Virtual Lab 1: Virtual Microscopy

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to accurately describe similarities and differences between varying cell types for a
better understanding of cells. The ability to identify different types of cells will help to build a foundation in
understanding future concepts which rely on rudimentary knowledge of cells and their functioning.
Lab Observations:
There are several observable similarities and differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic
and eukaryotic cells both have DNA, cytoplasm and ribosomes. Prokaryotic cells have a cell wall which is not
permeable and the only area of entry for nutrients, DNA and waste is through the permeable mesosome. In
contrast, Eukaryotic cells have a cell wall which is semi-permeable which means that it is selective of what may
enter and exit the cell. Eukaryotic cells also tend to be more complex as they have many structures that
prokaryotic do not have such as a mitochondria, lysosomes, and rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The
largest difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and prokaryotic
cells do not.
There are also several similar and different elements between plant and animal cells. One similarity between
plant and animal cells is that they have mitochondria. They also both have a nucleus. Lastly, they both have
smooth endoplasmic reticulum. One difference is that plant cells have a vacuole which is used to store water and
nutrients and is vital to a plants survival. Another difference is that plant cells have chloroplasts, which aid in
photosynthesis. Lastly, animal cells have lysosomes and plant cells have glyoxysomes.
Lab Answers:
A. Estimate the size of:
1. An E. Coli cell. 3 x 0.6 m
2 A mitochondrion. 4 x 0.8 m
3. A Red Blood cell. 8 m
4. A hepatitus virus. 45 nm
5. A water molecule. 275 pm
B. Observe the various Cell types and learn to distinguish between Bacterial cells, Plant cells (1, 2), and Animal cells (1, 2,
3)
1. Observe and describe three differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
2. Observe and describe three differences and three similarities between plant and animal cells.
C. Form a hypothesis
1. Hypothesize about how you might be able to sort a mixed population of cells into prokaryotes
and eukaryotes. Try to be practical, build on your understanding of the differences between the two cell classes.
To sort a mixed population of cells which are both prokaryote and eukaryote as well as plant and animal it
would be beneficial to first identify what type of cell wall is present. Selectively permeable walls will be
found in eukaryotic cells and a non-permeable cell wall will be present in prokaryotic cells.
2. Hypothesize about a means to separate out plant cells from a mixed population of eukaryotic
cells.
Once a cell is determined to be eukaryotic, we are left to separate cells as plant or animal cells. To
determine this, we must be familiar with the many organelles and functions of each cell. To identify a plant
cell, we must have chloroplasts and vacuoles present as these are required for a plant cell to function
properly and they will not be found in an animal cell.
Conclusions:
This was a very important first lab. Cells are a very vital aspect of biology and understanding them and
being able to distinguish differences among cells is vital to knowing theirs purposes and processes. Being able to
identify what makes a cell prokaryote or eukaryote is important because they both are present in the human body.

Being able to identify similarities and differences really make you have to know about which elements of a cell are
present in each type. Knowing the type of cell wall a cell contains and the basic elements that a cell will need to
function makes identifying similarities and differences among cells much easier. For example, if in the cell there is
mitochondria present this means that the cell is eukaryote because mitochondria are not present in prokaryote
cells. I found that this interactive work with the varying types of cells was very beneficial to aid my understanding
of the concepts presented. This lab was simple enough to break down the basic characteristic of each of these
types of cells but also created a foundation of knowledge that will be built on as I continue through this course and
lab assignments.

Virtual Lab 2: Cellular Processes

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to expand on the concepts identifies in the first lab on cells and expand upon
the functions and reproduction of cells within living organisms.
Lab Observations:
During the first part of the lab, I was able to experiment with the bacterial growth and I felt that this
demonstration really aided my learning because the growth is very visible and observable in its replication. In the
second part of the experiment I viewed cellular reproduction through the process of mitosis, meiosis and binary
fission. This was very beneficial to see how long the cell was in interphase, as I previously did not understand that
the time spent in this phase was comparatively longer than other phases that the cell goes through. I then viewed
cells go through three different processes: mitosis, meiosis, and binary fission. These three processes are
describes more in detail below in section B3.
I then learned about cellular respiration, which is necessary to provide energy for everyday activities. In
cellular respiration, the cell may harvest energy by breaking down molecules. Energy is also released through
cellular respiration. Cellular respiration requires oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Photosynthesis and cellular
respiration are important to life of plants, animals and humans and without one, or with an improper balance of the
two there could be detrimental impact on the earth and living organisms.
Lab Answers:
A. Bacterial Growth.
1. Estimate how long it takes for this population of bacteria to double. Hint- this population
doubles multiple times during the duration of this recording.
Based on my observations of the bacteria, it takes about 20 minutes for the bacteria population to double.
B. Cellular reproduction
1. Estimate the percentage of time that a constantly developing cell spends in interphase.
Approximately 80% of time in developing cells is spent in interphase.
2. In a random selection of 100 such cells, estimate the number that would be undergoing mitosis
at any given time.
Based on my observations in this section, I would say that about 50% of cells at all times are undergoing
mitosis, this is because certain cells are required to replicate more often than others.
3. In a couple of paragraphs describe the basic differences between mitosis, meiosis, and binary
fission.
There are many identifiable differences between mitosis, meiosis and binary fission. In prophase the
difference between mitosis and meiosis is that the chromatin fiber in mitosis will coil and fold tightly whereas with
prophase in meiosis the chromatin fibers coil into long thin fibers. Another difference in this stage is that in
meiosis there is a second prophase that must happen as well. In metaphase, mitosis will form two sister
chromatids whereas meiosis will form one tetrad. In anaphase of mitosis the sister chromatids do not separate but
in meiosis the tetrad will separate. Telophase is the last stage for mitosis whereas meiosis will go through a
second cycle before cytokinesis.

In regards to binary fission, this is a practice that is found in the reproduction of bacteria cells. This type of
reproduction is much simpler than mitosis and meiosis. In binary fission, the mesosome replicates and pushes the
two daughter cells apart and creates a cell wall between them.
C. Cellular metabolism
1. In a paragraph or two compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
In cellular respiration oxygen and sugar is needed to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy. In
photosynthesis, sunlight water and carbon dioxide is needed to create oxygen and sugar. This means that cellular
respiration creates two of the three elements needed for photosynthesis and photosynthesis creates the two
needed elements for cellular respiration. The sun provides the necessary energy for photosynthesis and broken
down nutrients from food provides the energy for cellular respiration. Cellular respiration involves glycolysis, the
Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain.
2. Describe the ecological relationship between photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are vital for living organisms. They also play very important roles in
each others success. The elements needed to complete one are the elements produced by the other, so they are
vital to each other because one may not be possible without the other.
3. Hypothesize about what might happen if a large number of producers were suddenly removed from the biosphere. Where
might carbon accumulate if the ratio of number of producers to consumers was markedly reduced?
If a large number of producers were eliminated, this would mean that less photosynthesis would occur. The
oxygen produced through photosynthesis is vital to human life. With producers removed, there would be more
cellular respiration and not a comparable amount of photosynthesis to balance the elements. This would mean that
living organisms may die because of the lack of elements created through photosynthesis.
Conclusions:
This lab took the knowledge gained from our first virtual lab and expanded on the basic concepts. First I
observed bacterial growth and learned that bacteria can double in about 20 minutes through the process of binary
fission. This reproduction of a prokaryotic cell is very different than the process of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic
cells also reproduce in two ways, through mitosis and meiosis. Through mitosis, a cell will reproduce to make a
sister cell in asexual reproduction whereas through meiosis will go through two cycles of sexual reproduction.
This lab also covered cellular metabolism by describing the ways that plant and animal cells create energy.
Animal cells create energy through the process of cellular respiration by taking oxygen and sugar from nutrient
ingested from food and turning these elements into carbon dioxide, water and energy (ATP). Plant cells on the
other hand use their chloroplast to complete photosynthesis which takes the carbon dioxide created by animal
cells along with water and sunlight (energy) to create oxygen and sugar. This lab exemplified the importance of
cells and their functions to our everyday life and existence and how without these cells and processes we living
organisms would cease to exist.

Virtual Lab 3: Genetics

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to work hands on in an interesting experiment in order to aid the learning of
concepts presented relating to genes and genetics.
Lab Observations:
In this lab I really enjoyed working with the interactive tools that the computer offered without actually
experimenting with real flies, Ive never been this grateful for technology. I really enjoyed the experiment, and how
the website allowed for exploration and also offered an explanation to each experiment and practice such as when
the site explained that the experimenter would use ether in order to subdue the flies so they could be viewed under
the microscope. I have had troubles with gene crossing concepts in the past, but actually found that conducting
this virtual lab added a lot of visual representation which made it a lot easier for me to understand the concepts
clearly. When I was able to breed two flies their offspring percentages were very easy for me to understand when I
saw them visually.

I then read about genetic disorders. The three types of genetic disorders are single gene disorders,
chromosomal abnormalities and multifactorial disorders. I read about each of these types and learned about
different diseases within each type.
Lab Answers:
A Phenotype and Genotype of Dragons. You do not have to be able to access the Dragon website to answer these
questions.
1. Define genotype and phenotype.
A genotype is an entire set of genes within a cell or organism. A phenotype is the expression of a particular
gene, produced through a combination of genetic make-up and environment.
2. What is an allele?
One of a pair of genes which controls a certain trait occupying the chromosome.
B. Drosophila Lab. Enter as a guest. Buy and then breed a mutant black bodied female with a wild type (i.e. standard) male.
1. Describe and explain the characteristic of the first generation (F1) of flies. Is the black bodied characteristic dominant or
recessive?
The first generation of flies bread came back with 611 male wild type flies (.5008) and 609 female wild type
flies (.4992). These results show that having a black body is a recessive gene.
2. Assume the black body females genotype to be bb and the wild type males genotype to be WW and fill in the following
Punnet square. Are your breeding results consistent with what you expect from this assumption and the logic of the Punnet
square?
W
W
b

Wb

Wb

Wb

Wb

Breeding results in the Punnet Square are consistent with the results of the cross. In order for a fly to have
a black body, they must display the wb, none of which were displayed in this cross.
3. Breed two of these F1 flies. To do this select a male and a female from the results of your first cross and put them in the
breeding jar. Describe and explain the characteristics of the second generation (F2) flies.
The second generation of flies came back with 454 (.3740) male wild-type flies, 448 (.3690) female wild-type
flies, 156 (.1285) male black-bodied flies and 156 (.1285) female black-bodied flies.
4. Use a Punnet square to predict the ratios of a cross between two Wb individuals. Is this consistent with your experimental
observations?
W
b
W

WW

Wb

Wb

bb

The findings of the second generation of flies are also consistent with the Punnet square. The bb
represents both the male and female black-bodied flies and together that represents 25% of the Punnet square
which makes this example an accurate one.
C. Genetic Disorders Library. Describe the three main classes of genetic disorders and give an example of each.
The three main classes of genetic disorders are single gene disorders, chromosomal abnormalities and
multifactorial disorders. One example of a single gene disorder is Huntington's disease, which means that any
person who has this faulty gene present will eventually have this disease. Down syndrome is chromosomal
abnormality where there is actually an extra copy of a gene present which causes abnormal protein production.

Multifactorial disorders are caused by a combination of genetics and environment, and one example is colon
cancer.
Conclusion:
This lab was very interesting, fun and educational. The online lab aided in learning and made the
experiment easy to understand and learn from. With the experiment, I was able to understand the concepts
presented a lot easier than with previous instances with the same concepts. I learned how different crosses result
with dominate and recessive traits. The crosses made a lot more sense to me because they were accurate in both
the Punnett square and the crosses resulted in the same outcomes. I also found that the genetic disorders were
very easy to understand and interesting to investigate. I did not know the cause of Down syndrome before this
experiment but have worked with many students with this condition so understanding its cause was enlightening.

Virtual Lab 4: Electrophoresis

Purpose:
The purpose of this lab was to delve into more challenging concepts in biology by using the information from previous
experiments. This lab taught about DNA and blood types and the unique characteristics that make up these complex
aspects of the human body.
Lab Observations:
In this lab I learned that electrophoresis is the way that scientists measure DNA strands. Using the gel,
electric currents pull the DNA to make the DNA visible to the naked eye. During the run a gel activity, I was
required to make the gel, set up the gel apparatus, load the DNA sample into the gel, hook up the electrical current
and run the gel and finally stain the gel and analyze the results. I estimated the results of the gel to be 6000 bp
(base pairs), 3500 bp and 1500 bp and these were correct.
It took me quite some time (and several different computers) to get the second experiment to work, so
maybe a more accessible program would be more beneficial. I began this experience by adding the plasmid
pBR322 to the simulator and selecting the restriction enzymes EcoR I, Ple I, Hinc II, and Bgl I for the corresponding
lanes. I found this lab to be the most difficult of the virtual labs because it was not very easy to use in general. I
think it is important to note that even though you may select the restrictive enzymes, you must hit the buttons
individually, and you must also turn on the UV light, which is not noted in the instructions otherwise all bands
appear to be travelling at the same rate which is not the case. I then watched the gels move and recorded their
movement and frequencies below.
In section C, I completed the blood type game. The most difficult part of this game (and in real life as I have
experienced) was putting the syringe in the patients arm. This was a helpful and fun to learn about different blood
types and the elements that make them up. I recorded my results from this experiment in the chart below.
Lab Answers:
A.
1. On what basis is electrophoresis able to separate molecules?
It separates the strands based on size, smaller strands move at faster rates.
2. What are the lengths of the three DNA bands that you produce in this lab?
I estimated the results of the gel to be 6000 bp (base pairs), 3500 bp and 1500 bp and these were correct.
B. Electrophoresis. Select the pBR322 plasmid (a circular piece of DNA used as a cloning vector) to analyze (menu in
upper left hand corner of the simulator). You will then see a diagram of the circular plasmid DNA along with the points along
the length of the plasmid where the various restriction enzymes (EcoR I, Ple I, Hinc II, and Bgl I) will cut the DNA. For
instance notice that the enzyme EcoR 1 only cuts the plasmid at one location at the top of the diagram, whereas the other
enzymes cut the plasmid at other places. To analyzes the DNA we cut it up with different enzymes and slowly piece together
an understanding of the entire sequence.
Load each lane as follows: lane 1 with Bgl 1; lane 2 with EcoR 1; lane 3 with Hinc II; lane 4 with Ple I; lane 5 with

predetermined molecular weight markers.

Run the gel and describe and explain the number of bands in lanes 2 and 4.
Lane two appears to be travelling at the slowest rate and has only one line present. Lane one appears to
have three strands where one is move fairly fast paced with two fairly far behind. Lane four has three strands with
two moving face and one large strand further behind, Lane three only hold two strands and they seem to be
intermediate speed. Lane two is by far the slowest of all.
C. Human Blood Types and Immune System
Complete the following Table
Blood Type

Genotype

Antibodies present

O+

OO

O-

OO

A+

AA, AO

A-

AA, AO

B+

BB, BO

B-

BB, BO

AB +

AB

AB -

AB

Antibody anti-A,
Antibody Anti-B
Antibody anti-A,
Antibody Anti-B
Antigen A, Antibody
Anti-B
Antigen A, Antibody
Anti-B
Antigen B, Antibody
anti-A
Antigen B, Antibody
anti-A
Antigen A, Antigen
B,
Antigen A, Antigen
B,

Can receive blood

from type(s)
O +, OOO+, A+, O-, AO- , AO+, B+, O-, BO-, BO+, A+, AB+, B+, A-,
B-, ABO-, A-, AB-

Conclusions:
This lab demonstrated much more complex concepts than the previous labs, but it did so gradually and
was easy to understand. I first learned the process of electrophoresis which is used to measure DNA strands. This
is a very complicated process but the step by step tutorial and interactions made the experiment challenging but
easy to understand with instructions. I really appreciated the way that part A was designed as it really was an
accurate simulation of the process (because I have done it in real life before) and that aided learning as well as
saved time and money on experiment costs. I think that this type of virtual experiment will become very useful you
schools (especially with budget cuts) and will also be a positive and informing learning experience for students.
Part B of the lab I found rather difficult to conduct. The website was not as organized as other labs and had
very difficult technical requirements which required a lot of time and effort prior to even beginning the experiment.
I was able to see the run of the gels clearly and watch them under the UV light, but this application was not very
easy to use and made observations difficult as it required refreshing and restarting the experiment many times. I
did still enjoy learning about this concept and I found it very interesting that the restriction enzymes moved at
different speeds across the gel.
The third part of the experiment was by far my favorite. I would recommend to other students to make sure
you have a detached mouse (rather than a finger-pad laptop mouse) because this will make the experiment a lot
easier to operate. This experiment was not only fun, but it made learning the concepts very easy. I really liked
making my own chart to compare the various blood-types and their inner components as this made them a lot
easier to distinguish from each other. I also enjoyed this because it can be applied to life as well. For example. I am
a type A+ and did not understand exactly what this meant, but now I know that it means that my parents

contributed AA or AO, I have Antigen A and Antibody Anti-B present in my blood and I can receive blood in case of
emergency from anyone who has the blood-types of : O+, A+, O-, or A-.

Virtual Lab 5: Ecosystem Simulator

Purpose:
The purpose of this experiment was to learn how fragile an ecosystem can be. When there are changes in
the presence of other species within an ecosystem it has a large impact on all species.
Lab Observations
In this lab I first had to familiarize myself with the simulator so I played around with it a little before creating
the instructed environments. Once I familiarized myself, I introduced plant A and B to the ecosystem to see what
impact they may have on each other. I found that when these plants were alone together that A increased to the
max population and plant B decreased to zero. I spent a great deal of time trying to create an ecosystem where all
plant types were present at one point. I was able to do this, see below for the exact ecosystem created. I then
diligently worked at creating an ecosystem where all species were present and I found this near impossible to
create after many experimental attempts.
Lab Answers
Read the Overview and launch this ecolosystem simulator. Familiarize yourself with the simulator interface. Notice
that you can control which species are present in your environment initially and what the diets of each species are. The
types of species possible in the program are Plants (A,B,C), Herbivores (A,B,C), Omnivores (A,B) and one top Predator.
You can control the diet of each by indicating what they feed on. By setting up different starting configurations you can
investigate the evolution of this simulated ecological system.
A. In a couple of sentences describe what happens when you start with only two (A&B) and then all three plant
species present.
When A and B are present, the population of A increases and the population of B decreases to zero. When
all three types are present, A and B remain the same as when they were alone together but C is not present
as it is only a producer. When the three types are present, A spikes and B plummets to meet at 200 (in time)
and 5000 (in population).
B. Describe how many herbivores and omnivores you added (and what they eat) in order to create an ecosystem in
which all three plant species can coexist. (if you cannot accomplish the survival of Plant C describe your best
configuration. Describe your ecologies by identifying the species present and their diet, for instance: Omnivore A
eats Herbivore A, Herbivore A eats plant A and plant B, Herbivore B eats plant A, All plants present.
The way in which I created an ecosystem for all plants to exist was pretty difficult and it took me a while to
get. In my ecosystem: omnivore A eats herbivore B, omnivore B eats omnivore A, herbivore A and
herbivore B, herbivore A eats plant B, herbivore B eats plants A, B and C, herbivore C eats plant A and B, all
plants are present.
C. If you can accomplish part B, see if you can get all of the species to coexist. (limit your time on this entire
experiment to 90 minutes
Unfortunately I was unable to create an ecosystem where all species coexist; I tried for about 30 minutes
and was still unable to create the proper combination.
D. If we assume that this simulation is a reasonable oversimplification of a typical ecosystems food web what does it
tell us about biodiversity and ecology- are they robust or fragile? In general is an ecosystems biodiversity
preserved as it responds to change?

This experiment shows that biodiversity and ecology are very fragile. This is shown in how difficult it was
to create an ecosystem where all species were present. Biodiversity is not very well preserved when it
comes to change as the simulator showed how small changes can have a very large impact on an
ecosystem.
Conclusions
In this experiment I was able to create my own ecosystem consisting of top predators, omnivores,
herbivores and plants. It was very difficult to create an ecosystem that properly met the demands of each species
to live. I was able to create an ecosystem where I was able to have each plant (A, B and C) to exist, but not every
species. I think that the difficulty of creating a diverse and flourishing ecosystem was not meant to be an
impossible challenge, but more of a representation of how difficult it really is to create a successful ecosystem in
real life. For example, many ecosystems are negatively affected when outside species are presented (which is why
there are check points at airports and on highways checking for plants or fruits brought from other places). One
small change could have a rather large negative impact on the survival against many species within an ecosystem
which is why it is important that we learn about how much little changes can impact the big picture within
ecosystems.

Virtual Lab 6: Evolution

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment was to identify which features can influence natural selection and what
impact these features can have on a population.
Lab Observations
During the first simulation, I started the experiment with an even mix of guppies and still found that later
in the experiment I ended up creating successive generations that were much more colorful. Since being a colorful
guppy is more of a desirable trait, females preferred to mate with colorful guppies. Over the course of generations,
more percentages of guppies were colorful due to natural selection.
During the second simulation, it appeared that a majority of the desirability of traits in guppies with these
predators lied with the bright and drab guppies compared to the undesirable brightest and drabbest guppies. I
think that since a new predator was introduced, the population lost more guppies and the brightest guppies were
no longer desirable because they were more likely to be eaten by the new predator.
During the third simulation I found that the guppies found the drabbest appearance to be more desirable
when a third predator is introduced. Previously, with fewer predators, the guppies desired to be bright and the
brightest, but due to more predators being present in this simulation, the guppies who were the drabbest were
desirable because they were less likely to be eaten with many predators.
Sex and the Single Guppy
This simulation follows a set of real life experiments in evolution and natural selection. Familiarize yourself with the
interface, guppies, guppy predators, and the experiment. Use an "even mix" of the different guppy color types to start. Run
three experiments one with each of the combination of predators. Each experiment should run for five or more generations.
State the percentage that each color type makes up in your guppy population both before and after you have let five
generations pass. With each experiment state a conclusion that is consistent with your observation.
1. Rivulus only
Number of Guppies: 234
Number of Generations: 5
Number of Weeks: 75

Male Color
Brightest: 32%
Bright: 24%
Drab: 27%
Drabbest: 17%
(Percentages may be slightly off due to the constant changing state in the simulation)
2. Rivulus and Acara
Number of Guppies: 165
Number of Generations: 5
Number of Weeks: 81
Male Color
Brightest: 8%
Bright: 48%
Drab: 44%
Drabbest: 0%
(Percentages may be slightly off due to the constant changing state in the simulation)
3. Rivulus, Acara and Cichlids.
Number of Guppies: 213
Number of Generations: 5
Number of Weeks: 61
Male Color
Brightest: 9%
Bright: 13%
Drab: 35%
Drabbest: 43%
(Percentages may be slightly off due to the constant changing state in the simulation)
What two selection pressures are operative?
The two selection pressures are predators and bright colors. Usually guppies are pressured by the
desirability of having a colorfully bright mate, but they are also pressured by predators as being bright can make
predators notice a guppy because of its colors and eat it.
Conclusion
I found this lab to be very interesting. Of course I have never been able to study guppies on my own (not
would I really want to touch them to do so), so the simulation offered a rare opportunity. I noticed in the first
experiment when the guppies had only one predator, they preferred the brightest colors, but as the amount of
predators increased, the desirability of brightness decreased. When the guppies who were bright dealt with more
predators, they were more likely to stand out and therefore be eaten by predators. I think that these selection
pressures were exemplified in the guppy experiment but can also be applied to other species as well. For example
most Western societies pressure thinness as a desirable trait, but if food were scarce then maybe that would
pressure people to not find thinness as desirable.

Virtual Lab 7: Anatomy and Dissections

I actually dissected fetal pigs my senior year of high school in my advanced biomedical science class and these
are some pictures I collected for my lab report after the dissection.
Purpose
The purpose of this lab was to comparatively view various animals and humans in a dissection in order to
understand the similarities and differences between the various subjects.
Lab Observations
During the first portion of this lab, we were given the opportunity to virtually dissect worms and become
more familiar with the terms of anatomy in regards to the body locations and positions. The worm dissection
focused mostly on the sexual reproduction aspect of worms, probably because it is not very similar to human
reproduction. I learned in this lab that worms are not categorized as male or female because some worms are
considered hermaphrodites and have sexual reproduction organs of both sexes. During this lab I identified
different structures of the worm and their physiological functions(below).
In the second part of the experiment, I got to virtually dissect a fetal pig. Using the pig as a reference, I was
able to learn the differences between the pig and humans in anatomical terms and also view some similarities that
we share (such as the lobes of the brain). Dissecting a fetal pig can be useful to understanding human anatomy
and especially the brain since pigs have similar structures but they are just smaller than in humans.
The third part of this experiment focused on human skulls and almost worked similarly as the teachings of
dissections. I took all of the pictures (in lateral view) and print screened them into paint and cropped them so that I
could view all of the skulls next to each other, as I found the comparisons to be difficult when not viewing them
next to each other. I found several patterns of similarities, differences and evolutional changes that have occurred
over the course of time in regards to these skulls. I also was able to create a timeline which aided my
understanding in the time it takes for these evolutional changes to take place.

Lab Answers
A. Dissections
1. Earthworm
a) Identify items 1 & 2 on the external dorsal (back side) surface of the worm.
Item one is the worm's clitellum which aids in mucus production during reproduction. Item two is the
dorsal blood vessel of the worm.
b) Identify items 3, 4, & 5 on the external ventral (belly side) of surface of the worm.
Item 3 is one of a pair of sperm grooves, I found this very interesting because in the description it stated
that two worms exchange sperm in this manner meaning that if worms are exchanging sperm, they are
males or hermaphrodites. Item four refers to the openings of the sperm ducts. Item five is the female
genital pores, making this worm a hermaphrodite by having both male and female reproductive organs.
c) Identify item 2 in the image of the worms internal morphology w/o the digestive tract.
Item two refers to the worms ventral nerve cord which extends the length of its body.
d) Describe sexual reproduction in worms.
Sexual reproduction of a worm is much different than in humans. Some worms are hermaphrodites
meaning they have both male and female reproductive organs. In worms, the sperm exchanged and
stored in sacs then a cocoon is formed and the egg and sperm develop within it.
2. Fetal Pig
a) Use the Anatomical References guide. To what region of the body does dorsal, ventral, anterior, and posterior
refer to?
In regards to the pig, posterior is used to mean towards the feet and anterior refers to the area towards
the head. In the pigs anatomy, dorsal refers to toward the back whereas ventral refers to toward the
front or belly of the pig.
b) Investigate the Nervous system. The pig is similar to the human in many ways.
a. Name four large regions (lobes) of the brain and indicate where they are located and what functions
they have in humans.
The four lobes of the brain are frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital. The frontal lobe (located anteriorly
and superiorly on humans) is responsible for motor skills, reasoning, language and higher level cognition.
The parietal lobe (located behind the frontal lobe, over the temporal lobe and in front of the occipital) is in
charge of sensory skills which include pressure, touch and pain. The temporal lobe (located beneath the
parietal lobe) is responsible for memory, speech perception, and language skills. The occipital lobe (located
posterior to the parietal lobe) is used to receive and interpret visual stimuli.
B. Comparative Hominid Anatomy
a) Compare the the skull casts of a chimp, Australopithicus, Homo erectus, neanderthal, and modern Homo sapiens.
Be sure to use the lateral view.

By comparing these different views next to each other it is much easier to spot the evolutional changes of the
human skull, such as the growing area of room for the brain and the decrease in jaw size over time.
b) Describe features that are common and different between the cranial structure of these creatures. What patterns do
you see?
In these images, it is seen that the jaw of humans has decreased in size, and the skull size surrounding the
brain has increased. It can also be noted that the alignment of the face used to be more slanted or angular than
it is in the modern human skull.
c) Describe the basic timeline and sequence of evolution for the creatures listed above.
The first skull of the spider monkey was common 38-23 million years ago. The first known human skull
described as the A. afarensis was from 5.2-3.4 million years ago. The homo erectus scull was prevalent about
1.8 million years ago. The Neanderthal skull was said to be from about 125,000-30,000 years ago. The final skull
of the modern homo sapien is said to have developed about 400,000 years ago.
Conclusion
This lab was very interesting as it involved three small experiments that could all be related to each other in
the bigger picture. The dissection of the worm proved that worms are hermaphrodites and therefore reproduce
differently than humans, but they still have similar reproductive organs to humans so by examining the
dissected worm I was able to get a better idea of what human reproductive organs look like. In part B of the
experiment I virtually dissected a fetal pig (which I have also done in real life), and this enabled me to see the
structures of the human brain but in the pig as they are very similar. I liked not having to dissect anymore real
pig babies, because they smelled of formaldehyde and they were messy and the whole thing was a little
nauseating especially since we had to get through a pig uterus to find them in my other class. I think that the
practice of virtual labs with any experiment involving animals is a better idea. In the third part of the lab, I
examined different evolutional landmarks regarding the structure of the human skull. I thought that putting all
the pictures next to each other helped a lot in comparing them and being able to find differences and
similarities. I also enjoyed making the timeline as it aided in the understanding of how long evolution really
takes.

Virtual Lab 8: Human Impact

Purpose
The purpose of this experiment was to learn about the worlds impact on natural resources as well as our
personal impact and contribution to the depletion of resources. We also learned many steps that can be taken to
conserve resources for the benefit of all.
Lab Observations
This lab did not require a lot of observations but more interaction and personal information to make
personal estimations. First I learned about water foot prints and about the supply of water in the world. I was very
disappointed to learn that nearly 17% of people on earth do not have access to clean water, so those of us who do
have access could be doing more to conserve. I used both calculators to measure my water footprint and found
that both calculators were about the same. I liked being able to see my own footprint and found that there were
many areas that I could improve in in order to reduce my footprint. In the second part of the lab, I learned about
carbon and global warming. Global warming is a very serious issue and without improvement of our carbon
footprints, it could be detrimental to our environment. I used the calculator as instructed, and at first though you
could select next instead of save and add so I had to redo the calculator again and then came to notice that my
carbon footprint is rather large, even compared to the US. I know that most of the carbon emissions I am
responsible for come from my rather old car. If I had the opportunity/money to get a vehicle with less emissions I
would love to, but with the prices of electric and hybrid car currently, myself and many others Im sure do not have
the money to purchase such cars. I also learned that there are many things that I can do to reduce my carbon
footprint and hope to make some positive improvements.
Lab Answers
A. Water footprints
Describe the water crisis. What's its impact on women and children? What is happening with the Ogalala?
The water crisis is the lack of clean drinking water all over the world. According to the website 17% of
the global population (1.1 billion people) lack access to safe water sources. That is a very large amount of
people who are lacking a basic life necessity and people are dying because of it. Based on the estimations,
water availability is not getting any better and there may even be wars over water resources in the future.
Ogalala is the source of 1/3 of our countrys water supply so it is very important and the government
measures water levels every two years. This water source is beginning to dwindle so this may be a large
issue in the near future.
Describe what the water footprint is and how it is estimated.
A water foot print is how much water an individual uses in cubic meter per year. It is roughly estimated
by country, sex, income and the dietary patterns an individual diet.
Report the two estimate of your water footprint (and the calculator(s) that you used).
Using the quick calculator my water footprint was 1806. In the extended calculator, my water
footprint was 1890 which is fairly close to the simple calculator.
Describe three ways that you (or your society) could reduce your water footprint.
I know that a major way I could reduce my water footprint would be through taking shorter showers. I
could also turn off the water when brushing my teeth. I think that the best way to reduce my water foot
print and the countrys as well would be to ingest less meat, as this requires a large amount of water, it
represented 692 out of my 1890 which accounts for almost half of all water consumption.
B. Carbon footprints
Describe what has happened to atmospheric CO2 over the last 100,000 years and how this is thought to be
impacting the climate.
According to the website, before the 1700s climate changes were all natural but now the human race is
having a large negative impact on global warming.
Describe what the carbon footprint is and how it is estimated.

A carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon released through primary or secondary activities which
lead to carbon emission. A carbon footprint is estimated by measuring carbon emission of cars, travel and
everyday activities.
Report the estimate of your carbon footprint (and the calculator(s) that you used).
I used the calculator instructed and my carbon footprint was estimated to be 73.92 metric tons per year
which is rather large.
Describe two ways that you (or your society) could reduce your carbon footprint.
One way that I could reduce my footprint would be to get a better car, as this was 90% of my emission. I
currently drive a 1997 Toyota Camry and this was too old to even be listed, so I hope to get a car in the
future that emits less carbon. Another way I could improve my carbon footprint would be to buy local
products and support the local market rather than supporting overseas shipping which emits a lot of
carbon.
C. Describe two approaches to lowering our carbon footprint as a nation that you would advocate we adapt society
wide.
One of my approaches would be to first offer low cost electric or hybrid vehicles and give more incentives
to car buyers. Personally I would love to lower my carbon footprint, but low carbon emission vehicles are not
affordable so I would like to make these low emission vehicles available to all. A second approach would be to
encourage individuals to shop locally by offering education and incentives. Some people may not even be
aware of carbon emissions through trade, so I think that funding educational programs and incentives like
offering subsidies to local area farmers would be beneficial in reducing the amount of carbon emissions.
Conclusion
In this experiment I learned many things about myself, the environment and how the two interact. Telling
someone the US has a large amount of carbon emissions does not have the same effect as using these
calculators to find your personal contributions. I would have thought that my water use would be above average,
and my carbon emissions would be below average. Surprisingly my water use seemed average but there are many
ways I could still improve such as taking a shorter shower. In regards to carbon emission, I usually try to not
contribute to global warming but my car seems to be high in carbon emissions. Im sure that there are many people
who are like me and would like to have low emission cars, but currently they are not very affordable so that limits
their availability. I learned many ways to lower my own contributions to the depletion of natural resources, so
hopefully this is a step in the right direction and others will hopefully do the same to limit their contributions as
well.