^
f" i" *
-J
Wi and m^
^""
"'2
satisfy equation (3)
^
2
'*'
("Ms
an integral of
equation (2) and if Wi and Wj

the solution of (2) will be of the form
are distinct roots of equation (3)
Substituting the values of
m^ and m^
,^ it
I
Ci
_y^kt
fji.it
C,
_ ^
e
124
Prom trigonometry
'*'
cos n
t -\- i
siii
t.
Consequently
?
[Ci cos M
'
[(cos
t)
(Ci
cos
lit
-\-
/*
(^4
Since this equation

the time
t^
<
C2)
sin n
sin
t-\-
sin ^
(i
/)
C^ cos
(Ci
<
/n
Cj
sni
'
ju <]
6%)
yu.
true whatever be the time
is
and
Ci
t, it
hold for
will
time and displacement be reckoned from
if
when tô,
the position of equilibrium, then
l=ô and consequently
A=o. Whence
kt_
I
In order to
of
fji.
of the
t,
we
make
= Be
sinut
(4)
comparable with
this equation
eq.
i )
the value
must be determined
in terms of the period, of vibration
damped
Differentiating eq. (4) with respect to
vibration.
obtain the value of the velocity at any time
t,
*
kt
TT
=B
(m
cos
ju.
-5- siii
/i t)
In periodic motion the velocity equals zero at the end of a half

oscillation, at the
end of three halves,
the time of a half oscillation by
equation must equal zero.

is
evident that
zero
if
By
the velocity
Denoting
five halves, etc.
when
then
the above
t^^to,
inspection of tne above equation
it
be
zero
is
when
to. it
will also
when
+
TT
t=
to
= to+
/*
Since the period of a vibration
a complete vibration, that

case
is,
TT
is
=to
TT
.
etc.
defined as the time occupied by
a double oscillation, the period in this
is
r=
Substituting this value of n in eq. (4)

of a damped vibration
(5)
we have
for the equation
Viscosity
_
.
125
kt
sin
had been no retarding force, k would equal zero, that is,

and if there had been no retarding force the period T
I
in eq. (i).
Consequently
would be equal to that denoted by
A'=^B. The above equation now assumes its final form
If there
H *<
This
is
damped
the equation for a
motion
vibration.
It is
the
form equa-
assumes when the body moving with simple harmonic
tion (i)
acted upon by a retarding force proportional to the
is
speed.
The
ratio of the length of
same direction
damped
vibration
cillations in the
by
and
/j
l^
A'
T=
same
any two succeeding swings in the
deduced.
Since
the
two consecutive
the time between
direction
period of the
os-
Consequently, representing
is ~ij,.
the amplitude of any two consecutive oscillations

kt
li
now be
will
r,
sin
-y
kt
=:A'e
h-A'e
'
'
'
" ^ sin?^^ =
'*'sin^<
k
Therefore,
-y-
1^
)e
sin
-^
<
^'
^'e
(a
constant)
'2
Substituting the value of
ja
from
eq. (5)
and putting
into log-
arithmic form, the above equation becomes

nat. log.
or
log.
That
is,
0-
-r
=
=
7y-
^-
X (a constant)
^ T =
Ic
I02* &
\ log
(7)
the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of any two suc-
ceeding oscillations in the same direction equals a constant quantity
times the period of the vibration.
The
natural or Naperian logarithm of this constant ratio
is
126
usually represented by
X and
is
called the logarithmic
terms effecting the damping and as

mentally,
decrement
Since the logarithmic decrement includes
of the vibration.
damped
it is
most frequently discussed
are
vibrations
the
all
determined experi-
easily
in
terras of the logarithmic decrement.
The
between the period of a simple harmonic vibraand the period of the damped vibration (T) can be
relation
tion, (T')
readily obtained.
In the case of a simple harmonic motion 7^'= 2
-v
a
"
'
and
damped
in the case of a
2 T
vibration
T'=
(eq 5
whence
I
from definition of
/*.
k^\
Whence
(8)
It will
damping
be noticed that in the final equations (6), (7), (8), the

It may make the equation appear
factor appears as yih.
form if this factor be denoted by a single symbol. Deby Y we can write the equations that will be hereafter
in a simpler
noting
it
used as follows:
This
is
2t
A' sin -7p
,1,.
(1 )
v.
the equation of a simple harmonic motion, in which
from the
resents the displacement

t'
rep-
position of equilibrium attained

2
in time
/'
A' the amplitude; T, the period:
siid
IT
-fr
the phase
expressed in radians.
For the case of damped
^^^
0.4343
A'
or
T'^
vibrations,
sin
-^
2.3026
1,7
+
ys T^ 4,
Zb
(^')
log-
<r
(7')
(8')

Viscosity
In which
127
represents the base of Naperian logarithms,
e,
<t,
two successive oscillations in

same direction T, the period of the damped vibration y,
the damping constant and /, the displacement from the position of
the ratio of the amplitudes of any
the
equilibrium in time
t.

this
The apparatus used
experiment consists of a massive cylindrical metal
mersed
in
water or
oil,
suspended axially by a
disc,
in
im-
wire from a
steel
Fastened to the rod connecting the disc with the
rigid support.
is a divided circle by means

of which can be
measured the displacement through which the disc is twisted
from its position of equilibrium.
Being careful not to give the disc any swinging motion, twist
the disc through an angle of about 180, release it, and let it
oscillate torsionally.
The length and diameter of the supporting
supporting wire
wire must be such that the period shall be not
than thirty
less
seconds.
Readings are now
to be
made which when
resent the vibration of the disc.
value of the displacement
/,
at
This
will
any time
plotted will rep-
be a curve giving the
t.
If the
chronograph
available one observer will be sufficient; but if time
is
must be ob-
served from a stop watch, three observers will be required
one to observe time, one to observe displacements of the disc and

one to record observations.
on the
The time observer
will tap a pencil
table every five seconds, the displacement observer will
read the displacement of the disc at that moment, and the recorder will write
time.
is
down
this
reading in his note book opposite the
Observations should be taken until
sufficient
experience
obtained to secure accuracy of reading and then two sets should
be taken, each covering about ten periods of the

Plot these observations on cross
abscissas
section
disc's vibration.
paper with time for
and displacements for ordinates.
The accuracy of the observations from which this curve

constructed will now be tested by computing the magnitude
the following
the times
5,
manner of
10,
15, etc.
is
in
several displacements corresponding to
seconds.
time of ten complete vibrations.
With
From
a stop
watch observe the
this observation
determine
128
the period T.
Make
a series of readings of the turning points of
and to the left. The number

divi^ns through which the disc has turned in rotating
successive oseyiations to the right
of scale
from the right end of
its
oscillation to the left
end
is
the amplitude
Fig. 63.
of that
left oscillation.
and right
Call the amplitude of these successive left
Then
oscillations Lj, L^, Lg, etc., i?i, R^, Rg, etc.
j^ =
-j
etc.
p-
tj-
etc.
a.
T and of o- thus obtained in eq. (7')

damping constant y is deduced. From the
curve already plotted representing the damped vibration, take
the first turning point as the starting point with reference to which
other points of the curve are to be located by computation. By
means of this curve determine the displacement l^ of this point.
The time may be taken as î=^T since it is a quarter period from
By
substituting the value of
the value
of
the
the position of equilibrium.

the period,
damping
the value of A'
is
On
substituting these values
constant, displacement
obtained.
The
and time,
values of
all
for
in eq. (6'),
the constants
y, and A' have now been determined, so that by assigning to

t any convenient values the corresponding displacements can be
computed. Plot these points on the same sheet that the curve
T,
Viscosity
obtained directly from observations
computed curves should coincide.
129
is plotted.
The observed and
The true sine curve representing the simple harmonic motion

from which the damped vibration may be considered to be derived will now be constructed. By means of eq. (8') deduce the
value of 7''. The two constants A' and T' of eq. (i') are now
known. Mal<e t' successively equal to 5, 10, 15, etc. seconds and
compute the corresponding values of /'. Plot these points on the
same sheet that the damped curve is plotted.
The curve showing the rate of damping of the amplitude of
vibration of the disc can easily be constructed as follows.
L,ay
off equal distances along the axis of abscissas of the curves al-
At each of these points find the ratio

undamped displacement for that particular
ready drawn.
to the
new curve on
the
same axes using these
of the
damped
time.
Plot a
ratios for ordinates
and
which they belong for abscissas.

Test Qiiestions and Problems.
I.
Show that when an elastic body is deformed by an
amount too small to produce permanent set, and then is released,
it will vibrate about its position of equilibrium with harmonic
the times to
motion.
XXXVIII.
DETERMINATION OF THE ABSOLUTE COEEFICIENT

OF VISCOSITY OF A LIQUID.
(poiseuii,i,e's
Object and Theory
01?
method.)
Experiment.
It is
found by ex-
periment that the tangential force necessary to maintain a constant difference in speed between two parallel layers of liquid
in parallel directions varies directly with the difference of
moving
speed
s,
the area
of the layer, and inversely with the distance d
separating the two layers.
That
is,
As_
I^=
11
130
The
The
constant
r;
is
called the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
would then be defined
coefficient of viscosity
as the force
required to slide past one another two parallel surfaces of the
through unit distance
liquid of unit area, unit distance apart,
unit time.
The
is
in
to determine the ab-
solute value of the coefficient of viscosity of a given liquid.
Consider a column of liquid flowing through a tube of length
and of a radius r, so small that there will be no eddies' in the

Imagine this column to be made up of a large
liquid column.
number 71 of concentric hollow

Slipping
may
acting on a liquid cylindrical rod of radius

in the pressure
on the two ends, and the

due to the
.b
Imagine that slipping occurs
Ar
viscosity of the liquid.
is s.
Then
the force acting
speed
is
r)",
its
(,T
to viscosity tending to retard
on the ends of the rod tending to increase
and the tangential force due

speed is from eq. (i)
immediately
Let p be the difference in hydro-
pressure at the two ends of the tube.
2ir
forces
in the adjacent layer of thickness
relative speed of the rod to the layer
outside the slipping zone
The
are the difference
resisting force developed
at the cylindrical suiface
static
r.
be -considered to occur between any two of these
concentric cylindrical tubes separated by a distance A-.
and that the
cylinders of very small thickness
r) /.s
its
,"
(c
1]
A/-
Since these forces are in equilibrium

P
TT
ir
A rY
IT f.r
-;
'/
'
1;
whence
aT
p (x A
r)
A r
(2)
2 Iv
This equation shows that the difference in speed between an

axial cylinder of the liquid of any radius
and the adjacent
varies directly with the radius of the cylinder.
It
also
layer,
shows
that the absolute speed of the various concentric layers irfcreases
with diminishing diameter.

centric layers
their-
If
it
be imagined that these con-
of liquid be congealed' without interfering with
abiHty to slip past one another, then on account of this dif-
ference in speed, at any instant after the flow has begun, the end
Viscosity
131
of the innermost cylinder will protrude beyond the end of the adjacent layer, this second layer will protrude beyond the end of the
and so on.
third layer,
Let
represent the speed of the innermost cylinder relative
s^,
to the second layer
Also
third, etc.
^2,
the speed of the second layer relative to the
v^,
let
represent the volume of the portion of
beyond the end of the

volume of the second solid cylinder that protrudes beyond the third layer, etc. Then the entire volume discharged by the capillary in time i is
the innermost cylinder that protrudes
second layer
V2,
the
V=
=
(A /)'
TT
(3)
obvious that
It is
,
v^+v^+v^-lj-
-'i
=ir(2Ar)^s'
r^
r)=
<
= ^ (3 A r)^ S3
etc.
whence
r=wt
On
[.^l
(A
rV
+ S2
substituting for
A ry
(2
S3 (3
s^, S2, s^, etc.
s{nA rf^
their values obtained
from
eq.
(2) we obtain,
v=
-^-^â^ + 2^ + ^^ + ---u^)
ir
pt
{Ar)'_
'i-nl
But
Ar
4^
r.
p,
where
then
is
/;
(n
+ iy
+2Ar
(n
In the limit whtii Ar
If the pressure is
sity
)i'
[(
r)*
r)^
r' Qi
r)'']
due to a column of liquid of height h and den-
= p'jh.
'"
Also for volume
may
be substituted
the mass of liquid discharged from the tube in time
Making these substitutions, we have for the

n
-f-
= ^n-TT-?

is mounted vertically in a water
and stirrer S as shown in Fig. 64.
coeflficient
(<^-
G- S. Units)
The
jacket fitted
t.
of viscosity,
capillary tube
/c-)
with a thermometer
The upper end
of the capillary
132
tube opens into a small reservoir bearing on

zontal
marks
its
surface
two
hori-
K K'.
The
length
of
mean
tube
the
measured with a meter
radius of the bore
is
The
stick.
deter-
is
mined by measuring the length of

a known -mass of mercury at different positions along the length of
An amount
the tube.
sufficient
to
make
of mercury
a thread about
two centimeters long is drawn into

the tube by suction applied at the
opposite end,
and this thread is
measured in length at different
equally spaced
along the
positions
means of a
dividing engine. Knowing the mass
of the mercury thread and the avlength of the tube by
erage length, the average radius of

the bore of the tube
is
determined.
tube with a bore departing very
much from
jected
ill
uniformity must be re-
determining the absolute
coefficient of viscosity.
The apparatus
is
now assem-
means of a cathetometer, measurements are made of the

heights of the two horizontal marks
bled and by
KK'
Fi<^- 64.
cleaned by allowing to run through
and
distilled water.
soon as the surface of liquid
is
tube.
it,
The
capillary
is
the upper
mark K,
and
m of eq.
The beaker
is
num-
falls to
then removed and weighed.
(5) determined.
As
a weighed
placed under the outlet of the capillary and the
lower mark K'.
now
poured into the reservoir.
falls to
ber of seconds noted during which the liquid surface
is t
is
in succession, water, alcohol
After the tube and reservoir has been dried,
the liquid being investigated
beaker
above the outlet of the cap-
illary
the
Thus
Viscosity
The mean of
KK'
marks
the previously observed heights of the
above the outlet of the capillary
Knowing
quired in eq. (5).

investigation,
all
is
the density p
two
the value of h re-
of the liquid under
the quantities necessary for the determination
of the coefficient of viscosity are

plete
133
now known. At
least five
com-
of observations should be taken, substituted in the
sets
equation, and the
mean
result taken for the coefficient of viscosity
of the liquid at the temperature of the experiment.
The
must not be confounded with

The former depends upon the
speed, while the latter depends upon the square of the speed.
of viscosity
coefficient
the coefficient of liquid friction.
I.
Instead
cosity,
it
is
the
of
absolute
frequently
"specific viscosity," that
is,
sufficient
of
vis-
determine
the
coefficient
to
the viscosity of the liquid
with the viscosity of water.
This determination
is
compared
often
made
and f required for the discharge through

the same tube of equal volumes of water and of another liquid.
A convenient device to secure the discharge of equal volumes is to
by noting the times
always start the flow with the upper surface of the liquid at a
mark (K
in
upper surface
diagram) and to continue the discharge

falls to
until the
another mark, as K' in diagram.
Deduce the equation
to be
used for determining the relative
or specific viscosity of a liquid by this method.
PropkrTies ot Matter
134
XXXIX.
DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC VISCOSITY OF

LIQUIDS.
(coulomb's method.)
Object and Theory of Experiment'.

experimental
difficulties as that
uniform bore and circular cross

its
On account of such
of obtaining a capillary tube of
measuring
from minute air
section, of accurately
diameter, and of keeping the capillary free
bubbles and particles of foreign substances, the determination of
by
the coefficient of viscosity
some.
The
present method
Poiseuille's
Method
the relative or specific viscosity of liquids
By
of a series of liquids.
is
is
very trouble-
applicable to the determination of
is
to
however
turbid.
The
determine the specific viscosity
specific viscosity is
meant the
viscosity
of the liquid compared to the viscosity of water.
In the "Study of
if
Damped
Vibrations"
it
was
seen that
a massive disc suspended axially by a thin vertical wire be im-
mersed in a liquid and

two successive swings
set into torsional vibration, the ratio of
in the
same
direction
is
known
of the retarding force developed by the liquid, that

cosity of the liquid.
vibration in
two
Consequently
is,
any
function
to the vis-
the disc be set into torsional
if
liquids successively,
and the
ratio of the ampli-
tude of successive swings in the same direction be determined for
each liquid, the relative viscosity of the liquids can be determined.
Let
17 V
represent the coefficient of absolute viscosity of the
two successive amplitudes of vidirection when immersed in the

first liquid, T^ the period of vibration of the disc when immersed
in the first liquid, and y the damping constant for the first liquid.
In the same way let 12 "a ^'2 and 73 represent the corresponding
first liquid, <ti
the ratio of any
same
bration of the disc in the
quantities for the second liquid.
Then from
eq. 7' p. 126,
7i
72
T2 log
2'i log
Vi
o-i
0-2
"
V2
(say)
(1)
Viscosity
135
where r is the relative viscosity of the two Hquids. If the second liquid be water, then :: is the specific viscosity of the first liquid.
Îaxipulation and Computation. Coulomb's Method is
especially suited to the determination of
the relative viscosity
of those liquids
used in engineering and the arts which

are liable to contain particles of solid
substances in suspension,
cating
e.
g. lubri-
oils.
In the
apparatus
employed,
here
Fig. 65, one end of a thin piano wire

is
fastened to a rigid support while the
other end
attached to a vertical rod
is
carrying a divided circle and the mas-
which
sive disc
is
The
which
thin stem by
carrying
rod
the
cle.
The
it
being
by an
oil
is
studied
in
disc has a
fastened to
divided
cir-
containing
the
the
vessel
liquid
immersed
to be
the various liquids.
is
surrounded
bath heated by means of a
Bunsen burner.
As
very
tures,
the viscosity of
at
difllerent
it
is
many
different
liquids
is
tempera-
always necessary to make
the determination at the temperature

at
which the liquid
is
to be used.
instance a test of cylinder
made
Fig. 65.
at
oil
For
should be
about 150 to 175 C, while
most machine
oils
should be tested at
about 50" C. Since the relative viscosity
of
many
pairs of specimens of oil
change of temperature of
less
is
than iooC,
even reversed with a
it is
impossible to judge
relative viscosity
the relative lubricating value of oils from their
determined at a temperature much different from the temperature
at
to be used.
has been cleaned and assembled, and
apparatus
the
After
which they are
136
the temperature of the specimen has attained the required value,
the disc
is
twisted through about 180 by rotating the rod above
the divided circle.
With a
One
complete vibrations.
period T^.
Make
stop watch observe the time of ten
tenth of this time in seconds
cessive oscillations to the right

scale divisions
cessive left
the
and
to the left.
The number
of
through which the disc has turned in rotating
from the right end of

tude of that
is
a series of readings of the turning points of suc-
its
oscillation to the left end, is the ampli-
left oscillation.
and right
Calling the amplitudes of these suc-
oscillations L^, L^, L^, etc., i?i, R^, Rg, etc.,
we have
In the same manner find T^ and o-, for the second specimen.
These values of T^, T^, o-j and Ci substituted in eq. I, will give
the relative viscosity {s) of the two liquids. With liquids having
viscosities not
very different, the value of T^ will be so nearly

may approximate unity but it is never
equal to T^ that their ratio
allowable to assume their ratio to be unity without experimental

verification.
Instead of reckoning viscosity in absolute units or with reference to water at some standard temperature, the viscosity of a
liquid is sometimes rated in comparison with the viscosity of an
aqueous solution of sugar having a definite concentration and

For example, the viscosity of a certain oil at 50 C,
temperature.
may be specified as being equal to the viscosity of an 18% aqueous

solution of pure sugar at 20" C.
Values of the viscosity of
aqueous sugar solutions of various concentrations, referred to
water, are given in Table 12.
PART
HEAT.
II.
Chapter
XII.
THERMOMETRY.
^Measurements of temperature by means of the mercury
thermometer are subject to so many sources of error that an
accurate determination of temperature
is
a task of some
difficulty.
Nevertheless, thermometric methods have become so highly de-
veloped that by taking proper precautions and making proper
corrections, a measurement of temperature between o

ioo C.
The methods decan be made with an accuracy of 0.0.05'.
scribed in the following pages correspond to an accuracy of
about 0.05".
The
principal sources of error inherent in a mercury in

thermometer are
Errors due to the changes in the volume of the bulb
I.
lagging behind the changes in temperature.
A rising thermometer indicates too low, and a falling thermometer too high
a temperature. This lag is due to the viscosity of the glass of
which the thermometer is made. If a thermometer be kept at
glass
a uniform temperature, of say 20 C, for some days, and be then

plunged into a bath of melting ice, and the temperature observed
and if it be then heated to a temperature of 100 C, or more,
and plunged into the bath of melting ice, the temperature now
observed will be lower than the one previously obtained.
In
such a case, the zero point
may
degree for some kinds of glass.

is
greater as the temperature
that the thermometer
is
is
be depressed as
The
much
as half a
depression of the zero point
increased, or the time
is
increased
kept at the higher temperature.
The
depression of the zero point persists for weeks and even months
Thermometry
138
before
the
temperature
normal volume of the thermometer at its present

is attained.
While a thermometer is being used at
temperatures,
various
zero
the
point
therefore constantly
is
This makes no temperature determinate unless the
changing.
value of the zero point at this particular time
known.
is
The
value of the zero point can be obtained by cooling the thermometer
down
to the temperature of melting ice immediately after the
desired temperature reading has been made.
Then,
errors affect the observation, the true temperature
between
ence
the
This
is
and
temperature
observed
the depressed zero.
if
is
value
the
called the "depressed zero
of measuring temperature and
is
no other
the differ-
of
method"
method capable of
the only
yielding the most accurate results attainable.

2.
Errors due to inequalities in the bore of the tube. These
errors are corrected by calibrating the bore of the tube by a
method described on a subsequent page.

3. Errors due to the exposed column of the thermometer
being at a different temperature than the bulb.
Let
represent the temperatuix of the air surrounding the
t'
exposed column.
n the number of degrees in length of exposed column.
thermometric
observed
the
reading
corrected
for
calibration.
the required true temperature of thermometer.
the coefficient of apparent expansion of

glass
mercury
in
0.000155.
whole of the mercury were at the temperature T, the

would become n {i-{-^{T
t') ], that is, the thermometer reading would be increased by n A ( T
therefore
t')
If the
length n
T=
so that
4.
+
=^
Error
n A
t
-\-
(T
t')
-YZZ
0.000155 n
in the
(t
J- =t+nA (tf) approx.
n A
I'
f)
approx.
graduation of the stem
that
is,
the distance
between the boiling point and freezing point of water is not

divided into exactly one hundred equal spaces. The true mean
value of one unit of the scale in degrees
Errors op Thermometers
where
7',, is
as observed
139
the true temperature of the vapor of boiling water,
by the thermometer, 'and
/^
is
the depressed zero
reading taken immediately after To was observed.

5. Errors due to changes in the pressure to which the bulb
is
subjected.
Any change
of pressure will cause a change of the
height of the mercury column independent of any change of
temperature.
Usually the experimental method can be arranged
so as to eliminate this source of error.

6.
\-cry
;n little
is
Error due
to capillarity. In the case of a
thermometer of
move smoothly but moves

much greater when the temperature
small bore, the mercury does not
jumps. This error
falling than
when
is
rising.
In
fact, this capillary action
makes
measure a falling temperature by

means of a mercury in glass thermometer.
This
7. Errors in reading the thermometer due to parallax.
is one of the most common sources of error and one of the most
easily obviated.
Usually the scale of a thermometer is at some
it
impossible
to
accurately
distance in front of the capillary, so that,
ing the line of sight
is
if
when taking a
read-
not normal to the length of the tube, the
reading will be too high or too low.
The two
principal
methods
emplo3'ed for keeping the line of sight normal to the length of

the thermometer tube are,
first,
to place the eye so that the
image
of the scale seen reflected in the mercury at the end of the mercury
column
to
is
brought directly behind the scale
itself
and second,
observe the thermometer at a distance by means of a telescope
containing a crosshair in the eye piece, the telescope being fastened
rod placed parallel to the thermometer tube. The

must be arranged so that when it is moved along the
supporting rod to observe the end of the moving column at
different heights, it will always remain normal to the supporting
rod.
A cathetometer is usually most convenient for this purpose, but a short open tube without lenses having cross- hairs at
the two ends and sliding either on the thermometer itself or on a
normal
to a
telescope
parallel
rod serves the purpose very well.
Thermometry
I40
THE BECKMANN THERMOMETER.

A
thermometer designed to estimate temperatures to thou-
sandths of a degree requires such a long space for each degree

of scale, that,
if
constructed on the ordinary plan the range of the-
instrument would be limited to a few degrees.

quire the use of a
number of instruments
ordinary laboratory work.
When
it is
This would re-
to cover the range of
not required to determine
temperatures but only small temperature differences, the

thermometer devised by Beckmann can be used at any temperadefinite
ture for which a mercury in glass thermometer

pecularity of this thermometer
is
a reservoir
is
available.
The
Fig. 66, at the
upper end of the tube, by means of which the quantity

of mercury in the bulb can be increased or diminished.
long and is divided into
The scale is usuahy about 5"
hundredths of a degree.
fl
In setting the instrument, a sufficient amount of

mercury must be left in the bulb -and stem to give readEirst invert
ings between the required temperatures.
and
the
tube
thermometer
tap
so
that
the
mercury
the
in the reservoir will lodge in the bend B at the end of
the stem. Now heat the bulb until the mercury in the
stem joins the mercury in the reservoir. (See Eig. 66).
Place in a bath one or two degrees above the upper
measured. If now the lower

end of the tube be gently tapped with the hand, the
mercury suspended in the upper part of the reservoir
limit of temperatures to be
down, thus separating it from the thread

B.
The thermometer is now set for readings
bend
at the
temperatures.
required
the
between
will be jarred
66.
Calibration op Thermometers
141
XL.
CALIBRATION OF A MERCURY-IN-GLASS
THERMOMETER.

the bore of a
thermometer
It is
obvious that
if
not uniform in cross section, the
is
length of the tube corresponding to a degree difference in temperature will not be the same at different parts of the tube.
uniform
And
as
it
is
practically impossible to get a perfectly
it
is
necessary to determine the correction to be applied to any
capillary,
particular reading to take account of the irregularity in the bore
of a thermometer.
on
the
scale.
tion
stem,
The
Again,
this
if
will
the fixed points are incorrectly placed
introduce
object of this experimer>t
an
is
error
throughout
the
to construct the calibra-
curve of a thermometer, or the curve of corrections by
means of which the error
in
any reading due to either the
ir-
regularity of the bore or the location of the fixed points can be

corrected.
The experiment
a short thread of
tube,
and from
two parts.
measured at
consists of
mercury
is
these lengths
is
First, the length of
different parts of the
determined the position of points
throughout the whole length of the tube that separate equal

volumes. Second, the position of the fixed points is determined
by placing the thermometer in the vapor of boiling water and
also in melting ice.
The short thread brok-
en off from the column of mercury can be of any convenient

length not to exceed the length of ten degrees of scale.
The
separation of this short thread requires
some manipulation.
In
Thermometry
142
blowing the bulb on a thermometer tube, usually a slight conIf such a therstriction is left where the bulb and tube join.
jar, the thread
sudden
a
then
is
given
inverted
and
mometer is
will separate at this point.
no constriction
at this point,
be separated by laying the thermometer on a
may
the thread
If thei'e be
and striking the upper end of the tube with a little mallet
If
consisting of a rubber stopper on the end of a short rod.
inside
produced
be
this is not carefully done, however, cracks may
If the bore has an enlargement at the
the stem near the bulb.
upper end, let the entire column of mercury run into this enlargement and remain there throughout the remainder of the
table
experiment.
Then warm
the bulb
slightly
until
a thread
of
mercury of the proper length runs into the tube, and separate
this
from the mercury
in the bulb.
This
be used throughout the experiment.
is
the thread that will
In case the capillary has
no enlargement at the upper end in which the mercury column

can be stored throughout the subsequent experiment, it may be
necessary to use two short threads to calibrate the two ends of
When
the tube.
mixture of
ice
this is the case cool the
and
salt until
all
bulb with a freezing
the mercury has run into the
is to be broken off.
Separate
and let it run to the farther end of the tube.
In order to make measurements in the lower end of the tube,
this part of the thermometer must be freed of mercury and an-
bulb except the short length that

this short thread
other short thread separated as before.
The
discussion of the remainder of the experiment
may
be
by considering a concrete example. In the thermometer used, there was an enlargement at the upper end so that one
short thread could be used throughout the entire length of the
scale.
The thermometer was placed horizontal on a table, the
short thread was set with its lower end near the point marked
zero, and the positions of the two ends were carefullv read to
facilitated
tenths of a degree.
half of
its
Then
the thread
length and the positions of
was moved along about

its
end points again read.
The thread was again moved along about half of its length, and
so on until the point marked lOO was reached. The readings obtained are given in the following table
C.\I,IBR.\TION Ol?
Lower end
ThRRMOMETEUS
143
Thermometry
144
short thread between each succeeding pair of points just de-
termined.
From
these
values,
determine the
of the thread between the equal volume
points.
average length
In
the' third
would
column, put the position which the equal volume
fourth
In the
have had, if the capillary had been uniform.
points
column put the difference between the quantities in column three

and column one. These values in column four give the corrections to be applied to readings
scale, to take
made
at diflfertnt parts of the
account of the inequalities of the bore of the tube.
Construct a curve by plotting as abscissas the quantities in column

one,
and as ordinates, the corresponding values from column
Points on scale be-
four.
Calibration of Thermometers
145
corrections that must be applied to readings at different points

along the scale on account of irregularities in the bore.
The
now
correction for the displacement of the fixed points will
be
By
considered.
(0 C. or 32" F.)
is
lower
the
definition,
fixed point (100 C. or 212 F.)
is
point
fixed
the temperature of melting ice.
The upper
defined as the temperature of
and latitude 45"

under a barometric pressure of 76 centimeters of mercury when
the barometer is at the temperature 0 C.
the steam produced by boiling water at sea level
Observe the barometric height, noting the temperature of the

b}- means of the thermometer attached 'to the instrument. Ascertain from the laboratory instructor the latitude and
barometer
altitude of the laboratory.
From
these data compute, in the
man-
ner explained on page 155 the corrected barometric pressure
reduced to standard conditions.
Suspand the thermometer

the vapor of boiling water.
must not be immersed
in
in
It
the
boiling water or be so near the
surface that the bulb
will
be
spattered by drops of water, be-
cause the temperature of boiling

is not constant but is in-
water
fluenced by the nature
surface
composing
of
the
vessel
the
and by the presence of sHght

quantities
ties.
vapor,
of
Fig. 70.
of a reservoir
impuri-
however,
of
depends
the
only
upon the pressure.
Regnault's
very
satisfactory
hypsometer
Fig. 69.
dissolved
The temperature
^^j.
(.j^jg
is
purpose.
which the water
is
It
con-
boiled, sur-
Fig. 6g in
which the thermometer is suspended. After
passing through this tube the steam passes through the jacket /
and escapes into the air at B. For precise work Guillaume's hypsometer, is employed. This consists of the boiler A Fig. 70,
s'ists
mounted by a tube
10
in
Thermometry
146
surmounted by the jacketed tube

is
into the air
in
which the thermometer
In this instrument, the steam instead of escaping
suspended.
is
condensed by a current of cold water circulating
and then trickles back into the boiler.

Both forms of hypsometer have a water manometer
which serves to measure any difference of pressure between the
steam inside and the air outside. If the manometer indicates a
pressure of d millimeters of water, or d-î^.S millimeters of
mercury, then the total pressure on the surface of the boiling
in the condenser Cj
water
is
(d
-{-
Remove
-f-
Call the observed boiling point T'.
13.6).
from the hypsometer, allow it to

C, and then immerse in a vessel filled
which contains enough water to fill the
the thermometer
cool in the air to about 40"
with snow or shaved ice
This gives the depressed zero point.
interstices.
By
reference to Table
vapor of water boiling

this
temperature T".
at
14 obtain the temperature of the
a pressure oi
Manifestly (T"
upper fixed point of the thermometer.
-\-
T')
((i-^13.6).
is
Call
the error of the
In the example above
considered
T' = 99 8 99 4 = o. 4" C,
and the error of the freezing point was 0.3 C.
T"
correction to be appHed to the observed boiling point
That
is,
0.4
the
C,
and the correction to be applied to the zero point is +0-3" C.
If now on the same sheet of coordinate paper containing the coris
rection curve for irregularities of bore, the freezing point cor-
rection be entered along the axis of ordinates opposite the zero
of abscissas, and the boiling point correction be entered opposite

the observed boiling point, and these points be connected
DEF
by a
straight line, as
shown by
rections for
intermediate points of the scale resulting from
all
Fig. 68, this line gives the cor-
the displacement of the fixed points.
By
adding
the
ordinates
for the irregularities of bore,
A B
of
the
correction
curve
C, to the corresponding ordi-
nates of this correction curve for displacement of the fixed points,
D B P, the new curve H G F
is
obtained.
This
is
the Calibration
Curve of the thermometer.

In case the calibration
is
done with two mercury threads
Calibration of Thbrmometbrs
from each end
to
The curve analogous
to
instead of one, the calibration should extend
a distance past the middle of the tube.
147
Fig. 67 obtained from these data will not be a continuous line.

Along the region where data were taken with both mercury
threads, one branch of the curve will be above the other.
In
two curves for

This ratio must be
this region find the ratio of the ordinates of the
a given position on the thermometer scale.
same for all points on the thermometer scale. By multiplying

any ordinate of one curve by this constant ratio, the corresponding ordinate of the other curve will be obtained. Proceeding in
this manner, a continuous curve is obtained just as though all of
the calibration had been performed with a single mercury thread.
the
The Determination
When
op
Unknown
thermometric measurements
Temperatures.
are
taken under such
conditions that the depressed zero point remains constant, the
measurement of an unknown temperature requires simply that

the observed reading be corrected for stem exposure, and then
this result corrected for nonuniformity of bore and for displacment of the fixed points of the thermometer by means of the calibration curve.
During a
series of
measurements of temperatures extending
over a considerable range of either temperature or time, the constancy of the depressed zero point cannot be assumed.
In this
case take the thermometric reading so soon as the indication has
become stationary and then obtain the value of the depressed

zero by plunging the thermometer into a bath of melting ice.
After correcting the observed thermometric reading for stem
exposure, nonuniformity of bore and for displacement of the
fixed points of the thermometer, subtract
value of the depressed zero.
from
this
result the
Thermometry
148
XU.
CALliBRATION OF A PLATINUM RESISTANCE
THERMOMETER.
glass
thermometer
peratures
the gas
is
much below
The
mercury
30
C, or above
-)-
Although
300 C.
thermometer can be used for any temperature for which
a suitable material to construct the bulb can be found,

a large
in
unavailable for the measurement of tem-
awkward
it
is
such
instrument, and the difficulties of the manipula-
tion are so considerable that
it
is
suitable only for standardizing
more convenient types of thermometer. Since the electrical resistance of most metals varies continuously with the temperature
according to definite laws, and since the accurate measurement of
resistance
is
attended with no considerable
difficulty,
thermo-
common
use for
meters depending upon this property are in
measuring high and low temperatures. Platinum is the material

usually employed from the fact that its resistance at any given
temperature does not change with time, and also from the fact
that
is
its
temperature coefficient of resistance
also especially convenient
from the
is
ing the temperature and resistance of a wire

terial is
large.
fact that the
expressible by a simple formula.
It
made
Platinum
law connectof this
ma-
has been shown by
experiment that if /? represents the resistance of a piece of pure

platinum at 0 C.^ then the resistance Rg at t C, is expressible
by the equation
R,
where Rq, a and
periment
is
=R,[i
at
bt^]
b are constant quantities.
The
(I)
object of this ex-
to determine the value of these constants for a given
platinum resistance thermometer.

If the resistance of the
wire at three different temperatures
be known, three equations of the fonn of eq. (i) are obtained,
and from these equations the values of the three constants can be
calculated.
The freezing point and boiling point of water are
Calibration of Thermometers
149
two convenient temperatures for the experiment. The remaining

temperature required by the experiment can be the boiling temc. g. sulphur which boils
But from measurements of the resistance of wires
very low temperatures, Dewar and Fleming have shown that
perature of any convenient substance,

at
at
444.5 C.
at the absolute zero of temperature,
resistance of
pure metals
all
resistance of the
is
highly probable that the
is
it
Assuming
zero.
this relation, the
thermometer wire need be measured
at but
two
This simplified process gives the values of the
temperatures.
constants in eq. (i) with sufficient accuracy for most purposes.
Representing the resistances cf the thermometer wire at the temperatures

R'",
we
t"
t' ,
shall
and absolute zero by the symbols

R'
^R^[i+at' +
R"
=R^[i+at"+b it"r]
= R^ [1 273 a + (273)' b] = o
R'"
From
R',
R" and
have
(ty]
(2)
(3)
(4)
these three equations the values of the three constants
and R can be obtained. Knowing these constants together

with the resistance of the thermometer wire when at any una,
known
ternjurature,
this
temperature
can be calculated
from
eq. (I).
The Wheatstone bridge method

be employed in this experiment.
ABC
ADC,
and
of measuring resistance will
In this method two conductors
Fig. 71 are joined in parallel to the ter-
Battery
Battery
\^
Galv.
-e _KL
BL
K
Fig. 72.
minals of a battery.
on the conductor
ADC
It is
obvious that corresponding to any point
ABC,
there
is
wire.
Represent the potential
symbols
V^
F3 ,etc.
D on the conductor
two such points be con-
a point
same potential.
which is
nected by a conductor B D, no current
at the
If
will flow
at the points
along this bridge
A, B,
Let the resistance of the
C and D by the
arms A B, B C,
Thermometry
ISO
A D
and
D C
be denoted by
R-^,
R^ R^ and R^
respectively.
F^
In the case considered, since
h = hThen by Ohm's
i^,
= Fj,
i^,
ig
Ji
law,
_Va-
Let
and h
4 and
respectively.
the current intensity in these arms be denoted by
Va
Vb
Vb
Vc
-'3- Vb
^^
Vc
Vb
'4
R,
_, _
whence
Va
Vb
Vb
Va
Vb
Vb
Vc
(5
Vc
(6)
Rz
Dividing eq. (5) by (6)
Ri
^1
î
we have
Rl
(7)
A*4
known, the remaining unarrangement can be

modified so that only one known resistance is required. Suppose
the conductor ^ D C is a long uniform wire. Let /g and /j be
the lengths of this wire from A to D and from D to C respectively.
Then since the resistance of a uniform wire is proportional to its
length, it follows that when no current passes along the bridge
B D,
Thus
three of the resistances are
if
known
resistance can be determined. This
| = tKnowing one
of the resistances and the lengths
maining resistance
is
The
consists of a coil of fine platinum wire
frame enclosed
in a
l^
and
l^,
the re-
determined.

mometer
^)
wrought iron
capsule.
Fig. 7z.
resistance
ther-
wound on a mica
In order to eliminate
Caijbration
01?
Thermometers
151
errors due to a change in the temperature of the leads extending
from
Wheatstone bridge, a second pair of leads

placed side by side with them throughout
the coil to the
precisely like the
first is
from the Wheatstone bridge
their entire length extending

coil in the capsule.
By measuring
at different
to the
temperatures both
the resistance between the terminals of the coil and the resistance
dummy
between the terminals of the

sistance of the coil
is
leads, the
change in the
re-
obtained independent of any change in the
resistance of the leads.
In this experiment,
the
particular
form of Wheatstone's
bridge called the "slide wire" or "meter" bridge will be found
most convenient.
comparison
clear.
of
This apparatus
Figs.
71 and 72
A long uniform wire
is
is
illustrated in Fig. 72.
will
make
the construction
stretched over a divided scale.
The
ends of this wire are connected to a parallel copper rod in which
two gaps. In one of these gaps is inserted the resistance i?,

measured while in the other gap is inserted a known resistance R^. One end of the bridge wire terminates in a sliding
contact key K^ which can be moved back and forth along the
are
to be
slide wire.
In the bridge wire circuit
is
a galvanometer for indi-
cating the passage of current.
W^hen a mirror galvanometer, telescope and
scale are used,
they must be placed in such relative positions that on looking
through the telescope toward the galvanometer mirror, a reIn making this adjustflected image of the scale will be seen.
ment, place the telescope with the attached horizontal scale so as to
face the galvonmeter at about one meter's distance.
behind the scale and looking
vanometer needle, move the eye about
Now
standing
mirror attached to the gal-
at the
until a reflected
scale is seen in the mirror. If the telescope
is
now
image of the
placed where the
is situated, it is obvious that on looking through the telescope

toward the mirror the same image will be seen, as soon as the
If the galvanometer mirror does
telescope is properly focused.
eye
not face the middle part of the scale,

the control
magnet attached
to the
it
should be adjusted with
galvanometer case.
focusing the telescope until the image of the scale

the eyepiece back
and forth
is visible,
After
slide
until the cross hairs are not only dis-
Thermometry
152
tinctly visible but also
when
the scale
do not move with reference to the image of
the eye
is
moved.
After the telescope, mirror and scale are in adjustment make

the electrical connections as
shown
With
in Fig. 72.
the re-
thermometer packed in a bath of melting ice and the

terminals of the coil of platinum wire connected to the binding
sistance
gap marked R^ in the diagram, balance the Wheatmoving the sliding key K^ back and forth until
such a position is found that on first pressing the key K^ and immediately afterward pressing the key K^ no deflection is visible
in the telescope. Note the resistance R^ and the lengths 4 and l^.
Then from eq. (8), we have for the value of the resistance being
measured
posts of the
stone bridge by
R,=R,^.
(9)
In the same manner find the resistance of the

the temperature of the resistance thermometer
melting ice
represented by
is
found
the resistance just
is
t' ,
dummy
when
leads.
If
in the bath of
then the difference between
the value of R' in eq. (2).
Proceeding in the same manner find the resistance of the

coil when immersed in a steam bath.
If this tempera-
platinum
ture be denoted
by
t" , the resistance will
R"
be the value of
in eq.
(3)-
In making these temperature measurements one must press

the keys for the shortest possible time else the resistance coil will
be heated by the passage of the current.
The
sliding key
K^ should
never be moved while in contact with the wire, nor should
it
pressed before the battery key K^.
most
sensitive
when
of the wire,
differ
it
Since the bridge
is
be
the balance occurs with the slider in the middle

follows that the
much from
the
unknown
known
resistance
resistance
R^ should never
R-^.
By means of eqs. (2), (3) and (4) together with the values
R" t' and t" now obtained, the three constants a, b, and i?^
of R' ,
can be computed.
eq.
On
(i), an equation
is
substituting the values of
a,
and R^
in
obtained which gives the relation between
and the resistance of the coil for any temperature.

Such an equation, containing experimentally determined conthe temperature
Therm AL Expansion
153
whose value cannot be deduced from theory,
stants
called an
is
empirical formula.
Substitute for
200,
formula tht values

273",
and 400 and compute
in this empirical
100, 0, 100, 200, 300
the corresponding values oi
R ^. With
these values plot a curve
and t. The accuracy of the preceding work

should be tested by measuring the resistance of the thermometei
coil at various known temperatures and comparing these observed values with the corresponding values given by the ctirve.
coordinating
Chapter XIII.
EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS.

^^'hen the temperature of a body
sure kept constant, in general,
is
changed and the pres-
linear dimensions will suffer a
its
change which
is a function of the change of temperature. If a

body at 0 is heated through a small temperature range, the
change in the length of any linear dimension is found to be directl}' proportional to the change in temperature.
Thus if a
rod which has a length of l^ at 0 be heated successively to temperatures t^ and t^" (where t^ and t^" are not far from 0), then
its
length at
t^ will
be
/,
= /(i+o^)
(i)
where a is a constant called the mean coefficient of linear expanSimilarly the length of the rod at 1.^
sion between 0 and t^"
.
will be
l^
= l(i +
where
a^ is the coefficient of linear
Since
^1 is
heated from
nearly equal to
<i to ^2
t^" ,
a.,t^)
=
'
solids-
a^.
is
^1) (i
/ (I
-f-
fl
at-^-j-a^t^"
in this case
î)
is
-^ a
ti
etc.)
so small that without appreciable error,
the terms containing a^ and higher powers
Whence,
t.
Consequently, on being
the increase in length of the rod
^lâit^
In the case of
(2)
expansion between oand
we have
may
be neglected.
Thermal Expansion
T54
l,
When, however,
it is
k = ka{t^
found that the change
to the
in length is
change in temperature, that
is,
is
(3)
considerable,
not directly proportional

a
is
no longer a constant
In this case the relation between the length and tem-
quantity.
perature
t^)
the change in temperature,
expressible by the formula
is
/^
/ ( I
+
+
+ o" + a'" P + etc.)

+
+ =
/^
a' f
(4)
where
o" ;
a'" f
etc
a.
a'
For most substances, a", a'" etc. are so small as to be quite
0.000012
negligible. For instance, in the case of wrought iron, a'
while a"
0.00000002 and a!" is too small to be accurately
measured.
Consequently eq. (i) is usually employed instead
of eq. (4) except where the range of temperatures is very great.
By precisely the same reasoning as above, the law of cubical
expansion is found to be expressible by equations of the same
form as the equations of linear expansion. Thus we have
,
v,
the temperature variation
when
the temperature variation
2/1
z;(L
tions v^ represents the
and
0 and t^.
at t^
p. the
v{\
when
pt,)
+ ^'/i+/3"/,^+etc.)
is
considerable.
volume of the body
mean
is,
its
analogous to
eq. (3),
2^2
we
will
Wi
is
(8
second and higher powers
(6)
In these equa-
at 0,
coefficient of cubical
In the case of solids and liquids

containing
(5)
small, while
is
may
z',
the
volume
expansion between
so small that terms
be neglected.
That
have
vi ? {ti
or
^1)
(7j
v^
fo
But in the case of gases, j8 is so large as to render this approximation unallowable. If a gas has a volume v^y at 0, its volume
at ^1 and at t will be equal respectively to
Consequently
v^
=:
v^
and
(1 -\-?t^)
1 -I-
v,
Z/2
z/o
;8
^,
or
+ ?t^
t^
z-j,
(9)

Barometric Corrections
15;
Reduction op Barometric Readings.

If the Torricellian
devoid of matter and
if
vacuum above
a barometric
column were
there were no capillary force between the
mercury and the tube, then the weight of a barometric column

would equal the pressure of the atmosphere at the place where
the barometer is situated. The space above the mercury column
is,
however, filled with mercury vapor which exerts a small
pressure depressing the mercury, and the capillary action between the mercury and glass tube also diminishes the height to
which the mercury will rise. It follows that the observed barometric height
than the true barometric height.
is less
Again, even though the pressure of the atmosphere remained
mercury column may be alby a change of temperature which not

only alters the density of the mercury in the barometer and consequently its height, but which also alters the length of the scale
used to measure the height second, by a change in the force of
gravity acting on the mercury as it is moved to different parts
constant, the actual height of the
tered in
two ways
first,
of the earth's surface.
Consequently, in order that barometric
readings taken at different temperatures and at different parts of

the earth's surface
may
be compared one with another, they must
be reduced to the heights that would have been observed
barometer had been at some standard temperature and
The standard
standard position on the earth's surface.
at
if
the
some
conditions
arbitrarily selected are the temperature of melting ice
and the
altitude of the sea level at latitude 45".
In precise work a barometric reading must be adjusted in

the above four particulars,
two are reductions
of which two are corrections and
The method
to standard conditions.
of
mak-
ing these corrections and reductions to standard conditions will
now
be considered.
I.
Temperature.
Let
and
height and density of the mercury at
represent
and
let
the
observed
v repiesent the
volume of unit mass at this temperature. L,et h^, p, and v^
represent the corresponding quantities at 0" C.
Then we have
P
Pa
g ho
and also
t ,
Vo Po-
156
But
Thermal Expansion
Expansion
oi^
Solids
157
XLII.
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS.
The
object of this
experiment is to determine the coefficient of linear thermal expansion of a metal. From eq. (3) p. 154 we have for the value of
the coefficient of linear expansion of a solid
{I.
A)
where l^ represents the length of the body at t^ (l^

/J is the
change of length produced by changing the temperature from
to t, and a is the mean coefficient of expansion of the body
f,
between the temperature f^" and t.,.
In this equation the quantity that must be measured with
the greatest care is the change of length. This can be measured
directly with a micrometer screw although it can be measured
more accurately by means of some form of lever that will magnify the change of length by a known amount.
If the specimen being studied is in the form of a long wire
,
or rod
it
should be suspended vertically, surrounded by a steam
jaclcet, afid its
change of length obtained by me.ms of the form

XXXI. If the specimen
of optical lever described in Experiment
in the form of a short rod or tube, either of the following

methods may be used.. "
In the first method to be described, one end of the specimen is supported by means of a Y (A, Fig. 74) while the other
is
'ami:
Fig.
74.
Thermal Expansion
158
end, B,
is
supported
b}'
a form of optical lever devised by Dr. F.
composed of a stirrup shaped

CEFD Fig. 75, on which are ground two parallel
and B F. The stirrup is
knife edges
supported on the edge CD while the specimen i-ests on the edge B F. Attached to the
and a pair of counterstirrup is a mirror
poising masses H, H. Wlien the specimen
C. G. Mueller. This optical lever
piece of steel,
is
CD
changes
its
length,
the
optical
through a small angle.

of the rod
The length
lever
is
tilted
l-^
at t^ is ob-
tained directly by measuring the distance
Th?
between the knife edges A and B.
change of length produced by a change of
temperature {t^ t^ is obtained from the
measurement of the angle of rotation of the
Fig. 75.
with the distance between

and B F oi the optical lever. The angle
of rotation is obtained by means of a telescope and vertical scale
placed at a distance of about one meter from the mirror of the
optical lever.
Focus the horizontal telescope on the vertical
mirror so that the numbers on the scale become distinctly visible.
The angle of incidence of the light ray from the scale to the
optical lever thereby produced, together
the
two knife edges C
Fig. yS.
Expansion
mirror
is
now
0.
angle of incidence
is
will be tilted
now
159
temperature of the specimen be
If then the
changed, the optical lever
Solids
oi?
76)
(Fit;'.
through an angle 6. The

and since the angle of
:
reflection equals
the angle of incidence, the angle
Denoting the
by L and the
distance
of
the
scale reading 00'
tan
If the distance
2 e
s,
we
0'
^2
0.
mirror
the
= -^,
C
between the knife edges
small,
is
from
we have
scale
by
my
optical lever (Fig. 75) be denoted
the angle
will also
111, it is
and
E F
oi the
obvious that when
have tan
(/,
l^)^^m.
Therefore
(It
/i)
?w
tan e
ms
= 2^
approx.
^^
This approximation should be used only when tan
Another method of determining (4

gree of accuracy
is
î)
2e<
0.05.
with a high de-
to use a small roller for obtaining an indication
known amount.
shaped supports, one
of the change of length of the rod magnified by a
The specimen
is
held horizontally in two
Fig.
-jt.
of which is fixed (M, Fig. Tj), while the other, (A/'), is fastened
to a horizontal plate of glass resting on two rollers made of
hardened
steel rods.
(Carefully selected sewing needles answer
two rollers resting on

which
moves as the
a glass bed plate constitutes a carriage
length of the specimen is changed. A light pointer fixed to one
very well.)
of the rollers
This movable support with
moves over the
carrying the pointer
is
its
face of a divided circle. If the roller
situated
directly
below the
support-
ing the movable end of the specimen, then the indication of the
Therm Ai, Expansion
i6o
pointer will be unafifected by any change of temperature of the

carriage.
Let the diameter of the roller carrying the pointer be denoted

by d; and when the carriage is displaced with reference to the bed
of the
plate by the amount {k
k), let the angular deflection
Then the roller is
pointer thereby produced be denoted by 6^.
360.
displaced along the bed plate through the distance 6 tt d
And since the carriage moves along on the roller by this same
amount, it follows that the displacement of the carriage with
reference to the bed plate
^2
^1
is
2e
IT
e T d
350
(3)
180
ManipuIvATion and Computation. In the case of Mueller's

optical lever, the normal distance between the knife
D and E F, Fig. 75, is obtained either with a dividing
Assemble the apparatus and by
engine or a vernier caliper.
means of a meter stick, measure 1^, that is, the distance between
the two knife edges A and B on which the specimen rests. ObAdjust the telescope and scale as diserve the temperature t^.
Measure the distance from the mirror to the
rected on p. 25.
scale with a meter stick or steel tape. Observe the scale reading
in the telescope, send a current of steam for some minutes through
the jacket surrounding the specimen and take the new scale
reading. The difference between these readings is
in eq. (2).
Observe the temperature t^ by means of the thermometers inserted
form of
edges C
.?
in the
steam jacket.
In the case of the roller method, measure the diameter of the

roller
Assemble the apparatus, being

is normal to the length
with a micrometer gauge.
careful that the roller carrying the pointer
of the bed plate,^ and

divided circle.
on the
pointer.
The
a,lso
that
it
is
at the exact center of the
carriage should be placed at such a position
roller that the
Now, by means
is
directly
above the
roller carrying the
of a meter stick, measure
l^,
that
is,
the
two Ys on which the specimen

Observe the temperature t^ and also the reading of the
rests.
pointer on the divided circle. Send a current of steam for some
minutes through the jacket surround hig the specimen and obdistance between the edges of the
Expansion
serve the
new
oi?
Souds
position of the pointer.
i6i
The
difference between
two readings of the position of the pointer is the value of &

Observe the temperature t^ by means of
to be used in eq.(3).
the thermometers inserted in the steam jacket.
1. \Mien the roller method is employed to determine the
these
change of length of the specimen, show that the roller suffers ;i

Knowing
translation along the bed plate equal to J4 (4
h)the dimensions of the apparatus used, compute the error this fact
introduces in the value of a determined in the experiment.
2. Suppose that in the roller method,
the angle through
which the roller turns is measured by means of a mirror, telescope
and scale. Show any change this procedure would make in
eq. (3), and point out any advantage or disadvantage this arrangement would possess over the arrangement using pointer and
divided
3.
stance
circle.
Prove that the

is
pansion.
coefiScient of cubical
approximately three times
its
expansion of a sub-
coefficient of linear ex-
Thjjrmal Expansion
62
XLIII.
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF ABSOLUTE EXPANSION OF A LIQUID BY THE

METHOD OF BALANCING COLUMNS.
this
experiment
is
The
to determine the coefficient of
object
of
expansion of
mercury by a method which is independent of the change in

volume of the containing vessel. The method employed in this
experiment
liquid
is
from the
to determine the coefficient of expansion of the

ratio of its densities at different temperatures.
The apparatus used by Regnault

Fig. 79. Consider a
is
illustrated in Fig. 78
and
W shaped tube A B C D E F containing mer-
FiG. 78.
Fig. 79.
Expansion op Liquids
cury having the branch
163
kept at a high temperature by means
of a steam jacket while the remainder of the apparatus

at
room by means
the temperature of the
The
entire
tached
apparatus
suspended
is
upper
the
to
mercury in the columns A and

compressed air in the tube C D.
two
by
kept
jackets.
clamps
connecting
horizontal
is
of water
at-
The
tube.
kept separated by means of
is
Let
H,^, H.,, h^
and
h^ represent
Let the tem-
the differences in level as indicated in the figure.
perature and the density of the mercury in the hot part of the
apparatus be denoted by
and
respectively, while the tem-
pa
perature and density of the remainder of the mercury
by
^1
and
sure in
CD
columns
Also
Pi respectively.
let
above that of the atmosphere
Then
and F.
for the cold
P+ hi Pi g =
denoted
is
be the excess of the presat the
column
H^
open ends of the
F we
have,
p^
and for the hot column A, we have,
P + h^pyg = H^
Whence
fii Pi
h, p^
g = H^
we
consider any mass of mercury,
portional to
its
density;
Po
and also
Oa
h-,
p^
volume
is
inversely pro-
P^
its
Whence from
"
Z'l
li
eq. (5) p.
154
(2)
1
P2 _ ^0
77 = i;7- t+tt;-
substituting these values of pi and p^ in eq.
//,
H,h, +
whence
or
H-i
P\
If
p2 g.
{H^
h^
HC)
1 -i-
/;
(3)
(1)
we obtain
/,
+ ptr
+ {hi h^)
Manipulation and Computation. Air

pumped into the reservoir R until the mercury
umns A and F flows across the connecting tube
is
very carefully
rising in the col-
G.
The
air pres-
Thermal Expansion
164
sure in
should be so adjusted that the surface of the mercury

The water in the water
stands at about the axis of the tube G.

jackets
must be kept well
stirred
and
its
temperature
observed.
t^
This must be kept at the same temperature as the air reservoir, i. e.

the temperature of the room. Note also the temperature t^ of the
hot column.
From
that
Fig. 79
it
is,
is
obvious that
(]i^
K) (a
(H, H,) =
(/ii
Also
-(-
6)
meter
a),
(5)
(6)
b.
Measure a and
by means of a cathetometer and Hj^ with a
All of the quantities required for the determination
stick.
of the coefficient of cubical expansion of mercury by

eq.
(/i^
b).
now
(4) are
means of
at hand.
XUV.
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF CUBICAL
EXPANSION OF GLASS.
with liquid
is
When
a vessel
filled
raised in temperature, the apparent expansion of the
between the coefficients of

and the containing vessel. If
the apparent expansion is observed and the coefficient of expansion of either the liquid or the containing vessel is known,
liquid xlepends
upon the
difference
cubical expansion of the liquid
tlifen
The
the coefficient of expansion of the other can be determined.

is to
determine the cubical coefficient
of expansion of a glass bulb from an observation of the apparent
expansion of mercury contained in

expansion of mercury
is
it.
The
absolute coefficient of
supposed to be known from the pre-
ceding experiment.
Let the bulb be filled with mercury at the temperature ^1

and be then heated to t^". This will cause some of the mercury
A bulb used in this manner is called a weight
to be expelled.
dilatometer.
Expansion of Liquids
Let
165
and p^ represent the mass and density respectively oi

mercury contained in the bulb at t^"
and p^ the mass and density respectively of the mer-
il/j
the
j1/
cury contained in the bulb at ^2/

^'i
and V2 the volume of the bulb

ively
t'g
the
mean
from
From
t-^
expansion of mercury
we have
Ml -ViPi=
and
expansion of glass from
to t2.
the definition of density,
=V2
M-i
Also from
1^ respect-
mean
the
at t^"
t^ to ^2
t^
and
1-^^
vdlume of the mercury
the
at
2/3
p2
Pa-
eq. (7), p. 154,
Combining these equations,
That
is
Vj
Vy
Vi{t^ti) It will
be noticed that the
Ml 7
Ml M^
M^{t^ti)^ M^
left
hand member of
(1)
this
equation
is
the change in volume of the mercury per unit volume per degree,
that
t^
is,
the
mean
Denoting
coefficient of
cubical coefficient of expansion between t.^
this quantity
by
j8
we
obtain for the
expansion of glass between
_Mj.
^
- ^1
'*
ti
and
mean
and
cubical
t^"
Ml M^
Ml {t, -tiY
,21
^
'
Manipulation and Computation. The most convenient

form of weight dilatomcter for this experiment is a specific
gravity bottle having a perforated glass stopper.
cleaning and drying the bottle weigh
After carefully
with mercury
and heat over a sand bath until all air bubbles have been removed. After the bottle has cooled to the temperature of the
room insert the stopper and carefully wipe off the expelled mercury and weigh bottle and contents. Next place the bottle in a
it
then
fill
Thermal Expansion
i66
and pour water into the beaker up
glass beaker
of the bottom of the stopper.
to the
level
Raise the temperature of the whole
apparatus to about ten degrees above the temperature of the
room and keep
it
constant at this point for two or three minutes.
Observe this temperature, carefully brush the globule of mercury

from the top of the stopper and take the weight dilatometer out
of the water bath. Carefully pour the water off of the globule of
mercury that is in the bottom of the beaker, dry the globule over
M^.
the sand bath and weigh. The weight of this globule isM^
All the data for the computation of the mean coefficient of cubical
expansion of glass between the particular temperatures of the
experiment are now at hand.
Now
raise the temperature of the
above the
last observation,
water bath ten degrees
weigh the mercury thereby expelled,
and compute the value of the coefficient of cubical expansion as

before.
Repeat at ten degree intervals until the boiling point
of water
It
is'
reached.
is
obvious that
when one knows
the coefficient of expansion
of glass, then the coefficient of expansion of a liquid can be de-
termined by the method used in this experiment.
by
this
method compare temperatures.
dilatometer
Also,
if
the co-
expansion of glass and a liquid are known, one can
efficients of
is
For
this
reason the weight
often called a weight thermometer.

I.
Derive an equation by means of which one can determine
the coefficient of expansion of a solid
body which
is
sufficiently
small to be inserted in the dilatometer of the preceding experi-
ment.
It is to
glass and of
are
known.
be assumed that the coefficients of expansion of

liquid that will not act chemically on the body
some
Fundamental Law
Gases
ojF
167
Ch.\ptrr XIV.
PROPERTIES OE GASES AND SOLUTIONS.

The Fundaimental Law
A\-hich
obe}-s
of Gases.
A perfect
gas
is
one
Boyle's law that under isothermal conditions the
product of the pressure and volume

Charles found that
when
is
constant
the pressure of such gases
stant the coefficient of expansion
is
quantity.
kept con-
a constant quantity.
is
These
two laws may be expressed by the two equations

(Boyle's Law)
(i)
a. constant.
p V
(Charles' Law)
V
v (i+*0
(2)
where t'o and v represent the volume of a given mass of gas at
0 and t respectively, p represents the pressure at t, and a rep-
^
^
resents the coefficient of expansion.
By combining these two equations, an equation is obtained

which applies to a perfect gas for any pressure, volume and temThis fundamental law of gases will now be derived.
perature.
Let the pressure, volume and temperature of a given mass of gas
be denoted by p, v and f respectively. When the temperature is
reduced to 0 let the corresponding quantities be represented by
the symbols p^, v^ and
gas
when
If the
t.
at the pressure ^^
Let 1/ represent the volume of the

and temperature t.
gas originally in the condition represented by p, v, t,

its pressure becomes p^, we have
be compressed isothermally until
by Boyle's law,
p v'
pv
(3)
now, keeping the pressure / constant, the temperature be reduced to to, then by Charles' law, we have
u'
at)
Vo (i
(4)
Combining eqs. (3) and (4) we have
If
pv
= poVo
(i
at)
(5)
Gases and Soiûtions
1.68
From experiment
it
has been found that
==
273
p o=P.
+ 2^) =
(l
V,
per
C.
^
(^73
t)
(6)
Assuming this equation to be true for all temperatures, when

That is, at this temperature
C, we have p v
o.
The
either the gas occupies, no volume or it exerts no pressure.
^ 273
former alternative
is inadmissible but the latter can be explained

on the kinetic theory of gases by considering the molecules at
this
temperature entirely devoid of kinetic energy, that
deprived of heat.
ly
perature
is
entire-
273" C. below the centigrade zero.
Representing by
the temperature of the gas reckoned from the absolute zero,
can put (273
-\-
t)
whence
T,
gas,
it
V
For any given mass of
is,
This means that the absolute zero of tem-
in eq. (7)
Representing
is
is
is
is
T.
(7)
obvious that the coefficient of
which can be determined.

by R, we have
this constant
called the
=R
T.
(8)
fundamental law of gases.
the value of the constant
a mass
^^
we
becomes
a constant for that gas
pv
This
eq. (6)
will be the
same
Obviously,
for all gases
if
such
taken as a unit that the volumes of different gases for
same temperature and pressure will be equal. This means that

must be such that there shall be the same number
of molecules of gas in a given volume when under a given pressure and temperature. This indicates that the unit of mass should
be the number of grams numerically equal to the molecular weight
of the. gas. This number is called a gram molecule. Thus for
example, one gram molecule of H is 2 grams, one of O is 32
grams, one of CI is 70.74 grams, one of HCl is 36.37 grams. It
is found by experiment that the volume occupied by one gram
molecule of any gas at 0 C, and 76 cms. of mercury pressure
is about 22380 c.c.
the
the unit of mass
If the
of
gram molecule
is
taken as the unit of mass, the value
for all gases can be obtained
by substituting for
p,
v and T
Law
\'an't Hoi?]?'s
169
of eq. (8) values obtained directly from experiment. Since at 0
C, and pressure
of 76 cms. of mercury, one
gas occupies 22380
c. c.
we have
R=
(76
gram molecule
of
13.5953) 32380
273
or, since i calorie
=
R
84700 gm. cms.

42750 gm. cms.
^Î^
1.98 calories.
42750
Therefore when the gram molecule
is
'taken as the unit of mass,
the fundamental law of gases assumes the simple
form
^^
V
T
calories.
1.98
p
{g)
Application to Solutions, van't Hoff's Law. The present theory -of solution has for its basis the fact proved by van't
Hoff that the laws applicable to perfect gases also apply to dilute
A solution is defined as a homogeneous mixture of

two or more substances incapable of separation by mechanical
means in which the relative cjuantities of the components can vary
continuously between certain limits. The solvent is the substance
present in largest proportion and a solute is a substance present
in less amount.
In the same manner that a gas will diffuse
throughout any empty space in which it may be placed, a solute
will diffuse throughout the entire volume qf solvent containing
The force with which a gas tends to diffuse, and thus occupy
it.
more space is called gas pressure. The force with which a solute
tends to diffuse throughout a solvent and thus occupy more space
Gas pressure is measured by the reis called osmotic pressure.
solutions.
action produced by the impact of the gas molecules on the im-
Osmotic pressure is
measured by the reaction produced by the impact of the molecules
of the solute on a membrane impervious to them but perfectly
pervious walls of the containing vessel.
pervious to the molecules of solvent.

Pfeffer found that at any given temperature, the product of
volume of a dilute solution containing one gram molecule of

and the osmotic pressure of the solute, is a constant quanThis is analogous to Boyle's law for gases, viz. at constant
tity.
temperature, the product of the volume of any given mass of
the
solute,
Gases and Solutions
170
gas and
its
pressure,
is
Pfeffer also found
that the osmotic pressure of a solute varies directly with the tem-
perature.
This
an analogue of Charles' law for gases. These

and dilute
is
striking similarities between the laws of perfect gases

solutions led van't
Hoff
the osmotic pressure of the solute,
taining one
ature,
law of
That is, letting P denote
the volume of solution conand T the absolute temper-
to expect that the fundamental
gases applies also to dilute solutions.
gram molecule
of solute
we would have
PV = RT.
(10)
This hypothesis can be tested by substituting' for P,
V and T
values obtained from experiments on solutions, and comparing

the value of
thus obtained with the value obtained for gases.
Although measurements of osmotic pressure cannot be made

with so great accuracy as of gas pressure, still, on substituting
in the equation assumed to apply to solutions values of P, V and T
obtained from experiment, the value obtained for the constant
previously deduced for the
we may
write eq. (lo) in the form
agrees practically with the value of

case of gases.
Consequently
P F
It
1.98
calories
(11
thus appears that not only does the osmotic pressure of a
substance in dilute solution obey the same volume and temperature

relations as does a gas, but also that the numerical value of the
osmotic pressure equals the gas pressure that would be exerted
by the same number of molecules occupying the same volume

in the state of gas.
It
should be noted that this law of van't Hoff requires to be
salts, strong acids and bases

which give an osmotic pressure greater than that calculated by
modified for solutions of certain
the law.
External, Work done during Expansion under Constant Pressure. If a body, expands under constant pressure,
the work done equals the product of the pressure and the change
of volume. For example if a gas of mass vi changes its volume
by an amount v whilethe pressure p and the absolute temperature T remains constant, the work done is
W = pv = mRT
(12)
The
Again,
if
when
Reversible Engine
a gas of
pressure from a temperature
mass
T'
= mR
heated under constant
in is
to a temperature
volume changes from w^ to V2, we

v^p ^^ iiiRT
v._p
171
(T
will
=p
d T)
its
and
d T).
v,)^mR
iv,
-\-
have
Consequently the work done during the expansion
n\
(T
is
(dT),
(13)
ExTERÂL^^'ORK DONE DURING VAPORIZATION AND SoivUTION.
As
a special case of eq. (12) we can consider the work done

during vaporization and the analogous process of solution. If a
gram molecule
of any liquid vaporize under a pressure p
temperature T, and
if
gram molecule of vapor and

external work done during the
W.
Similarly imagine one
liquid
process of vaporization
pv
= RT
of solution.
Then from
work done during
of substance to be dis-
represent the osmotic
van't Hoff's law, the external
the process of solution
W,
The
L,et
is
(14)
gram molecule
pressure of the solute.
solved in a volume
and
volume of the
be denoted by Vj then the
the difference between the
is
= PV = RT
(15)
Efficiency of a perfecti^y Reversible Thermodynamic Engine. When heat is transformed into mechanical work
or mechanical
work
is
work
is
transformed into heat, the quantity of
equivalent to the quantity of heat.
the law of conservation of energy
is
called the
This special case of

-first
law of thermo-
must be noted that under the conditions of temperature possible on the earth's surface, it is impossible to transform all of the heat taken from a body into mechanical work.
In other words the efficiency of transformation is never unity.
Another broad generalization obtained from experience is that by
means of no self-contained inanimate mechanism can heat be
taken from a colder body and given to a warmer body without
work being put into the mechanism. This generalization is
called the second law of thermodynamics.
Any arrangement that will transform heat into mechanical work
One of the simplest forms of engine
is a thermodynamic engine.
consists of a piston and cylinder containing some substance whose
dynamics.
But
it
Gases and Solutions
172
volume changes with temperature. Imagine the piston and sides

of the cyHnder to be made of an ideal material which is a perfect
non-conductor of heat while the bottom of the cylinder is made
of a perfect heat conductor. Imagine that in addition we have a
non-conducting stand and two large tanks of water. Let one of
the latter be at the temperature T and the other at a lower temperature {T
d 3"). The discussion of the transformation of heat
into work will be much simplified by considering the engine to
go through a cycle of operations such that at the end of the cycle,
the working substance is in the same condition that it was in
the beginning. By this device the internal energy of the working
substance will be the same at the end as at the beginning and any
work done by the engine will be due solely to the heat supplied to
it from outside.
The simplest cycle of operations is that devised
by Carnot which consists of four processes. In two of these processes the working substance changes its volume without changing
its temperature, while in the other two processes the change of
volume takes place without the passage of heat either into or out
of the working substance. The first sort of change is called an
isothermal process, the second, an adiabatic process.
Let the condition of the working substance with respect to
pressure, volume and temperature be that represented by the
point A, Fjg. 80. Most substances expand
when their temperature is raised. These
substances
volume
is
rise
in the opposite
c~d
when
their
few substances behave
We
manner.
working substance
^^bt
temperature
in
decreased.
under
will
imagine the
consideration
be-
longs to the former class.
Fig. 80.
Let the working substance
go
through
the following four processes

First.
Place the cylinder on the non-conducting stand and
apply pressure to the piston until the temperature of the working
of the diagram.
The pressure, volume and temperature of

is now that corresponding to the point' B
During this process the work done on the work-
ing substance
represented by the area
substance rises to T.
the working substance
is
BA
a; and as no heat
Thi!; RuvivRSnii,!;
has either entered or
Second.
ature
left
Engine;
173
the substance, the heat change
is
zero.
Place the cylinder in the tank of water of temper-
and allow the substance
to
expand.
Being
in the large
tank of water the temperature of the working substance remains
De-
constant, but this fact requires heat to enter the substance.
amount of heat by the symbol H^. During this process

the work done by the working substance is represented by the
area B C c b and the heat absorbed equals J/-,.
note this
Transfer the cylinder to the insulating stand and
Third.
allow the working substance to expand adiabatically until

perature
the
falls
to(T
d T). During
working substance
heat change
is
Fourth.
is
represented by the
zero.
Place the cylinder in the tank of water at the tem-
{T d T) and apply pressure
perature
tem-
its
work done by
area C D d c, and the
this process the
to the piston until the sub-
by the point A in
During this process, the work done on the subrepresented by the area D A a d and an amount of heat
stance attains
its
original condition represented
the diagram.
stance
that
is
may
H^ has
be denoted by the symbol
left
the substance.
Since the final condition of the working substance
is
the
same
as the original condition, the result of this cycle of four opera-
tions
is
that an
amount
of
work represented by the area
has been produced at the expense of an amount of heat {H^
Obviously the cycle could
start at
If the direction
direction.
from the cold
to the hot
supplied from outside.
is
ABCD
H)
any point and proceed in either
reversed, heat will be transferred
body at the expense of mechanical work

This ideal engine is consequently per-
fectly reversible.
From
the fact that the
working substance must be colder
than the source of heat while absorbing heat, and warmer than
the condenser
done
will be
when giving
actually less
heat to
it,
it
follows that the
than that represented by the area ^4
work
BCD.
In addition, in an actual engine there are always unavoidable
thermal losses due to conduction and radiation which are not
Consequently no
and no actual engine can do
present in the ideal cylinder here considered.

actual engine
the
is
perfectly reversible
amount of work corresponding
to a perfectly reversible cycle.
174
It will
now be shown
that a reversible engine
tween any two temperatures
will
the heat absorbed into mechanical
work than any other engine
working between the same temperatures.

of a reversible engine
is
That
the highest possible.
certain irreversible engine
Hi
working be-
transform a greater fraction of
is,
the eificiency
Thus suppose
be conceived to have a higher
effi-
The
Engine
Reversibi.]!;
working between any two temperatures
will
portion of the heat absorbed into mechanical
175
transform a greater
work than
will
any
other engine.
The
value of this efficiency will
efficiency of all
of the
reversible engines
working substance, the
is
now
Since the
be obtained.
the same and
is
independent
can be determined from
efficiency
the consideration of a reversible engine using whatever working
substance
is
most convenient.
It will
be simplest to consider the
Let a mass of perfect g^s go through the

cycle of operations represented by A B C D, Fig. 82, between
action of a perfect gas.
the temperatures
the lines
T and (T
and C
Draw
T).
c parallel to the pressure
The mechanical work done during the

represented by the area {A B C D) =:
area (B B C F) when the isothermals and
adiabatics are drawn so close together that the
axis.
cycle
is
figure
Fig. 82.
A B C D may
be considerd to be a par-
The work done

(B B) (b c).
gas when in the condition
allelogram.
W=
Let V denote the volume of
(16)
represented
by the point B and let d v denote the small change of volume represented by the line (be). Let p^^ be the mean pressure along
the path B C and p.^ the mean pressure along the path D A. Then
(BB)=p,-p,
represents the
the temperature
For
mean
(17)
difference of pressure of the gas
and when
at the
temperature (T
the condition represented by the point

p,
=R
d T).
B we
when
at
have
(18)
and for the condition represented by the point B,
p^v
since the
volumes
at
Dividing eq. (19) by
=R
and
eq.
p^ __
A"
(T
(19)
(18)
Td T _
-^
f
--P-P.
Pi
d T),
are equal.
P2 = Pi
dT
T
dT
dJT
(20)
Gases and Solutions
176
Whence
work done in
(B B)
the
W=
the cycle
(b c)
is
p,) dv
(/>!
= p,iZdv
And
since the heat, received
cal units is ^1
from the source, expressed
v, the efficiency of a reversible
engine
W H,H^ p,~dv
dT
Jî
And
(21)
pi dv
J~li
since a perfectly reversible cycle
for the conversion of heat into work,
is
it
dynami-
in
is
(22)
i'
the
most
method
maximum-
efficient
follows that the
amount of work that can be produced by the passage of the quantity of heat J/i from the temperature T to (T
dT^ is
W=
AJ^
IT,
(23)
1
It
should be noticed that this result applies to any reversible
cycle employing any
working substance.
In deriving this result,
the sole reason for considering Carnot's cycle
the great sim-
is
plicity of this particular series of operations.
XIvV.
DETERMINATION OE THE COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION OF A GAS B^ MEANS OF AN AIR

THERMOMETER.
from 0
the
increase
coefficient
from
the
ratio
sure
is
volume to the
of
initial
of expansion of the body.

to
of
i",
the
its
If a body is heated
remaining constant, then the ratio of
to 1, its pressure
volume
increase
of
volume is
If
a body
remaining
pressure
to
called
is
constant,
the
initial
the
heated
then
pres-
called 'the coefficient of increase of pressure of the body.
In the succeeding paragraph
it
will be
a gas these two coefficients are equal.
shown
And
that in the case of

since
it
is
easier to
measure the pressure of a gas under constant volume than to

measure the volume under constant pressure, in the present experiment the coefficient of expansion will be determined from
'
Expansion
oi?
a Gas
177.
observations of the change in pressure produced in a gas by
changes
in temperature,
when
mass and volume remain con-
tlie
stant.
Let a given mass of gas be at an
temperature of
initial
n C. (To, absolute), pressure p^ and volume v^. When it is

heated to t C, [ (T^
^) absolute], let the pressure be represent-
ed by p^ and volume by
From
i\
the fundamental law of gases eq. (8) p
To
If the
volume be kept constant
becomes
eq. (i)
n=
Po
Pt
or, if the pressure
(1)
'I\
be kept constant,
(2)
Po
we have
^0
rp
P"
Po
from
168,
(3)
eq. (5) p. 154.
Therefore the
expansion of a gas
coefficient of
equals the "pressure coefficient."
The apparatus
tion of the above
best suited to the applica-
formula
is
some form of
Air Thermometer. This consists. Fig.

83, of a glass bulb B filled with air or other
gas, connected to an open manometer tube
Jolly's
Immediately below the

filled with mercury.
bulb is a tube containing an index finger F
made of colored enamel. The volume of the
gas
is
by adjusting the plunger

the mercury surface is brought to the
made
until
definite,
pressure of the gas in the bulb

of the
is measured by the difference of level
mano.the
in
mercury at P and the mercury
point P.
The
meter tube. The bulb is enclosed by a vessel

Z? is a
in which can be placed water or ice.
Fig. 83.
12
drying tube used in
filling
the bulb.
and Solutions
Gase;s
178
On
in the
account of the temperature of the small amount of gas

exposed part of the bulb being different from that in the
on account of the change of volume of the bulb

is changed, eq. (3) cannot be used in its
present simple form. The corresponding equation in which these
bulb,
and
when
its
also
temperature
facts are taken account of will
Let Pa
,
p^
-z pressure in
Vg
V^
^=.
M'
M"
v'
now
be derived.
at 0 C. (T^ absolute)
when
bulb when
pressure in bulb
at t C.
(T
absolute)^
volume of bulb at o" C.

volume of bulb at t C.
mass of gas in bulb when at 0 C.
mass of gas in bulb when at t C.
volume of exposed part of bulb when bulb
=
=
=
is at
0 C.
when bulb
v"
=: volume of exposed part of bulb
Ill'
:= mass of gas in exposed part of bulb
is at
C.
when bulb
is
exposed part of bulb when bulb
is
at 0 C.
m"
mass of gas
in
at o" C.
Without
of the bulb
the room.
sensible error, the temperature of the
may
Let
this
It follows that v'
exposed part
be assumed to be constant and equal to that of
temperature be denoted by
t'
C. {T' absolute).
v" approximately.
Applying the fundamental law of gases we have

p,
Vo
p^v^
pv'
p^
V'
= -B M' r
= RM"T
= R nf T'
= R m" T'
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Since the mass of gas in the apparatus remains constant
M'
By means
+m' = M" +
m"
(8)
of eqs. (4), (5), (6) and (7) eq. (8) becomes
T'
To
Representing by
'
the coefficient of cubical expansion of
glass between the temperatures 0
and
Vt=Vo{l+yt)
C, we have
(10)
Expansion of Gases
Substituting this value in eq.
T^T, +
we
T'=T,
t.
+f
179
and remembering that
(9)
and that
T,
=^
(eq. 3)
obtain
Dividing through
b}-
and denoting the constant
ratio v' -^- v
by k we obtain
^^'hence solving for
we have
and neglecting terms containing
/3
^"-
and y/8
for the value of the coefScient of expansion of a gas
Po
'
+/c<) j>o
(r +/(;i)

quotient {y' -^
not known,
If
the
value
of the
must be determined by finding

the volume of the bulb and of the attached tube by weighing first
when empty and then when filled with water up to the proper
points.
The bulb is now to be thoroughly dried by drawing
through it air that has passed over fused calcium chloride. After
the apparatus
z\^) is
is
it
assembled the bulb
with thoroughly dried
is filled
To
In this experiment air will be the gas used.
gas.
operation, a fine capillary tube
This capillary
partially
is
has been sealed into the bulb.
connected to a drying tube
and then the bulb
evacuated by raising the plunger P.
draws dry
air into the bulb.
By
simplify this
This operation
alternately depressing
and
rais-
ing the plunger a number of times, the air finally in the bulb will
be tjuite dry.
The end
of the capillary
is
now
sealed off with
a small blowpipe flame.

Fill the vessel
enclosing the bulb with
snow or small
pieces
mercury in the air thermometer tube reaches the index F. Observe the difference in
and the
height between the mercury in the manoineter tube
of
ice
and adjust the plunger
until the
index F. This difference in height plus the height of the barometer,

is
the value of
p,,
in eq.
(13).
Substitute cold water for the ice and carefully heat
about 30 C, by passing steam into
it.
it
to
This must not be done
Gases and Solutions
i8o
too quickly else the glass

the
until
may
crack.
Again adjust the plunger
meniscus of mercury in the thermometer tube just
touches the index finger, and again observe the difference of

height between the mercury in the manometer tube
index.
of Pj
The
and the
This difference added to the barometric height is the value

in eq. (13). The temperature of the warm bath is ^ C.
/5
is the coefficient of expansion of air
0
from
to 30. Raise the temperat-ure of the bulb to about 50 C,
resulting value of
and
find the value of the coefficient of expansion for the range

0 to 50. In the same manner find the value of the coefficient of
expansion for temperature ranges o" to 70" C, and o" to 100 C.

1.
Why is it usually unnecessary in. this experiment to reduce the barometric height and the manometric height to 0 C?
2.
Outline clearly the assumptions that have been- made
and any considerations that have been neglected in the derivation
of eq. (13) which limit the accuracy of the result.
XLVI.
DETERMINATION OF THE MAXIMUM VAPOR PRESSURE OF A LIQUID AT TEMPERATURES BELOW

100" C, BY THE STATICAL METHOD.
When a
liquid evap-
formed produces a pressure

on the surface of the liquid and the enclosure which increases
with the mass of vapor. The vapor pressure* reaches a maximum value when the space is saturated. The maximum vapor
pressure, or pressure of the saturated vapor, depends upon the
orates in a closed space the vapor
temperature of the vapor.
The
is
to
determine the pressure of saturated aqueous vapor at temperatures from about 50" C, to 100 C.
*The expression "vapor tension" is sometimes used instead of "vapor
pressure" to denote the elastic stress exerted by a vapor. Careful writers,
however, use the v/ord pressure to denote a push, and tension to denote a pu'.l.
Since vapors and gases cannot exert a pull the term vapor tension is a misnomer.
Vapor Pressurr
i8i
In the Statical Method to be used in this experiment, the
vapor pressure
is
determined from an observation of the change
barometer column produced by the introducvacuous space above the mercury of a small quantity
of the specimen. The apparatus, Fig. 84 consists of a baro-
in the height of a
tion in the
meter tube having
its
and
upper end enlarged into a narrow bulb,

lower end joined to an open manome-
its
ter tube
M.
Opening
into the horizontal
tube joining the barometer and manometer

is
an iron cylinder
filled
with mercury.
The
height of mercury in the two tubes can be

varied by means of a plunger, P, in this cylinder.
enamel
between
this
small finger, F, ma'de
of
colored
barometer tube
serves as a convenient fixed point from which
heights can be measured. TlTe vapor being
studied can be brought to the desired temperature by means of a glass water bath surrounding the bulb.
If the barometer tube contains only mercury, water, mercury vapor and water vapor,
then the sum of the maximum vapor pressure
of mercury and of water, at the temperature
of the experiment, equals the atmospheric
pressure diminished by the difference of level
of mercury in the two tubes. The difference
pressure and the maximum vapor pressure of merin the bulb
of the
cury at the particular temperature of the experiment gives the
maximum
vapor pressure of water at this temperature. But the

is so minute at temperatures below
vapor pressure of mercury
C, that this correction is useless in any experiment made

by this method by inexperienced students.
Manipui,ation and Computation.- For the purpose of in100''
troducing the specimen into the barometer tube, the bulb
is
Screw the plunger down

to near the bottom of its run and fill the apparatus up to the top
of the bulb with mercury. The small amount of air clinging to
terminated by a fine capillary tube.
Gasss and Solutions
i82
by passing a Bunseu's
the sides of the tube can be driven off
down
burner flame up and

tained mercury
raised nearly to
is
mercury to cool
the end of the
the length of the tube until the conits
Allow the
boiling point.
Then
room.
to the temperature of the
slip
over
capillary a piece of rubber tubing about three
inches long, depress the plunger until mercury

the end of the capillary.
boiled water.
Now
meter of water
is
Fill the section of
is
forced out of
rubber tubing with
raise the plunger until about a cubic centi-
drawn
into the bulb.
Remove
the piece of rub-
ber tubing and seal off the end of the capillary with a blow-pipe
has been carefully performed, the ba-
If this operation
flame.
rometer tube will
Observe
now
atmospheric
the
standard barometer.
steam into
it
contain only mercury and water.
until
it
from
pressure
laboratory
the
water jacket with water and pass

reaches a temperature of 50" to 60" C. The
Fill the
current of steafn must not be directed either on the bulb or on the
sudden expansion of the glass may
glass water jacket else the
crack
By means
it.
of the plunger adjust the height of the mer-
cury in the barometer tube until
with the
tip
it
of the index finger.
is
brought just into contact
Stir the
jacket, observe its temperature, readjust the
and move the slider S

iscus in the manometer
until its cross
wire
is
water in the water

plunger
if
necessary,
tangent to the men-
Read
the difference of level between

and the end of the index finger F.
Add to this height the number of mm. of mercury equivalent
to the layer of water on the surface of the mercury in the barometer tube. The atmospheric pressure in mm. of mercury diminished by this corrected difference of level is the maximum
pressure of aqueous vapor for the particular temperature of the
tube.
the cross wire of the slider
6'
experiment.
Take
similar readings every 5
up to 100 C.
Plot a curve
with vapor pressures as ordinates and corresponding temperatures as abscissas.
On
the
same coordinate axes
curve from the values given in Table
This method
is liable
of the dry mercury in the

the wet
mercury
plot another
15.
to several errors.
manometer tube
in the barometer tube.
is
The
surface tension
different than that of
This will cause a
of the column having the wet surface of o.i to 0.15
mm.
rise
Vapor Pressure
The
183
fact that the lower part of the barometer tube is at a
lower temperature than the upper causes the
final
result to be
This error will be of the order of 0.15 mm. If the

position of the end of the index finger is read through the water
too low.
and water
jacket the refraction of the glass

certainty that can
amount
mm.
to 0.5
will introduce
This error
is
an un-
obviated by
from the end of the index to a

on the tube below the water jacket before the apparatus is assembled
This scratch would then be used as the
fiducial point from which heights are measured.
The greatest
limitation to the use of this method, however, is due to the large
error introduced in the depression of the barometer column produced by any impurity of the specimen.
I.
It is found that under the same atmospheric pressure,
carefully measuring the distance
fine scratch
the boiling point of a solution

solvent.
It
maximum
is
higher than that of the pure
follows from the definition of boiling point that the
vapor pressure of a solution
is
than that of the
less
The
pure solvent at the same temperature.
fraction obtained
by
dividing the difference between the vapor pressure of the pure

solvent and that of the solution, by the vapor pressure of the pure
for that temperature
solvent
of the
maximum
is
called
the
fractional
vapor pressure of the solution.
lowering of the vapor pressure
is
lowering
This fractional
a constant quantity independent
of the temperature, depending on the nature and concentration

of the solution.
Knowing
the boiling point of the solution, this
quantity can be obtained directly from the curve coordinating
vapor pressures and temperatures for the pure solvent.

Raoult has shown that the fractional lowering of the vapor
pressure of a solution equals the ratio of the
cules of solute to the
tion.
It
number
follows that
if
number of mole-
of molecules of solvent in the solu-
one knows the fractional lowering of
the vapor pressure of a solution, together with the molecular
weight of the solvent and the masses of solute and solvent in the
solution, then the molecular
weight of the solute can be deter-
mined.
By
the
method above
indicated,
show
cular weight of sugar could be obtained.
fully
how
the mole-
i84
XLVII.
DETERMINATION OF THE MAXIMUM vXPOR PRESSURE OF A LIQUID AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES, BY THE DYNAMICAL METHOD.
The
Object and Theory oe Experiment.-
object of this
maximum
vapor pressure of
experiment
is
to
determine the
water at various temperatures from 50" C, to about 120 C.

The dynamical method to be employed in this experiment is
based upon the following two laws of vapors.
boils
when
the pressure of
its
First,
a liquid
vapor equals the external pressure.
Second, the temperature of the boiling point remains constant as
long as there
is
any liquid to vaporize, provided the pressure
re-
mains constant.
In Regnault's apparatus. Fig. 85, the specimen is enclosed
in a boiler B, connected by means of an inclined tube with a large
Fig. 85.
Vapor Pressure
185
metal reservoir R, enclosed in a water bath kept at constant tem-
The
perature.
is
reservoir
the vapor
is filled
pump
varied by means of a
with
air the pressure of
The
connected to P.
which
pressure of
measured by means of the open manometer M. The

is obtained from thermo-
is
temperature of the vapor in the boiler

meters T, placed in tubulures
The
the boiler.
ervoir
is
filled
with mercury, projecting into
inclined tube connecting the boiler
enclosed by a condenser
C^
By means
stream of cold water.
res-
of this condenser, however
vigorously or however long a time the liquid

boiling, the pressure of the
and the
through which flows a
vapor in the boiler
may have been

is
kept constant.
Another object of the condenser is to prevent vapor from reaching the manometer. The air in the reservoir serves to equalize
any sudden changes of pressure due to "bumping" or other irregularities in boiling.
Manipulation and Computation. Fill the boiler oneTo reduce "bumping" put a handful of
third full of water.
clean pebbles or metal turnings into the boiler.
and then connect a suction pump

ervoir tmtil the pressure
i.
e.
is
to P-
Close the boiler

air out of the res-
reduced to about 10 cms. of mercury,
until the difference of height
two arms of the manometer

Pump
is
between the mercury
about ten centimeters
in the
less
than
Close the stop cock in the tube connecting
pump and
the reservoir. Start a stream of cold water flowcondenser. Place a Bunsen's burner under the
through
the
ing
after
the
thermometer indicates a constant temperature,
boiler and
the
observe the temperature and the pressure.

ature of the
room and
Note
also the temper-
The barometric
height diminished by the difference of level between the mano-
meter columns equals the pressure of the vapor at the temperature of the experiment. This pressure in centimeters of mercury
is
to be reduced to 0
C, assuming
that the
manometer
scale
is
correct at 20 C.
Air
is
is
now
allowed to enter the reservoir until the pressure
about 10 cms. higher than before.
This increase of pressure
requires that a higher temperature be attained before the water

will boil.
When
the temperature has reached the
new
boiling
Gases and Solutions
86
point, a second series of observations is to be taken similar to
the preceding.
In the same manner, the boiling points corres-
ponding to a number of different pressures are to be determined.

For pressures less than one atmosphere, the boiling points should
be observed at intervals of pressure of about lo cms. of mercury.
For pressures above one atmosphere the
intervals of pressure
may
be 15 to 20 cms. of mercury.
Plot a curve with pressures as ordinates and temperatures as
abscissas.
This curve showing the variation of the pressure of
saturated aqueous vapor with the temperature
is
called the
steam
line.
XLVIII.
DETERMINATION OF THE DENSITY OF AN UNSATURATED VAPOR BY VICTOR MEYER'S METHOD.

Probably the
most
accurate method for determining the density of an unsaturated
vapor
is
is
to allow a
known mass
of the liquid whose vapor density
to be determined, to vaporize in the Torricellian
vacuum
of a
barometer, and then to observe the volume occupied by the vapor.
The
ratio of the
mass of the
cupied by the vapor
is
liquid vaporized to the
volume oc-
the density of the vapor at the temperature
and pressure of the experiment. But in case the required accuracy does not exceed from three to five per cent, a method due
to Victor Meyer will be found much more convenient.
The apparatus used in this method is shown in Fig. 86. It
comprises a gas measuring tube B, and a vapor chamber con-
B surrounded
by a bath containing a liquid of higher boiling point than the
The specimen is contained in a
substance under examination.
small bulb which can be supported in the upper cooler part of
the vapor chamber by means of a rod R capable of a back and
sisting of a long, glass tube terminating in a bulb
forth motion in a side tube.

stant temperature,
rod
is
When
the bath has attained a con-
high enough to vaporize the specimen, the
drawi-uback so as to allow the
little
bulb containing the
Vapor Pressure
specimen to
fall
to the
187
bottom of the chamber.
Here
it
either
breaks by concussion with the bottom, or bursts due to the ex-
pansion of the contained
vaporized,
it
liquid.
When
the contained liquid
is
pushes out of the vapor chamber an equal volume
measured by means of the measuring tube B.

bubbling
up through the water in the measuring tube
In
of air which
is
chamber becomes cooled and so

Charles' law.
It follows that the volume
the air expelled from the vapor

contracts according to
Gases and Solutions
i88
of water displaced in the measuring tube equals the
volume which
would be occupied by the hot air displaced by the vapor, if the
vapor were at the temperature of the air in the measuring tube
and if it remained unsaturated at that temperature and pressure.
Hence we conclude that the volume of water displaced in the
measuring tube equals the volume the vapor would occupy at
the temperature and pressure of the air in the measuring tube.
Therefore the density of the vapor at the temperature and pressure of the air in the measuring tube equals the mass of substance vaporized divided by the volume of water thereby disThe temperature of the bath
placed from the measuring tube.
surrounding the vapor chamber must remain constant during the
vaporization of the specimen, but its value need not be known.
Since the densities of gases and vapors vary greatly with
changes of pressure and temperature it is customary to reduce
the values to what they would be at some standard pressure and'
The
temperattu-e.
pressure usually adopted as standard
the
is
pressure of 760 mm. of mercury, and the temperature adopted as

standard is 0 C.
The
Manipulation and Computation.^
substance to be
depend upon the temperature of vaporThe following subization of the specimen being examined.
water, whose boiling
stances will be found convenient to use
selected for the bath will
point
100; analin, 182.5
is
specimen
is
bromonapthalin, 280 C.
enclosed in a thin glass bulb
By
as "ilhistrated in figure.
some of the contained air

bulb will become partially
this
C;
C which may
be
The
filled
placing a hot metal rod below
will be driven out

filled
with the specimen.
operation the bulb can be entirely
and on cooling, the
filled.
By
repeating
If the liquid is
stem of the bulb must be sealed in a flame or plugged

some manner. The mass of the specimen is determined by
weighing. The bulb is now supported in the cool part of the
vapor chamber by the rod R. When the temperature of the bath
becomes constant no more air will bubble up through the water
volatile the
in
in the
U,
trough V.
filled
When
with water,
and the rod

bulb will
now
is
is
this state is attained, the
measuring tube
placed over the outlet of the discharge tube

fall.
The
The volume
withdrawn, thus allowing the bulb to
be broken and
its
contents vaporized.
Vapor Density
of air entering the measuring tube
Note
perature.
is
189
observed as well as
its
tem-
is
equal
also the barometric height.
The pressure
of the moist air in the measuring cube
to the barometric pressure diminished by the
due to the column of water within
sum
of the pressure
above the surface of V, and
the pressure of aqueous vapor at the temperature of B. This latter
ma}' be taken from tables.
Let ;// be the mass of substance vaporized, and v and v^ the

volume of the vapor when at the pressure, temperature and density i*. i p and Pa, to- Po respectively. From the fundamental law
of gases
jpo
''o
pv
= Rm
= Rm{l\ +
(1)
2'o
i)-
(2)
Dividing (i) by (2)

Po
^ m ^
Whence
76
^'0
273
Vq
3
(273
(27
-r
+
-
t)
.2^
The Relation between Density and Molecuear Weight.

Charles and Gay Lussac have shown that the coefficient of
thermal expansion of all perfect gases {i. e. those obeying B'oyle's
Law)
the same.
is
From
this result in connection
that the dimensions of the molecules
with the fact
composing a gas are minutely
small compared with the distance separating them,

inferred that equal volumes of
all
perfect gases at the
perature and pressure contain the same

If the densities of
two
number of molecules.
under the same pres-
different gases
sure and temperature be represented by

the masses of single molecules of the
sented by
number
and w'
Avogadro
same tem-
and
p'
respectively,
and
two substances be repre-
from Avogadro's Law, the

unit volume is
respectively, then
of molecules contained in
N=
^=^.
w
(4)
ir'
It is
cule,
impossible to measure the absolute mass of the mole-
but the above equation furnishes a method for determining
Gases and Solutions
190
two
the relative masses of the molecules of
different gases.
relative masses are usually called Molecular Weights.
cular weights of substances are
which
computed
in terms of
These
The molehydrogen
assumed to have a molecular weight of two*.

customary to express densities of gases in terms of the
arbitrarily
h.
It is also
density of hydrogen.
Denoting the
hy
p'
a gas referred to hydrogen
specific gravity of
and putting
=^ 2 and
i,
eq. (4)
becomes
That
is,
2 p'l
w'
(5)
the molecular weight of a gas equals numerically twice
its specific
gravity referred to hydrogen.
This law furnishes an
important method for determining the molecular weight of substances.
In Table
5,
under the heading Molec. Wt. Calc. are given
values of the molecular weight of certain gases deduced from
and under the heading Molec. Wt. Obs.

from their vapor densities.
inspection
of
these
values
shows that there are
have
substances which are abnormal in that they
their chemical behavior,
given
are
An
some
deduced
values
different molecular weights at different temperatures.
The mole-
cular weights of the substances belonging to this class are less

at
high temperatures than at low temperatures. For instance, for
temperatures up to about 450 C, iodine vapor gives a normal

value for the molecular weight, while for higher temperatures
much
of
At
less.
iodine
is
about
C,
1500
about
half
of
its
the molecular
normal
value.
it is
weight
This
in-
dicates that at these high temperatures the molecule dissociates
*The reason for calling the molecular weight of hydrogen 2 instead of 1

apparent from the following considerations. It is found by analysis that
1 part of hydrogen, by weight, combines with 35.4 parts of chlorine to form
hydrochloric a'cid gas.
Since it is found impossible to replace a fractional
part of either this hydrogen or chlorine by another substance, it is assumed
that the molecule of hydrochloric acid consists of a single atom of hydrogen
combined with a single atom of chlorine. That is, the smallest possible molecular weight of hydrochloric acid is 1 -|- 35.4 =36.4.
Since molecular weights are proportional to densities according fo
Avogadro's law, we have
molecular weight of H 36.4.
density of HCl
density of H
But from experiment it is found that
1
18.2.
density of HCl
density of H
Therefore the molecular weight of hydrogen is taken as two.
is
Rei,ati\i3
the molecule has changed
c.
/.
Humidity
from
1^
191
to 1
~\-
I.
Similarly
N Oj. On
O4) dissociates into N O2
the other hand acetic acid has a normal molecular weight only
nitrog-en peroxide
at comparatively
molecule
is
(N.,
At low temperatures the

two molecules are combined into a
high temperatures.
associated
i.
c.
single molecule.
Chapter XV;
HYGROMETRY.
Hygrometry or Psychrometry is the art of measuring the
amount of moisture in the atmosphere. The mass of water contained in unit volume of air is called the absolute humidity. The
ratio of the mass of moisture contained in unit volume to the
mass which would saturate the same space at the same temperature
is
called the hygrometric state or relative humidity of the
atmosphere.
Let p be the pressure of a mass iii of aqueous vapor at the

temperature T contained in a given volume v of air. Let m' be
the mass of vapor at the pressure p' necessary to
same space at the same temperature. Then since
saturate the
for ordinary
atmospheric temperatures aqueous vapor obeys approximately the
fundamental law of gases up to the point of saturation, we have
^RmT
= R m' T.
-^=p^
and
p V
p'v
That
is
Consequently relative humidity equals the
(approx)
ratio of the actual pres-
sure of the aqueous vapor in the air to the

at the
It
(1)
maximum
pressure
same temperature.
thus appears that there are two general methods of de-
termining the relative humidity of the atmosphere.
The
first re-
quires the measurement of the actual mass of aqueous vapor
contained in a given volume of
air.
This can be done by draw-
ing a given volume of the air through a drying tube and weigh-
Hygrometry
192
The mass of aqueous vapor required to satsame space at the same temperature can be obtained
from tables. The more common method, however, is to determine
the actual pressure of the vapor in the air, and then from tables
find the pressure of saturated aqueous vapor at the same teming the drying tube.
urate the
perature.
XLIX.
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY OE

THE AIR WITH DANIELL'S DEW-POINT
HYGROMETER.
Object and Theory oE Experiment. The temperature to

which the atmosphere must be cooled in order that the water
vapor present may be saturated is called the dew-point.
The
is
to determine the relative humidity
of the atmosphere from an observation of the dew-point.
Consider a mixture of air and aqueous vapor having the

if' and temperature T.
Let p" denote the pressure of the
mixture and p the pressure of the water vapor contained in it.
Down to the temperature of saturation, both aqueous vapor and
volume
air
obey approximately the fundamental law of gases.
Therefore
V' p"
7p- = const.
=- = const.
So long as p"
Expressed
in
is
constant
words
-^- is
constant,
this conclusion
is,
whence p
that
down
is
constant.
to the temper-
ature of saturation, the actual pressure of the aqueous vapor contained in any portion of the atmosphere
is
Consequently, the pressure of the aqueous vapor in any portion

of air can be determined by cooling the air
and looking up
in tables the
corresponding to this temperature.

tive
humidity and
air at the
down
to the
dew
point
pressure of saturated aqueous vapor
eq. (i) p. 191,
it
From
the definition of rela-
follows that for any portion of
temperature T, the relative humidity
^=-f
(approx.)
(1)
Relative Humidity
where p and
p' represent the pressures of saturated
dew-point and at the temperature
at the
193
aqueous vapor
These
respectively.
quantities are given in tables.
Daniell's
hygrometer
shown in
thermometer.
and
a
Fig. 87.
The lower bulb contains ether
The upper bulb is wrapped with a piece of muslin.
consists of
two
glass bulbs connected by a bent tube as
In determining the
contained ether
bulb
is
dew
point with this apparatus
all
of the
passed into the lower bulb and then the upper
is
moistened with ether. The evaporapoured on the upper bulb
tion of the ether
causes the bulb to cool and a part of the

vapor in the apparatus to condense. This in
turn, induces evaporation at the surface of
the ether in the lower bulb.
By
this
the temperature of the lower bulb
is
means
grad-
on
lowered until dew is
lower
The temperature of the
its surface.
The apparatus is
bulb is then read.
^
''
until equilibrium
remain
now allowed to
The temis restored and the temperature begins to rise.
perature at which the deposit of dew disappears is noted. The
mean of the temperature of the naked bulb when the deposit appears and when it disappears is taken as the dew-point. Note
deposited
ually
'
the temperature of the surrounding air by the thermometer at-
tached to the wooden stand supporting the hygrometer.
From Table
at the dew-point
15 find the pressure of saturated aqueous vapor
and
at the
least five determinations
temperature of the room.
Make
at
and take the average.

I.
ject.
13
State and discuss the errors to which this
method
is
sub-
Hygrome;try
194
L.
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF

THE AIR WITH THE WET AND DRY BULB
HYGROMETER.
If two
Object and Theory of Experiment.ilar
exactly sim-
thermometers, the bulb of one being naked and the bulb of the
other being covered with a wet wick, are placed near one another
in a current of air, the
thermometer with the naked bulb
will in-
dicate the temperature of the air while the other will indicate a
lower temperature.
The
difference between the indications of the
two thermometers is due to evaporation at the surface of the wet

bulb and depends upon the degree of saturation of the air. The
relation between the relative humidity of the air and the indication of the thermometers has never been obtained in an entirely
satisfactory manner from purely theoretical considerations.
But
by comparing the indications of this hygrometer with the indications of hygrometers of other types, tables
by means of which the
relative
have been constructed
humidity of the
air
can be readily
determined from a single pair of simultaneous readings of the wet

and dry bulb thermometers.
The numbers
in
Table 17 were obtained from a comparison
of simultaneous readings extending over several years' of the

Daniell and the wet and dry bulb hygrometers. As an example,
on placing these two instruments near one another the following
simultaneous readings were obtained.
Temperature of the air, 21 C,
Temperature of the wet bulb, 19 C,
Dew-point, 18 C.
From
the Daniell hygrometer readings, together with eq. (i) p.

191 and the values given in Table 15 we have the relative .hu-
midity
fl
= i^ = 83%.
L
p'
18.47
Relative Humidity
Whence
for the wet
195
and dry bulb hygrometer we have

0.83
-^^
.
18.47
Consequently in the case of the wet and dry bulb hygrometer,

corresponding to an atmospheric temperature of 21 C, and a wet
bulb temperature 2 C, lower, the pressure at the
dew
point of the
aqueous vapor contained in the atmosphere equals
saturated
In Table 17, this number 15.33 i^

15.33 riini- o^ mercury.
placed in the line numbered 21 " C, and the column numbered 2 C.
The wet and dry bulb
hygrometer, sometimes called August's psychrometer, consists of
two similar thermometers, one with a naked bulb and one with the
bulb covered by an envelope of wet muslin. A current of air is
caused to blow over the two bulbs with a fan or some other
means. A convenientt arrangement for this purpose consists of
a frame supporting the two thermometers. Fig. 88, capable of
rotation by hand.
Fig. 88.
See that the muslin envelope about
thermometer
in
is
kept thoroughly moist.
which the instrument
vice
shown
is
in the figure.
15, find the
bulb of the wet
Change
rapidly the air
situated with a fan or the rotating de-
When
stationary temperature read the

ble
the
the wet bulb has reached a

two thermometers. From Ta-
pressure p' of saturated aqueous vapor for the
temperature given by the dry bulb thermometer.

find the pressure p of the
From Table
aqueous vapor in the atmosphere
17,
at the
temperature of the experiment corresponding to the difference between the readings given by the wet and dry bulb thermometers.
Then from
eq. (i) p. 191, the relative humidity.
//=
P'
Make
not fewer than five determinations and take the aver-
age.
Before each determination be certain that the muslin en-
velope
is
thoroughly moist,
Calorimetry
196
Chapter XVI.
CALORIMETRY.
The
measuring quantities of heat is called calorimetry.

is no single quantity of heat that is univer-
art of
Unfortunately, there
sally
temperature of
unit
unit.
The quantity of heat adopted as the
work is the amount of heat required to raise the
one gram of water from 10 C. to 11" C. This
adopted as the
unit in scientific
called the calorie or the gram-centigrade-degree thermal
is
When
unit.
as great
is
a larger unit
This
taken.
is
is
desirable, a unit
gram-centigrade-degree thermal unit.

units, the unit of heat
adopted
to raise the temperature of one
51 P.
This
In the British system of
amount of heat required

pound of water from 50" F. to
is
the
called the British thermal unit or the
is
Pahrenheit- degree thermal unit.

will be
one thousand times
called the larger Calorie or the kilo-
Throughout
this
pound-
book the
calorie
used exclusively.
The number
ture of unit
its specific
of thermal units required to raise the tempera-
mass of a substance from
heat at
t.
The
to {t
-[-
1)
is
called
specific heat of bodies is slightly differ-
ent at different temperatures, but the difference
is so minute that
need not be considered except in the most refined measurements.
With this understanding, it is customary to speak of the average
specific heat of a body between t and t^, as the ratio of the numit
ber of heat units required to raise any mass of.it from
to
t^,
to
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an equal

mass of water through the same temperature range. That is, the
quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of m grams
of the substance of average specific heat c from t to t^"' is
the
H = mc
The
{t^
t)
heat as a given body in order to change
degree
is
(i)
quantity of water which requires the same
called the
its
amount of
temperature by one
water equivalent of the body.
That
is,
if
Correction for Radiation

represents the water equivalent of a body, and
heat of water between
and
t^,
197
^^
mean
the
specific
then the quantity of heat re-
quired to raise the temperature of the body from
t to t^ is
H=es{t^^t)
Equating
eqs.
(2)
(i) and (2)
mc
(3)
Ordinarily, the specific heat of water
equal to unity.
that
is,
may
be taken as a constant
In this case
=mc
(4)
the water equivalent of a body equals the product of
its
mass and its specific heat.

Although most simple in theory, calorimetric experiments
require great care and many precautions for their successful operation.
One source of error whose elimination must be always
provided for, except in the coarsest measurements is that due to
radiation, i. e. absorption or loss of heat due to the neighboring
bodies being at a different temperature than the body studied. The
principal methods of eliminating this error are (a) to compute the
amount of heat
actually gained from, or lost to, the surroundings
by the body during the experiment; (&)to determine the temperature which the body would have attained if there had been no gain
of heat from or loss of heat to the surrounding bodies (c) by the
employment of an experimental method in which the temperature
of the body is kept the same as that of its surroundings.
;
The
I.
Regnault's method
This law
{i. e.
Correction for Radiation.
may
is
based on Newton's
be briefly stated as follows
Law
The
of Cooling.
rate of cooling
the change in temperature per second) varies directly as the
excess of the temperature of the body over that of

ings.*
The same law may be enunciated
its
in another
surround-
form which
a student familiar with analytic geometry wil perceive that this

statement Implies that the relationship between the temperature and time
of cooling may be represented by an equilateral hyperbola referred to its
A-,
asymptotes.
Calorimetry
rgS
found very convenient : the amount of heat lost

by a radiating body is proportional to the time it radiates, and to
the mean difference in temperature, during this time, between the
radiating body and the surroundings to which it radiates; also,
will be often
the
amount of heat
in temperature
lost in a
given time for a given
between a body and
its
mean
difference
surroundings, depends
only on the nature and extent of the surface of the body.

X"
""
"
CORRISCTION FOR RADIATION

the temperature
Ih
where
Then applying Newton's

we have
the surrouDclings.
o.f
CD
laws of cooling to the part
r is a constant
I99
oi the curve,
= rT[y2{t' + t")-t,]
and
and
t'
are taken so close together that
t"
the portion of the curve between tliem
may
be regarded as a
straight line.
H^
Since
{t't"),
e'
it
'^
follows that
{f
g'
t")-
~ Tl%{t' +t")-t,-]-
In other words, the constant r
is
the
(5)
amount of heat
lost (or
gained) per minute, per degree difference in temperature between

the
body and the surroundings.
This
Con-
called the Radiation
is
stant of the body.
We
are
now
in a position to find the Radiation Correction
for the interval represented
body was rising to
its
ABC,
by the curve
maximum
that
temperature.
is,
while -the
Let H' be the
amount of heat lost by radiation during the interval T' while the
body was above the temperature of the room, and H" the amount
of heat received by absorption during the interval T" that the
body was below the temperature of the surroundings. Let t^ be
the average difference in temperature between the body and the
room
in the first case, while
H'
t^
represents the average difference
Then
in the second case.
= rrt,
and
H"
Finally, the Radiation Correction
R^ H' H"
e'
When
the curve
ence in temperature,
t^,
the interval of time T'
B C B hy
2.
mean
t,
T"
T"
t^)
t,)
\s not a straight line, the average differbetween the body and the room during
found by dividing the area of the figure
and
C.
This
ordinate of a curved
Instead of finding the
body due
t,.
the horizontal distance between the ordinates passing
through the points

ing the
is
=r{T'ti
{ft"){T'
BC
= r T"
is
is
the general
method of
find-
line.
number
of heat units lost by the
to radiation while the temperature of the
body
is
rising
Calorimetry
200
to its
if
maximum
value, the effect of radiation can be accounted for
the temperature
attained
if
is
determined to which the body would have

no radiation. In the following modi-
there had been
fication of a
method due
to
Rowland
this
temperature can be ob-
tained to a close approximation by a stmple graphical construction.
Imagine a body
at a temperature
to be given a quantity of heat,
H, such
rise to a value above, that of the
that the temperature of the
below that of the room

that
its
surroundings.
body
is
temperature will
During the time
lower than that of the sur-
roundings, the body will absorb heat from the surroundings
during the time that the temperature of the body
is
and
above that
of the surroundings, the body will lose heat to the surroundings.
Let the
rise of
temperature with respect to time before the
Through
C and D draw
the points B,
Lay oS
temperature axis.
W Z oi
From
radiation
drawn through
parallel to the
tem-
C.
the diagram, the rate of
fall
of temperature due to
is
W)^{WZ) = Un
(A'
therefore the
fall
e,
of temperature due to radiation that has oc-
curred during the interval of time T'
T
Similarly
draw a line parallel to X Z, and also a

time axis. Produce A B until it intersects the
Through
line parallel to the
vertical line
lines parallel to the
length corresponding to any
a.
Draw
convenient interval of time.

perature axis.
201
ta.n
the rate of increase
found to be
is
{Bs)-^ {As)
(7)
AB
from the absorption curve
of temperature due to absorption
is
{b d).
tan$,
therefore the increase in the temperature of the body due to ab-
sorption of heat from the surroundings during the interval
T" tan #
T"
(wz n).
Consequently, the temperature that the body would have

tained
if
is
(8)
at-
there had been neither loss of heat by radiation, nor gain
of heat by absorption from the surroundings, would be represented by the point
on the diagram, plus the number of degrees
corresponding to the distance b d minus the number of degrees

corresponding to tn
n.
That
is,
be represented by the distance
The
is most accurate is
from Newton's laws of cooling. Considering
CD
the part of the curve
roundings, and letting
maximum
lost
above the temperature of the sur-
represent the rise in temperature above
observed temperature, that would have occurred
had been no
by radiation is
there
would
m d.
condition under which this method
readily deduced
the
the total rise of temperature
loss
by
radiation, then the
H'
if
amount of heat
et.
(9)
Again, from the laws of radiation,
H'^rVt,
where
r is the radiation constant
and
(10)
f,
is
the
mean
difference
CaIvORIMETRY
202
in temperature
between the body and the room during the
in-
terval of time T'.

If the
by
then as in
t",
temperature corresponding to the point
gram be denoted by
and
t',
we have
eq. (5) p. 199,
on the
dia-
H^ be denoted
that corresponding to
for the value of the radia-
tion constant,
_
^"
t")
e {f
r[y^
{f
+ 1")
/o]
_
~
^ tan e
{f
Yz
t")
(11)
Eliminating H' from eqs. (9) and (10), and substituting for r
we
value from eq. (11)
T
Denoting by
t-[
its
obtain,
t-^
tan e
the temperature difference corresponding to the
distance (in n) Fig. 90,
we have from
eq. (7), T' tan
t^.
Therefore
^-V[ ^ (.+%_,
In the preliminary discussion of this method

that the cooling curve Z?
was shown
tion
it
when
that
is
(12)
it
was assumed
a straight line and on this assump-
t^.
Equation (12), shows that even
the temperature range of the experiment
is
too great to
permit the assumption that the cooling obeys a straight

that
= t^
angle 6
to the
is
when
?g
measured
mean
= J^ (^'+*")
at a point
ô-
I'^
other words,
line law,
when
the
on the coaling curve corresponding
difference in temperature during the interval T' be-
tween the body and the room, then the number of degrees that
must be added to the maximum temperature D in order to correct
for radiation corresponds to the distance
The preceding
nishes an accurate and easily applied

radiation
mum
{m
n) on the diagram.
method furmeans of correcting for
consideration indicates that this
whenever the difference between the maximum or mini-
temperature of the body and the temperature of the room
not considerable.
method
practice.
is
And
even when
this
difference
is
is
large the
applicable under conditions that can be realized in
Another
method should be referred
203
which though
warned against
its use.
In this method, first suggested by Rumford, the initial
and final temperatures of the body are arranged so that the difference between the room* temperature and the initial temperature of the body equals the difference between the room temperature and the final temperature of the body. The idea is that
by this arrangement, the heat absorbed from the room while the
body is colder than the surroundings equals the heat lost to the
room while the temperature of the body is higher than that of
the surroundings.
That this idea is illusory is apparent from
3.
fallacious,
is
to,
so plausible that the student must be
the following consideration.
In a certain experiment performed in the Laboratory of

Physics at Purdue University, a mass of lead was first heated to a
high temperature and then immersed in a mass of water that was

trials
By
room temperature.
at a temperature lower than the
previous
the factors of the experiment were so arranged that the
original temperature of the water
perature of the
room
was
much below
as
as the final temperature
the tem-
was above.
Obser-
vations of the temperature of the water taken every half minute after the introduction of the piece of lead are
in the curve
Now
HFA
shown
plotted
Fig. 91.
which heat is absorbed from the room

any instant varies directly with the difference
between the temperature of the water and
since the rate at
by the water
at
of the
room
at that particular instant,
it
follows that the total heat absorbed by the
water from the roof

area
E F
H.
is
proportional to the
Similarly the heat lost
radiation while the water
highest temperature
area
E F
0.5
1.0
2.0
FAG. It
H equals
is
was
by
its
proportional to the
follows that
the
rising to
area
if
the area
FAG
then
the heat gained by absorbtion from the
Fig. 91.
radiation.
this sort
room equals the heat lost to the room by

This condition cannot be realized in an experiment of
because during the
first
the hot body and the water are
part of the experiment
when
at a considerable difference of
Cai<orime;try
204
temperature the water will receive heat at a rapid rate from the
hot body, while toward the end of the experiment
when
the water
and the immersed body are approaching a common temperature the water will receive heat from the immersed body at a
slow rate. In other words the time occupied by the water in
room is less than the time occuroom temperature through the same
rising to the temperature of the
pied in rising above the
number of degrees. That is to say, in order that the heat absorbed from the room may equal the heat lost to the room,
the final temperature of the water must be much nearer the temperature of the room than was the original temperature of the
water.
In the particular experiment referred to in Fig. 91 the temroom would need to be 41" C, instead of 30 C,
perature of the
might compensate radiation
in order that absorption
LI.
DETERMINATION OF THE EMISSIVITY AND ABSORBING POWERS OF DIFFERENT SURFACES.

power of a surface is defined as
radiating
units lost per second
by radiation,
at
The emissivity or
number of heat
the
atmospheric pressure, per unit
area, per degree excess of temperature of the cooling
the temperature of the surrounding
power of a surface
is
air.
defined as the
body above
Similarly, the absorbing
number of heat
units ab-
sorbed per second, at atmospheric pressure, per unit area, per

degree excess of temperature of the surrounding air above the
temperature of the absorbing body.
The
and the absorbing power of different surfaces for various temperature differences between the
surfaces and the surrounding air, and also to compare the emissivit) and absorbing power of the same surface under similar
is
to determine the emissivity
conditions.
Consider a mass
M of water
filling
a closed vessel of water
equivalent e and external surface of area A.
by air at temperature
^0;
the vessel and
its
If
when surrounded
contents cools
from a
Emissivity and Absorbing Power
205
temperature
t' to t" during a short interval of time T, then from

the above definition the emissivity of the surface is
(^/+
TAi'A
'
Similar!}' if the vessel
{('
and
{f
<-)
f)
+ r) /o
its
d)
contents rises in temperature
from t^ to t^, due to absorption of heat from the surrounding

then the absorbing power of the surface is
(^y
+ e)
(/.
air,
/,)
TA[t-%{t,+ i2)^
(2)
and Computation. For this experiment

provided two or more metallic cylinders C.Fig. 92, ex-
j\Ianipui,ation
there are
actly alike except for the nature of the external surface
may
ample, one cylinder
for ex-
be highly pol-
ished, one may have a tarnished surface

and one may be coated with lampblack.
In finding the emissivity of these different

surfaces, the cylinders' are in succession
with hot water and suspended by
filled
cords inside of an enclosure formed by

tvvfo
concentric cans,
between them
filled
K, having the space
/,
with water at the tem-
perature of the room.
The temperature
of the water in the central vessel
and
of
the water in the jacket are observed every
an hour. The
and in the
'^^^- 92jacket must be kept thoroughly stirred
throughout the whole experiment. From these observations are
one for
plotted two curves coordinating temperature and time
the radiating body and one for the water jacket. An example is
two minutes
water
in
for at least half
the
central vessel
given in Fig. 93.

'
It will be noticed that the emission curve
line.
is
not a straight
Since the emissivity of a surface varies directly with the
rate of cooling of the radiating surface,
emissivity
is
smaller
when
it
is
apparent that the
the difference between the temperature
of the radiating body and the enclosure
is
small than
when
this
206
difference
Caiôrimetry
is
great.
The
emissivity should therefore be deter-
mined for definite temperature differences.

For the particular experiment in which the curve shown in
Fig. 93 was obtained, the following data were found
Mass of radiating vessel and stirrer
78.1 gms.
Mass of water contained in vessel
126.3 gms.
cms.
Area of
external
surface
153. i sq.
The radiating vessel and stirrer were made of copper. Since the
=
=
Emissivity and Absorbing

specific heat of
(4) p. 197,
copper
is
known
Power
to be 0.0933,
it
207
follows from eq.
that the water equivalent of the radiating vessel and
stirrer is
e=
(78.1) (0.0933) =7-29 grams of water.

In computing the emissivity by means of eq. (i), t'
t" and t^
For a curve of this sort a convenient
value for T is five minutes. For example to find the emissivity
of the surface of the radiating body when at 34 C, while the enclosure was at 20.23 C, proceed as follows. To the right andletr
of the point where the 34 line crosses the cooling curve lay off
distances corresponding to 2.5 minutes.
From the end of this
,
are taken from the curve.
line,
A B,
erect perpendiculars
until
they- intersect the cooling
draw two lines parallel to the

axis along which time is plotted. The distance included between
these two lines corresponds to the cooling of the radiating body
curve
at these points of intersection
during an interval of
tain {f
eq.
(i)
f")
minutes.
five
1.35.
In this particular case,
we
ob-
Substituting the values thus obtained in
we have
^= M)?iiT^nf^^^-0-029^V =
0.000 284
Similarly,
^33
63,
0.0029
0.0029
ea.
=0.0029
e3
0.0029
0.0029
'^
(33 (|_1^3o
(32
_ 20.27) = -"^" ^^^
(3i]:^20.3)
93
The dependence
0.000 282.
2,^)
(3^_,^:_20.33)
(29_(j!:2o.3t,)
of emissivity
=0-000
278
=0.000 274
0-000 269
upon temperature
is
best rep-
resented by means of a curve coordinating the values of emissivity
obtained as above and the difference in temperature between the

radiating body and the enclosure in which
ature differences
ordinates.
may
it is
placed.
Temper-
be plotted as abscissas and emissivities as
2o8
Calorimetry
Proceeding as described above with each of the surfaces
being studied, plot on a sheet of cross section paper an emissivity
curve for each surface.
Now
fill
with cold water the vessels heretofore used as
radiating bodies and by
method
means of
eq.
(2),
and an experimental
similar to that used to find emissivity, determine the ab-
sorbing power of the different surfaces for various temperature

differences
From
its
between the absorbing surface and the enclosure.
these results construct a curve for each surface coordinating
absorbing power and the corresponding differences in tem-
perature between the absorbing surface and the enclosure.

State in
words
the conclusion reached
of the emissivity curve and the absorbing
same
from a comparison
power curve of the
surface.
At
the beginning of the radiation experiment the tempera-
ture of the water in the radiating body should be about 15
C,
above that in the water jacket, and in the absorption experiment

the temperature of the water in the absorbing body may be about
15 C, lower than that in the water jacket. But in no case should
the temperature of the absorbing
be deposited on
its
body be so low that dew
will
surface.
LII.
DETERMINATION OF THE SPECIFIC HEAT OF A

LIQUID BY THE METHOD OF COOLING.
Object and Theory op Experiment. The method of cooling
depends upon the conclusion obtained from Newton's Law of Cooling, that if a
body
cools in a given enclosure the
lost varies with the time considered and with the
amount of heat
mean difference
of temperature between the body and the enclosure during this
That is, if a body in an enclosure of temperature i,

cools from f to a. slightly lower temperature t" in time T^, the
amount of heat emitted during this time is
(I)
k[y2(t'
H,
nto]T,
extent
and
of
nature
where A is a constant depending upon the
the
body
being
that
Imagine
the surface of the radiating body.
interval.
Heat
Specific
209
considered consists of a closed metallic vessel of water equivalent

e filled
with m^ grams of water.
In this case
H,= {m,ê){t'-f).
That
(2)
is,
/e
If the
VA
same
{f
t")
and
specific heat s,
if
we
will
k[y2
(,n,
e)
(f
t")._
(3)
_
grams of another
liquid of
the time occupied in cooling through the
from
sanoe small temperature range,
then
r,
t,]
vessel be filled with m.^
t'
to
t",
be denoted by T^,
have
{t'
+ t")-t,]T,=
{nus
+ e)
{t'-t").
(4)
Dividing eq. (3) by eq. (4)
m^
!
Zi
'1
From
this
equation
it
\
is
-\-
-\-
(5)
m^
m^
evident that
it
is
possible to de-
termine the specific heat of a liquid from a comparison of the
time required for a given mass of
it
to cool
through a
definite
temperature range, with the time required for a given mass of
water to cool through the same range.
The apparatus used in

experiment consists of a closed metal
radiating vessel suspended by strings in an
enclosure surrounded by an ice jacket. The
radiating vessel is provided with a stirrer
for agitating its contents and a thermometer for reading temperatures.
Weigh the radiating vessel and stirrer
their water equivalent, e, by
determine
and
this
mass by the specific

from tables, of the material
of which they are composed. Fill the ramultiplying
their
heat,* obtained
diating
vessel with water at 80 to 100"
suspend in the enclosure formed by

the ice jacket, and while stirring continuously, observe the temperature every
C,
FiG. 94.
*If
the radiating vessel
or stirrer
is
of
unknown
composition, the
of mix-
water equivalent can be obtahxod experimentally by the method

tures, p. 215.
14
210
CAr.ORIME;TRY
minute for a quarter of an hour or longer. After the radiating

vessel has cooled to near the temperature of the room, remove
This gives the mass of
ice jacket and weigh.
it from the
water
ot^.
Carefully dry the vessel with a current of
warmed
air
from
with the specimen of liquid whose specific heat

is to be determined, and as before, observe the temperature every
rninute for a quarter of an hour. The temperature of this liquid
a bellows,
fill
should be about the same as that of the water used in the first
After the liquid has cooled to about the
part of the experiment.
All of the data

its mass w,.
hand for computing the specific heat of the specimen.
The method of computation may be rendered clearest from the
temperature of the room, obtain

are
now
at
consideration of an example.
In a certain experiment a copper radiating vessel and stirrer
were used having a mass of 144.909 grams. From tables the

specific heat of copper is found to be o. 0933. Consequently
e^ (144.909) (0.0933) 13.52 grams of water.
The mass of water used was m^
194-49 grams, and the mass
=
=
was Wa
252.69 grams. The
and time when plotted on coordinate axes are represented by the cooling curves shown in
of the second liquid

observations
of
(glycerin)
temperature
Fig- 95-
~2
Cooling
curves
of
10
11
12
water and of glycerin.
Fig. 95.
13
Specific
From
these cooling curves
values of 7\ and T,
i.
c.
Heat
it is
21
a simple matter to obtain the
the intervals of time required by the
water and glycerin, respectively, to cool through the same number of degrees
when
was
the radiating vessel
atures above the temperature of the enclosure.
and To
An
will be
at various
The
temper-
values of T^
determined for intervals of temperature of 5"
inspection of the
cooling curve of water shows
that
the
temperature of the water was 70" C. at the beginning of the exjieriment, was 65 C. after 1.45 minutes, was 60 C. after 3.25
minutes,
etc.
Therefore the value of T^
is
water was cooling from 70 to 65",
is
water was cooling from 65 to 60,
etc.
btained the data in the following table:
1.45
minutes while the
1.80 minutes while the
In this manner were
CaIvORIMETRY
212
1
40
0.823
0.053 = 0.60
1.80
1.10
0.823
1.45
0.053
0.57
Consequently the mean value of the specific heat of glycerin between 40 and 70 C. as determined by this experiment is 0.577.
State the assumptions that have been
1.
eq. (5),
made
and show how these conditions have been
in obtaining
fulfilled in
the
experimental method given above.
What would
2.
when
limit the accuracy of the
method of cooling
applied to the determination of the specific heat of solids?
3.
to cool
Instead of observing the times required for two liquids
through a
definite
temperature range in losing
known
amounts of heat, the specific heat of liquids can be compared

from observations of the rise in temperature produced by adding
to each the same amount of heat in the same time. In the application of this method due to Pfaundler, the two liquids are usually placed in two calorimeters having the -same water equivalent
and radiation constant, and equal amounts of heat are given to the
two liquids by means of a current of electricity passing simultaneously through two coils of wire of equal resistance immersed in
two liquids.
Deduce the equation showing the relation between the speIndicate the
cific heats of the two liquids under these conditions.
experimental conditions which must be fulfilled.
the
LIII.
DETERMINATION OE THE SPECIEIC HEAT OE A

SOLID BY THE METHOD OF MIXTURES.
Object and Theory 01? Experiment. The theory of the
Method of Mixtures depends upon the principle that when a
number of bodies of different tefnperature are brought together,
the amount of heat lost by the bodies that fall in temperature
Specific
equals the
Heat
213
amount of heat gained by
the bodies that rise
in
temperature.
Consider a body of mass

to be placed in a
ature
of
its
;;;i
if
mass
is
III
Let the
s.,.
final
in.y
temperature of the mixture be
t-^
contents and that gained by the surrounding
where
If
in
s (t
is
the radiation correction.
^2)
t^-
we will have the heat lost by the body

sum of the heat gained by the vessel and
greater than
equal to the
and temperature t,
s-^ and tempermade of a material whose
specific heat s
//(,
of Hquid of specific heat
contained in a vessel of mass
ti
specific heat is
Then
mass
('"i-î
2-f2) (^2
^1)
That
air.
water be the liquid originally in the vessel, then
is,
(i)
-^
j^
:=
i.
For purposes of abbreviation the water equivalent of the vessel,

vu s^, will be denoted by the single letter e. Therefore the specific
heat of the specimen
(m,
is
+ e)
w
(/,
(/
A)
+R
.
'^
/,)
e represents the water equivalent of

which the mixing occurs, together with any accessuch as a stirrer or thermometer it may contain.
It
should be noted that
the vessel, in
sories
The
special apparatus
used in this experiment consists of a calorimeter and a heater.
any apparatus used to measure quantities of heat.

The ordinary "water calorimeter" used in this experiment consists. Fig. 96,of a thin polished copper vessel held centrally withcalorimeter
is
FiG. 96.
Fig. 97.
214
Calorimetry
in a larger vessel
by means of non-conducting supports.
inner vessel contains a thermometer T' and stirrer
ond thermometer
5"
The
while a sec-
air space between the two

form
of heater, shown in Fig.
A convenient
consists
of
water can be boiled.
a
closed
which
copper
can
in
97,
Extending through one side and projecting nearly through the
boiler at an angle of 45" with the bottom, is a tube sealed at the
lower end and having the upper end closed with a cork through
which extends a thermometer. The specimen to be heated is
placed in this tube and when its temperature observed by means
of the thermometer T has attained a satisfactory value, the specimen is dropped into the calorimeter. If the specimen is in small
pieces, e. g. lead shot, it can be poured into the calorimeter by
is
suspended in the
concentric vessels.
simply
tilting the heater
drawn out
if
the specimeri
is
in a single piece
it is
of the heater with a thread and quickly lowered into
the calorimeter.
A very compact form of apparatus including the calorimeter

and heater designed by Regnault is shown in Fig. 98. In this
apparatus the calorimeter is on a little carriage allowing it to be
Fig. 98.
and withdrawn. The tube B B exAt its lower end is a shutter A

by means of which the tube can be quickly opened or closed. A
thermometer extending through the stopper at B permits the obeasily
moved up
to the heater
tends entirely through the boiler.
servation of the temperature of the specimen. The specimen is

held in the middle of the tube by a string extending out through B.
Heat
Specific
If
the specimen
in small pieces
is
When
wire basket.
is
it
contained in a small
desired to drop the specimen into the
is
it
215
is moved under B, the shutter A

opened and the string holding the specimen is released so as to
allow the specimen to quickly fall into the calorimeter.
The water equivalent of the calorimeter should first be determined. If the mass and specific heat be known for each component of the calorimeter participating in the heat change, then
calorimeter, the calorimeter
the water equivalent
most
is
easily
and most accurately obtained
by taking the sum of the products of the mass and the correspond-
When
ing specific heat of the several components.
this
method
cannot be applied, the method of mixtures can be employed.
In
and thermometer in position, fill the

inner vessel about half full with a known mass W4 of water at
some temperature t^ below the temperature of the room. Add
enough hot water at some temperature t^ to nearly fill the vessel.
Observe the temperature of the mixture t^ and determine the
mass 7H5 of hot water added. Since the amount of heat lost by
the hot water equals the sum of the amounts of heat gained
by the calorimeter, the contained water and the surroundings,
this case,
with the
stirrer
mAh
where
te)
e represents the
{f>U+e)it,
From
represents the radiation correction.
on
pp. 197-9,
it is
is
f^
and
An
t^.
(3)
the discussion given
^5
;!,
even though R'
an error in
.j
is
not
which may
be about 10 below the temperature

be about 20 above the temperature of the
be entirely neglected.
room and
+R'
inspection of eq. (2), shows
very small compared with
entirely eliminated, this fact will cause
of the
t,)
obvious that R' can be made very small by se-
lecting proper values for
that since c
water equivalent of the calorimeter and R'
If
t^
room, then R' will be so small that without sensible error, the
value of the water equivalent of the calorimeter is given by the
equation,
'
(/.
A)
"*
^'^
In this determination the greatest care must be taken in observing

temperatures,
especially
Determine the mass
tg.
m of the
specimen whose
specific heat is
Calorimetry'
2i6
to be determined
and place
it
in the heater until its temperature
While the specimen is heating, fill the

calorimeter about two thirds full of water and determine its mass
Assemble the parts of the calorimeter, placing one therWi.
mometer in the water contained in the inner vessel and another
assumes a constant value
t.
thermometer against the inner surface of the outer vessel. This

second thermometer is to give the temperature of the surroundings. The temperature of the water should now be observed regularly at quarter minute intervals, and the temperature' of the
surroundings should be observed every two minutes. The readings are taken at regular intervals but belong to two^ successive
periods.
Observe the temperature t of the specimen in

and the temperature ^^ of the water in the calorimeter,
While
then quickly transfer the specimen to the calorimeter.
first period.
the heater
stirring the water continuously, take temperature readings every
While the heated specimen
quarter minute.
the water will rise rapidly to a
maximum
is
giving up
temperature
its
heat,
This
^2-
one or two minutes. This maximum temperature is attained when the rate at which heat is radiated by the
water to the air equals the fate at which the water receives heat
period
may
last for
from the specimen. The temperature may remain stationary at

an appreciable length of time. Thereafter the loss
by radiation will exceed the gain of heat from the specimen.
this value for
Second period. Continue to take readings of temperature

and time for not less than five minutes during the cooling of the
water in the calorimeter. During the entire time covered by these
periods, the water must be stirred continuously and the readings
of temperature and time must be taken without interruption.
With
these readings, plot
two curves
one coordinating tem-
perature and time fon the water in the calorimeter, and another
coordinating temperature and time for the surroundings.

of such curves
is
shown
in Fig. 89.
From
data already obtained the value of the radiation correction
be determined by Regnault's method,

at
hand which when substituted
pair
these curves and the
p. 197.
The data
are
can
now
in eq. (2) will give the value of
the specific heat of the specimen.
Heat
Spe;ci]?ic
217

1.
Show how
to
determine the specific heat of
ice
by the
method of mixtures. Take account of the heat absorbed during

the experiment from tlie surroundings by the graphical method.
2.
Assuming the specific lieat is known of a solid body
which will produce no thermal action when immersed in a certain
liquid, show how to determine by the method of mixtures the
specific heat of the liquid.
IvIV.
deter:\iination of the specific heat of a

solid by the method of stationary
temperature.
Object and Theory o^ Experiment.
experiment
fied
is
The
object of this
to determine the specific heat of a solid by a modi-
form of the Method of Mixtures in which the water equivais avoided and the radiation correction is
lent of the calorimeter
eliminated.
This
is
accomplished by maintaining the temperature
of the calorimeter throughout the experiment the same as that of

the surroundings.
Consider a body of mass
heat j and temperature
vi, specific
to be placed in a calorimeter containing
w^ grams
of water at the
temperature of the surroundings
Let
now
cold water be
added to the calorimeter
t;^.
such that the temperature of the
at a rate
calorimeter remains constant.
If the
cold water be represented by
m^ and
emitted by the specimen
is
ins (t
mass and temperature of

t^
t^^)
this
respectively, then the heat
and the heat gained by the
cold water added to the calorimeter equals in(t^
t^).
Since
the water originally in the calorimeter has not changed in temperature, the heat lost by the specimen
by the cold water.
That
in s (t
must equal the heat gained
is
#1)
=^
m^
(^1
*
(/
A)
this
t^)
or
*
'

experiment includes a calorimeter of special design, Cj Fig.
Calorimetry
2r8
about vertical axes.

99,
and a heater
The water dropper consists of a reservoir,

and a water dropper D capable of rotation.
Fig. 99.
Fig. 100, having a valve
through the
voir
is
an
orifice
ice jacket /.
V by means
of
can be regulated.
which the flow

Surrounding
of
water
this reser-
By means of the thermometer T, the temmoment it issues from the water

dropper can be observed. The calori-
perature of the water at the
meter, Fig. ID I,
tallic
is
essentially the
me-
bulb of an air thermometer into
which projects a copper tube X for the

reception of the water and specimen.
Any change in the temperature of the
calorimeter is indicated by an open manometer tube M. To prevent any effect
due to changes in the temperature of
the surrounding air, the calorimeter is
placed in a water bath Y at the temperature of the room.
After the apparatus has been assembled ready for use, the specimen is
weighed and placed in the heater: The
Fig. 100.
mixing tube of the calorimeter is unscrewed and weighed, first when empty, and then when
Heat
Spe;cific
filled
enough water
with
cover
to
the
specimen.
at
219
temperature of the room
the
The mixing tube
now
is
replaced
and the stop cock attached to the manometer is opened for an

instant.
By this means any difference of pressure between the
inside of the air thermometer bulb and the outside air is equalized.
\Mien the specimen
in the heater has attained a satisfactory tem-
perature, the water dropper
is
made ready
by allowing
for use
cold water to escape until the thermometer in
qEFM
the escaping steam indicates a stationary temperature. Observe the temperature of the speci-
men
water in the mixing tube

and the cold water in the
in the heater, the
of the calorimeter,
water dopper.
Now
rotate the heater into po-
sition over the calorimeter
and quickly lower
The
the specimen into the mixing tube.
immediately
rotated
heater
Fig. ioi.
and the
water
By operating the valve V,
dropper rotated into place.
cold -water is now allowed to fall into the mixing tube
at such a rate that the index in the manometer tube
is
of the air
thermometer
out
position
of
remain stationary.
will
can be ascertained only by previous
rate
largely
with
its
upon the conductiidtyof the specimen.

contents
is
then weigKed.
trials.
The proper
All of the data necessary for
the computation of the specific heat of the specimen by

eq.
(i) are
now
depends
It
The mixing tube

means of
at hand.
IvV.
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT WITH JOEY'S

STEAM CALORIMETER.
Object and Theory
in
an atmosphere of steam
equals that of the steam.
thereby condensed.
the
amount of heat
If the
gi?
Experiment.
will
A cold body placed
absorb heat until

certain
steam
lost equals the
is
its
temperature
amount of steam
will be
at the boiling point of water,
product of the mass condensed
and the heat equivalent of condensation of steam.

eauivalent of condensation" of steam
is
By
"heat
meant the number of heat
220
CaIvORIMETRY
units given
up by
tlie
condensation of unit mass of steam.
This
is
numerically equal to the "heat equivalent of vaporization" of

water,
e.
i.
the
mass of water.
number of heat
The object of
units required to vapKjrize unit

this
the specific heat of a solid from a
steam condensed on the body as
experiment
is
to determine
measurement of the mass of
it
rises in
temperature to the
boiling point of water.
steam chamber, Fig. 102,

The scale pan is suspended from the balance beam by a thin wire passing through a
small hole in the top of the steam chamber. Steam is first passed
into the steam chamber and. the mass of steam which condenses
on the scale pan is weighed. The apparatus is now allowed to
Joly's apparatus consists of a
enclosing a scale pan of a delicate balance.
Fig. 102.
The scale pan is dried and

upon it is placed the specimen whose specific heat is required.
Steam is again passed into the steam chamber and the mass of
steam which condenses on the specimen and on the scale pan is
cool to the temperature of the. room.
weighed.
Let
M and j be the mass and
specimen;
e,
specific heat respectively of the
the thermal water equivalent of the
scefle
pan and
221
Specific Hicat
the temperatures of the room and the

and
and ;/)", the masses of steam condensed by
the specimen and b>- the balance pan respectively; h, the heat
suspending wire
t.,
î
steam respectively;
;;/'
equivalent of condensation of steam.
The amount
of heat
absorbed by
the scale pan and suspending wire as
they rise in temperature from

c{t.^
This heat
^j).
f^
to
t.,
is
supplied by the
is
heat liberated through the condensation
mass m"
of the
P^^-
Therefore
of steam.
c{tQ^m"h.
^3-
(I)
amount of heat absorbed by the specimen together

balance pan and suspending wire is
Similarl)-, the
with the
{in' -\-
Ms {t, t^)
e {h
Q.
due to the condensation of the
in").
Consequently
This heat
is
Ms
(L
t^)+e
Ms
(t^
Subtracting (i) from (2),

(^2
^1)
(;'
mass of steam
m") h
(2)
m' h
Whence
common
source of
method is an uncertainty in weighing produced by

steam condensing on the suspending wire where it emerges from
error in this
the steam chamber.
trouble
is
In the apparatus illustrated in the figure, this
avoided by having the suspending wire pass through
a small tube surrounded by a steam jacket, Fig.
passing the steam through this jacket before
chamber, the neighborhood of the aperture

to prevent
all
is
it
103.
By
enters the steam
sufficiently heated
condensation on the suspending wire outside of the
chamber.
In performing this experiment
then assemble the apparatus.
wire hang free.
When
first
Take care
weigh the specimen and

to have the suspending
water in a detached boiler
orously, note the temperature
t^
is
boiling vig-
of the inside of the steam cham-
ber and then connect the boiler to the steam chamber with a good
222
CAI.ORIMETRY
Steam will immediately be condensed on the

After one or two minutes diminish the flow of steam
sized rubber tube.
object pan.
to such
Now
an extent that the current
will not disturb the object pan.
bring the balance into equilibrium by counterbalancing the
object pan.
Without disturbing the counterbalancing mass on the mass

pan of the balance, disconnect the boiler from the steam chamber
and allow the chamber to cool to the temperature of the room, t,^.
Dry the object pan and place upon it the specimen whose specific
heat is required. Again connect the boiler to the steam chamAfter four or five minutes the specimen and the object pan
ber.
will
have acquired the temperature
Jj
Diminish the
of the steam.
flow of steam as before and add standard masses to the mass pan
equals the mass
in temperature
in'
The mass thus added
again in equilibrium.
until the balance is
of steam condensed by the specimen in rising
from
t-^
vaporization of water,
to
all
Knowing
t^.
h,
of the data are
the heat equivalent of
now
at
hand for com-
puting the specific heat of the specimen by means of eq. (3).

I.
rection
When
this
method
must be applied
of the specimen
when
is
employed
in precise
work a
cor-
to account for the difference in weight
in air
and when
in steam.
Assuming
that
under normal barometric pressure the specific gravity of air at

20 C. is 0.0012 and the specific gravity of steam at 100 C. is
o 0006, find the factor by which m' must be multiplied to give the
actual mass of steam condensed by the specimen.
.
Oil Testing
223
CHAinÊRXVir.
CHANGE OF
STATE.
LVI.
THE FLASH
TEST, FIRE TEST
AN
AND COLD TEST OF
OIL.
If
an inflammable
mixed with air in proper proportion, the mixture will explode on ignition. The air above a volatile oil is saturated with
gas
is
the oil vapor.
proportion of
temperature of the
If the
oil
vapor in the
oil is
slowly raised the
air will increase until, at a certain
temperature, the saturated air will become an explosive mixture.
This temperature
called the Flash Point of the
is
temperature of the
oil
be
oil.
If the
farther increased, a point will be
still
oil will evolve vapor so rapidly that, when

burn continuously. This is called the Fire Test of
The Cold Test of an oil is the lowest temperature at
the oil.
which the oil will flow. The object of this experiment is to make
reached at which the
ignited,
a flash
it
will
test, fire test
The
and cold
test of a
ually heat the specimen in a cup
and
small flame near the surface of the
specimen
sample of
oil.
general method of determining the flash point
is
is
to grad-
at frequent intervals pass a
oil.
In
making a
fire test,
heated in an op^^n cup and the temperature
is
the
noted at
which the vapor will burn continuously when ignited. The flash
point depends upon (a) the rate of heating, (b) the depth and
diameter of the cup, (c) whether the cup is closed or open, (d)
the quantity of oil used, (c) the size of the testing flame and
Consequently the size
distance from the surface of the oil.
and design of the testing apparatus and the method of carrying
its
out a determination are explicitly described in the legislative en-,
actments of the various
states.
Change
224
oi?
State
The form of apparatus
most commonly used in this country for the flash point is the
"New York State Board of Health Tester." This consists, Fig.
104, of a seamless copper cup C covered by a glass plate perforated with two holes, one for the insertion of the thermometer
and another for the testing flame. This cup is heated in either a
water or air bath B by means of an alcohol lamp or small Bunsen burner. Place the whole apparatus in a sheet iron pan filled
with sand.
In using this apparatus for the testing of illuminating
the
New York
ulations
oils,
State Board of Health publish* the following reg-
"Remove the oil cup and fill the water-bath with cold water
up to the mark on the inside. Replace the oil cup and pour in
enough
oil to
fill
it
to within one-eighth of
an inch of the flange
joining the cup and the vapor-chamber above.
taken that the
oil
does not flow over the flange.
Care must be
Remove
bubbles with a piece of dry paper.

glass over on the
thermometer that
ered with
all air
Place the
and so adjust the
oil
cup,
its
bulb shall be just cov-
oil.
an alcohol lamp be employed for

beating the water bath, the wick should be
carefully trimmed and adjusted to a small
flame. A small Bunsen burner may be used
"If
in place of the lamp.
The
rate of heating
should be about two degrees per minute, and
no case exceed three degrees.

"As a flash torch, a small gas jet onequarter of an inch in length, should be employed. When gas is not at hand employ a
in
waxed
linen twine.
The flame in
however, should be small.
When the temperature of the oil
has reached 85 F., the testing should
piece of
this case,
Fig. 104.
*Rep. of N. Y. State Board of Health, 1882.
Oil Testing
commence.
To
end
this
it
torch into the opensuch an angle as to well
the
insert
ing in the cover, passing
225
in at
and to a distance about half-way between the oil

and the cover. The motion should be steady and uniform, rapid
and without a pause. This should be repeated at every two degrees' rise of the thermometer until the thermometer has reached
95", when the lamp should be removed and the testings should be
clear the cover,
made
for each degree of temperature until 100
is
reached.
After
lamp may be replaced if necessary and the testings continued for each two degrees.
"The appearance of a slight bluish flame shows that the
this the
flashing point has been reached.
"In every case note the temperature of the
The flame
ducing the torch.

tact
with the
oil
of the torch must not
before intro-
come
in con-
oil.
"The water-bath should be filled with cold water for each

test, and the oil from a previous test carefully wiped
from the oil cup.''
separate
Make
five
determinations of the flash point and take the mean.
After each determination, remove the cover from the
oil cup and

blow the burnt gases out of the cup.
After the flash point has been determined, remove the cover
from the oil cup and continue to heat the oil at the rate of two
degrees per minute. About every half minute test the oil with
The lowest temperature
the small flame as above described.
at
which the vapor of oil will burn continuously is the Fire Test.
Remove the thermometer and smother the flame by placing on top
of the oil cup a piece of asbestos board. Such a damper should
always be at hand for emergencies.
In the case of lubricating oils the method of finding the flash
point and the
fire test is
exactly as above described except that
the rate of heating should be about 15 P., per minute and the
testing flame should be
first
In making the cold
100
c. c.
gation,
When
15
capacity
is
of the
oil
test,
when
the
about 200 P.
oil is
a glass vial or boiling tube of about
one-fourth
and then placed

all
applied
filled
with the
in a freezing
has congealed
it is
oil
under
mixture of
ice
investi-
and
salt.
removed from the freezing
Changs of State
226'
mixture and thoroughly stirred with a thermometer

sufficiently softened to flow
The temperature
at
which
from one end of the tube
until it is
to the other.
this occurs is called the cold test of the
oil.
LVII.
DETERMINATION OE THE BOILING POINT OF A

SOLUTION.
The
object of this
measure the boiling point of a dilute solution of

given concentration and also to measure the boiling point of a
experiment
is
to
saturated solution of the same substance.
The
the liquid
a solution
If a
its
boiling point of a liquid

is
in equilibrium with
is
its
is
the temperature at
The
vapor.
which
boiling point of
higher than the boiling point of the pure solvent.
current of steam be passed into an aqueous solution below
boiling point, steam will be condensed. in the solution until the
heat thereby liberated -raises the temperature of the solution to
solution will be at the boiling point of the solution
pure water,
Obviously
self instead of
the
same
its
Consequently the steam that passes through the
boiling point.
if
the steam
formed
and not that of
in the solution
it-
being conducted into the solution from outside,
result will occur.
boiling solution
is
comes
In general, then, the steam from a
off at the boiling point of the solution
and
not that of the pure solvent.

Just as soon, however, as the steam escapes into the space
above the solution
it
becomes
slightly cooled
contact with the walls of the vessel,
etc.
by expansion, by
This cooling will con-
tinue until the steam becomes saturated, that
is,
until its
tempera-
ure becomes that of the boiling point of pure water.

Consequently, in determining the boiling point of the pure
solvent the thermometer
liquid,
is
suspended in the space above the
while in determining the boiling point of a solution the
thermometer bulb must be immersed in the
solution.
BoiijNO Point
J.
Y. Buchanan has recently
227
utilized the principle described
in the preceding paragraphs for finding the boiling point of a
saturated solution.
quantity of the pure solute
is
placed in the
bottom of a tall test tube containing a thermometer. A current

of steam is sent through a glass tube extending to the bottom of
the test tube until a saturated aqueous solution of the given solute is obtained.
So long as any of the solute remains undissolved and the current of steam
uninterrupted, the temperature
is
of this saturated solution will be at
its
boiling point.
The apparatus used
in
determining the boiling point of a dilute solution consists of a

small boiling flask provided with a cork
and condenser.
fitted
Without the condenser the
with a thermometer
solution
would grad-
ually increase in concentration through the loss of steam.
To
pre-
vent "bumping," a handful of clean dry pebbles or pieces of
broken glass
is
placed in the boiling flask.
Fill the flask
one-third full with a normal* solution of the assigned
about
immerse the bulb of the thermometer in the solution, place the flask
in a sand bath heated with a Bunsen burner and observe the
maximum
temperature attained.
This
is
salt,
the boiling point of a
normal solution of the given salt. In the same manner find the
boiling point of a semi-normal and a deci-normal solution of the
same salt.
For finding
the boiling point of a saturated solution, fasten
a large boiling tube in a vertical position in a retort stand, and

fill
the tube to a depth of about one centinieter with crystals of the
Suspend a thermometer in the tube so that the

salt and then push half way through
the layer of salt the end of a glass tube in which flows a current
of steam. When the bulb of the thermometer is submerged in the
solution formed by the salt and condensed steam, observe the
assigned
salt.
bulb just touches the layer of
temperature.
This
is
the boiling point required.
*For defination of a normal solution see
p. 236.
Change
228
of State
I.VIII.
DETERMINATION OF THE FREEZING POINT AND

MELTING POINT OF A SUBSTANCE.
experiment
is
The
to determine the freezing point
object of this
and the melting
point of a given substance.
Suppose that while a liquid is being gradually cooled to a

temperature below its freezing point a series of simultaneous observations is taken of the temperature and time. It will be noticed that the temperature of the cooling Hquid falls to a certain
value and then rises to a temperature at w^hich the liquid begins
While the freezing process continues the temperature
to freeze.
remains constant but when

ature again
falls.
These
all
of the liquid
facts are
is
frozen the temper-
brought out clearly by a curve
coordinating the observations of temperature and time.
The
stationary temperature corresponding to the horizontal portion of
the curve
With
is
the freezing point of the liquid.
crystalline bodies,
e.
g.
water, there
is
a well marked
horizontal portion of the cooling curve which
shows that these

bodies have a definite freezing point. But with waxes and other
amorphous bodies which on solidifying pass through an intermediate pasty condition, the portion of the curve in the neighbor-
hood of the freezing point is somewhat inclined

axis.
This indicates a somewhat indefinite freezing
customary to
call the
mean
If instead of cooling
until
it
melts, a curve
is
to
the time
point.
It is
ordinate of this line the freezing point.
a liquid until
it
obtained which
previously described cooling curve.
For
freezes
is
we
heat a solid
the obverse of the
crystalline bodies the
freezing point and melting point are equal.
But for amorphous
bodies which in the neighborhood of the
freezing point pass
through an intermediate pasty condition, the temperature at which

fusion begins and the temperature at which solidification begins
are not identical.
Freezing Point

this
experiment consists of a narrow
to the
bottom of a
placed in
tlie
^\ider tube.
this
The apparatus used
test
in
tube projecting nearly
The substance being
studied
is
space between the two tubes, and a thermometer
togetlier with sufficient
inner tube.
229
mercury to cover
its
bulb
is
placed in the
In determining the freezing point of a substance,
arrangement
is
placed in a jar containing a freezing mixture.
In determining the melting point

If the substance
it is
placed in a suitable hot bath.
under investigation
is
liquid at ordinary
room
temperatures, place the apparatus containing the liquid in an
appropriate freezing mixture.
men
at 15
Note the temperature of the
speci-
second intervals for a period extending from the time
the apparatus
was introduced
into the freezing mixture to at least
5 minutes after the specimen solidifies. With time as abscissas and

temperatures as ordinates plot the cooling curve of the substance.
The mean
is
ordinate of the nearly horizontal portion of this curve
taken as the freezing point of the substance.
Then
place the apparatus containing the solid substance in a
bath of boiling water or other suitable liquid. Begin immediately

to take observations of temperature at 15 second intervals and
continue the observations for at least 5 minutes after complete
From these observations plot a heatliquefaction has occurred.
ing curve coordinating temperatures and time. The mean ordinate

of the nearly horizontal portion of this curve is taken as the melt-
ing point of the substance.
Change
230
of State
LIX.
DETERMINATION OF THE HEAT EQUIVALENT OE

FUSION OF ICE.
Object and Theory of Experiment. The Heat Equivalent
is the number of heat units required to
of Fusion* of a substance
mass of it.
Imagine that on mixing m grams of ice at 0 C, with Wj
grams of water at t-^" that the ice melts and the temperature of
just melt unit
the mixture becomes
t^
During
sorbed the heat required to melt

ture after melting
from o"
to
t.^
this operation, the ice
it
and
has ab-
also to raise its tempera-
while the calorimeter and
its
con-
tents have lost heat. If during the experiment, there were no gain
from nor loss of heat to the surroundings, then the heat gained by
would equal the heat lost by the calorimeter and contained
water. That is, if we represent by e the water equivalent of the
calorimeter, and by / the number of units of heat required to
melt unit mass of ice, then in equating the heat gained by the ice
to the heat lost by the water and the calorimeer, we obain
mf mt2= (m^ e) {t^
That is, the heat of fusion would be
the ice
^^
K+^HA-0 _,^.
(1)
In most cases, however, the error due to radiation

great to be neglected.
This error
may
either be
is
too
computed by
Regnault's method or determined graphically by the modification

Rowland's method given on pp. 199-202. If the latter method
of
*Prom the fact that the heat absorbed by a body during fusion does
not change the temperature of the body, at the time when heat was considered
to be a form of matter, it wg.s supposed that the heat absorbed during
fusion exists in the melted body in a hidden or latent form. This heat absorbed during fusion was then called the "latent heat" of fusion. But since it
has been proved that heat is a form of energy, it follows that the heat absorbed by the body during fusion does not exist in the melted body as heat
but as mechanical energy.
Consequently, the expression "latent heat" of
fusion is now obsolete and has given place to the term "heat equivalent of
fusion."
Heat op Fusion
be selected,
it is
necessary to determine the temperature that the
mixture would have attained
Denoting
sorption.
231
if
there
had been no radiation or abby t^ we obtain the cor-
this -corrected value
rected equation
+ e)
{m,
J^
- /,') _
{t,
1-2)
Manipulation and Computation. Weigh the inner vessel

The product of this mass
of the calorimeter and the stirrer.
and the specific heat of the material of which the vessel and stirrer is composed gives the water equivalent e.
Fill this vessel
about half full of water at about 60 C, weigh, and then assemble
the calorimeter.
One
now
observer will
note the temperatures indicated by the
two thermometers of the calorimeter
minute
at half
intervals.
second observer will carefully dry a piece of ice having a mass
about
and
one-fourth
contained
instant
the
in
of
that
given
at
water
the
drop
it
The
calorimeter.
in
into
the
the
first
calorimeter,
warm
water
observer
will
continue to take readings of temperatures at half minute intervals for about five minutes after
all
and the
ice
kept submerged.
temperature of the calorimeter

cipitated
on
surface.
its
calorimeter with
are
all
of the ice has melted.
During
of this time the water in the calorimeter must be stirred
its
Now
contents.
two curves
of the mixture can be determined
a single pair of coordinate axes plot
one coordinating temperature and time for the water
in the calorimeter,
sels.
On
weigh the inner vessel of the

data for determining in and m^
The
now at hand.
The corrected temperature
graphically as follows.
Under no circumstances must the

fall so low that dew will be pre-
This
latter
pair of curves
is
and another for the
air
between the two ves-
curve will usually be a straight line. Such a

shown in Fig. 105. Through the point of inter-
two curves draw a line parallel to the temperature

axis.
Produce the cooling curve A B until it intersects the line
F 5* at some point X. Through the lowest point D of the curve
A B C D B draw a line parallel to the portion D B and produce
Then in the
it until it intersects the line P 5* at some point R.
section of the
Change of State
232
manner given on
pp. 199-202
it
may
be shown that
temperature corresponding to the point

grees corresponding to the distance
is
(w
represented by the distance (x R).
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
plus the
x).
That
t^
equals the
number
is,
{t^
of de-
^2')
Heat op Vaporization
Obviously the simple theory given in
plies
only to a solid whose temperature
moment
it is
233
this
is at its
introduced into the calorimeter.
experiment ap-
fusion point at the
In the general case
not only will the temperature of the specimen be below
moment
point at the
of
its
calorimeter, but in addition,
its
fusion
introduction to the hot water of the

its specific
heat will be different in the
and the liquid state. Even though neither of these specific heats is known, by means of three experiments, similar to the
above, in which the masses of the specimen and the water, as
solid
well as the original temperature of the water are different, the
heat equivalent of fusion of a substance can be determined.
We
thus have three simultaneous equations containing but three un-
known
quantities
the
required heat equivalent of fusion and
the specific heats of the specimen in the solid and in the liquid
states.
By
eliminating the specific heats, the heat equivalent of
fusion can be determined.

3.
For the same reason
that heat
is
absorbed when a body
is
body in any solvent.

Sometimes, however, this absorption of heat on solution is masked
or even exceeded by an evolution of heat produced by a chemical
combinatiori of the solute and solvent.
Assuming that there is no chemical action between Potassium
Nitrate and water, determine the heat equivalent of solution of
melted, heat
is
also required to dissolve a
this salt in water.
LX.
DETERMINATION OF THE HEAT EQUIVALENT OF

VAPORIZATION OF WATER.
If heat
be applied to
a liquid the liquid will rise in temperature until its
vapor pressure equals the external pressure on
its
maximum
surface; the
and farther addition of heat will

The heat now absorbed by the body
liquid will then begin to boil,
not increase
is
its
temperature.
doing internal work in converting the liquid into vapor.
The
Change
234
number
o]?
State
of heat units required to vaporize unit mass of liquid
is
Heat Equivalent of Vaporization of the liquid. In order

to condense a mass of vapor without changing its temperature,
the same amount of heat must be abstracted that was absorbed
called the
In other words, the heat of vaporization
in the vaporization.
When
equals the heat of condensation.

in vogue, this quantity
The
was
the caloric hypothesis
was
called the "latent heat" of vaporization.
is
to determine the heat equivalent
of vaporization of water.
Imagine that
m grams
of steam be condensed in
water contained in a calorimeter of water equivalent

note the temperature of the steam;
calorimeter and contents at the
t^,
t^,
moment
Wj grams of
e.
L,et t de-
the temperature of the
the steam began to enter
the temperature of the mixture; and v, the heat equivalent of
vaporization of water.
mv
where
is
-\-
{t
Then we
^2)
have the equation
will
(wii 4" ^) (^2
^1) -\-

{m,
Whence,
+ e){t^-tC)+-R
(A/,).

experiment comprises a boiler in which the
liquid is vaporized and a calorimeter containing a copper worm in which the vapor is con-

this
densed.
The
liquid in the boiler
A, Fig. 106,
is
heated by means of an electric current passing through a coil of platinum wire. The arm
holding the boiler is attached to a vertical brass
rod supported by the tubular column B. Be-
Fig. 106.
low the clamp D there is a horizontal slit extending through an arc of about 90 and from
one end of this slit there is a vertical slit extending about half way down the tubular column. A pin in the vertical rod supporting the
boiler extends through this slit. By means
of this arrangement, the boiler can be quickly
rotated into a definite plane and dropped in a
vertical line so as to cause the outlet

with one end of the copper worm
meter C.
of the boiler to register
contained in the calor-
Heat
of Vaporization
235
Weigh
the condensing
worm, inner
stirrer
and determine
their total water equivalent,
and
the previous experiments.
calorimeter until
Pour water
vessel of the calorimeter

as in
c,
into the inner vessel of the
worm
of the convolutions of the condensing
all
The temperature of this water should be below

room but must not be so low as to cause dew to be
are covered.
that of the
deposited on the calorimeter.
Determine the mass m-^ of this

Assemble the apparatus and adjust the position of the
calorimeter until when the boiler is rotated into position and allowed to drop,, the outlet
will accurately register with the
opening
in the short section of rubber tubing on the end of the
condensing worm. Raise the boiler, thus disconnecting it from
the calorimeter, rotate it to one side and fill half full with water.
Connect a storage battery to the terminals of the platinum spiral
and regulate the current so that the water will boil freely but not
water.
violently.
Now commence
taking quarter minute observations of the
temperature of the water in the calorimeter. About once per
minute observe the temperature of the

meter
drop
At a given
vessels.
into place
it
worm
until the
tate
it
calori-
and allow steam
to flow into the condensing
temperature of the water in the calorimeter
The water
to about 50 C.
tinuously.
betwen the two
air
instant rotate the boiler into position,
Now
in the calorimeter
must be
rises
stirred con-
disconnect the boiler from the calorimeter, ro-
to one side
and continue taking temperature readings at

Observe the temper-
one minute intervals for about ten minutes.
the condensing
worm
(from the calorimeter, carefully dry the outside and weigh.
The
ature
Remove
of the steam in the boiler.
difference between this
determined,
is
the mass
mass and the mass of the worm, already
of the condensed steam.
Compute the value of the radiation correction, R, by Regnault's method in the manner given on p. 197. All of the data
are
now
determined for substitution in the equation for the heat
equivalent of vaporization.

I.
Show
the relation between the value of the heat equivalent
of vaporization
when determined
in British thermal units.
in calories
and when determined
ThURMOCHEMICAI, MBASUREM5NTS
236
Chapter XVIII.
THERMOCHEMICAL MEASUREMENTS.
Ill
physico-chemical operations where
necessary to con-
it is
sider comparable quantities of different substances the unit of

is the gram molecule.
The
number of grams numerically
molecular weight of the substance. For example a
cule of oxygen is 2 x 16
32 grams, and a gram
mass usually employed

cule
is
defined as the
CuSO^
is
(63.3
32. -f
normal solution
4 X 16)
is
gram moleequal to the
gram molemolecule of
159.3 grams.
a solution containing one
gram mole-
For example
of sulphuric acid (written 0.1 n H2SO4)
cule of substance dissolved in one liter of solvent.
a deci-normal solution
contains one-tenth of a
i. e.
one
If
liter of
gram molecule of sulphuric acid per liter,

grams of sulphuric acid.
solution contains 9.8
Wj grams of a
m^ grams
dissolved in
having the molecular weight
solute
W2, the resulting solution will contain (Wj

of solute to
(?;j2
w-^ is
of a solvent having the molecular weight

-f-
-^ w^) gram molecules of
n the number of gram molecules of solvent
w^) gram molecules
solvent.
in
which
Denoting by
is
dissolved
one gram molecule of the solute
= 2
(1)
The masses of two elements which

replacing one another in chemical
are capable of exactly
compounds are
said to be
Thus, since 31.7 gms. of copper will regm. of hydrogen from sulphuric acid to produce copper
chemically equivalent.
place
sulphate, 31.7 gms. of copper
is
chemically equivalent to
gm.
of hydrogen.
A gram equivalent of an element is the number of grams of

an element chemically equivalent to one gram of hydrogen. It
is numerically equal to the atomic weight of the element divided
by the valence.
A gram equivalent of a chemical compound
is
the
TuERMOCITEMICAI, JVoTATlON
237
number of grams of the compound which contains a replaceable

amount of an element equivalent to one gram of hydrogen. The
value of the gram equivalent of a compound is numerically equal
to the value of the gram molecule divided by the product of the
number of atoms and the valence of the element in the molecule
that is replaced during the reaction. Since some compounds may
in different reactions
that the
gram
have different elements replaced,
equivalent of a
compound may have
depending upon which element
The value
gram
of the
is
tions
is
follows
replaced during the reaction.
equivalent cannot be determined until the
reaction in which the substance takes part
The
it
different values
is
known.
notation ordinarily employed to express chemical reac-
incomplete in that
it
does not take account of the thermal
changes occuring with the matter changes.

For example, if
carbon burns in a plentiful supply of oxygen, each atom of car-
bon
will unite with
carbon dioxide.
two atoms of oxygen
This fact
to
form one molecule of
briefly expressed in the ordinary
is
chemical formula
C
O,
CO,.
But on the union of two substances a part of the potential energy
due to their separation is transformed into heat energy. The
amount of the heat change depends upon the physical state of the
substances entering into the reaction. Thus, if 12 gms. of carbon in the crystalline form combine with 32 gms. of oxygen to
form one gram molecule of carbon dioxide, there will be an evoluIf, however, the carbon is in the
tion of 94300 calories of heat.
amorphous form the heat of reaction is 96400 calories. According
to the very convenient system of notation devised by Julius Thom-
sen, these reactions are stated as follows

(C.,,.,.
O,)
= CO, -f 94300,
= CO, + 96400,
O,)
If,
(Ca,nom'
however, the carbon dioxide
of carbon monoxide,
we
will
(CO, O)
is
formed by the oxidation
have
CO,
67960.
Similarly, the fact that the solution of one
gram molecule
of
carbon dioxide in a large amount of water developes 5880 calories

of heat is expressed by the formula
Thermochemical Measurements
238
(CO,, Aq.)
CO, Aq.
5880.
one gram
Again, the heat set free in the neutralization of
equivalent amount of
mo'ecule of carbon dioxide gas with the
dium hydroxide
(CO,, 2
in dilute aqueous solution
NaOH
Aq.)
is
Na, CO3 Aq.
while the heat of neutralization of one
H,0
gram molecule
dioxide in dilute aqueous solution, with the equivalent
sodium hydroxide
also in dilute equeous solution
(CO, Aq., 2 Na
OH
Aq.)
so-
Na, CO3 Aq.
26060
of carbon
amount of
is
+ H,0 + 20180
LXI.
DETERMINATION OE THE MOLECULAR HEA.T OE

SOLUTION OE A SALT.
Object and Theory op Experiment. The heat of solution

is the number of heat units developed, (+ or
),
by the solution of unit mass of it in a given mass of solvent. The
molecular heat of solution is the number of calories of heat developed by the solution of one gram molecule of the substance in
a given mass of solvent. The molecular heat of solution varies
of a substance
with both the temperature of the components and with the concentration of the resulting solution.
The
specified.
Consequently both must be
is
to determine the mole-
cular heat of solution of an assigned salt for various concentrations of solution.
Let m^ grams of the given
weight
is
w^ be dissolved
molecular weight
in
substance
m^ grams
whose molecular
of a solvent having the
Let the temperature of both solute and
tw,.
C, and let the temperature of the reThen if the specific heat of the solution
solvent before mixing be ^,

sulting solution be t^ C.
is s,
the quantity of heat developed by the solution of the solute
[(wi
where
OT,) s
e is the thermal
meter and
stirrer
and
-\-
e]
(t^
ts)
-\-
is
calories
water equivalent of the calorimeter, thermo-
is
Consequently
the molecular heat of solution of the given substance for the par-
Heat of Solution
239
and concentration employed
ticular temperature
expressed in calories,
^=^\
in the experiment,
is
\_{'>i,+m,)s
+ e]{i,- (,) + /?
(1)
The apparatus used
in
experiment consists of a large battery jar. Fig. 107, provided with a cover through which project two thin walled test
tubes and a larger thin walled copper tube closed at its lower end.
this
thin platinum tube provided with a thermometer
the copper air jacket.

the
is
placed in
This constitutes a calorimeter for mixing
two substances contained in the two test tubes. The jar is

wih water which can be agitated by means of a stirrer S.
filled
Fill the jar
with water at the temperature of the room.
out into the two test tubes such a mass
lUj^
Weigh
of the salt under inves-
and such a mass Wj of water that there are exactly 50

of solvent to one of salt.
[See eq. (i) p. 236]
Place the two test tubes in the w.ater bath and when their temperatures becomes that of the bath, note the tem.perature and empty into the platinum tube.
While continuously stirring the solution in the
tigation
gram molecules
platinum tube, observe its temperature at 15

second intervals for at least 5 minutes. If the
maximum temperature change of the solution
occurs within 30 seconds after the two substances are mixed it will be unnecessary to de-
termine the radiation correction R; otherwise

K by Regnault's method. Take
compute
jQy
the
value
of
the
specific
from
Table 24.
If
to compute the value of e determine
lution
sible
heat
is
it
it
of
the
not
so-
pos-
experimentally
by the method of mixtures. All of the data are now at hand for
computing the molecular heat of solution of the salt at the given
temperature for the given concentration.
In the same manner determine the molecular heat of solution
of the assigned salt for n
ficiently soluble in
for
ID and n
100 and n
water determine
20.
its
200.
If the salt
is
suf-
molecular heat of solution
240
LXII.
DETERMINATION OF THE HEAT OF DILUTION OF A

SOLUTION.
Object and Theory of Experiment. The heat of dilution

is the amount of heat developed. (+ or
) when a
of a solution
mass of solution of given concentration is farther diluted

by the addition of a definite mass of the solvent. Usually the heat
definite
of solution
of solvent
is
when a sogram molecules

gram molecules
expressed in calories of heat developed
is
lution containing one
gram molecule
of solute to n
farther diluted by the addition of n'
of the solvent.
Let Wj and W2 be the molecular weights of the solute and
sol-
Then a solution containing one gram moleand n gram molecules of solvent will have a mass
vent respectively.
cule of solute
of (Wi
Denote this mass by M'. Let this soluby the addition of n' gram molecules of the
This added mass equals n' uf grams. Denote this mass
n w^) grams.
tion be farther diluted

solvent.
by M".
Suppose that the temperature of both the solution and the
added solvent before they were mixed was t^, and that after they
were mixed the temperature of the mixture was t.^. Then if the
specific heat of the final mixture is j and the thermal water equivalent of the calorimeter, thermometer and stirrer is e, the heat of
dilution of the solution expressed in calories
[{W
+ M") s + e]
Since the change of temperature
is
is
{t-t,)
(I)
generally very small and oc-
curs very quickly the correction for radiation
is
usually negligible.
unnecessary to employ such large quantities of material

Suppose one ^-th of each of the above
as above considered.
quantities is taken. Denote {M' -^ x) by m' and (M" -^ x) by
.
It is
m". Then the value of the heat of dilution of the solution expressed in calories is
= x[{m' + m") s + e]
{t^
t,).
(2)
Hp;at
Neutralization
01?
241
The apparatus and ex-
perimental method employed in this determination are the same

as described in the experiment on the determination of tlie molecular heat of solution of a
salt.
The
I.
necessity of
knowing
the specific heat of the final
mixture can be obviated by arranging the temperature of the
and of the pure solvent so that the temperature

is the same as the temperature of the original
solution. Deduce the formula that would be employed if the determination were made in this manner.
original solution
of the
mixture
final
LXIII.
the heat of neutralization OF AN ACID AND A BASE.
deter:\iination of
Object and Theory of Experiment. The heat of neutraland base is the amount of heat evolved
the formation of one gram molecule of a normal salt. A nor-
ization of a given acid
in
mal
salt is
Let
one containing no replaceable hydrogen.

zv.^ and w^ be the molecular weight of the given acid,
?:i'i,
the given base, and of water respectively.

to produce one
gram molecule
i molecules of the acid to
of normal
u.,
Suppose that
salt,
in order
the reaction requires
molecules of the base.
Let each
gram molecule of the acid and of the base be dissolved in n^ and

gram molecules of water respectively. Then the solutions .containing equivalent amounts of the acid and base will have the
w^ -\- n^ Wg) grams and (Mj ^2

^3) grams respectively. Denote these two masses by the symbols M.^ and M^
respectively.
Let the temperature of both solutions before mixing be ^2 ^- a.nd the temperature of the system after mixing be
masses
^1
C.
{u^
Then
if
'"^2
the specific heat of the final mixture
is Sj
the ther-
mal water equivalent of the calorimeter and accessories is e and

the heat lost by the apparatus by radiation is R, then the heat of
neutralization of the given acid and base, expressed in calories, is
N=[(M, + M,)s + e]it,-t,)+R.

16
(i)
242
It is
unnecessary to employ such large quantities of material
as above considered.
quantities be taken.
Then
m..
and
Suppose one x- th of each of the above

Denote (M^ -^ ;tr) by Wi and {M^ -^ x) by
the value of the heat of neutralization of the given acid'
base, expressed in calories,
N = x[(m^ +
is
R.
e] (t,
t,)
m,) s
(2)
apparatus
and exManipulation and Computation. The
perimental method employed in this experiment are the same as
described in the experiment on the determination of the molecular
heat of solution of a
salt.
In order to avoid precipitation, the solutions of the acid and
made very dilute. Make the solutions of a concentration

gram equivalent of the acid and base to 200 gram moleof water. The rise of temperature on mixing such dilute
base are
of one
cules
solutions as these will be so small that the radiation correction
can be neglected. The specific heat of such dilute solutions may

be considered to be unity. In case a precipitate is formed in the
mixture, its heat of precipitation (numerically equal to the heat
of solution of the precipitated salt)
value of
must be subjected from the
N given by eq. (2).

I.XIV.
DETERMINATION OE THE HEAT VAEUE OE A SOLID

WITH THE COMBUSTION BOMB CALORIMETER.
Object and Theory oe Experiment. The object of this

is to determine the amount of heat developed by the
complete combustion of a unit mass of coal. The heat value of
a solid or liquid is expressed either in B. T. U.s per pound or in
experiment
calories per
gram.
The method to be employed in

known mass of the given substance
this
experiment
is
in a strong steel
to
burn a
bomb
filled
During the combustion the

Ix)mb remains immersed in a water calorimeter and tlie heat developed is obtained by the ordinary method of mixtures. Thus
suppose that by the combustion of in grams of substance, the
with oxygen under high pressure.
Heat Vai,ue of Fuels

bomb
together with the calorimeter
oi water in the calorimeter be
accessories
its
tained water rise in temperature from
t./
to t^ C.
and the
in,^
243
total
and the conLet the mass
thermal water
equivalent of the apparatus including the calorimeter, bomb, ther-
mometer and
rection
stirrer
of the substance
ff
The
be denoted by
Then
c.
if
the radiation cor-
R, the heat developed by the combustion of one gram
is
(,,
is
e) {t,
t,)
superiority of this
combustion
is
attained and
+R
^^j^^jg^ pg^ gj.^^^_
method
all
is
that since in
it
complete
the products of combustion remain
in the apparatus, the quantity of heat
developed
is
readily
com-
puted.
The apparatus used
in
this apparatus comprises a water calorimeter, a combustion bomb,
a press for molding the specimen into a small coherent pellet, a
Fig. 108.
Thbrmochismicai, Measurements
244
retort for generating
oxygen and an
electric battery for igniting
the specimen.
Hempel's combustion bomb consists of a
soft steel or cast iron
The inside
The
plug
is pierced
is coated with enamel.
by two passages^ one, JH for filling the bomb with oxygen and
another for the introduction of an insulated conductor KF. The
gas passage is controlled by the compression valve A. The rod
KP- is insulated from the metal plug by the rubber packing
capsule D, Fig. io8, closed by a massive plug C.
surface of the
bomb
and the asbestos packing N.

plug.
little
basket
B made
is
a metal rod screwed into the
of incombustible material
is
sus-
pended by means of heavy platinum wires from the ends of the

rods G and F. The ends of the rods G and F are connected by a
thin platinum wire.
In preparing a specimen of coal for a determination, the coal

is first
pulverized and then molded into a compact coherent pellet
screw press, Fig. 109. The mold of the press consteel,

Fig. no, bored out to the required
by means
of a
sists of a
block of
Heat Value
pellet.
The screw
is
now
oif
raised, the
Fuels
245
mold slipped
upper
into the
horizontal guides and the screw again depressed until the pellet
is
forced out through the bottom of the mold.
down
pare
With a sharp
knife
weighs about one gram. Cut off one

end of the thread close to the specimen. Remove any loose particles of coal by means of a small brush, place the pellet on a
watch glass and weigh. Do not touch the pellet with the fingers
the pellet until
it
but handle by means of the thread.
Unscrew
it
the head C, Fig. 108 of the combustion bomb,
mount
in a retort stand, connect the terminals of the battery to the
binding posts
and L, and regulate the resistance
in circuit so
that the current will bring the platinum wire connecting

to a red glow.
Without disturbing the
and F
open
resistance in circuit
the switch and disconnect the battery terminals from the binding
posts
tie
K and L.
Place the specimen of coal
in the basket
the free end of the thread to the thin wire connecting
and
G and
JP.
Now, without disturbing the specimen, remove the head of the

combustion bomb from its support and screw it tightly into the
bomb. The combustion bomb is now ready to be filled with oxygen.
Fig. III.
Fill
the gas generating retort,
Fig. iii, two-thirds
full
with a mixture consisting of equal parts of potassium chlorate
and manganese dioxide. Put a tightly wound toll of copper or

brass wire gauze into the tube leading from the retort, and connect the retort and a pressure gauge G to the combustion bomb
in the manner shown in the figure. The pressure gauge and com-
Thejrmochemicai. Measurements.
246
bomb
are immersed in a vessel of water for the purpose

any leak in the bomb and also for the purpose of
cooling the oxygen coming from the hot retort.
Open the gas valve in the combustion bomb and apply a
Bunsen flame to the upper part of the gas generating retort until
the gauge indicates a pressure of about i kg. per sq. cm. (14 lbs.
bustion
of detecting
per sq. in.).
now removed,
the heat already given
enough oxygen
to raise the pressure
If the flame be
to the retort will generate
about 5 kg. per sq. cm. (70. 5 lbs. per sq. in.). Now loosen the
flange coupling P so as to allow the mixture of oxygen and air
to
By
contained in the apparatus to escape.
tightening the coupling
and repeating
of
air.
til
the gas pressure rises to about 12 kg. per sq. cm. (170
Now
this operation the entire apparatus
Close the gas valve on the combustion
sq. in.).
can be freed
tighten the couplings and slowly heat the retort un-
bomb
mediately afterwards disconnect the

the remainder of the apparatus.
perature of the
Place the
room and
bomb
of water at about the
Cool the
carefully dry
in a
it
at the coupling
bomb
lbs.
per
bomb and im-
from
to about the tem-
with a towel.
water calorimeter containing m^ gms.
room temperature.
Connect the terminals
of the previously arranged electric circuit to the binding posts
and L, Fig.
108.
Before closing the switch
in.
the battery circuit,
take temperature readings of the continuously stirred water at
At
quarter minute intervals for at least five minutes.
a given in-
stant of time close the battery switch so that the electric current
will
ignite 'the
specimen.
moment
The
but
will
need to be taken into account.
else
the
switch
heating
for
should
effect
be
of- the
While continuously
closed
current
stirring
the water, continue to take quarter minute temperature readings
The temperatures should

Take the bomb out of the
head, wash out the inside and
for at least ten minutes after ignition.
be read to hundredths of a degree.

water, open the valve, unscrew the
oil
the screw threads.
From
grapical
a curve coordinating temperature and time find by the
method described on
p. 199 the highest temperature

would have been attained by the calorimeter if there had
been no loss of heat by radiation. Let ^1' represent this corrected
that
temperature.
Then
instead of eq.
( i )
we can
write
^
Hkat
Vaiûi;
{mi+e)(/\
//
01?
t., )
Fuels
247
calories per
gram.
(2)
tn
In this equation the thermal water equivalent of the apparatus
1'
is
unknown.
still
This constant can be determined in any
one of three different ways, (a)
By
taking the
sum
of the prod-
and the assumed specific heats of the various

parts of the apparatus. In an apparatus like this composed of so
many different materials of uncertain composition, this method
is unreliable.
(&) Experimentally, by the method of mixtures.
The large amount of water required in this experiment and the
difficulty of obtaining temperatures accurately make this method
unsuitable for inexperienced observers.
(c) By means of a
supplementary experiment in which a definite amount of heat
is developed in the apparatus by the combustion of a known mass
of substance having a known heat value. There are a number of
substances whose heat values are accurately known which can
easily be obtained pure. This last method is the one that will be
ucts of the masses
employed in this experiment.

Suppose that when using the same apparatus
as before, the
burning of m' gms. of a substance of heat value H' raises the

temperature of the apparatus and of Wj gms. of water from
ti to ^3
Let
C.
have attained
we
will
if
t^
be the temperature that the calorimeter would
there had been no loss of heat by radiation.
Then
have
jf,
Eliminating
^ {fn^+e){t'^ ti)
calories per
gram.
(3)
m'
between
eqs.
(2) and (3)
we have
H= (JH^ + m,- ^}) (LlZzh.)

Napthalin in a suitable substance to use in
experiment.
Make
a pellet of
this
(4)
supplementary
somewhat smaller mass than the
mass of coal already used and proceed exactly as in the experiment with coal. All of the data for determining H by means of
eq.
(4) are
now
at hand.
Before putting away the apparatus, dig the remaining solid

substance out of the gas retort, rinse out the combustion bomb
with water and carefully
oil
the threads of the
bomb and
all
parts
Thermochbjmicai, Measurements
248
of the press.
Be
no water or oil is left inside of either

bomb. If oil or any other organic subthe retort with the oxygen producing mixture
certain that
the retort or combustion
stance
is
heated in
an explosion
is liable
to occur.
LXV.
DETERMINATION OF THE HEATING VALUE OF A

GAS WITH JUNKER'S CALORIMETER.
Object and Theory of Experiment. The object of this

is to determine the number of heat units developed by
experiment
the combustion of unit volume of a given sample of gas.
In
Junker's method the heat developed by a constantly burning flame

is
determined by measuring the heat absorbed by a steady stream
of water enclosing the flame.
Fig. 112.
Heat Value
ot?
Fuels
249
9.
Fic. 113.
The apparatus
112,
consists of a gas pressure regulator,
an accurate gasmeter
design.
The
and
a calorimeter
Fig.
of special
calorimeter consists of a combustion chamber, A,
Fig. 113, enclosed
b)'
a water jacket
traversed by a large
250
number of tubes for the passage of the products of combustion.

The water jacket is surrounded by a closed space L filled with
After traversing the pressure regulator and meter the gas
burned in the burner Q. The products of combustion after
passing through the tubes traversing the water jacket escape
through the vent Y. The temperature of the gas as it enters the
air.
is
burner and the temperature of the products of combustion as they

leave the calorimeter are given by the thermometers
stream of water flows from the supply pipe
ervoir kept at constant level by
From this
T" and
T'".
into a small res-
means of the overflow pipe 0.
regulator the water passes
valve
control
down
the tube
through the
V, thence through the water jacket B^ thence
H into the
measuring vessel
and as it lea,ves the
calorimeter is given by the thermometers T' and T. Water vapor
formed by the combustion of the gas condenses on the inside of
the combustion chamber and escapes through the outlet / into
the measuring vessel W.
The flow of water and of gas is so adjusted that the temperthrough
U.
and the discharge nozzle
The temperature
of the water as
it
enters
ature of the products of combustion escaping at

ly the
same
approximate-
is
as the temperature of the gas entering the burner
at P.
Let V represent the volume (reduced to standard conditions)

of the gas burned during a certain time.
Let the mass of water

which passes through the calorimeter during this time be denoted
by m^, and let its temperature on entering and on leaving be represented by f and t respectively. Let the mass of steam condensed
during the combustion be represented by m^, and let the temperature at which
steam as
it
it
condenses and the temperature of the condensed
leaves the calorimeter be denoted
by
t^
and
t^
respec-
tively.
Then
the heat value of the gas,
^=
""'
^^^^'^
H,
given by the equation
is
\m,h + m^
{t,
t^)\
where h is the heat equivalent of vaporization of water.

and 1112 are measured in grams, v in liters and temperatures
then
is
given in
cubic meter.
gram
calories per liter or
(1)
If
m^
in C.,
kilogram calories per
Heat Value
of FueI/S
After
assembling the
to the water supply so that
any leak in the
apparatus connect
calorimeter will
make
251
itself evident.
The
flow of water into the
apparatus must always be sufficiently great to overflow through
With
the pipe 0.
meter moves.
the water
If
it
the gas valve at the burner
the gas regulator to the gas supply and observe
if
does, seek out the leak and
closed, connect
the index of the
remedy
of the calorimeter, light the gas and replace the burner.

is
lighted while the burner
is
danger of an explosion.
to 15 cms.
it.
With
flowing through the apparatus, take the burner out
still
is
If the
gas
chamber there
Have the top of the burner from 12
inside the combustion
above the lower opening to the combustion chamber.
The clamper Z should be from
one-half to completely open de-
pending upon the draught required for the flame;
Arrange the flow of water by means of the valve V and the

means of the valve P so that the thermometers T"
and T'" indicate practically the same temperature. For ordinary
illuminating gas the proper rate of flow of water is from i o to
,
flow of gas by
1 .5 liters
After
per minute.
all
of the thermometers indicate nearly stationary tem-
peratures, note simultaneously the gas meter reading
temperatures indicated by the thermometers
and
and the
Then im-
and
so as to catch the
and the condensed steam eswarmed water escaping from
caping from /. Note the temperatures of the ingoing and the
outgoing water every 15 seconds until two or more liters of water
have flowed into the vessel U. Then remove the vessels U and
and at the same time take the gas meter reading. Note the temperature ^2 of the condensed steam in W. Determine m^ and m^
mediately place suitable vessels
by weighing.
From
the difference between the
two gas meter readings
to-
gether with the temperature and pressure of the gas passing to

the burner, the value of v
is
found by means of the fundamental
The temperature is given by the thermometer T".

The pressure is the sum of the barometric reading and the height
law of gases.
of mercury corresponding to the difference in the level qf water

in the
manometer V.
Thbrmochemicai, Measurements
252
All of the data are
By
now
at
hand
for substitution in eq. (i).
substituting a properly designed
lamp for the gas burner,
Junker's calorimeter can be used for finding the heating value of

'
a liquid.
Show
I.
gram
foot
that the multiplying factor for transforming kilo-
calories per cubic
is
meter to British thermal units per cubic
0.1 1235.
LXVI.
DETERMINATION OF THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF

A SUBSTANCE BY THE BOILING POINT METHOD.
Object and Theory oE Experiment.
A solution of a non-
volatile substance has a higher boiling point

It
than the pure solvent.
has been found that the elevation of the boiling point of a
solution
proportional to the ratio of the
is
of solute to the
Thus
if
number
number of molecules
of molecules of solvent in the solution.
the boiling point of a pure solvent be measured,
and
the boiling point of a solution of definite concentration,
evidently
solute.
possible
The
to
also
it
is
determine the molecular weight of the
is
from a measurement of the difference

between the boiling point of a pure solvent and of a solution of
cular weight of a substance
known concentration of the substance.

The relation between the molecular weight
volatile substance
and the elevation produced
of a soluble non-
in the boiling point
of a pure solvent by the addition of the given substance can be
obtained from the consideration of a perfectly reversible engine
which the solution is used as the working substance.

Imagine an engine consisting of a cylinder fitted with a
piston made of a material which is permeable to a certain pure
in
solvent but
is
impervious to a given solute.
space below the piston
is filled
Suppose that the
with a very dilute solution of the
some of the
on the piston equals the os-
substance, and the space above the piston contains
pure solvent.
When
the pressure
MoivECULAR Weight
motic pressure of the solute, there
is
253
equilibrium between the sol-
\ent above the piston and the solution below.
on the piston
But
if
the pressure
greater than the osmotic pressure, solvent will
is
bt forced out of the solution until the two pressures are equal.
however, the pressure on the piston
If,
Thus
sure to
than the osmotic
making
it more dilute.
upon the pres^\hich the piston is subjected in a manner analogous to
which the volume occupied by a gas depends upon the
the
that in
less
is
pressure, solvent will enter the solution
volume occupied by the
pressure to which
it is
subjected.
solute depends
'
Let the dilution and volume of the
dilute
solution in the
cylinder be so gerat that on farther dilution the thermal change
of the solution and the volume change of the solute are negligible.
Let
zv and 7^2
and mass of
w(i,
solute
lê
the mass of solute, molecular weight of
Let the
solvent, respectively, in the solution.
number of gram molecules of solvent in which is dissolved one

gram molecule of solute, be denoted by M. Let h be the heat
equivalent of vaporization of one gram of the solvent.
Let T
be the boiling point of the pure solvent and (T -[- d T) the boiling point of the solution, at the pressure
p.
Starting with the solution in the cylinder at the pressure p

and absolute temperature T, let the engine go through a complete
reversible cycle consisting of the following five operations.
Depress the piston
First.
until there
osmoses through
semipermeable head that amount of solvent in which
one gram molecule of
The work required

(w m^ ->
solute.
the engine to effect this separation of
pure solvent from the solution
T.
There
Allow the
Second.
from the
from
to be done
on
grams of
ii)
eq. (15) p. 171, equal to

this operation.
gram molecules
of solvent separated
solution during the first operation to evaporate at the
temperature
and pressure
the temperature
of (tc
111,^
done by the engine during

equal to
is,
no thermal change during
is
its
dissolved
is
MRT.
Third.
p.
This requires the absorption
-f- in,) calories
this
operation
is,
of heat.
from
at
The work
eq. (14) p. 171,
Keeping the pressure constant, heat separately the
solution and vapor to the temperature
(T
-{-
d T).
From
eq. (13),
Th]5rmochemical Measurements
254
p. 171,
MR
is
the
(dT).
work done by the engine during this operation equah

The heat absorbed equals e{dT) calories, where e
the thermal water equivalent of the solution and vapor.
Fourth.
permit
Bring the vapor into contact with the solution and

change of temperature. During
to condense without
it
this operation (zv
m^ h -f- m^) calories of heat will be liberated

(T -|- d T), and an amount of work will be
at the temperature
MR
done on the engine equal io

Fifth.
(T-\- d T).
Cool the solution to the temperature T.
The
heat
e{dT) approximately. Since there is but an

infinitesimal change of volume, the work change can be neglected.
The cycle is now complete and the working substance is in
liberated equals
its
original
(w m^ h
-=-
?i)
of temperature
penditure of
net
calories of heat
T to
of
result
is
{wm^h^^
to
{T
-\-
is
that
d T) by an ex-
RT.
reversible, the arnount of
m^)
cycle
the
have been carried from a body
a body of temperature
work equal
Since the cycle

transfer
The
condition.
from
calories
to
(T
work
~{-
required to
d T)
is,
from
eq. 23, 176, equal to
w Mz
h d
Whence,
RT
Since for one
we have
T'
~i,r,
'^""2 ^
gram molecule
m,
...^
~W
of substance
98
'
calories,
for the moleciilar weight of the substance
{m^d T)
?2
{cLT)
'
where m^ and m^ are the masses of the solute and solvent, respectively, composing the solution, {d T) is the elevation of the boiling point of the solvent produced by the addition of the solute,
and k is a constant depending upon the heat equivalent of vaporization and upon the absolute temperature of the boiling point
of the pure solvent at the pressure p.
Computed values of k are given in the following table for

some of the commonly used solvents when under ordinary atmospheric pressure:
IMoivECULAR
SOL\'ENT.
Weight
255
255
tube and in addition, the tube
is filled
to a depth of about
two
centimeters with clean glass beads.
The quantity of mercury

mometer must be adjusted so
in the bulb of the differential ther-
when
that
the bulb
immersed
is
the boiling pure solvent, the mercury thread will
come
in
to rest
Heat the bulb 4 or 5 above the

and then give the tube of the
thermometer a sudden slight jar. The mercury in the upper
part of the reservoir will separate from the mercury thread thus
leaving the proper amount of mercury in the bulb. The proper
temperature can be easily obtained by immersing the bulb in a
near the bottom of the scale.
boiling point of the pure solvent
boiling solution of the solvent to be vised in the experiment.
After the boiling tube

it is
weighed.
dried and the dried beads replaced
is
Sufficient solvent is
now
introduced to cover the
bulb of the thermometer and the boiling tube
The
entire apparatus is
now
boiling and the thermometric reading noted.
be as brisk as
is
again weighed.
assembled, the solvent heated to
The
boiling should
consistent with quiet uniform ebullition.
is
Before
taking a reading, the tube should be given a few light sharp taps
so as to avoid the adhesion of the mercury to the side of the capillary tube.
Repeat the determination of the boiling point of the
solvent until a series of consecutive consistent results
After the boiling
point of
the
solvent
is
is
obtained.
determined,
weighed amount of the substance whose molecular weight is required is introduced into, the boiling tube and the boiling point of
the resulting solution
been
verified,
is
determined.
additional
After this determination has
weighed amounts of substance are
in-
troduced and the boiling point of the solution determined for each
concentration.
Each determination should be repeated before
the succeeding concentration
comes
to
its
taken up.
off at the boiling point of the solution,
saturation temperature.
and continues
vent
is
should be noticed that although the vapor of the solvent
It
is
to condense
Consequently the thermometer bulb must be
in the solution
the solution.
immediately cools
to condense until the boiling point of the pure sol-
attained.
immersed
it
The vapor then begins
and not
in the
vapor coming off from
Molecular Weight
257
Since there is a part of the pure solvent in the form of vapor

and an additional part condensed on the walls of the apparatus,
the amount of solvent actually present in the solution is somewhat less than that actually put into the boiling tube. The solution
is therefore more concentrated than the weighing would indicate.
When water is the solvent employed, and the apparatus is of the
form and dimensions used by Beckmann, this correction amounts
to about 0.5 gm.
The specimens of substance should be in the form of little
pellets in order that they
ing tube.
may
If a volatile solvent
be introduced easily into the boilis
employed, the specimens should
be introduced through the condenser without opening the boiling

tube to the
The
air.
greatest practical difficulty in this experiment coftsists
in securing the proper rate of boiling.
If the boiling is too
the temperature of equilibrium will not be attained.
On
slow
the other
is so vigorous as to cause the vapor to form

which explode violently on reaching the surface
of the liquid, the thermometer will rise above the true point while
the bubble is forming and suddenly fall below it after the bubble explodes. When condensed vapor drops into the solution, the
thermometer suddenly falls.
Discuss the errors to which the boiling point method is
1.
hand,
if
the boiling
in large bubbles
subject.
2.
From an
inspection of eq.
(2),
show what
properties
should be possessed by a solvent in order that the greatest ac-
curacy
3.
may
be obtained.
If a given substance
were soluble
to a nearly equal de-
gree in 'water and in ether, show what considerations would affect the choice
17
between these two solvents.
Thurmochumicai, Measurements
258
LXVII.
DETERMINATION OE THE MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF

A SUBSTANCE BY THE FREEZING POINT
METHOD.
point of a solution
is
Usually the freezing
different than that of the pure solvent.
When
a dilute solution partially congeals,
out
the ice of the pure solvent the freezing point of the solu-
is
tion is lower than that of the pure solvent.
considered in this discussion.
It
if
the solid separating
This
is
the case to be
has been shown by Coppet and
Raoult that if n molecules of any substance exist dissolved in

molecules of a solvent, the lowering of the freezing point of the
solution
is
By
using quantities of substances
proportional to their molecular weights,
or dissociation,
solutions
if
there
is
no association
are produced in which the ratio of
number of molecules of solute I0 number of molecules of solvent is known. This suggests the possibility of determining the
molecular weight of a soluble substance from the lowering produced in the freezing point of a given solvent by the
the
addition of the soluble substance.

is
Or,
if
the molecular weight
already known, this principle furnishes a means of determin-
ing the amount of association or dissociation of a substance in

solution.
The
cular weight of a substance
is
in the freezing point of a given solvent.
ment water
will be
from the lowering which
it
produces
In the present experi-
used as the solvent, and the molecular weight
of sugar and sodium chloride will be determined.
The
relation
between the molecular weight of a soluble sub-
stance and the lowering of the freezing point of a pure solvent
produced by the addition of the given substance can be obtained

from purely thermodynamical considerations. As in the previous
experiment, consider an engine consisting of a cylinder
a semipermeable
piston.
fitted with
Let the working substance be a very di-
MoivECUI.AR WUIGIIT
259
whose molecular weight is required.

and 1112 be the masses of solute and solvent, respectively, composing the solution.
Let w be the molecular weight of
the solute and let f be the heat equivalent of fusion of one gram
of the solvent. Also let T and ( T
d T) be the freezing points
of the solvent and solution respectively.
Beginning with the solution in the cylinder at the absolute
temperature ( T
d T) with an indefinitely small quantity of ice,
let the engine go through a complete reversible cycle consisting
lute solution of the substance
Let
^Hi
of the following five operations.
Allow that amount of pure solvent
First.
gram molecule
solved one
d T). Since
operation
amount of heat
(T d T) equals
m^ -^ w^)
(T
in this
are frozen, the
(if
in
which
is
dis-
of solute to freeze at the temperature
(tt/Wj
~^
'''î).
liberated
calories.
grams of solvent
at the
temperature
The work done by
the
working substances equals p(dv), where p is the atmospheric

pressure, and dv is the difference between the volume of the separated solvent when in the solid and when in the liquid condition.
Second. Heat the solid and solution to T. The heat absorbed equals e (d T), when e is the thermal water equivalent of
the solid and solution. The work done by the working substance
is
a positive quantity of negligible magnitude.

Third.
Permit the
solid to
melt at the temperature T.
In
(w m,_ f -^- Wi) calories of heat are absorbed at the

The work done on the working substance is
temperature T.
this process
p(dv).
Fourth.
By means
of the semipermeable piston, return the
pure solvent to the solution at the temperature T.
Since the
and volume of the solution are so great the change in the

concentration produced in this operation can be neglected. Consequently there is no thermal change, and the work done by the
working substance during the osmosis of the solvent back into
dilution
the solution
from
eq. (15) p. 171, equal to
Cool the solution to
Fifth.
equals
is,
e(dT), approximately.
substance
is
d T).
T.
The
The work done by
heat liberated
the
working
a negative quantity of negligible, magnitude.
The working substance has gone through
a complete rever-
Thermochemicai. Measurements
26o
sible cycle
and
is
now
in
its initial
The
condition.
net result of
by the transfer of (w mj / -f- w^) calories of heat

d T)
from a body of temperature T to a body of temperature ( T
the working substance has performed an amount of work equal
the cycle
to
RT
is
that
calories.
From
eq. (23) p. 176, the
amount
of
work
de-
veloped by a reversible engine by the passage of the quantity of

heat {w'm^f-^m-i) from the temperature
(T
dT)
to the temperature
is
w w-if d T
T
nil
RT =
Whence
^-
m^
(1)
i 98 calories, we
Since for one gram molecule of vapor R
have for the molecular weight of the dissolved substance
.
^_/L98_7-x^^^_ ^^j^
V
)m,{dT)
"
m^{dT)
(2)'
^
and Mj are the masses of the solute and solvent, respeccomposing the solution, {dT) is the depression of the
freezing point of the solvent produced by the addition of the solute, and k' is a constant depending upon the heat equivalent of
fusion and upon the absolute temperature of the freezing point
of the pure solvent. The values of k' computed for some of the
where
m.^
tively,
commonly used
solvents are given in the following table.
SOLVENT.
MoLECuiÂR Weight
261
salt to about five parts of snow or chopped ice.

Following the method given on p. 140 the quantity of mercury
in the bulb of the thermometer must be adjusted so that when the
bulb is immersed in freezing water, the top of the thread will come
to rest near the upper end of the scale.
Invert the thermometer,
and by means of a sudden slight jar cause the mercury in the
upper reservoir to fall to the end of the reservoir connected to the capillary. Heat the bulb
until the thread in the capillary joins the mercury in the reservoir. Immerse the bulb in pure
Df
one part of coarse
water contained in the freezing tube A.
Place
the freezing tube in the freezing mixture, and as
soon as ice particles begin to form remove the

thermometer from the ice cold water. Let it
warm slightly in the air and then separate the
mercury in the upper reservoir from the thread
in the capillary by means of a sudden sHght jar.
On
again immersing the bulb in the ice cold
water,
FiG. 115.
is
in
if
the top of the thread comes to rest
near the upper end of the scale the thermometer
proper adjustment.
If a crystal of the liquid
is
not present, the liquid must usu-
ally be considerably undercooled before crystallization will occur.

For the purpose of inducing crystallization, an infinitesimally small
crystal of the liquid can be introduced
due to Beckmann.
mm.
a bore of about 3
of rubber tubing
by the following method
Select a glass tube about 15 cms. long having
fitted
diameter.
On
one end
fix
a short section
with a stopper of glass rod.
Fill the
tube
with the solvent being used (water in this experiment), plug

the upper end with the glass rod and immerse the entire tube in the
freezing mixture. See V, Fig. 115. When the contents of the
tube have become frozen, warm the outside of the tube with the
hand until the rod of ice can be pushed beyond the end sufficiently
to protrude about
two
millimeters.
If the tube
be
now
replaced
in the freezing bath, the rod of ice will be frozen fast to the con-
taining tube and the "vaccination point" will be ready for use. In
using this device, when the temperature of the liquid in the freez-
Thermochemicai, Measurements
262
ing tube
is
slightly
below
its
freezing point raise the stirrer
5*
out of the undercooled liquid, open the side tube and touch the
stirrer
is
By
with the "vaccination point."
induced on the wet stirrer which
mainder
is set
C/f
this means crystallization

communicated to the re-
the liquid in the freezing tube so soon as the stirrer
into motion.
Now
that the thermometer
ation point"
is
bulb of the thermometer.
and the "vaccin-
in adjustment
is
weighed,
first
containing enough water to cover the
Assemble the apparathe mercury In the thermom-
This gives m^.
and allow the water to cool
until
one degree below the position attained when
eter stands about
previously placed in ice water.
the freezing tube
When
paragraph.
is
prepared the freezing tube
when empty and then when

tus
is
in the
Now
"vaccinate" the contents of
manner described
in the preceding
freezing begins, the temperature will rise un-
the freezing point is reached. During this rise, tap the thermometer frequently with a lead pencil so as to prevent the sticking
of the mercury in the fine bore. Note the thermometer reading
to o.ooi. Remove the freezing tube with its accessories from
the apparatus, warm it with the hand until all of the ice in it is
melted, replace tube in apparatus and take another reading of
the freezing point. If these readings differ by more than 0.003
til
repeat until a series of consecutive concordant readings
is
ob-
tained.
Drop into the freezing tube a weighed amount of the_ substance

whose molecular weight is desired, stir until dissolved and note
the freezing point of the solution. Warm the solution and again
observe the freezing point. Drop an additional weighed amount
of the substance into the solution, note the freezing point;
the solution
and again observe the freezing
obtain the freezing point at five
different
warm
In this manner
point.
concentrations
compute the molecular weight of the substance
at
and
each con-
centration.
For
salt
(Na
CI.,
of about 0.1 gms. salt

tration to 0.2
10,
Mol. Wt. 58.5) begin with a cencentration

to 10 gms. water, and inciease the concen-
0.3
10,
0.4
10 and 0.5
10.
For sugar
Dissociation
(C12H22O11,
Mol. Wt. 342)
times those used for
use
263
concentrations
about three
salt.
Discuss the results of the experiment and compare them with

the values given by theory.
that
is
Explain any departure from theory
too great to be due to experimental error.
IvXVIII.
DETERMINA1I0N OF THE DEGREE OE DISSOCIATION OF A SUBSTANCE IN SOLUTION BY

THE FREEZING POINT METHOD.
Object and Theory op Experiment. There is a large

which when dissolved have their molecules split
class of bodies
up
into smaller particles called ions.
with atoms.
An
ion
is
Ions must not be confused
always electrically charged and
may
con-
atom or a group of atoms. For example KCl splits

up into one K ion and one CI ion, the K ion being positively
charged while the CI ion is negatively changed CuSO^ splits up
into one Cu ion (-(- charged) and one ion whose composition is
charged)
K4Fe(CN) splits up into four K ions
SO4 (
charged)
and
one
ion whose composition is Fe(CN)e
(+
charged). Molecules and ions produce the same effect in
(
lowering the freezing point and in raising the boiling point of a
sist
of one
solution.
Consequently
if
the molecular weight of the undis-
known, it is possible to determine the fraction of the molecules which are dissociated in a solution of given
concentration. The object of this experiment is to determine, by
the freezing point method, the fraction of the whole number of
molecules of a dissolved substance which is dissociated in
sociated substance
is
aqueous solution.
In eq. I p. 260
of fusion per
gram
shown that if in grams of pure solvent

T (absolute) and whose heat equivalent
has dissolved in it lU-^ grams of solute of
it is
whose freezing point

is
is
Thjjrmochemicai,' Measurements
264
molecular weight
then
iv,
if
there
no
is
dissociation, the freezing
amount
point will be lowered by the
(rfr)=î_('i:îll)=^L^.l
OT2 w U
m2 w \
f J
;"
'
(1)
'
But
if
some of the
solute
freezing point will have
number of
is
dissociated, the depression of the
some greater value (dV).
Let the
which a molecule of the ,giv'm solute divides

be denoted by n, and let a represent the fraction of the whole
number of molecules of solute which are dissociated. Then for
every gram molecule of solute, there are (i
a) undissociated
molecules and n a ions. Since an ion produces the same effect in
ions into
lowering the freezing point of a solution as does an undissociated
gram molecule
molecule, each
consist of (i
(dT)
of the solute
may
na) effective molecules.
-\:
(dV)
(ia
be considered to
Consequently
+ na).
Whence
.{a.T)
,.M
where the value of {d T)
is
{n
l)
given in eq. (i) and {d-T')
is
'
ob-
tained by experiment.
Use
the
same
ap-
paratus described in the preceding experiment on the determination of the molecular weight of a substance
method.
Make up
a series of solutions of
of the substance under investigation.
by the freezing point
known
concentration
For example
This gives 200
dissolve 4
gms. of NaCl in 200 gms. of water.
c.c. of 2%
solution. By means of a measuring cylinder, take 100 c.c. of the
2%
of
solution
1%
and add
solution.
strength 2.0,
i.o,
to
it
100
c.c.
of water, thus giving 200
c.c.
In this manner make up solutions of percentage

0.5, 0.25, o.i,
etc.
Proceeding in precisely the same manner as described in the

preceding experiment, find the freezing point of the pure solvent
and of each of the
Then by means of eq. (2) comwhole number of molecules of Na CI that
solutions.
pute the fraction of the
are dissociated in solutions of the given concentrations.

these results plot a curve coordinating dissociation
tion for
NaCl.
With
and concentra-
Heat Conduction
CHAPTER
265
XIX.
HEAT CONDUCTION.
A surface connecting points which at a given instant have the
same temperature is called an isothermal surface. In heat conduction it is assumed that the direction of heat floiv is always normal to the isothermal surface at that point.
Imagine a long homogeneous rod of uniform cross section
and with square ends to have one end maintained uniformly
throughout its area at the constant temperature t^. Imagine farther that there is no loss of heat from the sides of the rod. From
this
assumption
it
follows that
of the isothermal surfaces are
all
equal in area to the cross section of the rod and that the rate of
heat flow across each section
the same.
is
After the thermal con-
dition of the rod has attained equilibrium, let
ature of the cold end,
t^
denote the temper-
the length of the rod and
its
cross sec-
Under
the given conditions, it has been found by expericrossing each section of a rod of
ment that the quantity of heat
tion.
given material varies

(i)
directly with the difference
the
two ends,
{t^
fj)
between the temperatures of
(2)
directly with the area of cross section,
(3)
directly with the time,
(4) inversely with the length,
/.
Expressing these experimental results
in analytical form,
we have
the equation,
Obviously the constant of proportionality k equals the amount of

heat which will flow in unit time across a plate of given material
having unit thickness and unit length when there is no lateral
loss of heat and the difference between the temperatures of the
Heat Conduction
266
opposite faces
is
one degree.
This constant k
called the abso-
is
lute thermal conductivity of the given material.

If,
however, there
is
loss of heat
from the
sides of the rod,
the isothermal surfaces will not be planes normal to the length of
the rod nor will they be equal in area to the cross section of the
In addition, the amount of heat passing any given section
lod.
with the increase of the distance of the section from
will diminish
the hot end of the rod.
It
when
from the
there
is
loss of heat
follows that eq.
(i)
inapplicable
is
sides of the rod.
But by con-
sidering an element of the rod so small that the isothermal surfaces
bounding
its
ends are parallel planes normal to the length of
the element, an equation applicable to this element can be derived
which
is
of the same form as eq. (i).
initely small
Thus, consider an indef-
element of the rod having a length dl and area dA.
If the opposite faces of this elemeiit
have a very small tempera-
ture difference dt, then during the indefinitely brief time
dT
the
element will transmit the very small amount of heat
^M- kdtdAdT
dl
where k
is
'
the absolute thermal conductivity of the material com-
posing the rod.
Relative Conductivity
267
LXIX.
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY OF TWO SUBSTANCES.
The determination of
the absolute thermal conductivity of a substance

siderable difficulty.
Usually, however,
it is
is
a task of con-
sufficient to
know
the
between the absolute thermal conductivity of one substance with reference to another taken as standard. This ratio
relation
is
called the relative conductivity of the first substance with ref-
The object of this experiment is to determine by Voigt's method the conductivity of iron relative to
erence to the second.
copper.
Let a rectangular plate formed by brazing together two

same thickness, one of copper and one of
iron, be arranged in a horizontal plane as in Fig. 116.
Let the
triangular plates of the
Heat Conduction
268
will be a point of discontinuity in the isothermal line at the inter-
V of the two substances. At this point the two parts into

which the isothermal line is divided will be inclined to one another
at an angle depending upon the conductivities of the two subsection
At
stances composing the plate.
mal
the edges of the plate the isother-
be curved backward due to
line will
lateral loss of heat,
toward the center both portions of the isothermal
line will
but
be
straight.
and let the

UV
and second, and between the second and
third, correspond to the very small temperature difference d t.
Consider the heat flow through two indefinitely small elements,
one on either side of the joint separating the two substances composing the plate. In Fig. 117, let A V and V B he the small
elements, each normal to the isothermal lines bounding its ends.
Denote the lengths of the elements by d /i and d l^. Let the depth
of each element be d x, and let their widths parallel to the isothermal lines bounding their ends be denoted by d w^ and d w^.
Imagine that the areas of cross section of the two elements are
such that for a constant temperature difference dt between their
ends, there will be the same amount of heat flow through the two
elements during the time dT.
From eq. (i) p. 266 we can write
Imagine three isothennal
distance between the
lines similar to
first
k,
d Hy= ^
dT
dx dw,
dl
and
dly
dH,=^
Since d H-^
dx
k^
dw^
dT
dU
d H^
k^
If
dt
the element
shown
^J^^k^
d l^
^"^g
.
in the position
^ F, Fig. 1
B to
to assume a series of positions extending from

will
be different in each position.
between
its
ends
is
quantity of heat d
(1)
d l^
1
7,
A,
be caused
its
length
If the temperature difference
kept constant, then in order that the same
H^
will flow
through
it
in unit time, the area
of cross section of the element must increase in the same proportion as does its length. And since the length of the element varies
dwi
Thermodynamics
270
Chapter XX.
THERMODYNAMICS.
LXX.
DETERMINATION OF THE MECHANICAL EQUIVALENT OF HEAT BY PULUJ'S METHOD.
Object and Theory of Experiment. The great generalLaw df Thermodynamics may be enun-
ization called the First
whenever mechanical energy
ciated in the following form:
converted into heat or heat

there
is
a constant relation between the
is
produced or
lost.
This constant ratio
Equivalent of Heat.
It
is
is
converted into mechanical energy,
work done and

is
called the
defined as the
number
the heat
Mechanical
of units of
tO' one unit of heat e. g. the number

or ergs equivalent to one calorie, or the number of foot pounds
equivalent to one British thermal unit. The object of this exper-
energy which are equivalent
iment
is
to determine the
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat by means
of an experiment in which a measurable
energy
is
directly
amount of mechanical
transformed into a measurable amount of heat.
In the form of Puluj's apparatus used in this experiment,

Fig. 118, a vertical spindle capable of rotation about
surmounted by a vulcanic clamp. A, holding a thin

cup
center of a large
is
shown
is
cup of
a similar hollow truncated cone attached to the
wooden
passes over the pulley
the edge of the
axis
Accurately fitting the inside of
the shape of a truncated cone.

this conical
its
steel
wooden
disc.
and has
disc.
light
its
cord supporting a mass
other end fixed to a peg in
By means
hand wheel, not

By means of
number of revolutions made in a
The mass
is so adjusted that
of a
in the figure, the outer cone can be rotated.
a watch and the counter C, the
given time
is
readily obtained.
wooden disc with its attached steel cone will remain stationary when the outer cone is rotated. At the rubbing surface bethe
Joule's Equivalent
tween the two cones mechanical energy
is
271
converted into heat.
The work absorbed at the rubbing surface is readily obtained.

Naturall}- the work absorbed at the rubbing surface between the
two cones while the outer cone makes n turns and the inner cone
is the same as would have been spent if the
remains stationary,
Fig. 118.
outer cone had remained fixed and the inner cone had been
to revolve
n times by the descent of the mass M.
made
L,et the radius
then, if the cord supporting a mass of

grams leaves the disc tangentially, the mass would have fallen
Therefore the total work absorbed at the rubbing27r I' n cms.
of the disc be r cms.
surface
is
W^
where
Mg is the weight
2Tr
rn(Mg -{-
of the
x)
mass M, and x
ergs,
is
(i)
the friction of the
pulley p.
The
cones
heat produced by the energy absorbed in the rubbing
is
H=
where
tents,
and
e represents the
ti
and
contents,
/j
(t^
ti)
-{-
calories
(2)
water ecûivalent of the cones and con-
the original and final temperature of the cones
and
is
Thermodynamics
272
If the
the
mechanical equivalent of heat be represented by
number
of absolute units of
produce one heat unit
J,
then
work which must be spent
to
is
H-
'-
e{t^
t,)^R
^^>
By
means of a large
measure the diameter of the grooved wooden

disc.
Remove the cones and stirrer from the supporting frame,
carefully clean and weigh them' separately.
Fill the inner cone
to within about i cm. of the rim with mercury at a temperature
of 2 to 5 C, below the temperature of the room and weigh again.
Replace the outer cone in its frame and so carefully center it that
it will rotate about its own axis.
Assemble the remainder of the
apparatus being careful that the bulb of the thermometer is submerged in the mercury and does not touch any part of the apcaliper
and
scale,
paratus.
One
observer will
jplace himself,
watch
in hand, at the
hand
wheel, while a second will be ready to observe the thermometer
and the revolution counter.
The second observer will record the

number of revolutions. The
observations of temperature, time and
hand wheel
now
is
steadily rotated at such a rate that the string
supporting the mass
wooden
is
wrapped
sufficiently
about the grooved
disc to insure the string being tangential to the edge of
the disc.
So soon
as
it
is
certain that everything
is
working
smoothly, simultaneous readings of the watch, thermometer and
counting wheel are recorded.

ature and time are
now
Simultaneous readings of temper-
taken every half minute until the cones
have risen in temperature about 5 C, above that of the room.

Then stop the rotating, read the index of the counter and continue
the half minute temperature readings until the cones have cooled
to within
two degrees of the temperature of the room.
During
all
of the time temperature readings are in progress, the mercury in

the inner cone
must be constantly
The water
equivalent of
tlie
stirred.
thermometer
mentally by the method of mixtures.
is
obtained experi-
The water
equivalent
and mercury is computed by taking the sum

of the products of the masses of each part and the corresponding
of the cones, stirrer
Joule's EquivaivEnt
273
The sum
of these water equiva-
from
specific heat obtained
tables.
lents is the value of c given in eq.
the usual
(2).
curve
is
plotted in
manner coordinating temperature and time and the
radiation correction
of the data are
now
determined by Regnault's method. All

hand for determining the amount of heat
is
at
developed in the rubbing cones.
Before the
total
work absorbed
rubbing surface of the
at the
cones can be obtained, the value of the force of friction of the
M must be determined.
pulley supporting the mass
The
force of
friction developed in the pulley is proportional to the resultant

its bearings produced by the horizontal force P, Fig.
and the downward force Mg. In the apparatus used in this
pressure on
119,
K.^
2+x
I'
Fig. 120.
Fig. 119.
P is so small that
F is so nearly equal
both F and Mg at an
experiment the force of friction of the pulley

without sensible error
to
Mg
it
may
that the resultant p
be assumed that
is
inclined to
angle approximately equal to 45.

of
Mg
and
Mg
cos 45" respectively,
Now
Whence,
since the
in the direction of the resultant are

it
components
cos 45 and
follows that
^ 2 Mg cos 45 dynes
= Mgy 2 = 414 M
hang the cord over the
grams weight. (4)

1.
pully as in Fig. 120, and attaching
to each end a weight equal to yi p {i. e. a mass of 0.707

grams), find what additional weight x is required to produce
uniform motion.
This weight x expressed
of friction of the pulley
experiment.
eq. (3)-
in dynes, is the force
for the particular load
All of the data are
now
at
hand
Mg
used in the
for substitution in
Tables
274
TABLE
1.
Conyersion
Length.
Factors.
Tables
275
Stress
1
dyne per
cm.
sq.
0.067197
poundal per
1
gm. wt. per
sq. cm.
lbs. wt.
of
1 in.
sq. ft.
=2.0482
per sq.
i lb.
mercury at 0C.
Work
1
ft. =0.48824
gms. wt. per sq. cm.
wt. per sq.
ft.
= 34.5328 grams per sq. cm.

= 0.49117 lbs. per sq. in.
poundal per sq. ft. =14.8816

dynes per sq. cm.
cm. of mercury at 0C.
= 13.5956 grams per sq. cm.

= 0.19338 lbs. per sq. in.
or Energy.
erg =2.373X 10"" ft.poundals

10'' ergs
joule
23.7302 ft. poundals
gm. cm. = 7 233X lO- ft. lbs.
1 ft.
=
=
poundal
=
=
1 ft. lb.
421403 ergs.
13825.5 gm. cms.
1.35485 joules
H. P. hour
2685600 joules
Power.
1
watt
=23.73
=
1
44,23
force de
10' ergs,
ft.
per sec.
poundals per
ft.
1 ft.
pounds per min.

per sec.
=i
(F32).
sec.
421403 ergs, per sec.
1 ft. lb.
cheval=75kg. m.
= 0.986
poundal per
sec.
per min.
= 0.13825 kg. m. per min,

horse power = 745.96 watts
=1.01387 force de cheval.
horse power
Thermometric Scales.
OF ^^ C
j
32.
253 gm. calories
Unit Quantity of Heat.

1
gm. calorie
= 0.0)3963 B.
T. U.
B. T. U.
Mechanical Equivalent op Heat.*

1
gm.
calorie
= 4.19 joules
= 426.9 kg. m.
= 1400.6 ft. lbs.
Computed with the value
of
at
B. T. U.
= 1055 joules.
= 778.1
lbs.
ft.
Greenwich
Logarithms.
log,
N =: 0.43429 loge N.
loge
N=
2.3026 logi N.
276
Tabiês
area of curoe
TABLE 2. Mensuration.
S = surface of body
V -
ParaI/LEI/OGRAM, sides a and
A =
Triangle, sides
A =^
CiRciÊ, radius
Area
and
a, b
bh
heiglit, h;
6;
bh
c; lieig-ht,
A =
ir
segment
angle between sides 0.
ah sin 0.
Denote,
h.
}4 be sin e -.[s
r.
of
volume of body.
(sa) (sb)
180
Paraboi<a, abscissa,
a;
double ordinate,
Ei<LiPSE, semiaxes a
and
6.
Sphere, radius
V=
r.
Segment of
V=
Cone, radius,
{hz
r;
Prustrum
Sr^s
height,
Yi
h;
-ir
A = %
b.
ab.
A= vab.
S
vr^:
AinZ
.=
slant height,
r^ h.
r^s
S =2 ^rh +
I^(3r-h).
-w
h.
^ r,^
I.
of cone, radius of ends r
{r^ +r/-,
s.
tt
sphere, radius of base, r^; height of segment,
V=
V = ZJt
by
r' sin
of circle
+ &+ c)
{sc)']y^.
Circumference
r'-
{I
and
S =T,
[r2
r).
r-^
+ ri2 +
(r
+ rOJ.
..
.
.
Tables
TABLE
4.
Density and Specific Gravity of Solids and Liquids.
Since density varies witti the temperature
be regarded as approximations only.

Specific
Substance
Aluminum
NH4
CI....
Antimony.
Asbestos
Asphalt.
Beeswax
Benzine
Brass
Bismuth
Brick
Bronze
CaCl2
CS2 at
20
Chalk
[1.2
11.8
Coal
Copper
CUSO4
Cork
Diamond
Ether, atO C...
German
Silver.
Glass
Glycerin
Gold, pure.
.
Granite
Graphite
Ice, at 0 C.
cast,
pure.
Iron
steel
'
wrought
I
Ivory.
277
and
witli ttie specimen, tliese
numbers are
to
..
..
Tabiês
2178
TABLE
Referred to Water
at
Specific Gravity of Gases and Yapors,
5.
4C; also to Air and Hydrogen at
mercury
All results are given for a pressure of 760
Temp.
Formula
Substance
Air
NH3
Ammonia
....
Carbon dioxide. CO2

Chlorine
Coal
CI2
!
g-as
Hydrogren
Nitrogên
Oxyg-en
Acetic acid
H2
N2
O2
CH3
Amyl bromide
Ammonium^
COOH
C5 Hi iBr
NH4CI...
chloride*.
Iodine
Nitrog-en
peroxide
N2O4
.
12s
250
IS2
196
295
360
300
360
448
448
680
855
1043
1275
1468
4.2
49.6
60.2
70.0
90.0
00.1
154.0
and 760
mm.
mm.
of
of mercury.
Sp. Gr. Referred to
Molec. Wt.
Hyu-
Water
Calo.
rogen
0.0012931
0.0007616
0.001965
0.0031674
0.000421
0.000667
0.0000895
0.0012546
0.0014292
0.00414
0.00269
0.00703
0.00604
0.00412
0.00340
0.00128
0.00122
0.00120
0.01130
0.01064
0.01043
0.00906
0.00753
0.00657
0.00335
0.00294
0.00269
0.00248
0.00222
0.00217
0.00204
*Ammonium cbloride vapor gives abnormal vapor

of moisture.
C.,
pressure.
1.0000
0.5890
520
4500
3256
5158
0.0692
0.9701
1.1052
3.2
2.08.
5.43
4.67
3.18
2.63
0.986
0.944
0.932
8.74
8.23
8.07
7.01
5.82
5.06
2.588
2.27
2.08
1.92
1.72
1.68
1.58
14.445
8.508
21.955
35.382
4.715
7.452
1.000
14.013
15.964
46.2
30.0
78.5
67.5
46.0
38.0
14.23
13.63
13.45
126.9
118.8
116.5
101.2
84.0
73.0
37.36
32.77
30.03
27.72
24.83
24.25
22.81
densities only
Obs,
17.01 17.01
43.89 43.89
70.74 70.74
2.00 2.00
28.01 28.01
31.92 31.92
59.
92.4
59.9 60.0
150.6 157.0
150.6 135.0150.6 92.0
150.6 76.0
53.38 28.46
53.38 27.26
53.38 26.90
253.2 253.8
253.2 237.6
253.2 233.0
253.2 202.4
253.2 168.0
253.2 146.0
91.86 74.72
91.86 65.54
91.86 60.06
91.86 55.44
91.86 49.66
91.86 48.50
when
91.86' 45.62
in presence
Tables
Table
6.
Specific
Gravity of Water at Different Temperatures,

Referred to water
c.
279
at
4 C.
28o
Tab]:<es
TABLE 8, Specific
Gravity of Aqueous Solutions at 15 C.
Referred to Water at 4 C.
Tabiês
TABLE 10. Elastic
Constants of Solids.
N. B. Flexural Resilience per unit volume equals one

unit volunie.
281
Tables
282
TABLE 12. Viscosity

cific
of Liquids.
ooeHloieat of viscosity in C. G. S. units, zo, -âo, etc denotes the speviscosity, or viooslty relative to water at O'C, 20C., etc., taken as unity.
V denotes
tlie
(a)
Temp.
Water
at Different
Temperatures.
Tabi<es
TABLE
13.
Corrections
283
for the laflaeuce of Grayity on the Height of
the Barometer.
(a)
From 0
additive.
Reduction
to 4 j" the oorrectioas are
to latitude
45
subtraotive; from 45 to 93" the corrections
are
Tables
284
Table 14.
(a)
Boiling Point of Water under different Barometric Pressures.

Temperatures in degrees Centigrade and pressures in millimeters
of miercufy.
TabIvES
TABLE
15.
Pressure
of Saturated
285
Aqueous Vapor.
Pressures are in millimeters of mercury. Values for temperatures above 100" C.

are those found by Regnault using a mercury column at 0, at latitude 4851' 14'
north, and altitude above sea level of 60 meters. The values for temperatures below
100' C. have been reduced by Broch to standard conditions.
"C
286
Tablbs
TABLE 17,The Wet
and Dry Bulb Hygrometer,

From Smithsoaian Tables.
Let the temperature of the atmosphere given by a dry bulb thermometer be denoted
and let the reading ol a wet bulb thermometer be denoted by (/- o I). In the following table, corresponding to the various values ol A t given in the top line, we have
given the pressure (in mm. of mercury) of the aqueous vapor in the atmosphere at the
temperature i" C, i. e. the pressure that would be exerted by the aqueous vapor in
the atmosphere if the temperature were reduced to the dew point.
by
i C. ,
TABLES
TABLE
287
288
Tabiês
TABLE 21. Thermal

The following
Emissivity of Different Surfaces.
were obtainea by Bottoml'sy tor a cooling copper globe surrounded by air at atmospberic pressure in an enclosure kept at a constant temperature
of 14 5 G. The emissivities are expressed in gram calories of beat lost per second, per
scLuare centimeter of surface, per degree centigrade excess of temperature of the body
above tbe temperature of the surroundings.
Temperature
results
of
Tables
TABLE 23. Specific
Heat of Solids and Liquids.

mean speoiflo
Ualessotherwisestated, the following values express the

0 to 100 C.
Substance
289
heat from
Tables
290
TABLE
25.
Melting: Points and Heat Equiyalents of Fusion,

Melt-
Substance
ing
Bees wax
Benzol
Bismuth
Bromine
Cadmium
Glycerin
Ice
Iodine
Iron, cast (grey)
(white)
Iêad
Tabi,es
TABLE
28.
Heats of Solution
291
and Dilution of Sulphuric, Nitric and
Acetic Acid.
From
gram
Julius
Thomsen Thermocliemisolie Uatersuohungen.
Quantities of heat are expressed in gram calories, n represents the number of

molecules of water in which is dissolved one gram molecule of the acid.
(Ha SO4
HzO)
Tabi,e^
292
TABLE 30. Heat of

From
Julius Thomsen,
Solution of Chemical Subbtances.
Thermocliemisclie
Untersucliungen.
n indicates the number of gram molecules of water in whicli is dissolved one grammolecule of the suhstance. The solutions are made at ordinary room temperatures'
The heats of solution are expressed in gram calories.
Ammonia gas
NH3.
Carbon dioxide gas.
CO2....
Hydrochloric acid gas

Sulphuric acid
HCl...
Nitric acid
Calcium chloride
HNO3.
Cupric sulphate.
Cu SO 4 HÔ
CUSO4 5 H2 O....
Fe CI2
H2 SO4
CaCla.
CaCla
Ferrous chloride.
"
HgCl2
NiS04. 7H2O....
"
Ni(N03)2 .6H2O..
nitrate
Potassium chloride
"
chlorate.
'
"
"
"
dichromate
hydrate
K CI
KCIO3
KaCraOj
KOH
nitrate.
KNO3
sulphate
K2SO4
K2 Mn2 Ob
permanganate.
Silver nitrate
Sodium acetate
"
chloride
"
"
"
6H2O
FeCls. 4H2 O....

Fe SO4.7 H2O....
sulphate
Mercuric chloride
Nickel sulphate
'
(AgN03)
NaC2H302 3H2O
Na CI
.
hydrate
NaOH
nitrate
Na NO3
sulphate
Na2S04 .H2O
Na2 SO4 IOH2O..
Zn CI2
Zn SOi- HaO......
Zn S04- 7H2 O....
Zinc chloride
Zinc sulphate.
.
Formula
Suhstance
200
ISOO
300
1600
300
300
400
400
400
350
400
400
300
800
400
200
400
400
250
200
400
1000
400
400
100
200
200
400
400
300
400
400
at of Soln.
8430
5880
17315
17850
7480
17410
4340
9320
2750
17900
2750
4510
3300
4250
7470
4440
10040
16700
13290
8520
6380
20780
10880
4810
1180
9940
5030
1900
-18760
15630
9950
4260
Tabi,es
TABLE Sl.^Heat
From
293
of Neutralization of dilute Acids and Bases.
Julius Tliomsen-Tliermooliemisclie Untersuchungen.
one gram equivalent ot acid or Ijase in 200 gram mole200HjOl, (Hj SO4 + 400 H,0). The mixtures are made
at ordinary room temperatures. The heats of neutralization are expressed in gram
The
dilution. employed is
cules of water
e.g.
(NaOH
calories.
(a.).
Substance
Monobasic
acids.
....
.
.....
..
.
..
Tabiês
294
TABLE
32.
The Atomic Weight and Talencies of the principal Elements,

According
to-
the latest determinations.
H=
Sym-
Name
Aluminium
Antimony.
Ai;
Sb.
As.
Ba.
Be.
Arsenic
Barium
Beryllium.
Bismuth
Boron
Bromine
Bi.
Bo.
Br.
Cd.
Cs.
Ca.
....
Cadmium
Caesium
....
Calcium
Carbon
Cerium
Chlorine
C.
Ce.
Cl.
....
Chromium
Cr.
Cobalt
Copper
Didymium
Erbium
Flviorine ....
Gallium
Gold
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury
....
Molybdenum
3,5
3
1,5
2
1
2
4
3,4
1,5
4,6
2,4
Au.
1,3
2
3
3
1
H.
In.
Ir.
Lithium
4
3,5
3,5
2
2
Co.
Cu.
D.
E.
F.
G.
I.
Lanthanum.
Lead
Valer.ce
Fe.
La.
1,5
2,4,6
2,4,6
Pb.
3
2,4
Li.
Mg.
Mn.
Hg.
Mo.
2,4,6
2
2
2,4,6
At.
Wt.
26.99
120.29
74.92
136.76
9.03
207.64
10.94
79.77
111.95
132.58
39.99
11.98
139.9
35.37
52.09
58.74
63.30
142.32
165.89
18.98
68.85
196.8
1.00
113.4
126.56
192.9
56.0
138.6
206.47
7.01
24.31
54.93
199.71
96.18
1.
Sym- Valence
At. Wt.
bol
Name
Nickel
Ni.
Niobium
Nitrogen.
Osmium..
Nb.-
N.
Oxygen ....
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Potassium
Rhodium.
.
2,4
5
3,5
Os.
O.
2,4,6
Pd.
2,4
P.
1,3,5
Pt.
2,4
K.
Ro.
2,4,6
Ruthenivim.
Rb.
Ru.
2, 4,
Samarium
Sm.
Rubidium
3
3
Scandium.
Selenium
Sc.
Se.
2,4,6
Silicon
Silver
Si.
Ag.
Na.
1
1
Sodium
....
Strontium.
Sulphur
Sr.
S.
....
Tantalum
..
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium.
Thorium
Tin
..
.
Ta.
Te.
Tb.
Tl.
Th.
Sn.
Titanium...
Ti.
Tungsten
Uranium
Vanadium.
Ytterbium
W.
U.
V.
<
Yttrium.
Zinc
Zirconium
Yb.
Y.
Zn.
Zr.
2
2, 4,
2,4,6
3
1,3
4
2,4
2,4
4,6
4,6
3,5
3
2
3
4
58.56
93.8
14-2
191.0
15.96
105.74
30.96
194.85
39.03
103.24
85.25
101.3
150.02
43.17
78.80
28.33
107.67
23.00
87.37
31.98
182.14
126.7
160.
2v:i3.71
231.09
117.7
47.85
184.04
239.0
51.26
172.73
89.02
65.11
90.40
Tabi,es
TABLE
33.
Degree
of Varlons
Aqueous Solution.
of
Dissociation
From
eading
'.
Substances in
1%
Arrhenlus' Electr'ocliemistry.
electrical conductivity method are given under the

and the values from the freezing point method are given under the heading
The solution consists of 1 gm, of substance to 100 gms. of water.-
The
'
295-
results obtained
from the
a'
Non-Electroly tes
Methyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol..
Glycerol
Mannitol
......
Cane sugâr
Phenol
Acetone
Ethyl ether
Ethyl acetate
Acetamide
a'
Index
39.6
INDEX
Instantaneous.... 50
Alcoholimeter
74
56
Area by planimeter
74
Areometer
170
Air Thermometer
191
Association
194
August's Psychrometer
Acceleration,
Backlash of screw
15
Computation, Rules for

4
Coulomb's Method for determining viscosity
134
Conductivity, Relative thermal. 167
Cold test of an oil
220
Curvature of spirit level vial. 19
Curves, Rules for plotting
6
Curvature of spherical sur.
faces
26
Balance, The
33
50
Ballistic pendulum
Barometer scale. Verification of 16
Belt, Friction of
86
255-258
tions
Barometric
Thermometer.
Headings,
tion of
Boiling Point of
..
.140
Reduc155
solution. .226
a,
Bomb, Hempel's combustion
244
100
Bunsen's effusiometer ........ 81
Burette^ Calibration of
63
Brittleness
Calorimetry
Calorimeter, The water
The steam
combustion
The
bomb
Junker's
Calibration of thermometer
196
213
219
244
248
141, 148
Calibration of a set of stand-
ard masses
Cathetometer,
172
The,
described.
Adjustment of
Chronograph, The
Coefficient of linear
Coincidences,
ters
137,
Deviation measure
Dissociation
Dividing Engine, The
Double weighing
Effusiometer, Bunsen's
Elasticity
Elastic limit
Emissivity, Thermal
Empirical equations
3
190, 263
9
38
Errors, of
81
99
100
204
47-104
2
thermometers
137
Eyepiece Micrometer, The
43
Expansion
45-55
147
Eccentricity of a 'divided circle 29

Efficiency of a reversible engine .171
Expansion of
of
circle of planimeter.... 62
Density
70
Densimeter
75
Density of unsaturated vapors. 186
Density and molecular weight.
Relation between
189
Depressed zero, of thermome-
13
17
expansion 157
Method
vibrations
121
dew point hygrometer
192
Errors, Discussion of
40
Carnot's cycle
Daniell's
Datum
Beckmann's apparatus for molecular weight determina-
Beckmann's
Damped
solids
11
and liquids
153, 157, 1G2, 164
of gases
I'^xpansion of gases.
during
176
Work
done
170
Index
Flash
297
fire test and cold

an oil
223
Flexure, Study of
104
Flexure, Young's Modulus by.. 108
Filar Micrometer Microscope.
10
Molecular
Fieezing points
New York
test,
weight
test of
by
boiling
point method. .2.52

by freezing point
method
2.')S
Friction,
CoeflScient
228
84
80
88
of
Friction of u belt
Friction of a journal
Fundamental law of gases.... 107
Fusion, Heat equivalent of
.230
.
health
Normal
of
...:
107
Graduation of a scale
Gram molecule
15
168, 230
Gram
equivalent
Guillaume's hypsometer
230
145
Heat equivalent
of fusion
230
condensation. .. .219
of vaporization 220, 233
Heat of dilution
240
solution
238
neutralization
241
Heat value of a solid
242
248
gas or liquid
of
Hydrometer
Hygrometry
Hypsometer
Humidity
thermometer
steam calorimeter
Junkers gas calorimeter
Jolly's air
Joly's
Joule's equivalent
"Latent heat"
Level testing
logarithmic decrement
board
of
224
241
tester
salt
Optical Lever
Oil tehter
Optical
Gauss' method of weighing

38
Gases and solutions, Properties
State
oil
lever
23-102
224
102, 158
23,
KM
Osmotic pressure
Parallax
Passages, Method of
17
Pendulum, Ballistic
Pendulum, Borda's
44
50
54
Percentage deviation
Planimeter, Theory of
Plotting of curves
56
6
Platinum resistance thermometer
148
Psychrometry
Precision
191
of observations ....
method for deter-
Poiscuille's
mining viscosity
129
Pyknometer
60-71
74
191
Radian
145
Radiation correction
constant
Regnault's hypsometer
192
method
17T
219
248
270
230, 233
deter-
vapor
pressure
method
of
184
deter-
mining expansion
of liquids
19
120
of
minating
117
199
199
145
197,
162
Resilience
119
Restitution, Coefficient of
Jlic'.ometer screw gauge, The.
Mechanical equivalent of heat, 270

228
Melting points
Mohr-Westphal balance, The
Moment
of Inertia
72
91
Molecular weight and density.

189
Relation between
Mueller's optical lever
52
Resistance thermometer
148
Reversible engine. Efficiency of
the
171
Rider for balance
33
158
Salinimeter
Scale for plotting. Best
Sensitiveness of a spirit level.
75
7
.
19
Index
298
Sensitiveness of a ba/lance
Significant figures
Simple
37
4
by vibration
Rigidity
by
Rigidity
Solution,
Normal
Solvent,
Boiling point of
solute, solution
116
148
Vapor pressure
100
236
227
Van';-,
169
fi.ned
70
Gravity
Speed, Instantaneous
Spherometer The
49-51
Vaporization, Heat equivalent
to
weight
37
49-50
Vernier caliper. The
Viscosity
"67
of
Velocity, Instantaneous
219
by
13
Poiseuille's
method
129
by
Coulomb's
method
134
100
Volume, Determination of... 63-64

Volumenometer
67
25
100
34
Weighing
Wheatstone's bridge
.149, 151
166
Weight thermometer
164
Weight dilatometer
Wet and dry bulb hygrometer.194
Water eqviivalent, Thermal
Adjust-
of
Tenacity
Thermometer, The air

The mercury
176
in
glass
14)
The platinuin
re-
137
of
Calibration
196, 215, 247
148
sistance
The Beckmann. .140

160
The weight
Thermometers, Errors
233
of
Viscosity
scale,
186
169
Hofl'slaw
9
Specific heat. 196, 208, 212, 217, 219
-.
Steana calorimeter
Stereometer, The
Strain
180, 184
density
Vacuum, Reduction
de-
Specific
ments
missivity
statical
Siemens' pyrometer
Stress
Telescope- and
196
204
Thermochemical measurements.236
method
196
.
112
method
Simple
Thermal units
water equivalent.
of
Young's
ing
Modulus by
stretch-
101
Young's Modulus by bending.. 108
141, 148
Thermodynamics, Laws of.... 171
Zero Circle of planimeter .... 62
Illustrations
299
Iliûstrations
301
303
aS3.l
0769
Il,L,USTRATIONS
305
igia
20
lUvUSTRATIONS
307
A B
~^"''""-
t"
ill
liJhM
'
^'
^''' -
iiiinEiijmfjhiiJi.
Illustrations
309
Battery
Battery
311
Illustrations
IlIvUSTRATIONS
313
Iliûstrations
315
IlvtUSTRATlONS
317
Illustrations
.y
319
ILLUSTRATIONS
2(
321
IlvLUSTRATIONS
323
IlvLUSTRATIONS
325
Illustrations
327
Illustrations
329
IlvLUSTRATIONS
v-^'
33^
'm-

Practical Physics For Students of Science and Engineering 1903

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SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

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FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND PROPERTIES OE MATTER

PRINTED EXPRESSLY FOR THE STUDENTS OP PURDUE UNIVERSITY

PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR

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Fundamenbal Measuiemenbs and Piopeities of Mabter

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The work is so designed that it can be begun

experiments the plan has been to include only such methods as

that of the instructor.

Although the majority of the experiments are quantitative

been illustrated by qualitative exercises.

has been assumed that

so important as to justify a student

before he understands the theory involved and the

derivation of the formulae required.

Consequently the theory of

given in detail and the required formula de-

Since, in general, a student can appreciate

most completely the physical significance of the various steps in

hoped that the numerous

been made especially for

book, will assist in making the text

At the end of many of the experiments

placed a set of questions designed to test the"studtnt's understand-

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FUNDAMENTAL MEASUREMENTS AND

Rules for Computation

Radius of Curvature and Sensitiveness of a spirit level ....

WEIGHING OE THE COMPAEISON OF MASSES.

Reduction to the weight in vacuum

Instruments for the Measurement of Time

Determination of the Change of Speed of a flywheel during

MEASUREMENT OF AREA AND VOLUME.

Determination of the Area of a plane figure with a

Density and Specific Gravity of

of the Coefficient of Friction

XXVII. The Friction of a belt on a pulley

lubricated journal and its bearings

Transformation Formulae for the computation of the

body about a given axis in

of Inertia about other axes ... 92

of Inertia of a solid cylinder about its geomet-

of Inertia of a system consisting of