Psyc 469

Assignment 2: Case Study Project

Case Summary 1: Betty M

Referral Questions
Concerns for Betty have originated from both her teacher and parents. They
have watched an eager, enthusiastic student grow increasingly frustrated
and apathetic about school. Though Betty excels in mathematics, she
continues to struggle in language arts. Specifically, reading, spelling and
writing. Though she has always experienced difficulty with reading,
particularly phonics, she has managed to move along with her peers each
year. It is likely that as the challenges of the curriculum increase, Bettys
struggles will also increase. As reading pervades all areas of the curriculum
her inability to acquire written information will have an increasingly
devastating impact, both academically and emotionally. Similarly, the ability
to write is a skill that is fundamental to success, not only in school but in life.
Though Betty has great ideas, her difficulty in transferring them to paper will
only add to her frustration if adequate supports are not provided.
Relevant questions are as follows:

Is this the first time a teacher has noted Bettys struggles?

What can explain Bettys struggle acquiring reading skills?
What can explain Bettys poor spelling?
What can explain Bettys difficulty with writing?
Why has homework become difficult?
Why has Bettys attitude toward school changed and how can it
be restored?
The discrepancy of 35 points between the cognitive, non-verbal
score and the word reading subtest of the achievement test
raises significant questions. How can this discrepancy be
explained?
What explains the discrepancy between Bettys achievement in
math and her deficit in language arts?
What can be done to help Betty become more successful and
reach her full potential?

Further Information
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Before work begins on Bettys case, further information is required to provide

a comprehensive picture of her learning profile. Information regarding Bettys
personal and academic history would be helpful to determine the necessary
next steps. Personal information concerning Bettys background and
development such as prenatal history, birth conditions, age when
developmental milestones were reached, family history of learning problems,
and past and present health concerns could add critical information to the
case. This information can be obtained in cooperation with Bettys parents
through an interview format.
At this point, it is unknown whether Betty had been previously identified as
having significant learning issues in the area of language. Though it is known
that she always struggled acquiring reading skills, it is not stated whether
previous teachers presented serious concerns or if Betty was simply noted to
have weaknesses in that particular academic area. It is noted that phonics
was impossible for her. However, it would be beneficial to know if Betty was
taught explicit phonics in her initial years of school or if a whole language
approach was taken? Did Betty receive any individual help in the past, either
in the regular classroom or tutoring outside school? If so, what specific areas
were targeted? What strategies were used? Were they effective? In addition,
it would be helpful to know whether this is the first time that Betty has been
anxious about school and homework. Or, is there a pattern of behaviour
during each school year that could be described as typical for Betty?
While group cognitive and group achievement tests for the purposes of
screening identified Betty as experiencing difficulty, additional information
regarding Bettys performance on curriculum-based assessments would also
provide some insight into Betty as a learner. Though learning disabilities are
identified by a discrepancy between intellectual capacity and level of
academic performance, performance in the classroom must be considered in
combination with achievement test results. For example: What are the
specific areas of the curriculum (learning outcomes) that Betty has most
difficulty with? What are Bettys strengths when it comes to the curriculum?
How far behind is Betty compared to classmates? Also, teacher observations,
while subjective, do provide insight into a students learning profile. Teachers
have the perspective of working with and observing a student over a span of
time and can provide input such as strengths, weaknesses, effort, areas of
improvement, areas of increasing struggle, attitude, and social skills.
In addition to the group cognitive and achievement test scores, curriculum
based assessments and teacher observations, individual cognitive and
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achievement tests are needed. Individual diagnostic tests will provide more
useful information than group tests alone (Thorndike, 2005).
Lastly, it would be helpful to know which group standardized cognitive and
achievement tests were used. Information regarding the specific test, such
as the standard error of measurement, would allow for accurate
interpretation of Bettys results. Specifically, if Bettys results are three times
as large (or more) as the standard error of measurement, then there is
reason to suspect a learning disability which in turn will affect how to
proceed with Bettys case. Without this information, one can only assume
that the discrepancies in the reported group scores are significant.
Assessment Tools
In order to proceed with Bettys case, further assessment is necessary to
identify her strengths and weaknesses. It is imperative that multiple sources
of data are collected and considered in Bettys evaluation. The tools used
should support future decision-making regarding Bettys educational
program.
Further assessment will include:

Observation
Interviews (Teacher, Parents, & Betty)
Behaviour Rating Scale
Informal measures (informal reading and spelling inventories,
curriculum-based assessments for writing)
Individual cognitive test
Individual achievement test.

Observation is a necessary component of assessment and provides valuable

information to support the findings of other measurement. Though
observations can be subjective and students may attempt to modify their
behaviour in the presence of an observer, the skilled observer is able to
gather data that is both valid and reliable. An observer can capture authentic
data about a student in the classroom environment such as engagement
rate, general habits, coping strategies, social skills, and communication skills
(Hallahan, 2005). In Bettys case, observations might initially focus on habits,
attitude and engagement. For example: Is Betty focused during instruction?
Does she contribute to classroom discussions? Is she engaged in new
learning? Does Betty present a positive attitude toward learning? Is she an
independent learner? Further observations of Betty during reading, writing
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and spelling activities would provide data such as her ability to cope when
faced with difficult tasks, her approach to such tasks and the level of support
that she currently requires in the completion of assigned tasks. It might also
be interesting to compare Bettys presentation in language arts with her
presentation in mathematics. Considering that Betty excels in the area of
mathematics, does she display more confidence in this class? Does she
contribute more often? This data will supplement the formal and informal
measures to help arrive at a comprehensive picture of Betty as a learner.
An interview with Bettys parents will provide the background information
that was discussed in the previous section. While the parents can supply
information regarding Bettys past medical and family history and their
current experiences and observations of Betty related to learning, Bettys
teacher can provide different, but equally valuable information. Bettys
teacher has already expressed concern for the frustration that she can see
developing in Betty. However, there is a wealth of information that is yet to
be shared regarding daily observations of Betty during the course of the
school year. Specifically, the classroom teacher is able to comment on Betty
in comparison to other students, changes that may have occurred in Betty
throughout the year, Bettys typical disposition and approach to learning,
and Bettys progress and successes. In addition to her parents and teacher,
data could be gathered by interviewing Betty herself. She is ten years old
and would likely be able to articulate her strengths and weaknesses and
share her feelings regarding her struggles. In particular, Bettys interview
may give insight into her emotions, frustrations, and needs.
As part of the information collected from Bettys parents and teacher, a
behaviour rating scale will be completed. Though these scales are often used
in the diagnosis of behaviour problems, specifically ADHD, completion of the
scale would offer additional data regarding parent and teacher observations
and impressions in a measurable form (Lerner, 2000).
Informal measures will also be used as an assessment tool in Bettys case.
Informal measures are practical and assess students on items that are
relevant to the curriculum they are studying. For Betty, an informal reading
inventory will be used. An informal reading inventory is easily administered
by the teacher and can supply a wealth of information related to reading
skills, reading level, types of errors that Betty typically makes when reading,
her techniques for attacking words and her comprehension. It is also helpful
in determining an appropriate instructional reading level for Betty. An
informal spelling inventory will also be used to determine Bettys
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instructional spelling level. Betty will be asked to spell a list of words chosen
by the teacher, which corresponds to the curriculum. The number of
mistakes will determine Bettys instructional level for spelling. More
importantly, analysis of the errors Betty makes with spelling may reveal a
pattern that can be corrected with specific intervention and focused
instruction. For writing, curriculum-based assessments will be the informal
measure. Bettys teacher can administer these assessments in class by
assigning written compositions and examining them against grade level
required criteria (Thorndike, 2005; Hallahan, 2005).
To determine the individual cognitive and achievement test most appropriate
for Betty, examining the research is important. The test chosen must have
data to demonstrate that it has a high level of validity and reliability as well
as quality normative data. In addition, the tests must be easy to administer
and score and it must suit the purpose for which it was intended. For Betty,
there are concerns in the area of language arts. Therefore, the test chosen
must be comprehensive in this area. The Woodcock-Johnson PsychoEducational Battery Third Edition was chosen as most suitable considering
Bettys case. This test includes both an individual achievement test (WJ-III
Achievement Battery) and an individual cognitive ability test (WJ-III Cognitive
Battery). This battery was chosen for a variety of reasons:

WJ-III is a comprehensive and flexible test, using a single instrument for

all ages.
Both the WJ-III cognitive and achievement batteries were normed using
a single sample which facilitates the comparison between ability and
achievement.
WJ-III has proven to be a reliable test. For individual subtests, internal
consistency reliabilities range from .76-.97.
Betty is within the age of the norm sample, 2-90.
WJ-III is comprehensive in the area of language. Subtests of the
achievement battery include story recall, picture vocabulary, oral
comprehension, spelling of sounds, sound awareness, basic reading
skills, letter-word identification, word attack, reading fluency, reading
comprehension, reading vocabulary, basic writing skills, spelling,
editing, punctuation and capitalization, writing fluency, written
expression and a writing sample. All these areas will provide further
insight into Bettys identified areas of need (Thorndike, 2005).

While other tests may serve a purpose and elicit some data regarding Betty
as a learner, the WJ-III provides the most in-depth testing in the area of
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language. For example, the Peabody Individual Achievement Test though

reputable, examines only reading recognition, reading comprehension and
total reading. Likewise, the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement
includes subtests in decoding, comprehension and composite. With the goal
of collecting as much data as possible to guide future decision-making, the
most applicable test will include an in-depth and comprehensive assessment
in the areas of concern (Thorndike, 2005)

Issues
Planning for Bettys assessments involves consideration of issues that may
be relevant to her specific situation.
When considering the individually administered cognitive and achievement
tests, results need to be both reliable and valid. If the goal is a valid
assessment of Bettys ability and achievement, then certain
accommodations may need to be made. For example, if Bettys difficulty with
reading is taken into account, then there may be portions of the test where
the administrator should read the instructions rather than have Betty
attempt to read them herself. This would ensure that Bettys test results
accurately reflect her ability/achievement and not her possible disability.
However, care must also be taken to avoid making accommodations where
they could impact the validity of the score. For example, there may be
portions of the test where it would be inappropriate to assist with reading,
specifically, the portion where reading is the construct being tested
(Professional Uses of Testing).
Another issue related to the individual cognitive and achievement testing is
the limitations involved in their use. Though formal diagnostic data is
fundamental to the assessment process, it is only a partial indicator of who
Betty is as a learner. It provides only one type of information and must be
considered along with other sources of corresponding data. Therefore, results
should be used with caution and premature decisions based on test scores
alone should be avoided (Thorndike, 2005).
It is also worth considering the affect that Bettys anxiety will have on the
assessment process. While anxiety was not specifically stated in Bettys
initial case summary, her reported increasing frustration, difficulty with
homework and unhappiness with going to school might indicate a developing
anxiety around her learning struggles. Though the influence of anxiety on
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testing is somewhat unknown, it is a factor of concern. It would be

advantageous to reflect on ways to minimize Bettys anxiousness during the
assessment process to ensure results that are reflective of Betty as a learner
(Thorndike, 2005).
Ethical issues related to testing must also be considered. Throughout the
assessment process, Bettys parents will be sharing information and
answering questions that could be considered highly personal. Privacy and
confidentiality is critical in these circumstances. It is also important to ensure
that the tests chosen to use with Betty will gather applicable information that
will contribute significant data to the decision making process. It would be a
waste of time and resources and a breach of ethics to administer measures
that might not result in information that is pertinent to this specific case. In
addition, it is essential to obtain informed consent from Bettys parents
indicating that they are aware of what information will be gathered, why it
will be gathered, the purposes for which it will be used and the possible cost
that may be associated with testing. Lastly, it is expected that Bettys
parents will be debriefed following testing to inform them of the results. Not
only is this an ethical practice, but indicates recognition of the vital role of
the parents as partners in Bettys education
(Thorndike, 2005).
Assessment Results
In considering Bettys case, all data gathered through the assessment
process will provide a piece of the puzzle that is her individual learning
profile. What follows is a summary of what the assessment results might look
like.
Data collected from multiple classroom observations reveals the following:

She comes to class organized with all appropriate supplies.

Betty is hesitant to contribute during lessons but will respond quietly
when called upon. Lack of self-confidence is obvious.
Betty is visibly restless, looking around, moving in her seat during oral
reading activities. She frequently asks to use the washroom.
Betty is hesitant to begin independent written work. She sharpens her
pencil often and plays with items in her desk. She waits for one on one
teacher guidance and encouragement to get started with assignments.
Betty rarely completes written assignments during the time given.
What isnt finished is assigned for homework.

Bettys teacher sometimes has students work cooperatively in groups

or with partners. While Betty seemingly maintains pace with the group,
she does not offer ideas or contribute to discussions.
During spelling tests, Betty struggles to keep up with the pace at which
words are called. She erases often and in her struggle to spell one
word, misses the next. She is visibly frustrated, she pulls at her hair
and erases frantically. At times, she will look at a classmates paper.
Bettys overall demeanour is different in math class. She raises her
hand to contribute and she demonstrates a confidence that was not
observed in other classes. She willingly assists others who are
experiencing difficulty.

Interviews with Bettys parents, teacher and Betty herself reveal the
following:
Parent Interview

Prenatal history and birth circumstances were normal with no apparent

cause for concern.
Betty reached developmental milestones at the typical ages but her
mom recalls her having difficulty learning and remembering the
alphabet as a preschool age child.
Betty does not have any past or current health issues.
There is family history of learning disabilities. Bettys mother did
experience reading difficulty as a student.

Teacher Interview

Bettys teacher has many positive things to say about her. She is a
pleasant, kind and cooperative student who wants to succeed. She was
quick to adjust to the grade four routines in the Fall and she made
friends quickly within the class.
Betty seemed to be aware of her struggles from the beginning but
was very smart about working around them. For example, Betty would
work on assignments as much as she could in class and would always
take it home to finish with her parents help. Bettys comprehension is
good when others read, so often Betty would convince a group
member to read the assigned passage. This way she could contribute
to the discussion of the passage and responding to questions. This

occurs less often now though. Rather than working with her strengths
and focusing on success, Betty seems to have given up.
Bettys teacher is becoming increasingly concerned about her ability to
meet the grade four requirements in the area of language arts.
Though Betty was not strong in these areas at the beginning of the
year, her teacher was hopeful that she would improve under her
instruction and eventually catch up. However, the opposite seems to
have happened. As novels have been introduced in the language arts
curriculum, Bettys grades have dropped even lower and so too has her
eagerness to succeed.
Betty is weak in comparison to her classmates in spelling mastery,
descriptive writing, reading fluency and reading comprehension. As
writing becomes an increasingly important focus in the curriculum and
a part of other subjects, such as science and social studies, Bettys
teacher worries that she will experience similar struggles in those
areas.

Bettys Interview

Betty is aware of her struggles with reading and writing.

She states that these subjects were always hard for her but now it
seems as though she is struggling more than ever.
Betty feels as though her classmates know that she is not good at
reading and writing. She thinks classmates talk about her behind her
back and she thinks no one wants her in their group.
She feels embarrassed and not as good as they are.
Betty wishes that work not completed at school wouldnt be assigned
for homework. If I cant do it at school, then I cant do it at home. I
used to want to take it home but it is just too hard now.
I dont want to struggle anymore with reading and writing. Math
comes easy to me and I want school to always feel like that.
She worries that she will be held back in her current grade and will not
move on with her friends.

Behaviour Rating Scale Results

Both the scale completed by Bettys parents and her teacher reveal
behaviour that is associated with high anxiety.
Neither scale reveals additional areas of significant concern.

Results from Informal Measures

Results from the informal reading inventory show that Betty is reading
at a grade one level, three grade levels behind her own.
Betty is able to recognize basic sight words but lacks the decoding
skills necessary to attack unfamiliar words.
Difficulty with decoding results in poor fluency, which can be attributed
to her poor comprehension when she is required to read.
Betty relies on pictures to fill in the blanks. When reading, she will
substitute words that make sense or correspond with the pictures but
do not correspond with the letters/sounds of the words. She will also
omit words that are difficult for her. For example: The text might read
The students are studying for the science test and Betty might read
The kids are reading their books. Betty is a bright girl and she uses
all strategies available to her at this time, particularly pictures in
combination with the words she is able to read, and she does manage
to extract some meaning from the text. However, as the text becomes
more complicated and less pictures are used, the more she struggles.
This might be a reason why Betty has managed to get by in the
previous grade but now seems to have reached an impasse.
The informal spelling inventory reveals that Betty does, on average,
spell fewer words correctly than her classmates.
Overall, the spelling inventory shows that Betty phonological
knowledge is limited.
She has particular difficulty with words containing consonant clusters.
Her spelling does have some phonological basis but it does resemble
that of a much younger student. For example, the word enter was
spelled as intr.
Bettys poor spelling skills impact her ability to write, as demonstrated
by the curriculum-base writing samples.
Bettys writing has many spelling, capitalization and punctuation
errors.
The vocabulary and sentence structure used in her writing is simplistic
for her age/grade level.
Bettys writing shows a lack of editing and revising skills.
Bettys writing shows poor planning and organization.

Individual Cognitive and Achievement Test Results

Results from both the individual cognitive and individual achievement

tests are similar to the results of the previous group-administered
tests. Cognitive scores reveal that Betty is of average intelligence.
There is a twenty eight point discrepancy between her individual
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cognitive and individual achievement scores. Achievement scores in

mathematics are high while all scores in the areas of reading, writing
and spelling show a deficit. Bettys lowest scores are on the following
subtests: written expression, writing fluency, basic writing skills,
spelling, reading vocabulary, fluency, word attack, letter-word
identification and basic reading skills.
The discrepancy in Bettys scores indicates that she does have a
learning disability.

With the data gathered and the results documented and compiled, Bettys
parents will be debriefed. The next step will be to plan a meeting for all those
involved in Bettys education to put a plan in place to support Betty on a go
forward basis. Betty has now been labelled as learning disabled. Bettys
parents and teachers have greater clarity regarding Betty as a learner and
the appropriate educational supports can be put in place to address the
areas of weakness. This will include the development of an IPP, which will
outline the services that Betty will receive in order to help her reach her
maximum potential.

References

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Hallahan, D.P.,Lloyd, J.W., Kauffman, J.M., Weiss, M.P., Martinez, E.A. (2005)
Learning Disabilities: Foundations, Characteristics & Effective Teaching.
Boston: Pearson.
Lerner, J. Learning Disabilities: Theories, Diagnosis & Teaching Strategies. 8th
ed. (2000). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Professional Uses of Testing Accommodations. Chp.3.
Thorndike, R.M. (2005). Measurement & Evaluation in Psychology and
Education, 7th ed. New Jersey: Pearson.

Note: Professional Uses of Testing Accommodations, Chp.3 was taken from

Pysc. 469 course materials. No author or publication data was included.

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