Chapter 16

Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer and change of Phase
Objects in thermal contact at different temperatures tend to reach a common temperature in 3
ways:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction
Transfer
of
internal
energy
by
electron
and
molecular collision within a substance, especially a

solid
Conductors
Good conductors conduct heat quickly.
- Substances with oozily held electrons throughout the solid.
Silvers, copper, and other solid metals
Poor conductors are insulators.
- molecules with tightly held electrons in a substance vibrate in place and transfer energy
slowly these are good insulators (and poor conductors)
Example: Glass, wool, wood, paper, cork, plastic, foam, air
Substance that trap air are good insulators.
Example: Wool, fur, feathers, and snow
Insulation
Doesnt prevent the flow of internal energy
Slows the rate at witch internal energy flows
Example: Rock wool of fiberglass between walls slows the transfer of internal energy from a
warm house to a cool exterior in winter, and the reverse in summer.
Convection
Transfer of heat involving only bulk motion of fluids
Example:
Visible shimmer of air above a hot stove or above asphalt on a hot day
Visible shimmers in vater duw to temperature difference
Opium War
The Chinese govt tried to stop the illegal drug trade by passing harsh laws
In 1839 the Chinese destroyed a British optima ship and war broke out
The Chinese lacked the military might and England easily won
Cooling by Expansion
Opposite to the warning the occurs when air is compressed
example: The cloudy region above hot steam issuing from the nozzle of a pressure cooker is
cool to the touch ( a combination of air expansion and mixing with cooler surrounding air).
Careful, part at the nozzle that you cant see is steamouch!
Convection
Winds
Results of never heating of the air near the ground
- absorbent of suns energy occurs more readily on different parts of Earths surface.
sea Breeze
- The ground warms more than water in the daytime.
- Warm air close to the ground rises and is replaced by cooler air from above the water

Radiation
Transfer
of
energy
from
the
Sun
through
empty
space

Radiation Energy
Transferred energy
Exists as electromagnet waves ranging from
long (radio waves) to short wavelengths (Xrays)
In visible region, ranges from long waves (red)
to short waves (violet)

Wavelength of radiation
Related to frequency of vibration (rate of vibration of a wave source)
- Low-frequency vibration produces long-wavelength waves.
- High-frequency vibration produces short-wavelength waves.
Emission of radiant energy
every object above absolute zero radiates
From the Suns surface comes light, called electromagnetic radiation, or solar radiation.
From the earths surface comes terrestrial radiation in the form of infrared waves below our
threshold of sight
Frequency of radiation is proportional to the absolute temperature of the source (f~T)

Absorption of radiant energy

Occurs along with emission of radiant energy
Effects of surface of material on radiant energy
- Any material that absorbs more than it emits is a net
- Any material that emits more than it emits is a net absorber
- Any material that emits more than it absorbs is a net emitter
- Net absorption or emission is relative to temperature of surrounding
Occurs along with emission of radiant energy
- Good absorbers are good emitters
- Poor absorbers are poor emitters
- Example: Radio dish antenna that is also good receiver(designed, a poor transmitter is a poor
absorber)
Radiation
Reflection of radiant energy
Opposite to absorption of radiant energy
Any surface that reflects very litter or no radiant energy looks dark
Examples of dark objects: Eye,pupils, open ends of pipes in a stake, open doorways or
windows of distant house in the daytime
Darkness often due to reflection of light back and forth many times partial absorbing with each
refection.
Good reflectors are poor absorbers.

Chapter 17
Change of Phase
Matter exists in four common phases that involve transfer of internal energy:
Solid phase
Liquid phase
Gaseous phases
Plasma phase
Phase of Matter
The phase of material depends upon the temperature and pressure
Change from Solid>Liquid>Gas>Plasma requires energy to be added to the
material
Energy causes the molecules to move more rapidly
Evaporation
Change
of
phases
from
liquid
to
gas


Molecules in liquid more randomly at various speeds, continually colliding into one
another.
Some molecules gain kinetic energy while others lose kinetic energy during collision.
Some energetic molecules escape from the liquid and become gas
Average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules in the liquid decreases, resulting in
cooler water.
Important in cooling our bodies when we overheat
Sweat glads produce perspiration
Water our skin absorbs body heat as evaporation cools the body
Helps to maintain a stable body temperature
Sublimation
Form of phase change directly from solid to gas
Example: dry ice, mothballs, frozen water
Condensation
Condensation process
Kinetic energy is absorbed by the liquid, resulting in increased temperature.
Example:
Stream released much energy when it condenses to a liquid and moistens the skin
hence, it produces a more damaging burn than from same-temperature 100 degrees
Celsius boiling water
You feel warmer in a moist shower stall because the rate of condensation exceeds the
rate of evaporation.
In dry cities, the rate of evaporation from your skin is greater than the rate of
condensation, so you feel colder.
In humid cities, the rate of evaporation from your skin in less than the rate of
condensation, so you feel warmer
A cold soda pop can is wet in warm air because slow-moving molecules make contact
with the cold surface and condense.
Condensation in the atmosphere
When the temperature of the atmosphere is low, the water molecules in the air move
slowly
Slow-Moving water molecules stick together, causing condensation
Example: Fog and clouds created when air rises
Boiling

Boiling process
Rapid evaporation from beneath the surface of a liquid
Rapid from evaporation beneath the surface forms vapor bubbles
Bubbles rise to the surface
If vapor pressure in the bubble is less than the surrounding pressure, then the bubbles
collapse
Hence, bubbles dont form at temperatures well below the boiling point
Boiling water at 100 degrees celsius is in thermal equilibriumBoiling water is being
cooled as fast as it is being warmed
In this sense, boiling is a cooling process
Boiling point depends on pressure.
Boiling point is lower with lower atmospheric pressure.
Demonstration of cooling effect of evaporation and boiling
Melting and Freezing
Melting
Occurs when a substance changes phase from a solid to a liquid
Opposite of freezing
When heat is supplied to a solid, added vibration breaks molecules loose from the
structure and melting occurs
Energy and Change of Phase
Form
solid
to
liquid
to
gas
phase

- Add energy
From gas to solid phase
- Remove energy

Energy is absorbed when change of

phase is in this direction

Liquid

Solid

Gas

Energy

Vaporization and condensation process

Cooling cycle of refrigerator pump a special fluid that vaporizes and draws heat from
stored food. the gas that forms, along with its energy, is directed to the condensation
coils outside the fridge where heat is released and the fluid condenses back to liquid
Heat of Fusion
Amount of energy needed to change any substance from solid to liquid and vice
versa
Examples:
heat of fusion for water is 334 joules/g
Farmers in cold climates replace frozen tubs of water with unfrozen ones in their
cellars to prevent jars of food from freezing
Amount of energy needed to change any substance from liquid to gas and vise versa
Examples
Heat of vaporization for water is 2256 joules/g.
In briefly touching a hot skillet, energy that normally would flow into your fingers
instead vaporizes water. hence, you're not burned.

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Chapter 18

States that the heat added to a system transforms to an equal amount of form other form of
energy
Heat added to system =
increase in internal energy+work done by systems
The first law of thermodynamics is a restatement of the law of conservation of energy :
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
Another implication: Instead of adding heat, if we do mechanical work on a system, we can
except an increase in internal energy i.e., temperature rise.
Example:
Rubbing your hands, make them warmer.

 Joules apparatus: As the weights fall, they lose potential energy (mechanical), witch is
converted to heat that warms the water
Adiabatic Processes
Compressing or expanding a gas while no heat enters or leaves the system in an adiabatic
process
Adiabatic conditions are achieved by
- thermally insulating a system from its surrounding, or
- performing the process so rapidly that heat has no time to enter or leave
Heat added to system = 0
So:
Increase/Decrease in internal energy
= work done on/by system
Example:
When we compress air using a bicycle pump i.e., when we do work on the system, we heat the
air up, i.e., increase its internal energy.
meteorology and the First Law
Thermodynamics is useful to meteorologist when analyzing weather
The first law of thermodynamics is expressed as:
Air temperature rises as heat is added or as pressure is increases
Heat may be added as
- incoming solar radiation
- radiation back from earth
- moisture condensation
- contact with ground

- a vibration is a periodic wiggle in time.

- a periodic wiggle in both space and time is a wave. A wave extends from one place to
another.
Vibrations and waves
- vibration- wiggle in time
- wave-wiggle in space and time
Vibrations of a pendulum
- if we suspended a stone at the end of a piece of string, we have a simple pendulum
- the pendulum swings to and fro at a rate that
- depends only on the length of the pendulum
- does not depend upon the ,ass (just as mass does not affect the rate at which a
ball falls to the ground
-the time of one to-and-fro swing is called the period
- the longer the length of a pendulum, the longer the period (just as rhe higher you drop
a ball from, the longer it takes to reach the ground)
Wave description
- a wave is pictorially represented by a sine curve
- a sine curve is obtained when you trace out the path of a vibrating pendulum over
time.
- put some sand in the pendulum, and let it swing
- the sand drips through a hole in the pendulum onto a sheet of paper
- as the pendulum swings back and forth, pull the sheet of paper on which the sand
falls
- the sand makes a sine curve on the paper

- when a bob vibrates up and down, a marking pen traces out a sine curve on the paper
that moves horizontally at constant speed.
-vibration and wave characteristics
- crests - high kings if the wave
- troughs - low points of the wave
-vibrating and wave characteristics
- amplitude - distance fro, the midpoint to the crest of to the trough
- wavelength - distance from the top of one crest to the top of the next crest, or
distance between successive identical parts of the wave
- how frequently a vibration occurs is called the frequency
- the unit for frequency is hertz, after Heinrich hertz
- a frequency of1 Hzis a vibration that occurs once each second
- mechanical objects (e.g. Pendulums) have frequencies of a few Hz
- sound has a frequency of a few 100 or 1000 Hz
- radio waves have frequencies of a few million Hz (MHz)
- cell phones operate at few billion Hz (GHz)
- frequency
- specifies the number of to and fro vibrations in a given time
- number of waves passing any point per second
- period
- time to complete one vibration: period = 1/frequency or frequency = 1/period
Wave motion
- waves transport energy and not matter
- wave speed
- describes how fast a disturbance moves through a medium
- related to frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency x
wavelength
Transverse and longitudinal waves
- two common types if waves that differ because of the direction in which the medium
vibrates compared with the direction of travel
- longitudinal wave
- transverse wave
Transverse wave
- medium vibrates perpendicularly to direction of energy transfer
- side-to-side movement

Chapter 20
Sound
NATURE OF SOUND
Sound is a form of energy that exists whether or not it is heard
ORGIN OF SOUND
Sounds are waves produced by the vibrations of matter

For example:
- In a piano, a violent, and a guitar, the sound is produced by the vibrating strings;
- in a saxophone, by a vibrating reed;
- in a flute, by a fluttering column of air at the mouthpiece;
- in your voice due to the vibration of your vocal chords
The original vibration stimulates the vibration of something larger or more massive, such as
- the sound board of stringed instrument,
- the air column within a reed or wind instrument, or
- the air in the throat and mouth of a singer
This vibrating material then sends a disturbance through the surrounding medium, usually air,
in the form of longitudinal sound waves.
Under ordinary conditions, the frequencies of the vibrating source and sound waves ar the
same.
The subject impression about the frequency of sound is called Pitch
The ear of the young person can normally hear pitches corresponding to the range of
frequencies between about 20 and 20,000 Hertz
As we grow older, the limits of this human hearing range shrink, especially at the highfrequency end.
Sound waves with frequencies below 20 hertz are Infrasonic (frequency too low for human
hearing.)
Sound waves with frequencies above 20,000 hertz are called Ultra sonic (frequency too high
for human hearing.)

We cannot hear infrasonic and ultrasonic sound.

SOUND IN AIR
sound waves
are vibrations made of compressions and rarefactions.

 are longitudinal waves.

require a medium.
travel through solids, liquids, and gases
Wavelength of sound
Distance between successive compressions or rarefactions

How sound is heard from a radio loudspeaker

Radio loudspeaker is a paper cone that vibrates
Air molecules next to the loudspeaker set into vibration

MEDIA THAT TRANSMIT SOUND

Any elastic substance solid, liquid, gas, or plasma can transmit sound.
In elastic liquids and solids, that atoms are relatively close together, respond quickly to once
another motions, and transmit energy with little loss
Sound travels about 4 times faster in water than in air and about 15 times faster in steel than
in air
SPEED OF SOUND IN AIR
Depends on wind conditions, temperature, humidity

- Speed in dry air at 0 degrees C is about 330 m/s

- In water vapor slightly faster
- In warm air faster than cold air
Each degree rise in temperature above 0 degrees C speed of sound in air increases by 0.6
m/s
speed in water about 4 times speed i air
Speed in steel about 15 times its speed in air
REFLECTION OF SOUND
Reflection
Process in which sound encountering a surface is returned
Ofter called an echo
Multiple reflections called reverberations

REFLECTION OF SOUND
Acoustics
Study of sound
Example concert halls
REFRACTION OF SOUND

 Bending of waves caused b changes in speed affected by

- Wind vibrations
- temperature variations
REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF SOUND
Multiple reflection and refractions of ultrasonic waves
Device sends high-frequency sounds into the body and reflects the waves more strongly from
the exterior of the organs, producing an image of the organs
Used instead of X-rays by physicians to see the interior of the body
Dolshins emit ultrasonic waves to enable them locate objects in their environment

FORCED VIBRATIONS
setting up of vibrations in an object by a vibration force
Example: factory floor vibration caused by running of heavy machinery
NATURAL FREQUENCY
Own unique frequency (or set of frequencies)
dependent on: elasticity, and shape of object
RESONANCE
A phenomenon in which the frequency of forced vibrations on an object matches the objects
natural frequency
RESONANCE
Dramatic example of wind-generated resonance
INTERFERENCE
Property of alewives and wave motion
Superposition of waves that may either reinforce or cancel other
Constructive interference
Increased amplitude when the crest of one wave overlaps the crest of another wave
Destructive interference
Reduced amplitude when the crest of one wave overlaps the through of another wave

INTERFERENCE
Application of sound interference
Destructive sound interference in noisy devices sucj as jackhammers that are equipped with
microphones to produce mirror-image wave patterns fed to operators earphone, canceling the
jackhammers sound
BEATS
Periodic variations in the loudness of sound due to interference
Occur with any kind of wave
Provide a comparison of frequencies

CHAPTER 19

GOOD VIBRATIONS
A vibration is a periodic wiggle in time. A priodic wiggle in both space and time is a wave. A
wave expends from one place to another. Examples are
Light, which is an electromagnetic wave that needs no medium
SOund, which is a technical wave that needs a medium
VIBRATIONS AND WAVES
Vibration- wiggle in time
Wave- wiggle in space and time
VIBRATIONS OF A PENULUM
If we suspend a stone at the end of a piece of string, we have simple pendulum
The pendulum swings to and fro at a rate that
depends only on the length of the pendulum

The time of
one to and fro swing is called the period
the longer the pendulum the longer the period
WAVE DESCRIPTION
Crest
high points of the wave
Troughts
low points
amplitude
distane from the mid point to the crest or to the trough
wave length
distance trom on crest to the top of another crest
How frequency a vibration occurs is called the frequency
the unit of frequency is hertz

- a vibration is a periodic wiggle in time.

- a periodic wiggle in both space and time is a wave. A wave extends
Good vibrations
- a vibration is a periodic wiggle in time.
- a periodic wiggle in both space and time is a wave. A wave extends from one place to
another.
Vibrations and waves

- vibration- wiggle in time

- wave- wiggle in space and time
Vibrations of a pendulum
- if we suspended a stone at the end of a piece of string, we have a simple pendulum
- the pendulum swings to and fro at a rate that
- depends only on the length of the pendulum
- does not depend upon the ,ass (just as mass does not affect the rate at which a ball
falls to the ground
-the time of one to-and-fro swing is called the period
- the longer the length of a pendulum, the longer the period (just as rhe higher you drop
a ball from, the longer it takes to reach the ground)
Wave description
- a wave is pictorially represented by a sine curve
- a sine curve is obtained when you trace out the path of a vibrating pendulum over
time.
- put some sand in the pendulum, and let it swing
- the sand drips through a hole in the pendulum onto a sheet of paper
- as the pendulum swings back and forth, pull the sheet of paper on which the sand
falls
- the sand makes a sine curve on the paper
- when a bob vibrates up and down, a marking pen traces out a sine curve on the paper
that moves horizontally at constant speed.
-vibration and wave characteristics
- crests - high kings if the wave
- troughs - low points of the wave
-vibrating and wave characteristics
- amplitude - distance fro, the midpoint to the crest of to the trough
- wavelength - distance from the top of one crest to the top of the next crest, or
distance between successive identical parts of the wave
- how frequently a vibration occurs is called the frequency
- the unit for frequency is hertz, after Heinrich hertz
- a frequency of 1 Hz is a vibration that occurs once each second
- mechanical objects (e.g. Pendulums) have frequencies of a few Hz
- sound has a frequency of a few 100 or 1000 Hz
- radio waves have frequencies of a few million Hz (MHz)
- cell phones operate at few billion Hz (GHz)
- frequency
- specifies the number of to and fro vibrations in a given time
- number of waves passing any point per second
- period
- time to complete one vibration: period = 1/frequency or frequency = 1/period
Wave motion
- waves transport energy and not matter
- wave speed
- describes how fast a disturbance moves through a medium

- related to frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency x

wavelength
Transverse and longitudinal waves
- two common types if waves that differ because of the direction in which the medium
vibrates compared with the direction of travel
- longitudinal wave
- transverse wave
Transverse wave
- medium vibrates perpendicularly to direction of energy transfer
- side-to-side movement
Longitudinal waves
- medium vibrations parallel to direction of energy transfer
- backward and forward movement consists of
- compression
- rarefr
- a vibration is a periodic wiggle in time.
- a periodic wiggle in both space and time is a wave. A wave extends from one place to
another.
Vibrations and waves
- vibration- wiggle in time
- wave- wiggle in space and time
Vibrations of a pendulum
- if we suspended a stone at the end of a piece of string, we have a simple pendulum
- the pendulum swings to and fro at a rate that
- depends only on the length of the pendulum
- does not depend upon the ,ass (just as mass does not affect the rate at which a ball
falls to the ground
-the time of one to-and-fro swing is called the period
- the longer the length of a pendulum, the longer the period (just as rhe higher you drop
a ball from, the longer it takes to reach the ground)
Wave description
- a wave is pictorially represented by a sine curve
- a sine curve is obtained when you trace out the path of a vibrating pendulum over
time.
- put some sand in the pendulum, and let it swing
- the sand drips through a hole in the pendulum onto a sheet of paper
- as the pendulum swings back and forth, pull the sheet of paper on which the sand
falls
- the sand makes a sine curve on the paper
- when a bob vibrates up and down, a marking pen traces out a sine curve on the paper
that moves horizontally at constant speed.
-vibration and wave characteristics
- crests - high kings if the wave
- troughs - low points of the wave
-vibrating and wave characteristics
- amplitude - distance fro, the midpoint to the crest of to the trough

- wavelength - distance from the top of one crest to the top of the next crest, or
distance between successive identical parts of the wave
- how frequently a vibration occurs is called the frequency
- the unit for frequency is hertz, after Heinrich hertz
- a frequency of 1 Hz is a vibration that occurs once each second
- mechanical objects (e.g. Pendulums) have frequencies of a few Hz
- sound has a frequency of a few 100 or 1000 Hz
- radio waves have frequencies of a few million Hz (MHz)
- cell phones operate at few billion Hz (GHz)
- frequency
- specifies the number of to and fro vibrations in a given time
- number of waves passing any point per second
- period
- time to complete one vibration: period = 1/frequency or frequency = 1/period
Wave motion
- waves transport energy and not matter
- wave speed
- describes how fast a disturbance moves through a medium
- related to frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency x
wavelength
Transverse and longitudinal waves
- two common types if waves that differ because of the direction in which the medium
vibrates compared with the direction of travel
- longitudinal wave
- transverse wave
Transverse wave
- medium vibrates perpendicularly to direction of energy transfer
- side-to-side movement
Wave interference
- o curse when two or more waves interact with each other because they o cur in the
same place at the same time
- constructive interference: when the crest of one wave overlaps the crest of another,
their individual effects add together to produce a wave of increased amplitude
- destructive interference: when the crest of one wave overlaps the trough of another
wave, the high part of one wave simply fills in the low part of another. So, their individual
effects are reduced
Standing waves
- if we tie a rope to a wall and shake the free end up and down, and e produce a train of
waves in the rope
- the wall is too rigid to shake, so the waves are reflected back along the rope
- by shaking the rope just right, we can cause the incident and reflect waves to form a
standing wave
-tie a tub to a firm support, snake the tube from side to side with your hand
- if you shake the tube with the right frequency, you will set up a standing wave.
- if you shake the tube with twice the frequency, a standing wave of half the wavelength,
having two loops results

- if you shake the tube with three times the frequency, a standing wave of one-third the
wavelength, having three loops results
Doppler effect
- increase in light frequency when light source approaches you
- star's spin speed can be determined by shift measurement
- decrease in light frequency when light source moves away from you
- Doppler effect of light
- blue shift
- red shift
Bow waves
- waves superimpose directly on top of one another producing a "wall"
-supersonic
- sonic boom
- sharp cracking sound generated by a supersonic aircraft
- intensity due to overdress urge and underlies sure of atmospheric pressure between
the two comes of the shock waves from one place to another.
Vibrations and waves
- vibration- wiggle in time
- wave- wiggle in space and time
Vibrations of a pendulum
- if we suspended a stone at the end of a piece of string, we have a simple pendulum
- the pendulum swings to and fro at a rate that
- depends only on the length of the pendulum
- does not depend upon the ,ass (just as mass does not affect the rate at which a ball
falls to the ground
-the time of one to-and-fro swing is called the period
- the longer the length of a pendulum, the longer the period (just as rhe higher you drop
a ball from, the longer it takes to reach the ground)
Wave description
- a wave is pictorially represented by a sine curve
- a sine curve is obtained when you trace out the path of a vibrating pendulum over
time.
- put some sand in the pendulum, and let it swing
- the sand drips through a hole in the pendulum onto a sheet of paper
- as the pendulum swings back and forth, pull the sheet of paper on which the sand
falls
- the sand makes a sine curve on the paper
- when a bob vibrates up and down, a marking pen traces out a sine curve on the paper
that moves horizontally at constant speed.
-vibration and wave characteristics
- crests - high kings if the wave
- troughs - low points of the wave
-vibrating and wave characteristics
- amplitude - distance fro, the midpoint to the crest of to the trough
- wavelength - distance from the top of one crest to the top of the next crest, or
distance between successive identical parts of the wave

- how frequently a vibration occurs is called the frequency

- the unit for frequency is hertz, after Heinrich hertz
- a frequency of 1 Hz is a vibration that occurs once each second
- mechanical objects (e.g. Pendulums) have frequencies of a few Hz
- sound has a frequency of a few 100 or 1000 Hz
- radio waves have frequencies of a few million Hz (MHz)
- cell phones operate at few billion Hz (GHz)
- frequency
- specifies the number of to and fro vibrations in a given time
- number of waves passing any point per second
- period
- time to complete one vibration: period = 1/frequency or frequency = 1/period
Wave motion
- waves transport energy and not matter
- wave speed
- describes how fast a disturbance moves through a medium
- related to frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency x
wavelength
Transverse and longitudinal waves
- two common types if waves that differ because of the direction in which the medium
vibrates compared with the direction of travel
- longitudinal wave
- transverse wave
Transverse wave
- medium vibrates perpendicularly to direction of energy transfer
- side-to-side movement
Longitudinal waves
- medium vibrations parallel to direction of energy transfer
- backward and forward movement consists of
- compression
- rarefr
- a vibration is a periodic wiggle in time.
- a periodic wiggle in both space and time is a wave. A wave extends from one place to
another.
Vibrations and waves
- vibration- wiggle in time
- wave- wiggle in space and time
Vibrations of a pendulum
- if we suspended a stone at the end of a piece of string, we have a simple pendulum
- the pendulum swings to and fro at a rate that
- depends only on the length of the pendulum
- does not depend upon the ,ass (just as mass does not affect the rate at which a ball
falls to the ground
-the time of one to-and-fro swing is called the period
- the longer the length of a pendulum, the longer the period (just as rhe higher you drop
a ball from, the longer it takes to reach the ground)

Wave description
- a wave is pictorially represented by a sine curve
- a sine curve is obtained when you trace out the path of a vibrating pendulum over
time.
- put some sand in the pendulum, and let it swing
- the sand drips through a hole in the pendulum onto a sheet of paper
- as the pendulum swings back and forth, pull the sheet of paper on which the sand
falls
- the sand makes a sine curve on the paper
- when a bob vibrates up and down, a marking pen traces out a sine curve on the paper
that moves horizontally at constant speed.
-vibration and wave characteristics
- crests - high kings if the wave
- troughs - low points of the wave
-vibrating and wave characteristics
- amplitude - distance fro, the midpoint to the crest of to the trough
- wavelength - distance from the top of one crest to the top of the next crest, or
distance between successive identical parts of the wave
- how frequently a vibration occurs is called the frequency
- the unit for frequency is hertz, after Heinrich hertz
- a frequency of 1 Hz is a vibration that occurs once each second
- mechanical objects (e.g. Pendulums) have frequencies of a few Hz
- sound has a frequency of a few 100 or 1000 Hz
- radio waves have frequencies of a few million Hz (MHz)
- cell phones operate at few billion Hz (GHz)
- frequency
- specifies the number of to and fro vibrations in a given time
- number of waves passing any point per second
- period
- time to complete one vibration: period = 1/frequency or frequency = 1/period
Wave motion
- waves transport energy and not matter
- wave speed
- describes how fast a disturbance moves through a medium
- related to frequency and wavelength of a wave: wave speed = frequency x
wavelength
Transverse and longitudinal waves
- two common types if waves that differ because of the direction in which the medium
vibrates compared with the direction of travel
- longitudinal wave
- transverse wave
Transverse wave
- medium vibrates perpendicularly to direction of energy transfer
- side-to-side movement
Wave interference

- o curse when two or more waves interact with each other because they o cur in the
same place at the same time
- constructive interference: when the crest of one wave overlaps the crest of another,
their individual effects add together to produce a wave of increased amplitude
- destructive interference: when the crest of one wave overlaps the trough of another
wave, the high part of one wave simply fills in the low part of another. So, their individual
effects are reduced
Standing waves
- if we tie a rope to a wall and shake the free end up and down, and e produce a train of
waves in the rope
- the wall is too rigid to shake, so the waves are reflected back along the rope
- by shaking the rope just right, we can cause the incident and reflect waves to form a
standing wave
-tie a tub to a firm support, snake the tube from side to side with your hand
- if you shake the tube with the right frequency, you will set up a standing wave.
- if you shake the tube with twice the frequency, a standing wave of half the wavelength,
having two loops results
- if you shake the tube with three times the frequency, a standing wave of one-third the
wavelength, having three loops results
Doppler effect
- increase in light frequency when light source approaches you
- star's spin speed can be determined by shift measurement
- decrease in light frequency when light source moves away from you
- Doppler effect of light
- blue shift
- red shift
Bow waves
- waves superimpose directly on top of one another producing a "wall"
-supersonic
- sonic boom
- sharp cracking sound generated by a supersonic aircraft
- intensity due to overdress urge and underlies sure of atmospheric pressure between
the two comes of the shock waves